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REPORT
ee : \
TENTH MEETING
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT GLASGOW IN AUGUST 1840.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1841.
PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.
a Ta,
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CONTENTS
——>——
> Page
Ossects and Rules of the Association ...........2.205 005 v
Sreicere and Gounigil) fais vip eaiit ie (es ashes Vorweals } Hac Vili
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ........ ix
Table of Council from commencement ..................4. z
' Officers of Sectional Committees, and Corresponding Members xii
PESTO Gi MREIOUER Niel cte inten lars ¢ere ielam aia GRIMS Se ee Ss xiv
Reports, Researches, and Desiderata..............ee00000: XVi
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in
INES Mee Nias bis ol, Quai a, aay Eicon atin ot nlm mois (Lccheig Xxili
Synopsis of Money Grants ..................4.. UEFA. s XXxil
Arrangements of the General Evening Meetings............ XXxiv
Address of the General Secretaries .............. 000.000. XXXV
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Report on the recent progress of discovery relative to Radiant
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject
inserted in the 1st volume of the Reports of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science. By the Rev. BapEN
Powe tt, M.A., F.R.S., F.R. Ast. S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor
of Geometry in the University of Oxford.................. 1
Supplementary Report on Meteorology. By James D. Forsgs,
Esq., F.R.S., Sec. R.S. Ed., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
ene University Of Edin buteititins vapisiecc. cas < os ve nage wens 37
Report on Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in Operation at
Plymouth. By Wm. Snow Harris, F.R.S., &c. .......... 157
a2
lv CONTENTS.
Page
Report on “The Motions and Sounds of the Heart.” By the
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40... 163
An Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry. By Professor
Scu6nBeEtn, of Basle .
Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh
or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast
Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel. By Ropert Matter, M.R.LA.,
prose iing. OE. 23/67. b tie eeeed
Report on some Observations on Subterranean Temperature. By
BOBERTAWERE Pox, Jaq... .. . »., anes), 08)43 4s 5 yas) cet mee - 309
Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838,
1839, and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at
the Philosophical Institution, Birmingham. By A. FoLLertr
PSL ER MAR n ator, 5) so UU Ae tRits aewiein ss 6 a .5'ha 321
Report respecting the Two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, at the Expense of
the British Association, from Nov. Ist, 1838, to Nov. Ist, 1839.
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., F.R.S., &. ......... 200 0 349
Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata. Drawn up, at
the request of the British Association, by W1LL1Am THompson,
Esq. (Vice-Pres. Nat. Hist. Society of Belfast), one of the Com-
mittee appointed for that purpose................022-008- 353
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-
tubes. By Cuarzes J. B. Witiiams, M.D., F.R.S......... 411
Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on the
Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. Drawn up
by the Rev. J. S. Henstow, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University: ef Cambridge so. 4 0.0 Soha. 2 eben hae 421
Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches
entrusted to Committees and Individuals
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground
occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a
stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific
inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Sci-
ence in different parts of the British Empire, with one another,
and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general atten-
tion to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvan-
tages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
MEMBERS.
All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be
entitled to become Members of the Association, upon subscri-
bing an obligation to conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philo-
sophical Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Em-
pire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of
the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing
Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by
its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like
manner, to become Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by
the General Committee or Council, to become Members of the
Association, subject to the approval of a General Meeting.
SUBSCRIPTIONS.
The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound,
to be paid in advance upon admission; and the amount of the
composition in lieu thereof, Five Pounds.
vi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
An admission fee of One Pound is required from all Members
elected as Annual Subscribers, after the Meeting of 1839, in
addition to their annual subscription of One Pound.
Members are entitled to receive copies of any volume of the
Transactions for two-thirds of the price at which it is sold to
the public ; or by one present payment of Five Pounds, as a
fixed Book Subscription, to receive a copy of all the volumes of
Transactions published after the date of such payment.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
If the annual subscription of any Member shall have been in
arrear for two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he
shall cease to be a Member.
MEETINGS.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer.
The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General
Committee at the previous Meeting; and the Arrangements
for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association.
GENERAL COMMITTEE.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the
Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association.
It shall consist of the following persons : —
1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years,
with authors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philo-
sophical Society, which has been printed in its Transactions,
and which relates to such subjects as are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.
3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether
not exceeding three in number, from any Philosophical Society
publishing Transactions.
4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not ex-
ceeding three, from Philosophical Institutions established in
the place of Meeting, or in any place where the Association
has formerly met.
5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is de-
sired, and who are specially nominated in writing for the meet-
ing of the year by the President and General Secretaries.
6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the
Sections are ex officio members of the General Committee for
the time being.
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting,
Committees, consisting severally of the Members most conver-
sant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for
the advancement thereof.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. vil
The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation
they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the
ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next
Meeting.
The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and
progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to
time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual
Meetings.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Com-
mittee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations
of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Com-
mittee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for
the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for
Special Researches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be
submitted to the Committee of Recommendations, and not taken
into consideration by the General Committee, unless previously
recommended by the Committee of Recommendations.
LOCAL COMMITTEES.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Asso-
ciation to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may
desire.
OFFICERS,
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Se-
cretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the
- General Committee.
COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association
shall be managed by a Council appointed by the General Com-
mittee. The Council may also assemble for the despatch of
business during the week of the Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty
to reserve his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by
Auditors appointed by the Meeting.
vili REPORT—1840.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1840-41.
——E——
Trustees (permunent).—Francis Baily, Esq. R. 1. Murchi-
son, Esq. John Taylor, Esq.
President.—The Most Noble the Marquis of Breadalbane.
Vice-Presidents.—The Very Reverend Principal Macfarlane.
Major-Gen. Lord Greenock. Sir David Brewster. Sir Thos.
Macdougall Brisbane.
President elect.—Rev. Professor Whewell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.
Vice-Presidents elect.—The Earl of Mount Edgcumbe. The
Earl of Morley. Lord Eliot, M.P. Sir C. Lemon, Bart.,
M.P. Sir T. D. Acland, Bart., M.P.
General Secretaries.—R. I. Murchison, Esq., F.R.S. Major
Sabine, F.R.S.
Assistant General Secretary.—John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S.,
York.
Secretaries for the Plymouth, Devonport, and Stonehouse
Meeting in 1841.—Wm. Snow Harris, F.R.S. Col. Hamilton
Smith, F.L.S. Robert Were Fox, F.R.S. Richard Taylor,
jun., Esq.
: General Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., &c. 2, Duke
Street, Adelphi, London.
Treasurer to the Meeting in 1841.— Henry Woolcombe,
Esq.
cil Dr, N. Arnott. R. Brown, Esq. Rev. Dr. Buck-
land. J. C. Colquhoun, Esq., M.P. Dr. Daubeny. Sir P. G.
Egerton, Bart., M.P. Professor T. Graham. J. EK. Gray, Esq.
G. B. Greenough, Esq. W. J. Hamilton, Esq. Dr. Hodgkin.
R. Hutton, Esq., M.P. H.B. Jerrard, Esq. C. Lyell, Esq.
Professor Miller. Professor Moseley. The Marquis of North-
ampton. The Very Rev. Dr. Peacock. E. Pendarves, Esq.,
M.P. Professor Powell. Lord Sandon, M.P. H. E. Strick-
land, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes. H. Fox Talbot, Esq. N. A.
Vigors, Esq., M.P. James Walker, Esq. Captain Washing-
ton. Professor Wheatstone.
Secretary to the Council—James Yates, Esq., F.R.S. 49,
Upper Bedford Place, London.
Local Treasurers.—Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. Professor Hens-
low, Cambridge. Dr. Orpen, Dublin. Charles Forbes, Esq.,
Edinburgh and Glasgow. William Gray, jun., Esq., York.
William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liver-
pool. Rev. John James Tayler, Manchester. James Russell,
Esq., Birmingham. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Henry Woolcombe, Esq., Plymouth.
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x REPORT—1840.
II. Table showing the Members of Council of the British Association
from its Commencement, in addition to Presidents, Vice-Presidents,
and Local Secretaries.
Rev. Wm. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. 1832—1836.
[ Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ......1835.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., F.G.S. .......- 1836—1840.
Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. ...1887, 1838.
Major Sabine, V.P.R.S. .......0eeeseeeeeeee 1839, 1840.
General Treasurer. John Taylor, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., &c. ...1832—1839.
Charles Babbage, F.R.SS.L. & E., &c. (Resigned.)
T, R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., &c.
rustees(permanent).. John Taylor, F.B-S., &c.
Francis Baily, F.R.S.
General Secretaries.
Se ehay | } Professor Phillips, RS, Be. --..-¢c10. 1832—1839.
ecretary.
Members of Council.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal ...... 1834, 1835.
Wewl Arnott M.D. od edccssasecidesseoes 1838, 1839, 1840.
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ......... 1837—1839.
George Bentham, F.L.S. .......0csscccsesseeeees 1834, 1835.
Robert Brown, D.C.L., F.R.S. .....ceseeeeees 1832, 1834, 1835, 1838-1840.
Sir David Brewster, F.R.S., &C. .....seceeseeee 1832.
M. I. Brunel, F.R.S., &c. ...csseeeees Bvcecaetn 1832.
Rev. Professor Buckland, D.D., F.R.S., &c. .1833, 1835, 1838, 1839, 1840.
The Earl of Burlington .........:.ceeseseeeees 1838, 1839.
Rev. T. Chalmers, D.D., Prof. of tele pee
Mdinbure bh tersescecedsstecsssessateresessse>
Professor Clark, Cambridoeiiics.9...50css0.0~ 5 fa
Professor Christie, ORGS i: Q0C! neces sceeses Sones 1838—1837.
William Clift, F.R.S., F.G.S. ........ceseeseees 1832—1835.
J.C. Colquhoun, Esq., M.P. .........0000 -- 1840.
John Corrie, F.R.S., &. ..ccsceeeeeeeeeees ae 1832.
Professor Daniell, F.R.S. .........cccceeeeseeeees 1836, 1839.
ID ie) DERM SET foenececeAaoout jon s= ceenoonannececce 1838, 1839, 1840.
Jepte WVINK WALL jon cecclescacasedesscwisacessoese. 1834, 1835.
Sir P. G. Egerton, Bart., M. :P.. 1840.
The Ear! Fitzwilliam, D.C Ss F. R.S. S "&c....1833.
Professor Forbes, F. R. Ss. Le rd OA ae 1832.
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., V.P.R.S., &. ...... 1832.
Professor R. Graham, M.D., F.R.S.E......00. 1837.
Professor Thomas Graha ay ERS ee 1838, 1839, 1840.
John Edward Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c....... 1837—1839, 1840
Professor Green, F.R. s. gv Ge St teccasei reece 1832,
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S., F.G.S. .....s0eeee 1832—1839, 1840.
Henry Hallam, F.R.S., F.S.A., Sie. weee 1836,
Sir William R. Hamilton, Astron. Royal of
Nirelandine sa, 2ects.seeces cocscte naceadaectee ..1832, 1833, 1836.
W. J. Hamilton, See. GiSi vet a séssebenwenoeen 1840.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., Ee S....1837.
Sir John F. W. Herschel, P. R.SS. L. & E.,
F.R.A.S., F.G.S., ASE, sata see 1832.
Thomas Hodgkin, M.D. Sane csderesgcensesteceee 1833—1837, 1839, 1840.
Prof. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D., FR. S., &e. .1832.
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. x1
Rey. F. W. Hope, M.A., F.L.S.........000000+ 1837.
Robert Hutton, M.P., F.G.S., &c. ............1836, 1838, 1839, 1840.
Professor R. Jameson, F.R.SS. L. & E....... 1833.
Rev. Leonard Jenyns) .. ........sseceeseeeceeeee 1838.
H. B. Jerrard, Esq. ...c000...ccsesceeeeesecosnes 1840.
ermine GCE. cecasredaccctctescacanssseresscesaeaane 1839,
Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ......... eeueeicase 1838, 1839.
Hiewa Dr wMavdner...;sccescasscavcccccocweccsdaews 1838, 1839.
Professor Lindley, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. ......1833, 1836.
Rev. Professor Lloyd, D.D.............s.ses0e0 1832, 1833.
J. W. Lubbock, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Vice-
Chancellor of the University of London 1833—1836, 1838, 1839.
Rev. Thomas Luby .0......sseeceeeveres Saesac 1832.
Charles Lyell, jun., FLR.S. ........ceseeseeeeees 1838, 1839, 1840.
William Sharp MacLeay, F.L.S............. ... 1837.
Professor Miller, F.G.S..........ssceeeeeeees wees 1840.
Professor Moseley ........sessesesseeseescseneesees 1839, 1840,
Patrick Neill, LL.D., F.R. a ae oeegsee 1833.
The Marquis of Northampton, ERS. endaactns 1840.
Richard Owen, F.R.S., F.L.S. ...... .....00 ....1836, 1838, 1839.
Rev. George Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c......1832, 1834, 1835, 1839, 1840.
E. Pendarves, Esq., M.P........ss-sesesecseeseeees 1840.
Rev. Professor Powell, M.A., F.R.S., &c...... 1836, 1837, 1839, 1840.
J.C. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., &c....ccccescecees 1832.
George Rennie, F.R.S. .cs.ccesecececscscscecsaees 1833—1835, 1839.
Sir John Rennie...........02+000+ Sb haee a Ay die 1838.
Rev. Professor Ritchie, F.R.S. ..........ceceeeee 1833.
Sir John Robison, Sec. R.S.E, .........eceeeeeee 1832, 1836.
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S., &c....1884—1837.
Major Sabine ...........c00. ecedaeg macs vend “SeAHeee 1838.
Bord Sandon, M PY c.5cansesecsncceceesosnvescessoes 1840.
Rev. William Scoresby, B.D., F.R.SS. L. & E.1832.
H. E. Strickland, Esq., F.G. BRO... teal 1840.
Lieut.-Col. W. H. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S., &e. 1837—1839, 1840.
H. Fox Talbot, Esq., F.R.S. .......ececeeeneceeese 1840.
Rev. J. J. Tayler, B.A., Manchester............ 1832.
Professor Traill, M.D. ...... ata Mae See son Boe oe 1832, 1833.
N. A. Vigors, M.P., D.C.L., F.S.A., F.L.S.. 1832, 1836, 1840.
James Walker, Esq., P.S.C. a aa a 1840.
Captain Washington, GANG Beecwratans tes sp sansa .. 1838, 1839, 1840.
Professor Wheatstone ......s+-ss+ceccseeesseeoneee 1838, 1839, 1840.
Rev. W.. Whewell..2: cbata.tho.o,de ls ieteh sacotecee 1838, 1839.
William Yarrell, F.L.S. scsccescsccscccscceeceeen 1833-1836.
Secretaries to the { Edward esd M.D. ae F.R.SS. L. & E.1832—1836.
Council. James Yates, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 1831—1840.
xil REPORT—1840.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE
GLASGOW MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor Forbes, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—G. B. Airy, Esq., F.R.S., Astron. Royal.
Rev. Professor Whewell, F.R.S. Professor James Thomson,
LL.D.
Secretaries.—Professor Stevelly. Rey. Dr. Forbes, F.R.S.
Arch. Smith, Esq.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
President.—Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Thomas Graham, F.R.S. _ Pro-
fessor Johnston, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Dr. R. D. Thomson. Dr. Thomas Clark. Dr.
L. Playfair.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
President for Geology.—Charles Lyell, Esq., F.R.S.
President for Physical Geography.—G. B. Greenough, Esq.,
F.R.S.
Vice- Presidents.—Rev. Professor Buckland, F.R.S. H. T.
De la Beche, Esq., F.R.S. James Smith, Esq., F.R.S. Capt.
Washington, R.N.
Secretaries. —W. J. Hamilton, Esq., F.R.S. H. E. Strick-
land, Fisq., F.G.S. D. Milne, Esq., F.G.S. John Scoular, Esq.,
M.D. Hugh Murray, Esq., F.R.S.E.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
President.—Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.
Vice-Presidents.—The Rev. Professor Fleming, D.D. Sir
William Jardine, Bart. Professor Graham, F.R.S.E. P. J.
Selby, Esq., F.L.S.
Secretaries.—Professor William Couper. Robert Paterson,
Esq. Edward Forbes, Esq., M.W.S.
SECTION E.—MEDICAL SCIENCE.
President.—James Watson, Esq., M.D.
Vice-Presidents.—J. Hodgkin, Esq., M.D. Dr. Andrew
Buchanan. Dr. John M‘Farlane.
Secretaries.—Professor Couper. Dr. James Brown. Pro-
fessor Reid.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Xili
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
President.—Lord Sandon, F.R.S., M.P.
Vice- Presidents.—Mr. Sheriff Alison. Rev. Dr. Chalmers.
Lieutenant-Colonel Sykes, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor Ramsay. R.W. Rawson, Esq. Charles
R. Baird, Esq.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Sir John Robison, Sec. R.S. Edin.
Vice-Presidents.—His Grace the Duke of Argyll. The Rev.
T. R. Robinson, D.D. John Taylor, Esq., Treas. B.A. James
Walker, Esq., Pres. Inst. Civ. Eng.
Secretaries.—J. Scott Russell, Esq. Charles Vignoles, Esq.,
C.E. James Thompson, Esq., C.E. James Tod, Esq., Sec.
Soc. of Arts.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Secretary of the
Institute, Paris. A. Bache, Principal of Girard College, Phi-
ladelphia. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Professor De la
Rive, Geneva. Professor Dumas, Paris. Professor Ehrenberg,
Berlin. Professor Encke, Berlin. Baron Alexander von Hum-
boldt, Berlin. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburgh. Professor Liebig,
Giessen. Professor Link, Berlin. Professor Girsted, Copen-
hagen. M. Otto, Breslau. Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal,
Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor Schumacher, Altona.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ~
SS SS eee eae
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from
RECEIPTS.
3 GSopaniae ete, o:. a
Balance in hand from last year’s ACCOUNT ......scssesseeseeeeeers 460 13 4
Compositions from Members at the Birmingham Meetin
and el duet dann. Lk.can co recevecasee aC one
Subscriptions, 1839. ........ccccccccscecsscvecsessescscscnceeerescosces 1023 1 0
Ditto MRA erctemccsseses dak n2 cova doncadesewasesseacaaces 20 0
DItLOPNTN CATH ECO crcagearedsedress:occcccsrcucdsssciarpecserastes ia. Oo
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ADI WOlewweneavsroncetcadagenscodetsneasvecersurscersaeess 26 2 0
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AULD VO): dccocseccesoseccesetnestecass see ssuesasde mec swenss 160 15 0
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Sale of £500 3 per cent. consols ...... Peete Pas rarccnnveen? iwesesoas 460 13 6
i
£3054 18 1
W.H. SYKES,
LEONARD HORNER, }AvpiTors.
WILLIAM YARRELL,
——-
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
16th AucusT 1839 to the 3lst Aucust 1840.
PAYMENTS.
& 3. d. £ os. d.
Expenses of Meeting at Birmingham.............sssescsscesseeerees 250 0 0
Disbursements by General and Local Treasurers.........+0s0e00 103 11 #1
Salaries to Assistant Secretary, Accountant and Clerk .......... 247 10 0
Grants to Committees for Scientific purposes, viz. for
Reduction of Stars in Histoire Céleste ........sssccecssceersncees 242 10 O
Do. do. Lacaille.........s.scsceceseeeeeene 415 0
Catalogue emi ck intestine dena ate one scacaccaanorcectennce cates 264 0 0
Tides’ Discussions at Bristol, 1838. ..........cssccecscoeceee .-. 100 0 0
Do. dO. ....00e Sarecennatecene ces saviah sn Sean eases . 50 0 0
Subterranean Temperature.......ssseccsscesscccssssssccesceeseeees . 1818 6
Land and Sea Level ......... 1838. 611 1
Atmospheric Air...... Shes sane Roa cnea rece necats econwceacees set ece eat 1515 0
Action of Water on Iron .........00008 . 10 0 0
Do on Organic matter 7 0 0
Foreign Scientific Memoirs, 1838. ............ £100 0 et 11216
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Forms of Vessels, WSS rescerscsccceresteveaceeeee vacryas 184 7 O
Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ..........csseseeeees 40 0 0
Mr. Osler’s Anemometer Ot Mes ciedees ste .. 380 0 0
Professor Whewell’s do. (OS Sad An nee caseenoatecatnedigny 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations in Scotland (Hourly) sees 5217 6
Magnetical Observations (Instruments) ..........0.sesseseeenes 185 13 9
Chemical and Electrical Phenomena —.............seceeeereeees 40 9 0
Experiments on the Heart ..........cssssscescscceceecscsecsecsceees 18 19 0
Do. TSH Sh a wsalesachesdasscstcenest eds scscoraces shee 813 0
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1548 4 4
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Sundry Expenses in Publishing Reports .........ccssecsessereeeens 22 12 0
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Do. Treasurer and Local Treasurers ...... 103 14 6
— 309 11 6
£3054 18 1
——— ae
xvi REPORT—1840.
The following Reports on the Progress and Desiderata of dif-
ferent branches of Science have been drawn up at the request
of the Association, and printed in its Transactions. °
1831-32.
On the progress of Astronomy during the present century,
by G. B. Airy, M.A., Astronomer Royal.
On the state of our knowledge respecting Tides, by J. W.
Lubbock, M.A., Vice-President of the Royal Society.
On the recent progress and present state of Meteorology,
by James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy,
Edinburgh.
On the present state of our knowledge of the Science of Ra-
diant Heat, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry, Oxford.
On Thermo-electricity, by the Rev. James Cumming, M.A..,
F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Cambridge.
On the recent progress of Optics, by Sir David Brewster,
K.C.G., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.
On the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy, by
the Rev. William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S,
On the progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of
Geology, by the Rev. William Conybeare, M.A., F.R.S.,
V.P.G.S., &c.
Onthe recent progress and present state of Chemical Science,
by J. F. W. Johnston, A.M., Professor of Chemistry, Durham.
On the application of Philological and Physical researches to
the History of the Human species, by J. C. Prichard, M.D.,
F.R.S., &c.
1833.
On the advances which have recently been made in certain
branches of Analysis, bythe Rev. G. Peacock, M.A.,F.R.S., &c.
Onthe present state of the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics
and Hydrodynamics, by the Rev. John Challis, M.A., F.R.S.,&c.
On the state of our knowledge of Hydraulics, considered as a
branch of Engineering, by George Rennie, F.R.S., &c. (Parts
I. and II.)
On the state of our knowledge respecting the Magnetism of
the Earth, by S. H. Christie, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Ma-
thematics, Woolwich.
On the state of our knowledge of the Strength of Materials,
by Peter Barlow, F.R.S.
On the state of our knowledge respecting Mineral Veins, by
John Taylor, F.R.S., Treasurer G.S., &c.
On the state of the Physiology of the Nervous System, by
William Charles Henry, M.D
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XVii
Onthe recent progress of Physiological Botany, by John Lind-
ley, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of London.
1834.
On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S.
On the philosophy of Contagion, by W. Henry, M.D.,F.R.S.
On the state of Physiological Knowledge, by the Rev. Wm.
Clark, M.D., F.G.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge.
On the state and progress of Zoology, by the Rev. Leonard
Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., &c.
On the theories of Capillary Attraction, and of the Propaga-
tion of Sound as affected by the Development of Heat, by the
Rev. John Challis, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
On the state of the science of Physical Optics, by the Rev.
H. Lloyd, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dublin.
1835.
On the state of our knowledge respecting the application of
Mathematical and Dynamical principles to Magnetism, Electri-
city, Heat, &c., by the Rev. Wm. Whewell, M.A., F.R.S.
On Hansteen’s researches in Magnetism, by Captain Sabine,
F.R.S.
On the state of Mathematical and Physical Science in Bel-
gium, by M. Quetelet, Director of the Observatory, Brussels.
1836.
On the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mine-
ral and Thermal Waters, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.1.A., &c., Professor of Chemistry and of Botany, Oxford.
On North American Zoology, by John Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S., &c. ;
Supplementary Report on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids,
by the Rev. J. Challis, Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Cambridge.
1837.
On the variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif-
ferent points of the Earth’s Surface, by Major Edward Sabine,
R.A., F.R.S.
On the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind,
by the Rev. William Taylor, F.R.S
On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimor-
phous Bodies, by Professor Johnston, F.R.S.
On the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under
the British Government, by Col. Sykes, F.R.S.
1838.
Appendix to Report on the variations of Magnetic Intensity,
by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
1840. b
XVlii REPORT—1840.
1839.
Report on the present state of our knowledge of Refractive
Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in dif-
ferent media, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.Ast.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford.
Report on the distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the
British Isles, by Edward Forbes, M.W.S., For. Sec. B.S.
1840.
Report on the recent progress of discovery relative to Radiant
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject
inserted in the first volume of the Reports of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, by the Rev. Baden
Powell, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.Ast.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor
of Geometry in the University of Oxford.
Supplementary Report on Meteorology, by James D. Forbes,
Esq., F.R.S., Sec. R.S. Ed., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Edinburgh.
—— —____—.
The following Reports of Researches undertaken at the request
of the Association have been published, viz.
1835.
On the comparative measurement of the Aberdeen Standard
Scale, by Francis Baily, Treasurer R.S., &c.
On Impact upon Beams, by Eaton Hodgkinson.
Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial
Magnetic Force in Ireland, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, Capt. Sabine,
and Capt. J. C. Ross.
On the Phenomena usually referred to the Radiation of Heat,
by H. Hudson, M.D.
Experiments on Rain at different Elevations, by Wm. Gray,
jun., and Professor Phillips.
Hourly observations of the Thermometer at Plymouth, by
W.S. Harris.
On the Infra-orbital Cavities in Deers and Antelopes, by A.
Jacob, M.D.
On the Effects of Acrid Poisons, by T. Hodgkin, M.D.
On the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the Dublin
Sub-Committee.
On the Registration of Deaths, by the Edinburgh Sub-
Committee.
1836.
Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terres-
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XIx
trial Magnetic Force in Scotland, by Major Edward Sabine,
R.A., F.R.S., &c.
Comparative view of the more remarkable Plants which cha-
racterize the Neighbourhood of Dublin, the Neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c.; drawn up for
the British Association by J.T. Mackay, M.R.LA., A.L.S.,
&c., assisted by Robert Graham, Esq., M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University of Edinburgh.
Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section
of the British Association on the Motions and Sounds of the
Heart.
Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions
and Sounds of the Heart.
Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the
Brain and Nervous System.
Account of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the
Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of money
which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose
at the last Meeting of the Association, by J. W. Lubbock, Esq.
Observations for determining the Refractive Indices for the
Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media, by the
Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geo-
metry in the University of Oxford.
Provisional Report on the Communication between the Arte-
ries and Absorbents, on the part of the London Committee, by
Dr. Hodgkin.
Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature, under
the direction of a Committee, consisting of Professor Forbes,
Mr. W.S. Harris, Professor Powell, Lieut.-Colonel Sykes, and
Professor Phillips (Reporter).
Inquiry into the validity of a method recently proposed by
George B. Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving
Equations of Elevated Degrees; undertaken, at the request of
the Association, by Professor Sir W. R. Hamilton.
1837.
Account of the Discussions of Observations of the Tides
- which have been obtained by means of the grant of money which
was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the
last Meeting of the Association, by J. W. Lubbock, Esq.,
E.R.S. ;
On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron
produced by the Cold and the Hot Blast, by Thomas
Thomson, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., &c., Professor of Chemistry,
Glasgow.
On the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the
~
XX REPORT—1840.
Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British
Association, by the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
On some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins,
and the Temperature of Mines, by Robert Were Fox.
Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section
of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Com-
position of Secretions, and the Organs producing them.
Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of
7 Glands, &c. of the Human Body, by G. O. Rees, M.D.,
aG.8.
Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British
Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of
the Heart.
Report from the Committee for making experiments on the
Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communi-
cation with the outward air, on the plan of Mr. N. I. Ward,
of London.
Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British
Association at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir John Robi-
son, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and
John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Edin. (Reporter).
On the relative Strength and other mechanical Properties of
Cast Iron obtained by Hot and Cold Blast, by Eaton Hodgkinson,
Esq.
On the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from
the Hot and Cold Blast, by W. Fairbairn, Esq.
1838.
Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Channel
to the English Channel, during the Year 1837-38, by Mr.
Bunt, under the Direction of a Committee of the British As-
sociation. Drawn up by the Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S., one
of the Committee.
A Memoir on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines
in the British Islands, from Observations by Professors Hum-
phrey Lloyd and John Phillips, Robert Were Fox, Esq., Cap-
tain James Clark Ross, R.N., and Major Edward Sabine,
R.A., by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
First Report on the Determination of the Mean Numerical
Values of Railway Constants, by Dionysius Lardner, LL.D.,
FE.R.S., &c.
First Report upon Experiments, instituted at the request of
the British Association, upon the Action of Sea and River
Water, whether clear or foul, and at various temperatures,
upon Cast and Wrought Iron, by Robert Mallet, M.R.I.A.,
Ass. Ins. C.E.
RE SEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Xxi
Notice of Experiments in progress, at the desire of the
British Association, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr.,
when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic Substances,
by Robert Mallet, M.R.I.A.
Experiments on the ultimate Transverse Strength of Cast
Iron made at Arigna Works, Co. Leitrim, Ireland, at Messrs.
Bramah and Robinson’s, 29th May, 1837.
Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
1839.
_ Report on the application of the sum assigned for Tide Calcula-
tions to Mr. Whewell, ina Letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq., Bristol.
Notice of Determination of the Arc of Longitude between
the Observatories of Armagh and Dublin, by the Rev. T. R.
Robinson, D.D., &c.
Report of some Galvanic Experiments to determine the
existence or non-existence of Electrical Currents among Stra-
tified Rocks, particularly those of the Mountain Limestone
formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor,
by H. L. Pattinson, Esq.
Report respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological
Observations kept in Scotland at the expense of the British
Association, by Sir David Brewster, K.H., LL.D., F.R.SS.
L. and E.
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted
by the British Association at their Meeting in August 1838,
at Newcastle.
Report on British Fossil Reptiles, by Richard Owen, Esq.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.
Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological
Register at the Plymouth Dock-yard, Devonport, by W. Snow
Harris, Esq., F.R.S.
1840.
Report on Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in opera-
tion at Plymouth, by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S., &c.
Report on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the
London Committee of the British Association for 1839-40.
An Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry, by Pro-
fessor Schénbein, of Basle.
Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon
Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel, by Robert Mallet,
M.R.I.A., Ass. Ins. C.E.
Report on the Observations recorded during the Years 1837,
Xxil REPORT— 1840.
1838, 1839, and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer
erected at the Philosophical Institution, Birmingham. By
A. Follett Osler, Esq.
Report respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological
Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, at the Expense
of the British Association, from Nov. Ist, 1838, to Nov. 1st,
1839. By Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S., &c.
Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata. Drawn
up, at the request of the British Association, by William Thomp-
son, Esq. (Vice-Pres. Nat. Hist. Society of Belfast), one of the
Committee appointed for that purpose.
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and
Air-tubes. By Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., F.R.S.
Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on
the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. By
the Rey. J. S. Henslow, F.L.S.
The following Reports and Continuations of Reports have been
undertaken to be drawn up at the request of the Association.
On Salts, by Professor Graham, F.R.S.
On the Differential and Integral Calculus, by the Rev. Pro-
fessor Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S.,
Professor of Geology, Philadelphia.
On Vision, by Professor C. Wheatstone, F.R.S.
On the application of a General Principle in Dynamics to
the Theory of the Moon, by Professor Sir W. Hamilton.
On Isomeric Bodies, by Professor Liebig.
On Organic Chemistry, by Professor Liebig.
On Inorganic Chemistry, by Professor Johnston, F.R.S.
On Fossil Reptiles (continuation), by Professor Owen, F.R.S.
On the Salmonide of Scotland, by Sir W. Jardine.
On the Caprimulgide, by N. Gould, F.L.S.
On the state of Meteorology in the United States of North
America, by A. Bache.
On the state of Chemistry as bearing on Geology, by Pro-
fessor Johnston.
On Molluscous Animals:and their Shells, by J. E. Gray,
F.R.S.
On Ornithology, by P. J. Selby, F.R.S.E.
On the Specific Gravity of Steam, by a Committee, of which
Mr. B. Donkin is Secretary.
On the Temperature of the deep Mines of Cornwall, from his
own observations, by W. J. Henwood, F.G.S.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXlil
On the recent progress and present condition of Electro-
Chemistry and Electro-Magnetism, by Professor de la Rive, of
Geneva. ;
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in
Science adopted by the General Committee ut the Glasgow
Meeting.
ADDITIONAL REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE REQUESTED.
Resolved—
That Professor Airy be requested to furnish a second Report
on the progress of Astronomy during the present century.
The date of the former Report, presented by Professor Airy, is
1831-32.
That a Committee, consisting of the Astronomer Royal,
Professor Lloyd, Major Sabine, and Professor Phillips, be
appointed to report on the publication or other disposal of
Hourly Meteorological Observations now in possession of the
Association. :
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Willis be requested to furnish the Report on
the state of our knowledge of the Phenomena of Sound, for-
merly requested.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Dr. Peacock be requested to furnish the Report on the
Differential and Integral Calculus, formerly requested.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Wheatstone be requested to furnish the Re-
port on Vision, formerly requested.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Sir W. Hamilton be requested to furnish the
Report on the application of a General Principle in Dynamics
to the Theory of the Moon, formerly requested.
The Report to be presented at the next Meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Kelland be requested to draw up a Report on
XXIV REPORT—1840.
the History and present state of the Theory of the Undulations
of Fluid and Elastic Media.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Kelland be requested to furnish a Report on
the relative state of our experimental and mathematical know-
ledge on the subject of the Conduction of Heat; to point out
‘the experiments already made which require repetition, and
those which are necessary to complete the comparison of Theory
and Experiment.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Bache be requested to furnish his Report on
the Meteorology of the United States for the next meeting of
the Association.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Lubbock, Sir J. W.
Herschel, Dr. Robinson, Professor Forbes, Professor Whewell,
Professor Miller, Sir David Brewster, and Major Sabine, be
requested to report to the Association how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the condition of the upper strata of the
Atmosphere may be supplied by means of ascents in balloons
or otherwise ; to ascertain the probable expense of such experi-
ments, and draw up directions for observers in such circum-
stances.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Johnston be requested to furnish the Report
on Inorganic Chemistry, formerly requested.
That Professor de la Rive, of Geneva, be requested to furnish
the Report on the recent progress and present condition
of Electro-Chemistry and Electro-Magnetism, formerly re-
quested.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Johnston be requested to continue his re-
searches upon Chemical Geology, and to direct his attention
particularly to the effects of igneous rocks.
That Dr. Daubeny be requested to prepare a Report on the
connexion of Chemistry and Agriculture, formerly requested.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXV
That Sir John Graham Dalyell be requested to prepare a
Report on the habits of the Radiate Animals.
That the following be a Committee to inquire into and
report on the experiments made by Mr. C. W. Williams, of
Liverpool, on the Combustion of Coal and other Fuels, with
the view of obtaining from them the greatest ‘calorific effect,
and avoiding the generation of smoke, viz. Mr. Vignoles, Mr.
Fairbairn, Mr. Grantham, and Mr. Spence.
That Mr. Hodgkinson be requested to complete his experi-
ments on the resistance of the Atmosphere to Moving Bodies,
and to report the result to the next meeting of the British
Association.
That the following be a Committee to make experiments
for ascertaining the comparative efficiency of the Turbine and
Common Water Wheels, and to report at the next meeting :—
Mr. Smith, of Deanston, Professor Gordon, Mr. W. Fairbairn.
Recommendations of Researches in Science involving Grants
of Money for Scientific Purposes, adopted by the General
Committee at the Glasgow Meeting.
Resolved—
That Sir D. Brewster and Professor Forbes be requested to
revise and continue the Hourly Observations at Inverness and
Kingussie, and that a sum not exceeding 85/. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Whewell, be re-
quested to superintend calculations on the Tides at Leith b
Mr. D. Ross, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at the dis-
posal of Professor Whewell for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Whewell, be re-
quested to superintend calculations on Tides at Bristol by Mr.
Bunt, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at the disposal of
Professor Whewell for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As- -
sociation.
That Major Sabine be requested to provide a good mountain
XXV1 REPORT—1840.
barometer and a thermometer for the assistance of Mr. M‘Cord
in his Meteorological Observations, the sum of 201. to be placed
at the disposal of Major Sabine for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the grant of 100/. for the reduction of Meteorological
Observations, under the superintendence of Sir J. Herschel,
be continued.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed for the revision of the
Nomenclature of Stars, consisting of Sir John Herschel, Mr.
Whewell, and Mr. Baily, be re-appointed, and that the sum of
500. be placed at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed for the reduction of
the Stars in the Histoire Céleste, consisting of Mr. Baily, the
Astronomer Royal, and Dr. Robinson, be re-appointed, and
that the sum of 150/. be placed at the disposal of the Com-
mittee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed to extend the Royal
Astronomical Society’s Catalogue, consisting of Mr. Baily, the
Astronomer Royal, and Dr. Robinson, be re-appointed on the
condition originally stipulated, that the Catalogue be called the
British Association Catalogue, and that 150/. be placed at the
disposal of the Committee for that purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the sum of 40/. be granted to Mr. Osler for the pur-
pose of completing the Anemometer in the course of erection
at Edinburgh, and also for Tabulating the Observations from
the above instruments, in conjunction with those in Birming-
ham and Plymouth.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a sum of 60/. be placed at the disposal of Sir D. Brew-
ster, Mr. Osler, and Professor Forbes, for erecting an Ane-
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXVii
mometer on Mr. Osler’s construction at Inverness, to connect
these Observations with others already established there.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Major Sabine and Sir J.
Herschel, be requested to provide two Actinometers, for Ob-
servations on the intensity of Solar Radiation, to be made by
Professor Agassiz, at considerable heights in the Alps, and that
the sum of 10/. be placed at the disposal of the Committee for
the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the sum of 75/. be placed at the disposal of Sir D.
Brewster, for the purpose of an Inquiry into the action of
Gaseous and other Media upon the Solar Spectrum.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed to superintend the
reduction of Lacaille’s Stars, consisting of Sir J. Herschel,
the Astronomer Royal, and Mr. Henderson, be re-appointed ;
and that the sum of 184J. 5s. (the balance of former grant) be
placed at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a sum not exceeding 20/. be placed at the disposal of
Mr. Snow Harris, for repairing and observing Whewell’s and
Osler’s Anemometers.
That a sum of 351. be placed at the disposal of Mr. Snow
Harris, for defraying the expenses of the Hourly Register of
the Barometer and Thermometer at Plymouth.
That the sum of 20/. be placed at the disposal of Professor
Forbes, for Tabulating Experiments on Subterranean Tem-
perature.
That a Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herschel, Professor
Whewell, Dr. Peacock, Professor Lloyd, and Major Sabine, be
appointed for conducting the co-operation of this Association
in the system of simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological
Observations, and that a sum of 50/. be placed at their dis-
posal.
That a Committee, consisting of Major Sabine, Dr. R. Brown,
XXVili REPORT—1840.
Dr. Robinson, Sir J. Herschel, Professor Wheatstone, Sir D.
Brewster, and Mr. Owen, Professors Thomas Graham and
Miller, Sir W. Jardine, and Professor Robert Graham, be ap-
pointed to superintend the Translation and Publication of
Foreign Scientific Memoirs; and that the sum of 1002. be
placed at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Mr. Mallet be requested to continue his experiments on
the Action of Salt and Fresh Water on Iron, &c., and that 50/.
be placed at his disposal for that purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Prout, Dr. J. Thomson,
Professor Owen, Professor Graham, and Dr. R. D. Thomson,
be requested to undertake a series of Researches on the Che-
mistry and Physiology of Digestion, and the sum of 200/. to be
placed at the disposal of the above Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of .Mr. Bryce, Mr. De la
Beche, and Major Portlock, be requested to continue their Re-
searches on the Mud of Rivers, and that the sum of 20/. be
placed at the disposal of the Committee for that purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of the President of the Royal
Society, the President of the Geological Society, R. I. Mur-
chison, Esq., John Taylor, Esq., H.'T. De la Beche, Esq., and
C. Vignoles, Esq. (with power to add to their number), be re-
quested to take measures for procuring coloured drawings of
Railway Sections before they are covered up; 200/. to be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
_ The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of the Marquis of Northamp-
ton, R. I. Murchison, Esq., and the Rev. W. Buckland, be re-
quested to enable M. Agassiz to collect materials for a Report
on the Fossil Fishes of Scotland, and particularly those of the
Old Red Sandstone ; 100/. to be placed at their disposal for
that purpose. -
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation. |
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXix
That Captain Portlock be requested to institute a set of
Experiments on the Temperature of Mines in Ireland, and that
the sum of 10/. be placed at the disposal of Captain Portlock
for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Lord Greenock, Mr. Milne,
Professor Forbes, Mr. Paterson, Captain Portlock, and Mr.
Bryce, be requested to Register the shocks of Earthquakes in
Scotland and Ireland, and that the sum of 20/. be placed at the
disposal of the Committee for that purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Johnston and Mr. Jeffreys be a Committee
to repeat Mr. Jeffreys’s experiments on the Solution of Silica in
water of a high temperature, and that the sum of 25/. be placed
at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That Professor Henslow be requested to continue his Re-
searches on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances, and that the sum of 6/., being the unexpended portion
of the former grant, be placed at the disposal of the Committee,
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed for the purpose of
preparing Maps for the illustration of the Geographical Distri-
bution of Animals and Plants, have the sum of 25/. placed at
their disposal for the completion of their arrangements.
That the Committee already appointed for the purpose of in-
vestigating, by means of the dredge, the Marine Zoology of
Britain, be requested to continue their researches, and that the
sum of 50/. be placed at the disposal of the Committee for
the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Sir William Jardine, Mr.
Selby, Mr. Yarrell, and Dr. Lankester, be requested to super-
intend the application of the sum of 50/. towards the augmenta-
tion of our knowledge of the Anoplura Britannie.
That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Lankester, Dr. Arnott,
XXX REPORT—1840.
Dr. Greville, and Dr. Fleming, be requested to draw up a
Report on the Plants and Animals existing in natural Thermal
Springs and Mineral Waters, and in solutions artificially pre-
pared, and that the sum of 6/. be placed at the disposal of the
above-mentioned Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Hugh Strickland, Mr.
Babington, and Professor Lindley, be requested to institute a
series of experiments with a view to determine the longest
period during which the Seeds of Plants can retain their vege-
tative powers, the species or families of Plants in which these
powers are of the longest duration, and the circumstances most
favourable for their preservation, and that the sum of 10/. be
placed at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented to the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed for preparing a series
of questions on the Human Race, be requested to complete and
distribute the questions, and that the sum of 15/. be placed at
the disposal of the Committee for the purpose of printing and
distributing the queries.
The Report of the Committee to be presented at the next
meeting of the Association.
That the Committee already appointed for conducting Ex-
periments on Acrid Poisons be requested to continue their
labours, and that the sum of 25/. be placed at the disposal of
Dr. Roupell for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed for Improvements in
Acoustic Instruments be requested to continue their labours,
and that the sum of 25/. be placed at the disposal of Dr. Yel-
loly for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That the Committee already appointed for the investigation
of the Communication between Veins and Absorbents be re-
quested to continue their labours, and that the sum of 25/. be
placed at the disposal of Dr. Roget for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. ‘XxXXI
That a Committee, consisting of Sir Charles Lemon, Mr.
Porter, Mr. Hallam, Colonel Sykes, and Mr. Heywood, be re-
quested to encourage Inquiries into the actual state of Educa-
tion in Great Britain, considered merely as to numerical ana-
lysis, and that the sum of 100/. be placed at the disposal of the
above-named Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Colonel Sykes, Lord San-
don, Mr. Porter, Mr. Heywood, Dr. Alison, Dr. Cowan, Mr.
Chadwick, and Mr. Watt, be requested to inquire into Vital
Statistics, and that the sum of 100/. be placed at the disposal
of the Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Johnston, Mr.
Wharton, Mr. Wilson, Mr. William Murray, Mr. Chas. Baird,
Mr. Thomas Edington, jun., Mr. De la Beche, and Mr. D.
Milne, be requested to inquire into the Mining Statistics of the
British Coal Fields, and that the sum of 25/. be placed at the
disposal of the Committee for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. John Enys, Mr. John
Taylor, Mr. Fairbairn, Mr. Hodgkinson, Mr. Simpson, and Mr.
Scott Russell, be requested to obtain a set of Experiments on
the Temperature of maximum effect in the Condensers of Steam
Engines, and that the sum of 25/. be placed at their disposal
for the purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
That a Committee, consisting of Sir John Robison and Sir
Thomas Brisbane, be requested to procure, and to hold at the
disposal of the Association, a set of Roberts’s (of Paris) Mea-
surers of short intervals of Time, to be employed, in the first
instance, in completing the Experiments on Waves and on-the
Forms of Vessels; and that the sum of 30/. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
The instruments to be presented at the next meeting of the
Association.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Moseley, Mr.
Enys, and Mr. Hodgkinson, be requested to procure the dyna-
XXxli REPORT—1840.
mometric apparatus of Mr. Poncelet, and to obtain a series of
Experiments on the duty of Steam Engines by means of that
apparatus ; the sum of 100/. to be placed at their disposal for
that purpose.
The apparatus to be presented at the next meeting of the
Association.
That the Committee already appointed on the Forms of
Vessels, be requested to complete their experiments; the sum
of 100/. to be placed at their disposal for that purpose.
The Report to be presented at the next meeting of the As-
sociation.
Synopsis of Sums appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee at the Glasgow Meeting.
Section A.
Hourly Meteorological Observations at Kingussie £ s. d.
and Thnverness! Gu AAR Sy Sas Ls Oe re)
Tide Discussions: “het ee os ORO) Pee aaa
Tide Discussions: Bristol . . . . ice & “APs
Mountain Barometer and Pherihonietsr™ JO Oe) ee
Reduction of Meteorological Observations. . . 100 O O
Nomenclature of ‘Stars. 2.00%): ': 3. 3 co. .. Re
Stars in Histoire Céleste . . . se es. SOO
British Association Catalogue of Stars ets ose
Reduction of Anemometrical Observations . . 40 0 O
Erection of Anemometer at Inverness . . . . 60 0 0
Two Actinometers . Seat as sc od oc age een ee
Action of Gases on Light be ig) ey MEP RESTING
Lacaille’s Stars... eee.
Meteorological Observations at Plymouth c+ eo
Anemometer at Plymouth . . .. . o! Se i ee
Tabulation of Experiments on Subterranean Tem-
perature wim. eee sty RR Ge See 20 0 0
Magnetic Co-operation ty tees ogtetoGhe ds 1) TSOSERRIone
£1149 5 O
SEcTION B,
Sereutiic Memoirs .. .. sc |: sass eelea, =)
Action of Water on Iron . . ove se OPaORS®
Chemistry and Physiology of Digestion he ts 20s
£350 0 0
:
:
SYNOPSIS.
Section C,
XXXiii
SEWERS or a A ak tne « £20, 0 O
Beemeections ws) ois Ye PD eo gggg? oO
Fishes of Old Red Sandstone. . . . . 7) RO eh
Subterranean Temperature in Ireland . . . . 10 0 0
Barthquake Registration . ...... 2. #20 0 0
Solution of Silica in Water at High Temperatures 25 O O
£375 0 O
Section D.
Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances Oo -8
tern Mipsis ek eit) TOR ar tol
Marine Zoology . . . Eg IE Tali oh aa ce EES BK al
Seeanura Britannia’ 4.6 0° OS ee igo 6
Plants and Animals in Mineral Waters . . aA ae! ee 2)
Vegetative power of Seeds. . . . . .. . +10 0 0
mer Oe OE Ce OTP LE YTS sunt ee eae
£162 60 0
Section E.
meme Puisons Ye y P2haye) eh oo Sagan, S102 LOSER
Acoustic Instruments .... . GRO Moy Da LOUNG
Veinsand Absorbents ........ + bn) BROOUNG
£75 O O
Section F,
Statistics of Education . . . catia Sgr Pog) EG Qo ae
Wital Statistics . °° YS, oe ee ote ee eEOG: KOLO
meoamie Statistics: LDN ope Yolehwege puri gehe 0
£225 0 O
Section G.
Temperature of maximum condensation of Steam 25 O O
Roberts’ Chronometers . . . .” AS EAs SOF O20
Dynamometric Instruments... . . . . 100 0 0
Forms of Vessels . . . . . Peredial: Ure Lene NMA Oy
£255 Oo O
Total of Money Grants . . . £2591 5 0
1840, c
XXXIV REPORT—1840.
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for
scientific purposes have been entrusted, are required to present
to each following meeting of the Association a Report of the
progress which has been made; with a statement of the sums
which have been expended, and the balance which remains dis-
posable on each grant.
Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the
funds of the Association expire at the ensuing meeting, unless
it shall appear by a Report that the Recommendations have
been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered by the
General Committee.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the person
entitled to call on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2, Duke
Street, Adelphi, London, for such portion of the sum granted
as may from time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not
contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for
the continuation of Researches at the cost of the Association,
the sum named shall be deemed to include the specified balance
igh may remain unpaid on the former grant for the same
object.
On Thursday evening, September 17th, the President, the
Most Noble the Marquis of Breadalbane, took the Chair in
the Theatre. Mr. Murchison read the Address of the General
Secretaries (see next page).
On Wednesday, at 3 p.M., the Conctupine GENERAL
Meet1nNG of the Association took place in the Theatre, when
an account of the ProcEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL ComMIT-
TEE was read by Major Sabine.
ADDRESS
RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON, F.RS., F,.G.S.
AND
MAJOR EDWARD SABINE, V.P.R.S.
In entering upon the duty assigned to us, we heartily congratulate
our associates on this our second assembly in Scotland. As on our
first visit we were sustained by the intellectual force of the metropolis
of this kingdom, so now, by visiting the chief mart of Scottish com-
merce, and an ancient seat of learning, we hope to double the numbers
of our northern auxiliaries.
Supported by a fresh accession of the property and intelligence of
this land, we are now led on by a noble Marquis, who, disdaining not
the fields we try to win, may be cited as the first Highland chieftain
who, proclaiming that knowledge is power, is proud to place himself
at the head of the clans of science.
If such be our chief, what is our chosen ground ?—raised through
the industry and genius of her sons, to a pinnacle of commercial gran-
deur, well can this city estimate her obligations to science! Happily
as she is placed, and surrounded as she is by earth’s fairest gifts, she
feels how much her progress depends upon an acquaintance with the
true structure of the rich deposits which form her subsoil; and great
as they are, she clearly sees that her manufactures may at a moment
take a new flight by new mechanical discoveries. For she it is, you
all know, who nurtured the man whose genius has changed the tide of
human interests, by calling into active energy a power which (as
wielded by him), in abridging time and space, has doubled the value
of human life, and has established for his memory a lasting claim on
__ the gratitude of the civilized world. The names of Watt and Glasgow
_ are united in imperishable records!
- In sucha city, then, surrounded by such recollections, encouraged
c2
XXXV1
by an illustrious and time-honoured university, and fostered by the
ancient leaders of the people, may we not augur that this Meeting of
the British Association shall rival the most useful of our previous as-
semblies, and exhibit undoubted proofs of the increasing prosperity of
the British Association ?
Not attempting an analysis of the general advance of science in the
year that has passed since our meeting at Birmingham, we shall re-
strict ourselves, on the present occasion, to a brief review of what the
British Association has directly effected in that interval of time, as re-
corded in the last published volume of our Transactions, From this
straight path of our duty we shall only deviate in offering a few gene-
ral remarks on subjects intimately connected with the well-being and
dignity of our Institution.
One of the most important—perhaps the most important service to
science—which it is the peculiar duty of the Association to confer, is
that which arises from its relation to the Government,—the right
which it claims to make known the wants of science, and to demand for
them that aid which it is beyond the power of any scientific body to
bestow. In the fulfilment of this important and responsible duty, the
Association has continued to act upon the principle already laid down
in the Address of the General Secretaries at the meeting at Newcastle
in 1838, namely, to seek the aid of Government in no case of doubtful
or minor importance ; and to seek it only when the resources of indi-
viduals, or of individual bodies, shall have proved unequal to the de-
mand. The caution which it has observed in this respect has been
eminently displayed in the part which it has taken with reference to
the Antarctic expedition, and to the fixed magnetical observatories.
It abstained from recommending the former to the Government until
it had called for, and obtained from Major Sabine, by whom the im-
portance of such an expedition was first urged, a report in which that
importance was placed beyond all doubt; and it withheld from urging
the latter, although its necessity was fully felt by some of its own
members, until the letter of Baron Humboldt to the Duke of Sussex
gave authority and force to its recommendation.
The delay which has in consequence occurred, has been productive
of signal benefit to each branch of this great twofold undertaking.
Since the time alluded to, our views of the objects of investigation in
terrestrial magnetism have been greatly enlarged, at the same time
that they have become more distinct. Major Sabine’s memoir on the
Intensity of Terrestrial Magnetism has served to point out the most
interesting portions of the surface of the globe, as respects the distri-
XXXVil
bution of the magnetic force, and has indicated, in the clearest manner,
what still remained for observation to perform; and the beautiful
theory of M. Gauss, which has been partly built upon the data af-
forded by the same memoir,—while it has assigned the most probable
configuration of the magnetic lines of declination, inclination, and
intensity,—has done the same service with respect to all the three
elements.
In another point of view, also, delay has proved of great value to
both branches of the undertaking, but more especially to the fixed ob-
servatories. Our means of instrumental research have, since the time
of their first projection, received great improvements, as well in their
adequacy to the objects of inquiry, as in their precision; and finally,
the two great lines of inquiry—the research of the distribution of Ter-
restrial Magnetism on the earth’s surface,—and the investigation of
its variations, secular, periodic, and irregular,—have been permitted
to proceed pari passu.
Last of all, the prudent caution, and vigilant care, which the two
great scientific bodies, the Royal Society and the British Association,
have exhibited, both in the origin and progress of the undertaking,
have naturally inspired the Government with confidence ; and while on
the one hand science has not hesitated to demand of the country all
that was requisite to give completeness to a great design, so on the
other, the Government of the country has not hesitated to yield, with
a liberal and unsparing hand, every request the importance of which
was so well guaranteed.
But while we thus enumerate the benefits which have resulted to
magnetical science from the delay, it must be also acknowledged that
something has been lost also, not to science, but to British glory. Al-
though terrestrial magnetism stood forward as the prominent object
of the Antarctic expedition, yet it was also destined to advance our
knowledge of the “ physique du globe,’ in all its branches, and especially
in that of geography. Had the project of an Antarctic expedition
been acceded to when it was first proposed, viz. at the meeting of the
British Association, in Dublin, in 1835, there can be no reasonable
doubt, that a discovery of coast, which by its extent may almost be de-
signated as that of a Southern Continent, situated in the very region to
which its efforts were to have been chiefly directed, must have fallen to
its lot ; and the flag of England been once more the first to wave over
an unknown land. But while, as Britons, we mourn over the loss of
a prize which it well became Britain and British seamen to have made
their own, it is our part too as Britons, as well as men of science, to
hail the great discovery—one of the very few great geographical dis-
XXXViil
coveries which remained unmade ;—and to congratulate those by
whom it has been achieved, those whom we are proud to acknowledge
as fellow-labourers, and who have proved themselves in this instance
our successful rivals in an honourable and generous emulation.
The caution which has characterized the British Association in the
origination of this great undertaking, has been followed up by the
Royal Society in the manner in which it has planned the details, and in
the vigilant care with which it has watched over the execution. Of
the success which has attended this portion of the work, the strongest
proof has been already given in the unhesitating adoption of the same
scheme of observation by many of the continental observers, and in the
wide extension which it has already received in other quarters of the
globe. All that yet remains is to provide for the speedy publication
of the results. The enormous mass of observations which will be
gathered in, in the course of three years, by the observatories esta-
blished under British auspices, and by the Antarctic expedition, will
render this part of the task one of great expense and labour. To
meet the former, we must again look to the Government, and to the
East India Company, who will certainly not fail to present the result
of their munificence to the world in an accessible form. The latter
can only be overcome by a well-organized system. The planning of
this system, will, of course, be one of the first duties of the Royal
Society ; and it is important that it should be so arranged, that while
every facility in the way of reduction may be given to those who shall
hereafter engage in the theoretical discussion of the observations,
care is taken at the same time that the data are presented entire, with-
out mutilation or abridgement. The Council of the Royal Society,
will, doubtless, be greatly assisted in this duty by the eminent indivi-
dual who has had in every way so large a share in the formation of
these widely scattered magnetic establishments, and whose own obser-
vatory, founded by the munificence of the Dublin University, has
nearly completed a twelve months’ magnetic observations on that en-
larged and complete system of which it set the first example.
In referring, as we have done, to those most valuable services which
the Royal Society have rendered, and are continuing to render, in di-
recting and superintending the details of this great undertaking, in
both its branches, it is right that, on the part of the British Association,
we should express the cordial satisfaction and delight with which we
have witnessed their exertions, united with our own in this common
cause ; nor should we omit to recognize how much this desirable con-
currence has been promoted by the influence of the noble President of
the Royal Society, the Marquis of Northampton, whom, as on so many
XXKIX
former occasions, we have the pleasure of seeing amongst us,—one
of our warmest supporters and most active members.
In the volume of our Transactions now under notice, is contained the
memorial presented to Lord Melbourne by the Committee of the
British Association, appointed to represent to Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment the recommendations of the Association on the subject of Ter-
restrial Magnetism. This memorial is one of many services which
have been rendered to our cause by Sir John Herschel, whose name,
whose influence, and whose exertions, since our meeting two years
since at Newcastle, have largely contributed to place the subject
where it now stands. The devoted labour of other of our members
has long been given to an object which they have had deeply at heart,
viz. the advancement of the science of terrestrial magnetism ; but the
sacrifice which Sir John Herschel has made of time, diverted from the
great work, in which his ardent love of astronomy, his own personal
fame, and his father’s memory are all deeply concerned, the more ur-
gently demands from our justice a grateful mention, because the
science of magnetism had no claim on him, beyond the interest felt in
every branch of science, by one to whom no part of its wide field is
strange, and the regard which a national undertaking such as this de-
served, from the person who occupies his distinguished station amongst
the leaders of British science.
The advancement of human knowledge, which may be reckoned
upon as the certain consequence of the Antarctic expedition (should
Providence crown it with success), and of the arrangements connected
with it, is of so extensive a nature, and of such incalculable importance,
that no juster title to real and lasting glory than it may be expected
to confer, has been earned by any country at any period of time; no-
thing has ever been attempted by England more worthy of the place
which she occupies in the scale of nations. When much which now
appears of magnitude in the eyes of politicians has passed into insig-
nificance, the fruits of this undertaking will distinguish the age which
gave it birth, and, engraved on the durable records of science, will for
ever reflect honour on the scientific bodies which planned and promoted
it, and on the Government which, with so much liberality, has carried
it into effect.
Were the value of this Association, Gentlemen, to be measured only
by the part which it has taken in suggesting and urging this one ob-
ject, there might here be enough to satisfy the doubts of those who
question its utility. To overlook such acts as these, and the power of
public usefulness which they indicate, to scrutinize with microscopic
xl
view the minute defects incidental to every numerous assemblage of
men, to watch with critical fastidiousness the taste of every word
which might be uttered by individuals amongst us, instead of casting a
master’s eye over the work which has been done, and is doing, at our
meetings, is no mark of superior discernment and comprehensive wis-
dom, but is evidence rather of a confinement to narrow views, and an
indulgence of vain and ignoble passions.
But to proceed with our useful efforts,—one of the principal ob-
jects of our Annual Volumes, is the publication in the most authentic
form of the results of special researches, undertaken by the request,
and prosecuted in many instances at the cost, of the Association. It
is a trite remark, that if a man of talent has but fair play, he will soon
secure to himself his due place in public estimation. We fully admit
the truth of this in many instances, and above all where the points of
research are connected with commerce and the useful arts ; but many
also are the subtile threads of knowledge, which, destined at some
future day to be woven into the great web in which all the sciences are
knit together, are yet not appreciable to the vulgar eye, and if simply
submitted to public judgment, would too often meet with silent neglect.
Numberless, we say, are the subjects (and if your Association exceeds
a centenary, still more numerous will they be) with which the retired
and skilful man may wish to grapple, and still be deterred by his want
of opportunity or of means. Thenis it that, adopting the well-balanced
recommendations of the men in whose capacity and rectitude you con-
fide, you step forward with your aids, and bring about these recondite
researches, the result of which, in the volume under our notice, we now
proceed to consider.
The first of these inquiries to which we advert, you called for at the
hands of Professor Owen, upon “British Fossil Reptiles,” one of the
branches of Natural History, on a correct knowledge of which the
development of geology is intimately dependent.
The merits of the author selected for this inquiry are now widely
recognized, and he has, with justice, been approved as the worthy suc-
cessor of John Hunter, that illustrious Scotchman who laid the founda-
tion of comparative anatomy in the British isles. That this science is
now taking a fresh spring, would, we are persuaded, be the opinion of
Cuvier himself, could that eminent man view the progress which our
young countryman is making towards the completion of the temple of
which the French naturalist was the great architect. It is therefore a
pleasing reflection, that when we solicited Professor Owen to work
out this subject, we did not follow in the wake of Europe’s praise, but
xii
led the way (as this Association ought always to do), in drawing
forth the man of genius and of worth; and the value of our choice has
been since stamped by the approval of the French Institute.
If Englishmen* first perceived something of the natural affinities of
Paleosaurians, it was reserved for Cuvier to complete all such preli-
minary labour. The publication of his splendid chapters on the os-
teology of the crocodile and other reptiles, drew new attention and
more intelligent scrutiny to these remains ; and it ought to be a sub-
ject of honest pride to us to reflect, that the most interesting fruits of the
researches of that great anatomist were early gathered by the English
paleontologists, Clift and Hume. One of our leaders}, whose report on
geology ornaments the volumes of this Association, formed the genus
Plesiosaurus, on an enlarged view of the relation subsisting between
the ancient and modern forms of reptile life; while shortly after Buck-
land established the genus Megalosaurus, and Mantell, Jguanodon and
Hyleosaurus, worthy rivals of the Geo-Sauri and Moso-Sauri of Cu-
vier. The other Englishmen who have best toiled in this field, are
De la Beche, Hawkins, and Sir Philip Egerton.
Yet although this report is on British reptiles, we are fully alive to
the great progress which this department has made, and is making, on
the Continent, through the labours of Count Minster, Jager, and
Hermann Von Meyer. The last-mentioned naturalist has been for
some time preparing a series of exquisite drawings of very many forms
unknown to us in England, most of which have been detected in the
** Muschelkalk,” a formation not hitherto discovered in the British isles.
Yet despite of all that had been accomplished in our own country or
elsewhere, Professor Owen has thrown a new light of classification on
this subject, founded on many newly discovered peculiarities of osse-
ous structure, and has vastly augmented our acquaintance with new
forms, by describing sixteen species of Plesiosauri, three of which only
had been recognisably described by other writers; and ten species of
Ichthyosauri, five of which are new to science. Such results were not
to be obtained without much labour ; and previous to drawing up his
report, Professor Owen had visited the principal depositories of Ena-
hosauri described by foreign writers, as well as most of the public and
private collections of Britain, This, the first part of Mr. Owen’s re-
port, concludes with a general review of the geological relations and
extent of the strata through which he has traced the remains of British
Enaliosauri. The materials which he has collected for the second and
concluding portion of his report on the terrestrial and crocodilean
* Stukeley. + Conybeare.
xlii
Sauria, the Chelonia, Ophidian, and Batrachian reptiles, are equally
numerous, and the results of these researches will be laid before the
Association at our next meeting. Deeply impressed as we are with
the value of this report, we cannot conclude a notice of it, without
again alluding to its origin, in the words of Professor Owen himself.
“TI could not,” says he, “ have ventured to have proposed to myself
the British Fossil Reptilia as a subject of continuous and systematic
research, without the aid and encouragement which the British As-
sociation has liberally granted to me for that purpose.”
Mr. Edward Forbes, whose labours in detecting the difference of
species and varieties among the existing marine testacea of our shores,
have been most praiseworthy, has on this occasion given us a valuable
report on the pulmoniferous mollusca of the British isles. The varia-
tions in the distribution of the species in this class of animals, are
shown by him to depend both upon climate and upon soil, the structure
of the country (or geological conditions) having quite as much share
in such varied distribution, as the greatest diversity of temperature.
The Association has also to thank the author for most useful tables,
which show the distribution of the pulmoniferous mollusca in our is-
lands, and their relations to those of Europe generally.
One of the most interesting fruits of modern experimental research is
the knowledge of the fact, that electrical currents are in continual cir-
culation below the surface of the earth. Whether these currents, so
powerful in developing magnetical and chemical phenomena, are con-
fined to mineral veins and particular arrangements of metal and rock,
or generally capable of detection by refined apparatus well applied, ap-
peared a question of sufficient importance to deserve at least a trial on
the part of the Association. Our present volume records the result of
such a trial on the ancient and very regularly stratified rocks of Cum-
berland, consisting of limestone, sandstone, shale, and coal, so super-
imposed in many repetitions as to resemble not a little the common
arrangement of a voltaic pile. ~Varied experiments, with a galvano-
meter of considerable delicacy, failed, however, to detect, in these
seemingly favourable circumstances, any electrical current.
The extensive and rapidly increasing applications of iron to public
and private structures of all kinds in which durability of material is a
first requisite, have made it highly desirable to possess accurate informa-
tion respecting the nature of the chemical forces which effect the de-
struction of this hard and apparently intractable metal. The preser-
vation of iron from oxidation and corrosion is indeed an object of para-
mount importance in civil engineering. The Association was, there-
fore, anxious to direct inquiry to this subject, and gladly availed itself
xiii
of the assistance of Mr. Mallet, a gentleman peculiarly qualified for
such investigations, both from his knowledge as a chemist, and from
his opportunities of observation as a practical engineer. An extensive
series of experiments has accordingly been instituted by him, with the
support of the Association, on the action of sea and river water, in dif-
ferent circumstances as to purity and temperature, upon a large number
of specimens of both cast and wrought iron of different kinds. These
experiments are still in progress, and the effects are observed from
time totime. They will afford valuable data for the engineer, and form
the principal object of the inquiry; but a period of a few years will
be required for its completion. In the mean time, Mr. Mallet has fur-
nished a report on the present state of our knowledge of the subject,
drawn from various published sources, and from his own extensive ob-
servations. In this report he examines very fully the general condi-
tions of the oxidation of iron, and how this operation is greatly pro-
moted, although modified in its results, by sea water; also in what
manner the tendency to corrosion is affected by the composition, the
grain, porosity, and other mechanical properties of the different com-
mercial varieties of iron. The influence of minute quantities of other
metals, in imparting durability to iron, is also considered. Mr. Mal-
let devotes much attention to the consequences of the galvanic asso-
ciation of different metals with iron, a subject of recent interest from
the applications of zinc and other metals to protect iron, which are
at present agitated. He concludes this, his first report, by recommend-
ing a series of inquiries, ten in number, which will supply the desiderata
immediately required by the engineer and by the chemist.
We have next to notice a report by Professor Powell, on the present
state of our knowledge of refractive indices for the standard rays of the
solar spectrum in different media. The difficulty which the fact of
the dispersion of light has offered to the universal application of the
undulatory theory, has been in a great measure removed by the ana-
lysis of Cauchy and others, who have considered the distances of the
undulatory particles as quantities comparable to the length of a wave ;
velocities of propagation of the different rays of the spectrum are
made to depend upon the length of wave which constitutes a ray of a
given colour, and upon certain constants proper to the medium; these
constants being obtained from observations on refractive indices for
certain definite rays (or dark lines) of the spectrum, the refrangibility
of any other definite ray (whose wave-length has been ascertained by
examining an interference-spectrum) becomes known, and may be
compared with observation as a test of theory ; such experiments have
been made by Frauenhofer, Rudberg, and Professor Powell, who has
xliv
given a tabular view of the various results, without, however, insti-
tuting the comparison between theory and observation, which it would
be desirable to extend further than has yet beendone. It would be
important also to elucidate the disturbing effect of temperature, which
prevents even existing observations from being rigorously com-
parable.
The calculations respecting the tides, which have been prosecuted
by the aid of the Association ever since its institution, have been con-
tinued this year by Mr. Bunt, under the directions of Mr. Whewell.
These calculations have now reached such a point, that the mathemati-
cian, instead of being, as at the beginning of this period, content with
the first rude approximations, is now struggling to obtain the last de-
gree of accuracy.
The country in which we are now assembled, has always been con-
spicuous for attention to meteorology, a branch of physical science, in
which the British Association, with its power of combining the efforts
of many observers in distant quarters of the globe, may hope to be
especially useful.
In Scotland, Leslie opened a new train of inquiry, by examining the
earth’s temperature at different depths; and his successor in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, is now directing, at the request of the Associa-
tion, a large and complete course of experiments on that interesting
subject. Framed in conformity with the plans adopted for similar ob-
jects by Arago and Quetelet, these researches of Professor Forbes
contain also the means of determining the power of conducting heat,
which different sorts of rock possess; and may thus throw light on
some of those peculiarities in the distribution of temperature at greater
depths below the surface, which have become known by experience,
but are not explained by theory.
In Scotland, Sir David Brewster was the first to obtain an hourly
meteorological journal for a series of years, and to draw from that fer-
tile source new and important deductions, which have had a powerful
influence on the progress of scientific meteorology. How gratifying
to receive, through the same hands, after the lapse of nearly 15 years
anadditional contribution of the same kind, and from the same country ;
but embracing new conditions, on a new line of operations, in order to
obtain new results! By the observations now in progress at Inverness
and at Kingussie, the influence of elevation in modifying the laws,
which have been found to govern the hourly distribution of heat near
the level of the sea, may be discovered, and thus a great addition be
made to the experimental results, for which science has long been
grateful to the distinguished philosopher we have named, and which
xlv
have been described as “the highest value to meteorology, and as the
only channel through which any specific practical information can be
obtained in this most interesting department of physics.”
This is no ordinary praise. It is the just tribute of one who is
worthy to offer it; one, who at the call of the British Association, has
conducted at Plymouth a still more extensive series of similar obser-
vations, and has added to them hourly comparisons of the temperature
and moisture of the air, and an hourly record of barometric oscillations.
Mr. Snow Harris has presented in a few pages of our last report, the
precious results of (70,000) observations, and thus rendered them
immediately available in the foundations of accurate meteorology.
The documents thus patiently collected, are, however, not yet ex-
hausted in value; they may be again and again called into the court of
science, and made to yield testimony to other, and as yet, unsuspected
truths. They must not be lost. Shall we lay them by in manuscript
among other unconsulted records of the past labours of men, or by un-
dertaking their publication, do justice to our workmen, and establish a
new claim on the imitation of the present, and the gratitude of future
days? This question is of serious import. Already, stimulated by
success in thermometric registration, we have set to work on a more
perplexing problem; we have resolved to bind even the wandering
winds in the magic of numbers. While we speak, the beautiful engines
of our Whewells and Oslers are tracing at every instant of time, the
displacements of the atmosphere at Cambridge, at Plymouth, at Bir-
mingham, in Edinburgh, in Canada, in St. Helena, and at the Cape of
Good Hope ; and ere long we may hope to view associated in one dia-
gram, the simultaneous movements of the air over Europe, America,
Africa, India, and Australia, recorded with instruments which we have
chosen, by men whom we have set to work,
Amongst the causes which tend to retard the progress of science,
few, perhaps, operate more widely than the impediment to a free and
rapid communication of thought and of experiments, occasioned by
difference of language. It appeared to the British Association, that
this impediment might in some degree be removed, as far as regards
our own country, by procuring, and causing to be published, transla-
tions of foreign scientific memoirs judiciously selected. Accordingly
at each of the meetings at Newcastle and Birmingham a grant was
placed at the disposal of a committee appointed to carry this purpose
into effect. Aided by several contributions which have been gratui-
tously presented to them, the committee have been enabled in the two
last years, to publish translations of fourteen memoirs on subjects of
’
xvi
prominent interest and importance in the mathematical and physical
sciences, bearing the names of some of the most eminent of the con-
tinental philosophers.
In concluding this imperfect review of our recent proceedings, we
are led to observe, that in two essential respects the British Association
differs from all the annual scientific meetings of the Continent; no one
of which has printed Transactions or employed money in aiding special
researches. We also differ from them in the communications which,
in the name of the representatives of science assembled from all parts
of the United Kingdom, we feel ourselves authorized to make to our
Government, on subjects connected with the scientific character of
the nation. On our first visit to Scotland, for example, we felt it to
be an opprobrium, that this enlightened kingdom should, in one essen-
tial feature of civilization, be still behind many of the continental states;
and we prepared an address to his late Majesty’s Government, urging
the necessity for the construction, without delay, of a map of Scotland,
founded on the trigonometrical survey. Representations to the same
effect have since been made by the Royal Society of Scotland, and
by the Highland Society, and the subject has now engaged that atten-
tion, which will, we trust, soon procure for this country the first sheets
of a large and complete map.
Should it then be asked, why are the men of highest station happy to
associate and mingle with us in official duties ?—why have the heads
of the noble houses of Fitzwilliam, Lansdowne*, Northampton, Bur-
lington, Northumberland, and Breadalbane, alternated in presiding over
us, with our Bucklands, our Sedgwicks, our Brisbanes, our Lloyds, and
our Harcourts ?—why indeed, on this very occasion, has Argyll himself,
overlooking the claims due to his high position, and his ancient lineage,
come forward to act with us, and even to serve in asubordinate office ?
may we not reply, that it is, we believe, a consequence of the just ap-
preciation on the part of these patriotic and enlightened noblemen, of
the beneficial influences which this Association exercises in so many
ways on the sources of the nation’s power and honour ?
If we have hitherto dwelt almost exclusively on the value of our
transactions, researches, recommendations, and the good application
of our finances, let it not, however, be supposed, that we are not also
* The Marquis of Lansdowne, who had accepted the office (1836), was prevented
from attending by deep domestic affliction, and the Marquis of Northampton cheer-
fully supplied his place,
xlvii
alive to the advantages which flow from the social intercourse of these
meetings, by bringing together, into friendly communion, from distant
parts, those who are struggling on in advancing experimental science.
This principle of union.(which we are proud to have borrowed from
our German brethren) has indeed been hitherto found to work so well
amongst our own countrymen, that we cannot but doubly recognize its
value when we see assembled so many distinguished persons from
foreign countries. In the presence of these eminent men*, we forbear
to allude to individual distinctions, conscious that any brief attempt of
our own would fall far short of a true estimate of merits, the high
order of which is known to every cultivator of science. Well, how-
ever, may we rejoice in having drawn such spirits to our Isle ; valuable,
we trust, may be the comparisons we shall make between the steps
which the sciences are making in their countries and in our own.
That advantages, indeed, of no mean order arise from such social
intercourse, is a feeling now so prevalent, that foreign national associa-
tions for the promotion of natural knowledge, have rapidiy increased.
Germany, France, and Italy have their annual Assemblies, and our
allies of the Northern States hold their sittings beyond the Baltic.
In all this there is doubtless much good, but an occasional more exten-
sive intercourse of a similar nature, to be repeated at certain intervals,
is greatly to be desired.
It has therefore appeared to us (and we say it after consultation with
many of our continental friends, who equally feel the disadvantage),
that the formation of a general congress of science might be promoted
at this meeting, which, not interfering with any assemblies yet fixed
upon, or even contemplated, may be so arranged as to permit the at-
tendance of the officers and active members of each national scientific
institution.
Should the British Association take the first step in proposing a
measure of this kind by soliciting the illustrious Humboldt to act
as President, we are sure that scientific men of all nations would
gladly unite in offering this homage to a man whose life and fortune
have been spent in their cause, whose voice has been so instrumental
in awakening Europe to the inquiry into the laws of terrestrial mag-
netism, and whose ardent search after nature’s truths has triumphed
over the Andes and the Altai.
If such be your suggestion, then will a fresh laurel be added to the
wreath to this city. She who, through the power bequeathed toher by
* Encke, Link, Jacobi, &c,
xl vili
her illustrious offspring, conveys with rapid transit her inventions and
her produce to the remotest lands, well can she estimate the value of
an union of men whose labours can but tend to cement the bonds of
general peace. In such a body the British representatives would, we
trust, form no inconspicuous band; and with minds strengthened by
the infusion of fresh knowledge, they would, on re-assembling for our
own national ends, the better sustain the permanent and successful
career of the British Association.
REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report on the recent progress of discovery relative to Radiant
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same sub-
ject inserted in the \st volume of the Reports of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science. By the Rev.
BapeEn PowsE tt, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.Ast.S., F.G.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford.
Havine been one of those whoat the first institution of the
British Association were applied to, to prepare reports on the
state and progress of the different branches of science, and ha-
ving in consequence laid before the Association at the Oxford
meeting in 1832 such a review of the subject of Radiant Heat,
I have felt peculiar satisfaction in being again honoured by a
request from the Council to furnish a second report supplement-
ary to the former, embracing the progress of knowledge in that
department from the period to which the first report extends,
up to the present time.
Such a supplementary account has been rendered peculiarly
necessary, from the great number and high importance of the
results which have been arrived at by several eminent experi-
meuters in the interval which has elapsed: and though much
is still required to be done before we attain complete and satis-
factory grounds for an unexceptionable theory of radiant heat,
yet the discoveries recently made have at least tended greatly
to modify all our previous conceptions, and to enable us to refer
large classes of the phenomena to something like a simple and
common principle.
In my former Report I divided the subject under various heads,
derived from what appeared, in the existing state of our know-
VOL, 1x. 1840. B
by REvPoRT—1840.
ledge, well-marked distinctions between several kinds of effects
ascribed to radiant heat. The more recent discoveries have in
a great degree so changed our views of the subject, that these
divisions cannot with any advantage or convenience be adhered
to. One grand principle of arrangement, however, has been
newly supplied in the capital discovery of the polarization of
heat; so that all the researches we have to describe will be conve-
niently classed under two heads, as they relate—first, to radiant
heat in its ordinary or unpolarized state ; and secondly, to its
polarized condition.
Division I.—Unpotarizep Heat.
Transmission and Refraction of Heat : Melloni.
Since the period to which my former report extends, various
notices have from time to time been given to the British Associa-
tion relative to the more important discoveries connected with
radiant heat. My former report includes a statement of some
of the first researches of M. Melloni. At the Cambidge meet-
ing, in 1833, Prof. Forbes gave some account of the further
investigations in which M. Melloni was then engaged, including
a brief abstract by M. Melloni himself of the chief results he
had then obtained*. The full details were subsequently embo-
died in his several memoirs.
In the earlier part of these researches, M. Melloni had found
that the quantity of calorific rays which traverses a screen, is
proportional to the temperature of the source: but the difference
constantly diminishes as the thickness of the screen is less, until
with very thin laminz it is insensible.
This proves that the resistance to the passage of heat is not
exerted at the surface, but in the interior of the mass.
With the solar rays, he observed that with various thicknesses
of sulpliate of lime, water and acids, the increase of interception,
owing to increased thickness, is greater for the less refrangible
rays of the spectrum.
With terrestrial sources he found that a plate of glass, 2 mm.
in thickness, stops, out of 100 rays, from flame 45, from copper
at 950° cent. (incandescent) 70, from boiling mercury 92, from
boiling water 100.
Comparing the transmissive powers of a great number of
substances in a crystallized state, he concluded that the diather-
maneity for the rays of alamp was proportional to their refrac-
tive powers ; but in uncrystallized bodies no such law could be
traced.
* See Third Report, p. 381-2.
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT, 3
It was in the course of these researches that the author made
the important discovery of the singular property possessed by
Rock Sa tr, viz. that it is almost entirely permeable to heat even
from non-luminous sources. He found its transmissive power six
or eight times greater than that of an equal thickness of alum,
which had nearly the same transparency and refractive power.
He also discovered that (unlike other diathermanous media) it
is equally diathermanous to ail species of heat, 7. e. to heat from
sources of all degrees of luminosity or obscurity; or that it
transmits in every case an equal proportion of the heat incident.
Thus he found a plate of 7 mm. (*28 inch) in thickness trans-
mits about 92 out of 100 rays, whether from flame, red-hot iron,
water at 212°, or at 120° Fahrenheit. A plate 1 inch thick gave
a similar constant ratio.
M. Melloni’s ** Memoir on the Free Transmission of Radiant
Heat through Solid and Liquid Bodies,” was presented to the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, Feb. 4, 1833, and published in
the Ann. de Chimie, No. liii. p. 1 ; a translation of it is given in
Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part I.
The author commences with a slight sketch of the researches
of previous experimenters, but omits to notice any distinctions
between the characters of the heat from different sources, or the
different Ainds of heat from one and the same source, when lu-
minous, especially as indicated by my experiments published in
the Phil. Trans. for 1825.
He then proceeds to some “ general considerations on free
transmission of caloric through bodies, and the manner of mea-
suring it by means of the thermo-multiplier.”” This, in fact, con-
stitutes a supplementary and more enlarged portion of his for-
mer researches. He goes into extensive details on the precau-
tions necessary to be used in such investigations ; especially for
guarding against the interference of secondary radiation: as
this changes with the change of place of the screen, he thus al-
lows for its effects. He also gives some general observations
on the use of the galvanometer, and the correct estimation of the
forces acting upon it.
The next subject of inquiry is the effect due to “the polish,
thickness, and nature of the screens.’’ The source of heat being
a lamp, screens were employed of glass rendered of different de-
grees of opacity by grinding, &c.; and the effects by transmis-
sion through them were found to be in proportion to the trans-
parency, or that the heat follows the same proportion as the
light.
The effect of liquids between glass plates was then tried; and
more rays were found to be absorbed in proportion to the increase
B2
4 3 REPoRtT—1840.
of thickness. Different numbers of glass screens were also em-
ployed in combination ; the same conclusion also held good.
The results with a numerous series of screens of various me-
dia, solid and liquid, were then tried, and are stated in a series
of tables :—
Table I. Various kinds of uncoloured glass.
Table II. Liquids: to give a general sketch, the order of
transmission was as follows, beginning with the greatest :—
Carburet of silver.
Chlorides.
Oils.
Acids.
Water.
Table III. Crystallized bodies, transparent and opake; the
results follow no relation to transparency: the following is the
general order :—
Rock salt.
Various crystals.
Alum.
Sulphate of copper—no effect.
Table IV. Coloured glasses. Red and violet transmitted
most—yellow, green and blue, least—heat.
The author concludes, in general (the source being a lamp),
that the diathermancy is not proportional to the transparency ;
and makes some general remarks on these results as related to
those of Seebeck on prismatic dispersion.
A supplement to the last paper was presented by the same
author to the Academy, April 21, 1834, entitled ‘ New Re-
searches on the immediate Transmission of Radiant Heat
through different Solid and Liquid Bodies.”’ It is published in
the Ann. de Chimie, lv. 337, and translated in Taylor’s Scien-
tific Memoirs, Part I., p. 39.
The author first investigates ‘‘the modifications which calo-
rific transmission undergoes in consequence of the radiating
source being changed.”’
He employs four sources of heat. 1. A Locatellilamp. 2.
Incandescent platina. 3. Copper heated by flame to about 730°
Fahrenheit. 4. Hot water in a blackened copper vessel. The
heat from each of these sources was first compared as transmit-
ted through plates of glass of different thicknesses, from *07
millims. to 8 millims. The results are given in a table, from
which it appears that with copper and hot water the diminution
of effect is rapid, with an increase of thickness in the screen; with
water it is nothing beyond a thickness of 5 mm. A second ta-
ble gives results for about 40 solid media of different kinds, of
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 5
the same thickness; most of them were wholly impervious to
dark heat ; the most remarkable exceptions being fluate of lime
and rock salt.
In another table are the results with black glass and black
mica; these substances, though diathermanous to the lamp and
incandescent platina, are wholly impervious to the rays from
hot water, and nearly so to those from heated copper.
The discovery of.the entire diathermancy of rock salt has
been before referred to, and has furnished the means of prose-
cuting the author’s yet more remarkable researches on the RE-
FRACTION OF Hear.
Tothisimportant point M. Mellonidevotes a pertion ofthe same
memoir. After a sketch of previous attempts to establish this
property, he describes his successful experiment by concentra-
ting to the focus of a rock-salt lens the rays of dark heat from
hot copper and hot water. 4 similar lens of alum produced
no effect; this proves that the effect is not due to the mere heat-
ing of the central part of the lens.
He next advances to the refraction of heat by a rock-salt
prism ; describing an apparatus for the purpose. That the ef-
fect is not due to secondary radiation, is shown by turning the
prism on its axis into a different position, when no effect is
roduced.
He then discusses the “ properties of the calorific rays imme-
diately transmitted by different bodies.’’ Under this head are
detailed one of the most remarkable species of effects which the
whole range of the subject presents.
_The rays of the lamp were thrown upon screens of different
substances in such a manner, that either by changing the di-
stance, or by concentration with a mirror, or a lens of rock salt,
the effect transmitted from all the screens was of a certain con-
stant amount. This constant radiation was then intercepted
by a plate of alum, and it was found that very different propor-
tions of heat were transmitted by the alum in the different cases.
This very singular result is established by numerous detailed
experiments, of which a tabular statement is given, and the au-
thor states it in the following terms: “‘the calorific rays issuing
from the diaphanous screens are therefore of different qualities,
and possess, if we may use the term, the diathermancy peculiar
to each of the substances through which they have passed.”
_ He next investigates the effects of different colours in glass
on the absorption of heat. He infers in general that the colour-
ing matter diminishes the power of transmission, and examines.
the question, does it stop only rays of a definite refrangibility
analogous to what happens in the absorption of light ?
6 REPORT—1840.
With this view (following a similar mode of operation to that
adopted in the last instance) he used successively glasses of
different colours, for each of which the distance of the source
was varied till a standard effect (about 40° deviation of the
needle) was produced on the galvanometer. In this position, in
each case, a plate of sulphate of lime was then interposed, and
diminished the deviation to about 18° for all the coloured glasses
except green, in which case it was to about 8°. When alum
was substituted the deviations were reduced in the first case to
8°, in the second to 1°°6. Hence he concludes that all the co-
loured glasses, except green, produce no “‘ elective action”’ on
heat; green glass, on the contrary, transmits rays more easily
stopped than the others.
Connecting this with his other inference, that rays are
stopped in proportion to their refrangibility, he instituted
another series of experiments to put this to the test. The
sources of heat compared were an argand lamp and incandescent
platinum, the rays of heat from the former being the more
refrangible. The quantities of heat from the lamp and the
metal transmitted by the green glass were nearly equal; by all
the others, nearly in the ratio of 2 to 1. Hence he infers that
green glass is more diathermanous for rays of less refrangibility.
Again, the rays transmitted by citric acid and some other
substances, are those only of the greatest refrangibility. They
should, therefore, be the least transmissible by green glass.
This was found to be the case. Of 100 rays passed through
citric acid, all the other glasses transmitted various preparations,
from 89 to 28, while green glass transmitted only from 6 to 2.
Without the citric acid, the rays from incandescent platinum
were more copiously transmitted by the green glass than by the
others.
The whole of the rays of low refrangibility emitted by the
platinum, and for which alone the green glass is transparent,
had been stopped by the interposition of the plate of citric
acid, which had, as it were, sifted it free from these rays.
Hence the author concludes, that “ green glass is the only
kind which possesses a COLOURATION for heat (if we may use
the expression), the others acting upon it only as more or less
transparent glass of uniform tint does upon light.”
In a subsequent part of the memoir, M. Melloni gives a
tabular view of the effects observed in the same manner, of the
constant radiations emitted from six different substances, each
intercepted successively by 24 minerals and 10 coloured
glasses ; from which it appears that the transmission is very
different, according to the nature of the first medium.
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. yw
‘He afterwards describes an experiment with the solar rays
transmitted by a green glass, and then intercepted by other
media. They pass copiously through rock salt, but feebly
through alum. Hence he concludes, that there are among the
solar rays some which resemble those of terrestrial heat ; and
in general, that “ the differences observed between solar and
terrestrial heat, as to their properties of transmission, are
therefore to be attributed merely to the mixture in different
proportions of these several species of rays.”’
In a note to this memoir, M. Melloni refers to my original
experiment (Phil. Trans. 1825), in which the action of the rays
on surfaces is observed in connexion with their transmissi-
bility.
He confirms the accuracy of my result, by a careful repe-
tition of the experiment with the thermo-multiplier, but makes
no reference to the conclusion I had drawn, viz. the co-
existence of two distinct sorts of heat in the radiation from
luminous sources, one of which is the same as that from dark
sources. He explains the result by supposing the transmitted
rays to acquire, in and by the act of transmission through the
glass screen, new properties in their relation to the surfaces on
which they fall, 7. e. to the degree of absorption they undergo
respectively on a black and a white surface.
He extends the investigation by a table of results of the same
kind with a series of screens, both transparent, and of various
degrees of opacity. The ratio of the effects on the black and
white surfaces is nearer to equality as the screen is more
opake.
On this subject there appears a short paper by M. Melloni
in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. vii.
p- 475; to which I replied in the same journal, Jan. 1836.
While referring to my own experiments, I may be allowed to
add, that in Dr. Thomson’s Treatise on Heat, &c., first edition,
the bearing of my investigation was incorrectly represented; and
accordingly I pointed this out in the London and Edinburgh
Journal of Science, Nov. 1830.
In the second edition of Dr. Thomson’s work, which has
lately appeared, the author omits all mention of the subject
whatever.
Transmission and Refraction of Heat: Forbes.
The subjects of transmission and refraction of heat were taken
up by Prof. Forbes; and Melloni’s experiments repeated and
extended by him; the details being given in the first and part
of the second sections of his first Memoir “on the Refraction
8 REPORT—1840.
and Polarization of Heat,’’ read to the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, Jan. 5th and 19th, 1835, and published in their Trans-
actions, vol. xiii.; also in the London and Edinburgh Journal
of Science, vol. vi.
The first section contains an account of various experiments
with the thermo-multiplier. The principal object was to verify
the several points already stated, and especially to determine
the degree of accuracy of the instrument. From a comparison
of its sensibility with that of air-thermometers, the author
concludes that 1° of deviation of the needle corresponds to an
effect indicated by about =,th of a centigrade degree, Without
increasing the dimensions of the instrument, by which its sen-
sibility would be impaired, he has been enabled, by the adapta-
tion of a small telescope, readily to measure ;pth of its degrees ;
that is, about >3,th of a centigrade degree.
One of the most interesting points to which the author
directed his attention, was the possibility of detecting heat in
the moon’s rays. These rays, concentrated by a polyzonal lens
of 32 inches diameter, and acting on the thermo-multiplier,
gave no indication of any effect; so that Prof. Forbes con-
siders it certain that, if there be any, it must be less than
sonssoth of a centigrade degree.
He repeated Melloni’s experiment of the refraction of heat
by a rock-salt prism, and was enabled to obtain some approxi-
mate quantitative results, giving the index of refraction for
heat in this substance, which was a little less than that for
light.
In the course of his second section he describes further
experiments relative to the question discussed by Melloni, of
the separation of the effects due to heat and light, especially
the peculiarity (before mentioned) attending green light: he
tried flames variously coloured with salts—giving red, yellow,
green, and blue light; but found the proportions of rays trans-
mitted by alum, glass, and rock salt to be nearly constant for
each substance.
To this part of the subject Prof. Forbes again directed his
attention, in a later series of experiments, in which ke has
obtained numerical results of the highest value. These are
detailed in the last part of his third series of Researches on
Heat, read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 16,
1838, and published in the Transactions of that body, vol. xiv.
To the earlier portion of this memoir we shall refer, under
another division of this report.
The third section relates to the Index of refraction for heat
of different kinds, as compared with that for light in the same
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 9
medium. The method of observation adopted is indirect, turn-
ing upon the determination of the critical angle of total inter-
nal reflexion. This was ascertained in a rock-salt prism, having
two angles of 40°, and one of 100°. The sentient surface of
the pile is so placed with regard to the prism, that it continually
receives rays coming from the source of heat, after undergoing
two refractions and one reflexion, whatever be the angle of
incidence, which is effected by a very simple but ingenious
mechanical construction. Every kind of precaution to avoid
error was adopted. And in this way the author obtained a
series of indices “ for the mean quality of the heat most abun-
dantly contained in the rays obtained from various sources.”’
These values are given in a table, and are professedly but ap-
proximate. Prof. Forbes has, however, subsequently favoured
me with an unpublished communication, in which he states,
that while the numbers may be regarded as relatively correct,
in order to become absolutely so, they must all be reduced by
about ‘05. This will give the corrected series of results as
follows :—
Index of refraction for
Rock Salt.
POC AAU ee ee ia te ee LOT
Do. transmitted through alum. . . . 1°548
—_—- BIASS. aise vero LO
———-—--—— opake glass . . 1°543
eee on Sere
Incandescent platina Dee RES ee a IH
Do. transmitted by glass . . . . . 1°538
aS a a Opake mica... 1:534
(2 BIRSE STRIVE da ap le Soden aman aaiaarenimara F259 I
Do. transmitted by clear mica . . . 1°527
PCTCUEY Be Abe Tee ae a a OD
Source of Heat.
Mean luminous rays . . . . . « « 1°552
From the experiments described in this section, the follow-
ing general conclusions are deduced :—
1. The mean quality, or that of the more abundant propor-
tion of the heat from different sources, varies within narrow
limits of refrangibility.
2. These limits are very narrow indeed, where the direct
heat of any source is employed.
3. All interposed media (including those impermeable to
light), so far as tried, raise the index of refraction.
4. All the refrangibilities are inferior to that of the mean
luminous rays.
10 REPORT-—-1840.
5. The limits of dispersion are open to further inquiry 3 but
the dispersion in the case of sources of low temperature ap-
pears to be smaller than in that from luminous sources.
Reflexion of Heat: Melloni.
A short paper, by M. Melloni, entitled ‘“ Note on the Reflexion
of Heat,’”’ was read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Nov. 2,
1835, and published in the Ann. de Chim. ix. 402, of which a
translation appears in Taylor’s Sci. Memoirs, Part III. p. 383.
After referring to the experiments of Leslie, to show that the
reflexion of heat depends materially on the texture, polish, &c.
of the reflecting surfaces, he proceeds to consider what
takes place in diathermanous substances, as in rock salt ; where,
there being no absorption, the difference of the heat trans-
mitted gives the quantity reflected at the first and second sur-
faces. With other media—as glass, rock crystal, &c.—very
thin plates exercise no sensible absorption : hence heat, after
traversing a thick plate, being intercepted by a very thin plate,
the loss which this occasions is due solely to the two reflexions.
These considerations afford the means of estimating the inten-
sities of reflected heat from different substances; and the
author, in conclusion, gives a comparative statement of the
reflexions from rock crystal and copper.
Analogies of Light and Heat: Melloni and Forbes.
M. Melloni’s “ Observations and Experiments on the Theory
of the identity of the Agents which produce Light and Heat,”
were read to the Academy of Sciences, Dec. 21, 1835, pub-
lished in the Ann. de Chimie, No. 50, p. 418, and translated
in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part III. p. 388.
In this paper the author combats the views of M. Ampére,
who had proposed some ingenious speculations for explaining,
on the theory of undulations, the identity of light and heat,
the difference of effect being dependent solely on the different
wave-lengths ; those producing heat being supposed longer
than those giving rise to light. Athermanous media, such as
water, intercept the longer waves, but not the shorter. Thus
the aqueous humour of the eye prevents the retina from being
affected by heat as well as light.
The author admits that many phenomena may be sufficiently
accounted for by the mere supposition of the difference of
wave-lengths; but he mentions some experiments in which he
thinks decisively that this will not hold good.
The spectrum formed by a rock-salt prism gives the maxi-
mum of heat considerably beyond the red end. On interposing
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 11
water of increasing thickness, the maximum successively occurs
in the red, and thence upwards to the green. A similar effect
is produced by colourless glasses; but with colowred glasses,
whilst the Jwmtnous spectrum is variously absorbed and altered,
the place of the maximum of heat remains unaltered, and the
decrease from it quite regular.
Another experiment consists in interposing a diaphanous
body, which absorbs all the calorific, but only a part of the
luminous rays. On using in this way a peculiar species of
green glass coloured by oxide of copper, the greenish light
transmitted “‘ exhibits no calorific action capable of being ren-
dered perceptible by the most delicate thermoscopes, even when
it is so concentrated by lenses as to rival the direct rays of the
sun in brilliancy.”
On these points Prof. Forbes has made some remarks in the
London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March, 1836.
Such experiments as these, he justly observes, and indeed
many more simple, clearly show that heat is not light, but
nothing more. It is a question, then, what is the point really
aimed at in these speculations. The author agrees with Mel-
loni in the result, “ that one and the same undulation does not
invariably impress the senses of sight and feeling at once. The
great difficulty is this—to account for the equal refrangibility
of two waves having different properties.”
New Phenomena of Transmission: Melloni and Forbes.
It appears by the Comptes Rendus, that on September 2nd,
1839, M. Arago communicated to the Academy of Sciences a
letter by M. Melloni, containing some new and highly interest-
ing experiments on the transmission of radiant heat. He found
that rock salt acquires, by being smoked, the power of transmit-
ting most easily heat of low temperature, or of that kind which
is stopped in the greatest proportion by glass, alum, and (ac-
cording to his view) all other substances.
Upon this point, Prof. Forbes was led to some further con-
siderations, and thence to fresh series of researches ‘* On the
effect of the mechanical Textures of Screens on the immediate
Transmission of Radiant Heat,’ an account of which he com-
municated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Dec. 16, 1839.
Upon the above-mentioned result of Melloni, Prof. Forbes
remarks, that according to the conclusions indicated in his own
Researches (third series), Melloni’s view of the interception of
heat of low temperature by all substances alike, is equivalent to
saying that substances in general allow only the more refrangi-
ble rays to pass, or that while rock salt presents the analogy of
white glass, by transmitting all rays in equal proportions, every
12 REPORT—1840.
other substance hitherto examined acts on the calorific rays, as
violet or blue glass does on light, absorbing the rays of least
refrangibility, and transmitting only the others. And to this
tule Melloni now makes out the first exception, or the first ana-
logue of red glass, to be rock salt, having its surface smoked.
Now Prof. Forbes, in his third series, had also pointed out
another substance having the same property, viz. mica split by
heat. In March, 1838, he had established, by repeated experi-
ments, that the previous transmission of heat through glass,
far from rendering it less easily absorbable by mica in this
state, had a contrary effect ; and also that heat of low tempera-
ture, wholly unaccompanied by light, was transmitted almost as
freely as that from a lamp previously passed through glass.
Mica not laminated possesses no such property; hence the
effect is due to the peculiar mechanical condition of the sub-
stance: and hence it occurred to the author, that the effect of
smoking the rock salt was owing merely to a mechanical change
in the surface ; he therefore proceeded to try the effects of sur-
faces altered by mechanical means.
The surface of rock salt being roughened by sand-paper, it
transmitted non-luminous heat more copiously than luminous.
Mica similarly scratched showed the same result.
This effect is not attributable to differences in the proportions
of heat reflected, for in this respect, at a polished surface, all
kinds of heat are alike, as he had before shown; whilst by
direct experiment, he found that, at least for the higher angles
of incidence, reflexion is most copious from rough surfaces for
heat of low temperature, or the same kind which is most freely
transmitted ; proving incontestably, that the stifling action of
rough surfaces is the true cause of the inequality.
That there is a real modification of the heat in passing through
a roughened surface, as well as through laminated mica, and the
smoky film, appears from some direct experiments on heat sifted
by these different media; which, when transmitted by any one
of these, is found in a fitter state to pass through each of the
others ; and this modification is the more perceptible as the cha-
racter of the heat is more removed from that which these media
transmit more readily ; that is, as the temperature of the source
is higher. The following results were stated :—
Heat from lamp through Rays out of 100
smoked rock salt. transmitted.
Pirectinge 5020s cement tis oo) codes eee
Previously sifted by another plate of smoked rock salt. 44
do. do. laminated mica . 44
do. do. roughened salt . 403
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 13
The author then proceeded to try the effect of fine wire gauze
and fine gratings of cotton thread ; but no difference could be de-
tected corresponding to the different kinds of heat ; in every case
the interception was proportioned to the fineness of the gauze.
When fine powders were strewed between plates of rock-salt,
or fine lines were ruled upon the surface, or the surface tar-
nished by mere exposure to the air, the easier transmission of
heat of low temperature was rendered apparent.
These effects the author considers as evidently pointing to
phenomena in heat, resembling diffraction and periodic co-
lours in light.
Such was the general sketch of his researches which Prof.
Forbes gave at the period above-mentioned. Subsequently (up
to March 1840) he continued engaged on the same subjects,
and on May 15, 1840, laid before the council of the Royal So-
ciety, Edinburgh, a more extended account of the entire inves-
tigations, which appears in vol. xv. Part I. of their Transac-
tions, under the title of ‘*A Fourth Series of Researches on
Heat.”’ Some remarks by M. Melloni appear in the Comptes
Rendus, March 30, 1840, on the same subject.
For obtaining a general view of these results, the main point
to be kept in sight is the relation which the transmissibility of
each sort of heat appears to bear to its refrangibility ; and hence
the analogy of diathermanous media, which transmit the less re-
frangible heat, to transparent media, which transmit the red
rays of light, the transmission of the more refrangible heat being
analogous to that of violet light.
Upon this important point Prof. Forbes enlarges in the in-
troductory part of his memoir; he justly observes that such a
generalization carries us forward a step, by teaching us to refer
to the quality of refrangibility certain properties of heat, which
before were connected only with certain vague characters in the
nature of the source whence it was derived. Among other
things, we find, what was long suspected, but what Melloni first
conclusively proved, that it does not essentially depend on the
presence or absence of light. This refers to his singular dis-
covery of the change produced by the intervention of certain
screens.
Heat from any source, if it admit of transmission at all
through glass, alum, or water, will ultimately have the character
of glass-heat, alum-heat, or water-heat, just as light from the
sun, or from a candle, becomes red, blue, or green, by trans-
mission through glasses of those colours.
The author gives, as an illustration, the following scale of
different kinds of heat, in the order of refrangibility, beginning
with the lowest :—
14 REPORT—1840.
1. Heat from ice.
2. ———— the hand.
3. ———— boiling water.
4. — avesselof mercury underits boiling temperature.
5. ————— metal smoked ;—wholly non-luminous in the
dark, heated by an alcohol-lamp behind it.
6. Heat from incandescent platina (over a spirit-lamp).
: an oil-lamp (direct).
8. Otl-lamp heat transmitted by common mica.
a glass (argand lamp).
10. ——_—__——_———————-. citric acid.
Vl. —_—_ —_——— alum.
12. ———— ice.
Melloni having shown that a portion of the heat from a lumi-
nous source is transmitted through certain screens, which are
wholly opake to light, it became natural to inquire whether the
rays so passed possessed the properties of heat from dark sources.
This he found to be partly the case, and partly not.
The direct test of examining the refrangibility of the heat-
rays issuing from the screen occurred to Prof. Forbes, who found
that opake glass and mica act as clear glass and mica do in ele-
vating the mean refrangihbility of the transmitted heat, an ac-
tion analogous to that of yellow glass upon light. (See 3rd
Series, Art. 73, 81, &c.)
But in all this there was nothing exactly equivalent to the
action of red glass; this, however, was discovered by Melloni,
by the happy suggestion of covering the surface of rock salt
with smoke.
These remarks introduce more clearly the main object of
Prof. Forbes in following up the inquiry. In the present paper
the details of many series of experiments are given, and the
more precise results now established may be stated as follows :
I. The peculiar character of the film of smoke on the surface of
a diathermanous medium, analogous to redness in glass for light,
was found to be possessed by—1. The simple powder of char-
coal. 2. Some other dull earthy powders. 3. Surfaces simply
dull, or devoid of polish. 4. Surfaces irregularly furrowed, as
with emery or sand-paper. 5. Polished surfaces, on which fine
distinct lines have been drawn. 6. Transparent mica, when
mechanically laminated, which, as a continuous medium, pos-
sesses opposite properties.
I]. All kinds of heat (i.e. of all refrangibilities) seem affect-
ed indifferently by the following media :—
1. The thinnest leaf-gold, which is impervious to any kind of
heat.
2. Fine metallic gratings, which transmit all kinds of heat
—
_ ——
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 15
in a proportion probably exactly that of the areas of their inter-
stices.
3. Thread gratings.
4. Most crystalline bodies in a state of powder, in which case
they approximate to a condition of opacity for heat.
Ill. The following substances, in addition to those before
known, transmit most heat of high temperature or high refran-
gibility, analogous to violet light :—
1. Several pure metallic powders. 2. Rock salt, in powder,
and many other powders. 3. Animal membrane.
IV. Heat of low temperature is most regularly reflected at
imperfectly polished surfaces. It is also, as has been shown
above, most regularly transmitted. These facts are in them-
selves very remarkable, and especially so with reference to the
theory of heat, and its analogies to that of light, particularly
with respect to absorption. Some of these considerations, which
bear on the undulatory doctrine, are noticed by the author in
24,
: The curious question relative to the analogies of the action
of gratings, &c., to the parallel cases in the interference of
light, has been recently illustrated by some mathematical in-
vestigations by Professor Kelland ; and the author concludes his
memoir with some highly ingenious and interesting suggestions
for further inquiry bearing on these topics.
Radiation of Heat : Hudson.
At the meeting of the British Association, 1835, Dr. Hudson,
of Dublin, communicated some researches on radiant heat, of
which notices appear in the Report of that Meeting (p.163, and
Proceedings of Sections, p.9.). A paper by the same author on
the subject is printed also in the London and Edinburgh Jour-
nal of Science, vol. viii. p. 109.
In the paper last mentioned, besides making some critical re-
marks on the results of Melloni and others, the author describes
a very simple and effective mode of arranging the apparatus for
experiments on diathermancy with the thermo-multiplier, so as
completely to exclude the influence of secondary radiation. The
source of heat is a canister of hot water, which can be so placed
in two different positions that it is exactly at the same distance,
and presents the same surface ; but in one case the pile receives
the heat both direct and secondary; in the other only the se-
condary, derived from the heating of the screen.
In his communication to the British Association the same
author examines principally certain questions bearing on the
supposed radiation of cold, and the theory of Leslie. These
16 REPORT—1840.
were performed by a differential thermometer, and a concave
reflector, with a hollow back, so that the mirror itself could be
heated to any required point, by filling the hollow with hot
water. The source of heat was a canister of water, with one
surface varnished, another metallic.
The main results were as follows :—
1. The mirror being at the temperature of the air, and the
canister cooled below it, the varnished side produced a greater
cooling effect on the focal bulb than the plain, in the same ratio
as that in which it produced a greater heating effect when the
canister was heated whove the air.
2. The mirror being heated to 200° Fahrenheit, and the ca-
nister at the temperature of the air, both bulbs were so placed as
to be equally affected by the heat of the mirror; when the ca-
nister displayed a cooling effect, the varnished side being the
most efficacious.
3. Again, with the same conditions, except that the canister
was heated 10° or 12° above the air, it was placed at different
distances ; at near distances it showed a cooling effect ; at a cer-
tain point this ceased, and beyond it, it began to produce a slight
heating effect.
4, Some attempts were made to try the effects while the bulb
was kept cool by evaporation; the canister being also cooled
below the air, the cooling of the bulb was increased beyond
what took place when the canister was at the temperature of
the air. These experiments were confessedly imperfect, from
the difficulty of regulating the evaporation.
The author considers them as favourable to the theory of the
radiation of cold; he also refers to them as in some degree con=
firmatory of Leslie’s view of pulsation.
The most remarkable result is that of Case 2; it seems to
prove that a mirror, when heated, will still reflect rays of heat,
thrown upon it from a source of much lower temperature.
The results are viewed by the author as supporting the theory
of the radiation of cold. I believe the doctrines of that theory
may in all cases be equally well expressed in other language, in
conformity with the view to which I referred in my former re-
port, p. 262.
Dr. Hudson has speculated with much ingenuity on another
point of great interest, the different radiating powers of different
surfaces. Understanding by the surface a certain physical
thickness, he conceives the radiating power to depend on the
capacity for heat of the substance of the lamina, which seems
perfectly conformable to the general law of the equilibrium of
temperature.
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 17
Influence of surfuce and colour on Radiation : Stark and Bache.
The influence of the colour of a surface on its powers for
absorbing and radiating heat, is a question which has long
attracted notice, and has often been involved in no small con-
fusion, from false analogies. The sun’s rays, and, in general,
what is called luminous heat, are absorbed by surfaces (ceteris
paribus) in proportion to the darkness of their colours ; but it
has been too hastily assumed that the same would hold good
with non-luminous heat, and still more groundlessly, that the
colour would influence the rudiating power of the surface ; the
texture of the surface, however, is known to exert a powerful
influence. These distinctions are fully insisted on in my former
report.
Since that period, however, the subject has been taken up by
Dr. Stark, who, in an elaborate paper in the Phil. Trans. for
1833, details a number of ingenious experiments, which he con-
ceives support the doctrine of the influence of colour, not only on
the absorption of dark heat, but even on odours, miasma, &c.
The object of the present report is not controversial ; I will
therefore merely state, that I discussed in detail Dr. Stark’s
reasonings, in a paper published in the Edinburgh New Philo-
sophical Journal, October, 1834, where, though allowing the
value and accuracy of the experiments, I have expressed my
objections to the inferences made from them.
It appears in general that the texture and nature of the sur-
face most unquestionably exert a great influence. Now, where-
ever there is a difference in the colour, there must be either a
difference in the mechanical structure of the surface, or some
new matter added or abstracted. When therefore we consider
the changes which thus occur, we cannot infer that the effect
is not owing to these instead of to colour as such. The ques-
tion, however, is a highly curious one, and worthy the most
accurate investigation.
Having in some measure called attention to it in my former
report, it was with no small gratification that I found the sub-
ject had excited interest not only in this country, but also in
America ; and to Professor Bache (since appointed principal of
Girard College) we owe by far the most extensive and valuable
series of experiments on this important but difficult point of
inquiry : they are given at length in the Journal of the Franklin
Institute, November, 1835.
The notices of these experiments which had been pub-
lished in this country, not appearing to convey adequate
notions of their nature or value, I endeavoured to bring them
VOL. 1x. 1840. Cc
18 REPORT—1840.
more prominently forward by some remarks in the Physical
Section of the British Association at Liverpool in 1837*. In my
former report I had thrown out some suggestions both as to the
want of such a series of experiments, and as to the fundamental
difficulty arising from the variety of causes which must influence
the results; but more especially the differences of thickness
in the coatings, which in the ordinary mode of operating could
not be estimated, yet must greatly modify the effects.
With reference to the necessity of equalizing the coatings,
Mr. Bache refers to an important observation of Leslie, viz.
that radiation takes place not merely from the actual surface,
but from a certain depth, or lamina of the surface, the thickness
of which is quite appreciable in good radiators, and differs for
different substances.
Proceeding upon this fact, the author justly observes, that
** the radiating powers of substances would not be rightly com-
pared by equalizing their thicknesses upona given surface, nor
by equalizing their weight; but by ascertaining for each sub-
stance that thickness beyond which radiation does not take
place.”
It is then on the original application of this fundamental
idea that his whole series of experiments is conducted.
Upon this principle the first object was to obtain some data as
to thicknesses of different pigments necessary to be employed.
The method adopted throughout was to employ tin cylinders
of the same size, filled with hot water, and having thermome-
ters inserted through a hole in the top; while their surfaces
were coated with the different substances under trial. The ra-
diation was estimated by the observed rates of cooling.
To find the critical thickness of the coating just spoken of,
the time of cooling a certain number of degrees was accurately
observed, first with a thin coating, then with an additional
layer of the pigment, and so on, until it was found that addi-
tional thickness did not increase the rate of radiation, but
began to diminish it; thus each coating was adjusted precisely
to that thickness at which it produced its maximum effect.
Every precaution to ensure accuracy appears to have been most
diligently taken, and several series of preliminary experiments
are recorded for the purpose of ascertaining the limits within
which the precision of the results may be relied on. A standard
cylinder, coated with aurum musivum (as being found not
liable to tarnish or alteration), was used inall the experiments,
and the effect of each coating compared with this under similar
circumstances.
* See Report, 1837. Sectional Proccedings, p. 20.
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 19
The results of different sets of experiments are given in the
tabular form, and apply to coatings of a great variety of sub-
stances differing in their chemical nature, as well as in rough-
ness, texture and colour. The following table is extracted as
fully exhibiting the general result of all the experiments; the
substances being arranged in the order of their radiating powers,
beginning with the highest.
Nature of Coating. Colour. Surface.
Litmus blue. Blue.
Prussian blue. Blue. Rough.
Ammon. sulphate Greenish blue Rough
of copper. : SM
Peroxide of manga- Brothiat black. ie ot shining, but
nese. uniform,
India ink. Black. Not smooth.
‘ @Streaked:
Bichromate of potash. Brown. si thn chteales
India ink. Black. Smooth.
Alkanet. Crimson. Not shining, bu
uniform.
Carb. of lead in oil White. Smooth, not
of lavender. shining.
Sulphuret of lead. Black.
Alkanet blue. Blue.
Carb. magnesia. White. Rough.
Carb. lead in gum. White. Smooth.
Carb. of lime. Dingy white. Medium.
Vermilion. Red. Smooth.
Sulph. baryta. White bluish. Rough.
Golden sulphuret of B Smooth, in
é rown.
antimony. streaks.
Indigo. Blue. Smooth.
-Cochineal. Crimson. Smooth.
Red lead. Orange. Smooth.
Sulph. baryta. White. _Medium.
‘ Plumbago. Black. Bre ven tp
; but uniform.
-Chrom. lead. Yellow. Smooth,
‘ . Smooth, in
Gamboge. Olive green. ays Se
_Bisulphuret of tin. Yellow. Smooth.
c2-
20 REPORT— 1840.
It thus distinctly appears, that through so extensive and
varied a range of differences in the state of the radiating sur-
face, no determinate relation subsists between the radiating
power, end either darkness of colowr, or any other distinctive
character of the coating employed; not even its roughness or
smoothness.
Repulsive Power of Heat: Powell.
Closely connected with the radiation of heat is its property of
exerting or exciting a repulsive force between particles or masses
of matter at small though sensible distances.
Such a property was first announced by Libri in 1824; and
was further examined by Fresnel (dun. de Chim., xxix. 57.
107.) and Saigey (Bull. Meth., xi. 167.), but their results seem
to have been open to some doubt.
A new interest attached to the subject from the reference
made to this property by Prof. Forbes (in a paper read to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, March,1833, and since published
in their Transactions, vol. xii.) in explanation of certain vibra-
tions of heated metals first observed by Mr. Trevelyan.
A paper from me was read to the Royal Society, June 19,1834,
and printed in the Philosophical Transactions, 1834, Part II.
containing an account of experiments on a different principle
from any of the preceding, which appeared to furnish a deci-
sive proof of the fact of repulsion.
The essential principle is the employment of the colours of
thin plates, as a measure of the separation produced between two
surfaces, by the repulsive action of heat applied to one of them.
I also made observations on several particulars attending the
mode of action, both in that paper, and in a communication to
the British Association at the Edinburgh meeting*.
Formation of Ice: Farquharson.
An interesting case, in which the principles of the theory of
radiant heat are related to the explanation of natural phenomena,
occurs in the instance of the formation of ice exclusively at the
surface of still water, but occasionally at the bottom of running
water. This point excited attention some years ago, and was par-
tially discussed by Mr. Knight in the Philosophical Transactions,
1816. Mr. MacKeevor and Mr. Kisdale subsequently investi-
gated the theory, and M. Arago gave a discussion of the whole
question in the Annuaire, 1833, and in the Edinburgh New Phi-
losophical Journal, vol. xv. p. 128 ; lastly, a highly curious paper
appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1835, Part II.
* See Report, 1834, p. 549, and Dr. Thomson’s Records of Science.
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. aM
© On the ice formed under peculiar circumstances at the bottom
of running water’, by the Rev. J. Farquharson, F.R.S. of Al-
ford, Aberdeenshire. In this paper the author details various
new and highly interesting particulars as to the mode of the
formation of the spongy masses of spiculz of ice at the bottom
of certain rivers in his neighbourhood, and the peculiar cir-
cumstances under which alone it is formed. He examines acutely
the several explanations which have been suggested, which he
shows are all insufficient to explain the whole of the circum -
stances, and then proceeds to suggest his own theory, which is
grounded essentially on the assumption that the radiation of
heat from substances at the bottom goes on through the water ;
and partly also on the supposed greater radiation from dark-
coloured surfaces. Neither of these assumptions, it appears to
me, are admissible ; the former especially is directly at variance
with the experiments of Melloni. Some suggestions at least
towards a theory not open to these objections, are given by an
anonymous writer in the Magazine of Popular Science, vol. i.
p- 157.
Division [I].—Pouarizep HEAT.
Polarization of Heat: Forbes.
The original statement by Berard, of the polarization of heat
by reflexion, and the attempts to verify it, are mentioned in my
former report*. In 1833, Melloni tried to repeat the experiment
with tourmalines, but unsuccessfully+.
In 1834, Nobili attempted it by reflexion, employing the
thermo-multiplier, but without success t. The disbelief in such
aresult, at least with dark heat, seems now to have prevailed
generally. Mrs. Somerville, in the second edition of her “‘ Con-
nexion of the Sciences ’’ (in 1833), speaks of it as altogether
without experimental proof.
Prof. Forbes took up the inquiry in November, 1834; and in
his first memoir, already referred to in Section 2, announced his
complete success, after having in the first instance failed from
ee influence of secondary radiation, which disguised the real
effect.
(1.) He proved distinctly the stoppage of a considerable pro-
portion of heat when the tourmalines were crossed, not only
with a lamp, but with brass heated below luminosity.
(2.) In the third section of the same memoir, he details his
* British Association Report, vol. i. pp. 262. 276.
+ Second Memoir, dnn.de Chim. 55. Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part I,
p. 59. t Biblioth. Univ., Sept. 1834.
22 REPORT—1840.,
researches on the polarization of heat by refraction and re-
flexion. In the former he employed piles of mica, and
through these, found even dark heat very freely transmitted at
the polarizing angle. Without (in this stage of the inquiry)
aiming at quantitative results, he found in general that the pro-
portion of heat polarized varied with the source in the following
order, begining with the highest :—
Argand lamp.
Locatelli lamp.
Spirit lamp.
Incandescent platina.
Hot brass, about 700° Fahrenheit.
Mercury, 500° in crucible.
Water under 200°.
(3.) The polarization of heat by reflexion at the surface of a
pile of plates of mica was also established; and with regard to
the reflexion from glass, Prof. Forbes has also remarked,that
from the known proportions of heat reflected, the quantity,
even at the maximum which would reach the thermoscope after
two reflexions, would be so extremely small, that no difference
of effect in the two rectangular positions could really have been
perceptible in the form of the experiment adopted by Berard.
(4.) In the fourth section the author enters on the modifications
which polarized heat undergoes by the intervention of crystal-
lized plates between the polarizing and analysing parts of the
apparatus ; an inquiry suggested by the obvious analogy in the
case of light. In the crossed position, when polarized heat is
stopped (if the analogy hold good), the intervention of a plate
of double refracting crystal would restore the effect. This
apparently paradoxical result was fully verified with plates of
mica, and subsequently with selenite and other substances, not
only in the case of luminous sources, but even with water be-
low the boiling temperature. Of 157 experiments with three
different mica plates, only one gave a neutral and one a negative
result. Of these 157, 92 were made with heat below luminosity.
The apparent paradox was increased by the circumstance
that a thin plate of mica which “‘ depolarized’ but feebly
seemed to stop more heat than a thick plate which depolarized
more completely.
The main fact was ascertained for the first time on Decem-
ber 16, 1834. The Professor justly censures the use of the
term “‘ depolarize,”’ and suggests ‘‘ dipolarize”’ as preferable.
(5.) From the result thus unequivocally established, a train
of highly curious consequences follow. We have hence, as
direct corollaries, the dowble refraction of the rays of heat by
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 293
the mica, and their interference according to the same laws as
those of light. Hence also follow the constancy of the sum
of the intensities of the rays in the rectangular positions, or
their complementary character, agreeably to the formulas of
Fresnel for light. This again involves their retardation, ac-
cording to the well-known principles of the undulatory theory ;
and hence from Fresnel’s formulas we are assured theoretically
of the existence of circular and elliptic polarization in the rays
of heat, under the appropriate conditions: we have thus also
the means of deducing the length of a wave of heat.
The whole of this most important series of investigations
was completed between November 1834 and January 1835, and
their originality and priority are thus placed beyond dispute.
The main practical improvement (which led to all the rest of
the discoveries) was the employment cf the piles of mica for
polarizing the heat. In the summer of 1835, Prof. Forbes was
at Paris; and finding both M. Biot and M. Melloni sceptical
as to his results, he exhibited them with mica piles, which he
himself prepared on the occasion, and which he left in M. Mel-
loni’s hands.
In these experiments the utmost care was taken to guard
against all the sources of fallacy from secondary radiation, &c. ;
but as Prof. Forbes observed, these always tended to disguise
and not to exaggerate the results. One consideration of this
kind arising from the mere mathematical question of the dif-
ferent amount of heat which might be radiated from one pile to
the other in the two rectangular positions (regarded merely as
a mathematical problem), was proposed by myself at the Dublin
meeting of the British Association, 1835, but was completely
shown to be inapplicable as a practical objection by Prof.Forbes,
in a short paper in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Sci-
ence, November, 1835 ; and further by direct experiment de-
scribed in the same Journal for March, 1836.
Circular and Elliptical Polarization of Heat: Forbes.
On the Ist of Feb. 1836, Prof. Forbes announced to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, that he had that day succeeded in esta-
blishing the circular polarization of heat, even when unaccom-
panied by light, by direct experiment. It has been already
noticed, that theoretically this would follow from the laws of
depolarization. But in the present instance, Prof. Forbes, fol-
lowing up the analogies of Fresnel with regard to the internal
reflexion of light, found the very same thing verified with heat
by similar internal reflexion in a rhomb of rock salt, where the
24 REPORT—18-0.
plane of reflexion is inclined 45° to the plane of primitive
polarization.
A short notice of this discovery appears in a paper by the
author, in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science,
March, 1836, in which he also states the inference from the
same considerations, that the waves are of the same kind as
those of light, viz. formed by transverse vibrations.
In a paper reported in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, March 21, 1836, and printed along with the
second series of Prof. Forbes’s Researches in the London and
Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. xii., that philosopher de-
scribes some additional results which he has obtained respect-
ing the polarization of heat. These are briefly as follows :—
1st. Heat polarized in any plane, and then reflected from the
surface of a refracting medium, changes its plane of polariza-
tion in a manner similar to what obtains in light ; that is, the
plane is on one side of the plane of reflexion up to the maxi-~
mum polarizing angle, and on the other side after passing that
limit. This mode of determining the polarizing angle offers
some advantages over the more direct methods.
2ndly. Metals polarize heat very feebly by reflexion. Yet
the effect is perceptible, and increases, through a considerable
range of incidences, but it does not seem to attain a maxi-
mum; in this respect it seems to agree with what Sir D.
Brewster has remarked in light, viz. that the maximum is
greatest for the least refrangible rays, heat being less refrangible
than light.
3rdly. Heat polarized in a plane inclined 45° to the plane of
reflexion at silver, has its nature changed, as in light, and pre-
sents the conditions of elliptic polarization, though the ellipse
is much more elongated.
4thly. Two reflexions from silver increase the polarizing
effect of metals, and an increased tendency to circular polariza-
tion under the conditions of the last case. The effect increases
with the obliquity of incidence.
All these results have been verified in the case of obscure as
well as luminous sources of heat.
On the 15th Feb. 1836, the Keith prize was awarded to
Prof. Forbes by the Royal Society of Edinburgh; the Vice-
President, Dr. Hope, stating, in the course of a most able
address delivered on the occasion, that several members of the
council, as well as himself, had personally witnessed the satis-
factory verification of the main facts announced, before the
medal was adjudged.
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 25
Polarization of Heat from different sources: Melloni.
M. Melloni’s first memoir ‘ On the Polarization of Heat,”’ was
read to the Academy of Sciences in Jan. 1836; it appears in
the Ann. de Chim. |xi. April, 1836 ; and is translated in Tay-
lor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part II. p. 325.
The author commences with a fair review of the previous in-
vestigations on the subject, admitting Prof. Forbes’s discovery,
but remarking the very small amount of the effect in the case
of obscure heat.
He adopts the supposition, that “‘ the different temperatures
of the calorific rays are to radiant heat what the different
colours of the luminous rays are to light.’’ The latter, he
observes, are all equally polarizable, and thus he is led to regard
the difference of polarizability in the rays of heat as rather
apparent than real. His object then, in this memoir, is to
examine the question of the reality of the polarization of heat,
and of the equality of the effect in different sorts of heat.
After some considerations on the general nature of the appa-
ratus to be employed, and overcoming the difficulty arising
from the small total intensity of the rays, by concentrating them
by means of a rock-salt lens, he proceeds to detail his several
series of experiments, the results of which he gives in the
form of tables :—
Table I. gives the different indices of polarization obtained
with nine sorts of tourmalines of different colour, the source of
heat being a locatelli lamp.
He then tried the experiment, taking that pair of tourmalines
which gave the greatest effect in the last set, with plates of
various substances interposed between the lamp and the appa-
ratus. Of these, opake black glass rendered the effect nearly
insensible ; other solids and liquids of various degrees of trans-
parency produced effects of different magnitude.
In Table II. these results are registered, and the properties of
the media, in this respect, were found to follow the same pro-
portion as their diathermancy.
The author considers the difference of the tourmalines in this
respect as referrible to the same cause.
Table III. gives similar results with another pair of tourma-
lines, in which case the proportions are found to differ.
In Table IV. are given the indices of polarization with four
different pairs of tourmalines, each employed with different
sources of heat; viz. the locatelli lamp, argand lamp, incan-
descent platina, and copper at 400°. The effect in the latter
Case was very small.
26 REPORT—1 840.
In recapitulating his views, the author refers to the wnequal
absorption of the two pencils in different tourmalines, as cau-
sing the differences observed.
A further paper by the same author, on Tourmaline, &c., in
the dnn. de Chim., April, 1836, displays much ingenuity, but
nothing of peculiar novelty or fundamental importance.
From the Comptes Rendus, 1836, i. 194, it appears, that
on the 15th Feb. 1836, M. Arago communicated to the Aca-
demy of Sciences a letter from Prof. Forbes, announcing his
discovery of the circular polarization of heat of the rock-salt
rhomb.
At the next meeting of the same body (Feb. 22), MM. Biot
and Melloni stated, that in following up Prof. Forbes’s experi-
ment, they had found that quartz possessed the same “‘rotative”’
quality for heat as for light.
Dr. Thomson, in the second edition of his Treatise on Heat,
&c. (1840), while giving an outline of the discoveries of Forbes
and Melloni, has by no means clearly distinguished the share
borne by each of those philosophers in the investigation. In
particular, with respect to the fact of polarization, he has not
given Prof. Forbes the credit so unquestionably due to him for
the priority of the discovery. He observes (p. 139), ‘ In the
earlier experiments of Melloni, he did not find that the rays of
heat were polarized when passed through the tourmaline. But
he afterwards found that this conclusion was hasty, and that
the tourmaline polarizes heat as well as light. The truth of
this statement is shown very clearly by Prof. Forbes. They
also polarized heat by plates of mica, and also by reflexion,”’ &c.
These expressions certainly assign the priority to Melloni, as
well as an equal share in the subsequent results ; both of which
we have seen are greatly at variance with the truth.
Further Researches: Forbes.
Prof. Forbes’s second series of Researches on Heat was read
to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, May 2, 1836, and printed
both in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xiii., and in the London
and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. xii. 1838.
The author remarks at the outset, that in his former memoir
he had confined himself to the establishment of the general
facts of the polarization and dipolarization of heat, without pre-
tending to accurate quantitative results ; he now proceeds, there-
fore, to a more detailed investigation of the subject, with a view
to more precise numerical determinations.
The first section relates to the methods of observation em-
ployed, and the examination of the values of the degrees of the
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 27
galvanometer, which, for the most part, do not indicate equal
increments of force. Two tables are given. By the first, the
statical deviations of the needle are reduced, so as to be mea-
sures of the force producing them; by the second, the dynami-
cal effect, or arc, moved over by the initial disturbing action, is
reduced to the final or statical effect, and thence to the true
measure of heat. Several peculiarities attendant on the use of
the galvanometer are likewise discussed.
In section 2, the observations formerly published on the
polarizing action of tourmaline are confirmed, including the
case where heat, entirely unaccompanied by light, was em-
ployed. In this case, the author allows, the greatest difficulty
was to be encountered.
The third section treats of the laws of the polarization of
heat by refraction or transmission. Prof. Forbes expressly
observes, that his former results were not held out as numeri-
cally precise ; and with reference to Melloni’s conclusion, “ that
all kinds of heat are equally polarizable at the same incidence,”
he confirms his former view of the incorrectness of this infer-
ence by a great number of experiments, which show that the
heat from non-luminous sources is less polarizable by a given
plate of mica, at a given angle of incidence, than that accom-
panied by light.
These experiments were performed with plates of mica, pre-
pared in a way discovered by himself, to which reference is
made (though without describing the process), in a paper before
quoted in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March,
1836. The method consists in applying sudden heat to a thick
plate of mica, which splits into an infinity of extremely thin
films, so thin as to be incapable of retaining heat; these form
polarizing piles of great energy. With one pair of such plates
the author obtained the following per centages of heat stopped,
when the planes of refraction of the two plates were in the
rectangular position :-—
Source of Heat. Rays out of 100 Polarized.
Parma VOM | Fil) he) ps.) me - (2to 74
Incandescent platina . . . . . . 72
Brass about 700° . . . Baresi
Do. with glass screen. . . . . . 72
Mercury in crucible at 410° . . . 48
Bae, SAME oe) toy eaves rience ny A
These observations were repeatedly made, and verified by
others with other pairs of plates. The results agree with the
analogy of light ; those lowest in the scale being the cases of
the least refrangible rays.
28 REPORT—1840.
In the fourth section the law of polarization by reflexion is
discussed. A number of reflecting surfaces were tried, and
split mica was preferred. The amount of polarization by re-
flexion at a given angle, is shown to vary with the source of
heat ; and it is probable that the kinds of heat do not rank in
the same order when the angle is changed. This is the case
with light. The change of the plane of polarization by subse-
quent reflexion, is similar to that which occurs when light is
used.
The circular polarization of heat by total internal reflexion,
is discussed in the fifth section. This, as before remarked, is
a phanomenon really produced in the experiments on dipolari-
zation, if the mica be of a suitable thickness. The direct ex-
periment with rhombs of rock salt, has been already mentioned
also. The author here gives a detailed account of them, and .
the laws of the phenomena deducible, in which the precise
analogy with those of light is preserved.
Equal Polarizability of Heat from different sources :
Melloni.
Melloni’s second memoir on the Polarization of Heat appears
to be founded on the second part of his communication to the
Royal Academy of Sciences in January, 1836. It is printed in
the Ann. de Chim. lxv. May, 1837, and the translation in Tay-
lor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part VI.
The principal points of these extensive researches may be
reduced to the following heads :—
(1.) Referring to Prof. Forbes’s Researches, first series, Mel-
loni. contends that the differences of polarizability in the heat
from different sources there exhibited, are in fact due to differ-
ences of secondary radiation from the heating of the mica piles,
and subsequently appeals to Forbes’s second series, in which he
conceives the approach to equality is much nearer, as this
source of error was more avoided.
At lower temperatures of the source, he observes, that mica _
transmits less heat in proportion, and therefore absorbs more :
thus the secondary radiation is greater, and the apparent dif-
ference in the two positions, or index of polarization, is less.
(2.) He remarks, that Prof. Forbes had found the heat from a
dark source, after transmission through glass, to become as po-
larizable as that from incandescent platina; whereas he considers
that the glass plate absorbed the greater part of those rays
which otherwise would have heated the piles, and that thus the
apparent polarization was increased.
(3.) Melloni describes his apparatus, and the precautions for
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 29
avoiding secondary radiation, &c., employing piles of split
mica, and throwing parallel rays on them by means of a rock-
salt lens, having its principal focus at the source of heat.
He then enters upon the details of his results, in several
series, with piles of different numbers of lamine, and at dif-
ferent inclinations to the axis (the source of heat being a lamp),
giving in each case the calorific transmissions in the rectangular
positions, or proportions of heat polarized. These are com-
prised in a series of eight tables, from which the author derives
the following conclusions :—
I. The proportion of heat polarized increases as the inclina-
tion of the piles is diminished.
II. It attains a maximum at a certain inclination.
III. This inclination is greater as the number of lamine is
increased.
He points out the close agreement of these results with the
phenomena of light according to Brewster and Biot.
(4.) The author pursues a further series of experiments on
polarization by reflexion, and arrives at the conclusion that the
angle of complete polarization by refiexion is very nearly the
same for light and for heat.
(5.) If any diathermanous substance be interposed between
the luminous source and the piles, the index of polarization
does not vary with the substance employed.
This, he contends, proves that the nature of the heat does
not alter its polarizability.
But also from direct experiment with the radiations from
different sources, he makes the same inference, employing, in-
stead of a lamp, incandescent platina, metal heated to 400°, or
boiling water, with the same results of uniform polarizability.
He maintains that the difference of polarizability by refrac-
tion, arising from the different refrangibility of the rays of heat,
is too minute to be sensible.
And for all experiments on obscure heat he proposes to sub-
stitute as the source a black glass heated by flame.
(6.) On the depolarization he refers to Forbes’s experiments, in
which he contends the difference in the rectangular position is
very small, but nearly equal with different sources.
He repeats the experiment, with black glass interposed, and
finds the effects much greater, and nearly equal in the different
cases.
He endeavours to explain Forbes’s result of the difference
with different sources, by secondary radiation.
Further, by the same method (of interposing a black glass),
he finds the equal depolarizability of every kind of heat.
30 REPORT—1840.
In an attempt to pursue the analogy of the tints of depolar-
ized light, he acknowledges a failure, and thence considers the
interference of calorific rays as not yet proved.
Upon these investigations the following remarks may be
offered :—
Under the first head, it should be recollected that Prof.
Forbes’s first memoir, was avowedly only directed to ascertain
general facts, not numerical values; while, with regard to the
more precise results of the second memoir, it would appear from
the details there given, that the secondary radiation could not
affect the results. The screen between the source and the piles
was removed only during the few seconds required for observing
the first or impulsive arc of vibration, the time of which was
wholly insufficient for the conduction of heat; besides, such an
effect was disproved by direct experiment, as mentioned above
(p. 23).
3 Of the second point, we shall presently have to notice a com-
plete investigation by Prof. Forbes.
As to the third, with this construction, the heat absorbed by
the mica was very trifling; but by the more improved process
since used by Prof. Forbes, (p. 27), we have seen this source of
error is wholly got rid of. The employment of a pencil of
parallel rays does not seem, upon consideration, materially to
increase the intensity.
The fourth point is no more than what had been already
established by Prof. Forbes.
With respect to the fifth head (including the most important
part of these researches), it must be observed, that the differ-
ences in the nature of the heat obtained by the intervention of
diathermanous substances, are not the same as those between heat
from luminous and dark sources. And further, in the experi-
ments mentioned with radiations from different sources, no
numerical results are stated. On this point we shall presently
notice some more detailed researches of Prof. Forbes.
The sixth point, on the subject of depolarization, is confess-
edly one of the most delicate in the whole inquiry; but for the
same reasons as before, the effect of secondary radiation cannot
be referred to as capable of having produced the differences
observed.
Unequal Polarizability of Heat from different sources :
Forbes.
Prof. Forbes’s third series of Researches of Heat appears in
vol. xiv. of the Edinburgh Transactions, having been read before
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 16, 1838. It is also
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. St
printed in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science,
vol. xiii.
In the first section the author discusses the variable polariza-
bility of the different kinds of heat. The establishment of this
fact was his object in one portion of his second memoir. But
these investigations having been objected to by some, and oppo-
site results (as we have seen) obtained by Melloni, the author
now repeated the inquiry with every precaution. He rendered
‘the rays parallel by a rock-salt lens, as Melloni had done, and
operated at a sufficient distance from the pile: still the differ-
ences in the rectangular positions, when different sorts of heat
were employed, were as unequal as formerly. -
Having varied the experiments in every possible way, he still
comes to the same conclusion as before, and gives the following
results :—
Source of Heat. Rays out of 100 Polarized.
PERL LAD, . 5... gieeloe st» “marittn Mie dig
PEO 1 eee ean Bey 5% 7 be Wy f
Incandescent platina . Se ee Ge tO. 16
—_—_———. with glass screen 80 to 82
Weledhel hamelres tind, oo ¢ sale be ri7S
RCE CU ce nw sn es eS
Do. with mica screen mG? Al. ph. 6:SO
Mercury in crucible at 450° . . . 48
PROMI WERREM A Teh che) lias (fel 44
Melloni’s opposite result of apparent uniform polarizability,
the author then shows must necessarily arise from the use of
mica piles, consisting of a number of distinct plates super-
posed. Such a thickness of mica modifies heat from dark
sources in such a way as to give the portion which it trans-
mits the same character as to polarizability as luminous heat.
Whereas Mr. Forbes’s results were obtained by the use of mica
split by heat (as before described), which includes so many sur-
faces within a very small thickness, that the polarized heat is
comparatively unaltered in its character. He shows directly,
that these piles transmit heat from a lamp sifted by glass, and
from brass at 700°, in nearly equal proportions, while mica
016 inch thick transmits five times less of the latter than of
the former.
The second section relates to the dipolarization of heat.
Pursuing the methods given in the first series, the author ascer-
tained the proportion of heat dipolarized by five different thick-
hesses of mica. From the numerical results thus obtained, he
deduces the value of the expression in Fresnel’s formula, for
32 REPORT—1840.
the retardation divided by the wave-length, either of which
quantities being assumed, the other becomes known.
In pursuing this calculation, the author finds, that if the
numerator (or difference of paths) be assumed to be the same
as in light, the length of a wave of heat would result three
times as great as that for red light.
Upon this he is led into some important considerations bear-
ing on the theory of undulations as applicable to heat.
Almost exactly similar numerical results were obtained for
the heat from an argand lamp, from incandescent platina, and
from brass heated to 700°.
At the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society of London,
Nov. 30, 1838, the Rumford Medal was adjudged to Prof. Forbes,
“ for his discoveries and investigations of the polarization and
double refraction of heat.’’ And in the report of the council
announcing the award, a brief but appropriate testimony is
given to the value of these researches.
Intensity of Reflected Heat: Forbes.
On March 18, 1839, Prof. Forbes communicated some re-
marks to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the Intensity of
Reflected Light and Heat.
The theoretical law for the intensity of reflected light, ori-
ginally proposed by Fresnel, has been confirmed on quite differ-
ent grounds by the mathematical investigations of Mr. Green
and Prof. Kelland. Yet scarcely any attempt has been made
toward its verification by direct experiment, except in the cri-
tical cases for polarized light originally assumed as the basis of —
the formula, and a few intermediate photometrical determina-
tions by M. Arago. The uncertainty attending all photometry,
led Prof. Forbes to conceive (about the end of 1837) that per-
haps some confirmation might be obtained by ascertaining the
law which prevails with respect to the intensities of heat in the
corresponding cases ; an analogy which seemed extremely pro-
bable from the facts already ascertained, relative to the change
of polarization, &c., before noticed.
In December, 1837, he made some first attempts, which were
not altogether satisfactory. In the following winter he resumed
the subject, and by a suitable apparatus for measuring the angles
of incidence, he endeavoured to measure the intensity of heat
reflected from surfaces of glass, steel and silver ; and though the
results can hardly be yet considered completely accurate, yet in
the case of glass the approximation to Fresnel’s law is closer
than any as yet exhibited by photometrical observations : while
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 38
the observations accord much better with the law of Fresnel
than with that deduced by Mr. Potter. In the instance of me-
tals, Prof. Forbes considers Mr. Potter’s discovery verified, that
the reflexion is less intense at higher angles of incidence : he has
not yet been able to verify Prof. Maccullagh’s ference, that it
has a minimum before reaching 90°; and lastly, he observes that
the quantity of heat reflected from metals is so much greater
than Mr. Potter’s estimate for light, as to lead him to suspect
that all that gentleman’s photometric ratios are too small; this
would nearly account for their deviations from Fresnel’s law.
He has also made some attempts for verifying that law by ob~
servations on heat polarized in opposite planes.
Mr. Potter, it is well known, mainly founds his objections to
the undulatory theory on the discrepancy between Fresnel’s law
for the intensities of reflected light and his own photometrical
determinations. He has therefore naturally been led into some
controversial remarks on Prof. Forbes’s results in a paper in the
London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, to which Prof.
Forbes has replied.
Considering that the whole inquiry is as yet confessedly in
an incomplete state, any further observations upon it in this
place would be premature.
Conclusion.
In thus reviewing the different points of inquiry which have
been of late pursued relative to radiant heat, and the several
important discoveries with which that research has been re-
warded, I have for the most part preserved, under each head, the
chronological order.
The progress of discovery is here, I trust, too clearly marked
to allow any real ground for these questions as to priority and
originality, which have given rise to so much unhappy contro-
versy between rival philosophers; or to the less open, but
equally lamentable manifestations of jealousy, in ambiguous ex-
pressions of claims, into which men of science have been some-
times betrayed. The dispassionate reviewer of the history of dis-
covery at once best avoids all such controversial topics, and ful-
fils the demands of critical justice, by a simple but careful
statement of facts.
In the present instance it appears to me that the share of cre-
dit due to the distinguished parties respectively, who have co-
operated to introduce the discoveries above reported, is sufli-
ciently well-marked, and certainly ample enough in each in-
stance to confer the highest celebrity on those who have borne
the chief portion of the labour.
VOL, 1x. 1840. D
34 REPORT—1840.
To the continental philosophers belongs the first invention of
the instrument, without whose aid none of these investigations
could have been accomplished ; while all the earliest and most im-
portant discoveries of the varying diathermancy of substances ;
the knowledge of the singular constitution of rock-salt, (which
has placed a new instrument in the hands of the experi-
menter) ; and the capital fact, disclosed by means of it, the 7e-
fraction of heat from dark sources; together with the very sin-
gular phenomena of the changes in the nature of heat, by trans-
mission through certain substances; the remarkable effect of
smoked rock salt; the circularly polarizing power of quartz for
heat;—all these important discoveries (besides others of minor
value) are imperishably associated with the name of Melloni.
Our own country as fairly and incontestably boasts, besides im-
provements in the apparatus and methods, many important re-
sults connected with the transmission of heat, accurate measures
of its refraction, together with some indication of phenomena
analogous to those of diffraction. In addition to these, the
sole and undisputed credit of first unequivocally establishing the
grand facts of the polarization of heat, even from non-luminous
sources, by transmission through mica, through tourmaline and
by reflexion ; together with the peculiar and invaluable property
of mica split by sudden heating (a fact holding a parallel rank
with that of the diathermancy of rock salt); the dipolarization
of beat; its consequent double refraction and interference ; its
circular and elliptic polarization; its length of wave, and the
production of that wave by transverse vibrations ; the confirma-
tion of the circular polarization by the rock-salt rhomb, and
the peculiar effects of metallic reflexion; these constitute the
unquestionable claims of Prof. Forbes.
On the main point in controversy between these two philoso-
phers, the equal or unequal polarizability of heat from different
sources, I have endeavoured to place the facts and arguments
clearly before the reader; but must confess my own conviction
to be in favour of the wneqgual ratio of polarizability in the radi-
ations from luminous and from obscure sources, while in some
instances the apparently opposite results seem distinctly traced
to known causes, and in others the equalization of the effects
appears to depend on some of those modifications which the in-
tervention of screens produces in the nature of the rays of heat.
The very remarkable class of phenomena just referred to, is
perhaps of all the recent discoveries that which seems most sin-
gular and anomalous : that the same ray should acquire an entire
change of property and nature by and in the act of simply pass-
ing through certain media, seems little in accordance with any
REPORT ON RADIANT HEAT. 35
conception we can form of such radiation. Is this, we may ask, a
real change of constitution, or is it a separation or analysis of
the ray into its components ?
I have elsewhere remarked, that the terms ‘* luminous” and
* dark’’ heat are of somewhat barbarous appearance; and the
objection is more than etymological, especially 'as' we now find
the luminosity of the source is not the essential characteristic
of the qualities of the rays. And again, in the compound radia-
tion from luminous sources, there is included a considerable por-
tion of “dark” heat as disclosed by its relation to surfaces in
absorption.
The relations of heat to swrfaces in absorption, and in the cor-
responding inverse effects of radiation, are among the most im-
portant portions of the subject ; and I have in consequence been
desirous to draw particular attention to the very valuable inves-
tigations of President Bache.
The properties which characterize the different species of heat
(as we have seen) have been most remarkably developed, and
principally studied, in the phenomena of transmission. A wide
field is open to the experimenter in connecting these properties
with those belonging to the conditions of surface which produce
the absorptive powers of bodies for different species of heat ;
and these again with those which mark the differences in con-
ductive power, and perhaps also capacity for heat.
With regard to the establishment of a theory of the nature
of radiant heat, we have seen that the hypothesis of undulations
certainly supplies a clue to a vast range of phenomena, especially
those connected with polarization.
The question of the identity of the heating and illuminating
radiations seems clearly negatived by many experiments, if we
mean it to apply in the sense of one physical agent. But if we
refer to the possibility of accounting for the different effects by
sets of undulations of the same etherial medium differing in
their wave-lengths, this probably presents fewer difficulties than
any hypothesis of peculiar heat.
We may perhaps suppose some other element besides the
wave-length to enter into the explanation: or while we find that
the heating effect is due to waves of greater length, it may also
be true that the intensity or accumulation of waves, which is
necessary for producing the sensation of light, follows a very
different and much higher ratio than that requisite for producing
heat ; and that this latter effect may be produced in the highest
intensity by longer waves of the same etherial medium, but not
sufficiently accumulated to impress our visual organs.
The difference in the polarizability of heat from different
D2
36 REPORT—1840.
sources is not explained by the slight difference of refrangibility ;
and Prof. Forbes is of opinion that we must in consequence
look for its solution to a mechanical theory of heat in some re-
spects at least different from that of light. It is even a ques-
tion of some difficulty, why any portion of the heat should not
be subject to the law of polarization which the rest obeys, unless
we suppose the heating effect to be of so complex a nature, that
some part of it only is properly due to rays analogous to those
of light, while the other part of the effect is produced by a mode
of action altogether different.
To any such questions, however, we are hardly yet in a condi-
tion to give a satisfactory answer; but among the numerous
points open to inquiry, I have dwelt more particularly on those
which appear to me pre-eminently to require more extended in-
vestigation before we can hope to obtain materials for construct-
ing any substantial and unexceptionable theory.
37
Supplementary Report on Meteorology. By Jamzs D. Forses,
Esq., F.R.S. Sec. R.S. Ep., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of Edinburgh.
[A Summary of the Contents will be found at the end of this Report. ]
1. Tne present Report on Meteorology is intended to be sup-
plementary to a former one on the same subject, drawn up by
me eight years ago, and printed in the Second Report of the
British Association.
2. It was in the contemplation of those persons who assisted
in organizing the Association at York in 1831, that the reports
on the progress of science should be essentially progressive,—
that the same authors, or others, should be engaged to continue
from time to time their sketch of the ever-varying point of
- view which each science presents, not merely with the intention
of registering something like a compendious history of facts,
but likewise of philosophizing in some degree upon the new
character which, during the elapsed period, science may have
assumed,—of indicating the success, or not less instructive
failures which may have occurred in attempts to carry forward
our knowledge in the lines of direction indicated in previous
reports, as the most hopeful or important, and of calling atten-
tion to new fields of discovery, new instruments of research, or
the collateral suggestions which may often be derived from the
progress of the affiliated sciences.
3. My aim in the following report will be—/frst, to sketch
the broad features of the science as it stands; secondly, to give
the bibliography of the subject within a definite period of years ;
and thirdly, to point out the more conspicuous deficiencies of
our knowledge, and the kind of observation, experiment or rea-
soning by which these blanks may be supplied. In fulfilling
this last and responsible duty, the reporter does not lay himself
open to the charge which has sometimes been very needlessly
preferred, that he is only attempting to stimulate where there
is more than energy enough,—that the tide of science is in such
full flow, that any external or partial impulse does no more
than propagate a local disturbance; that the grand prime-
movers,—the wants, ambition, and restless curiosity of men,—
would act just as strongly, without assistance or direction, in
38 REPORT—1840.
urging the mighty mass steadily forward in its regulated
course ; and that at the same height precisely, and at its ap-
pointed hour, will its proud waves be stayed. Let us remem-
ber that, even admitting the sufficiency of labourers and of
enterprize, it is necessary that this power should receive a use-
ful direction, that it may not be wasted by misapplication, en-
feebled by diffusion, and degraded to unworthy ends. He who
points out distinctly where energy may be usefully applied,
—who concentrates scattered and disunited forces,—who holds
up continually to view the demands of science as worthy of in-
dividual pursuit and national encouragement, in opposition to
the popular call for the bare quantum of information gleaned
from desultory experience, which may penuriously supply the
exigency of the moment,—he it is who contributes to the ulti-
mate economy of mental labour, to the advancement of sub-
stantial knowledge, and, it may be, to raise the intellectual cha-
racter of his country.
4. Impressed with these views of the possible utility of re-
ports, such as those which the British Association has from
time to time required of its members, I attempt the task of
continuing my report with more reluctance than I felt in com-
mencing it; and, lest more may be expected than I am at all
prepared to fulfil, I will premise, that I shall feel myself at
liberty to select, for fuller illustrations, those departments of
the widely ramified science of meteorology on which I may
have some matured suggestions to offer, without in the least
degree inferring a depreciation of those topics which the limits,
both of time and space, to which I am confined, prevent me
from dwelling upon in equal detail.
5. It is not proposed, then, in this report, to supply nearly
all the deficiencies which, I am very sensible, exist in the pre-
vious one, nor yet to enter at length upon subjects which in it
were comparatively untouched, but rather to select such topics
as bear most upon general principles, and afford room for prac-
tical suggestions; giving, as far as may be, a bibliography of
meteorological science in its wider acceptation, particularly
during the last eight years.
6. And here I would acknowledge the useful suggestions
and information which I have received from the excellent Ger-
man edition of my former report, translated and most materi-
ally amplified by Mahlmann*, in which many involuntary omis-
sions have been ably supplied, and subjects purposely passed
* Abriss einer Geschichte der neuern Fortschritte und des gegenwdartigen
Zustandes der Meteorologie, &c. iibersetzt und erginzt von W. Mahlmann.
Berlin, Liideritz, 1836, pp. 248.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 39
over with little notice, copiously illustrated. To this work
(which is to such a degree original, that I may be allowed to
recommend it,) I shall frequently be indebted in the course of
these pages.
7. The useful Repertorium (or Analytical Index to Scientific
Literature) of Fechner, has been succeeded by the ably-conducted
work of Dove and Moser, under the same title, in which it is
proposed, somewhat after the manner of the British Association
Reports, to analyse the various publications connected with
physical science, so as to present, in a cycle of five or six
years, a digest of all that has appeared on each subject in the
preceding period. The third volume of Dove’s Repertorium*,
which has lately appeared, contains a valuable analysis of works
on one portion of meteorology.
8. To Professor Kamtz of Halle, beyond all comparison the
most devoted meteorologist of the present day, we are indebted
for the most laborious systematic compilation which has yet ap-
peared upon the subject; ; a compilation, however, which in-
cludes many important contributions and generalizations of his
own, and which is as much distinguished by copious references
to the works of all who have preceded him, as many works of
the English and French schools are by the total omission of
such literary justice. In the first volume we have the subject
of Temperature generally discussed, and that of Wind and of
Rain. In the second, is the most complete collection of facts
anywhere to be found, on the laws of diurnal and annual
changes of temperature, on isothermal lines, and the proper
temperature of the globe, followed by a chapter on barometric
oscillations, and another on atmospheric electricity. The third
volume is chiefly devoted to optical meteorology and terrestrial
magnetism. This is the only work we have which can pro-
perly be considered as a system of meteorology (with the ex-
ception, perhaps, of the article Meteorology in the Encyclopedia
Metropolitana, mentioned in the former report).
9. The attempt to systematize and direct meteorological ob-
servations within the last eight years, is in nothing better shown
than in the various “ Instructions for Observers,’’ which have
appeared during that time from various and very influential
sources. Some of the special contents of these instruments we
shall have occasion to notice, as well as the spirit which they
are likely to impress upon future systems of observation, and
* Berlin, Veit & Co., 1839, 8vo.
+ Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, 8vo. 3 Bande, 1831—1836. The saine au-
thor has more lately published Experimental Physics, and Lectures on Meteor-
ology.
40 REPORT— 1840.
on national undertakings ; in the mean time we may enumerate
the principal ones by their titles.
I. Instructions pour faire des Observations Météorologiques
et Magnétiques, par A. T. Kupffer. St. Petersbourg, 1836,
8vo, pp. 77. Chiefly instrumental details ; including, however,
a theory of the wet bulb hygrometer.
II. Instructions for making and registering Meteorological
Observations in Southern Africa. Drawn up under the direc-
tion of Sir John Herschel*.
III. Instructions pour le Voyage de la Bonité; Physique
du Globe, par M. Arago, Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des
Sciences de Paris, I. 380. Annuaire du Bureau des Longi-
tudes, 1836.
IV. Instructions pour |’Expédition d’Algérie, 1838. Par le
méme, Comptes Rendus, VII. 206.
V. Report of the Committee of Physics and Meteorology
of the Royal Society, on the Objects of Scientific Inquiry in
those Sciences ; drawn up for the Antarctic Expedition of 1839.
Instructions for making Meteorological Observations, pp. 53—
79; with an appendix of Tables.
10. But of all periodical literature, the work which gives the
fairest representation of the progress of physical science north
of the Alps, is Poggendorff’s dnnalen der Physik, which, even
as a bibliographical compendium, is invaluable. In the nu-
merous volumes of this admirably edited work, are to be found
the best papers published on meteorology, and all the kindred
sciences, whether in Germany, France, or Britain. The edi-
torial skill and impartiality with which this work is conducted,
render it most deserving of support in every country; whilst
the high scientific standard, according to which articles are ad-
mitted or selected, is highly creditable to Germany ; where
alone, perhaps, in Europe, so learned a work would find ade-
quate support}.
11. I regret very much that, from the difficulty of procuring
* These instructions, printed by the South African Institution, have, I be-
lieve, been republished in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. See
also Instructions for Observation, and Suggestions for Meteorological Inquiry,
in the first volume of the Transactions of the Meteorological Society of Lon-
don, 8vo.
+ M. Poggendorff, not satisfied with translating the best foreign memoirs of
the day (to facilitate which he has recently added an annual supplementary
part), has, on various occasions, published, for the first time in German, older
memoirs, of considerable length and difficulty, for the purpose of presenting his
readers with a complete view of the progress of any science, without searching
further than his own pages. Thus, he has lately translated Fresnel’s Memoir
on Diffraction, and Sir James Hall’s papers on the Consolidation of Strata.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 41
with the least regularity the periodical literature of Italy, I am
unable to present any connected view of what has lately been
effected in that country for meteorological science. The obser-
vations of Sig. Cacciatore, of Palermo, on a uniform system of
standards for meteorological observations*, are among the few
that have come to my knowledge. Let us hope that the re-
cently founded Association of Italian Philosophers will do
something towards supplying the want of information under
which we labour of the actual progress of science in that
countryt.
12. Since the last Report on Meteorology, Mr. Luke Howard
has published a second greatly enlarged edition of his Climate
of London{, which deserves to be considered, not as a mere
journal of observations, but in some degree as a systematic
work. Professor Stevelly, of Belfast, promises an elementary
treatise, the first in our language. M. Quetelet, of Brussels,
has published a full account of the history of Meteorology in
the Pays Bas§, to which, however, his own contributions are
by far the most important.
13. This might appear the natural place for enumerating
the public establishments lately founded for cultivating
(amongst »ther things) the practical part of meteorology.
When, however, we shall have considered a little minutely the
condition of the science in its several branches, we shall be bet-
ter able to appreciate their value, and suggest measures for
their extension. (See Suggestions at the close of this Report.)
14. I proceed now to the different departments of meteor-
ology, nearly in the order in which they were discussed in my
former report||. I have already stated (4.) why I shall hold
myself at liberty to enlarge more upon some topics than others,
or even restrict myself occasionally to a mere enumeration of
* De redigendis Observationibus Meteorologicis. Panormi, 1832.
+ In the Bibliotheque Universelle de Généve, is generally to be found a fuller
notice of Italian papers than in other journals published north of the Alps.
This practice might, with advantage, be yet further extended.
Since this was written, I made it my particular business, during a visit to
London, to search for Italian Scientific Journals. In none of the public libra-
ries where I made application, as most likely to obtain such works, could I
find that Italian Journals are regularly subscribed for or received! A new
Tuscan Scientific Journal is recently announced, with the names of Amici and
Savi amongst the editors.
f 3 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1838.
§ Apercu Historique des Observations de Météorologie, faites en Belgique
jusqu’a ce jour, 4to, Bruxelles, 1834.
|| I take this opportunity of returning my thanks generally for the commu-
nication of valuable meteorological papers, in a detached form, from the respect-
ive authors, which, for the most part, will be found cited in the following pages.
42 REPORT—1840.
memoirs, which may assist the researches of others, and en-
able them to draw their own conclusions.
I.—TEMPERATURE.
15. Meteorology may, in some sense, be considered as a
mere branch of the science of heat in its widest application.
Were our globe and atmosphere in a uniform state with re-
gard to heat, and not subjected, by astronomical and cosmical
laws, to perpetual and material changes in the distribution of
temperature in its solid, fluid, and gaseous parts, the simplest
considerations would suffice for the solution of the few pro-
blems which could then be called meteorological.
16. It is to the different inclination of the solar rays, that
we trace the effect of climate varying with latitude, and of cli-
mate varying with season. It is to the unequal absorption and
radiation of heat by seas and continents, that we ascribe the
curious inflections of the isothermal lines, and the characters
of moderate and excessive climates. It is to the combination
of these causes with the rotation of the globe, that we attribute
all the phenomena of wind, from the steady monotony of the
Trades, to the capricious changes of higher latitudes, the Tor-
nados of America, and the Typhoon of the Chinese seas. It is
to the mechanical transport of great masses of air due to
change of temperature and consequent expansion, that we look
for the explanation of most of the irregular, and several of the
periodical barometric fluctuations. Lastly, it is to the varying
conditions of temperature proper to the day and night, to one sea-
son and another, in high latitudes and low, that we look for prin-
ciples to guide us in the difficult, but important determination of
the hygrometric elements of our atmosphere, the ceaseless mo-
difications of that fluctuating ocean of vapour which floats in-
dependent of, and unobstructed by, the permanently elastic
envelope of our globe, which (though comparatively unheeded
by us) is subject to all the variations of pressure and tempera-
ture of the common atmosphere, but through limits far wider,
and to changes of physical condition, which the other, from its
permanent character, never presents.
17. If we choose, then, to consider the grand meteorological
problem for a moment synthetically, instead of analytically—
T mean, by regarding the known causes which influence cli-
mate, and applying to these the laws of distribution and com-
munication of heat, which are deduced from laboratory experi-
ments, and from the first data or experimental axioms of that
science,—we have, at least, the advantage of perceiving the
magnitude, interest, and definitiveness of the problems with
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 43
which meteorology, in the philosophical sense of the term, is
conversant. Those who limit themselves to a few daily mecha-
nical observations of the barometer and thermometer, or who
even apply the results of these simple, but (if wel! conducted)
important observations, are little aware that the science they
cultivate is capable of giving definite answers to questions
which might seem further removed from human apprehension
than even the problems of physical astronomy, such as the con-
dition of the interior of our globe with respect to temperature,—
and in some degree its history as regards periods of geological
convulsion,—the whole measure of solar heat received by our
globe in a given time,—the condition of the highest, and for ever
inaccessible parts of our atmosphere,—the temperature which
reigns in the vast regions of space, remote from the influence of
any planet or satellite, however small, whose presence and pro-
per heat would yet influence such an experiment ;—these are
amongst the great cosmical problems which we do not mean to
say have been solved, but which there is little reason to doubt
that we are in the fair way of one day being able to solve by
instruments such as we now possess, with the aid of theoretical
investigations identical in kind with many which have been
completely mastered.
18. Of Instruments, those which are most called for are such
as acquaint us with certain physical constants, or approximate
constants, which determine for our globe and its atmosphere
the particular application of the general laws of the Conduc-
tion and Radiation of Heat. Of theoretical Investigations,
WG require such as shall solve with sufficient generality the
problems with which we have to deal, but stripped of those
exuberant claims to mathematical precision which cramp their
application and discourage those who know how far we are
from even the chance of ever attaining to a degree of accu-
racy which such niceties pre-suppose. The theoretical in-
vestigations of most use, then, are those which, taking the pro-
blem in a general way, show exactly upon what arbitrary con-
stants the determination (for instance) of the climateric condition
of any point of the globe at any moment depends. This is a
task of no smal] difficulty, even in the simplest form in which it
can be put.
19. It infers a knowledge (1) of the fundamental laws or
axioms of the science of heat (such as the law of expansion,
variation of specific heat with density, conduction, radiation).
(2) Of all the physical circumstances which can possibly influence
the temperature of our globe, that is, the communication of heat
to, or abstraction from it (1 mean their existence, not their de-
44 REPORT— 1840.
termination), such as solar radiation, the proper heat of the earth,
the proper heat of the atmosphere, the proper heat of space.
(3) Supposing these preliminaries rightly assigned, next comes
the arduous mathematical investigation of the way in which the
unknown constants which represent these various energetic
sources of modification, enter into the final expression of atmo-
spheric temperature, or whatever be the particular problem under
consideration. (4) For the determination of the constants
(which are supposed to be reduced to the least number of inde-
pendent elements), the analyst is further bound to mould his
formule into such a shape as to insulate a certain number of the
constants in such a way that they may be determined by direct
physical experiment ; whence the others not so determinable
may be inferred by the principle of exclusion, which assigns the
difference between the sum of effects due to causes already esti-
mated, and the observed effect, to a remaining cause (such as
the temperature of space) which does not admit of such direct
estimation.
20. The duty of the experimentalist is thus clearly defined.
Perhaps the most important observations which man can make
for furthering the theory of the universe, are such as no general
sagacity, no patient attention to mere facts as they are presented
in the course of nature, could possibly have indicated. And it
is the most satisfactory and encouraging proof that such a syn-
thetic mode of treating the problem is not an injurious or an
illusory one, when we find many concurrent observations set on
foot in the way which theory has indicated, leading under vary-
ing circumstances to a common result. Such instances are not
uncommon, and will fall to be noticed hereafter*.
21. It is plain, then, that there are three departments of sci-
ence which must go hand in hand to perfect a mixed science
like that of meteorology. First, the experimental philoso-
pher must advise generally on the experimental axioms, and on
the modifications which they are to receive in order to allow for
causes which yet do not admit of nice numerical estimation ;
he must further be fully persuaded that »o energetic cause of
modification has been left out of account; for in so delicate an
inquiry, where the principle of exclusion is to be acted upon,
enormous errors would result from any oversight in this stage
* Such, for instance, as the geometrical diminution of the range of animal
temperature beneath the surface of the ground, as we descend in arithmetical
progression : the wniform retardation of epoch in the same circumstances, and
perhaps we might have added a few years ago, the agreement of several different
methods of approximation to the actual temperature of space. See former Re-
port, p. 203, and Mahlmann’s Translation, p. 14.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 45
of the process. Secondly, the mathematician requires the ut-
most resources of his analysis to obtain in a definite and tangi-
ble form the resultant action (we will suppose that tempera-
ture is the question) of all the heating and cooling influences
upon acertain point, whose coordinates are given (including
elevation in the atmosphere, or depression below the surface),
and at a particular instant of time. And in this investigation
he will, as we have said, chiefly show his skill in the precision
which he gives to his results, the judgement with which he intro-
duces needful approximations at that stage of the investigation
which shall tend most to simplicity, and in the exhibition of his
results in forms adapted to experimental verification. Then
follows the duty, in the third place, of the observer, or practical
meteorolegist, which is to follow the indications which theory
assigns for the determination of data, and for which the me-
thods will be indicated by a competent knowledge of experi-
mental philosophy, and even by prolonged tentative researches in
the laboratery. It is not unoften the provoking result of the
labour expended by the two first sections of investigators, that
the whole problem is found to turn upon certain quantities,
whose nature is perfectly well understood, but which are,
and threaten for ever to remain perfectly unknown. I need
hardly stop to point out that such a threefold division of labour
is to be found in many other sciences, and notably at present in
that of magnetism. A right appreciation of the steps leading
to the solution of such complex mixed problems, which in fact
involve a whole science, is the first step to their solution; and
we commonly find that this is performed by the appearance of
some master mind, capable of seizing the question in all its ex-
tent and under every one of these forms—depending on a ver-
satility of mental endowment of no common order. This is
what Newton did for the science of gravitation, what is now
being done by the union of many for the science of optics, and
what Gauss has pre-eminently done for the science of mag-
netism.
22. It will conduce to clearness if it is understood, that so far
as possible, in what follows, we shall keep in view these different
aspects of meteorological science ; and combining, as on a for-
mer occasion, the bibliography with the general detail, I shall
proceed to the different parts of the science of Temperature
somewhat in the order adopted in the last report.
46 REPORT— 1840.
A. Thermometers* .
23. Fired Points.—Legrand+ has studied once more the
vexed subject of the rise of the thermometric zero point. He
finds that the pressure of air has no influence, thus confirming
the observations of Bellani; the molecular change in the form of
the bulb is therefore the remaining cause, and this is confirmed
by finding that it depends on the nature of the glass; not oc-
curring (according to the author) in Crystal. Now if by Crystal
is meant, as I believe to be the case, Flint Glass, this obser-
vation is at variance with that of other observers, flint glass
being generally used for thermometers in this country. Since
writing the last report, I have myself found the following dis-
placement of zero in thermometers all warranted standards by
the following makers—Troughton and Simms(two), Adie, Crich-
ton, Collardeau :—
+ 0°°56, + 0°°33, + 0°41, + 0°54, + 0°35, Fahrenheit.
24. Correction of Scale. When the points are fixed and
the thermometer graduated, the degrees may be examined by
the method of Bessel{. Rudberg has proposed another founded
on similar principles§, and I have given an account of a method
employed by myself, and attended, I think, with considerable
practical advantages, in the introduction to a paper on the Tem-
perature of Hot Springs].
25. Every one must have noticed the difficulty of reading ther-
mometers quickly and correctly when the tube projects much
in front of the scale, owing to an evident error of parallax, which
it requires some experience to avoid. A particularly ingenious
method of correcting it has been communicated to me by M.
Valz, the eminent astronomer of Marseilles, which though un-
published, I trust he will forgive me for mentioning. By plun-
ging two-thirds of the diameter of the tube into the material of
the scale so that the plane on which graduation is made is ad-
vanced in front of the mercurial column to the amount of one-
third of the radius of the tube, it may be shown that the error
of refraction will exactly correct the error of parallax.
26. For self-registering thermometers for maximum tempe-
ratures, such as are now in demand for experiments on deep Arte-
sian Wells, we have the overflowing principle of Cavendish and
* See last Report, p. 208. Mahlmann, p. 25.
t Comptes Rendus (Paris), iv. 173.
t Berzelius, Jahresbericht, xv. 70, quoted in Poggendorff's Annalen, xxxvii.
376.
§ See a full illustration of Bessel’s method in Kupffer’s * Instructions,” p. 5.
|| Philosophical Transactions, 1836, p. 571.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 47
Magnus* revived by Walferdin, and his instruments are usually
employed in Parist. The overflowing principle has been used
(in the same way as in Wollaston’s thermo-metrical barometer)
for constructing a thermometer sensible to small change of ani-
mal heat by Dr. Marshall Hallt. Jurgenson, the chronometer-
maker of Copenhagen, has proposed a clock for estimating the
mean temperature of limited periods, in which the compensation
shall be inverted, and the natural effect of temperature on the
rate of an uncompensated clock exaggerated§.
27. Several other methods or new applications of known
principles have been proposed for the measure of temperature
besides that of expansion commonly employed. The extensive
introduction of the thermo-electric pile of Nobiliand Melloni, in
delicate researches on radiant heat, has suggested the use of the
same principle in other cases. Indeed it seems peculiarly
adapted for ascertaining the condition of inaccessible points in
respect of temperature. M. Peltier, of Paris, I believe, first pro-
posed the application of long wires of heterogeneous metals to
ascertain at a distance the temperature of their point of junction,
however distant. The method is briefly this: suppose two
wires of copper and iron respectively, and of equal lengths, laid
side by side and soldered at each end. Let one of the wires be
cut, and a galvanometer introduced into the open circuit thus
made. It is well known that the galvanometer needle will not
stand at zero under these circumstances, unless both solderings
have a common temperature. As the temperature of one ex-
ceeds or falls below that of the other, the index will move in one
or other direction, and in a well-constructed instrument the de-
viations will be almost exactly as the variations of temperature ||.
Thus, one junction of the wires being plunged in water of known
temperature, and the positive or negative deviation of the galva-
nometer being known and converted into thermometric degrees,
the temperature of the other soldering (which may be inaccess-
ible and removed to a considerable distance) becomes known.
This very ingenious arrangement was shown to me in June,
1835, by M. Peltier, whose acquaintance I owe to the attention
of M. Elie de Beaumont.
28. The application of the thermo-electro-magnetic princi-
ple becomes easy in very many cases. It has been proposed for
pyrometers by M. Pouillet, who has compared the march of such
* First Report, p. 209. + Comptes Rendus (Paris), ii. 505, 619.
{ British Association Reports.
§ Comptes Rendus, iii. 142. Compare First Report, p. 213.
|| I am aware that this position has been controverted. I am satisfied, how-
ever, of its general truth from careful experiments.
48 REPORT—1840.
an instrument at high temperatures with that of an air pyrome-
ter*, and at very low temperatures obtained by means of M.
Thilorier’s happy discovery of the solidification of carbonic acid
with air and alcoholt.
29. MM. Becquerel and Breschet have employed the same
method for the determination of the temperature of water at
great depths by sinking the experimental junction of the wires.
As may be supposed, however, in such cases, great attention is
requisite to prevent the slightest chemical action, which would
develope its proper current. They made their observations on
the Lake of Genevaf.
30. The same ingenious experimenters have applied this me-
thod of measuring temperature to the living animal fibre, by
thrusting a compound needle into the muscular tissue, and with
very curious results§. M. Dutrochet has lately applied the
same method to ascertain the proper temperature of plants, a
yet far more difficult inquiry||. His experiments haye been
fully corroborated by MM. Van Beek and Bergsma].
31. I have applied M. Peltier’s apparatus for the very obvious
purpose of checking the zero point of thermometers sunk in the
ground to such a depth that their scale can never be re-examined.
For this purpose, along with a thermometer 24 French feet
long**, I sunk a thermo-electric pair of iron and copper, com-
pletely defended in all its length with a casing impervious to
water, and its indications have been generally satisfactory. I
had hoped that, by the use of wires of sufficient thickness, the
thermo-electric current might be communicated from great
depths. From experiments which I have made, I am inclined
to think that their use must be very much limited in this respect,
on account of the rapidity with which the energy of the circuit
* Comptes Rendus (Paris), iii. 782.
+ Ibid, i. 513. Professor Muncke, of Heidelberg, has investigated with
great care the law of dilatation of alcohol, and the result gives for ordinary
atmospheric temperatures, a value very sensibly different from the mean dilata-
tion commonly received from Dalton’s experiments. He has also given the
result of several series of observations on other fluids, and given formule of ex-
pansion for each.—Petersburg Transactions—Paper read 5th Sept. 1834. M.
Rudberg has re-examined the expansibility of dry air and gases (Poggendorfi’s
Annalen), and he finds an expansion of only 364 or 365 between freezing and
boiling water instead of °375, as was given very nearly both hy Dalton and Gay
Lussac. ‘The scientific world will, no doubt, hesitate a little to adopt the new
determination of this important element, even with all possible respect for M.
Rudberg’s known skill as an experimentalist.
+ Bibliotheque Universelle, Nouvelle Série, vii. 173 (1837).
§ Comptes Rendus (Paris), i. 28, iii. 771.
|| Ibid, viii. 695, 741, 907. ix. 613. Temp. of Insects, ix. 8].
q Ibid, ix. 328. * #** See below. Art. (96.)
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 49
diminishes with the Jength of the conducting wire. Some ad-
vantage is undoubtedly gained by using two or three pairs,
acting simultaneously, instead of one. Wherever distant com-
parisons are intended, it is of great consequence to have a
standard thermo-electric combination, by which any change in
the sensibility of the galvanometer may be tested.
32. A method of determining the temperature and pressure
of the atmosphere depending on very different principles, has
lately been proposed by M. Arago*. It depends on the known
optical principle, that if a pencil of light radiating from a small
and distant source be divided into two parts, and one of these
be in the least degree retarded more than the other, coloured
fringes will appear when the two pencils are re-united and suf-
fered to fall upon a screen or received on an eye-piece. If by any
arrangement, whether of reflexion or refraction, these bands
have been already formed, their breadth and aspect will be
changed by such a retardation of either component pencil.
Now air rarefied, whether by heat, diminished pressure, or the
intermixture of vapour, acts less energetically in retarding light ;
consequently a tube with glass ends, filled with such modified
air made to transmit one pencil, whilst the other passes through
a precisely similar tube of standard air, will exhibit by the pro-
duction of movement of the fringes very minute changes in its
physical condition. It remains to be shown, however, by what
mechanical adaptations M. Arago proposes to make this delicate
experiment susceptible of general application. This he pro-
poses to point out in a future memoirf.
33. The comparison of ordinary thermometers with standards
is often a matter of great importance, and too little attended to.
The increasing demands of science require a proportionable in-
crease in the consistency of instrumental indications; not so
much indeed for ascertaining the temperature, as in many other
experiments connected with the temperature of the ground,
rivers and hot springs. Travellers should seize every oppor-
tunity to verify the freezing points of their instruments, and this
is an easy matter ; but to compare thermometers at temperatures
above 100° F., is a practical problem of far greater difficulty than
is commonly imagined. Plunging them together in laboratory
vessels of hot water is a most unsatisfactory process, even if the
sensibilities of the instruments be pretty equal. If they are
very unlike, it is all but impossible, although the correction for
the gradual cooling of the medium becomes then a pretty mathe-
matical problem{. Where the investigation is an important one,
* Comptes Rendus (1840). + Ibid.
t Fourier, Théorie de la Chaleur, p.357, and Kelland’s Theory of Heat, p. 84,
1840, E
50 REPORT—1840.
or many instruments are to be compared, constant sources of
heat, natural or artificial, cannot be too carefully sought. Bark
pits, natural hot springs, even the waste hot-water of steam-
engines, and the boiling point of some liquids, such as alcohol,
may be usefully employed*.
B. Atmospheric Temperaturet.
34. Under this head we consider the temperature of a given
spot at different times. These variations are diurnal, annual,
and those of long period.
35. A summary of valuable facts on this subject may be found
in Kamtz’s Meteorologiet and Dove’s Repertorium§. We can
only point out a few general facts of especial importance.
36. The general practice in Germany of expressing periodic
changes of temperature by series of the form
T=A + Bsin(#+ C) + Dsin (2a + KH) + &c.,
where x is the hour angle, or the fraction of a year, is attended
with considerable advantages, especially for the purposes of in-
terpolation ; and if this has sometimes been carried perhaps too
far, yet the reductions are on the whole very superior to those
in use in this country,
37. The value of hourly observations of temperature seems
now to be fully admitted, and the two-hourly meteorological
observations connected with the recent magnetic expeditions
fitted out by the English government, are likely to be of the
highest importance for science. In the mean time we may quote
the following important contributions, in addition to those spe-
cified in the former report. 1. Goldingham’s hourly observa~-
tions, three times a month at Madras ||. 2. Brandes’s observa-
tions at Salzuflen (lat. 52° 3! N.), made every hour in the year
182894. 3. The observations which, at the earnest suggestion
of the Meteorological Committee of the British Association at
its first meeting at York, have been so ably and zealously car-
ried on hourly for seven complete years, under the direction of
Mr. Snow Harris at Plymouth. The means have been regularly
- * T have found by the most careful experiments that the temperature of the
vapour of impure alcohol remains surprisingly steady, which was before re-
marked by Hugi (Alpenreise, Solothurn, 1830), but it is not the same with
zther. There are some interesting experiments on the constancy of the tem-
perature of vapour from saline solutions in the late volumes of Poggendorff’s
Annalen, especially by Rudberg, xxxiv. 527.
+ See former Report, p. 210. Mahlmann, p. 31. t Vol. iii. p. 342.
-§ Vol. ii. p. 1. || Madras Observatory Papers, calculated by Dove.
§| Archiv der Pharmacie, Reihe ii. Bd. xi. 1, quoted in Poggendorff, xli. 635,
and Poggendorff’s Remarks, xli. 630. Compare Comptes Rendus (Paris), i. 264,
and Dove’s Repertorium, iii, 345.
ed
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 51
calculated and communicated to the Association in two reports
on the subject*. 4. A most interesting series of observations
made every two hours in the inhospitable regions of Nova Zem-
bla, has been published by M. von Baer of St. Petersburgh, to
whom I am indebted for a copy of his paperst. Some of his
results we will immediately mention. 5. Dr. Richardson has
undertaken the most laborious but most useful task of reducing
into order, and into their mean results, the extensive series
of two-hourly observations made in various years in the arctic
regions of America by the expeditions of Parry and Franklin t.
This has also been partially done by M. von Baer, in the me-
moirs last-cited, so that we have in some measure a more com-
plete meteorological knowledge of the climate of these desolate
regions than we can be said to possess of that of our own coun-
try. Dr. Richardson has carefully compared his diurnal curves
with those of Leith and Plymouth, and we find the constancy
of the interval between the hours of mean temperature§ here
remarkably reproduced, and also in a remarkable manner, Brew-
ster’s law of the correspondence of the mean temperature of two
hours of the same name for the whole year with the mean tem-
perature of the year||._ The latter fact comes out exceedingly
well also from the tropical observations of M. Freycinet], and
from the table of Brandes already referred to**.
38. All these observations go a long way towards the il-
lustration of those general laws of climate which may be con-
sidered in some measure independent of local causes. It is not
easy perhaps to conceive a more violent contrast of climate than
the continental one of arctic America, and the insular one of
Plymouth. It were undoubtedly to be desired, however, that
these observations were extended to tropical regions; and the
expeditions recently fitted out to St. Helena, the Cape of Good
* British Association, Fifth Report, p. 181; Eighth Report, p. 26.
+ Ueber das Clima von Nowaja-Semlja und die Mittlere Temperatur insbe-
sondere ; Ueber den Jahrlichen Gang der Temperatur in Nowaja-Semlja. Von
K. E. v. Baer.—Bulletin de ? Acad. Imp. de St. Pétersbourg, t. ii. No. 19.
t Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1839.
§ See First Report, p. 211.
|| Richardson, p. 39. From a communication made by Mr. Harris at Bir-
mingham in 1839, it appears that hourly observations have been made at Phi-
ladelphia (United States) and in Ceylon ; but the results are not published.
{| Poisson, Théorie de la Chaleur, p. 465.
** To these may now be added two sets of hourly observations in Inverness-
shire, made at the expense of the British Association under the direction of
Sir D, Brewster. From the communication made by that gentleman to the
Meeting of the Association in 1840, since this report was written, it appears,
that in these observations also, the constancy of the interval between the hours
of mean temperature mentioned in the text, is well preserved.
EQ?
52 REPORT—[840.
Hope, and the possessions of the East India Company, will
doubtless ere long afford this information*.
39. The interesting tables of Von Baer and Richardson illus-
trate most remarkably the different progress of solar heat in
arctic and temperate latitudes. The maximum daily range
which occurs in the end of July at Padua, and exceeds 9° cent.,
occurs in March in Boothia (North America), and at Felsen Bay
(Nova Zembla), in Aprilf, the values being about 7° cent. At
Leith the range is nearly uniform from April to July, and does
not reach 6° cent., a proof of a temperate or insular climate.
When the sun is always below the horizon, the diurnal curve is, as
may be supposed, very uncertain, and wavering. In winter in
Nova Zembla there is a sensible increase of temperature towards
midnight, at both stations}; and something of the same kind is
visible in several of Dr. Richardson’s winter curves.
40. The dependence of the form of the annual curve upon
the insular or continental character of a locality, does not need
here to be insisted on. But it is interesting to observe the
contrast between the climates of arctic Asia and arctic Ame-
rica, both so rigorous, yet so unlike :—
The mean temp. of Nova Zembla is 16°F. Of Fort Franklin 17-6
Mean temp. three summer months 36°5 # 50-4
+ three winter months —3 is —17°8
Nova Zembla, therefore, is a climate of wretched mediocrity ;
one of the most dreary in the known world; the summer tem-
perature scarcely rises above the freezing point! whilst arctic
America enjoys a European warmth for at least some weeks.
The warmest month at Nova Zembla (August) has a temperature
(39° F.) less than that of January in Shetland. The warmest
month at Fort Franklin reaches 52°, or almost that of July in
Shetland. The extremes are not less surprisingly different :—
Extreme heat at Nova Zembla 49° F. At Fort Franklin 80° F.
$5 cold “ —53§ " —58§
Range 102 138
* Since this report was written, I had the satisfaction of seeing, at the Tenth
Meeting of the British Association, the admirable observations of Mr. Calde-
cott, at Trevandrum, in lat. 8° 30’ N., which it may be hoped will soon be
published. They are on the thermometer, barometer, and hygrometer, made
hourly for three years.
+ The reason, of course, being, that as the sun approaches perpetual appa-
rition, the daily variation diminishes. There is an approximation to this at
Leith.
+ Von Baer, Taglicher Gang., p. 9.
§ The extreme of —53 appears to be a very uncommon one at Nova Zembla,
much more so than —58 in North America. Captain Back observed so great
a cold as —70°.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 53
Enormous as both these ranges are, we cannot but observe that
the Asiatic extreme warmth does not approach within 30° of
the American one! and yet the mean temperature of both sta-
tions is nearly alike.
41. The determination of the diurnal curve of temperature
and its variations may be almost called complete, in comparison
with that of the annual curve, which, notwithstanding, is a
matter in some respects of still more important concern. Even
the mean temperature of a place, at any period, is very difficult
to fix, owing to the great discrepancies of successive seasons.
Thus 29 years, from 1806 to 1834, during which comparable
observations have been statedly made at the Observatory at
Paris, give a mean of 10822 cent., with a variation between
one year and another from 12%10c. in 1822, to 9°35c. in 1829,
the difference being almost 5° of Fahrenheit*. It is evident
that many years must be required to fix even this comparatively
simple datum; how much more to determine the form of the
annual curve which, in every region, is doubtless characterized
by peculiar inflections !
42. The study of the annual curve is very much retarded by
the want of simple, permanent, and comparable meteorological
observations. These, which require little expense and little time,
pre-suppose, from the extent of years over which they must
extend, a kind of co-operation to which too little attention has
been directed. The Paris observations are perhaps the only
ones to which we can look with any degree of confidence in
this respect, even for the comparatively short period of thirty
years. Professor Brandes, of Breslau, has, with praiseworthy
industry, collected and reduced a vast number of observations,
continued at various stations for eight, ten, or more years, and
has compared them and projected the annual curves, which he
obtains by finding the mean temperature of successive periods of
fivedayst. The chief stations are Petersburg, Stockholm, Cux-
haven, Zwanenburg, London, Mannheim, Vienna, St. Gotthard,
La Rochelle, and Rome. In these curves, imperfect as they are,
are well shown the peculiarities of insular and continental
climates, and those of plains and mountains. Some points of
agreement may probably be found in all, for which sufficient
reasons may be assigned; such as the more rapid increase of
temperature than its decline, which applies equally to the diur-
nal curve. This is, I conceive, chiefly owing to two causes,
* Poisson, Théorie de la Chaleur, p. 463.
+ Beitrage zur Witterungskunde, von H. W. Brandes. 8vo. 1820. Unter-
metuungen uber den mittleren Gang der Warme-Aenderungen durchs ganze
ahr.
54 REPORT—1840.
which I will simply indicate: first, that by its nature the
absorption of heat due to direct radiation from the sun must go
on more rapidly than the dissipation of it by cooling; and
secondly, that some influence may be attributed to the different
distribution of vapour during the rise and decline of tempera-
ture.
43. Owing to these causes, thermometric curves, if they can
be assimilated to symmetric geometrical curves at all, such as
parabolas, must be regarded as having their axes oblique and
not vertical. An erect parabola cannot even, generally speak-
ing, be employed for finding the maximum with exactness on
this account. But, in point of fact, no one parabola can repre-
sent all the parts of the thermometric curves which, in their
least complicated forms, approach more nearly to the curve of
sines.
44, From the tables of Brandes and others, we may infer
the probability of discovering special inflections of the annual
curve which characterize particular regions of the globe. The
European curves point, for instance, with great distinctness to
a check in the progressive rise of temperature, owing to the
increasing power of the sun, which occurs almost invariably in
the middle of February. This inflection of the annual curve,
which in Europe always bends it towards horizontality, and
sometimes produces distinctly a second minimum in March, is
a circumstance which has attracted too little attention, and as
an indication of other general inflections deserves notice. This
circumstance has lately been insisted on by M. Erman, in a
letter to M. Arago*, who ascribes it, I think, with unwarrant-
able boldness, to the interception of the solar rays by the pas-
sage of the meteors of November between the earth and sun!
I believe that it can be very easily accounted for, as occurring
in Europe (which is all we know at present), by the periodic
easterly winds of spring, caused by an unequal effect of tem-
perature which we shall presently notice, and which almost
invariably set in for a time at that season, bringing masses of
cold air, from the continental regions of Europe and Asia, to
the western shores +.
* Comptes Rendus (Paris), x. 21. (1840.)
¢ Since these pages were written, I have received from Prof. Dove of Ber-
lin his elaborate Memoir “ on the non-periodic changes of the Distribution of
Temperature on the Earth’s Surface,” in which he has collected the most com-
plete series existing of authentic observations of monthly mean temperature
for fifty-nine stations. One of his conclusions is remarkable, viz. that when a
large portion of the earth’s surface is taken into view, the apparent irregularities
of particular seasons counteract one another, so as to give no countenance to
the idea, that more heat falls on the earth generally one year than another.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 55
C. Isothermal Lines*.
45, We will despatch very quickly what is to be said on the
very important subject of climatology, because no material
step whatever has been made since the publication of the last
report. A considerable number of detached observations, of
various degrees of merit, on the mean annual and monthly
temperatures of many points of the earth’s surface, have no
doubt been added, and a list of many of these monographs may
be found in Dove’s Repertorium+, and in the Transactions of
the Meteorological Society. M. Kamtz has performed the use-
ful labour of amassing all the trustworthy observations of mean
temperature which he could discover, and presenting the monthly
means, in the second volume of his Meteorology. The German
translation by Mahlmann of my former report, embraces figures
on different projections of the isothermal and isogeothermal
lines. Both of these, especially the last, require still the greatest
attention, even to give an approximation to truth; but we have
not yet obtained the roughest sketch of the variations which
these lines undergo with change of season; in other words, of
the isocheimal and isotheral lines { ; yet these are of the greatest
practical importance. The distribution of animal and vegetable
life materially depends on them; the boundary of some plants
being determined by the minimum winter temperature, and the
advantageous cultivation of most by the extreme heat of sum-
mer; the limits of the vine, maize, and olive depend on these
circumstances ; and the region of barley so exactly coincides
with the isotheral line, that (according to Wahlenberg) barley
ripens wherever the mean temperature of ninety consecutive
days rises to 48° Fahr.
46. Professor Dove has not inaptly compared the annual
variations of the form of the great system of isothermal lines to
those which the Lemniscates formed in some biaxal crystals
seen by polarized light undergo by changes of temperature§.
47. These variations (to which we would particularly direct the
efforts of meteorologists) are the more important, because, as
we have already seen in treating of the form of the annual
curve, places may have the same mean temperature, and yet
their climates may have no real resemblance whatsoever (as
when we compare the climates of Nova Zembla and Fort
Franklin in North America, and those of Unst in Shetland and
Copenhagen); and these characters may depend in a good
measure upon local circumstances. Those who argue about
* Last Report, p. 214, &c. Mahlmann, p. 45. } iil. 266.
t Last Report, p. 218. § L’Institut, No. 325.
56 REPORT—1840.
the constancy or inconstancy of climates from ancient times to
the present*, would do well to recollect that their criteria are
almost all drawn either from extreme temperatures, or from the
facts of botanical geography, neither of which give true indi-
cations of the mean annual temperature of a climate.
48. From various remote regions we continue to receive in-
teresting reports of the mean temperature, which seem gene-
rally to be more carefully and consistently made than in stations
of easier access. It is indeed surprising, in how few points of
the civilized parts of Europe the mean temperature can be said
to be known with any degree of exactness, to which the verifi-
cation of thermometers is an indispensable preliminary. We
may mention, as particularly interesting amongst observations
in the most inhospitable regions of the globe, the observations
at Nova Zemblat, Dr. Richardson's reduction of those of Parry
and Franklin, the observations of Beechey, Ross, and Back, in
their respective voyages, the last of whom observed the greatest
natural cold yet registered}; Kupffer and Brewster§ on the
temperatures observed on the north-west coast of America, and
Arago upon similar observations by Macloughlin ||. Mr. Web-
ster has given a list of extreme winters observed in North
America ¥ ; and Dr. Daubeny some observations on the climate
of that country** ; Mr. Trevelyan has reprinted his paper on
the Climate and Vegetation of Farve, with additions+7.
49. We have already observed, that it appears, by a reference
to the Paris Tables, that a long series of years of observation
is required to obtain with certainty the mean temperature of a
place t{. It is probable that the temperature of the ground is not
liable to so great fluctuation, and therefore that kind of obser-
vation should be made wherever practicable. This does not, how-
ever, supersede the necessity of long-continued meteorological
observations with verified instruments made under proper pre-
cautions ; and we hope to see the Plymouth observations, and
those conducted at the various magnetic stations fixed upon by
* See on this interesting subject Arago, Annuaire, 1834; Schouw on the
Climate of Italy (Ed. Phil. Journal, July 1840), and an anonymous paper in
the Phil. Mag., Aug. 1840.
t+ Supra Art., 37—40. t Ibid.
§ Phil. Mag., 3rd Series, i. 427. || Comptes Rendus (Paris), i. 266.
q Silliman’s Journal, xxviii. 183. The valuable Meteorological Reports from
the State of New York are still continued, and, through the kindness of Dr.
Romeyn Beck, I have received them down to 1837.
** Brit. Assoc., Eighth Rep., Sect. p. 29. tt 4to. Florence, 1837.
+¢ The longest extant series of meteorological observations worthy of any
confidence is probably that at Berlin, printed in Dove’s paper on Non-periodic
Variations of Temperature (Berlin, 1840). It extends from 1719 to 1839; the
greatest annual temperature was 9°69 R. in 1756: the least 4°°38 R. in 1740.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. be
the British government, continued for a series of years on this
account. M. Boussingault has remarked, that at the Equator
the mean temperature of any place may be found at any time of
the year, and at any hour of the day, by digging a pit in a
shady spot a foot deep, and observing the temperature at the
bottom of it*. M. Poisson considers this result as conform-
able to theory}. It is, at all events, a most convenient fact,
and adds one to the many encouragements which nature affords
to the prosecution of meteorology in tropical regions, where
hitherto it has been most neglected.
50. The improvement of our knowledge of terrestrial tempe-
rature is a most important branch of science. It may be doubted
whether it has hitherto been cultivated in the right way, and
whether local and minor anomalies have not been allowed to
conceal the general laws which we should first seek to attain.
It is quite certain, that the causes producing the inflexions of
the isothermal lines are of the most irregular and unmathe-
matical character, such as the boundaries of coasts and the like.
Still we think that the time may not be far distant when we
shall have isothermal charts as superior to those now existing,
as Gauss’s magnetic charts, deduced by skilful artifices from a
limited number of good observations, are to those of Halley in
the last century.
D. Decrease of Temperature with Height}.
51. Part of what properly belongs to this head will be more
conveniently treated of in considering the general question of
the temperature of the globe and its appendages.
52. There is little doubt that the decrement of temperature
is not uniform, but slower as we ascend. It is to this, pro-
bably, that we are to ascribe the greater values of the height
due to 1° of decrement in equatorial than in temperate climates:
thus, Boussingault found 26° c. of decrement for 4800 metres
of ascent in the tropics, or . . 1°c. for 184 met.
Col. Sykes, in India, on a height of
8500 ft., finds 1° F. for 332 ft. of
ascent §, or . . : 5 RP gore a =)
Whilst Saussure’s mean value in the
Alps is : § j erie yy 154 -'53
Eschmann on the Rigi. F Sede Copibet ag Wy Uae As
* Ann. de Chim. liii. Annuaire, 1836, p. 263.
+ Théorie de la Chaleur, p. 508, &c.
t See First Report, p. 218, and Mahlmann, p. 53.
§ British Association, Fourth Report, p. 568.
58 REPORT—1840.
M. Boblaye in Greece. d - 1%. -for=150!met:
38 observations collected by Ramond 1°c. ,, 164:7,,
And for Gay Lussac’s aérostat alone 1°c. ,, 184 ,,
as we might expect, from its great elevation*.
53. We have reason to believe, that in high latitudes the
decrement is less rapid than in low ones; and M. Aragof has
called particular attention to cases in which an actual inversion
of the usual law occurs in the latitude of Spitzbergent, and on
Arthur’s Seat, near Edinburgh, during extreme cold§.
54. The decrement of temperature in the atmosphere, with
reference to its constitution, has been considered in a lengthened
series of papers, of which we cannot attempt an analysis, by
M. Biot, lately published in the Comptes Rendus de ? Académie
des Sciences de Paris, and in the Connaissance des Tems.
55. It has been considered in a more restricted point of view
by Prof. Challis|], who has deduced from the properties of air,
with regard to specific heat, a fall of 1° Fahr. for 186 feet,
which is about a half too rapid. Mr. Lubbock, on the other
hand, proceeding @ posteriori from Gay Lussac’s aérostat, has
generalized the connexion of temperature and pressure so as to
find the height of the atmosphere].
56. Any attempt, however, to connect the temperature and
density of the atmosphere by laws such as regulate a laboratory
experiment, must fail, in consequence of the incompleteness of
the data. The increased specific heat of rarefied air is by no
means the only cause of the diminished temperature of the
higher regions of the atmosphere**. The higher the stratum,
the more transcalent the medium which separates it from the
planetary spaces, and therefore the freer will be the radiation in
* To convert metres for 1° cent. into English feet for 1° Fahr., use the con-
stant factor 1°8227 [log. 9:26072].
+ Comptes Rendus, vii. 206.
t Observed by Captains Sabine and Foster.
§ Observed by Dr. Lind, 31 Jan. 1776. Phil. Trans. 1777.
|| Cambridge Transactions, vol. vi.
q On the Heat of Vapours, p.21. Lond. 1840.
** On the specific Heat of Gases, see Dr. Apjohn’s experiment by the use of
the moist bulb hygrometer, (Brit. Assoc., Sixth Rep., Sect. Proceedings, p. 33,)
and Suerman’s Thesis, De Calore fluidorum elasticorum specifico, 4to. Trag.
1836, for which I was indebted to the ever-ready kindness of our late associate
Dr. Moll. In these essays we find a new proof of the inexhaustible ingenuity
by which philosophers have endeavoured to make amends for the practical dif-
ficulties of the direct problem: it is curious to see one and the same question
treated, now by the aid of the calorimeter, now by observing the tone of an
organ-pipe, and now by a dew-point experiment! Unfortunately, we cannot
add that these various methods give the desired concordance of result. Re-
gnault’s are the latest experiments on the specific heat of simple{bodies. Ann.
de Chim. \xxiii. 1. (1840.)
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 59
that direction. Besides, the atmosphere is no doubt a medium
of that description, which permits solar radiation to pass much
more freely than heat which has combined with the materials of
the globe at a low temperature; hence the surface of the globe
may be considered as a true accumulating source of heat, the
further we recede from which the greater will be the cold*.
57. A just apprehension of these circumstances will serve to
explain the modifications of this phanomenon, as well as the
phenomenon itself. This I have lately endeavoured to do, and
to show the accordance of the theory with factst. It is known,
from experiment, that the decrement of temperature is most
rapid in spring, and least so in autumn. This appears, both
from the reduced observations on the Pentland Hills, near
Edinburgh, alluded to in my last Report (p. 219), and from
those on a great scale, conducted so long at Geneva and the
Great St. Bernard{. I have shown that this arises from the
following peculiarities of the annual curves at two stations at
different elevations; (1.) the curve at the upper or colder station
stands wholly below that at the warmer one. Hence were these
two curves similar, and their epochs the same, the difference
would be constant. But (2.) the range at the upper station is
less than that at the lower one; hence the summer difference of
temperatures is on the whole greater than the winter difference,
which we know to be the fact§. (3.) The maxima above occur
later than those below, so that the whole colder and flatter
curve is shifted to the right hand, and hence the epoch of
maximum difference precedes the epoch of maximum tempera-
ture, according to a law which I have investigated in the paper
referred to.
58. The diurnal curves correspond to the annual curves in
the two first particulars, but not in the last. I have attempted
to explain the cause of this difference, and to show that, in
point of fact, the epoch of the diurnal curve at the higher
station is (up to a certain height at least) accelerated upon the
lower one instead of the reverse, and that consequently a re-
tardation of the maximum difference upon the maximum tem-
perature occurs, which is really the case||.. A clear apprehen-
sion of the progress of temperature in the atmosphere and
* See on this subject Fourier, Mém. de l’ Académie des Sciences, tom. vii.;
Ann, de Chim. xxvii. 155 ; Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes, 4to, tom. ii. § 932,
&e.; Kamtz, Lehrbuch, ii. 128; Pouillet, Comptes Rendus, vii. 49.
{+ Edinburgh Transactions, xiv. 489 (1840); and Jameson’s Journal,
October 1840.
{ Dove’s Repertorium, iii. 337.
§ See First Report, p. 219. Kamtz, Lehrbuch, ii. 140.
|| Saussure, Voyages, iv. § 2050. Kamtz in Poggendorff, xxvii. 345.
60 REPORT—1840.
earth leads to many interesting and important practical con-
clusions, upon which we cannot now dwell.
59. Whilst we admit the phenomenon of the decrease of
temperature with height to be the normal one, and other cases
exceptions, we must not omit to mention an important class of
real exceptions, which deserve particular study.
