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REPORT 


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Soy” 
TWELFTH MEETING 


OF THE 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 
FOR THE 
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT MANCHESTER IN JUNE 1842. 


LONDON: 


JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, 
1843. 


PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


CONTENTS. 


jail goues 

: Page 
Oxzgects and Rules of the Association.............. Geass vse Vv 
Officers and Council ......4..200--eeeeeee GA SNE Ben Bhd ard vii 
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement .......... ait viii 
Table of Council from commencement...... eeibd reenbiece TF 2 Sp ix 
Officers of Sectional Committees and Corresponding Members .... xi 
(gil Me ta oT gpl Syl lid gt! MA ae eect pai ek a xii 
Reports, Researches, and Desiderata.............. Bin sea aa a xiv 
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science xx 
Bynopsmot Money Grants. «i061... couse b ene he amit aineeAe,s By i Se 
Arrangements of the General Evening Meetings............ pAb... peoix 


SISTER Sy oT SR SY oY A ee RD. ©. 2 


REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herscuer, the MAstrer 
or Trinity CoLLecr, Cambridge, the DrAn or Exy, Dr. Lioyp, 
and Colonel SABINE, appointed to conduct the co-operation of the 
British Association in the system of Simultaneous Magneucal and 
Meteorological Observations ............ SPL Sete Cra ae sate ere 1 


Report on the present state of the Ichthyology of New Zealand, By 
ouN RicHarpson, M.D., F.R.S., &c., Inspector of Naval sic 


EN asa Sian Ut abba Gilad ip 4-6) Sok '0 Dalila oyey’nb cs, Seager 3 12 
Report on the Progress of the Meteorological Observations at Ply- - 
mouth. By W. Snow Harris, F.R.S., &¢........... cceeeeeeee 30 


Second Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr. H. E. STRICKLAND, 
Prof. Dauzeny, Prof. Henstow, and Prof. Linpiey, Sones to 
make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.......... 34 


E Report of the Committeer on Railway Sections. By Cuaries Vic- 
__— notes, Esq. F.R-A.S. M.R.1.A., M. Inst. C.E., Professor of Civil 
4 Engineering, University College, Bec eee 38 


a "Report of the Committee for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable 
NE toa Rete e AIR a ENE Ss we side Poole: dhs. on wisn ote 40 


Abstract of Professor Liebig’s Report on ‘‘ Organic Chemistry ered 
to Physiology and Pathology.” By Lyon PLAyrarr, M.D. coins 42 


Report on the British Fossil Mammalia. By Ricuarp Owen, Esq., 
PM rea Ts a. 5 4 6, ojstu's avian? ahnals otal oe es centye eae aye wens 54 


iv CONTENTS. 


Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and 
the Growth of Plants. By Mr. Rozerr Hunvt, Secretary to the 
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society .... 0.0... cccceess ceeenece 


Report on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sand- 
stone. By Louis Acassiz, Professor of Natural History at Neuf- 
GEREN & 5 Sareea see SPT ET ETM EE Se oe cee aie 


Appendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast 
lron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast. By WittiAm Fair- 
AEN ORG atin te ls He alot as» oa, Re wies aie a cree ta hs wip 8 wrk 


Report of the Committee appointed at the Meeting of the British As- 
sociation held at Plymouth, in 1841, for registering Shocks of Earth- 
quakes in Great Britain. By Davip Mivne, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.E. 


Report of a Committee appointed at the Tenth Meeting of the Asso- 
ciation for the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-en- 
gines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the 
Self-acting Engine at different periods of the Stroke. Members of 
the Committee :—_Ea ton Hopexrnsovn, Esq., F.R.S.; J. Enys, Esq. ; 
the Rev. Professor Mosrtery, M.A., F.R.S. (Reporter) .......... 


Report of a Committee on the Form of Ships. By Jonny Scorr Rus- 
Rents MeAwn a oxx0K nov iow PROGENITOR AMO HERR aia ttt ee 


Page 
75 
80 


88 


92 


98 


104 


Report of a Committee appointed “ to consider of the rules by which - 


the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform and 
permanent basis”... 0... 6c ee ete eee eee cere eee ee ee ee ee 


105 


Report of a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement 


of Science, consisting of Lieut.-Colonel Sykes, F.R.S.; Lord San- 
pon, M.P.; G. R. Porter, Esq., F.R.S.; J. Heywoop, Esq., F.R.S.; 
Dr. W. P. Arison; and E. Cuapwick, Esq., on the Vital Statistics 
of large Towns in Scotland... ........---eeeeeee es 99 ots emails 


Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en- 
trusted to Committees and Individuals .. 2... cccseeeee ss eerevens 


ERRATUM. 
Page 12, line 10 of Sections, for directed read vertical. 


TO THE. BINDER. 


121 


205 


There are only Two Plates in this volume, which are numbered If and IV. 


ee met 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


OF 


THE ASSOCIATION. 
phases a i; 


OBJECTS. 


Tue AssocraTIon contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by 
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more 
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those 
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- 
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to 
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind 
which impede its progress. 


RULES. 
MEMBERS. 


All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- 
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to conform 
to its Rules. ; 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- 
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in 
like manner, to become Members of the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of 
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution, recommended by its Council 
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General 
Committee or Council, to become Members of the Association, subject to the 


_ approval of a General Meeting. 


SUBSCRIPTIONS. 


The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound, to be paid in 
advance upon admission ; and the amount of the composition in lieu thereof, 
Five Pounds. 

An admission fee of One Pound is required from all Members elected as 
Annual Subscribers, after the Meeting of 1839, in addition to their annual 
subscription of One Pound. 

The volume of Reports of the Association will be distributed gratuitously 
to every Annual Subscriber who has actually paid the Annual Subscription 
for the year to which the volume relates, and to all those Life Members who 
shall have paid Two Pounds as a Book Subscription. 

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. 

If the Annual Subscription of any Member shall have been in arrear for 


vi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he shall cease to be a 
Member. 


MEETINGS. 


The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place 
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the previous 
Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of 
the Association. 

GENERAL COMMITTEE. 


The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer, 
to transact the business of the Association, It shall consist of the following 
persons :— 

1, Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au- 
thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 

2. Members who have communicated any Paper toa Philosophical Society, 
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects 
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. 

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceeding 
three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 

4, Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, 
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any 
place where the Association has formerly met. 

5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who 
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi- 
dent and General Secretaries. : 

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex 
officio members of the General Committee for the time being. 


SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 


The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- 
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches 
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. 

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would par- 
ticularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought 
under consideration at the next Meeting. 

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of par- 
ticular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for 
the information of the Annual Meetings. 


COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. 


The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which 
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, 
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise 
to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- 
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- 
mittée of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General 
Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommen- 
dations. 

LOCAL COMMITTEES. 


Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to 
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. 

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those 
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Vil 


OFFICERS. 

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a 

Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 
COUNCIL. 

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be 
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council 
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting. 

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. 

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve 
his right of property therein. 

ACCOUNTS. ‘ 

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 
appointed by the Meeting. 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1842—43. 
» ces _ 

Trustees ( permanent).—Francis Baily, Esq., F.R.S. Roderick Impey Mur- 
chison; Esq., F.R.S., Pres. G.S. John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., Treas. G.S. 

‘ President-—The Lord Francis Egerton, M.P., F.G.S. 

Vice-Presidents—John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S., &e. The Hon.and Very 
Rev. Wm. Herbert, LL.D., F.L.S., Dean of Manchester. William Charles 
Henry, M.D., F.R.S. Sir Benjamin Heywood, Bart. The Rev. Professor 
A. Sedgwick, M.A,, F.R.S,, G.8,, &c. 

_ President Elect,—The Earl of Rosse. 

Vice-Presidents Elect.—The Earl of Listowel. Visc. Adare, M.P., F.R.S. 
Sir W. R. Hamilton, R.I.A. Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 

General Secretaries.—Roderick Impey Murchison, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. G.S., 
London. Lieut.-Col. Sabine, F.R.S., Woolwich, 

Assistant General Secretary.—John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S., York. 

General Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., &e. 2 Duke Street, Adel- 
phi, London. 

Secretaries for the Cork Meeting in 1843.—John Stevelly, M.A., Prof. of 
Nat. Phil., Belfast. Rev. Jos. Carson, Fellow of Trin. Coll., Dublin, Wm. 
Keleher, Esq,, Cork. 

Treasurer to the Meeting in 1843.—James Roche, Esq., Cork. 

Council.—Sir H. T. De laBeche. Sir David Brewster. Sir Thomas Bris- 
bane. Rev. Dr. Buckland. Dr. Daubeny. Professor Forbes. Professor T. 
Graham. G. B. Greenough, Esq. W. J. Hamilton, Esq. Rev. W. V. Har- 
court. Leonard Horner, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. 
Rev. Professor Lloyd. The Marquis of Northampton. Rev. Dr. Peacock 
(Dean of Ely), Dr. Richardson. Sir John Robison. Dr. Roget. Rev. 
Professor Sedgwick. H. E. Strickland, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes. Professor 
Wheatstone. Rev. William Whewell (Master of Trin. Coll., Cambridge). 
C. J. B. Williams, M.D, Rev. Professor Willis. James Yates, Esq. 

Local Treasurers.—Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. C.C. Babington, Esq., Cam- 
bridge. Dr. Orpen, Dublin. Charles Forbes, Esq., Edinburgh and Glas- 
gow. William Gray, jun., Esq., York. William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. 
Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. Rev. John James Tayler, Manchester. 
James Russell, Esq., Birmingham, William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. Henry Woollecombe, Esq., Plymouth. James Roche, Esq., Cork. © 
Auditors —William Yarrell, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. James Hey- 
wood, Esq. 


i i a el il 


I. Table showing the Places and Times of Meeting of the British Association, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local 


Secretaries, from its Commencement. 


Presidents. 


The EARL FITZWILLIAM, D.C.L., F.R.S», F.G,S., &e. 
York, ae 27, 1831. 

The REV. W. BUCKLAND, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &e. 
Oxrorp, June 19, 1832. 

The REV. ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., V.P.RB.S., V.P.G.S, 
CAMBRIDGE, June 25, 1833. 