60, The superior radiating power of Earth to Air is the
cause of the seemingly preternatural depression of the tempera-
ture of the ground in clear evenings observed by Six, Wilson,
and Pictet, and so well applied by Wells to the theory of
dew. It is evident, that under the circumstances which favour
the development of the cause (viz. Radiation), the effect must
extend more or less above the surface; and, consequently, up
to a certain point the temperature will zzcrease with height.
This question has lately been treated of in an interesting paper
by Prof. Marcet*, who has arrived at the following con-
clusions :—1. It is a constant phenomenon about the time of
sunset, except in the case of violent winds. 2. It attains a
maximum immediately after sunset. 3. The increase of tem-
perature with height extends to 100 or 110 feet at the most.
4. It is most conspicuous when the ground is covered with |
snow.
61. This leads us directly to the important subject of
E. Radiationt,
whether solar or terrestrial; in its bearings, perhaps, the most
important and interesting at present connected with Meteoro-
logy. We speak now principally of instruments and primary
results; in the next section, of conclusions to be drawn from
them in connexion with great cosmical questions.
62. The earth acts by absorbing radiant heat from the sun
and (perhaps) other heavenly bodies ; and it radiates it again
according to new laws towards space. Each of these effects, and
the modifications which circumstances introduce into them, may
be made the subject of separate experiment.
63. Since a thermometer with a blackened ball absorbs more
solar heat than a bright or transparent one, it was natural to
suppose that the difference of indication of two such instru-
ments might be considered as a measure (at least a relative
indication of the force) of solar radiation. ‘The stationary dif-
* Mémoires de la Société de Physique, &c. de Généve, tom. viii. (1838).
+ See First Report, p. 222; Mahlmann, p. 64. I think it unnecessary to say
anything of the progress of our knowledge of Primary Physical Laws of Radia-
tion, because that is to be made the subject of a special report by Professor
Powell.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 61
ference of such instruments was therefore observed by Lam-
bert*, Lesliet, and others.
64. It is plain, however, that this indication can only be con-
sidered to be comparable with itself so long as all external cir-
cumstances besides solar radiation remain the same. ‘This
Saussure well showed by one of his admirable experiments f,
in which, by properly defending the thermometer from wind and
common radiation, he raised its temperature in the sun to 190°
Fabr. Sir John Herschel first pointed out that the momentary
effect of the sun and other combined causes, in affecting the
temperature of a thermometer, diminished by the momentary
effect of those other causes acting separately, is the true relative
measure of the force of the sun’s rays. The first notice I have
met with substantiating Sir John Herschel’s claim to the ap-
plication of this principle (which has since been rather un-
scrupulously adopted abroad with a slight change of form),
is in a paper by the late Dr. Ritchie, in the Edinburgh Journal
of Science for 1825 §, where he gives an extract from a letter of
Sir John Herschel, who, ina few words, sufficiently describes the
instrument and its principle. Full instructions for its use have
lately been printed by the Royal Society ||; it is called an ac-
tinometer.
65. The actinometer scale is an arbitrary one, obtained by
direct comparison of one instrument with another; and so satis-
factory is this kind of observation, that, from direct experiment,
I am satisfied that the value of the actinometric degrees may be
obtained within ;1,th of the amount of solar radiation. It is
very singular, that Sir John Leslie, with his marked sagacity,
should not have perceived that his mode of graduating photo-
meters, by first converting them into hygrometers ], is radically
erroneous; and accordingly I have found that, when his instru-
ments are compared, after being constructed with the utmost
care, they do not even approach to agreement except at 0°,
unless they are of the same dimension, and in every respect
similar ; but absolute identity in size, material, and arrange-
ment, it is beyond the power of art to obtain. Careful experi-
ments, which I have likewise made with this elegant instrument
under different skies and in different climates, compel me to
conclude, that though in certain very uniform circumstances
its relative indications may be really of value, yet in a wider
* Pyrométrie, p. 158. 4to. Berlin, 1779.
+ Essay on Heat. Lond. 1804. + Voyages dans les Alpes, § 982.
§ Vol. iii. p. 107.
| Report of Committee of Physics, &c. 1840, p. 61.
q Essay on Heat, p. 421.
62 REPORT—1840.
point of view they do not even afford the slightest approxima-
tion to the truth.
66. It does not, however, follow that the indications of the
photometer are of no value, or that observations with it should
be discontinued. There are some constant peculiarities in its
action, so remarkable, as to suggest very interesting investiga-
tions. The effect of the reflected light of the sky is always
exceedingly intense; so much so, as to give rise to the most
paradoxical effects with regard to the intensity of solar radia-
tion, if neglected. Thus I have found the whole effect of the
sun and sky in a bright April day in this country, when many
white clouds were present, not very inferior to that of the most
piercing sunshine of the most sultry day of the south of Europe,
unaccompanied by a single cloud. What would be the indica-
tions of the actinometer in these circumstances I am unable to
state. M. Kamtz found, on the summit of the Faulhorn, that
the direct solar effect on Leslie’s photometer was equalled,
and often exceeded, by that of the diffuse atmospheric in-
fluence*.
67. Sir John Herschel has lately proposed to render his scale
an absolute one, denoting by an actine ‘‘ the intensity of solar
radiation, which, wholly absorbed at a vertical incidence, would
suffice to melt a sheet of ice one-millionth of a metre in thick-
ness in one minutet.”’ With an actinometer, which marked
29°5 as the maximum effect which he had observed in Europe,
Sir John Herschel found the solar radiation at the Cape of Good
Hope to attain 48°°75 of the same scale, the intensities being
in the exact proportion of those numbers f.
68. M. Pouillet, of Paris, described, some years ago, an ap-
paratus for measuring solar radiation, in which the errors of other
statical contrivances were in a good measure avoided, by en-
closing the thermometer in an envelope maintained at 0° c., with
the exception of a small hole, which exactly admitted the direct
rays from the solar disc§. Since that time, however, he has
adopted Herschel’s dynamical method, which he has applied to
a modification of the actinometer, which he terms a pyrhelio-
meter; reserving (rather unfortunately I think) the term acti-
nometer, which was already so fitly appropriated, to a separate
apparatus for measuring nocturnal radiation. These instru-
ments and their applications are described in an ingenious and
interesting memoir read to the Academy of Sciences 9th July,
* Lehrbuch, iii. 14.
+ Poggendorff, xli. 559. Royal Society’s Report, p. 67.
+ Comptes Rendus (Paris), iii. 506.
§ Elémens de Physique, 1832, tom. ii. p. 703, fig. 356.
i
ST
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 63
1838, printed in the Comptes Rendus*, and also privately cir-
culated.
69. A question of very great importance in meteorology, and
one of the first which radiation experiments were employed to
determine, is the proportion of incident solar heat which is
absorbed in its vertical passage through the atmosphere. In
the acute, learned, and original work of Lambert on Photo-
metry, published in 1760, (and now, I know not why, extremely
scarce,) this question is fully discussed; formule are investi-
gated for the total loss of light at any altitude, according to an
assumed law of density, (which had already been done by Bou-
guer ft, who first suggested the method,) and from a comparison
of intensities at two elevations, the total loss in the atmosphere
by a vertical transit is ingeniously deducedt. From experi-
ments made at Coire with blackened thermometers, Lambert
deduced the loss of light or heat by a vertical transit through a
clear atmosphere to be about ;4ths of that incident on the ex-
terior boundary§. Bouguer had estimated the loss of light at
only one half as much. ;
70. Laplace || investigated the law of extinction of light in the
atmosphere, and showed that it may be made to depend ap-
proximately on the measure of refraction at any angle, bya very
simple formula. He employed Bouguer’s constant for 0° of
zenith distance. ;
71. Sir John Leslie made experiments on the principle of
Bouguer and Lambert, with his photometer placed in a position
which equalized as much as possible the cooling causes, and
admitted the direct heat of the sun4. The results are con-
tained in the article Climate, in the Encyclopedia Britannica,
from which it appears that he estimates the loss of heat by
absorption at {th of that vertically incident.
72. Professor Kamtz, who has done full justice to Leslie’s ele-
* Mémoire sur la Chaleur Solaire, sur les pouvoirs rayonnants et absorbants
de l Air Atmosphérique, et sur la Température de l’ Espace.— Comptes Rendus,
vii. 24,
t+ Traité d'Optique, &. 4to. 1760, p. 306. Bouguer restricted his method
to Be cioparicon of the intensity of lunar light at different elevations with wax
candles,
t Lambert, Photometria, sive de Mensura et gradibus Luminis, Colorum, et
Umbre, p. 392, &c.
§ Photometria, p. 397. Compare Pyrometria, § 283.
|| Mécanique Céleste, iv. 282.
{] Sir John Leslie himself gives no account of the circumstances under which
the observations were made, but I learn from his assistant, that the photometer
was placed under the revolving dome of the Edinburgh Observatory, the slit
being turned towards the sun, and that it was observed very frequently at dif-
ferent hours.
64 REPORT—1840.
gant instrument*, and who has endeavoured to separate from its
indications that part which is due to reflexion from the at-
mosphere, finds by it, that at the summit of the Faulhorn,
nearly 9000 feet above the sea, 30 per cent. of the vertical rays
are already lost. With Herschel’s actinometer (calculating al-
ways observations at different elevations by Lambert’s formula),
he obtains only 26 per cent. of loss at the Faulhorn, or 32 per
cent. at the level of the sea. This was in perfectly clear weather.
73. M. Pouillet, employing likewise Lambert’s formule, and
the modification of the actinometer already mentioned, finds, at
different seasons of the year, an absorption varying from 21 to
28 per cent., at a vertical incidence at Paris.
74. Saussure seems first to have thought of comparing directly
the intensity of solar heat at the top and bottom of a mountain,
and he contrived a heliothermometer for that purpose; and by
experiments on the Cramont, to the south of Mont Blanc, he
actually proved the increased intensity of the solar rays as we
-ascend, notwithstanding the diminution of temperature; un-
doubtedly a very remarkable experiment for the period +.
- 75. In 1832, Sir John Herschel kindly pointed out this pro-
blem to my attention, and furnished me with two actinometers. I
had the rare. good fortune to obtain the aid of Prof. Kamtz in
making directly comparative experiments at the top and bottom
of a column of air 6500 feet high, of known density, tempera-
ture, and humidity, under the most unexceptionable circum-
stances in point of weather. A provisional reduction of these
experiments has given me 29 per cent. for the vertical loss at
the level of the sea, a near agreement with the 32 per cent. in-
dependently determined by the method of Bouguer and Lam-
bert with the same instrument at the same time.
76. Collecting these various results, we have for the absorp-
tion of incident solar heat traversing the atmosphere vertically
in clear weather, the following fractions (incident heat = 1) :—
BORNE \ sh, ena) ata Goh csp he
ata eri ee ete ae he ae HS EER
ais OR GONE aE con nae
MRC ee aes er ee rene
LR LL oUt a oh ee aS ae”
Kamtz and Forbes”, , . -: . s@9
bE OR ie Me Mae ems
Mean, omitting the two first . °277
* Lehrbuch, iii. 10, &c. + Saussure, Voyages, 4to. iti, 310, and note.
+ It appears from the remark of M., Pouillet, p. 8 of his Memoir, that he
would make the fraction even lower for a perfectly pure sky.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 65
77. Another method of measuring, or at least comparing the
intensity of solar radiation, would be by the use of photographic
aper*,
78. The next problem which radiation experiments may be
expected to solve, is the quantity of heat actually received from
the sun in a year on the surface of the earth. According to
Pouillet’s Jast estimate, this amounts to a quantity of heat
capable of melting 31 metres’ thickness of ice all over the
globet+. Such estimates must be received with considerable
diffidence.
79. The excess of heat received during the day is given off at
night, or rather there is a perpetual radiation of heat from the
globe towards the celestial spaces, which, granting the con-
stancy of climate from age to age, must exactly equal the quan-
tity of heat received. Observations of this kind may be made
in various ways. The simplest is by exposing a thermometer
to the aspect of the open sky, laying it on some freely radiating
substance, such as snow, wool, or swandown. In this manner
were conducted the experiments of Six, Wilson, and Wells.
Wells noticed a difference of two thermometers, one in air, the
other placed on swandown, amounting to 8°3 centigrade de-
grees{ (15° F.). Boussingault, in his observations amidst the-
Andes, has recorded a depression of 6°1; but the radiating
thermometer was laid simply on turf, the other was suspended in
the air at a height of 1°6 met. (5 ft. 4in.)§. His observations
were carried to a height of 4600 metres, where we should expect
the effect of nocturnal radiation to be greatly increased, owing
to the excessive transparency of the atmosphere. The same
author mentions the curious fact, that to defend their crops
from the intensity of the nocturnal cold, the natives of South
America often make artificial clouds by means of smoke.
80. Leslie applied his differential thermometer to the measure
of radiation by exposing one ball in the focus of a parabolic
mirror, which he then called an ethrioscope. The conduct of
systematic experiments of this kind is a matter of considerable
difficulty. The only continuous series with which I am ac-
quainted were made at Geneva during several years succeeding
1836, and published amongst the regular and excellent obser-
vations preserved in the Bibliotheque Universelle, a journal in
* See Herschel, Phil. Trans. 1840, p. 46. “‘ Description of an Actinograph
or self-registering Photometer for Meteorological purposes.”
¢ Mémoire sur la Chaleur Solaire, p. 9. His former estimate was 14 metres
only (see First Report, p. 222).
£ Arago, Annuaire, 1836, p. 261. See also Annuaire, 1838, p. 214, &c.
§ Ann. de Chim. lii. 260.
VOL. 1x. 1840. F
66 REPORT—1840.
which, during its long existence, marked attention has been
given to the science of meteorology*. It does not appear,
from the writings of Sir John Leslie himself, that he had ever
obtained any very definite results by the use of the ethrio-
scopet. ‘The action of the reflecting mirror seems not to be
fully understood, at least so M. Pouillet assertst{. I am
unable, from experience, to verify his statement, which
leaves, however, some ambiguity. M. Pouillet employs
a vessel stuffed with swanskin (peau de cygne), capable of
having its orifice directed at pleasure, and having a radiating
thermometer in its centre. By ascertaining the effect upon
this apparatus of a surface artificially maintained at a given
temperature, he deduces the mean radiating temperature of the
atmosphere considered as an indefinite concave. But this
brings us to general questions of great interest and importance.
F. Proper Temperature of the Globe and of Space§.
81. I forbear to repeat what I have formerly said respecting
the proofs of the proper temperature of the interior of the earth.
I confine myself to a statement of the very important advances
since made, both in experimental researches and in the induc-
tion of laws.
82. A few fundamental experiments are sufficient to maintain
Fourier’s position, that the interior heat of the earth exercises
no perceptible influence on its present climate; we are there-
fore left to consider the effects of heating and cooling influences
wholly external.
83. The imperfect transparency of the atmosphere stops a not
-inconsiderable share of the solar rays, which are therefore ex-
pended in heating it directly. But the major part reach the
surface, and their effect being there concentrated (whilst in
their transit through the atmosphere it is spread over a vast
mass of air), the effect is incomparably more intense than else-
where. The bounding surface of the earth (or ocean) and air is
therefore to be considered as a true source of heat. From
thence it is distributed progressively downwards by CoNDUC-
TION||, upwards by RADIATION and CONVECTION. The warmth
* Bib. Univ., N.S., iii. 209, and subsequent volumes. Since the publication
of the former report, we have to regret the loss of the late amiable Mr. George
Maurice, principal editor of that journal.
+ Articles Curmate and Metecoroxoey, Encyclopedia Britannica, New Edit.
t Mém. Chal. Sol., p. 32.
§ First Report, p. 221; Mahlmann, p. 67, &c.
|| Even in water. See the interesting and conclusive experiments by M.
Despretz, Comptes Rendus, vii. 933.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 67
of summer and the winter’s cold are gradually propagated
both upwards and downwards; and, in either case, with a
diminishing intensity according to known laws. The annual
curve of temperature in the ground is rapidly retarded and
flattened, until, at a moderate depth, (60 to 100 feet, depending
upon the conducting power and specific heat of the soil,) it
sensibly coincides with a straight line, or the influence of
seasons disappears ; and the same takes place in the atmosphere
at a great and unknown elevation.
84. The general principles of the communication of heat have
led to the conclusions, 1. that the annual range should diminish
geometrically as the depths below the surface increase arith-
metically ; 2. that the retardation of epochs increases uniformly
with the depth*.
85. Both these conclusions of theory have been very satisfac-
torily verified by the experiments mentioned in the former re-
port t, and extended since. And what is still more important, the
verification of these two simple laws includes the introduction
of certain constants, which may thus be determined a posteriori,
and the general solution of problems of terrestrial conduction
obtained.
86. Instead of merely citing the formule in which the ex-
pressions of the constants of our globe and system are involved,
and which are found to express approximately the thermo-
metric conditions of the strata of our globe near enough to the
surface to be directly influenced by climateric changes, we will
endeavour to trace, very generally, the Aind of process by
which mathematicians have attempted to reduce to law these
most complicated and involved series of causes. In doing so
we have a twofold object, which seems peculiarly congenial to
the nature of such reports as the present; first, to extricate
from a chaos of symbols (which would deter most persons
from even tracing the connection of the data assumed, with the
results announced), such results as apply immediately to the
physical investigation ; and secondly, to consider how far the
really fundamental conditions of the problem have, or have not,
been sacrificed to render the mathematical investigation practi-
cable at all.
* See the original works on Heat of Fourier (particularly Mém. de l'Institut,
1821-22, p. 168) and Poisson, the elementary work of Prof. Kelland, and the
Report by Prof. Whewell, on the Mathematical Theory of Heat. British
Association, Fifth Report.
+ P. 221. The experiments on buried thermometers, near Edinburgh,
were made in the grounds of Mr. Ferguson, of Raith, by his permission, but
were suggested and directed by the late Sir John Leslie. See Whewell’s Re-
port, p. 30; see also article Cuimarr, Encyclopedia Britannica.
F2
68 REPORT—1840.
87. The work in which the rigorous comparison of theory with
experience in this most intricate inquiry has been most insisted
on, is that of M. Poisson, of whose mathematical attainments
it would be equally unnecessary and unbecoming in me to
speak ; any criticisms I have to offer will therefore be confined
to the second of the heads I have noticed above; and to his
writings * I will chiefly confine my attention.
88. So far as the effect of soLAR HEAT is concerned, the a pri-
ort solution of the problem of the temperature of any part of the
earth’s surface may be thus imagined :—(1.) The whole quantity
of sunshine which falls on any part of the earth’s surface in
the course of a year is to be found, and also the law of its
variation of force at different seasons. (2.) The part of this
heat which becomes effective in heating the earth’s crust is to
be found by multiplying the amount by a constant depending
upon the absorbent power of the surface. (3.) This quantity
of heat thus reduced is propagated towards the interior, accord-
ing to the laws of conduction, which again pre-suppose the
knowledge of two constants proper to each soil, namely, the
Conductivity and the Specific Heat.
89. (1.) The measure of the quantity of sunshine received by
any place in a year, and its distribution at different seasons, has
been a favourite problem with mathematicians+. In ultimate
analysis, it depends of course on the astronomical elements
which affect the progress of the seasons, viz. the obliquity of
the ecliptic(y), the latitude of the place(u), the excentricity of
the earth’s orbit(a), and the longitude of the sun’s perigee(a) ft.
But there are also elements quite as important as any of these ;
the imperfect transparency of the air and its varying thickness,
owing to differences of obliquity of the transmitted rays, and
the condition of opacity depending on the weather. Neither of
these are insignificant, neither of them compensatory; both
may be considered as functions of the hour-angle and fraction
of the year, and the second is besides subjected to the most
capricious changes. Yet of these elements theory has hitherto
taken no account, and consequently the expression for the
quantity of sunshine obtained, in terms of astronomical con-
stants, with so much labour, we must hold to be nearly useless
as a physical datum. It is vain to say, with M. Poisson§,
“Les lois d’absorption de la chaleur solaire 4 travers l’at-
mosphere, les variations diurnes et annuelles sont également
* Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, 4to. Paris, 1835, chap. xii. Sup-
plément, 4to, 1837, and Comptes Rendus, iv. 137.
+ See a list in Kamtz, Lehrbuch, i. 60.
t In Poisson’s Notation. § Théorie, p. 475.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 69
inconnues, et l’on peut seulement supposer qu’elles sont peu
considérables.’ We know, on the contrary, that they are so
considerable, that, estimating the loss of radiant heat by a
vertical passage through the atmosphere (7 6.) at only twenty-
five per cent., at an angle of elevation of 25° the force of the
solar rays would be reduced to ahalf, and at 5° to one-twentieth
part. We know, indeed, that the difference of the direct effect
of a vertical and a horizontal sun is due to this cause alone, exag-
gerated, of course, immensely by the variable meteorological
state of the atmosphere, which again is a function of the lati-
tude.
90. (2.) The receptive power of the surface is a datum which
we find it very difficult directly to determine, and which, since
the quantity of sunshine cannot (as we have seen} possibly be
directly computed, must be inextricably mixed up with it. It
might be a question, whether, by covering a tolerably extensive
surface of soil, in which thermometers are inserted, with a com-
position of known superficial conductivity, this element might
not become known.
91. (3.) The specific heat (c)and conductivity (4) of the soil are
also inextricably mixed up together in the analysis; but either
becoming known, the other may be inferred from thermometric
observations carried below the surface. The specific heat seems
that best adapted for laboratory experiments ; M. Elie de Beau-
mont has assigned 0°5614 for the value of ¢ (that for an equal
bulk of water being = 1)*, proper to the soil at the Observatory
of Paris.
92. To obtain the conductivity of the soila@ posteriort, it is for-
tunately not necessary that the preceding theoretical estimation
of the distribution of sunshine should be correct ; but there are
other estimates into which it essentially enters, and which must
therefore be received with corresponding caution. To facilitate
reference to M. Poisson’s work, I will show how the simple and
very satisfactory observation of maximum and minimum tempe-
rature of the earth’s crust at given small depths (above the inva-
riable stratum) may be made to yield a knowledge of some of
the constants above referred to.
93. Let the excess of annual maximum above annual minimum
temperature at a depth p be expressed by A, 5 then
log A, = A+ Bpt
In which A of course denotes the log. range when p = 0 or
* Poisson, Supplement, p. 4.
+ M. Quetelet puts under this form M. Poisson’s equation.—See the memoir
referred to below.
70 REPORT—1840.
at the surface, and B determines the common ratio of the geo-
metrical progression according to which the range diminishes.
From observations with two thermometers at different depths,
A and B may be obtained @ posteriori.
94. Now when we consult M. Poisson’s work, we find that his
equation (23.), page 497, whichis equivalent to the preceding one,
is thus composed. The quantity A, on which the superficial
range depends, contains (1) astronomical constants of climate y,
&, &, @ already mentioned; (2) a temperature A depending on
the mean force of the solar rays which have traversed the atmo-
sphere and entered into combination with the earth’s surface by
absorption at a given place*; (3) the constant of conductivity 4,
and of specific heat ce.
95. The co-efficient B, on which the rate of diminution of the
range depends, is fortunately a very simple quantity, involving
neither astronomical constants, nor those proper to the superficies.
It is, in fact, an absolute number multiplied by, / a. and from
a knowledge of it (by observations with two or more thermome-
ters) this quantity may be very readily and accurately deter-
mined ; and it affords the only unexceptionable manner of ascer-
taining the conductivity of the earth’s crust on a large scale.
Observations to this effect have, from time to time, been made
by thermometers plunged more or less below the soil; first, by
Ott of Zurich, in 1762+; secondly, by Leslie near Edinburgh ;
thirdly, by Herrenschneider at Strasbourg}; fourthly, by Muncke
at Heidelberg§; fifthly, by Rudberg at Upsala; sixthly, by
Arago at Paris; seventhly, by Quetelet at Brussels. An ad-
* Poisson, p. 480, where the definition of / is “ Une température constante
proportionelle & l’intensité de la chaleur solaire, telle qu'elle est a la distance
moyenne de la terre au soleil et aprés avoir traversée l’'atmosphére pour arriver
au point O.” It must not, however, be forgotten, that it includes ¢, a constant
of superficial absorption, and therefore varies from one point to another. See
Poisson, p. 500. The quantity / is one of the most troublesome clearly to ap-
prehend, and the dispersion (and sometimes permutation) of symbols throughout
so large a work contributes to the ambiguity. I will therefore add, that in the
ce SET: = x) a? ¢ is a constant of absorption for a
given soil, but which may vary with the incidence of the rays (p. 474) ; S is the
product of an element of surface, and a quantity of heat in the condition in
which the atmosphere has transmitted it (p. 475); a and a, denote the proper
superficial radiating power of the point O under consideration, and the cooling
effect due to the contact of air (p. 849). The product of h by Q (see Art. 105,
note) measures the thermometric efficiency of the solar rays in raising the
climateric temperature of the spot (p. 518).
+ Lambert's Pyrométrie, p. 356. } Imperfect; only one thermometer.
§ Gives only the epochs.
value of h, page 480, namely,
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 71
mirable abstract and analysis of all these observations has been
made by the last-named indefatigable observer, in a special me-
moir on the subject*, which we could hardly abridge without
transcribing, and will therefore state chiefly the results with
respect to the quantities A and B mentioned above. The fol-
lowing are the principal results in a tabular form, it being un-
derstood that in most of these cases no correction has been ap-
plied for the temperature of the liquid in the stem of the ther-
mometer and between the bulb and the surface of the ground.
or uo | 3
Ss| ig eaene| de. oss
an < —
Place 5 #| 2 | Extreme | 33~ 3 g|° aS pk — Sen
. Be|/m2| Depth |sSegs| 528 — const. ess
35/8 Brees | Bam Ny gee
r=] L23aa Po [-7as)
& ga a 4
feet. feet. days
Zurich .......0000- 8 | 43 | 6(Fr.?) 71 1-217 — 038 5
Edinburgh ...... 4 |2 | 8(Eng.)} 58 1-068 — 052 7
Strasbourg ...... 1 | 3 {15 (Fr.?) 81 1:279 — -040
4/3 1-292 — 053
4 . Ae
96. The following observations have been made at Edinburgh,
under my direction, at the expense of the British Association{,
which, as well as those at Brussels, are completely corrected for
the temperature of the liquid in the stems :—
Edinburgh
In Trap Tufa.| 4 | 3 | 24(Fr.)| 55 1-141 — 057 6:8
— Loose Sand.| 4 oa] PS ee 66 1-192 — 048 6:2
— Sandstone..| 4 | 3 | — 96 1-080 — ‘032 4:0
97. These latter observations show very clearly the effect of soi/
in determining the velocity of propagation of heat which mainly
depends upon the value of B, from which too the conductivity for
heat of three very different geological formations may be accu-
rately determined, so soon as the specific heat shall be known.
98. Observations of the same kind with the preceding have
* Mémoire sur les Variations Diurne et Annuelle de la Température, &c., 4to,
Bruxelles, 1837. (From the Mémoires del Académie de Bruxelles, tom. x.)
+ These observations have now been continued for three additional years, and
the partial results are contained in the Bulletin de l’ Acad. de Bruxelles, and
the Annuaire de l'Observatoire. Since this report was read, I have received
M. Quetelet’s Systematic Reduction of the Observations at Bruxelles for 1837,
1838 and 1839. The results agree extremely well with those of previous years,
and establish the formula of Art. 93. with remarkable precision. Jém. de
V Acad. de Bruxelles, tom. xiii. 1840.
t See Eighth and Ninth Reports, and Atheneum for September 1839.
72 REPORT—1840.
been instituted at Bonn by Prof. Bischoff*, and at Freiburg in
Saxony by Prof. Reicht; but of these, so far as I am aware,
only imperfect notices have yet appeared.
99. The epochal retardations for the annual curves at the depth
of a few feet follow, generally speaking, asimple law, for they
are propagated uniformly downwards with a velocity which is
easily connected with the constants proper to the soil determined
from the range at two given depths, as justexplained{. It must
not be concluded, however, that the epochs of earth-temperature
at the surface coincide with those of air-temperature in the ad-
joining stratum. The difference of epoch may be obtained in
terms of the conductivity and superficial characters of the solid
stratum§. But the complete expression for the epoch at any
depth in terms of the dates of maximum and minimum at some
other depth, and of the constants of conductivity and surface,
derived from two observed ranges, is so complex, that so far as
I know, no attempt has been made to verify M. Poisson’s for-
mule except in a single example by himself, taken from M.
Arago’s observations]|.
100. It is a matter of some practical difficulty to find the
precise period of maximum and minimum temperature from ob-
servations at or near the surface, on account of the accidental
fluctuations which occur, especially near the time of minimum,
and which, even at a depth of three feet, produce in this climate
an uncertainty sometimes of a week or more.
101. I have already stated, in the preceding table, the results
* Warmelehre von G. Bischoff, 8vo, 1837, pp. 100, 392,507. The observa-
tions were not made with long-tubed thermometers having their scales above
ground, but by sinking bottles of water in-wooden tubes to a certain depth,
drawing them up rapidly, and observing their temperature. The observations
were carried to a depth of 36 feet.
+ Bischoff, ibid, p. 512.
t Poisson, p. 432. If X be the range at a depth x, and X! at depth a!, and
a the retardation of epoch due to the increased depth from a to a’, the following
relation holds,
X'=Xer™ r
m being a constant and e the base of Napier’s logarithms.
Ibid.
iP. 502-3. The coincidence is not so remarkable as a cursory inspection
would suggest; there are not four coincidences but only two—the data and
quesita being reversed. The coincidence, such as it is, perhaps proves too much ;
for M. Arago’s observations are not corrected for the temperature of the stem
(‘afin de pouvoir faire usage des observations non corrigées que M. Arago
m’a communiquées, je supposerai que ces corrections soient peu considérables, ”
p- 500); it is certain, however, that for the larger thermometers, where the
range is /east, and the correction greatest, the epochs must be (perhaps most
materially) affected. The scientific world anxiously looks for the extended and
reduced observations of M, Arago.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 73
of different observations on the rate of progress of heat into the
soil, especially as depending on its geological character, a com-
pact sonorous sandstone transmitting heat at the rate of one
foot in four days, whilst in loose sand (the same ingredient) it
required 6:2 days. The following tables illustrate the varying
retardation and proportionate diminution of amplitude (or range)
at different depths*.
s8
a Maximum. Minimum. Range.
Se
eae ee eel Bayt d Delos bye ifs te dowiasne ed BS oa | Sab Babe tenes tecgt
Ki Trap. Sand. Sandst. Trap, | Sand. Sandst. Trap. ;} Sand, | Sandst.
3 | Aug. 5| Aug. 2| Aug, 7 || Mar. 6] Feb. 28! Feb. 23 ||9° -67c|11°-03c|9° -67c
6 | Sept. 1| Aug. 25| Ag.19 | Mar. 20 | Mar. 22 Mar. 3 \6° "12 | 8°-05 |7° -68
12 | Oct. 15| Oct. 8] Sept.14 || Apr. 25 | Apr. 22 | Mar. 26 |/2° -85 | 4°-03 |5° -01
24 | Jan, 6} Dec.31| Nov. 6 | July 15} July 1} May 12 |/0°-75 | 1°-00 |2° -20
102. What we have now stated respecting annual variations of
temperature, is found to be true, mutatis mutandis, for diurnal
ones. Theory shows that the depth at which periodic fluctua-
tions sensibly vanish should be (ceteris paribus) as the square
roots of their periods, and this is found to be nearly the case in
point of fact; the diurnal oscillation being nearly as insen-
sible at a depth of three or four feet, as the annual one is at nine-
teen (or / 365) times the depth, or at 60 or 70 feett. M. Que-
telet has made a most extensive series of observations at small
depths, and he finds the diurnal heat-tide to penetrate at the
rate of 1 decimetre (4 inches) in 2°8 hours nearly, in the month
of Marchf.
103. We now hasten to state a few other conclusions which
have been attempted to be drawn from the very important class
of observations of which we have recently spoken. Did we
possess, in the actinometer or any other instrument, the
means of measuring the actual force of sunshine in any place at
a given moment, insuperable difficulties would yet arise to the
determination of the very important questions, “‘’To what extent
does the direct solar influence actually contribute to produce
the climate we enjoy?” and “ What would be the temperature
of our globe without the sun?’’ It is difficult or impossible
for us to take cognizance of the perpetually fiuctuating amount
of solar heat, and to sum up the discontinuous amount of it du-
‘ting the year, allowing for intervals of darkness, atmospheric
_ * These numbers are (excepting the epochs of minima, which are but two
years) amean of three years. The temperatures are centigrade.
+ Quetelet, wt supra, p. 72. { Ibid, p. 68.
74 REPORT—1840.
opacity, and cloudy weather; and even could this be accom-
plished, we should yet want data for knowing what portion of
the incident heat combines with the earth so as to affect the
climate. M. Pouillet, we have seen, has estimated the total
quantity of sunshine incident on our globe*, but this was irre-
spective of modifications of weather, and of the variable quantity
of sunshine in different latitudes.
104. A practical @ posteriori determination of this most im-
portant meteorological element of the total quantity of effective
solar heat, affecting the thermometric mean of any climate, has
been suggested by M. Poisson. It seems well established by
observations in the Caves at Paris, and by observations on the
temperature of the earth at Geneva, that the mean air-tempera-
ture and mean superficial earth-temperature agree at these
places, though their extremes differ both in amount and epoch.
If, then, we can by any means find the ¢otal effect of the solar
rays on the superficial earth stratum, we may assume that to
be the effect due to the direct action of the sun in raising the
temperature of the place.
105. M. Poisson has accordingly attempted most ingeniously
to connect the climateric effect of the solar rays with the indica-
tions of thermometers sunk to small depths in the ground. From
the value of the superficial range (whose logarithm is A in the
expression of art. 93.) one of its factors 4 may be discovered,
entering into combination with known or determinable quanti-
ties, and this quantity A ist, for any given spot, a number pro-
portional to the direct climateric effect of the sun’s rays which
may be deduced from itt. Now let us admit the mathematical
accuracy of this very intricate investigation, and the admissibility
* Art. 78. t See art. 94, note.
+ The value of A of art. 93, 94, is the following (in Poisson’s Notation,
2bh : f
page 497) : log D 37 sinwsiny — 2«Q),
where a, y, #% are astronomical constants already mentioned.
his the constant of art, 94. note.
b is a constant depending on the superficial character of the soil, and also on
its conductivity.
D is a function of 6, of the specific heat of the soil, and of the longitude of the
earth's perihelion.
Q is a very complicated function of the astronomical constants which deter-
mine the length of the day, and is one of a series of definite integrals of
which the succeeding terms are neglected.
By the combination of two observed values of A + B p (art. 93.) 6 and B are
eliminated; the above expression contains only / and known quantities (Poisson,
p. 499); and the product 4 Q expresses (p. 518) the number of degrees by
which the annual mean temperature of the given place is affected by direct
solar radiation.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 75
of the approximations of calculation*, still we find little reason
to trust implicitly to the results, however ingeniously obtained.
We have seen (69.) that the effective action of solar radiation
cannot be expressed simply by the quantity of heat which would
fall on a square foot of the earth’s surface were the atmosphere
removed ; but the absorption is very great even in the clearest
weather, and therefore (even admitting a uniform distribution
of vapours over the whole year, so that their opacity need not
be considered as a function of the time) the quantity of solar
heat depends on the thickness of the atmosphere traversed, and
is therefore a function both of the hour angle and of the fraction
ofa year. The integrals, therefore, expressing the discontinu-
ous quantity of sunshine, are wholly unadapted to the physical
conditions of the problem.
106. That 4 cannot thereby be rightly estimated, will appear
from this consideration: viz. that the whole effect of sunshine
can only be deduced from the annual range at a given depth (or
at the surface) by the following reasoning. The winter-action
of the sun may (it is assumed) be compared a priori with the
summer-action of the sun, and the excess of the latter action
determined; but the Effect due to this Excess being observed
(viz. the annual range), the effect due to either of the constituent
actions (summer or winter) may be found, which gives the whole
climateric effect of the sun at any season, and hence its mean
effect throughout the yeart. Now in applying this principle,
it is clear that unless the @ priori estimate of the sun’s relative
radiation in summer and winter be made on correct principles,
a knowledge of the difference of effect due to the change of the
cause will not lead to a correct value of the cause. In point of
fact, a neglect of the absorption due to obliquity (not to mention
the enormous excess of cloudy weather in the winter half-year)
will inevitably lead to an under estimate of the proportion which
the summer radiation bears to the winter radiation, and (as the
difference between these effects is the quantity known) the value
* So involved are these expressions, that the author himself has inadvertently
‘Made use of two identical values of one quantity, this same h, and quoted the
coincidence as a proof of the accuracy of the formule and observations (p.
503-4). This he admits in the Supplément, page 72.
+ This at least is my understanding of the principles of solving the problem.
The problem which Fourier has proposed (Mém. de I’ Institut, v. 167, &c.) is
_ amuch simpler and also a less important one, viz. to find the quantity of solar
heat alternately absorbed and emitted by the earth’s surface in the course of a
year, which evidently does not include the permanent or mean heat derived
from the sun, and which is subject to no annual change, but which would be
dissipated were the sun extinguished.
76 REPORT—1840.
of the constituent effects will also be wnder estimated, or the
climateric effect of the sun will come out too small.
107. Such, indeed, is almost certainly the case. The climateric
effect of the sun at Paris is estimated from the superficial range
of temperature (deduced by Poisson from Arago’s experiments)
to be only 24° cent.*. The mean temperature of Paris being
11° cent., there remains for the temperature which would re-
main if the direct influence of the sun were removed, — 13° c.
or + 9° Fahr., a result altogether improbable. Further, the
thickness of a sheet of ice over the whole globe which would be
melted by the entire annual action of the sun, would be, accord-
ing to Poisson, seven or eight metres}, whilst Pouillet supposes
it four times as greatf.
108. Fourier, in his remarkable Memoir on the Heat of the
Globe§, had clearly shown that its superficial temperature
depends on three causes, which may be kept wholly distinct.
1. Solar heat. 2. Temperature of space. 3. Internal heat. To
these M. Poisson has added Atmospheric Heat, which, however,
is merely that part of the solar heat absorbed by the atmosphere
and communicated secondarily to the earth, independent of that
received by direct radiation.
109. Since the Report of Prof. Whewell on the Mathematical
Theory of Heat, to which we refer for what had been written
on these subjects at that time, several new contributions to
this interesting branch of science have been made, both theore-
tically and experimentally ; I allude particularly to the publica-
tion of Poisson’s Theory of Heat, and Pouillet’s Memoir before-
cited.
110. Poisson’s Theory of ArmospHeRic Hear has met witha
very just criticism, in almost every part of which I entirely agree,
at the hands of Prof. Auguste de la Rive, of Geneva. His ob-
jections are so ably and clearly stated, that so far as they antici-
pate my own, it may be sufficient briefiy to state them, and refer
to his article || for details. And first, as to the constitution of
the atmosphere: Poisson{], adopting the reasoning of Fourier**,
admits that the temperature of any part of the atmosphere must
be determined by the equality of the heat directly received from
the sun and indirectly from the earth, with that radiated abroad
* Poisson, p. 518. + Poisson’s Supplément, p. 7.
t Mémoire sur la Chaleur Solaire, p. 9. (See above, art. 78.)
§ Mémoires de l Institut, vii. 569 ; and Whewell’s Report, in British Associa-
tion, Fifth Report, p. 30.
\| Bibliotheque Universelle, Nov.—Dec., 1835.
4 Théorie, p. 448, &c. ** Mém. de l'Institut. vii. 584, &c.
ee a i eee
bee ae
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 17
in space, and in the adjacent atmospheric strata. Proceeding,
however, to the mechanical conditions of equilibrium*, he infers
that the temperature of the exterior part of the atmosphere
must be prodigiously low, in order that it may have a definite
termination, which condition of non-elasticity he calls liquefac-
tion}, a term, the impropriety of which will sufficiently appear
from the observations of M. de la Rive cited below. It is quite
certain that an elastic atmosphere may be considered as rigor-
ously limited, even wholly irrespective of the diminution of elas-
ticity due to cold, and this without necessarily inferring an as-
sent to the molecular constitution, from which Dr. Wollaston
deduced the limitation as a necessary inference§. Hence, any
hypothesis of extreme cold required to produce mechanical equi-
librium in the higher parts of the atmosphere is devoid of sup-
port. As to the actual extent of the finite atmosphere, this is
a question on which experiments both direct and indirect leave
us much in the dark; nor can the optical phenomena of twilight
be cited with much confidence in such a case, the reflective power
of rarefied air being a datum on which we want direct evi-
dence ||.
111. The effect of the atmosphere upon the temperature of the
globe, as treated of by M. Poisson, is twofold; namely, /irst,
the modification of solar heat, which after combination with the
air both radiates, and communicates heat by contact, to the earth;
if the sun were extinguished, this heat would also vanish, al-
* Théorie, p. 459. ’
+ Théorie, p. 459, and Supplément, note D. p. 60; Traite de Mécanique,
ii. 612.
+ “ Nous ne pouvons admettre que cet état du fluide soit analogue a l’état
liquide, du moins si nous attachons au mot liquide le sens physique dans lequel
on l’entend communément, et par lequel on désigne, par exemple, l'état au-
quel une basse température et une forte compression aménent la plupart des
fluides élastiques. Si M. Poisson n’entend par liquide que cet état des fluides
dans lequel la force élastique est disparu, ce n’est plus alors qu'une définition
mathématique qui est bonne tant qu’on ne cherche pas a se representer l'état
physique du fluide. Toutefois observons que ce n’est pas ainsi qu’on définit
les liquides; parceque 1’état liquide suppose non seulement |’absence de force
élastique, mais de plus une attraction moléculaire plus ou moins grande entre
les particules du fluide, attraction qu’il nous est impossible d’admettre ici.” —
Bib. Univ., Nov. 1835.
§ Phil. Trans., 1822, p. 89. Abstracts, ii. 160. M. Biot appears to give the
credit of this remark to M. Poisson; Comptes Rendus, vi. 395.
|| See on this subject M. Biot’s Memoirs; Comptes Rendus, viii. 91 ; ix. 174;
Lambert’sW orks; Lubbock on Heatand Vapours, 1840; also Poisson, Supplément
Gla Théorie de la Chaleur, note D, where the author investigates the equilibrium
of the atmosphere under certain conditions, but ends with these words: “il ne
s’agit dans cette note, que d’un simple exemple de calcul, et vraisemblablement,
les hypothéses que nous avons faites pour le faciliter ne sont pas conformes a la
nature.”
78 REPORT—1840.
though for convenience it is distinguished from the direct. solar
heat measured by an actinometer; secondly, the proper low
temperature of the higher atmosphere which is communicated
to the earth by radiation through the inferior strata. M. Pois-
son contents himself with supposing that these two causes neu-
tralize one another, or that the latter rather preponderates*,
for which he assigns, I think, no sufficient reason ; on the con-
trary, from what we have just stated (110.) of the action of the
atmosphere, which lets more heat enter than can directly escape,
we conceive that the heating effect of the atmosphere is essen-
tially positive.
. M. Poisson having thus estimated the direct solar effect
on the climate of Paris at 24° cent., and the atmospheric in-
fluence as nothing relatively to the existing temperature, assigns
the temperature which remains, namely, 11°, the actual mean
temperature of Paris, diminished by 24°, or — 13° (=8°6 Fahr.)
for the heat of space, or the temperature which our globe would
take were the sun permanently extinguished.
113. This result must certainly be considered as a very start-
ling and improbable one. That the temperature which our globe
would take did the sun not heat at all should be actually higher
than the mean temperature of many points of its surface exposed
to the solar rays during a great part of the year, and nearly 80°
of Fahr. above a degree of natural cold actually observedy,
is a paradox to which M. Arago drew attention, and which M.
Poisson we think did not succeed in rendering plausible{. Fou-
rier was distinctly of opinion that the temperature of space must
be lower than the mean of any point of the earth’s surface,
though he admits that local causes might produce a temporary
depression §. The only explanation, indeed, which it can admit
of, is that to which M. de la Rive has shown that Poisson’s rea-
soning necessarily leads, viz. that the atmosphere is an inde-
pendent source of heat|| (or cold, which is the same thing), a
conclusion nowhere distinctly admitted by the author. Now
this conclusion surely will be very reluctantly adopted, seeing
that, even supposing the direct solar influence could be success-
fully estimated, the remaining temperature must be derived from
(what is called) the heat of space and the heat of the atmosphere.
Experiments are, I apprehend, totally wanting which can se-
* «Ta partie (namely, of the heat not directly received from the sun by any
part of the earth’s surface) provenant de l’atmosphére ne nous est pas connue ;
nous pouvons seulement présumer qu’elle est négative.’’— Théorie, p. 520.
t Viz.—70° Fahr., by Captain Back.
+ Comptes Rendus (Paris), i nN. OV.
§ Mem. de l'Institut, vii. 582. || Bib. Univ., Dec. 1835.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 79
parate these two united effects ; their relation and absolute in-
tensities are therefore, we presume, yet unknown; nor can we
understand how it is possible that the higher strata of the at-
mosphere can remain permanently colder than the strata be-
neath and the sky abeve them, without admitting a paradox of
the same kind with a mechanical perpetual motion.
114. Iam aware that M. Pouillet, in his memoir so often cited,
has been led to the same conclusion with M. Poisson respecting
the low temperature of the aerial coating of the globe, and has
actually computed the depression of temperature which might
exist in various hypothetical cases. Until, however, M. Pouillet
can exhibit an experiment in which so paradoxical a result is
actually attained, I am inclined to think that we must consider
it as at variance with the fundamental laws of heat as at present
received. M. Pouillet has made many ingenious experiments
with his instrument designed to measure nocturnal radiation ;
and (since the cooling effect of the sky may always be assimi-
lated to that of a hollow sphere having a determinate tempera-
ture) he has, I believe for the first time, endeavoured to translate
into numerical language the indications of his instrument by
actually exposing it to the radiating action of surfaces of low
temperature, which would have the same effect, whatever be their
distance, and that effect being known in thermumetric degrees
on his instrument, the eguivadent temperature of the vault of
heaven, or what he calls zenithal temperature, becomes known
too. All this is very ingenious and clear, and such determina-
tions of zenithal temperatures will certainly one day be of great
value. But the difficulty is to separate this temperature into
that due to the atmosphere, and that due to the temperature of
space. As already stated, we are not satisfied that such a sepa-
ration has been, or at present can be effected; and the great
variations of the assigned temperatures of space strengthen this
doubt; for whilst Fourier and Swanberg make it — 40° c.*, Valz,
— 45°+, Poisson makes it 13°f, and Pouillet between — 115°
and — 175°§.
115. Fourier was the first who distinctly introduced the idea
of the proper temperature of space, as well as the first who endea~
voured to assign to it avalue. Our ideas about an absolute zero
* See last Report, p. 203, and Fourier, Mém. de l'Institut, vii. p. 598. The
grounds on which Fourier’s estimate is made, nowhere exactly appear; Her-
schel considers his published statements unsatisfactory (Geol. Trans. III. 297);
yet it appears that M. Fourier himself was strongly persuaded of the truth of
his estimate, which he thought was not erroneous to the amount of 8° or 10°
cent. (Arago’s Eloge de Fourier, p. 55.)
+ Mahlmann, p. 14, note. t Théorie, p. 520.
§ Mémoire sur la Chaleur Solaire, p. 38.
80 REPORT—1840.
of temperature, far from getting clearer, are perhaps now more
unfixed than ever; and what would be the result of a condition of
which we can form no very definite physical conception (a body
placed in an envelope deprived of heat), it is perhaps too bold to —
conjecture. But that the planetary spaces are not exactly in
this condition, is not improbable. A body (be it a thermometer
ora planet) placed in space may take a temperature, by contact,
from a fluid by which it is surrounded, or by radiation from
distant stars (being shaded from the sun) ; the latter, we under-
stand to be the meaning usually assigned by philosophers to the
term Temperature of Space*. This influence may change from
age to age, and be variable in different regions of the globe, de-
pending on their exposure. M. Poisson supposes that the in-
crease of temperature with depth in the earth indicates the effect
of an at-one-period-more-intense stellar radiation, and con-
sequently that it does not necessarily extend beneath a depth
which the epoch of the oscillations of external influence would
determine. This is no doubt perfectly unanswerable, as a mat-
ter of bare possibility; but it seems hardly worth maintaining
an opinion which a million of years will scarcely show to be
feasible or the reverset.
116. We have formerly stated {, that Fourier had arrived at the
conclusion that the flux of heat from the interior to the surface
of the globe did not raise the temperature of the latter above
sith of a centigrade degree§, or would melt annually a stratum
of ice =3,th of an English inch in thickness ; and in this estimate
Poisson nearly coincides ||. The influence of internal heat is
quite irrespective of any theory as to the state of the nucleus,
and depends only on the rate of increase as we descend, a cir-
cumstance which M. de la Rive seems to have overlooked in
urging his objections against Poisson’s theory. We proceed to
state some important additions which have been made to our
knowledge of Facts respecting the thermometric condition of
the accessible part of the earth’s crust.
* See an interesting notice by Sir J. F. W. Herschel, read to the Royal
Astronomical Society, 10 Jan. 1840; Atheneum, Feb. 15; where, as well as
in a paper in the third volume of the Geological Transactions, New Series,
on Astronomical Causes affecting Geological Theories, are some important sug-
gestions on these intricate subjects.
+ On the subject of the thermometric state of the globe, seea popular article
by M. Arago (Annuaire, 1834), and the Eloge of Fourier, by the same author.
In the Annales de Chimie, a few years since, Libri has given some results as to
the rate of cooling, and the contraction of the earth’s crust, within historic
times, chiefly with a view to the supposed explanation which it affords of certain
geological phenomena.
¢~ Last Report, p. 221. § Mém. de lV Institut, vii. 590.
|| Théorie, &c., p. 424.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 81
117. We have no reason to admit any sensible change in the
mean temperature of the superficial part of the globe; at least
we are rather disposed to attribute the manifest elevation of
temperature observed during twenty years, in the observations in
the caverns under the Observatory at Paris, to some permanent
alteration in the instrument than to a change of temperature of
the earth, a point which we hope the French astronomers will
take pains to ascertain. The observations from 1817 to 1835
being divided into four series, give the following results :—
FI+7S0 11°°801 11°°857 E950"
118. The mean of 352 observations is 11°834 ; the mean tem-
perature of the air at Paris is 10°822+; the difference is to
be attributed to the increase of terrestrial heat for 28 metres
of descent.
119. Observations on borings, and overflowing or Artesian
wells, have been perhaps more unexceptionable of late years
than at any former period. We shall give such indications as
to record the chief facts observed. Amongst the best obser-
vations are those made by MM. De la Rive and Marcet in a
boring near Geneva}, under the most unexceptionable circum-
stances, which agree extremely well in indicating a uniform
increase of heat at the rate of 1° cent. for 32°55 metres of de-
scent, or 59 feet for 1° Fahr. The whole depth was 255 metres.
120. A list of Artesian wells and their temperatures has been
given by M. Arago, in the Annuaire for 1835; and by Pois-
son, on the same authority, in his Theory of Heat§; whence
he has deduced: (from fifteen Artesian wells in France, all above
20 metres deep) an increase of 1° cent. for 25°46 metres of
descent (46 feet for 1° Fahr.). There appears in these, as well
as the Geneva and Paris observations, a remarkable coincidence
between the superficial ground-temperature and the observed
air-temperature
121. From the comparison of a number of observations, M.
Kupffer J deduces an increase of 25°37 metres for 1° Reaumur,
or 20°30 m. for 1° cent., or 37 feet for 1° Fahr.
122. A well at Magdeburg gives 1° Reaumur for 100 feet,
or 44 feet for 1° Fahr.**, according to Professor Magnus, the
inventor of an improved thermometer for such observations.
* Poisson, Théorie de la Chaleur, p. 414. + Ibid, p. 467.
t Mém. dela Soc. de Phys. de Généve, tom. vi. § P. 420.
|| It is by no means necessary to infer, however, that this is a general fact.
Prof. Reich’s observations, for example, at Freiberg, indicate an excess of 1° c.
in the earth-temperature above the air-temperature. Beob. iiber die Temp. des
Gesteins, &c., p. 134.
§| Poggendorff, xxxii. 284. ** Thbid., xl. 189. See also xxxviii. 593.
VOL. Ix. 1840. G
82 REPORT—1840.
123. A very deep experimental bore has been sunk at La
Grenelle, near Paris. The latest report* (Aug. 1839) gives a
temperature of 27°°5 cent. at a depth of 281 metres, which
would infer an increase of about 1° cent. for 164 metres (the su-
perficial temperature being under 11°), a result Hardly probablet ;
and as the depth of the bore then was between 400 and 500
metres, either the depth of observation has been misstated, or
the temperature was raised by water flowing from the bottom.
124. The following are the depths of the most remarkable
Artesian wells at present known {:— stentie wisi
rencnh feet.
La Grenelle, Paris (June 1839) . . . . . . 143671
Neu Salzwerk, near Minden (Sept. 1839) . . . 1434°8
Temperature of brine, 18°°5 R.
Nowe Brzesko, Poland (1838) . . . . . ~- 1403°8
Cessingen, Luxembourg (April 1839) . . . . 1646°5§
125. Perhaps the most interesting, and certainly the most
singular observations, on subterranean temperature, are those
on the frozen soil of Siberia. At Jakouzk, in lat. 62°, where the
mean temperature is —6° Reaum. =18°5 Fahr. (accompanied
with such a rigour of climate, that mercury has been known
to remain frozen for three consecutive months ||), the heat of
summer thaws the soil to an extreme depth of only three feet].
To search for a permanent spring is a matter of great difficulty.
A well has been dug to the depth of nearly 400 English feet,
with the following most remarkable results as to the tempera-
ture of the ground** :—
Surface . 9. 2 . . — 6% Reaumur.
77 English feet . . .—5°5
119 cr) . . . oo 4 ‘0
382 ne oh og eee ON5
* Comptes Rendus (Paris), ix. 218.
+ This result is altogether at variance with that formerly published (Comptes
Rendus, vi. 505), where it appears that at a depth of 400 metres the tem-
perature was 23°-5 c., giving an increase of 1°. for 31°5 metres, in which also
some other springs near Paris very nearly coincide. A still later observation
confirms this remark. On the 18th August, 1840, MM. Arago and Walferdin
obtained a temperature of 26° 43 c. at 505 metres, giving 32°3 metres for 1° c.
(Comptes Rendus, 2 Nov., 1840.)
{ Poggendorff, xlviii. 382. Notices of some other Artesian wells, Pogg.,
xxix. 8362. For an a¢count of two Artesian brine springs at Kissengen, see
my paper in Jameson’s Journal, April 1839.
§ It has lately been stated, that the observations of temperature in this Ar-
tesian well, at the depths of 180, 230, 280, and 337 metres, give a coincident
result of 1°c. for 13 metres of descent, or more than twice as rapid an increase
as that usually observed. (L’Jnstitut, 1840, No. 340.)
|| Erman, Comptes Rendus (Paris), vi. 502.
q Bischoff, Warmelehre, p. 137.
** Erman, wé sup. See also Von Baer, in Brit. Assoc., Eighth Rep., Sect. p.96.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 83
From which it appears that we have a progressive increase of
temperature in the frozen soil, which, at a depth of about 400
feet, will give a temperature just freezing. The augmentation
would appear to be more rapid than usual, or 1° R. for 60 or
70 English feet. ° ;
126. Of observations in mines we have a most important and
extensive series by Professor Reich, of Freiberg*, made under
the most favourable circumstances, and with every assurance
of their accuracy. They extend to a depth of above 900 feet,
and the result of the combination of the whole is an increase of
1° cent. for 41°84 metres, or 1° Fahr. for 76 English feet, with a
probable error of only 1-37th partf.
127. Professor Phillips found, in the Monkwearmouth coal-
pit, an increase of 25° Fahr. for 1484 feet of descent, or 1° Fahr.
for 59°36 English feett. The same gentleman has given valuable
instructions for conducting such observations §.
128. Mr. Fox gives 1° Fahr. for 48 or 50 feet as the results of
his experiments in Cornwall||._ Mr. Henwood agrees with Mr.
Fox in finding a difference in the progression of heat in slate
(killas) and granite, and gives the following summary of his
experiments J :—
95 observations in slate 1°F,. for 39 feet.
39 a, granite es 41°4
This difference, Mr. Fox thinks, is probably attributable to
the action of the mechanical structure of the rocks, in admit-
ting superficial water**.
* Beobachtungen iiber die Temperatur des Gesteins in verschiedenen Tiefen
in den Gruben des Stichsischen Erzgebirges in den Jahren 1830 bis 1832, von
F. Reich. 8vo. Freiberg, 1834.
t+ P. 181. { Phil. Mag., Third Series, v. 451.
§ Brit. Assoc., Sixth Rep., p. 291. || Ibid., Seventh Rep., p. 136, &c.
§] Ibid., Seventh Rep., Sections, p- 36.
** It will be seen that these experiments have no analogy in their objects
with those made at Edinburgh on the influence of the material of the strata
> tm the admission of solar beat, as Dove seems to suppose (Repertorium,
. 307).
A most important question, connected with earth-temperature, yet remains
tobe decided. M. Kupffer maintains (see First Report, p. 224), that the super-
ficial temperature of the earth exceeds that of the air in high latitudes, and
falls short of it between the tropics (as was long ago asserted by Von Buch and
others), and he has described Isogeothermal lines to express this fact. Bischoff
maintains the contrary (Wdrmelehre, p- 38, &c.), declaring that Kupffer’s lines
coincide with those of Humboldt (Isothermal), and that the warmth of springs
in high latitudes arises solely from the depth at which they rise (p. 53), and he
quotes the observations made by Boussingault, one foot below the surface (where
he finds the temperature constant in tropical regions, and equal to the mean
air-temperature of the year, dnn. de Chimie, liii, 225), in support of the
assertion, that at the equator no difference of air- and earth-temperature exists,
G 2
84 REPORT—1840.
129. Most intimately connected with the subject of subter-
ranean temperature is that of the temperature of springs, which
connects itself so remarkably with chemical, geological, and
meteorological considerations. It is impossible not to adopt
the idea, that the temperature of spring-water depends on the
depth whence it takes its origin, since we now know, beyond
any doubt, that up to a certain point at least, the heat of the
strata increases as we descend; nor is there the slightest reason
to suppose that this progression undergoes any considerable
variation down to the (comparatively) moderate depth at which
water would boil, however much we may feel the necessity of
caution in inferring the actual condition of the earth’s nucleus.
The subject is one of so much extent, that we must refer gene-
rally to the works which specifically treat of it, amongst which
that of Prof. Bischoff, of Bonn*, is the most important in our
present point of view. According to him, the temperature of a
spring is an index simply of the thermal condition of the
stratum whence it takes its origin, or at least derives its chief
heat.
130. A very ingenious application of these principles has been
made by Prof. Kupffer, and he has illustrated them by an ap-
plication to observations of the temperature of two springs at
slightly different elevations, near Edinburgh, made at differ-
ent seasons of the yeart. By observing the annual range of
temperature of the spring, its depth is known by Fourier’s
formula, the conductivity of the soil being assumed from
Leslie’s experiments. The retardation of epochs is also an
index of the depth. Now the actual difference of level of the
points of exit of the two springs being given, the difference of
temperature due to height above the sea is known. The actual
Very contrary results on the latter point, derived from springs, appear in M.
Arago’s report on a recent French expedition, under command of Capt. Du-
Petit-Thouars (Annuaire, 1840, p. 296), from which the ground would seem to
be sometimes 4° cent. colder than the air.— Nov. 1840.
* Die Warmelehre des Innern unsers Erdkérpers, 8vo. Leipzig, 1837.
Some part of this work has been translated in the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal. It consists of four parts, containing 27 chapters, and is full of re-
search and important information.
+ These observations, published anonymously in Prof. Jameson’s Journal in
1828, were made by me. I have only lately found that they have been sub-
jected to an ingenious and searching analysis, first by Kamtz (Météorologie,
li. 190) afterwards by Kupffer (Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxxii. 280), and
made to yield results which, in making them, I could not have contemplated.
This is one instance out of many, for the encouragement of young observers,
showing that observations conducted on system, carefully and perseveringly
made, and complete so far as they go, may afterwards prove of unexpected
importance.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 85
difference of observed temperatures is not, however, the same,
because the one spring rose from a greater depth than the
other. The variation due to this cause then becomes apparent ;
and the difference of depth from which they rise being known,
the rate of increase is found by M. Kupffer to be 1° Fahr. for 41
English feet ; a process which must be admitted, at all events,
to be extremely ingenious. He has treated some of Wahlen-
berg’s observations in a similar way*.
131. On the subject of hot-springs, or those which have a
temperature notably higher than that of the air, (though, as
Bischoff has well remarked, there is an insensible gradation,)
we cannot now enter; and this is the less to be regretted, as
Dr. Daubeny has already presented an ample report to the
British Association on the subjectt. M. Arago has published
some valuable remarks on the same subject, especially on the
curious phenomena of the springs of Aix in Provence{. With
a view to direct the attention of naturalists to the secular and
annual changes of temperature in hot-springs, I have made
some very detailed investigations on this subject, which I have
published, as far as relates to those in the Pyrenees§. The
central heat theory would require these to be insensible, as
indeed they appear to be in the best known instances.
IIl.—AtTmosPHERic PREssuRE.
A. Barometers||.
132. The standard barometer of the Royal Society of London
has two tubes, one of flint, the other of crown glass, adapted to
a common cistern, with a view, it is believed, of ascertaining
whether any change in the capillary action occurs, depending
on the nature of the tube. The scale, according to Dr. Prout’s
ingenious construction, is itself moveable, its zero coinciding
with a fine agate point, which terminates it, and which may be
brought into the nicest contact with the mercurial surface in
* In Prof. Kimtz’s Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, ii. 186, &c., is much valu-
able information on the subject of springs; also in Dove’s Repertorium,
ili. 310,
¢ British Association, Sixth Report, pp. 1—95.
{ Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, 1836, p. 265 ; see also M. Valz’s com-
munication, Comptes Rendus, vol. x.
§ Phil. Trans. 1836. On the subject of hot springs, Osaun’s work in 2 vols.
8vo. (Europa’s Heilquellen, Berlin, 1829), may be consulted in German, Ali-
bert’s in French, and Gairdner’s in English ; but the temperature observations
seldom afford more than a rude approximation to the truth.
|| See last Report, p. 225. Mahlmann, p. 77.
86 REPORT—1840.
the cistern; the vernier has a proper motion upon the scale,
in order to read off the height*.
133. M. Kupffer has proposed a stationary barometer, in
which a siphon-tube stands alone, and quite detached from a
graduated column, along which a micrometer travels, and reads
off the differences of elevation of the two extremities of the
mercuryt.. M. Breithaupt has also proposed a plan somewhat
similar. It may very safely be affirmed, that the mechanical
act of reading off the length of the column is already accom-
plished with more accuracy than the otherwise imperfect nature
of the instrument requires.
134. Mr. Daniell recommends Newman’s portable barome-
ters, with correction for the capacity of the cistern, and such
have been supplied to the Antarctic expedition§. Mr. Newman
has adapted an ingenious cast-iron cistern to his instrument,
which consists of two parts, one of which contains the super-
fluous mercury during carriage, the other being always full |].
135. M. Bunten,of Paris, a most ingenious and excellent artist,
has made a great improvement on Gay-Lussac’s portable siphon-
barometer, in which a chamber is left in the principal tube, in
which any air which may have accidentally left the bend of the
siphon is inevitably lodged, and may be expelled at leisure
without injury to the vacuum. M. Bunten constructs these
instruments himself with peculiar skill, and provides them with
excellent portable wooden cases. The same artist has recently
contrived a very ingenious, elegant, and simple cistern-baro-
meter, with the graduation on the glass, and which can be made
at so moderate a price as ought to supersede the rude instru-
ments commonly purchased at twice the cost].
136. Greiner, of Berlin, a most excellent manufacturer of
meteorological instruments of the most delicate kind, has con-
structed a siphon-barometer, with the material advantage of
confining the superfluous mercury (which by frequent shaking
becomes oxidated), and yet in such a way, that the expansion
by heat cannot possibly endanger the instrument**. His baro-
meter, more cumbrous and more expensive than Bunten’s, is
well adapted for nice observations, to be pursued for some time
at a fixed station, whither the instrument has first to be con-
veyed. ‘
* See Mr. Baily’s description, Phil. Mag., Third Series, xii. 204.
+ Poggendorff, xxvi. 446. $ Ibid., xxxiv. 30.
§ Royal Society, Instructions, p. 56. {| Brit. Assoc., 3rd Report, p. 417.
4 The defect of this instrument in its present form, is the difficulty of access
of the air to the cistern.
** There is a descriptive pamphlet published at Berlin in 1835,
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 87
137. Mr. Harris, of Plymouth, has had the merit of exe-
cuting, for the first time, perhaps, with accuracy, a wheel, or
circular index-barometer, a matter of very great importance as
well as difficulty, because it enables unlearned persons to read
off the height without the aid of a vernier; and in fact to this
we owe the most valuable and unique series of hourly barome-
trical observations, to which we shall presently refer*.
138. Prof. Stevelly, of Belfast, has proposed a self-registering
barometer, on the principle of causing a moveable cistern con-
taining mercury to rise or fall by the weight of the fluid dis-
placed from a fixed barometer tube immersed in it. The tube
here may evidently be opaque, as of iron.
139. A water-barometer has been constructed and observed
in the Royal Society’s Apartments (London). Some elaborate
comparisons of its indications with standard instruments will
be found in Mr. Hudson’s paper f.
140. On the still-agitated subject of capillarity, as affecting
barometric readings, I refer to some recent essays of Bessel,
Dulong, and Bohnenberger §.
141. Of barometers acting on principles different from that of a
simple column of mercury, the so-called (not very appropriately)
differential barometer of Auguste, as improved by Kopp], is
the most ingenious. Its principle, so far as it can be concisely
stated without a figure, is this: if air of any density whatever
be compressed into a given fraction, say $ths of its natural bulk,
it will sustain a pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure, and
a certain fraction more, depending on the fraction denoting the
compression (in the supposed case its elasticity would be
balanced by the atmospheric pressure, and ird more). If, then,
this fraction of excess of pressure is known by experiment, the
whole pressure is inferred from a knowledge of the construction
of the instrument. Thus, instead of a column of 30 inches of
mercury being required, one of 15, 10, or any other number
may be used and multiplied by the constant factor. In Kopp’s
instrument, the experiment is very simply and neatly made. A
glass chamber communicates freely with a vertical tube, which
is open to the air until mercury forced in from beneath cuts off
the communication: the pressure by which the mercury is in-
troduced being continued, the air in the chamber is condensed,
and the mercury: rises in the vertical tube, so that its pressure,
together with that of the atmosphere, may balance the elas-
ticity of the air. The compression is continued until the air is
* British Association, Third Report, p. 414.
+ Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 1836.
{ Phil. Trans. 1832. § Poggendorff, xxvi. 451.
|| Poggendorff, xl. 62.
88 REPORT— 1840.
observed to be condensed to a known fraction of its bulk, when
the length of the column of mercury is also a known fraction of
the total barometric column. I brought one of these instruments
to this country two years ago, but I have not yet made trial of it.
142. Mr. Cooper has proposed a barometer acting by the
elasticity of the air in a floating vessel regulated by weights,
which constantly immerse it to the same depth*. The author
considers it capable of showing a difference of elevation of three
or four feet. It is intended that the apparatus should in every
case be employed at a constant temperature of 75°, to which it
is artificially brought: I conceive that this process is attended
with inevitable disadvantages.
143. SirJohn Robison has proposed to use tubes or long phials
containing air, immersed in water at the top of a hill, instead
of an air barometer or sympiezometer. The portion which be-
comes filled with water, when re-examined, would indicate the
previous rarefaction of the airf. In this and every similar case
the temperature of the included air is a matter of great uncer-
tainty, and prevents the possibility (as contemplated) of trust-
ing such instruments to inexperienced assistants.
B. Mean Height of the Barometer.
144. Several considerations would lead us to the inference,
that the mean pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea
should vary with the latitude; but it is to experiment alone
that we can look for any indication of a law. Humboldt ap-
pears first to have remarked, that the height of the barometer
is lower at the equator than in temperate latitudest; and,
excepting this fact, little more has been known until the late
excellent researches of Schouw§, though the partial observa-
tions of occasional navigators indicate this fact, as well as avery
considerable depression of the barometer towards the pole|].
145. M. Schouw’s statement is the following :—
Mean pressure at Level
Sea, in French Lines.
Lat. 0° to 15° high temp. with a rainy season 337—7
>» 15 — 30 very dry; rainsrarely . . . 338—9
9» o0.— 45 temperate. +2. are ee ee ee
» 45 — 65 coldandrainy. . .. . . 33753
* Philosophical Transactions, 1839, p. 425.
+ British Association, Eighth Report, Sections, p. 37. Brunner has de-
scribed an air-barometer, Poggendorff, xxxiv. 30.
t Tableau Physique, p. 89, quoted by Kamtz.
§ Annales de Chimie, tome liii. (1833). See also Poggendorff, xxvi. 395.
|| See the authorities cited in Humboldt’s Note to Arago, Comptes Rendus,
ii.570. Some valuable comparisons of barometers at different northern observa-
tories are to be found in a late number of the Comptes Rendus (1840. 2me
Semestre).
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 89
The maximum appears then to be about the 45th degree, and it
diminishes on either hand.
146. The equatorial depression, and the maximum near the
40th degree of latitude, is indicated not only by the fived annual
observations given in Schouw’s paper, but also by progressive
observations made on board ship by Capt. Beechey*, Sir J.
Herschel}, Sir E. Ryant, and Mr. MacHardy+; the latter are
important, as showing that the same distribution prevails in the
southern hemisphere. Mr. MacHardy’s observations in southern
latitudes give
Between 0° and 5°S. . . . 29°821 Eng. inches.
SER he ou Yaya eh OROM #
ines HO a ay Mey OED »
pres Meme oe? 30°085 ts
147. Prof. Poggendorff, of Berlin, has very justly remarked ft,
that the question of the actual pressure of the air at any point of
the earth’s surface, supposes that that pressure is measured upon
a constant scale of force ; but owing to the variation of the force
of gravity, the weight of a given length of the mercurial column
is not constant, and the effect of attending to this correction is
to exaggerate the depression at the equator, and diminish some-
what (but not annihilate) that in the arctic regions. Such a
corrected table, deduced from Schouw’s, will be found in the
Comptes Rendus and in Poggendorff’s Journal. The propriety
of the correction will be evident (as M. Poggendorff observes),
if we recollect that the elasticity of air, and the boiling point
of water, may be used, as well as the counterpoise of mercury,
for indicating the atmospheric pressure.
148. The height of the barometer, at least in temperate regions,
varies with the season of the year. At Paris and Strasburg it
appears to attain one maximum in summer and another in
winter. M. Kamtz attributes the summer maximum, with great
probability, to the pressure of vapour§: when this is allowed
for, we have amaximum in February and a minimum in August
or September. The prevalence of particular winds (as we shall
see) causes temporary elevations of the barometer in particular
parts of the earth’s surface, which may lead, and have led, to
very erroneous conclusions.
_ 149. There seems, however, on the whole, no reason to doubt
the existence of such atmospheric valleys as were adverted to in
the former report||.
* Comptes Rendus, ii. 572.
+ Second Report of the Meteorological Committee of the South African
Institution, p. 2 (for which I am indebted to Sir J. Herschel).
t Annalen der Physik, xxxvii. 468.
§ Lehrbuch, ii. 297. || P. 228.
90 REPORT—1840.
150. There is no instrumental result to be received at all times
with more doubt than the absolute height of the barometer. I
have had occasion to compare many which have the character
of being standard instruments, and have found the most serious
inconsistencies. There are few points at which the mean press-
ure of the atmosphere can be said to be accurately known.
Even at Paris there is some little doubt* ; when reduced to
the level of the sea, itappears to be 760°85 millimetres}. From
seventeen years of very careful observations at Marseilles, it is
761°61 at 0°, and at the level of the seat, clearly indicating
that Paris lies considerably to the N. of the maximum pressure
zone. It may be doubted whether we possess in this country
any satisfactory evidence of the mean height of the barometer
at the level of the sea$.
C. Barometric Oscillations ||.
151. The investigation, by Mr. Snow Harris, of the diurnal
atmospheric tide by means of hourly observations, continued at
Plymouth night and day for three years ], has led to a very
satisfactory determination both of the epoch and amount. Ac-
cording to him, the maxima occur at 93 4.m., and at 10 p.m.,
the minima at 445 a.m., and 31" p.m.; and the measures ap-
pear to be the following (approximately) :—
Rise from 4 a.m. to 10a.M. . . *014 inch
al), 20 4.m. to "Ss Pom. >.” oS! "OL ger
Rise’ 5, 3°P.M.tolO p.m. . . “O21 ';;
Fall ’,, -10' p.m. to 4am...) . *O18~',,
The maximum oscillation here appears to be between 3 P.M.
and 10 p.M., and amounts to 0°53 millimetres. My formula**
gives 0°60. Mr. Harris deduces 29°800 for the mean pressure
60 feet above the level of the sea, which agrees nearly with the
observations at Somerset House; but there is some material
discrepancy in the observations of mean height for different
years.
* M. Bouvard gives 755°99 mm. reduced to 0° c. from eleven years’ obser-
vation at Paris; M. Arago, 755°43 mm. from nine years’ observation.
+ Arago. t Kindly communicated to me by M. Valz, of Marseilles.
§ The Royal Society Observations since Nov. 1837 (see Phil. Mag., xii.
204), may one day afford this, but the period is as yet rather too short.
| Last Report, p. 229. _Mahlmann, p. 89.
4 The results were partly communicated to the British Association in 1839
(see Atheneum, 14th Sept.). The following results, which are corrected for —
temperature and embrace three years, were communicated to me by Mr. Harris
himself. The agreement of the three years is very satistactory, so far as the
form of the curves is concerned. See also British Association, Eighth Report,
. 22.
** Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xii.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 91
152. Mr. Caldecott, astronomer to the Rajah of Travancore,
has obligingly communicated to me the results of his observa-
tions in 80° 30! N. lat., where he finds the oscillation from 10 a.m.
to 4 p.m. to be ‘109 English inches = 2°77 millimetres, whilst
my formula gives 2°57. There appears to be some anomaly at
the Cape of Good Hope, if the reductions with which Sir John
Herschel has furnished me represent correctly the series of
observations made at the Royal Observatory there. From
58 months’ observations (lat. 33° 56’ S.), the oscillation is
“025 mm. = 0°64 mm. The formula would give 1:42 mm., or
more than twice as much; a difference altogether improbable,
or else indicating some remarkable local anomaly.
153. Colonel Sykes* finds the maximum atmospheric tide in
the East Indies (mean lat. 183°, mean elevation 1800 feet), to
be between 9-10 a.m. and 4-5 p.M., and to amount to ‘107 inch
=2-72mm. by four years’ observations. The formula gives
228mm. Colonel Sykes finds the hours to be unmodified by
elevation, and to be the same as in Europe and America. He
has also shown such enormous irregularities in the results from
different parts of India, and even in the same place at different
times, as do not so much militate against any particular for-
mula, as they show the impossibility of any one formula
embracing such discordant conclusionst. Colonel Sykes has
shown that the supposed interruption of the atmospheric tide
during the prevalence of the monsoon has no existencef.
_ 154. Prof. Kamtz§ has made some interesting observations
on the variation of the atmospheric tide with height|| in Switzer-
land, on the summits of the Faulhorn and Rigi, compared with
Zurich and Geneva. The hours are nearly the same in all
Cases, 4 a.m., 10 a.M., 3 P.M., 9 P.M.
rd French Lines.
The mean oscillation at Zurich and Geneva . 0°398
Panthorn o.oo OYE
ri Dy)
~ * Philosophical Transactions, 1835. t Ibid., p. 176.
__{ An account has been published (Proceedings of the Royal Society, May
2ist, 1840), since this report was written, of valuable Observations on the
Pperometer, by Capt. Thomas, at Alten, in Finn-marken, in lat. 70°; from
which it clearly appears that the barometric oscillation is there negative, as my
formula would indicate that it ought to be. I am bound to apply to the
“Report” on Capt. Thomas’s Observations published as above, the remark
which I have made upon Colonel Sykes’s paper, in the text, viz. that it is
' searcely philosophical to expect that any formula should coincide more nearly
With observations, than one year’s observations do with another.
__§ Poggendorff, xxvii. 345. See also Gautier on the Annual and Diurnal
Variations of the Atmospheric Tide. Bibi. Univ., N. S., xxiv. 124,
| See former Report, p. 232, and my paper in Edinburgh Transactions,
vol. xii.
92 REPORT—1840.
Another series gives—
Mean oscillation at Zurich . «. . . « « O0°286
os BS HO PRs a eS
The two results agree very closely in assigning a value of the
oscillation depending on the absolute pressure. M. Kamtz
thinks that the diminution with height is as the diminished
pressure, and may be expressed by 335th of the change of
pressure. Thus, at the equator, the oscillation (according to
him) would cease at a height where the barometer falls to 115
lines, and afterwards, no doubt, would become negative, as I
have formerly shown. ‘The observations cited by Col. Sykes*
confirm the general principle.
155. The cause of the diminution of the diurnal tide with
height is no doubt this :—that the great vertical depth of air
which exists between Geneva and the Great St. Bernard, for
example, becoming heated by the action of the sun commencing
at the earth’s surface, a portion of air is raised above the upper
station in the afternoon, which in the morning was below it ;
consequently this produces a diurnal tide in the higher regions,
which has its maximum after the hottest part of the day, and
which therefore counteracts the true diurnal tide.
156. On the subject of the lunar influence on the barometer,
we may refer, in the first place, to the popular article by M.
Arago, in the Annuaire for 1833+; who gives the results of
Flaugergues, mentioned in our last report{, which give a de-
cided maximum at the last quarter, with which the observations
of MM. Boussingault and Rivero, at Santa Fé de Bogota,
agree. According to a late and complete reduction of the
Paris observations by M. Eugene Bouvard§, we have a first
maximum on the 8th day of the moon, and a second or prin-
cipal one on the 22nd day; the principal minimum on the
13th, and a second on the 27th day. Here, therefore, we have,
as above, a decided maximum about the last quarter. The
oscillation is 1*°78mm. Mr. Snow Harris has arrived at the
same result as respects the principal maximum||, which may
probably be considered as established. We shall return to this
subject in treating of the fall of rain, and dependence of weather
on the lunar phases.
D. Barometric Variation with Height].
157. I will adda few observations on this subject, especially
* Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 176. + P. 178. t P. 234.
§ Correspondance de l’ Observatoire de Bruxelles, tom. viii.
|| Athenzum, Sept. 14th, 1839.
q Last Report, p. 236. Mahlmann, p. 119.
$$ eee——es—SsSsS— =
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 93
in correction or addition to those contained in my former
report.
158. M. Bessel has given an Essay on the Theory of Baro-
metrical Measurements*.
159. The important question of determining levels by obser-
vations of distant barometers, is materially affected by the now-
admitted difference of mean barometric pressures at different
localities ; and it also appears that, unless these observations
are steadily continued for considerable periods, they must be
liable to serious errors. Thus M. Galle (the assistant astrono-
mer at Berlin) has pointed out, in two interesting communica-
tions}, that in certain situations enormous errors of barometric
measurements arise at certain seasons, which he ascribes to the
influence of local winds. It is very plain, that if, from any
cause, the monthly variation of mean pressure of which we have
already spoken, follow one course at one station and another at
a second, the height deduced from any barometric formula will
also depend upon the season. This M. Galle has found to be
most remarkably the case between Katherinenburg and St.
Petersburg. The calculated difference of height varies with the
season, having a maximum in summer and minimum in winter;
it depends, in fact, on the Difference of Temperature of the two
stations. The height is greatest when the difference of tempe-
rature is least ; and when the difference of temperature changes
its usual sign, the height becomes greatly exaggerated. Thus
we have the following analogies :—
Diff. Temp. Katherinenburg above
Reaum. St. Petersburg, in Toises.
from — 2° to 0° 141
0 ae 103
2 4 93
6 7 82
The differences of temperature again depend immediately on the
prevailing wind, and therefore on the season. Such an anomaly
is not observed between Kasan and Katharinenburg tf.
160. This anomaly is both important as a physical fact and in
its consequences. The vast continental regions of Russia sustain
aerial columns, which do not make hydrostatic equilibrium with
one another. It affords a fresh reason for re-investigating the
much-agitated question of the level of the Caspian Sea§, which
may now probably be considered as set at rest by the results of
* Schumacher’s Astr. Nachr., No. 279. Poggendorff, xxxvi. 187.
+ Poggendorff, xlviii. 58. 379.
{ Humboldt, Ehrenberg, and Rose’s Reise, i. 277, quoted by Galle.
§ See an elaborate paper by Lenz on this subject, Poggendorff, xxvi. 353.
94. REPORT—1840.
the last Russian expedition, by whom the space between the
sea of Asov (communicating through the Black Sea and Medi-
terranean with the ocean), has been accurately levelled, and the
depression of the Caspian found to be real, but amounting to
only 81:5 English feet *, instead of 334 feet, as formerly sup-
posedt+. But what is interesting is, that the barometrical
observations made with the utmost care, and at multiplied
intermediate stations (one German mile apart), confirm the
older results obtained by the same means. The very same
kind of anomaly as observed between Katherinenburg and St.
Petersburg, occurs here, and even gives to the elevation of the
Sea of Asov a negative sign at certain seasons. The Sea of
Asov, though further south and lower than the Caspian, has a
climate 30° Fahr. colder in the middle of January f.
161. There seems to be very little doubt that the Dead Sea
lies also below the level of the ocean. The very discordant,
but almost simultaneous results, obtained by different travel-
lers§, lead us to admit the fact as probable, and even to con-
jecture that the depression may be considerable.
162. M. Kamtz|| has given some very useful results as to
variations of computed height depending on the hour of the
day, which acts much in the way in which the season of the
ear affects barometrical measurements. The maximum cal-
culated height occurs at noon, or soon after; the minimum, about
4a.m. The effect is far greater than the atmospheric tide would
produce, amounting to 21— 27 toises upon 1100 (the difference
of height of the Faulhorn and Zurich, or Geneva), and to 13
upon 700 (Rigi and Zurich). Hence it appears that Ramond’s
rule of employing the noon observations for deducing heights
is not in this respect exact]. :
163. We do not of course propose to give any results of baro-
metrical measurements. ‘The temperature of boiling water is
not unfrequently employed, but seldom with sufficient instru-
ments. It has several practical difficulties; amongst others,
that of obtaining sufficient heat at great elevations, and in ex-
posed situations, to cause water to boil. M. Hugi, of Soleure,
in his enterprising Alpine excursions**, has used the boiling
point of alcohol with good effect. It may seem surprising that
this should be tolerably constant, but such I have assured
* Poggendorff, 1840, and Edin. Phil. Journal, July 1840.
+ First Report, p. 239. t See Galle, ut sup.
§ Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1840.
|| Poggendorff, xxvii. 345, and Dove’s Repertorium, vol. iii.
€ On the influence of winds on barometrical measurements, see Brandes,
Beitrdge, p. 216.
** Naturhistorische Alpenreise. 8vo. Solothurn, 1880.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 95
myself by experiment to be the fact. Hugi states (what is very
conceivable), that the boiling point of water anticipates the
barometric indications by some hours; but he states (what is
more difficult to understand), that the boiling point of alcohol
harmonizes with the latter*.
Il].—Huvumipiry+.
A. Hygrometers.
164. No new hygrometer has been introduced of late years,
so far as I am aware, at least no important novelty, but very
considerable progress has been made in the right interpretation
of results ft.
165. By far the completest historical treatise which [have seen
on hygrometry and hygrometers, is a learned thesis by Suer-
man (different from the one already cited), entitled ‘‘ Commen-
tatio de definiendd quantitate Vaporis Aquei in Atmospherd,”’
&c.§, which also contains good figures, and many pertinent
original criticisms.
166. As hygrometry essentially turns upon a right knowledge
of the relations of heat and moisture, we may first observe, that
a considerable number of attempts have been made (without new
experiments) to express, by some simple formula, the relation
between the temperature and pressure of vapour. The only
experiments of any consequence that I am acquainted with are
those of the Franklin Institute (America), conducted under the
superintendence of Prof. Bache||._ They do not much surpass
10 atmospheres, and even there the difference is 6° Fahr. be-
tween them and M. Dulong’s results, a difference which does not
seem to be satisfactorily accounted for. M. Dulong’s formula
represents observations above 1 or 2 atmospheres better than
those below ; and there is reason to think that, whether from the
mode of conducting the experiments, or some other cause, there
is some solution of continuity in the law which expresses the
relation of density and pressure somewhere near the point arbi-
trarily called the boiling point.
* Naturhistorische Alpenreise, p. 16. ,
+ See last Report, p. 239, and Mahlmann, p. 129.
t “Jam vero letior campus arridet quo recentiorum experimenta exponenda
veniunt, qui, de vaporis natura longe certiores, multa simpliciorem tutioremque
— quam przecedentes physici, ingredi potuerunt.”—Suerman, Commentatio,
§ 45.
§ 4to. Lugd. Bat. 1831, p.128. For this, too, I was indebted to the late
Prof. Moll.
|| Report on the Explosions of Steam Boilers. Philadelphia, 1836, p. 76.
4] The formula which the American Committee adopt to represent their re-
sults is (for Force corresponding to Degrees of Fahrenheit) e = (-00333 ¢ + 1)°.
96 REPORT— 1840.
167. Spasky* has taken the trouble to ascertain whether the
constants in Dulong’s formula (viz. the factor of ¢ and the ex-
ponent), might not be altered so as to represent the observations
better, but he has obtained a very insignificant change.
168. Egent, writing on the same subject, criticises the different
formula, and gives one expressing the temperature in a series
of successive powers of logarithms of the force or pressure.
169. Biot ¢, Schmeddink §, and Roche ||, have all written on the
same subject recently, and proposed new formule. Mr. Russell
has proposed to adopt a modification of Dalton’s scale of tem-
perature, by which the elasticities may follow an accurately
geometrical progression. Mr. Lubbock** has deduced, from
theoretical considerations, a formula sufficiently simple, and
which represents, with extraordinary fidelity, the observations
of the Commission of the Institute; less accurately those of
Southern below 212°.
170. I mention these results as generally connected with the
subject; the actual range of hygrometric observations requires
such a formula to be used as shall best represent the elasticities
under 212°. .
171. The formule in use are (1.) that derived from the obser-
vations of Dalton and Ure; (2.) that deduced by Kamtz from his
own observations ff ; (3.) the table calculated by Ivery’s formula,
founded on Ure’s experiments ; it is that given in the second
edition of Daniell’s Meteorological Essays, and adopted in the
Royal Society’s Instructions for the Antarctic expedition. Of
these, Dalton’s has best stood the test of time. Kamtz’s is
recommended by Kupffer{{, but is condemned by Egen§§,
Lloyd |||], and Apjohn. In the first place, let us turn for a
moment to the data of the problem.
172. The dew-point being obtained by the method of Dalton,
or that of Daniell, the quantity of vapour in the air, and the
ratio of the contained vapour to what might be contained in
* Poggendorff, xxx. 351. Instead of e=(1-+ 0°7153 #)°, he finds
(1 + 719 ¢)*-9987 for the elastic force, ¢ being in cent. degrees.
+ Pogg. xxvii. 9. t L’Institut, No. 26, p. 222. Pogg. xxxi. 42.
§ Pogg. xxvii. 40. || Silliman’s Journal, xxvili. 363.
{ Proceedings, Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. i. p. 227.
** On the Heat of Vapours, p. 7. Lond. 1840.
++ M. Kamtz’s first work on the subject was published at Halle in 1826. In
the first volume of his Meteorology, p. 289, he has given an account of
original experiments on which his formula is founded, which appears to differ
very sensibly from the results incommon use. This formula has had its con-
stants more lately modified, as appears by M. Kupffer’s citation of it. See
below.
tt Bulletin de l’ Acad. de St. Petersbourg, tom. vi. No. 22.
§§ Pogg. xxvii. 25. || || Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy, 1840.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 97
air under the circumstances* (which is the true expression for
dampness), is at once obtainable from a table which shows the
maximum force of vapour for each degree, and the number of
grains in one cubic foot of space. But unfortunately the ex-
periment is always a troublesome, sometimes an impracticable,
and sometimes a fallacious one. Mr. Harcourt} has pointed out
various mechanical circumstances which affect the appearance
of a film of dew. To reduce a hygrometric observation to an
observation simply, and not to an experiment, is the object of
the moist-bulb problem, in which the refrigeration of a wetted
surface becomes the index of the dryness. The theory is more
troublesome, but the observation has every requisite of sim-
plicity and consistency f.
173. The moist-bulb problem was especially pointed out as
one deserving careful solution in the recommendations of the first
meeting of the British Association at York§, and they have
been responded to in more than one quarter, so that we may
now consider the moist-bulb problem as practically solved.
174. Even at that time the solution had taken a simple and
exact form in Germany, and for the labours of Auguste|l,
Bohnenberger§ and Kamtz**, the British Association can-
not probably claim any merit. The works of the two former
are, | am sorry to say, still as unknown to me (by actual in-
spection), as when I wrote my former report.
175. Athermometer having a thin film of water surrounding
it will take a temperature depending on the following circum-
stances :—The air in contact (whether it move quickly or slowly)
gives to the film of water, which is converted into vapour suf-
ficient in quantity to saturate the space which the air occupies,
just enough of heat to vaporize that water, and the reduction
of temperature will be accordingly. Thus, if the air (or space)
be very dry, it will take up much vapour, but that vapour must
have combined with much heat in order to change its state from
water, and the temperature of the air in the (now) saturated
* When we speak of vapour contained in air, of course we are not to be
understood to infer any combination between them.
+ Phil. Mag., 3rd Series, vii. 409, and British Association, Fifth Report,
Sections, p. 54.
{ This method was the invention of Dr. Hutton, of Edinburgh, which
M. Kupffer has erroneously attributed to Auguste (Instructions, &., p.32), and
Mr. Prinsep to Leslie (Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1836, p. 399.).
§ Original edition, p. 49. These recommendations were drawn up by the
author of the present report.
|| Uber die Fortschritte der Hygrometrie in der neuesten Zeit. Berlin
1830.
q In the second volume of the Tubingen Nat. Hist. Society’s Memoirs.
** Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, i.
VOL. Ix. 1840. H
98 REPORT -—1840.
space is lowered accordingly. Further, it will be more lowered
if the air be rare, or the barometer low, because the air yields
less heat. Ail these circumstances may be taken into account,
and the elasticity of vapour existing in the air may yet be ex-
pressed by the following simple formula* :—
ae AL cabo 2 es
e =e —m(t—?t) B
where ¢ and ¢ are the readings of a dry and a wetted ther-
mometer ;
é the maximum elasticity of vapour corresponding to 7 ;
e! ” 2” » to the
dew-point ;
b the observed height of the barometer ;
B a standard barometric pressure (as 30 inches).
The concluding factor is usually small, and except at great
heights may be neglected.
176. Whene", the elasticity corresponding to the dew-point, is
found, the quantity of vapour existing in the atmosphere is known.
177. The chief value of a dew-point instrument is to enable
us to determine directly the value of m, which the direct experi-
ments on the specific heat of air leave under some uncertainty.
178. Conversely the specific heat of air may be determined
from hygrometric observations. This has been done by Dr.
Apjohnt.
179. The value of m manifestly depends upon the unit of elas-
ticity, and upon the unit of temperature.
180. Dr. Apjohn, of Dublin, whose attention was directed to
the subject by the suggestion of the Committee of the Associa-
tion, has, in a series of interesting papers, tested the value of m
in a variety of circumstances by his own experiments}, and by
those of others§. Assuming De la Roche and Berard’s value
of the specific heat of air, he finds m, for English inches of
mercury, and for Fahrenheit’s degree, to be gy = °01149: a
posteriori he has determined it—
(1.) from experiments on the dew-point . . . ‘01151
(2.) es on refrigeration in dry air. °01150)|
* This formula, employed by Auguste and Bohnenberger, coincides essen-
tially with that of Ivory (Phil. Mag. Ix. 80.), who first gave a proper theory of
the moistened bulb hygrometer. His value of m is not far from the truth,
being ,1, for cent. degrees, or >, for Fahrenheit.
+ Irish Trans., Phil. Mag., and Brit. Assoc., Sixth Report. See also Suer-
man’s Thesis.
+Phil. Mag., 8rd Series, vii. 266. 470. § Ibid., vi. 182.
|| Prof. Lloyd has ingeniously made this set of experiments the means of
testing the accuracy of the tables of the force of vapour, and he prefers Dalton
and Ure’s calculated by Anderson.— Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy, 1840.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 99
(3.) from experiments on refrigeration in air once
saturated, then warmed. . .. .. . . ‘01140
nearly coincident with one another, and with the theoretical
determination.
181. Bohnenberger* had already obtained a value sensibly
identical, which probably was not known to Dr. Apjohn at the
time he made his experiments ; for English inches and Fahren-
heit degrees, he obtained —
First, from 56 observations . ... . m=+°0114
Afterwards, from 45, which he preferred . "011398
182, M. Kamtz, in avery valuable paper on the results of his
extensive observations in Switzerland, has given his formula in
a slightly different form, but which indicates an almost precise
coincidence between theory and experiment, both for the case
where the thermometer is above freezing and below ; for in the
latter case equally the principle holds, only we must allow for
the latent heat absorbed in liquefying as well as vaporizing the
water. Including the barometric formula, M. Kamtz writes
the second term of the formula for the elasticity thus :
— 0°001004475 (¢ — #') b,
b being the barometric height in French lines, the standard
barometric height 336 lines, by which the co-efficient (which is
for Reaumur’s scale) has been already divided.
183. The above expression is the theoretical one above 0° R.
The theoretical one below O° R. is
— 0:0009375 (¢ — #’) b.
184. These two numbers, deduced @ posteriori from the Swiss
observations, give
° Faulhorn . . ‘0010026 34 obs.
pene OB rae PS oo doasd. 31
Below 0° Rf en . . 000945014 15
33
Zurich . . . *0009995 11
from direct comparison with the dew-point.
185. I have given these numbers, that their coincidence may be
perceived. Again, to compare them with Apjohn’s and others,
we may take those at the Faulhorn and reduce them to English
measures and a mean barometric pressure, when we shall
obtain
Above 32° Fahr. . . . m=:0118
Below 32° Fahr. . . . m= ‘0112
* Suerman, p. 88. + Poggendorff, xxx. 33.
2
=
tw
100 REPORT—1840.
186. M. Kupfier*, though he adopts Kamtz’s table of elastici-
ties, after examining the experiments of Gay-Lussac, Bohnen-
berger, Auguste, and Erman, finally prefers this value of m,
1h Vt i ae a eG Hi 8 2
almost coincident with that of Bohnenberger and Apjohn.
187. A most elaborate paper has been published by Mr. Prin-
sep, of Calcutta, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal7,
on the wet-bulb problem, in continuation of the ingenious, but
rather obscure ones, alluded to in the former report, as having
been published in the ‘* Gleanings of Science’’t. Mr. Prinsep
states, that the notice taken of his former labours, in the First
Report of the British Association, had stimulated him to re-
sume the subject, and he has accordingly furnished us with a
great many valuable test-experiments, which can nowhere be
so well performed as in warm climates. Mr. Prinsep’s ori-
ginal memoir will be consulted by those who wish to avail
themselves of his valuable researches for the improvement of
theory : it is not necessary to dwell upon those points where he
seems to us to be less explicit, or historically not quite exact ;
and the great point is to be clearly satisfied that we have now-ub-
tained a sufficient interpretation of the indications of the moist-
ened thermometer. When we find that Mr. Prinsep once more
coincides with Dr. Apjohn’s numbers, only hesitating whether
to prefer j; to ,', for the value of m, we are prepared to admit
that this problem is, practically speaking, completely resolved ;
and this being the case, it is scarcely worth while to disentangle
the various imperfect steps by which so happy a consummation
has been attained, and the hygrometer rendered as commodious
and as accurate as the common thermometer§. The leading
steps of the generalization are these :—Hutton invented the
method; Leslie revived and extended it, giving probably the
earliest, though an imperfect theory; Gay-Lussac, by his ex-
cellent experiments and reasoning from them, completed the
theory, so far as perfectly dry air is concerned; Ivory ex-
* Bulletin de ’ Académie des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, vi. No. 22, for
which I ani indebted to Major Sabine.
+ No. 55, July, 1836.
t The “ Gleanings in Science’”’ referred to in the original Report of the
British Association, had been lent to me by Sir D. Brewster, to whom they had
been sent. I afterwards communicated them to Dr. Apjohn.
§ In practice, I am inclined to prefer two separate thermometers to the dif-
ferential one of Leslie, which requires besides, the use of a common thermo-
meter, to take the temperature of the air. It seems preferable to have two
thermometers arranged in one pocket-case, and in the event of fracture a single
one may still be used. I have formerly adverted to the unnecessary introduc-
tion of the term psychrometer to express so simple a combination.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 101
tended the theory ; which was reduced to practice by Auguste
and Bohnenberger, who determined the constant with accuracy.
English observers have done little more than confirm the con-
clusions of our industrious Germanic neighbours ; nevertheless,
the experiments of Apjohn and Prinsep must ever be considered
as conclusively settling the value of the co-efficient near the
one extremity of the scale, as those of Kamtz have done for
the other.
188. Of the papers of Dr. Hudson in the Philosophical Maga-
zine*, and of Mr. Meikle, and of an anonymous author, in the
Edinburgh New Philosophical Journalt, it is not necessary for
me to speak, on the grounds just stated. The experiments of
the latter have been compared with theory by Dr. Apjohn.
B. On the Distribution of Vapour in the Atmosphere.
189. Now that we have got asimple and intelligible hygrome-
ter, we may hope to know more than we yet do respecting the
distribution of vapour in the atmosphere. Accurate experiments
are at present extremely rare; a few of the most interesting
have been obtained by M. Kamtz. The greatest dryness he
has observed was on the 28th September, 1832, on the summit
of the Faulhorn, the barometer 247°4 French lines. At 9 a.m.
the temperature of the air was 6°9 R., the moist thermometer
fell to 0°-1 R. The computed dryness is 9 per cent. of satura-
tiont. Clouds he has always found to be perfectly damp when
fully immersed in them, confirming the result of Saussure,
which has been called in question §.
190. It has commonly been supposed that dryness increases
as we ascend; yet it is also certain, that at a certain elevation
clouds are more common than at any other. Accordingly,
Kamtz finds that, whilst in dry weather the higher regions are
drier than below, in damp weather the reverse is the case; he
finds that, if we consider the absolute elasticity of vapour at a
given place, there are two maxima and two minima daily; but
if we consider the relative humidity, or proportion existing to
the capacity of saturation, there remains but a single maximum
of dampness at 4—5 a.m. (in June), and one minimum at
2 P.M,
191. The absolute quantity of moisture existing in the air is
greatest at the equator, and diminishes towards the poles. M.
Kamtz, from the experiments of Beechey and others, gives the
following formula|| for the North Atlantic :—
* Phil. Mag., 3rd Series, vii. viii. ix. t+ xv. 273; xvii. 98. 330.
t Poggendorff, xxx. 71. § Poggendorff, xxx. p, 53,
|| Poggendorff, xxx. 59.
102 REPORT—1840.
Ey = 0°1370 + 8°9004 cos? ¢ in French lines, where Eg is
the elasticity of vapour in lat. ¢.
IV.— Winp*.
192. The immediate cause of wind is the inequality of pneu-
matic pressure in the atmosphere, occasioned by differences
(permanent or variable) of temperature.
193. Of Permanent Differences, the most important is the
warmth of the equatorial regions compared to the polar. The
combination of this cause with the rotation of the earth is the
well-known cause of the trade winds ; and, we may add, of the
prevalent west winds in northern latitudes, as well as of the
counter currents observed at certain elevations.
194. Of Variable Differences of temperature there are very
many ;—as (1) the variable temperature of any spot, occasioned
by the annual change of position of the sun respecting it ; (2) a
similar variation for different hours of the day or night; (3) a
variation due to the continental and insular character of climate
affecting the annual temperature curve; (4) a similar influ-
ence of the solid or fluid, and more or less heat-absorbing, cha-
racter of the surface, in varying the distribution of temperature
during twenty-four hours ; (5.) the variable nature of surface
depending on elevation, such as the presence of mountains,
which receive heat from and part with it to the adjacent plains,
according to different laws.
195. All these causes produce their peculiar and local effects,
which it may be sufficient to advert to in the most general way.
To the first cause is due the variation in the position of the
limit of the trade winds at different seasons. ‘To the second,
the probable tendency of the warmth at the part of the earth’s
surface, on which, in his diurnal course, the sun has just exer-
cised its greatest energy, to attract the colder air from the parts
of the earth on whose horizon he is just appearing. To the
third, are attributable the very important effects of the mon-
svons, the local variations of the trades (as on the coast of
Africa and Mexicoy), the prevalence of east winds in Europe
in spring, and many similar phenomena. To the fourth, the
recurrence of land and sea breezes in all climates, especially
between the tropics. To the fifth, the very remarkable but
little-noticed diurnal phenomena of hill and valley breezes,
occurring with great regularity in mountainous countries having
a pretty uniform climate (as in the South of Europe), and
* See former Report, p. 246. Mahlmann, p. 155.
+ See Capt. Hall’s Fragments of Voyages and Travels, 2nd Series, ii., and
Daniell’s Meteorological Essays, 2nd Edition.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 103
which, especially in their connexion with moisture, have a most
important influence on climate.
196. All these phenomena deserve a more careful examination
than they have received, with a philosophical view of referring
them to their common cause. What has been done in this way
we will presently notice. But first, we will say something as
to means of investigation.
A. Anemometers.
197. In my former report I remarked, that if anything were to
be done in the way of anemometrical observations, it must be by
the use of self-registering instruments. Two such have been
invented, and pretty extensively used in this country.
198. Mr. Whewell* has described an anemometer proceeding
on the ingenious principle, that the meteorological importance
of a wind blowing in a given direction is not to be estimated by
the number of days or hours that it blows in a given direction,
but by the compound ratio of the time and force. This he
endeavours to obtain by causing a pencil to describe a vertical
line with a velocity proportional to the number of turns of a
vane with which it is connected, whilst at the same time the
pencil is carried round a cylindric surface by an apparatus like
that which guides a windmill, so as to point out the azimuth of
the wind. The length of line described by the pencil between
two given azimuths shows the integral effect of force and time
for that interval. The instrument has been worked with very
considerable success at Cambridge, under the directions of
Professors Whewell end Challist, at Plymouth by Mr. South-
wood{, at Edinburgh by Mr. Rankine§ and myself, and in
other places. From its construction (friction being the anta-
gonist force or regulator), perfect comparability cannot be ex-
pected.
199. Mr. Osler, of Birmingham, has invented and constructed
an ingenious but complicated apparatus for measuring the force
and direction of the wind at any moment, and for keeping a re-
gister of these particulars in the absence of the observer||. It
consists of a very powerful vane, which carries round the stalk
to which it is affixed ; this stalk terminating in a pinion, moves
a rack connected with a pencil, which describes upon paper the
* Cambridge Transactions, vol. vi. part ii.
+ British Association, 7th Report, Sections, p. 32, and Camb. Transactions.
t Ibid., 8th Report, p. 28. § Edin. Trans. xiv. 359.
|| British Association, 7th Report, Sections, p. 33, and “ Description of a
Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-Gauge.” 4to.. Birmingham, 1839,
with a plate. Some parts of the apparatus have been more lately modified.
104 REPORT—1840.
variations in the direction of the wind, the paper being carried
uniformly along beneath the pencil by means of clockwork, so
that the pencil describes a Curve of Direction of the Wind. The
force is registered by means of a plate one foot square con-
nected with the vane-stalk by a jointed parallelogram ; which
plate is pressed against a spiral spring in such a manner as to
indicate the force of the wind by the antagonist force of the
spring in pounds. To indicate this upon the same sheet of
paper before mentioned, and with regard to time, a thread con-
nected with the pressure plate is conveyed through the axis of
the vane-stalk (which is hollow), and then turning over a
pulley, pulls a pencil up or down as the intensity increases or
diminishes, leaving an intelligible tracing on the paper, from
which the mean pressure may be tolerably estimated*. The
fall of rain is registered by a peculiar contrivance upon the
same sheet, so as to indicate its amount and distribution over
the twenty-four hours, The expense of the instrument and its
liability to derangement are the chief objections to it; it is evi-
dent that so many objects cannot be gained without consider-
able complicationt. One of these anemometers has been work-
ed for a considerable time at Birmingham, and another at Ply-
mouth{. One has just been established at Edinburgh, and
others, it is believed, have been sent to Ireland and America.
200. Mr. R. Adie, of Liverpool, has contrived a statical wind-
gauge, in which the maximum pressure is pointed out. It is
on the principle of a gasometer with a moveable top, over
water, and the pressure of the wind is introduced by a tube
below. The pressure is indicated by a hand connected with an
axis, which is turned as the moveable top rises against a gra-
duated resistance §.
B. Phenomena of Wind generally.
201. It is rather remarkable that of late years several persons
should independently have arrived at partial solutions of the
great and complicated problem of aerial currents, their distribu-
tion and causes. A few of the simpler admitted facts have al-
* As every instrument upon this construction must necessarily act by im-
pulsive starts, the statical gradation cannot possibly give the actual force of the
wind, but it is difficult to suggest a better measure.
+ This instrument is in every respect so much more complicated in its parts
and delicate in its adjustments than Mr. Whewell’s anemometer, that it is
difficult to understand how the latter comes to be described in the Royal
Society’s Instructions (p. 71.) as “ more complex in its construction, and prac-
tically more liable to derangement.”
t See Reports of the Ninth Meeting of the British Association.
§ See a figure in Dr, Traill’s article on Physical Geography, from the Ency-
clopedia Britannica, 8vo, p. 197.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 105
ready been mentioned, which serve to explain the more formal
modifications of wind by a combination of the principles of
rarefaction by heat, and the mechanical rotation of the globe.
The particle of air, thus drawn toward the equatorial regions
by the rarefaction permanently produced there by the sun’s
verticality, lags behind the parallel of latitude over which it
moves, having the velocity due to a higher latitude from which
it has come. That there must be a return current is not only
evident to common sense, but its existence is made evident by
the drift of clouds in the neighbourhood of the tropics, and by
observations at great elevations ; not to mention that the preva-
lent S. and S.W. winds of our latitudes appear to be nothing
else than portions of this superior return current, which, in this
stage of its progress, falls again to the surface of the earth, pos-
sessed of the excess of velocity of a more southern parallel.
202. These doctrines are now generally held, but there have
been various attempts made to carry out the theory and to ge-
neralize the facts further, even as respects the apparently capri-
cious changes of wind in this most anomalous region of the
earth’s surface. It even appears probable that our forefathers
knew more on this subject than is generally admitted now,
and the sagacious guesses of the seventeenth century may be
brought in support of the probable theoretical conjectures of the
nineteenth.
203. Professor Dove, of Berlin, author of several original re-
searches in meteorology, optics, and magnetism, and editor of a
valuable scientific work of reference*, has published a series of
elaborate memoirs more or less connected with the theory of
wind}, of which he has more lately published a compend f, but
whose labours on this subject seem to be little, if at all, known
in this country. This perhaps is to be attributed to the want
of a perspicuous analysis of his views by some one who would
undertake clearly to state, how far they are original and how
far combined from those of others, how far they are to be con-
sidered hypothetical and how far founded upon demonstration.
We feel the want of some such guide in turning over Prof. Dove’s
three hundred and forty-four closely-printed pages, and also in
the writings of his countrymen who have acted as commen-
tators§. Iam by no means satisfied that I am so thoroughly
possessed of his views as to give all that Prof. Dove claims to
* Repertorium, of which 3 volumes are published.
+ Alist of 14 memoirs contained in Poggendorff’s Annals between the
11th and 36th vols. will be found in his “ Untersuchungen,” p. viii.
t Meteorologische Untersuchungen, von H. W. Dove. Berlin, 1837. 8vo.
§ Fechner, in his Repertorium, vol. iii.; Kamtz, in his Meteorologie, i, 254;
Mahlmana, in his enlarged Translation of my last Report, p. 155.
106 REPORT—1840.
establish, but in stating briefly what I understand to be his
fundamental positions, I shall at least have a better chance of
rendering myself understood, than if I confined myself to the
easier task of translating passages from the original works.
204. Considering first the simple phenomenon of the dzrec-
tion of the wind, apart from all others, it appears for ages to
have been a belief that when the wind changes it does so ina
constant direction, which is that of the hands of a watch,
which for brevity we will call a Right-handed Rotation.
M. Dove contrasts, not unaptly, the two following passages,
one from Bacon, in the commencement of the 17th century,
the other from a French physical writer of the 19th. The
former says, ‘“‘Si ventus se mutet conformiter ad motum solis,
non revertitur plerumque aut si hoc facit fit ad breve tempus ;”
the latter, “On a cru remarquer que dans certains lieux les vents
se succedent dans un ordre déterminé; mais ces observations
présentent encore trop d’incertitudes pour qu’il nous soit per-
mis de les discuter ici’’. The clear evidence which Dove pro-
duces of the opinion of observers of various countries during a
space of two hundred years, that the more freyuent and more per-
manentrotations ofthe windare right-handed (in this hemisphere),
give much support to his theory*. It is important to add, that
the phenomena of the trade winds and monsoons enter as part
of the expression of his general law of rotation (das Drehungs-
gezets des Windes).
205. It is very remarkable, from its connexion with a different
inquiry presently to be noticed, that in the Southern Hemisphere
the Law of Rotation is inverted, the movement of direction is
Left-handed. In the Northern Hemisphere the order of winds is
Peed Vite. Ning Bes
In the Southern Hemisphere,
sca Nag WY oy ots
Of these circuits, the quadrants from S. to W. and N. to E.
in the Northern Hemisphere, and from N. to W. and S. to E.
in the Southern Hemisphere, are oftener traversed in an inverted
order than the opposite quadrants}.
206. This, however, is only a small part of M. Dove’s investi-
gation, for he aims at showing that this law of succession thus
determined, renders a certain order of meteorological pheno-
mena of every kind indispensable, and he has laboured to assign
* Meteorologische Untersuchungen, p. 132. Itisimportant to observe, that the
direction of rotation here mentioned has no reference to the rotatory movement
of the aerial particles themselves, which will be referred to in the next section.
+ Meteorologische Untersuchungen, p. 129. It is to be observed, that this
Law of Rotation especially applies to extra-tropical regions, where the mixture
of equatorial and polar currents is most complete.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 107
for each hemisphere an invariable concomitance of the meteor-
ological phenomena of temperature, pressure, humidity and
rain for every direction of the wind. This research was
indeed by no means new. Von Buch had shown the depend-
ence of the barometer on the direction of the wind; even the
poets could distinguish the thermal and hygrometric charac-
ters of Boreas and Zephyr ; and it is easy to see that as far as
the characters of North and South go, these particulars must
be altered in the southern hemisphere. In my former report
I have shown, from the researches of the German meteorolo-
gists, that the mean direction of the wind for the whole year
depends on the climate*, and I might have added that the sea-
son exerts an important influence :—
207. Thus at Berlin the mean direction of the wind is +
Proportion of
E. to W. Winds. N. to S. Winds.
Winter S. 33° W. ... 100: 137 .. . 100: 190
Spring S. 73° W. ... 100: 132... 100: 113
Summer N. 83° W. ... 100:277... 4100: 85!
Autumn S. 50° W. ... 100: 160... 100: 167
Each season therefore has its predominant wind, as it has its
characteristic temperature, pressure and moisture. It is Prof.
Dove’s object to prove that these follow as cause and effect, and
hence that any law affecting the succession of winds must affect
the succession of other meteorological phenomena. It must
be owned that the following table of one year’s observations at
Calcutta give a strong probability to the general mutual de-
pendence of these phenomena upon one another in those regions,
where atmospheric laws are usually exhibited with vast dis-
turbance, and therefore more correctly (at least in proportion to
the time that the observations have been continued).
Temp. Rain, | Barom. liga ee ticki! NE |
‘mana git Inch. Inch. |Direction reckoned Approx.
from S.by W. | Direction.
January...| 666 | ..... 30:08 156° N.N.W.
February .| 75 2:9 30°02 80 W.S.W.
March ...| 79 0-5 29°95 355 Ss.
April ...... 82:5 8-0 29°83 337 S.S.E
WVTAY, o)s0s20. 86 6:0 29°77 348 S.S.E
June ...... 83 24-4 29°58 321 S.E
215 eee 83 12:8 29:59 314 S.E
August 83 9:3 29°62 299 E.s.E.
September.] 83 117 29°71 285 E.S.E.
October ...| 83 1-4 29-91 94 w.
November.| 75 0:5 29-98 118 W.N.W.
December.| 69 Sets 30°01 1385 N.W.
* P. 246.
+ From the Observations of Beguelin, for17 years. See Kamtz and Mahlmann.
108 REPORT—1840.
208. “Since 1827,” says Prof. Dove, “I have published a series
of Memoirs in Poggendorff’s Annals, in which I have sought
to prove that the totality of the non-periodic meteorological
changes of our latitudes reduces itself to a fundamental pheno-
menon, which I have called the Law of Rotation of the Wind.
The fact of a regulated variation of the direction of the wind
(regelmissigen Ueberganges der verschiedenen Windesrich-
tungen) observed centuries ago, yet often disputed, stood iso-
lated from the generally acknowledged, if not sufficiently proved,
influence of the winds’ direction upon the pressure, tempera-
ture and humidity of the atmosphere. If, then, the so-called
Irregular Variations are nothing else than the transition or
passage of the barometrical, thermal and hygrometrical values
of the winds into one another, it is clear that the laws of these
variations can only be known by ascertaining the laws which
connect the mean variations of the wind’s direction with the
distribution of pressure, temperature and moisture for the
different points of the compass*”’. Such nearly, in the author’s
words, are the objects of his more laborious investigations; and
to the construction of a barometric compass-card, a ther-
mometric compass-card, and so forth, a series of memoirs is
devoted. When by this means any mean series of meteorolo-
gical changes becomes interpretable in terms of wind-azimuth,
it is easy to see that new checks may be obtained for the fun-
damental law of rotation.
209. To pursue the course of M. Dove’s laborious research
is out of the question. We must content ourselves by gi-
ving a specimen of his conclusionst. In the Worthern hemi-
sphere
The Barometer falls during E. S.E. and S. winds; passes
from falling to rising during S.W. and rises with W.,
N.W. and N. winds, and has its maximum rise with N.E.
wind.
The Thermometer rises with E., S.E. and S. winds; has
its maximum with S.W., and falls with W., N.W. and
N. winds ; its minimum is N.E.
The Elasticity of Vapour increases with E., S.E. and 8.
winds; has its maximum at §.W., and diminishes during
the wind’s progress by W. and N.W. to N.; at N.E. it has —
a minimum.
210. What has now been stated for the Northern hemisphere
may be transferred to the Southern by changing N. into S.,
N. W. into S.W., &c., throughout.
211. These views of Dove have not been received altogether
* Untersuchungen (Pref.). ¢ Untersuchungen, p. 140.
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SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 109
without discussion. The mutual dependence of meteorological
phenomena in a general way can hardly be disputed, but the
fundamental Law of Rotation has been denied by Schouw, who
has made this subject his particular study*. The subject now
attracts considerable attention in Germany {, and the indications
of anemometers, like Osler’s, are well adapted to put it to the
test.
C. Phenomena of Stormst.
212. The ingenious observations of Franklin on the travelling
of storms opposite to the actual movement of the wind which
produced them, led to the supposition of local rarefactions
and the sudden rush of wind from all quarters to supply the va-
cuity. The enormous linear velocity of the aerial particles re-
quired to produce the observed effects, to which might be added
the difficulty of conceiving this propagation of disturbance to
continue for days together, and to pass over hundreds or thou-
sands of miles, with unabated intensity, led Colonel Capper to
suggest in 1801 §, that the velocity of the wind at any point was
chiefly due to the velocity of rotation of a vortex of fluid, com-
bined probably with a progressive motion. Prof. Mitchell, of
America, seems to have retrograded when he assigned to the
gyration a vertical plane of motion||; but he was speedily fol-
lowed by Redfield, who, doing all justice to those who preceded
him, established Colonel Capper’s doctrine by a diligent appeal to
facts]. Mr. Redfield has been fortunate also in having a Eu-
ropean fellow-labourer in the same field, who has been equally
candid in his acknowledgements of what he borrowed from Ame-
rica. Colonel Reid, in a handsome and elaborate work**, has
maintained the same views, and supported them by an examina-
* See Kamtz, i., 257, and Pogg. xiv. 546. See also Schouw’s extensive
Essay on the Winds of Europe, “ Beitrdge”, &c., p. 1—115.
+ See Galle’s papers on the Extension of Dove’s Law to the Southern He-
misphere. Poggendorff, xxxi. 465 ; xxxviii. 472.
ft First Report, p. 248.
§ Ina work on the Monsoons and periodical winds, quoted by Redfield, Reid,
and others.
{| Silliman’s Journal, 1831, xix. 248.
§] His first paper is in Silliman’s Journal, 1831, xx. 17. There is a reply
to him by Mitchell in the same volume. See also London Nautical Magazine,
April, 1836, and Jan. 1839, and Silliman, xxx. 115.
** On the Law of Storms. 8vo. London, 1838. An interesting review of this
work, and of the previous labours of Redfield, will be found in the Edinburgh
Review, Ixviii. 406, to which those readers who wish a popular compend of
the subject are referred. Since these pages were written, Prof. Dove has ex-
plicitly claimed the credit (Phil. Mag., Nov. 1840,) of having first in recent
times asserted the revolving and progressive character of storms, and their op-
posite character in the two hemispheres.—Compare Pogg. xiii. 596.
110 REPORT—1840.
tion of the courses of many hurricanes recorded in ships’ logs,
which he has projected on excellent charts. The theory of
Colonel Capper proposed for the storms of the eastern hemi-
sphere is found to be not less applicable to the terrific tem-
pests of the West Indies, where these gyratory movements ap-
pear commonly to take their rise, invariably revolving from
right to left, which at the same time progress in a straight
or curved path, usually occupying a space of from 100 to 500
miles in diameter. These rotatory movements commence in
tropical latitudes usually near the West India Islands; they
move at first in a westerly and continually more northerly di-
rection, until they reach a latitude of about 30°, when they turn
rather abruptly towards the north-east. It is impossible not to
believe that the path of these storms is mainly determined by
the configuration of the American continent *.
213. The fall of the barometer, especially near the central
parts of the storm, is accounted for by the action of centrifugal
force.
214. It is very evident that the direction of the wind to a sta-
tionary observer, whilst one of these vortices is passing over
him, will vary in a manner depending on his position with respect
to the axis of the storm. If the centre pass rigorously over his
station, he will experience a gale first in one direction and then
in a directly opposite one, without any intermediate points of
the compass; as an observer is stationed on one side of the axis
or the other, a little reflection will clearly show that the appa-
rent change in the wind’s direction will follow opposite courses
in the one or other position. This and many other deductions
are fully made by Redfield and Reid; we only mention it just
now in order to point out that this, at all events, must be con-
sidered an essential exception to Dove’s law of rotation.
215. There is, however, a remarkable analogy to Dove’s law
in one respect, which is, that the direction of rotation of storms
is opposite in the two hemispheres, being right-handed in the
southern. This important fact was deduced by Redfield from
his hypothesis that storms are produced by the mingling and
collision of the superior equatorial stream with the polar stream
or trade winds. Colonel Reid has given great support to this
view by tracing some storms of the southern tropical regions.
216. Not the least important and interesting part of this in-
quiry is the deduction of practical rules for steering out of in-
stead of into these vortices, an application distinctly pointed out
by Col. Capper as well as his successors ; but this does not con-
cern us at present.
* See Colonel Reid’s Charts, iii., v., vii.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 111
217. The theory of Capper, Redfield, and Reid has not been
received without opposition. Mr. Espy*, in particular, advo-
cates the Franklinian doctrine of the progression of wind in radial
lines ; and he has received the powerful support of Prof. Bache,
of Philadelphia, who has described, in great detail, a tornadot
which occurred in New Brunswick in 1835, and from which he
finds no proof of rotation. Mr. Milnet has traced, I think
satisfactorily, the rotatory character of two remarkable storms
which passed over the British Islands in November, 1838, ac-
companied with an extraordinary depression of the barometer
of a very local character. M. Arago is disposed to admit, that
there may be hurricanes of both characters, and, consequently,
observations irreconcileable with either hypothesis singly §.
V.—C.Lovups—Rain ||.
918. The theory of the suspension of clouds, one of the most
interesting in the whole range of meteorology, has received no
additions, nay, it can hardly be said to exist. That clouds con-
sist of distinct particles is undoubted, from optical phenomena,
and from direct observation]; the error seems to be, to con-
sider these as so many independent molecules, whereas they are
no doubt connected by the most definite laws of force, and con-
stitute masses whose density has no necessary connexion with
that of their integrant parts. No one can observe the chu-
racter of clouds—for instance, the well-formed cauliflower-
* Journal, Franklin Institute, October, 1836. Not having been able to pro-
cure this journal, I cannot refer to the contents more particularly. Mr. Espy
maintains a peculiar physical theory of storms, which, since this report was
written, has been brought in several forms before the British public.—See also
Silliman, xxxix. 120. Dr. Hare has published, in the American Philosophical
Transactions, and in Silliman’s Journal (vol. xxxviii.), some papers respecting
tornadoes, in which he appears to assign to them an electrical cause. Major
Sabine has referred me to a clear and able analysis of the effects of the storm
of the 20th December, 1836, by Mr. Loomis, in the first part of the 7th vol.
of the American Transactions (which had not reached Scotland when this
report was written), who appears to infer, in that particular case, a rotation
round a horizontal axis like that imagined by Mitchell. The paper is highly
worthy of consultation.
+ Trans. American Phil. Soc., v. 407. It seems rather singular, that the
name of tornado or whirlwind should be applied, by common consent, to a
storm not having the rotatory character. Mr. Redfield denies Mr. Espy’s and
Prof. Bache’s conclusions (Nautical Magazine, January, 1839, p. 6.). See also
the Report of the Newcastle (Eighth) Meeting of the British Association,
where Colonel Reid and Prof. Bache were present.
{ Edinb. Trans., vol. xiv. § Comptes Rendus (Paris), vii. 707.
| Former Report, p. 249. Mahlmann, p. 185.
§] Since writing the former report, I have satisfied myself of the existence
and some of the phenomena of Saussure’s (so called) vesicular vapours.
142 REPORT—1840.
headed cumulus contrasted with the flaky cirrus—without being
persuaded of the fact, that clouds are not unorganized assem-
blages of watery particles in a state of extreme division.
219. With respect to the fall of rain, by far the most inter-
esting contribution to this part of meteorology, took its origin
at the rise of the British Association. Prof. Phillips, by his
careful experiments on the fall of rain at different elevations at
York, and his admirable deductions from them, has (I think)
completely established the cause of the diminished fall of rain,
as we ascend in the atmosphere (vertically above the soil). M.
Boisgiraud ainé, of Toulouse*, was, I believe, the first in
recent times} to maintain that this is due to the gathering of
the drop as it descends, chiefly in consequence of the cold
which it possesses, due to the height from which it has fallen,
and also to the considerable dampness of the atmosphere at
such times. This, the experiments of Mr. Phillips and Mr.
Gray entirely confirm, and I think demonstrate f.
220. For 12 months (1833-34) the fall of rain at York was
as follows :—
Height above Ground. Rain in Inches.
if feet ropes); 2. sai) er ROR
Ad: ogy acs is Mellen) oo) ORO
DSO, GixwNoad Giese wile om). Wha aine
The diminution was, therefore, 41°8 per cent. for 213 feet.
29 22°8 29 44 5,
which is pretty nearly as the square root of the height. This
proportion does not hold for different seasons ; and though the
formula m 7 height, originally proposed by Mr. Phillips (m
being a function of the air-temperature), is a tolerable approxi-
mation, it does not appear to be an accurate one. Nor indeed
have we any reason to suppose that so simple a law should
express the effect, on the author’s own hypothesis, since (ad-
mitting that the rain-drops have attained a terminal velocity)
the deposition on the drop must involve the size of the drop,
the dryness of the air, and the decrement of temperature in the
atmosphere in a very complicated manner §.
221. Admitting, however, for a moment, Mr. Phillips’s ori-
* Annales de Chimie, xxxiii. 417.
+ Prof. Bache, of Philadelphia, has claimed, with reason, for Dr. Franklin,
the merit of first suggesting the explanation, so far as the imperfect science of
his time would fairly allow him to do.—Journal, Franklin Institute, vol. xvii.
1836.
t British Association, 3rd Report, p. 401; 4th Report, p. 560; 5th Report,
pel Writ
§ The optical phenomena of the rainbow, to which we shall presently ad-
vert, confirm, in a remarkable manner, the increased size of drops in falling.
—See Arago; Annuaire, 1836, p. 301.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 113
ginal approximation, we think that he has fully made out his
main point ; for he has shown* that the value of the co-efficient
m depends upon the dryness of the air, at least that it is very
nearly inversely as the mean daily range at any season, a datum
which, in a good degree, indicates the relative dryness ; although
without direct hygrometrical experiments the investigation must
be considered as incomplete. Mr. Phillips desires that these
experiments should be further pursued at points where three
rain stations, vertically above one another, can be procured,
and he has given instructions for making such observationsy{.
222. Prof. Bache, of Philadelphia, has shown the very mate-
rial influence which the eddies of air surrounding a station, such
as a tower or steeple, exert upon the fall of rain, depending on
the position of the gauget. Mr. Phillips is at present engaged
in an ingenious series of experiments, to estimate and elimi-
nate these disturbances.
223. An admirable list of rain-gauge experiments, in differ-
ent parts of the earth’s surface, is given in Prof. Muncke’s ar-
ticle on Rain, in Gehler’s Physikalisches Worterbuch§, an
elaborate treatise, which appears to exhaust the literature of the
subject.
224, It appears from the Report of the Birmingham Meeting
of the British Association, as given in the dtheneum journal ||,
that doubt has been thrown upon the statement of the remark-
able fall of rain cited in my former report]. I was not pre-
sent at either of the discussions alluded to ; I therefore take this
opportunity of stating the authority upon which these very sur-
prising falls of rain were admitted into my report—authority
so ample, that, as a historian of science, I could not have
omitted them, improbable as they do most certainly appear.
225. The fall of 30 inches of rain within 24 hours took place
at Genoa** on the 25th October, 1822. An assertion to this ef-
fect having appeared in a Genoese newspaper, the editors of the
Bibliotheque Universelle wrote immediately to make the ne-
cessary inquiries as to an observation so unprecedented. The
reply, which they obtained from M. Pagano, “ observateur
exact,” is given at length in this journal}7, and is, I think, by
no means the less satisfactory because it was obtained by the
most inartificial of rain-gauges :—‘‘ Deux sceaux de bois, presque
cylindriques, dont l’un de vingt-quatre et l’autre de vingt-
* British Association, Third Report, p. 410.
T Ibid., 5th Rep., p. 178. t Ibid., Eighth Report, Sections, p. 25.
§ Vol. vii. Part Il. p. 1309. Leipzig, 1834.
|| 31st August, 1839, p. 658. q P. 252.
** Not Geneva, as stated by a printer’s oversight in the former report; the
MS. was correct.
tt Vol. xxii., Partie Physique, p. 67.
VOL. Ix. 1840. I
114 REPORT—1840.
six pouces de hauteur, qui m’avoient servi pour quelques expé-
riences sur la vendange étoient restés vides dans mon jardin.
La pluie de Vendredi 25 Octobre, n’avoient pas encore cessé
de tomber, que déja ils en étoient remplis.” He then proceeds
to state on what grounds he infers that 4 inches more of rain
fell after the largest vessel was filled, making a total of 30
French (32 English) inches, and then adds a statement of
several facts, to show that the effects of this delnge in the
neighbourhood bore a proportion to the magnitude of the
cause. M. Arago, quoting the result, adds, “‘ Ce résultat inoui
inspira des doutes 4 tous les météorologistes ; ou soupgonnait
une erreur d’impression; mais M. Pagano, observateur exact,
a écrit aux rédacteurs de la Bihliothéque Universelle, une lettre
qui met le fait hors de toute contestation*.”’
226. Fortunately, however, this local deluge (for it appears by
the letter of M. Pagano to have extended but a very short di-
stance), is nearly rivalled by a similar fact recorded in the South
of France by an experienced observer (who seems to have been
in the practice of measuring the fall of rain for twenty-three
years at least), M. Tardy de la Brossy, of Joyeuse, Dép. de
VArdéche. M. Arago, who records the observation, and gives
it the weight of his authority, does so in these words :—‘ Le
9 Octobre, 1827, dans l’intervalle de vingt-deux heures, il est
tombé dans la méme ville de Joyeuse, 29 pouces 3 lignes d’eau
(vingt-neuf pouces, trois lignes) ; jécris le résultat en toutes
lettres Gfin qu’on ne croie pas a une faute d’impression +.”
When I add that these two results, surprising, and perhaps
unexampled, as they are in the history of science, have, on
account of the testimony by which they are established, been
received not only in France{t and Switzerland§, but in Ger-
many || and England@, I conceive that they are undoubtedly
entitled to stand part of the history of meteorology **.
227. I proceed to add a notice of a few other remarkable falls.
* Annales de Chimie, xxvii. 207. Tt Annales de Chimie, xxxvi. 414.
} By Arago and Pouillet (Phys. ii. 758.)-
§ By the Editors of the Bibliothéque Universelle.
|| By Muncke (Gehler, vii. 1240.), Kamtz (Meteorology, i. 421.), and
Mahlmann (Abriss. 200.).
J Encyclopedia Metropolitana, Art. Meteorology, p. 120. -
** Mr. Espy has referred me to the fourth volume of Silliman’s Journal for
an account of a shower hardly less surprising. At Catskill (U.S.), Mr. Dwight
ascertained that on the 26th July, 1819, between half-past 3 p.m. and 11 P..,
that is, in seven and a half hours, there fell into an empty barrel placed in an
open space eighteen inches of water. A tub 154 inches deep, and nearly cylin-
drical, was filled before sunset. Since writing the above, another fact of the
same character has come to my knowledge. On the 25th Nov. 1826,
thirly-three inches of rain fell at Gibraltar within twenty-six hours. This in-
formation I received from Professor Jameson, who believes that he had it from
the late Col. Imrie.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 115
of rain, though there is nothing on record comparable to the two
preceding ones. Flaugergues, the eminent meteorologist of
Viviers, obtained, on the 6th September, 1801, 13 inches 2°3
lines (144 English inches) of rain in eighteen hours*. On the
20th May, 1827, there fell at Geneva 6 inches of rain in three
hourst. At Perth, on the 3rd August, 1829, there fell #ths of
an inch of rain in half an hourf. On the 22nd November,
1826, I observed, at Naples, a fall of j4ths of an inch of rain
and hail in thirty-seven minutes §.
228. Werethe equatorial records of the fall of rain as minute
in respect of distribution as of total amount, we should doubt-
less have records of enormous falls within twenty-four hours.
None so recorded, that I am aware of, approach the results at
Genoa and Joyeuse. From the total quantities measured, it is
evident that the result, for particular days, must be enormous.
Don Antonio Lago observed, at San Luis Maranham (22° S.
lat.) a fall of twenty-three feet, 4 inches, 9°7 lines of rain in a
year||. Roussin states§ (his account is confirmed), that at
Cayenne (5° N. lat.) in February, 1820, there fell, in ten hours,
10°25 inches of rain; and between the Ist and 24th February,
twelve feet 7 inches. From observations in the Ghauts, it ap-
pears that in the eastern hemisphere, in lat 18° N., 302-21
inches of rain have been measured**, a quantity exceeding
that stated on the authority of Roussin, and which was once
considered almost incredible ; and of this quantity (25:2 English
feet) nearly 10 feet fell in the month of July alone.
229. I have formerly stated, that the fall of rain increases
on mountains}; and the following statement of Schubler, as to
the fall of rain at three stations, confirms the facttt :
Height. Depth of Rain §§.
Wapmeen 7": 1000 feet . 8572
Mchaicuhots 71576" 40° . oo... YB e56
Alp Genkingen 2400 , .. . . 5513
* Bibliothéque Universelle, viii. 132, quoted in Gehler.
+ Ann. deChim.,xxxvi.414. Themean annualrain at Geneva is only 80 inches.
{ Edinburgh Journal of Science, New Series, iii. 368.
§ I donot know whether there exists a record of the fall of rain at Cler-
mont, on occasion of the catastrophe of the Valley of Royat, a few years ago;
the amount, I presume, must have been very great, judging by the effects. M.
Quetelet has recorded a remarkable fall of rain in Belgium (Comptes Rendus,
viii. 980.). || Humboldt, quoted by Muncke.
{| Silliman’s Journal, iv. 375., quoted by Muncke.
** Communicated by Colonel Sykes, at the Ninth Meeting of the British
Association.— Atheneum, p. 658. Prof. Stevelly’s inference from these results
must, 1 presume, be erroneously reported.
tt Former Report, p, 251. tt In Gehler, vii. 1246.
§§ The unit of measure is not stated.
12
116 REPORT—1840.
Boussingault finds a contrary result in the tropics*; but this
fact admits of easy explanation, for the height to which they
were carried had already passed the region of maximum humi-
dity, above which, no doubt, increased dryness occurs :-—
Metres. Inches.
Marmato . . . 1426 171°2—154°4 in 2 different years.
Santa Fé de Bogota 2641 100°3
230. Boussingault also notices that, between the tropics, it
rains more in the night than in the day, which is the contrary
of the case in Kuropet.
231. Where M. Osler’s self-registering gauge is employed, we
have the best means of determining the distribution of rain
and the intensity of showers.
232. On the somewhat vague subject of the moon’s influence
on rain and weather, I must content myself with referring to
the recent Memoirs of Aragot, Brandes §, Baumann]|, Eisen-
lohr ], Howard**, Kamtztt, Marcet{{, and Schubler§§.
|.
233. This subject has made scarcely any progress during the
last years. The experiments of Schubler are still the best we
possess. M. Arago has collected a number of important facts
respecting thunder-storms, and drawn conclusions from them,
for which we refer to his popular treatise (J. Colladon, of
Geneva, has proposed to make observations on atmospherical
VI. ArmosPHERICAL ELeEcrricirTy ||
* LT’ Institut, No. 148.
+ See also Schouw on the distribution of Rain.—Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal, July, 1836.
~ Annuaire, 1833.
§ Ueber die Verschiedenen Formen der Wolken, thre Bildung, die Entste-
hung des Regens und Hagels, §c.—Beitrage, p. 285.
|| Untersuchungen iber die Monatliche Perioden in den Verdnderungen
unserer Atmosphare.—Tubingen, 1832.
q Poggendorff, xxx. 72; xxxv. 141.
** Proceedings of Royal Society, March, 1840.
++ Lehrbuch, iii.411, &c. tt Bibliotheque Universelle, Fev. 1834.
§§ Einfluss des Mondes auf die Verdnderungen unserer Atmosphdre. Leip-
zig, 1880.—Kastner’s Archiv, v. 169.
\||| See former Report, p. 252, and Mahlmann, p. 209, where the subject is
very fully treated. I beg again to disclaim any depreciation of the importance
of subjects like the present, over which I may pass very lightly, partly on
account of the extent of this report, but chiefly because of the difficulty of
establishing any general principles, and of offering any definite suggestions for
their advancement.
q9 Annuaire, 1838. Translated in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 117
electricity by means of a multiplier, but with what success we
have not heard*.
234. On the subject of hail there is a curious paper by Lecogq,
founded on observations made in the neighbourhood of Cler-
mont, contained in the Comptes Rendust, and some observa-
tions by Beaumont, Buch, and Airy, and on the form of hail-
stones in the same work f.
VII. Mereors.
235. This subject has occupied by far too much attention
during the last few years to be passed over in silence. A very
remarkable shower of falling stars attracting general attention
in many parts of the world on the night from the 12th to the
13th November, 1832, recalled the attention of philosophers to
the fact, that the same night of the year had, on several pre-
vious occasions, been similarly distinguished, and especially the
1J—12th November, 1799, when they were observed by Hum-
boldt and Bonpland§, as well as in Germany and in Green-
land ||.
236. The year 1832 brought a very remarkable occurrence of
this kind on the night of the 12—13th November, which was ob-
served over the greater part of Europe, to the middle of Russia,
and in Arabia. I was at Geneva at the time, and heard much
next day of the appearance, which was such as to strike the
most heedless person; but as it occurred very early in the morn-
ing, I did notsee it. M. Gautier published an account of it].
237. This attracted attention to the date of the 12th Novem-
ber, and several confirmations were soon found of the (at least
occasional) periodicity of the meteor on that night. In 1831,
they had been observed by M. Berard on the coast of Spain**,
and also in Americatt. In 1822 they were seen at Potsdam
by M. Kléden; and some other remarkable appearances in No-
vember are also mentioned{{. But to return to the order of dates.
238. In 1833 wasa brilliant apparition, especially in America,
always on the 12th November ; and these falling stars appeared
* See on this subject the Instructions published by the Royal Society, p. 74;
and Becquerel’s Work, vol. iv., there referred to; also Kimtz, Meteorologie,
ii, 389.
t+ Tom. i. p. 324.
t iv. 922. On the subject of Hail, see Fechner’s Repertorium, iii. 56.
§ Voyage, i.519, quoted by Biot. || Arago, Annuaire, 1836, p. 295.
q Bibliotheque Universelle, li. 189. See also Arago, Annuaire, 1836, p. 295.
Jameson’s Journal, July, 1836. Poggendorff, xxix. 447.
** Annuaire, 1836, 295 note. See, too, Silliman, xxx. 386.
Tt Silliman’s Journal, xxvii. 419. tt Poggendorff, xxxviii. 551.
118 REPORT—1840.
to radiate from a point in the heavens near y Leonis. They
were visible from Mexico to Greenland*.
239. In 1834, the phenomenon was less indubitably marked,
for it scarcely appears to have been noticed in Europe; and in
America, observers were divided as to its amounting to any-
thing unusual; Prof. Olmsted, who was one of the first to sug-
gest the periodicity, maintaining that November, 1834, was
marked like the previous years}, and Prof. Bache denying itf.
240. The year 1835 must be regarded as a very doubtful one
for the November meteors. Still it happens, by what must at
least be regarded as a singular coincidence, that a very large
meteor was seen in France by M. D’Aubenton, which exploded
in the department de ]’Ain on the night of the 13th November,
and probably set fire to a cottage§. Sir John Herschel saw a
meteor as large as Venus at the Cape of Good Hope on the
14th, but none on the 13th
241. The apparition of November, 1836, was better marked.
The meteors were observed in America§]. M. Arago, by ana-
lysing various careful observations in France, has shown that,
if not comparable to the showers of 1832 and 1833, they were
at least numerically above an average**. They were observed
in the Oural in lat. 60°++, and their direction was from the
constellation Leo ff.
242, It may be doubted whether, in 1837, there was any
very decided fall of meteors in November; but I refer below to
the recorded observations§§. The weather was not generally
very favourable.
243. November, 1838, was not more prolific. Scarcely any
notice was taken of the meteors in the Comptes Rendus, and
the direct testimony of Quetelet, Herschel, and Benzenberg ||||,
show that the phenomenon was, to say the least, not well
marked. In America], it was scarcely, if at all, perceptible.
244, In 1839, IT am not aware that any very marked phe-
* For 1833. See Silliman, xxv. 354; xxvi. 132; xxix. 376. Poggendorff,
xxxi. 159; xxxix. 114 (Greenland).
+ Silliman, xxix. 167.
t Ibid., xxvii. 335; xxviii. 305; xxix. 383. See also Clarke in Silliman,
xxx. 869. Poggendorff, xxxiv,. 129.
§ Comptes Rendus, i. 414. | Ibid., ii. 264.
q Silliman, xxx. 386. ** Comptes Rendus, iii. 629.
++ Comptes Rendus, iv.524. }t See also Poggendorff, xxxix. 353; xl. 484.
§§ Olmsted in‘Silliman, xxxiii. 379; Sir John Herschel, Transactions of the
Meteorological Society, i. 77; Arago, Comptes Rendus, v. 759; Observations
at Edinburgh, Philosophical Magazine, Third Series, xii. 85.
|\| Bulletin de l Acad. de Bruvzelles, 1838, p. 730.
{| Olmsted in Silliman, xxxv. 368. A brilliant fall was seen at many places
on the 6th December. See Herrick in Silliman, xxxv. 361; xxxvi. 355.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 119
nomenon wus observed. Under these circumstances, it is plain
that we must use the term periodicity, as applied to these me-
teors, with caution. It is quite possible that some cause may
determine their recurrence in November in preference to other
seasons, and yet that the repetition may not be annual.
245. It is well known that Chladui*, Brandes}, and Ben-
zenbergt, have devoted their attention for a long time to these
singular meteors; and it is perhaps surprising that we still
know so little respecting them. The November periodic me-
teor has of course given a fresh interest to these; Biot has pub-
lished an astronomical theory §. Bessel has shown that it is
improbable that these meteors ever ascend ||. JKirman has given
a meteorological hypothesis connected with them, which we
have before adverted to§]; and Olmsted** and Wartmann Tf
have likewise written memoirs on the hypothesis of their pe-
riodicity.
246. But M. Quetelet, of Brussels, examining the records of
this subject, has classified the frequency of meteors at different
seasons of the year{{; and whilst he finds the middle of No-
vember the most prominent period, yet that from the 10th to
the 15th August is also well marked. This observation, com-
municated to the Brussels Academy 3rd December, 1836§§,
was confirmed by M. Arago next year ||||, and, I believe, every
subsequent one§jf]. In 1839 they appear to have been very
generally observed. M. Quetelet has quoted no less than six-
teen years in the present century down to 1837, in which the
August meteors have been specially noticed***.
* Feuermeteore. See Kimtz, Meteorologie, Band iii.
+ See an Abstract of his Researches, Silliman, xxviii. 95; and in Quetelet’s
Annuaire for 1887.
t He has published a new work, which I have not seen, “ Die Sternschnup-
pen.” Hambourg, 1839.
§ Comptes Rendus, iii. 668. || Poggendorff, xlvii. 525.
@ See above (44), and Comptes Rendus, x. 21.
¥* Silliman’s Journal, passim.
+t Bibliothéque Universelle, N.S. ix. 373.
tt Catalogue des principales Apparitions d’Etoiles filantes. Mém. de U Acad.
de Bruxelles.
§§ Bulletin de V Acad. de Bruxelles, December, 1836 and 1837, p. 79.
\|\| Comptes Rendus, v. 183. 347; Silliman, xxxiii. 133; Bulletin de Acad.
de Bruvelles, 1838, p. 567.
qq Ibid., vii. 443. tom. ix. passim.
*et Bulletin, 1837, p. 379. M. Littrow, of Vienna, has observed the me-
teors of August, and states that their direction of motion is contrary to that of
the earth in its orbit, whilst those of November move parallel to it. (4tt
degli Scienzati Italiani, 1839, p. 19.). I learn, by letters from Sir John
Herschel and M. Quetelet, that the meteors of August, 1840, have been ob-
served both here and in America to radiate from a point.near y Persei. Whilst
120 REPORT—1840.
VIII. Aurora Boreauis*.
247. I have little information on this subject to offer in addi-
tion to what was formerly given. It is to be regretted, that the
system of observation, vigorously commenced by the British
Association in 1833, and of which specimens are contained in
the report of the Cambridge Meeting, has not been pursued.
1X.—Opricat METEOROLOGY.
A. Colour of the Sky and Clouds.
248. The blue colour of the sky has, from a very early
period, attracted attention. Leonardo da Vincif, and: many
succeeding writers, vaguely attributed it to a mixture of light
reflected from the matter of the atmosphere with the darkness
of the celestial spaces beyond ; an opinion which Gothe has
revivedt. Muncke§ has asserted that the blueness is a mere
ocular deception arising from the structure of the eye, but such
a doctrine can hardly now be seriously maintained ; and I have
elsewhere|| offered an explanation of his fundamental experi-
ment.
249. Newton supposed that the blue of the sky is due to
very attenuated vapours producing the first tints of the scale of
the colours of thin plates. He further attributes the colours
of sunset and of clouds generally, as he had done those of most
natural bodies, to the varying thickness of such vesicles**.
The latter opinion has been revived and illustrated by No-
bilitt.
250. Against this theory it may be urged, (1) that the sky
appears intensely blue at elevations and under circumstances
which forbid us to suppose that vapour can be present at all in
a watery or vesicular form (which Newton’s statement di-
stinctly supposes), otherwise the hygrometer would attest its
existence ; (2) that with respect to clouds, were they coloured
by the nature of their surfaces as a soap-bubble is, they would
present iridescent bands, and they would not partake, as we see
this sheet is passing through the press, I am enabled to add that no decided
meteoric appearance has been observed in Noy. 1840 at Paris, or in the West
of Europe generally.
* See last Report, p. 254. Mahlmann, p. 230.
+ Traité de la Peinture, quoted in Gehler’s Worterbuch, art. Atmosphare.
+ Farbenlehre, i. 59, quoted by Humboldt.
§ Schweigger’s Journal, xxx. 81; and Gehler, wt supra.
|| Edinburgh Transactions, xiv. 381. { Optics, book ii., part iii., prop. 7.
** Optics, ibid, prop. 5, end.
tt Bibliothéque Universelle, 1830, xliv. 337; and Taylor’s Scientific Me-
moirs, vol, i.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 121
them do, of the general glow so common at sunset which is
communicated to all objects indifferently, and which ceases
when the sun leaves them in the shade; and (3) that the colours
of clouds analysed by a prism by Sir D. Brewster* do not
appear to be composed as the colours of thin plates are.
251. Mariotte asserted} that the proper colour of air is
blue, just as he considers that of water to be green, and as
other bodies have peculiar tints. Bouguer revived this doc-
trinet, and added to it the consideration, that if air reflect
blue light it may be expected to transmit the complementary
colour as red (as is stated to be the case with sea-water), and
hence he explained the fiery colour of the horizontal sun, and
the tints of sunset. This opinion has been adopted by Euler§,
Leslie ||, and many later writers, but especially by Brandes,
who, in a most ingenious article in Gehler’s Dictionary], has
maintained its complete adequacy to the explanation of phe-
nomena.
252. This theory must, I think, be considered imperfect
rather than erroneous. That the colour of pure air by reflexion is
blue, can, I think, hardly be doubted. But that the explanation
of the hues of sunset is incomplete, can be doubted by no one
who is unable to persuade himself, with Brandes, that the dif-
ference of intensity on different evenings is only an ocular
deception, or depends on the presence of clouds which receive
and repeat the colour.
253. Something more is wanting, then, to the explanation,
and many acute writers have supposed that some impurity in
the air produces, by its absorptive action and variable quantity,
the phenomena in question; and several of these authors com-
pare the effect to that of opalescence in turbid fluids, which
generally transmit a ruddy beam. Under this head we class
Honoratus Fabri**, our countryman Thomas Melvilltt, De-
laval{t, Count Maistre§§, and Sir D. Brewster||||. Of these
writers, Count Maistre is the only one who suggests that
watery vapour, under peculiar mechanical conditions, may be
the source of the variable atmospheric hues, ‘‘ producing an
* Edinburgh Transactions, xii. 544. Compare Encyclopedia Britannica,
art. Optics, p. 510.
+ Cuvres, i. 299. Leide, 1717. t Traité d’ Optique, p. 365—8.
§ Letters, ii. 507. || Encyclopedia Britannica, art. Meteorology.
4 Art. Abendréthe, vol.i. p. 4.
** Quoted by Eberhard. Rozier, i. 620.
++ Edinburgh Physical and Literary Essays, p. 81.
tt Manchester Memoirs, First Series, ii. 214.
§§ Bibliotheque Universelle, November, 1832.
\\|| Edinburgh Transactions, xii. 580.
122 REPORT—1840.
effect analogous to that of the powder of calcined bones in
opaline glass*.”
254. I have endeavoured to show} that the colorific property
of watery vapour may not merely be gathered from induction,
but demonstrated by direct experiment. MHaving first noticed
that high-pressure steam, during a certain stage of condensa-
tion, is coloured, and transmits orange-red light, I extended
the observation to steam of low pressure. There seems no
reason to doubt that the property of vapour, to be coloured in
passing from its pure, elastic, colourless state to that com-
monly called vesicular (such as it appears in clouds, or in
issuing from the spout of a kettle), is a general one, and there-
fore that great masses of vapour at any temperature under-
going condensation must pass through the colorific stage. Now
the development of the brightest atmospheric colours is in-
variably attended with change of temperature. And Forster,
without the remotest reference to theory, has recorded that the
sunset glow is contemporaneous with the dew-point tempera-
ture; hence he argues that “ some sudden change produced by
the first falling dew is the cause of the simultaneous change of
colour in all the clouds then visible{”’.. The application of this
doctrine to atmospheric colours, as a prognostic of weather, is
likewise evident and satisfactory §.
255. Dry Fogs.—Of atmospheric colours, which may be con-
sidered unusual, the blood-red colour of dry fogs, which have
occurred at various times over a vast extent of country, is
amongst the most remarkable. It is hardly possible to believe
that they are not due to the accidental intermixture of foreign
matter with the atmosphere. Remarkable fogs of this kind
* Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xv. Count Maistre explains the
colour of water by similar reasoning. He considers it blue for reflected, and
yellowish orange for transmitted, light; and the green colour of the sea and
some lakes he attributes to diffused particles which reflect a portion of the
transmitted tint, and mingle with the blue. This is well confirmed by Davy’s
observations (Salmonia, third edition, p. 317). Arago has very ingeniously
applied the same reasoning to the ocean, showing that when calm it must be
blue, but when ruffled, the waves, acting the part of prisms, refract to the eye
some of the transmitted light from the interior, and it then appears green
(Comptes Rendus, 23rd July, 1838). Most authors have admitted the intrinsic
blue or green colour of pure water, as Newton (Optics, b. i. part ii. prop. 10),
Mariotte, and Ever. Humboldt seems doubtful (Voyage, 8vo, ii. 133.).
¢ “On the Colour of Steam under certain circumstances.” ‘ On the
Colours of the Atmosphere.”—Edinburgh Transactions, xiv. 371; Philoso-
phical Magazine, Third Series, xiv. 121,419; xv. 25; and Poggendorff’s
Annalen.
+ Researches about Atmospheric Phenomena, third edition, p. 87.
§ Those who wish for fuller details on the history of this part of the sub-
jeet, will find them in my papers above referred to.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 123
occurred in 1783 and 1831; on both occasions they extended
from Europe to America; the former lasted a month, and
enveloped the highest Alpine summits*.
256. Blue Sun.—At the latter date (1831) the sun’s dise was
seen of a blue or green colour in the South of Europe and in
America. This extraordinary phenomenon we might be dis-
posed to attribute, with M. Aragoy, to an ocular deception
arising from the intense contrasted orange of the fog, did we
not find that it has been repeatedly observed under circum-
stances to which this explanation would perhaps hardly apply.
M. Babinet, a skilful observer, has seen it twice himself t. He
accounts for it by Dr. Young’s theory of mixed plates, in
which colour is produced by the interference of two pencils of
light which have passed through unequal thicknesses of a re-
tarding medium. This he supposes may be the case in the
atmosphere by the union of rays ‘‘ which have passed through
vesicles of water or vapour with those which have passed
through air only.” Now, though M. Babinet has ingeniously
imitated the effect by a thin film of mixed air and water placed
between two glasses, there is some difficulty in conceiving an
extended medium like the atmosphere, which should present an
analogous constitution §.
257. Secondary Sunset Tints.—Many authors have described
the appearance of a revival of the sunset glow upon the sum-
mits of lofty mountains long after apparent sunset, and ten or
fifteen minutes after the tints which accompanied it have dis-
appeared ||. The appearance in question was once noticed with
extraordinery effect by the writer of this report, in the case of
the Jung Frau seen from the profound valley of Lauterbrun-
nen, from which the sun had so long disappeared that it was
almost night below, whilst the upper half of the snowy moun-
tain was illuminated by a delicate but intense red tint, like that
of a glowing coal. Prof. de la Rive has offered as an explana-
* Annuaire, 1832, p. 244. + Annuaire, p. 249.
t Comptes Rendus, viii. 306. Sir D. Brewster communicated at Glasgow an
account of this phenomenon, observed by Dr. Harvey at Bermuda. See
Athenzeum, 3rd October, 1840. The appearance referred to occurring on the
10th August, 1831, is evidently part of the same widely-extended appearance
quoted by M. Arago in the Annuaire for 1832. Dr. Harvey, however, does
not appear to have observed the blueness of the swn’s disc, but only that of
objects illuminated by it ;—a circumstance, which, had it stood alone, might pro-
bably have been accounted for by the doctrine of accidental colours.
§ The phenomenon of the scintillation of the stars has lately engaged the
attention of M. Arago, who states (Comptes Rendus, 1840) that he has disco-
vered a complete explanation of it founded on the laws of the interference of
light.
|| Germ. “ Gliihen der Alpen.” See Brandes in Gehler, art. 4lmosphare.
124 REPORT—1840.
tion of this phenomenon*, that it occurs when the air is ex-
tremely clear and highly charged with humidity (as we should
expect from (254.)), and that the rays which then reach the
mountain have undergone total internal reflexion in the higher
and moister strata of the atmosphere.
258. derial Shadows.—We do not by this refer to shadows
of persons thrown on clouds surrounded by coloured glories, of
which we will afterwards speak, but of shadows of clouds and
other objects projected to a great distance in the air, and which
being rendered visible by its imperfect transparency, produce cer-
tain remarkable effects of perspective. The diverging rays so
often seen proceeding from the sun, when near setting, are of this
kind; and the corresponding fact of rays (or clear intervals
between the shadows of clouds), which appear to converge to a
point diametrically opposite to the sun. This rarer phzeno-
menon we have twice seen; once, combined with a rainbow, to
whose centre of course the rays were directed ; and lately, from
the summit of Goatfell in Arran, whence the rays appeared
directed to a point in the sea, and converging from all sides of
the circumference. We chiefly mention the circumstance to
call attention to a curious and elaborate paper by Professor
Necker+, of Geneva, who undertakes to prove that diverging
solar rays are sometimes produced by very distant mountains,
and that they thus picture forth, to inhabitants of our country,
spectral outlines of mountain-chains in another, far removed
from direct vision.
259. Polarization of Sky-light.—Sir D. Brewster appears
to have been the first to remark that the light of the blue sky
exhibits traces of polarizationt. I apprehend that it must be
difficult to assert that the blue rays are actually so polarized,
for the polarization of the white light, with which no doubt the
blue is diluted, would produce the effects observed. I do not,
however, doubt that such is the case.
260. M. Arago determined the polarizing angle for air to be
45° nearly §, and the maximum polarization of the sky to be
90° from the sun’s disc, the polarization being in a plane passing
through the eye and the sun. It is a singular fact, and one
difficult of explanation, that, proceeding to a greater distance
than 90° (in a vertical plane), the polarization diminishes, be-
comes zero, and reappears in a plane perpendicular to the
* British Association, Seventh Report, Sections, p. 10. See too a paper by
Prof. Necker, of Geneva, Phil. Mag., 3rd series, i. 335.
+ Annales de Chimie, Fev. Mars, 1839, and Bibliotheque Universelle,
xxiil. 355.
t Treatise on New Philosophical Instruments, p. 350. Edinburgh, 1813.
§ Biot, Traitée de Physique, iv. 289.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 125
former*. The distance of the neutral point from the sun varies
with atmospheric contingencies. The position of this neutral
point seems to have been at first inaccurately reported, for we
find English observers searching for it in the sun’s neighbour-
hood, and not in the opposite quarter of the skyf. The
polariscopes of Arago and Savart, used for detecting the
minutest quantities of polarized light, are little known in this
country ; it is by their aid that the light of the moon is ascer-
tained to be slightly polarized.
261. On the phenomena of Mirage we have nothing new to
state. The phenomena of Twilight and of Atmospherical Re-
fraction, although connected with Optical Meteorology, we
shall also omit.
B. The Rainbow.
262. There is no step in the progress of science more inter-
esting than that which calls in the aid of comparatively abs-
truse principles to explain the slighter outstanding variations
between theory and observation, which were overlooked in the
first unqualified satisfaction with which the announcement of a
simple general principle, harmonizing with every-day experi-
ence, is invariably received. Amongst such cases may be
reckoned the law of double refraction in crystals with two axes,
Laplace’s correction for the velocity of sound,—and we may
now add, the phenomena of the rainbow, so far as these were
not included in Newton’s general explanation.
263. The diameter of the primary rainbow (caused by two
refractions with one intermediate reflexion), and of the secondary
(caused by two refractions and two reflexions), may be most
easily found by the formule which M. Babinet has lately
given { for expressing the radii 5, directly in terms of the re-
fractive index of water m, viz.
_ (4—m’)?
27 m*
. & m*+18 m*—2
For the secondary, sin a eee
* See Peclet, Zraité de Physique, 4me edit. art. 1448. I am unable to
state where M. Arago’s original account of these experiments is to be found.
Compare Quetelet’s Notes to Herschel on Light, French Translation, ii. 554.
+ Airy and Chevallier, Philosophical Magazine, N.S., iv. 312, 313. I must
add, however, that a very recent communication by M. Babinet to the French
Academy of Sciences (Comptes Rendus, 19th October, 1840) states the exist-
ence of a second neutral point, 20° or 30° distant from the sun.
$ Comptes Rendus, iv. 646. The demonstration is given in Peclet, Zraiié
de Physique, 4me édit. art. 1489.
: yao
For the primary, sin? >
\
126 REPORT—1840.
sy we obtain
Pie che ArsEoP sd! Li, os Ee gga
For the second . . . . 50°59),
264. The comparison of these theoretical angles with obser-
vation is not so easy as might appear, depending (1) on the
doubt which ray of the red space we are to consider as the last
visible one in the rainbow, and (2) on the gradual shading off
depending on the sun’s apparent diameter. There is reason to
think that the measures of the rainbow require revision ; but
we would rather place the fate of the theory upon other grounds.
265. The first fact which Newton’s theory did not embrace,
was the existence of supernumerary or spurious bows ; within
the Inner, or Primary Rainbow, and without the Outer, or
Secondary one. These were very accurately described by
Langwith in 1722 +,—three internal rings of green and purple
(with traces of a fourth) associated with the primary rainbow.
The much rarer phenomenonof the supernumerary exterior bows
of the secondary rainbow has been noticed by Dicquemare {
and Brewster§. The supernumeraries have the same order of
colours as the bows to which they belong, 7. e. those within the
Primary have the Red exteriorly, those without the Secondary
the Red interiorly.
266. Pemberton || explained these spurious bows by the
colours of thin plates ; and at a much later period Venturi J
attempted to account for them by the deviation of the figure of
falling drops from sphericity. Such fallacious endeavours
show how cautiously we should receive explanations of such
phenomena on the grounds of general plausibility. The true
explanation had already been given by Dr. Young, who in pur-
suing his fertile discovery of interference, pointed out its appli-
cation to the rainbow ina manner so clear**, that it is surprising
how for thirty years, this, one of its happiest adaptations to
phenomena, has been so generally overlooked.
267. In the ordinary geometrical theory of the primary rain-
Adopting with Newton * the index m =
* Optics, book i. part ii. prop. 9.
+ Philosophical Transactions, 1723, quoted by Dr. Young. Dr. Young
cites Mariotte as the first who mentions supernumerary bows (Chromatics,
Encye. Britt.), but without a reference.
t Quoted by Young, Lectures, vol. ii. p. 316.
§ Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. x. p. 163.
|| Philosophical Transactions, 1723, quoted by Dr. Young.
{| Commentari sopra la Storia et le Teorie dell Ottica. Bologna, 1814.
Quoted by Dove and Kamtz (Meteor. iii. 165).
** Phil. Trans. 1804. Read Nov. 24, 1803. Lectures, vol. i. 470; ii. 316.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 127
bow, it is well understood that a limit of deviation, due to two
refractions and one reflexion of the sun’s light within the drop
is adefinite and impassible one. The illumination of the bow is
produced by the accumulation of rays near the limit of maximum
deviation ; an incidence a little greater or a little less than that
due to the limit will equally give a smaller deviation ; and as in
a shower there are assumed to be drops which shall send rays
to the eye in any given direction consistent with the relative
position of the observer and the sun, rays more or less approach-
ing to parallelism (therefore more or less densely luminous) will
reach the eye from drops placed so as to furnish rays at less
angles than that of extreme deviation. Confining our attention
to a single colour (the red, for instance, which is the outermost
in the primary rainbow), we should expect to find a red bow,
quite sharply terminated exteriorly, but shading off gradually,
though pretty rapidly, towards the interior. When we recollect,
too, that this reflexion within the angle of maximum deviation is
derived from rays which have fallen at a smaller as well as at a
greater angle of incidence than the critical one, and which
therefore emerge rigorously parallel, we are surprised at first
sight that the insulation of the colours in the successive arcs
should be as great as it appears to be.
268. The doctrines of physical optics, as laid down by Dr.
Young, enable us to explain this satisfactorily ; for the very re-
duplication of the reflected light just alluded to (which a very
little reflection will show to be derived from opposite halves of
the drop, separated by the position of critical internal reflexion
for producing the maximum deviation) reminds us of the funda-
mental fact of interference, that annihilation as well as increase
of light may attend the union of rays proceeding in a common
direction, derived from a common source, but which have tra-
versed paths of different lengths. Whilst, then, near the critical
angle of reflexion the luminiferous waves necessarily reach the
eye in the same, or nearly the same phase, the rays derived from
a greater and a less incidence have (though they ultimately
coincide in direction) described paths whose difference will
soon amount to half an undulation, when their effects will be
mutually destructive. Thus by the principle of interference the
bow of any colour has its interior boundary far more sharpl
defined than if such a cause (which is manifestly modified by
the size of the drop) had not existed*.
* See Young’s original paper, Phil. Trans. 1804, where he estimates the pos-
sible breadth of the diffused zone of light, which otherwise would have shaded
off from the rainbow, at 25°.
128 REPORT—1840.
269. Thus, but for interference, we should have had but a
feeble andimpure rainbow. But further, the same considerations
explain the supernumerary arcs: for it is evident, from what
has now been stated, that after destruction of light by opposi-
tion of phases has been produced, an equal additional retarda-
tion of the one ray upon the other will produce concurrence of
phase, and double light ; hence, as in all similar cases, a series of
luminous bands rapidly diminishing in breadth and in intensity
will be formed with more or less vividness, depending upon
the brilliancy of the reflexion and the separation of the bands
(which again depends on the size of the drop). The distance
between the true and spurious bow gives the data (upon prin-
ciples which will be very readily conceived *) upon which the
diameter of the drops of rain may be calculated, which Dr.
Young finds to be between jth and 4th of an inch. By similar
principles it is found that the supernumeraries of the secondary
bow will be exterior to it and somewhat broader.
270. The darkness of the space between the primary and
secondary bows is equally a consequence.of the common theory
and the corrected one t. It is dark compared to the spaces
containing the diffused lights (what Dr. Young calls the double
lights, or duplicatures) corresponding to the respective bows.
This darkness was described by Descartes§. The light of the
primary and secondary bows]|, and also of the supernumeraries
so far as observed, is polarized in the place of reflexion.
271. Mr. Airy has recently investigated fully the intensity of
the light in the neighbourhood of a caustic formed by reflexion
* Viz. for the observed deviation of the red ray in the spurious bow, find the
angles of incidence and reflexion within the drop for the two rays which com-
bine to produce it, and find the difference of the paths of the rays which corre-
spond to this in terms of the radius of the drop. Reduce the difference of
paths in water to that in air, and equating it to the length of a wave of red light,
find the radius of the drop. Dr. Young hasindicated this process in his obscure
but ableand comprehensive article Chromatics, in the Encyclopedia Britannica,
with which Mr. Potter, who has recently written in support of Dr. Young’s
views (Camb. Trans. vi. 141), appears not to have been acquainted.
¢ Philosophical Transactions, 1804, and Chromatics.
{ It is, however, very imperfectly or inaccurately explained in most popular
treatises. Mr. Ainger has given a very detailed account of it in the Journal
of the Royal Institution (Feb. 1831), in which he has added nothing material to
what was shown by Dr. Young ; nor has he adverted to the cause of the super-
numerary bows.
§ Brandes, art. Regenbogen, in Gehler, p. 1324. Kamtz, Meteorologie, iii.
p- 158. It is very singular that neither of these authors seems to be aware of
the true theory of the rainbow, or of Dr. Young’s writings on the subject.
|| First observed by Biot. See Annales de Chimie, xxxix. 430.
q Arago, Annales de Chimie, ibid.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 129
and refraction as in the rainbow*. Computing the intensities
rigorously on the principles of the undulatory Theory of Light,
he arrives by laborious numerical computations at the following
results :—
1. The boundary of the caustic is not a mathematical line ;
but the light shades off with extreme rapidity.
2. The radius of the primary bow does not coincide with the
geometrical caustic deduced by the common theory. It lies
within it at a distance depending on the size of the drops, and
on the consequent separation of the interference fringes.
3. To find the radius of the geometrical bow from observation,
“Add to the radius of the brightest observed bow 11 of the
distance between it and the first supernumerary bow.” __
4. Between the primary and the first supernumerary there is
a space absolutely dark.
272. As several of these results differ quantitatively from
those deducible by the simpler methods of Dr. Young, it is of
importance to verify them experimentally. For the reasons
already stated (264.), it is difficult to obtain satisfactory compa-
rative measures from the natural rainbow. Much more deli-
cate observations are obtained by an ingenious experiment de-
vised by M. Babinet, of allowing a minute stream of water to
flow through an opening #,th of an inch, or less, in diameter,
and observing the deviation of rays proceeding from a small
luminous body}. In this way Professor Miller, of Cambridge,
has confirmed Mr. Airy’s result as to the deviation of the prin-
cipal bow from the geometrical place of the caustict.
273. The existence and positions of the supernumerary bows
and their dependence on the diameter of the refracting cylinder
of fluid (and likewise on its index of refraction), have been shown
by M. Babinet himself, who has observed no less than sixteen
interior, and nine exterior supernumeraries, by means of a
streamlet of water of the diameter above-mentioned §.
274. With acomparatively large (;4;ths of an inch) cylinder of
glass he obtained the usual theoretical dimensions of a bow for
the appropriate index of refraction. The supernumeraries were
excluded by the size of the cylinders; but he obtained bows
caused not only by one and two internal reflexions, but three
and four, up to seven. These, the ternary, quaternary, &c.
rainbows have been long theoretically known, though rarely, if
ever, observed in nature. The ternary rainbow ought to occur
* Camb. Trans. vi. 379. The abstract in the Phil. Mag., Third Series, vol.
Xli. p. 452, is inaccurate. + Comptes Rendus, iv. 647.
¢ Phil. Mag., Third Series, vol. xiii. p- 10. This experiment was shown to
me by Professor Challis. § Comptes Rendus, ut sup.
VOL. 1x. 1840. K
130 REPORT—1840.
about 41° from the sun, but is generally stated * to be too faint
to be visible. Two observations by Bergmann are the only
recorded ones I have met with}. Kamtz observed a ternary
bow amidst the spray of the falls of Schaffhausen f.
275. We have said that the appearance of supernumerary
bows indicates the presence of rain-drops below a certain size,
as well as of considerable uniformity of dimension. It is re-
markable that Langwith observed, more than a century ago, that
“this effect depends upon some property which the drops retain
whilst they are in the upper part of the air, but lose as they
come lower down and are more mixed with one another.”’ M.
Arago seems inclined to suppose, on the authority of d’Abbadie
and the officers of the Venus §, that supernumerary bows are
raret in equatorial climates than in ours. It should be recol-
lected, however, that Bouguer saw them in South America with
an unusual degree of vividness and separation|]._ M. Arago has
recommended to the Academy of Sciences of Paris the execu-
tion of a good coloured view of the rainbow, as a guide to ob-
servers.
C. Halos§ and Parhelia.
276. The apparent complication of the phznomena of halos
and parhelia has given rise to a great deal of vague speculation
and loose though ingenious theory. Observations of facts have
been likewise wanting in precision. On these grounds, we
will endeavour very briefly to discuss that part of the sub-
ject which seems to have been most successfully dealt with, and
endeavour to refer the explanations which have been given, to their
proper authors; for so much has been written on the matter that
the same thing has been produced as new by various writers at
different times.
277. What would first be desirable would be a clear state-
ment of what is to be considered a complete or normal example
of the compound display of halos and parhelia. The phno-
menon seen by Hevelius, at Danzig, 20th of February, 1661**,
which has generally been considered as a characteristic exam-
ple, consisted principally of—
* By Young and Babinet.
+ Abhandlungen der Schwedischen Academie fiir 1759, p. 234. Quoted by
Brandes. { Lehrbuch, iii. 160.
§ Annuaire, 1840, p.305. || Mém. de Paris, 1757, p. 60, quoted by Kamtz.
§ The halos now spoken of are the great halos of 223° and 46° radius, and
have no reference to the small halos or coronz with which they are often con-
founded, but which have a distinct origin.
** Tt is figured in almost every work on the subject. See Huyghens’s
Op. Reliqua, ii. 38, and Fraunhofer in Schumacher’s Abhandlungen, Heft iii.
ere
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 131
(1). Three halos round the sun, having Radii of 223°, 46°,
and 90° nearly. The two smaller circles are generally coloured,
the red being innermost. The circle of 90° is a rare appear-
ance *, and is colourless.
(2). A horizontal circle passing through the sun in which the
parhelia or mock suns occur, usually at (or rather a little be-
yond) the points where the halos intersect the horizontal (or
parhelic) circle, and sometimes also in the point exactly opposite
to the sun (anthelion).
(3). Arcs of circles with reversed curvatures, touching the ha-
los of 223° and 46° at their highest and lowest points. Mock
suns sometimes appear also in the halos vertically above the
true sun.
278. Even more complex phznomena are occasionally re-
corded, as that observed at Petersburg, 29th of June, 1790, by
Lowitzt. For a history of such appearances we must refer to
Brandes’s article in Gehler’s Dictionary, Kamtz’s Meteorology,
the article Meteorology in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana (with
an excellent plate), Fraunhofer’s paper on the subject {, and to
Dr. Young’s invaluable catalogue of references§. In the mean-
time we proceed to the theory of the fundamental appearances.
279. In the 17th century Mariotte referred the halos of 224°
to refraction through triangular prisms of ice. Minute icy
spiculz being conceived to float through the air, or rather to de-
scend slowly through it in all possible directions, a diffused re-
fracted light must be seen, as is actually the case when the air
is in this state; but those prisms which chance to be in a po-
sition such as to refract the sun’s image to the eye in the posi-
tion of minimum deviation, will (as in the rainbow, where the de-
viation is a maximum) affect the eye more intensely on account
of their parallelism and accumulation. The least deviated rays
(the red) will fall upon the eye at the smallest angle with the
sun, and consequently will form the smaller ring of the halo|.
280. Huyghens proposed a different theory 4], which for a time
superseded that of Mariotte. He attributed the phenomena
to refraction through spherical and cylindrical particles of hail
having opake nuclei of determinate magnitudes. But the ar-
bitrary nature of his hypothesis is contradicted by the constancy
* In fact, the observation of Hevelius was unique in this respect until the
circle of 90° was recently witnessed by Erman (see Poggendorff’s Annalen,
1840, xxxix. 255. note.).
+ Figured by Young (Lectures, i., plate xxix. fig. 483) and by Kamtz.
${ Schumacher’s Astron. Abhandlungen, iii. § Lectures, vol. ii.
|| Mariotte, Zuvres, 1686, quoted by Young.
§| Huyghens, Phil. Trans., 1670, and Opera feliqua, ii. (Young).
K 2
132 REPORT—1840.
of the radii of the principal halos, which indicates a uniformity
of cause incompatible with Huyghens’s assumption. The theory
of Huyghens is alluded to by Newton, though without any ex-
press approbation, at the close of his Theory of the Rainbow* ;
and in another part of his Optics} the principle of refraction
through ice-prisms of 58° or 60° is distinctly stated as the pro-
bable cause of halos of 221°, which appears to have been New-
ton’s own view, as he gives a reason for it (the oval form of some
halost{), and does not quote Mariotte.
281. So little reason, then, is there for supporting Huyghens’s
theory on the ground that it was maintained by Newton, as M.
Biot has done §, even since Mariotte’s theory has been revived
by Young, who published it in the second volume of the Royal
Institution Journal||, where he states that he had adopted
the principle before he knew of Mariotte’s application of it ;
and he had even inferred from it that the refractive index of
ice is less than that of water, a fact then doubted, but after-
wards confirmed by Dr. Wollaston. M. Babinet has therefore
no ground for affirming ** that M. Arago was the first to revive
Mariotte’s explanation.
282. The most obvious facts in support of Mariotte’s theory
of icy prisms are,
(1). That the imperfect crystals of ice which alone we can
obtain, have a tendency to rhombohedral crystallization, amongst
the forms of which are three- and six-sided prisms ; and the
minimum deviation of light through an ice-prism of 60° would
give the halo of 223°.
(2). The constancy of the effect gives a probability to a con-
stant cause, such as a crystalline angle.
(3). The fact that halos occur most frequently in cold cli-
mates and after a sudden fall of temperature, when the moisture
of the air is evidently and palpably deposited in icy spicule or
hoar frost. In the excellent observations made in the United
States, the relation between the sudden fall of the thermometer
and the occurrence of halos is very clearly traced{}.
* Optics, book i. part ii. prop. 9. + At the end of the second book.
t It is rather singular that the same reason which was urged by Newton in
favour of the theory of refraction by ice-prisms, should be stated by Arago
(Annuaire, 1836, p. 8303; 1840, p. 303) as an anomaly which, on that theory,
still requires explanation. It is plain that Newton had some theoretical opinion
on the subject which he has not explained, and according to which the upper
radius of the halo should be shorter than the lower.
§ Traité de Physique, iii. 476. || See his Lectures, ii. 306.
q Ibid. ** Comptes Rendus, iv. 639.
+t Annual reports made to the legislature by the Regents of the Universities
of the State of New York.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 133
(4). The important fact ascertained by M. Arago, that the
light of halos is polarized by refraction and not by re-
flexion *.
283. But other evidences arise from the application of the
same principles to the phenomena which accompany the first
halo, and many of which Mariotte pointed out so clearly as to
supersede much which has since been written on the subject.
284. The halo of 46° may be ascribed to two refractions with
the minimum deviation ti:rough two successive prisms of 63°,
or as Cavendish supposes f, to the refracting angle of 90° formed
by perpendicular terminations of the ice-prism. Such termina-
tions, Dr. Young observes, are rather doubtful, and in his later
writings { he inclines to the doctrine of successive refraction
through two prisms. Fraunhofer § supposes pyramids with an-
gles of 88° to be the cause; and he assigns as an explanation,
which appears to him perfectly satisfactory, of Hevelius’s great
circle of 90°, the limiting angle of total reflewion in six-sided
prisms, which is 89° 56’. Hence this circle is white.
285. Parhelia«.—Mariotte accounted for this phenomenon by
the preponderance of ice-prisms in a vertical direction (which
he attributed to their being heavier at one end,—Dr. Young,
more justly, to the resistance of the air ||), which therefore will
form a brighter coloured image of the sun when the plane of re-
fraction is horizontal than in any other plane. Mariotte had
even the acuteness to see, that as the sun rose above the horizon,
the plane of refraction being no longer accurately horizontal in
order to reach the eye, the virtual refracting angle of these ver-
tical prisms would necessarily be increased, and the deviation
being greater, the parhelia would stand out beyond the limit of
the halo, a fact remarkably coinciding with experience. Thus
an officer of Sir Edward Parry’s Expedition§, observed par-
helia distant 24° 40’ from the sun, the halo being at 22° 30).
The parhelia are coloured, the red edge being nearest to the
sun.
286. The horizontal or parhelic circle is not accounted for
by Mariotte, because (he says) he had not an accurate descrip-
tion of it. His commentator, Dr. Young, ascribes the horizon-
* Bulletin Universel (Ferussac), 1825, Sci. Math. iii. 304.
t Young, ut supra,
} See the article Chromatics in the Encyclopedia Britannica. But the same
doctrine is stated in his earliest papers, to which nothing of any consequence
has been added in elucidation of this subject, except M. Arago’s important ob-
servation of the plane of polarization.
§ Schumacher’s Abhandlungen, iii. 77.
|| Journal R. Inst. and Lectures, ii. 307 (1807).
1 Quoted in art. Meteorology, Encyclopedia Metropolitana, p. *169,
134 REPORT— 1840.
tal circle to ‘‘ the reflexion or even the repeated refraction of
the vertical facets*’’, an explanation which seems entirely satis-
factory ; for though amorphous vertical fibres would produce the
same effect (as Fraunhofer showed), yet it is much more natu-
ral to ascribe the horizontal circle to the same cause with the
parhelia which occur within it, and which are, in fact, merely its
most notable points. Young attributes the mock suns occa-
sionally observed at an elongation of about 142° to two refrac-
tions and one reflexion in the same ice crystals+.
287. Fraunhofer, in his Memoir already cited{, ascribes the
horizontal circle to the superposition of diffraction-spectra,
which produce an excessively elongated image of a body viewed
by reflexion from a striated surface, like that of glass smeared
with grease, and then cleaned by rubbing it in one direction,
when a whitish reflexion will take place perpendicular to the
streaks. A similar view has been given more lately by M. Ba-
binet §, who compares the horizontal reflexion to that observed
from fibrous crystals, such as topaz and gypsum.
288. Contact-arches||.—The only remaining phenomenon
which seems fairly accounted for, is that of inverted ares of lu-
minous circles touching the halos, usually at their vertical dia-
meter and accompanied by a parhelion, so that Dr. Young de-
scribes it as “a bright parhelion immediately over the sun, with
an appearance of wings cr horns diverging upwards from the
parhelion.”’ This Dr. Young has ascribed with great inge-
nuity and probability to very short triangular prisms, which
from their flatness fall with their axes and refracting edges in
a horizontal position, so that the plane of refraction is vertical.
The abundance of such prisms (compared to those which fall
obliquely and form the halo) give rise to the vertical parhelia
(which Fraunhofer has, I think very unsatisfactorily, explained
by diffraction**), Horizontal prisms parallel to the former,
lying to the right or left of a vertical plane, passing through the
observer and the sun, will evidently refract the solar image in a
plane not perpendicular to the axis of the prism (because not
vertical), and for which the refracting angle being greater, the so-
lar image (formed always at the angle of minimum deviation,)
will appear more elevated as the obliquity of refraction is greater,
that is, as we proceed to the right or left from a line vertically
above the sun. Dr. Young has confirmed his view by actual cal-
culation Tf.
* Lectures, i. 444. + Chromatics, sect. ii. paPasye
§ Comptes Rendus ; ut sup. || See art. 277. (3).
“| Lect. ii. 807. col. i. See the figure of Hevelius’s halos, and others.
** Schumacher, wt supra, p. 78. tt Lect. ii. 308. col. i.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. — 135
289. Vertical lines passing through the sun and circles con-
taining the sun in their circumference have also been described.
The former seem to be independent of the existence of ice cry-
stals; I shall therefore return to them presently. As to the lat-
ter, we can only state generally, that from the wonderful com-
plication which the figures of crystallized snow and hoar-frost
take, we can conceive circumstances adapted to almost every
degree of complication ; and such complication may be aptly
illustrated by the curious figures which Sir D. Brewster has
given of the wonderful variety of reflected figures observed at
the surfaces of disintegrated crystals*. The same ingenious
philosopher has illustrated the phenomena of halos by observing
a distant light through alum crystallized rapidly on a plate of
lass +.
“ 290. M. Galle of the Berlin Observatory has lately published
an elaborate paper on the subject of halos and parheliat, in
which he gives a minute account of those observed by himself
during nineteen months. Within this time he saw seventy-eight
halos of 223°; of which only two were sensibly elliptical ; and
he saw no halo of 46°. He afterwards gives at great length a
general view of the theory of refraction by ice-prisms.
291. A remarkable parhelic appearance was observed by
Lambert at Wetzler, in 1838, in which there were two hori-
zontal circles at greater altitudes than the sun, but none passing
through his disc. Besides the usual lateral parhelia there were
four others at the points of contact and intersection of the halos
of 223°, and 46° with the horizontal circles §.
D. Corone: Glories, &c.
292. The coloured rings so frequently seen round the sun
and moon when thin clouds pass over their discs, are carefully
to be distinguished from true halos, as they may easily be, by
the following characteristics, which evidently point to a wholly
different origin :—
* Edin. Trans., vol. xiv. plate x., &c.
+ Edin. Phil. Journal, viii. 394. This experiment, which has probably been
oftener quoted than repeated, I have more than once attempted without success.
t Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1840. xxxix. and 241.
§ L’ Institut, No. 321, Fev. 1840. M, Moigno, who quotes this description
from Poggendorff’s Annalen, claims for M. Babinet the theory of the parhelic
circle and vertical parhelia. These are, however, both due to Young; the only
addition which, so far as I know, M. Babinet has made, is the very just remark
that the horizontal circle will be brighter beyond the first halo than within
it, because in the latter case the illumination is derived from reflexion only,
by the vertical facets; in the former from refraction likewise.
136 REPORT—1840.
(1). They are much smaller, their radii (when several series
of their colours appear at once) being from 1° to 6°.
(2). The radins of any ring is not constant at different times.
(3). The red occupies the owter ring, instead of the inner one
as in the true halo.
293. These coloured rings have a manifest analogy to those
which bear Newton’s name ; and that great man, in his Optics*,
has given an explanation, which, translated into modern lan-
guage, would express the interference of the light reflected
from the different parts of the drop. In June, 1692, he ob-
served three rings or orders of colours round the sun of the
diameters of 5° or 6°, 9°20! and 12°; on the 19th February,
1662 (so early had he begun to speculate on these subjects), be
had observed the two inner corone round the moon to have di-
ameters of 3° and 52°, little more than half the dimensions of
the others.
294. The true explanation was unequivocally given by Young
in 1802, in his paper “On some cases of the production of
colours not hitherto described+,’’ amongst the consequences of
the fertile principle of interferences, though in a different way
from what Newton had imagined, or Jordan, who had attributed
these colours to the inflection of light. Young had practically
shown that the interposition of uniform strie or powder be-
tween the eye and a luminous object produces coloured images
of that object, depending for their position upon the dimensions
of such striz or powder ; and he had theoretically given that
beautiful explanation which was afterwards put in a more
popular form by Fresnel and Fraunhofer. Yet it is remarkable,
that the latter author (Fraunhofer), in describing the experi-
ments on which he grounds the very same explanation of co-
ronz, never mentions the name of Young.
295. The explanation in effect amounts to this,—that on
the wave-theory of light, a luminous point is seen only in
one direction, because the diverging wave produced propagates
from its surface at any moment impulses which, when they
reach the eye with any sensible obliquity, have their effect
compensated by the opposite displacements caused by the ad-
jacent portions of the wave. By the interposition of particles,
opake or of a certain refractive power, and of nearly uniform
size, portions of light become sensible in an oblique direction,
by the stoppage of the other portions whose different length of
path would have caused them to annihilate the action of the
* Book ii. part iv. obs. 13. +t Philosophical Transactions, 1802.
} Entstehung der Héfe kleiner, Art. Schumacher, Astr. Abhandl., iii. 56.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 137
first. The angle of obliquity in which any light will reappear
must depend upon the size of the opake particles; con-
sequently, such coloured rings as this cause produces will vary
with the size of the interposed globules of water or vapour, and
will generally be larger as these are smaller. This was the
principle of Dr. Young’s Eriometer for measuring the diameter
of fibres and powders*. Thus Dr. Young has shown7, that a
Corona, 8° in diameter, corresponds to the existence of drops
(or spherules of any kind) 335; in diameter.
296. As might be expected, this dimension varies with the
season. It appears, from the careful observations and compu-
tations of Prof. Kamtzt{, that the diameter of the spherules is
least in May, being then ‘00054 French inch; and greatest in
January, when it is *00107 inch. This is one of the most
certain data relative to the constitution of clouds. There seems
no doubt that these are the “ Vesicles”’ observed by Saus-
sure§.
297. The successive orders of colours recur at angular di-
stances, nearly, or exactly, in arithmetical progression from the
centre||.
298. Glories.—The well-known phenomenon of coloured
rings surrounding the shadow of an observer thrown upon a
cloud, has an evident analogy with the preceding one; and up
to a certain point, the same explanation may apply. But there
are peculiar difficulties connected with this appearance, which
seem to be yet imperfectly resolved.
299. Bouguer observed in South America his shadow thrown
on a cloud, and surrounded by coloured rings of 5° 20', 11°, and
17°, and a white ring of 67° in diameter]. Scoresby observed
at sea a similar phenomenon on a thin stratum of fog. The
rings had radii of 12° or 2°, 4° 45!, 6° 30!, and a whitish circle
extending from 36° 50! to 42°. A larger and still fainter circle
was once observed**. Professor Kamtz has seen on the Rigi
similar circles of radius 37° 27' on one occasion, and 42° 10! on
another, which he considers as true rainbows, very faintly
tinged with red outside, and with blue within. At the same
* Described in his Introduction to Medical Literature.
¢ Art. Chromatics, Encyc. Britt., Sect. xi.
+ Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, iii. 102. § See above, Art. (218) and note.
|| Young. Compare Herschel on Light, Art. 701. Fraunhofer, quoted by
Kamtz, iii. 96. Babinet, Comptes Rendus, iv. 643.
| Mémoires del’ Académie des Sciences, 1744, 4to edit., p. 264. Each man
saw only his own shadow; but the reason assigned is not very clear. ‘“ Chacun
de nous vit son ombre projetée dessus (i. e. on the cloud), et ne voyait que la
sienne, parceque le nuage n’offroit pas une surface unie.”
** Kamiz, ili. 108.
138 REPORT— 1840.
station I have seen a single compound circle, of which the red
ring had a diameter of 18°; but when I entered the cloud on
the surface of which it had been formed, it contracted to about
10°. In the Jura Mountains I once perceived traces of a faint
ring of from 75° to 80° in diameter.*
300. Accompanying the coloured rings, there is an appear-
ance of white light, more intense towards the centre (corre-
sponding to the prolongation of a line drawn through the sun
and the eye of the spectator), which would give evidently the
brightest illumination in the middle point, but for the shadow
of the observer’s head, which, however, is wonderfully di-
minished by the nebulous light.
301. That crystals of ice should have anything to do with
these appearances, as conjectured by Bouguer and Scoresby,
is altogether incompatible with the circumstances under which
other observers have seen them. It is equally impossible to
refer these rings to the diffraction of the solar light falling
upon particles of vapour surrounding the observer's head, as
Fraunhofer supposed, and reflected back to his eye from the
surface of the cloud; for I have observed these rings distinctly
from a height of fifteen hundred feet above the cloudy screen,
under a brilliant sky. But the common theory of diffraction of
particles reflecting as well as stopping light, affords a plausible
account of some of the phenomena. We have only to suppose
the constituent materials of the cloud to be spherules (however
composed) of nearly equal size which reflect innumerable images
of the sun from their surfaces, backwards to the eye. Some of
these must be placed at distances which shall re-inforce each
other’s effect, and some which shall annihilate that effect ; and
hence periodic colours will result, as in transmitted light (the
case of corona).
302. This opinion is confirmed (1) by the order of colours
being that of diffraction rings (the red outermost); (2) by the
arithmetical progression of the diameters observed by Bouguer
and Scoresby; (3) by the curious fact noticed by myself, that
on immersion in the cloud the rings suddenly shrink in size
(due, no doubt, to an increase in the magnitude of the cloudy
particles in the interior); (4) from the comparison made by
Professor Kamtz, between the diameter of the Corona by
* Haygarth, in the Manchester Memoirs (Ist Series, iii.), gives rather an
unsatisfactory account of a glory which must have resembled those seen by
Bouguer and others. The greatest faint circle at a distance from the smaller
ones, is distinctly shown in the bad plate which accompanies the paper.
+ Schumacher, Abhandl., iii. 63.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 139
Transmission, and the Corona by Reflexion, the same stratum
of cloud forming both; and he obtains in general a satisfactory
coincidence* ; (5) by the curious observation of M. Babinett,
of similar rings formed round the shadow formed on the minute
particles of gunpowder which had been laid out to dry.
303. On the other hand, it is not consistent with what we
know of such phenomena, that the third ring (for instance),
that having a diameter of 18°, should be seen so vividly, and
sometimes to the exclusion of any other (for it is hardly likely
that so large a ring should be one of the first or second order).
The great rings of 67° to 84° in diameter, can scarcely be thus
explained.
304. Dr. Young seems to have felt the full difficulty of the
subject of reflected glories ; and he has unfortunately expressed
himself very obscurely upon it. In his earlier writingsf, he
contented himself with referring them to the colours of thin
plates ; but afterwards he seems to have hesitated whether to
consider them as modifications of the corona (by diffraction), or
of the rainbow. In his article, “‘ Chromatics §,’’ he has given
a singularly perplexed theory, which we have read over many
times without clearly understanding ; the reasoning, however,
appears to be this :—Supposing a cloud to be formed of drops of
water, light, four times reflected within such drops, will furnish
rays which will unite in the same phase from both sides of the
drop, at a point diametrically opposite to the sun, whilst rays
(also four times reflected) ultimately coinciding in direction,
and which have undergone reflexion at smaller and greater
angles, will unite in different phases, the retardation being
nearly as the angular distance from the central point. It is
to these supernumerary bows of the fourth order, that he ap-
pears to attribute the inner circles, whose diameters were, in
the observation of Bouguer, 6°, 11°, and 17°.
305. Having found the size of the drops which would give,
by diffraction, rings of this description ||, he proceeds to find the
distribution of the colours of a primary rainbow formed by such
excessively minute drops (less than z,45 inch). He assigns
to the first supernumerary red bow a radius of 24°, of which,
however, he inakes nouse. He then observes, that owing to the
minute size of the drops, the shading off of the primary colours
is very slow on the concave side, so that the red will sensibly oc-
cupy a breadth of 73°, the violet of 53°; and as the red and
* Meteorologie, iii. 111. t Comptes Rendus, iv. 645.
t Lectures, ii. p. 645. col. i. § Encyc. Britt., seventh edit., p. 638. col. i.
|| Computed, however, for a radius of 5° for the first ring; whereas, in
Bouguer’s observation, the diameter was 5° 20!.
140 REPORT—1840.
violet arcs are already 2° apart, they will overlap, and form a
whitish ring, whose radius will be that of the red ring of the
rainbow, or 42°, diminished by 73°, leaving about 35° for the
radius of the whitish ring, agreeing sufficiently well with ob-
servation.
306. I apprehend, however, that there are many difficulties
in this view of the subject. That light, four times reflected,
should have intensity enough to produce three or more coronez,
seems incredible. Again, the ring of 37° to 42° radius, ob-
served by Kamtz and Scoresby, with faint colours, seems to be
the rainbow itself, not the superposition of its faded colours,
for Dr. Young very obscurely hints* as to the non-appearance
of the real bow. The reason of its variable magnitude and
faint colour is quite sufficiently explained by Mr. Airy’s in-
vestigation (271.), in which the deviation of the maximum of in-
tensity from the geometrical caustic is shown to depend upon
the size of the drops, and that diminution of size diminishes the
radius of the bow, and likewise the sharpness of its definition,
though in every case (as it seems to us) the maximum next the
caustic must be most intense, and therefore the true bow can
never vanish so long as any of its subordinate features remain,
which Dr. Young seems to have thought possible. Finally,
Dr. Young, in another section of the paper so often referred
tot, adopts the theory of diffraction as producing the lesser
glories, and calculates the size of the drops on that hypothesis,
which size is double that obtained on the other. :
307. Had not this discussion been already extended further
than persons more interested in meteorology than in physical
optics may think suitable, I should have dwelt at some length
upon certain curious phenomena of shadows with luminous
borders, and certain vertical trains of light seen in connexion
with them, which seem not to have received the attention which
their theoretical importance demands. I wil] state very briefly
what may serve to instigate further inquiry.
308. Standing on the tower of Carisbrook Castle with a friend
one calm hazy summer evening near sunset, I perceived glori-
fied shadows as from the Rigi, but without colours. So intense
was the concentration of rays opposite the sun, that the shadow
of the head of the observer was almost obliterated by the inten-
sity of the light which seemed to emanate from it. The shadow
of the body was fringed all round by a luminous but colourless
border. The shadow of another person standing a short way
* Chromatics, p. 625, col. i.; p. 638, col. 1.
+ Chromatics, Sect. xi.
EE EEE a ee eee eee
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 14]
off presented to the first observer nothing peculiar. The lumi-
nous haze extended but a short way right and left, but in a ver-
tical direction it extended through a very considerable angle,
producing the very singular effect of a train of hazy light. The
same effects I have seen less perfectly in other localities, but
generally towards sunset, and only when a considerable space
intervened between the observer and his shadow.
309. Similar phenomena have been described by various ob-
servers, and variously accounted for*. The vertical train of
light which occasionally accompanies halos, has been explained
by the reflexion from the bases of vertical crystals;; but as it
is seen to occur in circumstances such as those mentioned in the
last paragraph, it must evidently be independent of the existence
of ice in the air. Fraunhofer has endeavoured to explain it on
principles of diffraction, and I conceive that it is most likely
to be explained on some such principle, taking into account the
abrupt variations of temperature which often take place near
the ground towards sunset, and which produce strata of air
very variously charged with moisture in various degrees of con-
densation, horizontally disposed, and partial reflexion in which
would undoubtedly tend to produce a diifuse vertical image, such
as we see on water slightly rippled, when looking across the
rippled surface. The main cause, however, of this expanded
vertical image appears to be, that by looking very obliquely
through a thin stratum of cloudy particles, their apparent di-
stances will be diminished by the obliquity, and their interstices
in the same proportion. Diffraction bands will, therefore, ex-
pand in the direction in which the particles are apparently
compressed. I have found that such phenomena are accurately
reproduced by suffering soap-suds to dry upon a plate of glass,
and then looking at a flame obliquely through it: when viewed
perpendicularly neither colour nor diffused light appears in one
direction more than another.
310. The occurrence of the anthelion itself, or luminous
point opposite the sun, is not of so easy explanation as some
writers seem to consider it ; and until it is fully understood, we
can hardly hope to explain all its modifications. The glory
* See the observations of Hevelius, Derham and Young, quoted in Young’s
Lectures, ii. 303, as to the vertical train of light; more lately by Mr. Christie,
British Association, 7th Report, Sections, p.15. [Mr. Christie’s original commu-
nication to the Meeting at Cambridge in 1833, contained in a letter to me,
appears to have fallen aside, and is neither published nor in my possession. ]
¢ First by Young, also by Babinet (Comptes Rendus, iv. 640), Galle (Pogg.
xxix. 256), and others.
¢ Schumacher, Abhandl., iii. 82.
142 REPORT—1840.
observed round the head on dewy grass * is evidently referrible
to the reflexion from spherical drops at no great distance from
one another. The peculiar luminous fringes observed round
the whole shadow (308.), I have assured myself by many trials
to arise from no optical deception. There is a space close to
the shadow, and following its boundary, more luminous than
the fully enlightened space beyond,—a fact which it seems
not easy to explain. It appears to have no reference to the
nature of the body (as, whether it is bedewed or not) which
yields the shadow; nor is it altogether dependent on the body
which acts as the recipient screen, but it depends chiefly, I ap-
prehend, on the condition of the strata of air very near the
ground. We must consider it, I suppose, as an effect of dif-
fraction, such as would, in point of fact, be seen where the
shadow of a body is thrown upon a screen by a single radiant
point at a certain distance ; in this case, however, it is not the
smallness of the luminous body, but the cluster of minute
globules which reflect small images of the sun that are the cause
of the diffraction ; the effect being to produce a luminous band,
succeeded by a darker one whose contrast renders it more visi-
ble. The effect is no doubt enhanced by the indeterminateness
of the surface which reflects these little images. The shadow
is seen through the whole depth of the nearly invisible cloud,
and the bounding surface of light and shade will be most pro-
minently seen when the eye is in a position to follow its course
in the interior of the mist.
311. The phenomenon described by Professor Necker}, of the
intense illumination of shrubs and trees forming the horizon
behind which the sun has just set, is, I conceive, a precisely
parallel fact; and M. Babinet t has explained it in a similar
manner. But there is still something in this as an optical phe-
nomenon which seems to me to require further investigation.
312. It should not be forgotten, with reference to the phzno-
mena of clouds, that they have been treated by Young and others
on the hypothesis of their being composed of spherical drops of
water. Bouguer, Kamtz and Fraunhofer, maintain their vesi-
cular structure ; and the last-named author has in his Memoir,
so often cited, considered minutely the course of a ray of light
through a spherical watery shell. The great modification which
the common rainbow undergoes in a cloud, and the rarity of its
* Garthe, dbhandlung tiber den Heiligenschein : quoted by Kiémtz, iii. 106.
and other authorities there mentioned.
t+ Philosophical Magazine, Third Series, i. 332, where two diagrams repre-
sent the fact very well, as I remember to have seen it under Professor Necker’s
directions. t Comptes Rendus, iv. 644.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 143
occurrence, seems, to say the least, to give some plausibility to
the latter opinion.
X. SUGGESTIONS.
313. In conclusion of this report, I propose to offer a few
suggestions more definite than I have yet given for the advance-
ment of meteorological science. I have glanced at various ques-
tions which require elucidation, and which fall within the scope
of science in its present state; but amore systematic recapitula-
tion of some of these will place them more intelligibly before
the reader.
314. It has long been matter of regret, that the labour which
every one knows is spent on meteorological inquiries, should be
so ill-directed ; but this it is easier to regret than to remedy. It
is discouraging to be obliged to declare that meteorological ob-
servations, to be of any value, are not so easy as is commonly
supposed, and that not only perseverance but intelligence is
generally speaking necessary to make such observations as are
useful to science. Many registers, however well kept and or-
ganized, are redundant; many would be useful were the results
reduced and corrected ; many may have a local value, though
they do not greatly advance the general progress of science.
315. For the sake of precision I will combine what I have to
say under three heads, (1) On Public Observatories, (2) On
Private Sedentary Observations, (3) Suggestions to Travellers.
A. Public Observatories.
316. It is of little use complaining of the past neglect of me-
teorological observations in astronomical observatories. Some
attempt is now being made to combine with them a system of
meteorological observation, or what is better, to institute mag-
netical, meteorological, and generally, physical observatories.
The vast sums of money which have been spent in doing over
again what has been better done elsewhere in determining as-
tronomical data, might have almost created new sciences of ob-
servation.
317. The meteorological observations at Paris deserve par-
ticular notice, as having been conducted upon a simple and re-
gular system, for a considerable series of years. The barometer
and thermometer (which, I believe, are kept in good order) are
registered four times a day—at 9 a.m., Noon, 3 P.M., 9 P.M.,
hours evidently selected for the barometic oscillation*. At Brus-
sels the barometer, thermometer, hair hygrometer, wind, and
* Published in the Annales de Chimie and Comptes Rendus.
-
144 REPORT— 1840.
state of sky, are registered at 9, Noon, 4, and 9*. At Marseilles
a very elaborate register is kept every three hours (I believe) of
the day and night, under the watchful superintendence of M.
Valz+. At St. Petersburg and other stations of the Russian
empire, meteorological and magnetical observations are made
eight times a day—viz. at 8,10 a.m., Noon, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 p.m.f
318. Observations are regularly made at the Milanese Ob-
servatory, Palazzo Brera, at 0, 3, 6,9, 12, 18, 21 hours astrono-
mical time, and are published in the Biblioteca Italiana. We
learn from an article in the Bibliotheque Universelle§, that ex-
tensive meteorological observations by Sig. Colla, at Parma, are
published, under the title of Giornale Astronomico. Farther,
it appears, that at the late meeting at Pisa, it was agreed, on the
motion of Sig. Antinori, to concert measures for contemporane-
ous and comparable observations throughout Italy|.
319. The observations conducted at the various academies of
the Stateof New York, and published annually hy the legislature,
are still continued on a uniform plan, and must be productive of
considerable benefit to science. Near the equator, at Trevan- .
drum, in the Kast Indies, an admirable meteorological register is
kept, under the direction of Mr. Caldecott, astronomer to the
Rajah of Travancure. During his recent stay in this country,
Mr. Caldecott has made arrangements for extending considerably
the range of his experiments and observations.
320. The observatories fitted out under the direction of the
British Government and East India Coinpany, combine meteor-
ological with magnetic observations every two hours of the day
and night{. It is matter of regret (though it is to be hoped the
regret is a temporary one) that whilst these admirable means of
observation have been sent to both hemispheres, and to the
Antipodes, none have been established at home**. Iam not aware
that there is a meteorological register which can be called au-
thentic (in respect of the three following qualifications) conduct-
ed in any part of the British Islands.
321. The special objects of public observatories would seem
to be—
* Published in 4to by M. Quetelet.
+ Unfortunately it is not published.
+ Published under the direction of M. Kupffer.
§ For August 1840.
|| Atti degli Scienzati Italiani, p. 30. Sig. Cacciatore’s observations have
been already referred to (11).
q Forms of Register are prepared by the Royal Society.
** Since this was written I am glad to learn from Mr. Airy that arrangements
have been made, by which an authentic Meteorological Register will be com-
bined with the Astronomical and Magnetical Observations at Greenwich.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 145
(1). To furnish standards of comparison ;
(2). To establish the laws of phenomena ;
(3). To fix secular, or normal data.
The second of these determinations may be made without the
first and third, and conversely ; just as in magnetism one set of
instruments serve to measure variations of elements, which yet
are incapable of establishing the fundamental values of the ele-
ments themselves.
322. In respect to the First point, the instruments must not
only be originally good, but they must be preserved in constant
repair,—a matter requiring perpetual revision in the case of
meteorology. Access, under due regulation, should be permit-
ted to instrument makers and observers to have their instruments
compared with the standards*. That the instruments be abso-
lutely as well as relatively correct, is evidently essential to the
determination of the mean pressure at the level of the seat, the
actual state of climate with respect to temperature, &c.
323. Secondly.—Thelaws of phenomena can usually be only
made out by extended and minute observation, incompatible,
generally speaking, with private research. Laws of a certain de-
gree of generality have commonly a pretty wide domination, even
in a science apparently so capricious as meteorology. The in-
stance we have mentioned of the “‘ homonymous hours” (37.),
representing the mean temperature of the day, is one of the kind:
the constancy of the interval between the hours of mean tempe-
rature is another: the mean of diurnal extremes being nearly
the mean temperature of the day is a third : the nearly coincident
hours of diurnal barometric variation is another :—these, and
such laws deduced from sufficient data, clear the way for indi-
vidual exertion, and indeed form the only basis for really useful
efforts of the kind. A very small number of observatories
(comparatively), perhaps three or four in the extent of the Bri-
tish islands, would be sufficient to supply these important data.
The observations must be made every two hours at least, for
with less than this the diurnal curve could not be properly drawn.
But such laborious observations would not require to be indefi-
nitely continued. Once place the meteorological observations on
a proper footing, by ten, or perhaps twenty years’ observation of
this kind, and the great difficulty is overcome: there is not a
chance of secular changes sensibly affecting these laws; once
established, they are like the laws of the solar system.
* As is done, for instance, at Paris.
+ The specific gravity of the mercury should be actually ascertained, and the
pressure might be stated in the corresponding height of a column of distilled
water at a fixed temperature.
1840. L
146 REPORT—1840.
324. Directions would thus be obtained for prosecuting, under
the most favourable circumstances, and at the least possible ex~-
pense of labour, all inquiries as to ocal climate in observatories
of the second class, and by private individuals. In such ob-
servatories, observations might be made twice or thrice a-day,
and some even seldomer. The regular observations at public
observatories should include the following :—
Thermometer, barometer and moistened bulb hygrometer,
at least every second hour.
Wind may be registered by Whewell’s and Osler’s gauges.
The state of the sky may be frequently noted.
Rain by Osler’s gauge; other rain-gauges at three vertical
stations.
Temperature of the earth from the szface down to twenty-
four French feet. The shorter thermometers must be ob-
served at different hours of the day; the longest once a
week.
Temperature of the earth at a considerable depth in caverns,
wells, or Artesian bores. The thermometers (generally)
should have their zero verified from time to time (twice a
year).
Solar radiation by the actinometer.
Nocturnal radiation.
Atmospheric electricity and the aurora borealis, with cor-
responding magnetic observations.
Falling stars, especially in August and November. Other
occasional phenomena, of course, will be recorded.
Experiments, by means of balloons, on the decrement of
temperature above the soil.
325. It would not be too much to expect that the directors
of the first class of observatories should be capable of forming a
judgement on the great cosmical questions of meteorology (ad-
verted to in the section of this report on terrestrial tempera-
ture,) and of uniting theoretical and practical knowledge to the
important end of obtaining tangible and useful solutions of
these great problems. For this purpose, it would be necessary
not only to institute observations, but experiments; and, by
the trial of many independent plans, to estimate the confidence
due to the various methods in so delicate a research. By ascer-
taining exactly what data may be obtained a posteriori, a definite
problem may then be given to mathematicians to resolve; and we
shall then know, and not till then, what investigations are to be
regarded as merely speculative, and what of any substantive value.
326. Thirdly.—The laws of phenomena being known by such
a limited course of elaborate experiment as has been recom-
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 147
mended, the next business connected with a public observa-
tory is to furnish the secular constants of meteorology, such as
the mean annual temperature, the mean annual pressure at the
level of the sea, the limits of variation of these, the mean ela-
sticity of vapour, the mean and total quantity of sunshine, the
mean direction and integral quantity of wind, and similar
facts, for a given place at a given time. These observa-
tions are of a less elaborate kind than the preceding ; but the
fate of all volunteer experiments shows, that to determine such
quantities with minute precision, is incompatible with any but
an official system of registration, which shall be conducted for
very many years on exactly the same system, with instruments
of the same kind, with unremitting attention not only to the
fidelity of the observations, but to the perfect repair and com-
parability of the instruments. Even should such a system not
be started on the very best possible plan, it is better that it
should continue uniform, than undergo perpetual change. If the
hours or locality be not the best possible, the diurnal laws being
known, the result of any hour may be converted into a mean
result; and as to locality, it is much more important to preserve
the consistency of results, than to avoid trifling disadvantages.
327. We have seen that it requires very many years’ observa-
tions to ascertain the mean climateric state of any point of the
earth’s surface. In this country, for no one such point probably
is it accurately known. Let the instruments be the simplest, but
the best; the observations, however few, perfectly regular; and
we have a certainty that we are laying up valuable facts at least
for another generation, if not for the present one.
328. Instead of labouring to collect a multiplicity of imper-
fect registers, let us begin by laying the foundation of a rational
and accurate science. If we can but determine accurately the
secular elements of pressure and temperature at a hundred well-
chosen points of the earth’s surface, we shall do more than has
ever yet been done to draw a proper system of isothermal and
isobarometric lines, which shall hand down to posterity the
actual mean condition of our globe.
329. Observations must not only be made, but they must be
wholly reduced and printed, like the astronomical observations
conducted by Mr. Airy*. They must be ready to be applied to
the purposes of science, and synoptic tables of results widely
distributed. In the deduction of Laws from Results, much use-
less labour may be spared (and the remark is especially appli-
cable to private observers), by employing graphical projections
* For this purpose excellent printed forms have been supplied to the Ant-
arctic expedition.
L2
148 REPORT—1840.
instead of elaborate formule of interpolation, a method which,
however valuable in itself, has been carried to excess by the
German meteorologists ; and the immense labour they have
spent in computing arbitrary constants might, in many cases,
have been better bestowed. Anything, however, is better than
no reduction at all. The engraving of such charts is well worth
doing ; they often afford a check upon the accuracy of the ob-
servation, the value of the method, and the consistency of the
results, which no other mode of exhibition can possibly do.
330. I would notice the projection of observations on sub-
terranean temperature (96), as a signal instance of all the
advantages which I have mentioned. Where several simul-
taneous but independent observations are made, the comparison,
by projection, gives a moral certainty of the fidelity of the ob-
servations, whilst the coincidence of one year’s observations
with another demonstrates the confidence due to the method of
investigation even more satisfactorily than the coincidence of
final results. Even in point of accuracy, the maxima and
minima cannot be so well determined by a parabolic interpola-
tion (as M. Quetelet has done), because the temperature -curves
invariably rise faster than they full; consequently, the oscu-
lating parabola has not its axis vertical, but inclined to the left
upwards ; and if a series of circular functions be used to ex-
press the observations, the computation becomes very laborious,
and perhaps the result is not more accurate than may be ob-
tained in a few minutes in the following way.—A thin stiff
wire may, by a little practice, be adapted so as to follow, in
a remarkable manner, the sinuosities of the temperature-curves :
by changing its form by pinching, then bending it elastically,
and varying the inclination of its symmetric axis with the verti-
cal, it is easy to lay it so over the curve*, as to satisfy the eye
that the inequalities on each side compensate one another.
331. Until national observatories shall be formed, it seems of
great consequence that the Plymouth Hourly Observations,
made at the expense of the Association, should by no means
be discontinued ; that the results, amply reduced, perhaps the
detailed observations, should be printed at their expense ; and
most particularly, that the condition of the instruments shall
be from time to time verified with the utmost care, in order to
render these determinations positively as well as relatively ac-
curate, for which I do not know whether there is at present
any sufficient security.
* Or polygon; for in all cases, the actual points of observation should be joined
by straight lines. This suggestion I owe to Mr. Babbage, and I have found it
attended with great advantage.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 149
B. Sedentary Observations.
332. Private individuals, fond of science, would find the
establishment of such systematic observatories as we have
recommended, to add great importance as well as interest to
their labours.
333. Their business would then be like that of detailed sur-
veying after the great net-work of triangulation has been com-
pleted. The local meteorology of a country is often of great
practical as well as scientific importance, and the immense dif-
ference of climate frequently experienced within a few miles,
whilst it shows the embarrassing effect of local causes, and the
danger of drawing general conclusions from insulated or im-
perfect registers, is itself a curious subject of research.
334. Ordinary thermometrical and barometrical registers may
be continued, as has been usual, with additional attention to
the construction and repair of instruments, the choice of situa-
tion, and the choice of hours. In respect of the latter, 9 a.m.
and 9 p.M. are very convenient and fitting hours for thermo-
metric observations, to which may be added 3 or 4 P.M. for the
sake of the barometric oscillation. But it is one advantage of
systematic observation, such as was recommended in the last
section, that it will render available observations made else-
where at any hour or hours by a general principle of reduction
to the mean*. Self-registering instruments (thermometers,
rain-gauges, anemometers, and the like) are well adapted for
private observation from the little superintendence they require.
335. I would, however, particularly urge the propriety of not
confining individual efforts to the mere multiplication of simple
registers. The same expenditure of time and money is appli-
cable to much more interesting purposes. Special series of
observations and experiments on one or more subjects, such as
the following, would be of very great interest indeed :—
1, The temperature of the soil at small depths. If the dif-
ficulty of procuring long thermometers be an objection,
water-bottles may be lowered to different depths in sepa-
rate tubes of wood sunk in a well, which is then filled up
with earth or sand, and the temperature may be noted by
a common thermometer on pulling them up, the opening
of the tubes being well stuffed with hay or woolt. (98.)
* As was clearly pointed out by Sir D. Brewster, in discussing the Leith hourly
observations. It must be remembered that such reductions are correct only
within the limits of the region or climate for which they have been ascertained.
+ A not unimportant modification of these experiments might be made by
covering a certain space of the surface of the soil in which the thermometers
were sunk, with a composition of ascertained radiating and absorptive power.
150
2.
3.
4,
5.
REPORT—1840.
Temperature of mines, galleries, deep wells, overflowing
or Artesian wells, rivers at various distances from their
source and from glaciers; the sea and lakes at different
depths and seasons.
Modifications of temperature, + or — immediately above
the surface of the soil at different hours and seasons. (60.)
Decrement of temperature at different heights, and the
modification of the annual and diurnal curves due to ele-
vation. (51, 57.)
A comparison of the different instruments for measuring
solar radiation—Leslie’s, Cumming’s, Herschel’s, Pou-
illet’s. (61, &c.)
6. Observations on nocturnal radiation in different states
of the atmosphere, and towards different regions of the
heavens (at the same angular elevation) ; comparison of
the ethrioscope (especially the effect of metallic reflectors
in increasing cold, questioned by Pouillet); Pouillet’s
actinometer ; the thermo-multiplier. (79, 80, 114.)
7. The ascertainment, by barometric measurement, of the
elevation of a number of marked points in the neighbour-
hood of the observer’s residence. A combination of such
local results would give the general configuration of a
country. The levelling (by the barometer) of the course
of rivers, and a few of the most elevated points of the in-
tervening mountain-chains, is most useful*.
8. The relation of the boiling points of fluids, especially
water and alcohol, to the barometer, and the supposed
anomalies mentioned by Hugi. (163.)
9. The curious anomalies in barometric measurements de-
pending on the difference of temperature of the two
stations (Lenz and Galle), and perhaps on the direction of
the wind. (159.) This is an important, and, in a favourable
situation, not a difficult inquiry T.
10. Further comparisons of the dew-point and moist-bulb
hygrometer are not necessary. But careful observations
with the latter are highly desirable under all possible cir-
cumstances. The curves of annual and daily dryness
ought to be investigated, and the indications of the instru-
ment reduced, not by the computation of the correspond-
ing dew-point, but by ascertaining (from Apjohn’s for-
* See M. Guerin’s very interesting Mesures Barométriques dans les Alpes
Francaises, Avignon, 1829. An excellent specimen of what is here intended
is to be found in the Comte de Raffetot’s barometric measurements in the
valley of Baréges. See Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, January, 1837.
+ Ramond’s Mémoires sur la Formule Barométrique cited in the former Re-
port may be consulted with advantage on this subject.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 151
mula, (175, 180)), the absolute and relative dryness of the
air, 7.e. the tension of vapour and the ratio to saturation.
Experiments would still be desirable to ascertain the effect
of a current of air in modifying the indications of the
moistened thermometer.
11. To pursue experiments on rain-gauges at three stations
vertically above one another, (221) combined with hy-
grometric observations.
12. To deduce from phenomena proofs of the revolving or
radiating character of storms, or of the existence of both
kinds*. (212, &c.)
13. To multiply observations upon meteors, especially in
August and November. For this purpose, nothing more
is requisite than the combination of several intelligent
observers, who should select particular portions of the
heavens for observation, having acquired, by the aid of
a globe or planisphere a sufficient knowledge of the con-
stellations, and who, being each provided with chro-
nometers, should note, (1) the time of appearance; (2)
the duration of the meteor; (3) its magnitude and phy-
sical peculiarities ; (4) its direction and velocity of motion.
14, From what has been said on the subject of atmospheric
electricity, it will appear that almost everything remains
to be done on that subject; he who proposes to enter on
the field must be prepared to cope with the difficulties of
original investigation.
15. Auroral phenomena. The division of them into classes
(if possible), of which probably the height, nature, and
magnetic effects may be very different.
16. Many of the departments of optical meteorology are well
fitted for Sedentary Observation. See the particulars spe-
cified in the next section.
C. Travelling Observations.
336. A traveller is placed in circumstances so eminently fa-
vourable for arriving at just conclusions in meteorology and other
similarly-conditioned sciences, that he cannot be too frequently
reminded of the responsibility which attaches to his situation.
All men who have cultivated the valuable art of viewing intel-
ligently what passes around them, may arrive at important de-
ductions from the observations of the most monotonous and most
* Observations of great value may be very simply made by noting the
periods of sudden rise of wind, and especially the times when its direction
changes most rapidly, and the nature of the change. Barometrical observations
add to the value of these recorded facts.
152 REPORT—1840.
sedentary life ; but he whose choice or opportunity carries him
through many climates and varying circumstances, cannot too
zealously watch the occasion of discovering processes which
only a happy accident may reveal, and of profiting by the com-
parison and contrast of phenomena. Every one knows how
indolence and indifference steal upon the mind long habituated
to a daily-shifting scene, and how apt opportunities are to be
lost through weariness or inattention. The traveller would do
well, therefore, to entertain some preliminary considerations as
to the sort of observation suited to his peculiar position. Sy-
stematic observations are, toa great extent, beyond his reach ;
and regular meteorological journals, kept from day to day under
continually varying circumstances, are of much less value than
those made in one spot, so that such registers may very gene-
rally be abandoned, unless in the case of visiting peculiar or
little-known climates, where any sort of approximation to sy-
stematic observation is valuable.
337. There are, however, certain phenomena which afford
such definite conclusions within the range of a few or even of
single observations, as ought especially to engage the traveller’s
attention ; such, for instance, as
1. The temperature of the superficial soil between the
tropics, which, as already stated (128, note), is generally
constant at one foot deep, and represents the annual mean.
Intimately connected with this is the important general
question whether the superficial earth temperature coincides
generally with that of the air, which is yet undecided.
2. The temperature of springs, deep wells, and mines. (117, &c.)
The elevation of these above the sea should be determined
barometrically or otherwise. Where several springs rise
near one another, the temperature of severa/ should be
recorded. It does not by any means follow, that the
largest springs always give the best results.
3. Particular attention should be paid to those springs which
appear to have a temperature above or below that of the
air at the place. In the case of very hot springs it is very
interesting to repeat the observation with the same ther-
mometer or instruments which have been compared, in
different seasons and years*. (131.)
* Having been requested some years ago to draw up instructions for obser-
ving springs, I may, in the hope of attracting additional attention to the subject,
introduce them here, not having been elsewhere published.
HINTS FOR OBSERVATIONS OF THE TEMPERATURE OF HOT SPRINGS.
The thermometer used in fixing the temperatures should be originally good,
and should besides have its freezing point verified occasionally by plunging it in
melting snow. Fractions of degrees should be estimated at least to one-fourth,
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 153
4. Meteorological extremes have always a certain interest
which makes them worthy of preservation, whether they be
if practicable, to one-tenth, If possible one person should note the results at
the instant that the other observes, and to avoid errors the observers should
then change places. ‘The stem of the thermometer should be immersed in the
water, so that the whole mercurial column may be of the same temperature ; it
should be kept there until the reading becomes quite stationary, and the read-
ing made whilst so immersed.
Hot springs are either uninclosed, or applied to the supply of baths, &c.
In the former case great care must be taken in marking distinctly the locality,
as springs often occur so near to one another that confusion readily arises: the
bearings of any permanent objects near should be given, and the popular name
of the spring, if it have one. If the spring be collected (as is usually the case)
from a number of imperceptible sources, the fact should be mentioned and
the hottest part taken. In the case of the supply of baths, too great care in
reaching the real sources cannot be enjoined. ‘The servants of the baths are
often ignorant of the true springs, and are unable or unwilling (because they
are difficult of access) to point them out. When the real source cannot be
reached (from being underground or built up) the nearest bath cock should be
tried, having been first opened for some time, and the observer should record
the number of the cock, its distance from the spring, and the nature of the con-
duit, as well as give an eye-sketch of their relative positions. Where the wa-
ter is stopped in its passage by reservoirs, these should be especially noticed, as
they render the observation of temperature of little value. Often the spring
rises over a great extent of surface into a large piscina or public bath. {n this
case the observation is generally unsatisfactory, but the temperature of different
points of the basin should be ascertained and the hottest recorded. If gas rises
it should be ascertained whether its temperature differs from that of the water.
The traveller should repeat his experiment on different days and at different
hours, and at as great an interval of time as his stay permits. As many springs
as possible (of those which are really independent) should be observed, and to
prevent mistakes as to the independence and purity of the springs (for those
more esteemed are often mixed with others of inferior quality) the best author-
ity (usually the resident physician) should at once be consulted. With a view
to comparison with former observers, changes in the management of the reser-
voirs, &c., should be inquired for, and their date noticed.
No ordinary traveller can undertake an analysis of mineral water, but if the
spring be employed medicinally he may probably obtain some information
from the resident physician or druggist, which should be preserved (with the
authority). He may further, after a little experience, judge (by taste and smell)
to what class of springs it is referible, as sulphureous, alkaline, saline, chaly-
beate or acidulous. The easier experiments which he might further make
would relate to the specific gravity of the water, and to the nature of the gas
evolved, which is a very important question. There are cases in which it might
be desirable to preserve, well corked, a portion of the water for analysis, but such
are comparatively rare.
Historical and other information may often be got from physicians and in-
telligent proprietors of baths. Such persons might sometimes be induced to
undertake observations every week or month on the precise variations of
temperature to which a spring is subject. Almost any thermometer would suf-
fice for this purpose, as only small variations are wanted, and the absolute error
might be found by comparison with the traveller’s standard. But in all cases
the authority for every statement not directly verified: by the traveller himself
ought to be distinctly given.
154
REPORT—1840.
of atmospheric temperature, solar radiation, pressure, hu-
midity, fall of rain, force of wind, or electric tension.
- Daily observations of the barometer are valuable, especially
in tropical regions, because there the calculation of heights
may at once be completely made without corresponding
observations. By these means a traveller’s route across a
tract of country may be traced in section, and the value of
many of his local remarks greatly increased.
. Observations continued even for a few days in the equa-
torial parts of the globe, suffice to determine approximately
the diurnal barometric fluctuation. (152, &c.) The hours
seem to be everywhere nearly the same.
. Optical meteorological phenomena of all kinds admit of
being peculiarly well studied, from the varying points of
view in which the traveller is placed. The diameters of
rainbows, halos and corone, observed with due accuracy,
and the abnormal phenomena which occasionally accom-
pany these appearances, are facts of which as yet we pos-
sess but a slender stock. We may specify the following
subjects of inquiry :—
(a.) The colours of the sky, their optical composition, and
connection with the hygrometric state of the air. (254.)
(b.) The polarization of the clear sky, (observed with Sa-
vart’s polariscope) the position of the neutral points, its
variations, and the cause of the inversion of the plane of
polarization. (260.)
(c.) The diameter of the rainbow, and contemporaneous
measures of the distance of the supernumerary bows from
the primary. The distance between the Primary and
Secondary rainbow, measured from the brightest part of
the Red. [This last is an easy and important observa-
tion, especially if accompanied with a measure of the di-
stance of the red of the first supernumerary bow from
the primary red.] (264, 271.)
(d.) The diameters (in different directions) of the Great
Halos, (280); the condition with respect to polariza-
tion of the parhelic circle, and other rarer appearances.
(e.) The phenomena of glorified shadows, (298, &c.) in all
their particulars ; and the state of polarization of the suc-
cessive rings. ‘To compare the diameters of the direct
corone and those by reflection formed in the same cloud.
338. The traveller on lofty mountains possesses peculiar faci-
lities for the following kinds of observation :—
8. The decrement of temperature in the atmosphere. (51.)
9. The force of solar and nocturnal radiation at different
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY. 155
heights. The effect of atmospheric radiation in the day-
time, in clear and in cloudy weather. (72.)
10. The improvement of the theory and practice of baro-
metric measurements.
11. The dryness of the higher strata of the atmosphere. (190.)
12. The formation of clouds, their structure and tempera-
ture (this last point is one of very considerable interest,
viz. to compare the temperature of the air within a cloud
with that of the comparatively dry surrounding air).
13. The formation of storms, especially thunder-storms, and
the origin of hail. Perhaps no mountains in Europe are
so well adapted for these observations as the middle and
western Pyrenees.
339. Besides these and similar observations which experience
will suggest, the traveller may often do something in the way
of recommending local researches to intelligent persons situated
on the spot. He may at once afford them the knowledge (which
is all that many require) how to make their efforts useful,—the
stimulus to exertion by undertaking to turn their labours to
good account,—and the means by providing them with simple
instruments, or by comparing their instruments with his own.
Addition to Article 125.
A paper by Dr. Richardson on the frozen soil of North Ame-
rica appears in Prof. Jameson’s Journal, Jan. 1841.
Addition to Article 195, on Wind.
Since this was written, Mr. Osler presented at the Meeting
of the British Association at Glasgow, perfectly satisfactory
proof of the close connection which subsists between the diur-
nal curve of Temperature and the Force of the Wind. The same
analogy appears to have been made out by Mr. Rutherford, at
Kingussie, in Inverness-shire (who has been engaged in hourly
observations under the direction of Sir D. Brewster), although,
not having an anemometer, he has been unable to give to it the
precision of a law, as Mr. Osler has done.
ERRATA.
Page 39, 2 lines from bottom, for instruments read instructions.
— 44, first line of note, for animal read annual.
— 137, line 9, for gaz read gygz inch.
CONTENTS
OF THE
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT ON METEOROLOGY.
ART. Pace
1 TET OMUCHIOTU MNS Se Oe Wai Re eee 37
Works of Reference.
H5/*T TEMPERATURE (00 UP SoS UES aie ee | | AD
23 A. Thermometers 3:2. 26). el eie rer. 's ae iis eee aE 46
34 B. Atmospheric Temperature ............-.000--- 50
45 G. Isothermal dhines 53. i2i,/s0es ». fs eae «eo pie rep eal 55
51 D. Decrease of Temperature with Height .......... 57
61 Bie HAG TALON errs we. 2.0 Yai Aelia tel el oO ehh oh oka ata -- 60
81 F. Proper Temperature of the Globe and of Space .. 66
88, Solar Heat; 110, Atmospheric Heat; 114,
Temperature of Space ; 117, Proper Heat of the
Earth ; 129, Springs.
II. ArTMosrHERIC PRESSURE.
132 AG RALOTNOUETS, cei sek es. ebtccs. Suniel txt cxoyere mene erene cee Berit of
144 B. Mean Height of the Barometer ..............4- 88
151 (C barometic Oscilationg’ '. 0.22)... as fe os Piel 90 @
157 D. Barometric Variation with Height.............. 92
Tl. Humipiry.
164 Bi, Ey CPOMBCET He 8 igh si Ys.o: with pais eore. cota syee ieee 95
189 B. Distribution of Vapour in the Atmosphere ...... 101
TOD PTV GR War NE see eee ar Rl cae ee Se ol 102
197 EAS PATICHIOMELEDS: «cbese slecrsiete niche 2 cleuenie Sue veKepedoe ese rinkOo
201 B. Phenomena of Wind generally ................ 104 |
212 Cy Pheenomenayot Storms’ 74). «ts 6is isfcesy sya ree Oia 109
ZQ1Sie PV CLOUDS HAIN FS share a ola ene SRR he hele nee 111
933 VI. ATMOSPHERICAL ELECTRICITY .......+-. 00.0.2 0% 116
22 .5e. Valea ET HORGa cee ches oe aocid Sie etele ots eee clasts ete eran 117
DAT... Ville Ati BORA OREA LIS: 4.5.2 cs) tid.s -stemsecevaseeathe Got anita 120
IX. Orrica, METEOROLOGY.
248 A. Colour of the Sky and Clouds ................ 120
255, Dry Fogs ; 256, Blue Sun ; 257, Secondary
Sunset Tints ; 258, Aerial Shadows; 259, Polar-
ization of Sky-light.
262 B. The Rainbow ............ shah, 2 iw oS chose 6 ea 125
276 @eHalostand -Parheliati? Sce3 sc... ss ss eee eee tea oD
992 + CoroneyGlories, Ges ee i eee 135
DIGPONG oNUGGES TIONS <.<.0 sheets mistiael fare ars: «ists -ocickae, ah ofex totam ee 143
316 A. Public Observatories ...... tie. wrest aroha ods ik eee eeu ics
332 B. Sedentary Observations .............0.. wate 149
336 Ue bravellng Observatiotis 3352. 0. Se «. 15!
Report on Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in Operation
at Plymouth. By Mr. Snow Harris, F.R.S., &e.
[ With a Plate.]
Any one who has at all considered the nature and object of
Whewell’s Anemometer will readily admit of how great value
to Meteorology the results of its indications must prove ;—since
they put us in possession of a sort of figurative delineation of
the total amount of the aerial current in any direction; and fi-
nally enable us to arrive at what Mr. Whewell has not unaptly
termed an annual type of the winds for any given place :—by
comparing the types of different places with each other, the
general annual movement of the atmosphere may be in some
degree ascertained.
The want of an instrument which could figure at once the di-
rection and proportionate velocity of a given current, so as to
obtain an integral result, has been long felt in Meteorology.
Common anemometers merely register the time of agiven wind
from a certain point, and leave its velocity out of the question ;
and although others of a more improved kind register also its
pressure on a given area, yet there are none, so far as I know,
which give the complete aud truly valuable result obtained from
Mr. Whewell’s, viz. the total quantity or integral effect of the
wind at a given place.
Impressed with the great importance of such a result to Me-
teorology, I have frequently, since the Anemometer was entrusted
to my care, given attention to the difficulties in its practical
working, and have endeavoured to render it more easily ma-
nageable by ordinary observers. The objections hitherto made
to the use of this machine are not altogether without founda-
tion. They principally apply to the difficulty of obtaining in-
struments which may be taken as sufficiently comparable ; to
the want of constancy in the operation of the same instrument,
owing to deterioration in the wheel-work from various causes ;
to the liability of the machine to become damaged in storms ;
and to the difficulty of repair.
Mr. Southwood, who attended to the Register of the instru-
ment for some time, and who communicated the results at the
Meeting of the Association held at Liverpool, in 1837, made seve-
ral valuable improvements in its construction. We have not until
158 REPORT—1840.
very recently succeeded in correcting the defects attendant on
the working of the machine generally.
The recent improvements, in effecting which the sum of 10/.
granted by the Association at its last Meeting at Birmingham
has been expended, I now propose to describe; and as no par-
ticular description of the Anemometer by drawings has ever yet
appeared in the Reports of the Association, it may not be amiss
to give an account of the whole as it now works, since I cannot
but think it entitled to considerable attention, and that it must
eventually come into general use in Meteorology.
For the carrying on these recent improvements, the scien-
tific world is indebted to Mr. Kerr of this town, on whose house
the machine is now at work, and who has kindly undertaken to
attend to the Register.
Plate I. AAA, figs. 1 and 2.—is a circular metallic plate, move-
able about an axis D, by the action of the wind on a vane V, fig.
2. A small windmill fly W, formed of brass planes and turned at
an angle of 5 degrees with a plane perpendicular to the direction
of the wind is fixed on this plate. The fly revolves by the action
of the wind, against which it is kept by the vane V, and gives
motion to an endless screw @; this screw operating on a verti-
cal wheel 4 gives motion to a horizontal wheel d, through the
intervention of a second endless screw, not seen in the figure,
and placed on its axis. This last wheel ¢ is placed at the ex-
tremity of a long vertical axis M, figs. 1 and 2, upon this is cut
the thread of a fine screw carrying a nut M, figs. 3 and 10.
The nut M supports a pencil p, figs. 10 and 3, which acts by
means of a balance weight g against a fixed cylindrical barrel
D, fig. 3. The vertical axis of the plate A moves by the action
of the wind on the vane V through the centre of this barrel, as
in fig. 1, and thus by the revolution of the fly, and the action of
the vane in turning round the plate, the pencil is caused to de-
scend and tracea line on various parts of the cylinder D, fig. 3.
There are 16 vertical lines painted on the barrel, corresponding
to 16 points of the compass, as in figs. 3 and 12; hence, whilst the
vane V by turning the plate A causes the pencil to apply itself
to that line coincident with the direction of the wind, the wind-
mill W causes it to descend and trace a line proportionate to
its velocity for a given time—the motion of the fly being by the
toothed wheels and screws fig. 1, so reduced, that for 10,000
revolutions, the pencil only descends ;4,th of aninch. The
barrel D is varnished white, and readily receives the trace of the
pencil in a thick irregular line, the middle of which indicates
the mean direction and velocity of the wind.
When the pencil has descended to the bottom, it must be
ON MR. WHEWELL’S ANEMOMETER. 159
again replaced at the top and the Register recommenced. The
vane V consists of two inclined planes as seen in figure 1, and
is placed so as to be nearly in the prolongation of the axis of the
fly. This arrangement has been found to preserve the direction
more completely and maintain the position of the fiy in direct
opposition to the current. The wheel-work just described is
effectually defended from wet and other atmospheric damage
by means of a close cover C, fig. 4, titted securely and closely
over it.
In the instrument hitherto in use, the registering apparatus
D, fig. 3, is placed within a smali wood cover and the whole
exposed to the wind on the ridge of a house or other elevated
place. We have found it, however, necessary to set the whole
up in a more commodious and permanent manner. A small
lantern of wood about 3 feet square and 4 feet high, within
which the registering apparatus is placed, fig. 3, has been
erected on the top of a house, the circular plate A A in figs. 1
and 2, being moveable over its summit and toward which it con-
verges. The vane and fly are thus freely exposed to the wind
whilst the registering apparatus descends within.
In order to sustain the vertical axis upon which the plate A
turns, a small beam BB, figs. 3 and 6, is placed across the
bottom of the chamber hollowed at EK, fig. 3, in a half circle.
The hollowed part E carries an iron ring R, figs. 3, 6 and 12, of
about 4 inches diameter fixed to the beam B by three arms.
Within this is a second ring of brass r, fig. 6, forming the nut
of a third ring H, fig. 7 and 12, which can be screwed within the
former and removed at pleasure by means of a small forked lever
L, fig. 8. These rings preserve the position of the register
barrel D, fig. 3, and admit of the easy motion of the axis of
the plate A in the following way:—the lower extremity of the
barrel terminates in a solid cap of brass ¢¢¢, figs. 3 and 5;
this cap ¢ fits within the rings Rr, fig. 6, and there is a stud
of brass s, fig. 5, projecting from it corresponding to a notch r,
fig. 6, in the fixed ring; the position of the lines on the barrel
indicating the direction of the wind is hence determined. The
barrel D, fig. 3, is passed up through the ring R on the descend-
ing vertical axis of the plate D, figs. 2 and 9, until its solid ring
ft, fig.3,comes in place. It is then finally secured by screw-
ing up the fixing ring H, figs. 7 and 12. When the barrel is
thus secured, a screw N, figs. 3 and 5, carrying on its extremity a
polished centre, is screwed up through the bottom of the brass cap
of the barrel until it reaches the point of the vertical axis D, fig.
9, of the metallic plate A A, figs. 1 and 2. It is then finally
secured by a small nut N, figs. 5 and 12, turned up with press-
ure against the under part of the cylinder so as to prevent
160 REPORT —1840.
any shake. The pencil and descending nut in fig. 3 work about
this fixed barrel by means of two supports EH, figs. 2, 3
and 9 attached above to the under part of the plate A, and
below to a horizontal clasp of brass P P, figs. 3 and 9. The
clasp freely encircles the barrel when closed, and has small
friction wheels W W W, fig. 9, inserted in it; the extremity
or point of the screw M, figs. 3 and 9, moved by the wind-
mill, turns upon this clasp, as at P, fig. 9: this clasp is
shown in this figure open, by means of the joints at P P. This
arrangement enables the observer when the pencil has descended
for any given time, to remove the fixed barrel D and substitute
a similar one, on which the register is continued, whilst that
just removed is read off and transferred at the observer’s leisure
and convenience. ‘The process of tabulation becomes in this
way avery simple affair. The removal of the barrel and re-
placing of the pencil at the top of the scale is easily effected.
The nut N, figs. 3 and 5, is first removed and the screw within
withdrawn; the brass ring H, fig. 7, is then unscrewed by
inserting the points of the bent lever L, fig. 8, into the small
holes of the ring seen in figs. 7, 3, and 12. Finally the barrel
is withdrawn from off the axis and another substituted as al-
ready described.
The mechanism of the pencil is represented in fig. 10. In this
figure M represents the nut traversing the screw SS. This nut
is made in two parts and is held together by a steadying pin u
and a clamp screw C. One of the standards of support E, figs.
3 and 10, passes between this clasp and the steadying pin, by
which the pencil is faithfully steadied in the course of its de-
scent along the cylinder. There isa small projecting arm on
one side of the nut, to which is attached by means of a centre
pin a curved piece 0; this piece is moveable about the pin car-
rying within the curve a small knob of brass uv set within the
curve on an axisa. The pencil p and balance weight q are
attached to this knob v, and thus the pencil is gently pressed
against the cylinder as shown in fig. 3. The lower part of the
thread of the vertical rod s on which the nut travels is left
plain and smaller than the screw above, as seen at P, fig. 9, in
order to allow the nut to fall freely off ; hence if the instrument
has run out at any time before attention is again given to it, da-
mage to the fly and wheel work above, by the resistance which
would otherwise ensue, is prevented. When the barrel has been
replaced we have merely to turn back the screw C, fig. 10, and
run the whole up to the head of the cylinder: again clamp the
nut, and the Anemometer continues to register on the barrel as
before.
In order to measure and transfer the amount of wind, there is
ON MR. WHEWELL’S ANEMOMETER. 161
a scale fig. 11, graduated into tenths of an inch, and termina-
ting in a concave rest G, adapted to the register barrel; this
scale is applied accurately along the barrel on which the pencil
has registered the amount of wind, as shown in fig. 12. There
are two sliding-pieces p p on this scale; these are set so as to
inclose the amount of wind in any given direction and the re-
sult read off on the scale. This may be also easily effected by a
fine pair of compasses and a common scale.
The cover C, fig. 4, is so contrived as to be easily removed at
any time, being fixed on the plate A by four small studs and a
clamp screw; a small trap in the roof enables the observer to
inspect the wheel-work frequently, and occasionally apply a little
oil to the pivots. The action of the machine is hence preserved
in a sufficiently uniform state; and I have little doubt that
the velocity of revolution of the fly may be fairly assumed as
proportional to that of the wind. The cover C has been found
to give the wheel-work the required protection, and the instru-
ment now in operation here is preserved so as to be quite con-
sistent with itself. It would not be at all difficult to construct
anemometers, which if attended to in this way would prove very
comparable with each other, especially if they were all made by
the same person, or according to the same proportions in every
respect; and if the respective rates of motion under the same cur-
rent were compared at first with a standard instrument, a fair
degree of accuracy must unavoidably be arrived at. The diffi-
culties in this respect are not greater than those incidental to any
other machine in which the effects of wheel-work and friction have
to be considered, as for instance in the rates of different chrono-
meters. If the different pivots were set in agates, and the point
of the steel axis of the fly allowed to turn against an agate
instead of bearing upon a shoulder, the instruments would main-
tain a very uniform action.
This valuable instrument being now effectively at work, I trust
at the next Meeting of the Association, to have completed a
graphical delineation of the integral amount of wind at this place
for a whole year without any intermission.
The sum voted by the Association for the purposes of Osler’s
Anemometer has been applied in completing the repairs and al-
terations found requisite; in the expense of tabulating the re-
sults both of the instrument here and at Birmingham ; and to
other expenses incidental to the observations now in progress.
Mr. Osler will be prepared to lay some of the results before the
Physical Section of the Association.
The remaining sum entrusted to my care for carrying on the
original hourly series of Meteorological Observations here, has
VOL. Ix. 1840. M
162 REPORT—1840.
been applied as usual in defraying the expense incurred on ac-
count of the Hourly Register of the Barometer, Thermometer,
&c. I have included the results of these Registers for the year
1839 in my last Report.
Plymouth, September 10th, 1840.
163
Report on ‘‘ The Motions and Sounds of the Heart.” By the
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40.
Tue following Report consists of two distinct portions; the
former consisting of experiments performed at King’s College,
in 1839, by the London Committee for 1838-9; and the latter
detailing the experiments of the Committee for 1839-40, per-
formed at the Marylebone Infirmary in the present year. The
former series, performed in conjunction by Prof. ‘Todd, Dr.
C. J. B. Williams and the Reporter, with occasional assist-
ance from Dr. Roget, were commenced but not completed,
owing to the difficulty of procuring subjects and other circum-
stances beyond the control of the Committee. No report of
those experiments was consequently presented at the Bir-
mingham meeting, or has yet been published ; and an account
of them is therefore now prefixed to the report of the proceed-
ings of the Committee for the current year.
The experiments of 1838-9 were performed with the view
to determine the physical and pathological causes of certain
modifications of the motions and sounds of the heart that are
presented by disease; a chief object being to ascertain how,
by mechanical and other irritations and by displacement of the
heart, murmurs could be produced ; how also by inflammation.
Whether for example, the pericarditic friction sounds de-
pend on deficient lubrication of the pericardium, or on vascu-
lar turgescence, or are dependent solely on the effusion of
lymph ;—how far also the natural sounds might be impaired by
interrupting the action of the valves in the living subject, or by
spontaneous or artificially excited abnormal action in the mus-
cular parts of the cavities without structural lesion. Another
inquiry was this—How far do the motions and sounds of the
heart in the lower animals correspond with those of the hu-
man subject; whether for example, in birds and other animals
that differ more or less from man in their cardiac anatomy,
there be not corresponding differences in the cardiac sounds
and motions? ‘To these questions the experiments for 1838-9
supply answers in most cases, which are satisfactory in the
opinion of the Committee to as great an extent as could be
calculated on from so limited a number of observations: they
feel however that the experiments were too few finally to
decide any point of much difficulty or importance, and that
M 2
164 REPORT—1840.
further trials under more favourable circumstances are very
desirable. The experiments referred to are the following :—
Lonpon ComMITTEE.—EXPERIMENTS For 1838-39.
OssERvATION I.
June 14th.—Present, Doctors Roget, Todd, Williams and
Clendinning.
Subject, an Ass, about three months old. Pulse about 60,
regular. At 8 o'clock a.m. a long fine needle with a silver ca-
nula was passed into the chest, at the left margin of the ster-
num between the ribs to the depth of two inches. The needle
exhibited motions. corresponding to those of the heart. The
needle was withdrawn, and aqua ammoniz diluted with four
or five parts of water was injected through the canula. The
pulsations of heart became immediately weak and very irre-
gular with intermissions.
10 o’clock. Heart’s action natural. Pulse 77.
12 o'clock. Pulse 70, occasionally irregularly accelerated
for a few beats.
2p.M. Still no abnormal sounds.
5 p.m. Pulse 78.
June 15th, 7 a.m. Pulse about 80.
At half-past 7, half an ounce more of solution of ammonia
was injected as before, after which pulsations weak and irre-
gular at first, but afterwards regular. Pulse 96, strong, with
clear sounds.
12 o'clock. Pulse 72. Sounds natural and regular; first
sound somewhat prolonged, with suspicion of murmur.
June 16th. Sounds strong. Pulse 56. Canula introduced
at the root of the xiphoid cartilage into the pericardium.
Some blood followed the needle. Then some strong solution of
salt was injected; whence irregular accelerated action of the
heart.
4p.mM. Nomurmur present. Both sounds distinct. Inter-
missiui every fourth or fifth beat (Ceg.).
5p.M. Pulse irregular. First sound double; generally in
triplets, followed by intermission. The second sound being
absent in the weak strokes preceding the intermission but di-
stinct and loud at other times. Pulse 56, but variable (Wms.).
June 17th, 3 p.m. Pulse 56. Still occasionally retarded.
Both sounds now rough; roughness most apparent about the
base of the left side, and scarcely audible in the carotids
(W 8 i).
June 18th, 7 a.m. Dead; but yet warm. Much blood”
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 165
escaped from subclavian vein on opening chest, and coagulated
afterwards. A mass of greenish-yellow lymph in the media-
stinum. The cellular membrane highly vascular and easily torn.
Flakes of lymph on lower anterior left lung. External pericar-
dium marked with many straight vessels, and intermediate red
strie giving bright redness to the whole. Same in a slight
degree on the interior of the pericardium, which contained two
ounces of yellow serum. At base of heart most redness. Cel-
lular substance here somewhat infiltrated with serum ; whole
interior of surface of heart healthy, except some slight thick-
ening and opacity of the mitral valve. A wound plugged with
lymph found on the anterior face of right ventricle.
OsseERvaATIon II.
June 19th.—Subject, an Ass ten weeks old. Pulse 48, re-
gular and pretty strong. Animal weak. By pressing between
the fingers and thumb the cardiac region, the thumb being on
the third rib and left side, a loud blowing was excited with the
first sound, which ceased on removing the pressure. After se-
veral repetitions of this experiment a short filing sound heard
(by two members of the Committee) after the second sound,
the first being clear. On repeating the pressure more strongly
two murmurs were heard (by the same observers), one with tlie
first sound and continuing after it, and one with the second
sound (which was also weakened) and continuing after it.
After being fifteen minutes at liberty, the animal had a deep-
toned blowing with the first sound, which soon ceased, but the
murmur after the second sound continued.
June 20th, 8 a.m. Some murmur or filing after the second
sound as before. A long needle was passed two inches and a
half deep vertically to the fourth rib along the upper margin
three inches from the sternum. A strong double motion was
given to the needle, and a blowing, resembling a cooing, accom-
panied the first sound. The heart’s action was increased
though the animal seemed faint.
June 2ist. Pulse 60. The needle again introduced three
inches. As before, the needle presented rhythmical movements
sternad and dorsad ; that dorsad being slow and forcible, and
synchronous with the first sound ; that sternad being sudden,
_like a fall back from gravitation, and accompanying the second
sound. A murmur of a blowing or whistling kind heard with
the systole and diastole also, the latter variously described by
different observers. Murmurs and sounds were variously al-
tered and impaired by pressing the needle flat in different di-
rections ; on withdrawing the needle, murmurs were heard with
166 REPORT—1840.
systole and diastole, described as rasping and filing, respect-
ively (W. and T.), the natural sounds being distinct. The
needle was introduced a second and third time; after the third
withdrawal of the needle a loud creaking was heard with both
sounds by two observers, but no constant abnormal sound by
the third ; the creaking was reported (W. & T.) to continue
some minutes, when the natural sounds returned, with only a
slight murmur with the second sound.
June 22nd. Animal dead, (7 a.m.) and cold. Considerable
effusion of bloody serum in right pleura and mediastinum ;
some ecchymoses and marks of perforation on left ventricle,
with corresponding marks and changes on the pericardium.
Perforation three quarters of an inch below, and behind or
nearer to the apex than the semilunar valves. The needle had
transfixed the left ventricle, slightly wounding the mitral, and
penetrating the posterior wall. The anterior lamina of the
mitral had ecchymoses, and the posterior lamina was perforated
near the edge, with a small fibrinous excrescence on the valve.
The wound passed through the opposite posterior wall of left
ventricle, around which there was ecchymosis under the peri-
cardium.
The aortics were healthy.
OsseErRvarTION III.
June 23rd.—Subject, an Ass ten weeks old. Half-past 7
A.M. Pulse 60; strong and distinct. A canula was introduced
about an inch from the xiphoid cartilage and for about an inch
in depth, when a sound, first as of rubbing, afterwards as of
blowing, accompanied the latter part of the systole; about an
ounce of strong brine was then injected, when the pulsations
became tumultuous and irregular, and the sounds obscure,
with loud gurgling (probably from injection of air).
3 P.M. Sounds obscure, but more distinct towards the base,
where a short creaking (Wms. and Tdd.) or blowing (Cg.) ac-
companied the first sound, which was not audible in the arte-
ries. Pulse irregular.
June 24th, 3 p.m. Pulse 90, and regular. Sounds more di-
stinct than yesterday; and towards the base of the heart,
accompanied by leather or parchment sound. Respiration la-
borious. Tender near the heart ; but eats well and is lively.
June 25th, 7 a.m. A loud parchment rubbing murmur with
each of the sounds, which otherwise were distinct and natural.
Pulse 80.
8 a.m. Jugular vein opened. Copious hemorrhage. Heart’s
action became rapid, with slight rubbing sound ; soon however
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 167
became slow and strong, with superficial loud grating or rough
sound; and becoming gradually weaker, soon ceased. One
ounce of serum in left pleura. Two to three ounces in pericar-
dium. External pericardium exhibited several striated patches
of minute vessels. The cellular tissue was infiltrated with se-
rum, and the serous membrane was easily detached. No lymph
on the inner surface of the pericardium, but the heart was
completely coated with thin membraniform soft lymph, thick-
est at the septum, and near the base. On the anterior and po-
sterior surfaces numerous minute depressions or lacunz were
seen in the lymph. The lymph was easily removed. On the left
ventricle near the apex was an oval space of an inch by an inch
and a half, of bright red patches, seeming partly vascular,
partly ecchymotic, about the middle of which was a punctured
wound and aclot in the muscular tissue beneath, and some
ecchymoses under the corresponding endocardium. The in-
terior of the heart healthy. The serum from the pericardium
after standing separated into crassamentum and liquid.
OssERVATION IV.
June 23rd.—Subject, a stout Ass two months old. Pulse
60-70 ; strong, with sounds very loud.
Quarter to 4p.m. A needle was introduced at the upper
edge of the fourth rib, three inches from the sternum, and one
inch deep. The heart’s action was accelerated, with obscure
blowing with the systole.
The needle being withdrawn, the heart’s action was slower,
with double creaking or leather sound, reported by two obser-
vers as accompanying both sounds, which became stronger after
a few minutes. Heart’s action varying in regularity.
Quarter of an hour after. Leather sound at the site of the
puncture, not at all at the apex. Natural sounds there quite
distinct.
June 25th, 7 a.m. Both cardiac sounds loud, with sounds of
friction at the basis cordis.
June 26th, 7 a.m. Normal cardiac and friction sounds as
before. A long needle three times introduced in different di-
rections between the third and fourth ribs, and three to four
inches from the sternum, without any marked effect, except
sometimes on strongly depressing the handle towards the ster-
num, a blowing with first sound was heard, the second sounds
being normal (rubbing rather than blowing sound, Cg.).
On first introducing the needle a scratching noise was some-
times heard with the systole, as if from the point hitching
against the heart’s surfaces.
168 REPORT—1840.
A fine curved tenaculum about two inches in the curve, was
passed two to three inches from the sternum, hehind the third
rib, with the point toward the spine ; and when at the greatest
depth, the handle was depressed toward the sternum, so as
to move the hook outwards toward the ribs; a loud blowing
then attended the first sound, which was distinct; the second
sound was wanting, when the handle was most depressed, and
obscure when the handle was somewhat raised, and restored to
full force when the hook was withdrawn.
Half an hour after. The first sound was accompanied with
blowing between the first and third ribs, while a friction sound
accompanied the second sound (the Reporter called it alto-
gether friction sound, with both systole and diastole, but vary-
ing in hoarseness or roughness) ; it was faintly audible in the
carotids.
Half-past 3 p.m. Still slight friction and blowing (roughness
only of friction, Reporter) increased after the animal struggled.
The tenaculum was again introduced and manipulated as before ;
and again the second sound was stopped by drawing at the
root of the arteries, and restored on releasing the hold; the first
sound being accompanied by a loud whizzing, and the hoarse
or rubbing sound being indistinct if not absent.
On withdrawing the hook, a transitory crackling was heard ;
on the introduction of the hook, the heart’s action became tu-
multuous and irregular, and on withdrawing it, very rapid.
Pulse 112. Half-an-hour after, the pulse still 112, and the first
sound accompanied by murmur. '
June 27th, quarter-past 7 a.m. Sounds as before; rough mur-
mur as of friction, with first sound especially. The animal then
pithed, and artificial breathing established and chest opened.
Heart was acting vigorously, with the sounds distinct and
normal.
First Experiment.
On introducing a finger into the right auri-ventricular ori-
fice, first sound was accompanied with a whizz, and wanted its
flap at the beginning ; the whizz was accompanied by a thrill
sensible to the finger introduced ; the whizz ceased and the
systolic flap returned on removing the finger.
This expcriment was repeated several times with the like
results.
Second Experiment.
The hook was introduced through the auricle with a view to
hook up the tendons of the mitral valves, when the flap seemed
impaired not suppressed, and the whizz was uncertain.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 169
Third Experiment.
A finger placed on the auri-ventricular opening externally
experienced in the systole the same vibratory or jerking motion
as would in diastole be felt over the aortics ; and to the eye the
same motion was visible in the former during the first sound
at its commencement, as at the arterial openings during the
second sound (Cg.).
Fourth Experiment.
A blunt bistoury was introduced into the auri-ventricular
opening through the auricle, and the tendons of the septal la-
mina of the mitral were cut partially, when the flap of the first
sound was impaired but not destroyed.
On examining the heart were found several marks of perfo-:
ration of the large arteries, anteriorly to the valves, and perfo-
rations just at the opening of the coronary artery, but no valve
‘was wounded. There were ecchymoses at the external mouths
of the perforations, and attached to one wound was a clot witha
fibrinous peduncle. On the surface of the right ventricle cor-
responding to the infundibulum, the pericardium was injected
and roughened by lymph, with several scratches and punc-
tures ; the lymph was small in quantity and granular in appear-
ance. A wound in the septum was plugged with lymph, as were
all the flesh wounds in the interior of the heart.
OBSERVATION V.
June 29th.—Subject, a Donkey three months old. Half-
past 7 a.m. Heart’s action quite normal. A tenaculum passed
four inches from the sternum between the third and fourth
ribs ; the handle having been lowered toward the spine, there
was a whizzing heard with the first sound; but the second
sound was only a little weakened.
The whizz or blowing contined after the experiment with
the systole, and after the flap of the valves ; but soon became
intermittent, and gradually disappeared.
June 30th. A fine canula was passed through the sternum
an inch from the xiphoid cartilage, and about twelve ounces of
warm water were injected; the cardiac sounds became pre-
sently apparently distant, especially toward the sternum; on
withdrawing the tube, the sounds were still distant with little
impulse, but were otherwise normal, except that occasionally
the systole was acompanied by blowing during embarrassed
respiration. A tumour formed under the integuments of the
_ sternum, through which the cardiac sounds were very faintly
heard, and without impulse.
170 REPORT—1840.
Heart’s action much accelerated.
July 4th. Animal pithed, and artificial breathing established.
The experiments on the mitral valves then repeated. The left
auricle was inverted by the finger and the valves impeded or
kept asunder by the finger, in the auri-ventricular opening, when
various murmurs accompanied or followed the first sound ; the
second sound being simply either much weakened or sup-
pressed ; and the normal sounds returned on the withdrawal
of the finger. ‘This experiment was often repeated with similar
results.
A finger being placed on the exterior circumference of the
mitral and aortic valves respectively at the same moment, simi-
lar jerking motions perceived in each; at the closing of the
valves and evolutions of the two cardiac sounds, the finger,
when in the auri-ventricular opening, was sensible of something
like flapping, pushing and tension, as it were, in and by the
valves, and the supposed edge of the valve was felt tense in
systole; and, if divided by the point of the finger, the edges of
the opposite valves were thought to give a feeling of resistance
such as valvular tension must cause, supposing such tension to
occur. The first sound was protracted and dull, wanting the
sharply defined beginning such as a flap would give when the
valvular action was interrupted by the finger. The first sound
was obscure, but audible on extraction of the heart, when the
organ was irritated to contraction.
OssERVATION VI.
July 3rd.—Subject, a Turtle, weight 150 Ibs. No distinct
pulsation could be heard externally. After decapitation and
removal of the callipée the heart was felt by one of the Com-
mittee, pulsating regularly, and two distinct sounds were
heard (Wms.), with an interval between; the heart ceased
beating too soon to allow of the other member of the Com-
mittee (Cg.) making any satisfactory observation.
OxsservaTion VII.
Comparative Observation.
The observations of the Committee on the motions and
sounds of the Heart had been previously made almost ex-
clusively on donkeys and dogs, animals whose cardiac struc-
ture and modes of action are generally known to agree with
those of the human subject. It was therefore thought very
desirable to extend their observations more widely over the
scale, as by such means it was thought some useful generaliza-
tion might be obtained, and the views of the Committee be at
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 171
the same time subjected to a new and interesting test, and, if
sound, fully confirmed, but if defective, corrected; and in any
event, that their future conclusions would be based on a
greater variety of facts and a more comprehensive induction.
The Committee therefore made arrangements for the purpose
of yisiting the Zoological Gardens, and examining as many of
the animals there as could easily be approached by strangers
for the purposes of auscultation, &c. Before visiting the
gardens, the Committee met at the Hunterian Museum, for
the purpose of inspecting the preparations illustrative of the
physiology of the heart that exist in that national collection,
and were obligingly assisted in their search by Mr. Owen,
Professor of Comparative Anatomy to the Royal College of
Surgeons. With the aid of the anatomical data collected at
the Royal College of Surgeons, the Committee there entered
_at once on their examination of the living animals. Before
‘stating any particulars of our observations, it is proper to say
that, in our examination of the wilder animals, we were much
indebted to Mr. Youatt, the distinguished veterinary surgeon
of the establishment, without whose kind assistance it would
have been out of our power even to have attempted anything
in several instances. Even with Mr. Youatt’s aid, we found
it extremely difficult, in many cases, to make satisfactory ob-
servations; so that, in but a portion of the subjects was it
found practicable for the whole of the Committee to verify
results to their satisfaction.
The animals sufficiently examined by all are distinguished
in the following enumeration :—They are,
1. The Ostrich.
2. The Ourang-Outang.
3. The Leopard.
4. The Seal.
5. The Balearic Crane.
6. The Common Crane.
7. The Brahmin Bull.
8. The Puma.
9. The Indian Antelope.
Other animals examined to the satisfaction of some mem-
bers of the Committee, were—
10. The Elephant.
11. The Dromedary.
12. The Antelope.
13. The Water Buffalo.
14. The Giraffe.
172 REPORT—1840.
15. The Lion.
16. The Nylghau.
17. The Wapiti Deer.
18. The Hyzna.
In No. 1 (the Ostrich). The pulse at the heart was very
vigorous, and about 60 in the minute. The systolic, or first
sound, was long and obtuse ; and the second, or diastolic sound,
was short, and rather obtuse.
In No. 2 (the Ourang-Outang). The pulse was quick, and
the cardiac sounds and rhythm like those of the heart of a
child very exactly.
In No. 3 (the Leopard). The pulse was 60. The first sound
normal, but the second rather indistinct, as compared with
the human standard.
In No. 4 (the Seal). Pulse not materially different from
the human. First sound long and obtuse, second sound short
and clear.
In No. 5 (the Balearic Crane). Pulse 130 to 140. Animal
phthisical. First sound long and obtuse, second sound in-
distinct.
In No. 6 (the Common Crane). First sound short, and no
second sound heard.
In No. 7 (the Brahmin Bull). Pulse 80. Animal phthisical.
First sound long and obtuse, second sound indistinct.
In No. 8 (the Puma). Pulse 86. Animal sickly, probably
phthisical. Grating murmur with the first sound.
In No. 9 (the Indian Antelope). Long obtuse first sound,
short flapping second sound.
In No. 10 (the Elephant). Pulse 36. Long and obtuse first
sound, and relatively short and flapping second sound.
In No. 11 (the Dromedary). Pulse 48. Long and obtuse
first sound, short second sound.
In No. 12 (the Antelope). The first sound longer and
duller, the second sound shorter and sharper.
In No. 13 (the Water Buffalo). Pulse 60. Blowing murmur
after the first sound, no second sound heard.
In No. 14 (the Giraffe). Pulse 50. Second sound some-
times double.
In No. 15 (the Lion). First sound long and obtuse, second
sound short and flapping.
In No. 16 (the Nylghau). First sound normal, second
sound indistinct.
In No. 17 (the Wapiti Deer). Pulse 60. First sound long
and obtuse, second sound short and flapping.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 173
In No. 18 (the Hyzna). Long obtuse first sound, short
second sound.
Some other animals were attempted, but without success ;
viz., the Dzagetai or Wild Ass, the Rhinoceros, the Cas-
sowary, and some others. As a general observation, the Com-
mittee may state, that wherever the two sounds of the heart
could be distinguished, the character of those sounds and the
rhythm of the heart’s motions appeared to correspond with
those of the human heart, due allowance being made for dif-
ferences of size in the animals, differences of temperament,
and the circumstances of excitement or of disease under which
many of the animals laboured, when they were subjected to
auscultation, &c.
EXPERIMENTS OF THE COMMITTEE FoR 1839-40.
In consequence of having been nominated to conduct the
experiments on the motions and sounds of the heart for the
current year, without being associated with any colleagues, I
thought it desirable to avail myself of the assistance of such of
my friends, including the other members of last year’s Com-
mittee, as could attend, and I accordingly requested the co-
operation of a considerable number of gentlemen known to
the public; of these, several were enabled to attend on numer-
ous occasions, and one of them, Dr. Boyd, on every occasion ;
so that every observation and experiment has been participated
in or at least witnessed by one, or, in most instances, several
of the following gentlemen:
Professor C. J. B. Williams.
George Gulliver, Esq., F.R.S.
John George Perry, Esq.
Dr. G. Hamilton Roe.
Dr. George Burrows.
Charles Cochrane, Esq.
Dr. Rutherford.
Francis Kiernan, Esq., F.R.S.
J. Liddell, Esq.
Francis Samwell, Esq.
Dr. Edwin Harrison.
R. A. Stafford, Esq.
Benjamin Phillips, Esq., F.R.S..
Dr. Robert Boyd ;
174 REPORT—1840.
and other gentlemen, private friends of the Reporter, and the
last four-named gentlemen his colleagues in the medical staff
of the St. Marylebone Infirmary.
The experiments were performed in a convenient locality
immediately adjoining to the Marylebone Infirmary, and prin-
cipally on donkey colts of a few months old. In the latter
part of the series other animals, and especially dogs, were
used, partly for economy, and in order that the limited pecu-
niary resources of the Committee might not be prematurely
exhausted, and partly because certain experiments contem-
plated were expected to prove more easily and decisively
practicable on the larger heart of the ass than on any smaller,
such as that of the dog; and that, in any event, it was de-
sirable to extend the range of observation, as far as practi-
cable, over the animal scale.
The mode of preparation was in all cases nearly the same.
In almost every case sensibility was withdrawn as completely
as was practicable by one method or the other. In donkeys
we availed ourselves of the stupefying property of the woorara
poison, for a packet of which the Reporter had been indebted,
since 1838, to the kindness of Sir B.C. Brodie, Bart. The woo-
rara was brought into operation by injecting a couple of grains
of it, partly dissolved, partly suspended in water, into the exter-
nal jugular vein, as practised by Mr. Mayo in an experiment
of Dr. Hope’s, and the injection was usually followed in a
very few minutes by complete insensibility. In the smaller
animals prussic acid was used in several instances; and ina few
cases the subject was stunned by a blow on the head. Artificial
breathing was used in every warm-blooded subject, by means
of a bellows and long flexible tube kept loose in the trachea.
The chest was opened nearly as directed by Galen*, and as
practised by former Committees ; five or six ribs were sepa-
rated from the sternum and broken near the articulations, and
bent back over the vertebra. In every case, whether during
the preparation or subsequent observation, all convenient
means were used, as advised by Galen}, to prevent or lessen
hemorrhage, in order to avoid as much as possible the
anomalous modes of action attending extreme vascular deple-
tion, and to prolong the opportunities of observation and
experiment.
The observations about to be detailed consist partly of
experiments in continuation of the inquiries of former Com-
mittees, and partly of experiments made with a view to decide
* De Admin. Anat. |. vii. c. 12. + Loc. cit.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 175
several points in dispute amongst physiologists of authority,
which were not investigated by those Committees, and which
seemed to the Reporter yet unsettled, and at the same time
important enough to call for direct experimental investiga-
tion. The following are the principal of those undecided
questions :—
1. With respect to the rhythm of the motions of the auri-
cles and ventricles, several living distinguished physiological
writers appear to hold, that those cavities act in strict alterna-
tion with each other, and not continuously or in immediate
succession, the auricles being first always in systole and dia-
stole, and the ventricular actions being last before the Rest, as
described by Steno, Harvey, Lancisi, Haller, Senac, &c., and
by Hope, Williams, Carlisle, Pennock, and Moore, and other
living authorities.
2. With respect to the share in the circulation due to the
auricular systole, it has been held to be active and of much
importance, by Hervey, Senac, and others; while several living
writers of great weight, adhering apparently to the views of
Galen, Vesalius, &c., seem disposed to refuse to the auricles
any very influential or positively important share in the cardiac
operations; for examples I may cite Dr. Elliotson, Prof.
Bouillaud, Dr. Hope, Sir B. C. Brodie, &c.
3. With respect to the shape and dimensions of the ven-
tricles in systole, it was held by Galen, Vesalius, Harvey,
&c., that the heart is shortened in diastole and lengthened in
systole; but the observations of Steno, Lower, Lancisi, Haller,
and others, gave currency to opposite views; of late, however,
the ancient opinion has been revived, for example, by Prof.
Burdach and Prof. Bouillaud, as I understand their observa-
tions, and by Drs. Pennock and Moore, the latest experi-
mentalists on the subject that I know of, except my friends
and myself.
4. With respect to the precordial impulse, the great ma-
jority of physiologists, adhering unqualifiedly to the ancient
Opinion advocated by Hippocrates and Galen amongst the
Greeks, and by Vesalius, Harvey, Lancisi, Senac, Haller,
Hunter, and almost all modern writers, ascribe the cardiac
pulsation to a blow or stroke (in the popular meaning of those
words) given by the heart’s apex in systole to the ribs; while,
in opposition to this view, may be cited the experiments of
several recent observers, and the arguments of Mr. Carlisle, of
hg er in his last edition, of Mr. Bryan*, Dr. Billing,
c. &e.
5. With respect to the diastole of the heart, it was held by
* Lancet, v. 29.
176 REPORT—1840.
Galen and Vesalius to include a strong force of suction, by
which the venous current was much forwarded, and the auri-
cles were more or less emptied; and this power of inhalation
or suction has been adopted by numerous living authorities,
ex. gr. Prof. Bouillaud, Dr. Hope and Dr. Copland, and has
even been extended to the auricular diastole, ex. gr. by Dr.
Alison and Dr. Elliotson. The exertion, however, of any such
force has been distinctly refused to the diastolic state by
Harvey, Lower, Senac, &c., and appears, Dr. Joy remarks, to
rest on no satisfactory experimental evidence whatsoever.
6. In addition to active pulsations observed in certain ani-
mals in the veins (as in horses, rabbits, dogs, fowls, frogs, &c.),
there have been noted by several experimentalists, of whom it
is sufficient to name the great Haller, certain passive pulsa-
tions, viz. an abrupt diastole of the vein attending the first
part of the heart’s systole or the auricular contraction, and an
abrupt systole of the vein attending the first part of the heart’s
diastole on the dilatation of the auricle; but the connexion
between the venous regurgitation and the auricular systole has
been doubted by several apparently, and even denied by Dr.
Elliotson. .
7. Reverting to the auricular functions, the systole of the
auricles has usually been regarded as unattended by any in-
trinsic sound. Dr. Hope denies that any such sound occurs,
and on mechanical grounds seems to affirm that it is not pos-
sible; and Dr. Joy calls the auricular systole a “ silent” act*.
Six months, probably, or more, however, before the Committee
for 1840 had even begun their experiments, Drs. Pennock and
Moore had, unknown to the Reporter and his friends, detected,
as they conceived, an auricular systolic sound, in a series of
very interesting experiments, of which an account is pub-
lished in the American Journal of Medical Science, Part L.,
for February, 1840.
Some other often-agitated and still unsettled points have
appeared to the Reporter, in like manner, to stand in need of
further examination; ea. gr. 1. the sizes of the ventricles, &c.
with respect to each other; 2. the production of sound by
certain muscles, while vigorously contracting ; 3. the rhythm
of the cardiac and arterial pulses, &c. &c. Finding on all the
preceding points considerable differences of opinion, and per-
ceiving that, in many instances, the decision of highly-distin-
guished and leading physiological writers was at variance
with the best hitherto-recorded experiments and observations,
the Reporter found forced on his mind the conviction, that on |
all or most of those points further data were wanting, and
* Library of Practical Medicine.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 177
experiments less ambiguous and more pointed and conclusive.
Under such impressions, the Reporter felt himself at liberty, if
not positively called on, to advert to various questions above
alluded to, which had not been handled by former Committees,
provided that, by any unlooked-for good fortune, if not through
some new and happier experimental combinations, he should
succeed in eliciting pertinent and decisive facts. Acting on
such views, the Committee has put to the test of experiment,
to a greater or less extent, several of those questions, with
results now to be stated.
It may be proper to state, that the instrument used in
auscultation was exclusively the flexible ear tube; the wooden
stethoscope, comparatively inconvenient in almost all cases,
being found quite unsuited for such experiments.
OsserRvATION I.
June 11th.—Subject, a Donkey about ten weeks old and
sound in all respects. Phenomena: Various spontaneous tr-
regularities in the cardiac action and sounds ;—jerking upwards
Sc. of periphery of internal valves in systole ;—appearances
of auricles in action ;—effect of valvular obstruction on first
sound. Heart, when exposed, acting strongly and quickly.
Second sound indistinct, and loud murmur with the first
sound.
S. 1. On placing the finger on the outer periphery of the
mitral valves, an upward jerk and thrilling motion sensible,
similar to that observed over the arterial valves.
8.2. At the moment of auricular systole, were noted a
dimpling of the appendix, and an abrupt contraction in all
its dimensions, and a sinking (as it were) downwards and in-
wards, followed by a gradual return to the state of promi-
nence and distention that characterize the auricular diastole.
Several times was observed a slight and partial active contrac-
tion of the auricle, followed by relaxation in the intervals of
full and complete auricular systole and diastole, as if from
transient spasmodic disturbance.
S. 3. The second cardiac sound observed at intervals to
be for many minutes together wholly wanting, without obvious
cause; no operation upon the mitral or other valves having
been hitherto attempted.
8.4. The left auricle was inverted successively by the
finger and by a probe, so as to impede the action of the
mitral valves; the finger was sensible, when placed in the
mitral orifice, of an abrupt though gentle concussion in the
systole of the ventricle, and (it seemed to me) as if it were
VOL. Ix. 1840. N
178 REPORT—1840.
pushed by a cord or membrane stretched obliquely across the
passage, and brought suddenly to a state of tension; and at
the same time the sensation of jerking upwards was much less
distinct when a finger was placed over the valve externally.
The probe also, when held loosely in the orifice (enveloped,
like the finger, in the inverted appendix of the auricle), was
felt and seen to be pushed back in each systole between the
fingers.
S. 5. At the moment of introducing the inverted appendix
into the internal opening, the sharp well-defined beginning
of the first or systolic sound was wanting or obscure; and
that sound seemed to several observers less abrupt and more
gradual in its development.
OsseErvATION II.
June 13th.—Subject, a stout Ass two to three months
old. Phanomena: Abnormal murmurs, without structural
defect ;—motions of the ventricle in systole, as apparent to the
eye and hand ;—same of the auricles ;—rhythm of the motions
of auricles and ventricles ;—auricular hemorrhage not sus-
pended in diastole, and augmented in systole of auricle.
S. 1. Heart acting normally and vigorously before the in-
jection of woorara. Immediately after the operation was com-
pleted, a murmur was observed with the second or diastolic
sound, with a slow cardiac action; the first or systolic sound
being normal.
S. 2. In systole, motion first distinctly observed at the
fundus, especially on the right ventricle, where any phzeno-
mena about the arterial orifice are most easily observed in
animals lying on the right side; apex almost simultaneously
moved with fundus. ‘These systolic motions in the ventricles
were preceded by a dimpling and shrinking inwards and
downwards of the auricular appendices, but by a very minute
interval, so that the auricular motion seemed as it were but
the first portion of a more extensive movement affecting the
whole heart.
S. 3. Before opening the pericardium, needles were passed
horizontally through that organ without wounding the heart,
and so that they lay exposed to the eye in their whole length,
except the minute portion actually penetrating the pericar-
dium, and over the following points,—viz. over the auricle, over
the periphery of the mitral orifice, and over the apex; and
observation was made through a roll of paper employed to
limit the field of vision, and a succession of motions was di-
stinctly noted; first, about the fundus and insertions of the
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 179
great arteries, and most strikingly over the appendices auri-
cularum, and thence propagated as it were toward the free
extremity of the heart, being perceived in the body of the
ventricles next after the fundus, and at the apex last, as if an
impulse in a compressed fluid, or a wave commencing about
the insertions of the arteries, had been propagated along the
heart from fundus to apex.
S. 4. After opening the pericardium, small triangular bits
of white card were applied so as to adhere to the left appen-
dix, fundus of left ventricle, middle of same cavity, and close
to the apex; and observation was made, as in last experiment,
through rolled paper, and with like results (as in S. 3.).
S.5. And this seeming propagation of motion was per-
ceived next in another way, viz. by pressing gently on the
fundus and body of the ventricle and on the apex, by which
was elicited a sensation, or series of sensations, as of a pro-
gressive movement of an undulatory character directed from
fundus to apex, and resembling, to a considerable extent, that
given by a dropsical abdomen, or hydrocele, &c., when ap-
propriately percussed. ;
8.6. During a very vigorous action of the auricles, and at
a somewhat advanced period of the observation, the shrinking
and dimpling, in its centre, of the appendix in its systole, was
likened by several observers to an effect either of suction or
of some traction exerted on the appendix from some point
about the auri-ventricular opening, more especially because it
seemed often separated in time from the ventricular tension,
roundness and impulse (2. e. systole) bya scarcely perceptible
interval.
S. 7. Toward the end of the observation, and during a
tolerably regular and vigorous action of the heart, the tip of
the left auricle was snipped off; after which the contractions
of the appendix became indistinct, those of the ventricle being
at first little affected. On the instant of cutting off the appen-
dix, a profuse flow of blood occurred in a stream slightly in-
creased by a jet during systole of the auricle, and continuous,
and without any jet, during diastole.
Note.—The heart ceased to beat after about three quarters
of an hour of observation, owing to the inflating tube becom-
ing obstructed by a clot of blood which escaped timely detec-
tion; it was quite healthy ; the ventricles appeared not to differ
in size.
N 2
180 REPORT—1840.
OssErvATION IIi.
June 22.—Subject, a Donkey about six months old, in good
health. Phenomena: Results of application of pressure in
various ways to the ventricles ;—rhythm and manner of motions
of fundus and apex in systole and diastole ;—motions in the
arteries and over the valvular orifices ;—action of the sinuses in
systole of auricles ;—shortening of heart in systole ;—effects
of wounding an auricle, §c. §c.
S. 1. Callipers were applied to the ventricles, as if to take
the diameter of the heart. The legs of the callipers before
use had been fastened together by an elastic chord of con-
siderable resisting power. In whichever direction the instru-
ment so prepared was made to embrace the ventricles, whether
exactly transversely or obliquely, the uniform result was, that
the legs of the instrument were separated with force, and re-
ceded from each other in each systole, and approached each
other in each diastole with depression of the part of the parietes
they pressed on; which depression wholly disappeared in the
systole, giving place to an opposite state of the parts, or toa
state of convexity and apparent protrusion.
S. 2. The finger and thumb were then applied to opposite
sides of the ventricles, and were felt to be abruptly pushed
outwards in systole, and to approach each other in diastole, if
acted on even slightly by the flexor muscles, and with marked
depression of the parietes in diastole, during which no sense
of active resistance was experienced.
S. 3. A wooden stethoscope was then placed on the ven-
tricles, and kept erect by means of a roll of paper large
enough to give the instrument full freedom of motion; and
the uniform result was, that wheresoever placed on the ventri-
cles, the stethoscope was heaved up with a jerk at each systole
(to the height of half an inch near the fundus), and subsided
at once in diastole, causing in the parietes a deep depression,
which was wholly removed by the systole, and succeeded by
an opposite shape of the surface.
S. 4. To the eye and hand the fundus appeared to become
round, hard, and elevated, and to give impulse somewhat
sooner than the apex, as if the systole was developed earlier
about the fundus than at the free extremity of the heart.
S. 5. To the fingers, during the systole of the ventricles, a
feeling was communicated, as of an undulation in a com-
pressed fluid, very distinct, and directed from fundus to apex,
and resembling sensations familiar to physicians in ascites, hy-
drocele, &c., when properly percussed and manipulated.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 181
8. 6. On touching the arteries close to the heart a feeling,
as of efflux and reflux, was very distinct, especially in the
aorta, the former coinciding with the systole of the ventricles,
the latter with the diastole. At the same moment with the out-
ward current in the arteries, or during the ventricular systole,
a peculiar jerking upwards of the periphery of the auri-ven-
tricular orifices,—and a similar eccentric movement was ob-
served over the arterial openings during the reflux current or
undulation in the vessels, ¢.e. during ventricular diastole.
S.7. The sinuses of the auricles were found by the touch
to contract vigorously, before the ventricles considerably, and
even before the shrinking, &c., or systole of the appendices.
S. 8. Small three-triangular pieces of white card were made
to adhere to the fundus and apex cordis respectively, and ob-
servation was made through a roll of paper sufficiently large
to take in, at a convenient distance, both extremities of the
organ, and held so that each white object rested on a distinct
limb of the tube’s mouth, and every change of distance be-
tween the points dotted white was readily detectible,—and the
uniform result was, that the apex approached the base in
systole and receded again in diastole, and the range of oscil-
lation seemed about rd of an inch.
S. 9. While the heart still acted, but with much diminished
force, a cut was made in the right auricle and a copious flow
of blood obtained, having slight jets in the auricular systole,
and immediately before the ventricular hardening, elevation,
&c., but being continuous during diastole.
Note.—The ventricles appeared not to differ in size on care-
ful examination—post mortem cordis.
OsservaTion IY.
dune 27.—Subject, a stout Ass three to four weeks old.
Heart acted very vigorously until weakened by hemorrhage,
and continued to beat with considerable energy for two hours,
when it was extracted, still contracting. Phenomena: Effects
of various forms of pressure on the heart ;—rhythm of cardiac
and arterial pulses ;—ventricular systole ;—auricular ditto ;—
sound of auricular systole ;—pulsation of cava ;—auricular
diastole ;—spontaneous or incidental variations in cardiac
sounds ;—protrusion of septum into right ventricle in systole.
S$. 1. A stethoscope loaded with 2 Ibs. weight of shot in a
bag, was placed on the heart before opening the pericardium
{as in experiment 3 of last observation), and was raised at
each systole with a sudden heave or jerk, and with much
182 REPORT—1840.
foree, and subsided immediately on the supervention of dia-
- stole, causing a deep depression in the previously convex sur-
face of the ventricle. This experiment was repeated toward
the close of the observation, and after the heart had been ex-
posed for 1 hours and with like results in all respects.
S. 2. The pulse of the femoral artery, being compared with
that of the heart, was found to follow the latter by a distinctly
perceptible interval, but one very minute.
S. 3. To the eye the apex and fundus cordis approximated
to each other in systole, and receded in diastole. ‘lhe motions
of those parts coincided to a great extent, but not entirely,
but rather as parts of a series of concatenated movements, of
which the former part was the profound undulation, harden-
ing and rounding of the fundus, and the latter part the
hardening, shortening, and slight elevation of the apex; be-
tween these successive appearances, no very distinct interval ;
they passed into each other by an undulatory sort of motion,
commencing at the fundus, and passing with extreme rapidity
along the ventricles to the apex.
S. 4. Threads were passed through the appendices of the
auricles, and being held tense, so as to impede the auricular
systole, were felt to be drawn downwards with much energy
immediately before the systole of the ventricles, the auricular
contraction being completed, while the ventricles were still
developing their systole.
S. 5. Toward the close of the first hour of observation,
and while the heart in its different parts acted with much
energy, the auricles were observed for a time to contract with
a rhythm above double that of the ventricles (owing probably
to the irritation excited by passing the needle and thread
through the appendices, and pulling at them afterwards), and
a sound was detected resembling very much, except in volume,
the first or ventricular systolic sound, and accompanying the
auricular systole. The sound was short, rapid, obtuse, without
any jerking motion, and coincident exactly with the auricular
systole, and in number double (or rather more) the sound of
the ventricular systole. This sound was found to attend the
systole of the right auricle as well as that of the left, at a time
when the action of the latter was too feeble to give sound.
S. 6. The large pectoral veins, especially the cava, were
observed to pulsate with the auricular systole, something as
the arteries do with the ventricular, but comparatively very
feebly ; first came the diastole of the vein and then the systole,
and then the Rest, and the former followed immediately on
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 183
the auricular systole, and the latter on the diastole of the
auricles, both in the inferior and superior cava; no other
motion was noted in the veins.
8.7. The diastole of the auricles was a gradual swelling
and enlargement of the visible parts of the cavities in all
directions, requiring for its completion as much time as several
systoles would do; and followed, on the instant of the full
distension of the appendices, by systole of the whole heart,—
first in the auricle, and then instantly in the ventricles: during
its diastole, the auricle seemed to the eye to emerge, as it
were, from the sinus venosus, and to swell out from a state of
collapse, such as suction inwards toward the ventricle might
cause, if any such force as suction existed in the heart.
S. 8. In this, as in every observation, abnormal murmurs
were observed at various moments, viz. immediately on the in-
jection of the woorara, and at other times, but especially when
pressure was made, whether intentionally or otherwise, over
the orifices, exterior and interior, of the heart. ‘Toward the
close of the observation, a loud musical sound was detected in
the pulmonary artery with the diastole. At various times, for
short spaces, the second sound of the heart was indistinct or
absent, or masked by murmurs, without obvious cause in most
instances, other than abnormal modes of action from irri-
tation, hemorrhage, &c., exclusively of known structural
changes. The first sound of the heart was often modified in
various ways, and attended by murmurs, but never was want-
ing so long as the heart acted with any energy. Toward the
close, however, when the ventricular systole had become slow
and gradual from quick and abrupt, the first sound was either
very feeble, or not distinguishable at all.
S. 9. The pulmonary artery was cut open; after which the
first sound was still heard, but rather obtuse. A finger was
then passed into the right ventricle, and the septum was felt
to project convexly into the cavity, and in each systolic effort
to press against the finger.
Note.—Post mortem. One valve of the pulmonary orifice
was found slightly injured by a puncture made in the course
of experiments, in which the parietes cordis had been irritated
to abnormal action by means of a needle. Wherever the needle
penetrated into a cavity of the heart, there a clot was found,
or at least a coloured plug of lymph in the internal opening.
Post mortem. The ventricles were found to be of the same
dimensions on careful examination.
184 REPORT—1840.
OssERVATIONS V. AND VI.
July 1st, 1840.—In two observations, one on a Frog and a
second on a Rabbit, the following results were obtained :—
Rhythm: The first contraction after the pause or cardiac
diastole was observed in the vena cava, to which immediately
succeeded contraction of the sinus, and afterwards, immedi-
ately, of the appendix of the auricles ; to which latter, imme-
diately succeeded the ventricular systole; and the diastole, or
relaxation of each part, succeeded in like order,—that of the
vein first; then of the auricle, of which the appendix seemed
later in its diastole than the sinus or body; then of the ven-
tricles. Those motions were much slower than in the human
subject—somewhere about fifty beats per minute. The series
of systoles above mentioned succeeded each other, so that at
a little distance they appeared collectively like an undulation
commencing at the cava, rather than a series of independent
actions.—Systole of ventricle: In diastole the ventricle was
round, full, protuberant, and dark in colour; but on the
supervention of systole changed rapidly in shape and colour,
from purple, becoming pale flesh colour, like veal; and from
round and broad, becoming apparently narrower and more
conical and depressed ; being obviously lessened in all dimen-
sions, but most strikingly in the transverse. The action of
the heart lasted for.an hour or more with great regularity ;
the auricles acted for some time longer than the ventricle,
especially the right auricle.
OsservatTion VI.
In the rabbit, the heart did not beat at any time very
vigorously or regularly, and ceased altogether after 20 to 25
minutes, although respiration was maintained by the bellows
with ease.
The Rhythm: §.1. The first motion after the Pause or
ventricular diastole was observed in the base of the auricles,
and on the right side in the expansion of the jugular and sub-
clavian veins, which in the rabbit, as Steno has noted, seemed
to replace the superior cava. This vessel, whose dimensions
were very large compared with the heart, and which wound
round the root of the heart in its way to the auricle from above
downwards, and from left to right, continued to pulsate for
some time after the ventricles had ceased, and even after the
adjoining auricle had been for some minutes inert. Nearly,
but not quite, at the same instant of time with the vein, the base
and then the apex of the auricle were seen to contract; after
which (but not so quickly as might have been expected from
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 185
other observations, owing probably to delay in the establish-
ment of artificial breathing) the ventricles entered into their
systole, and the diastole followed in like order ; first, the venous
expansion, next the base and appendix of the auricles, and last
of all the ventricle.
S.2. In the systole some change of colour was observed
in the ventricles, from darker to paler, and the same in the
auricles.
S. 3. Toward the close of the observations, the auricles
acted much more frequently than the ventricles, and especially
the right auricle. In the ventricular systole the apex was
thought to move slightly outwards and to the left, or away
from the septum or central axis of the heart.
Oxsservation VII.
July 2nd.—Subject, a snake of good size, poisoned with
prussic acid, so as to be insensible. Heart beating very
slowly and rather irregularly at first, from 15 to 20 beats per
minute only.
Rhythm of motions: After a long pause, first motion ob-
served in sinus of auricle, and then in appendix, being the
auricular systole; immediately after which the ventricular
systole, but with no complete interval between the end of one
and beginning of the other systole. After the systoles re-
spectively came the diastoles in like order, and then a long
pause, equal sometimes to 3 or 4 or more beats.
At each auricular systole, a swelling observed in the cava
and pulmonary veins, extending some way down from the
heart. This appearance resembled a wave of reflux excited
by the action of the auricle. It was not observed in any part
beyond a point of the vessels on which pressure was made.
In the systole, the ventricle shrank concentrically, being
shorter and narrower, but also rounder and more oval, than in
diastole ; the ventricle (which might be called bicornute, being
obtusely pointed at either extremity,) had either horn or ex-
tremity raised slightly in systole, and depressed again, as if by
gravitation, in diastole. The cavities systolized and diastolized
still after the observation was completed, or for more than an
hour, and more regularly than at first.
July 2nd.—The ventricle ceased beating after about twenty
hours, but the auricles were still pulsating regularly after more
than twenty-four hours. The rhythm of the motions of the
heart as before, but the reflux wave or diastole of the veins
now less distinct, owing probably to the emptiness of the
heart. And in lieu of the regurgitation wave marked by a
186 REPORT— 1840.
diastole, followed by a systole, and then a pause in the veins,
there was observed an opposite order of the motions, viz.
1. venous systole; 2. venous diastole; 3. then the pause.
Several times the motions of the veins were observed alone,
and not preceded by auricular contraction, or accompanied by
it, as, toward the close in other observations, auricular con-
traction had often failed to excite or be followed by ventricu-
lar systole.
OssErRvaTION VIII.
July 4th.—Subject, a Donkey nine months old, in good
health. Pulse beating well in precordia about 70 or 80. Opera-
tion of injection tedious, with considerable hemorrhage ; whole
operation lasted kalf an hour, and heart acted for considera-
bly more than an hour. When opened, the heart was beating
quickly (above 100) but regularly. Second sound indistinct.
Phenomena: Effects of pressure on the heart ;—action of
threaded auricles ;—no sound, and why ;—manner of auricular
diastole ;—resistance to pencil in mitral orifices, and how
caused ;—pulsation of cava;—phenomena of ventricular sy-
stole ;—mechanism of cardiac impulse ;—valvular jerk over the
mitral opening in systole, and modifications of first sound arti-
ficially produced ;—hemorrhage from left auricle ;—relative
sizes of ventricles.
S. 1. The stethoscope, loaded with 4 to 5 lbs. of shot, &c.,
and placed on the ventricles as before, was jerked up by each
systole, and subsided and deeply indented the parietes in
each diastole.
S. 2. The callipers were applied as before, but with a ten-
sion much exceeding that formerly used, and with a similar
but not equal result ; the heart being considerably less vigor-
ous, as well as the spring much stiffer. The action became
much hurried under the pressure of the instrument, but its
legs were pushed asunder with force in systole, and a deep
indentation was caused by them in the parietes in diastole,
which did not wholly disappear sometimes in systole.
S.3. The tip of the appendix of the left auricle was
threaded as before, and the auricle and ventricle acted nearly
but not exactly in alternation, and the thread was felt to be
forcibly drawn downwards at the moment of auricular dimp-
ling and systole.
S. 4. No auricular sound could be distinguished, apparently
less attributable towant of energy in the auricle than to the rapid
beat of the heart and sudden supervention of the ventricular sy-
stole before the completion of the auricular. The left appendix
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 187
was repeatedly inverted with a pencil and with the finger, and on
the instant of being let free, by withdrawal of the pencil, &c.,
recovered its shape and position, appearing to emerge with
rapidity out of the auri-ventricular orifice and sinus, appa-
rently owing to a continuous and copious influx of venous
blood into the appendix, especially during the systole of the
ventricles.
S. 5. In experiments on the mitral valves, repetitions of
former trials, and with inverted auricles, some resistance, as
of a hard edge, was repeatedly felt by the finger, and the
pencil was pushed outwards with some force, but the edge felt
was suspected to be the edge of the interior orifice and not
that of a valve. On the inner side, or that next the septum,
the resistance in systole was more energetic than on the
outer.
S.6. The thread that had been passed through the ap-
pendix was drawn upwards, to check the systole of the auricle
during auscultation, but the operation was with difficulty per-
formed, and at all events no perceptible difference resulted ;
the first cardiac sound appeared unchanged.
S. 7. A slight motion of the cava was observed accompany-
ing the auricular systole, viz. a diastole followed by a systole ;
both slight.
S. 8. In systole the ventricle became rounder, harder,
tenser, and shorter; both fundus and apex, but especially the
latter, were seen to be elevated, and the apex seemed to turn
slightly from left to right.
S.9. An eccentric impulse, or abrupt push outwards, was
perceived on whatever part of the ventricle we touched, while
the heart acted with any energy; and this push or impulse
was most striking, though least powerful, just at the apex, on
account, as it seemed, of its pointed form.
S. 10. An undulatory sort of motion was perceived in
systole from fundus to apex, along the parietes. In addition
to the general eccentric impulse, there was observed over the
orifices, arterial and auricular, a jerking motion not observed
elsewhere; and this jerking was indistinct or null over the in-
terior orifice, in a subsequent experiment, in which the mitral
valves were prevented from closing by a slender instrument
something like scissors, the parts of which beyond the joint
were introduced, through the auricle, without inverting it, into
the auri-ventricular opening; and while the blades were kept
separate, the first sound, as heard on the ventricles, was
found to begin dull and obtuse; and an obtuse beginning, and
a well-defined beginning were heard alternately, according as
188 REPORT—1840.
the blades were separated or brought together, and as conse-
quently the valves were obstructed or left free. .
S. 11. The tip of the left auricle was snipped off and he-
morrhage was excited, which was constant but with slight jets
at the systoles of the auricles.
OssERVATIONS IX. and X.
July 7th.—Operated on two Rabbits ; one a large vigorous
domestic one, and the other a smaller wild one; both stunned
by a blow on the head. The larger one was violently convulsed
before death, and when the chest was opened the heart was
not beating, and the only result obtained was—
S. 1. Distinct beatings in the large vein on the left side
which winds round the base of the heart to empty itself in the
right auricle ; the actions observed were a systole followed by
a diastole, and then a short pause ; there was no auricular sy-
stole; the venous beating continued for many minutes. ,
S. 2. The second heart acted for some minutes with some
energy, especially the right cavities; the left cavities were
drained by hemorrhage, owing to an accidental wound in the
superior great vein in opening the thorax. For some minutes
the rhythm of the action of the cavities went on normally ;
first, the very rapid and abrupt auricular systole, and then
immediately the ventricular systole more gradual and of longer
duration, and then the pause.
S. 3. When the left ventricle acted, the apex cordis seemed
slightly deflected to the left in systole, dragging the apex of the
right after it; and when the right ventricle acted alone, no de-
flection was observed.
8. 4. For a considerable time after the cessation of the left
side, the right cavities acted regularly, but after five to ten mi-
nutes, the ventricle especially began to flag, and the auricle
then acted frequently without any following ventricular systole.
But on one occasion, without obvious cause, the auricle became
sluggish, and even for a few moments motionless, while the
ventricle acted by itself more than once.
S. 5. In the systole, the apex approached the base, and the
opposite sides approached the septum cordis, and the whole
organ became rounder and more globular. In one direction,
viz. the vertical, the heart always, when acting with any energy,
became larger, while every other diameter was diminished.
S. 6. After cutting out the heart, and before cutting out,
but after cessation of spontaneous motion, systole was easily
excited by irritating with scissors, etc., and after the left had
nearly wholly ceased to answer stimuli, still the right ventricle
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 189
contracted on the point of a scalpel being applied to the left
ventricle.
OsBsERVATIONS XI. and XII.
July 11.—Phenomena: Stroke and sound obtained as if from
locomotive force in systole of ventricles ;—rhythm of the heart's
motions ;—manner of auricular action ;—same of the ventri-
cular-venous motions ;—mechanism of the cardiac throb or im-
pulse ;—mode of hemorrhage from a wounded auricle.
Subjects, two Donkeys operated on; one about six weeks
old, the other about two and a half months; both rather weak
from fasting twenty-four hours, owing to being too young to
eat or drink properly. Each heart ceased to beat after about
half an hour. First animal had his forehead beaten in so as to
stun him, and chest then opened. Heart acted quickly and not
very regularly. No distinct second sound ; no auricular sound.
S.1. Before opening pericardium, a hard flat body, having
a piece of lead weighing about a quarter of a pound fixed on
it, was placed on the heart, and a stethoscope was held at a
short distance over it, z.e. ata quarter to half an inch, and at
each systole of the heart the lead rose up abruptly and struck
the stethoscope with a tick, audible at some yards distance,
and receded with diastole to sometimes nearly half an inch,
and again rose up and impinged on the tube in systole, and
so on.
S. 2. The pericardium was then opened, and the auricles
and ventricles observed. No auricular sound could be detected.
The auricles acted immediately before the ventricles, and after
the pause or rest, and very abruptly and rapidly: the heart acted
rapidly, probably considerably above one hundred per minute.
S. 3. The auricles were observed in systole to dimple and
contract all round from periphery to centre, as in former ob-
servations.
S.4. The changes of shape in the ventricles were particu-
larly plain and striking—the apex moved slightly upwards and
to the left, and was drawn toward the base in systole, while
the horizontal transverse diameter of the heart, as the animal
lay on its right side, was diminished, and the transverse verti-
cal diameter, and that alone, was increased, owing to the heart
becoming from flattish, inferiorly and superiorly, convex, and
from in the centre compressed or depressed, strictly globular
or protruding, so that the central longitudinal axis was elevated
during systole, and lowered in diastole, while in diastole
the apex rather approached the sternum from which it had
receded in systole, owing to shortening of the organ.
S. 5. The veins were observed, and except perhaps a slight
190 REPORT—1840.
undulation downwards during auricular systole evinced by a
diastole followed by a systole, both very slight, nothing decided
was observed. As in all former observations the ventricles
and auricles respectively acted together.
OBSERVATION XII.
The second and older animal was prepared by injection of
woorara, and, after establishment of artificial breathing, the
left ribs were cut quite close to the mesial plane, so as to
expose fully the apex in every motion.
(Note.—The former was opened in the same way and with
the same effect.) The pericardium was then opened, and the
following results were obtained.
S. 1. The hard substance (sole leather) weighted with lead,
was applied to the heart, and the same result as in the former
experiment obtained, viz., a sudden abrupt elevation or jerk
upwards of the lead was obtained, and a stroke against the
stethoscope heard distinctly at several yards, and the range of
oscillation or motion of the lead was about half an inch.
S. 2. On opening the pericardium the auricles and ven-
tricles were acting as in the former observation, viz., the
auricles first after the rest or pause, and the ventricles imme-
diately after the auricles. No auricular sound was detectible ;
no distinct second sound heard. Heart acting hurriedly and
with varying quickness, but always above the healthy standard.
S. 3. The motions of the ventricle very conspicuous, and as
in last observation, viz., striking diminution of horizontal
transverse and of longitudinal diameters, and increase of trans-
verse vertical diameter in systole, and in diastole increase of
the two former diameters, and decrease of the last. And in sy-
stole the apex was raised, as was the whole body of heart, by
an elevation of the central longitudinal axis, which was effected
partly by the assumption of a globular form in the previously
compressed central inferior surface, and partly by the visible
protrusion of the previously depressed central superior surface
of the ventricles.
So long as this observation lasted both auricles seemed to
act with equal pertinacity ; the right auricle being however
snipped, and long after the ventricles had ceased, the blood
gushed out of the right auricle only when the auricle con-
tracted, and the hemorrhage ceased nearly during the diastole
of the auricles.
S. 5. No other appearances observed in the veins than in
the former experiment, viz., a slight diastole with the auricu-
lar systole followed by a systole with auricular diastole.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 191
S. 6. In neither of the two preceding observations did the
auricles and ventricles exactly alternate, but in each, whenever
observation was carefully made, the auricular systole imme-
diately preceded the ventricular; and the ventricular diastole
preceded the pause or rest, which last was first interrupted by
the abrupt auricular contraction.
OsservaTions XIII. and XIV.
July 15th.—Subjects, a Donkey {about a twelvemonth old,
prepared with woorara ; very little blood lost in opening ; ani-
mal not healthy, and weak, so as to be ill able to walk before the
operation ; heart acted pretty well)—and a Dog.
Phenomena: Donkey—Rhythm of motions ;—character of
auricular actions ;—same, of the ventricular ;—double friction
between heart and pericardium normally ;—eccentric impulse
felt all over ventricles in systole ;—motions of cava.
Phenomena: Dog—Normal double frictions of pericardium;
—with other phenomena.
S. 1. Rhythm of motions of the auricles and ventricles was
as in former experiments ; first, the auricular systole, then im-
mediately, the ventricular systole, without interval, and as if it
were a continuation by undulation of the former motion.
S. 2. Then the pause during which the auricle and ventricle
became each distended and soft and flaccid, the former sliding
its extreme margin downwards on the fundus of the ventricle
toward the apex, to retract it suddenly again toward the
sinus in systole,—and the latter protruding its apex and sides so
as to be enlarged in every direction, except that of the trans-
verse vertical diameter, to retract both apex and sides in the
following systole, and at the same to rise upwards in its cen-
tral parts with an impulse.
S. 3. Before opening pericardium the condition of that sac
was carefully observed, and it was noted, that while the peri-
cardium remained stationary under all circumstances, the heart
suffered much change in shape and size, so that there was in
every part, and especially over the auricles, a to-and-fro motion
of the cardiac pericardium on the external layer of that sac, a
friction in one direction in systole and in the opposite in diastole.
S. 4. The impulse before observed was obtained by the fin-
ger applied to any part of the ventricle in systole.
. 5. The cava observed, and a slight action was noted, viz.
a diastole followed by a systole, the former with a wave-like
sensation of motion from the heart downwards, and accompa-
nying the auricular systole, and immediately preceding the ven-
tricular. The separator above described was introduced into
192 REPORT—1840.
the mitral aperture and a murmur was heard; but the heart
ceased too soon, owing to errors in the insufflation, to allow of
the experiment being properly followed out.
OBSERVATION XIV.
Same day. A Dog,small, and perhaps two years old, was poi-
soned with prussic acid, and then prepared as usual. The
heart acted pretty well for nearly half an hour.
S. 1. The stillness or inertness of the free pericardium and
constant succession of changes of shape and size in the heart
were carefully observed ; the heart being, for the size of the
animal, much larger than that of a donkey; the experiment was
much less troublesome from that cause as well as from the
greater facility of manipulation of a smaller animal. Every sy--
stole of the auricles produced a double friction, viz., one against
the external layer of the pericardium and one against the fun-
dus of the ventricles, or periphery of the auricular orifices ;
and every diastole of course produced friction in the opposite
directions ; and every systole of ventricle produced friction
longitudinally from apex to fundus, and transversely from side
to side, all round the body of the heart; while every ventricu-
lar diastole included friction in the opposite directions.
S. 2. The rhythm of the heart’s motions was as before, viz.,
first, the auricular systole,—and secondly, immediately there-
after, the ventricular, and without marked interval, but, as if the
latter motion were but a continuation of the former, by a sort
of continued undulation,—and thirdly, the pause consisting first
of auricular diastole, and then including the immediately suc-
ceeding ventricular diastole, and interrupted first by the au-
ricular systole.
S. 3. Cava observed and motion noted, viz., a diastole fol-
lowed by a systole, the former synchronous with the auricular
systole, the latter immediately following.
S. 4. The subclavian artery laid bare unintentionally for
several inches, forming an arch more than two inches in length,
and observed to lengthen without straightening in the systole
of the heart, and to shorten slightly but sensibly in ventricular
diastole.
S. 5. As in every former distinct observation, the sensation
of impulse was perceptible on every portion of the ventricular
surface ; the shortening, rounding, hardening, and elevation of
the central longitudinal axis, and increase of the transverse
vertical diameter alone, of the body of the heart, easily distin-
guished,—also the jerking over the orifices, &c., &c.
8. 6. The auricular systoleapparently audible, but the sound
. ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 193
not separated by any very distinct interval from the instantly
succeeding ventricular sound, which however it preceded ra-
ther, and certainly preceded to the senses of touch and hearing
together, the hardening and rounding of the ventricle.
8. 7. In the dog, as in the ass, the motions were slow com-
paratively in the heart, auricles as well as ventricles. The right
ventricle first, and afterwards the left ventricle, were punctured
with a slender glass tube drawn out for a couple of inches at
the lower end, and the result observed. In systole there was
a sudden rise in the tube, and a slight subsidence in diastole.
The subsidence was but slight, the greatest not being in the
left ventricle more than half an inch, and in the right ventricle
still less. The sinking of the blood in the tube in diastole was
such as might be caused by a sudden withdrawal of an impulse
sufficiently energetic (like that of the systole) to overcome gra-
vitation abruptly, and so as to excite a jet in a tube containing
a fluid column sustained by a constant pressure (such perhaps
as might be produced by the venous influx) from below.
S. 8. In both hearts the right cavities were relieved from
distension before complete cessation of action, and the areas of
the ventricles, judging by apparent extent of walls opened and
spread out, seemed in no degree to differ.
OxssERVATIONS XY. and XVI.
July 18th.—Operated on two Donkeys of from four to eight
months old.
Phenomena : First donkey— Glass tubes introduced into left
auricle and ventricle, and results noted ;—normal pericardial
Srictions observed, and several other observations confirmed :
Second donkey—Blunt hook and screw, successively interposed
between mitral valves with considerable modification of first
sound ;—also, spontaneous abnormal sounds ;—auricular SY-
stolic sound ;—results of introduction of glass tubes into heart's
cavities ;—confirmation of former observations.
Woorara injected in each case; in the first, the operation
very successful, but in the second, a second dose of two grains
required.
In the former, much blood lost, viz., probably owing to an
accidental cut made in hastily opening the trachea for artificial
breathing. The heart found acting rapidly, hurriedly, and with
a rhythm unfavourable for observation. Second sound not di-
stinct. The experiments intended were two, viz., stopping the
mitral valves by an interposed blunt hook introduced through
auricle, or by a screw-shaped wire similarly admitted; but owing
probably to profuse hemorrhage, the first sound was not suf-
VOL. Ix. 1840. o
194 REPORT—1840.
ficiently normal for that experiment, and the second experi-
ment was made, viz.—
S. 1. Glass tubes drawn out at one extremity were pushed,
with a rapid rotatory motion, into the auricle and ventricle of
left side, and the column of blood observed. That in the auricle
gave no satisfactory result, owing to sanguineous exhaustion
apparently, and the consequent insufficient distension in dia-
stole, and slight amount of contraction in systole in the auricle.
But this much was noted, viz., that a very short column that
filled the drawn out part, was not drawn in diastole, yet
neither was it very strikingly lengthened in systole. ‘The ven-
tricle gave better results, viz.,a column rose rapidly by suc-
cessive stages, rising some lines at each systole, and continuing
almost stationary at each succeeding diastole, and at length
overflowing the tube and pouring over in large drops at each
systole.
S. 2. The friction between the heart and pericardium in
systole and diastole of auricles and ventricles; the tension and
jerking motion upwards in systole; and softening andsubsidence
in diastole of the parietes of the ventricles ; the abrupt jerking
over the orifices in systole, followed by subsidence in diastole ;
the shortening of the diameters lengthwise, and transversely
in systole; the immediate succession as by a continued undu-
latory motion of the ventricular systole to that of the auricles;
the sensation of an undulation from fundus to apex on the ven-
tricles; the dimpling in systole of the left auricle (which only
was observed); and the equality, post mortem cordis, of the two
ventricles ;—all those former observations were repeated, and
former results confirmed.
OBSERVATION XVI.
S. 1. The second animal's heart when exposed was acting
with more regularity than the former, and the blunt hook and
screw were successively tried. In each case material modifi-
cations of the first sound were repeatedly produced by the in-
terposition of the instrument between the valves in left interior —
opening; but the modifications were not constant: and in no
case was there any attempt made to impede the right interior
valves. This much however was noted, that on several occa-
sions the interposition of the instrument was followed by mur- —
mur in the mitral opening with the systole, and by a more ob-
tuse character of the first sound, and particularly by a want of
sharpness of definition at its commencement. But it is to be
added, that considerable irregularity existed for the greater
part of the time in the sounds, viz., the first sound seemed
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 195
sometimes, and without apparent cause, more obtuse than
others, and more short and abrupt, and the second was often
wholly wanting or too indistinct for observation.
S. 2. Further, there was observed a feeble dull sound, very
short and rapid, synchronous with the left auricular systole,
and somewhat anterior to the ventricular hardening, and up-
rising, but scarcely separated by any distinct interval from the
ventricular sound, and rather continued into it in a manner re-
sembling the apparent passage of the auricular systole into
that of the ventricle.
S. 3. The glass tubes were in this experiment introduced as
before, with similar results. Nothing striking occurred in that
passed into the auricle, but a very short column being obtained,
and that nearly stationary, owing probably to the auricle having
been penetrated in several places by the hook and screw so as
to suffer escape more readily by the other orifices. But the
ventricle gave like results as in the former case, viz. a column
rising in systole, stationary in diastole, and at length reaching
the upper end so as to overflow. All the previously observed
phznomena of the motions of the auricles and ventricles, in
themselves and with respect to each other, and with respect to
the pericardium, were confirmed on this subject, so that the
description of those given under the head of the former expe-
riment of this day, themselves but repetitions of former obser-
vations, must be considered to apply to the normal condition
without any important restriction or qualification.
OssERVATION XVII.
July 26th.— Phenomena: Dog—Distension to hardness of
auricles during a torpid and as it were semi-paralytic state of
ventricles ;—results of a prick in left auricle ;—proofs of active
nature of auricular systole, and of negative character of ven-
tricular and auricular diastole ;—of venous regurgitation du-
ring auricular systole, and of equal size of both ventricles, &c.;
—confirmation of other former observations.
Subject, a Mastiff-terrier eighteen months old, poisoned
—with prussic acid.
S. 1. Heart acting regularly but rather feebly, though large
and muscular; much distended and on both sides equally.
Left ventricle and auricle both much dilated and the auricle
quite tense with blood, so that the appendix could not contract
for some time until a prick was made in it, when a jet was ob-
served coincident with the systole. Some observers thought
the jet synchronous with the systole of the ventricle ; but on
placing the fingers in contact with the sinus and fundus ven-
o 2
196 REPORT—1840.,
triculorum together, it was plain that the jet coincided with
the auricular systole, and preceded by a fraction ofa second the
ventricular systole. During the diastole of the auricles a slight
shortening of the column, as from diminished impetus from be-
low, occurred, and again, in auricular systole, a sudden length-
ening of the column, to be followed again by a shortening in
diastole.
During the systole of the ventricles immediately succeeding
that of the auricles, and without distinct interval, no increase
of the jet or column occurred, and during the diastole of the
ventricles no subsidence, but simply a shortening, as before
described, immediately after the auricular systole.
During great part of observation of the jet the left auricle
was tense and hard almost to the finger, and nearly immove-
able, and the ventricular action was dull and feeble, and the
ventricles themselves were not fully emptied in systole, the
heart appearing to have suffered considerable torpefaction
from the poison.
S. 2. A glass tube was introduced into the left auricle and
ventricle in succession, but a clot soon forming, owing to es-
cape of soda solution during the rotatory motion by which the
glass was first introduced, no very decided result was obtained.
S. 3. After the ventricles had become very feeble and even
the left auricle become comparatively inert, some energy of
contraction was observed in the right sinus, and with each con-
traction a wave of regurgitation down the vena cava inferior,
viz. a diastole of the vein immediately preceding the ventricu-
lar contraction and coinciding nearly with that of the auricle,
and followed by a systole coinciding with ventricular contrac-
tion and auricular diastole. The auricles at no time acted with
sufficient energy to promise any result from traction by a string,
or to yield distinct sound in systole, owing to an extreme dis-
tension of the cavities, attributable totorpor of the muscular sub-
stance and rapid and copious supply of blood from the veins.
S. 4. The ventricles after death seemed not to differ mate-
rially in size, having been cut out before complete death, and
allowed to contract.
S. 5. Several previous observations confirmed on this occa-
sion, viz. as to rhythm of motions and cavities ; viz. auricles and
ventricles respectively acted exactly together, and the former
immediately before the latter, and without distinct interval,
but as by continued undulatory motion; elevation of central
parts of ventricles in systole and subsidence in diastole ; fric-
tions of the pericardium double with each pair of cavities, viz.
both in systole and diastole.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 197
OssERVATION XVIII.
Phenomena: Tubes introduced into heart's cavities; results ;
—confirmations of former observations asto rhythm, pericardial
frictions, changes of shape in the heart, §c., §c.; compara-
tive sizes of ventricles.
July 50th.—Operated on a Dog between one and two years
old by prussic acid. Heart acting feebly, with the normal
rhythm however ; the cavities considerably dilated.
S. 1. Glass tubes containing strong solution of carbonate
of soda, secured during the introduction by corks temporarily
fixed in the wide end, were introduced by arapid rotatory mo-
tion into the right ventricle and auricle. Owing apparently to
awkwardness in the manipulation, the result was not through-
out uniform to the eye; but the general character of what was
observed was this: Columns of blood rose into the tubes in
every case, and were perceived to overflow in each case witha
slight jet in the systole of the cavity penetrated, and a slight
subsidence in the diastole. At one time, for a minute or two,
without interruption, the tubes were observed to overflow
steadily together, one being in left auricle and the other in right
ventricle, each having a slight jet, or upward undulation, in the
systole of the cavity containing it. This experiment was com-
paratively very striking, owing to the great difference in colour
of the two streams, viz. scarlet, and deep crimson or purple.
During the whole observation nothing occurred suggestive of
impulse, except of the impulse upwards of the systoles of cavi-
ties, and the slight gravitation or subsidence in diastole ; and
this latter, though often very distinct in each tube, was some-
times quite imperceptible in either. No motion downwards in
the tubes, such as suction would explain, was observed.
8. 2. After the observation the heart was cut out, and the
_ left ventricle appeared rather larger than the right.
_ 8. 3. The rhythm of the motions of the cavities; the auri-
cular and ventricular double frictions of the pericardium ; the
jerking upwards of the fundus and central parts of the ventricles
in systole ; the shortening in systole; the stationary state of the
heart amid all its changes of size and shape; the subsidence of
the central parts and fundus in diastole, &c., &c., were noted
to agree with former observations.
OxsservaTions XIX. and XX.
Aug. 5.—Operated by woorara on a Donkey two or three
years old. Operation tedious, owing to strength and resist-
ance of the animal. Also on a Dog.
198 REPORT— 1840.
Phenomena: Donkey—Negative character of diastole.
Dog—Apex cordis threaded and held tense in the direction
of the mesial plane of the subject. Results: change of shape
and size of the heart in systole and diastole, and visible mo-
tions ;—glass tube passes into cava inferior ; results ;—columne
carnee and parietes electrified ; results ;—cavities compared
post mortem and found equal.
8.1. Glass tubes introduced into the left ventricle at fundus,
and apex, and in each a column rose and at length overflowed,
having a slight subsidence at each diastole, and sudden eleva-
tion at each systole ; but no well-marked difference between the
times of rise and fall in the tubes was detected.
8. 2. The heart acted for some time with considerable energy,
notwithstanding great hemorrhage, but soon failed after being
perforated. The heart was then cut out while yet contracting
vermicularly, and electricity was applied so as to permeate the
columnz and parietes, but no satisfactory action was obtained.
The cavities of the heart had been for some time much dis-
tended, from loss of irritability before excision.
OBSERVATION XX.
A Terrier-dog, stout though small, was then stunned by a
blow on the head ; the chest was rapidly opened, and artificial
breathing established.
S.1. The apex cordis was then threaded, and at each sy-
stole a pull at the chord was observed, followed by relaxation,
and the tension and relaxation of the string alternated ; the
former coinciding with systole, and the latter with diastole.
(Note.—The string was drawn in the line of the longitudinal
axis of the heart.) Dr. Boyd at one time kept the string firmly
extended and permanently tense, by holding his hand as far
away as the string would allow, for a short space, and then
maintaining his position, but relaxing his hold so as to allow
the string liberty to slide between his fingers when drawn away;
and the result was, that before the experiment was suspended,
an inch or more of the string appeared to have passed between
his fingers, one eighth of an inch at least being pulled through
at each systole.
S. 2. After this observation had been made and repeated to
the satisfaction of all parties, the heart acted still with much
vigour, and both sounds were distinctly audible, notwithstand-
ing great loss of blood. Also the diminution of the horizontal
transverse and of the longitudinal diameter, and the increase
of the vertical transverse diameter, with sudden bulging up-
wards of the fundus and central parts, were very plain to the
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 199
eye in systole ;—while in diastole the subsidence of the central
parts, with sudden increase of the horizontal cross diameter and
of the long diameter, were equally striking. No tilting of the
apex as an independent part was noted, nor any other motion
than such as might be explained fully by the fixity of the
fundus through the vessels, and the sudden increase of the
cross vertical diameter in systole, causing an elevation of the
longitudinal or central axis, which was most sensible at the
apex or free extremity.
8.3. A glass tube was introduced into the cava with the
termination directed towards the diaphragm, when a column
of blood rose gradually without any jet until it reached the
upper end nearly, when it ceased to advance, but continued
stationary for some time, and at length receded slowly towards
the middle of the tube. No sudden motion either upwards
(as ex. gr. by auricular contraction) or downwards (as by dia-
stolic suction) was observed. A gradual partial subsidence in
the tube then followed, owing apparently to failure of impul-
sive force in the moving powers of the venous circulation.
S. 4. The heart was then cut out while yet contractile, and
irritated by electro-magnetism and by pricking with scalpel,
and to the satisfaction of every one present the columnz carnes
were observed to contract and relax coincidently with the
parietés.
8.5. The ventricles were equal in capacity to the eye and
hand post mortem cordis.
OssERVATIONS XXIJ. and XXII.
August 8.—T wo Dogs operated on; one a stout terrier, the
other a mongrel bitch, both eighteen months to two years old.
Phenomena : Second dog—Glass tube introduced into cava ;
results variable, with probabie causations of fluctuation ;—au-
ricles cease action first ;—columne carnee irritated alternately
with neighbouring paris of parietes, and results ;—confirmation
_ of former observations respecting the mechanism of heart's
action and the equality of the cavities during life.
In the former animal the operation failed, owing to not hay-
_ ing established artificial breathing in time.
In the dog the following results were obtained. Having
been prepared by stunning and tracheotomy, with a view to
artificial respiration, the heart was exposed, and found beating
with energy, exhibiting the usual motions and sounds.
8. 1. A curved glass tube was introduced into the cava in-
ferior, and immediately a column of blood was observed, which,
after ascending some way steadily, and during several beats of the
200 REPORT—1840.
heart, again descended also steadily and during several beats.
After a few moments, the tube being held upright with care,
and the lower opening of the tube being toward the abdomen,
and pressure being made on the tube through the parietes of
the veins, a column of blood ascended slowly and steadily to
the top of the tube and poured over at the top. Again, press-
ure being withdrawn from the cava, fluctuation occurred, viz.
irregular ascents and descents of the column, gradual and slow,
and extending each of them over several beats of the heart,
there being perhaps as many as half a dozen of each to each
minute of the time they lasted. At no time was there any sud-
den elevation or subsidence of the column, such as the auricular
systole or ventricular diastole might be supposed to produce,
supposing the latter to include suction towards the ventricles.
The variations of level observed in the tube could be referred
with any probability to nothing obvious, except the convulsive
agitation of the right thorax, which was intact, and which
heaved and collapsed violently for a short time, owing to a
partial recovery of the animal from the stunning blow during
the operation, in consequence of hemorrhage and artificially
sustained breathing. ‘The tube was then introduced into the
cava superior, and a column was observed in the whole length
of the narrow part of the tube, and nearly an inch in height,
and this column suffered no alteration either in systole or dia-
stole. The shortness of the column in this case was owing ob-
viously to exhaustion of the vascular system, or insufficiency
of blood and of vascular tension. ‘There was not any respira-
tory effort during this last observation.
S. 2. During this last observation (on the cava superior) the
unusual appearance was observed of complete quiescence nearly
of the auricles, whilst the ventricles continued to act with con-
siderable energy. The early death of the right auricle might
be referred to withdrawal of supplies from the cava inferior
especially; but that of the left auricle is not easily accounted
for, since insufflation was duly persevered in.
S. 3. The heart was cut out while yet contractile, and the
columnz carnez of the right ventricle were observed to act
accurately with the parietes, whether the stimulus were applied
to the former or latter only. The columne of the left ventricle
were become insensible to stimuli, and the parietes nearly so
before the left was laid open for observation.
S. 4. The elevation of the central cardiac axis, and espe-
cially of its free extremity, viz. the apex cordis, was very con-
spicuous in systole, and the opposite motions in diastole. Also
the flattening and lengthening of the ventricles in diastole, and
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 201
rounding and shortening in systole. And after opening the ven-
tricles the left seemed the larger of the two.
The wave-like motion, or sensation as of an undulation from
fundus to apex in systole, was very distinct.
OxgsERVATION XXIII.
August 24.—A Dog (bull-dog terrier), one to two years old,
stunned, and chest artificially inflated.
Phenomena: Results of threading different parts of the ven-
tricles, and at the same moment pressing the threaded parts
with the finger, and pulling at them by means of the thread,
showing the mechanism of the heart’s throb ;—rhythm of cardiac
and aortic pulsations ;—results of introducing a tube into the
cava ;—respiratory suction ;—venous regurgitation in systole ;
—phenomena of the heart’s action out of the body both as to
motions and sounds.
S. 1. The heart was laid bare and a thread was passed
through the apex cordis, and a second through the parietes
nearly over the mitral orifice, and traction was exerted on each
string in a direction outwards, and away from or vertical to the
point of insertion, and the result was that in each systole each
string was felt to be pulled and rendered tense, and to become
lax in diastole. At the moment of tension in each chord the
_ finger was placed on the point at which each respectively had
been introduced, and the result was a double sensation, viz.
1. That of traction in the chord, indicating contraction of the
heart. and mutual approximations of its extremities, and,
2. that of outward impulse in the point of the parietes under
the finger (indicating, as the Reporter conceived, the undulation
of the blood reacting against the compressing parietes of the
_ ventricles).
' 8.2. The attachments of the vessels or muscular parts in-
serted into the roots of the arteries, especially the pulmonary
artery, were observed very distinctly to approximate slightly
towards the apex in each systole, and to recede from the apex
in diastole.
_ §.3. A barely perceptible difference in time was detected
between the systole of the left ventricle and diastole of the
aorta—no distinct interval however.
8.4. A glass tube was introduced into the lower cava, and
a column of blood obtained, which oscillated frequently, but
not in accordance with the heart’s motions. These oscillations
were attributable (the Reporter conceived) to irregular, spas-
modic, respiratory efforts, occurring in the right side of the
chest, which was still air-tight, the mediastinum being still
202 REPORT—1840.°
intact. The oscillations were sometimes short, and rapidly
succeeded to each other with a rhythm not differing greatly
from that of the heart, but at other times were protracted
through several beats of the heart, viz. an ascent continued
for several seconds successively, followed by a descent in the
tube of similar duration.
S.5. The pulsation of the veins was very distinct to the
eye in systole, in both the pulmonary veins and cava; but
whether owing to the auricular systole exclusively, was not
examined into with sufficient care. This much was ascertained,
that the visible venous action was a diastole coinciding with
the commencement of the general action of the heart, and fol-
lowed immediately by a systole. Neither diastole nor systole
of vein seemed gradual, but abrupt and almost instantaneous.
S. 6. A heavy curved knife was placed on the left ventricle
and held erect between the fingers, so as to allow motion up-
wards or downwards, and the result was as in former experi-
ments, an elevation by sudden heave upwards of the knife in
systole, followed by a subsidence in diastole with depression
of the surface.
S. 7. The heart was cut out while still beating, and con-
tinued to beat in the hand regularly, with normal rhythm, for
a minute or two, and notwithstanding being shifted from hand
to hand amongst three observers. ‘The first sound was very
distinct during the whole of the time, but less sharply defined
at the commencement. It wanted likewise the jerking motion
over the auri-ventricular openings, and the strong eccentric
impulse or upward heaving in systole, and strongly-marked
subsidence of the ventricle in diastole. The concentric
motions and general rounding and shortening in diastole were
very distinct. There was no second or diastolic sound. When
cut open, the columnz carnez were seen to act along with the
parietes.
OBSERVATION XXIV.
August 26 and 28.—Repeated the experiment on the con-
traction of the abdominal muscles, as productive of a sound
resembling the systolic sound of the heart, in the presence of
Dr. Edwin Harrison, Dr. Hamilton Roe, Mr. Phillips, F.R.S.,
Mr. Gulliver, F.R.S., and Dr. Robert Boyd.
The instrument employed was the flexible ear-tube or ste-
thoscope, with which only the experiment is satisfactorily
practicable, on account of the strong impulse attending the
contraction, and the difficulty of distinguishing the acoustic
from the tactual sensations it occasions.
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 203
The end of the instrument was placed in mediate contact
with the abdominal parietes, and held firmly down upon the
surface, with the intervention of a shirt and thick flannel
under-vest; a strong and sudden expiratory effort was then
made (in the manner described in the First Report of the
London Committee) with the mouth and nostrils closed, so
that a strong vibratory action, ending in firm tension of parietal
muscles, was sensible to the subject of observation (the Re-
porter), and likewise to the observers, and with this result,
that a single loud, obtuse, abrupt, short sound was heard, and
thought by every gentleman to resemble, more or less, the
systolic sound of the heart.
S. 2. The same experiment was repeated, with the addition
of several folds of a silk handkerchief to the intervening sub-
stances; and again, with a double fold of cloth and silk like-
wise, in addition to the under-clothing above named, but
without any important difference of result.
S. 5. Hard substances also were interposed above the
under-clothing, viz. a common framed school slate, and small
bound books of different sizes; but no important difference
was observed, except with the slate, through which the sound
was considered to be decidedly less distinct than in any other
form in which the experiment had been tried. In all these
trials pains were taken to keep the cup of the stethoscope in
accurate contact all round, through the substances interposed
with the abdomen; and that was easily effected by the use on
the part of the Reporter, who was the subject of experiment,
of both hands at once in maintaining equable pressure.
It is proper to mention, that several observers agreed in
stating that similar sounds occurring to show in the cardiac
i _ region, would be referred by them to the systole of the heart
without any hesitation.
_ Conctusions rrom BoTH SERIES For 1838-39 anv 1839-40.
|
Motions.
| : Ist. That the order of the motions of the auricles and
| ventricles is by continuous succession rather than by alter-
nation of actions. The auricles contract abruptly after the
Rest or pause, and the ventricles immediately after the auricles,
without any distinct interval between the successive systoles.
And the diastoles of the cavities follow in somewhat similar
204 REPORT—1840.
order, viz. the auricular diastole coinciding with the ventri-
cular systole, and continuing after it; the true Rest or pause
being constituted by the diastole of the auricles and ventricles
together, and in reality ceasing on the recurrence of the auri-
cular systole. This rhythm of the motions seems to be uni-
versal and common to cold- and warm-blooded animals. The
only exception known to the Reporter from books or observa-
tion, seems apparent rather than real, viz. an alternation of
action, such as noted by Lancisi, for example, in the chick in
ovo, and by several observers in cases of very rapid cardiac
action. In such cases the diastoles have been so hurried and
short, (owing no doubt to very rapid and copious influx from
the veins,) that the systoles have been approximated to each
other, and the intervening Rests have been apparently sup-
pressed, and an apparent true alternation of systoles and dia-
stoles without intervening Rest has been produced.
2nd. That the visible systolic and diastolic motions are first
perceived at the bases or fixed parts of the cavities, viz. in
the auricles at the sinuses, and in the ventricles at the fundus
cordis; and that the apices of the auricles and ventricles (or
free parts) are brought into full action after the other parts,
and only just before the supervention of the opposite and next
succeeding condition of the cavities, whether that condition be
systole or diastole.
3rd. That in systole the heart is diminished in all directions
(except only in such regions, or parts of the organ, as may
have been previously collapsed or compressed during the un-
resisting flaccidity of the diastole), and that its long axis in
particular is strikingly and invariably shortened.
4th. That the normal systole of the auricles is energetic
and almost instantaneous, and quite universal, the manifesta-
tions of contraction in the appendix succeeding to those of
contraction in the sinus, by a very minute interval; and that
the auricular diastole is gradual, continuous, and wholly pas-
sive, and is effected by an influx of blood from the cava pro-
gressively distending the cavity from sinus to apex, and from
the termination of one systole of the cavity to the commence-
ment of the succeeding one.
5th. That the systole of the ventricles is gradual in its
development, and complex in its phenomena; that those phe-
nomena are partly attributable to contraction in the muscular
parietes, and partly to resistance on the part of the fluids.
By the muscular contraction the heart is made to compress
the blood, which resists in all directions alike, and thrusts out
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 205
the depressed or collapsed parts of the ventricles, and favours
the systolic shortening of the organ, and the closure of the
auri-ventricular valves; and this reaction of the fluids mainly
contributes, under various circumstances, to cause the motion
that has been described as tilting of the apex; this tilting
being principally, if not exclusively, a result of the elevation
of the long axis of the heart in systole, owing to the assumption
of a convex or globular form in the body of the organ, instead
of its superiorly and inferiorly compressed state in the previous
diastole.
And the ventricular diastole or dilatation is wholly passive,
exerting no influence over the venous current or arterial valves,
and is effected by a rapid influx of blood from the veins, com-
mencing at the moment of relaxation of the ventricles, and
continuing until their succeeding systole, and reinforced imme-
diately before the latter action by an abrupt discharge from
the auricles.
6th. That the pulsations of the veins are of two kinds, at
least in some animals, viz. both active and passive; and the
latter or passive pulsations (which, on the authority of Haller
especially, may be held to exist in all animals), are attributable
to reflux from the auricles in their systole.
7th. The precordial throb or pulsation is caused, imme-
diately, by the undulation of the blood in its resistance to
sudden muscular compression in the systole of the ventricles.
This reaction of the fluids is first perceived about the fundus
of the ventricles, and last about the apex, towards which it
seems to be propagated by a continuous undulation from the
fundus with extreme rapidity. In consequence of this re-
action of the blood, the heart’s sides are rendered convex,
instead of compressed or flattened as in diastole, and are, in
the middle parts more especially, heaved outwards from the
central axis abruptly and with great force. Thus on all parts
of the surface of the organ an impulse is felt in systole, which
is greatest there, where, in addition to passive flaccidity of
walls, there has been collapse in the diastole (viz. the central
parts), and which is least where such collapse has previously
been wanting or slight (viz. the apex). This cardiac impulse
is usually perceived, in the healthy subject, over the apex
only, owing to its being absorbed and neutralized over other
parts of the heart by an interposed thick mass of spongy
lung. The heart does not oscillate on the aorta, or move to
and fro in the chest from systole to diastole, and vice versd ;
nor does it suffer any changes in consequence of its own
efforts, and exclusively of movements of the lungs and dia-
206 REPORT—1840.
phragm, excepting in its shape and size, and in the thickness
and tension of its parietes, and the capacities of its cavities.
The doctrine, that the precordial pulsation is caused by a blow
received by the ribs, in consequence of the heart’s “jumping”
(ada, Hippocrates) or “striking” against them (‘ pectus ferit,”
Harvey; ‘‘ costam ictu percutit,” Haller, &c. &c.), appears to
be superfluous, with a view to explanation of phenomena
(notwithstanding the ingenious illustrations of the ancient opi-
nion by Senac and Hunter), and to be substantially unfounded
in point of fact.
8th. That the arterial diastole or pulse, almost everywhere
outside of the pericardium, perceptibly succeeds to the cardiac
systole ; though near the heart, the interval between them is
very brief, and to unpractised observers difficult to distin-
guish.
Sounds.
9th. That the first sound of the heart depends partly, but
in a slight degree, on the abrupt closure and transitory ten-
sion of the auri-ventricular valves, which give to this sound its
sharp, well-defined beginning; but that the first sound is
mainly attributable to cardiac muscular tension alone, and that
its prolonged duration is probably owing to the progressive
character of the normal systolic effort from fundus to apex;
and that this sound is probably, in no degree or condition,
attributable to any blow or stroke of the heart against the
ribs.
10th. That the auricular systole is attended by an intrinsic
sound resembling that of the ventricles, but more short, ob-
tuse, and feeble. ‘This auricular systolic sound is often diffi-
cult of detection, even on the naked heart, and with tolerably
vigorous action of the auricles, owing to its being, to the inex-
perienced ear, absorbed in, or masked by, the immediately-
succeeding and vastly louder systolic ventricular sound.
11th. That the sounds of friction in pericarditis may, where
well marked and under ordinary circumstances, be expected
to be double at least, and they may be, not improbably, triple
or more. In its systole, each cavity of the heart moves so as
to cause a friction, in one direction, of its attached lamina
against the adjacent free lamina of the pericardium; and in
its diastole, a pericardial friction is caused by each cavity in
an opposite direction; and as the auricles move to and fro in-
dependently of the ventricles, the normal pericardial frictions
must be quadruple, or double with the auricles and double
with the ventricles. If, therefore, those frictions were ren-
ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 207
dered sonorous by the interposition of any rough substance
between the rubbing surfaces, (as lymph, for example,) and
supposing the heart's actions sufficiently vigorous, under ordi-
nary circumstances, we might anticipate with confidence a
duplication of murmurs at least—one systolic and one dia-
stolic ; and this must be the principal element in the acoustic
diagnosis of pericarditis, since effused lymph may be of any
thickness, consistence, extent, &c., and be situate on any por-
tion of the heart’s surface between its nearest part and its
furthest; and may therefore cause friction-sounds of the most
variable seat, depth, and character. But, of course, another
physical means of distinction of great importance remains,
viz. the comparatively equable diffusion of the sounds of peri-
cardial friction all around the place of attrition, rather than
in any one exclusive direction.
12th. The sounds of the structurally-healthy heart are much
liable to modification, by deviations from the normal standard
in the state of the fluids and in the order and force and equa-
bility of action of the carnez columne, and other contractile
parts governing or influencing the action of the valves, and the
closure and opening again of the orifices of the ventricles;
and this dependence of the heart’s sounds on conditions dy-
namic or material, wholly excluding structural defect, is so
considerable, that the second sound may for a time be very
variously modified or masked by strange murmurs, or even
apparently suppressed in consequence of changes in the solids,
of a purely dynamic character, and caused by humoral defect,
in consequence of hemorrhage or from the introduction of
poison into the veins. And the first cardiac sound, though
never wholly wanting during the active existence of the heart,
may still, under similar circumstances to those referred to,
present various abnormal features; may, ea. gr., be as short as
the second sound, or be attended or followed by anomalous
murmurs, or be otherwise strikingly modified.
15th. Other conclusions, more or less satisfactorily de-
ducible, as the Reporter conceives, from the facts stated, are,—
That the peculiar sounds occurring in pericarditis, and attri-
buted to pericardial frictions, are not referable only to vas-
cular turgescence or dryness, &c. of the pericardium, but to
lymph effused by, and adhering to, that membrane, or other
equivalent obstacle to the easy and noiseless gliding over each
other of the adjacent parts of the pericardium.
14th. That the ventricles are of equal capacity during life,
and that the inequality usually met with after death is an illu-
sion, as explained long since by Hervey.
208 REPORT—1840.
15th. That the suction-influence upon the venous circula-
tion, attribuied to inspiration by various writers, is well
founded.
16th. That the action of the long muscles, and more espe-
cially those of the abdominal parietes, is attended with an in-
trinsic sound. The notice of this fact by the Reporter has
been rendered necessary in consequence of some attempts at
verification, and some criticisms on an Experiment of the
London Committee for 1837-38, published in the last edition
of Dr. Hope’s very valuable work on the Heart.
17th. That the sounds of the heart, like the motions, are
governed by the same law in all warm-blooded animals hitherto
examined, and probably in all kinds whatsoever in which car-
diac sound occurs, viz. that the first sound in all animals is
relatively longer and obtuser, and the second shorter and
sharper ;—that those sounds are, as in the human heart,
respectively systolic and diastolic; that their causation like-
wise follows the same law as those of man, the first sound
being mainly muscular, and the second probably exclusively
valvular ;—likewise, that there is the same causation and mutual
relation of the cardiac and arterial pulsations.
JouHn CLENDINNING, M.D. Oxon. and Edinb.,
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Vice-Pre-
sident of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society,
and Physician to the St. Marylebone Infirmary.
> = =.
h
,
209
An Account of Researches in Electro- Chemistry. By Pro-
fessor SCHOENBEIN, of Basle.
Tue British Association for the Advancement of Science, at
their last meeting in Birmingham, honoured me with the charge
to undertake a series of experiments, with the view of extend-
ing the limits of our knowledge on the connexion which is sup-~
posed to exist between electrical and chemical phzenomena.
The memoir which I now take the liberty to lay before the
Association contains an account of the results of my late inves-
tigations, many of which may perhaps appear as not immedi-
ately bearing upon the subject in question; but I think them,
nevertheless, closely connected with it. I must, however, not
omit to say, that my task is still very far from being accom-
plished.
It is familiarly known, that a peculiar odour, resembling that
of phosphcrus, is developed whenever common electricity
passes from metallic or any other conducting points into at-
mospheric air; but I am not aware of having seen it anywhere
_ Stated, that a similar odour is disengaged during the électro-
lysis of water, though there can be no doubt that, besides my-
self, more than one philosopher has observed that phenomenon.
The complete ignorance in which we still remain of the true
cause of the electrical smell, and of the appearance of the latter
under circumstances apparently so different from each other,
cannot fail to excite scientific curiosity to a high degree, and
stimulate philosophers to employ all their experimental means
and mental powers to clear up the mysterious phenomenon.
My own endeavours to solve the problem have been manifold,
and for a long time were fruitless ; at last, however, I sue-
ceeded in ascertaining some facts which promise to throw light
upon the subject in question. Respecting the disengagement of
the electrical odour during the electrolysation of water, as well
as during the passage of common electricity from points into
atmospheric air, my researches have led ‘to the following
results :—
1. The peculiar smell makes its appearance as soon as the
electrolysation of water begins, and continues to be perceived
for some time after water has ceased to be decomposed.
2. The phosphorus smell is produced at the positive elec-
trode only, and under no circumstances whatsoever at the
1840. P
210 REPORT—1840.
negative one; for when the gases resulting from the electro-
lysis of water are received in separate vessels, the smell is
perceived only in that which contains oxygen.
3. The odoriferous principle can be preserved in well-closed
vessels for a great length of time, whether mixed with oxygen
or with detonating gas.
4. The disengagement of the smelling substance depends—
(a) Upon the nature of the positive electrode.
(b) Upon the chemical constitution of the electrolytic fluid,
and
(c) Upon the temperature of that fluid.
With regard to the circumstance mentioned under (a), my
experiments have shown that it is only well-cleaned gold and
platina which are capable of disengaging the odoriferous prin-
ciple. The more readily oxidable metals, as well as charcoal,
do not possess that property at all.
It is worthy of remark that iron, though acting (agreeably
to my former experiments) like gold and platina when perform-
ing the function of the positive electrode, does not permit the
disengagement of the odour.
As to the condition mentioned under (4), I have ascertained
that the odoriferous principle is obtained from distilled or com-
mon water when mixed with chemically pure, or with common
sulphuric acid, with phosphoric acid, nitric acid, potash, and a
series of oxi-salts. I could not get a trace of it from aqueous
solutions of chlorides, bromides, iodides, fluorides, hydro-
chloric acid, hydro-bromic acid, hydriodic acid, hydro-fluoric
acid, sulphate of protoxide of iron. If to the fluids (above
mentioned), which permit the disengagement of the peculiar
smell, small quantities of nitrous acid, iron vitriol, proto-
chloride of iron or of tin are added, not the least portion of the
odoriferous principle will be given out, however actively water
may be electrolysed. With regard to the aqueous solution of
potash, I have observed the curious fact, that the smell is some-
times disengaged from it and sometimes not, the latter case
occurring much more frequently than the former. I do not
know yet the cause of that anomaly.
Concerning the influence which temperature exerts upon the
development of the peculiar smell, I have found that a fluid
from which the odoriferous principle is abundantly disengaged
at a comparatively low temperature, does not yield a trace of it
when heated near its boiling point. I must not omit to state,
that dilute sulphuric acid is the fluid best fitted for producing
the smelling substance, and making the experiments which this
memoir refers to. It sometimes happens, however, that even
RESEARCHES IN ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 211
in making use of that fluid, the disengagement of the cdorifer-
ous principle is either suddenly stopped or does not take place
at all. In such cases, the surface of the positive gold or platina-
electrode is not pure, ?. e. it is covered with some foreign sub-
stance; and to cause the reappearance of the peculiar smell, it
is necessary to clean that electrode, which, by my experience, is
best done by washing it first with pure muriatic acid, and after-
wards with distilled water.
5. If some pinches of powdered charcoal, iron-, tin-, zinc-, or
lead-filings, or of powdered antimony, bismuth, and arsenic, or
some drops of mercury are thrown into a bottle containing the
odoriferous principle (mixed with oxygen), the peculiar smell
disappears almost instantaneously. Iron and charcoal seem,
however, to act more rapidly than the other substances men-
tioned do; gold and platina, when strongly heated, also destroy
the smell. Small quantities of nitrous acid and aqueous solu-
tions of proto-chloride of iron, sulphate of protoxide of iron,
and proto-chloride of tin, being put into a vessel containing
our peculiar principle, do likewise instantaneously annihilate
the phosphorus smell.
6. A gold, or platina plate, after having been kept only for a
few moments within a vessel containing the odoriferous prin-
ciple (mixed with oxygen), appears to be negatively polarized.
To excite that polar state in the metals mentioned, it is a con-
dition, sine gua non,
(a) That the surface of the plate of either metal be abso-
lutely clean and entirely free from moisture.
(b) That the temperature of the metal be comparatively low.
Heated gold or platina do not assume the negative polar con-
dition. The current produced by such a polarized metal is of
so short a duration, that it may be considered as instantaneous.
Among the metals more readily oxidable than gold and platina,
it is only silver and copper that are rendered negative by being
put into an atmosphere of the odoriferous principle; but the
degree of polarity acquired by these metals is exceedingly
slight.
7. Gold and platina having been polarized in the manner in-
dicated, maintain their peculiar condition for some length of
time when placed in common air. I have found plates which
had been exposed to the atmosphere, at least for a couple of
hours, still perceptibly negative.
8. A polarized stripe of gold or platina loses, almost instan-
taneously, its negative condition, when plunged into an atmo-
Sphere of hydrogen. If the metal is kept in hydrogen longer
than just required for destroying its negative polarity, it as-
P2
22 REPORT—1840.
sumes, according to my former experiments, a positive con-
dition. It will hardly be necessary to mention, that heat also
destroys the polarity in question.
9. Oxygen obtained by the electrolysis of water, and deprived
of its peculiar smell by the means indicated under § 5, has alto-
gether lost its power of rendering gold and platina negative, and
is, in a voltaic point of view, as inactive as oxygen prepared in
the usual way.
Phenomena of Polarization caused hy common Electricity.
10. A gold or platina plate, having a perfectly clean and dry
surface, assumes negative polarity when exposed to the action
of a positive electrical brush issuing from a metallic or any
other conducting point. The longer the brush is playing upon
the surface of the metal, the higher will be the degree of polarity
acquired by the gold or platina. A small platina stripe, after
having been exposed to the action of a brush produced by
thirty turns of my electrical machine, deviated the needle of a
delicate galvanometer by 60°; sixty turns, under the same cir-
cumstances, caused a deviation of 90°. It seems that the
nature of the metal which performs the function of a point of
emission also exerts some influence upon the degree of polarity
acquired by gold and platina. Ceteris paribus, a point of
emission consisting of gold caused a deviation of 170°, a point
of brass only one of 60°. As to the metals (more readily oxid-
able than gold or platina), I have only succeeded with silver
and copper in polarizing them negatively by common elec-
tricity. The degree of polarity acquired by the last-mentioned
metals is, however, also exceedingly slight.
11. The negative electrical brush produces exactly the same
voltaic effects as the positive one does.
12. A platina plate, polarized either by the positive brush or
by the negative one, loses its electro-motive power when
plunged only for a few moments into an atmosphere of hydro-
gen. All the remarks made under § 8 also apply to the case
in question.
13. If gold or platina plates are connected with the prime
conductor of an electrical machine, 7. e. made points of emis-
sion, they will not assume any polar condition, however long
and lively a brush may have been issuing from them.
14. Heated or moistened gold, or platina plates, cannot be
polarized by the electrical brush.
15. If the points of emission are heated or moistened, the
electrical brush issuing from them has no longer any polarizing
power. It was impossible to excite in gold or platina even the
RESEARCHES IN ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. > 41153
slightest degree of negative polarity by holding these metals
ever so long against a brush issuing from heated or wetted
points.
16. The electrical brush proceeding from heated or moistened
points does not produce the well-known phosphorus smell.
The easiest way of depriving the brush of its smell is to cover
the point of emission with a piece of moistened linen.
Now in what manner are we to account for the facts above
stated, and what are the inferences to be drawn from them ?
As to the smell being developed at the positive electrode
during the electrolysation of water, we can hardly help drawing,
from the experiments mentioned in the first section, any other
conclusion than that it is due to some gaseous substance dis-
engaged (conjointly with oxygen) from the electrolytic fluid by
the decomposing power of the current. But what is the nature
of that substance? Is it elementary or compound? With
regard to its voltaic bearings, it exhibits the strongest analogy
to chlorine and bromine; of which bodies I proved, some time
ago, that they possess, toa high degree, the power of negatively
polarizing gold and platina. I have also formerly shown, that
these metals lose again their negative polarity acquired under
the influence of chlorine and bromine, when plunged into an
atmosphere of hydrogen; there is, consequently, not the least
doubt that, as to its electromotive power, the odoriferous prin-
ciple bears the closest resemblance to chlorine and bromine.
Now, does not this great analogy between the voltaic properties
of chlorine, bromine, and our smelling principle, speak in favour
of the supposition, that these three substances belong to the
same class of bodies, 7. e. to those which Berzelius called
‘halogenia’? If we take into further consideration the facts,
(a) that most metals destroy the peculiar smell, that is, com-
bine with the odoriferous principle in a direct manner, and even
at a low temperature; (4) that the said principle is not dis-
engaged at the positive electrode, unless the latter be composed
of gold or platina; that is to say, of an eminently electro-
negative metal ; (c) that the odoriferous body is not eliminated
by the current, if the electrolytic fluid happens to contain a
substance having a strong affinity for oxygen, for instance, sul-
phate of protoxide of iron; and (d) that our peculiar principle
is always set free at the positive electrode, and never at the
negative one; I say, if we duly consider all these facts, we can
hardly help drawing from them the conclusion, that the odori-
ferous substance is a body very like chlorine or bromine. The
odoriferous principle, however, may perhaps be nothing but a
secondary result of the electrolytic action. Such is no doubt
214 REPORT—1840.
possible, and indeed it was the first view I took of the case.
The following reasons, however, seem to speak against the cor-
rectness of such a supposition. As chemically pure water (or
what we take as such), mixed with sulphuric, nitric, and phos-
phoric acids, with potash and many oxi-salts, yields the odori-
ferous principle, we must conclude that the latter proceeds
from water, and not from the other substances. Now what
secondary product does water allow to be formed at the positive
electrode? The oxygen being eliminated at the latter, might
certainly combine with some water, and produce peroxide of
hydrogen. But this compound is not gaseous at the common
temperature, and its vapour is wholly inodorous. I have be-
sides observed, that platina enveloped with a film of peroxide
of hydrogen, is positive to common platina. From these facts
it follows, that the odoriferous principle cannot be peroxide of
hydrogen. Or does another perhaps exist, consisting of hydro-
gen and oxygen, and containing more of the latter element
than the peroxide does? Are perhaps even chlorine and bro-
mine compounds of a similar description? The peroxides of
manganese, lead, and silver, exhibit the same voltaic properties
as chlorine and bromine, both groups of bodies being emi-
nently electro-negative. Such a strong analogy, does it not
indicate a similarity as to their chemical constitution? I do
not venture to answer any of these questions. ‘The present
state of chemical science does not yet warrant us to speak of
chlorine and bromine as of compounds, and I shall therefore
consider the odoriferous principle as an elementary body, and
call it “‘ Ozone,”’ on account of its strong smell.
Now if we take it for granted that ozone is an elementary
substance, and knowing that it originates in water, we must
conclude that this fluid is made up of two electrolytes, one
consisting of hydrogen and oxygen, the other of ozone and
some electro-positive body. When a current is made to pass
through such a fluid, both electrolytic compounds are decom-
posed, their anions, oxygen and ozone, being evolved at the
positive electrode, their cations at the negative,one. As to
these cations, we know well enough that one of them is hydro-
gen. But is ozone also, like oxygen, united with hydrogen?
All the experiments I have hitherto made with the view of dis-
covering in the gas evolved at the negative electrode something
besides hydrogen, have led to negative results, a circumstance
which seems to prove that ozone, as met with in water, is com-
bined with hydrogen.
I do not, however, yet consider this point as definitively
settled. That (what we call) pure hydrogen is capable of ren-
RESEARCHES IN ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 215
dering gold and platina electro-positive, seems to me so extra-
ordinary and so important a fact with regard to the chemical
theory of galvanism, that I cannot but recommend it to the
full attention of philosophers. Why indeed should a piece of
platina, being surrounded with a film of hydrogen, and vol-
taically associated with common platina, produce a current
when plunged into pure water? Which is the chemical action
that possibly can take place under such circumstances? Ac-
cording to the present state of our chemical knowledge, it is
very difficult, if not impossible, to give a satisfactory answer
to that question. Has perhaps all the hydrogen hitherto pre-
pared not been chemically pure, and does it always contain a
principle still more electro-positive than hydrogen itself, that
is, having a greater affinity for oxygen than hydrogen has?
Careful experiments alone can decide these important points.
The fact above stated, that ozone is not developed at the
positive electrode, unless the latter be either of gold or of pla-
tina, is, in my opinion, very easily accounted for. These
metals having, at the common temperature, very little affinity
for ozone, do not combine with it, any more than they do with
oxygen in the same circumstances, whilst the other metallic
bodies readily unite with the odoriferous principle*.
At a high temperature, gold and platina appear to be capable
of combining with ozonef ; and this property seems to account
for the fact, that from heated dilute sulphuric acid, for instance,
the smelling substance cannot be disengaged. It is, however,
possible that ozone, in the moment of its being eliminated by
the current, reacts upon the heated water, combining with the
hydrogen of the latter.
The fact that no ozone is set free if the electrolytic fluid
happens to be mixed with some readily oxidable substance,
with iron-vitriol, for instance, seems to depend upon a decom-
position of water, the oxygen of the latter uniting with the
protoxide of iron, and its hydrogen with ozone. The non-
appearance of the latter is indeed very easily understood, if we
suppose its action to be entirely analogous to that of chlorine
and bromine.
Before proceeding to the discussion of other facts, I must
say a few words on the polarizing influence exerted by ozone
upon gold and platina. In former papers I have endeavoured
to prove, experimentally, that certain voltaic conditions which
some metals (placed under given circumstances) seem to assume,
are not to be considered as real modifications of those metals
themselves (a view still maintained by some philosophers), but
* See § 5. t Ibid.
216 _ REPORT—1840.
as changes proceeding only from certain substanees being in
some way or other deposited upon those metallic bodies. If,
for instance, platina becomes positively polarized in an at-
mosphere of hydrogen, and negatively in one of chlorine or
bromine, that metal itself does not undergo the least change
with regard to its natural voltaic properties; and it is only the
film of hydrogen or chlorine that surrounds the metal, which is
to be considered as the seat of the electromotive power, or as
the cause of the polarity. Exactly the same remarks apply to
the negative polarity which gold and platina seem to assume
when put into an atmosphere of ozone. By a sort of capillary
action that substance adheres to the metal, and the latter being
voltaically associated with another piece of the same metal (in
its natural state) and plunged into water, the latter will be acted
upon by ozone just in the same manner as under similar cir-
cumstances it would be by chlorine or bromine. The film of
ozone covering the platina will unite with the hydrogen of
water, and produce by that action a current. This current will
last until all the ozone adhering to the platina stripe unites with
hydrogen, but the quantity of that principle being exceedingly
small, the duration of the current cannot be long.
Having fully developed my views on the chlorine and bro-
mine circuits in the Philosophical Magazine (August, 1839),
and everything said there applying to an ozone arrangement, I
have no occasion to enter into further details respecting this
branch of the subject.
As to the depolarizing action which an atmosphere of hy-
drogen exerts upon gold and platina when negatively polarized
by ozone, it perhaps may depend upon the combination of the
latter with hydrogen. In order to account for the disappear-
ance of the polar state, it is, however, not necessary to pre-
sume the taking place of such an action. As platina becomes
positively polarized by hydrogen, and negatively by ozone, it is
obvious that the opposite voltaic actions of these two elements
must, under certain circumstances, exactly balance each other.
It is manifest that the facts considered throw a new light
upon what is usually termed negative voltaic polarization. The
results which I obtained some time ago on that subject are
pretty generally known. They seemed to prove that the nega-
tive polar state assumed by the positive electrode in water
(holding oxi-acids dissolved) is due to a film either of oxygen
or of peroxide of hydrogen. ‘To the same cause I was inclined
to ascribe the negative polarity excited in that portion of aci-
dulated water which is near to, or in contact with, a positive
electrode. From the facts above stated, it now appears that, in
RESEARCHES IN ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 217
both cases, the negative polarity results from the presence of
ozone. Indeed water charged with that principle is negative to
pure water, whilst the same fluid holding oxygen dissolved is,
in a voltaic point of view, inactive to pure water. Water
mixed with some peroxide of hydrogen bears to common water
the same voltaic relation as zinc does to copper. Without
having recourse to actual electrolysation, we may indeed pro-
duce, by means of insulated ozone, all the phenomena of nega-
tive voltaic polarization, a fact which seems to prove the
correctness of the explanation offered of the phenomena in
question.
I also suspect that the peculiar condition of iron, or its in-
active state, has something to do with ozone ; but for the pre-
sent I cannot enter into that subject.
It is now time to speak of the phenomena of polarization
produced by the agency of the electrical brush. On comparing
them with those called forth by ozone, we cannot but perceive
a strong analogy between both series of phenomena. The very
same metals which become negatively polarized by ozone, are
brought into a similar state by the action of the electrical
brush. The same conditions to be fulfilled, in order to polarize
gold and platina by ozone, are likewise requisite to render
these metals negative by the agency of common electricity.
The negative polarity developed by ozone is destroyed by the
same means by which we annihilate the negative poiar state
called forth by the brush. These facts are sufficient to coun-
tenance the conjecture, that the cause of the negative polarity
is in both cases the same, z.e. that it is a film of ozone sur-
rounding the metals. I have stated (§ 16) that the brush can
easily be deprived of its peculiar smell, and that by so doing
the former loses its polarizing power. ‘This fact clearly
proves that it is not the electrical brush or discharge itself
_ that excites in the metals exposed to its action the negative
polar state, but the odoriferous principle accompanying the
brush. This principle affecting our olfactory nerves precisely
in the same manner, and also producing the same voltaic effects
as ozone does, are we not entitled to infer that the smelling
matter in the electrical brush and the odoriferous principle
evolved at the positive electrode, are identical bodies? It ap-
pears to me that they are, and I do not, therefore, hesitate to
ascribe the familiar electrical odour to ozone.
_ But how does it happen that ozone makes its appearance,
whilst common electricity is passing from the points of a
charged conductor into the atmosphere? To account for such
a remarkable fact, we certainly must suppose that there is an
218 RruPoRT—1840.
electrolytic compound present in the air, as well as we suppose
one to be contained in water, and that the electro-negative con-
stituent, or the anion of that electrolyte, is our ozone. The
passage of electricity from the points of charged bodies into
the surrounding air being in fact nothing but the act of the
restoration of a broken electrical equilibrium, or a current, it
is not difficult to conceive how ozone is set free near the points
of emission. Our supposed electrolyte being present in the
atmosphere, requires only to be placed within the circuit of
such a current in order to be electrolysed, or to have its anion,
ozone, separated from its cation. If all these suppositions be
correct, it follows that the electrolysis of our ozonic compound
will be most vigorous where the emission of electricity is most
abundant, and that consequently, at such a spot, the strongest
smell of ozone will be perceived, and platina or gold acquire
the highest degree of negative polarity. Now experiments
prove that such is really the case.
That the peculiar odour perceived when any terrestrial ob-
ject is struck by lightning has something to do with ozone,
cannot be doubted. We have been hitherto profoundly igno-
rant of the nature of that odour, and everything said and
conjectured about it by ancient and modern philosophers must,
in my humble opinion, be considered as totally unfounded.
We know the fact only, and nothing more. The smell pro-
duced by lightning is usually described as being either sul-
phureous or phosphorous. Twice in my life I had an opportunity
to observe this odour, once in the church of my native place
(Mezingen in Wurtemberg), many years ago, another time in
my own house at Basle, only last summer. The second case
being still fresh in my memory, I shall say a few words about
it. The object struck by lightning was a small chapel situated
on the middle of the bridge of the Rhine, and about 200 yards
distant from my lodgings. Immediately after the stroke had
taken place, not only my house, but also the houses of my
neighbours, were filled with a bluish vapour, and a pungent
smell was perceived. Six hours after the occurrence I entered
into a parlour which had not been opened all the day, and I
could still perceive the peculiar odour. My testimony is cer-
tainly not wanted to establish the fact, that lightning always
causes the disengagement of an odoriferous principle; but I
think that, on account of the great mystery which is still hang-
ing over that phenomenon, the number of observations and
statements about it cannot be too much increased. The fact —
related offers, besides that peculiar interest, that the smell was
perceived at a comparatively great distance from the object
RESEARCHES IN ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 219
struck by lightning. As far as my observations go, they in-
cline me to consider the odoriferous gaseous substance set at
liberty by the agency of lightning as ozone. Lightning being
the same phenomenon on a large scale as the electrical spark
or brush is on a small one, and our supposed electrolytic com-
pound penetrating the whole atmosphere, electrolysis must
take place, and consequently ozone be disengaged to a con-
siderable amount, as often as lightning crosses our atmospheric
air. The assertion of some observers, that the odour is of a
sulphureous kind, and the statement of others, comparing it
with the smell of phosphorus, may easily be reconciled to each
other; for I have remarked that ozone, when somewhat con-
densed, is rather pungent, whilst the same substance mixed up
with a large quantity of air, possesses a phosphorus smell. It
is well known that the generality of people call any pungent
odour sulphureous. Hence, if it happens that the odoriferous
principle set free by lightning reaches the observer in a con-
densed state, he will describe it as sulphureous, but like phos-
phorus when inhaled mixed up with a good deal of air. Hence
it follows, that the nearer the observer happens to be plaeed to
the spot where a stroke of lightning takes place, the more pun-
gent will be the smell perceived by him. ‘The property of pla-
tina to assume negative polarity in a medium containing free
ozone, seems to offer an excellent means to ascertain the pre-
sence of that principle in the atmosphere. It appears, there-
fore, to be desirable to make experiments on that subject, and
to place, for that purpose, platina stripes (not being insulated)
in elevated regions, particularly on days when thunder-storms
are taking place.
Before closing this paper, I must not omit to put a question
of some importance. Does the electrolytic compound men-
tioned exist in our atmosphere quite independent of its aqueous
vapour, or is it (the electrolyte) carried into the air by the eva-
poration of water? It is a matter of course, that this question
can only be answered by experiments, and I have not yet found
time enough to make them. Supposing the electrolyte to be
‘earried into the atmosphere by the evaporation of water, the
electrical brush should not produce any smell when passing into
absolutely dry air, and the quantity of ozone disengaged would,
ceteris paribus, be proportional to the quantity of aqueous
vapour present in the atmosphere; 7. e. would depend upon the
hygrometric state of the latter. It is hardly necessary to say,
that problems of the highest scientific importance would be
raised, in case it should turn out that ozone can be produced in
dry air. Be that, however, as it may, the ubiquity of our elec-
220 REPORT— 1840.
trolyte can hardly fail acting a most important part in the
household of nature; and it is not impossible that the elec-
trical phenomena taking place within our atmosphere, the real
cause of which is still covered in darkness, are closely con- ©
nected with the workings of our presumed compound.
The fact of philosophers having not yet had the slightest notion
of the existence of such a body is, I presume, no argument against
its existence. If we suppose the electrolyte in question to be
a substance closely resembling water in its chemical and phy-
sical properties, and existing in the latter fluid as well as in the
atmosphere, only in very small quantities, it is easily conceiv-
able why its existence has not hitherto been observed. I
readily allow, however, that many researches, many experi-
ments, must still be made before we arrive at certain results, at
complete certainty, regarding the subject of ozone. Convinced
as Iam of its great scientific importance, I shall not fail de-
voting all my leisure time to its close investigation, and to
sifting a matter to the bottom which promises to yield so rich
a harvest of results. I should feel indeed very proud, if the
British Association would honour me with the charge to pre-
sent them an account of my researches next year.
It would be not right if’I did not expressly state, before
finishing my paper, that I owe most of the results above men-
tioned to a pile constructed upon my friend Mr. Grove’s prin-
ciple, an arrangement which cannot be too highly thought of.
C. F. ScHONBEIN,
Bale, August 2, 1840.
Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures,
upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel. By Roserr
Mauer, M.R.I.A., Ass. Ins. C. E,
140. Since my former report upon this subject was submitted
to the British Association, as now printed in its Transactions,
additional interest and importance has been given to every
branch of the inquiry, as to the durability of iron under its
various circumstances and conditions, by the rapidly-increasing
introduction of iron vessels to navigation in the most difficult
and lengthened voyages.
Amongst the several problems of a strictly scientific cha-
racter requiring solution before the use of iron ships for distant
voyages, or their economic adoption, under any circumstances,
can be pronounced ¢ertain, is the great question of their dura-
bility as compared with those of timber; and it is hoped
that the experiments made or in progress under the auspices
of this Association, and about to be detailed, will render, in
part at least, a satisfactory reply thereto. But, besides the
desirableness of prolonging the existence of iron ships, it is
of the utmost importance to prevent the formation of rust at
all upon them under water, which, once produced, affords a
*nidus’’ for the growth of marine animals and plants by which
the ship’s bottom is rendered foul, and her sailing qualities are
greatly interfered with. These causes of foulness are found to
adhere with the utmost obstinacy to the oxidized iron. It is
part of our object to endeavour to find remedies for these
evils.
141. The present report contains the first set of tabulated
results which I have obtained as to the amount and nature of
corrosion of cast and wrought iron under several different con-
ditions of exposure to the chemical action of air and water,
whether of the ocean or of rivers, &c. And as this subject
essentially consists of two distinct parts, or is to be viewed in
two different lights, namely, as a chemical or purely scientific
inquiry, and as a technical one, from which useful practical
results are to be derived, and as some portions of it, viewed in
the former light, are still under experiment, and likely to be so
for some time to come, I purpose, on this occasion, to reserve
the purely scientific consideration of the subject, as far as pos-
BAS REPORT—1840.
sible, for a future and final report, and confine the present to
the results and their modifying conditions which have already
been obtained, and are of practical value and importance to the
civil engineer, the iron founder, or the iron-ship builder.
142. I proceed, then, to state the general nature of the ac-
companying tabulated results of experiment. The first five
tables contain the data and results of the chemical or corroding
action of sea and fresh water on cast and wrought iron under
five several conditions of experiment, continued during a period
of between a year and thirteen months.
It will be seen that these five first tables, so co-ordinate with
each other as to form one connected and comparable whole, by —
which have been determined the relative rates of corrosion, and
the absolute amount thereof, for eighty-five several sorts of cast
and wrought iron, under each of the following conditions, viz.
1. In clear sea water, at temp. 46° to 58° Fahr.
TI. In foul sea water, ai 46°. Din
III. In clear sea water, a 1 a a
IV. In foul river water, ,, 36%, 5 selene
V. In clear river water, 5, a 3 aati
143. During the period in which the several sets of speci- |
mens have been immersed, the five waters acting on them have
been examined as to their physical and chemical properties.
144. The water of No. 1, that of Kingstown Harbour, con-—
tains, in a cubic foot, 12661 grains of solid matter, which —
analysed with precaution in the usual manner, had the follow-_
ing constitution reduced to per cent. :
Chioride sodium... .. se + isi ney F832
Chloride magnesium . - + + + 10°79
Bromide magnesium - - + = - 0°60
Sulphate lime. . +. -(* s+ «+ + 4:87
Sulphate magnesia. - + + + = 5°30
Ganhatiate UuMeis..)ena>Sastasdor seed aaa
Organic matter. - + + + 8 + 5:27
The Arc acd om’ dstaleante cule a acu
Grads
100°00
I could not detect any chloride of potassium or carbonate
iron, said to be occasionally present in minute quantity in sea
water. The amount of organic matter is very variable. It
therefore appears not to differ much in composition from the
waters of the British Channel, but considerably from those of
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean, as given in the best
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 223
published analyses*. Its specific gravity is = 1027:80; and
100 cubic inches of the water taken from the surface contain,
in combination, 1:43 cubic inch of gas, which proves to be
atmospheric air, with traces of carbonic acid, or about one
volume in seventy. This water is beautifully pellucid, and
free from suspended inorganic matter. Its boiling point in
glass is 214°5 Fahr., barom. 29-7 inches.
145. The following table of the amount of saline contents
of sea water, from various localities, may be interesting, as
bearing upon our subject :—
Table of Saline Contents in 1000 parts of Sea Water. Authorities.
meretic mica 27/202 9, Ae, 28°30 Marcet.
Arctic Seasea water . . 3°50
Worth Atlantie “oy 5~ 5 42°60
Equator Bacal Sekar nek RM A Ti
Bauch Atlantic el ei) ) kee 41°20
39
33
39
39
Prediterraneanr®” "8400 ven | ray 39°40 Laurent
Seaof Marmora. . . . ., 42-00 Marcet.
etek Wea Fry ie Ans Uy 21°60
39
3)
Rear © I Ly ody: Se toasters 6°60
tera reat). vegies Asti Ylang beaag “fe
British Channel . 2... , 35°50 Sweitzer. °
enn ects WON. Pinsshtoga: 0s 33°76 Mallet.
146. One thousand volumes of sea water are stated, on the
authority of Laurent, Bouillon, and Lagrange, to contain 62
volumes of carbonic acid. I have never been able to find as
much. Dr. Marcet also states that ammonia is occasionally
present in it.
147. The water of No. 2, or that of the foul sea water, taken
from the mouth of the great Kingstown sewer, is found full of
putrid organic matter of a black and white colour, exhales an
intolerable foetor, and is permanently milky or opalescent. A
cubic foot of it contains 1379°5 grains of solid matter at a
Minimum, and varies, up to the full saline contents of the sea
‘Water, according to the degree of dryness of the weather, and
Consequent greater or less admixture of fresh water. The
Water in sitw constantly evolves bubbles of hydrosulphuric
acid and pond-gas = (H, C), of which torrents may be ob-
tained by stirring the mud at the bottom; its solid constituents
are the same as those above given for the sea water of the har-
bour, with a very variable proportion, however, of carbonate
and sulphate of lime and of chloride of calcium, derived from
the fresh water which mingles with the salt. It holds, com-
* Marcet, Laurent.
Q24 REPORT—1840.
bined, one volume in thirty-six, on the average, of a mixed gas,
consisting of
Atmospheric air,
Carburetted hydrogen,
Hydro-sulphuric acid,
Carbonic acid,
the proportions of which vary at different times. The residue
of the water very gently evaporated yields at times traces of
phosphate of ammonia. Its boiling point is in glass = 213°°5
Fahr., barom. 30°2 inches. Its specific gravity is = 1:02770
at maximum found.
148. The water from No. 3, or clear sea water, at 115°
Fahr., is of course, in all respects, the same as the water from
Kingstown Harbour, except containing less combined air.
149. The water of No. 4, or that from the river Liffey,
within the tidal limits, consists of a variable mixture of water,
having the same constitution as that of Kingstown Harbour,
with the water next to follow, or No. 5. It is alternately fresh
and salt with the rise and fall of tide, and always foul; much
organic matter is suspended in it, and some extremely divided
silex. It evolves hydrosulphuric acid and common air on
boiling, and contains about one volume of these in twenty of
water. One cubic foot of it contains, after filtration, 581°5
grains of solid matter, which consisted of
Putrified organic matter . . . . . . . 28°00
Chloride sodium ee eh ot. ohn 5 Meer nee
Chloride and bromide of magnesium . . . 6°10
Sulphate [IME . <5 es ss ys ee ee
Sulphate magnesia . . . . - + + « + 3°00
Loss ee ah er eee ernrre mre” tsk 28S
100°00
Traces of ammoniacal salts also are found, and of phosphoric
acid or phosphates. Its specific gravity is = 1:00227, and its
boiling point is in glass 212° Fahr., barom. = 30°1 inches.
150. The last water, No. 5, or that of the clear stream of
the Liffey, above the tidal limits, and above the city of Dublin, —
contains one volume in eleven of mixed gases, which are at-
mospheric air and carbonic acid, generally in about the pro- —
portion—
ANE his. vaurtem fie taco uel PA scubie amelie
Carkionic sacl. eo Sled ice Ve 1g 8 -
100 4
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 225
It is clear, free from smell, and when first taken up is tolerably
well tasted, but soon becomes, in a close vessel, unfit for drink-
ing. A cubic foot of it contains 299 grains of solid matter,
consisting of
piipiate Iyer HAG Sie Woe! UW) by: 52°53
Carbonate lime.-. . . . . , a0*, aga
POMUOMMe TEN site 88
Chloride calcium . . . . Ee pi i 2 2
Chloride magnesium . . . . . . . 4:99
Chloride sodium . ... ., , mane: ee
Beas Mert a3 Criteria ries ii) RSI 13
100°00
It gives uncertain traces of a free alkali, probably carbonate of
soda, derived in all probability from the beds of albite, over
which the river Liffey passes, a fact long previously noticed by
my friend Dr. Apjohn. The boiling-point of this water-is
214° Fahr. in glass, barom. = 30°15 inches. Its specific gravity
is = 1001-39; its saline contents vary very slightly between
winter and summer.
151. All the waters in which the various classes of iron ex-
perimented on have been immersed are now described ; and as
the methods by which these experiments have been conducted,
the particular objects in view and the precautions observed have
been detailed in my previous report*, it will only be further ne-
_ cessary to premise that—
152. The corrosive action of air and water in the above con-
ditions upon iron presents its effects in five characteristic states
of oxidation or rust, on the surface of the metal varying with
the nature of the cast iron, the mode of casting, &c. &c. These
are referred to in column 13 of the tables of results, the nomen-
clature of which it may be necessary to explain.
It is unchangeable in all the tables, and embraces the follow-
ing terms, which are thus explained. Ist, Uniform, or when
the whole surface of the iron is found covered uniformly with
@ coat of rust requiring to be scraped off, and leaving a smooth
‘Ted surface after it 3 2nd, Uniform P., or uniform with plum-
bago, where the surface, as before, uniformly corroded on
Scraping is found in some places covered with plumbaginous
Matter}, and leaving a “ piebald”’ surface of red and black after
it; 3rd, Local, where the surface of the iron is found only rusted
im some places, and free or nearly free from rust in others ;
4th, Local Pitted, where the surface is found as in the last
* Report, § 68 to 84. ' $ Report, § 20.
1840. Q
226 REPORT—1840.
case, but on scraping the rust off the metal is found unequally
removed to a greater or less depth beneath it, so as to leave a
pitted uneven surface ; 5th, Tubercular, where the whole of the
rust which has taken place at every point of the specimen has
been transferred to one or more particular points of its surface,
and has there formed large projecting tubercles*, leaving the
rest bare.
In one or other, or some combination of these forms, every
sort of iron, cast and wrought, which I have noticed, corrodes
when exposed to the action of air and water, by which is meant
water holding air in combination, such as all water at common
temperatures found in nature does.
153. The 12th column in these tables contains the amount of
water, if any, absorbed by the specimen of iron. It was con-
ceived possible, from some known factst, that cast iron long
under the pressure of water might from its porous crystalline
grain absorb the fluid more or less like a sponge ; if so, it was
necessary to know the amount of this as influencing the weigh-
ings. Means were therefore taken to determine the point, and
the tables show that in almost every case no absorption has
occurred; where it has, the result is to be attributed without doubt
to a minute “ blow-hole,”’ or cavity in the casting.
It is certain, however, that under a sufficient pressure, cast
iron may be caused to absorb water or other fluids, and experi-
ments are in progress to determine the conditions of this ques-
tion, which is not without interest and utility. The difficulty of
obtaining cast iron impermeable to fluids is well known to the
makers of hydraulic presses.
154. The tables Nos. VI., VII. and VIII. reduce into a small
compass the whole of the results of the preceding ones; their
own headings sufficiently explain their particular objects; it
is therefore only necessary here to make some general obser-
vations on a few of the more striking results arrived at so
far.
155. On the average it will be seen that the metallic de-
struction, or corrosion of cast iron, is a maximum in the clear
sea water at the high temperature of 115° Fahr. (y), and that it
is nearly as great in the foul sea water (8), while it is a mini-
mum in the clear river water (¢).
156. The temperature is not higher in the first case than iron
in works of engineering, or in iron ships is likely te be exposed
to in different parts of the world, as the following data in-
dicate :—
* Report, § 49 to 59. + Report, § 37 to 58.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 207
A thermometer sheltered from radiation and
on land does not rise, in any part of the
Bloke above. bac ani oame) wie. ela) 400148 Fahr.
One similarly situated on the open sea,
no-where rises above . . +. . . . . + 87°8
Lowest observed temperature on land . . — 58°
Temperature of the sea in any latitude or sea-
son, never rises above. . . . . . « + 86°
Nor has been observed lower than . . . — 29°*
At the mouths of tropical tidal rivers, or in lagoons, the tempe-
rature of the water, however, may reach a much higher limit.
157. I would here remark a cause of increased corrosive ac-
tion, affecting castings, such as cast-iron piling, &c., at the
mouths of tidal rivers, which has not, to my knowledge, struck
previous observers.
It is well known that the sea water, during the flowing of the
tide, from its greater density, forces itself beneath the river water
like a wedge, and slowly and imperfectly mixes with it, hence
two strata, one of fresh or brackish water, the other of salt
water belowit. Thus while engaged in a diving-bell survey of
part of the bed of the river Bann, in the North of Ireland, last
year, I found, during the flow of tide, the water strongly saline
at the bottom of the river, and yet fresh enough to drink within
three feet of the surface, the total depth of water being about
25 feet; and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh (April, 1817) will be found a paper by Mr. Stevenson,
C.E., in which he describes analogous phenomena as occurring
at the mouth of the river Dee, at Aberdeen, in the rivers Forth
and Tay, and at Loch Eil, where the Caledonian Canal joins
the Western Sea. On taking water up at various depths at Fort
William, he found the specific gravity
‘ At the surface = 1008-2,
At 9 fathoms = 1025°5,
At 30 fathoms = 1027-2,
or completely fresh at top, and salt as the sea itself beneath.
‘Now Becquerel has proved that a homogeneous metallic sur-
face (a rod or wire for instance) exposed to the action of a fluid
“menstruum, will assume a state of electrical tension, provided
‘that the fluid in which it is immersed be of different density in
_ two strata, 7. e. of different corrosive power. In fact, the
“metal and the two layers of fluid constitute a voltaic pile
of one solid and two fiuid elements; hence as one end of the
‘metallic rod will be in a positive state with respect to the
‘other, it will be corroded faster than the other. Now this
* Annales de Chimie, xxvii., 482.
Q2
228 REPORT—1840.
is precisely the condition of any casting reaching through a
considerable depth of water at the mouth of a tidal river. The
water is salter below than above, the part of the casting im-
mersed therein (the lower end of a cast-iron pile for instance),
will therefore be in an opposite electric condition to that of the
portion above, and the amount of corrosion of the positive ele-
ment due to the kind of iron, and the state of the water, will be
further increased or ‘‘ exalted”’ by the negative condition of the
opposite end, which will be itself in the same proportion pre-
served. This principle extends to very many practical cases,
as to iron plates, &c., partly immersed in a solvent fluid, and
partly exposed to moist air, &c. ; and it suggests the importance
of giving increased scantling to all castings intended to be so
situated, to allow for this increased local destruction of material.
158. In section (138) of my previous report, I stated the fol-
lowing as important desiderata for experimental answers as
touching the subject, viz.,
I. The rate of progression of corrosion in sea and fresh
water, with reference to increasing depth.
II. The comparative amount of corrosion in the same water
at various temperatures, within the limits of climate
and season.
III. The determination of the relation between the saltness
of water and its corroding effects on iron.
I am now enabled to state the law governing each of these
conditions, as deduced experimentally.
159. And first, with regard to depth: if water held in solu-
tion or combination the same volume of air or oxygen (not
constitutional) at every depth, then the amount of corrosive action
of the menstrua on iron or any other metal standing in its rela-
tion to air and water, at any given depth, will be to the amount
of corrosion of the same iron at any other depth, inversely as
the depth. This supposes the water stagnant, and that fresh
supplies of combined air are derived from the surface, and not
from a lateral current. It also only applies to moderate
depths ; and it is possible that at very great depths this law
might not hold true.
160. We do not know with any certainty whether deep
waters, or the ocean, contain the same proportions of combined
air at all depths; but within twenty-four feet I have not been
able to find any difference in the volume of combined air from
that at the surface in either sea or river water.
161. This determination, of course, will not apply where a
constant supply of water, holding new quantities of combined
air, is brought in laterally, as in a tide-way or river. In this case,
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 229
if the proportion of combined air be the same at all depths, it
seems probable the corrosion will slightly increase with the
depth ; but the matter is now under experiment.
162. The second question, namely, at what temperature the
corrosive action of water on iron is a maximum, has with each
(sea and fresh water) two conditions, namely, when the water
is combined with air, and when it is freed from it by boiling, or
otherwise.
163. In the first case, namely, in water and combined air, I
find corrosion proceeds fastest in fresh water at temperatures
varying between 175° and 190° Fahr.
164. I find, further, that the rapidity of corrosion is in the
direct ratio of the volume of combined air at any given tempera-
ture; and lastly, I have found, on slowly heating water holding
air in combination from 60° Fahr. up to 212° Fahr., that the air
is evolved most freely, and in greatest volume, at 190° to 195°
Fahr.; hence we at once perceive that the reason why the
maximum corrosion of fresh water with combined air is between
175° Fahr., and 190° Fahr., arises from this being the point at
which the attraction of the water for the air is destroyed, or
nearly so, and hence the latter left free to combine with the
metal.
165. If fresh water be deprived of all combined air, its cor-
rosive action on iron ceases tm foto in a close vessel; nor does
corrosion commence at a boiling temperature ; but if the vessel
be open and very shallow, the heat even of ebullition does not
prevent the absorption of air; and oxidation, once commenced,
goes on even more rapidly than at a lower temperature.
166. Information is yet wanting as to the temperature of
maximum corrosion of sea water, a question of greater intricacy
and importance with reference to marine boilers, and now in
course of experiment.
167. As regards the third question, namely, the relation be-
tween the degree of saltness of sea water and its corrosive power
for iron at common temperatures, I find that in sea water, de-
prived of combined air, acting on iron in an open vessel, and
having therefore to originate its corrosion by air drawn from the
atmosphere, the corrosive power is inversely as the density of
the solution, or the amount of its saline contents.
__ 168. And in the case of sea water holding air in combination,
the corrosive power is compounded of the direct ratio of the
volume of combined air, and of some function of the amount of
saline contents.
169. The tendency of dissolved salts to prevent the absorp-
tion of air by water, which is such, that a saturated solution of
230 REPORT—1840.
sea salt, deprived of air, can scarcely be made to absorb air at
all; and that in dissolving most salts, expel the combined air from
the water of the solution, united with the circumstance, that the
voltaic conducting power of the water is greater in proportion to
the amount of its saline contents, indicate that fresh water may
hold so much combined air (not to speak of carbonic acid) as to
act more rapidly on iron than sea water; that, on the other
hand, with much less combined air, the superior conducting
power of the saline solution may place its corrosive power on a
level with or above that of the former; and that, by the variable
combination of these two elements, within their respective limits
of saturation, any assignable ratio may exist of the corrosive
power of aérated fresh and sea water.
This might seem to render our enlarged experiments in the
open sea nugatory; but it will be recollected, that the compo-
sition of sea water, both as to solid and gasiform contents, is
very nearly constant. :
The experiments from which these conclusions* have been
deduced, were made on equal parallelopipeds of the cast iron,
as in class No. 1. « 77, exposed during equal times, and the
oxides produced washed off, filtered and weighed; hence they
were all made in vessels of limited size.
The part which the combined air plays in these reactions is
very remarkable ; it seems to belong to the same class of phe-
nomena as those known both in inorganic and organic chemistry,
where the presence of a third body is required to commence or
sustain the reactions of the three, any two of which alone are
quiescent. Thus gallic acid, lignin and other analogous sub-
stances, suffer no change, either in air or in water; but add to
the water a minute portion of an alkali, or alkaline earth, and the
process of oxidation commences at once. Alcohol stands in the
like predicament.
170. It seems probable that the air, in the case of the reaction
on iron, is not decomposed directly by the iron at all, but by its
protoxide, previously formed by decomposition of the water,
catalytically, or due to the presence of the combined air. If so,
we should expect to find hydrogen evolved from the first mo-
ment, as well as nitrogen, produced by the decomposition of
the air. But water, although combined with air, absorbs about
one and a half per cent. of hydrogen, while, unless the air be
previously expelled, it absorbs no nitrogen ; hence decomposition
proceeds for some time before hydrogen is evolved; but on stop-
ping the reaction at an early stage, and expelling the air and
* Report, § 158 to 169.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 231
absorbed gas, traces of hydrogen can be detected: at a subsequent
stage, and especially if the mass and surface of iron be great in
proportion to the volume of water, hydrogen and nitrogen are
both evolved, and the white, greenish or black oxides before
produced, become red. When this has arrived, the presence of
air is no longer essential to carry on the decomposition of the
water, the sesquioxide of iron, which acts as an acid to its own
base, supplying its place. At a still later stage, ammonia is very
frequently formed, especially where much carbon is disengaged
from the iron in the state of plumbago. These reactions closely
analogize with those presented by tin when acted on by nitric
acid. This metal, when pure, will scarcely, if at all, decompose
water cold; yet, when it decomposes nitric acid, it decomposes
water at the same moment; hydrogen is given off, and ammonia
is sometimes produced during the oxidation of the tin; but this
rather digresses from the practical intention of the present re-
ort.
171. The powerful corrosive action of foul sea water (evi-
denced in Table No. IV.) by water holding putrifying organic
matter in solution and suspension, is due, in great part, to
the quantity of hydrosulphuric acid (H+S) disengaged from
the mud at the bottom, and with which the water is im-
pregnated. The iron, acted on by the water in presence of
its combined air and carbonic acid, forms hydrated oxides
(Fe O+H O) and (Fe, O,+Fe O+H O), and carbonate of
iron (Fe O+C O,), and probably, in some cases, basic salts of
some organic acids. These, continually exposed to streams
of hydrosulphurice acid, are in part converted into protosul-
phuret of iron (Fe §), and in part into the bisulphuret of the
protosulphuret or magnetic pyrites (6 Fe S+ Fe S,), both being
_ formed in an amorphous state, or occasionally deposited in mi-
~
croscopic crystals in the tissue of decaying organic substances.
Both of these sulphurets are of most unstable constitution, and
rapidly oxidize under the action of air and water, forming proto-
- sulphate (Fe O+S O;) +6 HO, and the disulphate of the sesqui-
oxide (2 Fe,O,+SO;) +6 H O, and frequently various other more
_ basic sulphates. These, when soluble, are washed away, and
_Yapidly expose fresh surfaces of the iron to oxidation. In every
ase, the water charged with these salts has become a better
conductor, and amore powerful agent in maintaining corrosion.
_ But organic matter in a state of putrefaction is one of the
most powerful deoxidizing agents known,-—so much ‘so, as to be
capable even of reducing sulphate of lime in the state of gypsum ;
hence these sulphates of iron are in their turn reduced in part
232 REPORT—1840.,
back to sulphurets ; and accordingly, in the neighbourhood of
iron exposed in these conditions, organic matters are frequently
found, lined, penetrated, or coated with crystals of bisulphuret
of iron (Fe 8), or common pyrites, while their oxygen has gone
to form carbonic acid and hydrosulphuric acid, both in their turn
again to react in presence of air and water upon the iron.
Hence, then, the prodigious power of degradation of castings
or forgings of iron, when exposed to the foul water of the sewer-
age of great cities, as so often observed; hence the cause of the
destructive action of ‘‘bilge-water’’ upon the holding down
bolts of marine engines.
172. A very interesting case, verifying the occurrence of these
phzenomena, has recently been observed and examined by the ac-
curate Berthier*. ‘On the 15th June, 1837, an ancient malle-
able iron anchor was taken up from the bottom of the river
Seine, nearly opposite Gros Cailloux. It was found imbedded in
a conglomerate of pebbles, bones and altered wood, with grains
of sand and fragments of pottery, of a light gray colour, and
held together by a calcareous cement, which had accreted round
the metal. The anchor was two metres long, and weighed not
less than 200 kilograms. It was thought to be of the fifteenth
century ; its form, however, agrees with those of the sixteenth;
and it cannot be more ancient than a.p. 1400. ‘The crust
was easily detached by a blow. At one end was found a piece
of wood in immediate contact with the iron; this had pre-
served its ligneous texture, so as to be easily recognisable ; but
it was deeply altered in its qualities. Its aspect was that of a
dark gray homogeneous mass, with an uneven fracture, and it
was strongly magnetic. By calcination and roasting, it lost
0°375 of its weight, and exhaled a strong odour of sulphurous
acid. Acetic acid dissolved from it 0°65 of pure carbonate of
lime, while hydrochloric acid dissolved it nearly entirely with
disengagement of hydrosulphuric acid.
«The residue was composed of portions of unaltered wood,
mixed with a small quantity of persulphuret of iron (bisul-
phuret).
“‘The analysis of the whole gave
Carbonate lime . . che hake Tova
FeS=protosulphuret iron. . . . 0°18
FeS,=persulphuret'iron . . . . O07
Ligneous patter Ae Yo OE Mt 0) et ee
1°00
* Annales des Mines, vol. xiii. p. 664.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 233
The iron must be, for the greater part, in the state of mag-
netic pyrites (6 FeS+Fe S,), and the remainder in the state of
persulphuret. The gray paste of the crust is coloured like-
wise by the sulphuret of iron [Berthier does not say which].
*«The production of sulphuret of iron at the surface of this
anchor in the Seine in contact with wood, is not surprising,
since we know that its waters contain sulphate of lime, and
that sulphates in solution are converted slowly into sulphurets
in presence of organic matter, with production of carbonate of
lime.
“The carbonic acid, dissolved in the water, must have had
likewise some influence on the results of this reduction, and
it is probably to its presence that we may attribute the forma-
tion of the persulphuret of iron.”
These facts sufficiently indicate the accordance to nature of
the theory of reaction of putrid waters which has been advanced,
and are fertile in conclusions of practical importance to the en-
gineer occupied in works of construction in iron, connected with
the docks or harbours of large towns, or in similar situations.
173. The average minimum corrosion is indicated (by Tables
V. and VI.) as occurring in clear river water, containing air in
combination. This difference below the index of corrosion for
clear sea water is to be accounted for upon the general princi-
ples already laid down*; and as subsidiary causes influencing
the results are to be noticed, the absence of all extraneous cor-
rosive agents, and the circumstance that the coat of oxide of
iron formed in fresh water adheres obstinately to the iron, often
forming imperfect crystals, of brown hematite (fer oligiste),
and is not removed in a loose pulverulent form with the same
€ase as it is in sea water, and hence acts in some degree as a
cloak, or partially impervious covering, to defend portions of
the metal from further action.
- 174. It will be further observed, from Tables III. and VI.,
that wrought iron suffers greater loss by corrosion in hot sea
“water (temp. 115° Fahr.) than under any other circumstances—
an important result as respects the construction of marine en-
gines and boilers. Upon the latter point a special set of ex-
periments are in progress, having in view principally the points
of inquiry suggested +; and should the results of these experi-
ments give a decidedly advantageous point of concentration at
which to work marine boilers (other circumstances being consi-
| dered), there will be no difficulty, by the aid of the brine-pumps
now occasionally used in first class steamers, and of Mr. Sea-
* §§ 167, 168, 169. + First Report, § 78.
934 REPORT—1840.
ward’s salt gauge, in preserving any such saline condition in the
water within the boilers as may be desirable.
175. These Tables also show that in general the removal of
the exterior “‘skin”’ of a casting by planing or filing, to the depth
of one fourth of an inch or more, greatly increases the corrosive
action of air and water upon it, so that the cast irons so cir-
cumstanced show an average amount of corrosion, or, as I have
ventured to name it in the Tables, have an index of corrosion
not much less than that of wrought iron. This shows promi-
nently the value of a close-grained and dense metallic surface
for durability.
176. We further remark, that while wrought iron corrodes
faster than cast iron, with the skin so removed, in clear sea
water, on the contrary, the cast iron, with its surface or skin
removed, corrodes faster than wrought iron in clear river water.
This is due to the circumstance that the coat of hardened oxide
(fer oligiste*) formed in clear river water, adheres much
less obstinately to cast than to wrought iron, and hence me-
chanically protects the former less, while in sea water the coat
of oxide formed is more or less pulverulent in both cases.
177. There are two facts of an altogether novel and singular
character which these Tables present us with for the first time
—the first, that “‘ chilled ’” cast iron, of whatever sort, upon the
whole corrodes faster than the same sort of iron cast in green
sand; the second, that the size, or scantling (and perhaps the
form) of a casting in iron forms one element in the rate of its
corrosion in water.
178. With respect to the first, I have remarked}, that
chilled cast iron is that which, as compared with mottled or
dark gray cast irons, should corrode with the least rapidity
on principles considered as established. The facts now for
the first time elicited by experiment, however, show the di-
rect contrary to be the case. This may appear at first sight
to conflict with the principles already laid down ; it does not,
however, do so in any respect. It is still quite true that chilled
cast iron (that is to say, cast iron containing a minimum of sus-
pended or uncombined carbon, and of the highest density)
will corrode the most slowly, provided it he homogeneous tf.
But practically, the exterior surface of no chilled casting és
homogeneous; on the contrary, it is variable to a greater
degree than that of any other sort of casting, hence the forma-
tion of those innumerahle voltaic couples by whose action cor-
rosion is promoted: in other words, the results of the present
* § 173. + See §§ 39, 44, 49. t § 55.
ae
~~ —______—
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 235
experiments show that the voltaic action produced at the sur-
face of chilled cast iron, by its want of homogeneity, increases
the corrosion of the metal by menstrua, to a greater extent than
its great density and hardness, and small amount of uncombined
carbon, are capable of retarding its corrosion, in comparison
with other sorts of cast iron. In confirmation of this it will be
observed, that in almost every case the condition of the corroded
surface of the “ chilled’ specimens has been “ tubercular,’”’—a
form of rust which, whenever it is found on iron, is an unfailing
index of a want of uniformity of substance. This want of ho-
mogeneity, however, is less in every chilled casting as we recede
from its surface towards the interior; and, accordingly, I ex-
pect that the result of the next two years’ corrosion of those
specimens, the whole of which are now immersed, and proposed
to remain so for that period, will show rather a diminished excess
in the index of corrosion of ‘ chilled’’ over the other sorts of
cast iron; the difference also diminishes with increase in bulk
of a chilled casting, which must be more uniform the larger
it is.
179. This leads to the second fact brought to light by these
results, viz. that the size (and perhaps the form) of castings in
iron influences their rate of corrosion. With the view to deter-
mine whether any difference in this respect might exist, it will
be seen that in the series «, immersed in clear sea water, nearly
every sort of cast iron has duplicate specimens experimented
on; viz. of one inch in thickness by five inches square, and of
one quarter of an inch in thickness by five inches square, but
differing in no other respect whatever save in this one dimension
only. Yet it will be observed, that throughout the amount of
corrosion of the quarter of an inch, or thinner pieces, is greatly
more than that of the thicker, or one-inch pieces of each sort
of iron.
The difference is greatest in the softest and most carbonace-
ous, or rather “graphitic”? cast irons, and least in the hard,
dense, silvery cast irons. Thusin the Vartey Hill (No. 2) hot
blast iron, the index of corrosion of the quarter-inch casting to
that of the one-inch, is about 5°5 : 1; in the Cinderford (No. 1)
cold blasts as 10°35; in the Muirkirk (No. 2) cold blast as
11°5 : 3, while in the Calder (No. 4) hot blast it is only as
6°76 : 6°20, or nearly in ratio of equality.
This very striking circumstance would scarcely have been
predicted before the present results forced it on our notice;
yet its rationale is easy upon principles just applied to the case
of “chilled’’ castings. These thinner castings have cooled
much faster, and more irregularly than the thicker, or one-inch
236 REPORT—1840.
ones ; hence are much less homogeneous, and contain dispersed
veins and patches harder than the rest of their substance ; hence
again the formation of voltaic couples, and accelerated corro-
sion of surface.
180. This novel fact leads us to some important practical
deductions. We at once see the advantage in durability that
weight for weight castings of massive scantling have over those
of attenuated ribs and ‘“‘feathers.’’ We see the importance of
casting the ‘‘feathers’’ on ribbed castings intended to be sub-
merged, of equal scantling with the other parts to which they
are attached, otherwise the attenuated rib will be eaten away
long before the principal parts of the casting will have suffered
much ; and this not merely because there is less stuff in the rib
to be eaten away, but because its smaller size gave cause for
its being eaten away proportionally faster, and in preference
to the grosser rib.
181. We see the importance of having all ribbed castings
cooled in the sand before being stripped from the moulds, so as
to ensure the greatest possible uniformity of texture if intended
to be submerged. Indeed, this precaution ought to form part
of the engineer’s specification for guidance of the founder in
preparing castings for every aquatic work, and for other reasons
it might be added for every work.
182. These views give the rationale of the fact which has been
often noticed, but never explained, that the back ribs, of cast iron
sheet piling, decay much faster than the faces of the piles, al-
though the latter are more exposed. Thus in the Blackwall
piling the front ribs of the main piles are two and a half inches
thick, while the “ feather’ or back ribs are but one and a quar-
ter of an inch; in the sheet piles the front ribs are one and a half
or one and a quarter inch, and the feathers but one inch.
183. The principles we have now got also indicate that cast-
ings in “ dry sand and loam,” will probably be, ceteris parthus,
more durable under water than those cast in “ green sand.”’
184. In general, the results of these experiments show that
the cast irons with low commercial marks, the numbers 3 and 4,
&c., corrode locally and generally become pitted ; while the
high marks, the numbers 1 and 2, &c., corrode with considerable
uniformity over their whole exposed surface, in accordance with
the general principle just stated.
185. On the whole, the practical preference appears so far to
be due to the Welsh cast iron for aquatic purposes ; a fortunate
circumstance, seeing from thence we draw the largest supplies
of iron. Closeness of grain is especially desirable, and what-
ever can be done in way of mixture of different makes of iron
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 237
to increase this property will be valuable. Still more definite
results, however, are to be expected from the examination of
the suite of specimens again after their present immersion.
186. With respect to cast irons made by the hot and cold
blasts, the index of corrosion appears to be, on the whole,
slightly in favour of the cold blast, but not much; a circum-
stance possibly attributable to the hot blast iron containing a
different proportion of alloyed metals of the earths and of sili-
con, as Dr. Thompson has shown*, and to their general differ-
ence in density, as hereafter to be noticed.
187. The great elements of difference in corrosion, however,
as respects the iron itself, appear to be,—I. The degree of ho-
mogeneity of substance of the metal, and especially of its sur-
face. IJ. The degree of density of the metal, and state of its
crystalline arrangement. III. The amount of uncombined
carbon or suspended graphite contained in the iron. The
more homogeneous, the denser, harder and closer-grained, and
the less graphitic, the smaller is the index of corrosion of any
given specimen of cast iron.
188. The Table No. VIII. is one deduced from all the pre-
ceding, in which, assuming the rate of corrosion found by ex-
periment for a period of 387 days, to continue uniform, the ave-
rage loss per superficial foot of surface, for each general class
of iron, and thence the depth to which any casting will he cor-
roded in a period of one century is shown. This may be con-
sidered as a specimen table, showing one practical end pro-
-posed by these results.
_ 189. The assumption here made, that the rate of corrosion
will continue for a century uniformly as during the first year,
is possibly not critically correct ; the error, if any, however, is
one not in excess, but in defect, for though the rate of corrosion
may accelerate, it certainly is not likely to be retarded. This point
the results of the continued experiments on the same specimen
now in progress will, after two years more, fully determine.
Meanwhile I have strong reason to conclude that, after a suf-
ficient period has elapsed to enable submerged cast iron to be-
come coated with a spongy covering of plumbago produced by
its own destruction, then the further rate of corrosion will be
somewhat accelerated, and that hence the results contained in
this table are rather below the truth.
190. These deductions, in general, indicate that from three
to four tenths of an inch in depth of cast iron, one inch thick, and
about six tenths of an inch in depth of wrought iron will be
destroyed in a century in clear sea water, a conclusion probably
* Report of the British Association, vol. vi.
238 REPORT—1840.
not very far astray where no special perturbations or causes of
corrosion supervene.
191. This gives a period of duration of about two hundred
years to the cast iron wharf wall, lately constructed at Black-
wall, London, before the castings shall have become so atte-
nuated and fragile as to be useless.
192. Having been recently in correspondence with Col. Pas-
ley, Royal Engineers, and Lieut. Symonds, of the same corps,
regarding the state of the iron taken up from the wreck of the
Royal George, with specimens of which I have been favoured by
the former gentlemen, an opportunity has occurred, through in-
formation for which I am indebted to Lieut. Symonds, of controll-
ing or testing the accuracy of these results in a very decisive
way. A number of guns have been taken up from the wreck of
the Edgar, which were upwards of one hundred and twenty-nine
years under water. The depth to which they were corroded
from their original dimensions, which were known, was found
to be seven-eighths of an inch on the average. Now let us ap-
ply the results of our experiments to see what depth of cor-
rosion they predict under the circumstances. Turning to Table
No. VI., we find the average loss for hard gray iron with the
skin removed (as in a bored gun) per square inch of surface in
387 days = 13°55 grains in foul sea water = 1951°2 grains per
square foot, which, multiplied by 123°4, the times 387 days is
contained in 130 years, and divided by 7000 = the grains ina
pound avoirdupois, give a loss by corrosion of 344 |b. per square
foot; but the actual loss has been 32°81 Ibs. per square foot,
that being the weight of a square foot of cast iron seven eighths
of an inch thick. This strikingly close result is corroborated
by others on iron from the Royal George, immersed for fifty-
eight years, corroded from half an inch to three fourths of an
inch in depth on the average, and together prove that the re-
sults of these experiments may be relied on practically.
193. I have now to make a few remarks upon the supple-
mentary tables which accompany the five first tables of experi-
ments, viz. those containing the results of corrosion of cast iron
covered with various paints and varnishes. These were mostly
such as are generally in use for such purposes, and were laid on
with great care, so as to cover the whole surface completely, and
leave as few microscopic pores as possible in the covering. The
general results are these : of the ten sorts of paints or varnishes
tried, there is not one that will completely prevent corrosion,-
nor one that will remain perfectly adherent or undecom-
posed for a single year under water. In foul water, fresh or
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON, 239
salt, white-lead paint perishes at once, the white-lead being
probably converted into sulphuret by the action of the nascent
hydro-sulphuric acid ; yet white lead forms the great staple
base for all the paints generally used for exposed iron works.
Caoutchouc varnish appears to be the best covering in hot water,
and generally in all the others asphaltum varnish. But boiled
coal tar laid on, the iron being hot, has decided advantages over
every other, the reasons of which we shall presently see. It is
sufficiently obvious, however, that nothing very important in
the way of protection is to be hoped for from any one of the
coverings tried, at least when used alone.
194. Since these experiments were commenced, my atten-
tion has been drawn to the results of an analogous series obtained
by Mr. James Princep of Calcutta, and contained in the Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which appear worthy of notice.
The proposed extensive employment of iron steam-boats on the
Ganges, and the rapid corrosion to which iron is subject in a
hot climate, induced the local government to cause these expe-
riments to be made, to endeavour to procure a varnish that
should preserve the surface of the metal. Mr. Prinsep took two
sets of six wrought iron plates, each 3 feet by 2 feet, upon which
various paints and varnishes were applied. One set was just
completely submerged, and the other half-immersed, one half of
each plate being in the air and the other half in the water of the
canal at Calcutta, near the Chitpur lock-gates, where it is only
slightly salt. After three months’ exposure the two sets were
taken up and examined, and the following table contains the re-
sults, which it is to be regretted have not the numerical pre-
cision that would have been obtained by weighing the plates
before and after immersion.