Sir T. MACDOUGAL BRISBANE, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.SS. L. & E. 
Epinspurcu, September 8, 1834, 

The REV. PROVOST LLOYD, LL.D. 
Dusty, August 10, 1835. 


The MARQUIS OF LANSDOWNE, D.C.L., F.R.S., &e- 
BrisTou, August 22, 1836. 


The EARL OF BURLINGTON, F.R.S., F.G.S., Chan. Uniy. London. 
LivERPooL, September 11, 1837. 


The DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND, F.R.S., F.G.S., &e. 
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE, August 20, 1838. 


The REV. W. VERNON HARCOURT, M.A., F-R.S., &c. 
BirMincHAM, August 26, 1839. 


The MOST NOBLE THE MARQUIS OF BREADALBANE. 
GLAscow, September 17, 1840. 


The REV. PROFESSOR WHEWELL, F.RB.S., &c. 
_ Puymouts, July 29, 1841. 


LORD FRANCIS EGERTON, F.G.S. 
MANCHESTER, June 23, 1842, 


The EARL OF ROSSE. 
Cork, August 1843, 


Local Secretaries. 


William Gray, jun., F.G,S. 
} Rev, W. Vernon Harcourt, M.A. F.R.S., F.G.S. { Professor Phillips, F.R.S., F.G.S. 
{ Sir David Brewster, F.R.SS.L. & E., &. +. Professor Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 

Geol. Soc. Rev. Professor Powell, M.A., F.R.S., &c, 

Rev. Professor Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S, 
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 
Professor Forbes, F.R.S., L. & E., &ce pe 
* { Sir John Robison, Sec. R.S.E. 
’ ¢ Sir W. R. Hamilton, Astron. Royal of Ireland, &e. 
‘. U Rev. Professor Lloyd, F.R.S. 


e } Professor Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 


Wice-Presidents. 


Rev. . R. Robinson, D.D......... 
{ Viscount Oxmantown, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
Rev. W. Whewell, FLR.S., &C..-seeeeeees 
The Marquis of Northampton, F.R.S. 
Rev. W. D. Conybeare, F.R.S., F.G-S, 
J.C. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S..:. 


1 The Bishop of. Norwich, P.LS., 


V. F, Hovenden. 


Professor Traill, M.D. 
Wm. Wallace Currie, Esq. 
Joseph N. Walker, Pres. Royal Institution, Liverpool. 


John Adamson, F.L.S., &c. 
Wm. Hutton, F.G.S. 

Proféssor Johnston, M.A., F.R.S. 
George Barker, Esq., F.R.S.  , 
Peyton Blakiston, M.D. 

Joseph Hodgson, 'Esq., F.R.S. 
Follett Osler, Esq. 

Andrew Liddell, Esq. 

Rev. J. P. Nicol, LL.D. 

John Strang, Esq. 


5 | Wm. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S. 


John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.Ssesssenee 
Sir Philip Grey Egerton, Bart., F.R.5., F. 
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. «.s.s+s100* 

‘The pire f Durham, F.K.S., F.S.A 
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., 
Prideaux John Selby, Esq., F.R.S.E.. 
The Marquis of Northampton ae 


Col. Hamilton Smith, F.L.S, 
Robert Were Fox, F.R.S. 
Richard Taylor, jun., Esq. 


Peter Clare, Esq., F.R.A.S. 
W. Fleming, M.D. 
James Heywood, Esq., F.R.S. 


Sir Benjami 
Rev. A. Sed 

Earl of Listowel .. 
Viscount Adare «sss 
Sir W. R. Hamilton, Pres. K.1. 
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.Dyessssssererrsrrersereers 


Professor John Stevelly, M.A. 
Rev. Jos. Carson, F.T.C, Dublin, 
Wm. Keleher, Esq. 


{ 


MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. 1X 


II. Table showing the Members of Council of the British Association from 
its Commencement, in addition to Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local 


Secretaries. 
Rev. Wm. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. ...... 1832—1836. 
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. B.S. .......e0.0. 1835. 
General Secretaries. < R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., dR cS eee aa Ole 1836—1842. 
Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S., F.G.S.. &c. ........ ...-1837, 1838. 
Lieut.-Colonel Sabine, V.P.RS. agadeenh vatice stove 1839, 1842. 
General Treasurer. John Taylor, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., &c............ 1832—1842. 


Charles Babbage, F.R.SS.L. & E., &c. (Resigned.) 
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., &c. 

John Taylor, F.R.S., &c. 

Francis Baily, F.R.S. 


} Professor Phillips, F.R.S., &C. e+sssesseeeeeeeseeeee1832—1842, 


Trustees (permanent). 


Assistant General 


Secretary. 
Members of Council. 
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal ...... 1834, 1835, 1841. 
Neill Arnott, M.D. ....cccescccecseeceseesesaeees 1838, 1839, 1840. 
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ...+.....1837—1839. 
Sir H. T. De Ja Beche, F.R.S.......seseseeeeees 1841, 1842. 
George Bentham, F.L.S. WeUaWen Seicalse ts cc 1834, 1835. 
Robert Brown, D.C.L., F. R. S Boils miteisis oh see ares 1832, 1834, 1835, 1838—1841. 
Sir David Brewster, F. R. Sis) OeGarieiataser se ..1832, 1841—1842, 
Sir Thomas Brisbane. ........+0s000 petits sta 1842. | 
Sir M. I. Brunel, F.R.S., &c. 2c... seeeececceeee 1832. 
Rev. Professor Buckland, D.D., F.R.S., &c. 1833, 1835, 1838—1842. 
The Earl of Burlington ........-scssseeeseenereees 1838, 1839. 
Rev. T. Chalmers, D.D., Prof. of Divinity, 
_ Edinburgh ...........- Beddabuedrsevesioneseoten 1833. 
Professor Clark, Cambridge....... Rivlie die abe ade 1838. 
Professor Christie, F.R.S., &C. ...ccceeeees ---1833—1837. 
William Clift, F.R.S., F.G.S. ..csecsscvecseees 1832—1835. 
J; C. Colquhoun, Esq. ....0....sssecseseseeeeoees 1840. 
John Corrie, F.R.S., &c. ....csecesseees OAS onal 1832. 
Professor Daniell, F.R.S.......cssccreeeeseescees 1836, 1839. 
Dr. Daubeny ..........0+06. dp dae\Ackau te adit anses 1838—1842. 
Deeb DrinlcwaterA sted. vieadete «del aadsessiacess'sless 1834, 1835. 
Sir P. G. Egerton, Bart. .........s.000 sass 1840, 1841. 
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c...1833. 
Professor Forbes, F.R.SS. L. & E., &c...... 1832, 1841, 1842. 
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., V.P.R.S., &c. ...... 1832. 
Professor R. Graham, M.D., F.R.S.E. ......1837. 
Professor Thomas Graham, F.R.S............. 1838, 1839—1842. 
John Edward Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. ...1837—1839, 1840. 
Professor Green, F.R.S., F.G.S........ e050 l8325 
G. B. Greenough, F.R. S., EGS on cases. aces 1832—1839— 1842. 
Henry Hallam, F.R.S., F.S.A., GEOR 'iiinsialels gals 1836. 
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, F.R.S, ..ccccsesscceeseee 1842. 
Sir William R. Hamilton, Astron. Royal of 
MSP Fetieee dhe a4 ues site ce nods awa sitgens'e si 1832, 1833; 1836. 
W. J. Hamilton, Sec. G.S. yl .-1840—1842. 
Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F. i, ‘Ss. 5 F. G. S. .1837. 
Sir John F. W. Herschel, F. R.SS. L. & E. 
GHA cs BuGeSss OC. coceccseseasessccsees 1832. 
Thomas Hodgkin, M. D. Aucieideccassides 1833—1837, 1839, 1840. 
Prof. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL. D., "F. R.S., &c.1832. 
Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ...-2-sssecescesesoveees 1841, 1842. 
Rev. F. W. Hope, M.A., F.L.S..csecseesseuee 1837. 
Robert Hutton, F.G.S., &c....... igs des atvwiaelste 1836, 1838, 1839—1842. 


Professor R. Jameson, F.R.SS. L. & E.......1833. 


MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. 


Rev. Leonard JenynsS sisreseessssereeceseeereeeel 838. 


H. B. Jerrard, Esq. .esss.eccsseeetvoneseereeseeee 1840, 

DY pste Mee sas cestonvaunssebaswansnsQenessecbessbhes, 1839. 

Sir Charles Lemon, Pet male oaapatpas 7 ere ---1838, 1839, 1842. 

Rev. Dr. Lardner ...... io aiR eon eta PeNetanie owes +»--1838, 1839. 

Professor Lindley, F.R.S., F.L.S., &e. «..... 1833, 1836. 

Rey. Professor Lloyd, 1 Ais ee a sell ey 1832, 1833, 1841, 1842. 


J. W. Lubbock, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Vice- 
Chancellor of the University of London .,.1833—1836, 1838, 1839, 


Rev. Thomas Luby ...ccsscosscscessereceecseees 1832. 

Charles Lyell, jun., F.R.S. .,....ses-sseee+e4++1838, 1839, 1840. 
William Sharp MacLeay, F.LS.. samen LCd en 

Professor Miller, F.G.S. .....2+0000 etene wenn 1840. 

Professor Moseley......::sssscssesersessensseseoes 1839, 1840. 

Patrick Neill, LL.D., F.R.S.E. ......... eTeset 1833. 

The Marquis of Northampton, P.R.S....+++4+51840—1842. 

Richard Owen, F.R.S., F.L.S......... Beekeaeats 1836, 1838, 1839. 

Rev. Geo. Peacock, D. D., M.A., F.R.S., &c.1832, 1834, 1835, 1839—1842. 
E. Pendarves, Esq.  ....+sceessenesscecsseneeesens 1840. 

Rev. Professor Powell, M.A., F.R.S., &c. ...1836, 1837, 1839, 1840. 
J. C. Prichard, M.D., F.R. S., Seas Ssssesestese 1832. 

George Rennie. F.R.S. Bete aero aches 1833—1835, 1839, 1841. 
Sir John Rennie...........se0000+ seme Poch coocdand 1838. 

Drs Richardson; Wetveiscssesstactcuacscccecenewes 1841, 1842. 

Rey. Professor Ritchie, F.R.S. .....seseessseeee 1833. 

Rey. T2 Ri; Robmson yl. D> .ctescusesssassegeess 1841. 

Sir John Robison, Sec. R.S.E. «see... eee 1832, 1836, 1841, 1842. 
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S., &c.,..1834—1837, 1841, 1842. 
Lieut.-Colonel Sabine ..........cseerese seeneres 1838. 

Tord Sandon cpsccecedeacssvoceecenss one peseeensaas 1840. 


Rey. Professor Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. ......1842. 
Rev. William Scoresby, B.D., F.R.SS. L.& E.1832. 


H. E. Strickland, Esq., F.G.S......+..ssesseeess 1840—1842. 
Lieut.-Col. W. H. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.1837—1839, 1842. 
H. Fox Talbot, Esq., F.R.S. ...+.e. saaiseessae 1840. 

Rev. J. J. Tayler, B.A., Manchester ......... 1832. 

Professor Qraill; MDs Giseresectsccecceceesescacs 1832, 1833. 

N. A. Vigors, M.P., D.C.L., F.S.A., F.L.S...1832, 1836, 1840. 
James Walker, Esq., P.S.C.E. ......- Pepa 1840. 

Captain Washington, R.N. .....seeeesseeeee ..-.1838, 1839, 1840. 
Professor Wheatstone ......sccccesssecceseses +++ 1838—1842. 

Rev. W.Whewell, F.R.S., MasterofT.C.Camb.1838, 1839, 1842. 
C. J. B. Williams, M.D. SATA 04 Pe ieee soeces 1842. 

Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. ........sceeeee 1842. 

William Yarrell, F.L.S .........sscccccssscesceoes 1833—1836. 
James Yates, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.  -...-eee00e 1842. 


Secretaries to the Edward Turner, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. 1832—1836. 
Council. James Yates, F.R.S., F, L.S., F.G,S. 1831—1840. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. xi 


% OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE 
MANCHESTER MEETING. 

SECTION. A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 
President-—The Very Rey. George Peacock, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of Ely. 
Vice-Presidents.—Sir D. Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. Sir T. M. Brisbane, 

K.C.B., F.R.S. Rev. Professor Lloyd, F.R.S. Sir W. R. Hamilton. 

Secretaries:—Professor Stevelly, M.A. Rey. W. Scoresby, F.R.S.  Pro- 
fessor McCullagh, M.R.1A. 

‘SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. 

President.—John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—Marquis of Northampton, F.R.S. Professor T. Graham, 
ER.S. Rev. W. V. Harcourt, F.R.S. Michael Faraday, F.R.S. C. Henry, 
M.D., F.R.S. 

Secretaries —Dr. Lyon Playfair. Robert Hunt. John Graham. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
President-—R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., &c., Pres. G.S. 
Vice-Presidents.—Sir H.T.DelaBeche, F.R.S.,F.G.S. Rev. W. Buckland, 

D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S., F.G.S. R. Griffith, F.R.S. 
Secretaries. —H. E. Strickland, F.G.S. G: Lloyd, M.D., F.G.S. E. W. 
Binney, Sec. Manch. Geol, Soc, R. Hutton, F.G,S. 
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 
President.—The Hon. and Very Rev. Wm. Herbert, LL.D., F.L.S., Dean 
of Manchester. 
Vice-Presidents—John Richardson, M.D.,.F.R.S. John Moore, F.L:S. 
Sir William Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. The Bishop of Norwich, P.L.S. 
Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., F.L.S. R. Patterson. J. A. Turner. 


SECTION E.—MEDICAL SCIENCE. 
President.—Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S. 
Vice-Presidents—Jas. Lomax Bardsley, M.D. C. B. Williams, M.D. 
Secretaries.—Dr. Sargent, and Dr. Chaytor. 


SECTION F.—STATISTICS. 
President.—George William Wood, M.P., F.L.S. 
Vice-Presidents.—Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. Henry Hallam, F.R.S. Sir 
Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S. G. R. Porter. 
Secretaries —Rev. R. Luney, M.A. G. W. Ormerod, M.A. Wm. Cooke 
Taylor, LL.D. 
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
President.—Rev. Professor Willis, M.A., F.R.S., &c. &e. 
Vice-Presidents—William Fairbairn, C.E. Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S. 
Sir M. 1. Brunel, F.R.S. Sir John Robison, F.R.S.E., Pres. R.S.A. 
_Secretaries—James Thomson, F.R.S.E., Civil Engineer. J. Scott Russell, 
M.A., F.R.S.E. I. F. Bateman, C.E. C. Vignoles, F.R.A.S. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Secretary of the Institute, 
Paris. A.D. Bache, Philadelphia. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Pro- 
fessor Bessel, Kénigsberg. Professor H. von Boguslawski, Breslau. Pro- 
fessor Braschmann, Moscow. Professor De laRive,Geneva. Professor Dumas, 
Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Er- 
man, Berlin. M. Frisiani, Astronomer, Milan. Baron Alexander von Hum- 
boldt/Berlin. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburgh. Professor Jacobi, Konigsberg, Dr. 
Lamont, Munich. Professor Liebig, Giessen. Professor Link, Berlin. Pro- 
_ fessor (Ersted, Copenhagen. M. Otto, Breslau. Jean Plana, Astronomer 
- Royal, Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor C. Ritter, Berlin. Professor 
Schumacher, Altona. Professor Wartmann, Lausanne. 


me a ore 


eo 


hots 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE 


ee a eT ive - ROLDAN a... ca 


TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from 


RECEIPTS. 
SoBe Op ya dant hale Oe 
Balance in hand from last year’s Account ....... aetees eaesanane 367. 3 11 
Life Compositions fromMembersat Plymouth Meeting and since 358 0 0 
Annual Subscriptions ...Ditto......... Ditto...Ditto.......000000 773 1 0 
- 1131 1 0 
Compositions for Books (future PUblicationS) rere 563 2 O 
Moieties of £5 Compositions Refunded ........ pUnnsaaaasas 5 stemmed ea 
——— 513 2 0 
Dividend on £6000 in 3 per cent. Consols, 6 months, As 90 0 0 
January 1842, ...ccsesseserseeeeeeees Giedogurstlsccceuccekusud teens 
Proceeds of Sale of £500 3 per cent. Consols......... Reeanecccae ; 452 1 0 
Received on account of Sale of Reports, viz. 
Ast vol., 2nd Edition ......ssscseeeeeee madteuasbectes J) LALO RDS 
315 2 
0 
9 
0 
9 
0 
7 
0 
89 3 0 
Received for Ladies’ Tickets at Plymouth cssscisssecsseessseeeees 261 0 0 


WILLIAM YARRELL, 
ROBERT HUTTON, AupiToRs. 
JAMES HEYWOOD, 


£2903 10 11 


¢ 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 


BEG * 


ee 


" @4th Juy 1841 to the 23rd June 1842. 
PAYMENTS. 
Sundry Disbursements by Treasurer and Local Trea- 


surers, including the expenses of the Plymouth 
Meeting, Advertising, and Sundry Printing ...... 


Paid Balance of Accountfor printing,&c.TenthReport 
Paid on account of Engraving for Eleyenth Report 


Salaries to Assistant Secretary, Accountant, &c.... 
GrantstoCommittees for Scientific pence —for 


Dynamometric Instruments ......s00..es00eee 1840 100 0 0 
DG stas wctanens apabstepeness cuesgreqvonvanveghOhy, Lar Ub 2 
Anopleura Britannica ..,...csessccsseeeseesseees 1840 
Tides at Bristol .......s0008 puvdcesetuaveusancces oY 
MND es eeseckencseesen sek vats ueekcukvsscewcseurs 1841 
Action of Gases on Light .........00ss000++00.1840 
Roberts’s Chronometers......... 2 hes 
Marine Zoology of Great Britain ... 
British Fossil Mammalia.......... suvesssesecssohOd 
Statistics of Education ....... eter tntend se «11840 
_ Marine Steam-vessel Engines .......... w+ 1838 


Reduction of Stars in Histoire Céleste......1841 
British Association Catalogue of Stars ...... 


- Coloured Drawings of Railway Sections......1840 11 10 0 
Mis cnrecav ATMA Asis biatinci Gel 150-070 


British Belemnites ......... 
Fossil Reptiles (Publication of Drawin, gs and 


Report) ....ecceseeves SdusWasdsscdevecercsuse 
Forms of Vessels.. RbabDeWs aasises ws sae es “1840 100 0 0 
BBOT cirnesencoveressvopactpeotetoniarsecsrtsceue LO4t 80 . 0) 0 
Galvanic fhsibeiene on Rocks ............1838 
Meteorological we A sa Anemome- 
ters at Plymouth......... seeuysccrerees 
Constant Indicator .. ee 


Velocity and Force of Wind . re 


Light on Germination of Seeds poi Growth 
Of Plants .......ssseseees eeseescesensencosencees 


Wtbal Statistiass. oiivveetsssdiscccesseseayoosecces. yy 
Growth and Vitality of Seeds...... Se vecuseee 
Questions on the Races of Men ....sesoves 71840 


Balance in Bankers’ hands.........0++ 
Do. _in Treasurer & Local Treasurers’ hands 


£sd £83 d. 


32115 5 
266 11 6 
21 11 10 
— 288 3 4 
305 0 0 
13 11 2 
52 12 0 
59 8 0 
30 14 7 
2617 6 
15 0 
100 0 0 
20 0 0 
28 0 0 
59 0 0 
110 0 O 
161 10 0 
50 0 0 
210 0 0 
180 0 0 
5 8 6 
68 0 0 
90 0 0 
10 0 0 
8 0 0 
50 0 0 
8 111 
7 9 0 
1449 17 8 
337 0 9 
20113 9 
—— 538 14 6 
£2903 10 11 


Xiv REPORT—1842, 


The following Reports on the Progress and Desiderata of different branches 
of Science have been drawn up at the: request of the Association, and 
printed in its Transactions. 