Experiments
1840.
REPORT
240
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‘sasuDy ayz ur apou ‘uouy wodn saysiuiny pun szuM_ UO spuaurwadu
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 94]
Coal-tar thus appears to stand preeminent as a covering varnish
for iron. The general accordance of these experiments with
those of the present report is satisfactory. The anomalous re-
sult, No. IX., with the zinc protector, Mr. Prinsep considers due
to its containing lead, which was proved to exist in it. Coal-
tar was finally adopted for the iron vessels navigating the wa-
ters of the Ganges.
195. In the progress of these researches I procured, by the
favour of Henry English, Esq., of the Mining Journal, a speci-
men of “ zinc-paint’? now sold asa covering for iron when
ground in oil; that which I received is in the form of a mode-
rately dark, gray powder, which decomposes water rapidly ; suf-
ficiently fine to form a strong full-bodied paint, when ground
with oil, which dries rapidly, though not quite free from gritti-
ness. As I could not obtain any very definite information as to
the origin or mode of preparation of this substance, and its va-
luable qualities were highly spoken of, I considered it worth
making a quantitative analysis of. It will be unnecessary here
to state the method pursued; the analysis was performed with
care, and the results give the following composition as that of
the zinc-paint :
Sulphuret lead Sf ethene S905
Sub-oxide and oxide of zine . . 4°15
Mictallio Zine 2.5627 acess. ood 81°71
Sesquioxide iron whe Rite ae
Pale Mel ib. un Sh, Pali ig ADEE
SEN Rl") be0s' sale 88 chs BO
Bose. eek tie (iy hus. Wigiodeo4
100
It would hence appear to be probably some residual matter
obtained in the zinc-works. Ihave at present specimens of it
upon iron in all the six conditions of experiment, and hope at a
future period to be able to report favourably of the results. I
should, @ priori, conceive that it would make an excellent body
for a sound durable paint, well suited to works in iron.
196. Another sort of paint has been for some time much
recommended by the vendors, made from impure black oxide
manganese ground in oil. This may possibly form a powerful
“drier,”’ but, from its harsh and dense substance, can never be
a suitable “ body” for a paint; nor does it seem to offer any
special advantage in the former respect.
197. The defects of ordinary oil-paints seem chiefly to arise
from the instability of constitution of the fat oils, turpentine
or other organic substances entering into their composition.
1840. R
242 REPORT—1840.
All the fixed oils may, in fact, be viewed as organic salts or com-
binations of the oily acids, with a compound base generally
** glycerine”’ (C,, H,, O,,), or vegetable mucilage. Most of the
oil of turpentine found in commerce also contains more or less
pinic and silvic acids*. Now all these acids readily quit their
weakly positive organic bases, to form salts with the more
powerfully basic oxides of the metals, with which they are
used commonly in the formation of paints, as white lead,
ochres, &c. &c.; in this combination, however, the original
organic bases are left free to form new combinations, under the
joint action of air and moisture, and of the metal on which
they may be spread. The resultant action of all which is, that
the paint, in workmen’s language, gets ‘killed’; that is, be-
comes either more or less soluble in water, or pulverulent and
removable by it; and in place of preserving an oxidable metal,
promotes its corrosion. Pinic and silvic acids act powerfully
as such, upon many bases; the former decomposes the car-
bonate, acetate, and most of the organic acid salts of copper,
several of the earthy acetates, and the alkaline carbonates with
effervescence when fused with them. Yet it is remarkable,
that upon the peroxide of copper, and several other peroxides,
it has scarcely any action. The electro-negative relations of
commercial turpentine, then, may be neutralized, if desirable,
in composing a paint; but this is in every case attended with a
diminution of its power to resist the action of water. Priestley
first ascertained that volatile oils, such as turpentine, absorb
oxygen or atmospheric air, and combine with them in part.
In this they closely resemble the fat oils, and the result is
analogous in both; they finish by conversion into resins.
Hatchett’s experiments, and also the saponification by potass
of oil of turpentine, indicate that the volatile oils do not unite
directly with nietallic oxides, but receive oxygen from them,
become acid resins, and thus form resinous salts. Thus, if oil
of turpentine be heated with peroxide of lead, water is given
off. The oil becomes dark brown, viscid, and at length solid ;
the result is a compound of resin and oxide of lead; common
resin, as Blanchet and Sellt have shown, is oil of turpentine,
with an atom of oxygen combined = C,, H, O. Hence we
may conclude that oil of turpentine plays no chemical part in
the constitution of paints, but in so far as it has suffered these
changes; in doing so its density is increased and its volume
consequently diminished, and hence every oil-paint is full of
microscopic pores, however carefully: laid on, as may be proved
* Unverdorben, Poggendorff’s Annalen, vii. to xxi.
Tt Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxix, 133.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 243
by the microscope ; and thus, when laid on an oxidable metal,
corrosion slowly takes place through these, or, as workmen
say, “it rusts under the paint.”
198. In the absorption of oxygen, which takes place when
an oil capable of being rendered drying, such as linseed or nut
oil, is exposed to the action of the atmosphere or of oxygen
gas, the volume of carbonic acid formed is by no means equi-
valent to that of the oxygen absorbed. Hence it is obvious
that the drying of oily paints is effected by a slow but real
combustion of part of the hydrogen of the oil forming water,
and by the partial acidification of the vegetable mucilage. This
process is greatly accelerated by the presence of various sub-
stances, but particularly carbon in a solid state. It is well
known that lamp-black and oils mixed together in proper pro-
portions absorb oxygen so fast as to produce spontaneous com-
bustion at high temperatures, yet it is the slow combustion of
the hydrogen of the oil rendered more active by presence of
the carbon, to which the exaltation of temperature sufficient
to produce ignition was at first due. This combustion is already
in part performed in the oils rendered drying by litharge, &c.,
and still more in the burnt oil used for the ink of copper-plate
and letter-press printers, and called by them “the varnish.”’
In fine, in every combustible compound of carbon and hydro-
gen, combustion, whether slow or defectively supplied with
oxygen, seizes on the hydrogen first, and lastly on the car-
bon, and this leads, in the case of oil paints, to a succession
of changes of constitution, by which at length the original
solid material of the paint alone remains in feeble combination
with a little decomposing resin.
199. The direction, then, in which we are able to look for
_ improvement in the preservative power and durability of our
_ paints, is in choosing from amongst the known groups of
_ organic substances, those which have greater stability than
the fat or fixed oils, and which, in place of being acid or
_ haloid, are basic or neutral. Amorigst the many substances of
_ this class which occur, few seem better fitted to form a sub-
_ Stitute for the fat oils in paints than the heavy oily matter
obtained by the distillation of resin, to which M. Fremy gave
the name of ‘ resinein*’; it has the composition (C,, H,, O).
Now two atoms of resin = 2 (C,, H, O); hence this oil is
a fluid resin deprived of an atom of water =(H O). It isa
heavy transparent oil, destitute of taste or smell, insoluble in
Water and alcohol, not acted on by caustic alkalies, has a high
boiling-point = 480° Fahr., and reduces litharge, when boiled
* Annales du Pharm. xv. 282.
R 2
244 REPORT—1840.
with it, as the drying oils do. This substance can be obtained
in any quantity cheaply ; all the resins possess the property of
gradually combining with water when long immersed in it, and
forming a porous compound, analogous in all respects to the
substance thrown down by water from a solution of resin in
alcohol, or from its combination with an alkaline solution.
When the latter is precipitated by an acid a true hydrate is
formed, consisting of an atom of resin and eight atoms of
water. Even copal, after having dried as a varnish, is gradually
acted on in this way by water, and becomes pulverulent. Re-
sinein, however, does not seem to be capable of forming a
hydrate, and therefore offers decided advantages as an aquatic
paint.
200. Reichenbach has lately shown* that Eupion (Cg; Ha)
may be obtained by distillation of rapeseed oil. Naphthaline
and Paraffine are both soluble in the latter; and these, from
their stability of constitution and other properties, only require
a suitable solvent to form the most valuable bases for paint.
Naphthaline can be obtained in large quantity, in fact it is a
drug with those who distil naphtha from coal-tar 5 and Laurent
has shown+ that Paraffine may be obtained in abundance by
distillation from the shale of the coal formations. In the com-
bination of these with solid materials, the principal object to
be held in view to obtain a durable paint is to choose a metallic
powder or peroxide least liable to be acted on by the agents
most obnoxious to paints, viz. air, water, carbonic acid, and
hydrosulphuric acid, and at the same time capable of intimate
combination with the organic base.
201. But ina paint, or rather varnish of Naphthaline or Paraf-
fine, no solid inorganic substance is necessarily included. The
only other component needed is a suitable vehicle to cause these
substances to spread and hold them upon the metallic surface.
This obtained, a varnish covering, more durable than any known,
would probably be produced. This is rendered almost certain
by the facts already adduced by Mr. Prinsep’s and my own ex-
periments. In these, coal-tar laid on the iron hot is immea-
surably superior to every other covering. Now coal-tar in this
state consists of naphthaline enveloped in asphaltum ; when coal-
tar is exposed to this temperature, naphtha and other volatile
matters are driven off, and the results of an imperfect destructive
distillation, in which hydrogen is lost, while naphtbaline is a
product, remain on the iron a bright and solid varnish. This
not only gives the key to the only true method of applying
bituminous matter as a varnish, but it indicates the cause of the
* Jour. fur Pract. Chim. i. 377. + Annales de Chimie, lv. 218.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 245
entire difference in preservative power observed between coal-
tar so used and Swedish tar laid on cold; had the latter been
heated also until decomposition commenced and naphthaline was
formed, less difference probably would have been found between
them.
202. In connexion with this may properly be mentioned the
method stated to be used for giving the beautiful jet black var-
nish coating to the Silesian or Berlin castings in iron. These
beautiful specimens of art are covered externally with an ex-
cessively thin coat of a black, shining, and remarkably hard
varnish, which is not acted on for a considerable time by strong
sulphuric or nitric acid, or for some hours by caustic potass,
and which resists oxidaticn of the metal beneath for a long
time; but, when continually exposed to air and water, at length
forms isolated patches of rust, which gradually spread. The
varnish is said to be thus produced :—the article of iron is sus-
pended from a wire and covered with a very thin coat of linseed
vil, it is then hung over a smoky wood fire within about a foot
of the faggots, and exposed for some time to the smoke and
flame—generally about thirty minutes ; it is then to be lowered
to within three or four inches of the fire, now become clear,
and heated more strongly for a few minutes, and immediately
immersed in oil of turpentine, from which it is removed to be
polished with woollen cloths. A second application is some-
times requisite to give sufficient blackness and brilliancy, which
is always more readily obtained with cast than with wrought
iron. It is difficult to discern the precise nature of the changes
which the oil undergoes in the process: watery vapour, Kupion
and carburetted hydrogen are probably given off, and some of
the volatile products of the wood, in imperfect combustion,
may enter into combination. A different composition is recom-
mended in the Dictionnaire Technologique, vol. xxii. p. 164,
for producing this black varnish, viz.—
Pntnentof Andra Leneihiais eT 2) sah. Fir
Resins rot, pg te RPL Bea tts
rai ih: lo lreely era ames es POTD BO
Copal or Amber varnish . . . . . . 10
with enough of oil of turpentine to make it spread, laid on the
iron hot and baked.
203. Amongst the mechanical coverings of iron for prevent-
ing oxidation, may here be properly noticed the fusible enamel
patented by Mariott, of London, and since by others. These
are very fusible glasses, having, by the addition of large quan-
tities of oxides, about the same expansion as the cast-iron culi-
nary vessels, to which they were chiefly proposed being applied.
246 REPORT—1840.
They are of very limited application, and appear to present a
good deal of technical difficulty.
204, These somewhat scattered facts, in the chemical history
of paints and preservative varnishes, are little more than suffi-
cient to show us the barrenness of this region of art, which has
received no cultivation as yet but that of continued tentation on
the part of the workman, undirected by scientific principles.
Much might be hoped for, important in technical results, by the
enlargement and correction of our still defective knowledge of
the organic chemistry of the fixed and volatile oils, the resins
and the bitumens. ‘To paints or varnishes alone, however, we
are not to look for the means of complete protection from cor-
rosion for oxidable metals; their liability to removal by slight
external forces precludes this; their proper place, as mechani-
cal protectors, will be found subsidiary to those which are de-
pendent on chemical or electrical relations ; and one of their
most important uses will probably be found in their application,
in union with substances poisonous to animal and vegetable life,
to the bottoms of iron ships, to prevent the “ fouling’’ produced
by their accumulation, and now found of so much incon-
venience.
205, At the period of publication of the previous report, the
preservation of cast and wrought iron, by the electro-chemical
action of zinc, was beginning to excite that attention which
was first drawn to it by the views of Sir Humphry Davy, and
the subsequent experiments of Prof. EK, Davy; but there had
not been time to enable any very decided results to be given in
that report. I am now, however, in a condition to state the
results of a tolerably complete train of experiments made on
the protective powers of zinc, to iron and steel under various
circumstances, some of which have been continued for upwards
of two years.
The experiments I have made on the electro-chemical power
of protection of zinc to iron are divided into two great classes—
those in fresh water and those in sea water; and each of these
classes again divides itself into two, namely, those made with
the preserved and preserving metals submerged to a greater or
less depth in the fiuid, and those in which the metals were ex-
posed freely to air, and covered by an indefinitely thin film of
water constantly renewed, or, in technical language, to ‘‘ wet
and dry. In each of these conditions experiments have been
made on the protecied metal, in presence of zinc in a massive
form in simple contact, through the intervention of the solvent
or fluid in which both were immersed, and also when the pro-
tected metal has had voltaic contact established with the zinc by
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 247
actual union, or, as I shall call it, 2 metallic contact, as in the
case of zinked iron, or iron coated with zinc at its fusing
temperature. Hence there have been made eight distinct trains
of experiment on this one branch of the subject, each of which
has been carried on upon cast iron, upon wrought iron, and
upon steel, as the following scheme will serve to indicate :
All freely exposed to air and carbonic acid.
Tn sea water.
In fresh water.
In sea water.
In fresh water.
Tn sea water.
In fresh water.
In sea water.
In fresh water.
In sea water.
In fresh water,
In sea water.
In fresh water.
In sea water.
In fresh water.
In sea water.
In fresh water.
In sea water.
In fresh water.
In sea water.
Submerged 12 inches .........
Cast iron
and
zinc.
In simple contact..
Submersion indefinitely stall {
Submersion 12 inches .........
In metallic contact.
Submersion indefinitely small {
Submersion 12 inches .........
In simple contact..
Wrought SGA indefinitely small
iron and
zine. Submersion 12 inches .........
In metallic contact |
Submersion indefinitely small {
Submersion 12 inches .........
In simple contact..
Cast steel Submersion indefinitely small ipa
and 4 n fresh water.
zinc, Submersion 12 inches ......... obs Vier
In fresh water.
Jn sea water,
In metallic contac |
In fresh water.
Submersion indefinitely small {
I will not venture to enter here upon the lengthened detail of
these experiments, which will probably appear in a more suitable
place, but merely state the method and principal results ar-
rived at.
206. The fresh water used in all these experiments was that
which supplies the city of Dublin at the north side; it comes
from Lough Ouwell, ina limestone district, county Westmeath ;
it contains no solid matter when filtered, but a trace of car-
bonate of lime and of carbonate of iron. It holds in combina-
tion, however, one volume in eight of gases evolved on boiling,
which consist of
umtospheric air J ers PY Fo olgasy
Ramee cic, .4) OYERMUEE Ae I See MOTE a ee)
100°0 cubic inches.
The sea water used was invariably that from Kingstown Har-
bour, of which the analysis has been already given.
248 REPORT—1840.
All the experiments were carried on with water and air at
about 62° Fahr. The cast iron is that of « 77, (Table No. I.),
or hard gray, mixed, Welsh and Scotch iron.
The wrought iron, No. 2, Welsh bar, and the steel () cast
steel, of the Mersey Steel Company’s make. The depth of im-
mersion in all the submerged experiments was uniformly twelve
inches, in glass vessels. The zinc used was nearly pure. The
volume of water employed in each experiment was fifty cubic
inches.
Of Cast Iron in simple contact with Zinc immersed in Fresh
Water.
207. If cast iron be perfectly free from any initial stains of
rust, and quite homogeneous in texture, it is electro-chemically
preserved by the contact of an equal surface of pure zinc, for an
indefinite period, during which the zinc is oxidated, the oxide of
zincistransferred to the surface of the iron, and forms mammillary
concretions on it; after which the protective power of the zinc
is greatly diminished, and at this stage the contact of any sub-
stance, even a neutral one,—such as glass with the iron,—is
sufficient to originate oxidation upon it, which, once established,
gradually extends, without the zinc having power to arrest it.
The oxide of iron produced has the composition (Fe O + Fe, Og)
+HO*.
208. If cast iron, having a polished surface, be suffered to
contract any coating of rust, although the surface be afterwards
perfectly polished to the eye, yet zinc, in simple contact, has
lost nearly the whole of its power of protection ; the zinc and
iron both oxidize from the moment of immersion. If the surface
be removed by the file to some depth, however, the remaining
metal is preserved.
209. If wrought iron has been exposed to solvent action in
contact with a powerfully electro-negative metal, as copper or
mercury, for a considerable time, and its surface be then removed,
even to the depth of 5th of an inch, or more, with the file, and
immersed in contact with zinc, the latter is found to have lost
nearly all protective power with respect toit. Cast iron so cir-
cumstanced corrodes from the first moment, and the oxide is de-
posited in tubercles.
210. On the other hand, if wrought iron, a portion of whose
* The formule used for these oxides have respect merely to composition, and
not to proportion, which varies with the duration of exposure.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON, 249
surface has been in metallic contact with zinc, or other more
powerfully electro-positive metal, while immersed in a solvent,
have its surface removed by the file to the depth of 3.th of an
inch or more, and be then immersed alone in fresh or sea water,
oxidation does not take place at all for a considerable time, and
only forms at length in minute detached tubercles.
211. Thus it appears that wrought iron, which has been for a
length of time in contact with an electro-negative metal in pre-
sence of a solvent, acquires an electro- positive polarity, while that
which has been so circumstanced with an electro-positive metal,
acquires an electro-negative polarity. The same phenomena do
not present themselves with cast iron to the same extent, but yet
are discernible.
To this curious subject of electro-polarization, Dr. Andrews’s
experiments on bismuth and platina supply analogous instances ;
and an interesting paper on the same, as effecting copper and
platina, has been much overlooked in the thirteenth volume of
_ the Journal of the Royal Institution, p. 200. I introduce these
two last experiments (209. 210) here for the purpose of remark-
ing, that no piece of iron which has before been used for any such
experiments as the present, should be used again for a different
one. Before becoming aware of this, I was tormented with
anomalous results,
212. I stated in my previous report, that the views of Payen
and Dumas, viz. that the cause of tubercular corrosion was a
slightly alkaline reaction of the corroding water, seemed to me
unnecessary to account for the phenomena. Iam now enabled
to state, that the sole essential circumstance to tubercular corro-
sion is want of homogeneity in the metal corroded, and that I
have obtained the most marked tubercular corrosion of cast iron
in pure distilled water, and in acidulous fluids. The corroding
agent must, of course, be such as will not dissolve the oxide pro-
duced ; and it must be admitted, that all other things being the
Same, the presence of an alkali greatly exalts the tendency to
tubercular deposition of oxide, which may, however, take place
without it.
Of Cast Iron in simple contact with Zinc immersed in Sea
Water.
213. Cast iron, perfectly free from initial rust, is perfectly
preserved from oxidation in sea water by an equal surface of
zinc. The latter is oxidated; but the oxide formed is not
transferred to the surface of the iron, nor does it adhere to
that of the zinc: it is washed away in a flocculent form, and
is partly dissolved by the saline contents of the sea water.
250 REPORT—1840.
Yet, after the lapse of a considerable time, the whole surface
of the zinc becomes covered with a thin, black, hard crust of
sub-oxide, on which are deposited minute crystals of cale spar,
produced by decomposition of the salts of lime in the sea water.
When this has taken place, the protective powers of the zinc are
greatly diminished, or nearly destroyed.
Of Cast. Iron in simple contact with Zine at an indefinitely
small depth in Fresh Water.
214. Cast iron, free from initial rust, so exposed in contact
with an equal surface of zinc, is oxidized from the first moment
of exposure. The zinc is oxidized also, and the oxide forms
concretions at the point of contact of the metals, and increases
the oxidation of both metals ; so that of two equal surfaces of
cast iron, exposed during equal times to an indefinitely small
depth of fresh water, the one alone, and the other in simple con-
tact with an equal surface of zinc, the latter will lose the greater
amount by oxidation.
215. When cast iron, free from initial rust, is exposed to an
indefinitely small depth of sea water, in simple contact with
an equal surface of zinc, its oxidation is retarded, but not pre-
vented, and after a time takes place, as in the last case.
Of Wrought Iron in simple contact with Zine immersed in
Fresh Water.
216. Wrought iron, free from initial rust, exposed in contact
with an equal surface of zinc, is preserved from oxidation until
a large amount of oxide of zinc has concreted at the point of
junction of the metals, when the iron gradually begins to form
tubercular points of oxide on its upper side. The oxide has the
composition (Fe O0+Fe, O;)+H O. Carbon is deposited in
microscopic crystals on the zine.
217. Wrought iron, under the same circumstances as above,
but immersed in sea water, is preserved for atime. But although
the oxide of zinc deposits on the iron with greater difficulty in
sea than in fresh water, yet it does so at length, along with cry.
stals of cale spar; after which the protection of the zinc becomes
uncertain, and is disturbed by the contact of any neutral solid. |
Of Wrought Iron exposed in simple contact with Zinc at an
indefinitely small depth in Fresh Water.
218. When wrought iron, free from initial rust, is exposed
thus, in simple contact with an equal surface of zinc, oxidation
commences at once, and proceeds rapidly. The zinc is oxidized
also, and the oxide of zinc adheres to the points of contact of
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 251
the metals in mammillary concretions. The oxide of iron formed
has the composition (Fe 0+ Fe, O,)+ (Fe 0+C O,)+HO.
219. When wrought tron is exposed under the same circum-
_ Stances as above, but to sea water, the same phenomena as in
_ the last case present themselves, but much more slowly, much
_ of the oxide of zinc being dissolved in the sea water.
: Of Cast Steel exposed in simple contact with Zinc, immersed
; in Fresh Water.
| 220. When cast steel, free from initial rust, is exposed in
simple contact with an equal surface of zinc, the general surface
_ of the metal remains bright, but tubercular oxidation gradually
Sh place at the points of junction of the steel and zinc ; the
tter oxidizes less as this proceeds, and finally ceases to protect
the steel at all. Carbon is transferred from the steel to the
surface of the zinc. The oxide formed has the composition
(FeO+F,0,)+H O.
_ Of Cast Steel in simple contact with Zinc immersed in Sea
Water.
__ 221. In this case, the same phenomena take place as in the
last, but much more slowly.
definitely small depth of Fresh Water.
_ 222. Cast steel, free from initial rust, thus exposed in sim-
ple contact with an equal surface of zinc, soon begins to rust in
regular patches. ‘The zinc also oxidizes, and the oxide forms
Concretions at the points of contact ; after which the steel ox-
es still faster, so that in equal time it loses rather more by
oxidation than an equal surface of cast steel, exposed as above,
simple contact with an equal surface of zinc to an indefinitely
mall depth of sea water, the same phenomena, as in the last
present themselves, but much more slowly.
0) Wrought Iron in metallic contact with Zinc, or Zinked
Iron.— Of Zinked [ron immersed in Sea Water.
224. A plate of zinked iron was immersed for twenty-five
iths in sea water; its whole surface was zinked. On ex-
tion, the surface was covered with a hard black coat of
sub-oxide, over which was a thin coating of crystalline car-
Donate of lime, but no symptoms of oxide of iron were to be
252 REPORT—1L840.
seen. Very little of the zinc was dissolved, and a little loose
oxides were in the bottom of the glass jar, which proved to be
eta CO,)+ (CaO+CO,) +(FeO + Fe, O,) + (ZnO + Fe,O5)
+ :
225. A plate the same as the foregoing in all respects, im-
mersed the same time in a saturated solution of common salt,
on examination presented the same phenomena, but less strongly
marked.
Of the ratio of Zinked surface to that of Iron necessary to
protect the latter, immersed in Sea Water.
226. When equal parallelopipeds of partially zinked iron are
immersed in sea water, having the following ratio of zinked
surface to that of the iron, viz.
Zinc Surface. Tron Surface.
a ASO) (ecw ec) tis : oak shh togee
B ZOOM Os PP : oes an
Y TOO Ae - ri WH 8] |
) On2 oie es 2 esr BEE:
€ Ole. *. ung stom
c 0:065 ste : se? eel!
n OrOSTZ5: Ney : a Mek Mepil
O 2B SM.. WOFOL5625 or > Seng
Lae ey its ROOT OOrar as : odacher al
the zinc is rapidly oxidized in all, and the amount of oxide of
zinc formed is in the ratio of the surface of zinc exposed ;
the other, or e—, elements being all of equal surface. The oxide
of zinc formed is flocculent, and does not collect either at the
iron or zinc poles, and is partly dissolved by the sea water.
The iron remains bright and free from oxide, with every pro-
portion of zinc, down to the ratio of 0°00786 :: 1 of iron.
Hence the limit of protective power of zinc in metallic contact
with iron immersed in sea water is between ;1,th and ;3,th
of the surface of the latter, at which point oxidation takes place
rapidly.
Of Iron in metallic contact with Zine immersed in Fresh
Water.
227. When several equal parallelopipeds of iron are immersed.
in fresh water, having the following ratios of zinked surface to.
that of iron, viz.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON, 253
Surface of Zinc. Surface of Iron.
UA OOYM hes or : sth
Met tha, or EO OS eet -Fatsy 5 anit
Bile Ay gm cratic tap 010 Jed are Re : Baiiaph tare
SUPER SAAN eam “lat : Siena: howe
=the 0 DS ea be . ere eaers
eS Watery te A OROGS, te een’ ae ts
St ee SOROUST 2S Ser. = Py desig
eee SOONG Zhe ; SR
Sue. OOO786 0%, : hh ig sk
1 4 ona OS = &
ell ee El ee
the zinc in all is corroded, and the amount of oxide formed in
equal times, is proportionate to the surface of zinc ; the other,
or e—, elements being equal. The oxide of zinc is deposited on
the zinc pole in mammillary concretions. The iron remains bright
and free from oxide, with every proportion of zinc, down to the
ratio of 0°103125 of zinc :: 1 of iron; with this and below it,
tubercular oxidation takes place on the iron surface to an extent
in equal times proportional to some unascertained function of
the surface of zinc.
228. Hence it is proved that at the depth of immersion of all
these experiments, viz. twelve inches, the limit of protective
power of zinc in metallic contact with iron in fresh water lies
"between =1,th and #,nd of the surface of iron; or that it re-
quires about four times the amount of zinc surface to put in
motion the same quantity of electricity, and thus to protect
“wrought i iron in fresh water by its aid that will effect this result
‘in sea water. But after the lapse of a considerable period in fresh
water, all the other parallelopipeds began to show signs of rust
or of tarnish in the inverse order of their respective surfaces of
‘zinc ; hence time alone seems requisite in fresh water to cause
the protective power of any amount of surface of zine for iron
‘to cease, which is confirmed by the following fact.
_ 229. A plate of iron, whose entire surface was covered
‘with zinc in metallic contact, was immersed for twenty-five
months in fresh water. On examination, much flocculent oxide
of zinc had been formed, and lay in the bottom of the glass
yessel, which was in some places stained with red oxide of iron.
The zinc surface was found in irregularly scattered patches,
wholly removed down to the iron, which was covered with per-
oxide. Hence about two years appear to be the limit of pre-
Servative power of zinc to iron in fresh water, applied in fusion
over its wholesurface by the ordinary method. Itis to be noticed,
that the zinc surface was removed by solution, unequally or in
patches, indicating local action ab initio; and it has been before
254 ' REPoORT—1840.
shown, that as soon as oxidation takes place at any point upon
the iron surface, the protective power of the zinc is at once
diminished, or rendered null.
Of Iron in metallic contact with Zinc exposed to an indefinitely
small depth of Sea Water.
230. When several equal parallelopipeds of iron, having the
following ratios of zinked surface to those of iron, viz.
Surface of Zinc. Surface of Iron.
a 4:00 3 evauas) geaeael
b P00) iWon ae ; - abel
c SOOT, ear. Fane : ae Tei es
d a EO OS ey ee z 2 He |
e Sy a I eet arg” Ag : alba ll ell
af 2 OOo s | le : eee Oh a |
g 0-13125) 2. : Aaa fe La dl |
h 0°015625 F 4 Pade sak 4) |
z 0O;00786 . . : ]
are exposed to an indefinitely small depth of sea water, the iron
remained bright and free from oxide, down to the ratio of 0°065
of zinc to 1 of iron; but in all below this the iron suffered ox--
idation tubercularly. The oxide of zinc formed did not adhere
to either the iron or the zinc, and was partly precipitated in a
flocculent form, and partly dissolved in the sea water. Within
the period of experiment the limit of protective power of zinc
in metallic contact with iron, under the present condition, lies
between nd and ;4,th of the surface of the latter.
Of Iron in metallic contact with Zine, exposed to an in-
definitely small depth of Fresh Water.
231. When several parallelopipeds of iron having the follow-
ing ratios of zinked gurfaces to those of iron, viz.
Surface of Zinc. Surface of Iron.
td a peepee perp: rie Ni
| ap, EES he RREE Sa 6.
Me eae se wists ols LUO
LS CY FRE A TAO)
“ENGELS SS IT SA, 25! are
FR aa ies emo Lo) Riis se
were exposed to an indefinitely small depth of fresh water,
oxide of zinc was formed from the moment of exposure, on all,
which formed hard mammillary concretions on the surface of the
zine, and also in isolated centres on that of the iron; but from
the ratio of equal surfaces of zinc to iron, up to the proportion
ell peel eel oe Il ate
»
>
;
f
Ss
r
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 255
of thirty times the surface of zinc to that of iron, complete
electro-chemical protective power could not be procured even
for a few hours. With equal surfaces of zinc and iron the
latter became red-rusty in twelve hours, in tubercular masses,
the oxide formed having the composition (Fe O + Fe, O;)
+ HO.
232. From the foregoing series of experiments on the re-
actions of fresh and sea water on iron and zinc, besides the
- immediate facts obtained, we are in a condition to make some
general deductions. It has been shown that the oxidizing
_ effect of fresh water, holding one volume in eight of air and
carbonic acid, is much greater than that of sea water, holding
i one volume ms seventy of air and carbonic acid, on cast iron,
_ wrought iron, and steel, in voltaic contact with zine, all other
_ things being the same ; this arises from two circumstances—the
: difficulty with which a saline solution absorbs air when once
robbed of it, but still more from the fact, that the oxide of zinc
f formed plays a very different part in sea water to what it does
in fresh water.
Mi, 233. In sea water the oxidation of the zinc produced oxide
(Zn O), and at length a coat of suboxide, which forms a dis-
tinct ort gray layer on the zine surface, and may be detached
_ on bending the metal so as to obtain the suboxide in a state of
complete insulation from admixed metal, but none of the first
adheres to the metallic surface ; the oe of the oxide of zinc
_ formed is either washed away in a pulverulent form, or is dis-
_ ‘solved by decomposition of the sulphates, bromides, and chlo-
t rides of the sea water, forming sulphate, bromide, and chloride
_ of zinc, while the lime and magnesia form, with absorbed car-
_ bonic acid, insoluble carbonates ; or if the iron be peroxidized,
_ the oxide of zinc forms in part a saline double oxide with the
: sesquioxide of iron; but the zinc surface is preserved clean
and uniform to the last, either in the metallic state or as a sub-
oxide, except when the reaction has been very slow and the
electrical current very feeble ; in which case, after the lapse of
a long period, crystals of calc spar form on both metals.
934. Not so, however, in fresh water; here the oxide of
Zine undissolved forms local concretions of oxide on the sur-
face of the metal already covered with a coat of suboxide.
‘Now the precise condition constituting a suboxide, as Berze-
Tius has well remarked, is to be decomposed, under the play of
very slight affinities, into protoxide and metal, as in the ana-
logous cases of the suboxides of copper, Dianaith: arsenic, &c.,
at each local centre of deposition, then of protoxide of zinc,
the suboxide is so decomposed in fresh water, attended with
Pps
256 REPORT— 1840.
decomposition of the water itself; hence results local action
on the zinked surface, between the portions of it in the metallic
state and in the state of suboxide or protoxide; and hence its
removal in patches, by which the iron is soon laid bare in
spots, on which, when once peroxide of iron has formed toa
certain extent, the protective power of the remaining zinc is at
an end; for as has been shown*, the original difference in
electric condition between clean iron and clean zine is so small,
that the former ceases to be negative with reference to the
latter as soon as it has been rendered more positive by the pre-
sence of its own peroxide.
235. We have seen that the conditions the most favourable
possible for rapid oxidation of iron consist in its exposure to
‘* wet and dry,” or to air covered with an indefinitely thin
film of water constantly renewed ; thus circumstanced, zinc has
no protective power over iron in fresh water ; and on the whole
it may be affirmed, that under all circumstances zine has not yet
been so applied to iron to rank as an electro-chemical protector
towards it in the strict sense; hitherto ithasnot becomea prevent-
ive, but merely a more or less effective palliative to destruction +.
236. There are some contingent circumstances in the re-
actions of zine and iron, in presence of air and water, which
require a brief notice. All the surfaces of a parallelopiped of
iron, in contact with zinc, do not lose alike by oxidation; in
these circumstances, that surface which is nearest to the source
of absorbed atmospheric air, especially if it be parallel to the
plane of the surface of the fluid, loses the most by oxidation in
a given time.
237. All other circumstances being equal, the upper surface
of a parallelopiped of iron loses more in a given time than
either of the others. The reason of this is, that the bubbles of —
hydrogen escape freely from the upper surface as soon as
formed, and leave it constantly exposed to the action of the air
and water; but they cling to the lateral and under surfaces,
and so defend them more or less from the reaction. The same
result is frequently observable in a piece of iron exposed to a
moist atmosphere, but from a different reason ; here, zn general,
dew deposits first and most copiously on the upper surface, and
* § 207.
+ It is scarcely therefore necessary to notice, in way of contravention, a
paper in Poggendorff’s dAnnalen for last year, vol. xlvii. p. 213, giving an
account of the complete preservation of certain salt-pans by bands of zine,
which are said not to have been in contact with the saline solution. The
paper in question is a curious instance of the “ sophisma non causz pro
causa.” A recently-boiled saturated solution of common salt has no action on
iron, whether zinc be present or absent.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 257
hence it is the more moistened, and therefore the more cor-
roded. These modifying conditions apply, whether iron be in
contact with zinc or not.
238. Water is always decomposed by iron or zinc in metallic
contact as soon as oxidation of either metal has commenced,
and hydrogen is at first absorbed by the water, and when this
is saturated, evolved; but oxidation will not commence at all
either on metal in an hermetically sealed vessel of water free
from air, or on a body acting inits capacity as a peroxide. Hence,
while air is constantly requisite to maintain the power of de-
composing the water, it is not by the decomposition of the air
alone that the iron or the zinc is oxidized, as was maintained
by Dr. Marshall Hall*.
239. In my former Report+, I alluded to the effect of
covering surfaces of neutral solids, as glass, &c. (beneath which
the solvent fluid penetrated), in arresting corrosion. In the
progress of these experiments, however, I have observed some
curious modifications of this condition.
240. If a clean surface of iron immersed in water be covered
with a parallel surface of plate glass, leaving a film of water
between, oxidation will not take place between the glass and
the iron, at least for a great length of time; it very gradually
creeps inwards from the edges, forming patches of green inter-
mediate oxide ; but if in place of the plane of glass a glass lens
of large curvature, and thus making very small angles with the
surface of the iron, be placed upon it, oxidation will commence
at the point of contact, and will spread from thence, although
the iron may be in such a condition, that if no glass or other
neutral solid were in contact with it at all, oxidation would
_ just not take place.
241. So that, in general, whether a neutral solid prevent or
_ promote oxidation, depends upon its position in relation to the
surface of the metal. This fact seems to belong to the as yet
not understood power, in promoting chemical action, which
extremely small orifices or fissures seem to possess, as in the
action of spongy platina, of pyrophorus, of porous bedies in
_ the condensation and the diffusion of gases, endosmose and
exosmose through capillary tubes, and so forth. It has long
_ been observed, that in a crystallizing solution, crystals first
form at acute angles and on salient points.
242. If a plane of polished iron, or other oxidable metal, be
fixed, forming a very acute angle with a plate of glass, ivory,
&c., and both plunged into water, oxidation commences at the
angle first and spreads from it, whatever be the position of the
* First Report, § 11. + § 121.
1840, S
258 REPORT—1840.
angle with reference to the horizon. If the angle be formed by
two planes of iron, the same results follow. If a cut be made
on a plate of polished steel with a diamond, oxidation takes
place there first. Hence, in general, a rough plate of iron or
steel will be acted on by air and water sooner than a smooth or
polished one; and thus we perceive, in instruments of pre-
cision, the value of a well-polished or burnished surface.
243. The well-known difference in rapidity of solution be-
tween pure zinc and that containing an alloy of another metal
in small quantity, first noticed by De la Rive, induced me to
make a few experiments as to whether the protective power of
zinc to iron could be exalted by alloying the former with a mi-
nute quantity of another metal, higher or lower in the electro-
chemical scale. The following alloys were accordingly made,
and equal surfaces of cast iron submitted to the action of sea
water, immersed in metallic contact with these, viz.
50 Zn + Hg
100 Zn + Ap
25 Zn + Cu
50 Zn + Cu
100 Zn + Cu
50 Zn + Sn
100 Zn + Ni
25 Zn + Fe
100 Zn + Na
and also with pure zinc, and alone: on examination, it was
found that the alloy, in minute quantity of every metal which
is electro-negative to zinc, when in contact with cast iron, in-
creases its corrosion in sea water, including the alloy with iron
itself. While the alloy in minute quantity of a metal electro-
positive to zinc increases its protective power to iron, or de-
creases the corrosion of iron in sea water when in contact
therewith ; we shall hereafter see reason to conclude these alloys
not to be definite combinations, at least of their entire mass,
although fused together in atomic proportion, but mixtures of
definite alloys with a great excess of zinc.
244. I now proceed to notice the results contained in Tables
IX. and X. These tables indicate the amount of corrosion of
cast iron in sea water, when exposed in voltaic contact with
various alloys of copper and zinc, and of copper and tin, or
with either of those metals separately per unit of surface. The
alloys in Table 1X. of copper and zinc, belong to the class of
those generally called brass, those of Table X. to those usually
denominated gun-metal.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON, 259
The primary object of these two series of experiments was
to determine, in all its generality, the question as to the pre-
servative or non-preservative power of brass or gun-metal to
iron in sea water, a statement affirmative of which, it will be
recollected, was made at the meeting of the British Association
at Liverpool. This question has been pretty fully discussed in
my previous report, and it was therein shown that neither brass
nor gun-metal, as commonly so called, had any protective
power (of an electro-chemical character) over iron in water,
but, on the contrary, promoted its corrosion. The few experi-
ments on which this limited conclusion was made, were tried
on alloys of uncertain, or at least non-atomic constitution; it
was desirable not merely to set the question of protective power
finally at rest, but to establish a set of practical data for the
engineer as to the actual amount of increment or decrement of
corrosion of iron due to the presence of various alloys of the
orders brass and gun-metal, when immersed in sea water.
245. It is obvious that this question is only a particular case
of a much more general one, namely, if there be three metals,
A, B and C, whereof A is electro-positive, and C electro-nega-
tive with respect to B, and capable of forming various alloys,
A+C, &c.; then if B be immersed in a solvent fluid in pre-
sence of A, B shall be electro-chemically preserved, and A cor-
roded, and vice versd. If B be so immersed in presence of C,
B will be dissolved or corroded, and C electro-chemically pre-
served, the amount of loss sustained in either case by the posi-
tive metal being determined according to Faraday’s general law
of volta equivalents.
But now let various alloys be formed, having atomic constitu-
tions, as 2 A+C, A+C, A+2C, &c., and let B be exposed
tothe same solvent in presence of each. Query, what will be the
electro-chemical relation of the metal B to each alloy, in respect
to preservation, or amount of loss by corrosion? and what will
be the nature and amount of the reactions of several such alloys
upon an acid or saline solution, of a third metal, or of either
_ of those constituting the alloys? thus,
246. When the metals, zinc and lead, and their alloys, having
_ the compositions (4Zn + Pb), (3Zn+ Pb), (2Znu-+ Pb), (Zn-+ Pb),
- (Zn +2 Pb), (Zn+3 Pb), (Zn+4 Pb), are immersed under simi-
lar circumstances in a solution of acetate of lead, it would be
presumed that the decomposing power of every alloy would be
in proportion to the quantity of zinc enter ing into its composi-
tion. The result is not so, however. The zinc and the alloys
(4 Zn + Pb) and (3 Zn + Pb) at once reduce the lead of the acetate
of lead to the state of metal, ang as rapidly as zinc alone; after
s 2
260 REPORT—1840,
the lapse of some days, the alloys (2 Zn+Pb), (Zn+Pb), and
(Zn+2 Pb) have reduced a few scattered crystals of lead; but
the remaining alloys, (Zn+3 Pb) and (Zn+4 Pb), act in all re-
spects precisely as the lead itself towards its own salts.
247. When a similar set of alloys are placed in a solution of
nitrate of copper, a metal which is reduced from its salts both
by zine and lead, then the zinc and the alloys (4 Zn+ Pb) and
(3 Zn+ Pb) reduce the nitrate to metal, and the lead does so
likewise. The alloys (2 Zn+Pb), (Zn+Pb), and (Zn+2 Pb)
reduce the salt to deutoxide and metal mixed; but the alloys
(Zn +3 Pb) and (Zn +4 Pb) reduce the nitrate to deutoxide alone,
without reduction of metal. From the relations in affinity for
oxygen between copper, zinc and lead, it was to be presumed,
that all the alloys of the two latter metals would reduce copper;
but it is remarkable that all the alloys between (2 Zn+ Pb) and
(Zn+4 Pb) have less power of reduction than lead alone, while
the alloys (4 Zn+ Pb) and (3 Zn + Pb) have at least equal power
with zinc alone.
Analogous phenomena occur when solutions of other metals,
reducible by either zinc or lead, are used; and also when other
metals, as the alloys of copper and zinc, or copper and tin, are em-
ployed, so that no prediction can be made, from the known affini-
ties of the component metals towards a saline solution, what shall
be the affinities towards the same solution of their atomic alloys.
248. In this class of reactions it by no means always happens,
that both metals of the alloy, although both separately soluble in
the electro-negative element of the saline solution experimented
on, are dissolved in the ratio in which they exist in the alloy ;
nor is it always the most electro-positive metal of the two of
which the largest amount is dissolved. The presence of each
metal, and of its oxides, affects the affinities of the other of them,
instances of which we have in the alloy of silver and platina,
soluble in nitric acid, &c. As, however, the treatment of the
general question of the action of alloys, when immersed in acid
or saline menstrua on the solvent, and on each constituent metal,
does not properly belong to the present subject, and a sufficient
general indication of their bearing upon it has been given, I re-
serve the details for another occasion, and pass on to remark the
practical uses to the engineer of Tables IX. and X.
249. In Table IX. it will be seen that the twelfth column gives
the amount of loss per square inch of surface of cast iron, with
the skin removed by turning or planing (during a period com-
parable with all the preceding experiments), in contact with
brass, and various analogous alloys of zinc and copper, and also
with copper and with zinc singly. Thus the engineer is enabled
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 261
to predict the amount of loss any piece of submerged iron- work
will sustain in a given time by corrosion, when brass, &c. enters
as part of the construction, as, for instance, in the rollers, chain-
boxes, paddle-sluices, &c. &c. of dock-gate work.
It will be seen that cast-iron alone, similarly circumstanced
to all the rest (No. 24), suffers a loss in sea water, as compared
with an equal surface of cast iron in contact with copper, as
8:23: 11°37; that is, the copper, as might be expected, largely
promotes the corrosion of the iron; but the Table also shows,
what would ot have been expected, that the alloy having the
composition (7 Cu+Zn), promotes this corrosion still more
powerfully, or in the ratio of 13°21: 8°23, so that the addition of
this amount of an electro-positive metal to the copper actually
produces an alloy (a new metal, in fact), with higher electro-
negative powers in respect to cast iron than copper itself. The
Table shows that copper, and every alloy of it, with zinc, from
(Zn+10 Cu) to (17 Zn+8 Cu) inclusive, are electro-negative
with respect to cast iron; but that every alloy from (18 Zn+ 8Cu)
to (5 Zn + Cu) inclusive, with zinc itself, are electro-positive with
respect to cast iron. Now the last but one of the electro-nega-
tive alloys is that (2 Zn+Cu), which is the usual composition
of British brass of commerce, which, while it does actually by
its presence increase the corrosion of iron by menstrua, thus
fortunately does so in a small degree, as compared with other al-
loys containing more copper.
250. It will be perceived that the alloys from (17 Zn +8 Cu)
to (23 Zn+8 Cu) form a separate interpolated series, advancing
each by one eighth of an atom, and differing by only a single atom
of zinc from the alloy (2 Zn+Cu) which precedes, and from that
(3 Zn+ Cu) which follows. This was needed, and prepared after
the formation of the other alloys, in order to discover the alloy of
no action, as it may be termed, or that which, in presence of iron
and a solvent, would neither accelerate nor retard its solution ;
and accordingly we see it lies between (17 Zn+8 Cu) and
_ (18 Zn+8 Cu), the former being slightly electro-negative, and
_ the latter slightly electro-positive, with respect to cast iron.
251. It was stated in the former report, that the really import-
ant direction in which to look for protection from corrosion of
_ iron in water was indicated by some results of Schonbein, An-
drews, Payen and other experimenters, ard that the problem
was ‘‘to obtain a mode of electro-chemical protection, such, that
while the metal (iron) shall be preserved, the protector shall
not be acted on, and whose protection shall be invariable*.’’
This view Professor Schénbein himself, in a paper presented to
* Report, § 136.
262 REPORT—1840.
the Chemical Section of the British Association at Birmingham,
passes summary judgment upon, by affirming that ‘the con-
dition, sine gud non, for efficaciously protecting readily oxidable
metals against the action of free oxygen, being dissolved in fluids,
is to arrange a closed voltaic circle, made up on one side of the
metal to be protected, and another metallic body more readily
oxidable than the former, and on the other side, of an electrolyte
containing hydrogen—for instance, water.’’ Whatever opinion
may be formed as to the necessity of a closed circle, it is un-
doubtedly not proved that the evolution of hydrogen is the con-
dition of protection, sine qua non; the experiments adduced do
not show it, while many others might be quoted directly show-
ing it not to be a necessary condition. This is not, however, the
place for discussing Professor Schonbein’s views at length, which
involve the whole guestio vexata of the chemical and contact
theories of galvanism.
252. I proceed, therefore, to notice the seventh column of
this Table, in which is given the loss of weight sustained by the
alloys of copper and zinc while in presence of cast iron and the
solvent. On inspecting this column it will be apparent that
the losses have not taken place in accordance ‘with the law
of volta-equivalents: there can be little doubt that they are
strictly in accordance with that law, and that the results are ir-
resoluble from the involvement of two or more series in column
seven, arising probably frem some of the alloys being simple
binary compounds, and others either double binary alloys, or a
mixture of a binary alloy with one or other of its components in
excess.
253. It will be further observed, that whereas zinc alone in
protecting cast iron suffered a loss of = 2°95 grains, being
nearly the equivalent, the alloy (23 Zn + 8 Cu), which as fully
protected the iron from all action or corrosion, sustained a loss
but of =0°51 grain; in other words, the protecting metal was
scarcely itself acted on at all.
This, then, makes a by no means unimportant step towards
obtaining the much-wished-for electro-chemical protector before
spoken of; and henceforth the engineer will have it in his
power, whenever the alloy (23 Zn +8 Cu) can be used or applied
in contact with cast iron, to protect the latter as fully as by
zine itself; yet with a protector which shall suffer scarcely
any loss, and whose protective energy I have reason to suppose
will be, from this very cause, much more permanent and inva- |
riable than I have already proved that of pure zinc to be.
254. With respect to the alloys themselves found in this
Ninth and following Table, I believe so large and complete a
a at aie a
° Sets jin a aii le vs ed »
Sei
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 263
- collection of strictly atomic alloys of the two practically impor-
tant classes of brass and oe, has not been made hereto-
fore.
The principal experiments on the properties of this class of
alloys published, are those of Margraff; but his were not
atomic alloys, nor made in a way likely to ensure a knowledge
of their constitution. I have therefore deemed it worth while
to make some experiments on the properties of these alloys, and
have given the results in Tables XIV. and XV.: as these nearly
explain themselves, it is necessary to make but few remarks on
them. The alloys of zinc and copper were all made in close
vessels; the copper was fused first, the zinc in another part of
the same bent wrought iron tube, coated and lined with porce-
lain clay and plumbago. The zinc was gradually brought in
contact with the copper: the apparatus excluded air, and was
continually agitated, until the alloy was poured into a mould of
cast iron, in which it was cast into a long strip, which solidified
instantly. About seven pounds weight of each alloy were formed
at once, and the constitution of each, where any cause of doubt
existed, was verified afterwards by an assay. Their composition
therefore is rigidly assigned—a circumstance which it is con-
ceived gives their properties, so far as they have been ascer-
tained, more than usual value.
255, The modulus of cohesion given is higher considerably
than those found by Sir John Rennie for copper and brass
(2 Zn+Cu), or commonly assigned to zinc. I have no doubt,
however, of the present being correct, and the difference arises
probably from the superior purity of the metals used by me.
256. The immediate change by the addition of only one
eighth of an atom of zinc to the alloy (2 Zn+Cu), from a tough
yellow alloy to a white one of extreme brittleness, is very re-
-markable. The alloy (5 Zn+Cu), and all the alloys of copper
and zine having more constituent zinc than (17 Zn+8Cu) are
electro-positive to cast iron, or protect it in solvents ; yet when
_ the alloy of copper is reduced to the ratio of (25 Zn+Cu), or
(100 Zn + Cu), the compound becomes again electro-negative to
cast iron*. These indicate, in a forcible manner, that these
_ latter are not simple alloys, but mixtures. It may be added,
that the reduction to the law of volta-equivalents of the losses
in the seventh column, may enable us to discover what is the
constitutional arrangement of the alloys themselves.
257. It should be remarked, before leaving the subject of
_ these alloys of Zn+ Cu, that their specific gravities, as experi-
* § 243.
264 REPORT—1840.
mentally obtained in column five, do not follow the ratio of the
amount of copper, increasing as it increases, although their
general tendency is towards this; the greatest perturbations
take place in the interpolated series(17 Zn + 8Cu)to(23 Zn + 8Cu).
These specific gravities are taken on the alloys just as they were
cast, and suddenly cooled in the cast-iron mould; but on sub-
mitting some of them to lamination, very variable amounts of
condensation took place. Hence it is probable that sudden
cooling produces an effect analogous to tempering in cold water
on the alloys of copper and zinc. Dussaussoy found that as
the latter became soft and malleable by tempering (trempe),
their specific gravities were reduced in variable proportions ;
and it matters not whether this tempering be effected in water,
or by sudden cooling in a metallic mould; the alloys now in
question have therefore been submitted to this process ; and as
no link at present exists connecting the density of such an alloy
with its specific gravity after lamination, the densities now given
in Tables XIV. and XV. will be found, in most instances, not
to correspond with those occasionally given in books, and
which have been chiefly made on alloys submitted to compres-
sion, or cast and cooled in various ways. The densities given,
however, are I believe close approximations to the truth; and
all the alloys having been cast in the same way, at the same
temperature, and cooled at the same rate, these specific gravities
must be relatively correct.
258. Table X. contains the results of the action of sea
water on cast iron, in presence of copper and tin, or their alloys.
What has been said of the preceding explains the general na-
ture of this Table also. It is therefore only necessary to re-
mark here, that as copper and tin are each singly electro-negative
with respect to iron*, they both, together with every alloy in
the Table, increase or accelerate the rate of corrosion of cast
iron in a solvent, though in every variable degree.
The maximum increase is produced by tin alone ; which in-
dicates that tin is more powerfully electro-negative to cast iron
than copper, contrary to the opinion previously held. The in-
crease of corrosion produced generally by alloys of copper and
tin is far greater than by those of copper and zinc: hence the
important practical deduction, that when submerged iron-works
must be in contact with either alloy, common brass, or copper
and zinc is much to be preferred to gun-metal, although con-
trary to general practice amongst engineers.
The losses on these alloys in column seven, as in the former
case, do not apparently follow the law of volta-equivalents.
* Report, § 96.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 265
259. The ratio of the surface of the cast-iron parallelopipeds
used in these two sets of experiments to that of similar slips
of the alloys, is given: both iron and alloys were filed to an ex-
act gauge, so as to present strictly equal surfaces, in pairs, and
the former made all of equal weight. The amount of loss or
the ‘ index of corrosion ’’ of cast iron in contact with any given
alloy in the Tables, will of course vary according to some un-
ascertained function of the surface of the alloy and of the iron
exposed to chemical action. The law regulating this remains
to be developed ; it is a subject of considerable complexity and
experimental difficulty. The ratio, however, of surface of the
electro-negative to that of the electro-positive metal, may vary
to a considerable extent without very materially affecting the
results given in the present Tables, as respects their primary
object.
260. These experiments were necessarily made ina limited
" quantity of sea water (12 cubic inches each), and all in separate
glass vessels ; and as this water was soon exhausted of much of
its previously combined air, the eleventh and twelfth columns
in each Table give the ratio of the actual corrosion in a limited
quantity of water to that which would take place in an unlimited
one, or in the open sea, which is deduced from the result of
(# 77) in Table I. first series, being on the same sort of cast
iron as the present.
_ 261. There are several collateral points of scientific interest
this branch of our inquiry presents, which I pass, as out of the
“subject of inquiry. I would remark, however, that the results
confirm fully what had been previously stated respecting the
impossibility of protecting iron by brass in the ordinary sense of
the word. They also point out the inutility, not to say the ab-
_surdity, of some inventions for the so-called prevention of ox-
_idation, for which patents have recently been obtained; for ex-
ample, more than one patent, for so preserving iron by dipping
it into melted copper *, or coating it with copper or brass in
‘various other wayst.
_ 262. It has recently been proposed to substitute zinc for
lead in the operation of “ cramping,”’ or running a fluid fusible
metal into the joints of iron-works to secure them together, or to
_ * Repertory of Arts for 1839-40.
__+ lobserve with pleasure that M. Karsten of Berlin has recently published
Se lnetitut No. 275, April 1839) some experiments on the electro-chemical re-
ations of alloys of copper and zinc, &c., to solutions of their own metals. It
is to be regretted that his experiments do not seem to have been made on
alloys of atomic constitution; but while unknown to each other travelling
(though with different objects) on neighbouring roads, it is pleasant to find
that our results have so far brought us to the same resting-place.
266 REPORT—1840.
other materials, in order, by taking advantage of its positive re-
lation to iron, to save the latter from the increased corrosion
due to the presence of lead, which is strongly negative to it.
Zinc alone, however, possesses some “disadvantages as a
‘cramping ’’ metal; it oxidates with great rapidity when fused
in an open vessel ; it contracts more than lead on solidifying, and
it is too rigid to "permit subsequent “ caulking,”’ so as to cause
it again to fill the cavity into which it was cast. ‘The results
which have been given for the alloys of zinc with copper render
it extremely probable, however, that an alloy of zinc and lead
might be formed eminently suitable as a “ cramping metal” in
contact with iron, which, while it should possess the requisite
physical properties, would be found in such a relation to iron as
to retard, or at least not promote, its oxidation.
263. In my previous report* I suggested the possibility of
preserving electro-chemically, to a greater or less extent, the
dense and hard gray cast irons in ordinary use for engineering
purposes by means of contact with the softest and most carbo-
naceous cast irons, such as those of Scotland and Ireland. I
showed that the latter sort of cast iron is, in presence of a sol-
vent, constantly in an electro-positive relation to the former,
and that of two such specimens of cast iron, in voltaic contact,
there was reason to believe that the denser iron would be pre-
served to a greater or less extent at the expense of the other.
Experiments on this subject have now been in progress for
twenty-five months.
264. When four equal-sized parallelopipeds, two of very hard
dense bright gray cast iron, just capable of being planed or
turned, and two of soft dark gray and highly carbonaceous cast
iron, are placed, one of each pair, separately in a jar of sea
water, and the other pair (viz. hard and soft) in a jar of sea
water together, and in voltaic contact, the pieces having been
all weighed, and the sea water preserved at a constant level,
&c. &c. Then, after a period of twenty-five months had elapsed,
on examination the following were found to be the results as to
corrosive action :—
All the pieces were found covered with a coat of red oxide,
having the composition = (Fe, O;) + (Fe O + C O,) +H O,
and much of the same had deposited in the glass vessels.
265. The piece of hard cast iron immersed singly was found,
on washing off the coat of rust, clean and pretty bright, and its
surface still metallic. On weighing, and also measuring by a
micrometer, it was found to have lost a coat of iron over its
* § 129.
7
fi
‘
,
Be
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 267
whole surface of 0°007 of an inch in depth, a result also con-
firmed by the amount of rust contained in the vessel, and on
the piece when reduced to peroxide.
_ 266. The piece of soft cast. iron immersed alone was found,
on washing off the coat of rust, to be covered with a thin coat
_of soft, unctuous plumbago, capable also of being washed away
_by rubbing with the finger; its surface was black, and filled
_ with glittering minute scales of graphite, but had lost its me-
_tallic lustre wholly. On removing the plumbago down to the
_ solid iron, by rubbing with a piece of hard wood and washing,
the piece was found to have lost a metallic coat over its whole
surface of 0°01 of an inch in depth, estimated as before, and
controlled by the amount of graphite and rust reduced to
_ peroxide.
_ 267. Lastly, the voltaic couple, the hard and the soft iron in
contact, were examined; on washing off the rust, the hard
‘specimen appeared bright and polished, and some minute file-
marks on its surface, as sharp as when placed in the sea water.
The surface of the soft piece of cast iron, on the contrary, was
black, full of scales of graphite without metallic lustre, and
eapable of being rubbed away with the finger. The two sur-
faces, which were actually opposed to each other and in contact,
were in both almost quite free from stain or oxidation, where
air and water with difficulty gained access, from reasons before
explained. On washing and cleaning perfectly the hard speci-
men from oxide, and the soft one from oxide and plumbago,
and weighing as before, the hard cast iron was found to have
Tost a coat of iron over its whole exposed surface = 0:00263 of
an inch in depth, while the piece of soft cast iron had sustained
a loss over ifs whole exposed surface of 0°03 of an inch in
depth, both estimated as before, by weighing and measurement,
and the result controlled by estimation of the peroxide and
aphite produced.
268. Itis hence proved, that the softest dark gray cast iron is
sufficiently electro-negative, to hard bright gray cast iron, to re-
d the corrosion of the latter in sea water when voltaically as-
ciated with it, to the extent of two thirds of the total amount of
corrosion that would be experienced by the same hard gray cast
ron, if exposed for the same time and under similar circum-
nces alone to sea water, and that the formation of plumbago
he softer iron or positive pole, and the collection of a coat
ist on the surface of both irons, does not prevent, although
may possibly in some degree interfere with, this effect.
ence it follows, that while the voltaic relations of soft to hard
st iron are such as will not prevent oxidation upon either, it
268 REPORT—1840.
is yet in our power greatly to retard the corrosion of the harder
iron at the expense of the softer, so that the engineer is thus
given a principle of guidance in the combination of different
*‘makes’’ or sorts of cast iron in the same structure, when it
may be desirable partially to preserve some parts at the expense
of others of less structural importance*. Instances of such
cases, and of the applicability of the principle here given, will
at once occur to practical men.
269. The engineer of observant habit will soon have per-
ceived, that in exposed works in iron, equality of section or
scantling, in all parts sustaining equal strain, is far from in-
suring equal passive power of permanent resistance, unless, in
addition to a general allowance for loss of substance by corro-
sion, this latter element be so provided for, that it shall be
equally balanced over the whole structure; or, if not, shall be
compelled to confine itself to portions of the general structure,
which may lose substance without injuring its stability.
The principles we have already established sufficiently guide
us in the modes of effecting this; regard must not only be had
to the contact of dissimilar metalst, or of the same in dis-
similar fluids}, but to the scantling of the casting and of its
parts§, and to the contact of cast iron with wrought iron or
steel, or of one sort of cast iron with another||. Thus, in a
suspension bridge, if the links of the chains be hammered, and
the pins rolled, the latter, where equally exposed, will be eaten
away long before the former. In marine steam-boilers, the
rivets are hardened by hammering until cold; the plates, there-
fore, are corroded through round the rivets before these suffer
sensibly, and in the air-pumps and condensors of engines work-
ing with sea water, or in pit vork, and pumps lifting mineral -
ized or “bad”? water from mines, the cast iron perishes first
round the holes through which wrought-iron bolts, &e. are in-
serted. And abundant other instances might be given, showing
that the effects here spoken of are in practical operation to an
extent that should press the means of counteracting them on
the attention of the engineer.
270. I have not yet been enabled to extend this part of the
inquiry to fresh water, but have reason to suppose it would not
be in such case attended with equally striking results from
facts before stated with respect to zinc and iron in contact in
fresh water ; the same forces, however, still will operate with
like results, only differing in degree. It seems not improbable,
* Report, § 134. T § 244—261. Pg War
§ Sect. 179—183. i| § 263—268.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 269
that the softer cast irons might be alloyed with a minute quan-
tity of some other metal, which should produce a compound
still more electro-positive with respect to hard cast iron than
before. This view is supported by some facts recorded by Ber-
_ thier, in the Annales des Mines, tom. xi. p. 512, third series.
_ Soon after Algiers was taken by the French, some ancient shot
and shells were sent to France to be recast, which had been
_ discovered in the arsenal. They were found, however, unfit for
"service; the metal of which they were composed was full of mi-
_ nute cavities, so brittle as to be easily pulverized, white and
_lameliar. Analyses of the shot and shells gave the following
results in 1000 parts:
Shot. Shells.
Azsenie)) :5))40) 0. O"27O428s.44.0 O7098
Carborie ae he) 2% POOL es eksieode vo OLS
0°280 0°113
They contained neither sulphur, manganese, calcium, nor sili-
‘con. Specific gravity of shot = 7°650, of shells = 7°585.
‘The cast iron alloy of which they were formed was found by
Berthier to oxidate, when exposed to air and water, with un-
usual rapidity : he supposes these projectiles to have been cast
in Spain, of iron made from mispikel or arseniuret of iron.
_ 271. I now proceed to make some remarks upon the specific
gravities of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, which follow in
the accompanying tabulated results. In Table XI. are col-
_ lected the specific gravities of all the cast irons of the preceding
experiments. These specific gravities have been taken with an
mnusual amount of care, and by a new method, described in
the former Report*, which possesses some decided advan-
tages in point of accuracy and convenience. They have all
een taken on equal-sized cubes of the several cast irons cut
j the planing-machine from bars of equal size, viz. one inch
re, and cast in the same way, at the same temperature
arly, and cooled at the same rates; all of which precautions
_ are essential to procuring correct results.
_ 272. Many of my specific gravities do not agree with those
iven by Dr. Thompson or those of Mr. Fairbairn, contained
heir respective reportst. This may arise possibly from Dr.
mpson’s specific gravities having been taken from pieces of
raw pig-iron, or castings of a different size from those I
d, or of various dimensions with respect to each other. In
r. Fairbairn’s case, probably from the circumstance that (as
Bs S71: T In vol. vi. Report of the British Association.
270 REPORT—1840.
I have heard) his specific gravities were taken by weighing
equal bulks ; cubes, in fact, cut from the mass of cast iron by
the chisel and file, a method in itself not susceptible of much
accuracy, but rendered much more liable to error from the
liability to variable condensation of volume of the iron in the
processes of chipping and filing; a rough crystalline broken
surface effectually prevents an exact specific gravity being taken
of cast iron by the usual method of weighing such a specimen
suspended in water; and no cutting out of the specimen for
weighing by any method is allowable, except by the lathe or
planing-machine, which operate so quietly, that no condensa-
tion of volume is likely to take place.
273. Dr. Thompson’s results give the specific gravity of hot-
blast iron greater than that of cold-blast. Mr. Fairbairn’s, on
the contrary, give the specific gravity of cold-blast iron as the
greater, and to the latter conclusion my own results tend. I have
entire confidence in the correctness of the specific gravities I
have given, from the method and precautions taken, and the ac-
curacy of the instrument used in the weighings—a balance of
Troughton’s construction, readily sensible, when loaded, to the
third decimal place.
274. A correct knowledge of the specific gravities of cast iron
is important in several respects to the engineer, but most of all
so from the fact, that Messrs. Fairbairn’s and Hodgkinson’s ex-
periments on the strength of hot- and cold-blast iron seem to in-
dicate that the ultimate strength of cast iron is in the ratio of
some function of the specific gravity, a view more recently also
confirmed by Mr. Richard Evans’s experiments on the strength
of anthracite pig-iron.
Now the conditions rendering the specific gravity of the same
cast iron variable, are
I. The bulk of the casting.
II. The depth or head of metal under which it has been cast.
III. The temperature at which the iron has been “ poured,” or
run into the mould.
IV. The rate at which the casting has cooled.
The determination of the law governing the change in each
of these cases is a work of some labour and difficulty, which has
been partly attempted.
275. In Table XII. the results are given of the experi-
ments I have made on Scotch, Welsh, and Staffordshire cast
irons, showing the increase of density produced in large cast-
ings at every two feet in depth, down to fourteen feet in depth
of casting. These experiments were made on pieces cut at every
two feet from a shaft or cylinder of four inches in diameter, cast
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 271
vertically, in drysand moulds. They show a very rapid increase
at first, and, below four feet in depth, a nearly uniform incre-
ment of density, approximating to a common difference of 0°13.
No previous attempts have been made, to my knowledge, to
ascertain these conditions of variable specific gravity in cast iron :
yet their importance is obvious; for if the ultimate strength of
castings is as some function of their specific gravity, the results
of experiments in relation to strength of castings of different
magnitudes, or cast under different heads, are not comparable,
unless these conditions of specific gravity be attended to, and in-
volved in every calculation.
276. In Table XIII. the results are given of my experi-
ments on the decrease of specific gravity of the same cast iron,
due to increase of bulk or volume of casting, the circumstances
_ of head of metal, temperature and rate of cooling being the same,
_ The irons experimented on are Scotch, Welsh and Staffordshire,
The bulk of the casting in each successive experiment is double
that of the preceding one; and the results show nearly an equal
_ decrement in specific gravity in proportion to the increase of
_ volume of the casting.
These results sufficiently show, for instance, that although
the strength of rectangular beams varies directly as their breadth,
_ yet doubling the thickness or breadth of such a cast-iron beam
will not quite double its strength, as the same iron becomes less
_ dense in the larger casting, if so be that we admit a relation be-
_ tween density and ultimate cohesion, of which there seems to be
_ but little doubt.
277. In Table XI. I have arranged all the cast irons of
_ my experiments in classes, according to the characters of their
fracture, and, for the first time, attempted to establish an uni-
_ form system of nomenclature in this respect, dividing all sorts
_ of cast iron, by fracture, into one of six classes, either
I. Silvery,
II. Micaceous, (miratoire of French authors,)
III. Mottled,
h- IV. Bright gray,
$ V. Dull gray,
VI. Dark gray,
which will be found sufficient to include and describe every va-
_ riety; and it is much to be wished that authors on these sub-
_ jects would, in future, adopt this or some similar invariable no-
_Mmenclature for the character of fracture, at present usually so ill
_ described.
278. The nomenclature, or classification of cast iron by frac-
272 REPORT—1840.
ture here adopted, is more also than a mere set of arbitrary
visual distinctions, inasmuch as each class I have made holds a
constant relation between the character of its fracture and its
chemical constitution. Ihave also given the general working
character of each such class of cast iron, by which, however, it
is not to be understood, but that occasionally a mtxed cast tron
may be found, possessing all these characters in working, and
yet breaking with a slightly different fracture. The working
characteristics given are, however, on the whole, correct.
279. The present communication, I would hope, in some de-
gree fulfils the desire of the British Association as to a portion
of this inquiry, and will be found not devoid of use to the prac- —
tical engineer. I do not purpose to enter at all in the present
Report upon the chemical consideration of the changes which
iron occasionally undergoes by the action of various solvents in
passing into a substance analogous to plumbago, nor of the or-
ganic and other products which result from such reactions ;
these I hope to bring forward on a future occasion, along with
the results of all the other trains of experiment in progress or
contemplation, and of the second immersion of all the cast and
wrought irons for a period of two years, which will expire in
January 1842. The results of their first immersion are now
given, and with the results of the experiments now in progress,
on wrought iron and steel, together with a review of the whole
subject in its purely chemical relations, will, I expect, com-
plete our researches.
280. The latter experiments on wrought iron and steel have
been for some months in operation ; and the tables of data be-
longing to them, which best indicate their nature and extent,
have been presented; but it is not necessary to publish them at
this time, as the only results of this series actually completed as
yet, are the specific gravities. These are given in Table XVI.
The maximum specific gravity is that of tilted blister steel,
made by the Mersey Steel Company, which is = 7°8461. The
minimum specific gravity is that of cast steel in the ingot, be-
fore tilting, which is =,7°4413 ; it contains microscopic vesicles.
The specific gravity of the iron from which both were made, is
=7'5839.
From this Table it appears, that both in wrought iron and steel
the density is increased more by hammering than by rolling, and
that the densest specimens of both metals break with a fibrous
or very fine crystalline fracture, while the least dense have a coarse
crystalline or lamellar fracture.
281. Experiments already detailed having demonstrated the
great rapidity with which iron of every sort is corroded while
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 273
“kept just covered with water, or between ‘‘ wet and dry,” a
series of new experiments have been recently arranged, contain-
ing specimens of cast and wrought iron, freely exposed to all the
atmospheric influences, at Dublin. These are coordinate with
all the experiments, whose first results of submersion are now
given, and will connect the action of water containing air and
carbonic acid on iron with that of air holding water and car-
bonic acid in suspension, &c. ; and, as the meteorological regis-
ters of Dublin are tolerably perfect, will be hereafter comparable
with any such made in another locality. The data of this set of
"experiments may await the publication of a third report, and be
given along with the results.
_ 282. Inconcluding this second report upon a subject in which
I feel a lively interest, and the practical bearing of which needs
‘no further evidence than the multitude of patents, whether good
or bad, for inventions intended to preserve iron, &c., which have
‘been obtained since the publication of the first report, and in
“retracing the ground already gone over, I must regret the many
imperfections and omissions, which I might have been enabled to
avoid, could I have devoted more time to these researches. That
learned otium, however, so necessary to successful experimental
“study, is denied to those who, like myself, find every day to come
preoccupied with the unavoidable duties of a laborious profession.
Hence, most of these experiments have been made and recorded
in hours stolen from rest, or, with greater difficulty, from busi-
ness.
_ Ihave to thank many individuals for specimens of iron, &c.
N various conditions, and especially my young friend Mr.
Charles Scanlan, for his valuable assistance in taking great
numbers of specific gravities.
274
Sunk and moored at the Second Buoy in from the Western Pier Head in three
Temperature of water 46° Fahr- to 58° Fahr,
August 3rd, 1838. Weighed again and landed August 26th, 1839; hence
1840, at one o'clock p.m., and now immersed. Specific gravity of water
ordinarily 12 to 16 feet.
REPORT—1840.
No, of
Experiment
and mark
of Specimen,
COONS Or NO
RekeRRRRKKRA
_
_
8
—
bo
Rg
al9
a 20
a 24
a 25
TABLE
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 1
2. 3. 4, 5.
a Specific
Commercial Character of Iron. et eater pean roadie,
Bins. | Character of | we,
| he
Wosmis ADSGUIAIS.” \aseccotsaceverscuns: Cold | Dark gray Green 7192
Nols sowlaiss tiiiic.thaedt as sdence Cold | Dark gray | Green 7-183
Nose. SW OULSIS: c<cnpedeat = socnesee Cold | Dark gray | Green | 77159
No. 3. Doulais. ... Cold | Dark gray | Green | 77149
No. 1. Doulais. .... Hot | Dull gray | Green | 77164 |
No. 1. Blaenavon, Cold | Dark gray | Green | 77143 |
No. 1. Blaenavon, Cold | Dark gray | Green | 7-133 j
No. 4. Doulais. Finery pig ....... Hot | Silvery Green | 6378 |
No. 4. Doulais. Finery pig .......| Hot | Silvery Green | 6369 |
No.1. Pentwyn, Peculiar fracture.) Hot | Micaceous | Green | 7:000 |
No.1. Pentwyn. Peculiarfracture.| Hot | Micaceous | Green | 6991 |
No. 2. Varteg Hill Hot | Brightgray | Green | 7074 |
No. 2. Varteg Hill. Hot | Brightgray | Green | 7-065 |
| +
Box a. No. l. Class No. 2 )
)
ING US VATI@ OA 5 sisckesccnsesseos cases Cold | Micaceous | Green | 7:006 |
No. 1. Arigna <.....-<cccecgesasscesse Cold | Micaceous | Green | 7-015
Nagorno wedene sot ee caetacaae Cold | Dull gray Green | 6799 |
Was rma ig aes segervecnessoecosecce : Cold | Dull gray | Green | 6809 |)
Box a. No.1. Class No. 3. Staffordshire,
No. 3. Apedale. Cylinder Iron...) Hot | Mottled | Green | 7-106 |
No. 3. Apedale. Cylinder Iron...| Hot | Mottled : Green | 7116 ||
Not 12 Parkfield. ic cccsedsccesecsene Cold | Mottled Green | 7:248 |
No. 1. Madeley Wood. ............ Cold | Bright gray | Green | 7-115 |
gas hea eshall. <s.5ccssadcs—peaore Cold | Dull gray Green | 7:205 |.
Riel ow CingeCElord. |...ss.cessarceenes Cold | Bright gray | Green | 7-040 |
No. 1. Cinderford, .......s.00s00000 Cold | Bright gray | Green | 7-049 |
assem STEECHINIS 0. cscnsnconceec aces Cold | Micaceous | Green | 6-933 lf
Box a. No. 1. containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought ~
bende
No. I.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON,
275
a Iron, immersed in clear Sea Water, Kingstown Harbour.
and one half fathoms water, at half tide, ona clean sandy bottom. Tide rises
The length of the Box lies east and west.
.
q Ww elsh Cast Iron.
the period of immersion = 387 days.
in Kingstown Harbour = 1027:80.
Sunk at one o'clock p.m.,
Sunk a second time January 11th,
6. fe 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Weight of | Total loss | Loss of Loss of | 6 og
Dimensions | Weight of | Specimen by _|Weightper| Weight | #39 Character
of Specimen after Corrosion |square inch) referred to| "sos" of
Specimen. | in Grains, | 387 days’ in of Standard | 832 Corrosion.
exposure, | 387 days, |. Surface. Bar. 3” 3
Sejin, in. in.
mex 5s xl 43011 42720 291 4:16 392 0- Uniform P.
5x5 x °25| 11871 11384 487 8°85 834 0: Uniform.
5x5xl 43777 43452 325 4°64 ‘437 0- Local pitted.
5 x 5 x 25} 12665 12209 456 8:29 782 0: | Local.
5x4xl 34843 34469 374 6°45 608 0- Uniform.
5x5x1 43558 43200 358 5-11 482 0: Uniform P.
5x5 x :25| 12185 11759 426 7:74 730 0 Uniform.
5x5x1 41257 | 41176 81 1:16 109 0: | Tubercular.
5x5 x *25| 10846 10576 270 4-90 A462 0- Tubercular.
5x5x1 41864 41547 317 4:53 ‘A27 0- Uniform P.
5x5 x :25| 11665 11169 496 9-01 *850 0: Uniform P.
5x5x1 43785 43638 147 2:10 198 0- | Local.
5x5 x -25| 12929 12839 590 10-70 1-009 7:0 | Local pitted.
J
Irish Cast Iron.
x 5 x -25| 10922 10479 443 8°05 759 0- Uniform P.
x5x1 40670 4033] 339 4:84 457 0: Uniform P.
x 5 x 25! 11886 11453 433 7:87 F742 0- Uniform P.
x5 xl 42915 42695 220 3:14 “296 0- Uniform P.
Shropshire, and Gloucestershire Irons. Cast.
19X5 ~x-25| 12197 11789 408 7:40 698 0: Tubercular.
15x5 x1 | 44690 44352 338 4:83 *456 0: Tubercular.
5x4 x1 | 34814 34412 402 6-93 654 0: Local.
moexe <1 | 34112 33770 342 5°76 543 0: Local.
5x3°63x 1 | 31818 31530 288 5°37 507 0- Local.
‘\5x5 = x:25| 12454 11900 554 10-07 941 3° Local.
5x3-75x 1 | 32736 32527 209 3°62 341 0- Local.
[8x35 x1 29617 28773 844 16°23 1:531 0- Local.
re Pz
276 REPORT— 1840.
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 4.
1. 2 3. 4 5.
sit : H Gravity of
Sesk ; ot or External wey 0.
SERS .
g be A Commercial Character of Tron ou Character of How Gant oe wal
iS] Bae w
°
a 26 | No.1. Clyde, 35 years made ......| Cold | Mottled Green 7-140
a 27 | No. 1. Clyde, 35 years made...... Cold | Mottled Green 7-131
a 28 | No. 8. Calder oe Bright gray | Green 7-064 -
a 29 | No.3. Calder Bright gray | Green 7-055
a 30 | No. 4. Calder Silvery Green T9527
a 3l | No.4. Calder Silvery Green 7518
a 32 | No.1. Gartsherry Bright gray | Green 7001
a 3d | No. J. Gartsherry Bright gray | Green 6-990
a 34 | No.2. Gartsherry Bright gray | Green F115
«30 | No. 2. Gartsherry Bright gray | Green 7:106
a 36 | No.3. Gartsherry Bright gray | Green 7:074
a 37 | No. 3. Gartsherry .........000. .-.--| Hot | Bright gray | Green 7065
BGS ONO. 2eSUMMEIC 0, .ccncveascces Hot | Bright gray | Green 7-146
a 39 | No.2. Summerlie ............ .s-+-| Hot | Bright gray | Green 7-156
a 40 Nose WMonkland..: 2.2 cccseessccecece Hot Dull gray Green 7115S
a Al Mos et tonklanid::.ct..ceseseseverecc’ Hot Dull gray Green 7124
a 42 | No.4. Monkland........... Leas aster Hot | Mottled Green 7°285
a 43 | No.4. Monkland... ........... se... Hot | Mottled Green 7-294
a 44 Nos le Whtrirkinic scacscoctocseccecs scat Hot | Micaceous Green 6971
cen Atyee PON Os ae “VEUITKIEE ccece.cccesecssressen Hot | Micaceous Green 6:980
euAGmaNosos Muirkinke)..sis.cerece..-vexese Hot | Dull gray Green 6829
ign No. 3s) Muirkink oo. eee esas. cass Hot | Dull gray Green 6°838
ARO NOs ls? SHOU ee ene--sahotaes dearer Hot | Dull gray Green 7099
ADM GING, bet SHOLtS Mass osemanatentnes-nesee Hot | Dull gray Green 7109
Oe AlN Osf2c, HOLES) taeda nce oc caesenben su ccs Hot | Dull gray Green 7143
@ 51 No. 2. Shotts ........ Sc ceeteottan Hot | Dull gray Green 7-152
CN ONess SHOLLS ceecapdectacesdesseenn os Hot | Bright gray | Green 7-183
IS) NO: et SUOLES: Cee enneceseunvesas-es sess Hot | Bright gray | Green 7173
a 54 | No.4. Shotts .......... cedsroanngrer Hot | Silvery Green 7158
a 55 IND: 4e (SHOES. ctsecdeeseaacagencecasan | Hot | Silvery Green 7149
a 56 | No.2. Muirkirk ................ se. Cold | Dark gray | Green 7-076
a 57 | No. 2; Muirkirk ..........0..0. verse) Cold | Dark gray | Green 7-067
Box a. No.1. Class No. 5. ~
a 58 | No. 2. Doulais. Common bar | 2a | Fibrous | Green | 7587 | ;
Box a. No.1. Class No. 6. |
a 59 | No.1. Calder ............. Peeeceas ...| Hot | Dark gray | Green 7.027
aé AN OPN SM CCAIGEE Wernwsncoccececseatesss Hot | Mottled Chilled | 7-079
|
Scotch Cast Irons.
ey ee 5 ei a le we
7 i. Re ae) 10. Ir. | 2: 13.
Weight of Loss of Lo Ss
ga Dimensions of Weight of Specimen iN aie Weight Weight = 8 z Character of
a Specimen. Specimen | after 387 Corrosion | Per square referred to Bs 5 Corrosion-
" in Grains, Lined in 347 days,| inch of | Standard oF 2
4 posure, Surface. Bar. Ss is
; 4 in. in. in.
ox 5 xX 1 44309 | 43961 348 4:97 “469 0: | Uniform P.
5x5 xX -25/ 11885 | 11514 371 6-74 636 0: | Uniform P.
mox5x 1 43624 | 43276 348 4:97 469 O- | Local.
15x5x-25| 11885 | 11527 358 651 ‘614 O- | Local.
|5xK5x1 43519 | 43085 434 6:20 “585 0: Tubercular. |
155 x -25| 12043 | 11671 372 6-76 636 0- | Tubercular. |
15x5x1 43734 | 43334 400 5°71 +539 0: Uniform P. |
|}5x5 xX +25) 11918 | 11404 514 9:34 “881 0 Uniform. |
5x5x1 43890 | 43558 302 4-74 “447 0: Uniform.
15x 5 X-25) 117385 | 11275 460 8:36 “789 0: Uniform.
5xXx5xX1 42513 | 42172 341 4:87 459 0: | Local.
5X5 X -25) 11732 | 11265 467 8-49 801 0: | Local pitted.
| 5X 5 X -25} 11830 | 11238 592 10°76 1-015 0: | Uniform.
15x*5x1 43920 | 43700 220 3°14 -296 0- | Uniform.
| 5X5 x -25| 11789 | 11147 | 642 | 11-67 | 1-101 | 0 | Local.
mo x 5 xX 1 42795 | 42574 221 3:16 298 0- Local.
5 x 5 X -25| 12183 | 11701 482 8-76 +826 0: | Tubercular.
mo5x5x1 44600 | 44269 331 4-73 ‘446 0: | Tubercular.
|5X 5 X -25| 11534 | 10916 618 11-23 1:059 0: | Uniform P.
}5x5x1 43388 | 43184 204 2-91 275 0: | Uniform P.
}5X5 X 25] 11894 | 11343 551 10-02 945 0: | Tubercular.
| 5X5x1 42786 2575 211 3-01 284 0: Tubercular.
}5 xX 5 X -25| 11892 | 11449 443 8-05 759 0- Uniform P.
| aX5xX1 43447 | 43061 385 5°51 520 0: Uniform P.
{5X5 X -25| 12267 | 11754 515 9:36 883 0: | Uniform P.
}d9x5Xx1 44139 | 43911 228 3°25 +307 0- | Uniform.
|5xX5X1 44155 | 43781 374 5:34 504 0- | Local pitted.
(5X5 X +25) 11857 | 1138] 476 8-65 816 0: | Local.
15X5X1 | 43691 | 43429 262 3°74 353 13:0 | Tubercular.
19 X5 xX :25) 11901 11880 521 9:47 893 2-0 | Tubercular.
mx 5 xX 1 43225 | 43026 199 2°84 267 0: | Uniform P.
15 X 5 X25) 11672 | 11025 647 11-76 1-109 0: Uniform P.
‘The Standard Bar of Wrought Iron.
; =
15 : , : iform!
[5x5 x-875| 24440 | 23972 | 468 | 10-636 | 1-000 | a hme |
Scotch Cast Iron. Chilled.
5x5 42470 | 42042 428 611 576 0- | Uniform P.
9x5 x1 43570 | 430384 536 7:65 722 0: | Tubercular.
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON.
277
278 REPORT—1840. y
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 7. :
1 2 3. 4 5 E
1 = ;
Eu & Specific |
wees Hot or \
onSA : External Gravity of
és AS Commercial Character of Iron. aa Character of (How Gant: Specimen | ;
A ae BF . Fracture, aay SE
As - ve
2G) NOW; UPentwyn) .cctccseedssvosessee! Hot | Mottled Green | 7:017
a 62 | No.2. Pentwyn. ............- senegec Hot | Silvery Chilled | 7:129
Box «. No.1. Class No. 8.
Mottled
Silvery
7:268
7-603
Green
Chilled
}
a 63 | No.2. Apedale. ..........cecssseees Cold
GAS INO, AeA peHAles \a.cencuenesnscoe sve Cold
Box «. No. 1. Class No. 9.
«65 | No.3. Arigna....... aodieetss cesses Cold | Dull gray Green 7141 |
1) COMMING, GH PATIGTIAN lcs oscasescvesceesesens Cold | Mottled Chilled | 7308 |
Box «. No.1. Class No. 10,
« 67 | Hardest procurable. Old fire-bars|......... Silv. Crystals.| Chilled | 7:624 i
No, Us (Calder: 2... den pesesesees Hot |Close dull |
bie + 3 No.2. Pentwyn ......... Hot gray Green 6-978 |
ONG, oe AGN a) cca ceteenscsen nee Cold |Close dull * '
aan + No.2. Pentwyn ......... Hot gray Gre 7-050
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 11. Cast Irons of Messrs,
;
«70 | No.2. Carron Dark gray Green 7107
a 71 | No.2. Caedtallon. Dull gray Green 7030 |
a 72 | No.2. Carron Bright gray | Green 7081 |
«73 | No.2. Caedtallon Dull gray Green 7:020
a 74 | No.1. Buffery Dull gray Green 7063 —
«7% | No.1. Milton Dark gray | Green 7-073
«76 | No.1, Elsecar Bright gray.| Green 7-097
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 12. Gray Cast Iron.
¥,
is 1 No. 1. Calder. 4 No. 2. Close bright aa
mii! | Pentwyn. H SCLAP. cescevevsees jee gray Greet a 1m
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON.
279
Welsh Cast Iron. Chilled.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. a Ba 13.
|— a a $$
i Weight of| Totalloss| Lossof | Lossof | 6,3
| Dimensions | Weight of} Specimen _ |Weightper| Weight | 253 Character
1 of Specimen after Corrosion |squareinch| referred to} “to,= 5 of
Specimen. | in Grains.| 387 days’ in of Standard | ‘33 2 Corrosion.
: exposure.| 387 days. | Surface. Bar. 5 3a
in. in.
ax. 1 41990 41538 452 6-45 *608 0- Uniform P.
5x1 43830 43251 579 8:27 -780 0- Tubercular.
Staffordshire Cast Iron. Chilled.
5x5 x1 42870 42395 475 6:78 -640 0: Uniform.
5x5xl1 44290 43868 422 6:03 569 0: Tubercular.
Irish Cast Iron. Chilled.
}5x5x1 | 42790 | 42296 | 494 | 7-06 | -666 | 0- | Uniform P.
x5xil 42757 | 42288 469 6:70 632 0- | Tubercular.
Mixed Cast Irons.
f 5x5x1 43259 42875 384 5.48 517 5:0 | Tubercular.
5x5xl 42522 41970 552 7°88 -734 Tubercular.
g
5x5x5 | 41589 | 41140 449 6-41 605 0: | Tubercular.
fairbairn’s and Hodgkinson’s Experiments on Cohesion.
«1-25 x1-25} 9132 | 8926 206 | 11-40 | 1-075 | 0 | Uniform®P.
xl x! 7504 | 7332 172 9:55 901 0: | Uniform.
x1 xl 7231 | 7061 170 9-44 891 | 0+ | Uniform P,
x | 7877 7733 144 8-00 75d 0- Uniform P.
7454 7301 153 8-50 *802 0- Uniform P.
7960 7826 134 7°44 -702 0- Uniform.
7370 7215 155 8-61 +812 0- Uniform P.
kin removed by Planing.
5x as| 34130 | 33595 | 535 | 8-23 | 776 | 0: | Uniform. |
_—_——
280 REPORT—1840.
Box a. No. 1. Class No. 13. Gray Cast Iron.
l 2, 3. 4, 5. il
Ex 5 Specific
SEEE Hot or External Gravity of}
SEES Commercial Character of Iron, Cold Character of | How Cast.| Specimen
4eag ee Blast. Fracture. ' s,
we = —
RS w
= Nol? (Calder xckccat ieee. sek Hot |Close bright
5 ose brig f
he { +34 No.2. Pentwyn+ 3 Scrap} Hot gray Green 7-168
dt Nosh i @alder ssc. cessrseck cone Hot |Closebright |
3 .
a 79 { + 4No.2. Pentwyn 4 4 Scrap) Hot | gray f Green 7-168
ING EE. @AIAER 22.005 vc cuss ates Hot |Closebright
3 .
ane { +3No.2. Pentwyn + 1Scrap| Hot gray } areca cane
{re NOs OR, WC alder oo.sico cack esownnicsmep Hot |Closebright
3 .
wot if +%4No.2. Pentwyn+ 3} Scrap} Hot gray } ir ip _
5 Nor i@alden. osc .cxtcete cess 2 Hot |Close bright :
«82 i +4 No.2. Pentwyn-+ 4 Scrap) Hot gray } oa baad
Supplementary Table.
°
Sees Protective Paint or Varnish. State of Covering after 387 days’ exposure.
a 78 | Caoutchouc varnish, ...........0068 Rusted off in spots and partly removed...
a 78 | Best white-lead paint.....,.......+. Rusted in spots; oil a removed ...
a 79 | Copal varnish ...........0008 exceeds Varnish no longer Visible.....ssseseeseerereee
a 79 | Asphaltum varnish..............000 Varnish no longer VISIUIC.pweascasaaseeees som
a 80 | Mastich varnish .......... pen gewennes Coated thinly with extremely hard Tust ,..
OU | Swedish’taric.ccrccscseeesactes osacees Coat of thin rust; coating gone........+.++
a 81 | 3 parts wax + 2 parts tallow. ...| Coating changed into adipocere .....+++. a
a 81 Coal-tar, laid on hot ............065 Coating still visible, with some lustre......
# 82 | Turpentine varnish. ............... Varnish scarcely visible. .........+++- er
a 82 | Drying oil........ srosnbyecbeeesncckcc Varnish not visible. ...2<..cccascesceceos oooml
tected by Paints or Varnishes.
‘imensions
of
Specimen. in Grains.| 387 days’
orroded in spots, with blotches of plumbago....... Seicectten
‘orroded in spots; no plumbago formed ............ Seeeeaeee
kin of the iron unbroken
kin of the iron unbroken.......... Soersianssleemeaiicee s sendete meee
kin not broken into pits; no plumbago ............
kin unbroken ; no plumbago ,.........+0+ swieaniaivenae dae anaes
kin sound, only corroded at the edges ...... penesis ise Rea ce :
Sorroded in spots, with tubercles of oxide ........ Saeco
orroded at edges and in pits; plumbago.........0..00.
orroded at edges and in pits ; plumbago .....
eee eeecesecessesces Pee eereeeesesees veces
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Weight of} Total loss} Loss of Loss of
Weight of | Specimen by | Weight per} Weight
Specimen after Corrosion |square inch] referred to| *
in of Standard
exposure. | 387 days. | Surface. Bar.
42580 | 42143] 437 | 624 | -589
42664 | 42490| 174 | 248 | -234
41958 | 41691| 267 | 381 | -359
42721 | 42466| 255 | 364 | -343
{5x5x1 | 42293/ 41950| 343 | 4-90 | -462
Weight of
Water
absorbed.
e°¢¢°9 9
Order of
Protective
Power.
—
ANP WOHDe NSS
|
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON.
13.
$$ —____
281
Character
of
Corrosion.
282 REPORT—1840.
Box 8. No. 2. containing Specimens of Cast and
Sunk and moored in the foul Sea Water, close to the mouth of the Great Kings-
flood-tide. Bottom soft putrid mud. Temperature of water from 46°
o’clock p.m. on the 3rd of August, 1838. Weighed and landed on the 26th
the 13th of January, and now immersed. Specific gravity of water at
Box B. No. 2. Class No. 1._
1] 2 3. 4 5
Bug Specific
% 2 PI FI Hot or External Gravity of
“SpeH =| 3 Commercial Character of Iron. Cold Character of How Cast.| Specimen
sce Blast. Fracture. = We
won s=—.
a3
B 1 | No.1. Calder ......cssseecesseeensees Hot Dark gray | Green | 7:027
B 2 | No.1. Calder ......ssseeeseseeeeerers Hot Mottled Chilled | 7:079
(ee ene oe
Box 6. No. 2. Class No. 2. —
Se ee
No. 2. Pentwyn ...ccecseceeeeeseeees Hot Mottled Green 7017
No. 2. Pentwyn ....ccseseeeeeseesees Silvery Chilled | 7:129
Box 8. No. 2. Class No. 3.
B 5 | No.2. Apedale. ......seccesesscoeees Cold Mottled Green 7:268
Bo sonal Nod. - Apedale:cs.svscssseccsecresss Cold Silvery Chilled | 7-603 | _
Box f. No. 2. Class No. 4. —
B 7 | No.8, Arvignassscccsessesseeeeeree oe Cold Dull gray Green 7141
(oe Gy PaNmeehy JMeter isos ceooubsacccosa ee Cold Mottled Chilled | 7:308 |
SSS ol Sa Ee A AG OE] ae ae ee a ee!
Box 6. No. 2. Class No. 5.
a aR a a
@ 9 |Hardestprocurable. Oldfirebars,&c.)......... Silvery crystals | Chilled | 7:624
afl. (Galler c.ce.cicspsscte.s tne Hot
B 10 “EE No.2. Pentwyn. «.........|Hot } Close dull gray | Green 6978 |
BONO 2a ATIONA, 3. .0e0s 200% ....|Cold- )
611 es 4+ 4No. o° Pentwyn . Hot Close dull gray} Green 7050
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 283
NO. II.
v Jrought Tron immersed in Foul Sea Water.
n Main Sewer. Depth of water two feet at ebb, and from eight to twelve at
to 58° Fahr. Receives fresh water during heavy rains. Sunk at 4
ugust, 1839, at the same hour; thus immersed 387 days. Sunk again on
fouth of Bee = 1027-70 filtered.
tch Cast Irons.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Wate po of} Totalloss} Loss of S 2S
Dimensions of eight of| Specimen by Weight 28
cen, Specimen} after Sn per square | referred to} “& 25 pales § of
in Grains. | 387 days’ inch Standard | ‘3= 3 orrosion,
exposure, 387. oan of Surface.|_ Bar. 5 8
moxsxl1 42895 42674 221 3:15 -297 0- Uniform P.
moo x5xi 43636 | 43046 590 8-42 794 0: | Tubercular.
Welsh Cast Iron.
f 5 xl 42309 42160 149 2-13 -201 0- Uniform P.
; j 5 x1 43689 43032 657 9°38 *885 0: Local.
Staffordshire Iron.
xl 42291 42237 54 0-77 073 0- Uniform.
1 43749 43596 153 2-19 207 0: Local.
‘ish Cast Iron.
Bo xX A 42107 41985 122 1:74 164 0: Uniform P.
x5xl 43155 42357 798 11-40 1:075 0- Local.
dc or alloyed Cast Irons.
; 5 x5x1 43193 | 43051 142 2:03 192 2:0 | Tubercular.
5 x5x1 42232 | 42051 181 2°58 243 0- Local.
P5x5x1 | 49215 | 42029 | 186 | 265 | -250 | 0 | Local.
284
REPORT—1840.
Box 6. No, 2. Class No. 6.
oH zs Commercial Character of Iron. Cold. Ges by How Cast. | Specimen
Z 20 8 Blast Fracture, s2 bi
Aes 3
B12 | No.2. Doulais. Common bar....|......... Fibrous. Green | 7:587
Box 8. No. 2. Class No. 7. |
|
¢ 1
| B13 3 hen ie heda ar Hot |Close bright gray| Green 7-138 | 3
Box B. No. 2. Class No. 8.
1a
B 14 {# eel ie ‘San No. 2.1) trot |Close bright gray) Green 7-168
1
BIS [1 eee Ey Scrat cna, }| Hot [Closebrightgray| Green | 7-168
B16 |{} Dorowynt § Scrap .vsce. {| HOt [Closebright gray) Green | 7-168
1 No. 1. Calder + 4 No. 2. a
B17 {@ retek. af * a pie: Hot |Close bright gray| Green 7-168
1 No. 1. Calder + 4 No. 2. saa :
B18 se Pentwyn -} % Scrap ..:...... Hot |Close bright gray} Green 7168
Supplementary Table.
eu8
ee Oe FI
ae aS Protective Paint or Varnish. State of Covering after 387 days’ exposure.
vo
RS
B 14 | Caoutchouc varnish ........sseseeeeeeees Varnish not visible «1+... ssseeesseeeeeees
B 14 Best white-lead paint.......... Seicsganacé Paint Zone ...seeeeseereereees Baeteae ss aaeee
B15 | Copal varnish .......ssseeeeseeasee eeveeees Varnish not visible .......sscecesseseeere *
B15 | Asphaltum varnish........... ... SOCCER: Varnish still perceptible .........sescesees
B16 Mastic varnish ...ccccccccccpscccsescecs 5.| Varnish not visible ..c:csccasssaseccevenene
B16 | Swedish tar .........++. SANBEe nee eas Scarcely any remaining ... .......00.
617 | Three parts wax + two parts tallow) Converted into adipocere.......+....++. coe
B17 | Coal-tar, laid on hot ....... tea neaataee ee .| Still perceptible ...ssccessesseseeeeeseeeres
B18 | Turpentine varnish .......ssseceesensee Varnish not visible ........+++. nace B
B18 | Drying oil .........ccsseceeesecseceeseeeees Not isible )sccccscesesnessonge edesesccnos wae
LI re S
cb
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 285
id Bar Wrought Iron.
SS S| SS ee eee ee ae
Weight of| Totalloss| Loss of Loss of
Weight of| Specimen by Weight Weight
Specimen | after 387 | Corrosion | per square| referred to ‘
in Grains.| days’ in inch of Standard
exposure. | 387 days. | Surface. Bar.
Dimensions of
Character of
_ Specimen.
Corrosion.
Weight of
Water
absorbed
75 x 3 x -875| 23977| 23436 | 541 12:57 | 1186 |. 0+ |Uniform str.
ay Cast Iron. Skin removed by planing.
5x5x -75 | 34131 ssi | 981 | 18°55 | 1-278 0: | Uniform. |
y Cast Iron, protected by Paints or Varnishes.
“5x5x1 | 43050! 42071! 979 | 1398 | 1819 | o- 5
—5x5x1 42940 | 42295 | 645 7:22 ‘681 | 0 ss
| 5x5x1 41668 | 41257 | 411 5:87 554 | 0 as
~5x5x1 41568 | 41288 | 280 400 | 377 | 0 3
—5x5x1 42480 | 42166 | 314 4-48 | -623 | 0- i
B. No.2. Class No. 8.
Order of
Condition of Surface of Specimen after 387 days’ exposure, Protective
Power.
a
mm Com DS OVO ST 0 SO
sound, hard rust
sound, hard rust
286 REPORT—1840. 4 q
TABLE
Box yx. No. 3. containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought
110°
Sunk in the Plate-iron Hot Water Cistern of the Dublin and Kingstown
24 inches. Heated by circulation of water from a boiler. Temperature
Taken out and removed in consequence of alterations in the arrangements
immersed 117 days. Specific gravity of water at 60° Fahr. = 1027-80. }
Box y. No. 3. Class No. 1.
1 2. 3. 4, o:
#u8 Specific
o ess Hot or External Gravity of
SEAS Commercial Character of Iron. Cold Character of | How Cast. | Specimen
£338 Blast. Fracture. s= 25
eS =
A's
iy S| Novilea@alder’ .2-cstoctscsscecsss oe Hot Dark gray | Green
Beet en oN Gels Galen ce. .cs7anentcpee se =: Hot Mottled Chilled
Box y. No. 3. Class No. 2
y 8 | Now2 Pentwyn ...cccccecssese: Hot Mottled Green| 7-017 9
B04 ONO 2. RONG WHE - ccacesashceoens | Hot Silvery Chilled | 7:129 ©
Box y. No. 3. Class No. 3
uo Li INO. 2. APEGAle \.c.verevevecie seve Cold Mottled Green | 7-268
an | INO. a. Apedale “sesecrsaesecceeces Cold Silvery Chilled | 7°603
Box y. No. 3. Class No. 4
Yd NONO rds ARIS DA ec casneascocceses =se-|) Gold Dull gray Green | 7:141_
resell foo Cea AWN rhe hoe aooaeepeeaccoaote Cold Mottled Chilled | 7-308 ©
Box y. No. 3. Class No. &
y 9 { so Paceuee een se Silvery crystals | Chilled 7624
ReGAINCE ONO. Le cccsucacseccees Hot Z 072.
y 10 { Wee eirgne Nao os ce Hot Close dull gray | Green | 6 978
BRUINOs Sen PATIONA ~.5cececctuseaes Cold 050 1a
y 11 { hy a aaa Hot }| Close dull gray | Green | 7-050
1
Py
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 287
: immersed in clear Sea Water at Temperature from
25° Fahr.
ailway Company’s Baths at Salt Hill, near Kingstown. Depth of water
ly constant at 115° Fahr. Sunk on the 6th of August, 1838, at 4 o’clock p.m.
of the Baths, on the Ist of December, 1838, at same hour, having thus been
Scotch Cast Iron.
|
6. 4s 8. 9. 10. 11. 12 13.
= Me bal ce of — loss ae of — 2 Spies
| Dimensions of eight of | Specimen fe eight per eight | 2233 | Character of
Specimen. Specimen aon ‘ Corrosion pavare inch aes to SS5 Corronion®
apa en 117 days. Surfied. pag SF 3
an.” in.
x5xil 43167 | 43149 18 0:257 803 0- Uniform.
x5~x1l 44109 | 43939 170 2:43 759 0- Local.
Welsh Cast Iron.
x5xil 42320 | 42239 81 1-15 +359 0: Uniform.
x5x1l 43363 | 43239 124 1-77 553 0- | Local.
staffordshire Cast Iron.
5x5~x1 43805 | 43735 70 1:00 +312 0: Local.
5x5xil 43710 | 43562 148 2:10 “656 0: | Local.
rish Cast Iron
5 x 5x1 41805 | 41745 60 0°85 -265 0: | Uniform.
5x5x1 43651 | 43465 186 2°65 *827 0- | Local.
fixed or alloyed Cast Irons.
x5xl 433826 | 438315 11 0-16 “050 0- Tubercular.
5x5x1 | 42337 | 42941 96 | 137 | -497 | 0 | Local.
| 5x5x1 41433 | 41341 92 131 409 0- | Local.
288
—
No. of
Experiment
and mark of
Specimen.
y 12
y 13
REPORT—1840.
i]
Box y. No. 3. Class No. 6.'
2. 3. 4. Fis
Specific
Hot or External Gravity of |
Commercial Character of Iron. Cold Character of | How Cast.| Specimen |
Blast Fracture. s
No. 2. Doulais. Common bar ...|... vo Fibrous Green 7587 |
Box y. No. 3. Class No. 7. Gray Cast Iron,
i he CRS oat Bes Close bright gray| Green 7-138
3 ee eeeeeee
} Hot
Box vy. No. 3. Class No. 8. Gray Cast Iron,
alice.
y 14
y 15
y 16
77
y 18
No. of
Experiment
and mark of
Specimen.
— tet
an >
RITA ITN SS ASTRO SENS? NOSE
—
o
{4 Pela ta ea oe + alee Hot |Closebright gray| Green 7-168 |
Be SCTAP cacevsece |
i
{# i gan Bal eto Closebright gray| Green 7-168 |
3 eeeeeeeee ‘
ie hence sce sli Hot |Closebright gray| Green 7168 |
3 seen eeee i
+4 Dh eae Se tee Hot |Closebright gray} Green 7168 |
3 Scrap ......00.
4.No. 1. Calder + 4No. 2. - : 1
12 Pentweyti 4 Gerap cscssds: Hot |Closebrightgray| Green 7168
Supplementary Table y.
Protective Paint or Varnish. State of Covering after 117 days’ exposure.
Caoutchouc varnish ...... Oaonancooe
Varnish not visible ........csssssesesssesesssees
Best white-lead paint...............| Paint stripped off in places.........sescsscssees
Copal varnish ............+ sesvscecoee| Warnish nt Visible. ...sescosseccecccseseoes esti
Asphaltum varnish.............00+ -.| Varnish scarcely visible. ........+seseesseseenees
Mastic varnish .....cscecssessesceeees Varnish not visible. ..........s.c0ccsoscasascssail
Swedish tar.......ssseseerseees seeeeee| A trace still remaining ....... ccvccrtecv cca
3 parts wax and 2 parts tallow ...| Converted into adipocere........scescsseseceneee
Coal-tar, laid on hot ...............| Still visible in some places .........scseeeeeusee
Turpentine varnish.............2+0+ Varnish not visible ....... cabaveas atawaed oocssaan
Drying oil ..... scnstarvesesledccscs o«| INOtivisible,....0...sescsscasscassoveorsecuce estan
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 289
andard bar of Wrought Iron.
ve 8. a 10. 11. 12. 13.
Weight of| Total loss Lossof | S
Loss of au
Weight of | Specimen by Weight | £22
Specimen after a Weisbtner setetrel to SEs Character of
in Grains.| 117 dagnt square inch] Standard | 3 2 ‘orrosion.
exposure. | 117 nae. of Surface. |." Bar, 5 8
a | | |
24464 | 24274 190 4-318 1:35 0: | Unif. striated.
a removed by planing.
6x5x 75 | 34024 | 30750 | 274 | 4:2) | 1:31 | 0:
| Uniform. |
pr Beected by Paints or Varnishes.
PS
| “5x5x1 | 42618 | 42594 24 | O84 | -106.).0 | 4. ,»
5x5x1 | 42673 | 42644 SCORN Ss TARE Ge: «|. gamers
5x5x1 | 42457 | 42399 58 | 083 | 259 | o | .
he x5x1 | 42075 | 42007} 68 | 097 | 303 | o | , ,
5x5x1_ | 42094 | 42004 90 | 1:28 | 368 | o | , 4
jox No. 3. Class No. 8.
' -
Order of
_ Condition of surface of Specimen after 117 days’ exposure. Protective
; Power.
, a
Uniform rusting. Surface hard ..........++ chose depen cadaorc 1
ted in spots. Hard. No plumbago aeeee 4
nsound. Minute cavities.......... Moasecpiesveweveer seas eee 2
sound. Hard rust uniformly ........sccecsesccsceceenees 3
ound. Hard uniform rust, ........seceeseeee ascccecco ne 5
Hsound. Uniform rust .......seseecseessecseseees sciweactees 6
still fresh in parts. Rusted in pits ......+s0see00es cece 8
in spots. Plumbago in spots ......sssessesesseseeeeees 7
nbago in various spots 9
edin places. Hard rust uniformly ooeees 10
| 1840, U
290
Sunk and moored in the mid-stream of the river Liffey, at Dublin, opposite
—_—
.
No. of
Experiment
and mark
of Specimen.
ww
oe
ww
aon
vy
=)
310
INO eo) PCHtWYI snccGesuapreseerses- Hot Mottled Green
No. 12. “Pentwyl.-se-0s..co0+scesnas. Hot Silvery Chilled | 7:129 |
Box 8. No. 4. Class No. 3,
No. 2. Apedale. ........++ mcobosnocee Cold Mottled Green 7268 |
No. 2. Apedale. ...ccccesssesessseess Cold Silvery Chilled | 7-603 |
Box 8. No. 4. Class No. 4%
Din. tebs PATINA eves ensarsseccceuades Cold Dull gray Green 7-141
No. 3. Arigna.........+ Skanes ceeenine Cold Mottled Chilled | 7:308—
}
Box 8. No.4. Class No. 5:
Hardest procurable. Old firebars, &c.| ...... Silvery crystals | Chilled | 7:624 4
Wien eoalder INOW icvarcucuccdsnasssne Hot Gloss jnlieeae Te 6-978
+ 4 Pentwyn No, 2. ........000+ Hot Se CU NERAy Zeen i
REPORT—1840.
TABLE
Box 8. No. 4. containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought
and from fifteen to twenty feet at flood-tide. The water fresh at ebb-tide,
from 86° Fahr. to 61° Fahr. Sunk on the 6th of August, 1838, at five
hour, having been immersed for 383 days. Again sunk in same place at
water = 1002°27.
Box 8. No. 4. Class No. ip
2 3. 4
Specific
Hot or External Gravity of |
Commercial Character of Iron. Cold Character of How Cast, | Specimen } |
Blast. Fracture. s}
s=— ;
= !
ni
Orem Galdetiic.sessasecedascusetetens Hot Dark gray | Green 7027 |.
INO AU WANGEY cen scepsedes auearessaecw Hot Mottled Chilled | 7:079
Box 8. No. 4. Class No. 24)
7-017 |
it
ei No.2. Arigna. v.sscccecveeses Cold
+ 4No. 2. Pentwyn Hot [| Close dull gray | Green 7-050 |
: ne ampetion of the Poddle River therewith.
.
_ Specimen.
$
'
re
\
‘
oa
5x5x1
o3x5x1
Scotch Cast Iron.
7. 8. 9.
Weight of | Total loss
Weight of Spagimnen by
Specimen after Corrosion
in Grains. | 383 days’ in
exposure. | 383 days.
41449 | 41145 304
43295 | 42885 410
{ staffordshire Cast Iron.
Trish Cast Iron.
42462 | 42181 281
43333 | 42903 430
44976 | 44857 119
43760 | 43478 282
40741 | 40305 436
42675 | 42241 434
44799 | 44473 326
42454 | 42147 307
42318 | 41981 337
U2
f
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 297
Depth of water four feet at ebb,
10,
Loss of
square
inch of
Surface.
4:34
5°85
4:01
6:14
1:70
4:03
6°23
6-20
4:65
4:38
4:81
11.
Loss of
Weight per| Weight
referred to
Standard
Bar.
‘A417
562
378
590
163
373
599
598
‘447
“421
462
absorbed.
2?
2?
very brackish at flood. Bottom soft putrid mud. Temperature of water
lock p.m. Weighed and landed again on the 24th of August, 1839, at same
o’clock p.m., January 13th, 1840, and now immersed. Specific gravity of
13.
Character of
Corrosion.
Local P.
Tubercular.
Local P.
Tubercular.
Tubercular.
Tubercular.
Local P.
Tubercular.
Tubercular.
Tubercular.
Tubercular.
oo :
292 REPORT—1 840. =]
cy
Box 8. No. 4. Class No. 6. {
I. 2 3. 4 5 ,
Se Sa eae eae aay Cea ary Sey, —
Sad ecific
S a aE 2 stent tsoee ye eee " External Getty of (
sEAS Commercia aracter of Iron. ‘Oo haracter of ecimen
58s B Blast. Fracture. ——— =: Ws |
As Ke S= }
ANS “a
—_—— ]
3.12 | No.2. Doulais. Common bar......|..+.000+: Fibrous S 7587 |
. Box 8. No. 4. Class No. 7.
1 No. 1. Calder 1 No. 2. 3
313 2 Pentwyn + 4 a +5 ae } Hot |Closebright gray} Green | 7-138
Box 8. No. 4. Class No. 8.
1 No. 1. Calder No. 2. =
a |{* Best 4 ea np ae Hot |Closebrightgray; Green 7-168
1 No. 1. Calder 1 No. 2. i |
315 {? Bentwyn 1-4 aus Fa aR Hot |Closebrightgray| Green 7168 |
1 Ne. 1. Calder No. 2. :
316 Sg TEESE ‘i Strap = eae } Hot |Closebrightgray| Green 7-168 |
1 No. 1. Calder + 4 No. 2. : ; |
317 a Pentwyn 4 Scrap ee Hot |Closebrightgray| Green 7-168 |
NoJ1. Calder 1 No. 2.
318 ‘tig fae ra aS hae } Hot |Closebrightgray] Green | 7-168 |
Supplementary Table,
|
wees
ogasé
Se BS Protective Paint or Varnish. State of Covering after 383 days’ exposure. |
atta
Bos
314 Caoutchouc varnish ......ssseeseeeeeees Varnish not visible ..........sseeseeeeee
314 Best white-lead paint.......+.sessseserees Paint removed in spots .......ssseeeeee a
315 Copal varnish — ........eeeees pach eaeaiaan Varnish not visible ........ sescecccceses
3.15 | Asphaltum varnish ........sseeceeeseees Varnish not visible .........sseseseeeees Pe
MalG ool Mastic VAarINSh © cecsocectccscesacsoutvdates Varnish not visible ........scssceceeeee 4
316 Swendtahitaniler.ccnserasnscesasaceessecacas No longer visible ..... depeddescssacesseune i
>17 | Three partg;wax + two parts tallow] Gone, or changed into adipocere ....,
317 Sonl-tar, taid (ON HOE .. scssc.cccccsscvese Still lustrous and black ............ oom
3.18 | Turpentine varnish ............s0eeeee Varnish not visible ..........2se0eeeee eas)
DLS UPEVINI OM cacy ascascarcesnescoracsveecassen NOt Visible se... cassessmepavecarnesas=-ae |
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 293
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
\ Weight of | Total loss Lossof | ‘Sg
| a 5 Weight of | Specimen y Loss of | Weight | 238
| Dimensions of | Specimen | after | Corrosion | Weightper| referred | SR | Character of
Specimen. in Grains. | 383 days’ in eauere inch toStandard] ‘3 2 Corrosion.
exposure. | 383 days, |0f Surface.) “Bar, 3s
"5 x 3x -8/5| 24380 | 24062 | 318 | 7-297 | -694 | 0: |Unif, striated.
Gray Cast Iron. Skin removed by planing.
Fi
| 3x3 x 75 | 34114
|
0- | Uniform. |
soar | 440 | 677 | 651
| 5xX5x1 | 42238 | 42008 230 3:28 “315
~5x5x1 | 42293 | 42124 169 2-41 231
~5x5x1 | 41865 | 41582 283 4-04 ‘388
| 5x5x1 | 42973 | 42790 183 2-61 ‘251
5 x5x1 | 42150 | 41940 | 210 3-00 -289
”
th)
”
Bue te 9 ts
Order of
Condition of Surface of Specimen after 383 days’ exposure. ia aaa
roded in pits with plumbago ..........essessecseseose races -8
sound, Hard rust im spots ....sssecsessessesseesesceeces 7
uniform. Coat of hard rust ........ssecececeeceeecscesees 1
Skin uniform. Coat of hard rust ......sssseeecssesssseessenees 2
k coat of tubercular rust......... ss. FEC UNCEE REO ET cna? 9
in spots, with plumbago .........sssscccescesssccesceeeecees 10
sound. Blue rust in spots .........ccscecsessescscereees 4
sound. Superficial rust in spots ......sessescsssscsenees 3
sound. Hard uniform rust .......cccece0 coscecseceences 5
6
sound. Hard uniform rust .........ccccccecsssseescesecs
294 REPoRT—1840. my
TABLE
Box «. No. 5. containing Specimens of Cast and Wrought
Sunk in clear, unpolluted water of the river Liffey, above the tidal limit
stream, varying with season from three to six feet in depth. Temperatu
on the 4th of August, 1838, at five o’clock r.m. Weighed again, and
days. Again sunk at one o'clock v.m., January the 13th, 1840, and now
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 1.
1 2. 3. 4. Be
gs ra Specific |
sax # Hot or External Gravity of |
on £5 Commercial Character of Iron. Cold Character of How Cast.| Specimen |
Ai Bee 2 Blast. Fracture. es Ws
Ag? w
9 |
el Nor die Calder ie sveewessswewvecceowss Hot Dark gray | Green | 7:027 }
Be Bed Mow dg Caldée -scsgsecssbsvcigbayostac: Hot Mottled Chilled | 7:079 |
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 2.
<3 Nowi2, Bentwyiiics...ck.cehtvessess0. Hot Mottled Green 7-017 |
4 INORZ.) ECnGwWyil. .ndcorscosssce seen sae Hot Silvery Chilled | 7-129
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 3,
25 | No.2. Cold | Mottled Green | 7-268 |
2 6 No. 2 Cold Silvery Chilled | 7-603
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 4
sifin | Dian BAL Anaptia tA cis dees mane Cold | Dull gray | Green | 7-141!
«8 No. 3. Arigna ....csscsseseeesneeenees Cold Silvery Chilled | 7-308
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 5
re) 7 he rec te Old fire-bars,&c.) ...... Silvery crystals} Chilled | 7:624
pO as CAGE Gdevceciesacerancnevies "
«10 a SE Noe Peatwyn as } Close dull gray | Green 6978 |
POM ce PATIPUA cer succssssagvascaes f x,
sll { +3 No.2. Pentwyn... ........ Hot Close dull gray) Green 7 on
eh ot BS
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 295
1, immersed in the clear Fresh Water of the river Liffey.
in the premises of the Royal Military Hospital, Kilmainham, in a running
variable, from 32° Fahr. to 68° Fahr. Bottom of fine granite sand. Sunk
nded on the 20th of August, 1839, at same hour. Hence immersed for 381
mersed. Specific gravity of water = 1001-39.
co tch Cast Iron.
6. 7. | 8. 9. 10. 11. 12, 13.
e_e_—X————— |S ———————— | EE Es
be: a Weight of ~ 1088 | ross of = = S 3
; a eens of ei ilo ater. Corrosion bye ay referred ta aa8 eee of
in Grains, | 381 days’ in a Surf ch) Standard | ‘3 3 ‘orrosion.
exposure. | 381 days, |Q}Surtace.| Bay. Ss" 3
- in,
xl 42994 | 42940 54 0-77 074 0: | Uniform.
xl 43579 | 43493 86 1:22 “116 0: | Tubercular.
Velsh Cast Iron.
5x5xl1 42562 | 42485 7 1:10 +104 0: Uniform.
x5~x1 43025 | 42923 102 1:45 139 4:0 | Tubercular.
‘Staffordshire Cast Iron.
=
43534 | 43457 77 1:10 "104 0: | Tubercular. |
44174 | 44095 79 1:13 “109 0: | Tubercular.
Cast Iron.
5 xX 5x1 43099 | 43024 75 1:07 103 0: | Uniform.
IxX5x1 43963 | 438835 128 1:82 175 0: | Tubercular.
’
'
' 44204 | 44195 79-1 14:13 1 199° | o-'*] Pubercular.
' 43638 | 4358) 57 | 081 | -o78 | 0: | Tubercular.
|
43060 42975 85 1:21 ‘116 0: Tubercular.
fees
296 REPORT—1840.
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 6,
ip 2. 3. 4,
| |
a
Sa
eS
Eis , Hot or External
Se a5 Commercial Character of Iron. Cold Character of How Cast.| Specim
A ois ® Blast Fracture.
no
ge
+ 12 | No.2. Doulais. Common bar ....)..... | Fibrous =
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 7. Gray Cast Iro :
4 No. 1. Calder......... nescaes eae . i
213 1 No. 2. Pentwyn 4-3 Scrap Hot |Closebright gray) Green 7 13a
Box «. No. 5. Class No. 8. Gray Cast Iron
4
a
4
No. 1. Calder ; 42, ? ae
314 ‘a To ar 3 ae Ss sis Hot |Close bright gray! Green 7-168)
No. 1. Cald o. 2. :
215 ie Feanyn ne Gp atgeen age ei } Hot |Close bright gray] Green 7-168 |
1 No. 1. Calder 4 No. 2. 3 h
e 16 i Baicas ce rf oan ee Hot |Close bright gray} Green 716
No. 1. Calder No. 2. : ea)
fies Ap Pe caiiei vel, 3 ae Saye Hot, |Close bright pray) Gre ie :
4 No.1. Calder No. 2. . : /
2 18 {* p Pentwyn <a ae 4 _| 7| Hot |Close bright gray, Green 7 168%
Supplementary Table. Box ¢
eieé
Ch) a8 Protective Paint or Varnish. State of Covering after 381 days’ exposure.
a es) 3 |
Aa?
¢ 14 | Caoutchouc varnish .........0e+++-| Varnish not visible ..........sssesseeees coveed :
¢ 14 | Best white-lead paint...............| Paint visible ; oil partly gone ..........++ss0e
¢ 15 | Copal varnish .........0s000+ seeeeeees| Varnish not visible ...... se ccececcecscccccnseene
15 Asphaltum varnish....... aeconechicns Varnish scarcely visible .......++++«- ooccencue
16 Mastic varnish . cimnedevessucs
16 Swedish tar.. cellestesnans
€
é Varnish not visible .......... eececcececcteresane
£
¢ 17 | 3 parts wax a 2 parts ‘tallow .....
€
£
s
Scarcely visible.......+.+++ssesereeseeseeeees coos
Gone in spots. ca to adipocere Pet
17 Coal-tar, laid on hot ....... schevene Still black and lustrous .......sessessesseeeees
18 | Turpentine varnish............ Broker Not Visible ...sicc.cecccccscesccnnscesnsccaceme
LSMs) Wry ol F200 ....cecedeores sccavoese| NOt VISIDIC .....dtavesscesscccecececseccccuerea
a
ee ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 297
Be.
.
Standard Bar of Wrought Iron.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
pr | | | es | a | a |
Weight of | Total loss Loss of Won “A
ae. z Weight of | Specimen y. eight
_ Dimensions of Seinen after oss Weight a referred to
| Specimen. in Grains. | 381 days’ squareinch| Standard | ’
exposure, | 381 ps of Surface.| Bar
Character of
Corrosion.
Weight of
Water
absorbed
1 i i in. in.
1375 X3X°875| 24484 | 24496 58 | 1-287 | -124 | 0+ | Uniftstriated.
Skin removed by planing.
P|
b 5 x *875 | 34088 | 33922 | 166 | 2°55 | +245 | 0° | Uniform. |
i
&
&
pi
pL
pr otected by Paints or Varnishes.
43064 | 43015 49 0:70 067 0: x
42162 | 42139 23 0:33 “031 0-
42107 | 42052 55 0:78 075 0: BE
44277 | 44260 7 0°24 023 0: 3
42015 | 41989 26 0:37 035 0: Sn
: R a
No. 5. Class No. 8.
| te : Order of
| _ Condition of Surface of Specimen after 381 days’ exposure. Protective
9 Power.
13 2 a a aE ELSE ae Of eer at
| Rust in spots. Minute cavities 7
| Uniform coat of soft rust ........+. 8
| Skin sound. Blue rust in spots........ seeps Coapabeecescosodce 4
i} sound. Rusty in spots ......... Sappslsdasensecsevacqucanyas 3
| munbroken. Uniform rust ....... pean eeieeinekt cahiedals ansists 10
kin unbroken. Uniform rust ......... costa pAseeros nereeee ee 9
| Skin sound. Rusty in spots .......scseccsssccscovscceseoecenees 2
|S carcely any Visible rust .......csscssecsscceccsscescessensee eons e 1
Hard coat of skin. Buff rust.... ... 5
Hard coat of skin, Buff rust ......ccceccscssssssesseseeseevens 6
e
i
REPORT— 1840.
ie.8)
29
core | ¢e0-| £20] 98%. | e0-€ |668 | Fr }Ez9 {Shr |z9F | OGF| “ ST
ZPL% | &20-| $60! StS | E96 |G0E- | 0@E | Le |00-F [Ere | FOE] “ srereereeees Surpaoaad sopquy, Axejuout LT
09F-¢ | FL0-| 64-0) Sse. | 80- |6c%- | GL |Foge | £9-¢ |6ce- | Ise] “ -a[ddng er ur 0} paxdajox se ‘soysiu ‘OT
869-6 | 1£0-| $80] Gos. | &Fs|860- | 80-1 |189- [aos | PEs | SPe| “ “1A 10 syured Aq poydaj0ad suoay 4se_ | | “¢T
zLo-g | £90-| 140] Bt | [GE |COL- | SIL |61¢L |S6-EL 68s | FEO | “ FI
F206 | G8z-| 6-6 | FF9- | €9-9 |EIeL | BEET] SLeI Geet |9LZ- | ag} “ [tt Suraeyd <q pasoures uryg ‘uosy ase_ | ‘eT
616-6 G21: | 1&1 | 889- | O82 | LFE-T | S&T) 98T-T | 49-21 | 000-1 | 989-01] “ft tt seg paepurrg uosy sySnoryy | “Z]
F48-€ | SII | 8e1 | Ler | o8F | 80F | 2-4 |oSs |¢9-6 G09 | IFO] “ [tt "Z'ON ‘udmpueg $+ °Z ‘ON PUBIIY F | *TT
9F0-F | LL0-| 28-0 | LIt- | BFF | Lar | SOF | EFS 1896 | Fel | BBL] “ | 'S "ON ‘UXmqueg $ + *[ ON JOPl2D F| ‘OT
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‘TA SIEVE
5s ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 299
TasB.e VII.
Deduced from the foregoing Table VI., showing the Average Loss
of all varieties of Cast Iron, &c., experimented on in each
of the five conditions of immersion for a period of 387 days,
on one square inch of surface.
Condition of Iron. om B. Y: 0. é.
MER Cast Tron scscsis.c..1.. 6-826 | 6684 | 6025 | 5-478 | L372
| Cast in Green Sand......sssseese- 6:781 2170 | 3:264 | 4:283 1-027
No. 2. Bar Iron. Standard ...| 10-636 | 12°570 | 14:280 7-300 1:310
Cast Iron; Skin removed ......| 8230 | 13°550 | 13:920 6:830 2-590
| Cast Iron; Surface protected...| 4:214 7-110 2-466 3:096 0-488
Tas_Le VIII.
r
_ Of the Average Amount of Corrosion in Clear Sea Water, of
; various Cast and Wrought Irons, at the end of One Century,
_upon one superficial foot of surface, deduced from results of
Table No. I.
ene
Deduced ave-| Approximate
Average rage loss of depth of
less of Weight per | Corrosion in
No. Class of Iron. Weight per | superficial | one century
superficialfoot} foot ina due to this
in 387 days. | period ofone| amount of
century. loss.
he grains avoir.| lbs, avoir. inch.
| 1. | Welsh Cast Iron. Hot and cold ...... 859:°968 11°58 0:306
2. | Irish Cast Iron. Cold.........:00se0ses00 860°400 11:59 0-306
‘ 3. an Cast Irons. Scotch (as 948-960 12-78 0:337
Welsh; Irish and Welsh, &c. ...
| Scotch Cast Iron. Cold, and chiefly : : ,
” { hot blast ...... SeNuiso co cscuechisdeun sss ch ae a8 0379
Staffordshire, Shropshire and Glou-
| 5. cestershire Cast Irons. Hot and $| 1083:744 14-60 0°385
| OIG ie «cnae ted tedes ans ocvarbreat Beaws
q | Gray Cast Iron, mixed. Skin re- . P :
# 6. moved by planing .........ssseee00 } aes tet 15:97 0-419
ei) Derbyshire and Yorkshire Cast ; , Q
| i. Trons. Hot and cold ............ } feet 16rd G4
| Wrought Iron. Standard Bar. No. 4 : 5
"| 8 { 2 FETE ha aR ee Ok: } 15sT584 | 20:56 0543
300 Tas_Le No. [X.—Cast Iron, in presence of Zinc z
Table of Experiments on the Amount of Action of Sea Water on Cast Iron
these Metals, all exposing equal surfaces. ‘
Exposed Surface of Zinc, Copper or Alloy, = 1:99 square inch.
) ee tS Or, HS BRS eT SOE ee eee
Fs Weight of .
SB | Atomic Constitution | Specific Gra-| Atomic | | Weight of | pieceatter | Total
S% | ofAlloy. —— [eityof Aloy.| WEY OF Ro tmmersion, ,ammnersion | Weight
a |
Le Cu 8-667 316 504-90 504-84 0-06 5
2. Zn + 10 Cu 8°605 348°3 576°70 576°64 0:06
3. Zn+ 9Cu 8°607 316-7 555°99 55593 0-06
4. Zn+ 8Cu 8°633 285:1 560:17 560°13 0:04
5. Zn+ 7Cu 8587 253°4 530°86 530°85 0-01
6. Zn+ 6Cu 8-591 221:9 556°20 556°20 0-00
vp Zn+ 5Cu 8-415 190°3 499-10 498°72 0:38
8. Zn+ 4Cu 8-488 1587 507:24 507-22 0:02
9. Zn+ 3Cu 8°397 1271 468°36 468°30 0:06
10. Zn+ 2Cu 8-299 95°5 497°33 497:33 0:00
11. Zu+ Cu 8-230 63°9 491°57 491°57 0:00
12. 2Zn+ Cu 8-283 96:2 482:24 482-14 0-10
13. 17Zn+ 8Cu 7721 801-9 349-09 348-92 017 :
14, 18Zn+ 8Cu 7836 834:2 387°40 38634 1:06
15. 19Zn+ 8Cu 8-019 866°5 350°50 350713 0:37
16. 20Zn+ 8Cu 7603 898°8 391-70 391-14 0:56
17. 21Zn+ 8Cu 8-058 9311 353°80 353°14 0-66
18. 22Zn+ 8Cu 7882 963°4 334-08 33392 0:56
19. 23Zn-+ 8Cu 7-443 995°7 356-24 355°73 051
20. 3Zn+ Cu 7449 128°5 428:27 426-46 1:81
21. 4Zn+ Cu 7371 160°8 440°39 438-90 1-49
22. 5Zn+ Cu 6605 193-1 420:26 418-40 1:86
23. Zn 6°895 32°3 425°85 422-90 2°95
24, Fe 7138 vee see one aie
Tasie No. X.—Cast Iron, in presence of Tin and
Exposed Surface of Alloys = 1-99 square inch.
Table of Experiments on the Amount of Action of Sea Water on Cast Iron
these Metals, all exposing equal Surfaces.
r= 5 ee . Weight of
=o c sevens Specific Atomic Weight of . Total
Se Atomic Constitution} (Gravity of | Weight o naan _ Piece after | 7,
get aie ATy of | Weight of piece previouslimersion forlwwareet,|
io] -
1. : Cu 8-667 31°6 498-25 498°23 02 ‘
Dy Sn + 10 Cu 8-561 “3749 55110 551°10 ‘00 P 4
3. Sn+ 9Cu 8162 343°3 511-10 51104 06
4, Sn+ 8Cu 8-459 311:7 501-76 501:°76 00
5, Sn+ 7Cu 8-728 2801 529°79 529°75 04
6. Sn+ 6Cu 8-750 248°5 51500 514:96 04
fs Sn+ 5Cu 8:575 216-9 556°27 556711 06 ;
8. Sn + 4Cu 8-400 185°3 518°36 518°34 “02 ‘
9. Sn+ 3Cu 8-539 153°7 474:39 474-20 “09
10. Sn+ 2Cu 8-416 122-1 528-20 528°10 00 F,
11. Sn + Cu 8-056 90:5 480-03 479°93 00 t
12. 2 Sn + Cu 7387 149-4 | 492-29 492:23 06 4
13 3 Sn + Cu 7447 2083 | 454-88 454°88 “00
14 4 Sn + Cu 7-472 267°2 457-75 457°72 03
15 5Sn-+ Cu | 7:742 326-1 448-21 448-20 01
16 Sn 7:291 58-9 41580 415°74 06
17 Fe. 71858 aw Be pay i)
| tet
and Copper, immersed in clear Sea Water. 301
in Voltaic Circuit, with Zinc, with Copper, and with various Atomic Alloys of
Exposed surface of Cast Iron = 3:07 square inches.
Loss of Weight
‘ E Loss of Weight | per square inch
Weight of Cast | Weight after _ per sq :
I iarevicus to dete oss b for Total loss | per square inch | of surface in
Sniersian. 1579 hours. of Weight.| of opens Lg aba aapge
a77.
903-19 899-97 3°22 6-174 11:37
903-19 900°15 3°04 5°821 10°72
903-19 900:33 2°86 5-468 10-08
903-19 899-92 3°37 6:450 11:88
903-19 899-44 3°75 7173 13-21 maximum.
903-19 900-10 3:09 5:880 10°83
903-19 900°23 2-96 5°594 10°30
903-19 900-49 2-70 5174 9°53
903-19 900-12 3:07 5-880 10°83
903-19 900-16 3:03 5°762 10°61
903-19 900-30 2-89 5°527 10°18
903-19 899-92 3°27 6:232 11-48
903-19 900-62 2°57 4-939 9-09
903°19 901-00 2-19 4174 7°69
903°19 901-19 2-00 3°822 711
903°19 902-90 0:29 0:553 1:02
903-19 903-00 0:19 0-364 0:67
903-19 903-02 0°17 0-323 0:59
903-19 903-19 0-00 0-000 0:00
903-19 903°19 0-00 0-000 0:00
903-19 903-19 0:00 0:000 0-00 minima,
903°19 903°19 0:00 0:000 0:00
903-19 903-19 0:00 0:000 0-00 ee: x
903-19 900-86 2-33 4-468 8-23 “ey pie: ee
Copper, immersed in clear Sea Water.
Exposed Surface of Cast Iron = 3°07 square inches.
in Voltaic Circuit, with Tin, with Copper, and with various Atomic Alloys of
Loss of Weight
Weight of Weight after | Total loss = - eee sp eater oy
Cast Iron before| immersion ft 2 per ca ac of surface in
immersion. | ab! hose eM flat ss fae
a77.
892-55 891°84 0-71 5-894 11-22 minimum.
$92-55 891-45 1:10 9-136 17-41
892-55 891-24 1-31 10-881 21-45
892-55 891-27 1:28 10-631 20-25
892-55 891-36 1:19 9-884 18-82
892-55 890-82 1:73 14-369 27:38
$92°55 890-80 1-75 14-535 27-71
892-55 891-30 1:25 10-382 19-78
892-55 891-70 0:85 7060 13-45
892-55 891-61 0:94 7807 14-89
892-55 890-82 1:73 14-369 27-38
892-55 890-80 1:75 14-535 27-71
892-55 891-71 0°84 6:977 13°32
892-55 890-90 1:65 13-705 26°12
892-55 891-02 1:53 12-708 24-22
892-55 890°77 1-78 14-785 38°19 maximum.
892-55 892-03 0°52 4-319 8:23 Corrosion of @77.
302 ‘TasLe No. X1.—General Classification of
No. Class of Iron. aoe conan Fracture.
1. PADEORIS sr dcansdattarqearasdwessioncties Cold No. 2. Silvery ]
2. | Hardest procurable ..............00:-|..cceces Scrap ay
3. | Gray Cast Iron, of varnish covering|,,....... J ”»
4, GTM aw sos cheddar enecevieveces vine: Hot No. 2. ”
De Walder: WAGES. 5de.s cota eee ss Hot No. 4. ”
6. MOGs. state otens decheverecatsacceceets Hot No. 4. ”
ae Doulais. (Finery pig)..............- Hot No. 4. a
SP | VAI e Ha fy oeimecee hes acaeuelacethiapoat es te Cold No. 1. Micaceous
9. BurGh Steee.ts oc. cccrcsseee seee sree Cold No. 1. ”
10. Misigkirk: efectos atts seatededncattes Hot No. 2. »
11. Pentwyn. (Peculiar) ............... Hot No.1. ”
12. IATHOM Als see engen ine ece acc ct aree reeves. Cold No.3. Mottled |
13. Amine (Cylinder Iron) ......... Hot No. 2. »
14. PEntWyMyscereatescc.cccs ceccdar steers. Hot No. 2. 9
15 Calder, No.1 + Pentwyn, No. 2
SENSCKAP Es deniseccgeccssctesesstss [ire a ce,
16. Gray Cast Iron. Skin removed ...|......... a ”
ive Monkland No.4. ”
18. CUVEE a ac cenrates ccsaseasaesceceritcessed No. 1. ” é
19. Parkfield Garctscceccseaseecdineterava can No. 1. ”
DO: | CAped ale iteesssiecscandescessttecanesasoes No. 1. ”
a1 Wald erivetes trans: uc darsennsenieets ested No. 1. ” i
22, Arigna, 3. Scrap, 4 ” ” J
23. | Calder, 3 3 Bright gray
24, | Gartsherry No. 2. ”
25: MGUES: <acpince avo ncen abide ca aeeehcns waned No. 2. ”
26, AIAG daceapars so tec desea ee ereoons <4 No.3. ”
27. | Gartsherry No.1. ”
28. DHOLESccstecdecesdusscerieeaceresscter sss Hot No. 3. ”
205 | Warter Wim ccesssaieenrsacetce i? ees Hot No. 2. ”
30. Calder No. 3. 3
dl. Summerlie No. 2. ”
32. | Madeley Wood No. 1. ”
33. SCC AN 3.47. chaeasdneduedindsedsese cones Cold No.1. ”
34, Cinderford’ i; .acctesecarsssesieonoas« Cold No. 1. ” :
35. CANTON A, estas sascdes ioceceesssschseaecs Hot No. 2. 9 €
36. || Gartsharty. cuss tot. cestteses. veo toes Hot No. 3. 39 y
BY. | Muiskitk ss ite ee, ey Hot | No.3. Dull gray
38. Monklandrpiaeosssthscrs skunks sec eset Hot No. 3. ”
39. Dowlais) Get abs cttiatetrcvesctsRaqcecse Hot No.]. ”
AQ. oillovA ri ona evote stds cck paavevetsweewtiowewee Cold No. 2. ”
41, Shotts. GOR: scsctscessatetves cease Hot No. 1. ” }
42. | Lillieshall Cold | No.1. » 4
43, Shobts.: ive. .csesee.ceuseteaees ovect Hot No. 2. ” 7
44, Caedtaloiitanes..cisegsss ERabt hese coe Hot No, 2. ”
45. Buflery Kasibe sass. esos settee ins sceeee Hot No. 1. ” {
AG || Caedtaloneie. .casapicse edie Ake cs see Cold No. 2. ” i)
fig |neman Pee... ve, elece bits acest Cold | No.2. Dark gray |
48. i oe No.3. ” ¢
49, No. 1. ry) .
50. No.1. » :
ONL) | Whee esek. ws ss 02 ov este Nes one Cold No. 2. ” .
52, IMIvT boars Geet. cc csaales ox cecclee Mes eves Hot No.1. ”
53. GANG Gr rere ancacSacch caseeste woedaus Hot a ”
54, | Calder, }. Pentwyn, 3. .........cceJeeseeeees a ” *
bo. || Arigna, 2.eiBentwyn; 2Ateef....5.]..cearie- 3 ” J 4
the several Cast Irons of the foregoing experiments. 303
Character in Working.
crystals vesicular, often crystalline,
Least fusible; thickening rapidly when
incapable of being cut by chisel or
fluid bya spontaneous “puddling;’ |
file; ultimate cohesion a maximum,
and elastic range a minimum.
Very soft; feels greasy ; peculiar mi-
caceous appearance generally owing
toexcess of manganese; soils the
fingers strongly; crystals large ;
runs very fluid; contraction large.
thick ; contraction on cooling a
maximum.
for working ; ultimate cohesion and
elastic range generally are balanced
most advantageously ; crystals uni-
form; very minute.
: f
; Tough and hard; can be with diffi-
culty filed or cut; crystals large
i and small mixed ; sometimes runs4
|
Toughness and hardness most =
L
Less tough and hard than the ise
ing; other characters alike; con-
traction on cooling a minimum.
exudes graphite on cooling; soils
the fingers; crystals large and la-
mellar; ultimate cohesion a mini-
mum, and elastic range a maxi-
mum.
> |) L
an
3 f fusible, remains long fluid;
L
Specific
Gravity.
7603
7624
7624
7629
7527
7158
6°378
7-015
6-928
6:980
7000
7308
7-116
7017
7168
7°138
7-294
7140
7248
7268
7079
7-134
6-329
7115
7-152
7141
7-001
7183
7:074
7064
7-156
7115
7:097
7:049
7081
7:074
6°838
7124
7164
6°809
7109
7:205
7-152
7-030
7063
7:020
7107
7159
7192
7143
7:076
7:073
7:027
6:978
7-050
How Cast,
Chilled
Sand
Chilled
Chilled
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Chilled
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Chilled
Chilled
Chilled
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Observations.
Maximum density.
Fullof microscopic
vesicles.
Minimum density
porous as No. 7.
Minimum solid.
REPORT—1840.
304
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‘TIX ‘ON 41avy,
306 REPORT—1840.
Taste No. XIV. Showing the Chemical and Physical Properties
L. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6.
€ Chemical Composition by Weight) Atomic —
% Constitution. per cent. Weight. g Colour, and order of
ey = Intensity.
6 — e+ &— e+ WH1 | a
- a
2 a
1 Cu + 100:00 + 0 | 31:6 | 8-667 | Tile-red.
2)/10Cu+ Zn 90-704 9:30 | 348°3 | 8-605 | Reddish yellow 1
3; 9Cu+ Zn 89:80+4 10:20 |316°7 | 8-607 | Reddish yellow 2
4} 8Cu+ Zn 8860+ 11-40 | 285-1 | 8-633 | Reddish yellow 3
5 7 Cu + Zn 87:30 + 12°70 | 253-4 | 8-587 | Reddish yellow 4
6} 6Cu+ Zn} 85:40+4 14°60 | 221-9 | 8-591 | Yellowishrel 3
7; 5Cu+ Zn} 83:02+ 16-98 | 190-3 | 8-415 | Yellowishred 2
8} 4Cu+ Zn} 7965+ 20°35 | 158-7 | 8-448 | Yellowish red 1
9} 3Cu+t Zn | 7458+ 25-42 | 127-1 | 8-397 | Pale yellow.
10 2 Cu + Zn 66°18 + 33°82 | 95-5 | 8-299 | Full yellow 1
11 Cu+ Zn | 49:47-+ 50°53 | 63-9 | 8-230 | Full yellow 2
12 Cu+ 22Zn | 382:85-+ 67:15 | 96-2 | 8-283 | Deep yellow.
13} 8Cu+17 Zn | 3152+ 68-48 | 801-9 | 7-721 | Silver-white 1
14} 8Cu+4+ 18 Zn | 3030+ 69-70 | 834-2 | 7-836 | Silver-white 2
15} 8Cu+19 Zn | 29:17+4 70-83 | 866-5 | 8-019 | Silver-gray 3
16 | 8 Cu+ 20 Zn | 28:12-+4 71-88 | 898-8 | 7-603 | Ash-gray 3
17} 8Cu+21 Zn | 27:10+4 72-90 | 931-1 | 8-058 | Silver-gray 2
18 | 8 Cu+ 22 Zn | 2624+ 73:76 | 963-4 | 7-882 | Silver-gray 1
19} 8 Cu+ 23 Zn | 25:39-+ 74:61 | 995-7 | 7-443 | Ash-gray 4
20 Cu+ 32Zn | 2450+ 75:50 | 128-5 | 7-449 | Ash-gray 1
21 Cu+ 4Zn | 1965+ .80:35 | 160°8 | 7-371 | Ash-gray 2
22 Cu+ 5 Zn | 16364 83-64 | 193-1 | 6-605 | Very dark gray.
23 + Zn 0 + 100-00 | 32°3 | 6°895 | Bluish gray.
TaB_eE No. XV. Showing the Chemical and Physical Properties
1 Cu + 100-00 + 0 | 31-6 | 8-667 | Tile-red.
2); 10Cu+ Sn | 84:29-+4 15:71 | 374-9 | 8-561 | Reddish yellow 1
3} 9Cu+ Sn} 8281+ 17:19 | 343-3 | 8-462 | Reddish yellow 2
4} 8Cu+ Sn] 81:10+4 18-90 | 311-7 | 8-459 | Yellowish red 2
5| 7Cu+ Sn 7897+ 21-03 | 280-1 | 8-728 | Yellowishred 1
6| 6Cu+ Sn| 7629+ 23-71 | 248-5 | 8-750 | Bluish red 1
7 5 Cu + Sn 72:30 + 27:20 | 216-9 | 8575 | Bluish red 2
8} 4Cu+ Sn} 68214 31:79 | 185-3 | 8-400 | Ash-gray.
9} 3Cu+ Sn | 61694 38°31 | 153-7 | 8-539 | Dark gray.
10}; 2Cu+ Sn |} 51-75-+ 48-25 | 122-1 | 8-416 | Grayish white 1
ll Cu+ Sn |} 84:92+ 65-08 | 90-5 | 8-056 | Whiter still 2
12 Cu + 28Sn | 21:15+4 78-85.| 149-4 | 7-387 | Whiter still 3
13 Cu+ 38n | 15:17+4 84-83 | 208-3 | 7-447 | Whiter still 4
14 Cu+ 4Sn 11°82 4+ 88-18 | 267-2 | 7-472 | Whiter still 5
15 Cu+ 5Sn 9°68 + 90°32 | 326-1 | 7-442 | Whiter still 6
16 + Sn 0 + 100-00 | 58-9 | 7-291 | White 7
Abbreviations used in column 7th to denote character of fracture :—
F.F. Fine Fibrous. C.Conchoidal. V.C. Vitreo-Conchoidal. V. Vitreous.
are = 1. The numbers in column 6th denote intensity of shade of the
specific gravities were determined by the method indicated in Report ‘‘ On
The ultimate cohesion was determined on prisms of 0°25 of an inch square,
given are those which each prism just sustained for a few seconds before
ON THE ACTION OF AIR AND WATER UPON IRON. 307
of the Atomic Alloys of Copper and Zinc of Table No. IX.
7. | g.|9. | 10.| 11.| 12. 13. 14.
é 3 A s er 5 ra oe to
5 = Mbps Ue eae ar Characteristic Properties, in See
g |g2| 8 [ez lE| é Working, be presence
1 Soi aa Sel be Sea Water.
Sl a RC Sa a
Tons.) °° 15 ~|9 °
E. 246} 8] 1 | 22 | 15 | Well known. o§
€.C. |1271) 6 | 13 | 21 | 14 Hise
F.C. |11-5| 4 | 11 | 20 | 13 Several of these are|| 5 3
F.C. |12°8; 2 | 10 | 19 | 12 | Similar, &c. malleable at high ESzS
F.C. |13-2} 9} 918] 11 temperatures. as a
F.F. |141| 5 | 8 | 17} 10 223%
F.C. {13-7} 11 2|16)| 9 | Bath Metal. a2 sao
F.c. 147} 7| 3|15| 8 | Dutch Brass. 9 See
F.C. |13:1| 10 | 4 | 14] 7 | Rolled Sheet Brass. 265s
F.C. |125| 3| 6| 13] 6 | British Brass, marie
C.C. | 9:2) 12 | 5 | 12] 6 | German Brass. a a =
C.c. 193} 1] 7] 10} 6 » Brass, Watchmakers’.
C. | 2:1; 0| 22) 5| 5 | Very brittle, 126%
V.C. | 2:2) 0 | 23] 61! 5 | Very brittle, Too hard to file or| | 94 a
C. | 07} 0} 21 | 7 | 5 | Very brittle, turn, lustre nearly; | 3 29 g
Vv. | 32) 0|19}| 3] 5 | Brittle, equal to Speculum) | O's 2
Cc. | 09) 0|18| 9] 5 | Brittle, Metal. aS 2 2
C. | 0:8} 0} 20} 8] 5 | Very brittle, J as 25
F.C. | 5:9} 0|15| 1 | 5 | Barely malleable. aE
F.c. | 31] 0/16| 2| 4 | Brittle. 2 o's
F.C. | 1:9} 0| 14] 41] 83 | White Button Metal. Ss ou
| | F.C. | 18) 0/17} 11) 2: Brittle. Sao
T.C. |15-2} 13 | 12 | 23! 1 | Brittle, well known. <4"
of the Atomic Alloys of Copper and Tin of Table No. X.
E. |246) 1 2 | 10 | 16 | Well known. 2 o
F.C. 161} 2) 6| 8 | 15 | Gun Metal, &c. eae
mG. (15-2: 03 7 5 | 14 | Gun Metal, &c. 5 2
F.C. 17-7; 410) 4 | 13 | Gun Metal and Bronze, aI = g oa
V.C. |18°6] 5 | 11) 3 | 12 | Hard Mill Brasses, &c, aa =
Vv. |97| 0/12] 2] 11 | Brittle, Agee
C. 49; 0] 13 1 | 10 | Brittle, All these Alloys found] | +s Pury
C. | 07} 0|14| 6| 9 | Crumbles, occasionally in Bells,| | = 2-3-2
T.C.| 05} 0|16] 7| 8 | Crumbles, with mixtures of Zn| (O.25 2
V.C.| 1:7} 0|15| 9] 7 | Brittle and Pb. we
T.C. | 1-4| 0 9} 11 6 | Small Bells, brittle, os
C.C. | 39) O}] 8} 12) 5 ” brittle. be fs
C.C. | 3:1} 0] 513] 4 | Speculum Metal of Authors, azees
eo at|-s|\ 4114 3 nf Files, tough, S"
mor, |95| 6| 3/15] 2 a Files, soft and tough. Po me
3 F. | 27| 7{ 1/)164] 1 | Well known. SOE
_E. Earthy. The maxima of ductility, malleability, hardness, and fusibility,
same colour. The atomic weights are those of the hydrogen scale. The
se Action of Air and Water on Iron.” Trans. Brit. Assoc. vol. vii. p. 283.
_ without having been hammered or compressed after being cast, The weights
_ disruption.
: F.C. Fine Crystalline. C.C. Coarse Crystalline. T.C. Tabular Crystalline.
pay.
REPORT—1840.
308
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309
Report on some Observations on Subterranean Temperature.
By Roserr Were Fox, Esq.
Havine already given, through the Philosophical Magazine*,
a summary of tne observations on subterranean temperature
which I had previously published from time to time, I must, in
complying with the unexpected invitation of the British Asso-
ciation, necessarily include in the present Report many of the
details contained in that memoir.
Early in the year 1815, my friend Joel Lean stated to me
his conviction, that the high temperature observed in our
mines existed in the earth itself, increasing with the depth;
and shortly afterwards his brother Thomas Lean, at our joint
request, kindly made many experiments in Huel Abraham
Copper Mine, of which he was the manager, in order to test
the correctness of this view. The results obtained by him
tended to confirm it very unequivocally; and so did another
series, made in the same year at my request, in Dolcoath
Mine, by John Rule, jun., one of the superintendents. Many
other individuals have since obligingly carried on similar ob-
servations for me in different mines, all showing that the sub-
terranean temperature increases, in some proportion to the
depth from the surface. The ratio of its increase at different
depths, and the causes which exercise a greater or less influ-
ence upon it, have, however, hitherto been undecided.
I have elsewhere endeavoured to show, that the rate of in-
crease is not so considerable at deeper excavations as at those
which are shallower ; and the subjoined Tables will, I think,
exhibit this point in a satisfactory manner, as far, at least, as
the results obtained in some of the mines of Cornwall and
Devonshire, which I have published from time to time, may be
considered an authority.
* Phil. Mag. 1837, vol. ii. p. 520.
Tabe I.
Taste I.—Showing the Results of Observations on Subterranean | ;
the Ratio of its Increase at different Depths.
the deepest levels or accessible parts of the respective mines.
ao mo b
ann
— | Number.
|
Date of
Observation.
1822
1827
1827
1822
1822
1820
1820
1820
1822
1820
1830
1824
1824
1824
1827
1827
1827
1822
1819
1822
1822
1822
1822
1$20
1820
1820
1827
1827
1820
C. stands for Copper Mine.
= re T. ditto Tin _ ditto.
Mines and Localities. G. for Granite.
K. for Killas.
South Huel Towan, St. Agnes, C.K. in cistern
or reservoir at the bottom
Huel Wellington, near Camborne, C.K. small
stream from Western end of deepest level......
Ditto ditto ditto Eastern ditto .........
East Liscombe, near Tavistock, C.K. in deepest
CISCTED) sonsnadascnacseccsscececcusscsccsvvavecesvoseues
Huel Unity- Wood, Gwennap, Tin, K. in ditto. eoes
saeecere ae ee ereeseesees
*Huel Unity, Gwennap, T. and C.K. ........ cantase
Ting-Tang, ditto C.K.,, in the lode .........
Huel Gorland, ditto CAS GRRECRACScoc ee seacoanone
Means of depths and temperatures...
Beer- Alston, Beer-Ferris, Devon, Lead and Sil-
ver K., in deepest cistern iP
Huel Squire, Gwennap, C.K., in deepest cistern..
Huel Rose, Newlyn, Lead, K., deepest level
Chasewater, Chasewater, Tr. K., in E. end of
deepest level ....sscescccesccesecrsececccerscccncees
Ditto ditto, W. end of deepest level ....«:
Huel Trumpet, Wendron, T.G., in deepest level...
*Huel Jewel, Gwennap, C. and T.G., 40 fathoms
to the E. of shaft, and 4 feet from end of level
Ditto ditto, 18 ditto, W. ditto, and 4 feet ditto
Huel Vor, near Helston, T.K. in ge level,
4 fathoms from shaft
*Consolidated Mines, Gwennap, C.K. in n lode, 16
fathoms E. of Job’s shaft J2..0...0..s<scces cesses
Treskerby, near Redruth, C.G. in lode....... eo
Poldice, Gwennap, T. and C.K., bottom of
Trussel’s shaft......... eCeNERE so Sudaeseaneeetes ste
Ditto ditto ditto of Oppy’s shaft ..
Consolidated Mines, C.K., bottom of Job’s ditto...
Ditto ditto ditto of Taylor’s ditto...
Huel Damsel, Gwennap, C.G. .........cccsceceesesers
*United Mines, ditto, C.K., end of level N. of
Sampson’s shaft, and supposed 6 feet from lode
Pree reer rere errr r rrr er egy
* Ditto ditto ditto, W. of ditto in lode...
Hnel Alfred, near Hayle, C.K., E. end of level...
Ditto ditto Gitta; Wi dittO.ececse.00s
*United Mines, K., in the lode E. of shaft............
Means of depths and temperatures ......
Means of temperature .......esseseeeeee oe
Deduct mean temperature of climate ...
Means of depths in fathoms, and of excess of
temperature above climate
sent e eee tee weeeeneneee
Which being estimated at the depth of 100 fa- |
thOMs, GIVE 6. sscccses cvcotesconsecseeseccsscsscass i
The experiments:
a
4
¢
Depth from | Temperature || _
Surface in of Rock, |}
Fathoms. Fahrenheit.
90
110
——— ~ 100° 00
aperature in different Mines in Cornwall and Devonshire, and
ere, with a few exceptions (distinguished by an asterisk), made in
2 2 4 s 2
= P= = . 2
|} 23 3 eS -3 aay Eis) Pee 2 | Ratio of Depth
ils = : u
| Depth in ES pe Depth in EH |/2es #2) sus to a given
| Fathoms 2346 Fathoms. a4 2 sas 99) faqs Increase of
ie . Bs ass a we £2 & § | Temperature
a o = 10°
a & og & alia 2 ae 10°,
EE ff",
| 45
| _—<$$$_—$_<—_ | __.
- {Surface = 50°
ao fe
o uw
or
f—]
ie)
bo
oO
ir)
66°35 se a
50°00]) .-. «.. D ‘ 10-13 jor72°81 = 10°
16°35 104-00) 131-86 = 70°
16:26 100-00
50:00
66°26) 100-00
42
43
44
45
46
Aq
48
49
+ No. 32 not included in the mean ;
3s
2s Mines and Localities.
S
Ag
5
1819 | United Mines in bottom of a shaft, K., 8 fathoms
S. of lode..........cscocsescecscscsssceceres sEocecses
1822 | Huel Friendship, near Tavistock, C.K., in etl
level ...... Sanaa eanae cosbedenesaveveens aosnsaeesabaacels
1830 | Poldice, at bottom of shafts Boe causccvetsccvenseee Sone seea
1830 | Ting Tang, in deepest cistern...........+++++ seseccesses
1820 | United Mines, in a level..........ssceceeecsceeeceneceees
1837 }*T: resavean, Stythians, C., bulb of therm. 2 ft.
10 in. in lode in killas, "at 3 fms. from a
1837 \* Ditto ditto, in killas 10 fms. from granite...
1815 | Huel Abraham, Crowan, C.K., at bottom .........
1824 | Stray-Park, Camborne, stream from E. end of
deepest level.........cessesseseereeeeers Seek neeeseec
1824 | Ditto ditto ditto W. ditto...
1830 | Huel Vor, T.K., in deepest level .........seseeseeseee
1837 |*Tresavean in granite, 20 fms, from killas, and
12 ft. from lode, bulb 2 ft. 10 in. deep.........
Means of depths and temperatures...
1837 | Levant, St. Just., near Land’s End, T, and C.,
end of deepest level W. of engine- jae in
killas, bulb 3 ft. deep .......c.cececesesscseeceees
1837 | Ditto, near stream flowing into level E. of engine-
Shaft, Granite ...ceccscoscsccesseccsersesscssonsves .s
1837 | Ditto, near bottom of engine-shaft in granite,
bulb 3 feet deep........ See uceaseensccescnceWasecee saws
1822 | Dolcoath, Camborne, C., in deepest level, bulb
3 feet deep in granite, from 19 to 20 months...
1815 | Ditto, spring of water in bottom of engine-shaft...
1837 |*Tresavean in lode in G., 100 fms. from killas,
bulbyaifeet/ decpivceasatscccecevaseasabsatceucnacantes
1819 | Dolcoath, water in bottom of engine-shaft .........
1837 |\*Tresavean in lode in G., 60 fms. from killas, bulb
2ft. 10 in. deep ...... Suave enued eee ractheadusescas
Means of depths and temperatures...............
Means from 170 to 250 fms. from the surface...
Deduct comp:ited temperature at 100 fms,
deep, as given before .....ssesccesesceecerees }
Difference ....... Sikes ask foa's
Increase of temperature in the second 100 fms.
Depth and temperature estimated before ......
Temperature deduced from the above at 200
fins. deep ....+....- eed dedadaacveasasGrasearatnus
1837 | Tresavean, in lode granite 60 fms. from killas,
bulb 2:10 ft. deep...... DeiiVassnaanessmrenedvsereres
1837 | Consolidated Mines, K., bulb 3 feet deep ina
x level, 24 fms. from Isles j SEROMG. cxaston.
1837 | Ditto ditto ditto 10 ditto..
18387 | Ditto ditto ditto, in the lode.........
Depth in
Fathoms,
200 76°
200 76
210 74:2
—— 203-33|— 75°-40
220 78
230 80
230 76
234 78-2
250 82-5
—— 232-80|____ 780-94
218-06] 77°17
100-00 66°75
118-06 10-42)})
100-:00| = s-sal}
100-00 66°75\h
200-00 75-057
262 82°-5 ) es
at ze
290 853 | as
290 863 | &s
290 92 ea
EE
BS
Temperature
of Rock,
Fahrenheit.
and a few other results omitted in the last columns, in consequence 5
of their differing so much from the mean and from the temperature usually found at similar depths.
«
BS OOS
(continued.) : sts
a Bt ae s ey)
Ere 2.8 | edd By cen8 Ratio of Depth
3 th i sg Depth i ae Sos Mean as g5ao 0 a given In-
4 Fathoms. ae Fathoms, Be E Be e Depth. ae | = a E ronnie
es a a | & pee
76° AD ieee rsiocoal ee peatnenso [tage 76°
64:5
99+
82
88
A 200 .- 176
Ra lWewe) (sau |ldanaiion Gear |[secak «vest, | heBOO - \76
78 200 78° 200 + 178
72 . 200 » (72
200 74 200 (74
|| 209 79 BL ae RES 209 . 79
EES | ae aR lee 742
_ || 19087} —76°-69||__ 200-00|—. 78°-00
220 - (78
220 78:5
230 - (80
230 |... 76
233 82
234 78-2
239 82
250 82-5
262 se (82:5
290 |... u [85:3
290 |... ... 1863] ,
——| 225-63 |__| 78-76
Baar Osl lon +} 131:86 70:00
or 107-04=10
Add previous estimated amounts of Depth and Temperature...) 131-86=70
Total Depth and Temperature computed .............sceseeeeeeesee 238:90= 80
314 REPORT—1840.
Mean results of temp. at 100 fathoms under the surface.
Rock = 16°75 + 50 = 66°75
Water = 16°26 + 50 = 66°26
Air = 16-27 + 50 = 66°27
Mean 16-43 66°43
At 200 fathoms under the surface.
Rock = 8°82 4+ 66°75 = 75°57
Water = 11-27 + 66°26 = 77°54
Air = 11°73 + 66°27 = 78°00
Mean 10°61 77°03
Taste II.
Temperature observed in different parts, but not the deepest,
of the following mines, in Cornwall and Devon; Huel Abra-
ham, Dolcoath, United Mines, Treskerby, Huel Squire,
Ting Tang, Huel Gorland, Huel Damsel, Chasewater, Huel
Unity, Huel Vor, Huel Unity-Wood, Beer Alston, Poldice,
Consolidated Mines, Huel Friendship, Huel Maid, Nangiles,
North Huel Virgin, Tresavean, etc.
Ratio of Depth to a given
S
Depth S24) Increase of ‘’emperature.
Fa ehcads Temperature, Fahrenheit. S 3 Ee ;
: =| Fathoms Temp. |General Mean,
[o} °o
O60 AP GG. G7. 50. Bos, eens suancteoss oscvavacsostascaak Wisoueesne eavecd cathe 56°00 Surface = 50
20... 30) 61.55.64. + 56. 58. secscccesresceoes - | 58°80
30... 40| 56.60. 54.56. + 61.62. 50. 62.61.57.
40... 50| 58.60. 60. 60. 60, + 63.58.58. ....-.-.
50... 60) 60. 62. 60. 58. + 63. 63. 61.61. 62. 60.57
60... 70/61. + 62. 64.61. 61.59.68. . 62°29
70... 80 | 64.62 64.64.62. + 64.66.70. - 64-92 °
80... 90) 66. 64, 63.64.66. + 65. 69.62.67. .. 65°11} 50°00! 60°72
—50°00
fms.
66°64 50°00) 10°72 jor 46°64=10
oO
130°00| 70°54
75°50| —46°64) 60°00
74:50] 9336|=10°54 | or 79°09=10
| 74°17
MOU ean DUO tate Jlaigile fas dfic GBs aarcucorecccessvasapcacvevercs
‘
125°73 =70
°
185°00| 74°72
—125°73| 70°00
59°27 |= 4°72 | or 125°57 = 10
Computed from Means of Depth and Temperature
251°30 = 80!
The figures on the left indicate the temperature of the rock, rubbish. o i
a I r r water ; those he ri
the air ; in the respective mhines, they are divided by ais Bs si
ght, of
a q 2 -
4
f
;
REPORT ON SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURE. 315
The first Table contains results obtained in the deepest
galleries or accessible parts of mines, a few only excepted, in
which cases the experiments were made with great care in the
rock at superior levels, and at a distance from other excava-
tions. Some of the reasons for preferring the former to the
generality of results derived from the upper parts of mines
have been stated on previous occasions, and they appear to be
so obvious as to render repetition needless.
The rate of increase of temperature, as it respects the rock
or rubbish, and the water and air, appears to have been
tolerably consistent. The mean is 16°46 at 100 fathoms deep,
and 27°:03.at 200 fathoms deep; the augmented temperature
of the first hundred fathoms being to that of the second hun-
dred fathoms, as 16°43 to 10°60.
Some of the results from which these means are deduced
are rather uncommonly high, and probably the general mean
temperature observable in our mines would be more nearly
represented by their omission, thus reducing both the above
means a little; but if this were done, it does not appear that
their relations to each other would be essentially altered.
In the last columns are included all the results obtained in
the rock, water, and air, with the exception of a few which seem
to be in unusual excess, and they give, in round numbers,
A temperature of 60° at 59 fms. below the surface.
S 70° at 132 ,, Ms
and 80° at 239 ,, A
Being an increase of
10° at 59 fis. deep, or 1° in 35-4 feet,
1 of 10 more at 73 fms. deeper, or 1 in 48°8 feet,
} andof10 ,, 114 fms. still deeper, or 1 in 64:2 feet.
_ The second Table shows the temperature observed in the
_ rock or rubbish, water, and air, in various mines at different
depths, but not in the lowest excavations. It will not there-
fore, perhaps, be considered to possess much value beyond
what is derived from the great number of the results, and the
probability that the mean which they indicate may be an ap-
proximation to the truth. The figures only are given, without
any details, and are to be found in my papers inserted in the
Transactions of the Cornwall Geological Society, and in the
Philosophical Magazine.
__ Many of the observations, even in the first Table, may per-
haps now be considered very imperfect, having been obtained
_ when the inquiry was in its infancy. The method which I
mnave more recently adopted, of having the bulbs of different
_ thermometers buried at different depths at the bottom of a
_ mine, appears to be as unexceptionable as the circumstances
_ of the case will admit of; but, in fact, I have always considered
316 REPORT—1840.
that the best experiments on subterranean temperature, in-
fluenced as it is by so many disturbing and conflicting causes,
can be regarded as affording only approximations to the truth,
and, in a greater or less degree, in proportion as they are more
or less numerous, and made in different localities.
The second Table exhibits increments of temperature equal
to 10° each, at intervals of about 47, 79, and 125 fathoms of
descent. ‘The comparative augmentation of temperature at
small depths exhibited in this Table, and its reduction at greater
ones, may perhaps be more or less attributed to the ascent of
warm air and vapour from the deeper galleries of the mines,
and the descent of colder currents into these parts.
I have taken the mean temperature at 50° Fahr., and it is,
I think, clearly not more than this in the mining districts of
Cornwall and Devon, judging from the experiments I have
instituted on the temperature of the ground at three different
stations, at the depth of three feet, which give a mean of
49°°86* for the year, at a mean elevation of about 240 feet
above the level of the sea; and also from the meteorological
registers kept in this neighbourhood, some of which appear in
the Cornwall Polytechnic Society’s Reports and the Annals
of Philosophy tf.
IT add a diagram or section, by way of illustration of the
first Table.
* See Transactions of the Cornwall Geolog. Society, vol. iii. pp. 326-328.
+ In the Annals of Philosophy, vol. xvi. p. 371, 1820, the mean tempera-
ture of eleven years at Penzance is stated to have been only 49°. The eleva-
tion of this town above the sea-level is inconsiderable, and perhaps 100 to 200 _
feet below the average of the mining districts where the experiments were
made.
REPORT ON SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURE. 317
The upper line represents the surface of a given district,
and the diagonal one the line of junction of granite and killas.
The dotted lines show the mean intervals at which, according
to the first Table, there appears to be a progressive augment-
ation of 10° Fahr.; but the tortuous line x y might more
properly indicate the very irregular depths at which a given
amount of temperature exists, even in the same neighbour-
hood.
The isothermal lines are represented as having a small
inclination downwards as they pass from the killas into the
granite, to illustrate the inferior temperature of the latter.
The amount of this difference is undoubtedly very variable in
different localities, and sometimes little or nothing. I have, in
my earlier papers on subterranean temperature, noticed the
- fact, although I did not ascertain the extent of the difference *,
nor have I considered it so high, upon the whole, as Mr. W. J,
Henwood has done; but he has investigated this point much
more fully than I have, and made numerous experiments in
reference to it.
The intervals between the isothermal lines seem to vary
much in different places; but I think it will be found to be a
general fact, that the temperature increases less rapidly in
descending in proportion to the depth of the stations in the
mines. If so, the conducting power of the rocks cannot, I
apprehend, be considered as the immediate or proximate cause
of these phenomena at the greatest depths hitherto attained :
nor is it to be supposed, that a depth where the heat is trans-
mitted through this medium only will ever be reached by
man, seeing that the temperature at the bottom of some deep
mines is already almost as great as is compatible with active
operations.
I have often suggested, that the differences which are found
to exist in the increments of temperature in different places
and strata, are principally caused by the circulation of water
under the surface; and the tendency of warm water to ascend
through cooler portions of that fluid is quite consistent with
_ the fact of the ratio of increase being greater at small than at
considerable depths. Wherever the facilities are the greatest
veins, faults or fissures in the strata, and frequently at the
junction of different rocks, there the subterranean temperature
for the ascent of these currents, such, for instance, as exist in
is usually found in excess, or above the mean. Let the points
_* It seems almost needless to remark that, in comparing the subterranean
_ temperature in different rocks, reference should be had to the depth of the
stations at which the observations were made.
318 REPORT—1840.
a, b, and ¢, in the section, each represent the deepest part of
a mine, all three being in killas. If fissures or veins, pervious
to water, be supposed to descend from these points to a much
greater depth, where the temperature is considerably higher,
it is evident that the warmer water will rise, and the cooler
sink and take its place; and thus an excess of temperature will
be imparted to a, b, and ¢ by the agency of the circulating
water. It matters not whether the ascending currents proceed
from d in the killas, or f in the granite, or through the line of
junction # e, to b or ¢; in any of these cases corresponding
effects will be produced, and a, b, and e will be at a higher
temperature than other points at equal depths in their vicinity,
more or less distant from fissures, veins, etc.; the former dif-
fering only in degree according to the depth, or rather tempe-
rature of the parts where the currents originate, and the
obstacles they meet with in their passage. Nos. 51, 52 and
53, in Table I., may be referred to as examples of this differ-
ence. In this case, the vein in the Consolidated Mines, at
290 fathoms deep, was found to be at 92°, whilst the rock at
the same depth, and only 10 fathoms from it, was at 86° 3';
and at 24 fathoms from it, 85° 3!. These facts, with others
which might be mentioned, seem to show how poor a con-
ductor of heat the rock is, and they give additional support to
the views advocated in this Report.
The circulation of water under the surface, and its influence
on subterranean temperature, is moreover, I apprehend, pro-
moted by the agency of electricity, which is in such active
operation in metalliferous veins*, since it will cause water to
pass through many substances that would otherwise be imper-
vious to it. The simplest, and almost the feeblest voltaic
combinations, are capable of illustrating this remarkable pro-
perty, and will transmit water, especially if it contain saline
ingredients, through the most tenacious clay, etc., in any direc
tion, either horizontally or vertically.
I will now conclude this Report with the expression of a
hope, that the ratio of the increase of subterranean tempera-
ture may be more fully investigated, not only in this country
but also in others, where the climates are the most dissimi-
lart, in order to determine the modifications produced by
* T observe, by the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, No. 55, that
Prof. Reich has detected electric currents in Himmelfahrt Mine, near Frey-
berg, although they were evidently much less energetic than those prevailing
in our mines of copper, etc.
+ Note.—Might not this object be accomplished, as it respects some of the
mines in America, through the instrumentality of the mining companies, if
ei ea
REPORT ON SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURE. 319
these circumstances, as well as by the strata and the spheroidal
form of the earth, on these phenomena.
requested by the British Association? and I conceive that, in Siberia, Sweden,
and other countries, there might be found willing coadjutors in the prosecution
of such an investigation so interesting to science. In this Report I have con-
fined myself to my own observations, or those which have been made for me;
but I find, on looking over several series of results published by other indi-
viduals, that they tend, more or less, to confirm the conclusions at which I
have arrived ;—that the subterranean temperature does notincrease so rapidly
in descending, at great depths, as at smaller ones; and it is remarkable, that
the observations made long ago, in some mines of Germany, etc., indicate a
temperature I think 50 per cent. less in the aggregate than the average of
rid results obtained in the Cornish mines, as far as I am acquainted with
them.
321
Report on the Observations recorded during the Years 1837,
1838, 1839, and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer
erected at the Philosophical Institution, Birmingham. By
A. Fotuert Osver, Esq.
Tue records of the Self-registering Anemometer, erected at the
Philosophical Institution at Birmingham, are now tabulated for
a period of upwards of four years; and though the observa-
tions from a single station can neither possess the interest nor
value of those we may hope to derive at no distant period from
several, yet so little is at present known respecting the laws of
the aerial currents in this latitude, that I have ventured to bring
forward the few facts at present collected.
The plan adopted first suggested itself in consequence of my
friend Mr. Snow Harris having requested me to take out the
mean hourly force of the wind without reference to its direction,
which he apprehended might show some connection between
the wind’s movements and the horary oscillations of the baro-
meter*. Considering that this mode of examining the anemo-
metrical records might exhibit other results equally deserving
investigation, I pursued the inquiry in the manner set forth in
this paper.
The observations are comprised in the years 1837, 1838,
1839, and 1840. The usual plan is adopted of regarding De-
cember, January and February as the winter quarter ; March,
April and May the spring; June, July and August the sum-
mer; and September, October and November the autumn.
Having procured a number of sheets of paper, ruled simi-
larly to Table I., I commence with December 1, 1836, and
note down the mean force and direction of the wind during
each hour of the day, as recorded by the anemometer. The
figures express, in pounds avoirdupois, the force exerted by the
wind on a surface of one foot square, kept at right angles to
the current. I have not noticed the force when less than half a
pound is registered, it being difficult to read off a smaller
amount with accuracy ; and in heavy gales it is not possible to
ascertain the mean force of the wind even so nearly as this.
Owing to the oscillations of the vane, it is sometimes difficult to
ascertain precisely the mean direction; besides which, the
instrument occasionally indicates an intermediate place between
* Second Report of the British Association, p. 233.
1840. Y
322 REPORT—1840.
two points of the compass; it is therefore not always prac~-
ticable to attain exact accuracy; in all such doubtful cases, I
have taken that which, on the whole, appears to be the nearest
oint.
i It must be borne in mind, that it is the force and direction
of the wind that this instrument records, and not velocity,
which the valuable and ingenious instrument invented by Pro-
fessor Whewell is intended to register.
But though the oscillations of the vane offer a difficulty for
the reason just stated, yet it affords a remarkable distinction
between different winds, and even between the same wind at
different times. During a north wind, for instance, the vane is
generally steady, while during a N.E. and E.N.E. wind the
oscillation is frequently considerable. A south wind, too, is some-
times very steady, and at other times the reverse; but not hav-
ing had time to investigate this peculiarity, I merely mention it
for the purpose of inviting attention to the circumstance; as a
knowledge of the cause that produces this difference, if fully un-
derstood, may prove valuable to the meteorologist.
A sheet on the plan of Table I. having been drawn out for
every month during the four years, I proceeded by taking an
abstract of each month as shown in Table II., and thus ob-
tained the total of the forces of each wind for the twenty-four
hours during the month.
Plate III. fig. 1 is a diagram drawn from the general totals
(marked +) in Table III., showing at one view the direction and
sum of the forces of the wind for each hour of the day, as re-
gistered at Birmingham, during the years 1837-8—9-40.
Plate IV. represents the comparative direction and forces of
each wind during the twenty-four hours, distinguishing the
quarters of the year. See ‘Table IV.
Plate V. contains diagrams, showing the comparative force
and direction of each wind, obtained from the sum of the hourly
means in Table III. (marked {). See also Table VI.
Plate I. fig. 2 is projected from Table V., and exhibits the
comparative force of the wind for each of the twenty-four hours,
direction not being regarded. In this Plate the coincidence
between the curve of force and of temperature is very remark-
able, the temperature preceding the rise of the wind by a short
interval.
The whole of these tables must be regarded merely as com-
parative; I have therefore not considered it necessary or de-
sirable to reduce the total amounts to obtain the mean force
per day or per hour, as it would merely add to the labour and
sources of error without effecting any equivalent practical
ON THE SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER. 323
good. Had the anemometer been placed in a more exposed
situation, we should have had the same comparative results,
but they would probably have been more clearly developed.
The principal thing to be aimed at in the selection of a site for
such an instrument is, to have it equally exposed to all winds:
whether it be on a hill or a plain, is of trifling importance, pro-
vided it is not sheltered on either side*.
There are many other facts which I had hoped to have adverted
to, such as the law of succession, the mean duration of each
wind, and the connection of the currents with the alterations in
the state of the barometer, thermometer, and hygrometer, all
of which must necessarily furnish interesting subjects for in-
vestigation, though I have as yet been unable to devote to them
a requisite portion of my time.
* The anemometer from which these observations are taken being placed in
the centre of a large town, does not afford such accurate results as would be
obtained from an instrument situated beyond the reach of disturbing causes.
Ses mC
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REPORT— 1840.
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344
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349
Report respecting the Two Series of Hourly Meteorological
. Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, at the Ex-
pense of the British Association, from Nov. 1st, 1838, to
Nov. 1st,1839. By Sir Davip Brewster, K.H.,F.R.S., &c.
Havine selected Inverness and Kingussie as two suitable sta-
tions for carrying on the two series of hourly observations with
the thermometer and barometer, I prevailed upon the Rey.
Mr. Rutherford, of Kingussie, and Mr. Thos. Mackenzie,
Teacher of Raining’s School, Inverness, to undertake these
observations. ‘The necessary instruments were made by Mr.
Adie, of Edinburgh, under the superintendence of Prof.
Forbes, and the observations begun on the Ist of November,
1838, that month being the commencement of the meteorolo-
gical year, or the first of the group of winter months.
While these observations were in progress, I communicated
to the Association at Birmingham a specimen of those made
at Kingussie, with a brief notice, which is published in the
Report of last year. I have now the satisfaction of laying be-
fore the Association the observations themselves, forming two
quarto volumes, a work of stupendous labour, executed, for
the first time, by educated individuals, with the aid of properly
instructed assistants.
The observations made at Kingussie, and, to a certain ex-
tent, those made at Inverness, contain ampler details of me-
teorological phenomena than any series of hourly observations
with which 1 am acquainted. In addition to the thermome-
trical observations, the height of the barometer and the tem-
perature of the mercurial column were observed every hour.
The general character of the weather was carefully noted.
The character and direction of the wind at every hour was
recorded. ‘The number of hours of wind, of breeze, of calm,
of rain, of snow, and of cloudy and clear weather were regu-
larly marked ; and the number and nature of the Aurore Bo-
reales were recorded and described.
When these observations are compared with those made at
Leith, under my superintendence, for four years, from 1824 to
1827 inclusive, at the expense of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh,—with those made at Plymouth, from 1832 to 1840, at
_ the expense of the Association, and under the able superin-
_ tendence of Mr. Snow Harris,—and with those made at Padua,
4 Philadelphia, and in Ceylon, we perceive very distinct traces
of meteorological laws, of which no idea had been previously
350 REPORT—1840.
formed ; and I have no hesitation in stating, that when this class
of observations are multiplied and extended, they will tend to
general results of as great importance in pre-determining at-
mospherical changes, as those which have enabled the astro-
nomer to predict the phenomena of the planetary system.
Sir David Brewster then proceeded to give a brief and
general account of the results obtained from the observations
in Inverness-shire, leaving the numerical and more minute de-
tails for the report, which will be published in a future
volume of the Transactions of the Association.
In giving an account of the observations on temperature, the
results obtained at Kingussie and Inverness were compared
with hourly and two-hourly observations made in other places,
as exhibited in the following table:
i |. ees
Places of Observation. Latitudes Longitude. poe! al gs Mean 2 & Ha Ete
N. thesea.| sea, | temp. ae Pope] FES
z| § leFs
Inverness ...... » 579934] 412w. oie Lmile {5 43| 8 $1) 7 44111 13
Rangulaie fs 2 [57 4 | 4 5w.| 750/40 milesi42 78| 8 51/ 7 35|10 44
Bethe; 2 22\5556 | 313w.| 25600 fecti48 36 9 13 8 27:11 15
Plymouth ...... £5) 5021 4 6w.| 75/400fect|52 (8 |7 {11
Pode 2e0 E*l4536 [1155z./... | .. |... | 841] 7 Sal 14
Philadelphia...) |3957 |75 9w.| ... |... [49 28] 8 10| 7 30/11 20
Colombo... £2] 657 | 80 x.| 36/2 miles |s0 1610 35 9 3010 55
Kandy, sugnct S<|.718 | 8049z.\1682} ... [74510 |9 [1
Trincomalee ... 25 833 [s124z, | 60) ... [81 {10 35) 8 4011 5
Mean of all ............... 11 5
From this table it appears that the mean value of the critical
interval is 11 hours 5 minutes, differing only 10 minutes from
the result which Sir David Brewster first obtained from the
hourly observations at Leith.
Sir David then stated to the Section, that since the Asso-
ciation met he had obtained from Mr. Caldecott (now present), .
Astronomer to His Royal Highness the Rajah of Travancore,
the result of a series of hourly observations made at the Ob-
servatory of Trevandrum, situated in east longitude 55 8™, and
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT INVERNESS, &c. 351
_ north latitude 8° 30! 35”. These observations were made in con-
_ sequence of the Rajah having seen the recommendation to esta-
blish hourly observations in the first volume of the Report of
_ the British Association. The hours of mean temperature ob-
_ tained from these valuable observations, are
Morning mean . . . . . . 8b 34I5
Mvening mean «2 Wsiygodery.oul! 738
x ae ee reat ee
i Critical interval . . .10 56°5
_ agreeing within 83 minutes of the mean results given in the
i preceding table.
Sir David Brewster then directed the attention of the Sec-
_ tion to the following representation of the mean annual curves
of daily temperature at Leith, Plymouth, Kingussie, Inver-
ness, and Trevandrum. He pointed out the similarity (ap-
Ee a, AER
D
=| | 3
YY... fs] | RUNS A
By eetueged | Z
“VA
ja cus si
Cee Be | Se Al ate | abe igsl
m0111212345 678 910 16/19 "1g 8Sa ho STs
a hours,
39
'proaching to almost entire coincidence) between the curves of
Kingussie and Plymouth ; an elevation of 750 feet above the
Sea, producing the same effect as a diminution of latitude of
six degrees. He also drew the attention of the Section to the
352 REPORT—1840.
curve of Trevandrum* (marked by a dotted line), in which
the daily range for the annual curve greatly exceeds that of
all the other curves in the diagram, a new result which no
person could have anticipated.
Barometrical Observations.
Sir D. Brewster then proceeded to give a general account
of the barometrical observations. The daily oscillations which
they indicated correspond both in time and in magnitude with
those which had been made in other parts of the world; -but
as the corrections had not yet been applied to all the observa-
tions, it was deemed unnecessary to make a more minute state-
ment.
Observations on the Wind.
In comparing the number of hours of calm throughout the
year, it appeared that they occurred when the temperature
was lowest, and upon laying them down in a curve this curve
was almost exactly the reverse of that of the mean daily tem-
perature for the year; that is, the wind, or the commotions
in the atmosphere, depends on and varies with the tempera-
ture.
‘‘This very important and new result,” Sir D. Brewster
remarks, ‘‘ is confirmed, in a remarkable manner, by the ob-
servations of Mr. Osler at Birmingham, made at the request
and expense of the British Association, which I have seen
since I arrived in Glasgow ; observations of inestimable value,
which exhibit more important results respecting the phzeno-
mena and laws of wind than any which have been obtained
since meteorology became one of the physical sciences.”
The Kingussie and Inverness observations contain many
curious observations on the Aurora Borealis and other atmo-
spherical phenomena, for an account of which we must refer
to a fuller report, which will appear in a future volume of the
Transactions of the British Association.
* The mean temperature is reduced 30°, so as to bring this curve among
the other curves.
oo
>
we Bo
353
Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata. Drawn
up, at the request of the British Association, by Witu1aM
Tuompson, Esq., ( Vice-Pres. Nat. Hist. Society of Bel-
fast, ) one of the Committee appointed for that purpose.
PART I.
Ir has been remarked to me, and by a distinguished naturalist,
that the zoology of Ireland can hardly be worth attention, from
the similarity it must bear to that of Great Britain, already so
wellknown. But, properly considered, the zoology of an island
which, in the eastern hemisphere, constitutes the most western
land within the fifty-first and fifty-fifth degrees of north lati-
tude, cannot but be highly interesting, especially in connexion
with that most attractive subject, the geographical distribu-
tion of animals. In Ireland, we find within the degrees of lati-
tude just mentioned the extreme western limits to which all our
species range that are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere. In
Zoology, however,—that is, in Vertebratal zoology, for of it only
the present communication treats,—we do not (as some writers,
without reflecting on the very different circumstances which in-
fluence the distribution of animal and vegetable life, have an-
ticipated,) find the same interesting results as in Botany. The
West and South of the island do not present us with any of the
Vertebrata of Portugal, the western Pyrenees, or the South of
Europe, which are not found elsewhere in the British Islands.
The Erica mediterranea, Menziesia polifolia, Arbutus Unedo,
&c., have no animal representatives*.
Throughout this Report it has been considered desirable to
contrast the zoology of Ireland with that of Great Britain,—to
present, in fact, a comparative list of the Vertebrata of the two
islands. It must, however, be borne in mind, that all species
found from the Channel Islands in the south, to the Shetland
Islands in the north, are included in the British Fauna, and
that within the degrees of latitude over which it extends, Ire-
land occupies but one third. © Ireland is comprised within
four degrees, whilst the Shetland Islands range nearly six de-
grees further to the north, and more than two degrees to the
south the Channel Islands are situated. The Fauna of Great
Britain also extends over ten degrees of longitude, whilst that
of Ireland is limited to half the number.
The physical geography of Ireland must, like that of every
* What may be the distribution of Lepus hibernicus and Mus hibernicus
is yet indeed a problem.
1840. 2A
354 REPORT—1840.
other country, have a primary influence on the number of indivi-
duals of the species which are found there either permanently or
as periodical visitants. At the same time, its natural features do
not differ so much from those of Great Britain as altogether to
preclude the presence of more than one, or perhaps two, verte-
brate animals, which have a place in the British and not in the
Irish Fauna. These are the Ptarmigan (Tetrao Lagopus) and
Alpine Hare. For the abode of the former, it does not afford
a continuity of mountains of sufficient altitude and of such a
nature as this bird chiefly inhabits. The haunts of the Alpine
Hare (Lepus variabilis) are pretty similar to those of the
Ptarmigan, but often at a much lower elevation.
The influence of climate is now to be considered ; and under
this head the species just mentioned might perhaps with pro-
priety have been included. The difference between the tempe-
rature of Ireland and Great Britain cannot with any degree of
certainty be said to attract to, or repel from, our island, any
species of the British Vertebrata. Our mild winters in par-
ticular have otherwise great influence. The Stoat (Mustela
erminea), for instance, very rarely in winter changes the co-
lour of its summer fur to the warmer and more attractive garb
of the Ermine, in which it is so much better known. Even in
the north of the island, some species considered as birds of pas-
sage in England, except in the extreme south, are induced to
become residents, as is the case with the Grey Wagtail (Mota-
cilla Boarula), and to a very great extent with the Quail
(Perdix Coturnix). Of the Grallatores, some few species re-
main throughout the winter in the North of Ireland, although
only to the South of England are they known at this season.
But, above all, the mildness of our winters is such, that some of
the soft-billed birds, which are generally able to procure an
abundance of food, are more disposed than in the neighbouring
island to song, and accordingly at this period of the year de-
light us with much more of their music.
The humidity of our climate would seem to attract to fa-
vourite localities more Woodcocks (Scolopax Rusticola) than
are found in any part of Great Britain, and, together with the
great extent of bog throughout the island, brings hither to
winter many more of the Jack Snipe (Scolopax Gallinula),
and of the common Snipe (Scolopax Gallinago). The two
last, above all other birds, exceed in number those found in
England and Scotland. The indigenous Starlings and Snipes
are as nothing compared with the numbers that pour into the
island during autumn from their breeding-haunts in higher
latitudes.
a ————————
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 355
Our moist and rich meadows draw hither in spring more
Land-Rails (Crex pratensis) than are generally to be found
in the meadows of England and Scotland ; but in the case of
this bird, the far-western position of Ireland should perhaps be
considered, as in Portugal the species is about equally
abundant.
Mammalia.—It is so extremely difficult to procure the greater
number of the animals of this class, that some, especially of
the smaller species, are doubtless yet to be discovered; as
known at present, they appear to fall short of those of Great
Britain in an extraordinary degree. In the Cheiroptera, or
Bats, we seem to be remarkably deficient, but time must add
more species to our list. In the genus Mus there is a species
—the M. hibernicus—as yet unknown elsewhere. The Squirrel
(Sciurus vulgaris) and Dermouse (Myoxus avellanarius) are
desiderata: of the genus Arvicola I have not seen an Irish
example. In Lepus, the place of L. timidus and L. varia-
bilis is supplied by L. hibernicus, as yet known only to Ireland.
In Mustela, the Polecat (M. Putorius) is unknown to me; and
if M. vulgaris be indigenous, it is much more rare than M.
erminea, which prevails from north to south. Of Felis Catus,
as an Irish animal, positive information is yet wanted. The
Talpa europea we certainly have not, though in Great Britain
mole-hills may be observed close to the sea-side at some of
the nearest points of land to Ireland, as at Holyhead in
Wales, and Portpatrick in Scotland. The Soreces at present
known are but two in number.
Ireland possesses as many Bérds as from her geographical
position might be anticipated. The species which appear in
the catalogue of Great Britain and not in that of Ireland, are
chiefly occasional visitants, many of which have no doubt ex-
tended their flight hither, although they have not come under
the cognizance of the naturalist. This refers chiefly to strag-
-glers or single birds; the species which come in flights to
Great Britain generally extend their migration to Ireland also.
In the class Reptilia nothing particular need be remarked,
except the well-known fact of the absence of Ophidian Rep- _
tiles from the island.
In Amphibia we have not the Toad (Bufo vulgaris) ; the
Frog (Rana temporaria) is stated to have been introduced ;
the Natterjack (Bufo Calamita) is believed to be truly indi-
genous to Kerry.
The coast of Ireland offers nothing very remarkable in
Fishes. 'The families having a place in the British catalogue
and in which the Irish is particularly deficient, are Percide,
2a2
356 REPORT—1840.
Sparide,and Tenioidee. In fresh-water fishes there is, com-
pared with England, a remarkable poverty in the species of
Cyprinide ; yet, leaving out of the question geological in-
fluences, there are in certain portions of Ireland lakes and
rivers apparently well suited to this family. Scotland too is
very deficient in the Cyprinide.
In the following catalogue of the vertebrate animals of Ire-
land about 420 species are included; namely, of Mammalia,
302; Aves, 2302; Reptilia, 2; Amphibia, 4; Pisces, 150?;
omitting in each class all extinct and naturalized species. To
take a general review of the Irish Vertebrata, as known at
present—and every year several species are added to the cata-
logue—and of the causes of the absence of species found in
Great Britain, it is believed that the physical geography and
climate of the island will account for that of only one or two.
The want of old timber over the country might be considered
an obstacle to the presence of certain Mammalia and Birds,
as the Cheiroptera, or Bats, a large proportion of the British
species of which inhabit old trees ; the Squirrel, &c. In Birds,
the Picide, or Woodpeckers, their congeners, and some others.
The absence of all species which would not be affected by any
of the above circumstances, and which we really have not,
seems to me to be attributable to geographical distribution
alone; thus, as the shores of continental Europe on the same
parallels of latitude as Great Britain are the western boundary
to many vertebrate animals unknown to that island, so again
are the shores of the latter the extreme western boundary to
many species unknown to Ireland *.
Note 1.—The North-east of Ireland and South-west of
Scotland, although divided by so narrow a channel, are zoolo-
gically very different. ‘The species unknown to me as Irish,
but of which I have seen examples from the opposite coast,
are, the Polecat (Mustela Putorius), Mole (Talpa europea),
Ciliated Shrew (Sorex ciliatus), the three species of Campa-
gnol (Arvicola amphibia, A. agrestis, and A. riparia), and the
common Hare (Lepzus timidus)—the Black Grouse (Tetrao
Tetrix)—the Blind-worm (Anguis fragilis), Adder or Viper
(Pelius Berus), and Toad (Bufo vulgaris).
In the genera to which the animals just mentioned belong,
Ireland is known to possess but one species which is not found
in Scotland, the Lepus hibernicus, and of the terrestrial Mam-
malia generally, but one other, Mus hibernicus: of the com-
* Several species of British Birds are either not found in the West of En-
gland, or become rare towards that quarter; as the Nightingale, Nuthatch,
Wryneck, Kentish Plover, Stork, &c.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 357
mon Shrew-mouse of Ireland (Sorex rusticus), indeed, I have
not seen any specimens from Scotland, but there can be little
doubt that the animal is found there.
Note 2.—The situation of the Isle of Man—midway between
Great Britain and Ireland—suggests the inquiry whether cer-
tain species not found in the latter island prevail there. On
this subject Mr. E. Forbes informs me that the Mole, Squirrel,
Dormouse, and Roe-deer are not indigenous to the Isle of
Man; neither is the Toad, nor any species of Ophidian Rep-
tile. A skin of the Hare of the island sent me by Mr. Forbes
is that of Z. timidus, the species found in Great Britain, and
represented by L. Azbernicus in Ireland*.
* It may be desirable, with reference to the above remarks, to allude briefly
to such species as, found in Great Britain and not in Ireland, prevail further to
the west. In Mammalia, five of the British and non-Irish species are found in
the western hemisphere. ‘They all belong to the division Mamm. Aquatica,
and are only occasional visitants! to the shores of Great Britain. The species
are Culocephalus (Phoca) greenlandicus, Trichecus rosmarus, Delphinus Tursio,
Delphinapterus (Beluga) leucas, Monodon Monoceros.
In Aves, sixteen British and non-Irish species prevail in the western hemi-
sphere. Of these, the Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) only can with certainty be
termed indigenous to Great Britain, and for its absence from Ireland reasons
have already been assigned. Linaria canescens seems not yet to be properly
established as an indigenous British bird. Two species, Procellaria glacialis
and Lobipes hyperboreus, are periodical visitants, the former to St. Kilda only,
the latter to the northern Scottish islands. The remaining twelve are occa-
sional and very rare visitants to Great Britain or the neighbouring seas.
They are Nauclerus (Elanus) furcatus, Surnia funerea, Plectrophanes Lappo-
nica, Ectopistes (Columba) migratoria, Macroramphus griseus, Tringa rufes-
cens, Tringa pectoralis, Oidemia perspicillata, Clangula histrionica, Merganser
-cucullatus, Larus atricilla, and Thalassidroma Wilsoni.
In Reptilia, two species which have a place in the British and not in the
. Irish catalogue, belong to the western hemisphere : these are Chelonia imbricata
and Sphargis coriacea.
In Amphibia, none of the species under consideration occur in the west.
In Pisces, several British and non-Irish species appear in the North Ameri-
-ean list, but they are all known only as rare and occasional visitants to the
shores of Great Britain: They are Zrichiurus lepturus, Sebastes norvegicus,
Naucrates Ductor, Exoceius exiliens, Engraulis encrasicholus ?, Echeneis Re-
mora, Murena vulgaris ?, Zygena malleus, Scopelus Humboldtii, and Xiphias
gladius.
The Mammalia, Reptilia, and Pisces of the West are taken (with the excep-
tion of Sphargis coriacea) from Dr. Richardson’s “ Report on North American
Zoology,’’ (Report Brit. Assoc., vol. v.), and Dr. H. Storer’s “ Report on the
Fishes &c. of Massachusetts ;” Aves, from the Prince of Musignano’s “ Com-
parative Catalogue of the Birds of Europe and North America.”
1 Throughout this Report, the term indigenous is applied to species perma-
nently resident; periodical visitant, to those which come annually; occasionaé
-visitant, to those met with at uncertain intervals.
358 REPORT—1S4G,
PART II.
Div. VERTEBRATA.
Crass MAMMALIA.—Secr. I. MAMM. TERRESTRIA-
Order 1.—CHEIROPTERA-
Fam. Vespertilionide.
{Throughout the comparative catalogue, the mark 0 denotes absence, as the
mark + does presence. Thus Vesp. Noctula is unknown in Ireland;
V., Pipistrellus is a British as well as an Irish species.]
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Vespertilio Noctula, Schreb.
0 = Leisleri, Kuhl.
ae discolor, Natt.
Vespertilio Pipistrellus, Geoff. +
0 2 pygmezus, Leach.
0 a serotinus, Gmel.
8 P murinus, Z.
0 a Bechsteinii, Zeés/.
Oo “t Nattereri, Kuhl.
0 4 emarginatus, Geoff.
F5 Daubentonii, Leis/.
0 ms mystacinus, Leisé.
+ zedilis, Jenyns.
0
Plecotus auritus, Geoff.
Plecotus brevimanus, Jenyns,
Barbastellus Daubentonii, Bell.
Rhinolophus Ferrum-equinum, Leach.
Ae hipposideros, Leach.
Of the Vespertilionide, of which 18 species are now enume-
rated as British, all that can be announced as Irish are the
Vesp. Pipistrellus, V. Daubentontt and Plecotus auritus: the
first and last are common from north to south of the island:
of the V, Daubentonii*, one individual was obtained by the
Ordnance collectors in the county of Londonderry. That other
species remain to be discovered, there is little doubt.
Of the British Bats, 4 species have each been found, but in
one locality ; and of 4 other species but a single individual has
been procured.
oooo
Order 2.— BEsTIz£.
(Ferz Insectivorz.)
Fam. Hrinaceide.
Treland. Great Britain.
Erinacens europeus, L. =.
Common throughout the island.
* The species determined by Mr. Jenyns.
ee
a —”
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 359
Fam. Talpide.
Treland. Great Britain.
0 Talpa europea, L.
Fam. Soricide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Sorex rusticus, Jenyns. +
» tetragonurus, Herm.
0 Sorex fodiens, Gmel.
0 » Ciliatus, Sower.
0 » castaneus, Jenyns.
S. rusticus is the common Shrew of Ireland from north to
south; of S. tetragonurus I have seen but one native speci-
men, which was procured by the Ordnance Survey near the
Giant’s Causeway.
Order 3.—FrErz#.
Fam. Urside*.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Meles Taxus, Flem. +
In suitable localities throughout
the island.
Fam. Felide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Lutra vulgaris, Eraleb. (?) + +
Mustela vulgaris, Z. (?) +
» erminea, LZ. +
0 Mustela Putorius, L.
Martes foina, Bell. +
AA Abietum, Ray. +
0 Felis Catus, L.
Vulpes vulgaris, Briss. +
The Irish Otter, named provisionally Lutra Roensis by Mr.
Ogilby, is not now considered by that gentleman distinct from
L. vulgaris; it is not uncommon. Of the Mustele, M. Puto-
rius is unknown to me as Irish; and of M. vulgaris, which is
noticed as common by Templeton and others, I have not seen
a native specimen: M. ermineais common from north to south,
and passes under the name of ‘ Weasel’. Martes Abietum
is found throughout the island; of M. foina, but one native
example (killed in the county of Antrim) is known to me. The
* Ursus Arctos, L. I am not aware of any written evidence tending to show
that the Bear was ever indigenous to Ireland; but a tradition exists of its having
been so, and it is associated with the Wolf as a native animal in the stories
handed down through several generations to the present time.
+ The note of interrogation within brackets (?) marks species doubtfully Irish.
a
360 REPORT—1840.
difference of colour attributed to these animals appears to me
of no value as a specific character, as in course of shedding
their fur they become particoloured, the breast as well as the
body presenting at the same time the colours of the Beech and
the Pine Marten*. Certain data for including Felis Catus in
the Irish catalogue are wanting: it is said to frequent the wild
district of Erris (co. Mayo). Vulpes vulgaris is commont.
Order 4.—GLIREs.
Fam. Castoride.
Ireland, Great Britain.
0 Arvicola amphibius, Desm.
0 » arvalis, Gm. (agrestis, Brit. au-
thors).
0 » rubidus, Baill. (riparia, Yarrell).
Of the genus Arvicola, there is not any species known to
me as indigenous to Ireland.
Fam. Muride.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Sciurus vulgaris, L.
0 Myoxus avellanarius, Desm.
0 Mus minutus, Pall. (messorius, Shaw.)
Mus sylvaticus, L.
» Musculus, Z. ao
» Rattus, L. (2) +-
», hibernicus, Zhomps. 0
», decumanus, Pall. +
Sciurus vulgaris is not now a truly native animal}; it was in-
troduced a few years since to the county of Wicklow, where it
is said to be fast increasing in numbers. Rutty, in his Natu-
ral History of the County of Dublin, (1772,) vol. i. p. 291, re-
marks that it is “‘said to have been found in the wood in
* When the above was in the press, Mr. Eyton published in the Annals of
Nat. Hist. (Dec. 1840, p. 290) some valuable remarks on the British Martens,
tending to prove that they are in reality but one species. He states that the
young animal has the yellow breast attributed to the Pine Marten, and the adult,
the white breast of the common “species.” I had also long since remarked that
the yellow colour of the breast gave place to white. This view would satisfac-
torily explain why the yellow-breasted one—MM. Abietum—should appear to be
the more common with us, as by far the greater proportion of animals that fall
victims to man are those which have not arrived at full maturity.
+ Canis Lupus, L. Smith, in his History of Kerry (p. 173), states that
Wolves were not entirely extirpated in Ireland until 1710. That noble race of
domestic animals, the Irish Wolf Dog, so successfully used in their pursuit, has,
since no longer required, been neglected, and must now, I fear, be called
extinct.
{ There is a tradition that the Squirrel was common in Ireland before the
destruction of the native woods.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 361
Lutterel’s Town.” In the same work it is observed in vol. i.
p- 277, that ‘a vulgar error has prevailed, mentioned at Jon-
ston’s Historia Animalium, that the Dormouse was not found
in Ireland,” &c.; a sort of description of the animal follows,
but by no means proving it to be a Myoxus. Mus minutus
cannot be announced as Irish; but a native animal was once
described to me which would agree with it; M. sylvaticus and
M. Musculus are both too common over the island. The ani-
mal provisionally called Mus hibernicus* is now so rare that I
have been able to obtain for examination but one specimen,
which is insufficient to establish it properly as a distinct spe-
cies; M. Rattus, though very rare, is stated to occur occa-
sionally in various parts of the island.
. In his Natural History-of Dublin, Rutty states that the Mus
decumanus ‘first began to infest these parts about the year
1722.” (vol. i. 281.) It has long since overspread the island.
Fam. Leporide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Lepus timidus, Z.
0 » variabilis, Pall.
Lepus hibernicus, Bell. 0
Cuniculus, LZ. +
The only species of Hare known as Irish is the L. hiber-
_nicus, which is common throughout the island, as is likewise
LL. Cuniculus+.
=
Order 5.—Percoraf.
e
4 , Fam. Cervide §.
Mi Ireland. Great Britain.
Cervus Elaphus, L.
. 0 Cervus Capreolus, Z.
_ * Proceedings Zool. Soc. London, 1837, p. 52.
z - + This animal passes under the names of burrow and bush Rabbit in the North
of Ireland. ‘These are distinguished from each other accordingly as they bur-
Yow in the ground in the ordinary manner, or live in “forms” like the Hare
among bushes or underwood. This departure from their natural habit is, I con-
' teive, only resorted to where the soil is unsuited to burrowing. In the Annals
of Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 362, a notice will be found on the subject of Hares bur-
rowing in an exposed situation on the western coast of Ireland, to which they
_ were introduced, and where they could not otherwise find shelter.
__ ¢ Bos Taurus, L. The remains of a race of Oxen, believed to be peculiar to
oo are found in our bogs. The distinguishing characters are, “the con-
“Vexity of the upper part of the forehead, its great proportional length, and the
“shortness and downward direction of thehorns.” See an abstract of a paper by
Mr. R. Ball, “On the Remains of Oxen found in the Bogs of Ireland,”’ in the
: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, January 28, 1839.
§ Cervus Dama, L. Smith, in his History of Kerry, notices herds of Fallow
Deer as frequenting the “mountains” in that county. But as these are the
haunts not of this animal, but of the Stag or Red Deer (C. Elaphus), the latter
362 REPORT—1840.
The C. Elaphus, once abundant over Ireland, is now con-
fined to the wilder parts of Connaught, as Erris and Conne-
mara; and to one or two localities in the South, more espe-
cially the vicinity of the lakes of Killarney.
Sect. Il. MAMMALIA AQUATICA.
Order 6.—PINNIPEDA.
Fam. Phocide.
Treland. ’ Great Britain.
Phocea vitulina, Z. +
0 Phoca greenlandica, Mull.
0 » barbata, Mull.
Halicherus Gryphus, Bell. Je
0 Trichecus Rosmarus, ZL.
a
was probably the species alluded to, especially as in the index to the volume
appears “ Deer, red or fallow”. For a long period the Fallow Deer certainly has
not been found in any part of Ireland where it could be called truly wild.
A horn of this species which I possess, (through the kindness of Edward Benn,
Esq., of Glenravel, county Antrim,) is stated to have been dug up from a con-
siderable depth in a bog in his neighbourhood, but minute particulars respecting
it could not be obtained. It may not be out of place to observe here, that the
C. Dama is now well known to inhabit Greece in a wild state. Lord
Derby has for some years possessed a pair of these animals of the common
spotted variety, which were brought from the neighbourhood of Axium by
Lord Nugent, and which, as | aminformed by my friend Mr. Ogilby, who
examined them attentively, during a recent visit to their noble owner, differ
in no respect from the common Fallow Deer of our parks. Moreover, as re-
marked by the same gentleman, the universal application of the word Dama
to this animal in the Italian, French, Spanish, and other modern languages de-
rived from the ancient Latin, (added to the fact of the animal being still found
in the forests of Italy, where there are no parks or inclosures,) points it out as
the beast of chase so frequently mentioned under the same name by the Roman
poets. Mr. Ogilby likewise remarks that it isin all probability the Platycerus
of Pliny, or rather of the Greeks, from whom he copied. It is said in a note
to the second edition of the Régne Animal to have been found in the woods
of Northern Africa.
Cervus Alces, L. A horn of the true Elk (C. Alces), as noticed by me in the
« Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London,”’ for 1837, p. 53, was some
years since presented to the Natural History Society of Belfast. Tothe donor
it was given by a relative residing at Stewartstown, county Tyrone, who attached
much value to it as a singular relic dug out of a peat-boy on his own property
in that neighbourhood. That it was so obtained I am assured there cannot be
a doubt. The horn is that of a very old animal, and quite perfect. On re- ©
moving the paint with which it was besmeared, the horn certainly presented a
fresh appearance; but might not this be attributed to the well-known preserv-
ative property of the soil in which it is said to have been found? There is not,
that I am aware of, any record of this animal having ever existed ina wild state
in the British Isles ; but as it inhabited a wide range of latitude on the continent
of Europe, it is within the bounds of probability to believe that it may have
been a native species.
Sus Scrofa, L. The Wild Boar was at one period common in Ireland, but
has long since become extinct. Giraldus remarks that it was of a small race, —
but tusks of this animal dug up in our bogs are often of goodly dimensions.
|
\
|
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 363
"|
P. vitulina and Hal. Gryphus only, in this family, have
with certainty been recognised as Irish species; they both in-
habit the coasts from north to south. -
_ Precise information is much wanted with reference to P.
_barbata as a British species ; and as such, P. graenlandica (or
the animal so considered to be) is a recent addition to the ca-
talocue. Trich. Rosmarus very rarely occurs in the Hebrides
and in the Orkney and Shetland Islands.
Order 7. CETE.
Fam. Delphinide.
Lreland. Great Britain.
Delphinus Delphis, L. +
0 Delphinus Tursio, Fabr.
Phoczena communis, Less. +
», Orca, F. Cuv. a
» Melas, Bell.
0 Beluga leucas, Bell
Hyperoodon Butzkopf, Lacep. +
0 Diodon Sowerbei, Jard.
0 Monodon Monoceros, Z.
D. Delphis, P. communis and P. Orca are considered to pre-
vail on various parts of the coast of Ireland, the second to be
the most common, the last the rarest ; of all, I have seen native
“specimens, but cannot from personal knowledge speak of the
comparative abundance or scarcity of the species. P. melas
has been observed on the western and southern coasts; Hyp.
Butzkopf along the eastern coast. The four Delphinide
which cannot be enumerated in the Irish catalogue are very
‘are as British species; of Diodon Sowerbei a single speci-
“men only is on record.
Fam. Balenide.
+ Ireland. Great Britain.
_ Physeter macrocephalus, Z. a
as Tursio, LZ. +
Balena Mysticetus, L. +
_ Balznoptera Boops, Flem. +
_ According to Dr. Molyneux*, the ‘‘Spermaceti Whale”
as been captured on the north and north-west coasts. Smith
tices one, taken near Youghal; and Rutty, in his Natural
distory of Dublin, mentions an individual as cast ashore in
766. Templeton states that Phys. Tursio is of occasional oc-
currence in the West. Bal. Mysticetus has been rarely cap-
tured on various parts of the coast. Of a Balenoptera (Ba-
léna rostrata) which was taken on the western coast some years
ago a very full account has been published by Dr. Jacob in the
Dublin Philosophical Journal.
* Phil. Trans., vol. xix. 1795-6, p. 508.
364 REPORT—1840.
PART III.
Class AVES.
Order 1.—RAPTORES.
Fam. Vulturide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Neophron Percnopterus, Sav.
This bird has a place in the British Fauna from its occur-
rence in England on one or two occasions. Africa is its head
quarters.
Fam. Falconide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Aquila Chrysaétos, Vig.
Halizetus albicilla, Sedby.
Pandion Halizetus, Sav.
Astur palumbarius, Bechst. (?)
Accipiter fringillarius, Ray.
Falco greenlandicus, ZL. Hancock.
Islandicus, Lath. Hancock.(?)
»» peregrinus, L.
»» Subbuteo, Z.
» rufipes, Bechst.
» Tinnunculus, L.
», salon, Gmel.
Buteo vulgaris, Bechst.
» Lagopus, Vig.
Pernis apivorus, Cuv.
Circus rufus, Briss.
cyaneus, Fem.
0
++t+ttt+ttttt+++tt
”
Circus cineraceus, Shaw.
Milvus Ictinus, Sav.
Elanus furcatus, Sav.
The two first-named species, the Golden and Sea Eagles are
in Ireland, as in Scotland, more numerous than in England.
Pandion Halizetus is chiefly confined to the more southern half
of the island. Astur palumbarius has a place not only in the
older county histories, but in Mr. Templeton’s catalogue; I have
not myself seen any specimen which could he verified as native.
Accipiter fringillarius, Falco peregrinus, F. Tinnunculus, F.
Zésalon, Buteo vulgaris, Circus rufus, and C. eyaneus, inhabit
suitable localities throughout Ireland: in the wild and moun-
tainous parts of the country which are destitute of wood, B. vul- —
garis makes the precipitous rocks its habitation. Falco gren-
PER Py PRION ED ID ICI 0
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 365
landicus as distinguished by Mr. Hancock from F*. Islandicus*,
has in one instance been obtained in Donegal}: under the latter
name Mr. Templeton records a specimen, killed in the county
of Antrim, but as both these terms were then used synony-
mously, it must remain doubtful whether it was this or the
former species. By this naturalist the F. Subbuteo was on two
occasions observed in Ireland. Falco rufipes has once been ob-
tained, in the neighbourhood of Dublin. Buteo Lagopus is
avery rare winter, as Pernis apivorus is a summer, visitant.
Smith, in his History of Cork, (completed in 1749,) remarks of
the Milvus Ictinus, ‘These birds are so common that they
need no particular description; ...... with us it remains all
the year{.” At present the species is unknown in that county.
The terms Kite and Goshawk being applied indiscriminately
in Ireland to the Buzzards, and the latter sometimes to the
Peregrine Falcon, renders it somewhat dubious whether the
proper names have always been legitimately employed in the
county histories, &. The Milvus Ictinus has, on what was
considered sufficient authority, been noticed as an extremely
rare visitant to the North §.
Of our desiderata, the Circus cineraceus is a species, which
from its general resemblance to C. cyaneus, might readily be
overlooked ; it will probably yet be added to the Irish cata-
logue. Elanus furcatus, an American species, has only twice
been taken in Great Britain.
Fam. Strigide. 4
Ireland. Great Britain.
Bubo maximus, Sibbald. +
Otus vulgaris, Flem. +
» Brachyotos, Cuv. +
Scops Aldrovandi, Will. & Ray. ar
ue
Surnia nyctea, Dum.
0 Surnia funerea, Dum.
Strix flammea, Z.
Ulula stridula, Selby.
0
++
Noctua Tengmalmi, Selby.
0 » passerina, Selby.
Of the occurrence of either Bubo maximus or Scops Aldro-
vandi in Ireland, there is but a single record. Otus vulgaris
* Annals of Natural History, vol. ii. p. 249.
+ The description of this individual, supplied me, previous to the appearance
of Mr. Hancock’s paper, by John Vandeleur Stewart, Esq., of Rockhill,
Letterkenny, in whose collection it is, is so ample, as to prove its species
beyond any doubt.
t Vol. ii. p. 326, 2nd edit.
§ Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 156.
366 REPORT—1840.
and Strix flammea are common and resident. Otus Brachyo-
tos is a regular winter resident; at the same season Surnia
nyctea has occasionally been met with. Ulula stridula is in-
cluded in the older county histories; on what was considered
sufficient authority it was noticed as an Irish species in Annals
of Natural History, vol. i. p. 156.
Surnia funerea has its place in the British catalogue from a
single individual having been taken off the coast of Cornwall.
Noctua Tengmalmi and N. passerina have been very rarely met
with in England.
Order 2.—INSESSORES.
Div. 1.—DENTIROSTRES.
Fam. Laniade.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Lanius Excubitor, Z. +
0 Lanius Collurio, Z.
0 » rufus, Z.
The L. Excubitor only in this family can be announced as
Trish : its occurrence in a number of instances is on record.
LL. Collurio is a regular summer visitant to England; LZ.
rufus but a very rare and occasional one.
Fam. Muscicapide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Muscicapa grisola, L.
0 Muscicapa luctuosa, Temm.
M. grisola is a regular summer visitant to Ireland.
M. luctuosa is in England considered only as an occasional
visitant (Selby).
Fam. Merulide.
Freland. Great Britain.
Cinclus aquaticus, Bechst.
Merula viscivora, Selby.
© pilaris, Selby.
4) musica, Selby.
35 iliaca, Selby.
» vulgaris, Ray.
» torquata, Selby.
0
+++4++44
Merula Whitei, Jard.
Oriolus Galbula, Z. +
Cinclus aquaticus, Mer. musica and M. vulgaris are com-
mon and resident; so likewise is M. viscivora, but not to the
same extent, although its increase in Ireland of late years has
Se.” -:~S-:~--r—r
io ee SP
anna
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 367
fully kept pace with that in Great Britain: so mild have been
our few last winters, that the song of M. musica was almost
daily heard. Mer. pilaris and M. iliaca regularly take up
their abode with us in winter, as does M. torquata in summer.
Oriolus Galbula has in a few instances been met with in
various parts of Ireland, and as far north as Donaghadee, co.
Down.
Mer. Whitet has on two occasions occurred in England.
Fam. Sylviade.
Ireland. Great Britain.
-Accentor modularis, Cuv.
0 Accentor alpinus, Bechst.
Erythaca Rubecula, Swains.
Pheenicura Ruticilla, Swains. +
= Tithys, Jard. & Selby.
0 Pheoenicura Suecica, Selby.
Saxicola Ginanthe, Bechst.
- Rubetra, Bechst. +
7 Rubicola, Bechst. +
Salicaria Locustella, Selby. +
a Phragmitis, Selby. +
os arundinacea, Selby.
0 Philomela Luscinia, Swains.
Curruca Atricapilla, Bechst. +
» hortensis, Bechst. +
» cinerea, Bechst.
Curruca Garrula, Briss.
0 Melizophilus provincialis, Leach.
Sylvia Hippolais, Lath.
» sibilatrix, Bechst. (?)
» Trochilus, Lath.
Regulus Aurocapillus, Selby.
0
++++
: Regulus ignicapillus, Jenyns.
Parus major, L.
5, coeruleus, Z.
» palustris, L.
» ater, L.
-,, caudatus, L.
Parus cristatus,
Calamophilus biarmicus, Leach.
Motacilla Yarrellii, Gould. (M. alba,
preceding British authors).
Motacilla Boarula, Z.
es flava, Ray.
0
++ ++nNt++4+4+4
Motacilla neglecta, Gould.
Anthus obscurus, Zemm.* (Rock Pipit,
: oF
Brit. authors).
Anthus pratensis, Bechst. +
“ arboreus, Bechst. (?) ak
0
Anthus Richardi, Viezil.
* Not 4. aquaticus, Bechst. See Temm. Man., part iv. p. 929.
368 REPORT—1840.
Accentor modularis, Erythaca Rubecula, Saxicola Rubicola,
Regulus Aurocapillus, Parus major, P. ceeruleus, P. ater, Mo-
tacilla Yarrellii, M. Boarula, Anthus obseurus, A. pratensis
are common and resident: in the wilder districts, especially
towards the west, M. Boarula is rare. Parus caudatus and P.
palustris are likewise resident, but much less common than the
preceding species ; the former is increasing with the spread of
plantations; the latter is very little known as an Irish bird.
Pheenicura Ruticilla is but of occasional and rare occurrence ;
Ph. Tithys can only be announced with certainty as having
once been met with. Saaicola Ginanthe, S. Rubetra, Sali-
carta Phragmitis, Curruca cinerea, Sylvia Trochilus are the
most common and widely dispersed of the regular summer visit-
ants; Salicaria Locustella should perhaps be included with
them, but its retired habits render it less known. Salicaria
arundinacea is recorded by Templeton as once seen by him
near Belfast, and in a single instance Calamophilus biarmicus
has been obtained on the banks of the Shannon. Curruca
Atricapilla is probably a regular summer visitant to select
localities, and has in several instances been known to winter
in Ireland. C. hortensis is with certainty known only as an
occasional summer visitant. Sylvia Hippolais and Motacilla
flava appear every summer in comparatively few localities over
the island. Sylvia Sibilatrix and Anthus arboreus are believed
to visit Ireland in summer, but it yet remains to be determined.
Of our desiderata, Accentor alpinus, Pheenicura suecica,
Regulus Ignicapillus, and Anthus Richardt are only known as
rare and occasional visitants to England. Motacilla neglecta
cannot without further information be regarded otherwise than
a species of occasional occurrence in Great Britain. ‘There is
little hope of Parus cristatus being found in Ireland: it is, as a
British bird, known only in Scotland, where it especially fre-
quents the pine forests. Melizophilus provincialis has been
met with only in the more southern halfof England. Of Phi-
lomela Luscinia and Curruca Garrula, the former is unknown
in the West of that country, and the latter would seem to be-
come rare towards the same quarter. With increased atten-
tion, more species in this family will doubtless be added to the
Irish catalogue.
Fam. Ampelide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Bombycilla garrula, Bonap. ob
An occasional winter visitant to Ireland.
»
—————e—ee SC Cl
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 369
Order INsEssoREs.
Div. 2.—Con1rosTREs:
Fam. Fringillide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Alauda alpestris, Z.
Alauda‘arvensis, Z. +
» arborea, Z. +
0 Plectrophanes Lapponica, Selby.
Plectrophanes nivalis, Meyer. 5
Emberiza Miliaria, Z. +
‘5 Scheeniculus, Z. +
: Citrinella, Z. +
0 Emberiza Cirlus, Z.
0 F hortulana, LZ.
Fringilla Coelebs, Z. aS
< Montifringilla, L. +
+
Passer domesticus, Ray.
0 Passer montanus, Ray.
Coccothraustes vulgaris, Flem. (Fring.
Coccothraustes, Temm.)
Coccothraustes Chloris, Flem.
Carduelis elegans, Steph.
45 Spinus, Steph.
Linaria minor, Ray.
ip cannabina, Sw.
a montana, Ray.
t++4+4+ +
0 Linaria canescens, Gould.
Pyrrhula vulgaris, Temm.
ns Enucleator, Tem. (?) +
Loxia curvirostra, L.
Loxia Pytiopsittacus, Bechst.
», leucoptera, Gmel. +
Alauda arvensis, Emb. miliaria, E. Scheniculus and E.
Citrinella, Fring. Celebs, Pass. domesticus, Coce. Chloris,
Linaria minor and L. cannabina are common and resident.
Alauda arborea, Card. elegans, Lin. montana and Pyrr. vul-
garis are likewise resident, but more local than the others.
Plect. nivalisisa regular winter visitant to the North of Ireland,
but little known in the South ; Fring. Montifringilla is a fre-
quent, perhaps a regular visitant at.the same period. Coce.
vulgaris, Card. Spinus, and Loxia curvirostra occasionally
visit us in winter, the first-mentioned being the most rare, and
occurring in the fewest numbers ; the last-named has in some
instances bred in Ireland. Pyrr. Enucleator would seem
from a note of Mr. Templeton’s to have been once met with
near Belfast. Lowxia leucoptera has been obtained on one
occasion.
1840. 2B
370 REPORT—1840.
Alauda alpestris, Plect. Lapponica, Emb. hortulana and
Loxia Pytiopsittacus* are very rare and occasional visitants
to Great Britain. Emberiza Cirlus and Passer montanus are
local species in England, the former visiting only a portion
of the South. Linaria canescens I have not yet sought to
distinguish from its allies.
Fam. Sturnide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Sturnus vulgaris, LZ. =f
Pastor roseus, Temm. +
The former species is somewhat local and partially resident ;
it abounds in particular localities during winter. The latter is
a rare summer visitant, but has been met with in all quarters
of the island.
Fam. Corvide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Fregilus Graculus, Selb.
Corvus Corax, L.
ye, Corone, L:
» Cornix, L.
os Frugilegus, L.
“F Monedula, L.
Pica melanoleuca, Vieill.
Garrulus glandarius, Fem.
0
+++++444+
Nucifraga Caryocatactes, Briss.
Freg. Graculus is pretty generally diffused over the marine
cliffs of Ireland, and rarely inhabits inland localities. All the
species of Corvus are resident and common; C. Corone least
so. Of Pica melanoleuca it is stated by Smith, in his History
of Cork, (1749,) that it “was not known in Ireland seventy years
ago, but is now very common}. Rutty, in his Natural History
of Dublin, observes respecting this bird, “It is a foreigner,
naturalised here since the latter end of King James the Se-
cond’s reign, and is said to have been driven hither by a strong
wind.”t Garr. glandarius inhabits only some parts of the
island, especially towards the centre and south.
Nucif. Caryocatactes is but a rare visitant to Great Britain.
Ihave heard that it once occurred at Silvermines, co. Tippe-
rary.
* It is more than probable that some of the later British specimens noticed
as this bird were merely ZL. curvirostra, with the point of the lower mandible
not extending beyond the profile of the upper.
+ Vol. ii. p. 330. t Vol. i. p. 308.
ae
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 371
Order INSESSORES.
Div. 3.—ScANSORES.
Fam. Picide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Picus viridis, Z.
Picus major, LZ.
», minor, Z.
0 »» martius, Z.
0 Yunx Torquilla, Z.
Owing to the general scarcity of wood, especially old, this
family of birds is rare. P. major only can with certainty be in-
troduced to our catalogue, and it is but a very rare visitant.
*“* Picus varius minor, Lesser Spotted Woodpecker,” is given
as one of the birds of the co. Dublin by Rutty*. In Dr. Patrick
Brown’s catalogue of the Birds of Ireland it likewise has a
place, but was probably copied from Rutty. In Smith’s Water-
ford} appears ‘‘ Picus Martis, the Woodpecker, a bird rare in
this county :” the P. martius can hardly have been here meant.
Picus viridis would appear to be generally distributed in
suitable localities in Great Britain, and P. minor to be so in
England ; P. martius is a very rare visitant. Yuna Torquilla,
one of the summer birds of passage to England, decreases in
numbers towards the west of that country.
Fam. Certhiade.
Treland. Great Britain.
Certhia familiaris, Z. +
Troglodytes europeus, Cuv. +
Upupa Epops, L. ate
0 Sitta europzea, L.
Cert. familiaris constantly inhabits the best-wooded districts
throughout Ireland ; Trog.ewropeus is common and resident.
Upupa Epops is a rare visitant but has been taken in all quar-
ters of the island.
Sitta europea is somewhat local in England, and towards
the West is said to become more rare.
Fam. Cuculide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Cuculus canorus, LZ. +
Coccyzus americanus, Bonap. +
The former is a regular vernal migrant to Ireland, and is
generally diffused ; the latter has on two or three occasions
been obtained in the counties of Cork and Dublin.
* Vol. i. p. 302. + P. 338.
2B2
372 REPORT—1840.
Order INSESSORES.
Div. 4.—FissiRosTREs.
Fam. Meropide.
Treland. : Great Britain.
Coracias garrula, L. +
Merops Apiaster, L. +
Both species are extremely rare and known only to have oc-
curred on two or three occasions in Ireland.
Fam. Haleyonide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Alcedo Ispida, L. +
Is diffused over suitable localities and resident.
Fam. Hirundinide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Hirundo rustica, Z. ~
pe urbica, Z. --
a riparia, L. +
Cypselus Apus, Flem. +
+ alpinus, Temm. —
The three species of Hirundo and Cyp. Apus are regular
vernal migrants to Ireland. Cyp. alpinus has been obtained
once off Cape Clear, and again in the county of Dublin.
Fam. Caprimulgide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Caprimulgus europzus, L. +
A regular summer visitant to certain portions of the island
both north and south, but very local.
Order 3.—RASORES.
Fam. Columbide.
Treland. Great Britain.
Columba Palumbus, Z. ait
0 Columba Ginas, Z.
on Livia, Briss. <5
tc Turtur, Z.
0 . migratoria, L.
C. Palumbus and C. Livia are common and resident in their
very different places of abode. C. Turtur is an occasional
summer visitant.
C. Ginas is very partially distributed in England, being
chiefly confined to the midland and eastern counties. Of C.
migratoria a single specimen, supposed to have been in a wild
state, has been obtained in Great Britain*.
* Phasianus Colchicus, and its var. 8 the Ring-necked, are common in many
parts of Ireland to which they have been introduced.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 373
Fam. Tetraonide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Tetrao Tetrix, Z.
Lagopus scoticus, Selby.
0
Lagopus mutus, Leach.
Perdix cinerea, Lath.
» Coturnix, Lath. +
In the genera Tetrao and Lagopus, which in the eye of the
sportsman if not of the naturalist are of all others the most
attractive, we now possess but one species, the Lagopus
scoticus. This is common to heathy tracts, from the low-
lying bog to the mountain top throughout Ireland, and is in
many places as abundant as in the highlands of Scotland. Of
the Tetrao Urogallus, Smith, in his History of Cork*, ob-
serves, that it is now found rarely in Ireland since our woods
have been destroyed. In his Natural History of Dublin, Rutty
remarks, that ‘‘ one of these [7. Urogallus] was seen in the
county of Leitrim about the year 1710, but they have entirely
disappeared of late, by reason of the destruction of our woods+.”
In the work above cited, Smith describes the 7. Tetrix as
“ frequent.” Mr. Templeton states that he had been in-
formed by excellent authority, that “ black game is mentioned
in some of the old leases of the county of Down’t; and else-
where this bird is noticed as a native. That the species alluded
to by Smith was the 7. Tetrix would seem hardly to admit of
doubt, as in addition to it he enumerates the Red Grouse. If
it were really indigenous, its extinction must, I conceive, be at-
tributed to the destruction of our native woods. The Lagopus
mutus is not now, nor do I conceive ever was, indigenous to
this island. ‘There seems not to be in any part of Ireland a
continuity of mountains of sufficient altitude to be suited to the
Ptarmigan’s abode. Perdix cinerea is common and resident.
P. Coturnix frequents the most highly-cultivated districts in
summer, and within the last few years has in certain localities
remained throughout the winter.
Fam. Struthionide.
Treland. Great Britain.
0 Otis Tarda, L.
Otis Tetrax, L. 42
The latter species, which is a very rare visitant to Great
Britain, has once been obtained in Ireland, in the county of
Wicklow a few years ago. O. Tarda is enumerated by Smith
* 1749. 7 Vol. i. p. 302.
{ Magazine of Natural History, vol. i. new series.
374 REPORT— 1840.
as one of the birds of the county of Cork; it is long since
extinct.
Order 4.—GRALLATORES.
Fam. Charadriade.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Cursorius Isabellinus, Meyer.
Cidicnemus crepitans, Temm.
Charadrius pluvialis, Z. +
a Morinellus, Z. +
A Hiaticula, Z.
0 Charadrius minor, Meyer.
0 4 Cantiacus, Lath.
Squatarola cinerea, Cuv. +
Vanellus cristatus, Meyer. _
Strepsilas Interpres, Leach. +
Arenaria Calidris, Meyer. +
Hematopus Ostralegus, L. +
In this family, Van. cristatus and Hem. Ostralegus are com-
mon and resident. Char. pluvialis and C. Hiaticula are com-
mon and partially resident; the numbers of both species (certain-
ly of the former) being much increased by an autumnal migra-
tion from higher latitudes. Squat. cinerea, Strep. Interpres,
and Aren. Calidris, are regular periodical visitants. dic.
crepitans and Char. Morinellus very rarely visit Ireland.
Of the Cursorius Isabellinus, four individuals have been
obtained in England and Wales. Char. minor has a place in
the British catalogue from a single specimen killed in Sussex.
To the east and south-east of England only, I believe, is
Char. Cantianus known.
Fam. Gruide.
Treland. Great Britain.
0 Grus cinerea, Bechst.
In his History of Cork, Smith states that ‘this bird was
seen in this country during the remarkable frost of 1739.”
Fam. Ardeide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Ardea cinerea, Lath. +
», purpurea, L.
0 Ardea alba, L.
»
Garzetta, L.
i) », russata, Wagler.
5, Ralloides, Scop.
Botaurus stellaris, Steph. 22
0 Botaurus Mokoho, Vieill.
a minutus, Selby. ae
Nycticorax europeus, Steph. aS
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 375
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Ciconia alba, Ray.
0 » nigra, Ray.
Platalea Leucorodia, L. +
Ibis Falcinellus, Temm. +
In this family, the Ardea cinerea only is common and resi-
dent; Botaurus stellaris is, in consequence of the improve-
ment of the bogs, becoming gradually scarcer, and, as a resi-
dent species, is confined to few localities. Bot. minutus, Nyct.
europeus, Plat. Leucorodia, Ibis Falcinellus, are rare visit-
ants. Ardea purpurea and A. Garzetia have each been once
obtained ; of the latter species, one or two other examples in
addition to that alluded to*, are said to have occurred on the
southern coast.
The six British species of the Ardeide which are desiderata
in Ireland, are, with the exception of Ciconia alba, very rare
visitants ; three of them, indeed, are with certainty placed in
the catalogue from their occurrence each in a single instance.
Fam. Scolopacide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Numenius arquata, Lath.
5 Pheopus, Lath.
Totanus fuscus, Leis/.
7 Calidris, Bechst.
3 Ochropus, Temm.
3 Glareola, Temm. (?)
By Hypoleucos, Temm.
re Glottis, Bechst.
Recurvirostra Avocetta, L.
Himantopus melanopterus, Zemm.
Limosa melanura, Zeisl.
ced
rufa, Briss.
Scolopax Rusticola, L.
”
”
”
”
Sabini, Vigors.
major, Gmel. (?)
Gallinago, L.
Gallinula, L.
++ttt+++4t+4¢44+444
0 Macroramphus griseus, Leach.
Machetes pugnax, Cuv,
Tringa subarquata, Temm. +
» variabilis, Meyer.
0 Tringa pectoralis, Bonap.
“maritima, Brunn.
» Temminckii, Lees.
» minuta, Leisl. +
» Canutus, Z.
0 » Yufescens, Viedll.
0 Lobipes hyperboreus, Steph.
Phalaropus lobatus, Fem. +
* See Templeton in Magazine of Natural History, vol. i. new series.
376 REPORT—1840.
The word “ resident,” in the sense in which it has hitherto
been used, will not apply to any of the Sclopacide. 'The
species of which a portion breed in Ireland, and are common
at all seasons, are Num. arquata, Tot. Calidris, Scol. Galli-
nago, and Trin. variabilis. Tot. Hypoleucos is a regular
summer visitant; at the same season J. Ochropus has occa-
sionally been met with, and very rarely 7. Glarcola*? The
regular autumnal migrants are Num. Pheopus, Tot. Glottis,
Lim. rufa, Machetes pugnax, Trin. subarquata}, T. minutat,
T. Canutus ; and to these probably Lim. melanura might with
propriety be added. In the North of Ireland these species are
met with for a longer or shorter period during autumn, and
generally move southward on the approach of winter: to this
there are, however, occasional exceptions, in some remaining
behind; to 7. Canutus and T. Glottis this more especially
applies. Num. Pheopus is, in consequence of being in large
flocks, much better known upon our coasts in spring when
migrating northwards, than in the autumn, when it appears
only in small numbers. Scol. Zusticola and S. Gallinula come
from more northern latitudes to abide the winter; the former
has of late years bred in various parts of Ireland}. col. Sa-
bint, Trin. maritima, and Phal. lobatus, have on several occa-
sions been obtained ; 7’. maritima is probably a regular winter
visitant. Recur. Avocetta and Him. melanopterus have twice
been noticed. Tot. fuscus is on record, froma single example
having occurred: this species may have escaped notice from
its geueral similarity to the common Tot. Calidris. Scol. major
should not perhaps be included even with a mark of doubt,
as I have not seen any example of it, killed in Ireland, but
sportsmen have described birds to me that can hardly be any
other, and have correctly remarked on the peculiarity of habits
in which they differed from the Scol. Gallinago.
Of our desiderata in the Scolopacide, Tr. pectoralis has
once, and Tr. rufescens twice, been obtained in England ;
Macr. griseus is a ‘‘ very rare,” and Tr. Temminckii an ‘ oc-
casional visitant” to that country. Lobipes hyperboreus is in
Great Britain chiefly confined to the more northern isles and
coasts of Scotland.
Fam. Rallide.
Treland. Great Britain.
0 Glareola Pratincola, Leach.
Rallus aquaticus, L. +
* See Annals of Natural History, vol. v. p, 8.
+ Ibid., vol. iv. p. 285.
+ Annals of Natural History, vol. ii.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 377
Ireland. Great Britain.
Crex pratensis, Bechst. +
» Porzana, Selby. +
0 Crex Baillonii, Selby.
0 », pusilla, Selby.
Gallinula Chloropus, Lath. +
Fulica atra, Z. +
R. aquaticus and the two last are resident and common, as
the species ordinarily are in other countries. Crea pratensis
is a regular summer visitant, and abundant; C. Porzana a
species of occasional occurrence at the same season.
Of Glareola Pratincola, four individuals are on record as
British. Crex Baillonii and C. pusilla are very rare visitants
to England.
Order 5.—NATATORES.
Fam. Anatide.
Sub-Fam. Anserine.
Treland. Great Britain.
Anser palustris, Flem. +
» ferus, Flem. ae
» Erythropus, Flem. +
» Bernicla, Flem. : +
» Brenta, Flem. +
0 Anser ruficollis, Pall.
0 Plectopterus Gambensis, Steph.
Cygnus ferus, Ray. +
» Bewickii, Yarr. +
A. ferus (A. Segetum, Steph.), A. Erythropus (A. albifrons,
Steph.), 4. Bernicla and A. Brenta are regular winter visitants
to Ireland, the two last, but more especially 4. Brenta, being
in great numbers in their very different places of abode. 4.
palustris (A. ferus, Steph.) is much more rare than the two
first mentioned : at one period it bred in this country, but has
long since ceased to do so.
Wild Swans are seen every winter in some parts of Ireland,
but it cannot be positively stated of either C. ferus or C.
Bewickhii, that it is a regular winter visitant ; that one or both
may be so considered is a fair inference, from the same lakes
being annually visited by ‘ wild Swans.” Of both species I
have seen examples, which were obtained in the north, east,
and west of the island; C. Bewichzi is of much more frequent
occurrence than C. ferus. ‘The Egyptian Goose (Anser
egyptiacus) and Canada Goose (Anser Canadensis) have at
different times been shot on the Irish coast: the former species
had doubtless escaped from ponds; the latter, too, had in all
probability done so.
378 REPORT—1840.
A. ruficollis is a very rare visitant to England. A. Gamben-
sis has been but once obtained, and whether the individual so
recorded was a wild bird is very questionable, as the species
does not appear to have been met with on the European con-
tinent.
Fam. Anatide.
Sub-Fam. Anatine.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Tadorna Vulpanser, Flem. a8
0 Tadorna rutila, Steph.
Spathulea clypeata, Flem.
Chauliodus Strepera, Sw.
Anas Boschas, L.
Querquedula acuta, Selby.
Crecca, Steph.
Circia, Steph.
0
”
++++4+4
a Querquedula glocitans, Vigors.
Mareca Penelope, Selby.
Three species, 7. Vulpanser, A. Boschas, and Q. Crecca,
may be called resident from their breeding in Ireland and
being met with at all seasons; but of the numbers of the two
last which are here in winter, but a small proportion is bred in
the country. Spat. clypeata is most probably indigenous, as
in England. It has occurred in Ireland in May, and I once
obtained an adult female, shot in July. Querq. acuta and Mar.
Penelope are regular winter visitants. Chaul. Strepera and
Querg. Circia (A. Querquedula) are of rare occurrence at the
same season; of the latter I have not myself seen a duly-authen-
ticated Irish example; it is noticed in Tighe’s Kilkenny, and
in a catalogue of the Birds of Dublin supplied me by Mr. R.
Ball.
Tad. rutila and Querq. glocitans are extremely rare visit-
ants to England.
Fam. Anatide.
Sub-Fam. Fuliguline.
Ireland.
Somateria mollissima, Leach.
spectabilis, Leach.
Oidemia fusca, Flem.
» higra, Flem.
0
Fuligula ferina, Steph.
0
0
» Marila, Steph.
» cristata, Steph.
Clangula vulgaris, Leach.
0
Harelda glacialis, Steph.
Great Britain.
ins
A:
_
+
Fuligula rufina, Steph.
a.
» Nyroca, Steph.
» dispar, Steph.
+
+
a.
Clangula histrionica, Steph.
ie
ae ee _—
|,
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. : 379
The three species of Fuligula noticed as Irish, and Clang.
vulgaris, are regular winter visitants: Oid. nigra and Har.
glacialis would likewise seem to be so, but in very small num-
bers; for four winters successively I have obtained a single
specimen of the last in Belfast Bay. Oid. fusca, Som. mollis-
sima, and SS. spectabilis, can only be noticed as very rare
visitants ; once only has the last been obtained *.
Ful. rufina has in a very few instances occurred in England.
F, Nyroca is but a rare and occasional visitant; and F. dispar
has once been procured. Clang. histrionica is likewise very
rare.
Fam. Anatide.
Sub-Fam. Merganine.
Ireland, Great Britain.
Mergus Merganser, L. +
» Serrator, Z. +
0 Mergus cucullatus, Z.
» albellus, Z. +
M. Serrator is indigenous, nestling on islets both of marine
and fresh-water loughs. M. Merganser is a regular, and M.
albellus an occasional winter visitant.
M. cucullatus has a place in the British catalogue from the
occurrence of a single specimen.
Fam. Colymbide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Podiceps cristatus, Lath.
» Trubricollis, Lath.
», cornutus, Lath.
» auritus, Lath.
» minor, Lath.
Colymbus glacialis, Z.
» arcticus, Z.
» Septentrionalis, Z.
++++4++++4
Pod. minor is common and resident; P. cristatus is more
rare, but resident on the larger lakes; P. rubricollis is known
only as a rare visitant; P. cornutus is not of uncommon occur-
rence in winter, at which season P. auritus more rarely occurs.
These two last species are most probably indigenous, as in
England, but they have not come under my cognizance in
summer. Col. glacialis and C. septentrionalis are regular
winter visitants; C. arcticus is much more rare, but occasion-
ally met with at the same season.
* The specimen is in the collection of Mr. R. Ball.
380 REPORT—1840.
Fam. Alcide.
Treland. Great Britain.
Uria Troile, Lath.
», Brunnichii, Sabine.
» Grylle, Lath.
Mergulus melanoleucos, Ray.
Fratercula arctica, Steph.
Alea Torda, Z.
», impennis, L.
Uria Grylle is a resident species. U. Trotle, Frat. arc-
tica, and Alea Torda, are regular summer visitants, having
breeding-haunts around the coast: either or both of the two |
former I am disposed to believe may occasionally be found in
small numbers in the bays of Ireland during winter. Uria
Brunnichii is noticed by Major Sabine as seen by him in the
month of July on the coast of Kerry*, where it may be pre-
sumed to breed. By this able ornithologist, the Merg. me-
lanoleucos (M. Alle) was observed at the same time with U.
Brunnichit; here it also may have its nestling-places ; in two
instances I know of this bird having been shot on the coasts of
Wexford and Kerry. Of Alcea impennis, a single specimen is
on record as Irish.
++t++4+4++
Fam. Pelecanide.
Treland.
Phalacrocorax Carbo, Steph.
ma cristatus, Steph.
Sula Bassana, Briss.
Great Britain.
+
+
+
The first two are common and resident. Sula Bassana is
common on the coast of Ireland in summer and autumn; the in-
dividuals which frequent the northern parts have their breed-
ing-haunts in Scotland. On the Irish coast this species breeds
only on one of the Skelig islands off Kerry.
Fam. Laride.
Great Britain.
‘
Ireland.
0 Sterna Caspia, Pall.
Sterna Boysii, Lath. +
», Dougallii, Mont. +
» Hirundo, LZ. +
5, arctica, Temm. +
3; Mminuta, L. a
» nigra, L. +
Sterna Anglica, Mont.
;, stolida, L.
Larus Sabini, Sad.
», minutus, Pall.
»» capistratus, Zemm.
tettast=
* Ainsworth’s “ Caves of Ballybunian,” p. 78.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 381
Treland. Great Britain.
Larus ridibundus, Z.
Larus atracilla, Z.
» Rissa, L.
» Canus, ZL.
», eburneus, Gmel. (?)
» argentatus, Brunn.
» fuscus, Z.
» marinus, LZ.
» AIslandicus, Edmon.
» glaucus, Brunn.
Cataractes vulgaris, Flem.
= Pomarinus, Steph.
fe Richardsonii (Lest. Richard-
sonii, Sw.)
A parasiticus (not Flem., Lest.
parasiticus, Temm.)
0
+ $+t+4++++4++4+4
+
Procellaria glacialis, L.
Puffinus cinereus, Steph.
3 Anglorum, Ray.
0
++
Puffinus fuliginosus, Strickland.
Thalassidroma pelagica, Selby. +
“a Bullockii, Selby. a
St. Dougallii, S. Hirundo, S. arctica, and §. minuta, are
regular summer visitants to Ireland, the S. Hirundo and S.
aretica being much the most common and widely-distributed
species. These two, with S. Dougallii, breed in a small low
rocky islet near the entrance to Belfast Bay*. St. nigra is an
occasional visitant; and many years ago was known by Mr. R.
Ball to breed at a small lake in the county of Cork. St. Boysz
is annually shot upon the coast, and may perhaps have breed-
ing-haunts in some of the islets that are rarely visited by the
naturalist. St. stolida has a place in the catalogue from two
specimens having been taken at sea between Tusker Light-
house (co. Wexford) and Dublin Bay. Larus capistratus (of
British authors), L. ridibundus, L. Canus, L. argentatus, L.
fuscus, and L. marinus, are resident species. L. Rissa is a
regular summer visitant. LL. glaucus is of occasional occurrence
on every quarter of the coast. ZL. Sabini has in four instances
been obtained in the bays of Belfast and Dublin; Z- Islan-
dicus has twice been noticed}, and ZL. minutus once: of the
latter species; an adult bird in summer plumage was shot
upon the river Shannon. In the Appendix to Ross’s Second
Voyage it is remarked, under the head of Larus eburneus,
* §. Dougallit likewise breeds on islets off the Dublin coast.
+ In March 1832 I saw a specimen of L. Jslandicus in the shop of Mr. Glen-
non, bird-preserver, Dublin: it had been sent him early in the winter of 1831-
32, from the West of Ireland. The other example was obtained by the Ordnance
Survey in Strangford Lough.
382 REPORT—1840.
that ‘‘ this beautiful gull has lately visited the western shores
of Ireland,” (p. 35). Capt. James Ross, the author of this
Appendix, has informed me that early in the year 1834 he
derived that information from Joseph Sabine, Esq., and that
he knows nothing of it further than what is published. For
some years, however, I have had a note communicated by the
late Thomas F. Neligan, Esq., of Tralee, who was well versed
in British Birds, that “ in January 1835 he saw a gull in a
field near that town, and four miles from the sea, which he
was satisfied was the L. eburneus; he watched it for about
twenty minutes, and was at first attracted by the ivory tint of
its plumage and its black legs.” All the species of Cataractes
do in autumn and winter, at least occasionally, visit the Irish
coast. Puffinus cinereus has been obtained near Dungarvan,
county Waterford, and is believed to breed there. P. An-
glorum is known to me only as an occasional visitant ; it would
seem to be more rare now in Ireland than formerly, as is the
case in other of the British islands: in Harris’s Down and
Smith’s Cork it is mentioned. Thal. pelagica is at all times to
be met with on the coasts of Ireland washed by the Atlantic,
and breeds on several of the islets ranging from north to
south of the western coast. Thal. Bullocki (Proc. Leachii,
Temm.) has been obtained on various occasions in all quarters
of Ireland; it breeds on some of the western islets.
Sterna Caspia and St. Anglica have ina very few instances
been obtained in England. Larus atracilla, as a British bird,
was known only to Montagu, who on two occasions met with
it on the coast of Sussex. Proc. glacialis is, except in the
North of Scotland, an occasional visitant to the shores of Great
Britain; P. fuliginosa has but once been procured in Eng-
land.
In the preceding catalogue of Irish Birds, all the species
noticed by Mr. Selby as indigenous to Great Britain will be
found—either as such, or as visitants—except the following:
Melizophilus provincialis, Parus cristatus, Emberiza Cirlus,
Passer montanus, Picus viridis*, Sitta europea, Columba
Gnas, Lagopus mutus. With these may be mentioned three
more which are said to have been found in Ireland, but are not
now indigenuus—Picus minor, Tetrao Tetrix, Otis tarda.
* T have been assured that this bird is found in some localities in Ireland,
but have not scen specimens.
we
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 383
PART IV.
Crass REPTILIA.
Order 1.—TEsTUDINATA.
Treland. Great Britain.
Chelonia Caouana, Schw.
0 Chelonia imbricata, Schw.
0 Sphargis coriacea, Gray.
A single specimen of C. Caowana has been taken alive on
the coast of Donegal*. In the British catalogue this species
has a place from the occurrence of an individual on the
Devonshire coast.
C. imbricata and §. coriacea have each been obtained on
three occasions on the coasts of Great Britain.
Order 2.—Saurtia.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Lacerta agilis, Z. Beil.
Zootoca vivipara, Wagl. Beil. ‘ ==
Z. vivipara prevails over the island. Lacerta viridis, stated
by Ray to have been found in Ireland, is at present quite un-
known. Mr. Bell in his “ British Reptiles” suggests that
‘“a green variety of L. agilis, L.., was probably alluded to: this
is more likely than that the true L. viridis was meant; but
the L. agilis, L., has not been distinguished as an Irish spe-
cies.” It has but lately been added to the British Fauna, and
from specimens obtained in the South of England.
Order 3.—OpruHipIA.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Anguis fragilis, Z.
0 Natrix torquata, Ray.
0 Pelius Berus, Merr.
Ireland has ever been free from the presence of Ophidian
Reptiles. As there is no physical obstacle to their being
indigenous to the island, it can only be said, that as all
animals have geographical limits assigned to them, so these
have Great Britain as their western boundary within her
parallel of latitude.
* See Annals of Natural History, vol. v. p. 8.
384 REPORT— 1840.
AMPHIBIA.
Treland. Great Britain.
Rana temporaria, L.
Bufo vulgaris, Laur.
Bufo calamita, Laur.
Triton cristatus, Laur. (?) +
0 Triton Bibronii, Bell.
Lissotriton punctatus, Bell. ae
- palmipes, Bell. (?) ae
Rana temporaria is common throughout Ireland. In Rutty’s
‘Natural History of Dublin,” the Frog is said to have been
“brought into this kingdom in 1699 by Dr. Guithers:” from
those introduced by this gentleman to the University Park,
Dublin, it is considered that all the frogs in Ireland and her
islands* owe their origin! Bufo calamita is found in several
parts of the county of Kerry, where it is believed to be in-
digenous. Triton cristatus is noticed by Templeton; to
myself it is unknown. Liss. punctatus occurs from north to
south, but is not universally distributed. Liss. palmipes has
been so accurately described to me as to warrant its introduc-
tion, with a mark of doubt: I have not yet seen examples of it.
Bufo vulgaris, though so common in Great Britain, is not
found in Ireland. Triton Bibronii is a recently-distinguished
British species.
PART V.
Crass PISCES.
(1. Osszt.)
PECTINIBRANCHII.
Order 1.—AcANTHOPTERYGII.
Fam. Percide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Perea fluviatilis, Z. +
Labrax Lupus, Cuv.
0 Serranus Cabrilla, Cuv.
0 * Gigas, Cuv.
0 Polyprion cernium, Cwv.
0 Acerina vulgaris, Cuv.
0 Trachinus Draco, Z.
Trachinus Vipera, Cuv. a
Mullus Surmuletus, Z. : ee
0 “ barbatus, Z.
* In Achil I have remarked them to be common.
2
2
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 385
In the family Percide, Ireland would seem to be so deficient
that four species only can be announced; of these, Mullus
Surmuletus is given on the authority of Dr. Patrick Browne’s
Catalogue, published in 1774. The Perca fluviatilis is stated
to have been introduced; but this I am disposed to doubt, as
the species is so very widely distributed over the island.
Labrax Lupus is a well-known fish on the coast, its numbers
decreasing northwards. Trachinus Vipera is found from
north to south.
Of the species unknown to the Irish Fauna, Serranus Ca-
brilla and §. Gigas have in Great Britain been noticed only
on the coast of Cornwall, and of the latter but a single in-
dividual has been procured; Polyprion cernium has been
observed only on the south-west coast of England; Mullus
barbatus is extremely rare; Trachinus Draco a species only
of occasional occurrence, and chiefly on the southern coast*.
Acerina vulgaris is said to be common to the rivers and canals
in England.
Fam. Loricati.
Ireland, Great Britain.
Trigla Pini, Bl. ts
» lineata, Gmel. Bes
» Hirundo, Bl. se
» Lyra, Z. ae
» Gurnardus, L. " ces ry
» Cuculus, Bé. fo ci shoals
» Peeciloptera, Cuv. +
0 Trigla lucerna, Bruna.
0 Peristedion Malarmat, Cuv.
0 Cottus Gobio, Z.
»» Scorpius, L. 4.
Le
» Bubalis, Zuph.
0 Cottus quadricornis, ZL.
Aspidophorus cataphractus, Cuv.
0 Scorpoena norvegica, Cuv.
Gasterosteus aculeatus, Z.
Ps Pungitius, L. +
a5 Spinachia, ZL. +
Of the seventeen (reckoning Zrigla Gurnardus and T.
Cuculus as one) British species of Loricata here enumerated,
Ireland is known to possess all but five; of these, three spe-
cies, Trigla lucerna, Peristedion Malarmat, and Cottus qua-
dricornis, are late additions, and have as yet been procured only
* The term “ southern coast” applied to England, throughout this Report,
refers generally to the portion of that country which lies altogether to the
South of Ireland.
+ See Annals of Natural History, vol. ii. p. 413.
1840. 2
386 ; REPORT—1840.
on the more southern coast. Sciena norvegica has I believe
been taken only from Berwick northwards. Cottus Gobio is
said to be common in England.
Of Trigla Peciloptera but a single individual, obtained at
Youghal, has yet been recognised in the British seas*. Of
the Trigle, T. Gurnardus is most common in Ireland, and
taken in abundance in the more genial season of the year;
next come 7’. Hirundo, T. Pini, and T. lineata, which are
procured at different seasons and throughout the winter. 7.
Lyra U have not seen in the north, but have observed it in Gal-
way market. Mr. R. Ball states that at Youghal it is not
uncommon. Of the Cotti, C. Scorpius and C. Bubalis are
common around the coast; the latter the more so. Aspido-
phorus, Gasterosteus aculeatus, with its varieties +, and G. Spi-
nachia, are common from north to south; G. Pungitius is
obtained in the north, and in one locality at least, southwards.
Fam. Scienide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Scizena Aquila, Cuw. 1
0 Umbrina vulgaris, Cuv.
A single individual only of S. Aquila is known to have beer
taken on the Irish coast; about the Ist of August, 1840, it
was captured within the entrance of Cork harbour.
The Umbrina vulgaris has but in one instance been recog-
nised as a British fish.
Fam. Sparide.
Lreland. Great Britain.
0 Chrysophrys aurata, Cuz.
9 Pagrus vulgaris, Cuv.
0 Pagellus erythrinus, Cuv.
0 » Acarne, Cuv.
Pagellus Centrodontus, Cuv.
0 Dentex vulgaris, Cuv.
0 Cantharus griseus, Cuv.
Of the seven British species of the Sparide, I have seen
only the Pag. Centrodontus{ in Ireland, where it is common
around the coast. A second species appears in several Irish
catalogues, and Chrysophrys or Pagrus may perhaps be
* Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1837, p. 61.
+ Gast. trachurus, semiarmatus, lieurus, brachycentrus, semiloricatus, and
spinulosus seem to me varieties of one species. See Annals of Natural His-
tory for April 1841.
t It is I presume this species which is alluded to by Templeton, under the
name of Sparus aurata.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 387
meant. Rutty mentions Cantharus Rondeletii, quoting Wil-
loughby, fig. 5, 1, as a fish taken in Dublin Bay: the species
thus referred to is the Cantharus vulgaris*, a Mediterranean
fish, and yet unrecognised as British, ‘The reference is pro-
bably erroneous.
Dentex vulgaris and Pag. Acarne have their place in the
British catalogue from the capture of a single individual of
each species; the other four have, with the exception perhaps
of either Chrysophrys or Pagrus, been taken only on the
southern coast of England. A single specimen of Pag. ery-
thrinus was procured by Dr. Parnell in the Frith of Forth.
Fam. Squamipinnati.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Brama Raii, Cuv.
This is a rare British species. It is enumerated in a list of
fishes published in M‘Skimmin’s History of Carrickfergus, but
the propriety of the application of the name to this species is
doubtful.
Fam. Scombride.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Scomber Scomber, Z. _ +
» maculatus, Couch (?) ob
Thynnus vulgaris, Cuv. +
mn Pelamys, Cuv. +
0 Xiphias Gladius, L.
0 Neucrates Ductor, Cuv.
Caranx Trachurus, Lacép. +
Zeus Faber, L. +
0 Capros Aper, Lacép.
Lampris Luna, Flem. +
Coryphzena Morio, Cuv.
The four species of Scombride desiderated in the Irish list
are all rare British species, and, excepting Xéphias, chiefly
found on the southern coast.
Scomber Scomber is common around Ireland; Scomber
maculatus is stated by a very intelligent correspondent to visit
the coast of Connemara in the months of July and August.
Caranx Trachurus and Zeus Faber have been obtained from
north to south, but are most common on the western coast.
Thynnus vulgaris, T. Pelamys, and Lampris Luna, are ex-
tremely rare visitants to the Irish as to the English and Scot-
tish coasts.
* Cuy. and Val., tom. vi. p. 318.
2c2
388 REPORT— 13840.
Fam. TVenioidei.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Lepidopus argyreus, Cuv.
0 Trichiurus Lepturus, Z. ?
0 Trachypterus vogmarus, Cuv.
0 Gymnetrus Hawkenii, Bl.?
0 Cepola rubescens, L.
Of the Tenioidei, none can be announced as Irish; all are
species of only occasional occurrence on the coasts of Great
Britain, excepting the Cepola rubescens, which will doubtless
yet be added to the Irish catalogue. On the coast of Ayr-
shire, in Scotland, so near to Ireland, it has several times been
taken.
Fam. Mugilide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Mugil Chelo, Cuv.
» Capito, Cuv. M. curtus, Yarr.
Atherina Presbyter, Cuv. SF
Of the Mugilide we probably want only Mugil curtus, of
which but one British specimen has been obtained. Mug.
Capito has been noticed as Irish, but all the specimens which
have come under my own examination were M. Chelo, which
is our common Mullet of the north*, Atherina Presbyter is
taken from north to south.
Fam. Gobiade.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Blennius ocellaris, B7.
Blennius Gattorugine, Mont. oa
os Yarrellii, Vai. +
0 5h Galerita, Mont.
es Pholis, Z. +
Murznoides guttata, Lacép, (Blen.
Gunnellus), } Ht
Zoarees viviparus, Cuv. 45
Anarrhicas Lupus, Z. a
Gobius niger, Cuv. and Val. 0
» Britannicus, Thomp. (G. sit 4
ger, recent British authors).
», Ruthensparii, Zuph. (G. Prot m"
punctatus, Yarr.)
» minutus, Pall. =F
» gracilis, Jenyns. a
»» unipunctatus, Parnell, +
0
Gobius albus, Parnell.
* Capt. Portlock informs me that he submitted drawings of a Mugil taken
on the coast of Down or Antrim to Mr. Yarrell, who considered them to
represent M. Capito.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 389
Treland. Great Britain.
Callionymus Lyra, L. a
7 Dracunculus, Z. +
Of our desiderata here, the Blennius ocellaris and B. Ga-
lerita are rare and apparently local on the coast of Great
Britain ; the Gobius albus has been taken only in the Solway
Firth, and but on one occasion.
In Ireland, the Blennius Pholis and Murenoides guttata
are very common around the coast; the B. Gattorugine is of
occasional occurrence in the north; the B. Yarrellit (B. pal-
micornis of Yarrell’s and Jenyns’s works) has been obtained
on the Antrim coast by the Ordnance Survey. By Templeton
the Zoarces was noticed in one instance; but little is known
with certainty of Anarrhicas as an Irish fish. Of the genus
Gobius, the G. minutus and G. Ruthensparit (G. bipunctatus,
Yarr.) are the most widely diffused in their very different places
of abode on our coasts, the former, as elsewhere, the more
abundant; G. niger and G. Britannicus* I have only from
the more southern portion of the island; G. gracilis and G.
unipunctatus are of occasional occurrence with G. minutus.
Callionymus Lyra and C. Dracunculus are not unfrequently
taken from north to south, the latter the more commonly,
Fam. Lophiide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Lophius Piscatorius, Z. (common). “Ic
Fam. Labride.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Labrus variabilis, Thomp.} (L. ma- aot
culatus, Bloch.)
» lineatus, Don. (not specifi- i
cally distinct from the last). }
0 Labrus Comber, Gimel.
» Variegatus, Gmel.
4.
» Vetula, B/.?
», trimaculatus, Penn.t
0 Julis vulgaris, Flem.
Crenilabrus Tinca, Flem. +
FY; Cornubicus, (La-
‘ one
brus Cornubicus, : aL
Penn). species§.
5 gibbus, Flem. +
* Zoological Proceedings, 1837, p. 61.
+ Zoological Proceedings, 1837, p. 59.
{ M. Agassiz informs me that ZL. carneus, Risso, of which he possesses a
specimen so named by that author, is a distinct species from the L. carneus,
Bloch; this latter being identical with LZ. trimaculatus as figured by Donovan.
§ Magazine of Zoology and Botany, vol. ii. p. 442.
390 REPORT—1840.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Crenilabrus luscus, Couch.
Crenilabrus rupestris, Selby. +
oy pusillus, Yarr. +
Ns exoletus, Yarr. +
Of the British Labride wanting to the Irish list, the L.
Comber is a very obscure and little-understood species. Labrus
Vetula, Julis vulgaris, and Crenilabrus luscus, have each but
ina single instance been obtained on the British coast.
Labrus variabilis and Cren. Tinca are common in suitable
localities around the Irish coast; Lab. variegatus is as exten-
sively distributed, but in very small numbers; Lab. trimacu-
- latus has been taken by the collectors of the Ordnance Survey
at Portrush near the Giant’s Causeway. Of Cren. rupestris,
C. exoletus, and C. pusillus, a few individuals have been pro-
cured—the first-mentioned on the north-east and west coast,
the second on the north-east, and the last on the south only.
Fam. Centriscide.
Treland. Great Britain.
0 Centriscus Scolopax, LZ. (extremely
rare.)
Order 2.--MALACOPTERYGII.
Fam. Cyprinide*.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Barbus vulgaris, Flem.
Gobio fluviatilis, Will.
Tinca vulgaris, Cuv. (?) +
Abramis Brama, Cuv.
0 Abramis Blicca, Cuv.
» Buggenhagii, Thomp. ie
prinus Buggenhagii, Bl.) +
0 Leuciscus Rutilus, Cuv.
0 + Dobula, Cuv.
0 a vulgaris, Cuv.
0 Fe Lancastriensis, Yarr.
0 *s cephalus, //em.
Leuciscus erythrophthalmus, Cuv.
0
A. coeruleus, Yarr.
0 - Alburnus, Cuv.
0 . Phoxinus, Cuv.
0 3 Idus, Cuv.
Cobitis barbatula, Z. ae
0 Cobitis Tznia, Z.
In the Cyprinide Ireland would seem to be remarkably
deficient; and although there is no doubt that some species
* The naturalized species are omitted.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND» 391
will yet be added to our list, I have little hesitation in con-
sidering the waters of this country as deficient in the fishes of
this family.
Gobio fluviatilis, Abramis Brama, and Leuciscus erythroph-
thalmus are common, and widely diffused over the island.
Cobitis barbatula is somewhat generally distributed ; Abramis
Buggenhagii has as yet been observed only in the river Lagan.
Cyprinus Carpio and Tinca vulgaris are in some waters in
the country ; but even the latter, which is considered indi-
genous to England, is stated to have been introduced to Ire-
land. Leuciscus Phoxinus was introduced some years ago
near Dublin, and has, I understand, thriven well there*.
Fam. Esocide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Esox Lucius, Z. +
Belone vulgaris, Cuv. +
Scomberesox Saurus, Flem.
Hemiramphus europzus, Yarr.
Exoccetus exiliens, Bi. (? Irish species).
The two first mentioned are common; the Scomberesox is
apparently rare; Eoceett have been observed on the southern
coast, but specimens are not available, that the species might
be determined. The fish named provisionally Hemiramphus
europeus has not yet been noticed on the Irish coast+}.
Fam. Salmonide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Salmo Salar, Z. ala
» Eviox, Z. +
» Trutta, Z. 2s
» Fario, LZ. +
3, ferox, Jard. +
», Umbla, LZ. onespecies, +
» Salvelinus, Don. \ W.T. ++
+
Osmerus Eperlanus, Fem.
(0) Osmerus hebridicus, Yar.
0 Thymallus vulgaris, Cuv.
0 Coregonus Lavaretus, Fem.
* In Rutty’s Dublin (1772) it is remarked of the Cyprinus Carpio, that
“it is said to have been first introduced into Ireland in the reign of King
James the First.” In the same work it is said of Zinca vulgaris, that it, like
the Carp, ‘‘ is found for the most part in ponds, and rarely in the Liffey and
Donnybrook rivers.’’ “ Cyprinus Cephalus and C. Barbus” appear in Dr. P.
Browne’s list of Irish Fishes, but excepting their names no information is
given.
+ Stlurus Glanis, L., a fish described to me as taken some years ago in a
river flowing into the Shannon near its source, exactly agrees with this species.
For particular notice see Annals of Natural History, vol. vii. f
392 REPORT—1840.
Ireland, Great Britain.
Coregonus Pollan, 7'omp. 0
0 Coregonus Willughbei, Jard.
0 re Lacepedeci, Parnell.
0 Scopelus Humboldtii, Cuv.
Of the genus Salmo, Ireland possesses all the British spe-
cies. There are many valuable fisheries for §. Salar around
the coast; of the migratory species, S. Trutta is next in value,
and is taken co-extensively with it; the distribution of S.
Eriox is yet to be determined; on every side of the northern
peten of the island it occurs. S. ferox is common to the
arger lakes, as is S. Fario to the rivers and lakes throughout
the island. Salmo Umbla or S. Salvelinus (for I regard the
fish so called but as one species) inhabits suitable lakes in all
quarters. The Osmerus Eperlanus is recorded by Templeton
as a fish of occasional occurrence. Coregonus Pollan, as yet
known only as an Irish species, inhabits Lough Neagh, Erne,
and Derg, and is abundant in the first-named locality.
Of the six species of British Salmonide, as yet unknown as
Trish, three, Osmerus hebridicus, Coregonus Willughbei, and
Cor. Lacepedei, are each known only to a single locality ;
Scopelus Humboldtii (if such be the species) has been re-
corded but in three instances on the coast of Great Britain;
Thymallus is very local in England. This is noticed in Rutty’s
Dublin, but evidently in error, as it is made ‘a sea-fish.”
Dr. P. Browne enumerates it, perhaps without any better
reason; he published in 1774, Rutty in 1772. Coregonus
Lavaretus (if properly so named) is found only in Bala Lake
in Wales, and some of the northern English lakes.
Fam. Clupeide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Clupea Harengus, L.
0 Clupea Leachii, Yarr.
» Sprattus, 2.
0 » alba, Yarr.
» Pilchardus, Bl. +
Alosa Finta, Cuv. +
yy communis, Cuv.
Engraulis Encrasicholus, lem.
Clupea Leachii and C. alba have not yet been identified as
Irish species; nor has the Engraulis, which is of rare occur-
rence on the English coast, been noticed on the Irish.
Clupea Harengus, C. Sprattus, and C. Pilchardus prevail
around the coast, the last-named in the south particularly ;
here also the Alosa Finta is chiefly found. The “ Rock Her-
ring,” which according to Dr. Parnell is the name applied in
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 393
Scotland to the Alosa Finta, is enumerated among the Fishes
of Londonderry in Sampson’s History of that county. It is
however the 4A. communis which is noticed in the Ordnance
Survey of Londonderry, and as being ‘‘ not uncommon.”
Div. 2.—SUBBRACHIALES.
Fam. Gadide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Gadus Morrhua, Z.
» Callarias, L.
» Bglefinus, LZ.
» luscus, L.
» minutus, Z.
Merlangus vulgaris, Cuv.
os Pollachius, Cuv.
a Carbonarius, Cuv.
0? Merlangus virens, Cuv.
Merlucius vulgaris, Cuv.
Lota Molva, Cuv.
+4+t+4+4+4+4+4+
+
0 Lota vulgaris, Cuv.
Motella tricirrhata, Wills.
» Mustela, Wills.
0
++
Motella Cimbrica, Nills.
Brosmus vulgaris, Cuv. (?) +
Phycis furcatus, Cuv. +
Raniceps trifurcatus, Fem.
oe
{ Couchia argenteola, Thomp.
0
(Motella glauca, Gadus argenteo-
lus, Mont.) j
Couchia minor, Thomp. 0
Of the four British species of the Gadide which we seem
to want, one, Motella Cimbrica is a recent addition to the cata-
logue, and is yet known only to two localities, both in Scotland ;
Lota vulgaris is very partially distributed in England ; Couchia
argenteola* has been observed only in Devonshire and Corn-
wall; Merlangus virens is unknown to me as a species distinct
from M. Carbonarius. Of Brosmus vulgaris I have not seen an
Irish specimen, but it is in the list of Fishes given in M‘Skim-
min’s History of Carrickfergus.
Gadus Morrhua and G. A4iglefinus are common around the
Trish coast. Gad. luscus, G. Callarias, and G. minutus are of
occasional occurrence from north to south. Merlangus vul-
garis, M. Pollachius and M. Carbonarius are common and
generally distributed. Merlucius vulgaris is taken around the
coast, but is much more common in the south. Lota Molva
and the two common Motelle are generally distributed. Phy-
* Annals of Natural History, vol. ii. p. 411.
394 REPORT—1840.
cis furcatus has but rarely been obtained, and of Raniceps tri-
Jurcatus a single individual is on record. Couchia minor has
been captured only in Strangford Lough*.
Fam. Pleuronectide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Platessa vulgaris, Cuv. +
» Flesus, Cuv. +
»» Limanda, Cuv. +
»» | microcephala, Flem. +
$5) hola, Cun:
0 Platessa Limandoides, Jen.
0 » elongata, Yarr.
Hippoglossus vulgaris, Cuv, +
Pleuronectes maximus, Z. +
oe Rhombus, Z. +
” punctatus, Bi. se
si hirtus, Mull. +
a Megastoma, Don. +
0 Pleuronectes Arnoglossus, Schn.
Solea vulgaris, Cuv. +
0 Solea Pegusa, Yarr. r
» Lingula, Rond. +
»» Variegata, Flem. +
All but four species of the British Plewronectide have been
noticed on the coast of Ireland; of these the Platessa Liman-
doides and Plat. elongata are late additions to the British ca-
talogue; the former has been taken on the eastern coast of
Scotland and South of England ; the latter but in one instance,
and a single specimen at Bridgewater. Pleuronectes Arno-
glossus}+, and Solea Pegusa are species of occasional occur-
rence, and, as British, are known only to the southern coast of
England.
Platessa vulgaris, P. Flesus and P. Limanda are common
around the Irish coast, the last not numerous; P. microce-
phala is widely distributed, but in numbers very limited. P.
Pola appears to be a local fish, but tolerably numerous where
it does occur ; from the eastern coast only have I seen speci-
mens. Hippoglossus vulgaris is occasionally met with from
north to south. Pleuronectes maximus and P. Rhombus are
common around the coast; P. Megastoma is not of unfrequent
occurrence; P. punctatus and P. hirtus have each been once
obtained in the north-east of the island. Solea vulgaris is
common around the coast; S. Lingula I have seen a few speci-
mens of from every side of the island; S. vartegata has been
taken in Belfast Bay.
* Annals of Natural History, vol. ii. p. 408.
+ This is enumerated in M‘Skimmin’s list, but probably erroneously.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 395
Fam. Discobolt.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Lepadogaster Cornubiensis, Flem.
a bimaculatus, Flem.
as cephalus, Thomp.
Cyclopterus Lumpus, L.
Liparis vulgaris, Fem. (?)
» Montagui, Flem.
+++ 04+
In this family Ireland would seem to possess one species
more than Great Britain, Lepadogaster cephalus, which was
described from a specimen taken on the western coast*. Le-
padogaster Cornubiensis is a local species known to inhabit the
coasts of Antrim and Clare; L. bimaculatus is taken on the
eastern and western coasts by dredging in deep water; Cyelo-
pterus Lumpus is common from north to south. Of Liparis
vulgaris I have not seen any Irish specimen; it is stated in the
Ordnance Survey of Londonderry to have been procured at
* Lough Foyle and Larnet;” of LZ. Montagui, I have seen a
few specimens which were taken on every side of the island.
Fam. Echeneide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 aero Remora, Z. (taken in a
single instance.)
Div. 3—APODES.
Fam. Anguillide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Anguilla acutirostris, Yarr. +
» latirostris, Yarr. +
Be mediorostris, Yar. (?) +
43
Conger vulgaris, Cuv.
0 Murena Helena, Z.
Leptocephalus Morrissii, Penn.
Ophidium imberbe, Z. (?)
Echiodon Drummondii, Thomp.
Ammodytes Tobianus, Z.
a Lancea, Cuv.
The Murena Helena only of the British Anguillide is cer-
tainly wanting to the Irish catalogue ; there is but one recorded
instance of its capture on the coast of Great Britain.
The Echiodon, of which a single individual was discovered
on the Irish coast, has not yet been met with elsewhere. An-
++o++
* Annals of Natural History, vol. iii. p. 34.
t One of these specimens, kindly offered to my inspection by Capt. Port-
lock, though not well marked as Z. Montagui, I considered to be of this
species.
396 REPORT—1840.
guilla acutirostris, A. latirostris and A. Conger are common
and in suitable localities, especially the first and last generally-
distributed species. Of the A. acutirostris there are several va-
luable fisheries in Ireland. A. mediorostris is marked with
doubt from a want of accordance in the one osteological
character of the specimen examined with that attributed to
the species; in every other character and in habit examples
taken in the North of Ireland agree with it. Leptocephalus
Morrissit has, in a few instances, been taken on the north-
eastern, southern and western coasts. Templeton notices
the Ophidium imberbe of Pennant as once obtained by him.
Ammodytes Lancea is common on sandy coasts around the
island; A. Tobianus has only as yet been recognised on the
Down coast, where it is well known.
LOPHOBRANCHII.
Order 3.—OsTEODERMI.
Fam. Syngnathide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Syngnathus Acus, DL.
ss Typhle, Z.
5 zequoreus, L.
~ anguineus, Jenyns (“S.
Ophidion, Boch.) f
0
+ +++
Syngnathus Ophidion, L.
- lumbriciformis, Jenyns.
Hippocampus brevirostris, Cuv.?
All of the British Syngnathide except S. Ophidion, Linn.,
are known as Irish. Syng. Acus and S. lumbriciformis are
the most common around the coast. S. Typhle, S. equoreus,
and S. anguineus may be considered as rare, but have been
taken both in the north and south. There is indubitable evi-
dence of the occurrence of the genus Hippocampus more than
once on the Irish coast, but the species cannot be announced :
I have not myself seen any examples.
++
Order 4.—GyMNODONTES.
Fam. Gymnodontide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Tetrodon stellatus, Don. ab
Orthagoriscus Mola, Schn. +
0 Orthagoriscus oblongus, Schn.
Templeton has recorded the occurrence of Yetrodon stel-
Jatus in one instance on the coast of Waterford. Orthagoris-
cus Mola has occasionally been captured on every side of the
island; O. oblongus has not been recognised as an Irish fish.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 397
Order 5.—ScLERODERMI.
Treland. Great Britain.
0 Balistes Capriscus, Gmel. (a single
specimen.)
II. CARTILAGINEI.
Order 6.—ELEUTHEROPOMI.
Treland. Great Britain.
Acipenser Sturio, L. (’) +
or Thompsoni, Ball, MS. 0
0 Acipenser latirostris, Parnell.
Mr. R. Ball is of opinion that one or two Irish examples of
Acipenser, which he has critically examined, are not only dis-
tinct from the two species which have been recognised as Bri-
tish, but are undescribed : he has named the species 4. Thomp-
soni, and is about to publish a communication on the subject in
the Proceedings or Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.
Sturgeons are occasionally, though very rarely, taken in all the
larger rivers of Ireland, but I have not had the opportunity of
examining them critically as to species.
Order 7.—ACANTHORRHINI.
Ireland. Great Britain.
0 Chimera monstrosa, Z. (taken only in
the Shetland Islands),
Order 8.—PLAGIOSTOMI.
Fam. Squalide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Scyllium Canicula, Cuv. as
a stellaris, Cuv. as
Pristiurus melanostomus, Bonap.
(Scyllium melanostomum, Bon.) By
0 Carcharias vulgaris, Cuv.
Carcharias Vulpes, Cuv. (?) +
. glaucus, Cuv. +
Lamna Cornubica, Cuv. one
» Monensis, Cuv. : species? a
Galeus vulgaris, Cuv. +
Mustelus levis, Cuv. +
Selachus maximus, Cuwv. su
Spinax acanthias, Cuv. +
Scymnus borealis, Flem.
0 Echinorhinus spinosus, Blainv.
0 Zygzena malleus, Val.
Squatina Angelus, Dum. +
Of the four Sgualide which cannot be announced as Irish, the
398 REPORT—1840.
Carcharias vulgaris has not been properly established as a
British species ; the Zygena malleus has but once been taken ;
Scymnus borealis twice, and in both instances north of the
mainland of Scotland. Echinorhinus spinosus is a late addi-
tion to the British catalogue, and has been obtained in different
localities on the English coast.
Scyllium Canicula, Spinax acanthias, Mustela levis and
Galeus vulgaris are the most common species; the first the
most so, the others becoming less so in the order in which they
are set down. They are found from north to south. Carcha-
rias glaucus, Lamna Cornubica or Monensis (these I am dis-
posed to believe are but one species), and Squatina Angelus
are of occasional but rare occurrence from north to south.
Templeton notices Scyllium stellare as taken occasionally ; and
Carcharias Vulpes as having been seen about the Copeland Isles,
near the entrance of Belfast Bay. Selachus maximus, the
** Sunfish” of Ireland, and so valuable for its oil, prevails on
the western and southern coasts, but chiefly on the former.
Of the Pristiurus melanostomus, two individuals have been ob-
tained by the collectors of the Ordnance Survey at Portrush,
near the Giant’s Causeway*.
Fam. Raitide.
Ireland. Great Britain,
Torpedo Walshii, Thomp. MS. Te
Raia Batis, L. +
», Oxyrhynchus, Mont. (Smith’s } ie
Waterford.)
0 Raia marginata, Flem.
» chagrinea, Mont.
» maculata, Mont.
0 »» microcellata, Mont.
» Clavata, Will.
0 » Yadiata, Don.
0 » intermedia, Parnell.
» Yradula, Delar.t
Trygon Pastinaca, Cuv. a
* Captain Portlock, in contributing a notice of this Shark, observed, that
“in the work of Miiller and Henle the genus Pristiurus, Bonap. is described
as having a row of small prickles on the tail-fin, and Scyllium Artedi is figured
and described by Risso as having but a single row. In Yarrell’s description
of Scyll. melanostomum, two rows are mentioned, and in our specimens they
certainly exist. Ought not, therefore, the single row to be dropped as a generic
character, and Risso’s termination of his specific characters used, viz. ‘ pinna
dorsi extremitate [supra] spinosa’? May not the one and two-roed indivi-
duals be of distinct species, and the black mouth be common to both ?”
+ Captain Portlock informs me that accurate drawings of a species of Ray,
obtained during the Ordnance Survey of Antrim, and submitted to Mr. Yarrell
and Mr. Couch, were considered by these naturalists to represent this species.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 399
Ireland. Great Britain.
0? Myliobatis Aquila, Cuv.
Cephaloptera Giorna, Risso. 0
Of our desiderata in this family, R. marginata and R. radi-
ata are rare species, and only of occasional occurrence, the
former on the English; the latter on the Scottish coast. Of
R. microcellata and Myliobatis Aquila, not more than two
or three British examples are on record. Raia intermedia is
one of Dr. Parnell’s recent additions from the Frith of Forth.
Raia clavata, R. Batis, and R. maculata are taken from
north to south of Ireland; the first is the most common on the
north-east coast. R. Oxyrhynchus is included from being no-
ticed in Smith’s History of Waterford. R. chagrinea and
R. radula are additions made to our catalogue by the Ordnance
Survey, and have both been taken on the north-east coast.
In contributing these species Captain Portlock remarks, that
“the former seems to take the place of R. Oxyrhynchus on the
northern coast,” and that of R. radula he lately saw a speci-
men which was procured in Dublin Bay. The Torpedo, of
which I have seen Irish specimens, is identical with that from
the coast of France, figured by Walsh in the Philosophical
Transactions ; and which in the present confused state of the
genus, it might be desirable, for the sake of distinction, to term
Torpedo Walshii*. Cephaloptera Giorna has a place in the
general British catalogue from a single individual taken on
the southern coast of Ireland. The Rays are less known in
Ireland than most other fishes, in consequence of their being
rarely brought to market, and when so to their being in an im-
perfect state.
Order 9.—CycLostTomt.
Fam. Petromyzide.
Ireland. Great Britain.
Petromyzon marinus. ZL. +
BS fluviatilis, Z. +
bs Planeri, Bi. +
Ammocoetes branchialis, Cuv. +
Myxine glutinosa, Z. +
In this family Ireland possesses all the British species.
P. marinus ascends several of the rivers around the coast.
P. Planeri occurs from north to south, and is more common
than P. fluviatilis. Ammocoetes branchialis is likewise widely
distributed. Myxine is said by 'l'empleton to have been found
at Carrickfergus.
* For a particular notice on this subject, see Annals of Nat. Hist. vol.v. p. 292.
400 RERPORT— 1840.
Finally, the species of Vertebrata which appear at present
to be peculiar to Ireland, are six in number; two Mammals,
Mus hibernicus (not yet properly established as a species) and
Lepus hibernicus; and four Fishes, Coregonus Pollan, Couchia
minor}, Lepadogaster cephalus, and Echiodon Drummondii.
Further investigation will, in all probability, show that some
of these species are found elsewhere.
PART VI.
Conclusion.
In addition to the foregoing comparative catalogue, it has
been thought desirable that a catalogue proper, or one con-
taining the Irish species only, should be appended to this
Report. It here follows, and with it are local lists :—of these,
a few more could have been given, but the six which are intro-
duced comprise all that were considered necessary for the
present purpose. The idea of giving these occurred so late,
that there was not time to perfect them, but in so far as they
extend they are believed to be critically correct. The columns
headed “‘ Elsewhere in North,” &c. are added for the recep-
tion only of such species as are not found in the restricted
localities comprised in the one or two preceding columns. For
the Belfast list I am myself accountable, together with the
greater part of what is contained in the columns headed
“Elsewhere,” &c. The list for ‘‘ N. W. Donegal” is derived
from Mr. John Vandeleur Stewart's contribution to the 5th
vol. of the Magazine of Natural History on the Mammalia
and Birds of that district: additions made since its publica-
tion have been kindly communicated to me by Mr. Stewart,
and are included; at his desire likewise some two or three
species noticed in his published catalogue are here omitted.
The lists for Dublin and Youghal were contributed by Mr.
Robert Ball. ‘‘ West of Connaught” is derived from different
sources; ‘‘ Tralee” from a list favoured me some years ago by
an ardent and accurate naturalist, Mr. Thomas F. Neligan,
since deceased. ‘The distance of twenty miles round Belfast,
Dublin, and Youghal is comprised in the respective catalogues.
The ? throughout the columns implies doubt as to species, and
not as to habitat; the * denotes presence.
+ Mr. Yarrell, perhaps judiciously, considers this too minute to be satisfac-
torily characterised as a species. The difference, however, in size between it
and Gadus argenteolus, Mont., is so trivial, that if the one be acknowledged,
the other has all but equal claims to be so.
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND.
MAMMALIA.
Vespertilio Pipistrellus......
Plecotus auritus...............
Sorex rusticus............ saateas
Tetragonurus or
Meles Taxus ...
Lutra vulgaris .
Mustela vulgaris* . a:
erminea ... sd
Martes Foina. za
Abietum...
Vulpes vulgaris
Mus sylvaticus .
Musculus. ans
Rattus *....
——— hibernicus ....ccccecccses
Gecumanus.........++....
Lepus hibernicus .... ........
Cuniculus..............6.
Cervus Elaphus...............
Phoca vitulina .......s.seese
Halicherus Gryphus...... beg
Delphinus Delphis......
Phocena communis .........
Hyperoodon Butzkopf ......
Physeter macrocephalus? ...
ADUUSIO aj co0tsssaunavensae
Balzna Mysticetus ..........
Balznoptera Boops (‘“ Ba-
lena rostrata”) ............
Belfast.
|
*** * * Pee 23)
Erinaceus europzus .........]
N.W.
Donegal.
Elsewhere
in North.
7
: * A °
Dublin
Elsewhere
in East.
cee eH *
West of
Connaught.
Elsewhere
in West.
oF
* * * 1 *
AR ice Ae oe Oe ae *x¥ xX *
* *
~~
*
Youghal.
+e # *
Elsewhere
in South,
AVES.
Aquila Chrysaétos ............
Halizetus albicilla..........
Pandion Halizetus
Astur palumbarius?*.........
Accipiter fringillarius . .....
Falco greenlandicus ..........
Islandicus?
peregrinus
—— Subbuteo
rufipes ...... Sceeeonceaeds
— Tinnunculus............
Hlisalon ......2. s0e.see.
Buteo vulgaris .............. os
Lagopus ........ssse0ee0.
Pernis apivorus .............+.
Circus rufus .....0......000008-
cyaneus ...... sneestidns de
* *
x4 *# * ®
[ot *
* *
xX * Ke KKK XK *
*
*
*
* See preceding remarks on,
1840.
> Rutty’s Dublin.
2D
© Templeton.
402 REPORT— 1840.
&
)
nM
ae
| West. - South.
Elsewhere
in North.
Elsewhere
in East.
West of
Connaught.
Elsewhere
in West.
Tralee.
Elsewhere
in South,
AVES.
|
|
|
Milvus Ictinus®
Bubo maximus ...
Otus vulgaris ......
wee * eee eee ee eee * *
* aes * ase vee cae * oo | ok
Lanius Excubitor .......-+-+++
Muscicapa grisola ......++++.-
Cinclus aquaticus .......+++++
Merula viscivora .......+0+++:
pilaris.....
——=t IYNISICA oe oscsanessas= suse
H——. T]1Ca, ...sccecccocesccecees
vulgaris .....sesseeereeees
torquata .....seerecseveeee
Oriolus Galbula..............
Accentor modularis .........
Erythaca Rubecula ..........
Pheenicura Ruticilla .........
PItHYS' sancearstees sures
Saxicola (Enanthe Beton
*
*
XX KKK
—————
—$$——
XXX eK KK
.
*
*
*
* *
HEHHHHHRHEH HEH HHH HK
7 HF
==
=
* *# *
eRe * *
*
Rubicola ..........00000.
Salicaria Locustella*.........
Phragmitis..........0+06-
ATUNCINACEA .....ceeeees
Curruca atricapilla............
hortensis..
(CUICLEA lacaccrescsevccesss
Sylvia Hippolais...............
Sibiatrix 2 > s.pccccc. cone
TrochiluSis.ccsecesss sane
Regulus aurocapillus....
Parus major .....e.se0+e
coeruleus .......066 <
PalUstris).c...020..s+ecese-
BLL ie astra asusagsiessiecdes
caudatus..
** *
see * aoe * wee £3
~~
*¥ Xe *¥ KKH
vee see
*
*
*
HHH HKHKHKHKKHH KKH
*
xx XH HHH *
*
*
Motacilla Yarrellii...
Boatula tteict:ctesseocns-
HAV al: osastudekioasscracahen
Anthus ObDSCUIUS .o..eee-eeeees
PYAteNSiS......sesee-eeeees
arboreus??*....
Bombycilla garrula .
Alauda arvensis ....
ATDOTEA ..0cc.scccceree-
Plectrophanes nivalis.........
Emberiza miliaria ............
*
**%& * *
eee HE
eee * eee aoe eee *
¥HeRHKHRH KKH H*
Hee KX
* See preceding remarks on,
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 403
at ie e < e wt 2 ie = 2 «
&is8/8S]| ¢ | Se] cm] sell = re aiesy
& sm skh Pe | ee << o |as
ao |-SIES| S |EQ|@s/EE] & | = les
wE| oA 3s | o £/]o a c | on
A Alecia |ssiFeigs| S| |2e
AVES. eS x Shier a
Emberiza Scheeniculus ......
Citrinella .. :
Fringilla Coelebs. .............
Montifringilla .........
Passer domesticus ............
Coccothraustes vulgaris......
Chloris ..............00086
Carduelis elegans .............
SSDINUS) ak iUecs setae
Linaria minor..................
cannabina ..............:
montana.... d
Pyrrhula vulgaris .............
Enucleator® ............
Loxia curvirostra .............
leucoptera .............4.
Sturnus vulgaris........
Pastor roseus ..........
Fregilus Graculus ............
Corvus Corax ...........0.0000-
Corone® 6.22 .ie elicaeen
COM IR ee eenccp teat ess
—— frugilegus................
Monedula ,..............
Pica melanoleuca .............
Garrulus glandarius..........
Picus major.................000.
Certhia familiaris .............
Troglodytes europzus ...
Upupa Epops..............0...
Cuculus canorus...............
Coccyzus americanus .......
Coracias garrula............6..| 2.6 | oe
Merops Apiaster...,.......
Alcedo Ispida......
Hirundo rustica ..
pa DICH or sells ts cvs vast eS Re
PEPARLAS oe sdseNcs ox t'oweh see
Cypselus Apus................
BUBOOHSH. sies.c/ai'on evaseens LB osolkaeetill <2
Caprimulgus europzus ......| 4
Columba Palumbus..........| 4
Livia eee e cece eeeeweneenel ge
PEOTEUE sce s-.on28<se0sr2| ys
*
*
E
1*# * *
3
*¥ *# Xe *
*
Be is
* XX *
** 7 H# KX ¥
KEKRHKH KHER HK HK
* ?
ee
*
*
*
*
*
%
* *
=
7% &
*
“%
*”
oak Fe 6%
¥Kee*
eR KKK THK KK KHKKHKKRKRHKEKRKKEKHKRHKKRKERHRE
*
ee ¥
*
%
~~
x
ot)
eH Xe % *
*¥ eX
*
*
** ¥ *
Lagopus scoticus .............
Perdix cinerea...........
Coturnix.........
Otis Tetrax ..............
Qédicnemus crepitans..,......| ...
Charadrius pluvialis ..........|
Morinellus............... x
—— Hiaticula.............. *
*
*
%* *
RH KKK KEK KK KKK KKK KKH KRKKKHHRHRKHHKER
*
*
i ee
*
*
*
*
*
* >
*
* See preceding remarks on.
2pd2
—-
404
REPORT—1840.
“ a Se Sy ome etersall tea |e = <a hee:
S lsSlsel] & les s2i2s| 2 | 8 |ss
€ |E2 es] 3 ea) e2\te\ =| 3 |E3
gS lag | 82 8 |Balee (22 | 2 | & [22
Balas | Oo lati Fs las il = §
AVES. Fs A 3 | Ri
Squatarola cinerea ............] mo be * e -|ix |x
Vanellus cristatus ............ el ee a ieee accel * | *
Strepsilas Interpres .........} » | x * oe see | ox
Arenaria Calidris... .......... * * * * x |x
Hezmatopus ostralegus....... ae ee * * hal ls 2
Ardea cinerea.....:...seeccss+-| % | * * ee
PULPUTEA ~.seccsescossss| «os | cee | x
Garzetta............ Seeass| rece |) weet] res scat" ||| sve frees Wpeeee teeemmieg
Botaurus stellaris ............| ~ | * fice [eee fie fox
minutus ........-... “ecg ete crea Re x
Nycticorax europzus......... ¥?
Platalea Leucorodia ...... mealhee ll pea Sl] Aca Veron | Gee x [oe lx
Ibis Falcinellus ...............| “oS 4° || a vee ll x
Numenius arquata ......... eer liee ee leep | tee “Mtge: of ees [faces eile
Phzopus ............ cot Fae a * ke fee lie | *
Totanus fuscus ............... *
Calidris eeeeee seeeerereeee! * * . * - * *
Ochropus ......... soscee| se | cee ie cee [ices [lk | ok
Glareola??...... Boncepeee|i a ||) 'nee “8 coo TT ok
—— Hypoleucos ............ PEN oe * * Pcgeiless
GIGttIS Co seeee-css: coseoel oe | cee |e Ul * Ce (oe LC 3
Recurvirostra Avocetta......| .. a Vee soo fi cee Hox
Himantopus melanopterus...} ... | ... * . oo ll ok
Limosa melanura . * = ¥ * || * Joe |
ROMA vacnstese se se'-0 5. Poe * Piel tal | he a9
Scolopax Rusticola ay Ale * * x | x
Sabini......... Eoaseee acer Se lec ceed Solis
TULAJON 2) ieeeeweree sewossttor *
—— Gallinago ...............| 2 | x Gb |e al fect |e & |x
Gallinula ............... ee oe * * er [ee
Machetes pugnax ............ Pe Ve cte Nes x see | ok
Tringa subarquata ............ * 200 jhe
variabilis ...... sunsosesnl ge | | te - il x * * |
maritima .. sel ieee eee * *
——— minuta SNES) cell Sa aller
Canutus...... So 4 * . *
Phalaropus lobatus.. ee *
Rallus aquaticus... er le * * al be =
Crex pratensis... hee * * x | *
Porzana ...... “ plese ts eb ilifes aoe soe | ok
Gallinula Chloropus . el Ns * * = Dye | EE
Fulica atra ....... sence oan wens EAN rage diate lar - || x * | *
Anser palustris (A. ferus
SHES) an soeaen asencaetess ie -
ferus (A. Segetum mS
Steph.) ...... Saerenaetece * od
Erythropus (A, aaa OPE <
HONS) SEEN g en sss sss <% * :
Bernicla.... the * oo BH (OM |e
Brenta .. et ae * x foe fie [x
Cygnus ferus .. See, (icone ee
Bewickii............ aligee atitecee |e “llse sl Seem Wee
(Gem ABE a GR Peart a me ee | nee Ee nae ee De
@ See preceding remarks on.
= en
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 405
: :| fe 2 ee] 2s] Bs
2 ag | oS Os || 6 on 3 o |/os
a |B 8/25 ealgzls| &| 2 \e3
BS 128) 84 ee Ss 5 ea (ee
=P aa =| =
AVES. A | fas BAS [a= | & 5
Tadorna Vulpanser .........| x
Spatulea clypeata ....cccece0e] se | wee | ove
Chauliodus Strepera .........] ++. |... | see
Anas Boschas........sccscoeees| | “5
Querquedula acuta..........2.] Saeed pace
Wrecea Gees. esac scvew ese]! * aes
Circia (Anas quer-
quedula, L.) et
Mareca Penelope ...........:| x | 4 | «+
Somateria mollissima.........] «6 |... | «ee
spectabilis .....csessseeee| ee | see | eee
Oidemia fusca ......c.eceeeeee| coe | cae | eee
TIQTA cocecsscscsesecsceeve| see | soe | x
Fuligula ferina .............4.
Mieralat cc.concesstecesiese
CYIstata ....ccecceceeeeees
Clangula vulgaris ............
Harelda glacialis ............
Mergus Merganser ..........
Serrator ..... marae
albellus ... cones
Podiceps cristatus . eee
rubricollis .. Sisal
*
cee * eee *
eee es Dublin.
*
Xx *
Hee HH
KHER KKK KKH HE HH HK
.
.
.
.
°
.
.
.
.
~w
auritus .......
WORMOF secsassnsssderesesces
Colymbus glacialis............
AYCLICUS ...scscceccsvcece
septentrionalis .........
Uria Troile.........sescescceees
Brunnichii.
Grylle ........cccesesenes Anal hats
Mergulus melanoleucos ....
Fratercula arctica .......0....
Alca Torda....... *
Impennis .... ~
Phalacrocorax Carbo
cristatus .......
*
* * *¥ *
~
eX HHEKXKHHKXHKK KX KK
ee ecscesoes
x * * *
% *
.
.
.
.
.
.
Dougallii
—— Hirundo
arctica ...
I——— MINUtA ....sscecsececcece
IK TI Qa sscsecsoececccssences
StOHAA ..cccececsccsvevcss
Larus Sabini.......cccsssseoees ed eases
TMINUEUS ....ecceescccesees
Capistratus ......seseeeees| *
—_— ridibundus * *
—— Rissa seve seoeeeses| 3 * ue * wee * ese *
Canus. 3 *
PDUIPCUS Bete crs vas cases cn |) noni came (eI MteaL le cecrilirdee ti escn th see
* xe KX He XH *
eRe HH HE KH HK
*
*
*
eeeeseceres
4 See preceding remarks on.
406 REPORT—1540.
2h oh A EE eae BREN rE
North. East. West. South.
| os o s]o., : o.
at) Comrgtapabed 4 Pe ae ed . BS
3 yel8E) € |22|/S2/23 S| 2 [23
ss 5 7) C) 5 S| i ES to a EO
S Tel|Fe | 2 | sR) 8815 2 | & loa
3 28\a0 A melseleci 5 | |4e
AVES. Pe ee Siecle a
Larus argentatus ....eseeer| x | x * * le | #
FUSCUS.cccccscevosvecsessos| | x * * * | *
MATINUS ...cceeeeeeeeseeee| | * * *
Islandicus ... =) Elpace se | ok
glaucus seeees Py * * *
Cataractes vulgaris.. ae * s+ |] ae?
Pomarinus..... * * * : *
—— Richardsonii.. * ba
parasiticus ..... alae * *?
Puffinus cinereus .......0+0+-| + see Ola | ates
Anglorum .......esceeees| * .
Thalassidroma pelagica ...| x | x * * * |#
ISGUOCKIU ce. seenesse celine * : *
o. 3) ejio. = o.
4 |22| ¢ |SeSe/28|1 2 128
2 |35|| 3 |ea||82/85 | 2 | Ee
7) ® Py S128 3 D
A 18 A |2s|\Fs|a5 as
REPTILIA. as = 6a ees
Chelonia Caouana ..........+5] 0. |
Zootoca vivipara .....+46
Lacerta agilis, Berk. ..... Rie ed P| ee OR ane | am Lay
AMPHIBIA.
Rana temporaria ..... Ssecee| kami tae beet) Noaaer ll) sea tlvosee leas
Bufo Calamita ............ etal aN ee th | Ie lo et here bikes 8) Sctochy | te
Triton palustris? *............ ¥
Lissotriton punctatus......-..| 4 | ee |] x | eee |] eee | ®
palmipes ? ...........-0. can . *
PISCES.
Perca fluviatilis .. ...........- ig : * * *
Labrax Lupus ... say (ex * * *
Trachinus Vipera . * * *
Mullus Surmuletus > x
Trigla Pini............. Bache econ ir: * *
lineata A eee ASE Ie * Boa Pex * *
—— Hirundo ................ te easel lies * *
pe VAY A tslnlnarewnict nelgesricteep's © * *
Gurnardus...
Cuculus...... * * ts SS
Peciloptera ........... eet seellh seat teoed If ees a] pecs ae
Cottus Scorpius steNsaudetns dove * = * *
REL. Bi balisincin. ds cisas sos. * * * *
Aspidophorus cataphractus .| » * ~ |l x ~ il «x
Gasterosteus aculeatus .. x « {lox dee * *
pungitius ......... < Seal hens
— Spinachia ... x * * *
Sciena Aquila ...........066:) 0 vee | *
* See preceding remarks on. aes,
» Given on authority of Dr. Brown’s catalogue, in which no locality is named.
—
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 407
North. East. West. South
os 2 sj]o : o
2 |ez|| 2 |S8 32/85 || 2 | §
a l|2c] A |gslFslasi = la
PISCES. ae ae | oa a
Pagellus Centrodontus ......| * A | ee |
Scomber Scomber ....... * * : * vee | ok
maculatus ........s000004] + : ee ll ok
Thynnus vulgaris ...... nacchspieastiiier: IL sce
Pelamys..........sseeeee Seer i ihieest lees stalne aes ditaaeoona | Meee
Caranx Trachurus...... Steet || Pen ey
Zeus Faber ..........0.205 * eee fl x * «|x
Lampris Luna ......... lee aa shal [eee oe
Mugil Chelo ......... SPPRC enue eg eer | ed wae Jee
Capito...... eeedunseemasten *
Atherina Presbyter .........| x * oll *
Blennius Gattorugine ......| x
Yarrellii, Val. (B.
palmicornis, Yarr. and -| x
Jenyns’ Works) ..+.++0+
PH OMe eeacs so.eee- Ss ar Be Bs i ege fee How
Murenoides guttata ..... rachllaeu \jes * x [oe | *
Zoarces viviparus .... *
Anarrhicas Lupus .. weosle ag soil we aati
Gobius niger, Cuv. .....+..- 8) Pere * coe ll ox
Britannicus, Thomp.
(G. niger, recent Brit. a ; x! ‘ swotliftss *
AUNOTS) oon. csecnacesevere
Gobius Ruthensparii (G.
bipunctatus, Yarr.)...... J | * 5
minutus ena maps] ge. [ts S * |" *
gracilis ......... % Be ee +
> unipunctatus ... * f +S z *
Callionymus Lyra ... 2 * oo *
Dracunculus .......++++.| 4 ee * *
Lophius Piscatorius .........| y * = *
Labrus variabilis (L.]) ,
maculatus, Bi.) se} yews * * *
lineatus ............ J) ©
VAI gGatus .escesecsesvees * a * é * . *
trimaculatus ............ -
Crenilabrus Tinca......] ..
Cornubicus ccc = Ae see fe eace WPsae~ = ful *
* . . one *
EXOlCtUS ....ssscesensecees * Be *
Gobio fluviatilis ............06+] 4 J lise *
Tinca vulgaris ............+0-
Abramis Brama...........0++-| 4 Salto | ba *
Buggenhagii .........--.| 4
LeuciscusErythrophthalmus| , ee thiee Pe ea |
Cobitis barbatula ............ Sth Wig * Atha hae
Esox Lucius ..... Bowes te teed 5a (eon las 2 UP F ani] tae ~
Belone vulgaris .............-. se * ao | eee Wl wk
Scomberesox Saurus ....... ve] eae *
Exoceetus exiliens?............ eis 5. : vee | x
Silurus glanis?>... ‘ Or Nee
@ Possibly introduced —sce preceding remarks on. > See preceding remarks on.
408
REPORT—1840.
North. East West. South.
F + = (eae
gfe) 2 |2el=e/S2| 2 |
& eo S |ea|gs|B| & ES
o o 3 2 &/g GC) a
A lZs||/A |gs|Fe|25| 5 |B5
PISCES. aul pie se Ks
Salmo Salar® ........ Rieivatonstiaae - il x » *
HATION: sfomecacvapeesaewes |e
CU ritbtaerrsp ese gedee suis sh » * * * ee *
Fario Cee ccenseccccsocccene ck * owe * *
FORD IGN: coe enmeene alte s saree ste « * : wee *
—— Umbla, L.......... 3
Salvelinus, Pon. } hale aki Pagal arse ets i
Osmerus Eperlanus ......... *
Coregonus Pollan ... * *
Clupea Harengus * Pei ec prey | ec |p
Sprattus .... * safle ve |] x *
Pilchardus . * * s+ ll x *
(Alosa Binta.v.c.ecss=.<s ves | pre base |e *
COMMUMIS .......00..0006| oe |
Gadus Morrhua............... Se dca ite * *
@allariagy.tersecds cass 0s< * cee foes *
—— Mglefinus ............... * ce *% *
lusensi.5 55.205 peapicau ages vs a x *
TNINWENG oso. shecece f outs * *
Merlangus vulgaris ......... ete * 2 *
Pollachius * oe * . * *
Carbonarius ,. a ae = oe | xe
Merlucius vulgaris. a * * *
Lota Molva...... a ace -8|| ae * oe lx
Motella tricirrhata . Ae lee oe Pe *
Mustela .... < * tell ge Posse Toe
Brosmus vulgaris ? *
Phycis furcatus ..., *
Raniceps trifurcatus *
Couchia minor .......... cal he
Platessa vulgaris....,........+-| ie * seaall) oe Fa er
Blesus'..cchs eeveree weet a eae * *
— Limanda ............... * Bed | * .
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Lat By Se sae eer age coc cone baa *
Hippoglossus vulgaris pages 8 Soe ecaaiite: *
Pleuronectes maximus ...... a Ba Ve op) Re soci
Rhombus '.:.;-2:;-<:-2:: a ips te *
—— punctatus ............e ¥
—— hirtus....... ace) |) 4
ot ora “- * orci Lee see *
Solea vulgaris... 2a loa * «ll x *
Lingula .. * * - il x *
Warlepratay £355... s0<svsws *
Lepadogaster Cornubiensis . Feo |e : a | a *
bimaculatus ............ xe | tee spaliee *
cephalus...... Rr feral |Past sao liars
Cyclopterus Lumpus.. aioe ©: ve Hl x *
Liparis vulgaris?” ............ *
Montagui ............... a PP coy the
Anguilla acutirostris ......... ¥e % AU a or
MAGIEGBIRIS ys .dereeses-/c0s * Br | ers
4 §. Salmulus, Young.
> See preceding remarks on.
i
ON THE FAUNA OF IRELAND. 409
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in North.
Dublin.
Elsewhere
in East.
West of
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Elsewhere
in West.
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Elsewhere
in South.
PISCES.
|
|
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Anguilla mediorostris ?*
Conger vulgaris ...............
Leptocephalus Morrissii .....
Ophidium imberbe
Echiodon Drummondii
Ammodytes Tobianus .
Lancea
Syngnathus Acus
Typhle
—— equoreus .......
anguineus ....... fy
—— lumbriciformis .........
Hippocampus brevirostris ? .
Tetrodon stellatus
Orthagoriscus Mola
Acipenser Sturio ? ......
Scyllium Canicula
stellaris
Pristiurus melanostomus
Carcharias Vulpes? .........
glaucus ........... Sawaests
Lamna Cornubica
Monensis
Galeus vulgaris .
Mustela levis............. cone
Selachus maximus ....
Spinax Acanthias .......... 5A
Squatina Angelus ............
Torpedo Walshii ..
Raia Batis ...... Demis asiahic ve
Oxyrhynchus........... :
chagrinea ..
—— maculata
clavata * :
radula......... Seodccakease
Trygon Pastinaca ............
Cephaloptera Giorna
Petromyzon marinus .........
fluviatilis
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Myxine glutinosa ............]
® See preceding remarks on.
i
wy
rh 4
411
\
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and
Air-tubes. By Cuarues J. B. Wixttiams, M.D., F.R.S,
WHEN at the request of the Medical Section of the British As-
sociation, I undertook three years since to investigate experi-
mentally several doubtful points respecting the properties and
offices of parts of the respiratory apparatus in the higher classes
of animals, I hoped to be able to include in the inquiry the che-
mical process of respiration, and the vital effects of its interrup-
tion. Professional engagements having obliged me to relinquish
these points, I have restricted my attention to others more im-
mediately bearing on practical medicine. The chief of these are
the contractility and sensibility of the air-tubes and lungs.
It has long been a matter of controversy whether the lungs
ind air-tubes are more than passive in the motions of respiration ;
whether they possess any self-contracting or expanding power,
independent of the muscles which affect the capacity of the
chest. Different writers, both ancient and modern, have main-
tained opposite opinions. Laennec, after Sennert, Bremond
and others, attributed to the lungs both a self-contractile and
self-expansive power, in addition to their mechanical or elastic
properties. Haller, on the other hand, was led by experiment
to deny that any independent vital motions are exhibited by the
lungs of animals, corresponding with those of respiration; and
Miller has confirmed these negative results. Within the last
few years certain writers in this country and in France*, have
denied altogether the muscular contractility of any part of the
air-tubes below the larynx.
These negative observations are in opposition to the generally-
received opinion, derived chiefly from the anatomical researches
of Reisseissen, that the circular fibres of the air-tubes, from the
trachea to their terminations, are muscular. Very few at-
tempts have been made to solve this problem by experiment.
Varnier and Wedemeyer only succeeded in exciting partial con-
tractions in the smaller bronchi; but after all their results,
Miller concludes that “ it is remarkable that there exists at pre-
sent no direct proof of the contractility of the wnuscular fibres
of the trachea and its branchest.”’
I need scarcely remark, that this subject is by no means one
of merely speculative interest. Much of the pathology and
* MM. Trousseau and Belloc, Dr. Geo. Budd, &c.
+ Elements of Physiology, translated by Baly.
412 REPORT—1840.
treatment of various diseases of the respiratory organs, espe-
cially asthma, is at present founded on the supposition of a
muscular contractility of the air-tubes, the very existence of
which is stated by one of the most eminent of modern physio-
logists to be little more than assumed. The chief objects of the
following experiments were to test the existence of muscular
irritability in the air-tubes ; and if such were present, to deter-
mine its character, and the circumstances or influences which
could affect or disturb it. The experiments were performed at
the London University College, and in several of them I was
kindly assisted by Professor Sharpey, Mr. James Blake, Dr.
Davison, and several of my pupils, especially Messrs. Blom-
field, Carlill, Parkes and Jos. King.
In most of the experiments I made use of Poiseuille’s
hemadynamometer, which is a tube bent like an inverted si-
phon, containing a coloured fluid; the short limb of this tube,
furnished with stop-cocks, being adapted to the windpipe or one
of its branches, the column of fluid within would be readily
moved by any contraction of the air-tubes or lungs, causing pres-
sure on the air in it: and the rise or fall of this fluid was mea-
sured by a scale divided into inches and tenths.
1. A dog was killed by pithing. The chest being imme-
diately opened, the lungs collapsed completely. They were
taken out with a part of the trachea, which was then tied to the
brass tube of the hemadynamometer (or as I shall call it, the
dynameter) ; on completing the communication by turning the
stop-cock, the fluid in the tube oscillated several times to the
amount of about one fourth of an inch. On passing a galvanic
current, from a trough of thirty three-inch plates, from the margin
of the lungs to the brass tube in the trachea, the fluid rose
quickly, but gradually, nearly two inches; it sunk speedily on
breaking contact ; again rose on repeating it; but fell slowly
when the contact was continued for some seconds. When the
current was passed only through a single lobe, the rise was still
distinct, amounting to three or four tenths of an inch. The
rise was repeatedly produced, but to a diminishing extent, and
after two or three minutes the effect seemed to be exhausted.
2, The preceding experiment was repeated with eight dogs
of various sizes, with similar results. The rise of the fluid co-
lumn caused by galvanising the whole lung amounted at first to
from 14 to 2} inches, but afterwards gradually diminished. If
the current was passed continuously for some length of time,
the fluid in the tube fell, and could not be raised by the gal-
vanism for a minute or two after. It was found also that inflating
the lungs impaired the effect of the current. On repeating the
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS AND AIR-TUBES. 413
experiments further, it was found that the irritability was only
exhausted for a time; and on waiting two or three minutes
between each application of the galvanism, the liquid was raised
again and again for upwards of an hour; at first to the extent
of one or two inches, but afterwards to a gradually diminishing
extent, until all effect ceased. So, too, although no effect ensued
immediately after inflating the lung, yet on waiting a minute or
two the contraction took place, only diminished in degree by
the compressed state of the air, which required more contractile
force to move it. The fall on interrupting the current was
pretty rapid, the fluid recovering its level in from ten to twenty
seconds.
3. Several trials were made to compare the contractility of
the smaller and the larger bronchial tubes respectively. When
the galvanism was passed along only the margins of the lobes,
scarcely any contraction ensued. When passed from the margin
to the middle of the lobes the column rose two or three tenths
and soon subsided. When passed across a lobe, at right angles
with the chief tubes, the rise was from two to four tenths. But
the greatest amount of contraction was caused by passing the
current from the margins of the lobes to the larger tubes, or
across the direction of these tubes, especially near the bifurca-
tion of the trachea. The rise produced by galvanising these
portions could be also renewed at intervals for a period much
longer than in other parts.
4, The preceding experiments were all made on the lungs re-
moved from the body immediately after death. I tried to obtain
the same results with the lungs in the body; but it was not easy
to galvanise the lungs without affecting the muscles of the chest,
the contractions of which might interfere with the results.
The expedient adopted was, immediately on the death of the
animal to adapt the dynameter to the trachea; then to open
the chest and break back the ribs, and having separated the
lungs, to pass between them and the walls of the chest a piece of
oiled cloth, and then to apply the galvanic wires to different parts
of the lungs. This experiment gave less distinct results than
when the lungs were removed from the body: It was repeated
five times ; but it will be sufficient to describe one instance in
which the galvanism was tried on the par vagum as well as on
the lungs themselves. A large dog was pithed, and the dyna-
meter adapted to the trachea. On opening the chest, the col-
lapse of the lungs caused the fluid to rise three inches. The vagi
being exposed in the neck, one was pinched ; it caused no effect
on the dynameter. The other vagus was then galvanised across
and along a portion of it; no effect followed in the bronchial
414 REPORT—-1840.
tubes, but the cesophagus was strongly convulsed. The nerve
was then separated and the galvanism passed through it to the
base of the lung; this raised the dynameter only a tenth. On
passing the current from the base of the lungs to the trachea
the column rose more than an inch, sinking again rapidly on
the withdrawal of the galvanism.
5. In all the preceding experiments the animals were killed
by pithing: other modes of death were afterwards tried. A
rabbit was killed by a blow on the back of theneck. The lungs
and trachea being cut out, moderately inflated and galvan-
ised, little effect was produced in the first ten minutes, but the
column had gradually sunk about three tenths of an inch, after
this the galvanism repeatedly raised it two tenths.
6. A large dog was bled to death by dividing the jugular
veins. Death was preceded by very deep and rare breathing ;
the heart beat a few pulses after respiration and sensibility had
ceased. On adapting the dynameter to the trachea, the column
was stationary ; on opening the abdomen it sunk half an inch,
On opening the chest it rose five inches. After taking the
lungs out of the body, galvanism failed to’ raise the column ;
but this failure probably arose from the tube being obstructed
with viscid mucus ; for on applying the wires to the bifurcation
of the trachea the tubes were seen to contract distinctly. This
suggested another mode of observation which had been dis-
trusted before, as liable to error. The lungs were cut by sharp
scissors at right angles to the chief air-tubes ; the open sections
being galvanised contracted to half, and in some instances to
less than half their former diameter. To ensure accuracy, the
gaping ends, as soon as cut, were measured by compasses or
tubes of similar size. The contraction was most distinct in the
middle-sized tubes, and those of the size of a crow-quill. One
of these closed completely. These results were obtained for
half an hour after death, and long after the heart had lost its
irritability.
7. A large greyhound was killed by pithing. The lungs
being removed, one lobe was tried by galvanism and the dyna-
meter, with the usual results. A large bronchus of another lobe
was then cut open longitudinally, laid flat and then galvanised.
It became hollow and contracted a third, and at one part half
its diameter. The divided ends of other bronchi also contracted
to less than half. In one instance, when the interior of a large
bronchus was galvanised, bloody mucus was expelled from one
of its branches across which the current passed.
8. A bullock’s lung was experimented on about twenty mi-
mutes after death, which was caused as usual by a blow on the
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS AND AIR-TUBES. 415
head and dividing the vessels of the neck. The bronchi were
full of frothy mucus, and on touching any of them with the
galvanic wires, this froth was exuded from them. Their mea-
sured size also shrunk under the same influence.
9. The same results were obtained with the lungs of a calf,
half an hour after death (by bleeding and pithing). A small
lobe of the lung when galvanised raised the dynameter three
tenths.
10. Two years ago I observed in the lungs of a horse just
killed by knacking, that the divided ends of the bronchi slowly
contracted on being irritated with a scalpel; but as no mea-
surement was used, and as those which were not thus irritated
also contracted, only more slowly, I did not then consider the
result conclusive. It may, however, now be arranged among
other facts of the same kind.
11. In many instances which I need not now detail, I tried
to excite the contraction of the air-tubes by chemical irritants,
such as salt and diluted ammonia. I succeeded with the divided
ends of the tubes ; but with the dynameter it was more difficult,
from the difficulty of introducing the irritant without mechani-
cally affecting the column, and also from the irritant causing
the formation of mucous viscid froth, which obstructed the
tubes. The following was the most successful of these at-
tempts.
12. A dog was pithed and the lungs exposed by breaking
back the ribs. To the trachea was tied a tube with two
branches furnished with stop-cocks. One branch communicated
with the dynameter; through the other the lungs were to be in-
flated to give the tubes their full diameter. The irritating fluid
was poured into the tube of the dynameter in quantity sufficient
that some might drop into. the trachea on blowing into the
upper end of the tube. The lungs being moderately inflated,
the stop-cock of the dynameter was turned, when the column
rose three inches. The column was then depressed by blowing
with the mouth till some dropped into the windpipe. On with-
drawing the mouth the column was driven up three tenths above
its former level, and slowly rose two tenths more. This rise
could only be ascribed to the contraction of the tubes excited
by the irritating liquid in them. By changing the position of
the lung, several sudden starts of one or two tenths repeatedly
occurred, probably caused by the irritating fluid coming in con-
tact with more tubes. But all these movements were much im-
peded by the viscid froth which collected in the bronchi. The
lungs being suffered to collapse, the column sank to a level.
After a while it sunk further two inches below the level; being
416 REPORT—1840.
probably thus drawn down by the re-expansion of the cartilagi-
nous rings of the tubes, now set free by the relaxation of their
contractile fibres. On cutting into the lung the trachea and
bronchi were found unusually open, and filled with tenacious
froth. In another instance in which this experiment was re-
peated, the rise after the injection of diluted ammonia amounted
to 12 inch.
13. The experiment was repeated with saturated solution of
common salt, with similar results.
14. The following experiment illustrates several of the same
points; and further shows the character of the sensibility in
different parts of the air-passages. Subject, a large Newfound-
land dog. The trachea was exposed and divided below the cri-
coid cartilage. It was then held out by a hook. On being ir-
ritated by a scalpel, the membranous portion gradually con-
tracted until the ends of the cartilaginous rings met. The
contraction was somewhat increased by galvanism. The appli-
cation of salt caused no further effect. None of these irritations
excited cough or sign of uneasiness ;_ but on passing the finger
upwards to the larynx, violent expiratory efforts were excited,
and the glottis very forcibly closed on the finger. The expira-
tory efforts forced a little bloody mucus from the trachea. A
scalpel was introduced into the trachea as far as its bifurcation,
and scraped against the membrane. No cough followed for some
time ; but on repeating the experiment about a minute after,
cough ensued, and increased on subsequent trials. The salt ap-
plied caused a secretion of bloody mucus. The blood-vessels
in the upper part of the chest were now cut into, when the rare
deep inspirations preceding death by hemorrhage succeeded.
The heart continued to beat several seconds after the cessation
of respiration. The bronchi exhibited full indications of con-
tractility on the application of galvanism, or of salt, or ammo-
nia. The upper part of the trachea, which had during life been
irritated with salt and galvanism, was now found quite expanded,
the portions lower down were half-expanded. Both contracted
slightly on being galvanised, and completely on dividing their
cartilaginous rings.
Having satisfactorily proved the existence of irritable con-
tractility in the air-tubes, I next proceeded to try how this would
be influenced by various medicinal agents which we are in the
habit of using in various diseases of the organs of respiration.
15. A rabbit was poisoned by dropping some strong hydro-
cyanic acid intoitsmouth. In thirty seconds it was seized with
convulsive and gasping breathing, and opisthotonic spasms, and
died in ten seconds more. Galvanism produced no results with
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS AND AIR-TUBES. 417
the dynameter for the first five minutes ; but after this it took
effect, and raised the column two tenths; and in a quarter of
an hour four tenths. These effects gradually diminished, and
ceased in half an hour.
16. About ten grains of extract of belladonna*, mixed with
water, were injected into the jugular vein of a rabbit. In fifteen
seconds, gasping with slight convulsions, and death in less than
a minute. On opening the abdomen the heart was seen through
the diaphragm acting quickly. The dynameter being adapted
to the trachea, the chest was opened, when the column imme-
diately rose two inches, and slowly an inch more, when it re- -
mained stationary. Galvanism produced no effect for several’
minutes, and then a scarcely perceptible rise, which could not
be re-induced, although the experiment was continued an hour.
17. A dog was poisoned by mouth with hydrocyanic acid.
He fell down howling in a minute and a half, and ceased to
breathe in about halfaminute more. Heart beat strongly when
the chest was opened. Galvanism raised the column of the dy-
nameter two inches, and a similar but decreasing effect was ob-
tained at times for half an hour. The same differences were
observed in the contractility of different parts, as after death by
pithing. The cut ends of the tubes continued to contract on
being galvanised half an hour after death.
18. About twenty drops of strong hydrocyanic acid were in-
jected into the carotid artery of an ass about six months old.
It immediately caused the breathing to become very deep and
rare; but the effect passing off in about ten minutes, nearly a
drachm more was injected. The deep convulsive breathing re-
turned, with tetanic rigidity of the trunk and loud groaning.
The breathing became very rare, whilst the heart beat violently
with a double second sound. Death ensued about. three mi-
nutes after the second injection. A small lobe of the lung when
galvanised repeatedly raised the column three tenths. Sections
of tubes in other parts contracted distinctly on being galvanised,
but to a less extent than in the dog. Contractile motion was
distinctly seen on cutting a cartilaginous ring of the trachea,
and then galvanising the membranous portion at the back.
19. About ten grains of extract of belladonna mixed with
water, were injected into the right jugular vein of a large dog.
Pupils began to dilate in fifteen seconds, and breathing more
and more deep and laborious, accompanied with convulsive
starts and howling. The breathing ceased and the eye became
insensible two minutes after the injection. The integuments of
* This and other extracts used were obtained from Mr. Squire, Chemist to
the Queen. : '
1840. 25
418 REPORT—1840.
the chest being then divided, some dark blood flowed in jets from
the cut vessels ; the animal then made six or seven deep gasps,
during which the heart beat more strongly, and the eye slightly
winked on being touched. This partial restoration was probably
caused by the bleeding. On taking out the lungs scarcely a
trace of contractility could be detected in them by the dyname-
ter, and the cut ends of the tubes shrunk but little on being gal-
vanised. The trachea was quite relaxed, and scarcely any
approximation of the cartilages was produced by galvanism.
The arteries also were less contracted than usual.
20. About thirty grains of extract of stramonium were in-
jected into the cellular tissue of the neck of a dog. The breath-
ing soon became very quick, laborious, and occasionally ster-
torous. Lower extremities very weak and dragged, as if para-
lysed. Pupil extremely dilated ; but the sensibility of the eye
and consciousness of sounds remained till near death, which
took place twenty-five minutes after the injection. The heart
was found motionless and unirritable, its right cavities and the
veins much gorged with blood ; left cavities and arteries empty.
On cutting and galvanising the bronchi, very. little contraction
was perceived, and none with the dynameter. Csophagus and
intestines still irritable.
21. Two grains of nitrate of strychnia, dissolved, were injected
into the carotid of a large dog. In less than four seconds te-
tanic convulsions, which continued a minute. The eye became
insensible in half a minute. On opening the chest the heart
was found motionless and unirritable; right cavities and veins
enormously distended. Lungs being taken out and galvanized,
at first raised the dynameter two tenths, but not afterwards.
Voluntary muscles relaxed after death, and were less irritable
than usual.
22. A solution of four grains of nitrate of strychnia was in-
jected into the jugular vein of a donkey two months old. In
fifteen seconds spasms and tetanic stiffness. Eye soon ceased
to wink on being touched. Spasms of neck and back continued
for more than a minute On opening the chest the heart was
still beating, the veins and right side much distended. The air-
tubes gave no sign of contractility with galvanism, although the
experiment was continued for some time.
23. Wishing to compare the contractility of the bronchi with
that of the arteries, 1 made the following experiment. Imme-
diately after the death of the subject of the preceding experi-
ment, ligatures were applied to the top of the descending aorta
and to the left common iliac, and adynameter to the right com-
mon iliac, some carbonate of soda and water being first injected
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS AND AIR-TUBES. 419
to prevent the blood from coagulating. The aorta was then gal-
vanised, and the column immediately rose gradually two inches.
On removing the wires, it still rose a few seconds, and then sunk
progressively, After it had sunk two inches, the galvanism again
raised it two tenths, but no more. This was about twenty-five
minutes after death. The auricles continued to be excitable by
galvanism more than half an hour after death, the contraction of
one auricle being followed by that of the other. In this and
another donkey, I had proved that the arteries contracted during
life on the application of the galvanic, as well as of ¢hemical and
mechanical stimuli.
24. Some tincture of Lobelia eflata, much concentrated by
evaporation, was injected into the jugular vein of a dog. There
were symptoms of uneasiness for a few minutes, but no further
effect. A fluid extract obtained by evaporating Ziss. solution
of bimeconate of morphia (Squire) was then injected. In twelve
seconds, peculiar convulsive starts and some general tremor,
with laborious breathing, followed by death in about a minute and.
ahalf. Heart was beating when the chest wasopened. Single
lobes of the lungs being galvanised raised the dynameter co-
lumn slightly, not more than a tenth. On cutting the lung, the
sections contracted more distinctly, but much less so than in
other cases. Trachea expanded.
25. About half a drachm of extract of conium mixed with
water was injected into the external jugular vein of a dog. In
twelve seconds the breathing became very quick and laborious,
and in a minute the animal was dead. Bronchi not contractile as
tested by the dynameter, and less than usual on galvanising cut
portions. The trachea was already contracted so much that
the ends of the cartilaginous rings were in contact. The heart
was still irritable.
I trust that many of the results of the preceding experiments
are sufficiently evident without further comment.
Almost all of them prove that the air-tubes are endowed with
irritable contractility, excitable by electric, chemical, and me-:
2 aa stimuli, and they possess also tonic contractility (10,
25).
The contractility is manifest in all portions of the air-tubes
(3, 6, 7, 12, &c.). In the trachea and larger bronchi it is anta-
gonised by the elasticity of the cartilaginous rings (12, 14).
It does not appear to exist in the vesicular terminations of the
air-tubes (3).
This contractility resembles that of the intestines or arteries
more than that of voluntary muscles, the oesophagus, or heart,
the contractions and relaxations being more gradual than those
2E2
420 : REPORT—1840.
of the latter, but less tardy than those of the former. (1, 2, 17,
Sh Sec!)
The irritability of the bronchial muscles is soon exhausted by
the action of a stimulus (1, 2, 5, 12, &c.); and may in some
degree be restored by rest, even when the lung is removed from
the body for an hour or more (2, 3, 6). But when the stimula-
tion is long continued, as by intense irritation of the mucous
membrane during life, the irritability is not restored by rest,
and the tonic contractility is also impaired (14).
The contractility of the air-tubes seems to be much influenced
by the mode of death ; having been for a time suspended after
death by a blow on the back of the neck (5), and in one instance
after death by pithing, and hemorrhage. Inflation of the lung
also in some way suspends it for a while (2).
Several vegetable poisons impair or destroy this contractility.
Extracts of stramonium and belladonna produced this effect
most completely (16, 19, 20). (Their superior efficacy in spas-
modic asthma has been long known.) Strychnia, conium, and
morphia also impair this property considerably (21, 22, 24, 25).
Hydrocyanic acid, on the other hand, does not in any consider-
able degree impair it (15, 17, 18).
These poisons and different modes of death do not act on the
irritability of the bronchial tubes in the same degree as they do
on that of the heart and other contractile tissues, (22, 23, 24,
25,) and they do not seem to act always equally on the irritable
and on the tonic contractility of these tubes (25). ;
The bronchial fibres seem to be excited more by direct sti-
mulation than by any influence conveyed through the nerves of
the lungs; for mechanical and galvanic irritation of the vagi had
no effect on them ; and passing acurrent through the nerves to
the lungs caused much less contraction than passing it through
the trachea (4).
I am well aware that these, and many other subjects connected
with them, deserve a fuller investigation, and I have to regret
that my engagements have prevented me from prosecuting them
further. Such as they are I submit them to the consideration
of the Section without dwelling on their practical bearings.
Cuarues J. B. Wituiams, M.D., F.R.S.,
Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine,
and Physician to the Hospital, London Univer-
sity College.
Holles Street, Cavendish Square,
Sept. 15th, 1840.
421
Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on the
Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. Drawn
up by The Rev. J.S. HEnstow, F.L.S., Professor of Botany
in the University of Cambridge.
Tue Committee have hitherto directed their attention entirely
to the investigation of the preserving properties of certain ma-
terials when applied separately, either in saturated solutions, or
in different degrees of concentration.
A set of glass jars, of uniform dimensions (6 inches by 14),
was procured, and saturated solutions of the substances to be
tried were prepared. Similar solutions were also diluted with an
equal quantity of water, and with double the quantity of water,
and separate preparations were made of animal and vegetable
substances to the amount of 178. These were left in the Mu-
seum of the Botanic Garden at Cambridge, and have been in-
spected at intervals of one and two years. It is intended that
all should remain where they now stand, whether the results
may prove satisfactory or not; as, possibly, some facts may be
elicited worth noticing, respecting the different manner in which
organized substances are decomposed when placed in a variety
of mixtures which do not preserve them.
The next step which the Committee propose taking, will be
to mix those solutions which seem to them most likely to suc-
ceed, in various proportions ; and to prepare a fresh set of ob-
jects in these mixtures, which will be placed with the former.
This, indeed, ought to have been done some months ago, but
circumstances have prevented the Committee from carrying this
part of their plan into effect. No very satisfactory conclusions
can be expected to result from these experiments until they
shall have stood the test of a greater length of time than has
yet elapsed since they were commenced. An account of the re-
sults hitherto obtained will be of service in directing the re-
searches of any who may be disposed to follow up the inquiry,
and the Committee will be glad to receive the suggestions or
aid of any members of the Section who may be disposed to co-
operate with them.
Ist. Results obtained with Animal Substances.—Three salts
of potash, the sub-carbonate, the bi-carbonate, and the arse-
niate, have hitherto yielded the most satisfactory results, and
of these more especially the sub-carbonate. Although the bi-
carbonate has preserved the objects immersed in it, the liquid
has become clouded with flocculent matter. A similar formation
of flocculent matter occurs in some of the other solutions, but
has not yet been minutely examined. These three salts are
effective in each of the three states of concentration em-
ployed, but perhaps the effect is best where the solution is half
of the saturated solution and half of water.
422 REPORT—1840.
The next best to these three, are the sulphate of zinc, the
muriate of magnesia, and arsenious acid.
The following also possess tolerably fair preserving properties,
but are by no means so good as those already mentioned. They
may be recommended in cases of emergency, as temporary ex-
pedients, and some of them will probably prove more efficient
when used in combination with others, than when employed
singly: sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of potash and alumina,
(common alum,) sulphate of zinc, muriate of ammonia, sulphate
of potash. It is well known that corrosive sublimate is a per-
fect preservative of animal substances, but this salt renders the
flesh so very hard, that singly it is unsuited to the purposes of
natural history. Added in small proportions to other solutions,
which render the objects too soft, it will probably be tound of
essential service; as well also in preventing the formation of
the flocculent matter which occurs in several of them.
Prepared naphtha, in the proportion of one part naphtha to
seven of water, produces a favourable result, but when used more
highly concentrated the specimens are rendered tough. The rapid
evaporation of this substance is an objection to its use.
The effects produced by oxalic acid, and acetic acid, are pe-
culiar ; they seem to have decomposed the skin and cellular
membrane of two small fish immersed in them, but to have left
the muscle untouched. The consequence has been that these
animals have fallen to pieces, but the separate fragments are
well preserved, more especially in the acetic acid.
-A few drops of kreosote added to water preserves the objects,
but they become stained of a dark brown. The following sub-
stances appear to be wholly unfit for the purpose, and no further
trial need be made with them: carb. ammonia, chloride of potash,
muriate of barytes, muriate of lime, nitrate of ammonia, nitrate of
strontian, nitrate of barytes, nitrate of soda, nitrate of ammonia
and magnesia, phosphate of soda, sulphate of soda, sulphate of pot-
ash, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, rough pyroligneous acid.
2nd. Results obtained with Vegetable Substances.—The suc-
cess obtained with vegetable substances has been very slight. Spe-
cimens were immersed in each solution, as in the case of the ani-
mal substances. None of the salts seem likely to turn out fa-
vourably in simple solution, unless it may be the sub-carbonate
and bi-earbonate of potash. In naphtha and acetic acid the spe-
cimens are preserved, but in the latter they lose their colour and
assume a reddish tinge.
P.S. It does not appear from the memoranda that the carbo-
nates of soda are among the list of substances tried ; but I have
found that the preserving properties of the common soda of the
shops are decidedly good on animal substances.
J. S. Henstow.
423
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES OF PROGRESS
IN SPECIAL RESEARCHES ENTRUSTED TO COMMIT-
TEES AND INDIVIDUALS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Statement by G. B. Arry, Esq., Astron. Royal, relating to
the progress of the Reductions of the Greenwich Lunar
and Planetary Observations, undertaken at the recommenda-
tion of the British Association; and to the state of the
Funds appropriated to these works.
A RESOLUTION of the General Committee of the British Asso-
ciation, recommending to the Government the reduction of all
the observations of the Planets made at Greenwich from the
time of Bradley, was passed at Cambridge on June 28, 1833,
and a deputation was appointed to wait on Lord Althorp, in
order to present this recommendation, and to request that the
sum of 5002. should be placed in my hands for these reductions.
The sum named was fixed on wholly at random, and without
any sort of accurate estimate, of which the operations did not
seem to admit.
Lord Althorp’s answer assenting to the grant was dated
July 25, 1833. It was understood verbally from his Lordship’s
private secretary (Mr. Drummond), that more money would be
granted if required.
The whole sum of 5002. has been advanced to me by the fol-
lowing payments.
1836—Jan. 8 : 3 .£122 17 9
1887—May 27. , MD eB B
1838—Feb. 24 . : 4 ADC doe
Total . . £500 0 0
The last payment is subsequent to the later arrangement
cee to lunar reductions, of which I now proceed to
speak.
In the Meeting of the Association at Liverpool in 1837, the
General Committee recommended that the Observations of the
Moon should be reduced, and appointed a deputation to wait
on Mr. Spring Rice, and to convey this recommendation. The
424 REPORT—1840.
deputation accordingly attended at the Exchequer in the winter
of that year, and made the application, naming the sum of
2000/. as necessary, but stating in the formal memorial that the
expense might probably exceed 20007. And on December 26
of the same year, in writing to Mr. Spring Rice on this matter,
I recommended that the accounts for planetary reductions and
lunar reductions should be incorporated, as in pursuing the
work in the most advantageous way, it was wholly impossible
to keep the operations separate.
The Lords of the Treasury assented to this application, and
directed that 600/. should be advanced per annum, till the
20002. should be expended.
In the applications made by me to the Lords of the Treasury
on April 13, 1839, and April 18, 1840, I stated fully that the
money last granted (for the lunar reductions) had been em-
ployed in part on the planetary reductions.
The advances made to me from the Treasury are the follow-
ing :—
1838—June 13 : ‘ . £600 0 0
1839—May 31 : : +13 GO0,cO560
1840—April 27... 4 . 600 0 O
Total . . £1800 0 0
Leaving still payable to me 200
ie 0 0
from the original grant s_
And on Sept. 4, 1840, I had in 563 0 0
hand about : ‘ :
I have, therefore, at my com- "63 0 0
mand . t : ‘ :
This sum may be expected to last a short time beyond the
next meeting of the Association ; but it would not, in my opi-
* nion, be prudent to defer proceedings for increasing the sum
till that time.
The state of the reductions is nearly as follows :—
Planets.
The transits and right ascensions of all the planets are nearly
all completed in duplicate, compared, examined by differences,
and in other ways.
The polar distances are entirely reduced in duplicate, com-
pared, examined, &c., for all the planets, except an inconsider-
able part of the observations of Uranus (probably finished by
PROVISIONAL RHPORTS, AND NOTICES. 425
this time), and the observations of the small planets, for which
the distance necessary for the parallaxes is wanting.
The computation of geocentric longitude and latitude from
A and NPD is finished in duplicate for Mercury, Venus and
Mars, examined and compared. Jupiter is advanced (proba-
bly now finished), and Saturn has been commenced (probably
now far advanced).
The computation of the Tabular Heliocentric places of all
the planets, except the small ones, is finished in duplicate and
examined.
The computation of the Tabular Geocentric places is finish-
ed for all the large planets, except the application of aberration
to Saturn and Uranus, and a few observations of Jupiter.
The reduced observed places have been confronted with the
reduced tabular places for Mercury and Mars, and thoroughly
examined by myself; and these are, in all important respects,
ready for printing. Those for Venus have also been computed,
but not yet thoroughly examined by me.
The whole of this department will, inno long time, be ready
for press. The only new work to be done upon it is the cal-
culation of the co-efficients of tellurian and planetary heliocentric
errors, which must be conceived to form the geocentric er-
rors.
Lunar Observations.
The whole of the imperfect transits are completed; and this
has been a very laborious operation.
The apparent A of the stars for the clock-errors are
formed, and are ready for application to the investigation of
the moon’s right ascension, but are not yet applied.
No other work is yet done for the lunar observations, though
the books, &c. are prepared for many parts of the work. .
G. B. Airy.
To the Committee of the Physical and Mathematical
Section of the British Association.
Tue Report of the Committee on the Form of Vessels was
read to the Meeting ; but in consequence of the extensive ta-
bles and drawings required for its illustration, it has not yet
been completed for publication.
THE Committee appointed to superintend the extension of the
Royal Astronomical Society's Catalogue of Stars, report—
That the work is in considerable progress, and that it will
probably be completed before the next meeting of the British
Association in 1841. They further report, that 360/. have been:
426 REPORT—1840.
already paid for computations, and about 701. for printing and
other expenses, making a total of about 430/. out of the original
grant of 5007. As this balance of 70/. will not be sufficient to
complete the work, the Committee request that it may be ex-
tended to 150/., which, they hope, will meet every expense.
Tue Committee appointed to superintend the reduction of the
stars in the Histoire Céleste, report—
That about 33,000 stars have been already reduced, the cost
of which has been 412/., exclusive of about 52/. for printing
skeleton forms for the use of the computer. They further re-
port, that there are about 16,000 more stars to be reduced, the
cost of which will be about 200/. more. As the original grant
will not cover the whole of this expense, (there being only about
351. remaining out of that grant,) the Committee suggest the
propriety of extending the grant, for the ensuing year, to the
200/. above mentioned, which, they trust, will complete the
work. Francis BAILy.
August 25, 1840.
Second Report of a Committee of the British Association, con-
sisting of Sir J. HERscue., Prof. WHEwE.L and Mr. Baty,
for revising the nomenclature of the Stars, appointed at
Newcastle, 1838.
Tue revision of the northern hemisphere and the constellations
visible in Europe has been continued by Mr. Baily, by carefully
tracing the just and most authentic limits of the existing and
recognised constellations, and by a careful examination of the
several stars, in the course of which many singular instances of
confusion and error in naming and placing have been detected.
This process, which involves an investigation of the history of
each star, and of the designations it has received from each of
its observers, and in the several catalogues in which it occurs,
is nearly complete, and may be considered as clearing the
ground for a systematic nomenclature of the northern stars, as
well as for an effective table of synonyms of each star.
In the southern hemisphere, or rather in those constellations
which are only visible to an observer in that hemisphere, Sir
John Herschel has continued and nearly completed a chart of
those stars only, and of all those stars which are distinctly visi-
ble to the naked eye in a clear night, in which chart each star
is represented of its true magnitude, according to a scale, in
which the total interval from the stars of the first magnitude to
the lowest inserted, in place of six degrees, is made to consist
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. A27
of eighteen, so as to subdivide each magnitude into three. The
final assignment of these magnitudes, resting on the collation
and inter-comparison of an extensive series of observations
made for that express purpose with the naked eye, occasionally
assisted by a common opera-glass, has been a work of much
time and labour, and is not yet quite completed. Nor till this
is accomplished, can any further progress be made in the re-
arrangement of the southern constellations, which, at present,
are in a state of great confusion.
A small part only of the grant of 50/., devoted by the Asso-
ciation to this object, has been expended; but the whole will,
no doubt, be required ; and your Committee, therefore, recom-
mend its continuance.
Signed, on the part of the Committee,
| J. F. W. Herscuet.
Report of a Committee for the reduction of Lacaille’s Stars in
the Celum Australe Stelliferum.
Tue reductions of all the stars in Lacaille’s Celum Australe
Stelliferum are finished, and Mr. Henderson’s assistant is at
present arranging the results in the form of a catalogue, which,
however, could not be completed in time for this meeting. The
completed portion, so far as finished, has been transmitted to
Mr. Baily, to be used in the construction of the new catalogue of
the Astronomical Society. No money has been spent during
ce year; but, of course, a renewal of the grant will be desira-
ble.
_ Signed, for the Committee, J. F. W. HerscueEt.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herscurt, Pro-
fessor Wuewe ., Professor Peacock, Professor Luoyp, and
Major Sasine, appointed to superintend the scientific co-
operation of the Association in the Researches relative to
Terrestrial Magnetism.
In consequence of the measures adopted as detailed in the last
report of this Committee, a very extensive system of magnetical
corresponding observations has been organized, embracing be-
tween thirty and forty stations in various and remote parts of
the globe, provided with magnetometers, and every requisite
instrument, and with observers, carefully selected, and compe-
tent to carry out at most, if not in all the stations, a complete
series of two hourly observations, day and night, during the
whole period of their remaining in activity, together with
monthly term-observations, at intervals of two minutes and a
428 REPORT—1840.
half. Of these observatories, that at Dublin, placed under the
immediate superintendence of Professor Lloyd, has been
equipped and provided for by the praiseworthy liberality and
public spirit of the University of that metropolis. Those at
Toronto, the Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena and Van Die-
men’s Land, as also the two itinerant observatories of the
Antarctic expedition, by the British Government; those of
Madras, Simla, Singapore and Bombay, by the Honourable
East India Company; to which are to be added ten stations in
Kuropean and Asiatic Russia, and one at Pekin, established
by Russia; two by Austria at Prague and Milan; two by the
Universities of Philadelphia and Cambridge in the United
States ; one by the French Government at Algiers; one by the
Prussian at Breslau; one by the Bavarian at Munich; one by
the Spanish at Cadiz; one by the Belgian at Brussels; one by
the Pacha of Egypt at Cairo; one by the Rajah of Travan-
core at Trevandrum in India; and one by the King of Oude
at Lucknow.
In addition to this list, it has recently also been determined
by the British Government (at the instance of the Royal So-
ciety) to provide for the performance of a series of correspond-
ing observations, both magnetic and meteorological, at the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich, under the able superintend-
ence of the Astronomer Royal. In Norway, negotiations, in
which M. Hansteen has taken an especial interest, have been
for some time carrying on for establishing an observatory of a
similar description at Hammerfest. A great number of mag-
netic and other instruments available for this service, it ap-
pears, have been left at Kaafiord by M. Gaymard, acting for
the “Commission Scientifique du Nord,” under the directions
of the French Ministry of the Marine, all which instruments,
through the efficient intervention of M. Arago, it is under-
stood, will be placed at the disposal of the observer or observers
who may be appointed to conduct the observations. To com-
plete the establishment, however, certain instruments, as well
as registry-books, &c. are still requisite. ‘The Council of the
Royal Society have undertaken to supply these from the Wol-
laston Donation Fund.
As regards the magnetic observatory at Breslau, under the
direction of M. Boguslawski, your Committee have to report,
that in order to secure the establishment of that station, and
to place it on an equal footing with the rest, certain instru-
ments, &c. required to be provided, for which no funds existed,
or could be made available on the spot, viz. a bifilar and a
vertical-force magnetometer, with the requisite reading-tele-
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 429
scope, and a set of registry-books. As, owing to the actual
circumstances of that observatory, there appeared no prospect
of these requisites being otherwise supplied,—as the station
appeared to your Committee a desirable one, and as M.
Boguslawski was willing and desirous to lend his aid to this
great combined operation, by taking on himself the laborious
duty of conducting the observations,—your Committee con-
ceived, that although possibly transgressing in some degree
the strict wording of their powers, they were only acting up to
their spirit in devoting a portion (185/.) of the funds placed at
‘their disposal, to supplying them at the expense of the Asso-
ciation. Unwilling to claim any privilege, or establish any
precedent for the smallest deviation from the strict literal in-
terpretation of a money grant, your Committee suggest to the
meeting the propriety of ratifying, by an express act of recog-
nition, the application of the above-mentioned sum. A letter
from M. Boguslawski, dated the 22nd July, 1840, announces
the safe arrival of the instruments and books in question, and
the consequent complete state of instrumental equipment of the
Breslau Observatory, expressing at the same time his sincere
thanks for the assistance accorded him.
By returns from the several stations authorized by the British
Government, so far as yet received, it appears that the observa-
tories at the Cape and at St. Helena might be expected to be
complete, and ready for reception of the instruments in July.
From Van Diemen’s Land no accounts have yet been received.
At Toronto, where the greatest delays and difficulties were to
be expected, and have been experienced, the observatory was
so far advanced at the date of Mr. Riddell’s last communica-
tion, as to leave no doubt of its completion in time for the regu-
lar observation of the August term. Meanwhile, in this, as at
the other stations, all observations practicable under the actual
circumstances of each, are made and regularly forwarded.
And here your Committee would especially call attention to the
extremely remarkable phenomena exhibited at Toronto on
the 29th and 30th May, when, by great good fortune, a most
superb Aurora appeared at the very time of the term-ob-
servations.* ‘The phenomena of this Aurora (which was re-
markable for the extent and frequency of the pulsating waves,
alluded to in that part of the report above cited, p. 47, re-
lating to this subject,) are very minutely and scientifically
described by Mr. Riddell. But what renders the occurrence
particularly interesting is the fact, that during the whole time
of the visible appearance of this Aurora, on the night from
* See table of the terms, Report of the Council of the Royal Society, p. 31.
430 REPORT—1840.
the 29th to the 30th, as well as for some hours previous,
while it might be presumed to be in progress, though ef-
faced by daylight, all the three magnetical instruments were
thrown into a state of continual and very extraordinary dis-
turbance. In fact, at 64 25™ in the morning of the 29th,
the disturbance in the magnetic declination during a single
minute of time carried the needle over 10! of arc; and during
the most brilliant part of the evening’s display (from 35 25™
Gott. M. T. to 45 35™,) the disturbances were such as to throw
the scales of both the vertical- and horizontal-force magnetome-
ters out of the field of view, and to produce a total change of
declination amounting to 1° 59’. It should also be remarked,
that the greatest and most sudden disturbances were coinci-
dent with great bursts of the auroral streamers. The corre-
spondence, or want of correspondence, of these deviations with
the perturbations of the magnetic elements observed in Europe,
and elsewhere, on the same day, cannot fail to prove of great
interest. Should it fortunately have happened that Captain
Ross has been able to observe. that term at Kerguelen’s Land,
which is not very far from the antipodes of Toronto, an indi-
cation will be afforded whether or not the electric streams pro-
ducing the Aurora are to be regarded as diverging from one
magnetic pole or region, and converging to another*.
Your Committee cannot conclude this report without con-
egratulating the Association, and the scientific world in general,
on the extensive interest inspired, and the vast range of obser-
vation consequently embraced by these operations, which, so far
as any accounts have hitherto reached them, appear to be so
far going on prosperously in all its parts, and to promise re-
sults fully answerable to every expectation of its promoters.
Neither would they feel justified in their own eyes, were they
to omit expressing their deep and grateful sense of the inde-
fatigable personal exertions of Major Sabine throughout the
whole of its progress, both in carrying on a most voluminous
correspondence, in ordering, arranging and dispatching in-
* In reference to the Aurora which had been seen at Toronto in Upper
Canada on the 29th of May, and to the magnetic perturbations by which its
appearance had been accompanied, the Astronomer-Royat stated, that the
term-day of the 29th and 30th of May had also been kept at the Royal Ob-
servatory at Greenwich; that an Aurora was seen there also on the 29th, and
that the disturbances of the declination magnetometer exceeded in amount any
which had been observed there on previous occasions. Not having brought
the observations with him, Mr. Airy could not state whether their comparison
with the curves of the Toronto Observatory, which Major Sabine had laid be-
fore the Section, would manifest an accordance between the disturbances at the
igs stations, a point of the highest interest as to the nature and extent of
these.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 431
struments, and facilitating, by constant attention and activity,
those innumerable details which are involved in a combination
so extensive,—a combination which, but for those exertions,
your Committee are fully of opinion, must have been greatly
wanting in that unity of design and cooperation which now so
eminently characterizes it.
Signed, on the part of the Committee,
J. F. W. Herscue.
Referring to the magnetical observatory at Breslau, men-
tioned in this report, Masor SaBine read the following letter
from its director, M. von Boguslawski, received since the
meeting had commenced.
Breslau, September 7, 1840.
My pear Sir,—I have the pleasure to inform you, that during the last
magnetic term, viz. on the 28th and 29th August, I have made observations
with the two magnetic instruments provided by the British Association. Not-
withstanding the Michaelmas Term of our University has began, I have suc-
ceeded in engaging and instructing a double number of observers sufficient to
place them at the declination magnetometer in the magnetic cabinet, as well as
at the horizontal, and at the vertical-force magnetometers in the great room of
the observatory. The observations hitherto made can, however, only be con-
sidered as observations of the magnetic variations, because there are several
masses of iron fixed in the buildings. The prospect of obtaining a separate
magnetic observatory being still distant, I feel myself highly indebted to Pro-
fessor Lloyd for the assistance his paper ‘“‘ On the Mutual Action of Permanent
Magnets, &c.” has afforded me. By these instructions I have succeeded in
effecting what at first seemed to be impossible, namely, to place the declination
magnetometer, the bifilar instrument, and the vertical-foree magnetometer, in the
same room of the present magnetic cabinet, and to put them in equilibrium. How
this is to be done by three small fixed subsidiary magnetic bars, I shall here-
after explain to Professor Lloyd; and if he agrees with me, all three instru-
ments will be placed in the magnetic cabinet at the next term.
However, I shall use for a declination magnetometer the second magnetic
bar received with the horizontal:force magnetometer, instead of the present bar
of four pounds, in order to obtain small correction-constants. I shall then ex-
pect with patience the establishment of a proper magnetic observatory, so as to
begin to make absolute and daily observations. Please to communicate this in
my name to the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow ; and have the
kindness to express to them my regret, that on account of the necessary ar-
rangements I have to make, I am prevented from accepting their honourable in-
vitation, and assisting at their instructive assembly.
(Signed) Henry von Bocustawskl,
Major Edward Sabine.
Major Sabine also presented to the Section, at the request
of M. Kupffer, Director-general of the magnetical observatories
of Russia, several copies of a report addressed by that gentle-
man to the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg,
entitled, “‘ Sur les Observatoires Magnétiques fondés par ordre
des Gouvernemens d’Angleterre et de Russie, sur plusieurs
432 REPORT—1840.
points de la surface terrestre.” In this report, the Russian
observatories, acting on the same system of observation, both
magnetical and meteor ological, as those of England, are enu-
merated as follows :—‘ Ba science doit au gouv ernement Russe,
et surtout 4 la protection puissante du ministre des finances,
M. le Comte Cancrine, et a l’incessante activité du chef de
l'état major du corps des ingénieurs des mines, M. le Général
Tcheffkine, V’établissement des stations magnétiques’ sui-
vantes :
Stations. Directeurs.
St. Pétersbourg M. Kurrrer, Directeur-Général.
Cathérinebourg M. Roscuxorr,
Barnaoll - - - - - - - M. Prance, 1* ¢ Ingénieursdes Mines.
Nertchinskk - - - - - = M. Praneg, 2eme
Kazan - - - - - - - - - M.Stimonorr,)] Directeurs des Observa-
Nikolaieff - - - - - - - - M. Kwnorre, toires Astronomiques.
Tiflis - - - - - M. Puitapetruine, Prof. au Gymnase.
Sitka (Céte N. O. eS I’ Amérique) MM. Homann et Fwanorr.
Helsingfors (Finland) - - - M. Nervanner, Prof. Extraor. a 1’Uni-
versité.
Pékin* (China) - - - - - - M. Gascuxevitscu, Membre de la Mis-
sion Ecclesiastique.”’
The copies of M. Kupffer’s report were accompanied by a
letter, expressing his regret that the necessary and pressing
duty of instructing the directors of the observatories, in regard
to the system to be pursued, prevented him from attending the
meeting of the British Association at Glasgow, which he had
otherwise intended to have done.
Report on the reduction of Meteorological Observations made
at the Equinoxes and Solstices, on the part of a Committee
appointed by the British Association at Newcastle, consisting
of Sir J. HERscHEL alone.
Sir J. HerscukEt, referring to his report of last year for the
reasons why the reduction of these observations was not imme-
diately commenced, reports further, that the same reasons de-
layed any effective commencement of the work until very lately ;
but that, owing to several wanting series of observations having
at length come to hand, so as to render the series for the years
1835-6-7-8 tolerably consecutive, at least, for several localities,
your Committee considered it advisable to wait no longer, but
proceed to work with the materials in hand. Accordingly, having
cast the plan of operations for the comparison and projection of
* A la station de Pékin nous aurons, si non autant d’observations que des
autres stations, au moins les observations les plus importantes.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 433
the barometric oscillations in those years, (to which, for the pre-
sent, your Committee propose to limit their proceedings, til] it
shall appear whether a further andmore complete comparison, in-
cluding the thermometric changes, and especially the correspond-
ence of the winds, seems likely to lead to any valuable conclu-
sions,) tbe reduction, arrangement and projection of the several
series of observations was confided to the able and zealous hands
of W. R. Birt, Esq., who is now actively employed in the ope-
ration, and who has enabled your Committee to lay before
the meeting, as specimens of the mode of proceedings, the tabu-
lation and projection of the observations made in the British
Isles in the year 1836, which are accordingly submitted for in-
spection.
In the discussion of these observations it has been found ad-
vantageous to divide the stations from which they have emanated
into groups, according to geographical proximity, the chief of
which are the group of the British Isles, that of the continent of
Kurope and the North American, South African and Indian
groups. Each of these groups is referred by applying the dif-
ferences of longitude to the times of observation to a central
station ; and the projected curves, in which the absciss# are the
mean times at that station, and palmate the reduced barometric
altitudes, exhibit at one view the correspondence or disagreement
of the barometric movements for all the stations of the group.
The numbers which serve for the projections are tabulated in
the skeleton forms annexed, which appear well adapted for ge-
neral adoption in such reductions, and of which, therefore, half
a dozen blank copies are annexed as specimens for such members
as may take an interest in the subject.
The projection of these curves is the first step in the process
of reduction contemplated ; and even in the very limited range
afforded by the specimens now presented, affords ground for in-
teresting remark. Thus, we see, that the march of the barcmeter
in the only two Irish stations which have furnished observations
(Markree and Limerick), while agreeing well with each other,
differs most decidedly from its ‘corresponding march in all the
English stations, which, on the other hand, offer a good corre-
spondence inter se. A letter from Mr. Birt on this subject is
annexed to the present report.
It would be premature at present to enter fully into the de-
tails of the further steps contemplated in these reductions, as
they will be, of necessity, materially influenced by the aspect
under which the subject shall present itself in its progress, and
especially by the discussion of one or two of the most complete
series, among which, thanks to American zeal and industry, the
1840. 2F
434 REPORT— 1840.
group including the United States promises to be the most promi-
nent.
Only a very trifling sum (under two pounds) has been hitherto
expended (for the printing, by Messrs. Stewart and Murray, of
the skeleton forms) out of the original grant of 100/.; but the
continuance of the grant will be required to meet the further re-
quisite expenses.
It is only justice to Mr. Birt to observe, that his part of the
work appears to be executed with great care and judgment.
(Signed) J. F. W. Herscue..
Mr. Birt’s Letter, alluded to in the above Report.
Metropolitan L. and S. Institution, September 3, 1840.
Dear S1r,—I herewith inclose the four sheets of curves mentioned in my
last, also the tables of reduced barometric readings from which they are pro-
jected. The curves of England and Ireland generally differ, in some cases con-
siderably, with the exception of those observed in December 18386, on which oc-
casion the similiarity between the Markree, Oxford, London, and Ashurst
curves especially, as their apices occur about the same hour, is interesting.
The occurrence of the apices of the Edinburgh, Halifax, and Oxford curves at
later periods, and in the order here mentioned, appears to indicate a progres-
sion of the barometric undulation from the north or north-east; and some of
the remaining sheets alse indicate a progressive movement.
I have not yet proceeded either to rounding off the curves, or to reading off
the altitudes on the hour-lines. In the first instance, the undulations only
which form the hourly observations assume a rising and falling in straight
lines, will probably require a gentle rounding, so that the summit should pass
through the point; for I see clearly, as you observed, that the points must not
be interfered with, on account of the similar flexures in different curves. Do
you consider any advantage would be gained from combining curves that are
evidently similar, so that means of those similar curves may be obtained from
similar altitudes above or below the mean-line, by bringing the apices and flex-
ures on the same vertical ordinates, allowing for difference of longitude?
The general dissimilarity of the curves obtained in Great Britain and Ireland,
has suggested this to me also, that in future observations of the kind, it would
be desirable to have the stations augmented, and, if possible, the observation
of a complete elevation and depression at each.
I hope you will receive the present sheets in good time for the meeting,
And remain, dear Sir,
Yours very respectfully,
W. R. Birt.
P.S.—In the Halifax curve of September, there are probably two errors. I
have accordingly left the curve incomplete.
The scale I have used is 1°5 of the larger divisions, equal -1 of an inch.
Sir John F. W. Herschel.
On the Temperature and Conducting Power of different Strata.
By Professor Forbes.
In this report, Professor Forbes gave the results of the ob-
servations made at Edinburgh during the year 1839, upon
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 435
thermometers sunk to depths of 3, 6, 12 and 24 French feet into
trap rock, pure loose sand, and sandstone. The details. for
the years 1837 and 1838 were laid before the British Asso-
ciation at Birmingham. Combining with these the observations
for 1839, Professor Forbes exhibited the curves derived from
the three years’ observations, and gave, in a tabular form, the
results for the three years, as follows:
Values of A (one of the constants in the formula used in con-
necting the results*).
In trap. In sand. In sandstone.
For 1837 ...... 1°164 ..00. = EARN’ ssisan' L076
LeaO raters Lie eesere bel tc ween LPL
1889) -senc.¢ POBG. caccasi 12182 a..4.0 F040
Values of B (the other constant).
In trap. In sand. In sandstone.
For 1837 eoecee —'0545 eoccce —*0440 eoscce —°0316
1838 ...... —‘O641 ...... —*O0517 ...... —°0345
1839 ...... —"0516 ...... —‘0498 ..... . —°0305
Variation reduced to 0°01 Centigrade.
In trap. In sand. In sandstone.
For 1837 ...... 58°1 feet . 72°2 feet . 97°3 feet.
1838 ..ccee 49°3 wees GIS ses. QI
BSG atten DOS: vovses OO7 OD acess OO
Velocity of propagation for one foot of depth.
In trap. In sand. In sandstone.
In 1837 ...... 7-5days. 71 days. 4°9 days.
1838 ..ocee GB cscves GB ceovee 3°6
1839 seevce 78 secece 2 ee ee6 46
Report on the Action of Osler’s Anemometer at Edinburgh.
I BEG to report, that Mr. Osler’s Anemometer has been erected
at Edinburgh, according to the desire expressed by the British
Association at Birmingham, and that the members of the Astro-
* The formula in the notation of M. Quetelet is
Log. A, = A + Bp
Where Ap» represents the Annual Range in centigrade degrees at a depth p in
French feet. A is the logarithm of the Superficial Range, and B is a constant
# the soil. The values of A and B are deduced from the Annual Ranges
alone.
determining the propagation downwards, and proportional to
DR os
436 REPORT—1840.
nomical Institution have afforded every facility for its erection,
and have removed their camera-obscura for that purpose.
Mr. Osler has furnished the instrument below prime-cost,
but I regret to say, that the unavoidable expenditure for put-
ting the instrument in working order, carriage, and placing
it in its present position, amounts to 31/.; so that the sum
of 60/., granted by the Association, has been exceeded by
112. I have, however, the satisfaction of stating, that the
Anemometer is now in complete work, under the superintend-
ence of Prof. Henderson and Mr. Wallace, of the Edinburgh
Observatory. J. D. Forses.
Glasgow, September 23, 1840.
On the part of a Committee appointed for the purpose of caus-
ing a plate to he engraved for printing paper ruled in squares,
Prof. Forbes reported,—
That the plate was engraved, and that the paper, 22 inches
by 26, and ruled in squares of one tenth of an inch, each tenth
line being stronger than the others, was ready for the service
of the members of the Association, at cost price, on application
to Messrs. Johnston, Engravers, Edinburgh.
Report on the Application of a Portion of the Sum of Fifty
Pounds, voted by the British Association at its Meeting at
Birmingham, in 1839, for Discussion of Tide Observations.
By the Rev. W. WHEWELL.
(With a Plate.)
A portion of this sum has been expended upon calculations,
having for their object to determine the effect of the moon’s de-
clination upon the tides. The determination of this correction
is attended with peculiar difficulties, and has hitherto been incom-
pletely effected. Thesedifficulties arise from this: that the moon’s
mean declination is different in different years, through a cycle
of eighteen years, the period of revolution of her nodes. The
inclination of her orbit to the equator varies from about 18° 20’,
its amount in 1829 and 1830, to 28° 40’, its amount in 1837
and 1838. Hence, if we attempt to determine the declination
correction (of height, for instance) by taking the difference of
the height from the mean height (allowance being made for
other corrections), we refer to a variable standard. Accordingly,
if we find from the observations the mean semimenstrual ine-
quality for the successive years, it will be different in conse-
quence of the different mean declinations in successive years ;
and it is only by taking a series of nine or more years that we
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 437
can obtain the absolute mean semimenstrual inequality, and
consequently the absolute correction for declination applicable
to all years alike. This being known to be the case, I was dis-
posed to take advantage of an opportunity which occurred of
discussing a series of several years’ tide observations, with a
view to the verifying in fact these theoretical features of the
correction tables, and determining the correction for declina-
tion. Mr. Dall, the Harbour Master at Leith, had made a se-
ries of tide observations, extending from 1827 to 1839, which I
had every reason to believe to be accurate; and Mr. Ross, of
the Hydrographer’s office, had, for his own satisfaction, begun
to arrange these observations, with a view to discussions rela-
tive to lunar declination and parallax. The latter gentleman
undertook, at my request, to conduct his discussion in such a
manner that it might bring into view such results as I have above
described. The arrangement and discussion of thirteen years’
observations of tides (involving the management of above 18,000
numbers given by observation, and double the number extracted
from tables,) was, of course, a business of very great labour and
time; but as this task was not originally suggested by the Bri-
tish Association, nor directed exclusively to objects pointed out
by it, I thought it my duty to confine my expenditure within a
sum very disproportionate to the magnitude of the labour. Mr.
Ross has been paid 20/. for his discussion of the above-men-
tioned heights, with a view to the declination correction. The
result of this discussion is very nearly what I had anticipated.
The semimenstrual lines taken for different years, differ by the
effect of the different mean declination. Thus the correct mean
of the height of high water for each hour of transit, is about
six inches less in 1837 than in 1829, and this difference is ba-
lanced by a difference in the declination correction which is to
be applied to this mean. The declination correction is greater
in 1837 than in 1829 for equal declinations. The difference,
however, is net constant, but increases with the declination,
which agrees with what the theory indicates. The curves which
express this correction, deviate considerably from each other at
the higher declinations. This result suggests an improved me-
thod of applying the declination correction to tide observations,
which, however, requires to be further considered and examined
before it can be confidently recommended: I mean, a method
of using a different semimenstrual inequality and different de-
clination correction for every different period of the moon’s
nodes. On this subject it may hereafter be possible to speak
more decidedly.
W. WaHEWELL,
438 REPORT— 1840,
Another portion of the sum placed at my disposal has been
expended upon calculations and operations performed by Mr.
Bunt. These calculations were in the first place directed to
the determination of the form of the curve of rise and fall of the
tides at Bristol. This determination was the more desirable,
inasmuch:as calculations were in progress at the Admiralty
(under my directions) for the purpose of determining the form
of the curve of the rise and fall at Liverpool and at Plymouth.
The results of these calculations have been laid before the Royal
Society, and are now printed by them in the Philosophical
Transactions, as the twelfth series of my Researches on the
Tides. The accompanying communication from Mr. Bunt con-
tains the result of his investigations on this subject. The thing
principally discussed was the displacement of the summit of the
curve of rise and fall; that is, the difference of the time of high
water actually observed, and the time obtained by bisecting the
interval between equal altitudes, before and after high water.
The main object was, to refer this displacement to its proper
argument. It was natural to suppose that it depended mainly
upon the height of the tidal wave, and, consequently, upon the
age of the moon; and hence would principally consist of a se-
mimenstrual inequality. But by the discussions, it appears
that there is, besides this fact, one which depends upon the
solar parallax, and also others. This would lead, as Mr. Bunt
remarks, to a suspicionthat meteorological causes are concerned
in producing the result ; the subject, however, is as yet not free
from difficulty. IT have also employed Mr. Bunt in other dis-
cussions, with a view to further improvements in our knowledge
of the laws of the tides, especially with reference to two points :
—the determination of the best anterior epoch, or period, at
which that anterior transit of the moon is to be assumed which
governs the tide :—and the solar corrections for parallax and
declination. The excellence of the Bristol observations made
with Mr. Bunt’s machine, and of his modes of discussing the
observations, induce me to believe that some progress may still
be made in this inquiry ; but the investigation is not yet com-
pleted. I have also taken the liberty of directing Mr. Bunt to
perform an operation not precisely included in the terms of
the grant made to me for the present year, but closely connected
with it, and forming an almost necessary sequel to a large ope-
ration performed at the expense of the Association in preceding
years ; I mean, a repetition of the levelling of a portion of the
level line in the neighbourhood of the recent landslip in Devon-
shire. The southern extremity of the line leveled from the
Bristol Channel to the English Channel is at Axmouth. When
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 439
the great landslip took place in that neighbourhood, it might
naturally be suspected that a part of the level line might be dis-
turbed. A moment’s reflection made this appear improbable,
since the movement seemed to be confined to the chalk and the
clay below it ; whereas the terminus of the level line was bedded
in the red marl. Still, if the movement of the ground were the
result of an earthquake, even the inferior strata might have been
slightly stirred; and this appeared to be exactly one of the
cases, the decision of which was contemplated in the project of
the level line. I therefore requested Mr. Bunt to repeat the
levelling of the line from the mark in the church tower, in the
village of Axmouth, down to the shore, where is the granite
block which forms the terminus of the line, a distance of six
sevenths of a mile. In July of the present year this operation
was performed (with the same instruments as before), and it ap-
peared that the mark in the church tower was above the mark
RepeeaerlGcle | hata yeti al Ll wie elo Tor BBR S eats
which in July 1838 had been found to be. . . 5°8805 feet.
The difference, one twenty-seventh of an inch, may be consi-
dered as a proof that there has been no sensible change. Mr.
Bunt also leveled from the granite block, about 230 yards, to
another bench mark eastwards, or towards the landslip, but
found no difference of any importance. The expense of this
operation, 10/., I have taken the liberty of including in the ac-
count for tide discussions.
W. WHEWELL.
“Dear Sir,
**I send you the results I have obtained from an elaborate
investigation of ten years’ observations of the ‘ Displacement
of Summit’ of the tide-gauge curves. The observed quan-
tities themselves being so small, seldom exceeding 5 or 6 mi-
nutes, I at first thought that they scarcely admitted of being
treated in a similar manner to the ordinary observations of
time and height, in which the corrections are gradually ob-
tained, by approximation. On further consideration, however,
I determined to try ; not knowing in what way to improve upon
my former results. I therefore drew on the sheets a new line
of observation (cutting off only the diurnalinequality), to avertical
scale of 3 times the size of my old one, which had always been
a scale of 40 min. per inch. ‘This afforded me sufficient size to
go to work, on my former principles of approximation, by
drawing in, on the line of observation, successive pencil curves
of semimenstrual inequality, lunar parallax, and declination,
and of solar correction, from the corrections first obtained,
440 REPORT—1840.
and arranging the residues (which would have been otherwise
too small), so as to improve the first corrections. The acci-
dental irregularities of the observations, being of course also
magnified, gave me a very irregular line to work from ; not-
withstanding which, I believe the attempt at improvement by
approximation has been as successful in this instance as it has
proved on former occasions.
“You will perceive that the curves of Lunar Declination
°
| a are almost exactly similar to the curves of Lunar Parallax
rel
{ * \ 3 the effects of the Jarger declinations agreeing with
those of the smailer parallaxes, and the curves crossing each
other at almost exactly the same nodal points, viz. 33" and 8235
of transit.
«There is not the same agreement between the solar curves of
declination and parallax ; yet it is observable that neither of
these pairs of curves produces a loop, as the lunar curves do ;
the curve of 22 (large) declinations, like that of 8!'-45 (small)
parallax, always keeping above the other, except at the hour of
84, where the curves touch, but do not cross.
“The points at the middle of each hour of transit were laid
down, without any alteration, from the differences of the two
parcels of observations, after taking theaverages. Thestraightness
of the axis is arbitrary.
“The magnitude of the corrections is quite as great as could
be expected from observations which do not themselves ave-
rage more than about five minutes.
‘The great difference of effects corresponding to the maximum
and minimum of solar parallax, would lead to a suspicion that
meteorological causes were concerned in producing them; the
maximum and minimum of solar parallax nearly coinciding with
midwinter and midsummer. Such causes cannot, however, ex-
plain the forms assumed by the curves corresponding with the
arrangements of the observations for the maxima and minima
of lunar parallax and declination; especially the former,
which is more clearly independent of weather or season. There
is also a diurnal inequality plainly to be seen in many parts of
the curve of observation, which cannot arise from merely local
or meteorological causes.
**T shall be very glad to know what you think of these curves,
and how they bear on the theory. I am quite satisfied that
they very nearly represent any agreement that exists between the
observations and the arguments to which they have been referred.
I shall also be glad to be informed of any results which you may
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 44]
have arrived at in the course of your own investigations of the
same subject.
*“T have also made some progress in the discussion of the
heights with a view to the determination of the best anterior
epoch, and to the solar correction. I have laid down the two
years’ observations made by means of my machine, but have
not obtained any of the correction curves as yet.
“« The two tide-gauges for the East Indies are very nearly com-
pleted. I have had a visit from another engineer officer in the
Company’s service, a Lieut. Ludlow, who stayed here three or
four days to study my machine. Lieut. Elliott has written to say
he intends coming again to Bristol, as soon as the new instru-
ments are finished, in order to make himself more perfectly ac-
quainted with all their details. Both these gentlemen expressed
themselves as being highly pleased with my tide-gauge. It has
been working now for more than seven months without the slight-
est derangement, or the loss of a single observation.
**T do not think that I mentioned to you the extraordinary tide
which occurred here in October, 1838, when the water in our
river rose to nearly 8 feet above its proper height, in consequence
of a hurricane, as shown by the adjacent heights of the series
of tides, from which it differs by that quantity, thus:
“TI am, dear Sir, yours very respectfully,
“THos. G. Bunt.”
“ Bristol, 27th Jan., 1840.”
On Waves.—By a Committee, consisting of Sir J. Robison
and J. 8S. Russell, Esq.
All the objects which had been confided to this Committee
having been fully accomplished, the report now presented was
to be considered as final. The objects originally committed to
them for investigation were—the Phenomena of Waves propa-
gated in Liquids; the connexion of these Phenomena with the
resistance of Liquids to the motion of Floating Bodies ; and the
nature of the connexion which subsists between the Tidal
Wave and Mr. Russell’s great solitary Wave of Translation.
Since the publication of their furmer report, the phenomena
of Waves had occupied the attention of eminent mathematicians,
who had endeavoured to deduce from first principles the curi-
442 REPORT—1840.
ous phenomena which the Committee had observed, so as to
reconcile theory with experiment. ‘The Astronomer Royal, Mr.
Green, and Professor Kelland, had all been engaged on the
subject; and the two latter had published memoirs in the
Transactions of Cambridge and Edinburgh, in which they had
succeeded in obtaining from analysis many of the very singular
results published in the former report of the Committee. There
still, however, remained difficulties which they had not been
able to conquer; but as Mr. Kelland was about to lay before
the Section his own investigations, it had become unnecessary
to include them in this report.
The subject which had chiefly engaged the Committee
during the last year, was the conclusion and discussion of ob-
servations on the Tidal Wave of the Frith of Forth. This
tidal wave presented some very singular features; and, for
the purpose of determining its phenomena with accuracy, a
standard line had been levelled with great accuracy, under
the direction of Mr. James Aden, C.E., and observations
made at a great number of stations, the rise and fall of the tide
being observed every five minutes. In this channel were ob-
served the singular phenomena of four tides, or two double
tides, every day; and, on some occasions, six tides, or two
triple tides were observed. ‘These had all been accurately
laid down from the levels; and it appeared that the top of
high water rose at Stirling to the height of sometimes as much
as ten feet above the level of the tides at Leith. The tides
were of this form:
J A, a common Tide-Wave.
D B, the Tide-Wave of Leith.
C, the Tide-Wave of Alloa.
D, Tide-Wave near Stirling.
0
Mr. Russell had formerly intimated his expectation that this
second tide was the great southern tide-wave of the English
>a a
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 443
Channel entering the Forth before the northern tide-wave,
coming round by the Shetland Islands, and afterwards ex-
aggerated,—first, by the dislocation of the wave, and next, by
the narrowing of the channel; and the velocities of these re-
spective waves appeared to be just what was necessary to this
effect. He had also found a similar appearance in the tide-
wave of the river Tay, which he attributed to the same cause.
These phenomena appeared to throw considerable light on the
mechanical constitution of tidal waves. It appeared that,
like the great wave of Translation, tidal waves could not only
meet and cover each other without losing their individuality, but
that they could also pass over each other when going in the
same direction.
That part of the duties of the Committee which related to
the connexion of the phenomena of waves with the resistance
of fluids to solids, had been devolved upon them under a sepa-
rate name, as the Committee on Forms of Vessels, and would be
reported by them under a separate head. The wave-form of
vessels, however, had been now proved to possess so many ad-
vantages, that its use seemed likely to become general, and
thus a great change would be effected in the naval architec-
ture.
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
Proressor JoHNstTon presented to this Section a portion of
his Report on Inerganic Chemistry, relating to the nature and
origin of Coal.
On the subject of the application to the Trustees of the British
Museum, for enlarged exhibitions in illustration of Recent
and Fossil Conchology*, the Marquis of Northampton re-
ported,—
That the Trustees of the British Museum had resolved, that a
commencement of such an arrangement should be made, and that
the duplicates of their fossil shells and other Invertebrata, should
be handed over to Mr. Gray, for the purpose of being arranged
with their recent analogous species and genera, where there are
any such.
On British Fossil Reptiles. By Professor Owen, F.R.S.
Pror. Owen reported,—That in order to complete his mate-
rials for the continuation of his Report on British Fossil Rep-
* Report for 1839, p. xxiii.
444 REPORT— 1840.
tites, he had inspected many considerable collections in differ-
ent parts of England, and collected abundance of new informa-
tion, which he fully expected to be able to digest into regular
order, so as to present a continuation of his report on the sub-
ject at the next meeting.
Mr. Stevenson’s teport on the relative Level of Land and
Sea was read.
NaruraAv Hisrory,
Ar the last Meeting of the British Association, a Committee
was appointed for procuring drawings illustrative of the Spe-
cies and their details of the Radiate Animals of the British
Islands, to accompany a Report of the state of our knowledge
of such Animals, and the sum of 50/. was placed at their dis-
vosal.
Respecting the state of our knowledge of two divisions of the
Radiate Animals, the Committee feel it unnecessary to furnish
any report, these departments being undertaken by individual
members of the Committee, whose researches are either pub-
lished, or are now in course of publication*. With regard to
the remaining portion, the Acalepha, they are persuaded it
cannot be effectually investigated and illustrated, except when
the artist and the naturalist are combined in the person of
one individual. ‘The Committee, therefore, after an expendi-
ture of only two pounds, now bring forward the drawings they
have ‘had prepared, and, for the reasons assigned, beg leave
to discontinue the further prosecution of the subject.
Tur Committee appointed at the last Meeting of the British
Association, for the investigation of the Marine Zoology of
Great Britain, by means of the dredge, lave to report the ex-
penditure of 152. out of the 50/. granted for that purpose. The
state of the weather, which prevented dredging in the open sea
during a great part of the summer, and the dittculty of obtain-
ing observations sufficiently precise in information respecting
species, have been the causes which have operated against
them, and caused the expenditure of so small a portion of the
grant. A series of queries, and printed formule to be filled up
with the results of the dredging excursions, were prepared and
* Johnston’s Zoophytes, and Forbes’s Echinodermata.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 445
distributed. A Sub-Committee, consisting of Mr. Thompson,
Mr. Ball and Mr. Forbes, examined a considerable portion of
the west coast of Ireland; Mr. Patterson undertook the exami-
nation of the north-east coast of the same country; and Mr.
Forbes dredged the coasts of the Isle of Man. The results of
these researches were very satisfactory, and the products in
every case carefully noted down in the printed formule. The
Committee recommend further researches, and propose that
the dredging-papers be laid by for the present, until a sufficient
amount of data be obtained to warrant the publication of a sum-
mary of their contents.
On the recommendation (a grant adopted in 1839) for en-
graving Skeleton Maps for recording the distribution of Plants
and Animals, the Committee reported at length the measures
they have taken for executing these maps, on certain prin-
ciples, believed to be of undoubted importance. They have
caused three maps to be prepared and lithographed, one of
the British Isles, and one of each hemisphere. The work was
entrusted to Mr. Nichol, the lithographer, under the superin-
tendence of Mr. Brand. This member of the Committee having
been for some time engaged in preparing tables or catalogues
for the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, which should include
a variety of topographical details, it was thought proper to
carry on both these plans together. On the maps, the details
chiefly sought to be given with fulness are the river and moun-
tain systems, the measures of the chief elevations, and important
lakes. The maps are not yet considered by the Committee,
though repeatedly revised, to be complete; but they recom-
mend that, after having been finally settled, copies should be
printed off, and sold at the lowest remunerating price to all who
may wish copies for natural history purposes. As an illustra-
tion of the way in which these maps may be usefully employed,
the Botanical Society of Edinburgh caused to be represented
in coloured outlines on their maps, from another stone, the ‘sec-
tions’ of the earth’s surface, which are an important part of the
system of arranging botanical information before alluded to.
The numbers being attached to the several sections on the
map so coloured, immediate reference can be made to the cata-
logue sheets which have been prepared for botanical registra-
tion by the Botanical Society. (Copies of the maps and cata-
logue sheets were presented to the meeting.)
446 REPORT— 1840.
STATISTICS.
Pror. Jounston reported the progress made by the Com-
mittee appointed at the Newcastle Meeting to inquire into the
Statistics of the Mining Districts.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
On the Forms of Vessels.—By a Committee, consisting of
Sir J. Robison, J. S. Russell, Esq., and James Smith, Esq.
On THE TRANSLATION OF FOREIGN SCIENTIFIC MEMorRs.
At the Meeting of the British Association at Newcastle in
1838, a Committee was appointed for the purpose of procuring
and publishing translations of foreign scientific memoirs, and a
sum of 100/. was placed at their disposal: and at the Meeting
at Birmingham in 1839, a further sum of 100/. was allotted for
the same object. The memoirs translated in the first year, under
the superintendence of the Committee, and at the expense of
the Association, were—
1. Remarks on the arrangement of magnetical observatories, and a descrip-
tion of the instruments to be placed in them (with one plate), by Weber.
2. Method to be pursued during the magnetical term-observations by
Gauss.
3. Extract from the daily observations of magnetical declination during three
years, at Gottingen, by Gauss.
4. Description of a small portable apparatus for measuring the absolute in-
tensity of terrestrial magnetism (with one plate), by Weber.
5. On the graphical representations of the magnetic term-observations (with
two plates), by Gauss.
6. On a new instrument for the direct observation of the changes of the
intensity in the horizontal portion of the terrestrial magnetic force, by Gauss.
7. On the arrangement and use of the bifilar magnetometer, by Weber.
For the translation and publication of these in Taylor’s Sci-
entific Memoirs, the first year’s grant of 100/. was paid to Mr.
Taylor.
In the present year, Ohm’s memoir, entitled “‘ The Galvanic
Circuit investigated mathematically,” has been translated at the
expense of the Association, and given to Mr. Taylor, for the
seventh and eighth numbers of the “‘ Scientific Memoirs.” The
Association have also paid for seven plates contained in the
seventh number, representing the lines of magnetic declination,
inclination and intensity computed by M. Gauss’s theory. The
sums paid for these plates and for the translation of Ohm’s
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES. 447
memoir, and the plate which accompanies it, amount to 63/.,
which is the whole charge for the present year. ‘The Committee
report that translations have been gratuitously presented to them
by Major Sabine, of the five undermentioned memoirs on mag-
netical instruments, and on subjects of prominent interest in
mathematical and physical science.
1. Gauss.—General theory of terrestrial magnetism.
2. Encke.—On the method of least squares.
3. Bessel.—On the determination of the axes of the elliptic spheriod of revo-
lution, which most nearly corresponds to the existing measurements of arcs of
the meridian.
4. Weber.—Description and use of a transportable magnetometer.
5. Bessel.—On the barometrical measurement of heights.
The Committee placed these translations in the hands of
Mr. Taylor, by whom they have been printed in the sixth, se-
venth and eighth numbers of the “Scientific Memoirs.” The
Committee further acknowledge the receipt of a translation of
Rudberg’s experiments ‘‘ On the expansion of Dry Air,” gra-
tuitously presented by Professor Miller, of Cambridge. This
translation has also been placed in Mr. Taylor’s hands, and
will make a part of the eighth number of the “ Scientific Me-
moirs.”
VARIETIES OF HUMAN RACE.
Queries respecting the Human Race, to be addressed to Tra-
vellers and others. Drawn up by a Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, appointed in
1839.
Ar the meeting of the British Association held at Birmingham,
Dr. Prichard read a paper ‘‘On the Extinction of some varieties
of the Human Race.” He pointed out instances in which
this extinction had already taken place to a great extent, and
showed that many races now existing are likely, at no distant
pei to be annihilated. He pointed out the irretrievable
oss which science must sustain, if so large a portion of the hu-
man race, counting by tribes instead of individuals, is suffered
to perish, before many interesting questions of a psychological,
physiological and philological character, as well as many histo-
rical facts in relation to them, have been investigated. Whence
he argued that science, as well as humanity, is interested in the
efforts which are made to rescue them, and to preserve from
oblivion many important details connected with them.
At the suggestion of the Natural Historical Section, to which
Dr. Prichard’s paper was read, the Association voted the sum of
448 REPORT—1840.
£5 to be expended in printing a set of queries to be addressed
to those who may travel or reside in parts of the globe inhabited
by the threatened races. A Committee was likewise appointed
by the same Section to prepare a list of such questions. The
following pages, to which the attention of travellers and others
js earnestly invited, have, in consequence, been produced. It is
right to observe, that whilst these questions have been in pre-
paration, the Ethnographical Society of Paris has printed a set
of questions on the same subject for the use of travellers. It has
been gratifying to perceive the general similarity between the
questions proposed by the French savans who compose that So-
ciety, and those which had been already prepared by the Com-
mittee; but the Committee is bound to acknowledge the assist-
ance which, in the completion of its task, it has derived from
the comprehensive character and general arrangement of the
Ethnographical Society’s list. The following queries might
have been considerably extended, and much might have been
added to explain the reasons and motives on which some of
them are founded. Such additions would, however, have in-
conveniently extended these pages, and, in part, have defeated
their object. The Committee has only further to express its
desire that the Association may continue its support to the in-
teresting subject of Ethnography, and that their fellow-mem-
bers will aid in bringing these queries under the notice of those
who may have it in their power to obtain replies. Britain, in
her extensive colonial possessions and commerce, and in the
number and intelligence of her naval officers, possesses unrivalled
facilities for the elucidation of the whole subject ; and it would
be a stain on her character, as well as a loss to humanity, were
she to allow herself to be left behind by other nations in this
inquiry.
It will be desirable, before giving direct answers to the ques-
tions proposed in the following list, that the traveller should
offer, in his own terms, a description of the particular group of
human beings, which he may have in view in drawing up his»
list of answers, seeing that the replies, however accurate and
replete with useful information, may fail in some particulars to
give a complete idea of the people to whom they relate.
Physical Characters.
1. State the general stature of the people, and confirm this
by some actual measurements. Measurement may be applied
to absolute height, and also to proportions, to be referred to in
subsequent queries. The weight of individuals, when ascer-
tainable, and extreme cases, as well as the average, will be in-
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 449
teresting. What may be the relative differences in stature and
dimensions, between males and females ?
2. Is there any prevailing disproportion between different
parts of the body? as, for example, in the size of the head, the
deficient or excessive development of upper or lower extremi-
ties.
3. What is the prevailing complexion? This should be ac-
curately defined, if possible, by illustrative and intelligent ex-
ample, such as by comparison with those whose colour is well
known. The colour of the hair should be stated, and its cha-
racter, whether fine or coarse, straight, curled, or woolly. The
colour and character of the eyes should likewise be described.
Is there, independently of want of cleanliness, any perceptible
peculiarity of odour?
4. The head is so important as distinctive of race, that particu-
lar attention must be paid to it. Is it round or elongated in
either direction, and what is the shape of the face, broad, oval,
lozenge-shaped, or of any other marked form? It will contri-
bute to facilitate the understanding of other descriptions, to
have sketches of several typical specimens. A profile, and also
a front view should be given. In the profile, particularly notice
the height and angle of the forehead, the situation of the meatus
auditorius, and the form of the posterior part of the head. It
will also be desirable to depict the external ear, so as to convey
the form and proportion of its several parts. The form of the
head may be minutely and accurately described by employing
the divisions and terms introduced by craniologists, and the
corresponding development of moral and intellectual character
should in conjunction be faithfully stated. So much of the
neck should be given with the profile as to show the setting on
of the head. The advance or recession of the chin, and the
character of the lips and nose, may likewise be given in profile.
The front view should exhibit the width of forehead, temples,
and cheek-bones, the direction of the eyes, and the width between
them : the dimensions of the mouth. When skulls can be col-
_ lected or examined, it would be desirable to give a view in an-
other direction, which may even be done, though with less ac-
curacy, from the living subject. It should be taken by looking
down upon the head from above, so as to give an idea of the
contour of the forehead, and the width of the skull across from
one parietal protuberance to the other.
5. State whether the bones of the skull are thick, thin, heavy,
or light. Is it common to find the frontal bone divided by a mid-
dle suture or not? Note the form of the outer orbitar process,
which sometimes forms part of a broad scalene triangle, with
1840. 26 :
450 REPORT—1840.
the vertex downwards. How are the frontal sinuses developed ?
Observe whether the ossa triquetra are frequent, or otherwise ;
whether there be frequent separation of the upper part of the
os occipitis ; the relative situation of the foramenmagnum. In
regard to the bones of the face, notice the position of the ossa
nasi and unguis ; the former sometimes meet nearly or quite
on the same plane, whilst, in others, they meet at an angle.
The former character is strongly marked in many African
skulls. State the form of the jaw-bone, shape of the chin, and
observe the angle of the jaw, the position and character of the
teeth, and their mode of wear; and if they have any practice
of modifying their form or appearance, let this be stated. The
malar bones have already been noticed, but they may require
a more minute description.
6. When the opportunity can be found, observe the number
of lumbar vertebre, since an additional one is said to be com-
mon in some tribes.
7. Give the length of the sternum as compared with the
whole trunk; and also some idea of the relative proportion
between the chest and the abdomen.
8. What is the character of the pelvis in both sexes, and
what is the form of the foot ?
9. The form of the scapula will also deserve attention, more
especially as regards its breadth and strength ; and the strength
or weakness of the clavicle should be noticed in connection
with it.
10. The internal organs, and blood-vessels will with greater
difficulty be subjected to examination ; but it may be well here
to remark, that varieties in these may prevail locally in connec-
tion with race.
N.B.—Peculiarities may exist, which cannot be anticipated in
queries, but which the observer will do well to notice amongst
his answers to anatomical questions.
11. Where a district obviously possesses two or more varieties
of the human race, note the typical characters of each in their
most distinct form, and indicate to what known groups or fami-
lies they may belong: give some idea of the proportion of each,
and state the result of their intermixture on physical and moral
character. When it can be ascertained, state how long inter-
mixture has existed, and of which the physical char acterstend
to predominate. It is to be observed, that this question does
not so much refer to the numerical strength or political ascend-
ency of any of the types, but to the greater or less physical
resemblance which the offspring may bear to the parents, and
what are the characters which they may appear to derive from
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 451
each: whether there is a marked difference arising from the father
or the mother belonging to one of the types in preference to an-
other ; also whether the mixed form resulting from such inter-
marriage is known to possess a permanent character, or after
a certain number of generations to incline to one or other of its
component types.
12. Any observation connected with these intermarriages,
relating to health, longevity, physical and intellectual character,
will be particularly interesting, as bringing light on a field
hitherto but little systematically investigated. Even when the
people appear to be nearly or quite free from intermixture,
their habits, in respect of intermarriage within larger or smaller
circles, and the corresponding physical characters of the peo-
ple, will be very interesting.
Language.
13. Do the natives speak a language already known to phi-
lologists, and if so, state what it is; and notice whether it ex-
hibit any dialectic peculiarities, as well as the modifications of
pronunciation and accentuation which it may offer. State also
the extent to which this dialect may be used, if limits can be
ascertained,
14. If the language be little if at all known, endeavour to
obtain a vocabulary as extensive as circumstances will allow,
and at least consisting of the numerals, the most common and
important substantives *, the pronouns in all persons and num-
bers, adjectives expressive of the commonest qualities, and, if
possible, a few verbs varied in time and person. The vocabu-
lary should be tested by the interrogation of different natives,
and more than one person should be engaged in taking it down
from their mouths, to avoid, as far as may be, errors arising
from peculiarities of utterance or defect of hearing. It is like-
wise of importance that the system of orthography be duly in-
dicated and strictly adhered to.
15. Endeavour to take down some piece of native composition,
such as the ordinary phrases employed in conversation, and any
other piece of prose which may be attainable ; and specimens
of metrical composition if such exist. Though these would be
of comparatively little use without translation, yet independently
of this some importance is to be attached to the metrical compo-
sitions if they have a national character and are widely diffused ;
and, in this case, it might be possible to express some of their
airs in musical characters. A specimen of known composition
translated into their language, may also be given, such as the
* The names of mountains, lakes, rivers, islands, &c,
262
452 REPORT—1840.
first chapter of Genesis, the fifteenth chapter of Luke’s Gospel,
and the Lord’s Prayer.
16. Endeavour to ascertain whether the language is exten-
sively spoken or understood, and whether there are different
languages spoken by men having similar physical characters
obviously connecting them as a race, or if differing somewhat
in this respect, inhabiting a particular geographical tract.
When such groups are said to possess different languages,
endeavour, as far as possible, to ascertain their number, the
sources whence each is derived, and the languages to which it
is allied; and also the circumstances, geographical or political,
which may account for these distinctions.
(For further information connected with the investigation
of languages, reference is made to a short essay on this subject
read to the Philological Society of London. ]
Individual and Family Life.
17. Are there any ceremonies connected with the birth of a
child? Is there any difference whether the child be male or
female ?
18. Does infanticide occur to any considerable extent, and
if it does, to what causes is it to be referred, want of affection,
deficient subsistence, or superstition ?
19. Are children exposed, and from what causes, whether
superstition, want of subsistence or other difficulties, or from
deformity, general infirmity, or other causes of aversion ?
20. What is the practice as to dressing and cradling children,
and are there any circumstances connected with it calculated
to modify their form ; for example, to compress the forehead,
as amongst the western Americans; to flatten the occiput,
as amongst most Americans, by the flat straight board to which
the child is attached; to occasion the lateral distortion of the
head, by allowing it to remain too long in one position on the
hand of the nurse, as amongst the inhabitants of the South Seas?
21. Are there any methods adopted, by which other parts of
the body may be affected, such as the turning in of the toes,
as amongst the North Americans; the modification of the whole
foot, as amongst the Chinese ?
22. How are the children educated, what are they taught,
and are any methods adopted to modify their character, such
as to implant courage, impatience of control, endurance of
pain and privation, or, on the contrary, submission, and to
what authorities, cowardice, artifice ?
23. Is there anything remarkable amongst the sports and
amusements of children, or in their infantile songs or tales ?
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 453
24. At what age does puberty take place?
25. What is the ordinary size of families, and are there any
large ones ?
26. Are births of more than one child common? What is
the proportion of the sexes at birth and among adults ?
27. Are the children easily reared ?
28. Is there any remarkable deficiency or perfection in any
of the senses? It is stated, that in some races sight is re-
markably keen, both for near and distant objects.
29. To what age do the females continue to bear children ?
and for what period are they in the habit of suckling them ?
30. What is the menstrual period, and what the time of
utero-gestation ?
31. Are there any ceremonies connected with any particular
period of life ?
32. Is chastity cultivated, or is it remarkably defective, and
are there any classes amongst the people of either sex by whom
it is remarkably cultivated, or the reverse, either generally or
on particular occasions ?
33. Are there any superstitions connected with this subject ?
34. What are the ceremonies and practices connected with
marriage ?
35. Is polygamy permitted and practised, and to what
extent ?
36. Is divorce tolerated, or frequent?
37. How are widows treated ?
38. What is the prevailing food of the people? Is it chiefly
animal or vegetable, and whence is it derived in the two king-
doms? Do they trust to what the bounty of nature provides,
or have they means of modifying or controlling production,
either in the cultivation of vegetables, or the rearing of animals ?
Describe their modes of cooking, and state the kinds of condi-
ment which may be employed. Do they reject any kinds of
aliment from scruple, or an idea of uncleanness? Have they
in use any kind of fermented or other form of exhilarating
liquor, and, if so, how is it obtained? What number of meals
do they make? and what is their capacity for temporary or sus-
tained exertion ?
39. Describe the kind of dress worn by the people, and the
materials employed in its formation. What are the differences
in the usages of the sexes in this respect? Are there special
dresses used for great occasions? and, if so, describe these, and
their modes of ornament. Does any practice of tattooing,
piercing, or otherwise modifying the person for the sake of
ornament, prevail amongst the people? N.B. Such modifica-
454 REPORT—1840.
tions not to be blended with other modifications used as signs
of mourning, &c.
40. Have the people any prevailing characteristic or remark-
able modes of amusement, such as dances and games exhibiting
agility, strength or skill?
41. Are games of chance known to the people, and is there a
strong passion for them ?
42. Do the people appear to be long- or short-lived? If any
cases of extreme old age can be ascertained, please to state
them. Such cases may sometimes be successfully ascertained
by reference to known events, as the previous visits of Euro-
peans to the country. Is there a marked difference between
the sexes in respect of longevity ?
43. What is the general treatment of the sick? Are they
cared for, or neglected? Are any diseases dreaded as conta-
gious, and how are such treated? Is there any medical treat-
ment adopted? Are there any superstitious or magical prac-
tices connected with the treatment of the sick? What are the
most prevailing forms of disease, whence derived, and to what
extent? Is there any endemic affection, such as goitre, pelagra,
plica, or the like? With what circumstances, situations, and
habits do they appear to be connected, and to what are they
referred by the people themselves ?
44, Where there are inferior animals associated with man,
do they exhibit any corresponding liability to, or exemption
from disease ?
45. Do entozoa prevail, and of what kind?
46. What is the method adopted for the disposal of the dead ? ?
Is it generally adhered to, or subject to variation ?
47. Are any implements, articles of clothing, or food, do.
sited with the dead ?
48. Is there any subsequent visitation of the dead, whether
they are disposed of separately, or in conjunction with other
bodies ?
49. What is the received idea respecting a future state? Does
this bear the character of transmigration, invisible existence
about their accustomed haunts, or removal to a distant abode?
Buildings and Monuments.
50. What are the kinds of habitations in use among the
people? Are they permanent or fixed? Do they consist of a
single apartment, or of several? Are the dwellings collected
into villages or towns, or are they scattered, and nearly or quite
single? If the former, describe any arrangement of them in
streets or otherwise which may be employed.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 455
51. Have any monuments been raised by the present inha-
bitants or their predecessors, and more especially such as relate
to religion or war? State their character, materials, and con-
struction. If they are still in use amongst the people, state
this object, even if they should be of the simplest construction,
and be little more than mounds or tumuli. If these monu-
ments are no longer in use, collect, as far as possible, the ideas
and traditions of the natives regarding them, and, if possible,
have them examined by excavation or otherwise, taking care to
deface and disturb them as little as possible.
52. In these researches be on the look out for the remains
of the skeletons of man or other animals, and, if discovered, let
them be preserved for comparison with those still in existence.
Works of .Art.
53. Let works of art, in metal, bone, or other materials, be
likewise sought and preserved, and their similarity to, or differ-
ence from implements at present in use amongst the people of
the district, or elsewhere, be noted.
54. When a people display their ingenuity by the extent or
variety of their works of art, it will not only be desirable to de-
scribe what these are, but also the materials of which they are
constructed, the modes in which these materials are obtained,
the preparation which they undergo when any is required, and
the instruments by which they are wrought. Such particulars
will not only throw light on the character and origin of the
people, but will, directly or indirectly, influence the commercial
relations which may be profitably entered into when commerce
alone is looked to. When colonization is contemplated, the
facts contained in the replies to these queries will point out the
mutual advantages which might be obtained by preserving, in-
stead of annihilating, the aboriginal population.
Domestic Animals.
Are there any domestic animals in the possession of the
people? Of what species are they? Whence do they appear
to have been derived, and to what variety do they belong ?
Have they degenerated or become otherwise modified? To
what uses are they applied ?
Government and Laws.
55. What is the form of government? Does it assume a
monarchical or democratic character, or does it rest with the
priests ?
56. Are the chiefs, whether of limited or absolute power,
elective or hereditary ?
456 REPORT—1840.
57. Is there any division of clans or castes?
a are the privileges enjoyed by or withheld from
these !
59. What care is taken to keep them distinct, and with what
effect on the physical and moral character of each ?
60. What laws exist among the people? How are they
preserved? Are they generally known, or confided to the me-
mory of a chosen set of persons? What are their opinions and
regulations in reference to property, and especially the occu-
pation and possession of the soil? Does the practice of hiring
labourers exist among them ?
61. Have they any knowledge or tradition of a legislator, to
whom the formation of laws is ascribed ?
62. Do they rescind, add to, or modify their laws? and
how?
63. Are they careful in the observance of them?
64. What are their modes of enforcing obedience, and of
proving and punishing delinquency ?
65. How are judges constituted? Do their trials take place
at stated periods, and in public?
66. How do they keep prisoners in custody, and treat
them ?
67. What are the crimes taken cognizance of by the laws ?
Is there gradation or commutation of punishment ?
Geography and Statistics.
68. Briefly state the geographical limits and character of the
region inhabited by the people to whom the replies relate.
69. State approximatively the number of inhabitants. As this
is an important, but very difficult question, it may not be amiss
to point out the modes in which the numbers may be ascer-
tained. The people themselves may state their number with
more or less accuracy, but it should be known whether they
refer to all ranks and ages, or merely comprehend adult males,
who may be mustered for war, or other general purpose re-
quiring their combination. In this case state the apparent
proportion between adult males and other members of families.