1831-32. 
On the progress of Astronomy during the present century, by G. B. Airy, 
M.A., Astronomer Royal. 
On the state of our knowledge respecting Tides, by J. W. Lubbock, M.A., 
Vice-President of the Royal Society. 
On the recent progress and present state of Meteorology, by James D. 
Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh. 
On the present state of our knowledge of the science of Radiant Heat, by 
ea Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry, 
xford. 
On Thermo-electricity, by the Rev. James Cumming, M.A., F.R.S., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry, Cambridge. 
4 be the recent progress of Optics, by Sir David Brewster, K.C.G., LL.D., 
-R.S., &e. 
On the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy, by the Rev. 
William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S. ; 
On the progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of Geology, by the 
Rev. William Conybeare, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 
On the recent progress and present state of Chemical Science, by J. F. W. 
Johnston, A.M., Professor of Chemistry, Durham. 
On the application of Philological atid Physical researches to the History 
of the Human species, by J. C. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., &e. 


1833. 

On the advances which have recently been made in certain branches of 
Analysis, by the Rev. G. Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c. 

On the present state of the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydro- 
dynamics, by the Rey. John Challis, M.A., F:R.S., &e. 

On the state of our knowledge of Hydraulics, considered as a branch of 
Engineering, by George Rennie, F.R.S., &c. (Parts I. and II.) 

On the state of our knowledge respecting the Magnetism of the Earth, by 
S. H. Christie, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics, Woolwich. 

On the state of our knowledge of the Strength of Materials, by Peter 
Barlow, F.R.S. 

On the state of our knowledge respecting Mineral Veins, by John Taylor, 
F.R.S., Treasurer G.S., &c. 
ect the Physiology of the Nervous System, by William Charles Henry, 

40 i 
On the recent progress of Physiological Botany, by John Lindley, F.R.S., 
Professor of Botany in the University of London. 


1834. 

On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S. 

On the philosophy of Contagion, by W. Henry, M.D., F.R.S. 

On the state of Physiological Knowledge, by the Rev. Wm. Clark, M.D 
F.G.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge. 

On the state and progress of Zoology, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A., 
F.L.S., &e. 

On the theories of Capillary Attraction, and of the Propagation of Sound 
as affected by the Development of Heat, by the Rev. John Challis, M.A., 
F.R.S., &e. 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XV 


On the state of the science of Physical Optics, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, M.A., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dublin. 


1835. 

On the state of our knowledge respecting the application of Mathematical 
and Dynamical principles to Magnetism, Electricity, Heat, &c., by the Rev. 
William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S. 

- On Hansteen’s researches in Magnetism, by Captain Sabine, F.R.S. 

On the state of Mathematical and Physical Science in Belgium, by M. 

Quetelet, Director of the Observatory, Brussels. 7 


H 1836. 

On the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mineral and Thermal 
Waters, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.. M.R.LA., &c., Professor of 
Chemistry and of Botany, Oxford. 

On North American Zoology, by John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 

Supplementary Report on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids, by the Rev. 
J. Challis, Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 


1837. 
On the variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different points of 
the Earth’s surface, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S. 
On the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind, by the Rev. 
William Taylor, F.R.S. 
: On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies, 
by Professor Johnston, F.R.S. 
On the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British 
Government, by Col. Sykes, F.R.S. 


1838. 

Appendix to Report on the variations of Magnetic Intensity, by Major 
Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S. 

. 1839. 

Report on the present state of our knowledge of Refractive Indices for 

the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media, by the Rev. 
Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Ast.S., Savilian Professor of Geo- 

‘Mnetry, Oxford. 

Report on the distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles, 
by Edward Forbes, M.W.S., For. Sec. B.S. 

Report on British Fossil Reptiles, Part L, by Richard Owen, Esq, F.R.S., 
F.G.S8., &e. RCH 

1840. 

Report on the recent progress of discovery relative to Radiant Heat, sup- 
plementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first 
volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of 

_ Science, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A,, F.R.S., F.R.Ast.S., F.G.S., Savilian 
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. 

- _ Supplementary Report on Meteorology, by James D. Forbes, Esq. F.R.S., 
See. R.S. Ed., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edin- 
burgh. 
ff 1841. “ 

Report on the conduction of Heat, by Professor Kelland, F.R.S., &e. 

_ Report on the state of our knowledge of Fossil Reptiles, Part I., by Pro~ 
fessor R. Owen, F.R.S. 

‘s e 1842. 

_ _ Abstract of Professor Liebig’s Report on Organic Chemistry applied to 

_ Physiology and Pathology, by Lyon Playfair, M.D. 


) 


Xvi REPORT—1842., 


Report on the Ichthyology of New Zealand, by John Richardson, M.D., 
F.R.S. 

On the Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone, by Professor Agassiz. 
Report on British Fossil Mammalia (Part I.), by Professor Owen. 


The following Reports of Researches undertaken at the request of the Associa- 
tion have been published in its Transactions, viz. 


1835. 


On the comparative measurement of the Aberdeen Standard Seale, by 
Francis Baily, Treasurer R.S., &c. 

On Impact upon Beams, by Eaton Hodgkinson. 

Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic 
Force in Ireland, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, Capt. Sabine, and Capt. J. C. Ross. 

On the phenomena usually referred to the Radiation of Heat, by H. 
Hudson, M.D. 

Experiments on Rain at different Elevations, by Wm. Gray, jun., and 
Professor. Phillips (Reporter). 

Hourly Observations of the Thermometer at Plymouth, by W. S. Harris. 

On the Infra-orbital Cavities in Deers and Antelopes, by A. Jacob, M.D. 

On the Effects of Acrid Poisons, by T. Hodgkin, M.D. 

On the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the Dublin Sub-Committee, 

On the Registration of Deaths, by the Edinburgh Sub-Committee. 


1836. 


Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic 
Force in Scotland, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S., &c. 

Comparative view of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the 
Neighbourhood of Dublin, the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and the South- 
west of Scotland, &c.; drawn up for the British Association by J. T. Mackay, 
M.R.LA., A.L.S., &e.; assisted by Robert Graham, Esq., M.D., Professor of. 
Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 

Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section of the 
British Association on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart. 

Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and 
Nervous System. 

Account of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides which 
have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the 
disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last meeting of the Association, 
by J. W. Lubbock, Esq. 

Observations for determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays 
of the Solar Spectrum in various media, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., 
F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. 

Provisional Report on the Communication between the Arteries and 
Absorbents, on the part of the London Committee, by Dr. Hodgkin. 

Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature, under the direction 
of a Committee, consisting of Professor. Forbes, Mr. W. S. Harris, Professor 
Powell, Lieut.-Colonel Sykes, and Professor Phillips (Reporter). 

Inquiry into the validity of a method recently proposed by George B. 
Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees ; 
undertaken, at the request of the Association, by Professor Sir W. R. Hamilton. | 


1837. 


Account of the Discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been 
obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the disposal 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XVil 


of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association, by J. 

W. Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S. 

On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the 
Cold and the Hot Blast, by Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., &e., 
Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow. ‘ 

On the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Ob- 
servations, made as commanded by the British Association, by the Rev. T. 
R. Robinson, D.D. 

On some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Tem- 
perature of Mines, by Robert Were Fox. 

Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British 
Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the 
Organs producing them. 

Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands, 
&e. of the Human Body, by G. O. Rees, M.D., F.G.S. 

Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section of 
the British Association, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart. 

Report from the Committee for making experiments on the Growth of 
Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the outward 
air, on the plan of Mr. N. I. Ward of London. ; 

Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British Association 
at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir John Robison, K.H., Secretary of 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 

‘Edin. (Reporter). . 

On the Relative Strength and other mechanical Properties of Cast Iron ob- 
tained by Hot and Cold Blast, by Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq. 

On the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and 
Cold Blast, by W. Fairbairn, Esq. 

1838. 

Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Channel to the En- 

glish Channel, during the year 1837-38, by Mr. Bunt, under the Direction 
- of a Committee of the British Association. Drawn up by the Rev. W. 
Whewell, F.R.S., one of the Committee. 

A Memoir on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British 
Islands, from Observations by Professors Humphrey Lloyd and John Phil- 
lips, Robert Were Fox, Esq., Captain James Clark Ross, R.N., and Major 
Edward Sabine, R.A., by Major Edward.Sabine, R.A., F.R.S. 

First Report on the Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Rail- 
way Constants, by Dionysius Lardner, LL.D., F.R.S., &e. 

First Report upon Experiments, instituted at the request of the British 
Association, upon the Action of Sea and River Water, whether clear or foul, 
and at various temperatures, upon Cast and Wrought Iron, by Robert Mal- 
let, M.R.LA., Ass. Ins. C.E. 

Notice of Experiments in progress, at the desire of the British Association, 
on the Action of a Heat of 919° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic 
and Organic Substances, by Robert Mallet, M.R.I.A. 

Experiments on the ultimate Transverse Strength of Cast Iron made at 
Arigna Works, Co. Leitrim, Ireland, at Messrs. Bramah and Robinson’s, 29th 
May, 1837. 
| ____ Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en- 
___ trusted to Committees and Individuals. 

ae 1839. 

|___Report on the application of the sum assigned for Tide Calculations to 
| Mr. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq., Bristol. 
ca 1842. c 


- 


xviii REPORT—1842. 


Notice of Determination of the Arc of Longitude between the Observato- 
ries of Armagh and Dublin, by the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., &c. 

Report of some Galvanic Experiments to determine the existence or non- 
existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of 
the Mountain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston 
Moor, by H. L. Pattinson, Esq. 

Report respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations 
kept in Scotland at the expense of the British Association, by Sir David 
Brewster, K.H., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E. 

Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British 
Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle. 

Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the 
Plymouth Dockyard, Devonport, by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S. 


1840. 


Report on Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Ply- 
mouth, by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S., &e. 

Report on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the London Com- 
mittee of the British Association for 1839-40. 

An Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry, by Professor Schonbein 
of Basle. 

Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, 
clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and 
Steel, by Robert Mallet, M.R.I.A., Ass. Ins. C.E. 

Report on the Observations recorded during the Years 1837, 1838, 1839, 
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical 
Institution, Birmingham. By A. Follett Osler, Esq. 

Report respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept 
at Inverness and Kingussie, at the Expense of the British Association, from 
Nov. Ist 1838, to Nov. Ist, 1889. By Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S., &c. 

Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata. Drawn up, at the re- 
quest of the British Association, by William Thompson, Esq. ( Vice-Pres. 
Nat. Hist. Society of Belfast), one of the Committee appointed for that 

urpose. 
i Hepat of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-tubes. 
By Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., F.R.S. ' 

Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on the Preservation 

of Animal and Vegetable Substances. By the Rev. J. S. Henslow, F.L.S. 


1841. 


On the Tides of Leith, by the Rev. Professor Whewell, including a com- 
municaticn by D. Ross, Esq. 

On the Tides of Bristol, by the Rev. Professor Whewell, including a com- 
munication by T. G. Bunt, Esq. 

On Whewell’s Anemometer, by W. 8. Harris, Esq. 

On the Nomenclature of Stars, by Sir John Herschel. 

On the Registration of Earthquakes, by D. Milne, Esq. 

On Varieties of the Human Race, by T. Hodgkin, M.D. 

On Skeleton Maps for registering the geographical distribution of Animals 
or Plants, by — Brand, Esq. 

On the Vegetative Power of Seeds, by H. E. Strickland, Esq. 

On Acrid Poisons, by Dr. Roupell. 

Supplementary Report on Waves, by J. S. Russell, Esq. 

On the Forms of Ships, by J. S. Russell, Esq. 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xix 


On the Progress of Magnetical and Meteorological Observations by Sir 
John Herschel. 

On Railway Constants, by Dr. Lardner. 

On Railway Constants, by E. Woods, Esq. 

On the Constant Indicator, by the Rev. Professor Moseley. 


1842. 


Second Report of the Committee for registering Earthquakes, by David 
Milne, Esq. 

On the Progress of simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Obserya- 
tions, by Sir John Herschel. 

On the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances, by C. C. Ba- 
bington, F.L.S. 

Reports of Committee on Railway Sections, by Charles Vignoles, F.R.S. 

On the Growth and Vitality of Seeds, by H. E. Strickland, F.G.S. 

On Zoological Nomenclature, by H. E. Strickland, F.G.S. 

On the Form of Ships, by John Scott Russell, M.A. 

On the Constant Indicator, by Professor Moseley. 

On the Meteorological Observations made at Plymouth during the past 
year, by William Snow Harris, F.R.S. ' 

‘On the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth 
of Plants, by Robert Hunt. 

On the Strength of Iron, by Wm. Fairbairn. 

On Vital Statistics, by Colonel Sykes, and the Committee on that subject. 


The following Reports and Continuations of Reports on the Progress and 
Desiderata of particular branches of Science, and onthe results of Re- 
searches recommended by the General Committee, have been undertaken to 
be drawn up and presented to future Meetings of the Association. [ Asterisks 
are prefixed to those Reports the request for which originated at the last 
Meeting. ] 5 


On Salts, by Professor Graham, F.R.S. 

On the Differential and Integral Calculus, by the Rev. Professor Peacock, 
M.A., F.R.S., &c. 

On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S., Professor of 
Geology, Philadelphia. 

- On Vision, by Professor C. Wheatstone, F.R.S. 

On Isomerie Bodies, by Professor Liebig. 

On Organic Chemistry, by Professor Liebig. 

On Inorganic Chemistry, by Professor Johnston, F.R.S. 

On the Salmonide of Scotland, by Sir W. Jardine. 

On the Habits of the Caprimulgide, by J. Gould, F.L.S. 

On the state of Meteorology in the United States of North America, by 
A. Bache. ; 

On the state of Chemistry as bearing on Geology, by Professor John- 
ston. 

On the recent progress and present condition of Electro-Chemistry and 
Electro-Magnetism, by Professor De la Rive, of Géneva. 

On the state of our knowledge of the Zoology of New Zealand, by J. E. 
Gray, F.R.S. 
___ On the resistance of the Atmosphere to Moving Bodies, by E. Hodgkin- 

a eon, F.R.S. 
e2 


XX REPORT-—1842. 


On the progress of Astronomy during the present century (second Re- 
port), by the Astronomer Royal. 

On the Theory of the Undulations of Fluid and Elastic Media, by Profes- 
sor Kelland. 

*On Photography and its Applications, and other Cognate Phenomena, 
by Fox Talbot, F.R.S. 

*On Physical Optics (second Report), by the Rev. Professor Lloyd, F.R.S. 

#Onthe Structure and Colours of Clouds, by a Committee consisting of 
Mr. Phillips, Professor Miller, Sir David Brewster, Professor Stevelly, Pro- 
fessor Daniell, Professor Forbes, and Mr. Luke Howard. 

*On the Progress made by the German Meteorological Association (second 
Report), by Dr. Lamont of Munich. 

*On the Analogy between Deposits of Peat and Beds of Coal, by the 
Rey. Dr. Fleming. ; 

*On the Laws of Divisional Structure in Rocks, derivable from obser- 
vation, by John Phillips, F.R.S. 

*On the Structure and Uses of the Palpi of the Araneidea, by John 
Blackwell, F.L.S. 

*On the present state of Knowledge of the Art of Smelting Iron, with a 
view of ascertaining what parts of the process may be susceptible of improve- 
ment, or may require the aid of scientific investigation ; three Reports, from 
Mr. Anthony Hill for South Wales, Mr. Gibbon for the Midland Counties, 
and Professor Gordon for Scotland. 

*On the consumption of Fuel and the prevention of Smoke, by Mr. Fair- 
bairn, Mr. Houldsworth, Mr. Hodgkinson, and Mr. Buck. 


Recommendation involving an application to Government adopted by the 
General Committee at the Twelfth Meeting. 


That the President and Officers of the British Association, with the assist- 
ance of the Marquis of Northampton, the Dean of Ely, Sir John F. W. Her- 
schel, and Francis Baily, Esq., be appointed a Committee to make application 
to Government to undertake the publication of the Catalogue of Stars in the 
Histoire Céleste of Lalande, and of Lacaille’s Catalogue of the Stars in the 
Southern Hemisphere, which have been reduced and prepared for publication 
at the expense of the British Association ; and that the President and Coun- 
cil of the Royal Society be requested to support this application. The Dean 
of Ely to be the Convener of this Committee. [To this Committee was also 
referred the consideration of the steps to be taken for securing a publication 
of the results obtained at the cost of the Association, by the Committee who 
have investigated the ‘ Forms of Ships.’ ] 


a 


Recommendations of Researches in Science involving Grants of Money, 
adopted by the General Committee at the Twelfth Meeting. 


MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 
: ASTRONOMY. 


That the Committee for the revision of the Nomenclature of Stars (con- 
sisting of Sir John Herschel, Rev. William Whewell, and Mr. Baily) be re- 
appointed, with the sum of $2/., the unexpended part of a former grant, at 
their disposal for the purpose. 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XX1 


That Mr. Baily and the Rev. Dr. Robinson be a Committee for completing 
the Reduction of the Stars requisite for the extension of the Royal Astro- 
nomical Society’s Catalogue, with the sum of 25. at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That the sum of 550. be appropriated to the publication of the British 
Association Catalogue of Stars, conformably to a Report on the subject pre- 
sented by the Committee. 


TIDES. ; 


That Sir John Robison and Mr. John Scott Russell be a Committee for 
making observations upon the anomalous Tides of the East coast of Scot- 
land, and especially of the Frith of Forth, with the sum of 120/. at their dis- 
posal for the purpose. , 


METEOROLOGY. 


That Sir David Brewster and Professor Forbes be a Committee for carry- 
ing on Hourly Observations of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Anemo- 
meter, for another year at Inverness, with the sum of 60/. at their disposal 

_for the purpose. 

That Sir David Brewster and Professor Forbes be a Committee for con- 
tinuing for another year (if the Committee should think it advisable) the 
Hourly Meteorological Observations now making at Unst in Shetland, under 
the local superintendence of Dr. Edmonstone, with the sum of 35/. at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Snow Harris be requested to continue, for an additional year, 
the Hourly Observations of the Barometer, Thermometer, and Hygrometer 
at Plymouth, with the sum of 50/. at his disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Snow Harris, Mr. A. Follett Osler, the Rev. William Whewell, 

and Professor Stevelly, be a Committee for continuing, for an additional 
year, the observations of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth, with the sum 
of 10/. at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. 
__ That Mr. Snow Harris be requested to discuss the observations made with 
Osler’s Anemometer, in connexion with the observations of other metecrolo- 
gical instruments, recorded at Plymouth, with the sum of 20/. at his disposal 
for the purpose. 

That Sir John Herschel be requested to continue his superintendence of 
the Reduction of Meteorological Observations, with the 75/. (the balance of 
the former grant) at his disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Snow Harris and Mr. A. Follett Osler be a Committee for making 
certain improvements in the Anemometers at Edinburgh and Plymouth, with 
the sum of 15/. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Wheatstone, Professor Daniell, and Mr. Snow Harris, be 
a Committee for constructing a Self-recording Meteorological apparatus, to 
be employed in the building at Kew, recently placed by Her Majesty the 
Queen at the disposal of the British Association, with the sum of 50/. at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That the Treasurer be authorized to advance, in payment for certain in- 
struments employed by Professor Forbes in researches requested by the 
Association, and for certain gratuities to persons employed in observing and 
reducing, a sum not exceeding 401. 

That the Committee formerly appointed (consisting of the Rev. Dr. Robin- 
son, Colonel Sabine, Professor Wheatstone, the Rev. William Whewell, the 
Astronomer Royal, Sir John Herschel, and Sir John Lubbock) for conduct- 
ing experiments, by captive Balloons, on the Physical Constitution of the 
Atmosphere, be re-appointed, with 250/. at their disposal for the purpose. 


Xxil REPORT—1842. 


MAGNETICAL OBSERVATIONS. 


That the Committee formerly appointed (consisting of Sir John Herschel, 
Professor Whewell, the Very Rev. Dr. Peacock, Professor Lloyd, and Colonel 
Sabine) for conducting the co-operation of the Association in the system of 
simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations be re-appointed, 
with the sum of 89/. 11s. 2d. (the residue of the former grant) at their dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

LIGHT. 


That Sir David Brewster be requested to continue his examination of the 
Action of different bodies upon the Spectrum, with the sum of 40/. at his dis- 
posal for the purpose. 


KEW OBSERVATORY. 


That the sum of 200/. be placed at the disposal of the Council for uphold- 
ing the establishment in the Kew Observatory, lately placed by Her Majesty 
the Queen at the disposal of the British Association for the purposes of * 
Scientific Investigation. 


SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS. 


That the Committee formerly appointed to superintend the translation and 
publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs (consisting of Colonel Sabine, 
Dr. R. Brown, Rev. Dr. Robinson, Sir John Herschel, Professor Wheatstone, 
Sir David Brewster, Professor Owen, Professor T. Graham; Professor Miller, 
Sir W. Jardine, and Professor R. Graham) be re-appointed, and that the sum 
of 501. (part of the residue of the grant of last year) be placed at the disposal 
of the Committee for the purpose. 


CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. 


That Professor T. Graham, Dr. C. J. B. Williams, Professor Owen, Dr. 
Prout, Dr. Hodgkin, and Professor Sharpey, be a Committee for making a 
series of researches on the Chemistry and Physiology of Respiration and Di- 
gestion, with the sum of 60/. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Lyon Playfair and Professor Bunsen of Marburg be a Com- 
mittee for examining the gases evolved from Iron Furnaces (both hot and 
cold blast), more especially with a view to the ceconomy of fuel, with the sum 
of 50/. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Kane, Dr. Schunck, and Dr. L. Playfair, be a Committee for ex- 
amining into the Chemical History of the Substances of the Tannin family, 
with the sum of 10/. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. Kane, Dr. Schunck, and Dr. L. Playfair, be a Committee for ex- 
amining the Chemical History and Origin of the colouring materials used in 
the Arts, with the sum of 10/. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Robert Mallet be requested to make researches upon the amount 
of oxidation of the Rails of Railways, both in use and out of use, distinguish- 
ing and determining also the loss by abrasion, with the sum of 20/. at his dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

That the Committee formerly appointed (consisting of Sir H. T. De la Beche, 
Mr. R. Hutton, Dr. Richardson, Mr. L. Horner, Colonel Sabine, and Pro- 
fessor Phillips), for promoting the publication of the drawings requisite to 
the illustration of the Report on Fossil Reptiles by Professor Owen, be re- 
appointed, with the sum of 40/. (the residue of the former grant) at their dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

That the Committee formerly appointed (consisting of the President of the 
Royal Society, the Rev. Dr. Buckland, Mr. Murchison, Mr. John Taylor, 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXill 


Sir H. T. De la Beche, and Mr. C. Vignoles, with power to add to their 
number), for taking measures to obtain Coloured Drawings of Railway Sec- 
tions before they are covered up, be requested to continue their labours ; and 
that the sum of 200/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That the Committee formerly appointed (consisting of Dr. Buckland, Mr. 
L. Horner, Mr. Wheatstone, Mr. Snow Harris, Lord Greenock, Mr. Milne, 
Professor Forbes, Mr. Pattison, Sir John Robison, Mr. T. J. Torrie, Major 
Portlock, Mr. Bryce) for registering the Shocks of Earthquakes in England, 
Scotland, and Ireland, and for making such Meteorological Observations as 
may appear to them desirable, be re-appointed ; and that the sum of 100/. be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Binney be requested to make an excavation at the junction of the 
Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Strata at Collyhurst, near Man- 
chester, with the sum of 10/. at his disposal for the purpose. 

That Major Portlock be requested to continue his experiments on the Tem- 
perature of Mines in Ireland ; and that the sum of 10/. be placed at his dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

SECTION D. 

That Mr. H. E. Strickland, Mr. C. Darwin, Professor Henslow, Rev. L. 
Jenyns, Mr. W. Ogilby, Mr. J. Phillips, Dr. Richardson, Mr. J. O. West- 
wood, Professor Owen, Mr. Broderip, be a Committee for printing and cir- 
culating their Report on Zoological Nomenclature, with the sum of 107, at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

_ That a Committee formerly appointed, consisting of Mr. H. E. Strickland, 
Professor Daubeny, Professor Henslow, and Professor Lindley, be requested 
to continue their Experiments ‘on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds, with the 
sum of 16/. 14s. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Sir Charles Lemon and Mr. Jonathan Couch be a Committee for 
enabling Mr. Peach to continue his researches on the habits of the Marine 
Testacea, to institute a series of Experiments on their reproduction and 
Growth, and to draw up a Report on the result of his observations, with 107. 
at their disposal for the purpose. 

That a Committee formerly appointed, consisting of Mr. Babington and 
Mr. Garnons, be requested to continue the researches on the preservation of 
animal and vegetable substances; and that the sum of 6/., formerly granted, 
be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That a Committee formerly appointed, consisting of Dr. Richardson, Rev. 
Dr. Buckland, and Mr. R. Taylor, for defraving the necessary expenses at- 
_ tendant on the preparation of Professor Owen’s Report on British Fossil 
Mammalia, be re-appointed, with the sum of 100/. (the unexpended balance 
of a former grant) ag their disposal for the purpose. 

That Sir W. Jardine, Mr. Selby, Mr. Yarrell, and Dr. Lankester, be a 
Committee for defraying the expense of illustrating undescribed species of 
Anopleura, Foreign as well as British, with the sum of 25/. at their disposal 
for the purpose. 

That Mr. Edward Forbes be requested to draw up. a Report on the Ra- 
diata and Mollusca of the /Egean and Red Sea, with special reference to the 
relation of the recent genera and species to those which have been hitherto 
supposed to occur only in a fossil state, with 100/. at his disposal for the 
purpose. ; 

_ That a Committee formerly appointed, consisting of Mr. Gray, Mr. Forbes, 
Mr.. Goodsir, Mr. Patterson, Mr. Thompson (of Belfast), Mr. Ball (of Dublin), 
Dr. Geo. Johnston, Mr. Smith (of Jordan Hill), Mr. Couch, Mr. Bartlett, 
Mr. H. Bellamy, Mr. Walker, Mr. Lyte, and Mr. Wallace of Douglas (Isle 


XXIV. REPORT—1842. 


of Man), be requested to continue a series of researches with the dredge, with 
a view to the investigation of the Marine Zoology of Great Britain, the illus- 
tration of the Geographical Distribution of Marine Animals, and the more 
accurate determination of the Fossils of the Pleiocene Period; and that the 
sum of 50/. be placed at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. 
That Dr. Hodgkin, Dr. Prichard, Professor Owen, Dr. Hibbert Ware, Mr. 
J. E. Gray, Dr. Lankester, Dr. A. Smith, Mr. A. Strickland, and Mr. C. C. 
Babington, be a Committee for procuring information in regard to the va- 
rieties of the Human Race, with the sum of 5/. at their disposal for the pur- 
ose. 
: MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


That Professor Sharpey and Mr. John Erichsen be a Committee for re- 
searches on Asphyxia, with the sum of 40/. at their disposal for the purpose. 
That Dr. C. J. B. Williams and Mr. James Blake be a Committee for re- 
searches on the Physiological operation of medicinal agents, with the sum of | 
40/. at their disposal for the purpose. 


STATISTICS. 

That Col. Sykes, Viscount Sandon, Mr. G. R. Porter, Mr. J. Heywood, 
Dr. W. P. Alison, Mr. E. Chadwick, and Mr. G. W. Wood, be a Committee 
for continuing the Reports on Vital Statistics, with the sum of 150/. at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 

That Sir John Robison and Mr. J. S. Russell be a Committee for com- 
pleting the Experiments on the Forms of Ships, with the sum of 1004. at their 
disposal for the purpose. : 

That Sir John Robison and Mr. J. S. Russell be a Committee for reducing 
above 20,000 observations on the forms of ships, with thé sum of 100/. at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Moseley, Mr. Enys, and Mr. Hodgkinson, be a Committee 
for procuring and defraying the expense of Morin’s Instrument for measuring 
velocity, and for completing the trial of the Constant Indicator, with the sum 
of 100/. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Hodgkinson be requested to continue his Experiments on the 
Strength of Materials, with the sum of 100/. at his disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Fairbairn, Mr. Buck, Mr. Hodgkinson, Mr. Nasmyth, Prof. Mon- 
tagu Phillips, Mr. John Davis, Mr. R. Mallet, Mr. Lucas, and Mr. H. H. Wat- 
son, bea Committee for making Experiments to ascertain whether any and what 
changes take place in the internal constitution of metals when exposed to con- 
tinual vibration and concussion, as in the case of axles of locomotive engines 
and other machinery, with the sum of 150/. at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. Anthony Hill, Mr Gibbon, and Professor Gordon, be a Com- 
mittee for acquiring and employing the apparatus used by M. Bunsen in col- 
lecting the gases of Blast and other furnaces, for the use of those gentlemen 
appointed to prepare Reports on the Smelting of Iron. 


GENERAL NOTICE. 

Gentlemen engaged in scientific researches by desire of the British Asso- 
ciation, are requested to observe that by a Resolution of the General Commit- 
tee at the Manchester Meeting (1842), all Instruments, Papers, Drawings 
and other Property of the Association, are to be deposited in the Kew Ob- 
servatory (lately placed by Her Majesty the Queén at the disposal of the 
Association), when not employed in carrying on Scientific Inquiries for the 
Association ; and the Secretaries are instructed to adopt the necessary mea- 
sures for carrying this resolution into effect. 


“a 


SYNOPSIS. Xxv. 


Synopsis of Sums appropriated to Scientific Oljects by the General 
Committee at the Manchester Meeting. 