The number of habitations in a particular settlement may be
counted, and some idea of the average numbers of a family
be given. Where the people inhabit the water-side, the num-
ber and dimensions of their craft may be taken, and some idea
of the proportion between the number of these and of the indi-
viduals belonging to them, may be formed. In drawing con-
clusions from observations of this kind, it will be necessary to
have due regard to the different degrees of density or rarity in
which, from various causes, population may be placed.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 457
70. Has the number of inhabitants sensibly varied, and
within what period ?
71. If it have diminished, state the causes; such as sick-
ness, starvation, war, and emigration. When these causes re-
quire explanation, please to give it. If the inhabitants are on
the increase, is this the result of the easy and favourable cir-
cumstances of the people causing an excess of births over
deaths; or is it to be assigned to any cause tending to bring
accessions from other quarters? State whether such causes
are of long standing, or recent.
72. Is the population generally living in a manner to which
they have been long accustomed, or have new relations with
other people, and consequently new customs and practices, been
introduced ?
73. If the people, being uncivilized, have come under the in-
fluence of the civilized, state to what people the latter belong,
how they are regarded, and what is the kind of influence they
are producing*. State the points of their good influence, if any,
and those of an opposite character, as the introduction of dis-
eases, vices, wars, want of independence, &c.
74. Is there any tendency to the union of races? how is it
exhibited, and to what extent?
Social Relations.
75. What kind of relationship, by written treaty or other-
wise, subsists between the nation and other nations, civilized or
not? Have they any intercourse by sea with other countries ?
Do any of them understand any European Janguage? Or are
there interpreters, by whom they can communicate with them ?
76. Are they peaceable, or addicted to war? Have they
any forms of declaring war, or making peace? What is their
mode of warfare, either by sea or land? their weapons and
strategy? What do they do with the slain, and with prisoners?
Have they any mode of commemorating victories by monuments,
hieroglyphics, or preservation of individual trophies, and of
what kind? Have they any national poems, sagas, or tradi-
tions respecting their origin and history? Where Europeans
have introduced fire-arms, ascertain the modes of warfare which
have given place to them.
State whatever particulars respecting their origin and history
are derived, either from traditions among themselves or from
other sources.
* This question will comprise the existence of missions—the success or the
want of it from causes connected with missionaries themselves or others.
458 REPORT—1840.
Religion, Superstitions, &c.
77. Are tne people addicted to religious observances, or
generally regardless of them ?
78. Do they adopt the idea of one great and presiding Spirit,
or are they polytheists ?
79. If polytheism exist, what are the names, attributes, and
fables connected with their deities, and what are the modes in
which devotion is paid to each? Are any parts of the body
held sacred, or the reverse? Do they offer sacrifices, and are
they of an expiatory character, or mere gifts ?
80. Have they any sacred days or periods? fixed or move-
able feasts, or religious ceremonies of any kind, or any form of
thanksgiving or other observance connected with seasons ?
81. Have they any order of priests; and if so, are they here-
ditary, elective, or determined by any particular circumstance ?
82. Is the religion of the people similar to that of any other
people, neighbouring or remote? If different, are they widely
so, or dependent on particular modifications, and of what kind?
83. In what light do they regard the religion and deities of
neighbouring tribes ?
84. Is there any idea of an inferior order of spirits and ima-
ginary beings,—such as ghosts, fairies, brownies, and goblins ;
and how are they described ?
85. Have they any notions of magic, witchcraft, or second
sight ?
"36. What ideas are entertained respecting the heavenly bodies?
Have they any distinction of stars, or constellations? and if
so, what names do they give them, and what do these names
signify ?
87. Are they in any manner observed with reference to the
division of the year, and how ?
88. If time is not divided by observations of those bodies,
what other mode is adopted? and do observances connected
with them rest with the priests or chiefs ?
89. When the traveller, by personal acquaintance with the
language, or by means of competent assistance from interpret-
ers, can freely converse with the people, it will be desirable
that he should form some idea of their amount of intelligence,
their tone of mind with regard to social relations, as respects
freedom, independence, or subserviency, and their recognition
of moral obligations, and any other psychological character
which observation may detect ; and more especially such as
may contribute to an estimation of the probable results of efforts
to develope and improve the character.
NOTICES
AND
ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS
TO THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
AT THE
GLASGOW MEETING, AUGUST 1840.
ADVERTISEMENT.
Tue Eprrors of the following Notices consider themselves respon-
sible only for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are
abstracted.
CONTENTS.
—_———_
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
’ Dr. Forses on the mean Apsidal Angle of the Moon’s Orbit ............
Professor NicHox’s Account of the Observatory erecting near Glasgow
Professor Arry on a New Apparent Polarity of Light ..................00.
Sir Davip BrewsTER on Professor Powell’s Measures of the Indices
of Refraction for the lines G and H in the Spectrum ..............00008
——_—— on the Decomposition of Glass .............esee0ees
on the Rings of Polarized Light pee in
specimens of Decomposed Glass .........:sesessscnssteseeetersueceesseusceas
on the Cause of the Increase of Colour ‘by the
Mawersion) ofthe sead fot kas asics Soeaw cn oomands Seandeenan Datileiniinneeerens
on the Phenomena and Cause of Muscz Volitantes
on the Line of Visible Direction along the Axis of
on the Camera Obscura, and other Apparatus,
used in making Daguerreotype Drawings ...........sccecscsssscscseeseees
——— — Ona Method of Illuminating Microscopic Objects
On an Improvement in the Polarizing Microscope
Col. Rerp’s Letter to Sir David Brewster ..........cececsssssceeesersesescees
Mr. Bowman on a remarkable Rainbow .........csessssecsevsescsccesedaces
Rey. J. FisHer on remarkable Rainbows .........ssecscecscsceceeecsesescees
Mr. A. Bexu on a new case of Interference ........sssccscsecsercevecscesecs
Dr. JosepH RAD on the Iriscope .............sssececesscscececessvesessseees
Professor Powe. on an Experiment of Interference ...............0ee008
on a point in the Wave-Theory as applied to Heat.
Professor KELLAND on the Conduction of Heat ............csceeesesseeees
Mr. Eaton Hopexrnson on the Temperature of the Earth in the deep
Mines in the neighbourhood of Manchester ............sscecsececececeeee
Professor Jacoz1 on the Principles of Electro-Magnetical Machines ...
Mr. C. J. Kennepy on the Theory of Electricity ...............scceceeesees
Dr. Lamont’s Account of the Magnetic Observatory of Munich ......
on a general statement of the System of Meteorological
Observations carried on in Bavaria .........scscececscesscncscecstececececees
Mr. Caupecort’s Notice accompanying a Series of Meteorological Ob-
servations made at Trevandrum ........ssecsseececscesescececenseasececsaens
Dr. ANDERSON on the Dew-Poinit ............ccscecssvescesccecccevccessessces
Mr. Granam Hurcuinson on a Method of Prognosticating the proba-
ble mean Temperature of the several Winter Months from that of cor-
responding Months in the preceding Summer ............ Sevesslcesasaes
Professor Forses on Excessive Falls of Rain..... en eeeans dakirataane. oueese
Mr. Joun Puiiuips’s new Experimental Researches on Rain... eek eteeteer
Mr. G. A. Rowe.t on the Formation of Rain .......... dadvadsaacaceaneees
—— on the Cause of the Aurora, &.......csscesccessseceees
iv CONTENTS.
Mr. Witu1am Baxp’s Observations on the Tides in the Harbour of
Glasgow, and the Velocity of the Tidal Wave in the Estuary of the
River Clyde, between Glasgow and Port Glasgow .........ssseeeeeeeenees
Rev. Professor KELLAND on the Theory of Waves..........sesesseserererers
Mr. Suanp on the Agency of Sound ............scceeeesereeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeens
Mr. Granam ona Method of approximating to the Value of the Roots
of Numerical Equations.......-..+-ssecsseesseeeeeeeeseeerseeeressessseasensenes
Mr. Perstes on the Expressibility of the Roots of Algebraic Equations
Mr. Fowxer’s new Calculating Machine .........s.secessncnenereneeeneweues
Mr. Watsu on a Mode of solving Cubic Equations ............seseeeeeeee
Mr. Wiii1aM Hoyue’s new Logarithmic Calculations and Views ......
Mr. P. MacFaruane on a new Construction of Barometer.........+.++++
Mr. Espy on the four daily Fluctuations of the Barometer .......++.++.+.
Dr. ANDERSON on the Meteorology of Perth..........ssssecseeeeeeesenseens
CHEMISTRY.
Professor Toomas THomson on the most important Chemical Manufac-
tures carried on in Glasgow and the neighbourhood .........+.sesseeee
on the Minerals in the Neighbourhood of
Glasgow ....csesseceeeccnreeccuseesaneeseusessoeesenesscesaessaeneceeeseesansceuens
Dr. ScHAFHAEUTL on the Relation of Form to Chemical Composition
—_—_—_ on anew Compound of Arsenious and Sulphuric Acids
—____———— on a new Method of Photogenic Drawing ...........-
Professor Lresic on Poisons, Contagions, and Miasms ........++++s0ee
Professor Gregory on the Pre-existence of Urea in Uric Acid .........
—_______——- on a. new Process for preparing Murexide............
on the Preparation of Alloxan, Alloxantine, Thio-
nurate of Ammonia, Uramile, and Murexide ............csseeceeseseeeeees
Dr. R. W. Giover’s Process for preparing Hydrobromic and Hydrio-
dic. AGIOS. «cisssaeiccwacteacn vacacnanecsaidimadesWaisee pen Genes Jalan de abesucnmeemes
Professor ANDREW Bucuanan on a Method of separating, by Filtra-
tion, the Coagulable Lymph from Liquid Human Blood ...............
Professor REDTENBACHER and Dr. Varrentrapp on the Constitution
and Products of the Distillation of Fat Bodies .........s.sseseeeeeeeeeees
Dr. L. Puayrarr on a New Fat Acid .......ccccesescscsscseeeecsceccssesesees
Professor BuNsEN on a New Mode of estimating Nitrogen in Organic
Analysis ...ccecceeneseseeeeseeseesenanneeseesecessaeeeeeeesenenaraanneesseseeeaeas
~_————— on the Compound or Radical called Kakody] .........
Dr. Erruine on the Identity of Spiroilous and Saliculous Acid .........
Dr. Mour on a New Method of preparing Morphia and its Salts ......
Professor FREDERICK PENNY on the Action of Nitric Acid on the Chlo-
rates, lodates, and Bromates of Potassa and Soda...........+ssss+sseee0s
—_—_ on a New Salt obtained from Iodine and Caus-
PIG SOMA. cccckacunaanaaqsascinicnminnaaindinla drlannelus sance Rtei mele MSls kiaiciet ose Sees
Mr. ArtHuR Connex’s Additional Observations on the Voltaic De-
composition of Alcohol .......sssessssseeeeeseseeeeeseeseeesererseneeeeeeannnens
Professor JOHNSTON ON RESINS .......cscecsececseeececnecedecneasenerseeeeoens
on the Resin of Sarcocolla ......ccsssceseseseeeeeeeee
on some Varieties of Peat.......s.sesceeseereseeneeee
Dr. CiarK on a Mode of Detecting Minute Portions of Arsenic.........
Dr. R. D. THomson on the Tests for Sulphuric Acid when thrown on
the (Pershore gscdanaaanhn seins ave lle sinila «nl scbabbideeuatedeantes hlaedstch URC ssi casted
Mr. E. Sotzy on Bleaching Vegetable Wax .......csscccseeesscseeseenereees
CONTENTS.
Mr. SturGEon on a peculiar Class of Voltaic Phenomena ...............
Mr. M‘Grecor’s Experiments on Carbonic Acid thrown off from the
MMPIA EN sak ceits daca eee Rial wilds set bib aieeiule aclcWeu's boas Seleuebwancu Gels. atasnaelee = tse
Mr. ALEXANDER Bryson’s Description of a New Instrument for Mea-
suring the Refractive Power of Minute Bodies .........scsscseeeseeeeeees
Mr. J. J. Grirrin on a New Method of Crystallographic Notation ...
GEOLOGY.
Mr. J. Crate on the Coal Formation of the West of Scotland ..........
Mr. A. C. Ramsay’s Notes taken during the Surveys for the Construc-
tion of the Geological Model Maps and Sections of the Island of Arran
Mr. James Smiru’s Observations on the Superficial Beds in the Neigh-
Dourheod: of Glasgow: :ssscssssssicsasscecdivcvecdssdeceesecsecdedeccscdeceecwae
Mr. Witi1am Keir on the Geology of Castle Hill, Ardrossan ..........
Rev. J. M. Fisuer on the Granite Formations of Newabbey, in Galloway
Mr. D. Mrune on Earthquakes in Scotland ..........c.cececeeecscececeeeeee
Mr. J. A. Knipz on the Sandstone of the Vale of Solway, and the For-
mation of the Closeburn Basin, Nithsdale, Dumfries-shire ............
Mr.Rovertick Impey Murcuison on the Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone
Mr. Jamus Yartss’s Account of the Footsteps of extinct Animals ob-
served in a Quarry in Rathbone-street, Liverpool ...............ececeeees
Mr. J. E. Bowman on the great development of the Upper Silurian
Formation in the Vale of Llangollen, North Wales, and on a Plateau
of Igneous Rocks on the East Flank of the Berwyn range...............
Mr. Wiii1am Sanpers’s Account of a Raised Sea-beach at Woodspring-
hill, near Bristol ......c.csccccccevecesccesnes POSS HORE ERO CE Sone CA EEEE SER ASaInAS
Rev. Davip Wiuuiams on the Older Strata of Devonshire ...............
Mr. Epwarp Forses on a Pleistocene Tract in the Isle of Man, and
the relations of its Fauna to that of the neighbouring Sea ........... see
Mr. Ropericx Impry Murcuison and M. E. pr VerneviL on the
Stratified Deposits which occupy the Northern and Central Regions
OM RUSSIOL ssisceesseesaseseccrasestetc’ BS Fhe a SS ed ee
Mr. R. GrirritH on the Yellow Sandstone, and other points of the
Geolemy: of Lreland jsssisens. teaeeetssudiesec ves covers. deveceverssesedvecteess
Mr. Cuarues Lyext on the occurrence of two Species of Shells of the
genus Conus, in the Lias, or Inferior Oolite near Caen, in N ormandy
—__——_— on ancient Sea Cliffs and Needles in the Chalk of
the Valley of the Seine in Normandy ..............ccccccsceececescesesenees
Professor Acassiz on Glaciers and Boulders in Switzerland
Capt. BappELzEy on the Geology and Mineralogy of Canada ............
Mr.James Rogs’s Remarks upon certain Geological Features of theRiver
St. John in New Brunswick, with an account of the Falls upwards
from the Sea, which occur near its Embouchure in the Bay of F undy
Mr. James Smiru on the Geology of Madeira
Mr. Grorce GarpNER on the Geology and Fossil Fishes of North
PEAZIN sce ewancassnsne Sateaeans sekiguacitg sein seeee see Radi uuncuatehsauenssunseteces
Mr. J. L. B. Isporson on the Daguerreotype, as applied to the Drawing
PPMMMIEIR NG ces aca claitci Laciaeanon s dager ade esate Asuna MO ER AG hence kc ec ce nee
Mr. G. H. FratHersTonHaveGH on the Geography of New Brunswick
Sir J. E. ALExanpErR’s Outline of Three Expeditions which might be
undertaken to explore portions of the interior of Africa
Rev. Dr. E. Roprnson’s Additional Notes on the Wadi el ’Arabah in Syria
M. A. Ravenstet1n’s Observations on Relief Maps .............ceceeceeees
fe ecceresses
eee eet e reese eeesceses
eee eeereesceeee
vi CONTENTS.
Mr. Mature Hamitton’s Observations on Great Earthquakes on the
West Coast of South America, particularly the great one of the 18th
of September, 1833, which destroyed the City of Tacna, and other
Places in Pert. .......scececeesceeeeereeeeees Rae cdsuesecadecdedundee dats eaeeaee tea
Mr. Jutius Jerrreys on the Solvent Power exercised by Water at
high temperatures on Siliceous Minerals ...........+4esseesee0e+ Pere nate
Mr. Wiuttam Batp’s Account of the Construction of the Models of the
Island of Achil, Clare Island, and the South-Western district of
Mayo, in Ireland ..........sscesseseseneeeeesessnceecnecceeneseaeerssanes eeeeee
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
Mr. Hueu E. Strickianp on the true Method of discovering the Na-
tural System in Zoology and Botany .......sss+sseeseseseceneeeseneeseenees
Professor Acassiz on the Development of the Fish in the Egg .........
Dr. Martin Barry on the First Changes consequent on Fecundation
in the Mammiferous Ovum, with special reference to a Communica-
tion ‘“‘ On the Development of the Fish in the Egg,”’ by Prof. Agassiz
Mr. W. Danson on the Alpaca ......sccecscsesececeenccseeseececcccscccsessees
Mr. G. T. Fox on the Subject of a Paper on the Structure of Whales,
read at the Birmingham Meeting ........sscsecescseececeeecesescecessevees
Dr. Macponatp on the Structure of Fishes, so far as the analogies can
be traced between the Limbs of the Mammals and the Fins of Fishes
Mr. James Wixson on the Salmon Fry.........-.++++ oceccenccscscscasoucnses
Dr. Lizars on the Organs of Sense in the Salmon .............+. anepdnwes
M. ScuomsurckK on the various Modes of Fishing employed by Indians
in the West of Guiana ..........scecececececececncscecececeescenssseerecseseees
Mr. James WILson on some Persian Insects .......+2+++++seeee Sue nsewseun
Mr. Joun Goopsir and Mr. E. Fores on Pelonaia, a new genus of
Ascidian Mollusca .......sccscecessssscsecececncnscscseescsescsseesscnseeuesesues
Sir Jonn G. Datyewu on the Regeneration of Lost Organs discharging
the Functions of the Head and Viscera, by the Holothuria and Am-
phitrite, two Marine Ambirigls "s.cccenatieeessascacencecacdsaane aden eeaaeeeee
Mr. Epwarp Forsss and Mr. Joun Goopsir’s further Researches on
the British Ciliograda .......se.s.sececeerecsececcsesceesececeseesecssece sake
Mr. R. PATTERSON On Medusa .....cscsececscccccecccececescccceccesctecees ai
Professor Acass1z on Animals found in Red Snow .....-.sesseeessenees eae
Dr. Epwin LanKEsTER’s Notice of Plants and Animals found in the
Sulphureous Waters of Yorkshire ......++.-+++ ce ccccdececesescnsanvesenaves
Dr. ALpripcE on the Pollen and Vegetable Impregnation ...... See
Dr. A. Burn on the Growth of Cotton in India ........+...++- wisealeelewaee
Mr. FEeLKIN on the Growth of Cotton .........esseseeeeees Seuss ccduepeaeenee
Dr. G. A. Watxer Arnorr’s Remarks on the Synonyms and Affinities
of some South African genera Of Platts .........-sssesesseeeeeseeseneeeeees
Professor Ross on an Anomalous Form of the Plum, observed in the
Gardens of New Brunswick ..........+- aut To cn ubite's oadexdtesecnosssnquneueeee
MEDICAL SCIENCE.
Dr. ALLEN THomson’s Account of some new Observations on the Struc-
ture of the Gastro-intestinal Mucous Membrane, and more particu-
larly of the Gastric and Intestinal Glands .......-..--++ aeeeeeeeet a mesenne
Dr. Joun Rerp on the Manner in which the Vital Actions are arrested
in Asphyxia ......00 doscssesbsossntosses soe tosapeb sucsscccebassearecsiesner enodas
Page
149
————> 2. SC
CONTENTS.
Dr. Joun Rerp on the Anatomical relation of the Blood-vessels of the
Mother to those of the Foetus in the Human Species........0-.seeeseeese
on the Anatomy of the Medulla Oblongata ...............
Dr. Sym on the Mechanical Functions of the Har .........seseceseseeesenees
Dr. Joun Rerp on the Connection between the Netvotts System and
Mascular Contractility .......... Beate maa nae gnc ceeecteccersescrecseecss
_ Mr. Georce Grover on Foreign Bodies in n the Chigalinene Sepaseagaeas
Dr. BucHannan on Fibrine of Human Blood .....0..2..2.sececesceeeeees se
Dr. N. Fowxer on some of the Functions of the Fifth Pair of Nerves,
and of the Ganglia, 8&C..........s.sssceseseessesceseeees Brice sera yaaa scnises
Dr. Rzzs on the Preservation of Subjects for Anatomical purposes......
Dr. Jerrreys on the Uses of the Conglobate Glands .,......sssssseeeeee
Dr. Patrick Newsieein on the Therapeutic Effect of Croton Oil in
certain Nervous Disorders ......0... ssscsecesssenseeeres SALLE SERRS SEARS Aas
Dr. J. R. Cormack on the Effects of Air when, Injected into the Veins
Dr. MAacDoNa nD on Mnemonics......csseecesececeecrsoecnscesescsecescrcaee
Dr. R..M. Guover on the Physiological and Medicinal Action of Bro-
Mine and its Compounds ......ceccececeecesceccrsccsscnnerecsecceesereeeseene
Dr. Hannan on the Treatment of Pertussis by Cold washing of the Chest
Dr. Perry on the Circumstances which govern Local Inflammation, the
effusion of Coagulable Lymph, and the formation of Pus, as the Se-
- quel of Disease, Accidents, Surgical Operations, &c. ...........-0+00s.
‘Dr. Macxay on the Chemical and Medicinal Properties of the Matias
Bark, which is employed in EEN South America, as a substi-
Putte Por, Cimchona 23.08 dark senvauevaascesecinavedcendisertyvescses ascccevecass
Dr. Perry on the Laws which govern Contagious Fevers, the circum-
stances which favour their diffusion, and the mode by which they are
communicated from one individual to another .........ceecsseseeseseeseee
Dr. Cuartes W. Beuu’s Notice of the Disease known by the name of
Malad? Aleppe..iasscaste gens .S-ceveseccqesrtseessne dueanencaes dadaagiataresns Ao
Mr. A, Ure on the Operation for ‘Squinting Ruane saneeeaaeiiated Sunsnsent ats
Mr. K. Macxay’s Description of a double Monocephalic Human Mon-
ster, which was transmitted to this country from South America ..
Dr. Lawrie on the Results of Amputations .......0.cscesccessssenseenecees
Dr.R. D. THomson on Opacity of the Cornea produced by Sulphuric Acid
Dr. H. Lonspaux’s Notice of an Ossified Tendo Achillis, and of a Case
Bi PRGSCOSIS: Sati 0csescacseeetu auc ndansd2iSscne5e- 0s cdacdins ashe spouses captedats
Mr. James Dovetason Dislocation of the Ankle-joint forward and back-
ward ; and on the Reproduction of Bone after the Operation of Trepan
Mr. Joun Dunn on the Vital Statistics of Scarborough ..................
STATISTICS.
Captain Mrixar on the State of Crime within Glasgow and City Police
Jurisdiction .........066 sae tFe sine euks erick ndesaue penwacse steams: bucseouseatae
Mr. Leapserrer on the Normal School of Glasgow dei BAe Ase sere
Mr. Auston on the Glasgow Asylum for the Blind .....0....ssscessseesees
Captain Mitiar’s Comparative View of the State of Crime in : London,
Dublin, and Glasgow ......... eevees
Mr. Warr on the comparative Vital Statistics of Edinburgh and Glasgow
Dr. Cowan on the Vital Statistics of Glasgow ............+ Sisbinaly tone sen
Dr. CLevanp on the cee. Trade and Commerce of the City of
Glasgow ........c.cc0eeee Gods tgaet eedehaien sped vivindiie heeds snecphcteddecsebvere
vil
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viii CONTENTS.
Mr. RuTuErG Len on the State of Crime within the Suburban Di-
PONG tases Nee ASR owes nese crac enna ne roeanaesane= aaceeser tonne sare naneeretes
Mr. Frxpiater on the State of Crime in the Suburban Burgh of
PRC ERIS eit tenon one ian saawelanecuast ganna: nade onrnaraaaaeer dammnemenen eee
Mr. RicHarpson on the State of Crime in ‘the District ‘of Gorbals “E02
The -MancHEsTER Statistical Society on the State of Education in
the Borough of Kingston-upon-Hull .........sssseeseeeeeereceeeeseeeneeees
Mr: Porter on Pawnbroking in Ireland, and on the beneficial results
which had followed from the establishment of a Mont de Piété, in
connexion with a Loan Fund, at Tanderagee ............csessceeeeeeee Mase
Mr. Leatuam on the Bill Circulation of Great Britain .............e0e++-
Mr. JosrpH BentLey on the State of Education and Crime in England
ani WV dlespenseenetasaee eoncresdecnecnteccscascaesecersnscarscecensceressa=nmeenee
Dr. CuaLMeErs on the Application of Statistics to Moral and CEconomic
LIGNE ae -ks semaanceaen «Saw tee Sees dean shinina stones Sanne ecedshaescss a aeauneriame =
—————— on the Pauperism of Glasgow ...........sesceececenseeeceeees
Dr. Avison’s Illustrations of the Practical Operations of the Scottish
System of the Management of the Poor .............00..scescsseseeseeecers
Dr. Atcorn on the excess of Population, and on Emigration as a
Remedy for it, in the Highlands of Scotland ...............ssseeceseeeeees
Mr. Witson on the Population of Scotland .........scecseecseesecerereceees
Professor ApRtAN on the Libraries of Germany ............ssseeeeeees camaiss
Rev. P. Caatmers on the Parish of Dunfermline ..............008 Sedge
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Mr. J. Scorr RussEevu on the Temperature of most effective conden-
Ration iH Steam VeSSCls Seeks -<6seganeeonotesh teasececcsassaravas~ aeaeeneeanee
Additional Notice concerning the most Econo-
mical and Effective Proportion of Engine Power to the Tonnage of the
Hull in Steam Vessels, and more especially in those designed for long
Voyages «.....ccccececesecccccaccscenecscscosccccorencescnecscncroucscasccsesences
Dr. Wiit1am WaLtiace’s Notice of Properties of the Catenary and
Curves of Equilibration, with Tables for their Construction, contained
in a Memoir entitled, “‘The Parallelogram Forces and Curves of
Equilibration ; together with Tables for their Construction, deduced
froma Functional’ Equation 2.5. 05i505c.60cc 522 cecsdscanscevesecessecnnoanees
Rev. J. Broprz on a New Mode of Propelling Fluids, or an uniformly
Propelling Wheel .........-sscsssescccssccscssocssccecscceveccescosssccees a8
Dr. Far@uHarson on the Strongest form of Sea-borne Vessels .........
Professor Gorpon on the Turbine Water-wheel .............2seeeeeeeeeees
Mr. Josep WuitwortH on producing True Planes or Surfaces on
Metals...5........00: cossne ees ae Se eee nee
Mr. Vienotes on the Giconomy of Railways in respect of Gradients
Mr. Wat ace on Extinguishing Fire in Steam Vessels ....... Beenatens wee
Mr. Vienoxes on Timber Bridges of a large size, in special reference to
Railways ..-.cccccccecesesse cocnsccsceccecees cecesceee ccersccsascccnccscscscnsnce
Mr. Hawkins on the Safety Rotation Railway......cccscsccscscscsssereees -
Mr. Mircuext on Timber Bridges, with reference to their Application
to the ceconomical construction of Railways ...+.ssssecsessscserssersceeee
Captain E. J. Jounson on the co wae: of Native Alloy for Com-
Pass PivOts ...cssecseeeeceeeeereesereeenerenees Sota sokewancocsesseouesepuscet
Mr. FarrBAIRN on the Fan- Blast as “applied to Furnaces sececcscccccess
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199
——— = ee
Pa ee.
— =e
CONTENTS.
Mr. Wituiams on the Combustion of Coal, and the Prevention of the
Generation of Smoke in Furnaces ............++. sah aaeenetesdngenansee+cas6
Mr. Farrsarrn’s Experimental Inquiry into the Strength of Iron with
respect to its Application as a substitute for Wood in Ship-building
Mr. Eaton Hopex1nson’s Experimental Researches into the Strength
of Pillars of Cast Iron, and other Materials ....... asseduderessecsasceusess
Mr. Loruian on a Revolving Balance ....... scanesweaoeauaeed Eottecneusesesese
Mr. Tuom on a Water Filter .4.......ece0e. Saaeeemaseae ies te Saeena ssa easaeve
Mr. Watcvace on a Smoke Protector ......sssessescessescecsecsees ed eelaans
Mr. Marrutas Dunn on an Improved Working Barrel for use in
PARMA MEALS OUCa's ssa dos cece den sdadesdspstesece ese oieopsassesanOesaiouerescuntcant
Mr. Rayners on a Machine Regulator ........ssscesecseeceeceeseneeeceneees
Mr. Suiru on the Drainage of Railway Embankments and Slopes ......
on Timber Bridges......... ARC Roghgpsnesdh sone. soenidartnccbosoate
on Propelling Boats on Canals ..........2.00+0+ aed cauerereraree nee
Mr. J. Hawkins on Mr. Bakewell’s Anglemeter ..........cseceseceeseneeee
Mr. Smitu on a New Canal Lock ............20000 sudduiteaneranavececencge
Mr. Farrparrn on Raising Water from Low Lands..............-sseeee00
Mr. Tuom on an Improved Rain Gauge......... Biase Ceapware cas scese re doses
Mr. James Jounston on a New Rain Gauge ..........2+00 spsibstehodeec:
Rey. Dr. Paterson on an Improved Life-Boat .........scessesersesseeeeeeee
Mr. Hawruorn on certain Improvements on Locomotive and other
Engine Boilers .........s000..- Beesare eee ee Nap encase our osea anv acaens swace eae
Mr. Grime on Wrought Iron Wheels for Locomotive Engines .........
Mr. Dircxs’s account of a Railway Wheel with Wood Tyre ......... eee
Mr. Coxzs on a new Step-Rail, and Railway re Sure Scognag ee
Mr. Lane on an Improvement on the Air Pump ...-..cssesecsseeeees densa
Mr. Guuuine on Safety-Valves for Steam Boilers.............:esseeesseees
Mr. James Mine on a Gas Regulator ......... peadenaa= Souseeeienee =p Senses
Mr. JEFFREY ona new Hydraulic Apparatus ......ssceseeee BRP SE Reson ASE
Mr. Ritcuiz on Warming and Ventilating Buildings .........00.+ssse000
Mr, Grime on Dennett’s Rockets for preserving Lives from Shipwreck
ix
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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS
TO THE SECTIONS.
MA'THEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
On the mean Apsidal Angle of the Moon's Orbit. By Dr. Forzss.
By limiting the terms in the expression of the integral equation to
the first four, viz. those depending on
cosc @ — a,cos20—2m042(,cos20—2m0+2B—Oc+a
or the evection, and cos 26—2m6+4% + cv — a, he derived the
number expressing the ratio of the apsidal angle to the whole circle,
and found it to be 00843; the result given in the Mécanique Céleste,
by Laplace, being the same. A decided influence was ascribed to
the inclination of the moon’s orbit to the ecliptic, and the corrections
that require to be made for it; also, to the value due to h, or the space
described by the radius vector in the unit of time, in the disturbed orbit,
compared with the same in the simple elliptic theory. The circum-
stance that this quantity may be so easily determined presents a beau-
_ tiful evidence of the law of gravitation, and of the truth of the New-
_ tonian theory, and may ‘be of material importance in the theory of the
moon.
An Account of the Observatory erecting near Glasgow. By Professor
NICHOL.
He stated that when he was appointed to the office he holds in the
University, the state of the Macfarlan Observatory gave him much anx-
iety, as in consequence of its age it was in nowise fitted to be of service
1840. B
2 REPORT—1840.
to astronomical science, nor did its site encourage any attempt to repair
it; but the strong desire existing both in the College and among the
citizens of Glasgow for the erection of a suitable establishment, speedily
relieved his embarrassment, and by the union of the two parties and
the patronage of Government, means were soon provided to accomplish
all good ends. The Professor then adverted at some length to the
principles on which the plan of the Institution was arranged. It was
his strong conviction, that although the repetition of the same observa-
tions at different observatories was to a certain extent necessary for the
elimination of errors, this had been much overdone, and time and labour
thereby lost. He was strengthened by the opinion of all the eminent
men with whom he corresponded, in his resolution not to enter in Glas-
gow on the line pursued with such brilliant success at Greenwich, Edin-
burgh, Armagh, &c., but to devote the new observatory to investiga-
tions which lay for the most part out of the way of these other establish-
ments, and which in the present state of astronomy are numerous and
important. It was a first point with him therefore to see to the provi-
sion of an efficient equatorial, and, if easily attainable, a large reflector.
Circumstances had hitherto prevented the completion of the arrange-
ments in reference to the equatorial, but these would soon be over-
come, and he could venture to promise an instrument of this kind of
first-rate power. He had obtained almost by accident two reflectors, by
Ramage, one of 25 focal feet length, to which he meant to affix Sir John
Herschel’s collimator, and another of 55 feet in length and 23 inches
diameter. This one was fit only for occasional observations, and he
did not in the mean time intend to attempt to give it more than a mere
meridional sweep. But although the instruments now referred to may
be the ones chiefly used in the researches to which the observatory
will in the first instance be devoted, a good meridian instrument was
clearly necessary, inasmuch as several of the inquiries about to en-
gage them depended upon the nicest determinations of this descrip-
tion. Accordingly, urged by the feeling that in so far as they could go,
every department of the institution should be equipped in the best
style, they ordered from Munich a transit circle, the telescope of
which is 8 feet focal length, and 64 inches diameter. The Professor
described this instrument at length from diagrams. He called particular
attention to the fact that it read by microscopes, and that as the circle
carrying the microscopes was not in the same place as the circle with
the graduated limb, the objection having reference to the hazard from
traction, forcibly urged by Professor Airy, was entirely obviated. The
Professor then stated that a magnetical observatory, with the three in-
struments, at which Gauss’s terms would be noted, was meant to be
attached to the other establishment, and that he hoped tobe able to pay
attention to some of the more important problems in meteorology. He
could not promise success, but this he could well promise, that his life
should be thoroughly and singly devoted—now that the means were
in his power—to the realization of objects of importance to astro-
nomy.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3
On a New Apparent Polarity of Light. By the AsTRONOMER RoyAL.
Sir David Brewster had, at the Liverpool and Newcastle Meetings,
stated a most extraordinary fact respecting the solar spectrum or
coloured image formed by the agency of a prism, when viewed through
thin plates of glass or mica. Most members of the Section were aware,
but to some it might be new, that the light in the solar spectrum could
be so managed as to be entirely free from all mutual intermixture or
jumble of different colours. When this was done, suppose this pure
spectrum to be so turned as that its violet end lay to the right hand and
the red end towards the left, and suppose the pupil of the eye to be half
covered by a thin piece of glass or mica—if the piece of glass or mica
be made to cover that half of the pupil which is towards the violet end
of the spectrum, numerous parallel bands are seen to cross the spec-
trum. This fact was long since observed by Mr. Talbot; but the
extraordinary fact observed by Sir D. Brewster was, that upon turning
the plate of mica so as to cover the half of the pupil next the red end
of the spectrum, all the bands completely disappeared. This fact ap-
peared so inexplicable to Sir David Brewster, that he pronounced it to
indicate a new and hitherto unobserved polarity of light. From this
opinion he ventured to dissent, and he should endeavour to explain to
the Section how complete a solution of the facts was afforded by the
undulatory theory of light. But before he proceeded, he must premise
that his own experience of the facts differed from that of Sir D. Brews-
ter, though so slightly, that the circumstances he deemed material
might readily be overlooked. He should only say that he had consulted
a friend respecting these discrepancies long before he was aware of
their important bearing on the explanation. The peculiarly short-
sighted character of his eye, was perhaps the occasion of their beco-
ming so perceptible to him. The tacts, as he observed them, were :—
1. When a spectrum is viewed out of focus, bands are formed by pla-
cing a piece of mica, of a proper thickness, so as to cover the half of
the pupil next the violet end. 2. No bands are formed with any
thickness of mica if it be placed on the side of the red end. 3. When
the eye is too distant to see the spectrum distinctly, upon moving the
mica from the violet end, bands are seen advancing in the same direc-
tion over the spectrum. 4. When the eye is too near to see the spec-
trum distinctly, the bands appear to move in the opposite direction.
5. If the eye be so far off, and the spectrum is consequently seen so
indistinctly, that the ruddy portions are nearly mingled with the blue,
upon covering with the mica half the pupil next the violet end, bands
are seen well-defined, but narrow. 6. If the eye and mica approach
the position of distinct vision of the spectrum, the bands become
broader, and near the position of distinct vision sometimes disappear ;
on approaching still nearer, the bands re-appear and become narrower,
but he thinks are not seen so distinctly as when the eye is too far off
(this may, however, depend on the practical difficulty of that part of
the experiment). 7. Bands which are visible when the mica is on the
violet side, and invisible when it is on the red side, never occur when
B2
4 REPORT—1840.
the spectrum is pure. 8. Bands are frequently visible when the spec-
trum is pure; but in that case they can be seen equally well, whether
the mica be placed on the violet or on the red half of the pupil. Mr.
Airy then gave a rapid sketch of the leading features of the undulatory
theory,—showed how a series of rays or a wave in passing through a
convex lens, being more retarded in passing through the middle of the
lens than through the edges, was bent so as to be convex to the lens
after passing through it, and thus was made to converge to a focus.
Next, if a thin plate of a transparent substance, like mica, were made
to cover half the lens, one half the waves were retarded; and thus,
when the lens represented the eye, and the place of the focus the
retina, interference was produced, which, when the distance of the
retardation bore a certain relation to the distance of two waves (or the
wave length), might obliterate the light altogether. Next, if a lumi-
nous point be looked at, it never is seen as a point, but as a small circle
of light; and if a retarding plate be interposed, under some circum-
stances bands or fringes parallel to the edge of the retarding plate are
generated in the circular image of the luminous point; and those bands
are not symmetrically arranged from the centre of the circular image;
and the amount of their deviation from symmetrical position depends
on the retardation of the ray in passing through the plate of mica,
&c. and therefore depends upon the colour of the ray, or upon its posi-
tion ina spectrum. Thus, if we examine the bands formed by different
kinds of light, similar to those from successive points in a spectrum,
the bands formed by these different kinds of light will be shifted suc-
cessively more and more to the right (or to the left as the case may be).
Now, if different luminous points be superimposed (as suppose points
of the different coloured lights contained in white or solar light), in
general it would be easily understood that the bands belonging to one
colour would fall unsymmetrically between the bands in the circular
image of another colour ; and thus if a multitude of them were super-
imposed, they would tend to obliterate each other. But if the luminous
origins of the different streams of coloured light did not coincide, but
were arranged side by side in the same order as the order of their suc-
cessive retardations by the mica, (which supposition is exactly repre-
sented by supposing the origins to be the successive points of a spec-
trum, formed either by refraction or by diffraction,) then it might
happen that the shift of the centre of each image, in proceeding from
one to the next, was exactly equal to the shift of the bands in relation
to the centre of the image; and if this shift took place in the proper
direction, the bands formed by the light from the different sources
would unite and would strengthen each other; but if the shift took
place in the opposite direction, the bands would be more widely sepa-
rated than before, and would obliterate each other. It resulted from a
mass of calculation to which he had subjected these conditions, that the
relation of the wave lengths of the different colours, in passing from
the violet to the red end, was such, that, under favourable circum-
stances, a retarding plate being made to cover the half of the eye next
the violet end, the bands came together, and so strengthened each
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5
other and became obvious to sense; but on turning the plate to the
red end, the bands separated and obliterated each other. Thus the
phenomenon became a simple consequence of the undulatory theory.
On Professor Powell’s Measures of the Indices of Refraction for the
lines G and H in the Spectrum. By Sir Davip BREwsTER.
After noticing the discussion between Professor Powell and himself
on this subject, the author drew attention to another demonstration of
the accuracy of his former statements. In the diagram No. I. he had
drawn the group of lines round G, which is a single line well marked in
the spectrum, and distinctly delineated in Fraunhofer’s map. ‘The real
line G is not situated in the middle of the group, but much nearer its
least refrangible side, and hence the index of refraction, as taken by
Prof. Powell from the middle of the group, must have a greater index
of refraction than the real line G, whose wave length in the interference
spectrum had been determined by Fraunhofer. In reference to the line H
the error is much more serious, as appeared from the diagram No. IL.,
in which Sir D. Brewster had represented the two remarkable bands in
the violet rays, the least refrangible of which is distinctly marked in
Fraunhofer’s map with the letter H. Between the central lines of
these two bands there are no fewer than fourteen lines in the same
map. All the observations made by Fraunhofer, both on the camera
spectrum and the interference spectrum, apply to the central line H of
the least refrangible of the two bands; but the observations of Prof.
Powell, to which the author referred at the Newcastle Meeting, were
all taken from an imaginary line bisecting the interval between these
two bands, and therefore were of no value as physical data for testing
the new theory of dispersion. Prof. Powell has recently given new
measures for the real lines G and H, thus admitting the accuracy of
Sir D. Brewster's former observations.
On the Decomposition of Glass. By Sir Davip BREwsTER.
The author has had occasion to examine the phenomena of de-
composed glass, both of that which is found in Italy, of which he
has received the finest specimens from Dr. Buckland and the Mar-
quis of Northampton, and of other specimens recently found in
making excavations among the ruins of the chapter-house of the
cathedral of St. Andrew’s. In decomposed glass the decomposition
commences in points, and extends itself either in planes so as to
form thin films, or in concentric coats so as to form concentric films.
When the centres of decomposition are near each other, the concen-
trie films or strata which they form interfere with each other, or ra-
ther unite, and the effect of this is that the glass is decomposed in films
of considerable irregularity, their surfaces having a finely mammillated
appearance, convex on one side and concave on the other. The films
6 REPORT—1840.
thus formed are of extreme beauty, and afford by transmitted light co-
lours of infinite beauty and variety, surpassing anything produced in
works of art. They have the effect of directing, as it were, the com-
pound surface of the solar spectrum, or of sifting and separating the
superimposed colours, in a manner analogous to what is produced by
colours and absorbing media. Sir D. Brewster has succeeded indeed
in producing one or more bands of white light incapable of decompo-
sition by the prism, and there can be no doubt that they will be found
to exercise a similar or an analogous action on the heating rings of the
thermometric spectrum. In the decomposed glass from St. Andrew's
a change of a very different kind is effected. In some cases the sili-
ceous and the metallic elements of the glass are separated in a very sin-
gular manner, the particles of silex having released themselves from the
state of constraint produced by fusion and subsequent cooling, and ar-
ranged themselves circularly round the centre of decomposition ; while
the metallic particles, which are opake, had done the same thing in cir-
cles alternating with the circles of the siliceous particles. This restora-
tion of the silex to its crystalline state is proved by its giving the co-
lour of polarized light, and possessing an axis of double refraction.
The preceding notice was illustrated by diagrams and specimens of
the different kinds of glass referred to.
On the Rings of Polarized Light produced in specimens of Decomposed
Glass. By Sir Davip BRewsTER.
In the course of a series of experiments on the connexion between
the absorption of light and the colours of thin plates, published in the
Phil. Trans., 1837, the author accidentally observed under the polar-
izing microscope certain phenomena of polarized tints, of great beauty
and singularity. These tints were sometimes linear and sometimes cir-
cular, and in some specimens they formed beautiful circular rings, tra-
versed by a black cross, resembling the phenomena of mineral crystals,
or those produced by rapidly cooled circular plates or cylinders of glass.
Having found in the decomposed glass from St. Andrew's that the sili-
ceous particles had resumed their position as regular crystals, and ar-
ranged themselves circularly round the centre of decomposition, he was
led to suppose that this was the cause of the phenomena, and that
the rings were the effect of the double refraction of the minute cry-
stals. A few experiments, however, overturned this hypothesis, and he
was soon satisfied, by a little further investigation, that the phenomena
arose wholly from the polarization of the transmitted light by refrac-
tion, the splendid colours being entirely those of thin plates, which
were sometimes arranged so as to have the appearance of concentric
rings. The structure by which these effects were produced was com-
pared by the author to a heap of very deep watch-glasses laid one above
another. When the thin films were arranged longitudinally, and were
inclined to the general surface of the plate, so as to transmit the rays ob-
liquely, the light was still polarized, but only in one plane, namely, a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7
plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence. When a drop of water
or oil was introduced between the films, the phenomena of polarization,
as well as of colour, instantly disappeared.
The preceding paper was illustrated by coloured drawings.
On the Cause of the Increase of Colour by the Inversion of the Head.
By Sir Daviv Brewster.
“Tt has been long known to artists and tourists that the colours of ex-
ternal objects, and particularly of natural scenery, are greatly aug-
mented by viewing them with the head bent down and looking back-
wards between the feet, that is, by the inversion of the head. The co-
lour of the western sky and the blue and purple tints of distant moun-
tain scenery are thus beautifully developed. The position of the head,
however, which I have described, is a very inconvenient one, but the ef-
fect may be produced nearly to the same extent by inverting the head so
far as to look at landscapes backwards beneath the thighs or under theleft
arm. It is not easy to describe in any precise language the degree of in-
crease which the colours of natural scenery thus receive, but an idea may
be formed of it from the fact, that the colours of distant mountains which
appear to me asif of a French-gray colour when viewed with the head
erect, appear of a brilliant blue or purple tint with the head inverted.
Upon inverting the landscape by reflexion I found that no increase of
colour took place. Ithen viewed the inverted landscape with the head
inverted and found the colour to be increased as before. Hence it ap-
pears that the increase of colour is not owing to the simple inversion
of the object and to our viewing it under unusual circumstances. That
the augmentation of tint is not owing to the impression falling upon a
part of the retina not so much accustomed to receive such impressions,
is obvious from the fact that the tint is the same upon whatever part of
the retina the image falls, and it is easy to see that the very same part
of the retina is affected whether we look at an object with the head up-
wards or downwards, or in any other position, provided we look at it
directly. In order to acquire some information on this subject, I re-
quested a friend who was unacquainted with any theoretical views that
had been advanced, to make some observations on the change of colour
of distant mountains. The result of these was to convince him that
the increase of tint arose from the protection of the eye from lateral
light, owing to the position of the head when inverted. On submitting
this opinion to examination, I found that the tint was not increased by
protecting the eye from lateral rays, even to a much greater extent than
is done by the inversion or inclination of the head, and therefore that
this could not be the cause of the increase of colour. In this perplexity
about the cause of the phenomenon in question, I had an opportunity
of observing the great increase of light which took place in an eye in a
state of inflammation. This increase was such that objects seen by the
sound eye appeared as if illuminated by twilight, while those seen by
the inflamed eye seemed as if they were illuminated by the direct rays
8 REPORT——1840.
of the sun. All coloured objects had the intensity of their colours
proportionably augmented, and I was thus led to believe that the in-
crease of colour produced by the partial or total inversion of the head
arose from the increased quantity of blood thrown into the vessels of the
eye-ball,— the increased pressure thus produced upon the retina, caused
from the increased sensibility thus given to the vertical membrane.
Subsequent observations have confirmed this opinion; and though I
cannot pretend to have demonstrated it, I have no hesitation in ex-
pressing it as my conviction that the apparent increase of tint to which
I have referred is not an optical but a physiological phenomenon. If
this is the case, we are furnished with a principle which may enable us
not only to appreciate faint tints which cannot otherwise be recognized ;
but to perceive small objects, which, with our best telescopes, might be
otherwise invisible.”
————- —_———-
On the Phenomena and Cause of Musce Volitantes. By Sir Davip
BREWSTER.
The following are the principal results described in detail in this
communication.—1. That in persons of all ages, and with the most
perfect eye, transparent filaments or tubes exist in the vitreous
humour, and at different distances from the retina. 2. That these
filaments float in the vitreous humour, moving about with the mo-
tion of the head. 3. That these filaments are seen by means of
their shadows on the retina, and are most distinctly visible in diver-
gent light, their shadows being bounded by fringes produced by dif-
fraction or inflexion. 4. That the real musce, resembling flies, are
knots tied, as it were, on these filaments, and arising from sudden
jerks or motions of the head, which cause the long floating filaments
to overtop and run into knots. 5. By making experiments with the
head in all positions, and determining the limits of the motions of the
musce, by measuring their apparent magnitude, and producing double
images of them by means of two centres of divergent light, the author
was able to determine their exact place in the vitreous humour, and to
ascertain the important fact, that the vitreous humour in the living
human eye is contained in cells of limited magnitude, which prevent
any bodies which they contain from passing into any of the adjacent
cells. Sir David Brewster concluded with the following observations.
“JT have dwelt thus Jong on the subject of Musce volitantes, not
only because it is an entirely new one, but also on account of its prac-
tical utility. Myr. Mackenzie informs us that few symptoms prove
so alarming to persons of a nervous habit or constitution as Musce
volitantes, and that they immediately suppose that they are about to
lose their sight by cataract or amaurosis. The details which I have
submitted to you prove that the Musce volitantes have no connexion
with either of these diseases, and are altogether harmless. This valu-
able result has been deduced from a recondite property of divergent
light, which has only been developed in our own day, and which might
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9
seem to have no bearing whatever of an utilitarian character. And this
is but one of numerous proofs which the progress of knowledge is daily
accumulating, that the most abstract, and apparently transcendent truths
in physical science will sooner or later add their tribute to supply
human wants and alleviate human sufferings. Nor has science per-
formed one of the least important of her functions, when she enables
us, either in our own case or in that of others, to dispel those anxieties
and fears which are the necessary offspring of ignorance and error.”
On the Line of Visible Direction along the Axis of Vision. By Sir
Davin BrewsTER.
In Monsieur D’Alembert’s Memoir “On Different Questions in
Optics,” published in his “‘ Opuscules Mathématiques,” tom. i., he has
maintained the singular opinion, that distant objects, like the fixed
stars, when viewed directly with both eyes, are not seen in their true
direction ; that is, neither in the direction of the rays which they send
to the eye, nor of the line (coincident with it) drawn from the point
of incidence in the retina through the centre of visible direction. The
author pointed out the fallacy in D’Alembert’s reasoning, and thus
established, in opposition to the opinion of that distinguished philoso-
pher, the law of visible direction, which he had explained at the New-
castle Meeting.
A Brief Account of the Camera Obscura, and other Apparatus, used in
making Daguerreotype Drawings. By Sir Davip BRrewsTER.
The author exhibited a very perfect apparatus, executed for him by
Mr. Thomas Davidson of Edinburgh, who has made some essential
improvements on the process. Sir David also exhibited several draw-
ings taken by Mr. Davidson with that apparatus, of various buildings
and scenes in Edinburgh. He likewise explained to the meeting the
method of executing Photogenic Drawings on paper, as invented by
Mr. Fox Talbot, and exhibited to the Section a series of very beauti-
_ ful drawings executed by Mr. Talbot himself, and presented to him
by that distinguished philosopher.
—— ——____
On a Method of Illuminating Microscopie Objects.
By Sir Davip Brewster.
Considering a perfect microscope as consisting of two parts, viz. an
_ illuminating apparatus, and a magnifying apparatus, the author stated,
|
that it was of more consequence that the illuminating apparatus should
be perfect, than that the magnifying apparatus should be so; and that
the essential part of his method consisted in this; that the rays which
form the illuminating image or disc shall have their foci exactly on the
10 REPORT—1840.
part of the microscopic object to be observed, so that the illuminating
rays may radiate, as it were, from the object, as if i¢ were self-luminous.
Now this can only be well obtained by illuminating with a singlelens, ora
system of lenses, without spherical or chromatic aberration, whose focal
length, either real or equivalent, is less than the focal length of the
object-glass of the microscope. The smaller the focal length of the
illuminating lens or system of lenses, the more completely do we secure
the condition that the illuminating rays shall not come to a focus either
before they reach the object, or after they have passed it. When Dr.
Wollaston recommended for an illuminating lens, one of three-fourths
of an inch in focal length, in which the microscopic object was placed
in a vortex of foci, where the rays crossed in a thousand points both
before and after they fell upon the object, he could have had no
idea of the new method of illumination. In the construction of a per-
fect microscope, Sir David Brewster recommended that the illumina-
ting and magnifying apparatus should have separate and similar move-
ments along the same rod or bar, and that the stage for the objects
should be unconnected with either, and should have also a motion
independent of both.
On an Improvement in the Polarizing Microscope.
By Sir Davip Brewster.
This improvement consists in placing the analysing prism or simple
rhomb immediately behind the object-glass, that is, on the side of the
object-glass next the eye. The great inconvenience of placing it be-
tween the eye-glass and the eye, had induced several skilful observers
to reject the prism altogether as an analyser, or to substitute for it a
plate of tourmaline, which is quite unfit for any observations in which
colour is to be considered. The analysing prism may remain constantly
on the microscope behind the object-glass, without in the least injuring
the performance of the microscope, and it should have a motion of |
rotation independent of the body of the microscope.
Extract of a Letter from Col. Rei to Sir D. Brewster.
Bermuda, August 17th, 1839.
Dear Sir,—I think the accompanying letter, which describes the singular ap-
pearance of the sun at Bermuda, which made white objects appear blue, cannot |
fail to interest you; and if you are able to explain the cause of this, I should |
be very glad if you would favour me with such explanation. The fact is one |
familiar to every one here; but I requested Dr. Harvey to put it in writing, /
expressing what he saw himself, that I might send the account to you. The
present collector of the customs at Bermuda was at sea on the 11th of August, the |
day the same hurricane was passing over St. Vincent; and to him and to the |
other persons on board, objects appeared, they thought, of a light green or
bluish green colour, and the sun had this same appearance. Their vessel was |
then fifteen miles east of Bermuda. ‘The hurricane reached Barbadoes a little |
before midnight on the 10th of August, 1831. /
‘
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ll
Three days ago I had a fine opportunity of observing a waterspout under
my house, and could, with a spy-glass, distinctly observe that, at the surface
of the sea, it was revolving like the hands of a watch, and the same observation
was made at a telegraph station near Government House. This is the fifth
account, well authenticated, in north latitude : all five revolved in the same way.
Bermuda, 5rd August, 1839.
Dear Si1r,—Not having made any notes at the time, I can only proceed to
narrate the circumstances, which occurred here in August, 1831, from memory.
On the 10th of that month the weather was remarkably fair, but as evening
drew near a change took place. The sky began to lower and put on an awful
aud gloomy appearance. The clouds collected voluminously and very heavily
in every direction over the island, indicating a prodigious fall of rain. At this
time I do not recollect any threatening of a storm of wind, save a moderately
hollow sound of the sea dashing against the shore, but by no means equalling
that which we frequently witness at this season of the year when a storm is
impending, or has passed by us. ‘Thunder and lightning began to be severe,
and the weather more threatening. Next morning, the I1th, I rose early, for
the purpose of writing, and soon discovered, the light was so dim, I could not
proceed. I removed to another room, and finding my situation not improved,
I said in the presence of one of my family, I apprehend a sudden fuilure of
sight. I was then asked if I had not observed a very peculiar appearance of
the sun’s rays the day before. 1 had not; but had perceived the floor of the
room to look blue, especially where the sun shone on it: indeed every object
in the room appeared of a sickly blue colour. The next day, the 12th, a mail-
boat was put under weigh for the first time, with a party on board. The day
was so mild and tranquil we could only reach a few miles; the sails, which
were new, and pure white, nevertheless appeared to be stained of a bluish
colour, and the sea was of a dingy yellow. On the first arrival from the West
Indies we heard of the devastation at Barbadoes; but with us there were no
subsequent unusual appearances; on the contrary, we had very fair weather,
although I heard this singular blue colour was observed even to the coast of
America.
(Signed) Avueustus Wm. Harvey, M.D.
Sir David Brewster, who communicated Col. Reid’s letter, observed,
that in the course of a series of experiments on the colour of mixed
plates, both as produced by the soft solids compressed between plates
of glass, and as exhibited in laminz of sulphate of lime, and other
minerals containing strata of minute cavities filled with fluids, he was
led to the opinion that the blue colour of the sun was produced in a
similar way by vapour or water in a vesicular state, interposed between
_ the sun and the observer. Owing to this cause, the sun may exhibit
any colour, and, in point of fact, he had once seen the sun of a bright
salmon colour, in which both red and yellow were mixed with the blue.
_ A similar effect is often produced when the sun is seen in a cold winter
morning through the windows of a carriage covered with hoar frost, or
when it is seen through vapour similarly deposited. Sir David referred
to observations of his own published in the Phil. Trans. for 1837, in
which he had shown that the colours of mixed plates were phenomena
of diffraction produced by the edges of transparent bodies separating
media of different density.
12 REPORT—1840.
On a remarkable Rainbow observed by Mr. Bowman. Communicated
by Sir Davip BRewsTER.
“ On Tuesday morning last, soon after sunrise, as the ‘ Commodore’
steamer, from Liverpool, was making her way up the estuary of the
Clyde, a very perfect and brilliant rainbow was observed by the pas-
sengers on deck, accompanied by a larger outer bow, with fainter re-
versed colours, as is not very unusual under the ordinary conditions of
rain and sunshine. Nearly in contact with the inner edge of the brighter,
or primary bow, were four distinct though smaller ones, parallel to and
equidistant from each other, not perfectly continuous, but formed of
interrupted segments of circles, the colours of each diminishing in in-
tensity, the faintest being the innermost. In all these minor bows the
red and orange were the only colours that were distinctly seen. ‘The
water being smooth, the reflexion from its surface was so strong that
the normal and secondary bows seemed to be continued below the ho-
rizontal line, bending inwards till they almost met and formed nearly~
two complete concentric circles, the reflected images being scarcely
less brilliant than the bows themselves. The rain drops were few,
though larger than ordinary, and the reflected image of the sun ap-
peared as a broad band of light on the smooth surface of the water,
scarcely less dazzling to the eye than his direct rays. (Above the sun
was a canopy of dark cloud, whose lower margin nearly touched his
upper limb, and was parallel to the horizon.) I first observed a faint
perpendicular light on the north side of the primary bow, and apparently
in contact with its outer margin, and as though diverging from it in a
tangent. By degrees this shot up higher, and acquired the prismatic
colours, which were clearly in the same order as in the primary bow,
though fainter. Shortly afterwards a similar tangent was seen on the
opposite side, in all respects corresponding, both extending upwards
to about the height of the large outer bow. My friend Dr. Black, of
Manchester, who was present, first suggested that the lengthened image
of the sun upon the smooth water might probably produce these up-
right lateral columns, the image in this case acting the part of the lu-
minary himself. We had soon an opportunity of testing the soundness
of this solution, for in a little time the upper limb of the sun came in
contact with the lower edge of the cloud, and as he very gradually dis-
appeared behind it the primary bow became fainter and fainter, till at
length it faded entirely away. But the upright lateral columns re-
mained, nay, for a short time appeared brighter and higher, and only
disappeared when the more complete obscuration of the sun destroyed
the reflexion of his light upon the water.”
On remarkable Rainbows. By the Rev. J. Fisuzr, M.A., of Rosebank,
Dumfries.
The observations were made on Monday, Ist of June, 1840, while
travelling by the coach from Glencairn Manse to Dumfries, nearly at
sunset (8 Pp. M.), the sun being bright and the sky only very partially
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13
clouded. “At first (observes the author), as we were passing over
an elevated part of the road, Killness, near New Bridge, a beautiful
rainbow was formed, remarkable for the width of its span, the elevation
of its arch, as the sun was then low, and also for its vivid colours;
still, as the sky became more overcast, the brilliancy of this primary
bow increased, and forthwith an upper bow also assumed distinct-
ness, and though the colours were indeed inverted, as having un-
dergone a double refraction and reflection, was almost as bright as
the under bow, and besides seemed more remote from it than I had
observed before in the formation of the two bows. No sooner were
these two distinctly formed, than a supplementary bow began to form
to each. But the phenomenon did not end here; for hardly had these
supplementary bows been formed, when there appeared within the arch
of the under bow, another, and another, and another, and so on toa
fifth, in rapid succession; there being now no less than five supple-
mentary bows clearly and distinctly formed; and in one part, particu-
larly where the shower above alluded to had been, though the rain had
then seemed almost to cease, I could trace the incipient stage of another
supplementary bow, but this only for a short space. The others, how-
ever, were distinctly formed throughout the whole arch, and the four
first especially, nearly as vivid as the under bow itself.
“Such was the appearance with regard to the under bow; but upon
reviewing the upper one, not only was there the first supplementary bow,
but also two others, clearly and distinctly formed throughout the whole
arch, and only diminished, as to size, distance, and vividness of colours,
as in the case of the first lower bows; only the spaces between each sup-
plementary bow belonging to the upper one, seemed larger than between
_ the supplementary bows belonging to the under one. And as in the
case of the under bow, its supplementary bows gradually diminished as
to the size of the arch and brightness of their colours, in a distinct ma-
thematical proportion; so also with regard to the upper bow, its sup-
plementary bows, vice versd, though they exhibited the exact arrange-
ment of prismatic colours, as did the primary bow to which they be-
longed, increased their arch over the heavens, diminishing at the same
time in width or distance from each other, as well as in the brilliancy
of their colours, in the same exact proportion. This whole phenomenon,
with ten distinct rainbows, and at one time part of the eleventh, stretch-
ing across the heavens, was indeed truly magnificent, and besides, took
in a much larger space than I had ever noticed before. The vale of
Nith may extend about nine or ten miles across, and in the case of these
bows, the one foot seemed near the Barhill, Inwald, and the other near
the White hill, Terregles. They first became visible as we were crossing
Killness, Ness, Holywood, and continued for nearly a mile without
much sensible alteration, only the arches ascending higher and higher
(till we arrived at Newton Lodge) as the sun descended. As we ap-
proached Dumfries some of the bows gradually disappeared, probably
from our having moved out of the proper angle of reflexion. Soon
after this the sun sunk below our sensible horizon, and finally showed
only the upper part of the larger arches.”
/
14 REPORT—1840.
On a new case of Interference. By A. BEL.
On the Iriscope. By Josern Reap, M.D.
After noticing the fact of the appearance of colours on plain glass
which has been washed and then breathed on, while breathing on the
same glass when perfectly dry yield only a gray vapour, the author
describes the following experiment.
“ Having procured a convex plate of black glass, such as that of a
perspective mirror, I smeared its surface with the top of my finger,
dipt in a strong solution of Castile soap and distilled water; when dry
I polished with a coarse towel until no clouds appeared ; I now breathed
on it through a glass tube about a foot long and one-third of an inch
diameter, when a beautiful series of concentric and variously coloured
rings were formed.”
The author then notices the analogy of the coloured rings thus ob-
tained with those of Nobili, procured by voltaic agency, and offers
remarks on the theory of the subject. An instrument constructed for
the purpose of experiment was exhibited.
On an Experiment of Interference. By Prof. Powerit.
The author refers to an experiment of Mr. Potter (in the Lond.
and Edinb. Journ. of Science, May 1840,) in which, under certain pe-
culiar conditions, the central stripe appears black, instead of white, as
required by theory, and in the ordinary form of the experiment. The
author repeated the experiment in the peculiar way proposed, but still
found the stripe in question white. His object was to bring it under
the notice of the Section, and induce others to examine the question,
especially by micrometrical measurements.
On a point in the Wave-Theory as applied to Heat.
By Prof. PowEtt.
According to M. Cauchy’s theory, the relation between the refract-
ive index and the wave-length is expressed by the formula
1 rAx|? wAx | 4
eae eee ey y |
and when A is very great, compared with Az, this expression is reduced
to its limiting value,
| her
—=P of, p= TE
This forms the limit of refraction for rays of all wave-lengths, whe-
ther of light or of heat. And as the value approaches this limit, consi-
derable changes in A will correspond only to small changes in p.
This deduction is obvious, and has been before made. The limit is
easily determined from Mr. Kelland’s calculation for all the media ex-
amined by Fraunhofer ; thus e. g. for flint-glass, No. 13, we have
FortherayB . . . . ¢B = 16277
For the limit. . . . . go =1°6090
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15
The present object is to remark the bearing of this point on the
theory of heat. If this theory be true, all refraction of heat ought to
fall within this limit, and probably a considerable portion of the heat-
ing rays would have an index not far removed from it. It will be parti-
cularly interesting to calculate it for rock-salt, and other diathermanous
media, and compare it with the index of the heating rays. The data
for rock-salt are given in Professor Powell’s report on Refractive In-
dices, British Association Reports, 1839.
This consideration also explains a difficulty which occurred to Prof.
Forbes, who in his Third Series of Researches (§ 2. No. 45—46),
having arrived at the conclusion that a wave of heat has a length nearly
three times that of red light, regards this as a startling inference, and
difficult to reconcile with the small difference existing between the in-
dex of refraction for heat and for light. This is just what should re-
sult in the above theory.
On the Conduction of Heat. By Professor KELLAND.
The author’s object in bringing forward this subject at the present
time, he explained to be, to point out the state of our experimental
knowledge of the transmission of heat, and to exhibit its total inade-
quacy to serve as the test of any precise and accurate theory. The
following is a brief sketch of the history of the subject. Little had
been done before the time of Lambert, who, in 1755, solved one of the
most simple problems. Afterwards appeared the writings of Euler.
But it was left for Fourier, at the commencement of the present cen-
tury, to exhibit a theory having about it the characters of truth, ade-
quacy, and extension. For along time Fourier’s memoir was known
only to a few, and, as it was based on the Newtonian hypothesis, that
radiation is proportional to the difference of the temperatures of the
radiating body and of the surrounding air, it happened that the
interval which elapsed between its production and its publication, to
a great extent destroyed its utility. In 1813 Dulong and Petit, by an
admirable series of experiments, established another law, taking the
indications of the air thermometer as the measure of temperature.
This law is, that the cooling of a body depends, not as Newton sup-
posed, on the difference of temperature of the body, and the space into
which it cools, but on the difference of exponential functions of the
temperatures. The difficulty of the appearance of this law deterred
philosophers from attempting its application to any but ove of the pro-
blems. This one was that of the ring. M. Libri read, in 1825, to the
Institute, and afterwards published at Florence and in Crelle’s Journal
in Germany, his analysis of this problem. No one appears to have
doubted the accuracy of this solution, until, in 1837, the author ex-
pressed his conviction that the whole was founded on an erroneous
hypothesis relative to the resulting equation. The following year M.
Liouville read a paper on the subject to the Institute, which he subse-
quently published in his own journal. In this paper he points out
16 REPORT—1840.
clearly the erroneousness of M. Libri’s solution, but does not propose
any other in its place. M. Liouville states in a note, that Professor
Kelland had preceded him in this matter, and promises to supply
a solution. Thus, then, one case of theory appears to be made out.
Last year the author again brought forward the subject of Dulong and
Petit’s law, but as experiments were wanting to give solidity to
his views, he reserved the publication of his Memoir to a future
time. The design of that paper (of which an abstract appeared in
the account of the proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh) is
this: to show that all the formule of Fourier are quite accurate
and applicable to physical phenomena. It will be observed that
Fourier conceives the external and internal flow of heat to vary
as the difference between two quantities, which he calls the tempera-
tures. This hypothesis is not consistent then with nature; but it is
not, therefore, altogether valueless; although the difference of tempe-
rature does not determine the flow of heat, it does not follow that the
difference of no other quantities does so. It is highly probable that
the flow of heat is due to the difference between some two things.
Now Dulong found that for external radiation, the flow of heat de-
pends on the difference of two exponential functions of the tempera-
ture. May it not, then, be the fact, that these exponentials, and not
the temperature as measured by the air thermometer, are the elements
by which nature proceeds ? Why should it be supposed that tempera-
ture has any explicit connexion with the matter? Why, in fine, should
we desire to retain our preconceived notions relative to internal trans-
mission, when we find another law holds for external radiation? The
author ventured on the hypothesis, then, that internal conduction fol-
lows the same law as external radiation, viz. that the flow of heat is
proportional, not to the difference of temperature, but to the difference
of two exponentials of the temperature. To obviate the confusion that
would be introduced into our language by such an hypothesis, he further
ventured to suggest that the term “ thermature” should be adopted
as the expression for this exponential function on which the flow of
heat depends. This thermature would be the real measure of caloric—
temperature of its effect on the thermometer. This quantity “ ther-
mature” is nothing else than Fourier’s v. All that remains, then, in
order to reduce the results of theory to those of experiment, is to sub-
stitute for v, on which theory is made to depend, its value in terms
of 6, the temperature as marked by experiment. It readily appears that
o=—ALL— a *). The author has tested this result by all the expe-
riments which he could find. But he regretted that a want of experi-
ments rendered it impossible to decide the matter, thus leaving the
theory of heat in a most precarious state, whilst its practical applications
are become so vastly important. He hoped by his comments to excite
some attention to the subject, especially among those who are labouring
in the kindred field of the theory of light*.
* Professor Kelland has undertaken, at the request of the General Commit-
tee, to draw up a report on this subject, to be presented to the Association.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17
On the Temperature of the Earth in the deep Mines in the neighbour-
hood of Manchester. By Eaton Hopcxtnson.
Mr. Hodgkinson having some years ago received from Professor
Phillips four thermometers belonging to the Association, was enabled,
through the kindness of the proprietors of the following pits, and
other parties connected with them, to institute experiments upon
the temperature of the earth in each of them. The salt rock pit,
112 yards deep, belonging to the Marston Salt Company, near North-
wich, Cheshire. The Haydock colliery, 201 yards deep, near to
Warrington. The Broad Oak coal mine, 329 yards deep, near to
Oldham. In the latter pit a thermometer placed in a hole three
feet deep, bored in “metal,” and closed at the aperture, was examined
weekly by Mr. Swain for twelve months, the temperature varying
from 57° to 582° Fahr., it being lowest from the beginning of Fe-
bruary to the middle of May, and highest in September and October
to the middle of November. The experiments above mentioned were
made in 1837 and 1838, and the results mentioned at the Birmingham
meeting ; but the Broad Oak pit having been increased in depth since
that time, a thermometer was inserted in it, ina hole bored in metal as
before. It was in a place 408 yards deep, and indicated a temperature
of 61°, remaining nearly constant for twelve months. Mr. Fitzgerald
being recently engaged in sinking a deep coal pit at Pendleton, two miles
from Manchester, Mr. Hodgkinson conceived this to be a favourable
opportunity for getting additional information on the subject of sub-
terranean temperature ; and, on his application to the proprietor, the
engineer, Mr. Ray, readily made for him, during the sinking of the
pit, and afterwards in the workings, the experiments of which the
results are below.
At 418 yards from the surface, the temperature, in a hole from three
to four feet deep bored in dry rock, was 66°; at 4.50 yards deep it was
67°, and at 480 yards it was 69°. In the workings, at 461 and 471
yards deep, it was in both cases 65°.
The mean temperature of the air at Manchester, according to Dr.
Dalton’s experiments, is 48° Fahr.; and as the pits above-mentioned
are not very far from Manchester, the mean temperature of the earth
at the surface of each of them, may be considered as 48°. With that sup-
position the distance sunk for each degree of Fahr. would be as below.
In the Rock pit 32 yards.
» Haydock coal pit 20 ~~,
» Broad Oak do. a? Bote ae ant
39 bb)
» Pendleton do. (shaft) 23-2 18
” 93°7 23°2 ” = mean.
22'8
2?
» Do. (in workings) piles re te
The mean from the whole being 27 yards for each degree of tempe-
rature.
1840. Cc
18 REPORT—1840.
On the Principles of Electro-Magnetical Machines.
By Prof. Jacos1, of St. Petersburgh.
I have the honour to present to the British Association an historical
sketch of the laws which regulate the action of electro-magnetic
machines, laws which will enable us to determine in a precise manner
the important question of the application of this remarkable force as a
moving power. Since the commencement of my labours, which had partly
a purely practical tendency, I proposed to myself to fill up as much as
possible the blank which still remained in our knowledge of electro-
magnetism. With the assistance of M. Lenz, I prosecuted the labours,
which were the more arduous as they had but few precedents in the
direction which I considered it necessary to follow, and we began to
examine carefully the laws of electro-magnets. The report, which
contains the results of our researches, was read in June 1838, before
the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburgh. I take the liberty of
repeating here, very briefly, the contents of this first report. The
problem which we sought to determine may be stated as follows: If a
nucleus of malleable iron and a voltaic battery of a certain surface is
given, into what number of elements should this surface be divided ?
what should be the thickness of the wire of’ the helix which surrounds
the nucleus ? and, lastly, what number of turns should this helix have,
in order to produce the greatest amount of magnetism? I will not
dilate here upon the manner in which we have proceeded, or upon the
degree of certainty which belongs to the laws established according to
our observations. I take the liberty of appending to this statement the
report in question, and will proceed to explain the particular laws: Ist.
The amount of magnetism engendered in malleable iron by galvanic
currents is in proportion to the force of those currents. 2ndly. The
thickness of the wire twisted into a helix, and surrounding a rod of
iron, is absolutely of no consequence, provided that the helix have the
same number of turns, and the current be of the same force. This law
extends also to the case in which ribbons of copper were employed
instead of wire. Nevertheless I must notice, that in order to obtain a
current of equal force, it is necessary to employ a voltaic apparatus of
greater force, if small wires which offer a greater resistance are employed.
3dly. If the current remain the same, the influence which the diameter
of the helix exercises may be neglected in the majority of practical
cases. 4thly. The total action of the electro-magnetic helix upon the
rod of iron, is equal to the sum of the effects produced by each coil
separately. Adopting these laws,and submitting them to calculation
according to the formula of M. Ohm, the importance of which formula
has but lately begun to be appreciated by some British philosophers,
we have established the formula which contains all the particular con-
ditions required to obtain the maximum amount of magnetism, which
may be expressed in the following extremely simple manner, viz. the
maximum of magnetism is always obtained when the total resistance of
the conducting wire, which forms the helix, is equal to the total resistance
of the pile. On referring to the remarkable law of the definite action
Oe ae Sit ile aaa
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19
of the galvanic current, established by Mr. Faraday, it is found that
the magnetism of malleable iron divided by the consumption of zinc,
—a quantity which we have called economic effect—is with reference
to the maximum of this magnetism, a constant, or an expression into
which neither the thickness of the wire nor the number of the elements
into which the total given surface of the battery is divided, enters, but
only the total thickness of the envelope.
Having finished these first researches, and having obtained these
results, which were highly satisfactory, not only for their simplicity,
but also for their practical value, we set about extending our inquiries
to iron rods of different dimensions. Is there, it may be asked, any
specific effect produced by the length or thickness of the nucleus ? or
does the degree of magnetism solely depend upon the construction of
the helix, and the force of the current? The solution of this new pro-
blem presents a greater difficulty than the problem which we had suc-
ceeded in completely solving. Now, we are obliged to take iron rods
of different dimensions, and consequently, in all probability of different
qualities. Similar conditions with reference to the action of the electro-
magnetic helices are likewise difficult to obtain ; and we soon perceived
that these circumstances rendered it impossible to attain so close an
accordance as that which we had obtained in our former observations.
Although these experiments were made two years ago, the results have
not yet been published, because, being occupied with other labours,
we have not been able to find the necessary time fur their reduction
and arrangement, and for the requisite calculations. Nevertheless I
take the liberty of presenting to the Section some results, which are
not devoid of interest, and which are intimately connected with the
question of electro-magnetic machines. We submitted nine cylinders of
malleable iron, each eight inches in length, and of different diameters,
from three inches down to one-third of an inch, to the action of a
voltaic current of the same force in each case, and we obtained the
amount of magnetic force represented in the following table :—
Diameter Magnetism Magnetism
of the rods. observed. calculated.
3 447 4.42
QL 378 376
2 308 310
1} 246 244
1 175 178
$ 158 156
3 142 135
3 112 113
z 87 91
This calculation has been made according to the formula m =
131°75 d + 46°75, in which the constants have been obtained by the
method of the least squares. The differences between calculation and
observation are not so large that they cannot be attributed to the
inevitable errors of observation, and to circumstances inherent in the
c2
20 REPORT—1840.
qualities of iron, &c. A similar agreement is found between other
observations, which we shall describe in the report itself. I think,
therefore, we may admit the following law, namely, that the amount of
magnetism received by different iron rods of the same length, and sub-
mitted to the influence of a current of the same force, is proportional to
the diameter of the rods. I must remark, that the constant which
we have added in the formula depends upon the magnetic influence
which the helix exercises, independently of the nucleus of iron
which it encloses. The practical consequences which may be de-
duced from this remarkable law are of considerable importance.
Among these, however, I will at present mention only the follow-
ing. Having found that the amount of magnetism is proportional to
the surface of the malleable iron, and taking into account the quan-
tity of iron employed in the electro-magnets, it is ascertained that it is
more advantageous to employ in the construction of electro-magnetic
machines, rods of small instead of large dimensions ; or rather hollow
iron, in accordance with my own experiments of 1837, which are found
in ‘ Taylor's Scientific Memoirs,’ vol. ii. &e. I cannot pass over in si-
lence the experiments of Prof. Barlow, who, as is well known, proved a
long time before that the induction of the terrestrial magnetism upon
malleable iron, depends only upon the surfaces, and is almost inde-
pendent of the thickness. In order to ascertain the law of electro-
magnets of different lengths, M. Lenz and I undertook numerous and
laborious observations, which were extended even to rods of thirteen
feet in length, and keeping in view at the same time the determination
of the particular distribution of magnetism in the rods. Among these
observations I shall only refer to such as seem most applicable to elec-
tro-magnetic machines, and which have yielded results as simple as
unexpected. The following table contains the results of some obser-
vations made with rods of the same diameter, but of different lengths,
covered with electro-magnetic helices, and influenced by a current of
the same force. M being the magnetism of the extremities, and 2 the
number of the coils of the helix, we have — = a, a formula according
n
to which we may calculate the numbers contained in the third column.
The numbers in the fourth column are deduced from a series of other
observations, made with the same helix of 960 turns, which did not
cover the whole length of the rods, but were collected at the extre-
mities only, where they occupied a space of about two inches in length.
The helices being the same in all the observations, it was only neces-
sary to divide the magnetism of the extremities by 960, in order to
find the numbers of this column.
a Oe
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21
Table of Experiments upon the Magnetic Forces of Rods of different lengths.
Mean value of one coil, | Mean value of one coil,
Length of | Number | if the helix occupies | if the helix occupies
the rods. | of coils. | the whole length. | only the extremities.
Sy 946 7°334 7°560
Q"5 789 6°993 7°264
2 634 7°402 6°871
1°5 474 7°880 7°491
1 315 7°847 7°573
0°5 163 7°766 7°691
7537 7°408
From these numbers it will be seen that the influence of one coil
of the helix is nearly the same for all the rods, and that their length
does not exercise any specific influence. It is only in proportion to
the number of the turns or revolutions, and to the force of the current,
that the rods can acquire a greater or less amount of magnetism. The
small rods even appear to have a slight advantage over large rods,
since it has been found by experiments that the actual force of rods of
three feet bears to that of rods of half a foot the ratio of seventy-three
to seventy-seven. It is also found that there is a gain of seventy-five
to seventy-four when the whole length of the rods is covered, instead
of simply collecting the same number of coils around the extremities.
The differences between the observations and the simple laws are, as
will be judged, quite inconsiderable for practical purposes, and will, in
time, I hope, entirely disappear by a complete integration embracing
the whole length of the rods, and founded upon the effect of an ele-
mentary part of the current. I will now hasten on to the immediate
object of my present address. In March 1839, M. Lenz and I pre-
sented to the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburgh, a report, which
I shall present to the Association. It contains the result of the expe-
riments by which we have been enabled to establish the remarkable
law, that the attraction of the electro-magnets is proportional to the square
of the force of the galvanic current, to the infiuence of which the rods of
tron are submitted. This law is of the highest practical importance,
as it serves for the basis of the whole theory of electro-magnetic ma-
chines.
Before proceeding, I may be permitted to make some remarks
concerning an instrument which I laid before the Academy of Sciences,
in the commencement of this year. It is destined to regulate the gal-
vanie current, and is of value in many investigations of this kind.
During my sojourn in London, Prof. Wheatstone has shown me an in-
strument, founded on exactly the same principles as mine, and with very
inconsiderable modifications and differences. Now, it is quite impossible
that he should have had the least notice of my instrument; but as it
is probable that its use may be greatly extended, I must add, that
while I have only used this instrument for regulating the force of the
22 REPORT—1840.,
currents, he has founded upon it a new method of measuring these
currents, and of determining the different elements or constants, which
enter into the analytical expressions, and on which depends the action
of any galvanic combination. It is principally to the measure of the
electromotive force, by those means, that Mr. Wheatstone has directed
his attention; and he has shown me, in his unpublished papers, very
valuable results which he has obtained by this method.
While these purely theoretical researches were in progress, I did
not fail myself to enter directly upon the question of the practical ap-
plication of electro-magnetism. Unfortunately, I cannot here give the
details either of the experiments which I have made upon a very large
scale, or of the machines and apparatus of various kinds which I have
constructed. The necessity of multiplying the facts or tangible results
—a necessity the more urgent, because the practical applications of
this force increased so very rapidly—this necessity, I say, has not al-
lowed me time or leisure to digest and arrange them. I can only here
express my readiness to afford any explanation of the details which
may be desired. I will, however, particularly notice the satisfactory
results of the experiments made last year with a boat of twenty-eight
feet in length and seven and a half feet in width, drawing 2% feet of
water, and carrying fourteen individuals, which was propelled upon the
Neva at the rate of about three English miles in the hour. The
machine, which occupied very little space, was set in motion by a bat-
tery of sixty-four pairs of platina plates, each having thirty-six square
inches of surface, and charged according to the plan of Mr. Grove,
with nitric and diluted sulphuric acid. Although these results may
perhaps not satisfy the exaggerated expectations of some persons, it is
to be remembered, that in the first year, namely, in 1838, this boat
being put in motion by the same machine, and employing 320 pairs of
plates, each of thirty-six square inches, and charged with sulphate of
copper, only half this velocity was obtained. This enormous battery
occupied considerable space, and the manipulation and the management
of it was very troublesome. The judicious changes made in the dis-
tribution of the rods, in the construction of the commutator, and lastly,
in the principles of the voltaic battery, have led to the successful result
of the following year, 1839. We have gone thus on the Neva more
than once, and during the whole day, partly with and partly against
the stream, with a party of twelve or fourteen persons, and with a ve-
locity not much less than that of the first invented steam-boat. I
believe that more cannot be expected from a mechanical force, whose
existence has only been known since 1834, when I made the first ex-
periment at Koénigsberg, in Prussia, and only succeeded in lifting a
weight of about twenty ounces, by even this electro-magnetic power.
I must, on the present occasion, confess frankly and without
reserve, that hitherto the construction of electro-magnetic machines
has been regulated in a great measure by mere trials; that even the
machines constructed according to the indisputable laws established
with regard to the statical effects of electro-magnets, have been found
ineficient, as soon as we came to deal with motion. Being always
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23
accustomed to proceed in a legitimate manner, and feeling great regret
at the irregular attempts which were being made everywhere, without
any scientific foundation, this state of things appeared to me so un-
satisfactory, that I could not but direct all my efforts to ascertain clearly
the laws of these remarkable machines. I submit the formule relative
to these laws, which appear to me to recommend themselves as much
by their simplicity as by the natural manner in which they develope
themselves. Let R represent all the mechanical resistances acting upon
the machine, and v the uniform velocity with which it moves: we
have for the power or mechanical effect, the expression T = R v.
Let n be the number of the coils of the helix which covers the rods ;
z, the number of the plates of the battery; B, the total resistance of
the galvanic circuit ; E, the electromotive force; 2, a coefficient, which
depends on the arrangement of the bars, the distance of the poles, and
the quality of the iron; we have then for the maximum of the me-
chanical effect which will be obtained, the expression—
aw Z2 ER?
igo Fe
For the velocity, which corresponds to this maximum,
B
Tl. v=
~ Rn
For the resistance acting upon the machine,
n? 2? Ko
4B
Lastly, for the ceconomic effect, 7. e. the duty or the mechanical effect
divided by the consumption of zinc in a given time,
E
IV. O= rk
These formule may be expressed in the terms :—
lst, The maximum of mechanical effect which may be obtained
from a machine, is proportional to the square of the number of voltaic
elements, multiplied by the square of the electromotive force, and
divided by the total resistance of the voltaic circuit. There enters,
moreover, into the formula, a factor, which I have designated &, and
which depends upon the quality of the iron, the form and disposition
of the rods, and the distance between their extremities. The result is,
that with reference to some other investigations, which I have made
of voltaic combinations, and under similar conditions, the use of plati-
num, zine, the resistance being the same, will produce an effect two or
three times greater than the use of copper, zinc.
9nd, Neither the number of the coils of the helix which covers the
rods, nor the diameter or the length of the rods themselves, has any
influence upon the maximum of the power. It results, therefore, that
neither by adding to the iength or diameter of the rods, nor by employ-
ing a greater quantity of wire, can the power be increased. There is,
Ts
Ill. R =
24 REPORT—1840.
however, this remarkable fact, that the number of coils disappears from
the formula, simply because the force of the machine is ina direct ratio,
and the velocity is in an inverse ratio, to the square of this number.
It is thus that the number of coils, the dimensions of the rods, and the
other constituent parts of an electro-magnetic machine, should be con-
sidered simply as occupying the range of the ordinary mechanisms
which serve for the transmission or transformation of the velocity,
without increasing the available power. So it would be possible to use,
instead of the ordinary wheelwork, rods of greater or less length, or a
greater or less quantity of wire, in order to establish between the force
and the velocity, the relation which the applications to manufacturing
processes may require.
3rd, The mean attraction of the magnetic rods, or the pressure which
the machine can exert, is proportional to the square of the current.
This pressure is indicated by the galvanometer, which in this manner
performs the function of the manometer of steam-engines.
4th, The economic effect, i. e. the duty or the available power,
divided by the consumption of zine, is a constant quantity, which is ex-
pressed most simply by the relation between the electromotive force
and the factor k, which has been previously noticed. I may here repeat,
what I stated elsewhere, that by employing platinum instead of copper,
the theoretical expenses may be reduced in the proportion of nearly 23
to 14.
5th, The consumption of zinc, which takes place while the machine
is at rest, and does not work at all, is double that which takes place
while it is producing the maximum of power.
I consider that there will not be much difficulty in determining
with sufficient precision the duty of one pound of zine, by its transfor- -
mation into the sulphate, in the same manner that in the steam-engine,
the duty of one bushel of coal serves as a measure to estimate the effect
of different combinations. The future use and application of electro-
magnetic machines appears to me quite certain, especially as the mere
trials and vague ideas which have hitherto prevailed in the construction
of these machines, have now at length yielded to the precise and definite
laws which are conformable to the general laws which nature is accus-
tomed to observe with strictness, whenever the question of effects and
their causes arises. In viewing on the one hand a chemical effect, and
on the other a mechanical effect, the intermediate term scarcely presents
itself at first. In the present case, it is magneto-electricity, the admi-
rable discovery of Faraday, which we should consider as the regulating
power, or, as it may be styled, the logic of electro-magnetic machines.
On the Theory of Electricity. By C. J. Kennepy.
The author shows in the commencement of his paper, that on the
theory of a single fluid, the electrified aérial current proceeding from
the positive wire must be superior in force to the electrified aérial
eurrent proceeding from the negative wire. He describes various ex-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25
periments with light wheels, and suspended gold leaf, in which this
appears to be a fact. He adverts to other experimenta crucis, all con-
curring in his opinion to establish the theory of a single electric fluid,
- as the movement of a line of water, or saline solution, from the positive
or vitreous to the negative or resinous pole, as found by Mr. Porret
and M. de la Rive; and appeals to ordinary experiments in which
cards are perforated by electrical discharge in confirmation of the same
view. The theory of a single electric fluid is capable of assuming two
forms, in which material idio-repulsion is entirely discarded. The one
form is that of an original theory adopted by Mr. Kennedy in the year
1825. It was deduced froma rather complicated fluxionary calculation,
by which a beautifully simple result was obtained. An exponential
fluxionary equation, involving all the possible powers and simple func-
tions of the electric force, was employed. The result of the calculation
was surprisingly simple, namely, that electrical action varies in the
inverse ratio of the electric quantity ; or, A OC Pv Ices At represent the
: i
attraction of a material corpuscle for electricity, in any given electrical
condition, suppose the neutral state, and g the quantity of electricity
which that corpuscle then contains. The tendeucy of two material
corpuscles ¢ ce’ towards each other, may be denoted by T, and is = 2 A'g
=A'xq+tA!'xq. Now, if the electrical quantities of ¢ and ec! be-
come each = 2, the attraction of each of these corpuscles for electricity
! I !
will become = ae and T’ will become = “-% x & + dg qg
x @
as before ; that is, the joint tendency of the two corpuscles to mutual
approach remains unaltered, so long as their electrical quantities are
equal to each other, whatever each of these electrical quantities may
be, whether a large quantity or a small. Suppose next, that the elec-
trical quantity of ec becomes = 2, and that of c' = y, then their re-
t
Ag #4; and T will be
spective attractions for electricity will be and
t f ! !
yi xyt a a or Bray + Alga Now this must be greater
ra 4g “ yi
_ than 2 A’ gq, in every case in which z is unequal to y; for if x is un-
!
~ equal to y—because A! and q are constant quantities— A'@ ust be
x
; F :
unequal to re *. If abe greater than y, sie! must be greater than
Z y
!
ely, Now 44, Aa" FAB hen Whence,* 1 Y + “eu
are oN than “ A' q; that is, the least possible value of Tis2 Al q3
-—in common language, the tendency of the two corpuscles to mutual
* Kuclid’s Elements, Book v. prop. xxv.
26 REPORT—1840.
approach, is the least possible when they contain equal quantities of
electricity. It follows also, that the more unequal a and y are, the
t f
greater must the sum of A’gy and A’q= be; that is, the more the
x
electrical quantities of the two corpuscles differ, the greater is their
tendency to mutual approach. The phenomena of electrical attraction,
repulsion, and quiescence, may be explained on this theory, ina manner
perfectly satisfactory, and exceedingly easy.
The author then exemplified this in the following cases :
1. QUIESCENCE.
Case 1—JLet A BC D be four small balls, equal to each other,
homogeneous, equidistant in the same straight line, and all in the neutral
electrical state.
Case 2.—Let A be electrified plus, while C B D remain in the
neutral state.
Case 3.—Let A be electrified minus, while B remains in the neutral
state.
2. ATTRACTION.
Let A be positively, and B negatively, electrified.
3. REFULSION.
Case 1.—Zet A and B be alike electrified plus.
Case 2.—Let A and B be alike electrified minus.
An Account of the Magnetic Observatory of Munich.
By Dr, Lamont.
The author stated that the building had been undertaken in April
this year, and that the regular series of observations, comprehending
both the daily observations from two to three hours, and the term-day
observations, was commenced on the Ist of August. The Magnetic
Observatory of Munich differs in two respects from other establishments
of the same kind. In the first place, it is not a magnetical house, but
a subterraneous building, which is situated to the S.W. of the Royal
Observatory, and at a distance of about 120 feet, and connected with
it by a subterraneous passage. The depth of the magnetic observatory
below the surface of the earth is 13 feet, thus affording the advantage
of a temperature nearly equal at all times of the year, and rendering
the corrections applied to magnetic observations in order to reduce
them to a fixed temperature—corrections which are in general subject
to considerable uncertainty—if not unnecessary, at least sufficiently
small to be determined with the utmost degree of accuracy. In the
second place, the instruments are of greater dimensions than those ~
usually employed in magnetic observatories, and may be considered as
sufficient in all respects for the most delicate investigations. The mag-
netic bars weigh 25lbs. each ; the theodolite has a circle of 23 feet dia-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27
meter, and an achromatic telescope of 3} inches aperture. It may be
remarked that the horizontal-force instrument differs from the bifilar
magnetometer, the force that holds the bar in a direction perpendicular
to the magnetic meridian being a spiral spring. Besides the instru-
ments fixed in the observatory, there are portable instruments for
making experiments with bars of 3lb., 1lb., 41bs., 10lbs. and 25lbs.
The munificence with which the king of Bavaria has been always
known to support the cause of science, and the liberality of the Crown
Prince, who takes peculiar interest in physical researches, have contri-
buted to render the magnetic observatory of Munich the most complete
establishment of this kind on the continent.
A general statement of the System of Meteorological Observations carried
on in Bavaria. By Dr. LAMont.
The Royal Observatory of Munich constitutes the central establish-
ment, and has the superintendence of all meteorological observations
made under public authority. There are meteorological observatories
at Ratisbon, Augsburg, and Hohen-Peissenberg, the latter being si-
tuated on the summit of a mountain 3000 feet above the level of the
sea. Besides, meteorological observations are registered partly by
members of the Royal Meteorological Society, partly by persons ap-
pointed by Government, at 260 towns and villages in Bavaria. The
observations thus obtained, though not equally complete, some of them
being registered only once, some twice, and but a comparatively small
number three times a day, will be found extremely valuable for the
purposes of meteorology. Hourly observations of the barometer and
thermometer have been made at the Royal Observatory of Munich since
May 1838, by means of accurate registering instruments, constructed
on a new principle. Dr. Lamont, in mentioning this extensive system
of observations, referred for the results and further particulars to the
annual publications of the Royal Observatory of Munich. He con-
cluded by remarking, that the great object of meteorology was to find
the causes from which the changes in the atmosphere arise ; to trace the
propagation of these changes from one place to another, and the mo-
difications they undergo on their way; and to show what relation exists
between the states of the atmosphere at different parts of the globe, and
how the changes at one place depend upon, or are connected with,
simultaneous or preceding changes at another. This, he said, can
only be attained by combining observations made in different coun-
tries after a general and uniform system; and in mentioning at that
meeting the extensive observations carried on in Bavaria, it was his
intention to show how far a general system, such as had been just
alluded to, was likely to be supported in that part of Germany, and
to express the hope that such a general system will be introduced at
no distant period, perhaps, by the same Association by whose exertions
a similar system of magnetic observations has now so successfully been
carried into effect.
28 REPORT—1840.
Notice accompanying a Series of Meteorological Observations made at
Trevandrum. By Mr. Cavvecort.
The author commenced with observing, that having had an oppor-
tunity in India of forwarding an inquiry which the British Association
has considered to possess great interest, viz. that into the thermome-
trical, barometrical, and hygrometrical condition of the atmosphere
within the tropics, it was with feelings of great pride and pleasure that
he was enabled, by his present visit to this country, to present to the
meeting a series of hourly observations of the thermometer, baro-
meter, and moistened bulb thermometer, carried on under his direc-
tion and superintendence, at a situation only 83° north of the equator.
The author then proceeded to describe the circumstances under
which the observations were instituted in the following terms :—* In
the beginning of the year 1837 it devolved on me to undertake the
direction of an observatory then recently established at Trevandrum
in the south of India, by His Highness the Rajah of Travancore, (a
young native prince of that country, of whom, for his liberal patronage
of science, his munificent encouragement of education among his sub-
jects, and above all for his beneficent rule, it is impossible to speak too
highly) and noticing among the recommendations promulgated by the
British Association, that a set of hourly meteorological observations
within the tropics was considered highly desirable, I thought the
opportunity a good one for supplying this desideratum. I accordingly
explained the matter to His Highness, and with the liberal confidence
which I have always experienced from him, was immediately provided
with the necessary means for accomplishing my purpose ; I have there-
fore no other merit to claim (with respect to these observations) than
that of a diligent perseverance in the task I had imposed on myself.”
Mr. Caldecott then described minutely the building in which the
observations were made, the instruments used, and the registers which
accompany his communication; these observations have been made
every hour since the commencement of June, 1837, are still in progress,
and are intended to be extended to a period of five years from their
commencement. The situation is described to be in latitude 8° 30! 35
north, longitude 55 8™ east of Greenwich, 170 feet above the level of
the sea, and distant from it in a direct line about 2 miles.
Every precaution was taken to ensure accuracy; and of the ob-
servers (all natives of India), Mr. Caldecott remarks, that “after the
first difficulty of instructing them is surmounted, their patient, diligent,
and temperate habits peculiarly fit them for the office here required
of them, and I have always found those who have been selected for
the duty fully as trustworthy as, I imagine, is any class of persons to
whom such observations are usually entrusted.”
The registers are arranged in monthly tables, and contain, among
other determinations, the following particulars clearly shown, and ready
for any investigation to which they may be considered applicable ;_ viz.
Ist, in “ Temperature.”
1. The mean of each hour for the month.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29
2. The mean of each day of the month.
3. The same two means for each period of ten days.
4. The mean range for the month, and for each ten days; the extreme
range, &c.
2nd, in “ Pressure.”
1. The pressure of each hour for the month.
2. The mean pressure of each day of the month.
3. The same two means for each period of ten days,
4. The maximum and minimum pressure of each day, with the extreme va-
riation for each day ; the maximum and minimum pressure of the month,
with the extreme variation for the month, &c.
5. The four semi-oscillations for each 24 hours, with the mean values of
them for the month.
3rd, in “ Humidity.”
1, The temperature of the air each hour (repeated from the register of tem-
perature).
2. The depression of the wet-bulb thermometer for ditto.
3. The dew-point for each hour, calculated from Professor Apjohn’s formula,
disregarding his correction for pressure.
4. The mean of all these for each day.
5. The quantity of rain for each twelve hours.
Besides these monthly registers, the author exhibited two tables drawn
- up in the form first adopted by Sir David Brewster, showing for the
complete year of the observations, viz. from June 1837 to June 1838,
Ist, The daily and monthly mean temperature.
2nd, The mean temperature of each hour for | from 8760 obser-
each month, and for the whole twelve vations.
months.
Also two other tables, showing for the same period,
Ist, The daily and monthly dew-points.
2nd, The mean dew-point of each hour for
each month, and for the whole twelve ditto.
months.
The first two tables give for the mean temperature of the station
78°89, and the other two give for the mean dew-point 71°78.
The barometric registers give by a mean of all the diurnal semi-
oscillations for the same period the following results :
Fall between 10 a.m. and 4.p.M. 0°109 inch.
Rise 4. P.M. 10 p.m. 0°108
Fall 10 P.M. 4 a.m. 0:071
Rise 4am. l0aA.M. 0:073
Times of maxima between the hours of 9 and 10 morning and evening.
Times of minima between those of 3 and 4 afternoon and morning.
Mr. Caldecott concluded his communication by noticing that he was
about to return to his post in India amply furnished with meteoro-
logical, magnetical, and astronomical instruments, and added that,
should the committee of the Physical Section of the British Association
see fit to honour him with any suggestions as to points in meteorology,
or any other branch of the physical sciences which his local situation
80 REPORT— 1840.
and means might enable him to elucidate, or be of any use in, he
would feel proud to receive its instructions, and would do all in his
power to forward its objects.
Note.—At the meeting of the General Committee on the 24th Sept., a com-
mittee was appointed to consider the propriety of printing, in extenso, the hourly
meteorological observations communicated by Mr. Caldecott, together with
those made at Plymouth by Mr. Snow Harris, at the instance of the British
Association.
On Storms. By James P. Espy.
Mr. Espy commenced by stating, that he had found, by examining
simultaneous observations in the middle of storms, and all round their
borders, that the wind blows inward on all sides of a storm towards its
central parts, towards a point if the storm is round, and towards a
line if the storm is oblong, extending through its longest diameter.
He had been able to investigate within the last five years seventeen
storms, without discovering one exception to the general rule. As an
example of recent date, he described and illustrated by a map the
course of the wind in Great Britain on the night of the 6th of January,
1839, between the hours of 10 and 12. The observations were thus
stated :
1. Romney—strong at 8 p.m., S.E.
2. Thwaite—strong from 10 to 12, S.S.E.
3. Southwold—the Susannah driven on shore at 8 p.m., by a south-east wind.
4. Birmingham—wind strong, E. of south, till one in the morning.
5. Manchester—S.E. till 12 at night.
6. Leeds—ditto ditto.
7. Bridlington—got round S.E. in night, and continued so, blowing a gale
till after midnight.
8. Whitby—at 103 p.m. S. by E., high wind.
9. Berwick—changed from E. of south to $.W., at 10 p.m.
10. Dundee—on the night of the 6th and day of the 7th, N.W.
_ 11. Montrose—all night of 6th and 7th a hurricane, N.W.
12. Aberdeen—ditto ditto.
13. Cape Wrath—all 6th and 7th, N.W.
14. Scowrie—evening of 6th till 12 at night, N.W.
15. Isle of Glan—at 11 p.m., N.W.
16. Lismore—night of 6th, N.W. to N.
17. Corsewell—6 p.m. till 12, S.W.
18. Strangford, Ireland—at 12, night of 6th, S.W.
19. Mull of Galloway—south till 14 30™ a.m., of 7th.
20. Calf of Man—S.5.W. till midnight.
21. Liverpool—changed from §8.S.E. after 10.
22. Plymouth—S.W. till 12 at night of 6th.
From this, and from documents which Mr. Espy proceeded to read,
it appeared that during those hours the wind was blowing a violent
gale on the north-western part of the island from the north-west, on the
south-western parts from the south-west, and on the south-eastern
parts a strong gale from the south-east and south-south-east ; and that
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3Yr
in the middle parts of the island it changed from south-easterly to
south-westerly about those same hours—the change taking place about
two hours sooner on the west side of the island than on the east side in
the central parts, but much sooner in the northern parts than in the
southern. ‘The barometer also fell sooner in the northern and western
parts than in the southern and eastern. From these two circumstances
he thinks it highly probable that this storm moved not exactly towards
the east, but a little south of east, and if so, it would be similar to
some storms which he had examined in the United States.
The barometer was at its minimum at Cape Wrath, in the north-west
corner of Scotland, two hours and a half sooner than at the Calf of
Man, five hours sooner than at Edinburgh, and thirteen hours and a
half sooner than at Thwaite, in Suffolk. Mr. Espy then stated that he
had examined the data furnished by Col. Reid, of several hurricanes
in the West Indies, and found conclusive evidence that the wind blew
inwards to a central space in all these storms. Diagrams of two were
exhibited: one on the 3rd of October, 1780, in which Savannah-la-
Mar was destroyed. In that storm, at its very height, the wind at
Savannah-la-Mar, on the south side of the island of Jamaica, was
south,—and nearly opposite to that point, on the north side of the
island, the wind was north-east, or nearly in an opposite direction, for
two hours at the time of the greatest violence of the storm at both
places. The other storm was on the 18th of August, 1837, off Char-
leston, south-east. On that day, the ship Duke of Manchester had the
centre of the storm passing over her, and, on the same day, the West
Indian and the Rawlins, which were on the south-west of the Duke of
Manchester, had the wind all day from 2 a.m. south-west, and at the
same time the Cicero and the Yolof, on the north-east of the Duke of
Manchester, had the wind north-east and east-north-east, the Yolof all
day, till 8 p.m.
Mr. Espy then stated that he had visited the tracks of eighteen tor-
nadoes, and examined several of them with great care, and found that
all the phenomena told one tale—-the inward motion of the air to the
centre of the inverted cone of cloud as it passed along the surface of
the earth. From all these facts he inferred that there is an inward
motion of the air towards the centre of storms from all sides; and
stated that this inference ought to be drawn from the well-known fact,
that the barometer stands lower in the midst of a storm than it does
all round its borders.
Mr. Espy exhibited an instrument, which he called a Nephelescope,
which enabled him to measure the expansion of air with great accuracy,
and he found it to agree with calculations made on chemical principles.
He then proceeded to give an outline of his theory, premising that the
numbers he should introduce were not intended to be strictly accurate,
and would be subject to many corrections,—one in particular, in which
no notice had been taken of the specific heat of air under different
pressures. The following are extracts.
“When the air near the surface of the earth becomes more heated or
more highly charged with aqueous vapour, which is only five-eighths
§2 REPORT—1840.
of the specific gravity of atmospheric air, its equilibrium is unstable,
and up-moving columns or streams will be formed. As these columns
rise, their upper parts will come under less pressure, and the air will
therefore expand ; as it expands, it will grow colder about one degree
and a quarter for every hundred yards of its ascent, as is demon-
strated by experiments with the Nephelescope. The ascending columns
will carry up with them the aqueous vapour which they contain, and,
if they rise high enough, the cold produced by expansion from dimi-
nished pressure will condense some of this vapour into cloud; for it is
known that cloud is formed in the receiver of an air-pump when the
air is suddenly withdrawn. The distance or height to which the air
will have to ascend before it will become cold enough to begin to form
cloud, is a variable quantity, depending on the number of degrees
which the dew-point is below the temperature of the air; and this
height may be known at any time by observing how many degrees a
thin metallic tumbler of water must be cooled down below the tempe-
rature of the air before the vapour begins to condense on the outside.
The difference between the dew-point and the temperature of the air in
degrees is called (by Mr. Espy) the complement of the dew-point*.
“ As the temperature of the air sinks about one degree and a quarter
for every hundred yards of ascent, and the dew-point sinks about a
quarter of a degree, it follows that as soon as the column rises as many
hundred yards as the complement of the dew-point contains degrees
of Fahrenheit, cloud will begin to form; or, in other words, the bases
of all clouds forming by the cold of diminished pressure from up-
moving columns of air, will be about as many hundred yards high as
the dew-point in degrees is below the temperature of the air at the time.
If the temperature of the ascending column should be ten degrees
above that of the air through which it passes, and should rise to the
height of 4800 feet before it begins to form cloud, the whole column
would then be 100 feet of air lighter than surrounding columns; and
if the column should be very narrow, its velocity of upward motion
would follow the laws. of spouting fluids, which would be eight times
the square root of 100 feet a second, that is, 80 feet a second, and the
barometer in the centre of the column at its base would fall about the
ninth of an inch. As soon as cloud begins to form, the caloric of
elasticity of the vapour or steam is given out into the air in contact
with the little particles of water formed by the condensation of the
vapour. This will prevent the air in its further progress upwards
from cooling so fast as it did up to that point ; and, from experiments
with the Nephelescope, it is found to cool only about one-half as much
above the base of the cloud as below; that is, about five-eighths of a
degree for one hundred yards of ascent, when the dew-point is about
* The height of the bases of forming cumuli may be ascertained by the fol-
t—t!
lowing empirical formula: 103 (=) = height of base in 100 yards; tbeing
the temperature of the air in degrees of Fahrenheit, and ¢! the temperature of
the wet bulb seoung briskly in the air.
each. dak ie
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33
70°. If the dew-point is higher, it cools a little less, and if the dew-
point is lower, it cools a little more, than five-eighths of a degree in
ascending one hundred yards.
«Now it has been ascertained by aéronauts and travellers on moun-
tains, that the atmosphere itself is about one degree colder for every
hundred yards in height above the surface of the sea; therefore, as the
air in the cloud above its base is only five-eighths of a degree colder
for every hundred yards in height, it follows, that when the cloud is
of great perpendicular height above its base, its top must be much
warmer than the atmosphere at that height, and consequently much
lighter. Indeed, the specific gravity of a cloud of any height, com-
pared to that of the surrounding air at the same elevation, may be
calculated, when the dew-point is given; for its temperature is known
by experiments with the Nephelescope, and the quantity of vapour
condensed by the cold of diminished pressure at every point in its
upward motion, and of course the quantity of caloric of elasticity
given out by this condensation is known, and also the effect this
caloric has in expanding the air receiving it, beyond the volume it
would have if no caloric of elasticity was evolved in the condensation
of the vapour. For example, according to the experiments of Prof.
_ W.R. Johnson, of Philadelphia, a pound of steam, at the temperature
of 212°, contains 1030° of caloric of elasticity ; and if the sum of the
latent and sensible caloric of steam is the same at all temperatures, it
follows, that a pound of steam being condensed in 1210 pounds of
water at 32° would heat this water up one degree ; and, as the specific
caloric of air is only 0-267, if a pound of vapour should be condensed
in 1210 pounds of air, it would heat that air nearly 4°, or, which is
the same thing, it would heat 100 pounds of air about 45°. And in
all these cases it would expand the air about 8000 times the bulk of
water generated; that is, 8000 cubic feet for every cubic foot of
water formed out of the condensed vapour. And as it requires
between 1300 and 1400 cubic feet of vapour, at the ordinary tem-
peratures of the atmosphere, to make one cubic foot of water—if this
quantity be subtracted from 8000 it will leave upwards of 6600 cubic
feet of actual expansion of the air in the cloud for every cubic foot of
water generated there by condensed vapour.
“This great expansion of the air in the forming cloud will cause the
air to spread outwards in all directions above, causing the barometer
to rise on the outside of the cloud, above the mean, and to fall below
the mean under the middle of the cloud as much as it is known to do
in the midst of great storms. For example, if the dew-point should
be very high, say 78°, then the quantity of vapour in the air would
be about one-fiftieth of its whole weight; and if the up-moving column
should rise high enough to condense one-half its vapour into cloud, it
would heat the air containing it 45°, and the air so heated would occupy
qi’s More space than it would be if it was not so heated. And if we
assume a case within the bounds of nature, and suppose the cloud and
the column under the cloud to occupy three-fourths of the whole
weight of the atmosphere, or, in other words, if we suppose the top
1840. D
34 REPORT—1840.
of the cloud to reach a height where the barometer would stand
at 74 inches, and the mean temperature of the whole column 40°
warmer than the surrounding air, then would the barometer fall under
the cloud at the surface of the earth, ;4%, of 22°5, or a little more than
2 inches.
“Though the air may be driven up by the ascending column much
higher than the point assumed in the last article, the cloud will cease
to form at greater heights, because the dew-point, at these great
elevations, falls by a further ascent as rapidly as the temperature—and
at greater elevations, it will even fall more rapidly. If, for instance,
the air should rise from where the barometer stands at 6 inches to
where it stands at 3 inches, the dew-point would fall about 20°, but
the temperature would fall less than 20°, and therefore no vapour
would be condensed by such ascent.
“When a cloud begins to form from an ascending column of air, it
will be seen to swell out at the top while its base continues on the
same level, for the air has to rise to the same height before it becomes
cold enough, by diminished pressure, to begin to condense its vapour
into water; this will cause the base to be flat, even after the cloud has
acquired great perpendicular height, and assumed the form of a
sugarloaf. Other clouds also for many miles around, formed by other
ascending columns, will assume similar appearances, and will moreover
have their bases all on the same or nearly the same horizontal level ;
and the height of these bases from the surface of the earth, will be the
greatest about 3 o’clock, when the dew-point and temperature of the
air are the greatest distance apart. The outspreading of the air in
the upper parts of an ascending column will form an annulus all round
the cloud, under which the barometer will stand above the mean; of
course the air will descend in the annulus, and increase the velocity of
the wind at the surface of the earth, towards the centre of the ascend-
ing column, while all round on the outside of the annulus there will
be a gentle wind outwards. Any general currents of air, which may
exist at the time, will of course modify these motions, from the oblique
forces they would occasion. The up-moving current of air must of
course be entirely supplied by the air within the annulus, and that which
descends in the annulus itself. The rapid disturbance of equilibrium,
which is produced by one ascending column, will tend to form others
in its neighbourhood ; for the air being pressed outwards from the
annulus, or at least retarded on the windward side, will form other
ascending columns, and these will form other annuli, and so the process
will be continued. These ascending columns will have a tendency to
approach, and finally unite; for the air between them must descend,
and in descending the temperature of the whole column will increase,
for it is known that the air, at great elevations, contains.more caloric
to the pound than the air near the surface of the earth, because it is
the upper regions that receive the caloric of elasticity, given out in
the condensation of vapour into clouds. Therefore, when the air has
descended some time in the middle, between two ascending columns,
the barometer will fall a little, or at least not stand so high above the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35
mean as it does on the outside of the two clouds, and so the columns
will be pressed towards each other. If one of two neighbouring
columns should be greatly higher than the other, its annulus may
overlap the smaller one, and of course the current under the smaller
cloud will be inverted, and the cloud which may have been formed
over the column thus forced to descend will soon disappear; for as it
is forced downwards by the overlapping annulus of the more lofty
column, it will come under great pressure, and its temperature will be
thus increased ; and it is manifest, that as soon as its top descends as
low as its base, it will have entirely disappeared ; and in the mean time
the larger cloud will have greatly increased.
“ As the air above the cloud formed by an ascending column is forced
upwards, if it contains much aqueous vapour, a thin film of cloud will
be formed in it by the cold of diminished pressure, entirely distinct
from the great dense cumulus below; but as the cumulus rises faster
than the air above it (for some of the air will roll off), the thin film
and the top of the cumulus will come in contact; and sometimes a
second film or cap may be formed in the same way, and perhaps a
third and fourth. When these caps form, there will probably be rain,
as their formation indicates a high degree of saturation in the upper
air.
“When the complement of the dew-point is very great (twenty
degrees and more), clouds can scarcely form ; for up-moving columns
will generally either come to an equilibrium with the surrounding air,
or be dispersed before they rise twenty hundred yards, which they must
do in this case before they form clouds. Sometimes, however, masses
of air will rise high enough to form clouds; but they are generally
detached from any up-moving column underneath, and of course
cannot then form cumuli with flat bases ; such clouds will be seen to
dissolve as soon as they form, and even while forming they will gene-
rally appear ragged, thin, and irregular. Moreover, if the ground
should be colder during the day than the air in contact with it, as
sometimes happens after a continuance of very cold weather, then as the
air touching the cold earth will be colder than the stratum above it,
ascending columns cannot exist, and of course no cumuli can be
formed on that day, even though the air may be saturated with vapour
to such a degree as to condense a portion of it on cold bodies at the
surface of the earth. Neither can clouds form of any great size, when
there are cross currents of air sufficiently strong to break in two an
ascending current, for the ascensional power of the up-moving current
will thus be weakened and destroyed. This is one means contrived by
nature to prevent up-moving columns from always increasing until
rain would follow. Without some such contrivance it is probable that
every up-moving column which should begin to form cloud when the
dew-point is favourable, would produce rain; for as soon as cloud
forms, the up-moving power is rapidly increased by the evolution of
the caloric of elasticity.”
_ Among the consequences of his theory, Mr. Espy describes in what
manner it happens that rain does not fall on the leeward side of very
D2
36 REPORT—1840.
lofty mountains ; and under what circumstances appear what are called
tornadoes on land and waterspouts at sea.
“ On visiting the path of a tornado, the trees on the extreme borders
will all be found prostrated with their tops inwards, either inwards and
backwards, or inwards and forwards, or exactly transverse to the path.
The trees in the centre of the path will be thrown either backwards
or forwards, or parallel to the path; and invariably if one tree lies
across another, the one which is thrown backwards is underneath.
Those materials on the sides which are moved from their places and
rolled along the ground, leaving a trace of their motion, will move in
a curve convex behind; those which were on the left hand of the path
will make a curve from left hand to right, and those on the left hand
of the path will make a curve from right hand to left; and many of
these materials will be found on the opposite side of the path from
that on which they stood on the approach of the tornado. Also those
bodies which are carried up will appear to whirl, unless they arise from
the very centre—those that are taken up on the right of the centre
will whirl in a spiral from left to right, and those on the left of the cen-
tre will whirl in a spiral upwards from right to left. On examining the
trees which stand near the borders of the path, it will be found that
many of the limbs are twisted round the trees, and broken in sucha
manner as to remain twisted, those on the right-hand side of the path
from left to right, and those on the left-hand side of the path from
right to left. However, it will be found that only those limbs which
grew on the side of the tree most distant from the path of the tornado
are broken; for these alone were subject to a transverse strain. The
houses which stood near the middle of the path will be very liable to
bave the roof blown up, and many of the walls will be prostrated, all
outwards, by the explosive influence of the air within, and those houses
covered with zine or tin, from being air-tight, will suffer most. The
floors from the cellars will also frequently be thrown up, and the corks
of empty bottles exploded. _ All round the tornado, at a short distance,
probably not more than three or four hundred yards, there will be a
dead calm, on account of the annulus formed by the rapid efflux of air
above, from the centre of the up-moving and expanding column. In this
annulus the air will be depressed, and all round on the outside of it,
at the surface of the earth, there will be a gentle wind outwards, and
of course all the air which feeds the tornado is supplied from within
the annulus. Nor is this difficult to understand, when the depression
of the air in the annulus is considered, for any amount may be thus sup-
plied by a great depression. Light bodies, such as shingles, branches
of trees, and drops of rain or water formed in the cloud, will be car-
ried up to a great height, before they are permitted to fall to the earth ;
for though they may frequently be thrown outwards above, and may
then descend to a considerable distance at the side, they will meet with
an in-blowing current below, which will force them back to the centre
of the up-moving current, and so they will be carried aloft again.
« The drops of rain, however, will frequently be carried high enough
to freeze them, especially if they are thrown out above so far as to fall
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37
into clear air, for this air will in some cases be thirty or forty degrees
colder than the air in the cloud. In this case, if the up-moving column
is perpendicular, the hail will be thrown out on both sides; and on
examination it will be found that two veins of hail fall simultaneously,
at no great distance apart. It is indeed probable, that in all violent
thunder-storms in which hail falls, the up-moving current is so violent
as to carry drops of rain to a great height, when they freeze and be-
come hail. It is difficult, if not impossible, to conceive any other way
in which hail can be formed in the summer, or in the torrid zone. In
those countries in which an upper current of air prevails in a particular
direction, the tornadoes and waterspouts will generally move in the same
direction, because the up-moving column of air in this meteor rises far
into this upper current, and of course its upper part will be pressed in
this direction ; as the great tornado cloud moves on in the direction of
the upper current, the air at the surface of the earth will be pressed up
into it by the superior weight of the surrounding air. It is for this
reason that the tornado in Pennsylvania generally moves towards the
eastward.
“ If a tornado should stop its motion for a few seconds, as it might do,
on meeting with a mountain, it would be likely to pour down an im-
mense flood of water or ice, in a very small space, for the drops which
would be carried up by the ascending current would soon accumulate
to such a degree as to force their way back, and this they could not
do without collecting into one united stream of immense length and
weight ; and of cuurse on reaching the side of the mountain, this stream,
whether it consisted of water or hail, would cut down into the side of
the mountain a deep hole, and make a gully all the way to the bottom
of the mountain, from the place where it first struck.
“‘ As the air spreads out more rapidly above than it runs in below,
there will be a tendency in storms to increase in diameter, and this
tendency will be greater on the north side than on any other, for the
air in its efdux above finds less resistance on that side, for a reason
assigned in the next paragraph; therefore it is probable that storms
become elongated north and south, and then, if they move towards
the east, they must travel side foremost.
« At the equator, or at least those parts of it where the trade-winds
are constant from east to west, it is probable tornadoes travel from east
to west. For as the air in the torrid zone is about 80° in temperature
at a mean, and the air in the frigid zone is about zero, the air in the
torrid zone is constantly expanded by heat about 8% of its whole bulk
in the frigid zone. This will cause the air at the equator to stand
more than seven miles higher from the surface of the earth to the top
of the atmosphere than at the north pole. The air therefore will roll
off from the torrid zone both ways towards the poles, causing the
barometer to fall in low latitudes, and rise above the mean in high
latitudes. This will cause the air to run in below towards the equa-
tor, and of course rise there. Now from the principle of the conser-
vation of areas, it will fall more and more to the west as it rises, and
of course the upper current of the air, at the equator; probably moves
38 ; REPORT—1840.
towards the west. However, as the air rolls off above, towards the
north, it will be constantly passing over portions of the earth’s surface,
which have a less diurnal velocity than the part from which it set out;
and as from the nature of inertia it still inclines to retain the diurnal
velocity towards the east, which it originally possessed, when it reaches
the latitude of about 20 or 25 degrees, it will then probably be moving
nearly towards the north, and beyond that latitude its motion will be
north-easterly.
“Tf violent storm clouds, which necessarily rise to a great height into
the upper current, are driven forward in the direction of the upper
current, it is probable that the barometer will rise higher in that part
of the annulus which is in front of the storm, than in the rear, and if
so, a sudden rise of the barometer, in particular localities, may become,
when properly understood, one of the first symptoms of an approach-
ing storm. In consequence of the high barometer in front of the storm
in a semiannulus, the air will be forced downwards there, and cause, in
some cases, a more violent action of the air or wind backwards, meet-
ing the approaching storm, than will be experienced in the rear of the
storm. As the barometer will probably be highest in the centre of the
semiannulus, north-east of the storm, in middle latitudes, the tendency
of the wind to blow outwards on all sides from the centre may cause
the wind in the beginning of the storm to blow so as to appear to whirl
from left to right, on the east side of the storm, and from right to left
on the west side.
“As the air comes downwards in the semiannulus in front of the
storm, it will come under greater pressure, and any clouds which it
may contain will probably be dissolved by the heat of greater pressure,
and therefore on the passage of the annulus it will probably be fair
weather. Also, as the air above always contains more caloric to the
pound than the air below, there will be an increase of temperature on
the passage of the annulus, partly from the increased pressure, but
chiefly by the descent of the air. In very hot climates, this increase of
temperature in front of the storm will be very sensibly felt. The in-
creased pressure in the annulus round a volcano, when it suddenly
bursts out, will sometimes, under favourable circumstances, be very
great, and of course the air will be depressed from a great height ; so
that some portion of the very air which has gone up in the central
parts of the ascending column, and formed cloud by the cold of di-
minished pressure, will be forced down to the surface of the earth,
bringing with it the caloric of elasticity which it received from the
condensing vapour; if so, the heat experienced at the time of this
descent will be very great.
“These hot blasts of air will alternate with cold blasts; for the air
which is forced down from great heights in the annulus will not only
be very hot, but very dry, having condensed its vapour in its previous
ascent. Now, when this hot dry air flows inwards again towards the
voleano, and ascends, it will not form cloud, because of its want of
vapour, and therefore the process of cloud-forming will cease, and con-
sequently hail and rain will cease too, until more air from a greater
’
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39
distance, that has not been deprived of its vapour, flows in and ascends.
Then cloud will again begin to form, and the violence and rapidity of
the outflowing of the air above will be increased by the evolution of
the caloric of elasticity—the barometer will rise rapidly in the annulus,
and fall in the central part of the ascending column; and these alterna-
tions may continue while the volcano is in activity, more particularly
if the violence of the volcano itself should be increased periodically.
“ As air cannot move upwards without coming under diminished press-
ure, and as it must thus expand and grow cooler, and consequently
form cloud, any cause which produces an up-moving column of air,
whether that cause be natural or artificial, will produce rain, when the
complement of the dew-point is small, and the air calm below and
above, and the upper part of the atmosphere of its ordinary temperature,
“ Volcanoes, therefore, under favourable circumstances, will produce
rain; sea-breezes, which blow inwards every day towards the centre
of islands, especially if these islands have in them high mountains,
which will prevent any upper current of air from bending the up-
moving current of air out of the perpendicular, before it rises high
enough to form cloud, such as Jamaica, will produce rain every day;
great cities where very much fuel is burnt, in countries where the com-
plement of the dew-point is small, such as Manchester and Liverpool,
will frequently produce rain; even battles, and accidental fires, if they
occur under favourable circumstances, may sometimes be followed by
rain. Let all these favourable circumstances be watched for in time
of drought (and they can only occur then), and let the experiment be
tried; if it should be successful, the result would be highly beneficial
to mankind. It might probably prevent the occurrence of those de-
structive tornadoes which produce such devastation in the United
States ; for if rain should be produced at regular intervals, of no great
duration, the steam power in the air might thus be prevented from
rising high enough to produce any storm of destructive character.”
Independently of its utility in this manner, Mr. Espy pointed out in
what way a knowledge of this theory would be highly useful to the
mariner, to enable him to direct his vessel so, when one of these great
storms comes near him, as to use as much wind in the borders of the
storm as will suit the purposes of navigation; to know in what direc-
tion a great storm is raging when it is yet several hundred miles from
him; and if the storm should be of such great length, moving side
foremost, as to preclude the possibility of avoiding it, to know in what
direction to steer his ship, so as to get out of the storm as soon as pos-
sible. The sailor also will be able to know when he is out of danger,
and by observing storm clouds on their approach to ascertain the di-
rection in which storms move.
On this important subject the author added other remarks and
illustrations, which would lose their value by the abridgement rendered
necessary by the rules of the Association.
40 REPORT—1840.
Extract of a letter from Mr. Redfield to Sir J. F. W. Herschel.
New York, July 28, 1840.
S1r,—The interest which you have manifested in the progress of meteorolo-
gical science encourages me to commit to your care the accompanying plans
and memoranda relating to American storms and tornadoes.
The map which illustrates the direction of wind in the great storm of De-
cember 15, 1839, at noon, with its accompanying schedule of observations, I
beg you to offer to the British Association at the September Meeting in Glas-
gow—unless you should deem it inappropriate, or consider some other disposi-
tion of the same as more desirable—which I submit to your better judgement.
The sketch of the various directions of prostration found in a section of the
track of the New Jersey tornado of June 19, 1835, with its schedule of obser-
vations, was designed to furnish you with some of the evidences of rotation
found in the track of the tornado. Some distinguishing facts, which are thus
presented, I deem to have been overlooked by others, or at least misappre-
hended in their bearing. But, although this single sketch of tornado action
was thus mainly intended for your private use, yet, on penning some remarks
to accompany it, I was reminded of the claims which Professor Bache had
upon me, growing out of my published remarks on the discussion at New-
castle in 1838; and as the subject is not unlikely to engage attention at the
ensuing meeting in Glasgow, I have thrown into short compass some of the
considerations which appear to me to establish the whirling action.
From these, and various other observations in my possession, I trust to be
able successfully to meet (if necessary) any objections which have been, or
may be started against the whirlwind theory, as applicable to gales and tor-
nadoes. But for this, it is necessary that the objections should be made ina
printed and responsible form, in order that the true state of the case may not
be mistaken or evaded.
As regards the map and schedule of observations for the December storm,
perhaps I should not have taken the trouble to prepare them, had it not been
intimated to the public in reference to my former account of this storm, as it
appeared at sunset, that had the observations been given for the middle of the
day, the wind arrows at Nantucket, at Cape Cod, and at New Bedford, and
with the ship Morrison, would all have pointed in towards a central line.
It has long been my intention to prepare and publish a more full examina-
tion of the phenomena of the New Jersey tornado and other destructive whirl-
winds, but my avocations and habits are not the most favourable to the execu-
tion of this design. I beg you to make such disposition of the paper now sent
as you may deem most desirable and proper.
I am, with great respect,
Your most obedient servant,
W. C. REDFIELD.
The documents to which this letter refers were not received in time
to be laid before the meeting.
——__—.
On the Dew-Point. By Dr. ANDERSON.
The author explained the principles of the formula, which he de-
duced several years ago from the experiments of Dalton and Gay-
Lussac, for determining the various objects connected with the hygro-
metric state of the air; and showed, by means of tables which he had
constructed from it, the facility and despatch with which the absolute
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 4l
as well as the relative humidity of the atmosphere, together with the
dew-point, might be obtained. He concluded his observations on the
subject by pointing out the exact coincidence which holds between the
dew-point and the minimum nocturnal temperature; and proved that
the quantity of moisture in the state of vapour, which exists in the air
in every region of the earth, operates as a check upon the diminution
of temperature by radiation during the night; for this obvious reason,
that the transition of the aqueous vapour to the liquid state evolving
its latent caloric, warms the cireumambient air, and by giving birth, at
the same time, to clouds in the form of vesicular vapour, counteracts
the cooling processes to which the nocturnal air is exposed in the ab-
sence of the sun. This fact, so important in meteorology, affords an
illustration of the reason why the windward sides of continents and
large islands are warmer than their leeward sides, in the same parallel
of latitude; and why dry and parched tracts of land are always found
liable to severe cold during the night. It also furnishes an explanation
of the causes which occasion the deflections of the isothermal lines,
when taken in connexion with the modifications which these lines re-
ceive from geographical position and elevation above the earth’s surface,
On a Method of Prognosticating the probable mean Temperature of the
several Winter Months from that of corresponding Months in the
preceding Summer. By Grauam Hurcuinsoy, Esq.
From the slowness with which the increased temperature of summer
penetrates the surface of the ground, it occurred to the author, that
the last portion absorbed during the summer half of the year, and
which descends to the least depth below the surface, should be the
first portion given off during the winter half; and in like manner, that
the first portion absorbed during the summer half, and which must
descend to a greater depth below the surface than any other portion,
should be the last to be given off during the winter half; and agreeably
to the principle above stated, the months in which an absorption of heat
takes place, should have corresponding months of retrocession, or some
approximation thereto; and consequently that the mean atmospheric
temperature of any month in the summer half of the year, would afford
a means of prognosticating the mean temperature of its corresponding
’ month in the winter half, so far at least as that mean atmospheric tem-
perature depended upon the retrocession of heat absorbed during the
“previous summer half. The corresponding months of temperature
assumed by the author, are as follows :—
August has October following
yaly me ee for its corresponding month
May A January of temperature.
April .. February
If, then, August be warmer than its average, the mean atmospheric
42 REPORT—1840.
temperature of October following should likewise be warmer than its
average: on the contrary, if August be colder than average, October
following should likewise be colder than average. The same method
applies to the other months.
If there were no other cause for variations in the mean tempe-
rature of the winter months in different years, except differences
in the amount of solar heat absorbed during the months of cor-
responding temperature in the previous summer half of the year, the
mean temperature of each winter month would always bear a strict
relation to that of its corresponding previous summer month ; and,
consequently, if the one were known, the other could with certainty be
predicted. But there are other causes which diversify the mean tem-
perature of the same months in different years; and these being inde-
pendent of the one under consideration, may either be co-operating with
it, or acting in opposition to it. For instance, the proportion of north-
erly and southerly winds, and the amount of rain that falls during the
same winter months of different years, varies greatly. Whether, there-
fore, among so many other distinct causes of diversity of temperature,
the difference in the amount of solar heat absorbed during the summer
months does sensibly affect by its retrocession the mean atmospheric
temperature of the corresponding months of temperature during the
subsequent winter season, so as to afford any probable means of pro-
gnostication, can only be determined by reference to statistical tables of
the mean temperature of the different months in a succession of years.
From tables then referred to, Mr. Hutchinson said, it appeared
that in Scotland deviations in the mean temperature of the summer
months have a visible influence in producing like deviations in their
corresponding months of temperature in the subsequent winter half of
the year. It appeared also, that in the generality of years, the other
disturbing causes which diversify the temperature of the same winter
months in different years, such as variations in the direction and
force of the winds, &c. have less influence, when averaged for a
month, than we would be apt, @ priori, to suppose. And when the same
months, for a number of years, are grouped together, and compared as
is done in the tables, the disturbing causes, which may occasion a great
deviation from the mean temperature in any particular month in one
year, seem partially to neutralize each other, and render the influence
of unusual warmth or unusual coldness, in any summer month, in pro-
ducing a similar degree of unusual warmth or coldness in its corre-
sponding winter month, more apparent than could have been anti-
cipated.
The author concludes by some observations as to the most suitable
hour of registering temperature for the purpose of testing and applying
his speculations (preferring 11 a.m.), and notices as an inference from
the simple consideration of the ratio of solar radiation in summer and
winter, that the dependence of winter temperature on summer heat,
according to the plan of examining it already exemplified, should be
greater and more obvious the higher the latitude of the place of obser-
vation.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43
On Excessive Falls of Rain. By Professor Forses.
‘It appears, from the report of the Birmingham Meeting of the
British Association, as given in the Atheneum (No. 618), that doubt
has been thrown on the statement of the remarkable fall of rain
cited in my former report. I was not present at either of the dis-
cussions alluded to; I therefore take this opportunity of stating
the authority upon which these very surprising falls of rain were ad-
mitted into my report,—authority so ample, that, as an historian of
science, I could not have omitted them, improbable as they do most
certainly appear. The fall of thirty inches of rain within twenty-four
hours, took place at Genoa [not Geneva, as printed in the report] on
the 25th of October, 1822. An assertion to this eftect having appear-
ed in a Genoese newspaper, the editors of the Bibliotheque Universelle
wrote immediately to make the necessary inquiries as to an observation
so unprecedented. ‘The reply which they obtained from M. Pagano,
‘ observateur exact*,’ is given at length in their journal, and is
not, I think, the less satisfactory, because this result was obtained
by the most inartificial of rain-gauges. ‘ Deux sceaux de bois
presque cylindriques, dont l'un de vingt-quatre et l’autre de vingt-
six pouces de hauteur, qui m’avoient servi pour quelques expéri-
ences sur la vendange, étoient restés vides dans mon jardin. La
pluie de Vendredi 25 Octobre n’avoient pas encore cessé de tomber
que déja ils en étoient remplis.. He then proceeds to state on
what grounds he infers that four inches more of rain fell after the
larger vessel had been filled, making a total of thirty inches French
(thirty-two English); and adds a statement of several facts, to show
that the effects of the deluge in the neighbourhood bore a proportion
to the magnitude of the cause. M. Arago, quoting the result, adds:
‘Ce résultat inoui inspira des doutes 4 tous les météorologistes, on
soupconnait une erreur d’impression; mais M. Pagano, observateur
exact, a écrit aux rédacteurs de la Bubliothéque Universelle une lettre
qui met le fait hors de toute contestation}. Fortunately, however,
this local deluge (for it appears, by the letter of M. Pagano, to have
extended but a very short distance,) is nearly rivalled by a similar fact
recorded in the south of France by an experienced observer, who
seems to have been in the practice of measuring the fall of rain for
twenty-three years at least, M. Tardy de la Brossy, of Joyeuse, Dép. de
YArdéche. M. Arago, who records the observation, and gives it the
weight of his authority, does so in these words: ‘ Le 9 Octobre 1827,
_ dans lintervalle de vingt-deux heures, il est tombé, dans la méme
ville de Joyeuse 29 pouces 3 lignes d’eau (vingt-neuf pouces trois
lignes). J’écris le résultat en toutes lettres, afin qu’on ne croie pas 4 une
faute d'impression{.’ When I add, that these two results, surprising,
and perhaps unexampled as they are in the history of science, have, on
* Vol. xxii. partie Physique, p. 67.
+ Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxvii. 407.
t Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxxvi. 414.
44 REPORT—1840.
account of the testimony by which they are established, been received
not only in France and Switzerland, but in Germany and England, J
conceive that they are undoubtedly entitled to stand part of the history
of meteorology. I proceed to add a notice of a few other remarkable
falls of rain, though there is nothing on record comparable to the two
preceding ones. Flaugergues, the eminent meteorologist of Viviers,
obtained, on the 6th of September, 1801, 13 inches 2:3 lines (143
English inches) of rain in eighteen hours. On the 20th of May, 18927,
there fell at Geneva 6 inches of rain in three hours. At Perth, on the
3rd of August, 1829, there fell 4-5ths of an inch in half an hour. On
the 22nd of November, 1826, I observed at Naples a fall of 9-10ths of
an inch of rain and hail in thirty-seven minutes. Were the equatorial
records of the fall of rain as minute in respect of distribution as of total
amount, we should doubtless have records of enormous falls within
twenty-four hours; none so recorded, that I am aware of, approaches
the results at Genoa and Joyeuse. From the total quantities measured,
it is evident that the result for particular days must be enormous. Don
Antonio Lago observed at San Luis, Maranham (3° S. latitude), a
fall of 23 feet 4 inches 9:7 lines in a year. Roussin states (his account
is confirmed) that at Cayenne (5° N. lat.), in February, 1820, there
fell, in ten hours, 1°25 inch of rain; and between the Ist and 24th of
February, twelve feet 7 inches. From observations in the Ghauts, it
appears that, in the eastern hemisphere, in lat. 18° N., 302:21 inches
of rain have been measured ; a quantity exceeding that stated on the
authority of Roussin, and which was once considered almost incredible ;
and of this quantity (25:2 English feet), nearly 10 feet fell in the month
of July alone.”
Col. Sykes communicated the contents of a letter from India, from
Capt. Aston, one of the diplomatic agents of the government of Bom-
bay, in Kattywar, on the subject of a recent singular shower of grain.
He stated that full sixty or seventy years ago, a fall of fish, during a
storm in the Madras Presidency, had occurred. The fact is recorded
by Major Harriot, in his “ Struggles through Life,” as having taken
place while the troops were on the line of march, and some of the fish
falling upon the hats of the European troops, they were collected and
made into a curry for the general. This fact for probably fifty years
was looked upon as a traveller’s tale, but within the last ten years so
many other instances have been witnessed and publicly attested, that
the singular anomaly is no longer doubted. The matter to which he
had to call the attention of the Section was not to a fall of fish, but to
an equally remarkable circumstance, a shower of grain. This took
place on the 24th of March, 1840, at Rajket, in Kattywar, during one of
those thunder storms, to which that month is subject; and it was found
that the grain had not only fallen upon the town, but upon a consider-
able extent of country and round the town. Captain Aston collected
a quantity of the seed and transmitted it to Col. Sykes. The natives
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45
flocked to Capt. Aston, to ask for his opinion of this phenomenon; for
not only did the heavens raining grain upon them excite terror, but
the omen was aggravated by the fact that the seed was not one of the
cultivated grains of the country, but was entirely unknown to them.
The genus and species was not immediately recognizable by some
botanists, to whom it was shown, but it was thought to be either a
spartium or a vicia. A similar force to that which elevates fish into
the air, no doubt operated on this occasion; and this new fact corrobo-
rates the phenomena, the effects of which had been previously wit-
nessed.
New Experimental Researches on Rain. By Joun Puiu.irs, F.R.S.
The author proposed, by a new train of researches on the quantities
of rain received on horizontal surfaces at different heights above the
ground, by a contemporaneous series of experiments on the direction
and angle of inclination of the descending lines of rain drops, and by
contemporaneous registration of wind, temperature and moisture, to
furnish additional data of importance in the theory of rain. Referring
to the results obtained in his former discussion of three years’ observa-
tions on the quantities of rain on York Minster (212 ft. above ground),
the Yorkshire Museum (42 ft.), and on the ground, made by Professor
Phillips and Mr. William Gray, the author noticed the statements of
Prof. Bache, Dr. Daubeny, and others, as to the inequality of the re-
ceipt of rain about the angles of a building and at small heights above
it, in consequence of local aerial deflexions; and though in these re-
spects the experimental results obtained in the three years’ York series
appeared liable to small objection, many reasons of importance decided
that in this new course of experiments, destined to last many years and
to include a variety of contemporaneous records, the rain gauges should
be placed in an open ground. It was further determined to place them
at heights above the ground, corresponding to the depths below the
surface to which the thermometers of Arago, Quetelet and Forbes, are
sunk; i. e. to 0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 French feet. At present there are
placed in the author's garden-ground four gauges at heights of 0, 3, 6,
12 French feet. The method of observation is of a peculiarly easy de-
scription, so that in the midst of rain the momentary rapidity of the fall
of rain can be perfectly ascertained in all the gauges. For example, in
a very heavy shower, the maximum rapidity of rain accumulation, was
0:010 inch in two minutes of time = 0°300 inch in an hour. The gauges
are, in common language, of the same size; but the author, not trusting
to this supposed equality, makes the four gauges pass through a circle
of positions, so that at the end of a year about 12 changes of position
will have occurred, and the error of size in any one or more of the gauges
be equally distributed over the various positions, and the registration be
finally correct, without any applied calculation. The results, from June
1 to September 3 inclusive, in which period the changes of the gauges
have not been sufficient to equalize their errors, are—
46 REPORT—1840.
12 feet above ground...... ican sereesnena +. 8206
6 feet above ZrOUNA.........seeeseeeeeerers 8249
3 feet above Ground......s.eseesseaseeeeees 8314
O feet above ground.........++sss.e+ seeeee 8408
During this period it has sometimes happened that more rain fell in the
upper gauges, a circumstance apparently dependent on the dryness of the air,
which has been very remarkable in the early part of the period in question.
1. 2. 3. 4.
June 30 1575 1547 1509 1508
July 12 2018 2030 2046 2022
Aug. 14 2347 2315 2300 2260
Sept. 3 2468 2422 2394 2416
8408 8314 8249 8206
maximum rate 0100 in 2’ = 300 in one hour.
In the second part of his communication the author describes a new
construction of rain gauge for the purpose of determining the direction
in which rain comes, and the angle of inclination at which it descends.
For this purpose a compound gauge is constructed, having five equal
receiving funnels and tubes; one with a vertical tube and horizontal
aperture, the other four with tubes recurved so as to present the open-
ings of the funnels in four vertical planes directed to four quarters of
the horizon (see diagram),
where / is the horizontal funnel, v', v", v'’, three of the four vertical
openings, and ec’ ec" cl’, three corresponding cocks for letting off the
water into a graduated tube.
The rain which falls in the funnels A, v! vv!" v'" being carefully
measured after each shower, the observer is able immediately to deter-
mine the direction and inclination of the rain in each of the following
cases :—
1. If the rain has fallen in a direction exactly coinciding with any one
of the vertical funnels, that and the horizontal funnel alone receive any
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47
rain. The direction thus known by observation, the angle of inclina-
tion of the descending rain from the vertical is easily calculated.
2. If the rain has fallen (in quantities g and g') in two of the verti-
eal gauges as well as in h (in quantity H), then the direction of the
rain, intermediate to the positions of the two receiving vertical gauges,
may be easily calculated (by considering g and q! as sine and cosine ;
the ratio between them being = cotangent of the angle by which the
rain direction deviates from that of the gauge which receives most
rain). This known, the quantity (Q) which would have been received, in
a vertical funnel directly opposed to the rain, is also calculable, being
=V@P+q"; and, finally, the angle of inclination from the vertical,
H
at which the rain descends, is calculable, its cotangent being = ai
Observations with this instrument have been made satisfactorily for
some months, and the author has found the angle of inclination of de-
scending rain to vary from 0 to 6°, 13°, 17°, and in one case to 35°,
without perceiving that these very unequal inclinations had any sensible
effect on the relation of the quantities of rain received in the gauges
which are placed at different elevations,
On the Formation of Rain. By G. A. Rowertt.
The author states his hypothesis, that vapour on rising carries with
it its proportion of electricity according to its expanded surface, and on
being condensed, becomes, if insulated, surcharged with electricity ;
this buoys up the vapour by its lightness, and prevents ‘the for-
mation of rain by its repulsive power, and, on its escape, the par-
ticles of vapour attract each other and form rain. He then explains
the phenomenon of rain, as follows :—That hills and mountains being
more subject to rain than plains, is owing to their attracting the elec-
tricity from the clouds or invisible vapour; that the rain accompany-
are piled to a great height, and that any violent commotion in such
_acloud would cause such heavy rains as follow flashes of lightning ;
_that the successive Slashes of lightning JSrom the same cloud may be
from vapour becoming more and more condensed, thus causing suc-
€essive accumulations of electricity on the surface of the vapour, or
Mulations; that the change in weight of the atmosphere previous to
and during rain, is caused by the electricity passing from the cloud or
invisible vapour to the earth, displacing the heavier air, and thus causing
48 REPORT—1840.
the atmosphere to be lighter; that the greater quantity of rain falling
on the earth than at any elevation in the same locality, is occasioned
by each falling drop of rain attracting to itself every particle of invi-
sible vapour which may be floating within the sphere of its electrical
attraction, and thus increasing its bulk.
The paper concludes with proposing the experiment of raising elec-
trical conductors to the regions of the clouds by means of balloons;
which, in the author's opinion, would withdraw the electricity, and cause
clouds and rain to be formed.
On the Cause of the Aurora, §c. By G A. Rowe tt.
The phenomenon of the aurora is explained thus :—The vapour
rising at the equator, being greatly expanded, ascends to a great height
with a great accumulation of electricity ; is thence carried by the cur-
rents of air towards the poles, where the electricity again escapes to the
earth and rushes along its surface, and the vapour in the lower parts
of the atmosphere towards the equator is again carried off, thus cau-
sing currents of electricity ; this circulation continues freely while the
air at the poles is damp; but during the severe frosts of winter in the
frigid regions, the air, near the earth’s surface, is nearly or quite dry,
and the aurora is exhibited by the electricity passing through this
non-conducting medium.
By these currents, and the supposition that magnetism is owing to
the attraction which the magnet has for electricity, which from some
peculiarity can pass through it in one direction only, and that there be
two sorts of electricity, one predominating in each hemisphere, the va-
rious phenomena of magnetism are explained thus:—The direction
of the needle is owing to its being attracted in the direction from which
the streams passing through it are derived, the streams in this hemi-
sphere converging to the north pole, and diverging or escaping from
the south pole to gain their equilibrium ; that the dip is caused by the
currents derived from the earth being stronger than those from the
air and vapour above the needle; that the variation is owing to the
greater quantity of electricity received by the earth at the magnetic
poles, diverging east and west to gain its equilibrium in passing towards
the equator; that the probable cause of the great quantity being re-
ceived at these parts of the earth, is from the height of land conduct-
ing the electricity to the earth, or because the temperature is constantly
lowest at these points of the earth, thus causing a draught of air, vapour,
and electricity, from the warmer parts of the earth through the upper
parts of the atmosphere ; and that the daily variation is occasioned by —
the greater or lesser formation of vapour, according to the direct action
of the sun on different parts of the earth.
The repulsion of similar and attraction of opposite poles of the
magnet is thus explained :—The needle is kept in its magnetic meridian ¥
t
by the converging streams to the north pole: now if the north pole of
ae a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
a magnet be brought near the north pole of the needle, the streams on
that side are intercepted by the magnet, while the streams on the op-
posite side attract the needle with the appearance of its being repelled
by the magnet; or, if the south poles be brought near, they appear to
repel, by the diverging streams being attracted in opposite directions
to gain their equilibrium ; but the opposite poles attract each other by
the streams from the south pole of the one being attracted by the north
pole of the other magnet.
The probability that magnetism is owing to the passing of some
fluid through the magnet, is shown by the fracture of the magnet or
by magnetizing a ring, which shows no signs of magnetism until pales
and which again disappears on the broken parts. being brought into
contact, which is explained by supposing the fluid to circulate within
the ring, and therefore no magnetism can be exhibited till the line of
continuity be broken.
The author supports his opinion by general reference to the obser-
vations on the aurora, &c., in the Appendix to Captain Franklin’s
Journey to the Polar Seas, and concludes with proposing the experi-
ments of raising electrical conductors to the height of the clouds in
the frigid regions during the frosts in winter, which in his opinion
would cause the aurora to be exhibited, and lead to important discove-
ries in the science of magnetism.
Observations on the Tides in the Harbour of Glasgow, and the Velocity
of the Tidal Wave in the Estuary of the River Clyde, between Gilas-
gow and Port Glasgow. By Wit.1Am Ba tp, F.R.S.E., MRLA.,
&e.
The first series of observations made on the tides was commenced
the 26th of April, 1839, and extended to the 1st of October, 1839 ; it
‘has been tabulated, and contains 158 observations of the rise and fall
of the tides. It is necessary to observe that during the first portion
of the time these tide observations were only made during the day,
and did not extend to the night tides. These 158 observations assign
a mean rise and fall of tide in the harbour of Glasgow of 6 feet 7:20
inches.
The number of tide observations made from the 1st of October, 1839,
to the 27th of August, amounts to more than 1200. These are tabulated
and divided into months, but such of the tides as have been much dis-
turbed by floods have been rejected.
The mean rise and fall of these 1213 tides, assigns an average of
6 feet 8°98 inches.
Mr. Bald presented tables in which were contained the principal
results arrived at, by comparing the periods of new moons, first quarter,
full moon, and last quarter, and diagrams representing the observations
in a continuous line. He has also drawn out eight sections, showing the
perpendicular rise and fall of the tide for every fifteen minutes in the
harbour of Glasgow, at Clyde Bank, ‘alias Bay, and Port Glasgow.
1840.
50 REPORT—1840.
He has also measured the velocity of the ebbing and flowing of the
tidal current in various parts of the River Clyde, from Glasgow Har-
bour to Port Glasgow.
It appears from these observations that the tidal wave runs from Port
Glasgow to Bowling at a rate or velocity of 14°56 miles per hour; from
Bowling Bay to Clyde Bank at a rate of only 6°82 miles per hour; but
from Clyde Bank to Glasgow Harbour at a rate of 10°85 miles per hour.
The diminished velocity between Bowling Bay and Clyde Bank arises
from the channel of the river being more crooked in that part than in
any other portion of the River Clyde, thereby showing the great neces-
sity of straightening and improving it.
On the Theory of Waves. By the Rev. Professor KELLAND.
The objects of the present communication are twofold : first, to pre-
sent the subject of the Theory of Waves in its present form, and then
to point out the difficulty which appears likely to impede its progress.
1. The object of the theory is to account, on mechanical considera-
tions, for such phenomena as are presented by the destruction of
equilibrium of a fluid, and to obtain and to interpret mathema-
tical expressions which give the velocity, form, impulses, and other
circumstances of the motion. Our problem, then, divides itself into
two parts; 1, the determination of the conditions which are pre-
sented by the nature of the fluid on the hypothesis that it is in motion ;
2, the investigation of the effects which will immediately follow the
disturbance of equilibrium. The first of these problems alone pre-
sents no considerable difficulty ; at least the difficulties are not such
as to have deterred many writers from engaging to solve it. Laplace
led the way, and was followed by Lagrange, Poisson, and others. As
far as the author knows, however, all the writers on the subject con-
fine themselves to two cases, viz. when the depth of the fluid is either
very great or very small, in comparison with the length of a wave.
Aided by their discoveries, he attempted, in a memoir read before the
Royal Society of Edinburgh last year, and published in vol. xiv. of
their Transactions, to supply the deficiency, and to obtain the equa-
tions of motion of a regular set of waves, without imposing any restric-
tion on the conditions. This was effected by assuming that a recipro-
cating function can always be expanded in a series of sines and cosines
of multiples of the space through which the whole series of values
extends. This assumption, which is frequently made by Fourier and
others, leads directly to the complete solution of the problem. The
author has since applied himself to the completion of this part of the
subject by solving the problem in cases in which the depth is variable,
which had only been partially executed before. In the first place, he
considers that case in which the depth is variable in the direction of the
breadth, but uniform in that of the length. In his former memoir he
contented himself with an approximate solution, founded on a particu-
lar hypothesis. The results, approximate as they confessedly were,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51
agreed remarkably well with the experiments of Mr. Russell. His
present more complete formule are such, that, for all cases in which
the form of the canal is expressed by an equation between a power of
y and a power of 2, they lead precisely to the results which he pre-
viously obtained. One remarkable circumstance he pointed out,
which is this; that if the form of the wave can be expressed by a
single function, the velocity is the same in the middle of the canal as
at the edges. Perhaps this apparently anomalous conclusion may arise
from the circumstance that we assume the same form of wave to per-
tain to all parts of the canal. Another result of his analysis is, that
the height of the wave increases very rapidly as we proceed towards
the edge of the vessel, to the detriment, as it would appear, of the
height of the centre. i
He next endeavours to obtain the motion of a wave in a canal, the
depth of which is continually but slowly varying in the direction of
the length. He here employs the method of the variation of parame-
ters, and obtains the following results :—
1. That the length of the wave is in direct proportion to the depth.
2. That the velocity of transmission at any point varies as the square
root of the depth.
3. The elevation of the crest of the wave varies reciprocally as the
total depth of the fluid.
Lastly, he discusses the problem which Messrs. Poisson and Cauchy
had solyed for the particular case, where the depth is very small or
very great. It is well known that these philosophers undertook the
solution of this problem in competition for the prize offered by the
French Institute. As neither of these memoirs is printed exactly as it
was originally delivered in, it would be hard for us to draw any con-
clusions from the judgement pronounced by the judges. We know
that M. Fourier found fault with Poisson’s solution on the ground that
the function was limited in its value. The prize was accordingly
adjudged to Cauchy. The plan which Poisson adopts, it is very easy .
to understand ; viz. he finds a solution of the general equation of wave
motion, and arranges it so as to make it coincide with a formula given
by Fourier, which expresses the relation between a function and a par-
ticular value of the function.
M. Cauchy, on the other hand, demonstrates a formula slightly dif-
fering from Fourier’s, and by means of it, he tgo expresses the general
function in terms of the particular. Now it happens that M. Cauchy’s
formula does not render necessary any limitation as to the depth of
the fluid. Indeed, M. Cauchy himself discovered this, and published it
in a note, but he never, to the author’s knowledge, made any further
use of it. Some of the results obtained by both philosophers, are found
by the author to be true without all the limitations which they have
imposed. But there is one point of the utmost importance, viz. the
determination of the length of the wave, for which their results are
not satisfactory. Those who are acquainted with the analysis employed
by the philosophers to whom he has referred, will remember that the
integrals to be obtained may, by arranging in different forms, be made
E2
a
52 REPORT—1840.
to express different motions. Thus the ondes dentelées, and the waves
of constant transmission, are alike expressed, and their length is deter-
mined in a function of the disturbance, &c. Now it appears to the
author, that the same expansion which leads to the waves of constant
transmission, ought, when the circumstances of the motion are assumed
to be such as to admit of it, to lead also to the wave of solitary trans-
lation. If it do not, then it would appear that the theorems of Fourier
and Cauchy cannot give in terms of x a discontinuous function of the
nature required, or such that its differentials with respect to # and y
shall vanish at the same time. If, on the other hand, the theorems
do suffice to express the requisite function, then shall we expect to find
not the velocity only, but the complete form of the wave, which results
from a given disturbance. We shall, in fact, be furnished with the
length of the wave. It ought to be stated, that the author has sought
in vain to deduce it from the equation which gives the velocity of
transmission, and with as little success from the value of the discon-
tinuous function which he used in his first memoir; but with the gene-
ral formula itself, although he has not positively discovered the impos-
sibility of discovering the thing sought for, he has yet found consider-
able difficulties. The principal of these is the multitude of series
which must be accurately summed before the equations can be formed.
He was in consequence led to point out such difficulties to the Asso-
ciation, with the hope that some member might take up the subject,
and, by removing them, render the subject susceptible of application
to the theory of the tides*.
On the Agency of Sound. By Mr. Suanv.
The author commenced his paper by remarks on the neglect mani-
fested toward preserving or assisting cur hearing; and having laid
down, in a series of propositions, his views regarding the origin
and conduction of sound, observes, that it is difficult to reason on the
operations of nature and the motions and influence of matter not per-
ceptible to the eye. In the present case, however, we are enabled to
judge partly by our ocular faculty and in part from our sense of hear-
ing. ‘That the vibratory and undulatory or oscillatory motions are not
only prevalent in the musical string, but in all matter in a state of
agitation, is indicated by the following facts :—1st. In a musical string
of a given diameter and tension, when set in motion, the extent of the
undulations is in the ratio of the length of the string—each undulation
gives out a distinct sound, conformable in duration to the extent of
the undulation. @2nd. In the walls and ceiling of an apartment these
principles of action are also equally apparent ; wherever there is an
extended surface in any one place, the undulations are also extended,
and these produce distinct sounds in the ratio of their extent. If the
* At the request of the General Committee, Professor Kelland has under-
‘taken to draw up a report on this subject, to be presented to the Association.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53
reflections of the human voice, by this means, be prolonged, the re-
flection of one letter falls upon the original sound of another letter,
and occasions as much derangement as if one syllable or word were
intermixed with another syllable or word ; as one letter differs in sound
from another letter as much as do syllables or words. This is one
great and leading error in the construction of places for public speak-
ing; and it is alone sufficient to show how fallacious the idea is of
relying on the mere form of an apartment, without attending to and
regulating this action, in not only the walls and ceiling, but in every
reflecting body in an apartment, especially in glass, which is the most
sonorous material. 3rd. The same rules of action are exhibited in
water. In the ocean, the reach of sound is regulated according to the
expanse of water: where there is an indent in the land, the wave is
extended, and the sound it produces is prolonged. Were this action
regulated by the current of air only, the waves would pass in one uni-
form direction; but this is not the case. 4th. These principles of
action are, however, more perfectly defined in the atmosphere, through
which sounds are transmitted with least change, and are preserved
separate and apart from each other.
Having in view mainly the economy of speech in apartments, Mr. Shand
stated the following facts and reasoning: An individual who is so deaf
that he is insensible to upwards of a thousand people singing in a church,
on applying one end of a forked piece of wood to his teeth, and the
other end to the ledge of the division of the seat before him, is enabled by
this to hear and join in the tune. Now it is not merely the partial agency
of this wood that is to be considered, as, by the spread of the atmosphe-
ric vibrations, the voice sets in motion every atom of every solid in the
church, and it is distributed throughout these with more rapidity and
intensity than by the air, which is incapable of communicating the
same measure of vibratory influence at any one given point; and it
evinces that, being the more rapid and profuse conductor, it is the
wood that is most rapidly set in motion, and communicates action and
sound to the air ina room. If these observations be correct, nothing
can be more erroneous than to suppose that speech can be regulated
within the walls of an apartment without regulating the action of the
solids, which predominantly govern it in this case. If sound predomi-
nates more in the fibre of the wood of the stethoscope than in the
a€rial passage in it, must not the same rule apply in a church, where
the seats and lathing are almost invariably of pine ?
Mr. Shand proceeded to remark on the peculiarities with regard to
sound which he had observed in certain buildings. In the Albion Church,
in Glasgow, he heard the speaker with perfect distinctness when he spoke
in his natural tone, as his voice was mostly reflected by the walls, which
are of solid masonry ; but when his voice was raised so as to act with
more force on the ceiling, the longer excursions and undulations of
the then hollow ceiling produced prolonged reflections, which drowned
speech. In St. Andrew’s Church very different effects are produced
in the galleries and lower part of it. In the galleries the ceilings are
54 REPORT—1840.
low and curved, and the voice, acting within the curvatures, produces
prolonged and concentrated reflections (as in all such cases) inimical
to speech ; the windows are much exposed to the voice, and the divi-
sions of the seats rise too much above each other, all which occasion
lengthened reverberations, to the prejudice of speech. The asperities
presented by the ornaments on the walls, and the capitals of two ranges
of Corinthian pillars, occasion harsh reflections, which are unpleasant.
All these defects are, however, lost in a great measure in the lower
part of the building, where little inconvenience is experienced. In Dr.
Lee’s church, in St. Giles’s, Edinburgh, in which the General Assem-
bly met, but were obliged to abandon it as their place of meeting, the
arrangements are such that the preacher is very indistinctly heard at
the distance of twenty feet, and there are two galleries at the extremi-
ties of the church which are locked up as useless. Similar causes pro-
duce similar effects in St. Luke’s Church in Liverpool. Here there is
a locomotive pulpit, for the purpose of rolling the preacher from place
to place ; but there is even a gross evil in this vehicle, which accom-
panies it and the speaker to whatever point he may be conveyed. The
canopy over his head is a deep hollow body, formed of thin deal ; it is
literally a drum, as may be understood by striking it, and produces
deep hollow sounds, operating in a transeverse direction, and most
prejudicially on the voice of a speaker. The author notices several
other cases, and states that it is not by creating additional or increa-
sing reflected sounds, but by bringing the action of the reflecting sur-
rounding solids to move in time with the mechanism by which speech
is produced, and by this means, reflected sounds to accord with every
distinct letter that the speaker pronounces; it is by shortening the
action, and limiting the time of each distinct reflection from the glass,
thin deal boards, &c., to the time in which each letter is formed by the
speaker. This, in fact, however simple it may seem, must be effected,
otherwise no form in the walls of an apartment for public speaking can
accomplish what is necessary for the economy of speech.
On a Method of approximating to the Value of the Roots of Numerical
Equations. By Mr.Granam.
On the Expressibility of the Roots of Algebraic Equations,
By Mr. Peres.
Since the function of the coefficients which expresses the general
root of an equation must be such as to represent all the roots, the
author seeks to discover that particular function of its quantities.
After proving that various combinations will not suffice, he shows that
certain others will do so in certain cases.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55
Notice of Mr. Fowler’s new Calculating Machine. Communicated by
Professor Airy.
The origin of this machine was to facilitate calculations of the pro-
portions in which the several divisions of a poor-law district in Devon-
shire were to be assessed. The chief peculiarity of the machine is,
that instead of our common decimal notation of numbers, a ternary
notation is used; the digits becoming not tenfold but threefold more
valuable as they were placed to the left; thus, 1 and 2 expressed one
and two as in common, but 1 0 expressed (not ten, but) three, 1 1, four,
1 2, five; but again 2 can be expressed by 3, with | taken from it.
Now, let 1, written thus, with a small bar above it, mean that it is
subtractive; then 1 2 and ¢ 1 are the same in effect, both meaning five ;
and, for a similar reason, replacing 2 by its equivalent 1 1, we have
five written in three several ways: 1 2, or 21, or 117; the last is the
form used. It is obvious, that by an assemblage of unit digits thus posi-
tively or negatively written, any number may be expressed. Thus the
number which decimally expressed is 70, becomes in the ternary system
2121: and 2 being equal to 1 T, this may be made 10111. In the ma-
chine, levers were contrived to bring forward the digits 1 or T, as they
were required in the process of calculation. A full description of the
machine, drawn up by Professor De Morgan, was presented by the
author.
On a Mode of solving Cubic Equations. By Mr. Wausu.
New Logarithmic Calculations and Views. By Wm. Hovyte.
On a new Construction of Barometer. By P. McFar.ane.
The author proposed to substitute the weighing of a mercurial
column, for the measure of its length, and by contrivances in accord-
ance with this principle, to reduce or extinguish the dispreportion which
exists between the common barometrical linear measures, and the
variations of physical condition on which the change of these measures
depends.
On the four daily Fluctuations of the Barometer. By Mr. Esry.
When the sun rises the air begins to expand by heat; this expansion
of the air, especially of that near the surface of the earth, lifts the
strata of air above, which will produce a reaction, causing the barome-
ter to rise ; and the greatest rise of the barometer will take place when
the increase of heat in the lower parts of the atmosphere is the most
rapid, probably about 9 or 10 a.m. The barometer from that time will
56 REPORT—1840.
begin to fall, and at the moment when the air is parting with its heat
as fast as it receives it, the barometer will indicate the exact weight of
the atmosphere. The barometer, however, will continue to descend
on account of the diminishing tension of the air and consequent sink-
ing upon itself as the evening advances ; and its greatest depression
will be at the moment of the most rapid diminution of temperature,
which will be about 4 or 5 o'clock.
At this moment the barometer will indicate a less pressure than the
true weight of the atmosphere. The whole upper parts of the atmo-
sphere have now acquired a momentum downwards, which will cause
the barometer to rise above the mean as the motion diminishes, which
must take place some time in the night. This rise will be small, how-
ever, compared with that at 9 or 10 am. As the barometer now
stands above the mean, it must necessarily descend to the mean at the
moment when it is neither increasing nor diminishing in temperature,
which will bea little before sunrise. If this is the true explanation of
the four fluctuations of the barometer in a day, it will follow that the
morning-rise ought to be greater at considerable elevations, provided
they are not too great, because some of the air will be lifted above the
place of observation; and such was found to be the case by Col.
Sykes in India.
On the Meteorology of Perth. By Dr. ANDERSON.
Perth is elevated about 30 feet above the mean level of the ocean,
and situate in lat. 56° 23' 40" N., long. 3° 26' 20". W. Dr. Anderson
stated that the magnetic variation, which seemed to have reached its
maximum in 1815, was 26° 54’ W. in Nov. 1836; and that the mag-
netic dip was 72° 10' in May 1838. The mean barometrical pressure,
deduced from a period of six years of consecutive observations, con-
tinued from 1829 to 1835, was 29°802, the time of observation being
nine o'clock in the morning. By a comparison of the means of each
month, for the several years, with the mean of the entire period, it ap-
peared that the means in defect greatly exceeded those in excess ; from
which he concluded, that the disturbing causes which produce a dimi-
nution of atmospherical pressure are more sudden, as well as more
powerful in their operation, than such as give birth to an opposite con-
dition,—a result which implies that the causes contributing to a low
state of the barometer are of limited extent and partial influence,—
and may be explained by referring them partly to the diminution of
aerial elasticity occasioned by a rapid condensation of aqueous vapour,
and partly to the combustion, by electricity, of large portions of car-
buretted hydrogen in the upper regions of the atmosphere over the
place of observation. Hence he inferred that an arithmetical mean be-
tween two observations, the one expressing the highest and the other
the lowest height of the mercury, will rarely give the true average
height for the mean interval of time between the observations.
The mean annual range of the barometer at Perth, derived from a
period of nine consecutive years, is 2189 inches; but the extreme
i ie 2 a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5F.
range for the same time, or the difference between the highest and
lowest altitude of the barometer, was found to be 2°821 inches. The
fluctuations or deviations from the mean state are greatest in December
and smallest in August. The mean temperature of Perth, derived
from the maxima and minima of each day, according to observations
continued from the beginning of 1829 to the end of 1834 inclusive, is
48°14. The mean obtained from the annual means, by observations
taken at nine o'clock in the morning, and half-past eight in the even-
ing, is 47°9; and the mean of the annual extremes, derived from the
greatest heat and greatest cold, for each year, is 48°25. Lastly, the
mean of the highest and lowest temperature for the entire period of
years is 47°-5. By a comparison of the mean temperature of the seve-
ral months, it appears, that in different years the month of July pos-
sesses the greatest uniformity of temperature, and the month of January
the least. The temperature of March, April and May, especially that
belonging to the last of these months, has a considerable range in dif-
ferent seasons, on account of the variable winds in spring; and the
temperature of August and September seems to be still more fluctua-
ting, a circumstance that occasions the late and early harvests, which
happen in different years. The lowest temperature, within the period
to which the above observations refer, occurred on the 26th of Decem-
ber, 1830, when the instrument stood at 16°, and the greatest heat
took place on the 28th of July of the same year, when the thermome-
ter was at 79°. The greatest annual range for that year was therefore
63°; but the mean annual range for the entire period was only 57°5.
The most abrupt change of temperature occurs between the middle of
October and the middle of November, and to this must probably be
ascribed the increase of pulmonary complaints, which takes place at
that gloomy and disagreeable season.
The mean hygrometric state of the air at Perth, is when the atmosphere
is charged with about four-fifths of the entire quantity of moisture it is
capable of holding in the state of vapour at the mean temperature. The
dew-point, which corresponds almost exactly with the minimum tempe-
rature, in the case of the different months, is depressed about 6° or 7°
below the mean temperature in winter, and about 8° or 9° below it in
summer. The month of April possesses the smallest relative humidity,
and the month of November the greatest; the former month being, in the
ordinary acceptation of the term, the driest, and the latter the dampest
month of the year. The mean quantity of rain which falls at Perth, de-
rived from a period of six consecutive years, viz. from the beginning of
1829 to the close of 1834, is 30°89 inches. The greatest anomalies,
with respect to the quantity of rain which falls in different seasons, hap-
pen in July, in which month the difference between the greatest and
least quantity is 4°65 inches ; and the smallest occur in November, when
the difference is only *$1 inch. The maximum quantity of rain for a
period of sixteen years is 31-01 in., and the minimum quantity 15-59 in.
The annual number of fine days, deduced from a period of six conse-
cutive years, is 253 ; and the number of days on which there was either
rain or snow, 112; the former being more than double of the latier. -
58 REPORT—1840.
CHEMISTRY.
On the most important Chemical Manufactures carried on in Glasgow
and the Neighbourhood. By Professor Tuomas TuHomson, of
Glasgow, F.R.S.
“ Glasgow being the seat of a great many interesting and important
chemical manufactures, it occurred to me (said Professor Thomson)
that it might be of advantage to those members of the Chemical
Section, who have come from a distance, to give a short catalogue of
the most important of these manufactures, that they might know what
the information is which they may expect, and where they are to look
for it.”
1. Lron.—The smelting of iron has been practised in the neighbour-
hood of Glasgow for more than fifty years. When the late Mr. Dun-
lop, of the Clyde Iron Works, first became proprietor of those works,
perhaps the only one then in the neighbourhood, the produce was only
fourteen tons a-week, or 728 tons a-year. At present the quantity of
iron smelted in Glasgow and the neighbourhood cannot be much less
than 200,000 tons, which approaches to a fifth part of the whole iron
smelted in Great Britain. The ore from which the iron is smelted is
the carbonate of iron, or clay iron-stone, as it is usually called by
mineralogists. This ore is very abundant all round Glasgow, and
especially in the neighbourhood of Airdrie, where the principal works
are now situated. Fortunately for the smelters, the iron-stone and
coal-beds are associated together, the iron-stone either occurring in
nodules or beds along with the coal. The rapid increase of iron smelt-
ing has been the consequence of a discovery of Mr. Nielson, manager of
the gas-works. This is now universally known under the name of the hot
blast. The air is heated to more than 607° before it enters the furnace,
by passing through a range of heated pipes. Under this treatment, it
is found that the coals may be used without previous coking ; and that
instead of seven tons of coal for every ton of cast iron, three tons, or
even two and a half tons will suffice. There is also a diminution in
the quantity of limestone necessary, and the produce of iron per week
from the same furnace is considerably increased. It is said, that
neither in Staffordshire nor in Wales is the hot blast attended with
the same saving of fuel. Till of late years, no bar iron was made in
Scotland, the smelters confining themselves to cast iron. About three
years ago, Mr. Dixon commenced the manufacture of bar iron near
St. Rollox, but, after some time, he abandoned the manufactory. It
is now conducted on a great scale, by Mr. Wilson, at Dundyvon, and
by Mr. Dixon, at Glasgow, and perhaps by other iron-masters. The
heat raised in the puddling furnace is much greater than it was in
Staffordshire, when Dr. Thomson witnessed the process there about
twenty-five years ago. There is an interesting manufactory of steel at
Holytown, not far from Airdrie, where the smelting and casting of steel
may be seen : the heat necessary for this process is greater than for any
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59
other. It is curious, that the clay in the neighbourhood answers
perfectly for making crucibles for cast steel; but it does not answer so
well as Stourbridge clay for making glasshouse pots. On analysing the
two clays, it was found that the Garnkirk contained much more
alumina and less silica than the Stourbridge ; showing that glass in
fusion acts more powerfully on alumina than on silica.
2. Another manufacture of importance, and which is indebted to
Glasgow for the state of perfection which it has reached, is that of
sulphuric acid. It was begun by Dr. Roebuck, at Preston Pans, about
the year 1763, but it is not more than twenty years since his manu-
factory was abandoned. The sulphuric acid works at St. Rollox, on
the banks of the Monkland canal, were begun about forty-five yearsago.
They were at first upon a very small scale, though they now probably
are the largest of the kind in Europe. Dr. Roebuck’s method was to
mix together sulphur and saltpetre, and after setting the mixture on
fire, to introduce it into a leaden vessel or chamber, at the bottom of
which there was a quantity of water. This method was not ceconomical.
A portion of the sulphur would unite with the potash of the saltpetre,
and form with it a sulphuret, and probably a portion of the sulphuric
acid formed would also unite to the potash and form a sulphate.
When Messrs. Knox, Tennent, and Macintosh established their works
at St. Rollox, they separated the sulphur from the saltpetre ; the sul-
phur was burnt over a stove, and an iron cup, containing the requisite
quantity of saltpetre, mixed with the requisite quantity of sulphuric
acid, was placed over the burning sulphur. By this contrivance the
sulphur was completely converted into sulphurous acid, and the whole
of the nitric acid carried along with it into the leaden chambers. The
size of the leaden chambers was yradually increased, and the substitu-
tion of steam for the water formerly placed at the bottom of the cham-
bers, was a vast improvement. The acid which collects at the bottom
of the chambers has now a specific gravity of 1°75, or it is a compound
of one atom anhydrous acid, and two atoms water. This acid is con-
centrated by heating it in a platinum still till the second atom of water
is driven off. When this manufacture is at full work, the quantity of
sulphuric acid made in it exceeds 300,000]bs. avoirdupois per week.
When he first began to purchase sulphuric acid, about forty-five years
ago, it cost 8d. per pound ; the present price is under a penny a pound.
3. One of the great purposes to which sulphuric acid is applied at
St. Rollox, is the manufacture of bleaching powder, or chloride of lime,
as it is now called. When the mode of bleaching by chlorine was
introduced into Great Britain, by Mr. Watt, in 1787, the very offensive
smell and deleterious effects of that gas upon the workmen, was a
formidable objection to its use. Various methods were tried to remove
this objection. It was found that if potash or soda was dissolved in the
water before it was impregnated with the chlorine gas, the disagreeable
smell was destroyed ; but, unfortunately, this addition destroyed at the
same time the bleaching power of the gas. At last, Messrs. Knox,
Tennent, and Macintosh discovered that if lime were mixed with the
water before it was mixed with the gas, the disagreeable smell was
60 REPORT—1840.
obviated, while the bleaching power still remained uninjured. They
took out a patent for this discovery ; but it was infringed upon by the
Lancashire bleachers; a law-suit was the consequence, and the patent
was destroyed. It was then that Mr. Macintosh tried whether chlorine
would not be absorbed by slacked lime. The trial succeeded: a com-
pound was formed, which readily dissolved in water, and the solution
of which possessed great bleaching power; a patent was taken out for
the manufacture of this dry powder, which the patentees distinguished
by the name of bleaching powder. This patent was not infringed ;
the sale of it was at first small, and it was overlooked by the bleachers.
The consequence was, that the patentees had leisure to perfect their
method of preparing it, and to become able to sell it at so low a price,
that it gradually superseded all the old methods of bleaching by chlo-
rine. The process may be seen at St. Rollox in great perfection, and
on a very large scale. The requisite mixture of common salt, binoxide
of manganese and sulphuric acid, is put into a leaden still, and the
chlorine evolved passes through leaden tubes into air-tight stone
chambers, the bottoms of which are covered with a stratum of slacked
lime several inches thick. The lime absorbs the gas as it passes into
the chamber, and the process is continued till the absorption is
reckoned sufficient. Bleaching powder, supposing it pure, is a com-
pound of
i: Chloridesof caleium) we taco wine F
25 Chiorite ofimerrn ois se '% Parte 10
SniWatertarSeisinerliet gikver! ohh eS
20°375
Half the lime loses its oxygen, and combines with chlorine, consti-
tuting chloride of calcium. The oxygen combines with chlorine,
which, in the state of chlorous acid, combines with the other half of
the lime, constituting chlorite of lime. Two atoms of the water were
in the slacked lime. The third atom must have come along with the
chlorine gas, or been absorbed from the atmosphere.
4. After the chlorine has been extricated, there remains in the still
a semi-liquid mass, consisting partly of the impurities of the manga-
nese, and partly of sulphate of soda and sulphate of manganese. If
the manganese were pure binoxide, and only the quantity of salt and
sulphuric acid necessary for the decomposition were used, the sulphate
of manganese (abstracting the water) would weigh nine and a half,
and the sulphate of soda nine. But in order to save the stills by pro-
ducing the decomposition with little heat, twice as much sulphuric
acid is used as is necessary, and this excess is afterwards saturated by
means of common salt; so that the quantity of sulphate of soda in the
residue is at least twice as great as that of the sulphate of manganese.
To get rid of the sulphate of manganese, the residue from the stills is
fused in a reverberatory furnace at a red heat; this drives off the sul-
phuric acid, and leaves the manganese in the state of sesquioxide. The
whole is dissolved, and the insoluble manganese thrown away. The
solution of sulphate of soda is evaporated to dryness, mixed with small
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 °
‘coal, and fused again. This destroys the sulphuric acid, and converts
the soda into sulphuret. This sulphuret being mixed with sawdust, &c.,
and exposed to an incipient red heat, the sulphur is driven off, and
carbonate of soda remains, which is obtained in crystals by solution and
crystallization, or in the state of soda ash, by a more rapid process.
The theory of the last step of the process, in converting the sulphate
of soda into carbonate, is not very obvious, and would require an ex-
perimental investigation to throw light on it.
5. Another chemical manufacture, which may be seen, is alum-
making. There are two establishments, one at the Hurlet, about six
miles south-west, by the Paisley canal; another at Campsie, about
eight miles off, near Kirkintulloch, on the Great Canal, and near the
foot of the Campsie hills. The alum is made from the shale, which
exists in great abundance in the exhausted coal beds. This shale is a
clay mixed with some coal, and with that variety of iron pyrites,
which undergoes decomposition, and is converted into sulphate of iron
by exposure to the air. Thesulphate of iron, thus formed, acts slowly
on the clay, and in process of time converts it into sulphate of
alumina. The alum-maker washes this altered shale, and obtains a
solution of sulphate of iron and sulphate of alumina. When suffi-
ciently concentrated and cooled, the liquor yields an abundant crop of
sulphate of iron, which is removed, dried, and sold at a cheap rate.
The sulphate of alumina does not crystallize till it is mixed with sul-
phate of potash or sulphate of ammonia; because alum is a double
salt, composed of three atoms of sulphate of alumina and one atom of
sulphate of potash, or sulphate of ammonia. Formerly, nothing but
chloride of potassium, bought from the soap-makers, was used. But
of late years (at least at Hurlet), sulphate of ammonia, from the liquor
obtained during the preparation of gas, has been employed. In
general, the alum made at Hurlet contains both potash and ammonia;
but the manufacturer can supply it free from potash. Such alum is
convenient to chemists, because when it is heated to redness, every-
thing is driven off except pure alumina. At Hurlet and at Campsie
the mode of concentrating the liquid by a current of heated air pass-
ing over its surfaces, deserves attention.
6. At Campsie alum-works may be seen another interesting che-
mical manufacture, the fabrication of prussiate of potash, a beautiful
well-known yellow salt, which crystallizes in truncated octahedrons.
It was here that the manufacture of this salt, on a great scale, first
began. Before that time it was only prepared in laboratories for
scientific purposes, and sold at a high price. Mr. Macintosh intro-
‘duced it to the calico-printers, who used it extensively, to produce
very beautiful blues and greens. It is prepared by burning the hoofs
and horns of cattle in iron pots, along with a quantity of potash. The
hoofs and horns of a hundred head of cattle are consumed every day
in the works. For some time no iron was added, the requisite quan-
tity for forming the salt being corroded from the pots during the com-
bustion. But the last time that the author visited the works, he found
that iron was mixed with the hoofs, &c. during the combustion. The
62 REPORT— 1840.
residue, after this combustion is lixiviated with water, and when the
solution is sufficiently concentrated, the prussiate of potash crystal-
lizes. Connected with this manufactory of prussiate of potash is
another, of Prussian blue. It is made by mixing sulphate of iron,
alum, and prussiate of potash, and precipitating the whole by
an alkali. The precipitate is at first light blue. But it is washed
with new portions of water every day for several weeks. At every
washing the colour deepens, and when it has acquired the requisite
shade, the Prussian blue is allowed to subside, the water is drawn off,
and the powder allowed to dry. The colour varies according to the
proportion of alum employed; and it has the finest colour of all, with
the coppery lustre which is so much admired, when no alumina what-
ever is mixed in it.
7. Another beautiful chemical product may be seen at Shawfield,
near Rutherglen, about two miles from Glasgow, in the manufactory
of Mr. White. Thisis bichromate of potash, a salt very much used by
calico-printers, and forming the finest and most indelible yellows,
oranges, and greens. Its introduction constituted quite an era in
calico-printing. This salt was originally made by heating chromiron
ore with saltpetre, dissolving out the chromate of potash, and adding
the requisite quantity of nitric acid to deprive the chromic acid of
half its potash. When this process began, the salt was sold at a guinea
an ounce ; but now, when the price is as low as two shillings a pound,
it is necessary to prepare it by a cheaper method. It has been found
that common potash of commerce may be substituted for saltpetre ;
and Dr. Thomson believes the manufacturers now contrive to form the
bichromate at once, without requiring the use of an acid, which would
nearly double the expense. It is stated that all the bichromate used
by the calico-printers is made here and in Liverpool. In the same
manufactory may be seen a beautiful product, tartaric acid, which is
used by the calico-printers to a large amount, chiefly to disengage the
chlorous acid from bleaching powder, and enable it to destroy the
colour on particular parts of the cloth, either that these parts may
remain white, or that some other colour may be superadded. Tartaric
acid is obtained from cream of tartar, by throwing down the tartaric
acid by means of lime, and afterwards decomposing the tartrate of
lime by means of sulphuric acid, and crystallizing the tartaric. At the
same manufactory may be seen a pretty and simple process, by which
the carbonate of soda is converted into the sesquicarbonate. By
simply exposing it dry, and in powder, in an atmosphere of carbonic
acid gas, it absorbs the requisite quantity to be converted into sesqui-
carbonate. And this sesquicarbonate is chiefly used by the makers of
soda water.
8. It is hardly proper to mention the manufactory of acetie acid
from wood, which has been carried on for many years by Mr. Turn-
bull, because the first part of the process is carried on at a distance,
the distillation of the wood. To free the acetic acid from the tar,
which destroys its flavour and taste, the acid is combined with lime,
and the acetate of lime exposed to a heat sufficiently high to char the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63
foreign bodies with which it is impregnated, the acetic acid being
capable of resisting a higher temperature without decomposition than
most compound vegetable bodies. The acetate of lime thus purified is
decomposed by sulphuric acid, and the acetic acid obtained by distilla-
tion. By this process it may be obtained very strong. The author
possesses it composed of one atom acetic acid, and one atom water.
When of this strength it crystallizes in winter, but becomes liquid
again in summer. In the same manufactory there is another liquid
prepared, namely, pyroxylic spirit, now well known. A most interest-
ing set of experiments on it has been made by Dumas, who has di-
stinguished its basis by the name of methylene, and has discovered
various new compounds which it is capable of forming.
9. Another chemical manufacture of considerable importance, and
which the author believes to be peculiar to Glasgow, is iodine. A few
years ago there were no fewer than ten manufactories, in each of
which it was made to a considerable extent; but as iodine is only used
in medicine, the sale is necessarily limited, and most of these works are .
nowabandoned. The process followed by all the makers was, Dr. Thom-
son believes, the contrivance of Mr. Macintosh. Iodine is made from
kelp, and it deserves attention, that those kinds of kelp that contain
most potash, contain, at the same time, the most iodine. The kelp is
lixiviated, and all the salts that can be extracted from the solution by
evaporation are separated. The mother water remaining is now mixed
with an excess of sulphuric acid. A great quantity of sulphuretted
hydrogen is evolved, the bad effects of which on the workmen are
obviated by setting it on fire, and allowing it to burn as it is extracted
from the liquid. To the liquid thus freed from sulphuretted hydrogen
and from muriatic acid, a quantity of binoxide of manganese, equal in
weight to the sulphuric acid employed, is added. The whole is put
into a leaden still, and heated to a temperature which must not exceed
190° or 200° at most. The iodine passes into the receiver, which con-
sists of a series of spherical glasses, having two mouths opposite to
each other, and inserted the one into the other.
10. It may seem superfluous to mention soap, because it is a manu-
facture universally known; but soap of a very superior quality is made
in Glasgow. The number of soap-works amounts to seven, and one of
these, that at St. Rollox, is the third, if not the second, in point of
extent, in Great Britain. The ingredients of soap are soda, tallow,
and rosin, and sometimes palm-oil. Two kinds only of hard soap are
made here, namely, yellow and white. The yellow soap is made by
boiling 9°75 cwt. of tallow, 3°25 cwt. of rosin, 4 cwt. of soda ash,
equivalent to 2 cwt. soda, mixed with the requisite quantity of water ;
the white, by boiling 13 cwt. of tallow, 4 ewt. of soda ash in the same
manner. Tallow, which isa compound of two oily acids and glycerine,
undergoes decomposition, and the soda combines with the acid and
forms soap. When the combination is complete, a quantity of common
salt is put into the hot liquor. It dissolves in the water, and the soap
separates, and swims on the top. It is now allowed to cool to 150° at
an average, and then taken out in a liquid state, and poured into
64 REPORT—1840,
frames, where it is allowed to become solid, and then cut into the usual
parallelopipeds, or wedges, as they are called. It is customary, during
the cleansing of the soap, as the pouring it into the frame is called, to
mix it with a quantity of caustic soda ley. The soap made in Glasgow
is usually a compound of
1 atom oily acid...... 53 or per cent. 74°6
2 atoms soda ......... 8 “4 11°2
9 atoms water ...... 10°125 °°, 142
71°125
White soap is cleansed at the average temperature of 181°. Its con-
stitution is precisely the same as that of yellow soap.
11. Bleaching of cotton cloth is carried on here to a great extent.
It consists of four processes :—1!st. The goods are boiled with lime, at
a temperature above the boiling point of water. The process is
curious, and deserves to be seen. 2nd. The cloth is steeped in a
solution of bleaching powder. 3rd. It is boiled with caustic soda or
potash. 4th. It is steeped in water acidulated with sulphuric acid.
12. Turkey-red dyeing has been practised here for almost half a
century.
13. Calico-printing is carried on here to a great extent; glass-ma-
king is carried on here or on the Clyde in all its branches; for starch-
making there is only one manufactory. The manufacture of the dye
stuff called cudbear, employed in dyeing red, has long been carried on
here; so has the distillation of spirits and the manufacture of zther.
On the Minerals in the Neighbourhood of Glasgow. By Professor
Tuos. Tuomson, F.R.S.
The neighbourhood of Glasgow, including Lead Hills, is not even
inferior to Cornwall in the richness of its mineral species. The mines
at Lead Hills began to be wrought during the reign of James IV. under
the name of gold mines, and it is said by Boethius that he extracted
from them a considerable treasure. In the time of James V. Lead
Hills was a lead mine as at present, and is particularly described by
Agricola in his celebrated work de re metallica. Besides galena, no
fewer than nine species of lead ore occur at Lead Hills; these are—
1. Sulphate of lead. 2. Carbonate of lead, analysed by Klaproth in 1802.
3. Cupreo-sulphate of lead, described by Mr. Sowerby. 4. Sulphato-carbonate
of lead, analysed by Mr. Brooke in 1820, 5, Sulphato-tricarbonate of lead,
analysed by Mr. Brooke in 1820. 6. Phosphate of lead, analysed by Dr. T.
Thomson. 7. Cupreo-sulphato-carbonate of lead, analysed by Mr. Brooke in
1820. 8. Chromo-phosphate of lead, analysed by Dr. T. Thomson. 9. Va-
nadiate of lead, analysed by Dr. R. D. Thomson in 1834.
Lead Hills also affords fine specimens of blende, or sulphuret of zine,
and also of silicate of zinc.
In Kilpatrick, hills, which bound the valley of the Clyde from the
Stockey Muir to Dumbarton, and also the corresponding but lower
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65
range on the south side of the valley, are composed of various trap-
rocks, among which amygdaloid is pretty common. The cavities of this
rock are filled up by crystallized minerals, most of them zeolites ;
these are—
1. Stellite, first analysed by Dr. T. Thomson and Dr. R. D. Thomson.
2. Thomsonite, named by Mr. Brooke after Dr. T. Thomson. 3. Natrolite.
4. Mesolite. 5. Scolezite. 6. Laumonite. 7. Chabazite. 8. Analcime.
9. Cluthalite, first analysed by Dr. T. Thomson and Dr. R. D. Thomson.
10. Stilbite. 11. Heulandite. 12. Harmotome or Cross stone. 13. Carbo-
nate of magnesia, at Bishoptown. 14. Dihydrous peroxide of iron, at Gou-
rock. 15. Sulphate of barytes. 16. Calcareous spar. 17. Fibrous sulphate
of lime. 18. Arragonite. 19. Wollastonite, first analysed by Dr. T. Thom-
son and Dr. R. D. Thomson. 20. Prasolite, named by Dr. T. Thomson.
21. Fluor spar. 22. Prehnite. 23. Augite. 24. Amphibole. 25. Felspar.
26. Labradorite, one of the constituents of a variety of greenstone at Campsie
glen, and at Gleniffer. 27, Mica. 28. Epidote. 29. Steatite. 30. Iron pyrites.
31. Carbonate of iron. 32. Gray ore of manganese. 33. Kilpatrick quartz,
first analysed by Dr. T. and Dr. R. D. Thomson. 34. Sulphuret of cadmium,
rare, and lately discovered, occurring along with prehnite at Bishoptown. Single
crystals are now selling at 10/. each. It has been analysed by Dr. T. Thom-
son and Mr. Connel.
On the Relation of Form to Chemical Composition.
By Dr. ScHAFHAEUTL.
The author stated, that he had, in a former communication, given a
new method of procuring graphite, in which it was also shown that all
graphites owed their origin to the operation of the same causes ; namely,
the contact of bitumen (or any similar substance) with a silicate, under
a certain limited degree of heat; it was further maintained, that the
compound nature of graphite might be satisfactorily demonstrated, by
subjecting it to the action of hydrofluoric acid, which, combining with
the silicon, liberated the carbon of the graphite as a hydruret, which
was then consumed in the flame of alamp. The object of the present
paper was to explain the circumstances under which certain modifica-
tions of form take place in this peculiar substance (as also in others
generally considered to be elementary), and to prove their connexion
with changes of an entirely chemical nature.
A beautiful specimen of a formation of graphite was exhibited to the
Section, obtained from the Neath Abbey Ironworks, in South Wales ;
it appeared to be composed of an infinite number of foliated scales
overlapping each other, after the manner of the slates of a roof, each
scale being so thin, as to be agitated by the slightest breath of air; a
second specimen was exhibited of a graphite leaf, where it appeared as
a globule of much greater size, the laminated structure still, however,
existing in beautiful development. In a third stage, the scaly structure
disappeared ; the globule having assumed a more porous and coke-like
form. Dr. S. having premised an objection to any explanation of these
curious changes of form, founded merely upon molecular alterations,
proceeded to detail certain experiments, from which he deduced con-
clusions of an interesting and important nature.
1840. F
66 REPORT—1840.
The discovery of anew mode of decomposing crystallized graphite, by
heating it in concentrated boiling sulphuric acid, and adding a little con-
centrated nitric acid*, afforded a series of singular and instructive phzeno-
mena. After the evolution of binoxide of nitrogen had ceased, each scale
of graphite was converted into the globular substance before described ;
its external metallic lustre remaining unchanged, but its bulk so greatly
enlarged, that what before appeared a single scale, became, by the sepa-
ration and division of its component laminz, a thick spongy tissue, capable
of being restored to its former compressed foliated form by the pressure
of the finger-nail. That this change of form, however, was not merely
a mechanical effect, appears from the following experiment :—Graphite
scales having been repeatedly treated with hydrochloric acid, washed,
and again digested in a strong solution of caustic potash, in order to
remove all possible mechanical admixtures of iron, silica and alumina,
were then subjected to the process above described ; the evolution of
binoxide of nitrogen having ceased, an equal quantity of water was
added to the mixture ; immediately there succeeded a rapid evolution
of bubbles from the globules of graphite, which at first lay at the bot-
tom of the fluid; becoming lighter, as this evolution of bubbles pro-
ceeded, they gradually rose to the surface, when the gas immediately
ceased to be evolved ; the acid then, or the graphite, must have been
combined with hyponitrous acid, which being decomposed by the
water was disengaged as binoxide of nitrogen. The globules when
washed, dried, and weighed (at first weighing but 2°01 grs.), had gained
5°02 grs. in weight. Being then put into a flat covered dish of brass,
and balanced accurately, the cover was removed, the globules imme-
diately lost weight, and so rapidly, that in merely removing them from
the dish, 0°18 gr. were lost ; the dish was covered with a dew, appa-
rently acid, as it acted on the brass. These globules, heated on paper
until it became slightly tinged with yellow by the heat, now disengaged
dense fumes, the paper being streaked with a blackish-coloured smoke
where it was in contact with the graphite ; 2°30 grs. were lost during
this process, which being repeated a second time, they were found to have
lost 2°25 more. Finally ignited in a platinum crucible, dense fumes,
without any perceptible odour, escaped, the weight of the globules being
reduced to 1°86 gr. After which, no further reduction took place during
the ignition for half an hour in the open air. The total loss of the two
grains thus experimented upon with the acid, was 6°96. In a paper by the
author‘, this loss was attributed to evolution of carbonic acid gas during
this conjoined action of the acids; but it would appear from the last
experiment, that there is formed a compound of sulphuric acid, nitric
acid, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, volatilized only at high tempera-
tures. The question here arises, how can the rapid loss of weight be
accounted for? During the previous drying process, which was con-
ducted at 212°, the loss of water must have been accompanied by a
change of chemical composition, and the new compound, by attracting
* See a description in the Philosophical Magazine, vols. xvi., xvii.
+ See Philosophical Magazine, cited above.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67
water or oxygen when in the pan, must have formed an extremely vo-
latile combination, evaporating as rapidly as it was formed. By a
repetition of this treatment with the acid, graphite in the third stage,
as before described, was obtained ; the metallic lustre was entirely lost,
as also the laminated texture; it now appearing as a porous mass, re-
sembling coke, and no longer capable of reduction to its original
foliated state by pressure, having undergone a decided chemical change.
The acid solution deposited at once a copious precipitate of silica and
alumina (slightly tinged by oxide of iron), upon the addition of ammo-
nia to neutralization. A similar precipitate was obtained from the
acid of the first experiments, but less in quantity, and requiring a
longer time for its operation. Thus it would appear that the abstrac-
tion of silicon and the change of physical properties of graphite, are
corresponding and mutually connected phenomena. In further proof
of the necessary connexion of silicon as a chemical combination, essen-
tial to the existence of the scaly metallic lustre of graphite, it will be
found that by repetition of the same experiments, the globules ultimately
disappear, and the remaining solution in acid neutralized by ammonia,
deposits only flaky silica, with traces of oxide of iron. On observing
attentively the specimen of graphite, as found in its natural state, and
comparing it with those treated with acids and alkalies, also exhibited,
it appeared that the scales, before being operated on, had a dirty gray-
ish appearance, described as owing to their being covered with spots,
consisting of microscopic six-sided flattened prisms of silicate of iron ;
the matrix of this graphite formation, in the blast-furnace cinder, es-
sentially composed of bisilicate of lime and alumina, deriving a yellow-
ish tint from a slight admixture of sulphuret of calcium, with a trace
of sulphuret of potassium. Scales of very different density may be
separated, the thinnest unaffected by the magnet, the thicker ones
decidedly so; those in the middle of the mass, thicker and stiffer, not
easily broken, and showing a shining black fracture, like that of an-
thracite, form a variety of graphite, in which silicon and iron are
greatly predominant, developing when treated with hydrochloric acid a
fetid hydrogen characteristic of cast iron, and separating at the same
time yellow flocks of silica and alumina. Dr.Schafhaeutl then proceeded
to point out an analogy between the formation of gray iron in the blast
furnace, and that of graphite; namely, that the same chemical condi-
tions occur during the change of white iron into gray ; this takes place
after having descended through the furnace, and reached the stratum
of slag covering the melted metal; this slag being an earthy bisilicate
(in coke furnaces approaching to a trisilicate), and containing a small
quantity of protoxide of iron. As silicon is found in graphite only in
very small quantity, it has been considered an accidental impurity, just
as the small quantity of hydrogen retained by charcoal, sulphur, &e.
has been considered an impurity; but as these foreign matters can by
no chemical means be separated, without destroying the state in which
graphite, charcoal and sulphur exist, it must be inferred that such
admixture is essential to their existence in that state in which they
ordinarily appear. Quitting now the individual consideration of gra-
F2
68 REPORT—1840.
phite, the author extended the principle here argued to certain other
substances, considered generally as simple bodies. For example, sul-
phur obtained by the decomposition of sulphurets by acids, is white in
colour, and invariably combined with a stable quantity of hydrogen ;
but obtained from hyposulphites, it is as invariably yellow, and the
presence of free hydrogen in the slightest quantity bleaches the pre-
cipitate. The known case of sulphur precipitated under the presence
of sulphuretted hydrogen, and cautiously mixed with metallic copper
in its utmost state of minute division, being found to combine directly,
evolving a dull red heat, has been considered an exception to the law,
that no two dry bodies unite without the intervention of a third; but
sulphur precipitated from hyposulphites, will not thus combine, nor will
pure sulphur, though subjected to the minutest division possible. The
same sulphur, however, brought into contact with hydrogen, under a
pressure of four atmospheres, and then quickly mixed, is found to com-
bine, as in the first instance; but if exposed to the air, its power of
combination is again lost; thus a third body is proved necessary here,
as in all cases. And further, the author doubted if one of the two
different crystalline forms of sulphur is not owing to the presence of
hydrogen, which he found to be in combination with it in a very per-
ceptible quantity. These peculiar forms of combination, where a few
atoms of one body are combined with a high number of atoms of an-
other, may be considered, perhaps, as forming a class of compounds
intermediate between the inorganic and the higher organic compounds :
thus the compounds of arsenic acid form a very striking example. In
the subarseniate of iron, 50 atoms of iron are combined with only 3
atoms of arsenic acid and 75 of hydrogen. So again, 24 atoms of
arsenic with 1 atom of sulphuret of potash in sulph-arseniate of
potash. By gradually passing from compounds of inorganic chemistry
to those of organic chemistry, we find di-acetate of copper with water,
48 atoms of oxide of copper combined with only 1 atom of hydrogen
and 12 atoms of water. And finally, in the field of organic chemistry
itself, we have, for example, margaric acid, composed of 67 atoms of
hydrogen, 35 carbon, and 3 of oxygen only. In the oleic acid, 120
atoms of hydrogen are combined with 70 of carbon and 5 of oxygen;
in the stearic acid, 134 atoms of hydrogen with 70 of carbon and 5 of
oxygen, &c. The author hinted in his paper in the Philosophical Maga-
zine, thatthe principal circumstance which tended to produce compounds
of such multiplicity of atoms, or, in fact, organic compounds, was the se-
paration of the molecules of bodies brought into action by the capillary
powers of the vessels of organic structures. It was probable that the che-
mical action of these separated molecules must be a different one from
their action, when arranged into one definite form; and as proof that
once-received laws of affinity were exhibited only under peculiar cireum-
stances, he directed the attention of the Section to H. Rose’s compound,
formed by direct combination of 29°97 per cent. of ammonia with 70°03
per cent. of sulphuric acid, which ought to have produced anhydrous sul-
phate of ammonia; but after combination, neither sulphuric acid nor
ammonia could be detected in the compound. The same chemist found
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69
combinations of anhydrous sulphuric acid with the chlorides of ammo-
nium, potassium, sodium, and the nitrate of potash. According to the
laws of affinity, for example, in the last case, the nitric acid ought to
have been displaced, decomposed, and driven away by the more pow-
erfully acting sulphuric acid; but no tendency whatever was shown to
the displacement of chlorine or nitric acid, and new compounds, differ-
ent from all hitherto known, resulted. As no combination of anhy-
drous sulphuric acid took place at all with oxide of calcium, chloride
of barium, or chloride of copper, he concluded that these above-
mentioned combinations were formed only by replacing one double
atom of hydrogen, water, or chlorine, in order to form a bisulphate of
potash, soda, or ammonia. The author seemed to believe that there
existed two different states of chemical combination ; the first, in which
the chemical forces of molecular attraction were acting only according
to the relative quantities of matter; the second, where, under the |
always catalytic presence of a third, the elementary substances arranged
themselves, separating in groups according to the resultant electric
forces of the centres of action created by the above-mentioned presence
of a third, acting differently on the different molecules of bodies in
contact, in a somewhat similar way as a solution, which does not cry-
stallize unless the molecular equilibrium of the liquid is disturbed.
The first state of chemical combination might, perhaps, have some
distant relation to Dumas’s law of types; the second state, a mere con-
sequence of the first, would be represented by Berzelius’s electro-
chemical combination. The author, at the same time, referred to
Prof. Graham’s admirable papers, in which the Professor had so di-
stinctly pointed out the great and peculiar part which water performs
in chemical solid combinations, and remarked, that during all chemical
combinations where a third body is separated, the precipitation only
would take place when a certain quantity of water combined with the
body to be precipitated, which water separated in the relation to the
separation and. consolidation of the precipitate only, and could be
driven away from it only by applying a red heat.
New Compound of Arsenious and Sulphuric Acids.
By Dr. ScHAFHAEUTL.
This was obtained from the escaping smoke of copper calcining
furnaces near Swansea, in South Wales. The new. compound was
another singular instance where an anhydrous crystallized body was
deposited under the presence of water only, and was a remarkable
proof of the unlimited number of different forms of combination, which
might be produced even in inorganic nature, by bringing chemical
substances in contact under varying circumstances. The copper ores
smelted in South Wales were, for the greatest part, copper pyrites,
mixed with iron pyrites, gray copper ore, &c.; in fact, a mixture
in which the sulphurets of copper, iron, arsenic, antimony, cobalt,
nickel, zinc, and tin were invariably found together. The sulphur
and arsenic escape from these ores during the calcining process, as
70 REPORT— 1840.
sulphurous and arsenious acids, and have been found to destroy all
vegetation for miles around the copper works, without affecting animal
life in the slightest degree. By bringing the escaping fumes in contact
with steam, and forcing it through burning charcoal, or subjecting it
only to a great pressure in contact with steam, the new solid compound
was deposited on the cool surfaces of the chambers connected with the
calcining furnace. It was deposited in beautiful erystallized leaves or
tables, perhaps belonging to the same class as Wohler’s dimorphic
modification of the crystallization of arsenious acid, the regular form
of which belongs to the octahedron. It was found to consist, in 100
parts,
of 68:250 Arsenious acid.
27°643 Sulphuric acid.
3°029 Protoxide of iron.
0-420 Oxide of copper.
0°656 Oxide of nickel.
99:998
Corresponding to 51-741 Metallic arsenic.
11:095 Sulphur.
2°339 Iron.
0°336 Copper.
0°516 Nickel.
33°971 Oxygen.
99-998
These crystals attracted moisture from the air with great rapidity and
with evolution of heat, corroding animal and vegetable substances as
powerfully as concentrated sulphuric acid. Their taste was pure, but
powerfully sour, similar to sulphuric acid, and, dissolved in water, the
remainder of 100 parts of these crystals was 17-436 grains only. The
shape of the crystals was perfectly retained, only their appearance was
changed from transparent into opake. Their chemical composition
was found to be,
16°778 grains of Arsenious acid.
0°656 Oxide of nickel.
17°434
What the water had dissolved consisted of
51°472 Arsenious acid.
27°643 Sulphuric acid.
3:029 Protoxide of iron,
0-420 Oxide of copper.
82-564 grains.
One of the remarkable changes during the formation of this com-
pound, was the conversion of sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid, as
well as the presence of iron, copper, and nickel in a deposit from
gaseous matter. No other definite compound of arsenic acid with
another acid seems to be known, except those with the organic tartaric
and paratartariec acids.
by
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71
On a New Method of Photogenic Drawing. By Dr. ScHAFHAEUTL.
After some observations on the comparatively low value of all draw-
ings taken by means of the camera-obscura, in an artistical point of
view, and on the principal points on which Mr. Talbot's and M.
Daguerre’s methods of fixing the drawings of the camera-obscura were
founded, the author proceeded to describe his peculiar methods of
producing photogenic drawings in Mr. Talbot's, that is, in a negative
way; then, secondly, he described two new methods of obtaining
photographs in a positive way. His first method tended to obtain a
paper of very great sensibility by a comparatively short process. He
recommended Penny’s improved patent metallic paper, and spreading
a concentrated solution of the nitrate of silver (140 grains to 24
drachms of fused nitrate to six fluid drachms of distilled water), by
merely drawing the paper over the surface of the solution contained in
a large dish. In order to convert this nitrate of silver into a chloride,
the author exposed it to the vapours of boiling muriatic acid. A coating
of a chloride of silver, shining with a peculiar silky lustre, was by this
method generated on the surface of the paper, without penetrating
into its mass; and in order to give to this coating of chloride the
highest degree of sensibility, it was dried, and then drawn over the
surface of the solution of the nitrate of silver again. After having
been dried, the paper was ready for use; and no repetition of this
treatment was able to improve its sensitiveness. ‘The author’s process
for fixing definitively the drawing was as follows:—He steeped the
drawing from five to ten minutes in alcohol, and after removing all
superfluous moisture by means of blotting-paper, and drying it slightly
before the fire, the paper thus prepared was finally drawn through
diluted muriatic acid, mixed with a few drops of an acid nitrate of
quicksilver, into the minutiz of the preparation of which we cannot
here enter. The addition of the nitrate of mercury requires great
caution, and its proper action must be tried first on paper slips, upon
which have been produced different tints and shadows by exposure to
light; because, if added in too great a quantity, the lightest shades
disappear entirely. The paper, after having been drawn through the
above-mentioned solution, is washed well in water, and then dried in a
degree approaching to about 158° Fahr., or, in fact, till the white
places of the paper assume a very slight tinge of yellow. The appear-
ance of this tint indicates that the drawing is fixed permanently. The
author’s way for reversing the drawing is, in the principal points, the
same as that suggested by Mr. Fox Talbot.
In order to obtain a photogenic drawing in a direct or positive way,
the author uses his above-mentioned paper, allows it to darken in a bright
sunlight, and macerates it for at least half an hour in a liquid, which is
prepared by mixing one part of the already described acid solution of
nitrate of mercury with from nine to ten parts of alcohol. A bright
lemon-yellow precipitate, of basic hyponitrate of the protoxide of quick-
silver, falls, and the clear liquor is preserved for use. The macerated
paper is removed from the alcoholic solution, and quickly drawn over the
72 REPORT—1840,
surface of diluted hydrochloric acid (one part strong acid to seven or ten
of water), then quickly washed in water, and slightly and carefully
dried in a heat not exceeding 212° of Fahr. The paper is in this state
ready for being bleached by the rays of the sun; and in order to fix
the obtained drawing, nothing more is required than to steep the paper
a few minutes in alcohol, which dissolves the free bichloride of
mercury. The maceration must not be continued too long, as in that
case the paper begins to darken again.
The author’s second method of producing positive photogenic draw-
ings was by using metallic plates, and covering them with a layer of
hydruret of carbon, prepared by dissolving pitch in alcohol, and col-
lecting the residuum on a filter. This, when well washed, is spread as
equally as possible oyer a heated even metallic plate of copper. The
plate is then carbonized in a close box of cast iron, and, after cooling,
passed betwixt two polished steel rollers, resembling a common copper-
plate printing-press. The plate, after this process, is dipped into the
above-mentioned solution of the nitrate of silver, and instantly exposed
to the action of the camera. The silver is, by the action of the rays
of the sun, reduced into a perfect metallic state, the lights are expressed
by the different density of the milk-white deadened silver, the shadows
by the black carbonized plate. In a few seconds the picture is finished ;
and the plate is so sensitive, that the reduction of the silver begins even
by the light of a candle. For fixing the image, nothing else is required,
except dipping the plate in alcohol mixed with a small quantity of the
hyposulphite of soda, or of pure ammonia.
On Poisons, Contagions, and Miasms. By Professor Liestc.
Dr. Playfair stated that he had prepared, at the request of the author,
a statement of Professor Liebig’s new views on the subject of poisons.
Poisons might be divided into two classes, belonging to the inorga-
nic and organic kingdoms. Many substances were called inorganic
poisons which had in reality no claim to be considered as such. Sul-
phuric, nitric, and muriatic acid, when brought in contact with the
animal ceconomy, merely destroyed the continuity of the organs, and
might be compared, in their modus operandi, to the action of a heated
iron, or a sharp knife. But there are others—and these are the true
inorganic poisons—which entered into combination with the substance
of the organs without affecting any visible lesion of them. Thus it is
known, that when arsenious acid or corrosive sublimate is added to a
solution of muscular fibre, cellular tissue, or fibrin, these enter into
combination with them, and become insoluble; when they are intro-
duced into the animal organism the same circumstance must happen.
But the bodies formed by the union of such poisons with animal sub-
stances are incapable of putrefaction; they are incapable, therefore, of
effecting and suffering changes; in other words, organic life is de-
stroyed. The high atomic weight of animal substances explains the
¢ause of such small quantities being requisite for producing deadly
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73
effects. After stating several chemical details on this subject, it was
shown that to unite with 100 grains of fibrin, as it exists in the human
body (in which it is combined with 30,000 parts of water), only 32
grains of arsenious acid are necessary, or 5 grains of corrosive subli-
mate.
The second class of poisons were those belonging to the organic
‘kingdom. For some such substances as brucia and strychnia, no data
exist by which it can be determined to what cause their action may be
assigned. But the morbid poisons, such as putrid animal and con-
tagious matter, appear to owe their action to a peculiar agent, which
exerts a much more general and powerful action than chemists are
aware of. Thus, when oxide of silver is thrown into peroxide of hy-
drogen, the oxide is reduced and metallic silver remains. Here there
can be no affinity, for oxygen can have no affinity for oxygen. It is
merely that a body in a state of motion or decomposition is capable of
inducting or imparting its own state of motion or decomposition to any
body with which it may be in contact. There is a disease frequently
produced in Germany by using decayed sausages as an article of food.
The symptoms attending the disease are remarkable, and distinctly
indicate its cause. The patient afflicted with the disease becomes
much emaciated, dries to a complete mummy, and finally dies. The
muscular fibre, and all parts similarly composed, disappear. The cause
of the disease evidently is, that the state of decomposition in which
the component parts of the sausages are, is communicated to the con-
stituents of the blood, and this state not being subdued by the vital
principle, the disease proceeds until death ensues. It is remarkable
that the bodies of the individuals who have died in consequence of
it are not subject to putrefaction.
The cause of the action of contagious matter is similar. It is merely
a gaseous matter in the state of transformation, and capable of impart-
ing the state of transposition in which its atoms are to the elements of
the blood. It is capable of being reproduced in the blood just as yeast
causes its own reproduction in fermenting wort. The causes of the
action of yeast and of contagion were shown to be the same, and ex-
amples were produced in which similar reproductions take place in
common chemical processes. There are two kinds of yeast used in the
brewing of Bavarian beer. The fermentation caused by one is tumul-
tuous, that produced by the other is tranquil. They, therefore, induct
the peculiar state of transposition in which their atoms are upon the
elements of the sugar. ‘The same was shown to be the case with the
vaccine virus of cow- and small-pox; the one of which produces a
violent action upon the constituents of the blood, whilst the other
causes a gentle action quite distinct from the former.
On the Pre-existence of Urea in Urie Acid. By Professor Grecory.
By the action of peroxide of lead on uric acid, Liebig and Wéhler
obtained from it oxalic acid, allantoine and urea; and they considered
the latter as existing in the uric acid combined with urile. The author,
74 REPORT—1840.
having found that urea, unlike most organic substances, resists the
oxidizing agency of permanganate of potash, thought that if urea could
be obtained from uric acid by the action of that salt, the argument for
its pre-existence would be much strengthened ; as, if only the elements
of urea were present, the oxidizing agency of the permanganate would
most likely prevent its formation. On trying the experiment a large
quantity of urea was obtained, along with oxalic acid, and a new acid,
probably formed by the oxidation of allantoine. The author further
described the acetate of urea, a salt which was formed in his experi-
ments.
On a New Process, communicated by Prof. Liebig, for preparing
Murexide. By Professor GRrcory.
The process described in this communication for preparing the very
singular and beautiful compound, termed murexide by Liebig and
Wohler, and purpurate of ammonia by Prout, is quite certain, and very
productive. It consists in adding a boiling solution of seven grains of
alloxan and four grains of alloxantine in 240 grains of water, to 80
grains of a cold and strong solution of carbonate of ammonia. The
mixture instantly acquires a deep purple colour, and on cooling de-
posits the golden-green crystals of murexide.
On the Preparation of Alloxan, Alloxantine, Thionurate of Ammonia,
Uramile, and Murexide. By Professor GreGory.
To prepare alloxan from uric acid, Liebig and Wohler used nitric
acid, sp. gr. 1°42, and separated the acid liquid from the crystals by
means of a porous brick, thus losing the whole mother liquid. The
author uses nitric acid of sp. gr. 1°35. The action of this acid on uric
acid must be kept moderate. When crystals of alloxan are formed,
the whole is thrown on a filter, the throat of which is stopped with
asbestus. That portion of the acid liquid which remains in the crystals is
displaced by a few drops of cold water, and the crystals are purified
by re-crystallization. The liquid is again employed in the same way,
and the crystals are collected as before. Five such operations may be
performed with the same liquid, each yielding a large crop of erystals ;
while the mother liquid is preserved, and yields a large quantity of
parabanic acid, or oxalurate of ammonia. By this process the author
obtains from 100 parts of uric acid, 65 of anhydrous alloxan, or 90 of
alloxan + 6 aq. From alloxan, alloxantine is easily obtained by the
action of sulphuretted hydrogen. Thionurate of ammonia is easily
formed, by boiling a solution of alloxan with sulphite of ammonia and
free ammonia. Uramile is also easily obtained, by boiling a solution
of thionurate of ammonia with an excess of diluted sulphuric acid.
Murexide is obtained, as described in another communication by Prof.
Gregory. He now exhibited the last three processes. He also stated,
that the theory of the formation of murexide was of great importance
in reference to organic colouring matters.
Ld
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79
Process for Preparing Hydrobromic andHydriodic Acids.
By Dr. R. W. Grover, of Newcastle.
Dr. Glover having observed that the solid bromide and iodide of
barium are decomposed by sulphuric acid, with the evolution of hydro-
bromic and hydriodic acids, without bromine or iodine being set free,
proposed the employment of these salts of barium as very convenient
sources of the above-named hydracids in atomic proportions.
On a Method of separating, by Filtration, the Coagulable Lymph from
Liquid Human Blood. By Prof. ANDREW BUCHANAN.
Dr. Buchanan showed several specimens of coagulable lymph sepa-
rated by filtration from human blood while yet liquid, immediately after
issuing from the vein. He thought the process for obtaining it might
not be without interest to those engaged in the prosecution of animal
chemistry, as it enabled them to obtain the fibrin of the blood in a per-
fectly pure state; and he knew no other process by which it could be
so procured. The result obtained was also interesting, as serving to
illustrate the constitution of the blood itself. It showed the coagulum
to be formed not by the mere aggregation of the red particles, but that,
according to the views of Berzelius, and many physiologists in our own
country, the red particles were altogether passive in the act of coagu-
lation, and were merely mechanically enveloped by the coagulable
lymph, which existed in the liquid state in the blood as it circulates in
the blood vessels. Dr. Buchanan’s process consisted in mingling toge-
ther one part of liquid blood just drawn from the vein with six or
eight parts of perfectly pure serum obtained from blood drawn the day
before. Certain precautions are indispensable to the success of the
experiment. If the blood be at once mixed with the whole of the serum,
the red particles of the blood pass through the filtering paper along
with the lymph and serum. Advantage must be taken of the superior
specific gravity of the red particles in order to separate them. For this
purpose, the liquid blood mixed with only a small quantity of serum is
cautiously added to the rest of the serum placed in the funnel. The
red particles subside, while the lymph mingles with the serum, and
filtrates perfectly pure through the layer of red particles at the bottom,
just as we filter any liquid through a stratum of sand. The mutual
action of serum and liquid blood has not been sufficiently investigated.
_ It has, indeed, been long known to physiologists, that the serum of the
blood has no action upon the red particles, and they have employed it
in their examination of the red particles under the microscope. They
_ do not, however, appear to have pursued the inquiry further, to ascer-
_ tain what becomes of the “ liquor sanguinis,” as it has been called, the
_ transparent part of the blood as seen by the microscope, and of the
fibrin which it holds in solution. To ascertain this, various proportions
of serum and liquid blood were mingled together. When equal mea-
sures of the liquids were used, or two or three parts of serum to one
of blood, the coagulum formed was merely more voluminous and
76 REPORT—1840.
looser in texture than usual, but not otherwise altered in appear-
ance. When, however, six or eight parts of serum are employed,
the coagulation is much retarded, the red particles form a dense
layer at the bottom of the vessel, while the whole fibrin coagu-
lates alone, forming a voluminous translucent mass,—an artificial
“buffy coat,” as it would be called by physicians. In this way, how-
ever, the fibrin is not obtained pure, but has more or less of a red
tinge, particularly in the lower half of the mass, owing to the red par-
ticles not having completely subsided before the coagulation took
place. The results corresponded to what the author had anticipated,
but he had no expectation of being able to obtain the fibrin perfectly
pure by filtration, as Miiller had done with respect to the blood of the
frog. Of the four specimens exhibited by Dr. Buchanan, one consisted
of the red particles gradually deposited, while the fibrinous coagulum,
with only a slight tinge of red at its lower part, floated above; the
other three consisted of fibrin separated by the filter, one of the masses
floating in serum, the other two in water. These masses are very like
calf-foot jelly in appearance. They are of a cellular texture, and their
ellow colour is owing to the serum contained in their meshes, but by
ablution with water they become of a pure white colour.
On the Constitution and Products of the Distillation of Fat Bodies.
By Professor RepTENBACHER and Dr. VARRENTRAPP.
The object of this paper was to show that the composition of the
fat acids has hitherto been erroneously stated. A variety of acids were
subjected to examination, such as stearic, margaric, oleic and sebacic
acid. Margaric and stearic acids were shown to possess the same radi-
cal; the former being the higher, the latter the lower oxide of it. This
radical has the formula of C,, H;3, and may be represented by the
symbol Ma; thus stearic acid is 2 Ma + 5 O, whilst margaric acid is
1Ma +30. They thus resemble sulphuric and hyposulphuric acids.
Margaric acid is one of the products of the distillation of stearic acid ;
the oxidation of the latter also causes the formation of the former.
Oleic acid was analysed by these gentlemen, having been obtained in
a pure state. The results were principally numerical, and are stated
in Liebig’s Journal for 1840.
On a New Fat Acid. By Dr. L. Puayrair.
Dr. Playfair had examined some of the vegetable fats, for the pur-
pose of ascertaining whether the margaric acid contained in them pos-
sessed a constant composition. He remarked that the acid in the
butter of nutmegs was peculiar, and had not formerly been examined.
Pelouze and Bondet have stated in the Annales de Chimie, that it is —
margaric acid. Dr, Playfair considered that the radicals of serecic and
cenanthic acid were similar; in the former, however, one equivalent of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17
hydrogen is replaced by one equivalent of oxygen. It is a beautiful
white crystalline compound melting at 49° ¢., and is soluble both in
alcohol and zther. The combination of the acid with oxide of glyceril
exists in the butter; it unites with metallic oxides and forms salts: these
were described, but the results are not susceptible of analysis, as they
were principally numerical. The formula of the acid is C,, H,, O;.
On a New Mode of estimating Nitrogen in Organic Analysis. By
Professor Bunsen, of Marburg.
The qualitative methods at present employed for the analysis of
azotized bodies were shown to be defective; for it is impossible to
employ these processes when the nitrogen and the carbon are in small
proportions to each other. Professor Bunsen’s process consists in in-
troducing the substance to be analysed, after having mixed it with
oxide of copper, into a glass tube. A few slips of metallic copper are
then added, and the tube is fixed to Dobereiner’s apparatus for produc-
ing hydrogen. This gas is conducted through it until all the atmos-
pheric air is expelled, the tube having given to it a rotatory motion at
the same time, in order to dislodge any air which might be retained be-
tween the particles of the oxide of copper. The tube is now hermeti-
cally sealed, and introduced into an iron vessel filled with gypsum. The
gypsum must be still moist when the tube is introduced, in order that
it may be firmly wedged. Thus prepared, it is introduced into the
common oven used for organic analysis, and surrounded with red-hot
coals. If the tube be of strong green glass it never bursts. When the
combustion is completed the tube is placed below a graduated glass
receiver standing over mercury, and the point cut off. The gas, which
had a pressure of several atmospheres, now rushes into the jar. The
carbonic acid is absorbed by a ball of hydrated potash, which is intro-
duced into it, and the remaining gas must be nitrogen, for all the
hydrogen must have been converted into water by the oxygen of the
oxide of copper. The results obtained by this method agree with
theory to the second, and often to the third decimal place.
On the Compound or Radical called Kakodyl. By Professor Bunsen,
of Marburg.
The object of this paper was to describe a new radical resembling
alcohol, in which arsenic replaced the oxygen of that compound. This
radical enters into numerous combinations, forming, with oxygen, a
peculiar acid, called kakodylic acid. The oxide of kakodyl has so
great an affinity for oxygen, that when exposed to the air it imme-
diately inflames. The bodies produced by the combustion are arseni-
ous acid, carbonic acid, and water. By the further oxidation of the
oxide of kakodyl, kakodylic acid is produced. The sulphuret of kakodyl
is similar in composition to the oxide, and participates in many of its
properties. The telluret, selenuret, iodide and bromide of kakodyl
78 REPORT—1840.
were also examined. The danger attending these experiments is very
great, and the poisonous effects produced by the inhalation of the
vapour were described as dreadful. Kakodyl is produced from the
liquor of cadet, and is extremely interesting as being a link connecting
organic and inorganic chemistry. Professor Bunsen is engaged in
further experiments on this subject, and has already obtained many
new combinations.
On the Identity of Spiroilous and Saliculous Acid. By Dr. Etr.inc.
The oil discovered by M. Pagenstecher, and obtained by the distil-
lation of the Spirea Ulmaria, has already attracted considerable atten-
tion. Dr. Ettling had analysed it previously to the appearance of M.
Piria’s valuable paper on Salicyl. The oil decomposes into two oils on
keeping, one of which is specifically lighter, the other heavier than
water. Dr. Ettling discovered that the latter possessed the same com-
position as hydrated benzoic acid. The action of ammonia on the oil
gives rise to some new interesting compounds. In order to obtain
these compounds it is indifferent whether saliculous or spiroilous acid
be employed. The final product of the action of ammonia upon these
is the amide of salicyl (salicylamide). This body evidently belongs to
the class of amides, for it does not evolve ammonia, on the addition
either of potash or of acids. The cause of its formation is as follows:
three atoms of saliculous acid unite with three atoms of ammonia, and
form saliculite of ammonia, whilst three of hydrogen and oxygen com-
bine together and form water. This salicylamide unites with copper,
iron, and lead, forming compounds.
On a New Method of Preparing Morphia and its Salts.
By Dr. Monr, of Coblentz.
The plan adopted by the author for separating morphia from narcotin
and all other heterogeneous substances, consists in dissolving it in an
excess of caustic lime, and precipitating it by muriate of ammonia.
This method of precipitation is, in principle, very similar to the pre-
cipitation of alumina from a solution of caustic potash. The process
is as follows:—The opium is boiled in water, in which it readily dis-
solves; the decoction is strained through a linen cloth, and the dregs
are pressed; this operation of boiling and straining is repeated twice
on the same quantity of opium, and the solution of the whole concen-
trated until its weight is four times that of the opium employed. The
concentrated solution is, while still warm, mixed with milk of lime,
prepared with a quantity of dry lime equal to the fourth part of the
weight of the opium. The mixture is heated till it boils, and is filtered
through linen while hot. ‘The filtered liquor has a light brown yellow
colour. While still hot it is mixed with pulverized sal-ammoniac in
excess; the lime is saturated with muriatic acid, ammonia is set free,
—— ee ee e_e
ict e ee
and the morphia is precipitated. When the solution is greatly concen- —
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79
trated the precipitation is instantaneous, and is almost equal in volume
to half the solution. When, however, the solution is less concen
trated, there is at first no precipitation, but as the liquor cools, needles
appear, and at a certain point a large mass of precipitate is suddenly
formed. The peculiarity of this process is, that it affords a well cry-
stallized and fine product of morphia, without requiring the use of
alcohol. This is owing to the circumstance that the ammonia is not
added in a free state, but is generated in immediate contact with the
substance to be acted upon. ‘The morphia is nearly colourless: by
dissolving it in muriatic acid, and subjecting the solution to crystal-
lization, we obtain muriate of morphia in perfectly white crystals quite
pure. The milk of lime, it is to be observed, must not be added to a
boiling hot solution of the crude opium, otherwise the precipitate
adheres to the sides of the vessel, and does not afterwards re-dissolve
perfectly. The liquor containing the morphia should either be coid,
or only lukewarm when the milk of lime is added to it. If it is boil-
ing hot, it must be added to the milk of lime, and not vice versd.
On the Action of Nitrie Acid on the Chlorates, Iodates, and Bromates
of Potassa and Soda. By Professor Frep. Penny.
The present communication contains the details and results of some
experiments undertaken with the view of obtaining additional confirma-
tion of the correctness of the author's researches on equivalent num-
bers. In this he has been disappointed, as the action is attended by
circumstances which render it inapplicable to so delicate a purpose as
the determination of equivalent numbers. The results, however, that
he has obtained are new, and he considered them of sufficient interest
to be worthy the attention of the Section. In order to examine the
action of nitric acid upon chlorate of potassa, a known weight of the
salt was mixed in a retort with a measured quantity of the acid, and
the mixture heated on a sand-bath; as soon as it became warm, chlo-
rine and oxygen were evolved in a state of mixture and not of combi-
nation, and the chlorate slowly disappeared. The solution was then
evaporated to dryness, and the saline residue was found to be a mix-
ture of hyperchlorate and nitrate of potassa, in the proportion of three
equivalents of the latter to one of the former. The author expresses
the reaction that takes place as follows :—
4(K + Cl+ O,) and 3(N + O,) =(K + Cl+ O,) and 3(K + N + Og)
and Cl, and O,,;.
The action of nitric acid on chlorate of potassa differs, then, from
the action of sulphuric acid on the same salt. With nitric acid the
salt is decomposed tranquilly, and the chlorine and oxygen are liberated
uncombined ; whereas with sulphuric acid these gases are evolved in a
state of combination, forming that dangerous explosive compound,
chlorous acid. Nitric acid is therefore to be preferred for the prepara-
tion of hyperchlorate of potassa, as with it the operation may be con-
ducted without those violent detonations that are so apt to occur with
sulphuric acid. The action of nitric acid on chlorate of soda is the
80 REPORT—1840.
same as upon chlorate of potassa. The chlorine and oxygen set free
are in’a state of mixture, and every 4 atoms of chlorate yield 3 of ni-
trate and 1 of hyperchlorate. The hyperchlorate of soda is a very
soluble salt, and crystallizes in small rhombs. It is readily decomposed
by heat, but is unacted upon by hydrochloric acid. It deliquesces by
exposure to the air. The action of nitric acid on an iodate is very
different from that on a chlorate, and is well illustrated in the case of
iodate of potassa. When iodate of potassa is boiled for some time
with a large excess of nitric acid, it is decomposed into potassa and
iodic acid; the potassa combines with its proportionate quantity of
nitric acid, forming the nitrate, and the iodic acid is deposited from
the solution in minute, hard, and transparent crystals. If the acid so-
lution of nitre, containing the iodic acid, be then evaporated, a re-
action takes place; the iodic acid decomposes half of the nitre, sets
free its nitric acid, and combines with the potassa, forming the binio-
date. This change is completed when the mixture is dry, and if the
heat be then withdrawn a definite mixture of biniodate and nitrate is
obtained. If the heat be continued, a still further change occurs, the
iodic acid expels the whole of the nitric acid, which is evolved as
nitrous acid, and oxygen and neutral iodate of potassa remain. By
adding a fresh portion of nitric acid to this iodate, the same changes
may be produced by a proper regulation of the temperature. By act-
ing upon iodate cf soda with nitric acid, Prof. Penny has obtained a
biniodate of soda, and by adding a considerable excess of iodic acid to
a solution of iodate of soda he has found a teriodate of soda. Both of
these salts are anhydrous. The biniodate of potassa contains 1 atom
of water. He also finds that crystals of iodate of soda contain differ-
ent quantities of water, according to the strength of the solution from
which they have deposited. From a hot and strong solution this salt
crystallizes in acicular tufts, and these crystals contain 2 atoms of
water. Ifthe solution be rather weak, long four-sided prisms are ob-
tained, and these contain 6 atoms of water. If a solution of iodate of
soda be evaporated spontaneously, large irregular prisms deposit, and
these contain 10 atoms of water. They effloresce rapidly by exposure
to the air, and lose in this way 8 atoms of water. The action of nitric
acid upon bromate of potassa was next examined, and was found to
differ remarkably from the actions of this acid on the chlorate and
iodate. Neither hyperbromate nor bibromate is produced, but merely
nitrate of potassa. ‘The nitric acid sets free the whole of the bromic
acid, and this, at the moment-of its liberation, is resolved into its ele-
ments, bromine and oxygen. In conclusion, the author remarks that
the action of nitric acid on these three classes of salts affords a ready
method of distinguishing them from one another.
On a New Salt obtained from Iodine and Caustie Soda. By Professor —
Frep. Penny.
While examining the action of iodine on carbonate of soda a salt
was obtained, which crystallized in regular six-sided prisms, and which
tract?
Sot
path iP NF
ge ea eT
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81
gave by analysis sodium, iodine and oxygen, in proportions not corre-
sponding to any known compound of these elements. The same salt
was also prepared by saturating a solution of caustic soda with iodine,
and allowing the solution to evaporate spontaneously. At first this
salt was thought to be the same as that described by Mitscherlich in
his Elements of Chemistry, and to which he gives the following com-
position, NaI + NaO,10, + HO,,; but the analysis gave very dif-
ferent results. Professor Penny gives the following characters of this
salt. It is white and inodorous, has a sharp saline taste, crystallizes in
short six-sided prisms, is soluble in cold and hot water, and is decom-
posed by alcohol into iodate of soda and iodide of sodium. It efflo-
resces by exposure to the air, and is very readily decomposed by heat ;
water in abundance is first evolved, and then oxygen with a trace of
iodine. Its solution is perfectly neutral to test papers, gives a pale
lemon-yellow precipitate with acetate of lead, yellowish white with
nitrate of silver, and a fine bright yellow with pernitrate of mercury.
It is not affected by solution of starch, but instantly decomposed with
the precipitation of iodine by nitric, sulphuric, acetic and hydrochloric
acids. The latter acid in excess converts it wholly into chloride of
potassium. He detailed a remarkable circumstance attending the for-
mation of this salt from iodine and caustic soda. When the solution
is evaporated spontaneously, long prismatic crystals of iodate of soda
deposit ; but as the evaporation continues these crystals are re-dissolved,
and are replaced by those of the new salt. In one experiment this
change was very striking. The solution on Saturday night had de-
posited an abundance of fine crystals of iodate of soda; but on Monday
all these had disappeared, and a crop of the new salt had crystallized.
The prior deposition of iodate of soda generally occurs in the prepara-
tion of this salt; and from other experiments of the author it seems
necessary that there should be excess of iodide of sodium present in the
solution, and that the solution should be strong in order that the salt
may form. When this salt is dissolved in water, and the solution eva-
porated spontaneously, crystals of iodate of soda deposit, but very few
of the new salt will form. The salt may also be procured by pouring
a saturating solution of iodide of sodium on crystals of iodate of soda,
and setting them aside for some days. The crystals will be dissolved,
and be replaced by crystals of the new salt. Professor Penny then
gave the details of his analysis of this salt, and the following formula
as agreeing best with his result: Na, I, O,. + 38 H O; or regarding
it as a compound of iodate and iodide, it may be thus represented:
3NaIl+2Nal0,+ 38HO. According to this view it is the sesqui-
iodide of iodate of soda.
Additional Observations on the Voltaic Decomposition of Alcohol.
By Artuur Connet, Esq.
The author showed, a few years ago, that under powerful voltaic
agency, the water entering into the constitution of absolute alcohol wasre-
solved into its elements, hydrogen being evolved at the negative pole, and
1540. G
82 REPORT— 1840.
oxygen going to the positive, where it produces secondary effects of oxi-
dation*; and that the galvanic agency was greatly increased by dissolving
minute quantities of potash in the alcohol, so small a quantity as ;g2gqth
part having a marked effect, by increasing the conducting power of the
liquid. As it had been objected that the water of the hydrate of
potash employed might contribute to the result, the author has since
employed potassium instead of hydrate of potash, with precisely the
same effects. It is known, that when potassium is dissolved by alcohol,
it is oxidated with evolution of hydrogen, so that in this way we pro-
duce the same consequences as if we added anhydrous potash. B
adding small quantities of potassium, such as ;35 or 34,, to absolute
alcohol (sp. gr. *7918, at 66° F.), and then submitting the liquid to
voltaic action, hydrogen was given off at the negative pole; and when
the effect ceased, it was renewed by re-charging the battery, and again
adding a similar small quantity of potassium ; and the usual secondary
effects of oxidation were produced at the positive pole. In instituting
a comparison between the quantity of hydrogen thus given off, and
that evolved by the same electric current from acidulated water, it is
necessary that a powerful current should be employed, and a some-
what larger quantity of potassium dissolved; because otherwise, from
the inferior conducting power of the liquid, and from a little of the
hydrogen entering into the constitution of the secondary products,
the quantity of hydrogen evolved from the alcohol is somewhat less
than that from the acidulated water; and the comparison is best insti-
tuted during the early stages of the action, because the conducting
power of the liquid diminishes as the potash gets saturated by the
secondary products, and the electric energy declines also. The author
still regards these experiments as affording the only direct proof which
we yet have of the existence of water, as such, in absolute alcohol.
On Resins. By Professor JounstToN.
In this paper the author drew attention to the following facts, appa-
rently established by a table of analytical results, which he exhibited,
and has had printed. Ist. That the resins differ from each other in
the quantity of oxygen they contain. 2nd. That in those in which the
atoms of oxygen are the same, the hydrogen may vary, and that this is
another cause of difference in the properties of the resins. 3rd. That
in all the resins hitherto carefully analysed, the number of atoms of
carbon is constant. 4th. That the resins, as a natural family, may be
represented by a general formula containing two variables. 5th. That
the known resins divide themselves into two groups, possessing unlike
chemical and physical properties; that of one of these groups colo-
phony may be considered as the type, and that it is represented by
Cyy Hy +x Oy; that gamboge, or dragon’s blood, may be considered
as the type of the other group, which is represented by Cy) Ha, + x O,-
* Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiii.
voor eS.
D
ao
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
On the Resin of Sarcocolla. By Professor Jounston.
The resin of sarcocolla of commerce is separated, by water, into three
portions.
1. A gum A, which does not dissolve in water or alcohol, but which
is in a great measure washed out by means of the former solvent.
2. A portion B, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, which is
of a resinous aspect, and is represented by Cy H5. O,4
The hydrate is C,, H;, O,, + 2 HO when dried at 60°.
This portion B is separated (decomposed?) by bases into two or
more organic compounds, the alcoholic solution giving, with neutral
acetate of lead, a salt containing an organic constituent represented by
C4o Hos Oro
Ammonia throws down from the mixed solutions a second salt of
lead, the constitution of which has not yet been determined.
3. The portion taken up by water from the crude sarcocolla when
evaporated to dryness, is separated by alcohol or ether into a solu-
ble (C), and an insoluble portion D.
4. The soluble C, dried at 212°, gives discordant results, approach-
ing to C4) H;. O,,, but when treated with bases, gives salts containing
organic constituents of a different constitution.
A neutral acetate of lead throws down a salt represented by
Pb O + C,, H,; O;,; and the subsequent addition of the neutral ério
acetate, a salt represented by 2 Pb O + Cyo Hyo Oye.
5. The portion D, insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in water, consists
of a gum, and of a substance which is precipitated by neutral acetate
of lead in curdy flocks.
The investigation is still in progress, and the results are to be con-
sidered as open to correction.
On some Varieties of Peat. By Professor JouNSTON.
The author exhibited some varieties of peat from the Moss near
Paisley, which he stated were illustrative of a transition from the
comparatively fresh vegetable matter to a substance resembling coal,
but which he affirmed to be ulmic acid. The author stated that the
same substance might be obtained from peat by digesting it in ammo-
nia, and afterwards precipitating the brown solution by an acid; while
on the other hand, caustic potash extracts another, and which he pro-
posed to term humic acid.
On a Mode of Detecting Minute Portions of Arsenic. By Dr. CLARK,
of Marischal College, Aberdeen.
This mode has been applied by the author to the detection of arsenic
in commercial specimens of the metals, tin and zinc. Grain tin, made
in Cornwall, contains arsenic, which seems to be the occasion of the
peculiar smell of the hydrogen evolved from that metal by the action
G2
84 . REPORT—1840.
of acids. All the specimens of commercial zine that the author had
happened to try, were found to contain arsenic.
Pure muriatic acid, diluted with distilled acid, is poured upon the
metal, and the hydrogen evolved is passed first through a solution of
nitrate of lead, and next through a solution of nitrate of silver.
Nitrate of lead seems not acted upon by arseniuretted hydrogen, at
least when in very small proportion ; but were any sulphur present in
the metal, hydrosulphuretted hydrogen would be evolved in conse-
quence, and the solution of nitrate of lead would be blackened, which,
however, the author did not observe ever to occur. But nitrate of silver
seems immediately to be acted upon by most minute portions of arseniu-
retted hydrogen. A bluish-black precipitate is formed, which, to
judge from a qualitative analysis, appears to be an arseniuret of silver.
This bluish-black precipitate may be collected with remarkable facility,
from its falling readily from the solution, which it leaves perfectly
clear. Heated in a small tube, so that the matter heated comes into
contact with the air, the bluish-black precipitate evolves arsenious
acid, which, by the liquid tests, may be further satisfactorily recog-
nized. Antimony produces a similar precipitate, so that the mere
appearance of the precipitate is not enough, without the production
and recoguition, by the usual methods, of the arsenious acid.
By a few evident modifications, this method may be applied te
medico-legal investigations.
——————
On the Tests for Sulphurie Acid when thrown on the Person.
By R. D. THomsoy, M.D.
The object of the author was to discuss the accuracy of the modes of
testing sulphuric acid when employed for criminal purposes, and espe-
cially when thrown on the person. A case had lately occurred to him
in practice, and which was brought before the last session of the
Central Criminal Court, which proved that the mode of determining
the presence of free acid by mere testing was by no means satisfactory.
A woman, in a fit of rage, threw a quantity of oil of vitriol at the face
of a cabmaster in the neighbourhood of Euston-square, and before the
unfortunate sufferer could wash off the acid only two minutes had ex-
pired; yet the consequence was loss of vision intheeye. The author stated,
that having attentively considered this case, and made a series of
experiments on the eyes of dead animals, he had discovered that this
kind of blindness was perfectly curable ; and he had accordingly pro-
posed an operation for this purpose ina paper read at the Medical
Section. But, besides having his face injured, the hat of the man was
discoloured also with the acid. This article of dress was sent to the
author, to determine the nature of the agent in this work of destruc-
tion. The result of his experiments was, that both the injured and
entire hat contained sulphuric acid, as tested by nitrate of barytes ;
and a solution of the soluble matter of both states of this article of
dress, afforded an acid reaction. It was therefore necessary to adopt
rc el
GLY AFI E LE ee ee ae
=
TRANSACTIONS OF TILE SECTIONS. 85
some method which would afford a discriminating test between the free
and combined acid. The usual mode, viz. by boiling with carbonate
of lead, and concluding, if any insoluble sulphate of lead was formed,
that the acid existed in a free state, was found to be totally fallacious,
because carbonate of lead decomposes sulphate of soda, contrary to the
opinion stated in works of medical jurisprudence. Besides, it was
shown that many of the usually so-called neutral sulphates exhibit in
reality an acid reaction upon test-paper, as in the instances generally
of sulphates of potash, iron, soda, barytes, and also in the case of
alum, &e.; and hence the excess of acid attached to these salts, would
be apt to act as free acid upon the barytes test. The author, there-
fore, concludes that the only demonstrative proof which chemistry
affords, is a quantitative analysis. Thus he found the entire hat to
contain °356 per cent. of sulphuric acid, probably in the state of alum
or copperas, and the injured hat, 1°379 per cent., or in other words,
the hat had received by the injury 1-023 per cent. of free sulphuric
acid. Here then was afforded clear evidence of the nature of the
agent employed to effect the injurious object, which could not have
been conclusive if the matter examined had only amounted to a drop
or stain.
The author directed attention to a point connected with sulphuric
acid in a medico-legal point of view, viz. that the oil of vitriol of
commerce always contains in this country nitric acid, in addition to
various other impurities. Barruel has stated that sulphuric acid is
capable of dissolving platinum. The author has not been able to
satisfy himself that it dissolves any sensible quantity of gold leaf.
Barruel attributes the property which he states it to possess, of dis-
solving platinum, to the sulphuric acid, assuming the function of
muriatic acid. But the author is not aware of any experiment which
would authorize this conclusion. He is rather inclined to attribute the
action, if such an occurrence takes place, to the muriatic acid which is
present in all the oil of vitriol prepared from sulphur that he has
examined. It is given out in sensible quantities, when a solid oil, such
as cocoa-nut oil, is acted on by sulphuric acid. This he ascertained
several years ago, when examining some Indian oils; and Dr. Kane
has since corroborated the fact of the existence of muriatic acid in oil
of vitriol. Although the author has not been able to observe the
solution of any sensible quantity of gold leaf by the action of oil of
vitriol, per se, yet if a few drops of muriatic acid be added, the aciion
becomes very powerful; and by the administration of heat, platinum
also is dissolved. . These facts, therefore, prove that wherever we have
oil of vitriol, we may expect also nitric acid. The author added that he
knew of no certain mode of detecting the presence of nitric acid, save
by the property which it possessed of dissolving gold and platinum,
on the addition of muriatic acid. Pure morphia has no action upon
nitric acid; it is the resin which generally accompanies that alkaloid
which produces the characteristic yellow colour. But the author found
that preparations of opium, in which the resin was excluded, afforded
no colour when nitric acid was added. From an examination
86 REPORT— 1840.
of numerous cases of poisoning by opium, which had appeared before
the Middlesex coroners, he had come to the conclusion that the resin
of opium test for nitric acid afforded only an auxiliary method of
arriving at the truth, as its characters were frequently verified by
other organic substances.
On Bleaching Vegetable Wax. By Mr. E. Soxty.
In the course of the summer the author made a series of experiments
on the best method of bleaching vegetable wax, the green colour of
which is very difficult of destruction, and of course a considerable ob-
jection to its use in the manufacture of candles. On trying most of
the methods usually described as being fitted for the purpose, he found
them all more or less objectionable, or inapplicable on a large scale.
Some were tedious, requiring a long time for their completion, others
expensive, whilst others again were inconvenient, from the difficulty with
which the residuum of the materials employed in bleaching were sepa-
rable from the bleached wax. The author found that the best effect was
produced by chlorine; but in this case it was necessary that the mate-
rials used to evolve the gas should be intimately mixed with wax, and
then of course the difficulty of separating the residue occurred, and when
a stream of chlorine was slowly passed through the wax, the process was
very slow and tedious. He subsequently found that strong nitric acid
was a very powerful decolorising agent, and it possessed the advantage
of leaving no residue which was at all difficult of separation ; the expense
of this process was, however, a great objection to its use. The following
method was ultimately employed. The wax was melted, a small quan-
tity of sulphuric acid was poured in, composed of one part of oil of
vitriol to two of water, and then a few crystals of nitrate of soda were
stirred in; the whole was then agitated with a wooden stirrer, and kept
heated. Nitric acid was thus evolved in considerable quantity and
purity from a large surface, and in such a manner that all the acid
evolved must necessarily pass through the melted wax. This method
answered the purpose very completely; the process was cheap and
rapid, and the residuum being merely a little solution of sulphate of
soda was very easily removed. When it is desired to employ chlorine
in place of nitric acid as the bleaching agent, the same process may be
adopted.
On a peculiar Class of Voltaic Phenomena. By Mr. SturGEon.
The author directed attention to some experiments published by
himself in 1830, and to his theory respecting the electro-chemical
action of the simplest metals on acid and other solutions. He stated
that the fact of iron not precipitating copper from its sulphate and
other solutions, as recently observed by Professor Schénbein, was one
of the many beautiful phenomena discovered by Keir, and published in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1790.
ies St Se
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87
Experiments on Carbonic Acid thrown. off from the Lungs. By Mr.
M’GREGOR.
These experiments, performed by the author while resident in the
Royal Infirmary of Glasgow, were instituted with a view to ascertain
whether the quantity of carbonic acid thrown off from the lungs differed
in health and disease. The mean per cent. in health he found to be 3°5
per cent., a quantity which very nearly corresponds with that assigned by
Dr. Thomson of Glasgow, and Dr. Apjohn of Dublin ; that found by the
former being 3°72 as a mean ultimate result, while that of the latter
was 3°6. In the eruptive stages of small-pox, measles and scarlet fever,
the amount of carbonic acid evolved from the lungs was considerably
increased, in the former to from 6 to 8 per cent., and in the two latter
to from 4 to 5 per cent. During the aggress and climax of these dis-
eases, the per centage of carbonic acid showed the above increase,
while in proportion as convalescence established itself, and the skin
re-assumed its normal appearance, the per centage of carbonic acid
gradually diminished. Ten cases of each of the above specified diseases
were so examined. In chronic skin-disease an augmentation was also
observed, and in one case of ichthyosis the mean per centage amounted
to 7°2 per cent. The scaliness.in that case was universal, and ulti-
mately proved fatal. In diabetes mellitus, a disease in which the ali-
ment is converted into sugar, and eliminated in the form of urea and
sugar, no normal aberration could be detected; the carbon in that case
tae eliminated in the form of sugar and urea.
Description of a New Instrument for Measuring the Refractive Power
of Minute Bodies. By ALEXANDER Bryson, of Edinburgh.
While engaged in a series of experiments on the polarising proper-
ties of minute crystals, I found that when the microscope was focused
to the second surface of a plate of glass, on which some minute ery-
stals of Greenockite were placed, the addition of a thin film of Canada
balsam spread on the slip of glass, prevented entirely the appearance
of the Greenockite, until the body of the microscope was raised two
hundredths of an inch above its former position.
This property of bodies, with parallel planes, affords a means of ascer-
taining the approximate refractive power of minute bodies. On this prin-
ciple Mr. Bryson has constructed an extremely simple microscope. On
its stage is placed a piece of crown-glass, the refractive power of which
has been ascertained, having a few fine lines drawn upon its surface with
a diamond point. If a piece of topaz of ;4,th of an inch in thickness
is now placed above the lines, it will be found necessary to raise the
body of the microscope ‘045 of an inch higher than it was while view-
ing the lines before they can be observed after the interposition of the
topaz. This difference of focal length then becomes an index to the
difference of refractive power between the glass plate and the crystal
of topaz. All that we require is to procure the means of ascertaining
88 REPORT— 1840.
minute differences of focal length, which is easily accomplished by a
scale and vernier, reading to the thousandths of an inch.
Thirteen minerals were cut with parallel planes, all exactly 5th of
an inch thick; they were placed on the glass micrometer, focused in
every experiment at *210 upon the scale; the difference of focus is there-
fore the remainder of ‘210 subtracted from the figures cpposite the
name of each mineral in the annexed list.
Greenockite, Bishopton, Clyde .............. ‘275
(Genanias) (Gesu lon 3 Anes sO boon eg eos +260
ATELY SC POTION EAL ty -)-\ ocho were eiera ete ole siw/e aieieete is "258
Pxehimitesgisislion fon tee ae cies esatete’eters) eke ctelsi crores *258
Topaz Newitollaid’\!. oF raved i ates "255
ERA DEBS UC: Blo eee ae CEE ae ates se i "255
Sul platelets lan yitey ise e512, 5 ots nies 60: <15/a)s180) 912 °255
Beryl, planes perpendicular to axis .......... °255
Opaleconmovoitger emia de <p) classes sic sieaic cisalaistee 245
Rose quartz .... 2.050 aetna cicba atta aceite tiers *246
PAMICTHU SE CESEA AEC yz, .fe/atc, tone. tie areisiaiae a alts occis © 245
HIGOGR PAM eh ciate ciswicemeecleeletwitetia tei wiceelete 243
AEPAPOMIEOY Pais sie siete «ee oe Sea tars ctoiets eiemramiele 235
On a New Method of Crystallographic Notation. By Mr. J. J.
GRIFFIN.
*
The author classes the planes of crystals into seven elementary sets,
which he calls “ Forms.” The planes of crystallized minerals consist
of these forms in various states of combination. Hence a natural
crystal, speaking crystallographically, is a “ Combination.” Theseven
fundamental forms are named P, M, T, MT, PM, PT, PMT. These
symbols show the relations of the planes which constitute the Forms,
to what are termed the axes of acrystal. These axes are three mathe-
matical lines which cross one another in the centre of the crystal, at
an angle of 90°. The position of the first of these axes is perpen-
dicular, whence it is called the principal or perpendicular axis, and is
denoted by the sign p*. The second axis iS called the minor or middle
axis, and is denoted by the sign m*. It passes from the front to the
back of the crystal. The third axis is the transverse axis. It passes
from the left to the right side of the crystal, and is denoted by the sign
t®, All the planes of a crystal, when extended, cut one or two or
three of these axes, and they are denoted by letters referring to the
axes which they cut. ‘Thus P means two planes that cut p*; M, two
planes that cut m?; T, two planes that cut t?; MT, four planes that
cut m* and t*; PM, four planes that cut p* and m?; PT, four planes
that cut p® and t®; PMT, eight planes that cut all the three axes.
When the axes are cut at different distances from the centre of the
erystal, the lengths of the respective axes are indicated by indices
placed between the letters, which constitute the symbol of the form.
Thus, M}T denotes a vertical rhombic prism, the diagonals of whose
cross section are as the numbers 1 and 2. And P3M3T denotes a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89
rhombic octahedron, whose three axes have the relation of p} m?
t. Mr. Griffin entered into various details to prove that the occur-
rence of planes, not representable by one or other of these seven forms,
was a mathematical impossibility, and that the proposed system of no-
tation was amply sufficient for all the purposes of the chemist and
mineralogist, while it had over other systems of crystallography the ad-
vantage of requiring but a small amount of mathematical knowledge.
Prof. Jacobi made some observations respecting his discovery of
Galvanoplastics, or electrotype, from which, and from printed docu-
ments, it appeared that he had communicated a notice of the discovery
to the Petersburgh Academy on the 5th of October, 1838. In his
pamphlet, ‘ Die Galvanoplastik,’ the date of this communication is 5th
of October, 1839; but it was stated that this was a typographical
error. The first published account of the discovery appeared, accord-
ing to Prof. Jacobi, in a Petersburgh journal of the 30th October,
1838*,
GEOLOGY.
On the Coal Formation of the West of Scotland. By Mr. J. Craic.
Mr. Craig had surveyed this district at the suggestion of the Local
Committee of the British Association in Glasgow. After describing
the general features of the district, and the character of the superficial
deposits, and mentioning that he had found the Mytilus edulis, the
Litiorina littoralis, and other recent sea-shells at the elevation of 360,
100, 80, and 40 feet above the present level of the sea, Mr. Craig pro-
ceede to describe the different portions of the strata, as subdivided
and coloured in the Map and Sections. These he classed as follows :—
Ist. The upper red sandstone series.
2nd. The upper or fresh-water coal series.
3rd. The upper marine or limestone series.
4th. The lower coal series.
5th. The lower marine limestone series.
6th. The old red sandstone.
Ist. The upper red sandstone, consisting of red and variegated
sandstones, shales, some thin seams of coal, and a very few traces of
coal plants, extends over very considerable portions of the regular coal
beds both in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. On the south of the deposit
in Lanarkshire, it appears not to be conformable with the upper coal
series as on the north, but occurs in actual contact with some of the
* Der St. Petersburger deutschen Zeituug.
90 REPORT—1840.
lowest members of the lower coal series at Crossbasket. It is not tra-
versed in Lanarkshire as in Ayrshire by trapdykes.
2nd. The upper or fresh-water coal series contains about thirty
seams of coal, seven or eight of which are workable. The first work-
able coal lies generally about forty-five or fifty fathoms below the red
sandstone ; but at Rosehall the red colour prevails as low in the series
as the third workable coal. The first or upper coal seam is from 23
to 3 feet thick in the parishes of Old and New Monkland ; but in those
of Dalziel, Dalserf, and Hamilton, it sometimes measures from six to
ten feet. When so thick, it is probably a junction of the first and
second seams. The second and third coal, when separate, average
each about four feet; when united, as is sometimes the case, they form
eight or nine feet of coal. The fourth coal is generally too thin to be
workable; but in the neighbourhood of Glasgow it measures 23 feet.
The fifth or splint coal measures from 24 to 6 feet thick. The coals
that underlie the splint are not so regular, either as to thickness or
geographical distribution. There are three seams workable in the
Monklands—the first is 2} feet, the next four feet, and the lowest two
feet thick. Below these, in the parish of Shotts, there is a cannel coal.
The distance from the first or ell coal, to the fifth or splint coal, is
about thirty fathoms. The area in which these valuable beds of coal
occur, extends in Lanarkshire from Glasgow to Carluke, a distance of
twenty miles. In breadth it varies from six to fifteen miles: fifteen to
twenty square miles of this area is occupied by the upper red sand-
stone.
The fossil shells found in this formation are all of fresh-water origin.
There are from seven to ten varieties of the genus Unio. The different
species are characteristic of different portions of the stratification, the
larger species being lowest and the smaller highest in the series. The
remains of the Megalichthys Hibbertii prevail from the lowest coal to
the upper black-band ironstone. This is also the case with the Gyra-
canthus formosus of Agassiz. The Ctenacanthus and two other species
not yet described, are also found in the upper ironstone, and in the roof
of the splint coal. These and other ichthyological remains are found in
great abundance in the roof of the Shott’s coal, which is the second
seam below the splint coal. The shales of this series abound in fossil
ferns, Stigmaria, Lepidodendra, Asterophyllites, Sigillaria, and other
coal plants.
The Sternbergia approximata has been found in the roof of the
splint coal. It is worthy of remark, that the Stigmaria ficoides is very
frequently found in the shales, with the leaves attached to the stem
and spread out laterally, in a manner which never could have occurred
had the plant been drifted from a distance. The ripple-marks which
are observable on almost all the shales and laminated sandstones, not
only in the upper series, but through the whole of the carboniferous
formation, tend also to show that these portions of the coal strata, at
least, were deposited in shallow water. Fossil trees in a vertical situa-
tion are rare. Mr. Craig had only seen them in three places,—that at
Balgray Quarry, near Glasgow, is the most remarkable, as there were
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91
many stems seen in the stone, with their roots ramified through it, and
the stems quite vertical ; circumstances which clearly indicate that they
grew in their present position. Mr. Craig then described the different
carboniferous black band ironstones found in the upper coal formation.
These he classed as the upper, which is about fourteen inches thick,
and lies 24 fathoms above the first, or ell coal. It is only wrought in
the parish of Old Monkland, at a place called Carnbroe. The middle
or Airdrie black band lies about sixteen fathoms below the splint coal,
and measures from fourteen to twenty-two inches thick; the lowest lies
much lower in the stratification, and is of about the same quality and
thickness as the Airdrie black band.
3rd. Below the coals and ironstones already noticed, we arrive at a
marine series, containing three or four limestones, which, with their as-
sociated shales, contain—Encrinites, Bellerophons, Nucula, Euomphali,
Orthoceratites, and other remains decidedly marine. This portion of-
the strata contains only two or three very thin seams of coal; it is
about 200 yards thick. This group is denominated the upper lime-
stone series.
4th. We now arrive at the lower coal series, which contains no lime-
stones, but a number of coals, the lowest of which is the cannel coal,
measuring from two to three feet thick. The main coal lies fifteen
fathoms above the cannel coal. These and some other thin seams are
associated in some localities with valuable black band ironstones.
These are wrought at Keppoch, near Glasgow. The upper ironstone
measures from fifteen to sixteen inches. The under band varies from
four to ten inches in thickness.
The black band ironstones of the Glasgow coal-field contain very
little clay, and about as much carbonaceous matter as serves to calcine
it ; on which account it is considered more valuable than the clay iron-
stones hereafter to be noticed.
Below the lower coal series there occur several small groups of clay
ironstones imbedded in shale, each separated from the other by beds
of sandstone and an occasional stratum of limestone. Mr. Craig showed
a vertical section wherein all these beds were exhibited, the ironstones,
amounting tosixty-six in number, twenty feet of which might be wrought
in different winnings in the same pit.
5th and 6th. Underneath these ironstones, shales, &c. lies the main
limestone, measuring from four to six feet thick, beneath which isa
layer of aluminous shale, from which alum is manufactured. This bed
is followed by a seam of coal from four to five feet thick, of a sulphur-
eous nature, and containing nodules of iron pyrites. These beds are
succeeded by limestones, shales, and sandstones, and finally by an ex-
tensive formation of thin compact limestones imbedded in shale, and
finally by old red sandstone. Such is the general description of the
strata developed on the Clyde and its tributaries, from Lanark to the
Vale of Leven.
Mr. Craig then entered upon a description of the different coal-fields
in Ayrshire. The coal there appears in several basins, among which
are those of Irvine, Kilmarnock, Ayr and Dalry. These contain from
92 REPORT—1840.
four to six or seven workable coals, measuring from 24 to seven feet
thick each, a valuable black band ironstone, and a great many clay
ironstones, the whole based upon marine limestones of great thickness.
Mr. Craig’s paper was illustrated by large coloured maps, and by
sections of the various coal-pits and borings which had been made
through the extensive district, amounting to 3600 square miles, which
he had surveyed. These were taken at various points in the stratifi-
cation, and developed the whole in depth to the extent of above 1000
yards.
Notes taken during the Surveys for the Construction of the Geolo-
gical Model Maps and Sections of the Island of Arran. By
A. C. Ramsay.
The interior of the northern and more mountainous district of Arran
is a mass of granite, against which recline various stratified formations,
ranging between the primary schist and slates, and the new red sand-
stone. Immediately resting on the central mass of granite lie the
schistose and slaty rocks, which are sometimes much contorted, and
contain innumerable quartz veins minutely laminated and parallel to
the plane of stratification, and in other instances penetrating the slate
laterally, being sometimes two feet in thickness. On the slate repose
the old red sandstone and conglomerate, containing pebbles of schist
and slate quartz, &c. The fragments of quartz are of two kinds,—
Ist, well-rolled and polished pebbles, probably originating in some
ancient mass of quartz now totally destroyed ; 2nd, broken and angular
fragments, which seem to have been imbedded in the conglomerate
immediately after they were detached from the original mass. These
last probably proceeded from the larger quartz veins already alluded
to, the softer materials in which they occur forming part of the cement
which binds the conglomerate together. The anticlinal line is in
the centre of the old red sandstone at North Sannox, and at either
extremity the coal measures dip to the north and south, being again
succeeded by what is generally believed to be the new red sandstone.
The southern district of the island is composed of irrupted masses of
traps, porphyries, and syenites overlying the stratified sandstone forma-
tions. In general it is only where the action of the streams has worn
away the superincumbent igneous rocks that this sandstone is visible
in the valleys; and in many of the deep gulleys dykes may be seen
penetrating, and thence overflowing, the strata to a great depth. In
such cases the trap usually assumes a semi-columnar form.
Mr. Ramsay then proceeded to notice some of the phenomena which
preceded and attended the elevation of Arran.
The deposition of the various formations has generally taken place
under a gradual change of circumstances. Thus, in North Sannox
Water, we have first, slate; next, a slaty conglomerate, or pebbles
of slate inclosed in slate; then the common pudding-stone ; again
the slaty conglomerate, and so on, alternating several times. At
a eee eee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93
the north and south boundaries of the old red sandstone, between
Fallen Rocks and Corrie, it assumes a conglomerate form; but before
passing into the coal measures, we find the same pebbles, of which it
is composed, inclosed in lime, forming a carboniferous limestone con-
glomerate; after which succeed the various sandstones, limes, and
shales of the coal formations. It is equally impossible to define the
boundaries of the coal measures and the new red sandstone. As,
therefore, there is no sudden change from one set of rocks to the
other, Mr. R. inferred that they were regularly laid on each other,
without any material intervening change having taken place in the bed
of the sea where they were deposited.
On the question, through what agencies did these strata attain
their present elevation, the author states the following facts :—There
are no fragments of granite in any of the overlying formations.
Granite often penetrates the slate in veins, but has nowhere over-
flowed the slate. Probably, before the deposition of the old red sand-
stone, the melted granite was formed under the slate, partially eleva-
ting it above the water and cracking it in many places. Into these
fissures the granite infused itself, cooled, and was subsequently up-
heaved and protruded in its present crystalline form. In proof of this,
it is stated—Ist, that rounded fragments of slate and schist are im-
bedded in the old red sandstone ; 2nd, that in many places a shallow
valley intervenes between the highest point of the slate and the central
granite; 3rd, the separated edges of the slate dip towards the granite ;
4th, had the sandstone rocks completely overlaid the slate before its
first partial elevation, they would have occupied the low ridges which
now encircle the granite.
There are in Arran two granites distinct in character, the one coarse
and erystalline, the other of a finer and softer texture. The fine granite
occupies the centre of the granitic district, the coarse forming the
external ridges next the slate. The fine granite also penetrates the
coarse variety in veins. Trap and pitchstone dykes penetrate the
coarse granite in many places; but as no dykes have yet been found
in the fine granite, and as these dykes are always cut off by the fine
granite when they approach it in the coarse rock, it would appear that
the fine granite is even newer than the trap dykes; and if these last
are contemporaneous with the traps and porphyries of the south end of
Arran, the fine granite must also be of later origin than they are. In
the year 1837, Mr. Ramsay discovered a mass of fine-grained granite
to the west of Glen Cloy (called by M. Necker, who noticed it last
year, Ploverfield) associated with syenite, and sending veins into the
adjacent red sandstone.
With regard to the more recent elevations, the author stated, that an
ancient sea cliff, the foot of which is about forty feet above the level
of the sea, surrounds great part of the island, and, gradually sloping
from this to the modern beach, shells are found similar to what are
now found on the shore. These shells are even found at the entrances
of the water-worn caves so common in this cliff; and these caves,
instead of lying horizontally, dip agreeably to the anticlinal line, their
94 REPORT—1840,
pillars being at right angles to the plane of stratification, not to the
horizontal level, clearly showing that they were elevated into their
present position at an epoch subsequent to their formation. Between
this cliff also, and the sea, are numerous boulders of granite, which rest
not on the broadest and most solid parts, but on their apices, as if the
action of the advancing and retiring waves while they were within high
water-mark, had washed away the lower portions of the rock and left
them in their present position. A regular series of these forms may
be observed on the shore, and the further they are removed from ebb-
tide, the more do they assume the form of inverted cones.
Another evidence of a still more recent elevation is this, that near
the coal on the east coast, is a bed of red limestone; and six or eight
feet above the level of the sea the surface is entirely honey-combed
with the perforations of a species of Pholas.
With regard to the phenomena of the quartz veins in the slate and
schist, Mr. Ramsay said, that in part they appeared to owe their origin
to the influence of electric currents; but as, where this occurs, the
slate or schist is generally much contorted, it is perhaps probable that
these currents have been materially aided in their operations by heat ;
and the process of separating the particles and arranging them in
laminz, would be much assisted if the slate were so far heated and
expanded as to allow its component particles liberty of motion. That
it was heated to a great extent, is evident from the fact, that at the
distance of a mile and a half from the granite the slate exhibits the
most marked contortions; and where in immediate contact with the
granite, it has in some instances been partially fused.
During the Commonwealth, when Cromwell's soldiers were in Arran,
a number of the refractory natives retired into the woods. To gain
access to their retreat it was found necessary to cut down many of the
trees. These trees were lately found perfectly fresh under 64 feet
of moss.
On another occasion a number of ancient weapons of war were found
under three feet of peat moss. These weapons are supposed to be as
old as one of the Danish invasions, a battle between the natives and
the Danes having taken place where they were found.
Observations on the Superficial Beds in the Neighbourhood of Glasgow.
By James Situ, F.G.S.
The uppermost bed is a sand ; the next a brick clay, interlaminated
with sand, containing marine shells; and then a bed, called in Scotland
“till”, and containing boulder stones. These are evidently post-tertiary.
Between these and the sandstone are three other beds. Mr. Smith has
discovered, in elevations, often forty feet above the present shores, beds
of shells, containing about eighty-five per cent. of species now existing.
Those of extinct species resemble shells from Canada, and indicate a
colder climate at the time the animals existed. In the till, shells are of
very rare occurrence, although it sometimes contains large bones. The
a So
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95
bed of brick clay seems to have been frequently subjected both to ele-
vation and subsidence ; the latter condition being more difficult to ob-
serve, from its being often beyond our view. The brick clay of the
neighbourhood of Glasgow appears also to coincide in age with the
Carse clay of the east of Scotland, as may be seen in the valley of the
Tay, where a singular phenomenon is presented by a bed containing
stumps of trees, which is covered by another containing littoral shells.
He mentioned, that Dr. Thomson, of Glasgow, had recorded a whin
dyke that penetrated the superficial sand of that city, but he was not
aware of the sand having been altered by it; also, that in Cumbrae a
great wearing away of the sandstone was proved by the dykes, as they
were now presented to the observer: allowing a foot in the century for
this destruction, it would require many centuries to effect what has been
done, which induced Mr. Smith to consider the post-tertiary period to
be much longer than is generally supposed.
——____
On the Geology of Castle Hill, Ardrossan. By Wiiu1aM Kerr.
It is situated at the north-west extremity of the great Scotch coal
field. On the north side of Ardrossan quay may be seen the old red
sandstone dipping. beneath the coal; the pier is built on a trap dyke,
and the baths upon another; between them the coal strata run into
the sea at angles highly inclined. The Castle Hill is formed by an
eruption of trap, chiefly in the condition of claystone and clinkstone,
with a vein of green serpentine running through it, without rising to
the surface. In cutting for the railway, this vein has been exposed
and a portion removed. At first it was dark green, very brittle, and
frequently coated with steatite; it then became darker in colour, and
more compact, and is now becoming like ordinary greenstone. The
claystone of the hill appears to have been fissured by the eruption of
the serpentine; the fissures are filled with drift, in which are many
fragments that bear such marks of fusion as to resemble scorie ; they
have often a ceiling of stalactite, and a floor of stalactitic conglome-
rate, formed of water-worn pebbles and recent sea-shells, proving the
elevation of the rock, the cavernous part being thirty feet above the
present tide-level. A little higher, in a sheltered spot, is a bed of re-
cent shells, Littorina vulgaris and Patella vulgaris, which have been
brought there in storms.
—_—_
On the Granite Formations of Newabbey, in Galloway. By the Rev.
J. M. Fisuer, A.M, of Rose Bank, Dumfries.
“The parishes of Newabbey, Kirkbean, Colvend, and Kirkgunzeon,
lie contiguous, and the chains or ridges pervading these, which are
wholly composed of granite, stretch in a direction from S.E. to N.W.
The granite, it is true, appears more distinct in the above-mentioned
parishes ; still it stretches in a sort of ridge across the south of the
96 REPORT—1840.
Stewarty, as far as the Dee, and even appears on the other side, giving
existence to the lofty Cairnsmoor.
“ At Criffel, which is a huge rounded mountain, towering above most
of the hills in the south of Scotland, so as to be seen at a great distance,
we have first, a ridge running from S.E. to N.W., terminating in
another pretty lofty hill, called Lowters. Then commencing at Sham-
bellie, a little to the north of Criffel, we have another ridge running
nearly parallel with the above, consisting of Auchingray and Glen-
sone hills; and further north still is another ridge, almost parallel in
like manner, commencing at Whinnyhill, and including Trostive and
Graizend ; these terminate in a pretty large sort of loch, called Loch
Arthur, where the granite formation terminates also; and we find the
next hills, Dalscairth and Mabie, exhibiting a distinct stratification of
graywacke or clayslate. At the foot of Craigurd, the most northerly
of the above ridges affords little interesting. In a sort of morass,
interspersed with several large blocks of granite, as if they had rolled
down from the ridge above, is one large block, called the Rocking-stone.
“Glensone Hill runs nearly S.E., and on the west side, around the
brow of the hill, is an extensive ridge of granite rocks, in a curved
form, quite bare and rugged; many of the masses very large, disjoined
from the body of the hill, and presenting some of them a distinct
columnar formation. This is the more remarkable, as the dip of the
rock in this hill, and indeed in all the ridges, is westward, at 60° to 70°.
To the west of Glensone lies Lowters, the highest of all except Criffel.
The east side, fronting Glensone, is steep and rugged ; the rocks crop-
ping out quite precipitously, apparently corresponding with the west
side of Glensone, though the valley between may extend to the width
of 600 or 800 yards, through which Loch Arthur discharges a small
stream, which flows into the Nith. On the other hand, the west side
of the hill, following the nature of the dip, slopes with a gentle de-
clivity, and is cultivated a considerable way up. This same circum-
stance is observable at Auchingray Hill, the S.E. side of which is
steep and precipitous, the rocks cropping out quite bare ; whereas the
west side slopes, according to the dip, and is cultivated almost to the
top. All these hills and ridges, besides having innumerable blocks of
granite scattered over their surface, in ample profusion, and in all di-
rections, seem entirely composed of this rock to a great depth ; at least
as far as any person has penetrated.
“ The highest ridge of the whole remains to be described ; that is a
hill called Knockandach, i. e. the ‘ Hill of Drink,’ running in a direc-
tion nearly north and south, rising to the height of 1200 feet, and
which is continued till it finally terminates in the gigantic Criffel.
Criffel is certainly an immense mass of granite, changing into syenite
in some parts. As on the east side, the rocks crop out in several
places, still exhibiting the dip mentioned. Criffel has one principal
summit, with three knees or shoulders, one east, one south, and another
west; and Knockandach, formerly mentioned, completes the formation
northward. On the principal summit has been erected, at different
times, and by different contributors, a large cairn of granite rocks,
from which the view is most extensive and splendid.”
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97
On Earthquakes in Scotland. By D. Mitye, F.R.S.E.
Since the year 1788, shocks have been remarked, and have been
partially registered. Three-fourths of these seem to have issued from
Comrie, in Perthshire, and most of the others from the banks of Loch
Ness. The district of Comrie contains mica-slate, clay-slate, and gray-
wacke, with hills of granite and compact felspar, which have elevated
the other rocks, the conglomerate of the graywacke containing no peb-
bles of granite or felspar; but on the former rocks is old red sand-
stone, containing these pebbles. There are also some remarkable green-
stone dykes, which seem to run parallel to each other from sea to sea,
in east and west direction, and cutting the oldest and newest strata.
The shocks emanated from a granite hill, or from the junction between
it and clay-slate, about two miles from Comrie. In October 1839, there
were sixty-six shocks; November, twenty-one; December, nineteen ;
January 1840, eight; February, six; March, thirteen; April, eight;
May, five; July, six; the severest being on the 23rd of October, at
half-past ten p.m. It was felt as far north as Lochaber and Dingwall, and
as far south as Carlisle and Coldstream ; varying in intensity in different
places. The shocks appear to come from a central point, as their di-
rection is different at different places ; at Comrie being from the north,
at Dunkeld from the south-west, and at Loch Earn Head from the east.
There was an upward motion at Comrie, and at other places it was ob-
lique. There was, likewise, a diminution of intensity and sound as the
distance from Comrie increased ; and there was, in each place, a marked
difference in the damage done to houses. The shock was more se-
verely felt where the soil was alluvial; although, in this case, the sound
was not heard, as in rocky places. Occasionally there was a fall of
fine black powder, and in some places there was a sensible smell. Va-
rious explanations may be given as to the rationale of these shocks ;
but one of the readiest is, the passage of water down to some heated
mass below, and its consequent conversion to steam. As bearing on
this, the shocks are found to have been more frequent at the time of
the year when the greater quantity of rain falls, and when the baro-
meter is lowest. During the last fifty years, 198 shocks took place in
the winter half-year, and sixty-one in the summer. At the present
time, observations are carefully taken with instruments for the purpose.
D. Milne, Esq., in the absence of Lord Breadalbane, stated the sub-
stance of a notice respecting the metalliferous veins of Tyndrum, in
which a great variety of metals has been found.
Lord Greenock announced the discovery of lead on the estate of his
brother, Colonel Cathcart, on the borders of Galloway and Ayrshire.
The vein runs N.N.E. and S.S.W.; it is far distant from granite. It
contains five ounces of silver to the ton. There is hematitic iron ore in
the vicinity.
1840. H
98 REPORT—1840.
On the Sandstone of the Vale of Solway, and the formation of the
Closeburn Basin, Nithsdale, Dumfries-shire. By J. A. Knee.
The author refers the sandstone to the new red sandstone deposit,
remarking that it is a very thin deposit. At Aiket Muir the coal mea-
sures are found, and have been penetrated to a depth of 132 feet in
search of coal, but without success. At, or at least near Ecclefechan,
the true coal measures are seen—on the surface and in the immediate
vicinity, the carboniferous limestone. Near the limestone quarries at
Kelhead a bore has been put down to the depth of 199 feet ; this was
also unsuccessful in finding coal. The various strata passed through
appear to be analogous to the Cannobie pits, and are worked very
profitably.
A zone of sandstone extends up the river Annan, from its entrance
in the Solway up to Moffat. Another and broader portion of this
sandstone extends up the river Nith for several miles north of Dum-
fries. At the Craigs Quarry are found numerous impressions of the
foot-prints of unknown animals. There is a bold escarpment near
these quarries formed of alternating beds of sandstone and conglo-
merate. ‘The section at the Maiden’s Bower does not afford so good a
specimen as nearer the Craigs House, where the sandstone and con-
glomerate beds succeed each other to the number of twenty or more.
The strata dip at an angle of about 30° to the west, though the
dip is very slight at the Maiden’s Bower within a mile of these
quarries: this is formed by the separation and slip of an immense
mass of the strata, which forms a substantial table in this natural
alcove. At Kelhead the Orthoceratite, Producte, Spirifere, Bellero-
phon apertus, &c., are in abundance, and exceedingly perfect.
About five miles north of the extreme end of the Dumfries sandstone
is the Closeburn Basin, in length about ten miles, and from three to five
in breadth ; between them is a zone or band of grauwacke or Upper
Cambrian rock. The northern terminus is near Collaine, at the base of
the Lowder mountains, which rise to an elevation of 3150 feet.
The new red sandstone is the superior stratum, and is quarried in
several places. The dip is by no means regular. There are several
good sections, but the best afforded are in Cree-hope Linn.
The carboniferons limestone is quarried to some extent at the eastern
out-crop at Closeburn, and on the west at Bajarg.
The cabinet of Sir C. Menteith contains a fine collection of fossils
of this formation, from the Closeburn quarry, amongst which are the
Orthoceras cordiforme, and giganteum. The heart-shaped specimen
measures nine inches and a quarter in length, and seven inches in
diameter at its broadest part. This formation rests unconformably upon
the grauwacke or Cambrian rocks, which entirely surround the basin,
and at Comple Mill, where the superior beds are denuded, this rock
is again found. This basin is made further interesting to the geo-
logist by a basaltic dyke passing through it; a good section of its
columnar structure is seen at Comple Water ; it is about twenty-two or
twenty-three yards wide, and ten high. Volcanic grit and altered sand-
stone are in immediate connexion.
:
eX cat
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99
The Duke of Argyle read a notice respecting the occurrence of
copper veins in Argyleshire, and exhibited specimens of marble from
various places in Scotland.
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone. By Ropertck Impry Murcuison,
F.RS., F.G.S., General Secretary to the British Association.
Mr. Murchison called the attention of the Section to the subject
of the old red sandstone of the northern counties of Scotland, the
general relations of which had been long ago pointed out, and some of
its fossil fishes described by Professor Sedgwick and himself*. On this
occasion his object was to mark distinctly the progress which had since
been made in our knowledge of the structure and contents of this sy-
stem in the same tract of country. In dving this, Mr. Murchison
referred to Mr. Hugh Miller, of Cromarty, who, unaided, had unra-
velled the complicated relations of the older stratified deposits around
his native place, and had first endeavoured to describe a singularly
formed animal with lateral wing-like processes, the Péerichthys t,
which with Coccosteus and other new genera of Agassiz have recently
been found in considerable quantities, on both sides of the Murray Frith.
Mr. Murchison then adverted to the general views of Dr. Malcolmson,
of Forres, who had re-examined all the fish deposits lying between the
Orkneys and Aberdeenshire, and had divided the old red sandstone of
these parts into three members, the middle and lower of which are
distinguished by forms of fish peculiar to each. This work, illustrated
by drawings, is now in the course of publication in the Geological
Society’s Transactions, and will form an interesting subject of com-
parison with the work preparing by Professor Asmus, of Dorpat, upon
similar ichthyolites, to which Mr. Murchison adverted in his commu-
nication on the geology of Russia.
Account of the Footsteps of extinct Animals observed in a Quarry in
Rathbone-street, Liverpool. By James Yates, F.R.S.
“For more than half a century a stone quarry has been worked in
Rathbone-street, Liverpool; but only within a few weeks have any
traces been observed in it of organic existence. On my way to the
Meeting of the British Association, I had occasion to stay a short time
at Liverpool, and was informed by Mr. Higginson, a surgeon in that
town, that he had found in this quarry footsteps of the same kind
which were discovered about two years ago at Stourton, in Cheshire.
I accompanied him to the spot, and found the appearances as follows.
The strata are moderately inclined, and of so great thickness as to be
well adapted for building. The workmen are at this time hewing out
of them a set of pillars twenty feet long, intended to form the colon-
nade of a public edifice. These thick strata alternate with others which
are very thin, and on which the ripple-mark is sometimes seen. Lumps
* Geological Transactions, vol. iii. p. 125.
t On this occasion M. Agassiz named the prominent species Péerichthys
Milleri. H 2
100 REPORT—1840,
of soft clay of the form of pebbles, such as are still formed every day
on the shores of the Mersey, are found imbedded in the sandstone, and
thin seams of clay are interposed between the sandstone strata. The
footsteps are found on turning up the broken pieces of one of these
strata; for they occur on its under surface, and are in fact casts, not
original impressions. This under surface rests upon a seam of fine clay
about one quarter of an inch in thickness. Without the intervention
of the clay which has been deposited between the beds of sand, it is
manifest that neither ripple-marks nor footsteps would have been pre-
served. But it appears, that soon after the deposit of a thin bed of
clay upon the soft sand, amphibious quadrupeds, probably allied to cro-
codiles, monitors, or other saurians, traversed the shore of the then
existing river, and left their footsteps impressed upon the clay. The
water having again overflowed the shore, deposited a bed of sand, fill-
ing the impressions of the animals’ feet, and consequently, on the indu-
ration of the sand and its conversion into stone, producing those casts
which are now discovered.
“Tt is almost unnecessary to remark, that the Liverpool sandstone
does not differ in its geological relations from that of Stourton, both
belonging to the new red sandstone formation.”
On the great development of the Upper Silurian Formation in the Vale of
Llangollen, North Wales, and on a Plateau of Igneous Rocks on the
East Flank of the Berwyn range. By J. E. Bowman, F.G.S.
In the course of a recent examination of the boundary line between
the Silurian and Cambrian rocks in North Wales, undertaken at the
suggestion of Mr. Murchison, the author came in contact with the for-
mations that form the subject of his paper, and which do not appear
on the latest geological maps. He showed, by the aid of two enlarged
sections, taken on the spot and rendered more complete by data libe-
rally furnished by Colonel Colby, of the Ordnance Office, that the
shales and slates which compose the hills for some miles north and
south of the vale of Llangollen, and extend westward nearly to Cor-
wen, belong to the Upper Silurian formation. ‘These rocks have here
completely lost the character of the soft brown “mudstones” of Shrop-
shire and Montgomeryshire, and in many places resemble the Cambrian
series, slates and flags with perfect cleavage being extensively quar-
ried at Glyn, Oirnant, &c. Their true geological position was satis-
factorily proved, by their being seen rising from under the Upper
Ludlow rock of Castell Dinas Bran, in which Mr. Bowman found
Terebratula Navicula, Cypricardia, &¢c., and by their lowest beds re-
posing on the fossiliferous Lower Silurian rock of Cyrn y Brain, These
proofs were confirmed by the no less conclusive evidence of fossils,
Orthocerata, Graptolithus Ludensis, and Cardiola interrupta being
found in some of the quarries.
Unlike the soft and uniform equivalents of these rocks, made fami-
liar to geologists by the labours of Mr. Murchison, they here consist
of three principal groups, which insensibly pass into each other, and
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101
are not separated from the Upper Ludlow by the usual Aymestry
limestone.
1. Blue unfossiliferous shale, rising conformably from under the
Upper Ludlow, and passing into parallel thin beds of hard siliceous
schist. These form the bed of the Dee for several miles above Llan-
gollen, and their dip being in the direction of the stream, and their
projecting edges being opposed to it, they give to its dark waters those
alternate reaches of turbulence and repose which form the most inter-
esting features of that celebrated river.
2. The middle group consists of a great thickness of uniform parallel
beds of light blue shale, some of which, on weathering, assume a
whitish colour, and give the section a streaked or banded character.
These form the bold promontory of Rhysgog, and are largely developed
on the steep west face of the Wriddiog, by the side of the great Holy-
head road. Their lower portion is interstratified with bands of hard
sonorous greywacke, and passes into the
3rd or lower group, consisting of the slates and flags which are
quarried at the base of Cefn-uchaf on the south of the vale of Llan-
gollen, and in the chain of hills on the north, as at Oirnant, &c., and
are of great local and commercial value. At the north end of this chain
the lowest beds repose upon the Lower Silurian rocks of Cyrn y Brain.
The total thickness of the three groups is estimated at about 3,100
feet. These rocks are compared with various recognised members
of the same geological age, and of an intermediate character, from
other localities, to show their connexion with the soft mudstones already
alluded to; various other coincidences of dip, tendency to concretions,
structure of joints and cleavage are cited.
Mr. Bowman next described an elevated plateau of igneous rocks,
occupying an area of about twenty square miles on the east flank of
the Berwyn mountains between Llanarmon Dyffryn Ceiriog and Llan-
saintfraid Glyn Ceiriog, not noticed in the latest geological maps. It
is divided by a deep picturesque gorge, through which the river Ceiriog
and the road between the two villages just named, pass. The igneous
matter varies from a pure white compact felspar to a gray or greenish
trap, which in places is stratified, and resembles grauwacke. It has
thrown off the sedimentary rocks on all sides, and burst through them
in various places, forming insulated hills of trap. Near the centre of
the plateau, at the top of the hill of Pen y Craig, is a column of com-
pact white felspar 20 to 25 yards deep and 16 to 18 yards wide, hem-
med in on each side by a wall of Lower Silurian rocks, which it has
rifted asunder, and overspread laterally to a considerable distance, its
hardened perpendicular masses crowning the precipice like a ruined
castle. Blocks of this felspar strew the surface to a considerable dis-
tance, mixed with others of stratified and amorphous trap; and others
project from the rifted sides of the gorges. Some of the stratified
traps so repeatedly alternate with the schists, that it is difficult to avoid
the conclusion of their having been formed simultaneously ; while
others seem to have been forcibly injected between the hardened beds,
and to have taken the shape of the intermediate spaces. The rifted
302 REPORT— 1840.
appearance of the trap in the gorges, shows that after its consolidation,
the whole plateau has been broken up by a second uplift from below.
In conclusion, the author adverted to the difficulties that attend the
investigation of the older stratified rocks, which are, ist, the convulsions
which have broken up the beds; 2nd, the great uniformity of the beds
through vast thicknesses; 3rd, changes from igneous action; 4th, the
extent to which the bedding has been obliterated by the cleavage planes ;
5th, the general absence of organic remains; and, lastly, the all but uni-
versal covering of diluvium that has filled up the fissures of dislocation.
Mr. Bowman also visited the Bala lime quarries, and collected largely
of their fossils, which, with one exception, as far as they have been yet
examined, are similar to those in the Lower Silurian rocks. If, there-
fore, there be any boundary between the Upper Cambrian and Lower
Silurian systems, it must be defined by other evidence than that of
fossils. In addition to the absence of the dividing limestones of the
Upper Silurian rocks, some peculiarities were pointed out in other
parts of the large section exhibited, viz. the old red sandstone is en-
tirely wanting in Montgomeryshire and Denbighshire, the carboniferous
limestone resting upon the Upper and sometimes on the Lower Silurian ;
while to the north of Cyrn y Brain, the limestone itself is deficient, and
the millstone grit reposes upon the fossiliferous Lower Silurian.
Account of a Raised Sea-beach at Woodspring-hill, near Bristol.
By Wittiam Sanpers, F.G.S.
Woodspring-hill forms a part of the coast of the Bristol Channel,
about eighteen miles W.S.W. of Bristol, and two miles to the north of
Weston-super-mare. The name which it bears on the parish map is
derived from an ancient tower and other buildings, the remains of Wood-
spring priory. On the Ordnance map it is named Middle Hope. The
hill is about two miles in length from east to west, with a breadth of
about half a mile, decreasing to a point at the western end which is
called Swallow-cliff. The author then describes the geographical rela-
tions of this detached hill of mountain limestone, to the carboniferous
district included between the Mendip Hills and Tortworth. Within
this space he describes the principal lines of displacement of the rocks,
and from the evidence which he has collected concludes that, throughout
this district the evidence abounds of elevatory movements during the
formation of the magnesian conglomerate, and before the deposition of
the new red sandstone strata, as well as of elevations that affect both
the new red marls and the superincumbent lias. Besides these there
have been disturbances on a much smaller scale and to a more limited
extent, but leaving no other trace of the time of disturbance.
The author then describes the phenomena observed in this hill,
which mark the existence of an ancient sea-beach there. These may
be classed under the following heads.
1. Blocks of several feet in diameter, composed of pieces of limestone,
large and small, with rolled pebbles, cemented together by broken
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103
shells. At the same level (twenty-five feet above ordinary spring-
tides) a mixed mass of fine gravel sand and shells ( Tedlina solidula,
Littorina communis, L. neritoidea, Patella vulgaris, but no extinct
species ).
2. A double range of terraces and declivities, the upper one most
conspicuous, which appear to correspond to the strikes of the shale and
limestone beds, which form in this hill the base of the limestone series.
On the upper of these, shells of the kind already noticed were found
by digging to the depth of a foot.
3. A remarkable broken part in the brow of the upper terrace or
inner cliff, already mentioned, a fact inexplicable by modern agency,
but easily understood as the effect of an ancient slip, produced by
littoral action.
From these phenomena, combined with a careful survey of the geo-
graphical features of the vicinity, the author states his conclusion to be
that convincing evidence exists, that at some distant period since the
complete establishment of the present order of animal life, an elevation
to the extent of twenty or thirty feet has occurred along the northern
coast of Woodspring-hill ; and that there is also a probability that a
similar movement happened at some previous date, yet still within the
modern geological period. But although a connexion between the
event here described and the minor movements of the district, to which
allusion has been made, may be suspected, yet the author is unable to
trace such relationship from want of knowing what common evidence
of former position can exist under such varying conditions as are
implied by inland situation on the one hand, and on the other, close
contact with the sea-shore.
(Maps and sections of the hill were exhibited in illustration.)
On the Older Strata of Devonshire. By the
Rev. Davin WituiaMs, F.G.S.
The author stated that certain fossils had been discovered in the
culm and plant rocks in the neighbourhood of Exeter by Mr. Parker,
jun., of genera and species such as had not hitherto been found in any
part of the true coal measures of England. Mr. James Sowerby had
kindly examined them, and determined “five species, viz. Nautilus
subsulcatus, Goniatites spirorbis, G'. reticulatus, G. striolatus, and G.
Calyx, all figured by Phillips.” Mr. Sowerby stated that there were
about ten other species, and a Zurbo or Littorina. Mr. Williams con-
tended that these reliquiz, coupled with the diametrically contrasted
mineral characters of the floriferous series of Devon, showed that they
could not be the true equivalents of the English coal-field. In con-
firmation of this he appealed to the organic remains of Petherwin and
Landlake, which he included beyond any doubt in the lower culm
measures, and of which Professor Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison, in the
London and Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for April, 1839, had
stated that there was “an unequivocal passage between those fossilife-
104 REPORT—1840.
rous slates and the overlying culm measures.” He particularly requested
attention to the fact that the Petherwin slates and limestones, in the
examination of them by Professor Phillips, as reported by Mr. De la
Beche, had not been shown to contain one mountain lime species; and
the utmost that Professor Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison, aided by the
accurate discrimination of Mr. Sowerby, could elicit from them, was
that “ one or two of them very nearly resembled mountain lime fossils.”
Mr. Williams moreover stated that he had obtained the conclusive evi-
dence of the fact that the Cornish killas overlaid the plant and culm
rocks, which he contended annihilated at once the two hypotheses to
which he objected, viz. the proposed identification of those rocks with
the English coal-field, and the classification of the killas and Exmoor
group as the old red sandstone. That the plant and culm rocks were
subordinate to the killas, was shown not only by the fact of the former
being brought up through the northern borders of the latter, in a great
anticlinal line, but by observations made by Mr. Williams this summer,
that nearly the whole of Dartmoor was invested by the lower culm
measures, which everywhere dipped away from it below the killas and
coral limestones. The proportion of carboniferous fossils from the South
Devon slates and limestones, enumerated by Mr. Lonsdale in his late
valuable memoir on that region, Mr. Williams contended did not justify
the arranging those rocks, even in so close an approximation with the
mountain limestone as the parallel of the old red sandstone. He also
remarked on the total absence from the Devonshire strata of those
numerous and characteristic species of fishes which had been found in
the red sandstone so extensively in England and Scotland, and,.as Mr.
Murchison’s recent researches had proved, even in Russia.
Mr. Williams referred to a diagram and specimens of the hitherto
considered “ granite veins,” from the bed of the Erme river, north of
Ivy-bridge, which he referred to a tranquil fusion and conversion of
the sedimentary rock, and not to injection.
On a Pleistocene Tract in the Isle of Man, and the relations of its Fauna
to that of the neighbouring Sea. By Epwarp Forses, F.L.S.
Mr. Forbes stated that he did not appear as a geologist, but asa
zoologist desirous of contributing to the progress of geology. In
the course of his investigations with the dredge, he was frequently
led to compare the present state of the sea with that of the land
bordering it, and the results were such as mutually illustrated geo-
logy and zoology. The northernmost part of the Isle of Man, left
white in Mr. Greenough’s map, is composed of a great bed of pleisto-
cene sand and marl, called by the people red marl, to distinguish it
from the white marl, which fills up basins in the former, and in which
the bones of the fossil elk are found. The red marl is marine, the white
marl of fresh-water origin. The pleistocene tract so composed ex-
tends from the slate mountains to the sea, terminating in high cliffs of
sand and clay. The portion immediately bordering the mountains is
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105
composed ehiefly of sand, and in it there are no organic remains ; that
furthest from the mountain is red marl, and the remains of shells are
found in beds in it. These shells are associated together exactly as
those are which at present exist in the neighbouring sea. There is
even an exact correspondence between the elevated tertiary tract and
the present sea bottom. The latter for from two to four miles
from the shore is composed of sand with groups of boulders, to which
laminariz are attached, thinly scattered in places. Beyond the sand
commences a great bed of living shells on a clayey or gravelly bot-
tom, exactly corresponding to the position and nature of that part of
the marl in which the shells are found. In the mar] the shells most
abundant and characteristic are Nucule ; which also occur on the shell
bank ; but there is also this important difference, that the species are not
identical. The Nucula oblonga characterizes the fossil bed, the Wueula
margaritacea the recent. The pleistocene bed appears to correspond ex-
actly with those of Cheshire and the Clyde. Near Ramsay it is bordered
for about one mile by a triangular tract of gravel and clay. This tract
was formed within the memory of man, in consequence of changing
the course of Culby river. Itis most interesting in a geological point
of view, as it presents all the appearance of a pleistocene clay-bed, con-
taining shells now extinct on the Manx shores, for the diversion of the
course of the stream has caused the destruction of Listera compressa
and Zellina solidula, two shells not now found alive on that shore.
Mr. Forbes concluded by illustrating the importance of the dredging
researches now going on, by the circumstance of the committee hav-
ing this summer settled the question of the identity of Phytocrinus
with Comatula, the sub-committee engaged in dredging on the coast of
Ireland having fully proved the former animal to be the young of the
latter.
On the Stratified Deposits which occupy the Northern and Central
Regions of Russia. By Roperick Imeey Murcuison, F.RS.,
F.G.S., General Secretary to the British Association, and E. pr
VeERNEUIL, Membre de la Société Géologique de France.
Mr. Murchison, accompanied by M. E. de Verneuil, having just
completed a tour of considerable extent in the northern and central
districts of Russia, undertaken with a view to determine the general
relations of the Paleozoic or older stratified deposits of that empire,
took this first opportunity of giving a brief outline of the chief results
at which his friend and himself had arrived, in anticipation of an ex-
tended memoir, which they purpose to prepare in the ensuing winter,
and which will be read before the Geological Society of London.
The geologist accustomed to the diversified outlines which charac-
terize those countries of Europe in which the older sedimentary rocks
exist, and who has often had great difficulty in working out their suc-
cession and classification, in consequence of the disturbances and alter-
ations to which they have been subjected, is surprised to find in
Russia these strata spread in horizontal, unbroken sheets over so wide
a portion of the earth’s surface; each great formation trending for
106 REPORT—1840.
immense distances, with few or no alterations in its mineral characters,
or organic remains.
Two great difficulties, however, are opposed to the examination of
this region,—the slight altitude of the masses above the sea, and the
vast quantity of drift or superficial detritus, which obscures the funda-
mental rocks. ‘To conquer these difficulties, the authors examined, in
succession, all the principal banks of the rivers between the longitude
of St. Petersburgh and that of Archangel, which, flowing from N.N.E.
to S.S.W., might be expected to offer the evidences they required ;
and having ascended the great Dwina, from the White Sea to Ous-
tiug Veliki, they afterwards extended their researches to the south
of Nijnii Novogorod, and the edges of the province of Tambof, in order
to determine the relations of the secondary rocks to those older deposits
with which they had become familiar.
The formations were found to succeed each other in the following
ascending order :—
1. Silurian Rocks.—The oldest stratified deposits of Russia (those on
which St. Petersburgh is situated) are clays, sandstone, limestone, &c.,
which, from the organic remains they contain, must be considered the
equivalents of the Silurian system of the British Isles. The detailed
order of these beds “per se,” was long ago accurately given by Strang-
ways; but at the early day when he wrote, the study of organic remains
was not sufficiently advanced to enable him to determine their place in
the geological series, nor to point out their true relations to the adja-
cent masses. Many of the organic remains have been described by the
native authors, Eichwald and Pander, and some very characteristic
forms very recently by M. de Buch, from specimens sent to him by Col.
Helmersen. These Silurian deposits occupy the islands of Oland, Goth-
land, &e. in the Baltic, and trend along the shores of Courland in a broad
band from W.N.W. to E.N.E., till they are lost under vast heaps of gra-
nitic detritus between the lakes Ladoga and Onega. Near the latter lake
these deposits are deflected to the north, and there meet with great ridges
of trappean rocks, which run from N.N.W. to 8.S.E. In that region all
the deposits are in a metamorphic condition ; the limestones present few
distinct traces of fossils ; and the authors having satisfied themselves that
there was no chance of observing any further evidence of a descending
order between such rocks and the great primary granitic chain of
Scandinavia and Russian Lapland, the boundary of which they coasted,
confined their attention to the ascending order of the strata.
2. Old Red, or Devonian System.—That the inferior strata were the
true equivalents of the Silurian system, was determined not only by
their aspect and fossil contents, but by their passing into other over-
lying rocks which are completely identical with the “‘ Old Red System”
of the British Isles, as defined by Mr. Murchison*. This system is of
enormous extent in Russia; ranging from the borders of Poland
Lithuania is chiefly composed of it, and Do6rpat is in its centre. It
thence passes by the lakes of Ilmen and the Waldai Hills, and is ex-
tended over a vast region to the E.N.E., where it constitutes a large
* See Silurian Researches, p. 165, and Table with the Map.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107
portion of the shores of the White Sea. This system consists of flag-
stone, clays, marls, cornstones and sandstones, the whole bearing a con-
siderable resemblance to the red deposits of the same age in our isles,
from which, however, they differ in containing copious salé springs, and
much gypsum. It was the occurrence of so much salt and gypsum,
that led previous writers to consider these deposits an equivalent
of our new red system, which, being found to contain these minerals
in our own parts of Europe, had been even termed by some, the salife-
rous system. That the red deposits (red and green) are, however,
the true equivalents of our old red sandstone, is demonstrated, not
only by order of superposition, but also by the many organic remains
which they offer. Fishes are the distinguishing fossils of this great
Russian system, and among these are species (notably the Holoptychius
Nobilissimus, Murchison, with Coccosteus, Diplopterus,)and other forms
which occur in deposits of the same age in Scotland. These fishes are
in abundance, and a beautiful work, illustrative of them, is now pre-
paring by Professor Asmus, of Dorpat. The authors have traced
these fish-beds for many hundred miles, and occupying several stages
in the system, each stage characterized by peculiar species*.
The zoological contents of this system are also of great value in
illustrating and confirming the palzozoic classification proposed by
Messrs. Sedgwick and Murchison; or in other words, the evidences
found in Russia leave no doubt that the old red and Devonian systems
of rocks are identical. Terebratule, Spirifers, Euomphali, Bellerophons,
and other shells distinct from those of the carboniferous system, but
similar to those which occur in Devonshire, Westphalia, Belgium, and
other places (in deposits which have been shown by these authors to
be of the age of the old red sandstone), are associated in Russia with
the fossil fishes of the old red sandstone of the British Isles.
3. Carboniferous System.—tIn the northern regions of Russia, the
lower or calcareous part only of the carboniferous system exists, and
it is seen in many places to overlie the old red sandstone. The inferior
beds consist of incoherent sandstones and bituminous shale, which
sometimes contain thin beds of impure pyritous coal, and impressions
of several plants well known in the carboniferous system of our
own islands. These are surmounted by various bands of limestone,
the lowest of which only have occasionally some mineralogical resem-
blance to the mountain limestone of Western Europe ; other beds being
lithologically undistinguishable from the magnesian limestone of En-
gland ; others from a pisolite; a third and very prevalent band of
considerable thickness is milk-white, and not more compact than the
calcaire grossier of Paris. This white Productus limestone was traced
by the authors from the neighbourhood of Moscow to beyond Arch-
angel (and they ascertained that it ranged far into the country of the
Samoiedes), a distance of not less than 1000 miles. This formation
* Professor Agassiz being present at the meeting of the Association, confirmed
the views of the authors. In the red and green beds which underlie the car-
boniferous strata, a remarkable bone-bed contains scales of Holoptychius,
Coccosteus, Diplopterus, so characteristic of the old red sandstone of Scot-
land.
108 . REPORT—1840.
has also a mineral resemblance to chalk, in being loaded with thin
bands of flints, sometimes concretionary, in which corals occur. As-
sociated with this formation, on the banks of the Dwina, about
200 wersts above Archangel, and south of Siisskaia, are splendid
bedded masses of white gypsum, which, for many miles, present at a
little distance all the appearance of white limestone. With these grand
gypseous deposits, in which are occasionally large concretions, alternate
two or three thin bands of limestone, in one of which the authors de-
tected fossil shells (Avicuéa) which are new to them. This and other
peculiar bands near Ust-Vaga, which are rather higher in the series,
will be described hereafter, when the fossil shells have been examined.
The carboniferous limestone of Russia is highly fossiliferous, and
from the normal and unaltered condition of most of the beds, the fossils
are generally in an excellent state of preservation. Among them are
many well-known British species, the lower beds being distinguished
by the very same large Productus hemisphericus, so well known in
the isle of Arran, and other parts of England and Scotland; and the
white beds being loaded (among some new forms described by Fischer)
with many of the species published by Phillips and by Sowerby, as well
as by several characteristic corals ( Chetites radians, &c.).
Owing to its mineral aspect, this rock has also, till within the last
year, been much misunderstood; but Colonel Helmersen having ob-
served its position in the Waldai Hills and its association with the
coal, and having ascertained the nature of the fossils from M. Von
Buch, he first gave out that, in that district, it must be considered the
true mountain limestone. The authors have completely confirmed this
view, by ascending and descending sections, and have very largely
extended it.
4. Newer Red Formations.—The extent to which the authors are
inclined to believe in the existence of newer red deposits, and their
explanation of what they believed to be a vast basin in the govern-
ments of Vologda, Nijnii, Kostroma, &c., was reserved for a future
occasion.
5. Oolitic or Jurassie Series —When the authors visited Russia, it
was still a great problem whether there was, or was not, a series of strata
to connect the lower carboniferous strata above described with cer-
tain rocks of the oolitie series, which have been long known to exist
in the south of Russia, and some of the fossils of which were sent
to England by Mr. Strangways.
Some of these beds, which rest at once on the great red formation along
the banks of the Volga, between Kostroma and Nijnii Novogorod, be-
long unquestionably to the middle oolite, as they contain Ammonites and
Belemnites identical in species with those of the Oxford clay and “ Kel-
loway Rock” of Smith. Other shells found near Jelatma and Kaccimof
and Moscow had been collected; but on this point Mr. Murchison
reserved his opinion till the examination and comparison of the organic
remains had taken place in London.
At Moscow, Jelatma and Kaccimof, however, there is no ambiguity,
for there these shales of the oolitic system, some of the fossils of
which resemble those of the lias, rest at once on the white carbonife-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109
rous limestone without the intervention of any other strata,—a fact of
great theoretical interest to geologists, and of practical importance to
the Russian empire.
6. Ferruginous Sands.—The shales of the oolitic series are covered
by ferruginous sands, which here and there contain large flattened con-
cretions of grit, which, near Moscow, are used for millstones ; but never
having observed fossils in this rock, the authors are unwilling to hazard
an opinion regarding its age. With the exception of certain very recent
deposits, these grits are the youngest solid strata in the northern half
of Russia in Europe.
7. Chalk.—The cretaceous system is largely developed in the south,
and in the Crimea; but on this occasion the authors did not extend
their tour to the chalk districts.
8. Tertiary Deposits.—The white shelly limestone of Crimea, and
its relations to the underlying chalk, have already been described by one
of the authors. Such deposits have not yet been discovered in any of
the northern or central regions of Russia.
9. Younger Pleiocene ( Pleistoeene).—It was formerly the general be-
lief, that the great masses of superficial detritus, whether clays, sands
or blocks, which cover so very large an area of the northern region, were
all referable to an epoch (diluvian) in which the bones of the great
extinct quadrupeds were also imbedded. The duration of their jour-
ney was not sufficient to enable the authors to make many distinctions
of age between these different masses ; but they have unquestionably
commenced this division by the discovery of beds of clay and sand on
the banks of the Dwina and Vaga, upwards of 200 miles south of the
White Sea, which contain fifteen or sixteen species of shells, many of
which still preserve their colours, and which, having been referred to
Dr. Beck, of Copenhagen, have been all pronounced to be of quasi
modern species. Mr. Lyell confirms this identification; and states, that
they are identical with the Uddevalla group. This discovery, in which
they were assisted by Count Kayserling, who accompanied the authors
in a part of their tour, is conceived to be of high geological interest, as
it demonstrates that, during the modern period, the whole of the vast flat
country of north-eastern Russia was beneath the sea for a considerable
time, the eastern boundary of that sea being the Ural Mountains.
10. Drift and Erratie Blocks—Overspreading all the formations,
and greatly obscuring them, is a vast mass of detritus, the large gra-
nitic blocks of which have excited much attention, from the days of
Pallas to the present time. This detritus, which has all been derived
from the north, was shown to have been deposited under the sea, since
it covers the above-mentioned shells. This portion of the subject was
slightly adverted to, its consideration and that of all the superficial
phenomena (including the parallel stria near Lake Onega, &c.) being
deferred to a future occasion. The important work, however, of M.
Botlingk was cited.
In verbally illustrating this wide field of inquiry, Mr. Murchison took
occasion to state, that he was very much encouraged to undertake
the journey to Russia through the suggestions of M. L. von Buch,
* M.E. de Verneuil.
110 REPORT-—1840.
who, from an examination of certain fossils sent to him from thence,
had become convinced @ priori, that the same palzozoic succession
would there be found as in the British Isles. Mr. Murchison gratefully
acknowledged his obligations to the Baron A. von Humboldt, and dwelt
with pleasure on the assistance which his fellow-traveller and himself
received from the Baron A. de Meyendorf, now executing, by order
of His Imperial Majesty, assisted by M. Zenofief, a statistical survey
of parts of Russia, who endeavoured to make his tour correspond to
some extent with that of the authors, and who enriched his expedition
with two excellent naturalists, Count Kayserling and Professor Blasius.
Mr. Murchison further took this public opportunity of testifying his
sincere thanks to the Russian authorities who aided this geological in-
quiry, among whom he particularly enumerated their Excellencies the
Count de Cancrine, Count Nesselrode, Count Alexander Strogonoff, —
Baron Brunnow, and General Tcheffkine*. And he further expressed
his sense of the value of the services of a zealous young geologist,
Lieutenant Koksherof, without whose aid the authors could not have
accomplished their task. Maps and a section illustrated the description,
and selections of the characteristic fossils of each group were laid upon
the table.
On the Yellow Sandstone, and other points of the Geology of Ireland.
By R. Grirritu, F.G.S.
Mr. Griffith exhibited his new corrected map of the geology of
Ireland, and a series of specimens in illustration and confirmation of
several changes, especially in the south of Ireland, which he had
thought it right to make since the first appearance of the map. A
feature of the map, of much importance, was the subdivision of the
mountain limestone series, and the extension of the colour for mill-
stone grit over districts formerly classed as true coal measures. The
yellow sandstone was particularly described in different districts, and
specimens, in a regular series, of the organic remains in the Silurian
and Carboniferous groups of Ireland, were exhibited to the Meeting.
On the occurrence of two Species of Shells of the genus Conus, in the
Lias, or Inferior Oolite near Caen, in Normandy. By Cuarvrs
Lye.LL, F.R.S. GUS.
Fossil shells of Lamarck’s family “ Enroulées” abound in many
tertiary formations, but scarcely any examples are recorded of their
occurrence in older strata. The six genera comprised in this family
are Ovula, Cyprea, Terebellum, Ancellaria, Oliva, and Conus. Four
of these appear never yet to have been found, either in the chalk or
any older rock. Of Cyprea, one species has been discovered in the
upper chalk of Faxde, in Denmark ; and M. Dujardin obtained from
the chalk, near Tours, a Cone, which he has called C. tuberculatus.
* General Tcheffkine, Major-General of the School of Mines at St. Peters-
burgh, and Professor Jacobi, of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, were present
at the Glasgow Meeting.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 111
Two other species of this genus, purporting to come from the lias near
Caen, were seen lately (June 1840) by Mr. Lyell, in the private collec-
tion of Professor Deslongchamps and M. Tesson, of that city. A brief
notice had been previously given of their discovery in a report of a
meeting, held in 1837, by the Linnzan Society of Normandy. To
satisfy himself of the correctness of the alleged geological position of
these Cones, Mr. Lyell visited, in company with M. Deslongchamps,
one of the localities called Fontaine Etoupe-Four, about six miles south
of Caen. He found there a stratified limestone, containing Ammonites,
Belemnites, Pleurotomarie, and other Mollusca and Crinoidea, resting
unconformably in horizontal strata on highly inclined quartzite and
talcose schists of the transition formation. Many deep rents occurring
in the fundamental rock were filled with the limestone, and in these
situations shells in great abundance, together with broken pieces of
quartzite, are united into a breccia by a calcareous cement. Most of
the Cones have been found in these rents, and the matrix in which they
occur constitutes the oldest portion of the incumbent or fossiliferous
formation. In regard to the age of this last, some of the shells, such
as Ammonites planicosta, and A. Bucklandi, occur in the lias of En-
gland; others are met with in our alum shale, and inferior oolite. The
specimens collected by the author, or which were presented to him by
M. Deslongchamps, have been examined by Mr. Lonsdale, of the
Geological Society of London, who, judging by this evidence, consi-
ders the formation to be either an upper member of the lias, or to be
intermediate between the lias and inferior oolite. M. Alcide D’Or-
bigny has also collected forty or fifty species of fossils from the lime-
stone of the same place, and he refers them to the upper lias, although
a great proportion of the shells are new, and some do not even belong
to any genera hitherto established. The stone in which the Cones are
imbedded is of a pale brown ferruginous colour, like ordinary inferior
oolite, but precisely resembling, according to Mr. Lonsdale, the gritty
lias or corn-grit of Radstock. Some of these Cones were first dis-
covered by M. Deslongchamps, and M. Tesson soon afterwards ob-
tained the most perfect specimens, of which last drawings were made
by M. Deslongchamps, and presented to Mr. Lyell for publication.
The originals have alsc been examined by Mr. George Sowerby, and
they seem to be all referable to two very distinct species, one of which
has been named Conus concavus, in which the spire is so depressed
that the summit is concave. For the second, the name of Conus
Cadonensis is proposed. It approaches nearest to C. antediluvianus,
varying considerably in the height of the spire in different individuals.
On ancient Sea Cliffs and Needles in the Chalk of the Valley of the
Seine in Normandy. By C. Lyeiy, F.RS. GS.
The observations in this paper are principally confined to that part
of the winding valley of the Seine which extends from Andelys to
Elbeeuf, a distance by the river of about thirty miles. This valley,
which is from two to four miles wide, has been excavated through
chatk with flints horizontally stratified, about 300 or 350 feet in thick-
112 REPORT—1840.
ness, and a mass of overlying tertiary sand, gravel and clay, from
30 to 100 feet thick. The last-mentioned deposit constitutes a level
platform, differing wholly in character from the chalk downs in En-
gland, but the slope of the hills bounding the Seine and its tributaries,
where the chalk crops out, corresponds exactly in character with the
escarpments of the north and south Downs in England. There is
however, this distinction, that the escarpments of the valley of the
Seine, which are distant from two to four miles from each other, are
broken at certain points by ranges of vertical and even overhanging
cliffs of bare white chalk with flints, and by occasional needles and
pinnacles of chalk. Mr. Lyell first refers to several natural precipices
of chalk which occur, some on the right and some on the left bank of
the Seine, above Andelys, or between that town and Meulan, about
fifteen miles in a straight line from Paris. In one of these localities,
near Bonniéres, two distinct cliffs are seen one above the other. He
then described more particularly a great range of cliffs about two miles
long at Andelys; secondly, another range and some pinnacles at
Vatteville opposite Tournedos, and at Senneville; and thirdly, the cliffs
of Elbceuf or Orival.
In regard to the first of these ranges, it commences on the right
bank of the river at Le petit Andelys, and includes the rock on which
stands Chateau Gaillard. The base of the range is generally about
fifty feet above the alluvial plain of the Seine, from which it is separated
by a steep green slope, resembling in outline a talus of fallen debris,
but in many places composed of solid rock. The cliffs themselves vary
from fifty to 100 feet in perpendicular height, their continuity being
broken by a number of dry valleys or combes, in one of which, near
Andelys, occurs a detached rock or needle called the Téte d Homme.
The top of this rock presents a precipitous face towards every point of
the compass, its vertical height being more than twenty feet on the
side of the downs, and forty towards the Seine, and the average dia-
meter of the pillar being thirty-six feet. Its composition is the same
as that of the larger cliffs in its neighbourhood, namely, white chalk,
having occasionally a crystalline texture like marble, and layers of flint
in nodules and tabular masses. The flinty beds often project in relief
four or five feet beyond the white chalk, which is generally in a state
of slow decomposition, either exfoliating or being covered with white
powder like the chalk cliffs on the English coast, where, like them, the
surface of the rock was found in some places to be encrusted with
common salt. In regard to the origin of this superficial salt, it is
difficult to conceive that the influence of the sea breezes can extend so
far, as the distance is more than thirty miles from the nearest salt-
water; but on the other hand, the author could not ascertain that any
saline matter was contained in the chalk itself.
Other cliffs are then mentioned, situated on the right bank of the
Seine, opposite Tournedos, between Andelys and Pont de |’ Arche,
where the precipices are from fifty to eighty feet high ; several of their
summits terminate in pinnacles, and one of these in particular is so
completely detached as to present a perpendicular face fifty feet high
towards the sloping down. On these cliffs several ledges are seen,
ON
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113
which in the author’s opinion mark so many levels, at which the waves
of the sea encroached for a long period. There are also above the
summit of all the cliffs, three distinct parallel terraces and as many
cliffs, each about four feet high, which sweep round a small combe in
a semicircular form, like the seats of an amphitheatre.
If we then descend the river from Vatteville to a place called Sen-
neville, we meet with a singular insulated needle, about fifty feet high,
perfectly isolated on the escarpment of chalk on the right bank of the
Seine.
The third or last range of inland cliffs referred to, is situated
about twelve miles below on the left bank of the Seine, beginning at
Elbceuf, and comprehending the Roches ‘d’Orival. Like those before:
described, it is in part overhanging, exhibits a white powdery sur-
face, and consists entirely of horizontal chalk with flints. Its base
is only a few feet above the level of the Seine, its height in some
parts exceeds 200 feet. It is broken in one place by a pyramidal mass
or needle, called the Roche de Pignon, which stands out about twenty-
five feet in front of the upper portion of the main cliff, with which it is
united by a narrow ridge about forty feet lower than its summit. Its
height is about 200 feet, and like the detached rocks before mentioned
at Senneville, Vatteville, and Andelys, may be compared to those
needles of chalk which occur on the coast of Normandy, as well as the
Isle of Wight and in Purbeck.
The author then states, that while there are in some places marks of
cliffs and terraces at six or more distinct levels, there is sometimes only
one range of cliff, which may be either a few feet, or more than 200 feet
in vertical height ; and on the other hand, there is often no outbreak
of bare rock or precipice, as is well exemplified in that part of the
valley where the Cote des Deux Amants faces that of Pont St. Pierre.
The cliffs, where they do exist, are usually confined to one side of the
river, whether on the right or left bank. Various causes are assigned
for this partial occurrence of cliffs, and the variety of their number and
elevation where they exist. It is assumed that the valley of the Seine
was excavated by the waves and currents of the sea, during the slow
and probably intermittent upheaval of the land. When the denuding
operations therefore were in progress, the valley constituted the chan-
nel of the sea between two islands or opposite coasts. Considerable
cliffs would be formed at those points only against which the waves
and currents set with peculiar force. Being thus originally partial,
they subsequently became more rare by the obliterating action of frost
and rain. A series of smaller cliffs would often be united into one
when the undermining force of the sea caused it to encroach greatly at
a certain point.*
On Glaciers and Boulders in Switzerland. By Professor AGASSIZ.
M. Agassiz particularly drew attention to facts relative to the man-
" ner of the movements of glaciers, which he attributes to the introduction
and freezing of water in all their minutest fissures, whereby the mass of
1840. I
114 REPORT—1840.
ice is continually expanded. The effects of the movement, produced by
this expansion, upon the rocks beneath the ice, are very remarkable.
The bases of the glaciers, and the sides of the valleys which contain
them, are found to be polished and scratched by stones fixed in the lowest
region of the moving ice. The fragments of the rocks that fall upon
the glaciers are accumulated in longitudinal ridges on the sides of the
ice, forming deposits of stony detritus, which are called lateral mo-
raines. As these descend into lower valleys, they assume a central
place on the moving ice, and are called medial moraines. As the
glaciers are continually pressed forwards, and often in hot summers
melted back at their lower extremity, it results that the polished sur-
faces, occasioned by friction on the bottom and sides, are left un-
covered, and that terminal moraines, or curvilinear ridges of gravel
and boulders, remain upon the rocks formerly covered by the ice.
Thus we can discover, by the polished surfaces and the moraines, the
extent to which the glaciers have heretofore existed, which is much
beyond the limits they now occupy in the Alpine valleys. It is stated
to result from similar facts observed by Professor Agassiz, that enor-
mous masses of ice have, at a former period, covered the great valley
of Switzerland, together with the whole chain of the Jura, the sides of
which, facing the Alps, are also polished, and interspersed with angular
erratic rocks, disposed like boulders in the moraines ; but since the
masses of ice were not confined between two sides of a valley, their
movements were in some respects different, and the boulders were not
deposited in continuous ridges, but dispersed singly over the Jura at
different levels. Professor Agassiz proposes the hypothesis that at a
certain epoch all the north of Europe, and also the north of Asia and
America, were covered with a mass of ice, in which the elephants and
other mammalia found in the frozen mud and gravel of the arctic re-
gions, were imbedded at the time of their destruction. The author
thinks that when this immense mass of ice began quickly to melt, the
currents of water that resulted have transported and deposited the
masses of irregularly rounded boulders and gravel that fill the bottoms
of the valleys; innumerable boulders having at the same time been
transported, together with mud and gravel, upon the masses of the
glaciers then set afloat. Professor Agassiz announced that these facts
are explained at length in the work which he has just published,
Etudes sur les Glaciers de la Suisse, illustrated by many large and
accurate plates, which were laid before the Geological Section.
On the Geology and Mineralogy of Canada.
By Capt. Bavperey, R.A.
The object of the communication was to draw attention to the pro-
priety of undertaking a geological and mineralogical survey of Canada.
For this end the author pointed out the advantage of such surveys in
general, and the especial use of undertaking the survey of Canada,
whose mineral resources had received little development. Iron, lead
and copper exist in different combinations, and probably or certainly, in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115
abundance, the most promising district for enterprise being that which is
conterminous with the known mining tracts of New York. A specimen
of native gold, weighing two ounces and a half, and having a specific
gravity of 15°71, was found recently in the bed of a stream running
into the Chaudiere. It was nearly of the size and shape of a pigeon’s
egg. A smaller specimen had been picked up a few years before near
the same place. The district contains talecose and clay schists, quartz in
veins or in mass, and greenstone. Except in a few spots bordering the
coal-field of New Brunswick, the newest rock of Lower Canada is
the carboniferous limestone. West of Toronto and toward Lakes
Erie and Huron in Upper Canada, saliferous and gypsiferous marls
appear, and shales with vegetable impressions and petroleum ; many
trials for coal through the saliferous band have been unsuccessful.
Remarks upon certain Geological Features of the River St. John in
New Brunswick, with an Account of the Falls upwards from the Sea,
which occur near its Embouchure in the Bay of Fundy. By JAMES
Ross, M.D., Professor of Natural History, King’s College, New
Brunswick.
There are rivers and lochs into which the tide entering gives rise
to a kind of fall upwards against the ordinary course of the stream,
but nowhere in the world is the phenomenon of a fall up a river
to be so clearly seen as at the falls near the mouth of the river St.
John, in the province of New Brunswick. The steamers from and
to Fredericton (the head quarters of the executive government in
New Brunswick) pass through the falls, but passengers always go to
and from them above the broken water. The rocks of the vici-
nity consist of graywacke or transition slates, alternating with lime-
stone, sometimes crystalline, and rarely holding any fossils. Above
the falls a mass of sienite protrudes and alters both the chemical na-
ture and mechanical arrangements of the stratified rocks. The slates
and limestones are almost all vertical, and the strike is about N.E. and
S.W. The St. John River cuts these across almost at right angles.
Further up the river are stratified rocks corresponding in part with
those of the*coal measures in England. These are nearly horizontal,
and lie upon the more inclined slaty strata mentioned above. When
the river runs over the sandstones and grits, its course is equal and
slow; but when it gets among the slates, disturbed and tormented by
granite and sienite, its flow is violent and impetuous. About 250
miles higher up there is a very fine fall of seventy-five feet, and a head-
long rapid of more than a quarter of a mile at the bottom of a most
magnificent ravine. These upper falls are over black calcareous slates,
highly inclined, and so easily acted on by the water, that the line of the
fall can be readily ascertained to have been carried back for a consider-
able distance. For the remaining 300 or 400 miles of its course there are
no falls on the river St. John, but there are several powerful rapids.
The headwaters rise in a flat country among swamps and sandy plains,
12
116 REPORT—1840.
where a rise of ten or twelve feet in the level of the water would flood
a distriet of, perhaps, forty or fifty square miles, so flat is the country.
A most remarkable feature in this great river-valley is the distinctness
and regularity of the alluvial terraces to be seen wherever the banks
are not too rocky and precipitous. This holds in regard both to the
main river and to all its tributaries. Where these latter join the main
river they are always to be seen; and what is equally remarkable, most
of the tributaries, as well as the principal river, have falls at or near
their embouchure.
The author has seen such terraces on all the other rivers of New
Brunswick, on the salt marshes at the head of the Bay of Fundy, on
the rivers of Nova Scotia, on the St. Lawrence, on the Ottawa, on the
Great Lakes, upon the Hudson, the Potomac, and on all the Atlantic
rivers of the northern and middle States,—terraces formed of loose de-
trital matters, and evidently indicative of the levels at which the water
formerly stood in these rivers. The author views these terraces, and
the numerous and well-known examples of the same phenomena in the
Old World, as affording the most palpable evidence of a recent and ge-
neral rising of land in all the countries where they occur, or at least
where their existence cannot be explained upon other and ascertainable
grounds. The author then describes more minutely the circumstances
attending the falls of the river St. John, from notes taken by the Rev.
Mr. Coster, Rector of Carleton, who has had daily opportunity of exa-
mining the facts.
I. i. The river St. John takes rank among the third or fourth class
of American rivers, and among the first or second class of European
rivers. It rises far in the interior of the province, among the high-
lands which form the N.E. termination of the Alleghany Mountains. .
The Chaudiere, St. Francis and Etchenine fall off on the Canadian side ;
the Connecticut, Penobscot and Kennebec again fall off toward the
Atlantic; while the St. John, after a course of 500 or 600 miles, and
draining about two thirds of the whole province, falls into the Bay of
Fundy. The flourishing city of St. John is built on a projecting mass
of slate and limestone rocks, on the left bank, just where the river falls
into the bay.
For the first seventy miles it is navigable for vessels drawing any
depth of water: after passing the shoals at the mouth of the river Oro-
mocto, which in dry seasons become rather shallow, it again becomes
navigable for schooners for a further distance of thirty miles; after this
it is still navigable for two or three hundred miles for small boats and
canoes. Ships of six hundred tons burden are sometimes built about
Fredericton, which is eighty-three miles above St. John. Some idea
may thus be formed of the quantity of water which the St. John river
contains.
* 9, At the confluence of the St. John and Kennebekasis, about five
miles above the falls, and for about five miles further up, the St. John
spreads itself into a very spacious bay of an irregularly triangular figure,
which, at its greatest breadth, will probably measure ten miles. Below
this bay, which is ealled Grand Bay, the river makes an abrupt turn
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117
and pursues its course through the Narrows, after this it again forms a
lake-like basin called Above the Falls. The outlet of this basin, which
is contracted on one side by the projection of a point of land, and on the
other by several islands to a breadth of less than a quarter of a mile,
form what is called the Upper Falls. Through this the water forces
its way and then forms a circular basin, vulgarly called The Pot, the
transverse and conjugate diameters of which each measure nearly three
quarters of a mile. The outlet of this basin is a narrow opening, mea-
suring, at low water, 310 feet between the two opposite calcareous cliffs
called Hast and West Head. At the foot of the latter is a large piece
of rock projecting beyond the cliff, and called the Split Rock, which
affords a passage for the water within it, at and after one-third tide.
This small outlet is the Lower Falls, and through it all the waters of
this’ magnificent river, which at the distance of 100 miles up measures
nearly a mile across, and averaging ten or twelve feet in depth even
there, rushes with inconceivable strength and grandeur. Below the
falls the river again turns abruptly and increases to a breadth averag-
ing from 800 to 1200 feet. About a mile and a half below the falls an
island, called Navy Island, divides it into two channels, the smaller of
which is dry at low water: below this island again lies the harbour of
the city of St. John, though in this paper the whole space below the
falls is designated as the harbour. About five miles below it the river
enters the Bay of Fundy.
3. Like all rivers the St. John is at some times more full than at others.
In the spring of the year, however, it is always remarkably swollen by
the Frreshet—the melted snow from the forests and high grounds in-
creased by the periodical rains of the season. At that period the river
rises thirteen or fourteen feet above its summer level, and this rise ex-
ercises a very great influence on the direction of the motion of the
water at the falls.
II. A large body of the immense current called the Gulf Stream, is
forced up the Bay of Fundy. As this bay is fully wider at its southern
end, high tides are formed along the coast, and those get higher, ac-
cording as the place is further up the bay. The tide outside the bay
rises about seven to ten feet, and at the top of the bay, at spring-tides,
with a high S.E. wind, the rise is as much as forty-five or fifty feet.
The ordinary account in books of the tides of the Bay of Fundy is ex-
aggerated. The sea water then rushes with great force into the tide
rivers: at the top of the bay, where the Peticodiac enters, the violence
of the tide is irresistibly great. In fact, at one place on this river,
called very properly The Bend,.the tide advances with a noise like
thunder, and often overtakes animals, or upsets and buries schooners
not prepared to ride the Boar's back, as they say, that is, to run on with
the moving wall of water. In the harbour of St. John the tide rises at
neap-tides to the height of twenty-six feet, and at spring-tides to that
of twenty-five feet. .
IlI. When the river is at its greatest height in the spring, and when
the harbour is also at its greatest height from the prevalence of spring-
tides, at high water the water of the river above the falls will be on a
118 REPORT—1840. |
level with that of the harbour below the falls. It will therefore happen,
that at the time of low water, the water in the harbour having sunk thirty-
five feet, there will be a fall downwards at the falls to the extent of
thirty-five feet, partly at the upper fall, but mostly (on account of the
greater contraction) at the lower fall. As the tide flows the fall will
diminish gradually ; and again during the ebbing of the tide from the
bay, the falls will gradually increase until low water. So rapid and
violent is the motion of both currents, when the tide is rising, that the
river stream is lifted up, as it were, above the salt water, and flows away
down the harbour, while the salt water forces itself upwards below the
river current. The river stream only loses itself in the salt water five
or six miles further out to sea. In the height of summer the water in
the river is at its lowest, that is, fourteen feet lower than in the preced-
ing case, being twenty-one feet above the harbour level; there will of
course be a fall downwards to that extent, and this fall will continue to
set down until the tide shall have raised the harbour-level twenty-one
feet : at this period there will be a level and no fall either way. But
as the tide rises the harbour-level continues to rise with it till a fall up-
wards takes place, the measure of which is the difference between the
two levels. The fall upwards will be greatest at high water, after that
it will decrease until, by the ebbing of the tide, the river is on a level
with the harbour, then the fall will be downwards, and so continue till
low water again.
The fall upwards seldom exceeds six feet, but owing to the irregular
course of the rocky ravine in which the river runs, and to the great vo-
lume of water, it is an exceedingly striking phenomenon. The river
level is not raised more than fifteen or eighteen inches at high water ;
but the water in The Pot is six feet above the level of the water above
the falls.
There is a difference of nine feet in the rise of the tide at spring-
tides and neap-tides ; the tides rising rather more than four feet higher
at the former than at the latter period, and falling off rather more than
four feet also. At neap-tides, when the river is full, there will be a fall
downwards to the extent of rather more than four feet; on the other
hand, when the river is at its lowest, that is fourteen feet lower than in
the preceding case, there will be at high water a fall upwards to the
extent of nearly nine or ten feet, alternating upwards and downwards
as before described.
On the Geology of Madeira. By James Situ, F.G.S.
On the Geology and Fossil Fishes of North Brazil. By Mr. Grorce
GaRDNER of Glasgow. Communicated by J. E. Bowman, F.G.S.
The province of Ceara, which forms a portion of North Brazil, is
situated between the 3rd and 8th deg. of south lat., and the 37th and
41st of west long. It is of an oblong form, its greatest length being
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119
about 100 leagues from north to south ; and its width varying from 50
to 70 leagues. It is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, and
on the west by a low mountain range, which separates it from the
great inland province of Piauhy, and consists for the most part of
sandy or gravelly plains, which remind the traveller of the descriptions
of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. Boulders of granite, gneiss and quartz,
sometimes of four feet diameter, and more or less rounded, occa-
sionally occur ; and here and there a low ridge of gneiss rock crops out,
dipping at a very high angle to the N.W. For many leagues from the
coast, the characteristic and prevailing vegetation of the plains is a
beautiful species of palm, called Carnahuba by the Brazilians ( Corypha
cerifera of Martius), while that of the ridge of gneiss consists of
various Cactez (of the genus Cereus) and a large Bromelia, At a dis-
tance of about eighty leagues from the north coast, and ten leagues
below the Villa do Icé, the nearly monotonous level of the country is
broken by a mountain range, which nmiakes its appearance to the east-
ward. This is the Serra de Pereira, which runs S.W. and N.E., and
is sixteen leagues in length, and its greatest height about 1000 feet
above the surrounding plain. Its S.W. extremity is entirely of gneiss,
but at its base is a coarse red conglomerate, containing rounded frag-
ments of both primitive and secondary rocks.
The country between Icé and the small Villa do Crato, thirty-four
leagues to the S.W., is of a more hilly undulating character; more
abundantly wooded, and only occasionally opening into the large
campos or plains of the north. In this tract, gold has been found in
small particles interspersed in a dark-coloured diluvial soil, near the
Rio Jaguaribe, but not in sufficient abundance to repay the speculators.
At about eighteen leagues south of Crato, the gneiss rocks are replaced
by a gray-coloured primitive clay slate, and at the termination of this,
the secondary stratified series begins, the few rocks occurring from
thence to Crato, consisting of a white coarse-grained sandstone. Crato
stands in the middle of a large undulating valley among hills, which
are the flanks or lateral spurs of the long chain which separates the
provinces of the coast from that of Piauhy to the west, and which here
receives the name of Serra de Araripe. The highest parts of this range
do not rise more than from 1200 to 1500 feet above the town of
Crato; their tops are perfectly level, and continue so for many leagues
to the W. and S., forming what the Brazilians call taboleiras or table-
lands. In all directions these hills consist of a white-coloured sand-
stone, which has sometimes a reddish tinge. In the bed of one of the
largest streams, a section of the strata, to a considerable depth, exposes
a bed of limestone three feet thick, beneath the sandstone, and resting
upon a seam of impure coal two feet thick, which in its turn is placed
upon another and lower bed of limestone. In these limestones no
fossil remains could be found ; the strata are all perfectly horizontal,
and the level appearance of the whole Serra makes it probable they
are so throughout.
About fourteen leagues to the south from Crato, is a branch or spur
of this Serra, which projects ten leagues to the eastward, on the south
side of which is a small villa called Barra do Jardim, situated in a
120 REPORT—1840.
small valley upwards of a league in length, and about half a league
across in its widest part. The deposit of fossil fishes (from which those
now exhibited were chiefly obtained), is in an open place of the gently
sloping ridge north of the villa; there the ground is covered with
great abundance of rounded stones of various sizes, from that of an
egg, to blocks of several feet in circumference, consisting of a light-
coloured, rather impure limestone, in which lines of bedding may
often be perceived, and sometimes minute shells. They split very
easily, and contain portions of fishes in a more or less perfect state ;
by far the greatest number, however, being so much broken, that it is
with considerable difficulty that tolerably perfect specimens can be
obtained. The space to which these limestone nodules are confined,
is not more than one hundred yards square, and scarcely any other
kind of stones is to be found among them; but on every side of it, the
ground is covered with other rounded pebbles of sandstone, similar
to the rock of which the Serra is composed. Three other deposits of
fishes occur in the neighbourhood, one about half a league to the
south, a second at Macapé, five leagues to the east of Jardim, and a
third at Mundo Novo, three leagues to the west. These are all on the
declivity of the low hills, between the valley and the Serra, and per-
fectly resemble the one described, in consisting only of the rounded
fossiliferous limestone nodules.
On breaking these nodules, many of them exhibit abundance of a
minute bivalve shell. At Mundo Novo Mr.G. found in the same nodule
avery perfect specimen of what he believes is a species of Turrilites,about
14 inch long, and a single valve of a Venus about half an inch in length,
and in very excellent preservation. He was told by a person at
Jardim, that a few years ago he found a small serpent coiled up ina
stone which he had split, but this, no doubt, was a species of Ammo-
nites. In the several hundred stones, however, which he broke in
search of fish,she met with nothing of this description. These speci-
mens Mr. G. had not sent over; neither has he accompanied those
submitted to the Section by any of the sandstone of the Serra de
Araripe; but from the fact communicated by M. Agassiz, that he has
not yet met with cycloid fishes in any older formation than the chalk,
and as far as can be inferred from the minute bivalves, it is probable
that the sandstone hills in which the deposits occur, belong to that
geological epoch. He states that he could nowhere find in the neigh-
bourhood of Barra do Jardim any limestone in situ. This cireum-
stance, taken in conjunction with the fact that the fossiliferous
nodules show indications of stratification, and are found in detached
localities, and not intermixed with those of the sandstone, which
surrounds them on every side, leads to the conclusion that they occur
as a bed or layer of detached concretions in the sandstone, each fish,
or portion of one (for many seem to have been imbedded after being
broken), having attracted round it a sufficient quantity of the lime
disseminated through the mass to form a nodule*.
* This paper has since been published entire in the New Edinburgh Philo-
sophical Journal for January 1841, with a Notice of the Fossil Fishes by Pro-
fessor Agassiz.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121
On the Daguerreotype, as applied to the Drawing of Fossils.
By J. L. B. [ssotson, F.G.S.
The process proposed by Mr. Ibbotson for this purpose was ex-
plained, and specimens of its successful results were exhibited.
On the Geography of New Brunswick. By G. H.
* FEATHERSTONHAUGH, F.GS.
The communication related principally to the methods employed in
a recent survey by the Commissioners, whose report on the boundary
question has been presented to Parliament. The barometers employed
in measuring the heights were those made by Bunten (on the siphon
construction); and towards the end of the operation, others, made by
Newman, with iron cisterns. E:
— —
Dr. Hannah exhibited a section of the bed of the Clyde, made by
the late Mr. Logan.
Outline of Three Expeditions which might be undertaken to explore
portions of the interior of Africa. By Sir J. E. ALEXANDER.
The first to land at Cape Coast Castle, Gold Coast, proceed thence
to Comassie, the capital of Ashantee, seventy miles distant, there com-
municate with Arab traders who come across Africa from the Red Sea,
and arrange to accompany them eastward.
The second to land at Zanzibar, and accompany a caravan which
arrives there annually from central Africa to trade with the warm
friend of the English, the Imaum of Muscat and Zanzibar.
And the third to land at Natal, and with horses, to be procured
there from the English and Dutch settlers, proceed to Delagoa in the
healthy months, from May to October, and then travelling north-west,
reach the Cape Colony by Lattakoo.
Additional Notes on the Wadi el’ Arabah in Syria. By the Rev. Dr.
E. Rosinson, of New York.
“ The interest attached to that very remarkable fact in physical
geography, which has not yet been cleared up, namely, the depres-
sion of the surface of the Dead Sea, below the level of the Mediterra-
nean, and the drainage, probably dependent upon this depression, of a
large tract of country including numerous lateral valleys, extending to
the southward for upwards of 100 miles through the district termed
Arabia Petra, from the south point of the Dead Sea nearly to the
Gulf of Akabah, induces me to offer a few words on the line of sepa-
igo REPORT—1840.
ration of waters between these two basins, which may be termed a
postscript to some remarks I formerly had occasion to make on M. de
Bertou’s account of his journey in 1838 through the Wadi el ’Arabah,
from the Asphaltic lake to the Elanitic gulf*. At that time I took it
for granted that the Wadi Talha of Bertou (according to his own map)
was identical with the great Wadi Jerafeh, with which we had become
acquainted while travelling through the western desert to Hebron, and,
again, as seen from the pass of Nemela, north of Mount Hor. But on
a careful construction of Bertou’s itinerary by M. Kiepert, of Berlin, it
appears that his Wadi Talha must be situated about two hours south of
the Jerafeh, and has no connexion whatever with the latter. It would
seem, therefore, to be the Wadi Abu Talha of Burckhardt. The effect
of this is to move the place of the water-shed, as specified by Bertou,
to a point some six miles further south than I had supposed him to
mean ; and if this correction be well founded, it follows that the travel-
ler passed before, and probably across the mouth of the Jerafeh, with-
out noticing it; although this is the great drain of all the adjacent parts
of the western desert, and one of the most important and remarkable
features of the whole region.”
In connexion with Dr. Robinson’s recent travels through Palestine,
Capt. Washington exhibited a newly-constructed plan of the city of
Jerusalem, correcting many former inaccuracies, pointing out several
ancient sites, and showing the shading of the hills within the city, a
feature not represented on any former plan.
Some Observations on Relief Maps. By M. A. RAVENSTEIN, of
Frankfort.
“‘ The obvious advantages of maps stamped in relief for representing
the great physical features of a country, and the probability that such
maps will soon be very extensively used, induces me to offer a few
words in reply to a request I have received, to state my opinion on the
relief maps of M. Kummer, of Berlin. With regard to their invention,
I must claim to have been the first who introduced the method of rais-
ing the hills, by means of the press or stamping, as may be seen by my
«Plastic Atlas,” published in 1838; it would be unjust, therefore, to
attribute to Berlin that which was first made at Frankfort. It must be
observed, that these are quite distinct from M. Kummer’s “ Globe en
relief,” published some years since, as that was made of papier maché.
M. Bauerkeller, of Paris, also made public, in 1839, his “ Environs de
Paris,” in the stamped relief method, with the difference, however, that
the colours are put in after the Congreve manner. In the preface to
my Plastic Atlas, I anticipated that great improvements would be made ;
and it is due to M. Kummer to state, that he has so far succeeded, as
to lead me to hope that these maps will shortly reach still greater per-
fection, and, when made on a large scale, will come into general use,
* See the Atheneum, No. 658.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123
and supersede all other maps,—and especially physico-geographical
maps, without reference to political divisions ; and I feel that I do but
express the feeling of all interested in the advancement of physical
geography, by saying that I heartily hope that M. Kummer will per-
severe in his efforts.”
These observations were illustrated by M. Ravenstein’s “ Plastic At-
las,” several stamped maps by Kummer, of Berlin, and a specimen of
Bauerkeller’s stamped and coloured plan of the city of Frankfort.
A letter was read from the Rev. Mr. Selvester, who had resided above
fifty years in the Faroe Islands, expressing an opinion that the level of
the coast had there undergone a depression. This was inferred from
encroachments made by the sea at several points, and particularly from
the fact, that on the 6th of January, 1828, full two thirds of the sun’s
orb had been visible above a hill near his house from the same spot,
where, in 1801, he had only been able to see the upper edge of the disc.
Observations on Great Earthquakes on the West Coast of South Ame-
rica, particularly the great one of the 18th of September, 1833, which
destroyed the City of Tacna, and other places in Peru. By Mr.
Maruie Hamitton, formerly Surgeon to the Potosi Mining Com-
pany.
Tacna, an Indian town of some antiquity, now capital of the province
of the same name, lies in the midst of a desert tract of about fifty miles
broad, between the mountains and the sea. The port of Arica, about
forty miles distant, had, since the first arrival of the Spaniards, been
five times destroyed by earthquake, while Tacna had enjoyed a happy
immunity, and was supposed beyond the reach of this calamitous visi-
tation. After 1826, however, very frequent and severe shocks were
felt, particularly a few weeks before the great one of the 8th of October,
1831, which reduced Arica to a heap of rubbish; yet it continued nearly
uninjured till the evening of the 16th of September, 1833, when there
occurred a single loud report, with an upward movement of the ground.
On the morning of the 18th, there was a much more violent movement,
the earth heaving at once up and down, and also laterally, accompanied
by a frightful subterranean noise. The falling of houses all around,
the cries of the people, the howlings of animals, produced a scene that
cannot be described. The agitation seemed to have reached the utmost
possible height, when suddenly the earth, as if striving to get rid of
some mighty load, made a more terrible movement than ever, in every
direction, and in one minute the work of destruction was completed.
The cathedral in falling destroyed a numerous congregation of females,
who had assembled there, and were endeavouring to escape; but the
priests, who remained under an arch, were saved. It is remarkable,
that while some quarters had nearly every house demolished, others
were comparatively uninjured. This great movement was succeeded
124 REPORT—1840.
by a series of slight shocks, which continued during many days. Rain
(here a phenomenon) fell almost every day during six weeks; and at
Arica, on the first week of October, there came down a deluge, such as
had not been witnessed for half a century. The river which supplies
Tacna with water, remained undisturbed ; but others were changed in
their courses, and one altogether disappeared. The earthquake was
felt many hundred miles to the south, as far as the Desert of Atacama.
At Luto, about forty miles distant, fissures were made in the ground,
whence issued a dark-coloured fluid. In the province of Tarapaca,
villages were overthrown, and one, which stood in a ravine, was buried,
with all its inhabitants. To the north, its ravages were equally exten-
sive. The villages of Samo, distant thirty miles, and of Loquumbo,
distant sixty, were both destroyed. Moquegua, 120 miles off, suffered
severe damage ; and Arequipa was violently shaken, but with little in-
jury. The’ effects extended even to the lofty peaks of Upper Peru.
Tacora, 15,000 feet above the sea, had its church thrown down. When
the atmosphere cleared after the calamity, that mighty range, as seen
from Tacna, presented in many parts a new outline. Large masses
had been detached or slid down into the valleys or ravines, leaving
many elevated peaks denuded of their most prominent features. Mr.
Scott, engineer, then employed at Ochozumo, about 14,500 feet high,
describes the shocks there as terrific, and the noise, as if an immense
mass of porcelain had, after being raised in the air, been then let fall
and dashed to pieces. By his telescope, he saw the masses falling from
the mountains, one of them leaving a space as large as St. Enoch’s
Square, Glasgow. On the 20th of January, 1834, a terrible earthquake
occurred in New Granada, by which the large towns of Popayan and
Pastc, were entirely demolished, and many thousands perished. On
the 21st of September, 1834, Mr. Hamilton experienced a most severe
shock, in which the movements of the earth were entirely vertical, and
seemed to take place twice every second. He mentions also, the ter-
rible earthquake on the coast of Chile, the 5th of February, 1835, by
which the sea-port of Concepcion, and Talcahuano, the capital of the
province, were totally destroyed. The sea then retired several times
to a great distance, and returned in immense billows. It is believed,
that new banks were then thrown up from its bottom, and that it was
on one of these that the Challenger, ship of war, a few months after,
was wrecked.
Mr. Murchison exhibited several new geological maps of different
parts of Germany, and specially directed attention to two inedited
maps, which had been prepared for the author’s use, and which he pro-
posed to avail himself of in subsequent researches. The first of these
was a map of parts of Silesia, Moravia, and Bohemia, by Leopold Von
Buch; and the second a very large unpublished map of Germany, by
M. H. Von Dechen, which he stated to contain a greater mass of im-
portant detail as regards geological and mineral distinctions than any
map of the present period.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125
On the Solvent Power exercised by Water at high temperatures on
Siliceous Minerals. By Juiius JErFREYs.
“The few remarks I have to offer have reference to a paper read
before the Royal Society of London last spring. It briefly related an
experiment made to determine the action of water, in the form of its
vapour, upon siliceous minerals at very intense heat. The experiment
was upon a large scale, and consequently very costly, and the re-
sults were curious, as establishing-a very powerful action by water
on siliceous minerals, when the temperature is sufficiently high.” Mr.
Jeffreys exhibited an enlarged drawing to the Section, showing the
construction of a large boiler, erected near Furrukabad, a large city
800 miles north-west of Calcutta. It was the only one of the kind in
India, and was employed for vitrifying brown stone ware, the manu-
facture of which Mr. Jeffreys had succeeded in introducing into
that country. It was heated by four exterior furnaces, each six feet
long and five wide. The kiln inside was fifteen feet in diameter and
twenty-four feet high. The fuel was wood, and the utmost effect any
alkali which might be supposed to rise in its vapour ordinarily pro-
duced, was a slight glazing of some of the brick surfaces in the kiln,
near the entrance of the flame; an appearance which is also seen
with other fuel, and with which all manufacturers are familiar. <“‘ For
the sake of experiment, I pulled down the four furnaces and rebuilt
them, after having made between each and the kiln a deep pit as wide
as each furnace, and only nine inches from front to back. About
three feet of water was put into each pit, and was renewable from
without. Some felspathic and siliceous minerals were placed in the
way of the current, just inside of the kiln, and upon some of the arches
a few articles of ware were placed, that any action upon them might
be observed. Below a full red heat little effect was perceived, but at
a heat above that of fused cast iron a rapid solution of mineral matter
took place. This heat was continued ten hours. When the kiln was
opened, more than a hundred weight of mineral matter, though in a
very dense and refractory form, had been dissolved, and carried awa
in the vapour. The wall was eaten away, as shown by the dotted line,
and presented a rough, and quite unglazed surface, like loaf-sugar
partially melted by water, or as if eroded by some animal; and nothing
of the smooth glazed surface, which invariably attends the action of
alkali on a siliceous surface. Some articles of ware in the hottest
situations were partially eaten through; but on the uppermost arch,
where the heat was only a full red, a curious phenomenon appeared.
The articles there had received, exterior to their own brown gloss, and
loosely encrusting it, a complete frosted coat of silica, having the ap-
pearance of a candied surface. It was manifestly a precipitation from
the mineral vapour, and in fact a hoar frost of silica. There was pro-
bably from half an ounce to an ounce on each vessel, and several
pounds altogether were thus precipitated; but by far the greater part
of the mineral vapourized was, as might be supposed, carried away in
the current. Since this powerful action was apparently entirely due
126 REPORT—1840.
to the presence of water, there being at all times the samme quantity of
alkali present in the fuel, whatever that might have amounted to, pro-
ducing no such effect, the experiment seems to establish, at very high
temperatures, a powerful action of water on siliceous matter. To attri-
bute the action to alkali would not lessen the difficulty, both because
under perfectly similar circumstances, when there was no water, no
effect was produced, and because each pound of alkali would have had
to dissolve, perhaps, forty pounds of silica. Mr. Jeffreys was informed
by a military engineer of distinguished ability, to whom he related the
experiment, that he had once observed a similar destructive effect upon
the brick casing of a kiln, by moisture getting in at an intense heat,
though no scientific notice was taken of it at the time; and as coal
was the fuel in this case, there was still less ground for supposing the
action to be alkaline. Lastly, if alkali did play an appreciable part,
the experiment would remain still sufficiently curious, as it showed an
abundant vapourization of silica, by a fraction of its weight of alkali,
without the aid of fluorine, a phenomenon which has, so far as the
author is aware, been only obscurely manifested in minute quantities,
as noticed by the late Dr. Macculloch.*
An Account of the Construction of the Models of the Island of Achil,
Clare Island, and the South-Western district of Mayo, in Ireland.
By Wii Batp, F.R.S.E., M.R.LA,, Se.
“ The chief object of this paper is to call attention to the cultivation
of an art hitherto but little practised in Great Britain or Ireland, in
representing the irregularities of surface, i.e. the rise and fall of
ground in a country by modelling, and also to give an account of some
models which I have constructed of parts of the West of Ireland,
since 1815.
The first work of this kind I made, was a model of Achil, the largest
island on the coast of Ireland; it contains fifty-eight English square
miles of lofty ground, and has been deposited in the museum of the
College of Edinburgh. The second model made was that of the
Barony of Murrisk, containing nearly two hundred square miles, and
which occupied me at intervals for a period of nearly five years; it
was formed of putty, white-lead and cork.
J also constructed a model of Clare Island, on the west coast of Ire-
land, an island which is four English miles long, by two and a quarter
in its greatest breadth. A cast of this model was deposited, on the
26th of April, 1830, in the French National Institute, and another one
in the model department of the Bibliothéque du Roi, at Paris, and
were on ascale of eight inches to the Irish mile; but the models of
Achil Island and Murrisk Barony were on scales of four inches to the
* Professor Johnston and Mr. Jeffreys have been requested to prosecute re-
searches on this subject.
| ian. apes
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127
English mile. The perpendicular scales, or those of height and depth,
were the same as the horizontal.”
The author thus describes his method of modelling : “1 drew out upon
the smooth surface of a prepared board, made of deal-timber, an
exact outline of the coast, lakes, rivers, roads, &c., &c., of the district
to be modelled; and the different heights taken by the level, theodolite,
sextant, and barometer, were correctly marked upon the board in their
exact positions, by driving down small iron pins, the summits of which
indicate the elevations, measuring the heights from the surface of the
board as the level of the sea, at ordinary high water spring-tides; and
all the spaces between the respective heights marked out by the iron
wires were filled up with the putty ; but where the elevations were
considerable, cork, cut into thin pieces, was used in combination with
it, so as to give firmness, and prevent sinking, which would have been
the case if large quantities of putty were used without adopting this
precaution.
The lakes are represented by different pieces of painted glass, the
outlines of which were first traced upon the painted sides, which ap-
peared like a fine hair line through them when laid in their positions,
and the putty was wrought forward over the edges of the glass to the
outlines of the lakes so traced out, but it was always necessary to keep
the putty from touching any part of the painted glass underneath, for
if it did the oil of the putty soon disfigured the water colour of the
lakes.
The model of Murrisk, containing, as before mentioned, nearly two
hundred square miles, was formed of putty and white-lead ; the poison-
ous qualities of which nearly destroyed my health, and I mention this
circumstance as a caution to those who may hereafter be engaged in
similar works.
I found it extremely difficult to model in putty; and again much
more so when combined with white-lead. What I found best and
most easy to work with was pipe-clay, but then, when it dried, it
always split into pieces. The best substance to construct or form
models with is large blocks of chalk, closely joined together, and then
to carve out the various forms of hill and vale; and when finished, to
shade the surface over several times with prepared linseed-oil, by
which means it will become highly indurated.
The composition used by General Pfeffer for modelling was a mix-
ture of charcoal, lime, clay, a little pitch, and a thin coat of wax.”
To the communication from which the above extracts are taken, Mr
Bald appended a notice of the rise of Topographic Maps.
128 REPORT—1840.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
On the true Method of discovering the Natural System in Zoology and
Botany. By Hueu E. Srrickxianp, F.G.S.
The object of this essay is to show that the true system of nature is
not to be discovered by any @ priori or theoretical considerations, but
solely by an inductive process similar to a geographical survey. As-
suming the reality and permanence of species, the natural system is
defined to be, the arrangement of species according to the degree of
their mutual resemblances. These degrees of resemblance are to be
estimated by the physiological importance of the points of agree-
ment, combined with their numerical amount in the objects compared.
It is these essential and important points of agreement which constitute
affinity as distinguished from analogy. The method proposed is to
take any one species A, and ask the question, “ What are its nearest
affinities?” Those other species (whether one or many) which are
closely and equally allied to A, are then to be placed on each side of
it. We are then to take one of these latter species and ask the same
question. By a repetition of this process it would be possible ulti-
mately to survey and construct a map of the whole organic creation.
And as in a map the physical surface of the ground is divided for con-
venience sake into provinces and kingdoms, so may the species when
so arranged in their true position be divided into families, genera and
groups, which may themselves be mapped in the same manner as
species.
In following out this plan it will be found that species or groups do
not form a continuous or linear series, but frequently ramify in various
directions. It will be further found that they do not ramify according
to any regular figure or numerical property, but resemble rather the
irregular branches of a tree. The irregularity of the details of the
natural system is maintained in this paper, and it is inferred that we
are consequently unable to predict what species or groups may yet
remain undiscovered. If this be true it follows that all those systems,
whether linear, circular, quinary, or otherwise, which follow a sym-
metrical and regular figure, must be, not natural, but artificial. Such
systems possess certain practical advantages in the arrangement of
museums, &c., which are incompatible with the inherent irregularity
of the natural system ; but the latter is not on that account to be disre-
garded or confounded with the artificial systems above alluded to.
In further proof of the amorphous and unsymmetrical figure of the
natural system, it is shown,
lst. That the analogies of the external world, such as the positions
of the fixed stars, the distances of the planets, the forms of mountains,
rivers undislands, &c., indicate that amorphous variety, and not geome-
trical or numerical symmetry, is the prevailing law of nature.
Qnd. That as organic structures are created not for the purpose
of being classed in museums, but for the discharge of certain offices
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129
in the external world, it follows, that if the conditions of existence,
such as soil, climate, locality, &c. be indefinitely various, the forms of
animals and plants which are adapted to those conditions must be inde-
finitely various also. Perfect symmetry would only be compatible with
the natural system on the supposition that all the variations of the
earth’s surface, the mountains, rivers, islands, soils, currents and winds
were absolutely symmetrical in their situations and regular in their
influences.
On the Development of the Fish in the Egg. By Professor AGAssiz.
Professor Agassiz gave an account of his researches on the develop-
ment of the embryo in the ova of fishes, more especially of the family
of Salmonide. He detailed at great length the successive changes
undergone by the various systems of organs. The object he had in
view in these investigations was to ascertain if there existed any rela-
tion between the forms of fish of the present day, during the succes-
sive stages of their development, and the permanent forms of fish
found in the older strata of the earth.
On the First Changes consequent on Fecundation in the Mammiferous
Ovum, with special reference to a Communication “ On the De-
velopment of the Fish in the Egg,” by Professor Agassiz. By. Dr.
Martin Barry, F.R.S.
The remarks were intended as an outline of a memoir, communicated
by Dr. Barry to the Royal Society of London in March last. The
memoir itself being now in the course of publication in the Transactions
of that Society, Dr. Barry stated that he could not, with propriety,
anticipate its appearance by further details than had been already
published, as an abstract, in the Society’s “ Proceedings.” He had
had no intention indeed of offering a paper on the subject to the
British Association until yesterday, when a communication was made
by the celebrated naturalist of Neufchatel, which called for some re-
marks at his hands.
Nearly every author on the ovum allows the germinal vesicle to be
its most essential part. The office which this vesicle performs, how-
ever, and its destination, had been subjects of speculation only.
Purkinje, the discoverer of this vesicle where it was first found,
namely, in the bird’s egg, supposed it to burst; and either the same
opinion, or else that it dissolves, flattens down, or becomes otherwise
destroyed, had been conjectured by most subsequent observers. All,
however, including the eminent naturalist whose observations Dr.
Barry had now more particularly in view, Professor Agassiz, were
agreed that the germinal vesicle disappears about the period when the
ovum leaves the ovary. The question is, its mode of disappearance.
1840. K
130 REPORT— 1840.
Dr. Barry then read, from the Royal Society’s “ Proceedings,” a
portion of the abstract above referred to, from which it appeared, that
should the statements there made be confirmed, this very important
question had at length been solved by actual observation. We refer
to the abstract itself for an account of the remarkable results obtained,
from which also it appears that the centre of the germinal spot is the
point of fecundation, and the place of origin of two cells which consti-
tute the foundation of the new being; results, however, which if con-
firmed, must modify the views recently advanced on the mode of origin,
the nature, the properties, and the destination of the nucleus in the
physiology of cells.
Dr. Barry’s observations were made on ova of the rabbit; and he
afterwards confirmed them by an examination of ova of the dog.
He had stated that the ova of birds, batrachian reptiles, and some
osseous fishes, afford evidence of the operation of the same pro-
cess: and it was very gratifying and important now to find, in
the minute and beautiful delineations of such an observer as
Agassiz, on the ovum of the salmon, what he (Dr. B.) could not but
regard as a confirmation of his own observations on the ovum of
Mammalia; though that observer would hear with surprise the expla-
nation Dr. B. was giving of them.
But such a process is not limited to the Vertebrata. It was to be
recognized in the description given by authors of certain of the Mol-
lusea; for instance, in that of Sars, on the development of the ovum
of Tritonia, Doris, and others of this class of animals. What Sars
supposes to be transformations of the yelk, however, will no doubt turn
out to be successive generations of cells, the first pair of which arises
within the germinal vesicle, as in the ovum of Mammalia. Shuttle-
worth had discovered that red snow contains animal structures; and
two days since, Professor Agassiz, having extended this observation,
made known the very interesting fact, that the so-called Protococcus
nivalis cousists of the ova of one of the Infusoria. Dr. Barry had now
to mention, that while the drawings, which the Professor had given of
these ova, were circulating among the members of the Section in that
room, he had recognized in them traces of what seemed to him to
have resulted from essentially the same changes as those in the germi-
nal vesicle elsewhere. Further, the germ of certain plants’ passes
through states so much resembling those occurring in the germ of
mammiferous animals, that it is not easy to consider them as resulting
either from a different fundamental form, or from a process of deve-
lopment, which even in its details is not the same. In the growth,
indeed, at all periods, and this both of healthy and of morbid tissues,
there is to be recognized the same process, which consists, not merely
in the origin of cells in cells, but in the origin of cells in the central
part of what had been the nucleus of cells.
Ina paper published in the “ Philosophical Transactions,” Part II.,
1839, Dr. Barry had shown that the mammiferous embryo is no part
of a so-called blastoderma, but the metamorphosed nucleus of a cell.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131
On the Alpaca. By Mr. W. Danson.
Since the meeting at Birmingham, about thirty of these interesting
animals had at different times been imported into Liverpool, and upon
the present occasion four of the animals were exhibited in the court-
yard of the college at Glasgow, and others at the neighbouring Zoolo-
gical Gardens. The Alpaca is remarkable for having extraordinary
long wool, samples of which were shown, the staples measuring from
twenty to twenty-four inches in length, and of various colours, some
pure white, that take good dyes. This wool is naturally free from
grease, in which respect it differs materially from that of the sheep,
a circumstance attributable to its not perspiring through the skin, and
consequently not requiring the artificial protection of smearing with
tar and other substances, injurious to the wool as far as the manufac-
turer is concerned ; and in the shearing the animal requires no washing
preparatory to that operation.
Mr. Danson particularly pointed out the hardy eharacter of the
Alpaca from the circumstance of its flourishing immediately under the
line of perpetual snow in the mountains of the Andes (Peru); anda
not less singular or valuable fact, that of their peculiar coat of silky
wool, proving a complete protection against an atmosphere at all times
excessively humid, and against the deluging rain that continues to fall
upwards of four months in the year, rendering them, in his opinion, well
suited to the Grampian, and other mountainous districts of Scotland.
The animal is not only capable of undergoing great fatigue, but like-
wise of living on mountain herbage, little better than withered grass,
and in times of scarcity has been sustained several days without water,
taking only a handful of maize. The flesh is considered equal to
venison, being commonly eaten by the Peruvians, who state the
slaughter of the animals for food to be equal to four millions annually.
The importations of the Alpaca wool, Mr. Danson states to be in 1839
one million pounds, and within the last year to have increased to
three millions.
On the Subject of a Paper on the Structure of Whales, read at the
Birmingham Meeting. By G. T. Fox, Esq.
The Section of Natural History were informed that the letter stated
to have been written by the Bishop of Durham*, was a fabrication of
the individual from whom Mr. Fox had received it as a genuine docu-
ment, and that no such original letter exists.
On the Structure of Fishes, so far as the analogies can be traced
between the Limbs of the Mammals and the Fins of Fishes. By
Dr. Macvonatp, F.R.S.E., &c.
It has hitherto been generally considered that the pectoral fin of the
fish is the analogue of the wing of the bird, or anterior extremity of
* See Reports of Association for 1839, p. 89.
K 2
132 _ REPORT—1840.
man and higher Mammals, and that the ventral fins are the analogues
of the pelvis and posterior extremities. The error of this opinion it is
the object of this communication to point out.
Tabular view of the names of the several parts of the skeleton of
fishes analogous to the limbs of higher Vertebrals.
Dr. Macponatp. IcHTHYOLOGICAL Cuvier. Sr. Hrvarre.
Names.
Scapulo-clavicular arch. a. Pre-opercular bones.
Arm or Wing . Opercular. Stapes.
Fore-arm. . ‘Opercular Bones. Inter-opercular. Malleus.
Tans vasa Kil osu ah GAAS AT Gh weve oth To Sub-opercular. Orbiculare.
Relvisiecotsi «kes - . . . + « (Scapula, or Supra-scapula.
Bemnreas poh setae Scapula.
Fue t,t p PECTORAL FIN: + Commeaid,
MIDAS 5 SWce! is peace ree ae Clavicle and humerus.
( Radius.
Ulnar.
RRATSUS Fours a aka ack lp Fin-rays. Carpus.
Metacarpus.
Phalanges.
7 { Pelvis.
Belonging to the ex- ' Femur.
ternal skeleton. | Fibula.
; qo VES GRATE EIN: 2 ne
Pubis, or the cartilagi- r = 7 -4 Patella
nous extremities of the
Tarsus (7 bones).
lamine.
! Metatarsus.
J Phalanges.
By referring to the table, it will be seen that Geoffroy St. Hilaire
proposed the opercular bones as the analogues of the bones of the in-
ternal ear in a very expanded state. This theory, however, was scarcely
tenable, and was never generally received. The author showed that,
viewing the whole animal on a zoological scale, or even restricting the
survey to the class of fishes alone, it will be more in accordance with
analogy of structure and function to consider, that in the osseous fishes
the opercular bones are the analogues of the shoulder and arm, which, in
the cartilaginous rays are found so greatly enlarged and developed as
to form nearly the whole body, acting like wings, as organs of motion.
In the skeleton of the Lophius Piscatorius, exhibited through the kind-
ness of the venerable Professor Jeffrey, it will be seen that there is a
set of fin-rays attached to the opercular bones; but as these are only
developed in the substance of the skin, and have never protruded be-
yond.the surface, this fin has never been noticed by systematisers and
naturalists, who disregarding characters established on organic struc-
ture, are satisfied with the useful, but more superficial characters of fin,
scale, or feather.
The constant connexion between the anterior extremity and the
respiratory organs assists in tracing the analogies ; and when the organ
of motion is provided by the tail, as in osseous fishes, then the usual
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133
limbs are restricted to assist the function of respiration, which is
branchial in fishes and amphibia in their earlier life; but when the
pulmonic system is found in air-breathing animals, the respiratory
limb is more fully developed, for the purpose of locomotion ; and where
both systems of respiration by lungs and gills exist, as is seen in the
Proteus, we find both the opercular arch and the scapulo-clavicular
arch having a limb attached, as the plates of the Axolotl, published in
the work of the illustrious Humboldt, clearly exhibit.
In regard to the pectoral fin, an examination of the table will show
a more equally balanced accordance with the parts of the limb in the
higher Vertebrals, in the analogies proposed in thiscommunication, than
in those of Cuvier, where two bones of different laminz are called
parts of one bone; and on the other hand, one bone is called on to
represent two belonging to different lamin. The beautiful articular
joint between the pelvis and femur (such as is never found with
scapula, even when that bone exists in two pieces, as in the ribless
frogs), first showed the key to the explanation ; and being on the inner
aspect of the pelvis, the leg has been turned with the fibula (or coracoid
bone of Cuvier) on the inside, and the largely developed malleolus of
the tibia on the outside, meeting on the mesial line below the respira-
tory organs. This change of the limb will cause the sole of the foot tu
be placed anteriorly ; and we find that the most common action is to
balance the animal, and enable it to back out, while the whole progres-
sive motion in the osseous fishes is produced by the tail. The ar-
rangement of the tarsal bones, in man, resembles very much that of the
arm and fore-arm, and in fishes has tended to the mistaking the tarsus
for the whole anterior extremity.
A very opposite system was obtained in the case of the ventral fins,
where one bone on each side support the fin-rays; these bones seem
the analogues of the cartilages of the ribs or pubis of the Vertebrals,
or perhaps the additional limbs on the ventral rings of the Crustacez ;
here one bone on each side represents the two circles or lamine
entirely.
The author therefore considers that the anterior extremities of
higher Vertebrals have their analogues in the opercular bones of
osseous fishes ; and the analogue of the posterior extremities is to be
found in the pectoral fins of the same class.
On the Salmon Fry. By James Wison, F.R.S.E.
The author laid before the Section a series of specimens of salmon
fry, with a view to illustrate Mr. Shaw’s recent discoveries regard-
ing the early condition of that important species. It was the in-
spection of that series which first convinced Mr. W. of the accuracy
of Mr. Shaw’s views, and he felt anxious that those who might still
entertain any doubts upon the subject should have an opportunity of
removing those doubts by the examination of a suite of specimens pre-
pared by that ingenious observer. The prevailing opinion upon the
134 REPORT—1840.
subject had previously been, that young salmon hatched in the spring
of any given season made their migration to the sea in the course of
that same spring, that is, when they were only a few weeks old, and
that they consequently bore no relationship to that other small fish
commonly called the parr, which was known to inhabit our river waters
during all seasons of the vear. Mr. Shaw, however, has proved that
both those views are erroneous, and that the fry continue for about
two years in the river, during which they are actually the parr, and are
converted in the course of the second ensuing spring into smelts or
young salmon, as usually recognized. The specimens exhibited by
Mr, Wilson demonstrated the occurrence of that change.
On the Organs of Sense in the Salmon. By Dr. Lizars.
After demonstrating the structure of the skin, the author showed that
the colour of the animal depended not merely on the rete mucosum, as
in the dark varieties of the human race, but that the superficial fascia
exerted a great influence, from its colour and the transparency of the
dermis. The rete mucosum was a soft gelatinous layer, presenting a
number of minute black points, which were very abundant in the dark,
but few in the light parts of the skin. The superficial fascia bore the
closest resemblance to the rete in the greater part of its extent; but in
some situations it exhibited the appearance of adipose tissue. From
the arrangement of the nerves, the skin appears far from being highly
organized for the function of touch. The same remark applies to the
tongue and the sense of taste ; first, from the state of the mucous mem-
brane, and second, from the small size of the gustatory nerves. The
organ of smell was very highly developed. It is contained in an
elongated cavity placed in the upper and fore part of each side of the
head, leading to each of which there are two apertures placed close
together, the septum between them serving the purpose of a valve to
the anterior, so that water could enter, but could not escape by it.
Upon examining the posterior opening with the microscope and with
bright sunshine, a number of minute white filaments, bifurcated at
their extremity, were observed: they were supposed to be ciliz ; one
or other of their minute extremities was seen bending and extending
itself. On the inner wall of the cavity were twelve delicate folds
of membrane, attached to a slight prominence, and receiving the
filaments of the nerve of smell. He supposed the water, loaded with
the odoriferous particles, to enter by the anterior orifice, flow be-
tween the olfactory folds, impress the nerve, and escape by the pos-
terior aperture ; the ciliz in the last producing the current in that
direction. In the description of the eye, a peculiar thickening of the
cornea was pointed out a short way from the circumference, and more
extensive at the lower than at the upper part. The sclerotic coat he
found very thin, single, and having a thick, strong layer of cartilage
extending from near the cornea to within three or four lines of the
optic nerve. The ciliary ligament is very soft and delicate. The
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135
appearance of an outer and an inner circle in the iris was seen, but no
muscular fibres: the delicate membrane described by Jacob on the
posterior surface of that body, he found to be reflected from its
external circumference to the fore part of the hyaloid membrane,
which it accompanied to the capsule of the lens. The choroid mem-
brane, single in front, is double posteriorly, inclosing between its
layers the choroid body, which was supposed to consist of erectile
tissue, and to enable the eye to adjust itself to vision at different dis-
tances. The ciliary processes are wanting. The retina extends from
the optic nerve to where the choroid membrane forms a continuity
with the iris. The humours are similar to those of other fishes; and
in examining the fibres of the lens with the microscope, the serrated
appearance described by Sir David Brewster was seen. The organ of
hearing consists of a lower and upper sac, and three semicircular tubes ;
the sacs are lodged in the interior of the skull, and the tubes con-
nected with the upper, in canals formed partly of bone and partly of
cartilage. The interior is filled with fluid, and in each sac there is a
dense calcareous mass or otolite; that in the upper being small and
round, that in the lower large and triangular. The auditory nerve
divides into a number of branches distributed to the sacs and canals.
On the various Modes of Fishing employed by Indians in the
West of Guiana. By M. ScuHomsBurek.
Although the Ichthyology of South America be little understood by
European naturalists, yet the native Indians are practically well ac-
quainted with the various tribes that are found in the magnificent
streams of the New World. An acquaintance with about eighty
species has thus been made by M. Schomburgk. The Indians in
their fishing excursions use canoes, which are propelled and directed
by paddles in a peculiar manner. The canoes on the Essequibo are
mostly formed of a hollow tree, and small corials are used formed in
the same manner. Another kind of boat is also used, called a pakasse,
and formed out of the bark of a tree. “ When we ascended the river
Berbice,” says the author, “two Wauawai boys belonging to our party
navigated one of those pakasses. They were perhaps not more
than eight years old, but we were highly delighted to see how ably
they managed it. The boat seemed to fly through the water, and the
juvenile steersman directed its course with such judgment and precision
that it never grounded, though it went over places where there were
not more than eight or nine inches of water. They were equally ex-
pert in the use of the bow and arrow; and, wherever they observed
one of the finny tribe, the pakasse was halted, the bow strung, and off
flew the pointed arrow, and when taken out of the sand, which the
water barely covered, we generally observed a fish struggling for
liberty.” After describing the descent of the rapids, in which these
rivers abound, and the appearance of a band of travellers halting on
the shores of the river, he adds, “ During night commenced the fishing
136 REPORT—1840.
of lan-lan and others of the family Siluride. After the hooks have
been baited with fish or animal flesh, they are carried out in the
stream ; the line to which they are attached being about thirty to forty
fathoms long. Ifthe Indian feels inclined, he keeps the end on the
land in his hand, but frequently he takes a forked stick, which he
drives into the ground, and, after having tied some dried bushes to the
fork, he leads the stray line over it. Ifa fish should bite, the line
being drawn by the baited fish, will disturb the dry leaves, make a
noise, and the Indian hurries to seize the line and to haul the fish in.
If it be a lan-lan (Silurus) or a large paramima (Phractocephalus bi-
color), some considerable skill is necessary to haul the fish in without
breaking the line or the hook. Many of the Siluride issue a sound
when taken out of the water, but few so loud and so continued as the
paramima. The Indians have always a bludgeon in hand, with which
they beat in the thickly armed skull, and each blow is sure to produce
aloud grinding sound ; so that we who were lying in our hammocks
knew whether a lan-lan, paramima, or any other fish had been secured.
The Indian considers that a large fire kindled at the water's edge is
sure to attract such fishes as take the bait only during night, and they
never fail, therefore, to have a fire or a large brand when they are
fishing for lan-lans or paramimas. If large blocks of granite impeded
the river near our corials, all hand-lines which could be spared or pro-
cured were set in requisition to fish for pirais (Serra-salmon). The
avidity with which they take the bait ensures success to the least prac-
tised, and if the place proved a haunt of the pirai, the Indian was sure
to secure his dinner. The natives possess great art in throwing the
hand-line from the shore into the stream; and it is a pretty sight to
see the line circling in the air and descending into the water at a great
distance from the bank or rock which the angler has selected for his
stand.” The detail of other modes of fishing was also entered into,
and drawings of the paddles, hooks, rods, lines, and instruments used
in fishing were exhibited.
Mr. Smith, of Deanston, exhibited a model and gave a description
of a Salmon Stair. The object of this construction was to allow of the
passage of salmon up streams where mills or other impediments existed.
After various efforts, Mr. Smith succeeded in erecting one near his
own residence, which answered the purpose. The salmon, by means .
of a dyke constructed by the side of the mill-stream, were enabled to
pass up the stream, whilst a wire defence kept them from falling into
the mill-stream.
On some Persian Insects. By James Witson, F.RS.E.
The author exhibited to the Section a small collection of insects
from Persia, which he presumed would interest those members who
devote themselves to entomology, as so few entomological products
had ever been transmitted from that part of Asia. These insects
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137
were collected chiefly in a district of Persia, about thirty miles N.E. of
Tabriz, and were transmitted by Mr. Robertson, a Scotch gentleman,
employed by the late Shah in the capacity of mining engineer. Mr.
' Wilson observed, that the interest of this collection arose from two
sources ; first, from the occurrence of several singular forms of new and
rare species; and secondly, from the occurrence of many species well
known in the southern and eastern portions of Europe, but with the
progress of which, in a still more southerly direction, we had been
hitherto unacquainted. Mr. W. had always been of opinion that the
elucidation or completion of the history of previously known species
was equally interesting and important as the discovery of new species,
and he regarded the occurrence in this collection of so many of the
insects of southern Europe as a valuable fact in the history of those
species. Several African insects may also be observed, such as the
Ateuchus sacer, or sacred beetle of the Egyptians, a species so often
found sculptured on the symbolical monuments of that nation. On
the whole, however, so far as can be judged from this collection, the
aspect and character of Persian entomology seem to present a strong
affinity to that of the southern parts of Europe.
A letter was received from M. J. F. Brandt, Director of the Zoolo-
gical Museum of St. Petersburgh, accompanying printed extracts and
notices of his recent zoological labours. In this communication, M.
Brandt notices that his investigations in Myriapoda lead him to rank
them as an order of the class of insects, and not as an independent class
of animals, and to divide them into mandibulate and suctorial tribes.
Of the genus Julus of Linnzus, M. Brandt has arranged in the Museum
of the Academy of St. Petersburgh forty species ; he notices the mid-
dle part of the lower labium as affording excellent characters for speci-
fic, subgeneric, or even generic distinctions ; the joints of the antennz,
the hind margin of the penultimate body-ring, the oval scale, the
pediferous laminz, also afford useful aid, and in the specific distinc-
tions the first dorsal ring is not to be disregarded.
M. Brandt is especially desirous of obtaining specimens of British
Myriapoda for comparison, and in exchange for the Russian species.
Being also engaged in the study of the group of Cormorants (Carbo),
he requests similar aid from members of the Natural History Section
of the British Association in respect to this group of birds.
Mr. Adair exhibited specimens of Patella aneyloides found on the
coast of Arran.
On Pelonaia, a new genus of Ascidian Mollusca. By
Joun Goonpsir and E. Forsss, F.L.S.
The authors have lately met with two undescribed marine animals,
which are referable to a new genus of Ascidians. One of these was
138 REPORT—1840.
found in the mud-filled cavity of a dead bivalve, from thirty fathoms
water, in the Frith of Forth ; two specimens of the other were dredged
near Rothsay.
The appearance of these animals was so peculiar, that the authors were
unable to determine their position in the system, till anatomical exami-
nation displayed their relation to the Tunicata, and revealed the inter-
esting character of the genus to which they belong.
The animals of this genus are free, elongated, dilated posteriorly,
with the respiratory and excretory orifices approximated, the first being
at the anterior end, in the axis of the animal.
As both the species were found in muddy ground, the genus is
named Pelonaia (xnhos vaw).
The Frith of Forth species, P.corrugata, is characterized by trans-
verse, somewhat irregular rug; dark brown; length 24 inches.
The other species, P. glabra, smooth, with slight villosity ; grayish-
white; length 1 inch.
The author found the two species to possess the general structure of
the other Ascidians. The peculiarities were—1l. The respiratory open-
ing has no radiated folds or papillary fringes. 2. The respiratory sac
is elongated, median, exhibits transverse folds, which contain the
primary branches of the branchial artery and vein, and are tied to the
internal surface of the muscular sac, and to the reproductive tubes, by
a longitudinal row of thread-like bands on each side. It gradually
contracts posteriorly into the cesophagus. 3. The digestive tube
floats free in the capacious cavity of the muscular sac, except where it
is tied down by vascular bands, and it terminates in free, floating, and
radiating extremities in the interior, and half the length of the animal
from the excretory opening of the sac just mentioned. 4. The vascular
system exhibits no heart; and in consequence of the peculiar relative
position of the respiratory sac and the other viscera, the system is
symmetrical, the blood flowing backwards in the branchial vein and
systemic artery, and forwards in the systemic vein and branchial
artery, these two systems forming a dorsal and ventral trunk. 5. The
reproductive organs consist of two elongated tubes, shut at one extre-
mity, opening at the other into the cavity of the muscular sac, and
closely attached to its inner surface. The orifices of these tubes are
situated at the anterior third of the animal, and one-third of the poste-
rior extremity of each is turned inward and forward, so as to become
parallel to the rest of the tubes and to the branchial artery. Along
the whole length of these tubes, close-set parallel czeca open into their
cavities, a simple form, in fact, of the more complicated reproductive
organs in the other Ascidian genera. 6. The principal peculiarity of
the muscular cloak is firm adhesion to the whole internal surface of
the tunic. In consequence also of the attachment of the viscera to
its internal surface along the lateral lines only, its cavity is made more
capacious, resembling, in this respect, the water-filled cavity of certain
Echinodermata. A strong band is situated just behind the excretory
orifices.
From what has now been stated, it appears that external and internal
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139
symmetry is the leading peculiarity of Pelonaia. It is this symmetry
which renders the genus valuable to the comparative anatomist, as it
reveals to him the relations of the different organs in the unsymmetrical
Ascidians, and enables him to refer each of the former to its proper
position in the series of organs in the animal kingdom. He is now
enabled to state, with certainty, that the branchial vein, heart, and
systemic artery of the typical Ascidians correspond to the dorsal
vascular system of the annulose animals, and the systemic veins and
branchial artery to the ventral vascular system in some of the latter.
The annulated respiratory sac, and its lateral longitudinal attachment
to the parietes of the body and to the symmetrical reproductive
organs, the ventral position of the nervous centre, and excretory
opening, all point to the same conclusion. The genus is equally
valuable to the systematic naturalist, as it indicates the relations of the
Mollusks to the annulose animals on the one hand, and to the Echino-
dermata on the other.
On the Regeneration of Lost Organs discharging the Functions of the
fead and Viscera, by the Holothuria and Amphitrite, two Marine
Animals. By Sir Joun G. DALYELL.
The adult Holothuria resembles a cucumber, or a sausage, from six
to twelve inches long, purple, yellow, gray or white. Some thousand
suckers cover it like a shaggy coat, or disposed in rows according to
species, affixing it firmly to solid substances, where it remains quiescent
in a crescent form during the day; but when evening comes, a tuft,
protruding from the larger extremity of the crescent, unfolds into
a eapacious funnel, composed of eight, or ten, or twenty beautiful
branches, implanted on a shelly cylinder, in the centre of which is the
mouth. Each branch now begins to sweep the water in succession,
and descends almost to the root within the mouth, in a contracted
state, whence it arises to enlarge anew. These evolutions are pro-
tracted until the latest hour; but as morning dawns, the whole
apparatus is withdrawn, the skin close and compact as before, and a
fountain begins to play from the opposite extremity. This singular
animal is liable to lose all the preceding organic apparatus, consisting
in the Holothuria fusus of eight longer and two smaller branches
(tentacula), together with the cylinder, mouth, cesophagus, lower
intestinal parts, and the ovarium separating from within, and leaving the
body almost an empty sac behind; yet it does not perish. In three or
four months all the lost parts are regenerated, and a new funnel, com-
posed of new branches, as long as the whole body of the animal, begins
to exhibit the same peculiarities as the old one, though longer time be
_ required to attain perfection. Other species of the Holothuria divide
spontaneously through the middle, in two or more parts, all becoming
perfect ultimately, by the development of new organs. Yet the
anatomical structure of the whole genus is so complex as to defy the
skill of anatomists in discovering the proper functions of some of the
140 REPORT—1840.
parts. A single Holothuria has produced 5000 ova in the course of
anight. The young resembles a white maggot, when of the size of a
barley corn. The animal may lose and regenerate its organs more
than once ; it is very rarely to be procured entire ; nor until the draw-
ings now laid before the Association, has it been ever represented
alive and perfect. The specimen survived with Sir John about two
years.
‘The Amphitrite is an animal still more interesting, from the faculties
it possesses and the properties which it enjoys. Various species inhabit
the Scottish seas, all occupying tubes, either of their own manufacture,
by a process truly mechanical, or a thin silken sheath formed by an
exudation from the whole body, or they rest amidst a thick tubular
mass of transparent jelly, also of animal secretion. The body of the
Amphitrite ventilabrum extends twelve inches or more in a serpentine
form, consisting of 350 segments, crowned by a beautiful varied-
coloured plume of eighty or ninety fleshy feathers, and terminated by a
double gland. These (the branchie) are arranged as a funnel or shut-
tlecock, three inches deep, and resembling the finest flower, with two
spines in the centre, and each feather is bordered by at least 500 ciliz
or fleshy hairs along the shaft. This, which is the most timorous of
creatures, dwells in a black leathern-looking perpendicular tube, two
feet high, entirely of its own manufacture, rooted by the lower
extremity. The observer possesses the ready means of inducing
the humble tenant to display its powers. If, while stretching its
beautiful plume above the orifice of the tube, and spreading
it to enjoy the circumambient element, he drops a little muddy
matter from above, an interesting spectacle ensues: immediately all
the feathered apparatus is seen in action, though the animal be ap-
parently still. Forty thousand ciliz are at work, and a mass is soon
discovered accumulating at the bottom of the funnel. Being thence
transmitted to the mouth, it is imbued with gluten, and discharged as
paste on the edge of the orifice of the tube. There the creature
having raised itself still higher, performs a slow revolution while
moulding the paste into proper form by means of two organic trowels,
prolonged from a fringe around the neck. With these it beats down the
paste, and clasping over the edge of the tube, smooths its materials
into symmetry, as if it were by the operation of huinan hands; but on
the slightest alarm the plume collapses, the artist sinks below in an
instant, and remains with the orifice closed, until believing the danger
over, it may rise to resume its task in securify. As specimens occur
of all different dimensions, let the observer cut a fragment off the lower
end of the tube, which is always longer than the tenant; it will be
affixed again where desired. Treating a number thus, and tossing them
into a glass jar of sea water, a grove will arise before him from the
animals fixing them anew, and protruding like so many revolving
flowers to collect muddy drops from above, with which he provides
them. Theadhesion is accomplished from a glutinous or silky sheath,
which the double terminal gland seems instrumental in producing.
Should the Amphitrite be mutilated of the anterior part, the whole will
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141
be regenerated ; nay, should a fragment of the smaller or posterior ex-
tremity be sundered from the body, an entire plume, spines, mouth
and trowels will be generated to crown the anterior part of this frag-
ment, and render it a perfect animal. It is very remarkable that the
powerful reproductive property of the genus is not confined to the
vicinity of the lost organs, the elements of others reside in different
and distant parts of the body, from whence human perception cannot
discover any likelihood of their evolution by means of their own ener-
gies. The adult Amphitrite bombyx, which obtains a silken sheath
merely by spontaneous exudation from the body, is about three inches
long, of which a third part is the plume, consisting of sixty or seventy
feathers (pranchie). Two artificial sections of the body, of a vigorous
specimen, speedily invested themselves with a sheath, wherein they re-
posed quiescent. The organization of the upper portion remained in
its original state; the middle section acquired the wanting parts, and
a plume of eight feathers was generated by the lower section, though
this section had been only two lines, or the sixth part of an inch in
length. Thus three plumes existed at once, with all their appurte-
nances, on what had been a single animal. Young animals have few
branchiz ; their number augments with age; and both these and the
number of segments in all the Anmelides seem indefinite. In all their
ciliated branchiz, likewise, the rib or shaft is originally bare, and
clothed with the cilia developing successively upwards.
The paper was illustrated by numerous drawings of living specimens.
Further Researches on the British Ciliograda. By Evwarp
Forses and Joun Goopsir.
Since the last meeting of the British Association, the authors have
continued their observations on these animals; no additional species
have been discovered, but several interesting facts, elucidating their
structure, have been brought to light. The species examined were
the two forms of Cydippe, designated C. pileus, and C. Flemingit.
They have repeated the observations of Mr. Garner on the ciliation of
the walls of the stomach and vessels, and can bear testimony to their
accuracy. The ciliz toward the base of the stomach are larger than
those on the oval portion. A row of very minute ciliz surrounds the
mouth, but none of these organs are seen on the filamentary tentacula,
or on the walls of the filamentary cavities. The ciliz which are placed
on the longitudinal ridges are linear-lanceolate in form, flat, and not
hollow. They are not webbed together, and have no communication
with the vessels which run beneath the ciliary ridges. Each row of
ciliz: is mounted on a transverse base of a more solid texture, and less
transparent than the rest of the body. The substance of this base
consists of globules irregularly imbedded in a homogeneous substance.
A similar structure is seen to exist in the filaments of the Cydippe, and
the bodies of the hydroid zoophytes and of the simpler trematoid
worms are composed of a like substance. When one of the ciliz of a
142 REPORT—1840.
Cydippe is cut off, it has of itself no power of motion, but if the smallest
portion of the substance of its base remain attached, it moves with
great vivacity. Hence the observers conclude that the ciliary motion
is effected by undulatory movements of this peculiar tissue, which
explanation will also account for the rotatory appearance of the circles
of ciliz on certain animalcules, and on a remarkable apparatus which
they have discovered in the breathing sacs of the Eehiwrus, a vermi-
grade Echinodermatous animal, allied to the Sipunculus. They reject
altogether the explanation of the ciliary motions given by Professor
Ehrenberg, Dr. Grant, and M. Raspail. From observations made on
the circulating system of the Beroidez, they are led to conclude that
the usual definition of that tribe, as acalephous animals having two
openings to their intestinal canal, the one anterior and the other pos-
terior, is incorrect. They believe the supposed anus to be imperforate,
and a great portion of the supposed intestinal canal to belong to the
circulating system.
The tongue-shaped organ which Mr. Forbes formerly described as
existing in the stomachs of many of the Cydippes, has proved to be a
remarkable parasite trematoid worm, fixing itself by means of four
- suckers or mouths to the walls of the stomach, and of the vessels of
the Cydippe, often interrupting the circulation of its fluids. For this
strange parasite Mr. Forbes has constituted a new genus, and desig-
nated it Yetrastoma Playfairei, in honour of Major Playfair of St.
Andrews, who first drew attention to its parasitic nature. The authors
summed up their paper by stating the results:—lst. That ciliary
motion was effected in the Ciliograda by means of a granular tissue,
similar to that forming the bodies of the Hydroide and the iower
Entozoa, on which the ciliz are placed: 2nd. That the Ciliograda are
not Acalepha, having two openings to their digestive canal (as has
hitherto been stated), but similar in structure to the other Medusz :
and 3rd. The discovery of parasites infesting the Acalepha.
-
On Meduse. By R. Patterson, F.L.S.
After briefly noticing some of the specific distinctions of two species
of Medusee common on the Irish coast (Cyanea Lamarchii and Aurelia
- aurita), Mr. Patterson stated, that his object in bringing forward the
present communication was, principally to direct the attention of the
members to the Acalepha of the British shores, a portion of our Fauna
hitherto uninvestigated. With this view he described at some length
their habits and appearance. He next proceeded to detail some of
their peculiarities of organization, especially the difference observable
in their filamentary appendages, and the varying number of the mouths
and arms. Our ignorance of their physiology was exemplified by a
series of questions relative to the organs of sensation which they pos-
sess, and the origin and uses of their luminosity, their stinging powers,
their means of defence and propagation, their length of life, and their
peculiar parasites.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143
It was stated that we are ignorant not only of the structure of the
Acalepha, but even of the species which frequent our shores ; an igno-
rance arising from the necessity of studying these animals in a living
state, and also from the want of proper descriptions and figures.
Those which may be confided in, are given by Miller, Sars, Mertens,
and Eschscholtz, in comparatively scarce works ; and as two are written
in German, and one in Danish, they are sealed books to those who are
ignorant of these languages. In consequence, we are in continual
danger, if we venture to name one that appears unknown, of adding to
the existing confusion. He next proceeded to mention the points of
interest presented by the Acalepha, in consequence of their analogies
in several respects, both to other classes of animals and to the corolla
of phzenogamous plants.
On Animals found in Red Snow. By Professor AGassiz.
It was stated that our countryman Shuttleworth had lately demon-
strated that beside the Protococcus nivalis, the red snow contained
several species of Infusoria. He had, however, now to lay before the
Section the result of his own observations, from which he had come to
the conclusion that the red snow was altogether an animal production,
and that the so-called Protococcus nivalis was the ova of a species of
rotiferous animal called by Ehrenberg Philodina roseola. This animal-
cule he had found dead in the red snow, and occurring abundantly
in ditches in the neighbourhood, at the bottom of which its ova pro-
duced a red deposit. Under the microscope the coloured ova in the
ovaries could be distinctly seen. He had also seen the Infusoria de-
scribed by Shuttleworth. Drawings of the Philodina roseola, and the
other animalcula of the red snow, were exhibited to the Section. The
Professor also announced the discovery of a new species of Podura
in the clefts of the glaciers of the Alps. Specimens and drawings of
this insect were also exhibited.
Dr. Lankester exhibited some coloured water brought from the
Baltic by Mr. Murchison. The colouring matter consisted of a fila-
mentous, unarticulated, probably not vegetable, but animal substance.
The sea was covered with filaments for miles in extent, so as to be dis-
coloured, and to appear of a dirty white.
Notice of Plants and Animals found in the Sulphureous Waters of
Yorkshire. By Epwin Lanxester, WD., FLAS.
Under the terms glairine, zoogene, baregine, humus-extractive,
resin, animal, and vegeto-animal matter, &c., the existence of organic
substances in cold and thermal mineral waters has been often referred
to, but in most instances the origin of these matters is involved in ob-
scurity. Professor Anglada referred glairine, which he found in sul-
144 REPORT—1840.
phureous waters, to a chemical origin, whilst Dr. Daubeny, in his
Report on Mineral Waters, laid before the British Association at Bris-
tol, maintains that this substance is in all cases an organic production.
The existence of organic matter, with a definite form, was first pointed
out by Willan, which was examined by Dillwyn, and referred to the
vegetable kingdom under the name of Conferva nivea. This plant has
been recorded as existing in the sulphureous waters of Harrowgate,
and has been found by the author in the same kind of water at Askerne
in Yorkshire. In its young state it answers to the character of the
organic fibres described by Daubeny, and in a more mature state to
the plant as described by Dillwyn. This plant is of exceeding rapid
growth, appearing in water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen
after standing for a few hours. It also rapidly decomposes, giving rise
to secondary combinations which closely resemble the characters of
glairine, as stated by Professor Anglada. In the waters of Harrow-
gate, another species of Conferva abounds, which, in its structure,
resembles the species of Oseillatoria ; it collects in large quantities
around the sides of the wells, and with deposits of inorganic and ani-
mal matters form layers of a dark green, white and rose colour. In
decomposing, these plants give out a more powerful odour than the
water itself, a circumstance which has probably given rise to the opinion
that a sulphuret of azote exists in these waters. These plants seem
peculiar to sulphureous waters, and probably have their existence de-
termined by the suphuretted hydrogen they contain.
In many places where sulphuretted hydrogen is given out, a deposit
is frequently found at the bottom of the waters, varying from a light
pink to a deep rose colour. These deposits are sometimes exceedingly
abundant throughout a large district around Askerne, where sulphureous
springs abound ; they are always found in water or sand, impregnated
with sulphuretted hydrogen. On an examination being made of these
deposits, they were found to be produced by two species of animalcula ;
one oblong, with from two to ten or twelve stomachs about the z5355th
of an inch long, the other having about the same number of stomachs,
but much longer than the first, and having the motions of a Vibrio.
The first resembles the Astasia hematodes of Ehrenberg, which he
describes as having been found in Siberia, producing a blood-coloured
deposit at the bottom of a lake, but does not appear to possess a tail,
which is a character of the genus Astasia. These animalcules live in
water artificially impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, but do not
die immediately in fresh water. The author has never seen them
naturally without sulphuretted hydrogen, and in many instances has
detected this gas by their presence in places in which it would not
have been previously suspected.
On the Pollen and Vegetable Impregnation. By Dr. ALpRIDGE,
of Dublin.
The author having discovered that nitric and other inorganic and
organic acids produced the dehiscence of pollen-grains, in the same
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145
manner as if placed on the natural stigmatic surface, instituted a num-
ber of experiments, of which the following are the general results :—
1. The spores of cryptogamic vegetables, which some botanists consider
analogous to pollen, do not dehisce under the influence of acids. 2.
The pollen of the Grasses is spherical, both when dry and placed in
water ; with acids it bursts, protruding one long cylindrical mass, which
remains afterwards unacted upon by the liquid. 3. The pollen of the
Aroidez, Colchicacese, Smilacez, Liliacee, Commelinacez, Buto-
mace, Amaryllidacez, Iridaceee, and Canne, are, when dry, oval,
and marked with a dark neutral line, but become, when placed in
water, more broadly oval or circular, the long diameter remaining
the same, and the opake line disappearing, after the addition of acid ;
the external membrane of the pollen or peripollen dehisces by a chink
or suture sufficiently broad to permit the contents or endopollen to
escape without any alteration in its form, after which the endopollen
remains unacted upon by the liquid. 4. In the Salicinez, Salicarie,
Leguminose, Rosacewx, Crassulacez, Saxifragaceze, Hypericacee, Ruta-
cee, Hippocastanee, Resedacee, and the tribe Helleborez of the
Ranunculacez, the pollen when dry, oval, and marked with a dark
central line, becomes, when placed in water, round, or nearly so, the
dark line disappearing ; and when acted upon by acids, assumes a
triangular form, and protrudes at three equidistant points cylindrical
or club-shaped masses, very similar at their origin to tubes, and pre-
senting the appearance of being enveloped by a membrane. 5. In the
greater number of the remaining Dicotyledons examined, the dry
pollen is opake, and either broadly oval or spherical.. 6. In the
Ericacez and Epacridacee, the pollen grains, when dry, appear trian-
gular or oval in some instances, triangular or rhombic in others,
according to the position in which they are examined. Having ascer-
tained the results of acids on the pollen, the author was induced to
examine the stigma, and in every case found that the stigmatic tissue
gave indications of an acid re-action upon litmus paper. The next
question to be examined was, in what manner is the fertilizing influ-
ence of the male organs communicated to the ovule? After quoting
the opinions of Amici, Brown, Fritzche, Corda, Treviranus, Brongniart
and others, the author came to the conclusion that the boyau, or
‘intestine-like protrusion from the pollen grains, was the result of the
action of acids upon the fluid which contained the fovilla in the pollen
grain ; and he inferred this from the fact of this tube, or boyau, never
being formed when the pollen grain is placed in water, but being
constant when the grain is placed in acid. After describing and ex-
plaining the anomalous character of the pollen grains in Orchidacez,
Fumariacee, Asclepias, &c., the author presented the following con-
clusions as the result of his researches :—1. The stigma is invariably
acid. 2. It is in consequence of this acidity that the pollen bursts. 3.
That by the same means the fluid contents of the pollen become coagu-
lated, enveloping the fovilla, and assuming, according to the method
of dehiscence, different and very remarkable forms. ‘The memoir was
illustrated by an extensive series of drawings.
1840. L
146 REPORT—1840.
On the Growth of Cotton in India. By Dr. A. Burn.
Samples were presented of four different kinds of cotton, besides some
produced from Egyptian seed, all of which were cultivated last year at
Kaira in Gujerat, the object being to show that, in the produce of the
cotton plants indigenous to India, great variety existed. The cotton
differed in several important points, the chief of which were, the length,
colour, softness, dryness, evenness and strength of fibre. These being ad-
mitted, together with the fact that all attempts have failed during the
last twenty years to introduce successfully the culture of foreign
varieties of cotton into India, it was argued, that the grand desideratum,
the improvement of the staple, so as to equal American cotton, would
best be attained by attention to the selection of indigenous seed, and
improving it by cultivation, a point which has hitherto been entirely
overlooked or neglected. The Egyptian cotton exhibited was remark-
ably fine ; it had been valued in Glasgow at fifteen pence per pound ;
of all the specimens it alone had been raised by irrigation. Dr. Burn
remarked, that his experience had led him to the conclusion, that
without the command of artificial irrigation no great quantity of
cotton, superior in staple to Surat, could be produced in the Bombay
presidency. The facilities, however, for irrigation in India were very
great, and antiquarian research, aided by local tradition, and the
scattered remains of tanks and canals, now everywhere observable,
demonstratively proved that in former times irrigation was the means
by which a vast population subsisted, or were protected from famine,
consequent on the capricious failure of the annual monsoon rains.
Surat cotton is all cultivated as an annual. The Gorea cotton is a
perennial plant; none of it is ever exported to this country, being all
consumed in the country.
On the Growth of Cotton. By Mr. Fe.xtn. Communicated by
Dr. LANKESTER.
The subject of the growth of cotton-wool in British India engaged the
attention of this Section last year, Major-General Briggs having thenread
a paper on the subject. At present, hopes are entertained that the Ameri-
can long-staple wool may be replaced by a long staple from Sea Island
seed, to be grown in the Sunderbunds of Bengal, situated at the mouth of
the Ganges, a district now jungle, but similar, in respect of its marshy
soil and exposure to warmth, moisture and the influences of the sea, to
islands on the American coast; which are circumstances that seem from
experience to be absolutely necessary to the production of the length,
fineness and general quality of the fibre in question. The seed of the
plants of that class of Gossypium, known commonly as Sea Island, and
picked with extraordinary care, were laid upon the table of the Section,
in the hope that members who had the means of giving to an experi-
ment the necessary care, and securing to the plants sufficient warmth,
pure air and light, might be disposed to sow a few seeds and report
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147
the results. Pods, grown from this seed in a factory in Manchester,
the heat of which varied from 100° to 56° Fahr., unripe, because of
insufficient heat and a bad atmosphere, were laid upon the table. The
were of good size as compared with those grown in the Sea Islands of
the American coast, and if fully ripened the staple would be of great
length. These pods were stated to be of twice the size of those of
Bengal producing the short staple. The object of the experiment was
to ascertain if the length of the staple could be secured elsewhere than
in the Sea Islands, the other circumstances attending the growth of the
plant being made as similar as possible. It was conducted by Thomas
Bazley, jun., Esq., Boroughreeve of Salford, an eminent cotton-spinner
of Manchester.
The following particulars relating to the course of the experiment,
were offered to the notice of the Section. The seed was sown in April
1840; but if sown the preceding winter it might have been better.
Transplanted in May. The earth was formed of two-fifths river-sand,
two-fifths light soil, one-fifth horse-manure ; fifteen inches in depth was
found too shallow, and thirty inches is recommended as preferable.
This soil was kept in a decidedly moist state by frequent sprinklings
of the plants with a solution of one ounce of common salt in a gallon
of water. The plants in America are found in the driest season
saturated in the morning with dew. The plants in Manchester are
five feet high, well spread out; showed in July the usual bright
scarlet and yellow-coloured flowers, and became full of pods in August.
A number of male and female plants grow together.
Remarks on the Synonyms and Affinities of some South African genera
of Plants. By G. A. Waixer Arnott, LL.D.
The object of these remarks was to prove,—Ilst. That the Placourtia
rhamnoides of Eckl. and Zeyh., and perhaps also of Burchell, was the
Doryalis zizyphoides, E. M., and approached more to Euphorbiaceze
than to either of the orders with which it has been associated. 2nd.
That the genus Schmiedelia (or Ornitrophe) does exist in South Africa,
although omitted from the floras; and that several of Thunberg’s and
E. Meyer's species of Rhus belong to it. 3rd. That Hippobromus is also
a Sapindaceous genus. 4th. That Hriudaphne of N. ab Esenb. is iden-
tical with Phoberos, Lour. 5th. That Z’rimeria of Harvey has been
already but erroneously described by Sprengel as a Celastrus. And 6th.
That Ophira of Linn. is the same as Grubbia, Linn.; but that Ophira of
Lamarck’s ‘Illustrations des Genres’ is a very distinct genus, which
has been lately described by Dr. Klotzsch of Berlin under the name of
Strobilocarpus ; and that the true structure of these genera appears to
ally them on the one hand to Hamamelidez, and on the other to San-
talacez, to which last, if Dr. Klotzsch’s analysis were quite correct,
they would decidedly belong.