Section A. : 
aot sat al. 
Nomenclature of Stars . . . . Ser AUT as 32 0 0 
British Association Catalogue of Stars { Reduetions Steric.) & o ; : 
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth . . . ars peu! 120 0 0 
Hourly Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inver- 
ness)| «.. APMIS arr eh Tiel GEl 4c 60 0 0 
Meteorological Observations at Unst shud fants 35 0 0 
Meteorological Observations at Plymouth . . 50 0 0 
Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth . . . .... 10 0 0 
Osler’s Anemometer at Plymouth . . . ....... 2 0 0 
Reduction of Meteorological Observations : wie AZ Sin O00 
Improvements in Anemometers . . . - - - - « « e 150 0 
Meteorological Recorder at Kew. . : 7 50 0 0 
Meteorological Instruments and Gratuities . . . . ... 40 0 0 
rename with HaHOONS “©. 0 Laake ee ee es 2500 O 
MIC CO-OneriGn. .- . 6 se ee ee se es OD LL OD 
peetion of. Gases On Light 0. ake ok is mie ot ws 40 0. 0 
SMEHENCUE OE ISQW soy je necth , ee nice si a ee 6) 92,200’ O..0 
IERIOMI Deir veh pn es ey ss! leas te a pO, 0 O 
£1711 11 0 
Section B. 
Chemistry and Physiology of Digestion . . . ...-- - 60.0.0 
Gases from Iron Furnaces. . . aide. oe ee ieyabel Asa yetea bud Oat, O 
See LUELOLY, Oly MOMRID os} Ye, Gace) 2 ih) ont inl, Gow 2, 40,.0, 0 
Colouring Materials usedin the Arts . . . . .. +--+. 10 00 
Oxidation of Rails of Railways . . . . - - - -~ +++ 2000 
£150 0 0 
Section C. 
Fossil Reptiles (Publication of one. STIS Oe TS STA OS 
Railway Sections. . . . ERTL! FSCO Oh 
Earthquake Registration . . eaten GAT Sal LOG HOt” 
Section of Lower New Red Sandstone. . . 2. be TOUTE Qtr 
Subterranean Temperature in Ireland. . 2... . . . . 10 0 0 
£360 0 0 
Section D. 
Report on Zoological Nomenclature .. . . . ..-.-. =. +40 0 0 
mueeisive power of Seede “an7N heed. *. eee.) 16 14 8 
Marine Testacea. . . e remtaaty cS URE! Up tL 
Preservation of Animal and Vegetable ‘Substances’. OF SHIT 6 Ow 
fee Fossil Mammalia: ie) UPSET) oa oe Pos! 100 00 
Undeseribed Anopleura . . <0, See t DBO" OD 
Radiata and, Mollusca of the Aegean and Red Seas SSOP. PaO OU” O 
Marine Zoology HUA Etat : TOT WES Be GG 
Ses MEMAGMIN ATT MONS OF bsiongiag! cs sotyer oye ony Bry RIM EO 


——= 


£322 14 O 


XXV1 REPORT—1842. 


Secrion E. £ sd. 
Researches on Asphyxia. . ss + ee es et + + 4000 
Medicinal Agents. .... . «© 2's © # © es es 8 8m 40 0 0 


‘ £80 0 O 
Section F. 
Vital Stalistiag 2. 50s RTT ony oomecie (> ers) oe ns @ 
_ SECTION G. 
Forms of Vessels, additional Experiments . .. +--+. .- 100 0 0 
Forms of Vessels, Reduction of Observations . . . - - - 100 0 O 
Morin’s Instrument and Constant Indicator . . . . « + « 100 0 O 
Strength of Materials . . ~ «) 100° 0:0 
Effect of Vibration and er or on “the sntartial sinaeeaes of 
Wi dibs hc ics esine ee Ate mivy wayne! Oe dU kd pe 
Bunsen’s Apparatus... 6 2 eee eee ee ee 15 000 
£565 — 0 0 


Total of Money Grants . . . . £3339 5 0 


- 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for 
Scientific Purposes. 


1834. Sg ods 
rel ce PD IRGUAAIOUIS Melee ss cciahs. nat be: Goines Mie oe ded, ary oc Men 
1835. yl hoa ede 
Tide Discussions. . Ce Wet OE a AR RL SD Ph TS 
British Fossil Ichthyology ESOS sesso!) avian 
—— 160, O10 
1836. 
Tide Discussions. . . SE A UR eee passe ee 8 
British Fossil Ichthyology bike op ayer a se i One Wa 
Thermometric Observations, &c. . ... . .- 50 0 O 
Experiments on long-continued Heat. . . . . 17 1 «0 
Rain Gauges. . .- REN EY CR a PT HST 913 0 
Refraction Experiments Selah ia os ae aap, 10) an ae le ae 
Wn NEAGIORUGS shen cs. as ce) 2 ronicaehadetatt paapOUEa@. «0 
THECIMOMICLEIS ve. ciel buskeaekall ss Ail ewes ely tee oi Gure® 
; 435 0 0 


1837. 
Tide. Discussions). Wits. ke b mrs |. 284 
@hemicalGorstants cn ke acetals on cee tenet ted 
Mundce Nutatian: o usowtpemeiaeiace sores es” oan tO 
Q@bservations ony Waves sei wieie ies Ges ere en 200 
Tides at Bristol . . . Perry 510) 
Meteorology and Subterranean Temperature. ae ay 212) 
Vitrification Experiments. . . ... .- + + 150 
Heart Experiments . . «ie Aevietns, tse S 8 
Barometric Observations - . 3. « « « « « « . 30 
FRPIPOMCCEES. euccio eles.) See A ou Wedheet tise ie enaaslelied 


— 


MOKPDTDUAUONOWH 
aHQanocooceane 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


1838. 


See Siscussiond 2 SPP Pe ek ee 

British Fossil Fishes 

Meteorological Observations and ‘Anemometer (con- 
struction) f 

Cast Iron (strength of). ‘ 

Animal and Vegetable Substances * (preservation of) 

' Railway Constants . 

Bristol Tides . ea i iad a ioe 

0 Rl bi SS a ere a 

MEE EIUECS ow ee a fn Motel Melia! Mee. el te 

Hdueation Committee... 6. ee ie ee 

Heart Experiments . LP eee ie ads ree 

meta and Sen Dever. se. 54 HQT SS Eee any 

Subterranean Temperature . . . -. ...- 

Steam-vessels . - Seve eeie at vs 

Meteorological Committee a adel th 

Mmernometers ). Vr. te 8 te ts 


1839. 


Fossil Ichthyology . 
Meteorological Observations at Plymouth 
Mechanism of Waves . . - «- + 
Bristol Tides . . . . 
Meteorology and Subterranean Temperature ° 
Vitrification Experiments . ninth doe ee 
Beet TOn! Panermenig.s( . . 6) 4 hs me 5 
meadwey Coustanis 2 es ee ws 
yes a 20 ie Sn 
Steam-vessels’ Engines : 
Stars in Histoire Céleste . 
Stars in La Caille . f - 4 
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue fice 
Animal Seeretions . Le ne 
Steam-engines in Cornwall . _ oeieaae 
memospheric Air 3.) 0). 02 se ee Paths 
Peer and Wrought Iron) 
Heat on Organic Bodies . . . . : 
Gases on Solar Spectrum 
Hourly Meteorological Observations, Invertiess and 
RRs ne Ce OER Te ete) 
(CR IR aa i a 
Bemis Statistics, . . ehe . 


Bristol Tides. . . . et aa 

_ Subterranean Temperature Sia) os a 
Heart Experiments: :;}. . 2 60s jel. 
Lungs Experiments. . . . . . > 
Tide! Discussions W0s6 6 es ee 
Land and SeaLevel . . .... 


Carried forward. . . . 


XXVll 


th 
~ 
so oo 8 


i) 
SFOOMBDWOROCONKOCOSO oo : 
onoontroonoococoe 


956 12 2 


oom CoococooononoFnporoncoco 


Onn OCOOOFCORDOCMOrFATI0& 


50 
— —1595 Il 0 


100 O 
13 13 
18 19 


moooneo 


bo 
So 
b 
a 
— 
“I 


XXVill REPORT—1842. 


£5 d- & 8 d, 
Brought forward . . . . 20211 7 
Stars ha Cail Céleste) . . . SERET SS A TO all 
Stare (ica Calla) foyer ee ee ee ee > Ae 
Stars (Catalogue) - - ee 2 ee ee es 264 0 O 
Atmospheric Air «+. »- - - +» «+ » «+ » 1515 0 
Water on Iron. oe wate) sce . Re 
Heat on Organic Bodies a enna ihs dan Vpn 7 0 0 
Meteorological Observations . ote te. Vie Me We at ge 
Foreign Scientific Memoirs . . . . . + - + 112 1 6 
Working Populating’... g7s)% ies 2 ce 100 00 
SRGIOTEMCH Ne AM on Te, OS Matc'eivelvivinte Je Jo, 5O OUD 
Forms of Vessels . + - oe) Io Aa ay 
Chemical and Electrical Phenomena ote lel te ke” AO en 
Meteorological Observations at Plymouth . . . 80 0 O 
Magnetical Observations - . . - - - + + + 18513 0 

1546 16 4 

1841. 