L2
148 REPORT—1840.
On an Anomalous Form of the Plum, observed in the Gardens of
New Brunswick. By Professor Ross.
New Brunswick is not favourably situated for the development of
Rosaceous fruits. In the summer of 1839, the author had an oppor-
tunity of observing the progress of destruction among the plums.
Before or soon after the pieces of the corolla had fallen, the ovarium
had become greenish yellow, soft and flabby ; as the fruit continued
to grow, its colour became darker and of a more muddy yellow,
and, at the end of a fortnight or three weeks, the size of the abor-
tive fruit was fully greater than that of a ripe walnut, and resembling,
in appearance, apricots. When examined they were hollow, contain-
ing air, and consisting of a distended skin, insipid, and tasteless. By
and bye a greenish mucor or mould is developed on the surface
of the blighted fruits, which becomes black and shrivelled, and, at
the expiration of a month from the time of blowing, the whole are
rotten and decomposed. The flower appears about the beginning of
June, and before August there is hardly a plum to be seen. The
changes producing these anomalous forms of the fruit were explained
on the admitted principles of morphology. The differences from a
normal form of the fruit would be found as follows :—the exocarp is
yellow and wrinkled, not smooth and red or black; while the meso-
carp is as little developed as if the protophyllum had become a leaf.
Its cells are loose and dry, while the vessels, large and very prominent,
are discerned passing through it. The two largest sets of vessels run
up along the inner surface of the groove or suture, corresponding to
the line along which the edges of the protophyllum are united, and
those which correspond with the radicle in the protophyllum. They
all anastomose and converge towards the apex, where all contribute to
form portions of the style and stigma. The endocarp was small; it
was attached by vascular fibres, but sometimes adhesions existed be-
tween it and the mesocarp, on which it lay. Sometimes it was attached
near to where the style was given off, in other instances it was mid-
way between that point and the peduncle. In some cases it was
empty ; mostly one or two ovules might be seen; and one was gene-
rally smaller than the other, indicating its deficient nutriment. Each
ovule was made up of three transparent shut sacs, the innermost of
which (the tercine) contained a transparent fluid, and nothing more.
The author supposed this anomalous form of fruit to be influenced in
its production by cold winds and long-continued rains at that season at
which the flower is open, and the reproductive organs the most exposed
to atmospherical vicissitudes. It was popularly attributed to insects ;
but, from not having observed any, he did not think this could be the
cause.
Mr. Babington stated that he had found the Cuscuta epilinum, or
Flax Dodder, at Burrishoole, in the County of Mayo, in Ireland ; and
also in a field near to the Crinnan Canal, in Scotland. He also stated,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149
that it had been introduced into this country with the seed of the flax
from the North of Europe, and that there was no doubt of its being
distinct from the C. europea of Linneus.
Sir T. Phillipps, Bart., communicated to the Section a notice of
minutely-filamentous roots of the beech, which had grown through the
sides of a brick-tank and absorbed the water therein.
He also drew attention to some curious remarks on natural history
contained in a MS. History of Wexford, written in 1684, now in the
possession of Sir T. Phillipps.
MEDICAL SCIENCE.
An Account of some new Observations on the Structure of the Gastro-
intestinal Mucous Membrane, and more particularly of the Gastric
and Intestinal Glands. By ALLEN Tuomson, I.D., Professor of
Anatomy in Aberdeen.
This paper was illustrated by a large series of preparations of the
gastric and intestinal glands of Man, and some of the lower animals,
amounting to upwards of sixty specimens, which were exhibited to the
Section.
The author began by giving a short sketch of the recent progress of
the investigations of anatomists respecting the subject of his paper. He
referred more particularly to the observations of Boyd, Boehm, Bischoff,
Purkinje, Henle and Wasmann, from which the tubular structure of the
whole gastro-intestinal mucous membrane, and the covering of every
part of that membrane with a layer of nucleated particles or epithelium,
has been ascertained, and stated some additional observations of his own
in confirmation and extension of these facts. The author then alluded to
the very recent observations of Wasmann and of Baly, tending to prove
the occasional closed condition of the minute tubes composing the mu-
cous membrane of the stomach in some parts of that organ ; and to the
observations of Henle, on the closed vesicular condition or cellular
acini of the extremities of the ducts of the salivary, buccal, and some
other mucous glands; and made some remarks on the theory of secre-
tion founded by Henle on these observations, viz. that the matters se-
creted from the mucous membranes are formed in close cavities or cells,
and are discharged by the rupture or solution of the coats of the cells.
The theory now mentioned was applied by Henle to the explanation of
the closed condition in which the vesicles of the glands of Peyer are
usually found; and Dr. Thomson (without adopting the theory of se-
cretion offered by Henle in its full extent) conceives that the observa-
150 REPORT—1840.
tions, which he had made at first without an acquaintance with those
of Henle, lead to the same conclusion respecting the mode of secretion,
in all the gastro-intestinal glands, whether of a simple or more com-
pound structure.
The author gave an account of the structure and general distribution
of the gastro-intestinal mucous glands in the human subject under the
following heads.
Ist. The glands of Lieberkuhn, or minute tubes which constitute the
greater part of the mucous membrane.
2nd. The simple follicular glands occupying the greater part of the
stomach, or simple gastric glands.
3rd. The more compound gastric glands, observed frequently round
the cardia, and more rarely toward the pylorus in the human stomach.
4th. The compound duodenal glands, or glands of Brunner.
5th. The aggregated glands of the small intestine, or glands of
Peyer.
6th. The solitary glands of the small intestine.
7th. The solitary glands of the large intestine.
The author also described the structure and distribution of these dif-
ferent sets of glands in various animals; viz. the pig, sheep and ox,
horse, dog, cat and lion, badger, porpoise.
Theauthorthenentered intoadetail of some observations which he had
recently made on the gastric glands, and onthe solitary glands of the large
intestine, from which he arrives at the conclusion, that at an early period
of life these glands have all the form of closed vesicles. This closed
condition of the follicular glands he has observed in the stomach of a
child eight months old, and in the large intestine of the child at birth.
The author adverted to the occurrence of minute vesicles in the stomach
of the adult, an appearance mentioned by Boehm and Henle, but one
from which the vesicular condition of the gastric and intestinal glands
observed by the author is to be distinguished. At the age of sixteen
months, a few of the gastric glands are still to be observed in the com-
pletely closed condition. At the age of four years they appeared all to
be open.
The author found that in the pig two weeks old, only two of the
gastric glands were open; all the rest constituted minute closed vesi-
cles.
The author observed that the closed condition of the solitary glands
of the large intestine, which belongs to them all at the period of birth,
becomes less general and less distinct as age advances; but at the age
of two years and upwards he has found occasionally some of these
glands closed.
Dr. Thomson then referred to the various opinions of anatomists
respecting the existence or absence of apertures in the vesicles com-
posing the aggregated and solitary glands of the small intestine, and ad-
verted more particularly to the observations of Boehm and Krause on
this point; he stated that he had frequently observed distinct central
apertures in the vesicles conposing the glands of Peyer in the pig, sheep,
horse, and occasionally, but more rarely, in the adult human subject,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151
put not in the child nor young subject. These apertures, which in
their general appearance might be compared to the opening of the
pupil in the iris, are visible with the unassisted eye, and more easily with
a lens of half an inch focus: the vesicles in which they exist are gene-
rally empty, or nearly so, of the gray granular matter with which the
closed ones are filled. In the pig some of the patches exhibit no open
vesicles; others contain entirely open ones ; and a third set of patches,
which are those most favourable to the observation, contain open vesi-
cles mixed with the closed ones. The open vesicles are more fre-
quently found towards the lower part of the ilium than in its upper
part or in the jejunum. The author regards the zone of apertures
which surrounds each vesicle of the aggregated glands as merely the
openings of the small mucous tubes, and not as excretory ducts of the
vesicles, between which and the apertures of the zone he has not been
able to trace any communication.
The author entered into various details regarding the minute struc-
ture of these glands, and concluded by directing the attention of the
Section to the three distinct points which had been the subject of his
inquiry, viz.
Ist. The closed vesicular origin in the child, and occasional vesicular
condition of the gastric glands at a more advanced period of life.
Qnd. The closed vesicular condition of the solitary glands of the
large intestine at the period of their origin, and the occasional occur-
rence of this condition at a more advanced stage.
3rd. The occasional open condition of the vesicles of Peyer's glands.
The author further adverted to the bearing of these observations on
the theory of secretion in general, on the probable uses of the glandu-
lar secretions of the intestine in the ceconomy, and on the changes of
these glands in the diseased state.
On the Manner in which the Vital Actions are arrested in Asphyxia.
By Dr. Joun Re.
The two points in the physiology of asphyxia which have of late
years principally attracted attention, are the nature of the impediment
to the circulation of the blood through the lungs, and the consequent
stagnation of that fluid in the right side of the heart, and the large
veins leading to it, and the cause of the arrestment of the sensorial
functions.
The following experiments were made on this subject. A tube,
with a stopcock on it, was fixed into the trachea, and one of Poiseuille’s
hzemodynamometers was introduced into the femoral artery, for the
purpose of obtaining definite information of the force with which the
blood was transmitted along the arterial system. The stopcock of the
tracheal tube was then turned, and when the state of asphyxia was in-
duced, and the mercury had begun to fall in the hemodynamometer,
a bladder full of pure nitrogen gas was fixed upon the tube secured in
the trachea, and the stopcock turned. After the effect of this gas had
152 REPORT—1840.
been ascertained, a bladder of similar size, containing atmospheric
air, was substituted for the nitrogen, and the resulis compared. The
difference between the effects of the respiration of the nitrogen gas and
the atmospheric air was most narked; for while the mercury continued
to fall in the instrument during the respiration of the nitrogen gas, it
rose very rapidly soon-after the atmospheric air had entered the lungs.
In this experiment, the mechanical movements of the chest, which
failed to renew the free circulation through the lungs when nitrogen
was inspired, rapidly effected that object when atmospheric air was
permitted to enter the lungs even of the same animal, tried subse-
quently to the failure of the nitrogen, and consequently at a more ad-
vanced period of the process of asphyxia. This experiment was re-
peated several times, and when care was taken to procure pure nitrogen,
invariably with the same result. In performing these experiments, a
very unexpected phenomenon presented itself. The mercury actually
stood higher in the instrument, and the arteries were more distended
and tense for about two minutes after the animal had ceased to struggle,
or, in other words, had become insensible, and when the respiratory
process was nearly brought to a stand, than when it was breathing freely
through the tube introduced into the trachea. It was suspected that
this arose from an impediment to the passage of the venous blood
through the capillary arteries of the tissues generally, by which the
force of the left side of the heart was principally concentrated in the
arterial system; and on placing a hemodynamometer in the vein of the
opposite limb, and comparing its indications with the other fixed in the
artery, this supposition appeared verified. In these experiments it was
repeatedly observed, that however rapidly the respiratory movements
were performed, provided they were not more forcibly exerted than in
natural respiration in the quiescent state, this had no obvious effect
upon the force with which the blood was sent along the arteries.
Though there can be no doubt that violent movement, either of the
muscles of the trunk or limbs, exerts a very marked influence upon the
force with which the blood is sent along the arteries (in one experi-
ment the mercury stood nine inches higher in the tube during a violent
struggle and a forcible expiration, than during the opposite circum-
stances of deep inspiration and intermission of the struggle), yet it is
obvious, from these experiments, that the impediment to the passage of
the blood through the lungs does not depend upon the arrestment of
mechanical movements of the chest, but upon cessation of the chemical
changes between the blood and the atmospheric air in the lungs.
The explanations which have been given of the cause of the arrest-
ment of the sensorial functions, are two in number, viz. Ist, the circu-
lation of venous blood in the arteries of the brain; 2nd, that it princi-
pally depends upon the blood being sent to the brain in diminished
quantity, in consequence of the impediment to its passage through the
lungs. It has already been stated, that the arterial pressure is not di-
minished at the time that the animal becomes insensible, and the same
thing was repeatedly ascertained in experiments on the veins. The in-
sensibility cannot, therefore, depend upon any diminution in the vascu-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153
lar pressure upon the brain. It was also ascertained, that though the
pulse begins to diminish much in frequency about the time that the
insensibility occurs, yet that this has not taken place to such an extent
at the precise time when the insensibility has supervened, as to lead us
to believe that it depends upon any diminished transmission of blood
through the vessels of the brain. From these facts it is concluded, that
the insensibility principally, if not entirely, depends upon the circulation
of venous blood in the vessels of the brain. It was remarked, that the
blood in the exposed arteries was of a decidedly dark hue before the
struggles preceding the insensibility occurred, and thus showed the in-
conclusiveness of those experiments in which unsuccessful attempts
were made to induce coma by injecting venous blood slowly into one
_ of the four arteries leading to the brain. In performing experiments
upon this subject, it is necessary to bear in mind the exact period at
which the insensibility presents itself. A dog generally becomes in-
sensible in about two minutes, to two minutes and a half, and a rabbit
generally in about one minute and a half, after the complete exclusion
- of air from the lungs; so that any experiment made upon the quantity
of blood which flows from the cut arteries at periods posterior to this,
cannot with safety be adduced in explanation of effects which have
previously happened.
On the Anatomical relation of the Blood-vessels of the Mother to those
of the Fetus in the Human Species. By Dr. Joun Rerp.
In this communication it was proved, by preparations laid on the
table, that numerous tufts of the placental vessels pass through the
decidua and enter by the open mouths of many of the uterine venous
sinuses of the mother. Some of these tufts only dip into the open
mouths of the sinuses, while others extend their ramification half an
inch, and even in some rarer cases more than an inch from the point at
which they enter. That these tufts found bathed in the maternal blood
of the uterine venous sinuses are prolongations of the fcetal placental
vessels, was proved both by injection and by microscopic examination.
Dr. Reid then proceeded to point out that each minute placental artery
was bound up with a placental vein, and that they terminated in blunt
extremities, where these two sets of vessels communicated. The in-
tervals left between the branches of the tufts of the placenta are not
filled up with cellular tissue, but the surface of every branch of a tuft
is covered by a prolongation of the inner coat of the vascular system
of the mother, or at least by a thin membrane continuous with it.
This membrane constitutes a kind of sac, with numerous and intricate
folds or fringes projecting into its interior. These folds are formed by
the covering which it affords to the numerous branches of the placental
vessels. Into this sac the blood of the mother is poured by the curling
arteries, and is returned by the prolongations of the uterine veins.
Each of the uterine sinuses into which the placental tufts project, may
be considered a miniature representation of the structure of the placenta;
154 REPORT—1840.
for we have there fcetal placental vessels, resembling the branchial ves-
sels of aquatic animals, covered by a prolongation of the inner coat of
the vascular system of the mother, and hanging in a cavity filled with
maternal blood.
On the Anatomy of the Medulla Oblongata. By Dr. Joun Ret.
The object of this communication was to point out the relative posi-
tion of the motor and sensitive columns of the spinal chord, as they
pass through the medulla oblongata and pons Varolii, and the attach-
ment of the different motor and sensiferous nerves to these columns.
Dr. Reid produced preparations of the medulla oblongata to show that
the decussation of the pyramidal bodies is formed by the greater, and
in some cases nearly the whole, of the fibres constituting each of these
eminences passing into the posterior part of the middle column of the
opposite side. None of these decussating fibres run into the anterior
column of the opposite side, nor is there any decussation in the me-
dulla oblongata besides this. On tracing the column which is con-
nected with the olivary body, and which may be termed the olivary
column, we find that as it passes downwards it approaches closely to
the anterior median fissure immediately below the decussation of the
pyramidal columns, and affords attachment to many of the roots of the
motor nerves. On tracing this olivary column upwards it is found to
expand over the olivary body, affording origin to the hypoglossal and
abducens along its anterior margin, and to the porta dura along its
posterior margin. Part of this column passes upwards to the corpora
quadrigemina, affording origin to the smaller root of the fifth and to the
trochleator. Dr. Reid also pointed out how the spinal accessory, and
part of the filaments of the par vagum, may be connected with the
motor column.
On the Mechanical Functions of the Ear. By Dr. Sym.
The following is a general summary of the contents of this paper.
1. The external ear protects the membrana tympani, and contributes
to a knowledge of the direction of sounds.
2. The membrana tympani is a passive medium of communication
of vibrations, and the impulses of the air draw its apex outwards.
3. The ossicula of the tympanum form a system of levers, by which
the extent of the undulations falling on the membrana tympani is di-
minished, whilst their momentum is preserved.
4. Vibrations communicated from the larynx through the temporal
bone to the styloid process of the malleus and long crus of the incus,
have their extent zxereased, whilst their momentum remains the same.
5. The base of the slopes is drawn outwards by the impulses of the
air, and performs the action of a piston.
6. The muscles of the tympanum antagonize the impulses, and re-
store the membranes and bones to their quiescent positions.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155
7. The membrana rotunda receives the pressure of the atmosphere
through the eustachian tube, so as to enable the slopes to be raised.
8. The water of the labyrinth received the full momentum of the
impulses of the air on the membrana tympani without loss from con-
densation, because the difference of the areas of the membrana tympani
and fenestree ovales, combined with the difference of range of motion of
the point of the malleus and base of the slopes, is egual to the difference
of specific gravity between air and water.
9. The perilymph oscillates between the two fenestre, and its alter-
nate fluxes and refluxes over the membranous labyrinth excite the
sensation of hearing.
10. The cochlea regulates the extent of the oscillations of the peri-
lymph by the expansion of its spiral lamine.
11. The aqueducts of Cotugno are diverticula, by whick the peri-
lymph is removed to the cavity of the cranium during the expansions
of the spiral laminz.
12. The petrous bone deafens the internal ear, so as to prevent any
vibrations from acting on the perilymph, except those which have been
previously adjusted for creating accurate oscillations by being’ trans-
mitted by the ossicula.
On the Connection between the Nervous System and Muscular Con-
tractility. By Dr. Joun Ret.
This communication was an extension of that made by Dr. Reid to
the Association at Edinburgh. In the former communication facts
were adduced to show, that when the contractility of a muscular bun-
dle is exhausted in the cold-blooded animals by the application of gal-
vanism, this property of contractility will again return, though all com-
munication between the central organs of the nervous system and the
muscles experimented upon had been cut off, by the complete division
of the nerves passing between them. In the present communication it
was stated that the same fact had been verified upon the warm-blooded
animals. The same experiment has also been four times successfully
repeated after section of the nerve upon the posterior extremities of
the same frog. Dr. Reid then made some observations for the purpose
of showing that the experiments made by Miller, and adduced by him
in opposition to the Hallerian doctrine of contractility, are liable to a
known source of fallacy. The disappearance of the contractility wit-
nessed by Miller in the muscles supplied by the sciatic nerve in a rab-
bit five weeks after that nerve was divided, was in all probability de-
pendent upon the impérfect nutrition consequent upon inaction. Dr.
Reid stated, that he found the muscles of the limb of a frog retain their
contractility and their usual size two months after the section of their
nerves, when they were daily exercised by sending slight shocks of
galvanism through them.
On Foreign Bodies in the @sophagus. By Mr. Gzorcz Guover.
156 REPORT—1840.
On Fibrine of Human Blood. By Dr. BucHannan.
The author presented to the Section the fibrine of human blood,
separated from serum, and perfectly free’d from every particle of the
colouring matter; he detailed his mode of preparing this constituent,
which was by carefully introducing a given quantity of recently drawn
blood into separated serum placed on a filter: the red particles rapidly
fall to the bottom of the fluid, and the fibrine of the introduced blood
is free’d from its portion of serum by the filtration of this fluid through
the coloured particles, or through sand spread on the bottom of the
filter.
On some of the Functions of the Fifth Pair of Nerves, and of the Gan-
glia, sc. By N. Fowrrr, M.D., F.RS.
The following subjects were discussed.
1. A sensation (probably in the adductor muscles of the eyeball)
induced by approaching a metallic point to the forehead, between the
eyes.
"0. Whether muscular adjustments do not in all the senses precede
distinct sensation ?
3. Whether thought and adjustment are not reciprocal ?
4, A demonstration of a re-transmission through the lenticular gan-
glion to the iris.
5. Moisture necessary to sensation.
6. Instances of re-transmission from one organ of sense to another.
7. Facts in proof that a branch of the fifth is the nerve of taste.
8. Facts in proof that sensibility and contractility are not supplied
by the brain, but by the local arteries.
On the Preservation of Subjects for Anatomical purposes.
By Dr. Rexs.
On the Uses of the Conglobate Glands. By Dr. JEr¥REYS.
The object of this paper was to show that these glands aided in pro-
pelling, like little hearts, the fluid through the lymphatics.
On the Therapeutic Effect of Croton Oil in certain Nervous Disorders.
By Dr. Patrick Newsicain, of Edinburgh.
In this paper Dr. Newbiggin demonstrated that, independent of its
well-known purgative properties, Croton oil possessed specific influence
in epilepsy, and in the various forms of neuralgia, as in tic-doloureux,
sciatica, &c. Dr. Newbiggin was induced to form this opinion in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157
consequence of his experience of the treatment of such complaints at
the New Town Dispensary of Edinburgh, as well as in private practice,
where he had administered the oil of theCroton Tiglum in a large num-
ber of cases. The author selected some of the cases, particularly of
epilepsy, wherein he had produced entire relief from that very grievous
malady, and he mentioned especially one instance where a cure had
been effected after this disease had existed for upwards of twelve years.
On the Effects of Air when Injected into the Veins.
By Dr. J. R. Cormack.
The author objected to the theory published by Sir Charles Bell,
who ascribes death, when it takes place, to the effect which the air
produces on the medulla oblongata. This Dr. Cormack denied, and
stated that it requires a large quantity of air to be injected in order to
produce death, when, in every instance, the heart was found distended
in its right cavities, and its functions arrested from this cause. Dr.
Cormack communicated some notices of the diseases occurring in
Tangier in Barbary, the principal of which are elephantiasis, inguinal
hernia and hydrocele, with every form of dropsy. Intermittents are
frequent, typhus rare. When cholera broke out, upwards of one-tenth
of the native inhabitants perished in a few months; the Moors, being
fatalists, took no precautionary measures, whilst of the 300 Christian
inhabitants not more than two or three perished.
On Mnemonics. By Dr. MacDonatp.
The object of the paper was to show grounds for a new and more
philosophical classification and treatment of insanity. It is incapable
of abridgement.
On the Physiological and Medicinal Action of Bromine and its Com-
pounds. By Dr. R.M. Grover, Lecturer in the Medical School of
Newcastle. Communicated by Dr. J. Ret.
The study of the physiological action of remedies bears the same
relation to therapeutics as physiology itself to pathological science ;
and thus, as the investigation of this subject seems well calculated to
throw light on the physiological actions of chlorine and iodine, which
cannot, like bromine, be exhibited pure in experiments, it seems worthy
of being pushed as far as possible.
Whether bromine be taken into the lungs in the form of vapour, or
in the fluid form into the stomach, or injected directly into the circu-
lation, it acts purely as a corrosive and irritant. Its action on the
prime vie is different from that of hydrobromic acid, into which
bromine is converted when absorbed into the circulation. The author
extends this observation by analogy to chlorine and iodine, and their
respective hydracids. -
158 REPORT—1840.
Bromine exerts an action on the rectum like that of iodine; it is
also tonic and diuretic. Its remedial virtues are chiefly conspicuous as
an external application in the treatment of scrofulous, syphilitic, malig-
nant and specific ulcers. In these cases it appears to act as an ex-
citant, and by diminishing the fcetor, and perhaps as a mild caustic. It
appears also, from some cases observed by the author, to be a useful
remedy in some chronic diseases of the skin.
The bromides of potassium, sodium, barium and mercury, resemble
much more the chlorides of those bases than the iodides in their phy-
siological action. The bromide of potassium is a good tonic. The
bibromide of mercury has no advantage as a remedy over the bichloride,
contrary to what has been asserted in France.
The bromide of cyanogen has a double action ; in a powerful dose it
acts like prussic acid; in a more moderate dose it occasions most vio-
lent symptoms of irritant poisoning, and is perhaps the most powerful
irritant known. Ammonia is its best antidote.
The chlorides and bromides of olefiant gas, likewise chloroform and
bromoform, exert a very remarkable physiological action, whether in-
troduced into the stomach or injected into the circulation. In the
former case they produce in a large dose death by coma; in a smaller
dose loss of power over the voluntary muscles, sensibility being re-
tained, along with symptoms of obstructed respiration, arising from
effusion into the lungs. In such cases the mucous membrane of the
stomach is found blackened, and the lungs congested; the bronchi filled
with frothy serum, and here and there spots of pulmonary apoplexy in
the substance of the lung. When injected in large quantity into the
blood, these substances cause almost instant death, producing great
congestion in the lungs, and destroying the irritability of the heart.
In smaller doses they produce death in the course of a few hours,
with much the same symptoms as those which attend their introduction
into the stomach.
On the Treatment of Pertussis by Cold washing of the Chest.
By Dr. Hannan.
The chest is to be freely yet rapidly washed with the coldest water,
to which a little vinegar, alcohol or Eau de Cologne is added, and
immediately rubbed most firmly with a hot towel, to produce very de-
cided reaction on the surface; to secure this the washing is to be
done in an apartment of at least comfortable temperature, or the pa-
tient put into bed. By this, repeated three or four times daily (at
least morning and evening), the disease, he averred, is cut short, in
many instances mitigated, and its course abbreviated in others. Seve-
ral cases illustrative of this were read. He advises it in all stages,
and would not be deterred from using it in bronchitis ; and though not
certain of the propriety of it in peripneumonous complication, he is
not inclined to regard that as a decided contra-indication of the remedy
in question. He referred its usefulness in this disease to its rendering
the system unsusceptible to cold (one great, nay, the greatest cause
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159
of danger during the persistence of pertussis), to its power of allaying
febrile heat, its well-known efficacy in chronic bronchitis, its rubefa-
cient power when done in the manner he directs, its tonic and invigo-
rating action, particularly on the digestive organs, and regarded its
efficacy in allaying spasmodic action, as essential in explaining its
virtues in this disease.
On the Circumstances which govern Local Inflammation, the effusion
of Coagulable Lymph, and the formation of Pus, as the Sequele of
Disease, Accidents, Surgical Operations, $e. By Dr. Perry.
After pointing out the phenomena of inflammatory action, its depen-
dence upon nervous energy, and the various opinions entertained
by pathologists respecting this and the formation of pus, none of which
appear to the author to account in a satisfactory manner for the phe-
nomena, all being either unsupported by facts or positively contradicted,
reference was made by him to the tables of the appearances presented
on post-mortem inspections. It was found, that out of 1078 cases of
fever, all males, 155 died, and before being dismissed, 93 were seized
with local affections, of which 44 died. On inspection it was found,
that in the head the membranes were more vascular than usual in 85;
that an effusion of serum in the subarachnoid membrane, amounting to
from $ oz. to 5 0z., existed in 99; and at the base of the brain, and in
spinal canal, in 83; and of purulent effusion into ventricle or surface, 3 ;
there was recent effusion of coagulable lymph in the right side of chest
in 24; in left side, 8; in both sides, 13; recent pneumonia and hepati-
zation of right lung, 14; of left, 8; of both lungs, 3; of gangrene of
lungs, 3; old adhesions of right side, 30; of left, 24 ; of both, 21 ; heart
softened in 72; blood dark and fluid in 87; vascularity of stomach in
69; of small intestines, 60; of colon, 33; enlargement of aggregate
glands of intestines, 66 ; of solitary glands, 19 ; of mesenteric glands, 25 ;
spleen softened, 99; enlarged, 30; and so of other organs.
From the universally admitted facts, that whenever the patient was
much reduced in strength, or of a weak and strumous habit, or had
been weakened by long confinement or severe suffering, irritative fever,
with suppuration, was often the result: thus in local inflammation, the
effusion of coagulable lymph, or the deposition of pus, occurred most
frequently after adynamic fevers, when the brain and nervous system
had suffered severely ; so often other contagious exanthematous fevers
(none of which the author considered in the first instance as inflam-
matory) were viewed as the result of a change produced upon the
blood and the capillary vessels by the previous shock, or over excite-
ment. In fact, Dr. Perry thought that the congestion of the vessels, the
effusion of coagulable lymph, serum and pus, were the result of inner-
vation ; and the rapidity with which such products were formed might
be taken as a test of the extent to which innervation of the blood and
of the vessels, local or general, existed. To remove this state by restor-
ing the equilibrium of action, was the object of the physician.
160 REPORT—1840.
On the Chemical and Medicinal Properties of the Matias Bark, which
is employed in Columbia, South America, as a substitute for Cinchona.
By Dr. Mackay.
The nature of the tree which produces this bark has not been as-
certained, but from an examination of the properties of the bark, it is
in all probability correctly supposed to be of the family Winteracez.
The bark is sent to this country in pieces, which differ much in
size and form. Its colour is either a pale fawn or brown internally,
and brown externally. It has an agreeable and aromatic smell, and a
bitter and rather pungent taste.
When distilled with water it yields a considerable quantity of essen-
tial oil, which separates into two distinct portions, one floating upon the
surface of the water which distils along with it, while the other sinks
to the bottom of the receiver. These oils differ in colour, in smell,
and in specific gravity.
Eight pounds of bark yield one pound of watery extract, which has
an intensely bitter but agreeable taste, and a deep black colour. By
acting upon this extract with ther, adding a large quantity of distilled
water, then filtering and evaporating to dryness repeatedly, the bitter
principle was, it is conceived, obtained free from impurity, with the ex-
ception of colouring matter, which it has been found impossible to se-
parate, on account of both being simultaneously taken up by animal
charcoal.
The bitter principle, as thus obtained, is a brown extractive sub-
stance, soluble in zether, alcohol and water, which possesses neither acid
nor alkaline properties, but has an intensely bitter taste.
From the investigation which has been made into the properties of
this bark, in several public institutions, they are ascertained to be tonic,
febrifuge and carminative, or stimulant. It has been successfully ad-
ministered in intermittent fever, in convalescence from continued fever,
in hemicrania, in dyspepsia, and in a variety of chronic affections in
which tonics and stimulants were indicated. As an adjunct to diuretic
medicines it has been found eminently useful.
The author exhibited specimens of the bark, of the oils, bitter
principle, watery extract, and essence obtained from it, and concluded
by expressing his deep obligation to R. Mackay, Esq., British Consul
at Maracaibo, and to Signor Gonsales, for having devoted much time
and attention in procuring for him the valuable substance, which he
had now the honour to introduce to the notice of the profession.
On the Laws which govern Contagious Fevers, the circumstances which
favour their diffusion, and the mode by which they are communicated
from one individual to another. By Dr. Perry.
After some remarks showing that there was nothing peculiar to
Glasgow in the site or want of cleanliness that was not to be met with
in other large cities, he concluded that the chief cause of the diffusion
of contagious fevers arose from the poor crowding into Glasgow from
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 161
country districts where these contagious diseases did not prevail, when
they became the victims of contagious fevers by mixing with that class
among whom they were seldom absent. He then considered those
laws by which contagious fevers were governed : such as, that when
once the disease had commenced it could not be checked, but must run
its course ; that at a certain period of the disease it was characterized
by an eruption upon the skin; that this eruption was diagnostic, and
that, asa general rule, an individual having once undergone the disease
was secured against a second attack ; that these laws were as certainly
applicable to typhus fever, as to any of the other exanthematous fevers.
These points were illustrated by carefully drawn up statistical tables of
the patients admitted intothe Fever Hospital under the care of the author.
These tables show that about 90 per cent. of those admitted had the dia-
gnostic eruptions ; of the 10 per cent.who had not, 53 per cent. were af-
fected with diseases chiefly local, which were not typhus ; 25 per cent.
were admitted at a period when the eruption had disappeared; and in the
remaining 2 per cent. the eruption was so scanty and evanescent, or the
skin so brown and dirty, that it could not be detected, though the pa-
tient had the other symptoms of the disease ; rather less than 2 per cent.
were stated to have a second attack. Other tables were given of the
different ages and the comparative mortality at each period, the coun-
try to which they belonged, showing that the Scotch formed about
66 per cent., the Irish about 35 per cent., and English and foreign about
25 per cent. With respect to the mode by which it was communicated
from one individual to another, he believed it was not communicable
before the tenth day, and gave a number of cases to show that it was
always during the convalescent stage that the infection was spread,
which he supposed was the case with all the exanthematous fevers, by
the desquamation of the cuticle, as in measles, scarlatina and small-pox ;
and this he thought accounted for the difficulty of tracing the contagion,
persons being capable of communicating the disease as long as the de-
Squamation was going on. He had made some attempts to inoculate
the disease in young persons by scraping off the cuticular eruption
with a lancet, but had failed, which he considered would be a desidera-
tum, as he found the disease in the young mild in character, and at-
tended with little danger, and was quite satisfied, that could means of
communicating the disease be accomplished, it would be found as ef-
fectual in securing the patient against a second attack of typhus, as
inoculation does against small-pox. The means of preventing the dis-
ease from spreading, is by isolating the patient during the convalescent
state, thoroughly washing the body, cleansing the clothes and exposing
them to a high steam heat; and Dr. Perry recommended the establish.
ment of Boards of Health in the different cities and counties by the
Government.
Notice of the Disease known by the name of Mal d’Aleppe. By Dr.
Cuartes W. Betz, Physician to H. B: M. Legation in Persia.
Dr. Bell having had opportunities of observing this curious disease
during his residence in Persia and Arabia, thought that a notice of
1840. M
162 REPORT—1840.
some of its peculiarities might be interesting; for though frequently
mentioned by travellers in Syria, Arabia and Persia, under the names
of Aleppo button, Bagdad boil and Date mark, and also lately met
with in the north-west provinces of India, no full description of the
disease is to be met with in any of our systematic works. In Arabic it
is called Khorma, or the date disease ; in Persian Salek, or the disease of
a year; and is so prevalent in these countries, but especially in the
towns of Arabia, that scarcely any one, whether native or European,
escapes its attack.
The disease commences like small pimples, which very gradually in-
crease in size till they appear as ulcers covered with a dry crust, resem-
bling that of Rupia syphilitica, with a small quantity of pus under the
scab. These occur on different parts of the body at the same time,
chiefly on the hands and legs of adults and the faces of children, but
generally attended with little pain. They have always so much of the
character of syphilitic sores, as to mislead any one previously unac-
quainted with the disease, and as they continue to increase in size for
a year, they occasionally present a horrible carcinomatous appearance.
At the expiration of twelve months from its commencement the differ-
ent ulcers suddenly heal of their own accord, leaving an ugly indelible
scar.
The natives make an absurd distinction of the disease into male and
female, the sores of the former kind being larger and enduring for a yeay
those of the latter smaller and healing in six months. Dr. Bell con-
sidered the disease worthy of attention, not only on account of its great
prevalence and the disfigurement produced by it in these countries, but
as an instance of a disease attacking the constitution without fever or
other symptoms, wearing itself out in a certain time, unaffected by treat-
ment, by local applications, never appearing a second time in the same
person, and occasionally driven out of the system by the attack of a
more powerful disease, such as plague or typhus.
In the treatment of the disease he has found the internal use of iodine
and sulphureous baths beneficial, but has never succeeded by the use of
any external application ‘to a single sore in causing it to heal a day
sooner than the other coexistent ulcers purposely left untreated.
Dr. Bell conceives that the extreme dryness of the atmosphere in
all the countries where this disease is prevalent may exert a predispos-
ing influence, but considers it strictly a contagious disease, propagated
chiefly by the use of the public baths. It is difficult to say how long it
may lurk in the system without making its appearance, but instances
are numerous in which it has not shown itself till several months after
the return of persons to this country from their travels in Syria and
Arabia.
By the natives it is not attributed to contagion, but to fanciful causes,
such as eating dates, and is believed by them incurable till its destined
period be expired, and they consequently very seldom submit to medical
treatment, using only a few ineffectual local applications, a prejudice
which unfortunately very much limits the means of ascertaining by
experience the most efficacious mode of treatment.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163
On the Operation for Squinting. By Mr. A. Ure, of London.
As a diversity of opinion prevails among surgeons as to the ultimate
success of Professor Dieffenbach’s operation for the cure of strabismus,
Mr. Ure was induced to lay before the Meeting the result of seventy-
two cases (thirty-two males and forty females), in which the section of
one or other of the muscles of the eye had been performed by himself.
These were drawn up in a tabular form, including age, duration of the
infirmity, cause, eye affected (right twenty-nine, left thirty-seven, both
six), state of vision before operation, state of vision after, colours of
iris (hazel twenty-eight, gray thirty-one, grayish blue two, blue ten),
and result (cures sixty-six, of which nineteen are ‘ perfect,’ and twenty-
one have fullness or other slight affection). In six cases the result was
‘amendment.’ ‘The author described his process and after-treatment.
A Description of a double Monocephalic Human Monster, which was
transmitted to this country from South America, by K. Mackay, Esq.,
British Consul at Maracaibo, Venezuela.
The subject of this paper was born at Maracaibo, Venezuela, South
America, in the month of March 1840. It is the offspring of a negress,
and is reported to have been born alive, but to have died a short time
after its birth. It is of the female sex, and seems to be composed of
two equally developed bodies united together from the umbilicus up-
wards, bearing four arms and four legs, and having only one neck and
head common to both.
A minute account of the dissection was given, of which the following
is a summary.
The spinal and ganglionic nervous system were double, while the
central was single, each corresponding with the organs which they were
destined to supply.
The organs of mastication and of deglutition were single, as were
also those of digestion, with the exception of the inferior portion of the
alimentary canal, which at a certain point became double. The re-
spiratory organs were the least developed and the most anomalous in
their character, there being two lungs situated in their usual position,
and a third lung lying upon the posterior sternum, which seemed to be-
long equally to both bodies. With the exception of the heart and the
vessels which supplied the head, neck, and such organs as were single,
there were two complete arterial and venous systems, which, with in-
significant varieties, were disposed in the usual manner.
The urinary and genital organs were double, and well developed.
On the Results of Amputations. By Dr. Lawnir.
In this paper Dr. Lawrie gave tables stating the results of 276 am-
putations which took place in the infirmary of Glasgow, during several
years. The cases were classed according to the sex, the limb operated
M2
164 REPORT—1840.
on, and the causes rendering the amputation necessary, whether from
disease previously existing or from accident. Some of these results
were as follows: of the 276 cases, 216 were males, of whom 86 died ;
60 were females, of whom 14 died ; 153 were from previous disease, of
whom 35 died. In operations at the shoulder the deaths were equal to
the recoveries ; of the arm, the deaths to recoveries were as 3: 14; of
the leg, as 1:2; at the wrist, at one period, as 1:29; in another pe-
riod as 8: 22.
On Opacity of the Cornea produced by Sulphurie Acid.
By R.D. Tuomson, M.D.
The rapid destruction of vision, when sulphuric acid is brought into
contact with the cornea, has long been known to surgeons. ‘The sub-
ject came under the author’s consideration from having attended a
case along with Dr. Maddock, in which the vision of the right eye was
destroyed, in consequence of a woman having thrown a quantity of oil
of vitriol at a man in a fit of passion. The corrosive fluid, according
to the statement of the sufferer, was only in contact with his eye about
two minutes, when he had an opportunity of washing it off with water ;
yet permanent opacity of the cornea had taken place. It naturally
occurred, from a consideration of this statement, that the agency of
the acid could not have extended to any very considerable depth.
The anatomical structure of the cornea likewise favoured this conclu-
sion. The author described the laminar structure of the cornea, and
the additional investment of the conjunctiva, and drew attention to the
effects of heat, nitrate of silver, &c. on these structures. When sulphu-
ric acid or common oil of vitriol is brought into contact with the dead
cornea of the sheep, in three or four seconds, if the experiment be
watched under the microscope, the acid, which appears to swim about
freely on the surface of the cornea, produces a milkiness; in half a
minute a white opacity ; and in from one and a half to two minutes all
translucency is destroyed. If the cornea, which has been previously
extended on glass, be now plunged into water and washed free from
sulphuric acid, a permanent opacity will be found to have taken place,
precisely as in the case of those unfortunate individuals who have been
deprived of vision by sulphuric acid in the manner already described.
If we now make a section of the cornea which has been acted on by
the acid, we shall find that the action has been very superficial, and
that the upper and under surface of the opake portion are parallel,
and hence the influence of the acid would appear to have extended
equally. If the section be now made at right angles to the axis of the
eye, so as to separate the opake from the uninjured portion, the trans-
parency of the cornea appears to be perfectly restored, and the only
defect, when a careful examination is made by the microscope, appears
to proceed from the uneven surface produced by the section. But the
opake portion may likewise be readily separated by scraping it with
the point of a knife, so decided is the limit between the uninjured and
opake surfaces. It would appear from these facts, that the action of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165
the sulphuric acid is to produce a new or false membrane, which is no
removed by nature, as some other false membranes are, in consequence
of its forming part of a solid body ; they serve also to confirm the opi-
nion stated by the author in a communication read at the Bristol meet-
ing—that false membranes, as in croup, balanites, bronchitis, &c., are
the consequences of the presence of an acid preternaturally secreted in
the fluids of the mucous membranes where these deposits occur,
the organization of the albumen taking place under the coagulating
influence of the acid. The treatment of opacity of the cornea produced
by the action of sulphuric acid, appears to be elucidated in no small
degree by these facts; if the acid be neutralized in the course of a
few seconds, little or no injury is sustained by the cornea; but as in
thirty seconds considerable opacity has occurred, and some portion of
false membrane has been formed, it will be necessary to have recourse
to the knife, which may be safely employed to scrape off the preterna-
tural deposit. The author observed, that he intended to propose the
operation to the patient described, so soon as the granulating action
now affecting the eyelids had been subdued.
Notice of an Ossified Tendo Achillis, and of a Case of Exostosis.
By Dr. H. Lonspate, of Edinburgh.
The author considered the former preparation unique, not being
aware of any similar preparation in the museums of this country.
The latter preparation illustrated osseous deposits in the tendon and
muscular fibres of the crureus muscle, and an extension of this ossifica-
tion to the femur itself, resembling an exostosis, but differing from the
common exostosis in growing Zo, and not from the bone. The author
designated it by the term Exostosis from without.
The object which the author had (as stated in a brief communication)
in exhibiting this latter preparation to the Section, was to counteract
those exclusive opinions which many entertain on the subject of ossifi-
cation ; and he considered that it was of value in showing that bone may
be formed by vessels belonging to the soft parts, even in muscular
fibres adjacent to one of the long bones, and more especially in point-
ing out the caution which physiologists ought to observe in placing a
limit to nature’s power.
On Dislocation of the Anklejoint forward and backward ; and on the
Reproduction of Bone after the Operation of Trepan. By JAMES
Douctas, Lecturer on Anatomy, Glasgow.
There is no satisfactory example on record of dislocation of the ankle-
_ joint without fracture of one or both malleoli. There is no case on
record of complete dislocation of the tibia forward, so that the inferior
articular surface of that bone shall be completely in front of the articu-
lar surface of the astragalus. A case has occurred to the author of this
166 REPORT—1840.
very rare accident, exactly similar to that described by Mr. Adams in the
Cyclopedia of Anatomy, article ANKLE.
A woman aged sixty died inthe Glasgow Royal Infirmary in 1834, having
an unreduced dislocation of left ankle forwards, of two years standing.
The toes were pointed down, the ankle being stiff, in a state of complete
extension. A deep curve is seen behind, where the tendo achillis
should be straight ; the heel is lengthened, and the fore part of the foot
is shortened. The anterior edge of lower end of tibia makes a projec-
tion in front, and a notch exists below it, between it and dorsum of
foot. Outer ankle is in its proper place, but inner one is thrown for-
ward about $ths of aninch. On dissection, tibia is found above $ths of
an inch further forward than natural ; its anterior edge being exactly over
articulation of astragalus with os naviculare, and nearly {ths of an inch
above it, so that a small part of scaphoid cavity of tibia behind still
rests on the pulley of the astragalus. The tendon of the tibialis anticus
by this means runs in a straight line to its insertion at the internal cu-
neiform bone, instead of curving forward. Behind, the astragalus pro-
jects so much, that the flexor longus pollicis does not run in its groove
on the tibia at all. Astragalus and os calcis are in their proper rela-
tion to each other. External malleolus remains in its place, with the
ligaments entire. A hollow mark runs upward and backward from its
anterior edge, showing where fracture had occurred ; the superior por-
tion being thrown forward along with the tibia. Some new bone is de-
posited on their junction. The peroneal tendons preserve their proper
relations. Internally, the deltoid ligament has been ruptured.
Neither Sir A. Cooper nor Dupuytren has ever seen a dislocation
backward. Those cases which have been supposed to be such, have
probably been fractures close to the joint, like the following.
A man aged forty-one was admitted into the Glasgow Infirmary in
1834, having injured his left ankle three years previously by a fall,
being struck on front of leg, immediately above joint, bya plank. Some
portion of tibia was felt attached to astragalus, while shape of tibia was
thrown backward. Considerable doubt existed whether fibula was
fractured or dislocated. Leg was 3ths of an inch shorter than right, and
foot was very long in front, and very short behind. When he walked,
lower end of shape of tibia pressed against tendo achillis, making it
project backward, and causing acute pain. The foot was amputated.
On dissection, tibia and fibula are found fractured transversely, imme-
diately above ankle-joint. Each malleolus remains in its proper situa-
tion. A thin arch of the tibia, not a quarter of an inch in thickness,
remains over astragalus, and has formed a ligamentous connexion with
its articular surface. Fractured surface has become smooth, and co-
vered with a periosteum. The shafts of the bones pass backward and
downward ; their extremities are covered with cartilage, and have re-
ceived new fibrous capsules, derived from the deep fascia of the leg, in
front and on each side of the tendo achillis. End of tibia does not
rest on os calcis, but presses downward and backward against the ten-
don.
Mr. Douglas has since seen another case precisely similar to the above.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167
It is stated by Professor Cooper, in his Surgical Dictionary, that re-
production of bone in the cranium is rare, and that the deficiency of
bone is never entirely obviated. A portion of the frontal bone which
the Author laid before the Section exhibits a trepan-hole completely
filled up with bone.
The man from whom it was taken died at forty years of age. “I ob-
served a conical scar on his forehead, and felt a depression, and in-
quired its history. When a lad of twelve or fourteen he had got his
head fractured in a fight, and was trepanned twenty-six or twenty-eight
years before his death. I found the edge of the trepan-hole well
marked by a regular depression of about 2rds of an inch, while below the
depression was irregular, probably from some splintering having taken
place in that direction. The bone which fills up the hole is compact
and translucent, except at lower part, where it is thickened, and pro-
jects a little internally. The mark is just above the upper termination
of left frontal sinus, and in situation of frontal eminence, which is de-
stroyed by it. ‘This preparation, of course, settles the question of the
complete filling-up with bone in the affirmative.”
On the Vital Statistics of Scarborough. By Joun Dunn, Surgeon.
As Scarborough is the principal watering-place in the North of En-
gland, it is of great importance to know accurately the prevailing causes
of death, their relative proportion, the least and most healthy periods
of the year, the ratio of mortality according to age, the climate as to
temperature, variation, atmospherical pressure, fall of rain and prevail-
ing winds. These are illustrated by tables, proving among other points
that the deaths from typhus and scarlatina are very low, the former
being as 4 to 11°64 of the same mean population of the kingdom. As
to pulmonic diseases, so generally dreaded on the sea-coast, the author
observes, “It is a gratifying, and in some measure an unexpected fact,
that diseases of the respiratory organs, so fatal in general, do not bear
so large a proportion in Scarborough to the general mortality as in the
mean population of the whole kingdom. With us they amount to 1
in 5:09 of the whole deaths, in the kingdom they form the prodigious
number of 1 in 3°67. The relation to the number of inhabitants is
also in our favour, being 1 in 197-91, while in the mean population of
the kingdom it is 1 in 181°65. With respect to consumption a remark-
able fact must be noticed, that only 5 cases are registered in the month
of March for the three years, and 4 for April; it must be further ob-
served, that in the first year there is but one death in March from
this cause, and none in April, either of the first or second years. In-
stead of the spring months being so fatal to phthisical people, it appears
that the greatest number of deaths took place in July, the hottest month
of the year.”
“As to the chance of attaining longevity at Scarborough,” Mr. Dunn
states, that, “In every 1000 deaths in the whole kingdom there are 145
at the age of 70 and upward; in the same number in London 105,
168 REPORT—1840.
Birmingham 81, Leeds 79, Liverpool and Manchester 63. In Sear-
borough it ascends to the high number of 195, giving to its residents
more than double the chance of attaining old age over many of our
populous towns, and three times the chance over Manchester.
“Turning our attention from the oldest periods of life to the youngest,
we shall find that the deaths under one year for 1000 of all ages are
214 for the whole kingdom, 277 for Leeds, 237 for the East Riding,
191 for the North Riding; and notwithstanding the fatality of the
measles in the first of the 3 years, only 181 for Scarborough.”
In the notes on the climate he says, “ The remarkable mildness of the
winter and summer months here is deserving of attention. It might
scarcely be imagined, that in the severe winter of 1838 we had only 40
days or nights in which the thermometer was ever seen at or below
the freezing point, while in London there were 44 and in York 70.
There were aiso only two days in which it did not rise above 32° during
some part of the day, in London there were 18. The thermometer on
the 19th of January 1838, was 30° at Scarborough, 2° at York, and 13°
in London. For the last eight years the thermometer has never fallen
lower than 20°, nor risen higher than 83°.
“In the hottest year, 1834, the thermometer will be found in the Tables
to have been 39 days from 70° and upward, and 76 days above 65°.
This was one of the most sickly seasons I ever knew. One of the
healthiest was perhaps the last, which was the coldest, only giving 4
days for 70° and upward, and 27 above 65°. So remarkably mild are
the winters in general at Scarborough, that there have been only 5 days
in the eight years (including that of the severe frost) in which the ther-
mometer was as low as the freezing point during the whole day, and
202, or 25°16 in a year, in which it descended to it during the lowest
range in the night or day.” The mean temperature for the year is 47°,
and mean daily range 8° to 9°. The prevailing winds are westerly, being
Westerly, 612. North, 137.
Easterly, 367. South, 121.
** The mean annual fall of rain is 22°10 inches.”
Tables were given, illustrating the number of deaths under different
conditions of the atmosphere.
Sir David Dickson communicated descriptions of several cases,
which were read to the meeting by the Secretary.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169
STATISTICS.
On the State of Crime within Glasgow and City Police Jurisdiction.
i By Captain Mituar.
The following are extracts :—
Population of Glasgow, within the Police Jurisdiction,
supposedito be,.cs.seaucscsdoaxaddctdeccetmanmeceaensesteee aoe
Population beyond Police Jurisdiction, and within the 97.000
Parliamentary boundary, supposed......ssasscseesereee } ,
272,000
“ Faxtent of Crime.—During the year ending the 31st of December
1839, the number of persons brought before the Magistrates of the city,
including parties charged with contravening minor police regulations,
as well as parties charged with crimes and offences, was 7687, the
males being in the proportion of three to one of the females. Of the
total number, 468 were discharged, 5410 summarily convicted, 661
sentenced to Bridewell, 46 sentenced to jail, 179 acquitted, 1178 admo-
nished, 72 ordered to find bail, 306 transferred to the Burgh Criminal
Court, 72 to the Sheriff Court, 55 to the Justice of Peace Court, and
20 were sent to other counties. The estimated value of the property
stolen within the police bounds, and reported at the office during the
year 1839, including watches and money taken from the persons of
individuals in a state of intoxication, was 76530. 10s.; the estimated
value of property recovered i260/. 10s.; the number of attempts at
housebreaking, discovered by the police, 84; the number of criminal
informations lodged in the course of the year, 3725; and the number
of cases actually brought into court, 5047. The aggregate number of
offenders includes many parties who re-appeared. The preceding state-
ment and relative table apply solely to the city of Glasgow Police juris-
diction, exclusive of the suburban districts ; but it is right to state, that
a very large number of the offenders within the city truly belonged to
the suburbs. Nearly all the thefts of watches and money taken from
the person, and those by domestic and other servants, were committed
in circumstances beyond the control of the police, and where they
could not act in a preventive capacity.
“ Notwithstanding the increase in the population of the city and
suburbs, the amount of crime has of late years diminished. This is
satisfactorily shown by the diminution of the number of police cases of
every description, with the amount of fines levied for petty assaults,
disorderly conduct, &c. The number of persons sent to the Glasgow
Bridewell from the Justice of Peace Court for offences of every kind,
in the year 1836, was 224 ; in 1837, 412; in 1838, 401 ; in 1839, 498;
and for the period ending 18th of August 1840, 535. Of those
offenders, during the two years ending 18th of August 1840, 137
were sent to Bridewell for periods of from 5 to 60 days, for the
non-payment of fines, varying from 5s. to 5. The number of persons
170 REPORT—1840.
sentenced to be executed in Glasgow, from the years 1820 to 1840,
both inclusive, was 66, of whom 45 were hanged, and 21 had their
sentences commuted to transportation for life. Of the persons ex-
ecuted, three were females. ‘There have been only four executions in
Glasgow since 1833; three for murder, and one for throwing vitriol
with intent to murder.
“ The number of houses of bad fame within the royalty is 204. The
total number of females ascertained by the police to frequent houses
of bad fame within the royalty, is 1475.
“ Fires.—The number of fires in the city and suburbs, from Ist of
January 1836 to 3lst of January 1839, being three years, was 268.
Of these, in nineteen instances, the premises were totally destroyed ;
in sixty-four considerably damaged ; and in 185 slightly damaged. In
232 instances the causes were ascertained, and were very varied ; in
thirty-one the causes were not ascertained; and in five the fires were
considered wilful, the parties having been taken into custody, and the
cases reported to Crown counsel. The most frequent cause was found
to be from flues and stoves taking fire through carelessness.
“ Publicans.—In the year 1839, there were within the royalty of
Glasgow 1220, and within the suburbs 1080 licensed public-houses
and other places for the sale of excisable liquors—in all 2300.
“ Pawnbrokers.—There are 33 licensed pawnbrokers, and about 400
small unlicensed brokers within the royalty.
“ Health—In the very centre of the city there is an accumulated
mass of squalid wretchedness, which is probably unequalled in any
other town in the British dominions. In the interior part of the square,
bounded on the east by Saltmarket, on the west by Stockwell-street,
on the north by Trongate, and on the south by the river, and also in
certain parts of the east side of High-street, including the Venals,
Havannah, and Burnside, there is concentrated everything that is
wretched, dissolute, loathsome, and pestilential. These places are
filled by a population of many thousands of miserable creatures. The
houses are unfit even for styes, and every apartment is filled with a
promiscuous crowd of men, women and children, all in the most re-
volting state of filth and squalor. In many of the houses there is
searcely any ventilation, and, from the extremely defective sewerage,
filth of every kind constantly accumulates.”
On the Normal School of Glasgow. By Mr. LeapBerter.
The Glasgow Educational Society's Normal School was established
in 1826-27, first, for the training of infants, and since 1831 for the
children of all ages from two to fourteen. At present the number
attending is 500; the children receive Bible and secular training, and
at play they are superintended by the masters ; the lessons are received
by them in a gallery simultaneously. There is also a school of in-
dustry for females, and lately a private model class for the wealthier
classes has been established.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171
The branches taught are English, reading, grammar, geography,
history, elementary outlines of science, Bible training, writing, arith-
metic, mental and by pen, mental and written correspondence, architec-
tural drawing, to which are added in the private classes, Latin and
practical mathematics. Fee for the infants, 2s. per quarter, and for juve-
nile classes, 3s. per quarter. The private model class for the middle
society, 1/. 1s.; initiating, and others more advanced, 2/. 2s. per
quarter.
The period of attendance by the teachers who receive instruction
in the art of teaching is six months, but it is intended to extend it to
twelve months; the average number attending is between forty and
forty-five, and 602 male and female teachers have been instructed, and
received appointments in Great Britain, Ireland and the Colonies.
Fee, 3/. 3s. each student.
The various classes are under the charge of masters, and a rector
and four masters are specially appointed for the instruction and the
training of the Normal students. The students are required, previous
to admission, to produce certificates of moral character.
The Normal Seminary is under the same superintendence in reli-
gious matters as the parochial schools of Scotland, and the children
of parents of all religious denominations are freely admitted, and no
questions asked.
The Normal Seminary has cost 15,000/., of which Her Majesty’s
Government granted 4500/.; 3500/. has been obtained by private sub-
scription, and the remaining 7000/. stands as a debt on the property.
On the Glasgow Asylum for the Blind. By Mr. Auston.
By the system of printing in relief in Roman letters, adopted in this
institution, an easy method is opened of communicating information to
the blind. After the pupils have acquired a knowledge of the shape of
the letters of the alphabet, words of two or three letters are submitted
to their touch. They are then made to feel the words with two or
three of their fingers on adjoining letters, by which means they are
able to decipher two or three letters at once, which, by practice, will
give a dexterity and fluency to their reading. They are then taught
orthography, and next proceed to study the derivation of words and
their relation to each other. By this system of tuition, the sense of
touch becomes the channel through which instruction is conveyed to
the understanding and the memory. The branches of education taught
in this Institution are reading, English grammar, arithmetic, geography,
and the elements of astronomy and geometry, music, &c. At present
there are above twenty individuals, whose ages vary from ten to
twenty-two years, who can read; and the attainments of some of them
will bear a comparison with those of the same age and time under
tuition who are in possession of every natural advantage. One of these
is a young woman, who, after being educated in the Institution for the
172 REPORT—1840.
Deaf and Dumb here, lost her sight about seven years ago. She may
now be seen daily receiving instruction from one of the more advanced
blind children, tracing by the touch the form of the letters, which she
still remembers, and then indicating them by spelling the words on the
fingers to her blind companion. Afterwards she takes her slate and
writes down the passage she has read. The restoration of this inter-
esting individual to intercourse with the rational world, is a source of
exquisite pleasure to herself, and of gratification to all connected with
her.
The following table shows how the inmates were occupied during
the year 1839 :—
J re
a & oo @ &
ees Bb | so-5 | 0.5
o 2 1h ak a Ed =a = Els
S142/8/8 1] ©] S fe4-EB) €
Elaljsi|slie@lEet & le
Nien acctssaccnsereess 11 9 ] 1 1| 13 36
BGySiccceecstievdvguee ams. I Na allie 19
IWOMER's cesses tesees| Vase Kes Ay ee 8| 8
Greys assioads date saeee | ea 17 17
RODteTNiaceycssesstens| (woos nee zee 2
82
Thus the manufactory consists of seventy blind people, and twelve not
blind, viz. five men, six wheel-boys, and one woman ; the wages of the
latter being chargeable on the different branches of the manufacture in
which they are engaged.
Sales for the Year 1839.
Gih es
Twine. 9 : ‘ - 5 H . 610 10
Baskets rs s Z é ‘ . 619
Mattresses : , é . . Bera ts
Baked Hair . ; ; : : : <0 85
Rugs . 2 : c : : At
Knitting . : < : : © ; . 163
Sacks for Grain - ‘ - F , . 1,412
Hair Friction Mats . - ‘ ‘ 5 . 2011
Nets for Walls a : . a ' . 13 8
£3,207 7 10
Expense of Superintendent, Matron, Teachers, &c. 199 11 8
Wages 3 : ° A ° 4 2 OLOUraAEE
Premiums 2 > - : : “ . 54 810
The males are on piece-work, and are employed ten hours per day ;
but when any particular articles are wanted, they are permitted to
work twelve hours. None of the females who are not attending classes
work more than seven hours in summer and six in winter. Those at-
tending classes work three hours each day, and none of them more
than two hours at a time.
2
iS
8
Door-mats. - “ 5 - : 5 . 155 8
7
4
9
woomnNouumDace
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173
A Comparative View of the State of Crime in London, Dublin, and
Glasgow. By Captain Mituer.
7 aan 7 s
| 6 $6] 6 Sy:
= a4. Oo | oR + ao
3 BSO8 | 20 aos (a3
2 | 54 23 |e
2 aes (ogee | 28 |S5
ws xf 5 Ss8a|8ee\|ae sa
Cities. S a ans | ets cS
o ro Sr E as So |S:4
Pa) S Ems) Oss] 29 \s'
= ov | SE am a
g Seh|/.8 | Be [Ss
$ os | ee a |é8
<a) 2 3 = al (S
—_———
London, within the Metropolitan .
Police DISHICE: Ciisecce ocsce cane } 1839/1,600,000) 65,965 | 1 in.243) 4500 | 355
Dublin, within the Metropolitan . 5
Police District............. z Tania | 1839} 300,000) 45,682 |1in 7 | 1170 | 256
Liverpool and Suburbs .....-...es+00 1838] 265,000) 16,689 | 1 in 16 600 | 442
> Stiles the City ae 1839] 175,900] 7,687 |1 in 223| 223 | 784
On the comparative Vital Statistics of Edinburgh and Glasgow.
By Mr. Watt.
The proportion of marriages to the population in Edinburgh and
Leith is as 1 to 144°449, or 0°692 per cent. In Glasgow the propor-
tion is as 1 to 124°942, or 0°800 per cent. The number of deaths
under twenty years of age in Edinburgh, in 1839, was 43-060 per cent.
of the whole number of deaths; while in Glasgow the proportion was
62-312 per cent. In Edinburgh the proportion of deaths to the popu-
lation was as 1 to 45°435, or 2°200 per cent.; in Glasgow the propor-
tion was as 1 to 36°146, or more than 2°766 per cent. The deaths of
children under five years of age are, in Edinburgh, | to 141°598 of
the population; in Glasgow they amount to 1 in 72°014: in Edin-
burgh they are less than one-third of the whole number of deaths, in
Glasgow more than one-half. From the imperfect state in which the
registers of births are kept in Scotland, Mr. Watt declared that no re-
liance could be placed on the existing data of comparison; and the
same remark, though in a less degree, extends to the registration of
the causes of death, as data for the statistics of disease.
On the Vital Statistics of Glasgow. By Dr. Cowan.
Dr. Cowan exhibited a variety of tables, illustrative of the Meteoro-
logy and Statistics of Glasgow. He also exhibited a map of Glasgow,
coloured, to show the state of the districts in relation to fever. From
the table of marriages, it appeared that their proportion to the popula-
tion, though always high, is fluctuating, depending on the state of trade
and the prices of provisions. The extremes are to be found in 1825,
remarkable for prosperity, when they amounted to 1] in 83°98 ; and in
174 REPORT—1840.
1837, a year of destitution, when they fell to 1 in 120°76. From the
table of births, it appeared that the ratio of males to females was as 22
to 20, a proportion much above that of any country in Europe. In
1831 the proportion of still-born was 1 in 14°49, a remarkable fact, as
the ordinary average is about 1 in 20. The tables of deaths gave the
mean annual mortality in Glasgow from 1822 to 1830, both inclusive,
as 1 in 38°275; and from 1831 to 1839 as 1 in 31°896. The deaths
under five years of age, for the nine years ending in 1830, were 42°91
per cent.; and for the same period ending in 1839, they were 43°32
per cent. It also appeared that the rate of mortality generally in
Glasgow had increased during the last nine years, which was attributed
to the increase of population beyond the suitable means of accom-
modation, the fluctuations of trade, &c. The number of deaths from
smallpox was very great, amounting to 406 in the year 1839. The
prevalence of epidemic disease was illustrated by several tables, from
which it appeared that their advance had been slow, unless when ex-
treme destitution prevailed.
On the Population, Trade and Commerce of the City of Glasgow.
By Dr. CLELAND.
The following are extracts :—
Increase of the Population, Revenue, &c. of Glasgow.
“ Population.—In 1801 the population, according to the Government
census, was 83,769, and in 1840, according to the three subsequent
decennial returns, including the nine years from 1831 to 1840, the
population amounted to 271,656, showing an increase in 39 years of
187,887 souls—a rate of increase, it is believed, unprecedented in this
country.
“ River Clyde—In 1800 the revenue of the River Clyde was
33191. 16s. 6d. In 1839 it amounted to 43,2872. 16s. 10d., being an
increase during 39 years of 39,968/. Os. 9d.
“ Shipping in Glasgow.—In 1651, a Committee of the Scotch Parlia-
ment appointed Commissioner Tucker to report on the Revenue of the
Excise and Customs in Scotland, who stated that there were 12 vessels
belonging to Glasgow; that the aggregate tonnage amounted to 957
tons. In 1840 the house of Messrs. Pollock, Gilmour and Co., of this
city, who are engaged chiefly in the North American timber trade,
are owners of 21 ships, register 12,005 tons, navigated by 502 seamen.
The house has eight different establishments that ship annually up-
wards of six millions cubic feet of timber, to cut and collect which,
and to prepare it for shipment, requires upwards of fifteen thousand
men, and six hundred horses and oxen in constant employment.
“ Steam Vessels——On the Ist of January 1812, there was only one
steam vessel in Europe, the Comet of Glasgow, of 30 tons burthen,
with an engine of three-horse power. Now almost every river teems
with them. It appears from the Parliamentary Steam Vessel Inquiry,
that on 11th February 1839, there were 766 steamers connected with
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175
the United Kingdom. Including the four North American mail steam-
packets, the steam tonnage of Glasgow, in 1840, may be estimated at
13,491 tons.
“ Custom House.—In 1812, the custom duties collected in Glasgow
amounted to 3124/. 2s. 45d.; and in 1839 to 468,974d. 12s. 2d., being
an increase during 27 years of 465,850/. 9s. 114d.
“ Post Office—tIn 1810, the revenue of the Glasgow Post-oftice
amounted to 27,5981. Gs.; and in 1839 to 47,5271. 7s. 7d., being an in-
crease during 29 years of 19,929/. 1s. 7d.
“ Supply of Water.—Prior to 1806, the city, comprehending the
ancient royalty alone, was supplied by about 45 public and private
wells. As some of these were frequently dry, and others contained
water of a bad quality, it may be near the truth to take the average
supply of each well at 120 gallons of useful water, thus making the
aggregate supply of 5400 gallons per day. The Glasgow and Crans-
tonhill Water Companies, now incorporated by Act of Parliament,
produced, in 1840, 8,218,000 imperial gallons. The revenue of these
two companies, for 1836, amounted to 25,3027. 13s. 9d., and they
laid out in conveying water from the Clyde to the city the sum of
349,8082.”
The population in 1831, when the last census was taken, consisted
of 163,600 Scotch, 35,544 Irish, 2919 English, and 353 foreigners.
The following is a description of the householders :—
‘* Married men, 30,032; Widowers, 1790; Bachelors, 1437; Male
Householders, 33,259; Widows, 6824; Spinsters, 1882; Female
Householders, 8706; Total Families, 41,965.
“ The births, including 471 still-born, being 6868, and the population
202,426, there is one birth for every 29°47 persons.
“ The marriages being 1919, there is one marriage for 105*48 persons.
“ The burials being 5185, there is one burial for 39-04 persons.
** The number of families being 41,965, there are 4°82 persons to
each family.
“ The births being 6868, and the number of marriages 1919, there
are 3°57 births to each marriage.”
On the State of Crime within the Suburban Districts of Glasgow.
By Mr. RutHERcuen.
The supposed population of Calton, in September 1840, was 28,210.
The police force consists of 1 superintendent, 6 serjeants, 14 watchmen,
and three lamp-lighters, who also act in the capacity of scavengers,
Expenses of the establishment for the year ending September 1839,
including salaries, wages, lighting, cleaning, Bridewell, and other
charges, 1324/. 17s. 114d.
Extent of Crime.—During the year ending 30th September 1839,
2601 persons were charged with crimes, offences, and with contra-
vention of police regulations. Of this number 1799 were found
guilty, and sentenced—208 to confinements of various durations
176 REPORT—1840.
in the Burgh Bridewell, and 1591 to pay fines, which amounted to
2071. 2s. 8d.; the remainder were disposed of as follows :—56 were
transferred to the Sheriff, 63 to the Justices, 5 to the Glasgow police,
1 to the Lunatic Asylum, 5 to the House of Refuge, 430 were re-
proved and admonished, and 242 were dismissed. The criminal popu-
lation is less by one-half than it was in 1835-6 ; and although in 1839
there were 2601 charged, and 1799 convicted, it is proper to mention
that the same person has been charged and convicted as often as three
times with petty thefts, and with other crimes and offences éwenty times
in the course of the year ; and it is not in one, but in many cases, that
this has occurred.
House of Refuge.—The establishing of this Institution has had a
beneficial effect in the repression of crime, by withdrawing from the
streets of the city and suburbs several hundreds of destitute boys, who
lived almost by thieving alone ; and it is not an over-estimate to say,
that 250 of them stole property averaging Ls. each per day when loose
upon society.
Pawnbrokers.—There are two licensed within the burgh.
Brokers.——In 1835 there were 120 brokers in Calton ; in 1839 they
were reduced to 88, and the following is their classification :-—
Pieaee gs TONE WESANS face cae pe ed's ap 8 Ye acer ee ce tae 4
Parsee PORES so, So. sts ws ee tee eee 16
Dealers in old weaving utensils.................. 4
Dealers who buy all their goods at public sales...... 4
Wealers indie Clothes en oS). sf oe ss tae e tee eee 4
Bundle-brokers, or “Wee Pawns”.........+...+2. 56
Publicans.—There are at present 119 licensed publicans within the
police bounds ; and during the year ending September 1839, 38 cases
were brought before the magistrates of disorderly houses.
Lodging Houses—are generally of an exceedingly wretched de-
scription, but the Police Act gives powers for the regulating of those
houses.
Health.—The state of health is anything but satisfactory. Fevers,
pulmonary complaints, rheumatism, and influenza prevail.
On the State of Crime in the Suburban Burgh of Anderston.
By Mr. Fixvvater.
From the tables produced, it appeared that the cases brought before
the magistrates of the burgh of Anderston were of the most trivial kind.
Last year there was not one charge of robbery ; out of 101 cases of
theft, only one was sent to the sheriff, while 62 petty cases were re-
mitted to the justices. The number of cases brought before the police
court for the year ending 21st September 1840, were 1205, and the num-
ber of persons 1900, among which there were about 300 for dirty closes
alone, besides a corresponding number for exposing articles outside of
shops, encumbering streets, and other minor contraventions of the
Police Act, and about a fourth of the remainder are offenders from the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177
city. The cases were disposed of as follows :—879 were fined in vari-
ous sums, amounting to 1902. ; 64 were confined for short periods in
the police cells ; 1 sent to the sheriff; 75 to the justices; 1 to another
town; | escaped; 2 policemen discharged; 4 reproved, and 177 dis-
missed. Total, 1205.
On the State of Crime in the District of Gorbals.
By Mr. Ricuarpson.
Gorbals. Glasgow.
MMT 6 2's a ws oh Big 2 ake ES egies RT 65,000 175,060
Average assessment for each inhabitant ...... 1s. 13d. 2s. 24d.
Number of offenders brought before magistrates 4,009 7,687
Proportion to the population................ 1 in 162 1 in 22
Expense to the public for each offender ...... 9s. 1. 5s.
Number of persons admonished.............. 903 1,879
Number convicted .........-02---- 2+ cecees 3,106 6,570
Reported value of property stolen............ 5001. 7,6531.
Amount of property recovered .............. 3001. 1,2601.
Number of superior officers ................ 3 12
aaaes SORRMNEPY OMICOPS ie. os ite f/m lolarein *E 8 59
Se tatee WALTER OTE dss a'a cic es aie tie an nela 29 149
pe CRIMINAL OHICEIS 20 OL Ste ae ha ws 1 6
Cost of the above department of police........ 1,8331. 9,568/.
On the State of Education in the Borough of Kingston-upon-Hull.
By the MANCHESTER STATISTICAL SoOcIETY.
The present report contains the result of an inquiry carried on in
the months of March, April, May, and June, 1839. The whole of the
facts were collected by the same agent to whom the previous investiga-
tions of the Society of a similar kind had been intrusted, and of whose
perseverance and accuracy the Society have had ample experience.
The object was twofold : first, to throw light upon the physical,
moral, and religious condition of the great body of the inhabitants ;
and secondly, to ascertain the state of education, both in its results, as
apparent in the acquirements of the people, and with respect to the use
which was made of the existing means of education for the younger
portion of the community. In regard to the Sunday schools, very
complete information was obtained throughout the whole borough of
Hull, containing a population of at least 52,000 inhabitants. The
township of Kingston-upon-Hull, containing a population of 37,885,
‘was examined from house to house ; it presents a remarkable contrast
with the large towns visited in Lancashire in the character of the
dwellings of the working classes. It was found that of 8757 dwellings
visited, only 15 were cellars, and their inmates amounted altogether to
44. persons. In Liverpool nearly one-fifth, and in Manchester and
Salford about one-tenth of the working classes were found to be living
in cellars, while in Hull there are only 15 for every 10,000. The
1840. N
178 REPORT—1840.
system of living in lodgings is also less extensive in Hull, and there are
only 6239 heads of families occupying houses, as distinguished from
chambers, out of the total number of 8757 heads of families ; whereas
in a corresponding table for the township of Pendleton, near Man-
chester, about nine-tenths of the heads of families are recorded as
occupying houses. Under 10 years of age, only 43 children were
found at work in Hull, while in Pendleton, with one quarter of the
population, there were 37. Between the ages of 10 and 15 there were
twice as many at work in Pendleton in proportion to the population,
and between 15 and 21 years of age the proportion was also somewhat
larger. One-third of the adults whose occupation was recorded in
Pendleton were females, as also were about nine-twentieths of the
minors at work; while in Hull little more than one-third of the minors
at work were females, and not quite one-fourth of the adults. The
proportion of persons under 21 years of age is smaller in Hull than in
Pendleton, and there is also less employment for children and females
in Hull. The relative proportion of the sexes does not differ mate-
rially. But the most remarkable contrast between Hull and the Lan-
cashire towns appears in the country from which the people spring. In
Hull above 95 per cent. of the heads of families were English, only 2
per cent. Irish, and 13 per cent. Scotch ; and taking the whole adult
population, the proportions are—
eta his Salas, ajere aie ore. t a dasarighs 95°08 per cent.
Bey 2 zeal- yin i cayengie ehekere-ciala ‘sie & bane 2:24 —
oo | CNN I I a SNR er oe! 6 ae
BaOreignetss ai A in. digits cor, 98 vais ase 84 —
Welsh it s:55 tba OPP Rie e ees See wos aie 48 —
100°00
In Liverpool and Manchester the Irish form no inconsiderable portion
of the whole working class. In Manchester more than one-sixth of
the heads of families amongst the labouring population were Irish ; and
taking Manchester and Salford together, the Irish constitute one-
sixth, the Welsh one-thirtieth, and the Scotch one-fiftieth of the whole,
while in Liverpool the proportion of Welsh is much greater than in
Manchester. Among the day schools of Hull the agent remarked the
existence of a large number of charity schools. There were two
proprietary schools, one chiefly supported by churchmen, the other by
dissenters. The poor-house schools appeared both clean and orderly,
and were conducted on a system somewhat assimilating to that of Dr.
Bell. The infant schools, of which there were several, were of com-
paratively recent establishment. So far as the opportunity was afforded
for observing the condition and management of the dame schools, they
appeared to be equal to the same class of schools in Birmingham, and
superior to those of Liverpool and Manchester. They were generally
tolerably clean, and not so confined as in the large manufacturing
towns. The following statement of the proportion of day scholars to
the total population has been prepared, showing, by comparison with
the numbers in other districts previously examined, that the result for
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179
Hull closely approximates to York and Rutlandshire, which have been
the most favourable examples hitherto brought to light by the inquiries
of the Society. The ascertained cases, in a population of 32,500, are
here taken, and they furnish a proportion of
16:45 per cent. of the total population attending day or evening schools.
3°33 per cent. were under 5 or above 15 years of age; leaving, therefore,
13°12 per cent. as the proportion of the total population, being children be-
tween the ages of 5 and 15, then in attendance at day schools.
In Hull it was ascertained that the proportion of individuals of this age
was 21 per cent. of the entire population ; it is therefore proved that
7°88 per cent., or rather more than one-third of the children between
5 and 15, were not in attendance at the day schools. The actual number
counted, corresponding with this proportion, was 2573, of whom 306
were between the ages of 5 and 10, and 1566 between 10 and 15.
58 were under instruction at home.
1872 had been at day schools at some period.
238 were, or had been, at Sunday school only.
405 had never been at any school, and appeared not to have been instructed
at home.
2573
The following table, drawn up from earlier reports of the Society, in
York, Rutlandshire, Liverpool, and Manchester, shows that the pro-
portion of children moé in attendance at school, is smaller in Hull and
York than in Liverpool and Manchester :—
Proportion of Children attending Day and Evening Schools, as
compared with the total Population.
York Rutlandshire| Liverpool Manchester
1836 1838 1835 and 6, | Iestand 5”
: é fs 5 and 6. d 5.
Per-centage of children attending. | poputation Population | Population Population
estimated, | estimated, estimated, estimated,
000. 230,000. 255,000.
Day schools supported exclu- } ; , i
sively by the scholars......... “a aon ont ne
Ditto supported or assisted by - ‘ : e
EM PMOIC) es teccvacse sess daaiee as oo e387 ao
Evening schools ...........0.0ese0ee 0-15 0:37 0-24 0°78
Total......... 16-96 15:19 12-81 10-46
—-—_—
Proportion to the total popula-
tion of day and evening scho- : 2, : ;
lars under 5 and above 15 se a a fe
Years Of AGE.......cecsceeseeeees
Proportion to the total popula-
tion of day and evening scho- y r 5 .
lars between 5 and 15 years amie ae nrGe ae
OED his ass say calslth Pasens suits
Proportion of children between
5 and 15 years of age estimat-
ed not to be in attendance at
day or evening schools, about
Oto
ie
on
ts
n@Q2
180 REPORT—1840,
The number of adults who can both read and write and cipher,
amounts to nearly two-thirds of the ascertained cases, of whom at
least nine-tenths can read; while at Pendleton, in Lancashire, only
about one-third of the ascertained cases amongst the adults were able
to read, write and cipher, though nearly the same proportion as in
Hull were able to read only. In Pendleton, 405 adults out of 4855
ascertained cases had never attended a day school; but some few of
these had acquired the power of reading, and even of writing. In
Hull, 417 only, out of 14,526 ascertained cases, had never been at a
day school, and none of them had learned even to read. Those who
could read were in the proportion of fifty-five in Pendleton to sixty in
Hull; those who could write were twenty-four in Pendleton to thirty
in Hull; and those who could cipher were twelve in Pendleton to
twenty-two in Hull.
An attempt was made in Hull to ascertain the age at which the
children had been taken away from school, and the information was
obtained in about three-fifths of the cases. ‘The result obtained on
this subject shows, that out of about 2798 children, only
131 had remained at school after reaching the age of 13.
1108 left at 12 and 13 years of age.
964 ,, 10 and 11 =
595 left before 10; about one-half of whom had been removed before they
were 9.
Hardly any of those who had left school before the age of nine had
acquired any knowledge of figures or of writing; and for ninety of
them who were able to read, there were as many more who did it very
badly, and above 120 who could not read at all. Out of 5250 children
who were at school at the date of this inquiry, 305 cases occurred in
which no satisfactory account could be obtained as to the regularity of
attendance ; and the attendance in 997 cases was admitted to be very
irregular ; so that in 3948 cases alone can it fairly be assumed that the
children were deriving from their attendance the whole of the benefit,
little or great, which the schools were capable of affording. In the
case of the children who had left school, the result was still more un-
favourable; out of 4097 ascertained cases, only 2426 had attended re-
gularly, and 1671 irregularly ; 628 cases occurred in which no satis-
factory information on this point could be obtained. Taking the whole
of the minors who either had been, or were, at the time of the inquiry,
at school, 6374 were stated to have attended with regularity, and 2668
irregularly; and in 943 cases no information on the subject could be
obtained. The number of children who could read with ease corre-
sponds very nearly with the number of those who had been regular in
their attendance at school. The former amounted to 6166, the latter
to 6374, and the number of those who could write and cipher was much
smaller—the number of those who could write amounted to 3038, and
the number of those who could cipher to 2207. It may with tolerable
certainty be inferred from the Hull tables, that there is the greatest
regularity of attendance between the ages of eight and eleven.
Amongst the number of parents whose children were of an age to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181
be at school, but who were not attending any, 133 gave the following
as reasons for their non-attendance :
35 Poverty.
32 Irregularity of their employment.
19 Want of decent clothing.
6 The children living with their parents in boats on the river.
13 Ill health of parents.
15 Death of the father.
2 Desertion of the father.
11 Largeness of the family.
133
Of the 4735 minors who, at the date of this inquiry, had completed
their education, such as it is, 823 were unable to read a whole sen-
tence; 1870 were unable to write; and 2282 unable to cipher. In
the same class of children, those who had been irregular attendants at
school amounted to 1671.
In a classification of the answers given by the heads of families, as
to their religious denomination, no less than eighteen different Christian
sects were enumerated ; and ten of these support their separate Sunday
school.
Proportion per cent. of the Sunday Scholars to the total Population.
Manches-| Birming-| Liver-
Hull, | Bury, | ter & Sal. Hptlans: Leeds, York, rie 8 pa
1839*, | 1835*. ford 1838*, 1836}. 1836*. | jg3gt. |1835-6*.
1834.5*,
Church of England) 6:11) 7-67) 5:11 | 11:60 5:03 6:10 2:54) 2°75
Roman Catholic...| O31) 0:78} 1:76 | —— 8:88 betioe Bey
Dissenters ......... 6°66} 12:67| 9-97 4:38 5-91 6°59) 3:63
0-18) 0:30
Total...| 13-08} 21-12} 16°84
15-98 | 1391 | 12-01, 9-31] 6-68
Proportion per cent. of the Sects to the total number of Sunday Scholars.
(Church of England| 46:75) 36:33) 30:33 | 72:56 36:13 50°79) 27-24) 41:11
{Roman Catholic ...} 2°35} o: | 10-46 | ——
63-87 aus 2:02) 4:56
‘Dissenters ......... 50°90) 60:0) 59-21 | 27-44 49-21; 70:74) 54:33
}
i
Total...| 100-00) 100-0 | 100-00 100-00 100:00 | 100-00} 100-00; 100-00
On Pawnbroking in Ireland, and on the beneficial results which had
followed from the establishment of a Mont de Piété, in connexion with
a Loan Fund, at Tanderagee. By Mr. Porter.
“In order to ascertain as nearly as possible the amount of business
_ which is done throughout Ireland, I consider that one whole county,
that of Armagh, in which I reside—one large trading town, such as
Belfast—and the metropolis of Ireland, would furnish data on which
to calculate, if necessary, the pawnbroking business of the whole king-
dom. I therefore deposited at every pawnbroker’s in these places an
* Inquiries conducted by the Manchester Statistical Society.
+ Inquiry conducted by the Town Council of Leeds.
+ Inquiry conducted by a Committee in Birmingham.
182 REPORT—1840,
article of clothing, and received duplicates or tickets, each bearing a
number on it, showing the order in which articles are received and
registered. In seven days after I deposited another article of dress at
each pawnbroker’s as before, and received in like manner duplicates
or tickets, and in a few cases, where there was some doubt as to the
numbers written on the tickets, which are not always very legible, I
deposited a third article. The amount of money lent is calculated, on
an average, at 3s. on each article, except in Dublin, and there it is
found to be about 4s.”
Mr. Porter then read the following table :—
age 82 E z Profit after Print-
SE/ Se. | ees 2S a ing Duplicates, a
sS6| 58 | 8 s fe S28 and deducting |
City or Town. |E.5|) 256 | 238 SEs 6 per cent. 3
5&6 E as | 22° Ea, | for Capital, and .
GSl Ae ges B.A 6 per cent. for a
= Shen | 4 Stock.
Armagh ......... 4 97,980|£14,697 | £408 5 0) £1,170 3 10 10,518
Lurgan... 3| 43440| 6516] 181 00| 516 3 73| 2,842
Newry, part of...| 2| 40,680} 6,102} 169100) 483 7 13 |4 Scenext
Tanderagee ...... 1 15,540} 2,331 64 15 0 184 13 83 1,559
Portadown ...... 1 14,940) 2,241 62 50 177 10 =93 1,591
Markethill ...... 1 9,660} 1,449 40 50 11415 63 1,043
Total in the C.
spueyey } 12 | 222,240/£33,336 | £926 0 0) £2,646 14 2
Newry, whole of| 7 | 120,000/£18,000 | £500 0 0) £1,425 15 6 13,135
Belfast cys00c6e 0 35 | 737,280) 110,592 | 3,072 00} 8,760 19 12 | 67,388
Dublin ............ 42 |8,820,200] 764,040 | 15,917 10 0} 56,107 11 3 | 265,316
The poor of the county of Armagh, therefore, pay for duplicates
nearly one thousand pounds annually, the poor of Newry five hun-
dred pounds, the poor of Belfast above three thousand pounds, and
those of Dublin near sixteen thousand pounds. The paupers’ pence
charged by the pawnbrokers, in the county of Armagh, in twelve
months, exceeded the county grants to dispensaries by the sum of
1321. 17s. 6d.
Paupers’ pence being: ......si.ssscc00s5...8920 0 @ eel! fee
County grants to dispensaries............ 793 2 6 132 17 6
And the estimated profits of the pawnbrokers within the county of
Armagh, after paying for the printed tickets, and deducting six per
cent. for interest on their capital, exceed the whole of the Grand Jury
presentments for charitable purposes by 2600. 10s. 4d.
PRM PITA ERY chess dct «satigwdeeene esse saesecedse £2,646 14 2
Grand Jury presentments, viz.
Warts TMapensanies:. |..i.. 0.0008 e c6793 2s 6
County AMBrHIADG .5...5)..c0002.0-0 B98 B14
District Lunatic Asylum, sinners paneamts 999 18s
£2,386 3 10——260 10 4
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
183
“‘ Having succeeded in proving to the gentry, to the clergy of all
persuasions, and to the merchants of the town of Tanderagee, in which
I reside, that the Mont de Piété system of pawnbroking would present
a mitigation of evil, they co-operated with me in the establishment of
an institution, embracing a charitable pawn-office, a loan-fund, and a
bank for savings, all under one administration, managed by the same
board of directors, with whom I have the pleasure of acting as one of
the honorary secretaries.” The following is an abstract of the result of
the operations of the Tanderagee Mont de Piété :—
Won 3 ae FEET Perse Amount recei-|Interest received
a 22 3 E a on Panne ved on Pawns on Pawns
Z Ay = 7, Ay S ; released. released.
1839. Vedas EN Ginn ghd ues wad:
For nine months, Jan. to Sept. | 12,312] 8,521) 1,500 6 0} 1,023 9 8) 76 0 23
For three months, Oct.to Dec. | 2,900) 3,020} 422 8 4) 395 4 0} 3415 33
——————————
Total for twelve months...| 15,212} 11,541} 1,922 14 4) 1,418 13 8} 11015 6
1840.
For nine months, less nel 6,523| 6,698} 864 911] 981 5 5/ 10411 0
weeks, tothe present period
Increase of inter-
est, the Releases
being greater
Decrease on the nine months of| than the Pawns.
1840, less two weeks, compar-
ed with nine months of 1839] 5,789] 1,823) 635 16 1 42 4 3) 2810 92
In nine months of 1839, 11 out of 16 articles were released, and 3791
articles remained in store, over and above the number of articles re-
leased ; and in 1840, up to the present period, 175 articles were re-
leased, more than the whole number pawned.
LOAN FUND DEPARTMENT.
H@ | 4 Interest.
= 8 a4 Weekly and
24 | € 5 | instalments. | Fines
Aw |< received.
1839. £ & da) & s.d.
For nine months, Jan. to Sept....| 3,745 |15,286| 15,107 11 11/608 2 5
Forthree months, Oct. to Dec....| 1,011} 4,141] 4,247 11 2/178 11 2
Total for twelve months...... 4,756 |19,427| 19,355 3 1/786 13 7
1840.
Nine months, less two weeks
to present Pes alae Sete 8 a03 6 7a1 18
Decrease onthe 9 months, less
2weeks, of 1840, compared +| 1,765] 7,186] 6,804 5 4/316 14 1
with 9 months of 1839 ...
184 REPORT—1840.
SAVINGS’ FUND DEPARTMENT.
Lodged. Withdrawn.
Savings in nine months of 1838 ............ lets Ma £408
— in nine months of 1839 ............ 994 ......cccceeeee 594
— in twelve months of 1839 ......... 1306 OE 4S
Mr. Porter gave an account of a Mont de Piété since established at
Portadown ; and mentioned that he had been last year successful in
establishing one in Belfast. Mr. Porter then presented estimates of
the extent of business carried on by the licensed and unlicensed pawn-
brokers of Glasgow: viz. by the licensed pawnbrokers, loans, 149,674. ;
and by the unlicensed pawnbrokers, above half a million of money, the
latter sum at an interest of 433/. 6s. 8d. per cent.
Mr. Bryce of Belfast, stated that the Ulster Statistical Society had
made such progress in their inquiries into the state of education and
the condition of the linen trade in the North of Ireland, that they
would be able to present the results in a complete form at the next
meeting of the Association.
On the Bill Circulation of Great Britain By Mr. Leatuam.
Having, through Lord Morpeth, obtained a return of the number of
stamps issued from 1835 to 1839 inclusive, Mr. Leatham based his
calculations on the supposition that each bill was circulated for half the
sum which the stamps would cover, which was considerably under the
amount. From the experience of his own bank, compared with that
of the principal discount offices in London, he had found that the
average date of bills, including foreign and inland, was three months.
He then took the whole stamps for a year, and divided them by four,
which gave the amount circulating at one time. By a similar induc-
tion, he had estimated foreign bills at one-sixth of the English, though
the proportion was rather greater; and he had taken the same average
for Irish bills in the years where no official returns had been made. He
then exhibited the following statement relating to the bill circulation
of Great Britain and Ireland, during the years under-mentioned :—
1815. 1824. 1825. 1826-7.
dots £ £ £ £
Bill Stamps for Great eae 477,493,100|232,429,800 260,379 ,400|207,347,400
creating the sum.........0.+0-
Estimated Irish Bills ... 79,582,183) 38,788,300) 43,396,566) 34,557,833
BOrelenstls Derccwssencdscones:sass0> 92,845,880) 45,194,683) 50,629,327| 40,317,072
Total ........-..../649,921,163/316,362,783|354,405,293 282,222,305
Average amount in cireulation } 162,480,290 79,090,695| 88,601,323, 70,555,576
At ONE AME ses seoetasavenereces'e
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185
The following is a similar return for the last five years :—
1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1839.
£ £ £ £ £
British Bills ............ 294,775, 269|355,288,900|333,268,600/341,947,400'394,203,000
Trish Bills ......0..00:..- 51,109,061] 59,155,607| 54,179,165) 54,359,464) 55,615,722
Estimated amount of 5
Foreign Bills .... 57,914,721) 69,420,406) 65,012,080) 66,500,577) 75,479,120
Billscreated by Bank- ’
ers compounting 1,604,000} 2,078,560} 2,624,600) 2,696,600} 3,196,000
for Stamps.........
otal... 405,403,051|485,943,473|455,084,445|465,504,041/528,493,842
circulation at one +|101,350,762/121,485,868/113,771,111/116,376,010/132,123,460
REC yeticvesiwessessas
Average amount sf
On the State of Education and Crime in England and Wales.
By Mr. Josep BEnTLey.
The author exhibited, in a tabular form, the proportion of persons to
one school, one bookseller, one public library, one Mechanics’ Institute,
and one ale-house, in the several counties of England, explaining that
he had collected these data while engaged in the compilation of Pigot’s
Directory. He had taken the criminal statistics from the parliament-
ary return of committals, and the amount of population from the last
decennial census. He entered into a very minute comparison between
the town of Dudley and the city of Worcester, from whence he in-
ferred that education was demonstrably a restraint on crime.
—_———
Dr. W. Cooke Taylor read an abstract of a paper communicated
by Mr. Saxe Bannister, ‘On the Population of certain parts of Africa.’
The object was to show, that the function of vitality was much higher
in the American settlement of Liberia than in Sierra Leone and the
Anglo-African colonies ; and also that the natives more readily came
to the Americans than to the British.
On the Application of Statistics to Moral and Gconomie Science.
By Dr. CHALMERS.
On the Pauperism of Glasgow. By Dr. CHALMERS.
Illustrations of the Practical Operations of the Scottish System of the
Management of the Poor. By Dr. Avtson.
186 REPORT—1840.
The discourses of Dr. Chalmers and Dr. Alison contained frequent
references to statistical data, but the enumeration of these would be of
little service without a full statement of the arguments they were in-
tended to support.
On the excess of Population, and on Emigration as a Remedy for it, in
the Highlands of Scotland. By Dr. Aucorn.
On the Population of Scotland. By Mr. Witson.
On the Libraries of Germany. By Professor ADRIAN.
On the Parish of Dunfermline. By the Rev. P. CHALMERS.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
On the Temperature of most effective condensation in Steam Vessels.
By J. Scort RussE tt.
Much has been said regarding the perfection of the vacuum formed
in the condenser of a steam-engine, especially a marine engine. It is
a fact of great importance, and it is the result of theory, established on
incontrovertible truth, and confirmed by experiment and by practice,
that a vacuum may be too good, and become a loss instead of a gain.
The truth is simply this, and should be known to every engineer: Jf
the barometer stand at 294 inches, the standard of this country, the
vacuum in the condenser is TOO GOOD éf it raise in the barometer more
than 28 inches of mercury. The following is a simple proof of this
doctrine, divested as far as possible of a technical form, and put in the
shape of an inquiry into the best state of a condenser :—
Let ¢ = the caloric of water of 1°;
c = the constituent calorie of water in the state of steam ;
e =the total force of steam in the boiler, in inches of mer-
cury; and
x = the elastic force of steam at the temperature of best con-
densation, which we seek to discover.
Then, from the law which connects the elastic force of steam with
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187
temperature, it follows that, in case of maximum effect, or the temper-
ature of best condensation,
é =~, that 1s an.
ce c
Now ¢ is 1000; and if the steam in the boiler be at 5 lbs. above the
atmosphere, or if e = 40 inches of mercury, and ¢ = 1,
40
= ——_ = 0°04.
tai cea
Again, if the steam be at 73 Ibs. = 45 inches,
45
= — = 0:045.
SSD Ts laa
Again, if the steam be at 10 Ibs. = 50 inches,
50
= —— = 0°05.
“= 7000
Hence we find, that the best elasticity or temperature in the con-
denser depends on the elastic force of the steam in the boiler.
With steam of 5 lbs. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum effect
in the condenser is 93° Fahr., and the best vacuum on the barometer
is 28.
With steam of 7% lbs. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum effect
in the condenser is 95°, and the best vacuum on the barometer is 27°8.
With steam of 10 lbs. in the boiler, the elasticity of maximum effect
in the condenser is 97°, and the best vacuum on the barometer is 27°6.
In like manner it would be found, that with steam of 50 Ibs. in the
boiler, worked expansively, as in Cornwall, the best vacuum in the
condenser would be about 26° on the barometer.
It is hoped, therefore, that engineers will not in future distress them-
selves at finding the vacuum of their condenser much less perfect than
the vacuum of others who have obtained 30 and 30% inches at so great
a loss of fuel and power. To obtain a vacuum of 294, with the weather
glass at 29°75, and steam at 73 Ibs., would be to sacrifice four horses’
power out of every hundred. Ina day when the barometer is as low
as 284 inches, the vacuum in the condenser would indicate 26°8. In
speaking of the vacuum in the condenser, it would save much ambi-
guity to indicate the elasticity merely of the steam in the condenser ;
thus, if the barometer stand without at 292, and the barometer of the
condenser at 28, it might be stated that the steam in the condenser
stands at 14, being the point of the maximum effect. The indication
would convey at all times more precise information.
Mr. Russell stated that the President had just put into his hands a
communication in French on this subject from M. Barnes. Instead of
a jet playing inside the condenser, M. Barnes allows it to rush in sud-
denly, and then stops it by a slide-valve.
188 REPORT—1840.
Additional Notice concerning the most xconomical and Effective Pro-
portion of Engine Power to the Tonnage of the Hull in_ Steam
Vessels, and more especially in those designed for long Voyages.
By J. Scorr RussE.t.
After describing the unsettled state of opinion and practices on this
subject, Mr. Russell entered into a general examination of the subject,
from which the following are extracts :—
‘We may now proceed to investigate the question of best proportion,
or the point where the attainment of high speed is accompanied by
absolute saving of fuel, as compared to lower velocity.
«‘ We merely take it for granted, that the speed through the water
will be nearly as the square root of the power, according to the
general law of the resistance of fluids; that the resistance offered
by bad weather or adverse winds has been ascertained, and is deter-
mined on a particular station ; that is, that it is known that on a given
station, a given vessel, with a given power, makes a voyage in adverse
circumstances in, suppose, double the time of her most prosperous
voyage ; (say her most prosperous voyage in 14 days, and her adverse
voyage in 24 days, being a retarding power of 10 days out of 24;) we
take this retardation of ten days as the measure of the retarding power
of adverse weather in the given circumstances.
Let h be the power, v the velocity, f the fuel consumed, ¢ the} 7, , given ves-
time in good weather .... ....sceccereecsecsrceecsscscsscsces aunaacteon
Metts ucceeseees <= panes bona Hosace ae Si atenene sees esener isa 3 ft eee &
Dad'weather ‘ssssudedsssatar,scasceesetes-400 Sosesscereccadeesae 7
Let h! be the power, v" the velocity, f” the fuel consumed, ¢" the) Inanother ves-
time in good wWeather.......sssssessccsecseccesecee ascedeweaese |. GOK Bs pReater
Wetssvstocs cesses vasee OMe seeuenss saceshe penesexeceanceces as See 10 on the
bad weather ss..<,se-s<eseeess Reade tiatesesdtisnessasan ema .J same station.
Also, let r represent the consumption of fuel per horse-power per hour,
And ... s the length of the voyage or distance performed.”
By investigating, Mr. Russell obtains the general formula—
—y?2
v2 = (A),
wy
2h
and deduces the following consequences :-—
“It appears that a vessel has its power in the most ceconomical pro-
portion to its tonnage, on a given station, when its worst voyage ‘loes
not exceed the time of its best in a greater proportion than V2 to 1,
that is, than 14 to 10, or 7 to 5.
“It further appears, that the consumption of fuel in the worst voyage
will not exceed that of the best voyage in a greater proportion than
10 to 7; that is to say, for 70 tons of fuel burnt on a good voyage it
will not be necessary to carry more than 100 tons in order to provide
against the worst. :
“Let us take as example a Transatlantic steam-ship, which has a —
proportion of one-horse power to four tons of capacity, her unfavour- —
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189
able voyage being between England and America 22 days, and her
favourable voyage 14 days, being a comparative velocity of 7 and 11.
2 — y!2 12] — 49 72
‘h ‘— Beira ae ——————— ee OP as es
Then h'=2h s 2 i291 2 12]
= 12 nearly.
10
Hence the power should be increased in the ratio of 6 to 5; that is
to say, the engines at present capable of exerting a power of 500 horses
should have been capable of exerting a power of 600 horses, and would
in this case consume less fuel, as well as produce greater regularity and
a higher velocity.”
The following results also follow :—
“The vessel of less power burns 30 tons per day, performs the di-
stance in 14 days, consuming 420 tons of coal in fair weather.
“ The vessel of less power burns 30 tons, performs the distance in 22
days, consuming 660 tons of coal in foul weather.
“The vessel of greater power burns 36 tons, performs the distance in
123 days, consuming 468 tons in fair weather.
“ The vessel of greater power burns 36 tons, performs the distance in
17°5 days, consuming 630 tons in foul weather, being a consumption of
64 tons less fuel, and performing the journey in 43 days less than the
other.
“Tt is manifest, that the store of fuel carried in the vessel with less
power must on all occasions be equal to the greatest consumption, that
is, to at least 660 tons, whereas 630 tons will be sufficient for the vessel
of greater power; and as in all vessels for long voyages coals carried
are much more costly than the mere price of coals, or as the freight of
the vessel is more costly than the fuel, coals carried are to be reckoned
at least as expensive as coals burnt. Moreover, as the gain in time is 43
out of 22, being 25 per cent., it is plain that the vessel may be calculated
to do the distance oftener in a year, because, as the time of starting
must always be regulated, not by the shorter, but by the longest period
of a voyage, 174 days in the one case stand in the place of 22 days in
the other. As another example, let us take the case of a vessel calcu-
lated to stem the monsoon in the Indian Seas. A vessel of 600 tons
and 200 horses, steaming in fair weather at the rate of 11 miles an
hour, has been found to have her speed diminished by the monsoon to
five miles an hour. What would be the best proportion of power in
such circumstances ?
Wi = 2h
v? vy? 112 — 5?
=)
v 11°
= a nearly.
“Hence we see that the power being increased in the ratio of 16 to
10, that is, engines of 320 horses power being substituted for those of
200, the speed on the quick voyage would be 123 miles an hour in-
stead of 11, and the speed against the monsoons increased from 5 to9
190 REPORT—1840.
miles an hour, with a saving of coals amounting to 40 tons out of 320;
and when it is remembered that the voyage for which 18 days would be
required as continual allowance in the one case might always be calcu-
lated on as performed in 10 days in the other, the advantage is placed
beyond all doubt. It appears, therefore, that for long voyages espe-
cially, there are great advantages in point of ceconomy, certainty and
speed, to be obtained by the use of vessels of a higher power than
usual, and that in a given case the best proportion of power to tonnage
may readily be determined from the rules already laid down. In
regard to absolute or definite proportion, it may be stated as the result
of the best vessels, that the proportion of power to tonnage should not
be greater than one horse power to two tons, nor less than one horse
to three tons; the greater proportion holding in the smaller, and the
less proportion of power in the greater vessel.”
Notice of Properties of the Catenary and Curves of Equilibration,
with Tables for their Construction, contained in a Memoir entitled,
“ The Parallelogram Forces and Curves of Equilibration; together
with Tables for their Construction, deduced from a Funetional
Equation. By Witt1am Waturact, LL.D., &c., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh.”
The memoir in the Edinburgh Transactions here noticed, contains
tables for the construction of the catenary, which are true to ten
decimal places (the parameter being the unit); by these the co-ordi-
nates of the curve, also its length, may be found to an extent of the
curve and degree of accuracy beyond the wants of the civil engineer
in actual practice. Tosecure accuracy, the tables have been stereotyped
in an octavo size, and proofs of the plates carefully compared with the
original calculations, which have been all preserved, and may be de-
posited with some public body.
It is intended in the course of the ensuing winter to re-publish the
tables in an octavo form, accompanied with a Treatise on the Catenary
and Curves of Equilibration ; and to these will be added some other
matters connected with the practice of civil engineering.
On a New Mode of Propelling Fluids, or an uniformly Propelling
Wheel. By the Rev. J. Brovte.
In this communication the author gave an account of a uniformly
propelling wheel for steam-boats, and directed attention to the proper
form of the leaves of a propeller on the Archimedean principle. The
contrivance for uniform propulsion consists of a number of vanes or
float-boards, placed on a revolving axle, so that the plane of the float-
boards forms an acute angle with the axle to which they are applied.
They may be either fastened to the axis spirally, forming a sort of
screw, or affixed circularly, forming a wheel.
This principle admits of various applications, and may be employed
in propelling either with water or air.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191
On the Strongest form of Sea-borne Vessels. By Dr. FARQUHARSON.
The author stated in this communication the result of his attempt to
determine the true form of the Ark of Noah, as given in the Hebrew
text of Genesis, compared with the Greek Septuagint ; and arguing that
this form, though unfit for carrying sails, was excellent for flotation,
stability and strength (being triangular in the cross section, with a flat
base and angular top), suggests that the forms of sea-going steamers
should be reconsidered and altered, with a view to these circumstances.
Mr. Evans delivered in a printed report ‘“‘ On Anthracite Pig-iron.”
On the Turbine Water-wheel. By Professor Gorvon.
The fundamental principle upon which the construction of the
Turbine-Fourneyron is based, is that by which the maximum of useful
effect is obtained from a given fall of water, depending on the relative
velocity of the water and its recipient, which ought to be such that the
water enters the wheel without shock, and quits it again without
velocity. A notion of its construction may readily be formed, by sup-
posing an ordinary water-wheel laid on its side, the water being made
to enter from the interior of the wheel by the inner circumference of
the crown, flowing along the buckets, and escaping at the outer cir-
cumference. Then centrifugal force becomes a substitute for the force
of gravity. It was explained that the Turbine consists essentially of—
1. A reservoir, the bottom of which is divided into radial compart-
ments by curved plates, serving to guide the water to take a particular
direction of efflux.
2. A circular sluice, capable of nicety of adjustment.
3. The wheel with curved buckets, on to which, when the sluice
was raised, the water entered at every point of the inner circumference,
and flowing along the buckets, escaped at every point of the outer cir-
cumference. This latter is a characteristic feature in the Turbines of
Fourneyron. Reference was made to the principal Turbines erected
in France and Germany,—particularly to that at Inval, near Gisors,
and those at Mullbach and Moussay, as illustrative of their use for falls
varying from 9 inches to 10 feet. And again to those at St. Blasier,
in the Black Forest, as instances of high falls,—the one being 703 feet,
the other 345 feet; the one expending 5 cubic feet per second, the
other 1 cubic foot per second; the one being 56 horse-power, the
other very nearly 60 horse-power ; the one giving an efficiency of up-
wards of 70, the other of upwards of 80 per cent. of the theoretical
effect. A drawing of the latter was exhibited—full size. It is 143
inches diameter. Its extreme depth or breast is -225 inch, or less than 3.
It makes 2200 to 2300 revolutions per minute. It serves a factory
in which are 8000 water spindles, 34 tine and 86 coarse carding-
engines, 2 cleansers, and other accessories.
The conclusions drawn by Morier from his experiments on these
wheels with the brake dynamometer, or friction strap, are these :— '
192 REPORT—1840.
1. That Turbines are with equal advantage applicable for high and for
low falls. 2. That their net useful effect equals 70 to 78 per cent. of
the theoretical effect of the power. 3. That they may work at speeds
varying from
where x = number of revolutions ; V = velocity due to fall; R = ex-
treme radius; the useful effect still not differing notably from the
maximum. +4. That they work at very considerable depths under
water, the relation of useful to theoretical effect not being thereby
much diminished.
On producing True Planes or Surfaces on Metals.
By Mr. JoserpH WuitworTu.
Surface plates were exhibited, of which, if one be put upon the
other, it will float, until by its weight it has excluded some of the air,
when the two will adhere together with considerable force. These
surfaces were got up without grinding. The only operations performed
upon them were those of planing, filing, and scraping. Practically,
the excellence of a surface consists in the number and equal distribu-
tion of the bearing points. But if a ground surface be carefully
examined, the bearing points will be generally found lying together in
irregular masses, with extensive cavities intervening. The cause of
this irregularity is in the unmanageable nature of the process. The
action of the grinding powder is under no control. There are no
means for securing its equal diffusion, or for modifying its application,
with reference to the particular condition of different parts of the sur-
face ; the practical result is, that the mechanic neglects the proper use
of the file, knowing that grinding will follow, to efface all evidence
either of care or neglect. In various departments of the arts and
manufactures, the want of improvement in this respect is already felt.
The valves of steam-engines, for example, the tables of printing presses,
stereotype plates, slides of all kinds, require a degree of truth much
superior to that they now possess, for want of which there is great
waste in time, in steam power, in wear and tear, and, above all, in skill
misapplied. The improvements so much to be desired will follow upon
the discontinuance of grinding. The surface plate and the scraping
tool will then come into use, and a new field will be opened to the
skill of the mechanic. Supposing him to be provided with a true
surface plate, he will find no difficulty, after a little practice, in bring-
ing up his work to the required nicety. For this purpose he will find
it advantageous to employ a scraping tool made from a three-sided file,
and carefully sharpened on a Turkey stone, the use of which must be
frequently repeated. A light colouring matter, such as red chalk and
oil, being spread over the surface plate, and the work in hand applied
thereto, friction will cause the prominent places to be marked, which
will instruct the experienced mechanic where and how to operate to
the greatest advantage.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193
On the Giconomy of Railways in respect of Gradients.
By Mr. Vicnoxes.
Looking to the great cost of railways, the author had turned his
attention to a comparison of the result of the working of railways, with
the price paid for various degrees of perfection. On an average, the
hitherto ascertained cost of the principal lines might be divided thus :—
Land’ ion, <adessieessinnstonusesaeseaeuneen 10 per cent.
Stations and carrying establishment 20 is
Management ....scccscssccncscascceree 10
Pron, ee Cees eis ateccentes Spates 10 $
Works of construction proper ...... 50 ‘:
100
These items differed considerably in various railways, and in general it
might be said that the works of construction constituted one-half of
the whole first cost. Mr. Vignoles stated that he had analysed railway
expenses of working, and had reduced them to a mileage,—that is, the
average expense per mile, per train, as deduced from several years’ ex-
perience, and observations of various railways under different circum-
stances, and with greatly different gradients, some of which lines were
enumerated. The result on passenger and light traffic lines was, that
the total deduction for expenditure from gross receipts was 3s. per
mile per train; 2s. 6d. being the least, and 3s. 4d. the highest; and
that this average seemed to hold good, irrespective of gradients or
eurves. Particular lines might, from local circumstances, differ in
detail, but he was satisfied that the following was a fair average ap-
proximation :—
s. d.
Daily cost of locomotive power and repairs.........+++++04. eee 1 6
Annual depreciation, sinking fund, and interest on stock, tools,
shops, and establishment ..........scecscetsceescsensecsencccessoes 0 6
Daily and annual cost in carriage department............-2.00e0+- 0 4
Government duty, office expenses, police, clerks, guards, ma-
nagement, and maintenance of railway ........sccsseesees vere O 8
3.0
It was not found practicable to distinguish the additional expense, if
any, arising from curves or gradients ; but as three-fourths of railway
expenses were quite independent of these curves, such addition must
be small ; especially as, on the North Union Railway, a line which had
5 miles out of 22 in gradients of | in 100, or nearly 53 feet per mile,
tne total expenses were less than on the Grand Junction Railway, and
several other lines.
__ Mr. Vignoles then proceeded to illustrate, by diagrams, the mode in
which the ceconomy might be made in the works of construction, on
what he called the first system, by the occasional introduction of in-
clines of 50 and even 60 feet per mile, if not of too great a length;
and again, on the second system, by introducing entire series of severe
gradients, such as those of 30, 35, and 40 feet.
On the first system he had executed the North Union Railway ;
1840. Oo
194 REPORT—1840.
and had also ‘thus designed all the government railways to the south
and west of England. On the second system was the Bolton and Man-
chester Railway, by the late Mr. Nimmo, Mr. Macneill’s government
railway lines to the north districts of Ireland; and that engineer had
lately altered the Dublin and Kilkenny, and the Dublin and Drogheda
Railways, from better but more expensive gradients, to those on the
second system; and Mr. Vignoles was about to apply it to the Dubiin
and Kingstown Railway ; and he had set out the whole extent of the
Sheffield and Manchester Railway, for 40 miles, on an average gradient
of nearly 40 feet per mile, mixed with occasional inclinations of 1 in
100, and with curves of one-third mile radius. Mr. Giles had also
adopted the same system on the first ten miles eastward of the New-
castle and Carlisle Railway.
Mr. Vignoles went on to state, that on either one or both of these
systems, introduced as might be considered most advantageous by the
directing engineer, lines of railway might be laid out so as not to ex-
ceed 10,000/. per mile, being particularly applicable where fertile,
populous, and manufacturing districts, or the metropolis, with the
extremes of the empire, had to be connected through difficult and
unproductive districts. When a continued stream of heavy traffic jus-
tified the expense, Mr. Vignoles saw no reason to vary from the general
rules adopted hitherto by engineers for laying out railways, or from
his own former opinions and practice. But it was forced on him by
daily experience, that, to accommodate the public convenience, the
Post Office arrangements, and business in general, it was scarcely once
in twenty times that a locomotive engine went out with more than half
its load, and in general the engines were only worked up to two-fifths
of their full power: he was, therefore, conclusively of opinion, that it
was much cheaper to put on additional engines on extraordinary occa-
sions ; and on such principles railways should be constructed through
the more remote parts of the country, so as to be made in the cheapest
possible manner. The possession of all the profitable lines of railway
by private companies, was likely to throw on the government the onus
of constructing theirlines through such districts, inwhich case economy
was desirable: or, if not to be constructed by the government, then
was ceconomy still more important ; for Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and
the western and eastern parts of England would be deficient in rail-
ways, until some such system as those now promulgated could be
brought to bear in the laying out lines of internal communication.
On Extinguishing Fire in Steam Vessels. By Mr. Watvace.
Mr. Wallace proposes to effect this by steam itself. The plan has
been some time before the public, and many successful experiments
made in the presence of sciéntifie persons. Among the most important
was the following, made on board the Leven steam-boat:—On the
cabin floor, a space of ten feet by fourteen was covered with wet sand,
on which was laid iron plates, and on these a fire was kindled with
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195
about 42 ewt. of very combustible materials, such as tar barrels, &c.
A hose thirty-four feet long, two and a half inches in diametez, ex-
tended from the boiler of the engine to the cabin, and when the fire
had been sufficiently kindled, so that the panes of glass in the windows
of the cabin began to crack by the heat, the steam was let in, and the
doors of the cabin shut. The fire was extinguished in about four
minutes. Several trials were made, and all with like success. On
another trial, a metal pipe of a greater diameter than the hose was con-
nected with the steam-boiler, and extended into the cabin. <A small
square hatch was cut in the deck immediately above the cabin, and
through this opening were lowered down into the cabin two moveable
grates, each containing a blazing fire, well kindled, and about 1 ewt. of
coals. The hatch on the deck and cabin doors were then shut, and the
steam let in, and in fifteen minutes the small hatch was opened, and
one of the grates hoisted up, when the whole mass of coal and cinders,
which had before formed a powerful fire, were found to be completely
extinguished. This experiment was repeated twice with equal success.
On Timber Bridges of a large size, in special reference to Railways.
By Mr. Vicno.es.
Mr. Vignoles took a rapid view of the history of timber bridges,
tracing their first erection in Germany, then through the United States
of America, and back to Great Britain. He also described the differ-
ence between the principles of large bridges constructed with baulks
and half-baulks, and of timber arches formed of layers of plank laid
over each other, and fastened securely together, and with felt or other
means, to make the joints and beds wholly impervious to water. Mr.
Vignoles stated, that the first bridge on this principle in Great Britain
had been erected at some place in Scotland, by an ingenious mechanic
of that country, whose name he regretted not to be able to state. This
was many years since. The principle had been also made known, par-
ticularly of late years, by the timber viaducts erected under the direc-
tion of Messrs. Green and Son, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who had built
several, and had designed more; and Mr. Nicholas Wood, of Killing-
worth, was at this time erecting, for the Duke of Buccleugh, a timber
viaduct, of great height, and with large openings. Mr. Vignoles then
explained the peculiar applicability of timber bridges or viaducts to
the passage of deep ravines, so often met with in hilly and mountain-
ous districts, illustrating his remarks by diagrams. Instances had
occurred and might occur, where the whole of a line of railway, other-
wise highly desirable, would have to be abandoned, unless some ceco-
nomical construction were devised to surmount the difficulty: and
here the timber viaduct would most advantageously be introduced,
since many feet additional height in the level of the railway would add
but little to the expense. In reference to the expense, he stated, that it
was chiefly when extraordinary height and either one arch of great span
were required, or where a series of arches, of large openings, were
02
196 REPORT—1840.
wanted or could be introduced, that the timber viaducts were the most
ceconomical. In ordinary heights of 50 or 60 feet, and with arches of
less span than 100 feet, and particularly in countries presenting facili-
ties for construction of stone, these latter would be undoubtedly prefer-
able ; but when the height of the construction became great, the great
expense for the centering for arches of masonry, and the multiplication
of the number of piers, in order to keep the span of the arches to a
moderate size, greatly increased the expense, and threw the balance
vastly in favour of the timber. Mr. Vignoles instanced the Ribble
Viaduct on the North Union Railway, which was about 50 feet high,
with five large arches, of 120 feet span, and had cost 60/. per lineal
foot ; whereas, in another place, a timber viaduct, of 140 feet high in
the centre, and averaging 100 feet high, with arches of 130 feet span,
and extending for a length of nearly 2000 feet, was proposed, which
would not exceed in price 20/. per lineal foot, the breadth of roadway
being, in both cases, 28 feet for a double line of rails. Mr. Vignoles
stated, that in extending lines of railway through the west of England
to the packet stations, through the mountains of Wales for a commu-
nication between London and Dublin, and through many parts of
Treland, along the lines laid out by him for the Government Railway
Commissioners, the timber viaducts would, from their cheapness,
enable the works to be entered upon, which the great cost of stone
would quite forbid.
On the Safety Rotation Railway. By Mr. Hawkins.
Mr. Hawkins exhibited a model of a railway and carriage, recently
patented by Mr. Rangeley under the above title. It is an inversion
of the ordinary construction, inasmuch as wheels are made to revolve
on fixed bearings, placed in two parallel lines along the road; and
the carriage, without wheels, is built upon a pair of running rails,
carried along upon the peripheries of the train of wheels kept in
revolution by steam-engines fixed at every mile or two of the road.
It is intended to have the wheels three feet diameter, and three feet
apart, which will give 1760 wheels on a mile. They are to be driven
by a succession of endless bands, one band in every case passing
around two pullies attached to every two contiguous wheels. The
carriages are designed to hold forty passengers each, with their lug-
gage ; the whole, including the carriage, not to exceed five tons ; the
running rails always to bear on eight or ten wheels, so that no wheel
shall have to support more than about ten or twelve hundred weight.
The wheels, therefore, need not weigh more than half a hundred
weight each, to be sufficiently strong for supporting the carriage. It
is found by experiment, that three ounces suspended from the peri-
phery of such a wheel causes it to revolve. Any weight that sets a
wheel in motion, will, if continued, cause the same to revolve with ac-
celerated velocity, until the resistance of the atmosphere becomes equal
to the accumulated force, after which a steady speed will be kept up.
It is inferred from observation, that the wheels driven with a continued
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197
force of three ounces each, would acquire a constant speed of about
thirty miles an hour. It is also ascertained fromexperiment, that eight
pounds would draw a ton weight on four three-feet wheels running on
level rails, and thus that a force of forty pounds would draw the car-
riage. The following table is constructed from data, by which it is
found that seventeen-horse power of steam-engine is required to turn
each mile of wheels, and two-horse power to drive each carriage. The
power to turn the wheels is neither increased by additional carriages
nor by acclivities, each carriage added taking only two horse power
more to carry it along upon a level; and an acclivity of 1 in 180
doubling, 1 in 90 quadrupling, and 1 in 45 octupling only the tractive
force, without in any case requiring more than the seventeen-horse
power to turn the wheels.
HORSE POWER.
‘ PASSENGERS. | Per Mile in 2 Minutes.
Carinae a
SY CrY Every 2 I U U; U;
Minutes. || yrinutes. | 12 Hours.|| a Level. | 1in deo. | 1in'90. {~1in45.
1 40 14,400 19 21 25 33
2 so | 28,800 || 21 25 33 49
3 120 43,200 23 29 41 65
4 160 57,600 25 30 49 81
5 200 72,000 27 37 57 97
On Timber Bridges, with reference to their Application to the economical
construction of Railways. By Mr. Mircue.t.
About twelve years ago he had erected a bridge across the Spey, con-
sisting of an arch of 100 feet span; another about six years since of two
arches of 100 feet span, with stone abutments and piers ; a third across
the Dee, of five arches of 75 feet span, with timber piers ; besides a
number of others of smaller dimensions. Ciconomy was the chief ob-
ject in building bridges of this material. It was found they were one-
third less expensive than stone ; that across the Dee, with timber piers,
less than half. The period of duration he found to be from thirty to
forty years; the accumulated value of the staving being more than
equivalent to rebuilding the structure. In his opinion, viaducts of this
material might be beneficially applied in the construction of railways,
of course being suitably constructed to resist the violent action and
heavy weights of railway trains.
Mr. Taylor mentioned that he had that morning received a letter
from Mr. Enys, stating that Commissioners from the Dutch govern-
ment had visited Cornwall, to ascertain the duty done by the Cornish
198 REPORT—1840.
engines. Several experiments had been made at their request, and the
following was the result :—
Feet stroke. Lifted one foot.
Wheal Vor, Borlase’s engine ......... 80 in. single 8°0 ......,.5.5. 123,300,593lbs.
Fowey Consols, Austin’s ...........0+6 SO cane ispesee 9:0) gases ge apte 122,731,766
Wheal Darlington engine ............ te DE PARES CUD sete 78,257,675
Charlestown United Mines............ SO ys vaecoee ft pee ets 55,912,392
Ditto Stamping engine ............... 32 ,, lifting 66 stamps... 60,525,000
Wheal Vor, ditto .......:s.ssceceee eves 36dble. lifting 72 stamps... 50,085,000
On the Application of Native Alloy for Compass Pivots.
By Capt. E. J. Jounson, RN.
Among those portions of a ship’s compass which most affect its work-
ing, are the pivots and caps on which the needle and card traverse, and
which, like the balance of a chronometer (but of far more importance
to the practical navigator), should not only be fitted with the most
scrupulous attention to accuracy, but be made of materials capable of
maintaining a given form under the trials to which such instruments
are necessarily exposed. Having examined a great variety of com-
passes which had been used at sea, wherein Captain Johnson noticed
that their pivots were generally injured, and often by rust, he searched
numerous records of experiments for its prevention, and for improving
the quality of steel in other respects, by means of alloys of platinum,
coe a silver, &c. (he alluded particularly to the experiments of
r. Faraday and Mr. Stoddart); and Mr. Pepys having obligingly
supplied Captain Johnson with specimens of similar kinds of steel to
those used by them, these examples, together with pivots made of the
ordinary kind of steel, and hardened and tempered in the manner re-
commended by eminent instrument makers, were placed in a frame for
experiment; and to these again Captain Johnson added certain contri-
vances of his own, such as rubbing a steel pivot with sal-ammoniac,
then dipping it into zine in a state of fusion, and afterwards changing
the extreme point. Some specimens he coated with a mixture of pow-
dered zine, oil of tar, and turpentine; and others again were set in
zinc pillars, having small zine caps, through which the extreme point
of the pivot protruded after the manner of black-lead through pencil
tubes. The whole of the specimens were then placed in a cellar, occa-
sionally exposed to the open air, examined from time to time during
more than half a year, and their several states, as respected oxidation,
duly registered. Without going into the details of this register, the
general result was, that not any of the kinds of steel pivots used in this
trial, except such as were coated with zinc, remained free from rust,
while the pivot made of the “ native alloy” which is found with plati-
num, completely retained its brilliancy. Captain Johnson then applied
a more severe test to this singular substance, first, by placing sulphuric
acid, and then nitro-muriatic acid upon it; but even under this trial he
could not observe that any change had been effected, although the
blade of a penknife, subjected to a similar process, was rusted to the
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199
centre. Having enumerated the facts respecting the trials to which he
had subjected this curious material, Captain Johnson stated the con-
clusion that he had come to, namely, that it is sufficiently tough not to
break, and hard enough not to bend, under the trials to which it would
be fairly exposed ; and that being alike free from magnetic properties
and liability to oxidation from exposure to the atmosphere, it possesses
the requisite qualities for the pivot of the mariner’s compass ; and he
could not but anticipate that, when fitted with a ruby cap to corre-
spond, it would be found greatly to improve the working. Besides the
application of this substance for compass pivots, Captain Johnson stated
that it might probably be found advantageous for other instruments,
and especially for the points of the axes of the dipping needles fitted,
on Mr. Fox’s plan, for use on board ship.
On the Fan-Blast as applied to Furnaces. By Mr. FAirBAIrNn.
In explaining the methods to be pursued in adapting furnaces to the
fan-blast, Mr. Fairbairn observed, that it was well known that its ap-
plication to the cupola for melting pig-iron was attended with the most
complete success; and the object of the present.inquiry was to deter-
mine how far the same mode of blowing was applicable to furnaces on
a large scale, for the purpose of smelting ores. Objections had been
made to Mr. Fairbairn’s plan, on account of the very low pressure at
which the air is introduced into the furnace, and its insufficiency to
force it through a mass of material such as is contained in the furnaces
of this country, and which is from thirty to forty feet in depth. To
these objections Mr. Fairbairn replied, that the same had been urged
against the introduction of the fan-blast to the cupola; that, in his
opinion, its efficiency was as the quantity discharged, and not the press-
ure, which regulated the passage of the air from the “ twyres” to the
top of the furnace. The fan-blast, when supplied with large apertures
into the furnace, would, in his opinion, increase the process of calcina-
tion, effect a more equable temperature, and produce a superior quality
of metal. It appeared, therefore, of importance that the experiment
should be made; and Mr. Fairbairn offered to superintend its intro-
duction, provided the proprietors of the numerous works in this coun-
try agreed with him in opinion, that the process would be advantage-
ous both as regards expense, and the improved quality of the metal
produced.
On the Combustion of Coal, and the Prevention of the Generation of
Smoke in Furnaces. By Mr. Wit.iams.
Mr. Williams observed, that in treating on steam and the steam-
engine, the subject divides itself into the following heads :—I1st, the
management of fuel in the generation of heat; 2nd, the management
of heat in the generation of steam ; 3rd, the management of steam in
the generation of fuel. The first belongs to the furnace, the second
200 REPORT—1840.
to the boiler, and the third to the engine. The main constituents of
coal are carbon and bitumen: the former is convertible, in the solid
state, to the purpose of generating heat; the latter, in the gaseous
state alone, and to this latter is referable all that assumes the character
of flame. The greater part of the practicable ceconomy in the use of
coal being connected with the combustion of the gases, this division of
the subject is peculiarly important. Having explained the nature of
combustion, Mr. Williams went on to show that all depended on bring-
ing the combustible and the air into contact in the proper quantities,
of the proper quality, and at the proper time, the proper place, and the
proper temperature. The conditions requiring attention were, Ist, the
quantity ; 2nd, the quality of the air admitted ; 3rd, the effecting their
incorporation or diffusion; 4th, the time required for the diffusion ;
and 5th, the place in the furnace where this should take place.
Mr. Williams exhibited several diagrams, representing the several
processes connected with the combustion of a single atom of coal-gas
or carburetted hydrogen, and also of bodies or masses of such gas.
The essential difference between the ordinary combustion of this gas
in combination with atmospheric air, and that resorted to by Mr.
Gurney in combination with pure oxygen, in what is called the Bude
light, was then explained. By these diagrams it was shown, Ist, what
was the precise quantity of air which the combustion of gas demanded ;
2nd, the degree or kind of mixture which combustion required ; and
3rd, that the unavoidable want of time in the furnace to effect this
degree of diffusion was the main impediment to perfect combustion,
and the cause of the generation of smoke.
From the consideration of these details, the inference followed, that
smoke, once generated in the furnace, cannot be burned—that, in fact,
smoke thus once generated became a new fuel, demanding all the
conditions of other fuels. Mr. Williams dwelt much on the chemical
error of supposing that smoke or gas can be consumed by bringing it
into contact or connexion with a mass of incandescent fuel on the bars
of a furnace ; that, in fact, this imaginary point of incandescence, or
the contact with any combustible body at the temperature of incan-
descence, was peculiarly to be avoided, instead of being, as hitherto,
sought for ; and hence the failure of all those efforts to prevent or con-
sume smoke. The great evil, then, of the present furnaces, was their
construction, which did not admit the necessary extent of time (or its
equivalent), time being essential to effect the perfect diffusion of mix-
ture of the gas. Mr. Williams then proceeded to show, that unless
some compensating power or means be obtained, and practically and
ceconomically applied, we can never arrive at full combustion, or prevent
the formation of smoke. This compensating power was shown to be
obtainable by means of surface, and was well exemplified in the blow-
pipe; the remedy, then, for the want of time in the furnaces, may be
met, by introducing the air in the most effective situation, by means of
numerous small jets. Mr. Williams submitted the primary law to be
this, viz. that no larger portions of air, that is, no greater number of
atoms of air, should be introduced into any one locality than can be
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201
absorbed and chemically combined with the atoms of the gas with
which they respectively come into contact. Again, that the effecting,
by means of this extended surface, this necessary diffusion was the
main condition which required attention, and not that of temperature.
Mr. Williams then exhibited the diagram of a boiler to be constructed
on the above principles, and stated that he had an experimental boiler
at work, which fully proved the accuracy of the principle.
Experimental Inquiry into the Strength of Iron with respect to its Ap-
plication as a substitute for Wood in Ship-building. By Mr.¥ atr-
BAIRN.
The number of vessels which of late years have been made entirely
of iron, and the probability of the greatly extended use of this metal in
ship-building, render it desirable to attain additional knowledge to
that we possess upon its resistance to the strains to which it is sub-
jected in this new application to the purposes above stated. ‘To meet
the requirements for this purpose, the following series of experiments
have been undertaken, and in a great measure completed :—Ist. A se-
ries of experiments on the strength of plates of iron, as regards a direct
tensile strain, both in direction of the fibre and across it. 2nd. On the
strength of the joints in plates riveted together, and on the best modes
of riveting. 3rd. On the strength of the various forms of ribs or frames
used in ship-building, whether wholly composed of iron or of iron and
wood. 4th. On the resistance of plates to compression and concussion,
and on the power necessary to burst them. The experiments have
been superintended by Mr. Hodgkinson, to whom Mr. Fairbairn ac-
knowledges himself indebted for many of the results in this research.
On Strength of Iron Plates-——In the experiments all the plates were
of uniform thickness; their ends had plates riveted to them on both
sides, with holes bored through them perpendicular to the plate, in
order that they might be connected by both, with shackles to tear them
asunder in the middle, which was made narrower than the rest for that
purpose. The results were as follows :
Mean breaking weights in tons per square inch, when drawn in the
direction of the fibre :—
Tons.
Yorkshire plates ... 25°77 )
Ditto ditto ... 22°76
Derbyshire ditto ... 21°68 -Mean 22-52 tons.
Shropshire ditto ... 22°83
Staffordshire ditto ... 19°56
Mean breaking weights in tons per square inch, when drawn across
the fibre :-—
Yorkshire plates ... 27°49
Ditto ditto ... 26°04
Derbyshire ditto ... 18°65 -Mean 23:04 tons.
Shropshire ditto ... 22°00
Staffordshire ditto ... 21°01
202 REPORT—1840.
The foregoing experiments show that there is little difference in the
strength of iron plates, whether drawn in the direction of the fibre or
across it. Mr. Fairbairn then gave the results of a long series of ex-
periments on the strength of riveted plates. The same description of
plates were here used as in the previous experiments ; they were, how-
ever, made wider than the former plates, in order that they might con-
tain (after the rivet-holes were punched out) the same area of cross
section as the previous ones.
Mean breaking weights in Ibs. from four plates of equal section,
riveted by a single row of rivets :—
20,127
16,107
18,982
19,147
The mean breaking weights in lbs. from four plates of equal sections
to the last, but united with a double row of rivets :—
22,699
23,371
20,059
22,902
Whence the strength of single to double riveting is as 18,590: 22,258.
But from a comparison of the results taken from the whole experiments,
the strength derived from the double riveted joints was to that of the
single as 25,030: 18,591, or as 1000 to 742. Comparing the strength
of plates alone with that of double and single riveted joints, Mr. Fair-
bairn gave their relative values as under :-—
Mean 18,590 lbs.
Mean 22,258 lbs.
For the strength of the plate.........sceeseceeeeres 100
For that of double riveted joints .........++. secen = nti
And for the single riveted joints .........+++...0+ 56
Hence the strength of plates to that of the joints as the respective
numbers 100, 70 and 56. Mr. Fairbairn then gave a table containing
the dimensions and distances of rivets for joining together different
thicknesses of plates.
Experimental Researches into the Strength of Pillars of Cast Iron, and
other Materials*. By Eaton Honexinson, Esq.
When it is considered to what extent pillars of iron and of timber
are used for the support of buildings, and reflect that there are no
satisfactory rules by which to measure the strength of pillars, it will
appear to be a matter of great importance to obtain rules by means of
experiment, and, if possible, the laws on which they depend.
A feeling of this kind, heightened by the remarks of Dr. Robison,
in his Mechanical Philosophy, vol.i., and the strongly-expressed opi-
nion of our want of such knowledge by Mr. Barlow, led me to wish to
undertake the inquiry. I mentioned the matter, therefore, to my friend
* This communication is an abstract of a paper read before the Royal
Society a short time previous to the meeting.
—- ss
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203
Mr. Fairbairn, who, with that liberality which I have experienced from
him on former occasions, at once put every means of a full investiga-
tion into my hands. He expressed a wish that I should extend the
inquiry to pillars of various kinds, ancient as well as modern, and leave
no part of the subject I undertook till I had obtained full satisfaction
upon it from experiment. Thus freed from restraint, I endeavoured
to forget the expense I put my friend to, in my wish to acquire the
requisite information.
The experiments are contained in thirteen tables, as below.
Cast Iron.
Table 1. Solid uniform cylindrical pillars, with rounded ends......... 55
i 2s». Ditto ditto with flat ends ...,.....2+000. 51
», 3. Solid uniform square pillars, with rounded ends,.........+- ssc ds
» 4. Solid uniform cylindrical pillars, with discs............ssce0+es 12
» 9% Ditto ditto with ends rounded, round- 23
ed and flat, and both ends flat ...........cscsesceeeeeese. as
» 6. Solid cylindrical pillars, enlarged middle, rounded ends...... 7
yds Ditto ditto discs on ends ............ aca, ee
» 8. Hollow uniform cylinders, rounded ends....:......2.2+++- seid =
» 9. Hollow uniform cylinders, flat ends ..........sceceseecesessecees
», 10. Short hollow uniform pillars, flat ends...........secseesscecseoes
» 11. Pillars, hollow and solid, of various me. 2 and different 10
modes of fixing...... eaenehaeasehs oppecscatas ee Ee iy
Wrought Iron and Steel.
», 12. Uniform cylindrical pillars of these metals ........... Seesecc -. 30
Wood.
», 13. Square pillars of oak, and other rectangular forms ........... apalltty
259
The pillars, during the experiments, were placed vertically, resting
upon a flat, smooth plate of hardened steel, laid upon a cast-iron shelf,
made very strong, and lying horizontal. The pressure was communi-
cated to the upper end of the pillar by means of a strong lever acting
upon a bolt of hardened steel, 25 inches diameter, and about a foot
long, kept vertical by being made to pass through a hole bored in
a deep mass of cast-iron; the hole being so turned as just to let the
bolt slide easily through without lateral play. The top of the bolt was
hemispherical, that the pressure from the lever might act through its
axis; and the bottom was turned flat to rest upon the pillar. The
bottom of this bolt, and the shelf on which the pillar stood, were
necessarily kept parallel to each other; for the mass through which
the bolt passed, and that on which the shelf rested, were parts of the
same large case of iron, cast in one piece, and so formed as to admit
shelves at various heights for breaking pillars of different lengths.
The case had three of its four sides closed; circular apertures were,
however, made through them, that the experimenter might observe the
pillar without danger.
204 REPORT—1840.
Experiments.
With a view to develope the laws connecting the strength of cast-
iron pillars with their dimensions, they were broken of various lengths,
from five feet to one inch, and the diameters varied from half an inch
to two inches, in solid pillars; and in hollow ones the length was
increased to seven feet six inches, and the diameter to 35 inches. My
first object was to supply the deficiencies of Euler’s theory of the
strength of pillars*, if it should appear capable of being rendered
practically useful; and, if not, to endeavour to adapt the experi-
ments so as to lead to useful results. As the results of the experi-
ments were intended to be compared together, it was desirable that
all the pillars of cast iron should be from one species of metal ;
and the description chosen was a Yorkshire iron, the Low Moor,
No. 3. The pillars were mostly made cylindrical, as that seemed a
more convenient form in experiments of this kind than the square; for
square pillars generally break anglewise. The experiments in the first
table were made on solid uniform pillars, rounded at the ends, that the
force might pass along the axis; and the metal was cast in dry sand, to
obtain, as far as possible, uniformity in its texture. In the second
table the pillars were uniform and cylindrical, as before, but had their
ends flat and at right angles to the axis. In this table the variety of
the lengths and diameters of the pillars was considerable; and in the
lengths it was greater than in the former table. The pillars were from
the same models as before, but were cast in green (moist) sand.
Results from the 1st and 2nd Tables.
1st. In all long pillars of the same dimensions, the resistance to
crushing by flexure is about three times greater when the ends of the
pillars are flat, than when they are rounded.
Qnd. The strength of a pillar, with one end round and the other flat,
is the arithmetical mean between that of a pillar of the same dimen-
sions with both ends round, and one with both ends flat. Thus, of
three cylindrical pillars, all of the same length and diameter, the first
having both its ends rounded, the second with one end rounded and
one fiat, and the third with both ends flat, the strengths are as 1, 2, 3
nearly.
ard. A long uniform cast-iron pillar, with its ends firmly fixed, whe-
ther by means of dises or otherwise, has the same power to resist
breaking as a pillar of the same diameter, and half the length, with the
ends rounded or turned so that the force would pass through the axis.
4th. The experiments in Tables 6. and 7. show that some additional
strength is given to a pillar by enlarging its diameter in the middle
part; this increase does not, however, appear to be more than one-
seventh or one-eighth of the breaking weight.
5th. The index of the power of the diameter to which the strength
of long pillars with rounded ends is proportional, is 3°76 nearly, and
3°55 in those with flat ends, as appeared from the results of a great
* Berlin Memoirs, 1757.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205
number of experiments; or the strength of both may be taken as the
3°6 power of the diameter nearly.
6th. In pillars of the same thickness the strength is inversely propor-
tional to the 1°7 power of the length nearly.
Thus the strength of a solid pillar with rounded ends, the diameter
3-6
[7
The absolute strengths of solid pillars, as appeared from the experi-
ments, are nearly as below.
In pillars with rounded ends,
of which is d, and the length J, is as
e
; of, a6
Strength in tons = 14°9 al
In pillars with flat ends,
66
Strength in tons = 44°16 ie
In hollow pillars nearly the same laws were found to obtain ; thus, if
D and d be the external and internal diameters of a pillar, whose
length is /, the strength of a hollow pillar, of which the ends were
-moveable (as in the connecting rod of a steam-engine), would be ex-
pressed by the formula below.
D3-6 — q3-6
[\-7 i
In solid pillars, whose ends are flat, we had from experiment as
before,
Strength in tons = 13 x
D3-5— q3-6
ea
The formula above apply to all pillars whose length is not less than
about thirty times the external diameter; for pillars shorter than this,
it is necessary to have recourse to another formula, which has been
investigated by the author*.
Similar Pillars.
In similar pillars, or those whose length istothe diameter in a constant
proportion, the strength is nearly as the square of the diameter, or of
any other linear dimension; or in other words, the strength is nearly
as the area of the transverse section.
In hollow pillars, of greater diameter at one end than the other,
or in the middle than at the ends (Table 11.), it was not found that any
additional strength was obtained over that of cylindrical pillars.
The strength of a pillar, in the form of the connecting rod of a
steam-engine, was found to be very small, perhaps not more than half
the strength that the same metal would have given if cast in the form
of a uniform hollow cylinder.
Strength in tons = 44°3 x
* Tn this case the formuia for the strength is » where b is the breaking
be
b+ic
weight of the pillar, as calculated according to the previous formula for long
flexible pillars ; and ¢ = the force which would crush a pillar of the same sec~
tion without flexure.
206 REPORT—1840.
A pillar irregularly fixed, so that the pressure would be in the direc-
tion of the diagonal, is reduced to one-third of its strength. Pillars
fixed at one end and moveable at the other, as in those flat at one end
and rounded at the other, break at one-third of the length from the move-
able end ; therefore, to economize the metal, they should be rendered
stronger there than in other parts.
Long-continued Pressure on Pillars.
To determine the effect of a load laying constantly upon a pillar,
Mr. Fairbairn had, at the writer's suggestion, four pillars cast, all of
the same length and diameter; the first was loaded with 4 ewt.,
the second with 7 ewt., the third with 10 ewt., and the fourth with
13 ewt.; this last was loaded with ;97, of what had previously broken
a pillar of the same dimensions, when the weight was carefully laid on
without loss of time. The pillar loaded with the 13 ecwt. bore the
weight between five and six months, and then broke.
General Properties of Pillars.
In the pillars of wrought iron and steel, in Table 12, and in those of
timber in Table 13, the same laws, with respect to rounded and flat
ends, were found to obtain, as had been shown to exist in cast-iron.
Of rectangular pillars of timber, it was proved experimentally that
the pillar of greatest strength of the same material is a square.
In square pillars of oak, with flat ends, the strength was expressed
by this formula,
Strength in tons = 69 x Si
where d is the side of the square, and / the length, as before.
Comparative Strengths of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel and
Timber.
It resulted from the experiments upon long pillars of the same di-
mensions, but of different materials, that if we call the strength of cast
iron 1000, we shall have for wrought iron 1745, cast steel 2518,
Dantzic oak 108°8, red deal ’78°5.
On a Revolving Balance. By Mr. Loruian.
The opposing arms of this balance are curved, being formed of two
spirals, the one situated vertically over the other, and both bending
round a common centre of movement, which is placed in the pale of
the upper curve. The spirals diverge from each other near their
origin, but approach and merge together at their extremes, and thus
form one continuous curve, which is grooved on its circumference.
The cords or chains which suspend the receiving scale and counter-
poise act against each other in this groove—the weight of the scale,
when hanging from a lengthened radiant of the upper spiral, being in
equilibrio with the greater weight of the counterpoise when hanging
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207
from a shorter radiant of the lower one. When this state of rest is
disturbed by loading the scale the balance moves round, and, in the
progress of its revolution, the opposite eccentricities of the spirals com-
bine in changing the ratio of the leverage, and thus originate a self-
adjusting power, by which the loads of both cords are mutually moved
into equilibrium. The receiving scale thus commences with greater,
and ends with less mechanical power than the counterpoise—a circum-
stance which is in harmony with the purpose of employing an un-
changing weight to measure others both less and greater than itself;
while the principle is one which concentrates the power and abridges
the size of the machine. In order, however, that the total amount of
adjusting power thus generally obtained may be equally drawn upon
and advantageously distributed throughout the movement of the ba-
lance, a definite relation is established between the weight of the coun-
terpoise and the rates at which the accumulating weight of the scale
and the leverage of the lower spiral increase. The leverage of the
upper spiral, being derived from these ascertained conditions, is made
to preserve a rate of decrease which accords with the previously regu-
lated increase in the leverage of the lower curve; while both spirals
have their precise form determined by the additional consideration of
the direction in which the cords exert their power on the circumference
of the balance. In their calculated formation the two spirals are thus
dependent on and related to each other, while together they are com-
ponent parts of one continuous curve, in which the mutual and com-
bined changes of leverage are made to follow an equable, as well as a
general progressive gradation ; by which means the balance is moved
through equal angles by equal weights. In machines intended for
weights of considerable amount, the balance is made to revolve about
an axis, which is itself supported, a little above its centre, on knife-
edge rests, so as to combine the movement of the revolving balance
with the libration of the common one—the coincidence of a pointer
from the axis with the ordinary pointer of the machine showing when
the indication is practically unaffected by friction. In machines for
weights of still greater magnitude, the articles to be weighed are made
to act, in part, as their own counterpoise, by adopting differential
curves to diminish the descending power of the scale ; by which a com-
paratively small counterpoise is made to adjust the unsupported differ-
ence of weights greatly exceeding itself.
_—
On a Water Filter. By Mr. Tuom.
Mr. Thom described a self-cleaning filter, similar to those which
have been in use on a large scale at Greenock for about thirteen, and
at Paisley for three years, and which purify water, not only in which
mud and other impurities are mixed or merely suspended, but which
also free moss-water of its colour and taste, thereby rendering it, in
both respects, similar to spring-water. The substance which pro-
duces this effect is a species of trap-rock or amygdaloid, very com-
208 REPORT—1840.
mon on the hills above Greenock, and in other places in Scotland ; and
Mr. Thom was led to adopt it from having seen its effect in nature
in purifying dark moss-water which filtered through it.
In forming the filters at Greenock, in 1827, Mr. Thom proved the
effect of this substance, by breaking down the rock to the size of small
peas and less, and mixing this with fine sharp sand, and then forming the
filtering medium of the mixture. The fine sand is composed of quartz,
reduced to powder by the action of the sea, &c. This sand keeps the
filtering medium longer open than it would be without it, and is better
adapted for the self-cleaning process than any other kind of sand, or
than the pounded rock by itself.
The water is filtered by passing directly downwards through the
media; the media are in their turn cleaned by passing the water
through them upwards. On the large scale it is proper to do this
once a week ; but the whole process of cleaning only requires about an
hour’s time, and to accomplish this it is only necessary to shut and
open two stop-cocks alternately, and allow the water time to carry up
any impurities that may be obstructing the operation; and these
being always found very near the surface, the operation is quickened
by moving the sand there gently with a fine rake, after the upward
current has continued for a few minutes. If the surface is disturbed
while the current is passing downwards, it does injury by sending the
impurities further down. In Greenock the filtering bed is made con-
siderably deeper than at Paisley, the water at the latter place being
naturally less impure than at the former. The Paisley filter is, there-
fore, much cheaper in the construction than those at Greenock; and
this one filter, at an expense considerably under 1000/., produces an
abundant supply of fine water for 30,000 inhabitants.
On a Smoke Protector. By Mr. WAuvAce.
On an Improved Working Barrel for use in sinking Pits, Se.
By Marrutas Dunn.
The improvement here referred to consists in attaching a branch side
pipe of about one-third the diameter of the working barrel, extending
from above to below the space traversed by the bucket, in which pipe
is inserted a cock, whereby to regulate the discharge of water from the
column above into the space below. It is peculiarly fitted to the exi-
gencies of sinking pits, where the water is required to be kept so low
in the bottom as to enable the sumping to be carried forward, and in |
the effecting of which air is constantly liable to be drawn into the
windbore at the snoreholes, which has a tendency to destroy the equi-
librium of the engine and cause great and continual damage. The
cock is manceuvred by the sinkers in the bottom of the pit by means
of an iron rod, letting back so much water into the space between the
bucket and clack as just to drain the feeders and nothing more, and
by having a constant eye to it this is found to be exactly effected.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209
On a Machine Regulator. By Mr. Rayners.
The Regulator has for its primary object the alteration or regulation
of the velocity of any surface in rotary motion ; this method of adjust-
ing speed is presumed to be applicable to any combination of machinery
where such variation is required, and it may be safely asserted that this
controling power has never yet been perfectly attained. The in-
ventors conceive the “ Regulator” to have fully supplied this want.
From the earliest time of machine spinning, it has been an object to
adjust, with precision, the “ drag ” on the bobbin, so as to be equally able
to wind on its cylinder the finest yarns and rovings without injurious
strain, and to give the required tension to the stronger yarns and threads.
In the usual method of spinning by the water-frame or throstle, the
bobbin-is carried round by the action of the spindle on its interior sur-
face, and washers of cloth, as well as other means, have been adopted
to give amore effectual drag, by the friction of surfaces ; viewing the
practical operation of the drag as thus applied, the result will obvi-
ously be uncertain, irregular and imperfect, as the manufacture of the
finer and softer yarns and rovings fully illustrates.
The Regulator affords the means of the exact adjustment of the
“‘ drag” or speed of the bobbin, by which the most delicate yarns or
rovings can be taken up or laid on in successive coils as the operation
proceeds. The Regulator, when well constructed, will give a most
exact, minute and regular strain, and any inferior quantity or effect
may be secured with the utmost facility. The change-wheel at the
end of the screw places the “ drag” completely at the control of the
spinner.
By means of a model and sectional drawing the principle of the
machine was illustrated.
On the Drainage of Railway Embankments and Slopes.
By Mr. Suiru.
On Timber Bridges. By Mr. Smit.
On Propelling Boats on Canals. By Mr. Smitu.
Mr. Smith proposed that the steam power in the boat should drive
two large wheels, of thirty feet diameter, which should bite the ground
at the bottom of the canal. He exhibited a working model on this
principle, which succeeded on the small scale ; and he stated that he
had tried it on a larger scale with the power of four men, and it had
also succeeded. The wheels might be either on each side of the boat,
as in the model, with a provision for a play of three or four feet, that
they might accommodate themselves to inequalities at the bottom of
the canal; or there might be one wheel in the centre of the boat, if
constructed on the twin principle.
1840. P
210 REPORT—1840.
On Mr. Bakewell’s Anglemeter. By Mr. J. Hawxrns.
The instrument was exhibited and explained by Mr. Hawkins, and
its use in measuring the angle ef dip of the strata, joint planes, &c.,
pointed out.
On a New Canal Lock. By Mr. Smits, of Deanston.
The advantages of this invention he stated to be, that the descent
in each lock would not be more than twelve to eighteen inches—that
the locks were opened by the passage of the vessels—that the locks shut
of themselves—that the vessels did not require to stop—and that little
or no water was lost. The lock-gate is hinged at the bottom; the
upper portion, which is round, floats at the level of the higher part of
the water, and is pressed down by the bow of the vessel in passing,
and when it has passed, rises to its former position.
On Raising Water from Low Lands. By Mr. FatrBairn.
The Commissioners for draining the Lake of Haarlem having applied
to Mr. Fairbairn on the subject, he proposed a method where the water
is raised by a large scoop, which rises on the descent of a weight, which
weight is raised by steam power, on the Cornish principle. It is caleu-
lated to raise seventeen tons at each stroke. Mr, Fairbairn exhibited
a model in illustration.
Mr. Hodgkinson exhibited Mr. Clegg’s new Safety Lamp, with the
protecting wire-gauze of a Davy Lamp. It is surrounded by a trian-
gular frame with bull’s-eye glasses.
On an Improved Rain Gauge. By Mr. Tuom.
It consists of a cylinder two feet long and seven inches in diameter,
sunk in the earth till the mouth of its funnel (which receives the rain)
is on a level with the ground surrounding it. Into this cylinder is put
a float, with a scale or graduated rod attached to it, which will move -
up or down as the water rises or falls in the cylinder. There is a thin
brass bar fixed within the funnel, about half an inch under its mouth,
with an aperture in the middle just large enough to allow the scale to
move easily through it. The upper side of this cross bar is brought to
a fine edge, so as to cut but not obstruct the drops which may alight
on it. ‘There is an aperture also in the bottom of the funnel, through
which the water must pass into the cylinder, and through which also
the scale must move; but this aperture requires to be made no larger
than just to permit the scale to move through it freely. The cylinder
is firmly fixed in a large flat stone, level with the surface of the ground ;
in the stone a groove is cut round the gauge to guard it from receiving
rain which may fall on the stone. The adjustment to zero is performed
in the usual way.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211
On a New Rain Gauge. By Mr. James JOHNSTON.
Mr. Johnston described a new rain gauge, so constructed that the
receiving funnel or orifice at which the rain enters is always kept at
right angles to the falling rain. By the action of the wind on a large
vane, the whole gauge is turned round on a pivot, until the front of the
gauge faces the quarter from whence the wind blows; and by the
action of the wind on another vane attached to the receiving funnel,
the mouth of the funnel is moved from a horizontal towards a perpen-
dicular position, according to the strength of the wind. The receiving
funnel and vane attached to it are balanced with counterpoise weights,
in such a manner that the wind, in moving them, has as much weight
to remove from a perpendicular position, in proportion to their bulk,
as it has when moving an ordinary-sized drop of rain from the same
position ; by this means the mouth of the gauge is kept at right angles
to the falling rain.
———$—=
Mr. Sanders exhibited a portrait produced from an engraving done
by a machine invented by Mr. W. West of Bristol, being a combina-
tion of circular and straight line engraving.
Mr. Clarke exhibited a large Electro-Magnet.
Mr. Milne gave an account of a High-Pressure Filter for domestic
purposes.
On an Improved Life-Boat. By the Rev. Dr. PatERsoN.
He called it a Riddle Life-Boat, because the bottom is like a riddle.
The sides of the boat consist each of a hollow elliptical tube, to be
made of sheet-iron, and from this it-has all its buoyancy, which is un-
affected by any influx of water. This boat, he said, was light, easily
propelled, and drew only a foot or two of water; and besides being
used for reaching vessels in distress, or carrying passengers to steam-
boats, it might be itself carried as a ship’s boat—to be ready for use in
danger or difficult landing.
M. le Comte de Lille explained his method of laying down Wood
Pavement, as exemplified at Whitehall.
On certain Improvements on Locomotive and other Engine Boilers.
By Mr. HawtHorn.
The object of this improvement is to prevent what is technically
called “ priming,” to heat the steam on its passage to the cylinder, and
P2 :
212 REPORT—1840.
to employ return tubes, as well as direct tubes, for heating the water.
The advantages are said to be, that no water is carried with the steam
into the cylinder, and a saving of fuel, through the arrangement of the
tubes, from 30 to 40 per cent.
On Wrought-Iron Wheels for Locomotive Engines. By Mr. Grime.
In this communication Mr. Grime detailed the construction, and
discussed the advantages, of an entire wrought-iron wheel, suitable for
engines, tenders, &c., for which he has obtained a patent.
Account of a Railway Wheel with Wood Tyre. By Mr. Dircxs.
The construction of the wheel will be understood by imagining
an ordinary spoked wheel, but with a deep-chanmelled tyre. In this
channel are inserted blocks of African oak, measuring about 4 x 32
inches, prepared by filling the pores with such unctuous preparations
as counteract the effects of capillary attraction in regard to wet or
damp. The blocks are cut so as to fit very exactly, with the grain
placed vertically throughout, forming a kind of wooden tyre. There
are about thirty blocks of wood round each wheel, where they are re-
tained in their places by bolts, the two sides of the channel having cor-
responding holes drilled through them for this purpose ; each block of
wood is thus fastened by one or two bolts, which are afterwards well
rivetted. After being so fitted, the wheel is put into a lathe, and
turned in the ordinary manner of turning iron tyres, when it acquires
all the appearance of a common railway wheel, but with an outer
wooden rim, and the flange only of iron. Mr. Dircks proposes the use
of either hard or soft woods, and of various chemical preparations to
preveut the admission of water into the pores of the wood: he also
contemplates the using of wood well compressed. A wheel was ex-
hibited, one of a set which had been in use for two months, carrying
five tons daily.
On a new Step-Rail, and Railway Carriages. By Mr. Couzs.
Mr. Coles proposed to introduce friction wheels ; and that, except-
ing the first and last carriage in the train, the carriages should run on
two wheels. He also proposes a step-rail at the curves or bends, to
have the effect of reducing them to cants. Mr. Coles described
minutely the plan thus noticed, and discussed the expected advantages.
On an Improvement on the Air-Pump. By Mr. Lane.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213
On Safety- Valves for Steam Boilers. By Mr. Guturne.
The author endeavoured to prove that the safety-valves at present
in use are not large enough, and proposed a construction of boiler and
valve, such that the whole top of the boiler should in fact be constituted
a safety-valve.
On a Gas Regulator. By Mr. James MItne.
By means of this invention the length of the flames is equalized,
notwithstanding the variations of pressure that occur, and a consider-
able saving in the consumption of gas is effected.
Mr. Alexander gave an explanation of his Electro-Magnetic Tele-
graph.
Mr. Dunn explained “ Ponton’s Electro-Magnetic Telegraph,” which
instrument was exhibited in the model-room.
On a New Hydraulic Apparatus. By Mr. Jer¥rey.
It comprised an improvement on the ancient endless chain of
buckets, which the author considers of Egyptian origin. This appa-
ratus has hitherto never acquired the value it admits of, on account of
a defect having remained in its construction, opposed to geometrical
principle—the buckets which bring up the water being fixed outside
instead of within the rope. The effect of this is such an acceleration
of the bucket, when it is carried round the wheel at top, as causes it to
overtake the water and carry much of it down again. But by placing
the buckets on the centre side of the ropes, that is, within them, the
bucket when passing round the wheel, being very near the centre, is
much retarded, and the momentum of the water causes it to ride out of
the bucket very effectually into the trough. A peculiarity in the form
of the bucket also prevents the spilling of the water in cases where the
motion is very slow.
Mr. Jeffreys described a fire-grate, exhibited in the model-room,
which may be placed, he said, so far forwards as to be quite out of the
chimney, and radiate a two-fold quantity of heat into the apartment,
and yet there shall be no tendency to send smoke into the room. By
an addition, in accordance with the same principle, fresh air is intro-
duced, comfortably warmed before it enters the room. -
Mr. Fairbairn described “ Hall’s Patent Hydraulic Belt for Raising
Water.”
214 REPORT—1!840.
On Warming and Ventilating Buildings. By Mr. Rircute.
The principal object of this paper was to call the attention of ar-
chitects to the construction of houses, with a view to a better provision
for heating and ventilation. The author described the method adopted
by Sir J. Robison, whose house is warmed by a large supply of air
heated to 70°, which is allowed to issue directly into the lobby and
staircase, which it heats to 60° even in the coldest weather. This
heated air is allowed to enter the sitting rooms freely by concealed
apertures over the doors, and the vitiated air is carried off through
openings in the ceilings by separate flues in each room.
Sir John Robison stated that, with the apparatus in his house, he
can keep his staircase at a temperature of from 58° to 62°, when the
current of heated air was only 64° as it issued from the apparatus, and
that the additional expense caused by his provision for ventilation did
not exceed 201.
On Dennett's Rockets for preserving Lives from Shipwreck.
By Mr. Grime.
On the subject of this invention various documents were presented,
and a letter was read from Captain Denham, stating that the range of
these rockets exceeded that of the mortar by 100 yards, the range of
the rockets being about 350 yards, while that of the mortar was but
about 250.
INDEX I.
TO
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
OBJECTS and rules of the Associa-
tion, v.
Officers and Council, viii.
Places of Meeting and Officers from
commencement, ix.
Table of Council from commence-
ment, x.
Officers of the Glasgow Sectional
Committees, xii.
Corresponding Members, xiii.
_Treasurer’s Account, xiv.
Reports, Researches, and Desiderata,
&e., xvi.
Recommendations for additional Re-
ports and Researches in Science,
Xxiil.
Synopsis of money grants, xxxii.
Arrangement of the General Evening
Meetings, xxxiv.
Address of the General Secretaries,
XXKV.
Airy (G.B.) on the reductions of the
Greenwich Lunar and Planetary
Observations, 423.
Anemometer, Prof. Whewell’s, 157.
, self-registering, on the, 321.
, action of Osler’s, at Edinburgh,
435.
Amphibia, 384.
Animal and vegetable substances, pre-
servation of, 421.
Apodes, 395.
Atmospheric pressure, 85.
Aurora Borealis, 120.
Aves, 364.
Barometrical observations, 352.
Brewster (Sir D.), report on the hourly
meteorological observations kept at
Inverness and Kingussie, 349.
British Museum, enlarged exhibitions
in illustration of fossil conchology
at the, 443.
Cocelum Australe Stelliferum, reduction
of Lacaille’s stars in the, 427.
Clouds, 111.
Conchology, fossil, enlarged exhibitions
in illustration of, at the British
Museum, 443.
Cartilaginei, 397.
Edinburgh, on the action of Osler’s
anemometer at, 435.
Electricity, atmospherical, 116.
» common, phznomena of polar-
ization caused by, 212.
Electro-chemistry, researches in, 209.
Equinoxes and solstices, reduction of
meteorological observations made at
the, 4238.
Farquharson (Rev. J.) on the forma-
tion of ice, 20.
Forbes (Prof.) on meteorology, 37.
on the transmission and refrac-
tion of heat, 7.
and. M. Melloni, on the analo-
gies of light and heat, 10.
, new phzenomena of trans-
mission, 11.
on the polarization of heat, 21.
on the circular and elliptical po-
larization of heat, 23; further re-
searches, 26.
on the unequal polarizability of
heat from different sources, 30.
on the intensity of reflected
heat, 32.
, suggestions for the advancement
of meteorological science, 143.
216
Forbes (Prof.) on the temperafure and
conducting power of different strata,
434.
Fossil reptiles, British, 444.
Fox (R. Were), observations on sub-
terranean temperature, 309.
Geography, 443.
Geology, 443.
Harris (Mr. W. Snow) on Prof. Whe-
well’s anemometer, 157.
Heart, motions and sounds of the, 163.
Heat, transmission and refraction of,
2,7.
, reflexion of, 10; analogies of
light with, 10; radiation of, 14; re-
pulsive power of, 20; polarization
of, 21; circular and elliptical po-
larization of, 23; polarization of
from different sources, 25, 28.
, radiant, 1; unpolarized, 2; po-
larized, 21.
, intensity of reflected, 32.
Henslow (Rey. J. S.) on the preserva-
tion of animal and vegetable sub-
stances, 421.
Herschel (Sir J.) on the reduction of
meteorological observations made at
the equinoxes and solstices, 432.
Histoire Céleste, reduction of the stars
in the, 426.
Human race, varieties of the, 447.
Hudson (Dr.) on the radiation of
heat, 15.
Humidity, 95.
Ice, formation of, 20.
Ireland, fauna of, 353.
Tron, action of air and water upon,
221; of paints and varnishes upon,
240.
, cast, in simple contact with zinc
immersed in fresh water, 248, 250;
in sea water, 249.
, wrought, in simple contact with
zinc immersed in fresh water, 250.
, zinked, immersed in sea water,
251.
——-, zinked surface necessary to pro-
tect, when immersed in sea water,
252.
, in metallic contact with zinc
immersed in fresh water, 252, 254;
in sea water, 254.
INDEX I,
Lophobranchi, 396.
Lunar observations, 425.
Lunar and planetary observations,
reduction of the Greenwich, 425.
Iungs and air-tubes, physiology of
the, 411.
Magnetism, terrestrial, scientific co-
operation of the Association in the
researches relative to, 427.
Mallet (Robert) on the action of air
and water upon iron, 221.
Mammalia, 355.
aquatica, 362.
Mechanical science, 446.
Melloni (M.) on the transmission and
refraction of heat, 2.
on the reflexion of heat, 10.
, and Prof. Forbes, on the analo-
gies of heat and light, 10.
, hew phenomena of trans-
mission, 11.
, polarization of heat from differ-
ent sources, 25,
, equal polarizability of heat from
different sources, 28.
Meteorological observations, hourly,
kept at Inverness and Kingussie,
349.
made at the equinoxes and sol-
stices, reduction of, 423.
Meteorology, report on, 37.
, optical, 120. k
Meteors, 117.
Murchison (R. I.), and Major Edward
Sabine, their address, xxxv.
Natural History, 444.
Osler (A. Follett) on the observations
recorded during the years 1837,
1838, 1839, 1840, by the self-regis-
tering anemometer erected at the
Philosophical Institution, Birming-
ham, 321.
Owen (Prof.) on British Fossil Rep-
tiles, 443.
Pectinibranchii, 384.
Pisces, 384.
Planets, 424.
Powell (Rev. Baden) on the recent
progress of discovery relative to ra-
diant heat, 1.
, repulsive power of heat, 20.
INDEX II.
Provisional reports and notices, 423.
Radiation, influence of surface and
colour on, 17.
Rain, 111.
Reptiles, British fossil, 443.
Reptilia, 383.
Robison (Sir. J.), and J. S. Russell,
on waves, 441,
Royal Astronomical Society’s cata-
logue of stars, extension of the, 425.
Sabine (Major Edward), and R. I.
Murchison, their address, xxxv.
Salt, singular property possessed by
rock, 3.
Schénbein (Prof.), researches in elec-
tro-chemistry, 209,
Scientific memoirs, on the translation
of foreign, 446.
Stark (Dr.), and Prof. Bache, influence
ofsurface and colouron radiation, 17.
Stars, nomenclature of the, committee
for revising the, 426.
Statistics, 446.
Steel, cast, exposed in simple contact
with zinc immersed in fresh water,
251; in sea water, ib.
217
Strata, temperature and conducting
power of different, 434,
Subbrachiales, 393.
Temperature, 42.
, report on subterranean, 309.
Thompson (Wm.), report on the
fauna of Ireland: div. Vertebrata,
353.
Tide observations, discussion of, appli- -
cation of a portion of the money
grant voted in 1839 for, 486.
Transmission, new phenomena of, 11.
Vegetable substances, preservation of,
421.
Vertebrata, 358.
Waves, 441.
Whewell’s (Rev. W.) anemometer,
report on, 157.
Whewell (Rev. W.) on the application
of a money grant voted in 1839, for
discussion of tide observations, 436.
Williams (Dr. C. J. B.) on the phy-
siology of the lungs and air-tubes,
411.
Wind, 102, 352.
INDEX IL.
TO
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.
ACID, carbonic, thrown off from the
lungs, 87.
, fat, on a new, 76.
, Spiroilous and saliculous, on
the identity of, 78.
, sulphuric, tests for, when thrown
on the person, 84.
, uric, pre-existence of urea in, 73.
Acids, arsenious and sulphuric, new
compound of, 69.
Adrian (Prof.) on the libraries of
Germany, 186.
Africa, population of certain parts of,
185. -
Agassiz (Prof.) on glaciers and boul-
ders in Switzerland, 113.
on the development of the fish
in the egg, 129.
on animals found in red snow,
143.
Air, effects of, when injected into the
veins, 157.
Air-pump, an improvement on the,
212.
Airy (Prof.) on a new apparent polarity
of light, 3.
Alcohol, observations on the voltaic
decomposition of, 81.
218
Aleorn (Dr.) on the excess of popula-
tion, and on emigration as a remedy
for it, in the Highlands of Scotland,
186
Aldridge (Dr.) on the pollen and
vegetable impregnation, 144.
Alexander (Sir J. E.) on three expe-
ditions which might be undertaken
to explore portions of the interior of
Africa, 121.
Alison (Dr.) on the Scottish system of
the management of the poor, 185.
Alloxan, preparation of, 74.
Alloxantine, preparation of, 74.
Alloy, native, application of, for com-
pass pivots, 198.
Alpaca, on the, 131.
Alston (Mr.) on the Glasgow asylum
for the blind, 171.
America, west coast of South, great
earthquakes on the, 123.
Ammonia, thionurate of, preparation
of, 74.
Amphitrite, 140.
Amputations, results of, 163.
Anatomical purposes, preservation of
subjects for, 156.
Anderson (Dr.) on the dew point, 40.
, on the meteorology of Perth, 56.
Anglemeter, Mr. J. Hawkins on Mr.
Bakewell’s, 210.
Ankle-joint, dislocation of the, forward
and backward, 165.
Anderston, state of crime in the subur-
ban burgh of, 176.
Anthracite pig-iron, 191.
Arnott (G. A.) on the synonyms and
affinities of some South African
genera of plants, 147.
Arran, island of, on the geological
model maps and sections of the, 92.
Arsenic, mode of detecting minute
portions of, 83.
Asphyxia, manner in which the vital
actions are arrested in, 151,
Aston (Capt.) on a recent singular
shower of grain at Rajket, in India,
44.
Aurora, cause of the, 48.
Babington (Mr.) on the Cuscuta epi-
linum, 148.
Baddeley (Capt.) on the geology and
mineralogy of Canada, 114.
Balance, revolving, 206.
INDEX II.
Bald (William) on the tides in the
harbour of Glasgow, and the velocity
of the tidal wave in the estuary of
the river Clyde, 49.
on the construction of the models
of the island of Achil, Clare Island,
and the south-western district of
Mayo, in Ireland, 126.
Baltic, coloured water from the, 143.
Barometer, new construction of, 55.
, four daily fluctuations of the, 55.
Barrel, improved working, for use in
sinking pits, 208.
Barry (Dr. Martin) on the first changes
consequent on fecundation in the
mammiferous ovum, 129,
Beech, minutely filamentous roots of
the, 149.
Bell (A.) on a new cause of inter-
ference, 14.
Bell (Charles W.) on the disease known
by the name of mal d’Aleppe, 161.
Bentley (Mr. J.) on the state of edu-
cation and crime in England and
Wales, 185.
Blind, asylum for the, at Glasgow, 171.
Blood, human, fibrine of, 156.
Botany, 128; true method of discover-
ing the natural system in Zoology
and, 128.
Bowman (Mr.) on a remarkable rain-
bow, 12.
Bowman (J. E.) on the great develop-
ment of the upper silurian formation
in the vale of Llangollen, and on a
plateau of igneous rocks on the east
flank of the Berwyn range, 100.
Brandt (M. J. F.) on Myriapoda, 137.
Brazil, North, on the geology and
fossil fishes of, 118.
Bridges, timber, in reference to rail-
ways, 195, 197, 209.
Brodie (Rev. J.) on a new mode of
propelling fluids, or an uniformly
propelling wheel, 190.
Bromine and its compounds, physio-
logical and medicinal action of, 157.
Bryson (Alex.), description of a new
instrument for measuring the re-
fractive power of minute bodies, 87.
Brewster (Sir D.) on the decomposi-
tion of glass, 5.
on Prof. Powell’s measures of
the indices of refraction for the lines
G and H in the spectrum, 5.
INDEX II.
Brewster (Sir D.) on the cause of the
increase of colour by the inversion
of the head, 7.
on the phenomena and cause of
muscz volitantes, 8.
on a method of illuminating mi-
croscopic objects, 9.
» account of the camera obscura,
and other apparatus used in making
daguerreotype drawings, 9.
on the line of visible direction
along the axis of vision, 9.
on an improvement in the po-
larizing microscope, 10.
, letter from Col. Reid to, on the
appearance of the sun at Bermuda,
10.
Buchanan (Dr.) on a method of se-
parating, by filtration, the coagu-
lable lymph from liquid human
blood, 75.
on fibrine of human blood, 156.
Bunsen (Prof.) on a new mode of
estimating nitrogen in organic ana-
lysis, 77.
on the compound or radical
called Kakodyl, 77.
Burn (Dr. A.) on the growth of cotton
in India, 146.
Calculating machine, Mr. Fowler's
new, 595.
Caldecott (Mr.) on meteorological ob-
servations made at Trevandrum, 28.
Camera obscura, account of the, used
in making daguerreotype drawings,
Canada, geology and mineralogy of,
114.
Canals, propelling boats on, 209.
Castle Hill, Androssan, geology of,
95.
Chalmers (Dr.) on the application of
statistics to moral and ceconomic
science, 185.
on the pauperism of Glasgow,
Chalmers (Rev. P.) on the parish of
Dunfermline, 186.
Chemistry, 58.
Chest, cold washing of the, treatment
of pertussis by, 158.
Ciliograda, British, 141.
Cinchona, use of the Matias bark as a
substitute for, 160.
219
Clark (Dr.) on a mode of detecting
minute portions of arsenic, 83.
Clegg’s (Mr.) new safety lamp, 210.
Cleland (Dr.) on the population, trade
and commerce of the city of Glas-
gow, 174.
Coal formation of the west of Scotland,
89.
Coles (Mr.) on a new step-rail, and
railway carriages, 212.
Colour, cause of the increase of, by the
inversion of the head, 7.
Connel (Arthur) on the voltaic de-
composition of alcohol, 81.
Contagions, 72.
Conus, two species of the genus, in
the lias, near Caen, in Normandy,
110.
Cormack (Dr. J. R.) on the effects of
air when injected into the veins, 157.
Cornea, opacity of the, produced by
sulphuric acid, 163.
Cotton, on the growth of, in India, 146.
Cowan (Dr.) on the vital statistics of
Glasgow, 173.
Cuscuta epilinum, 148,
Craig (Mr. J.) on the coal formation
of the west of Scotland, 89.
Crime, extent of, in Glasgow, 169.
» comparative view of, in London,
Dublin and Glasgow, 178.
——., state of, within the suburban
districts of Glasgow, 175.
——,, state of, in the suburban burgh
of Anderston, 176.
Croton oil, therapeutic effect of, in
certain nervous disorders, 156.
Crystallographic notation, on a new
method of, 88.
Daguerreotype, as applied to the draw-
ing of fossils, 121.
Daguerreotype drawings, account of
the camera obscura and other ap-
paratus used in making, 9.
Dalyell (John G.) on the regeneration
of lost organs discharging the func-
tions of the head and viscera, by
the Holothuria and Amphitrite, two
marine animals, 139.
Danson (Mr. W.) on the Alpaca, 181.
Devonshire, older strata of, 103.
Dew point, on the, 40.
Dircks (Mr.) on a railway wheel with
wood tyre, 212.
220
Douglas (James) on dislocation of the
ankle-jeint forward and backward ;
and on the reproduction of bone
after the operation of trepan, 165.
Dunfermline, on the parish of, 186.
Dunn (John) on the vital statistics of
Scarborough, 167.
Dunn (Mr.) on an improved working
barrel for use in sinking pits, &c.,
208.
Ear, mechanical functions of the, 154.
Earth, temperature of the, in the mines
near, 17.
Edinburgh and Glasgow, comparative
vital statistics of, 173.
Egg, development of the fish in the,
129.
Electricity, theory of, 24.
Electro-magnetical machines, princi-
ples of, 18.
Engines, locomotive, on wrought iron
wheels for, 212.
England, state of education and crime
in, 185.
Equations, algebraic, expressibility of
the roots of, 54.
Equilibration, catenary and curves of,
190.
Espy (James P.) on storms, 30.
Espy (Mr.) on the four daily fluctua-
tions of the barometer, 55.
Ettling (Dr.) on the identity of spiroi-
lous and saliculous acid, 78.
Exostosis, on a case of, 165.
Fairbairn (Mr.) on the fan-blast as
applied to furnaces, 199.
on the strength of iron with re-
spect to its application as a substi-
tute for wooden ship-building, 201.
on raising water from low lands,
210.
Fan-blast, as applied to furnaces,
199.
Faroe islands, depression of the coast
of the, 123.
Farquharson (Dr.) on the strongest
form of sea-borne vessels, 191.
Featherstonhaugh (G. H.) on the geo-
graphy of New Brunswick, 121.
Felkin (Mr.) on the growth of cotton,
146.
Fevers, laws which govern contagious,
160.
INDEX II.
Findlater (Mr.) on the state of crime
in the suburban burgh of Ander-
ston, 176.
Fisher (Rev. J.) on remarkable rain-
bows, 12.
Fisher (Rev. J. M.) on the granite
formations of Newabbey, in Gallo-
way, 95.
Fluids, new mode of propelling, 190.
Fcetus in the human species, anatomi-
cal relation of the mother to those
of the, 153.
Forbes (Edward) on a pleistocene tract
in the Isle of Man, and the relations
of its fauna to that of the neighbour-
ing sea, 104.
and John Goodsir, on Pelonaia,
a new genus of Ascidian mollusca,
137.
141.
Forbes (Prof.) on excessive falls of
rain, 43.
Forbes (Dr.) on the mean apsidal angle
of the moon’s orbit, 1.
Fossil fishes of North Brazil, 118.
Fossils, on the daguerreotype as ap-
plied to the drawing of, 121.
Fowler’s (Mr.) new calculating ma-
chine, 55.
Fowler (Dr. N.) on the functions of
the fifth pair of nerves, and of the
ganglia, &c., 156.
Fox (G. T.) on the subject of a paper
on the structure of whales, 131.
, on the British Ciliograda,
Galloway and Ayrshire, discovery of
lead on the borders of, 97.
Galvanoplastics, Prof. Jacobi on his
discovery of, 89.
Gardner (George) on the geology and
fossil fishes of North Brazil, 118.
Gas-regulator, 213.
Gastric and intestinal glands, struc-
ture of the, 149.
Gastro-intestinal mucous membrane,
structure of the, 149.
Geography of New Brunswick, 121.
Geology, 89.
and fossil fishes of North Brazil,
118
and mineralogy of Canada, 114.
Germany, geological maps of different
parts of, 124.
——,, libraries of, 186.
INDEX II.
Glaciers and boulders in Switzerland,
113.
Glands, conglobate, on the uses of the,
156.
Glasgow, chemical manufactures car-
ried on in and near, 58.
, population, trade, and com-
merce of the city of, 174.
, minerals in the neighbourhood
of, 64.
» normal school of, 169.
, observatory erecting near, 1.
, tides in the harbour of, 49.
» pauperism of, 185.
, State of crime in, 169.
, State of crime within the sub-
urban districts of, 175.
——-, superficial beds in the neigh-
bourhood of, 94.
» Vital statistics of, 173.
Glass, decomposed, rings of polarized
light produced in, 6.
, decomposition of, 5,
Glover (George) on foreign bodies in
the cesophagus, 155.
Glover (Dr. R. W.) on preparing hy-
drobromic and hydriodic acids, 75.
on the physiological and medici-
nal action of bromine and its com-
pounds, 157.
Goodsir (J.) and E. Forbes, on pelonaia,
a new genus of ascidian mollusca,
137.
—- — on the British ciliograda,
141.
Gorbals, state of crime in the district
of, 177.
Gordon (Prof.) on a turbine water
wheel, 191.
Graham (Mr.) on a method of approxi-
mating to the value of the roots of
numerical equations, 54.
Graphite, crystallized, new mode of
decomposing, 66.
Great Britain, bill circulation of, 184.
Gregory (Prof.) on a new process for
preparing murexide, 74.
on the preparation of alloxan,
alloxantine, thionurate of ammonia,
- uramile, and murexide, 74.
on the pre-existence of urea in
uric acid, 73.
Griffin (Mr. J. J.) on a new method
of crystallographic notation, 88.
Griffith (R.) on the yellow sandstone
IT
221
and other points of the geology of
Ireland, 110.
Grime (Mr.) on Dennet’s rockets for
preserving livesfrom shipwreck, 214.
on wrought iron wheels for loco-
motive engines, 212.
Guiana, west of, on the modes of fish-
ing employed by Indians in the, 135.
Gulline (Mr.) on safety valves for
steam boilers, 213.
Hamilton (Mathie) on earthquakes on
the west coast of South America, 123.
Hannah (Dr.) on the treatment of
pertussis by cold washing of the
chest, 158.
Hawkins (Mr.) on the safety rotation
railway, 196.
Hawkins (Mr. J.) on Mr. Bakewell’s
anglemeter, 210.
Hawthorn (Mr.) on certain improve-
ments on locomotive and other en-
gine boilers, 211.
Heat, conduction of, 15.
» on a point in the wave-theory as
applied to, 14.
Herschel (Sir J. F. W.), letter from
Mr. Redfield to, on American storms
and tornadoes, 40.
Hodgkinson (Eaton) on the tempera-
ture of the earth in the mines near
Manchester, 17.
on the strength of pillars of cast
iron, and other materials, 202.
Holothuria, on the, 139.
Hoyle (Mr.), new logarithmic calcula-
tions and views, 55.
Hydraulic apparatus, on a new, 213.
Hydrobromic and hydriodic acids, on
preparing, 75.
Hutchinson (Graham) on a method of
prognosticating the probable mean
temperature of the winter months
from that of corresponding months
in the preceding summer, 41.
Ibbotson (J. L. B.) on the daguerreo-
type, as applied to the drawing of
fossils, 121.
Impregnation, pollen and vegetable,
144,
India, growth of cotton in, 146.
Inflammation, circumstances which
govern local, 159.
Insects, on some Persian, 136.
222
Iodine and caustic soda, new salt ob-
tained from, 80.
Ireland, pawnbroking in, 181.
, yellow sandstone and other
points of the geology of, 110.
Triscope, on the, 14.
Iron, strength of, as a substitute for
wood in ship-building, 201.
Isle of Man, pleistocene tracts in the,
and the relations of its fauna to that
of the neighbouring sea, 104.
Jacobi (Prof.) on his discovery of
galvanoplastics, 89.
on the principles of electro-mag-
netical machines, 18.
Jeffrey (Mr.) on a new hydraulic ap-
paratus, 213.
Jeffreys (Dr.) on the uses of the con-
globate glands, 156.
Jeffreys (Julius) on the solvent power
exercised by water at high tempe-
ratures on siliceous minerals, 125.
Johnson (Capt. E. J.) on the applica-
tion of native alloy for compass pi-
vots, 198.
Johnston (Mr. J.) ona new rain gauge,
2
1%
Johnston (Prof.) on resins, 82.
on some varieties of peat, 83.
on the resin of sarcocolla, 83.
Kakodyl, new compound called, 77.
Keir (Wm.) on the geology of Castle
Hill, Androssan, 95.
Kelland (Prof.) on the conduction of
heat, 15.
, on the theory of waves, 50.
Kennedy (C. J.) on the theory of elec-
tricity, 24.
Kilpatrick hills, crystallized minerals
at, 65.
Kingston-upon-Hull, state of educa-
tion in the borough of, 177.
Knipe (J. A.) on the sandstone of
the vale of Solway, and the forma-
tion of the Closeburn basin, Dum-
friesshire, 98.
Lamont (Dr.), an account of the ob-
servatory of Munich, 26.
, on the system of meteorological
observations in Bavaria, 27.
Lang (Mr.) on an improvement on
the air-pump, 212.
INDEX II.
Lankester (Edwin), on plants and ani-
mals found in the sulphureous
waters of Yorkshire, 143.
Lawrie (Dr.) on the results of ampu-
tations, 163.
Leadbetter (Mr.) on thenormal school
of Glasgow, 170.
Lead, discovery of, on the borders of
Galloway and Ayrshire, 97.
Lead hills, occurrence of nine species
of lead ore at, 64.
Leatham (Mr.) on the bill circulation
of Great Britain, 184.
Llangollen, upper silurian formation
in the vale of, development of the,
100.
Liebig (Prof.) on poisons, contagions,
and miasms, 72.
Light, on a new apparent polarity of,
3
Life-boat, on an improved, 211.
Lille (M. le Comte), on laying down
wood pavement, 211.
Lizars (Dr.) on the organs of sense in
the salmon, 134.
Lonsdale (Dr. H.) on an _ ossified
tendo Achillis, and of a case of ex-
ostosis, 165.
Lothian (Mr.) on a revolving balance,
206.
Lungs, carbonic acid thrown off from
the, 87.
Lyell (Charles) on the occurrence of
two species of shells of the genus
conus, in the lias or inferior oolite,
near Caen, in Normandy, 110.
, on ancient sea-cliffs and needles
in the chalk of the valley of the
Seine in Normandy, 111.
Lymph, coagulable, on its separation
by filtration from liquid human
blood, 75.
, effusion of, 159.
Macdonald (Dr.) on the structure of
fishes, so far as the analogies can
be traced between the limbs of the
mammals and the fins of fishes, 131.
, On mnemonics, 157.
Mackay (K.) on a double monoce-
phalic human monster from South
America, 163.
Mackay (Dr.) on the chemical and
medicinal properties of the matias
bark, 160.
INDEX II.
Madeira, geology of, 118.
Magnetic observatory of Munich, ac-
count of the, 26.
Mal d’Aleppe, disease known by the
name of, 161.
Manchester, temperature of the earth
in the mines near, 17.
Manchester Statistical Society, on the
state of education in the borough of
Kingston-upon-Hull, 177.
Maps, relief, 122.
Matias bark, chemical and medicinal
properties of, 160.
Mathematics, 1.
Mc Farlane (P.) on a new construc-
tion of barometer, 55.
Mc Gregor (Mr.) on carbonic acid
thrown off from the lungs, 87.
Mechanical science, 186.
Medical science, 149.
Medulla oblongata, anatomy of the,
154.
Metals, true planes or surfaces on, 192.
Meduse, 142.
Meteorological observations in Ba-
varia, statement of the system of, 27.
at Trevandrum, 28.
Miasms, 72.
Microscope, improvement in the po-
larizing, 10.
Microscopic objects, method of illumi-
nating, 9.
Millar (Captain) on the state of crime
within Glasgow, and city police ju-
risdiction, 169.
Miller (Capt.), comparative view of
the state of crime in London, Dub-
lin, and Glasgow, 173.
Milne (Mr. J.) on a gas regulator,
213.
Milne (Mr.) on a high pressure filter
. for domestic purposes, 211.
Milne (D.) on earthquakes in Scotland,
97
Mineralogy and geology of Canada,
114.
Mitchell (Mr.) on timber bridges, with
reference to their application to the
ceconomical construction of railways,
197.
Mnmeonics, 157.
Mohr (Dr.) on a new method of pre-
paring morphia and its salts, 78.
Mollusea, pelonaia a new genus of
ascidian, 137.
223
Monocephalic human monster, double,
from South America, 163.
Moon’s orbit, mean apsidal angle of
the, 1.
Morphia and its salts, new method of
preparing, 78.
Munich, magnetic observatory of, ac-
count of the, 26.
Murchison (R. I.) on the fishes of the
old red sandstone, 99.
on geological maps of different
parts of Germany, 124,
, and E. de Verneuil, on the stra-
tified deposits which occupy the
northern and central regions of Rus-
sia, 105.
Murexide, new process for preparing,
74.
, preparation of, 74.
Muscz volitantes, phenomena and
cause of, 8.
Nervous system, connection between
the, and muscular contractibility,
155.
Newabbey, granite formations of, in
Galloway, 95.
Newbiggin (Dr. Patrick) on the the-
rapeutic effect of croton oil in cer-
tain nervous disorders, 156.
New Brunswick, geography of, 121.
, geological features of the river
St. John in, 115.
Nichol (Prof.) on the observatory
erecting near Glasgow, 1.
Nitric acid, action of, on the chlorates
iodates, and bromates of potassa and
soda, 79.
Nitrogen, new mode of estimating, in
organic analysis, 77.
Normandy, ancient sea-cliffs and nee-
dles in the chalk of the valley of the
Seine in, 111.
, two species of shells of the ge-
nus Conus, in the lias or inferior
oolite near Caen, in, 110.
isophaeus, foreign bodies in the, 155.
Old red sandstone, fishes of the, 99.
Ovum, mammiferous, on the first
changes consequent on fecundation
in the, 129.
Paterson (Rev. Dr.) on an improved
life boat, 211.
224
Patterson (R.) on medusz, 142.
Peat, on some varieties of, 83.
Peebles (Mr.) on the expressibility of
the roots of algebraic equations, 54.
Pelonaia, a new genus of ascidian
mollusca, 137.
Penny (Prof. F.) on a new salt ob-
tained from iodine and caustie soda,
80.
—— on the action of nitric acid on the
chlorates, iodates, and bromates of
potassa and soda, 79.
Perry (Dr.) on the circumstances
which govern local inflammation,
the effusion of coagulable lymph,
and the formation of pus, 159.
on the laws which govern con-
tagious fevers, 160.
Perth, on the meteorology of, 56.
Pertussis, treatment of, by cold wash-
ing of the chest, 158.
Phenomena, voltaic, on a peculiar
class of, 86.
Phillips (John), new experimental re-
searches on rain, 45.
Phillips (Sir T.) on the minutely fila-
mentous roots of the beech, 149.
Photogenic drawing, on a new method
of, 71.
Physics, 1.
Plants, South African genera of, syn-
onyms and affinities of some, 147.
Playfair (Dr. L.) on anew fat acid, 76.
Pleistocene tract in the Isle of Man,
104.
Plum, anomalous form of the, in the
gardens of New Brunswick, 148.
Poisons, 72. i
Pollen and vegetable impregnation, on
the, 144.
Porter (Mr.) on pawnbroking in Ire-
land, 181.
Potassa and soda, action of nitric acid
on the chlorates, iodates, and bro-
mates of, 79.
Powell (Prof.) on an experiment of
interference, 14.
on a point in the wave theory as
applied to heat, 14.
Pus, formation of, 159.
Railways, ceconomy of, in respect of
gradients, 193.
, timber bridges in reference to,
195, 197.
INDEX II.
Railway, safety rotation, 196.
Rain, excessive falls of, 45.
——,, experimental researches on, 45.
, formation of, 47.
Rainbows, remarkable, 12.
Rain gauge, improved, 210.
, new, 211.
Ramsay (A. C.) on the geological
model maps and sections of the
island of Arran, 92.
Ravenstein (M. A.) on relief maps,
122.
Rayners (Mr.) on a machine regula-
tor, 209.
Read (Dr. J.) on the iriscope, 14.
Redfield (W. C.) letter from, to Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, on American
storms and tornadoes, 40.
Redtenbacher (Prof.), and Dr. Varren-
trapp on the constitution and pro-
ducts of the distillation of fat bodies,
76.
Rees (Dr.) on the preservation of sub-
jects for anatomical purposes, 156.
Regulator, machine, 209.
Reid (Col.), letter from, to Sir David
Brewster, on the appearance of the
sun at Bermuda, 10.
Reid (Dr. John) on the manner in
which the vital actions are arrested
in asphyxia, 151.
on the anatomical relation of the
blood vessels of the mother to those
of the foetus in the human species,
153.
on the anatomy of the medulla
oblongata, 154.
on the connexion between the
nervous system and muscular con-
tractibility, 155.
Richardson (Mr.) on the state of |
crime in the district of Gorbals, 177.
Ritchie (Mr.) on warming and venti-
lating buildings, 214.
Robinson (Rev. Dr. E.) on the Wadi
el’ Arabah, in Syria, 121.
Robb (Dr. J.) on certain geological
features of the river St. John, in
New Brunswick, with an account
of the falls upwards from the sea,
which occur near its embouchure in
the Bay of Fundy, 115.
onan anomalous form of the plum
observed in the gardens of New
Brunswick, 148.
INDEX II.
Rocks, igneous, plateau of, on the east
flank of the Berwyn range, 100.
Rowell (G. A.) on the formation of
rain, 47.
on the cause of the aurora, &c.,
48.
Russell (J. Scott) on the temperature
of most effective condensation in
steam vessels, 186.
on the most ceconomical and
effective proportion of engine power
to the tonnage of the hull in steam
vessels, 188.
Russia, stratified deposits which occu-
py the northern and central regions
of, 105.
Rutherglen (Mr.) on the state of
crime within the suburban districts
of Glasgow, 175.
Safety lamp, Mr. Clegg’s, 210.
Sanders (Wm.) on a raised sea-beach
at Woodspring-hill, near Bristol,
102.
Sandstone, old red, fishes of the, 99.
Salmon fry, 133.
Salmon, organs of sense in the, 134.
Sarcocolla, resin of, 83.
Scarborough, vital statistics of, 167.
Schafhaeutl (Dr.) on anew compound
of arsenious and sulphuric acids, 69.
on a new method of photogenic
drawing, 71.
on the relation of form to che-
mical composition, 65.
Schomburgk (M.) on the various
modes of fishing employed by In-
dians in the west of Guiana, 135.
School, normal, of Glasgow, 169.
Science, moral and ceconomic, appli-
cation of statistics to, 185.
Scotland, earthquakes in, 97.
— coal formation of the west of, 89.
population of, 186.
Sea-beach, raised, at Woodspring-
hill, near Bristol, 102.
Sea-borne vessels, strongest form of,
191.
Sea-cliffs, and needles in the chalk of
the valley of the Seine, in Norman-
dy, 111.
Selvester (Mr.) on a depression of the
coast of the Faroe islands, 123.
Shand (Mr.) on the agency of sound,
52.
1840.
225
Siliceous minerals, solvent power ex-
ercised by water at high tempera-
tures on, 125.
Smith (James) on the geology of Ma-
deira, 118.
on the superficial beds in the
neighbourhood of Glasgow, 94.
Smith (Mr.) on a new canal lock, 210.
on a salmon stair, 1386.
—-— on the drainage of railway em-
bankments and slopes, 209.
on timber bridges, 209.
on propelling boats on canals,
9.
Smoke protector, 208.
Snow, red, animals found in, 148.
Soda, caustic, new salt obtained from
iodine and, 80.
Solly (E.) on bleaching vegetable
wax, 86.
Solway, sandstone of the vale of, 98.
Sound, agency of, 52.
Spectrum, Prof. Powell’s measures of
the indices of refraction for the lines
G and H in the, 5.
Spiroilous and saliculous acid, identity
of, 78.
Squinting, operation for, 163.
Statistics, 169.
, Vital, of Glasgow, 173.
; , of Scarborough, 167.
Steam boilers, safety valves for, 213.
Steam vessels, ceconomical and effect-
ive proportion of engine power to
the tonnage of the hull in, 188.
, on extinguishing fire in, 194.
, temperature of most effective
condensation in, 186.
St. John, geological features of the
river, in New Brunswick, 115.
Storms, 80.
, American, 40.
Strickland, (H. E.) on the true method
of discovering the natural system in
zoology and botany, 128.
Sturgeon (Mr.) on a peculiar class of
voltaic phenomena, 86.
Switzerland, glaciers and boulders in,
113.
Sym (Dr.) on the mechanical functions
of the ear, 154.
Syria, Wadi el’ Arabah in, notes on
the, 121.
Tendo Achillis, ossified, 165.
226
Thom (Mr.) on an improved rain-
gauge, 210.
on a water filter, 206.
Thomson (Dr. Allen) on the structure
of the gastro-intestinal mucous
membrane, and of the gastric and
intestinal glands, 149.
Thomson (Dr. R. D.) on opacity of the
cornea produced by sulphuric acid,
164,
on the tests for sulphuric acid
when thrown on the person, 84.
Thomson (Prof. T.) on the minerals
in the neighbourhood of Glasgow,
64.
on chemical manufactures car-
ried on in and near Glasgow, 58.
Tornadoes, American, 40.
Trepan, reproduction of bone after the
operation of, 165.
Trevandrum, meteorological observa-
tions made at, 28.
Uranile, preparation of, 74.
Ure (Mr. A.) on the operation for
squinting, 163.
Urea, pre-existence of, in uric acid, 73.
Uric acid, pre-existence of urea in, 73.
Varrentrapp (Dr.), and Prof. Redten-
bacher, on the constitution and pro-
ducts of the distillation of fat bo-
dies, 76.
Veins, effects of air when injected
into the, 157.
Vignoles (Mr.) on the ceconomy of
railways in respect of gradients, 193.
on timber bridges in reference to
railways, 195.
Vision, axis of, line of visible direction
along the, 9.
Wadi el’ Arabah, in Syria, notes on
the, 121.
INDEX Il.
Wales, state of education and crime in,
185.
Wallace (Mr.) on a smoke-protector,
208.
on extinguishing fire in steam-
vessels, 194.
Wallace (Wm.) on the properties of
the catenary and curves of equili-
bration, 190.
Walsh (Mr.) on a mode of solving cu-
bic equations, 55.
Water-filter, 206.
Water-wheel, on the turbine, 191.
Watt (Mr.) on the comparative vital
statistics of Edinburgh and Glas-
gow, 178.
Waves, theory of, 50.
Wax, vegetable, on bleaching, 86.
Whales, structure of, 131.
Whitworth (Mr. Joseph) on producing
true planes or surfaces on metals,
192.
Williams (Mr.) on the combustion of
coal, and prevention of generation
of smoke in furnaces, 199.
Williams (Rev. David) on the older
strata of Devonshire, 103.
Wilson (James) on thesalmon fry, 133.
on some Persian insects, 136.
Wilson (Mr.) on the population of
Scotland, 186.
Yates (James) on the footsteps of ex-
tinct animals observed in a quarry
in Rathbone-street, Liverpool, 99.
Yorkshire, plants and animals found
in the sulphureous watersof, 143.
Zoology, 128.
Zoology and botany, true method of
discovering the natural system in,
128.
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Contents :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge
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on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in
Scotland ;—Mr. John Richardson, on North American Zoology ;—
Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids;—Mr. J. T.
Mackay, a Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which
characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the
South-west of Seatland, &ec. ;—Mr. J. T. Mackay, Comparative geo-
graphical notices of the more remarkable Plants which characterize
Scotland and [Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub-Committee of the
Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second
Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of
he Heart ;—Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the
Brain and Nervous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., Account of the
recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. Baden Powell,
on determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the
Solar Spectrum in various media ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on the Commu-
nication between the Arteries and Absorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Re-
port of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton,
on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by George B. Jer-
rard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated
Degrees.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe SEVENTH MEETING, at
Liverpool, 1837, 11s.
Contents :—Major Edward Sabine, on the Variations of the Mag-
netic Intensity observed at different points of the Earth’s surface ;—
Rev. William Taylor, on the various modes of Printing for the Use of
the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the Discussions of Observations
of the Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of money
which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the
last Meeting of the Association ;—-Prof. Thomas Thomson, on the dif-
ference between the composition of Cast Iron produced by the Cold
and Hot Blast ;—Rey. T. R. Robinson, on the Determination of the
Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations, made as com-
manded by the British Association ;—Robert Were Fox, Esq., Expe-
periments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature
of Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Sec-
tion of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Composi-
tion of Secretions, and the organs producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees,
Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the
Glands, &c., of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London
Sub-Committee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Mo-
tions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Prof. Johnston, on the Present State
of our Knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Col. Sykes, on
the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British
Government ;—Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq., on the relative Strength and
other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold
Blast ;—William Fairbairn, Esq., on the Strength and other Properties
of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir John Robison,
and John Scott Russell, Esq., Report of the Committee on Waves, ap-
pointed by the British Association at Bristol in 1836 ;—Note by Major
Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Variations of the
Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Sur-
face ;—James Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and with-
out any free communication with the outward Air, on the Plan of
Mr. N. J. Ward, of London.
‘Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Ad-
dress, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut EIGHTH MEETING, at New-
castle, 1838, 10s.
Contents :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level line, measured
from the Bristol Channel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Re-
port on the Discussions of Tides, prepared under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Account of the Progress
and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major
Edward Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in
the British Islands;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determination of
the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, Esq.,
First Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River
Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. Mallet, Esq., on the Action
of a Heat of 212° Falr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Or-
ganic Substances.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Commit-
tees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut NINTH MEETING, at Bir-
mingham, 1839, 9s.
Contents :—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on the Present State of our
Knowledge of Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar
Spectrum in different media;—Report on the Application of the sum
assigned for Tide Calculations to Mr. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G.
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, Esq., on some Galvanic Experiments
to determine the Existence or Non-existence of Electrical Currents
among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Mountain Limestone
formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir
David Brewster, Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteor-
ological Observations kept in Scotland at the expense of the British
Association ;—Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopt-
ed by the British Association at their Meeting in August, 1838, at
Newcastle ;—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;
—Edward Forbes, Esq., Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous
Mollusca in the British Isles ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Third Report
on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth
Dockyard, Devonport.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon
Harcourt’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its
Committees.
LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES or tus MEMBERS who
met at Cambridge in 1835, with the Proceedings of the Public Meet-
ings. 4to. Price 4s. (To Membersyedss)--—=
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Pee
enth report oF the Brit. Assoc. for the advancement of Science. PLATE 1.
S.WLowry Scudp.
LWekowry Seulp.
i
Ho
rT
Sum of the torces of each wind during the UU hours
(See general totals + Table THI/
1837, 8.9 40,
Siam of the tarces of the wind during each hour of the day
direction not being regarded,as gwen wr table Vr
JW Lowry feulp.
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Tenth report of the Brit. Assoc. for the advancement of Saence 1840,
Sum of the torces of each wind during the 24 hours,
distingushing the Quariers of the year,
(See table IV, /
IW Lowry, Saulp
Diagrams Showing the Comparative force and direction of the wind Plate 4
obtained trom the Sum of the hourly means given in Table VI.
Winter:
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SP USTIUG 40 7Loaany
DIUPIDE fO FUIULISULUALE OY2 My Ui
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