Observations on Waves . . - « « | 60%.0) 9B 
Meteorology and Subterranean Temperature nike 8, 18 30 
Achnomerers. *. \¢ + cc°)'s '- “soeats, «):.s 0) EO) NG 
Earthquake Shocks»... - s+ + + 0 - & IT U7 VO 
PACTREMAGISOMS - p00 aa aisle) is, om 6 Dae yas Seals 6 0 0 
Veins and Absorbents . . . + - + + + «© » a Oy a 
Mad-an: Rivers esa © 2S Tans, NS 5 Owe 
Marine Zoology. . - o 1 CmNaS TESA aT is ati cae Coleg hla oN ae 
Sieeloton Miapsl is ye. s6 (eins mh ietierier vei fa ee OO 
Mountain Barometers . . *« - - + + © + = 618 6 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) . . - - +» + + + + 185 0 0 
Stare (Lia Caille): oii... 6 ee es ite he a 
Stars (Nomenclature of). . - + + + + + + I719 6 
Stars (Catalogue of) . . - + + + + es 40 0 O 
Water onIron .. . mite heat DU abel 
Meteorological Observations at Inverness ris eittes..) deal 
Meteorological Observations (reduction of) . oi? 2rd Di pald 
Fossil Reptiles. 6 syosiee ab oe ele Seis) OL 0 A8 
Foreign Memoirs . .- - + + + + + + + + 62 0 6 
Railway Sections . . - + ++ ++ + + + 38.1 0 
Forms of Vessels. . amin Leelee Be 
Meteorological Observations at Ply ‘mouth s teeteitiiad oA a 2 
Magnetical Observations . . a Tesco be If Pvt 
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone CAPs anes es Le eee 
Tides at Leith . . < jh ert ere Aner AOS ye 
Anemometer at Edinburgh aA isl, edacen) eauenieaicel At] Geta Raa eae 
Tabulating Observations . . . - + + «© + + 9 oO" 
Races of i hl ae RR RL A Oe 
Bepimetnaas. To pee ete ee ee es PaaS Jae 

————1235 10 11 

1842. ; 


Dynamometric Trstruments *.) Yo VP ae ae 
Anopleura Britarmnize 2 ee SEs, ae ee 
des at Bristol! 2 Pe. Gl) ER eS eS MEI NGG BBO 
Gases Om Light OL be hee hN een ee ee 30140774 


Carried forward. . . . 256 5 9 


_ Vegetative Power of Seeds cc ini ee pea ati Mt 8 


GENERAL STATEMENT. XX1X 


rar) 
% 
& 
rar) 
& 
Q 


Brought forward . . . . 256 5 
Chronometers Fee) Oe Se ea 

Mierme Zoology. » ij: +) 5 s+ +s ee ew 1 
British Fossil Mammalia . . . . - - - + « 100 
Statistics of Education . . . - e- » «© «© + 20 
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines . . . . - + - 28 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) . . - »- - + + - 
Stars CBteh Association Catalogue of). . . . 110 
Railway Sections Mears re ate etn 

British Belemnites « - - - - » s © © » » 
Fossil Reptiles (publication of Report) . . . . 210 
Maem of Vessels, uc je eee ie isencesse) (180 
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks . . +--+ - 5 
Meteorological Experiments at Plymouth . . .- 68 
Constant Indicator and Dynamometric Instruments 90 
OVI ee ese, 8h deel Ql 8 eit us, LO 
Light on Growth of Seeds . . - . e+ es + 8 
Vital Statistics 


— 
Ormoooooonoooooocooroons 


morcocoonmoooosoooon 


Questions on Human Race .... . 7 
eC a yeas} 


Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. 


Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur- 
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting 
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a 
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re- 
mains disposable on each grant. 

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- 
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that 
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be 
ordered by the General Committee. 

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call 
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London, for 
such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required. 

In grants of money to, Committees, the Association does not contemplate 
the payment of personal expenses to the Members. < 

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- 
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be 
deemed to include as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may 


_ Yemain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. 


. 


On Thursday evening, June 23rd, at 8 p.m., the President, the Right Hon. 
Lord Francis Egerton, M.P., took the Chair in the Friends’ Meeting House, 
Manchester, and delivered an Address (see page xxxi.). 

_ On Monday evening, in the Theatre of the Atheneum, Mr. Vignoles ex- 
plained the principles and construction of ‘ Atmospheric Railways,’ and Sir 


M. I. Brunel described the ‘ Thames Tunnel.’ 


On Tuesday evening, in the same Room, Mr. Murchison stated the 
result of his recent Surveys of the Geology of Russia, in which he was ac- 
companied by Count Keyserling and M. De Verneuil. 

On Wednesday, at 8 p.m. the Concluding General Meeting of the Associa- 
tion took place in the Friends’ Meeting House, when an account of the Pro- 
CEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE was read by Colonel Sabine. 


= ee. 


ADDRESS 


BY 


LORD FRANCIS EGERTON. 


GENTLEMEN,—Some twelve years have now elapsed, since, by the exertions of 
individuals, most of whom are now present, the prototype of this meeting was 
held in the city of York; and so successful was that first experiment, that it 
has been annually repeated. The order and course of the proceedings of the 
body there constituted and arranged, has not, I apprehend, been strictly 
uniform, but I believe, on the whole, it has been usual, that on the occasion 
of its annual assemblage, those proceedings should be open to some observa- 
tions incidental to the occasion, on the part of the President; and this pre- 
liminary duty I am anxious, to the utmost of the very limited means of my 
ability, to execute. In the earlier meetings of this Society, and on occasions 
when the office I now hold has been filled by men distinguished by scientific 
acquirement, it was, I believe, found possible and convenient for such Pre- 
sidents to include in a preliminary discourse, a compressed but instructive 
statement of past proceedings and present objects. The punctual and com- 
plete observance of such a practice, indeed, could not be consistent with 
those arrangements which admit to the occasional honour of your Presidency, 
individuals, selected, like myself, not for any scientific pretensions, but from 
the accidents of local connexion with the place, rather than the objects of 
the assemblage. I apprehend that other reasons of equal urgency exist, 
calculated to make this custom one of partial observance. The operations 
of this Society have grown with its growth, and expanded with its strength ; 
and I am happy to believe that it would be difficult for the most able and 
instructed of those with whose knowledge I am proud, for the moment, to 
find my own ignorance associated, now to compress into reasonable limits, 
and to reduce to terms adapted to a mixed audience, a satisfactory summary 
of scientific proceedings, past and contemplated, connected with the labours of 
this Society. If, indeed, I look to the proceedings of the last year's meeting 
at Plymouth, I find some warrant for this supposition. You met last year, 
indeed, under different auspices. I cannot forget-—I wish for the moment 
you could—how your Chair was then filled and its duties discharged. Could 
you forget the fact, it were hardly to my interest to awaken your recollec- 
tion to it, that such a man as Professor Whewell filled last year at Plymouth, 
an office which I now hold at Manchester. I do so for the purpose of re- 
marking that he, more able, perhaps, than any man living in this country to 
give you a concise and brilliant summary of all that he and his fellow- 
labourers are doing, forbore in his discretion from that endeavour. If he, 
then, who is known in matters of science to have run 


“Through each mode of the lyre, and be master of all,” 
abstained from that undertaking, I may now be excused, not for my own 


Xxxti REPORT—1842. 


silence, which would require no apology, but for not calling on one of your 
other functionaries to supply my place for the purpose. 

Slightly, indeed, before I sit down, I may presume to touch on one or two 
topics which I may consider immediately illustrative of the advantages of 
this Institution. In the first instance, however, allow me to indulge for a 
moment in the expression of feelings of congratulation on the subject of the 
particular locality which sees us here together. Guests and strangers will 
excuse me—inhabitants, I think, will sympathise with me, if, as a neighbour, 
and all but an inhabitant, I indulge in some avowal of complacency on this 
subject. It is not merely that to this spot from which I now address you, 
mechanical invention and skill have long been attracted as to one of their 
principal centres; nor that a neighbourhood so rich in mineral treasures 
bears its own recommendation to the followers of several important branches 
of natural science. These, with a host of other local reasons, might well 
justify the selection of Manchester as a place of scientific assemblage. It 
has, in my opinion, a claim of equal interest as the birth-place, and still the 
residence and scene of the labours of one whose name is uttered with re- 
spect wherever science is cultivated, who is here to-night to enjoy the 
honours due to a long career of persevering devotion to knowledge, and to 
receive, if he will condescend to do so; from myself, the expression of my 
own deep personal regret, that increase of years, which to him, up to this 
hour, has been but increase of wisdom, should have rendered him, in respect 
of mere bodily strength, unable to fill, on this occasion, an office which, in 
his case, would have received more honour than it could confer. I do 
regret that any cause should have prevented the present meeting, in his 
native town, from being associated with the name of Dalton as its President. 
The Council well know my views and wishes in tlis matter, and that, could 
my services have been available, I would gladly have served as a door-keeper 
in any house where the father of science in Manchester was enjoying his just 
pre-eminence. 

It is no part, as I consider it, of my present office to discuss the reasons 
which have induced others to suppose that I might hold it, at least, without 
prejudice to the interests of the Society, or of this meeting. With those who 
originated its efforts, who conceived its formation, and who have tended it 
from its cradle in York to its present vigorous maturity in Manchester, I 
respectfully leave my apology. In addressing to you any remarks on the 
objects we are met to promote, I can only do so in one way, by endeavouring 
to convey to you the impressions of an unscientific man—the reasons which 
induce me, as such, to wish success to its operations, and to defer to: the 
judgment of those who have thought I might be of service in my present 
position. All readers of German literature must have observed the frequent 
recurrence of a word which signifies the position from which an object is 
viewed by the spectator—the Standtpunkt, or place of standing, meaning 
the place from which an object is viewed by a spectator, the position of 
which must govern the accuracy and extent alike of his vision. My view 
of the vast temple of science which, raised by successive architects, is daily 
deriving new additions, is dim, and distant, and shadowy. Not even a prose- 
lyte of the gate, far less a Levite of the sanctuary, I cannot mould my lips 
to any Shibboleth of entrance; and though I fain would worship at a distance, 
the echo of the ritual falls too faintly on my ear to allow me to join in the 
service of the altar. The pile is a vast one; but who shall live to pronounce 
it complete? New edifices are daily arising round the central structure. 
Many a shaft remains to be polished, and many a capital to be elaborated into 
new forms of fitness and of beauty. The architects, I know, are at work. 


ADDRESS. XXXII 


I hear with you the clink of the trowel and the hammer. The builder is busy 

on the ground from which Bacon cleared the rubbish of centuries, and shaped 

the vast esplanade, the Moriah of philosophy, into a fit foundation for the 

subsequent erections of Newton and others. All this is going on,—I may and 

do congratulate you on the fact ; but it is not for me to describe and particu- 

larize the progress of the labour. This will be done by the builders them- 

selves in those sectional departments into which they have divided themselves: © 
There the geologist will teach and learn the results of recent research and 

adventurous travel. Mr. Lyell is still, I believe, pursuing his investigations 

in. the distant regions of the New World, but Mr. Murchison is returned rich 

with the results of his exploration of an interesting portion cf the Old, and to 

‘tell you how highly and how justly such objects and such labours as his have 

been appreciated, how honourably to himself they have been assisted and 

promoted by the sovereign of those vast domains. With the political nature 

or extent of that sovereign’s power we have here nothing to do. Quid belli-. - 
cosus Cantaber aut Seythus cogitet is no subject for our thoughts or disquisi- 
tions; but his liberal appreciation of science, as evinced in the recent case of 
my friend Mr. Murchison, is worthy of our warmest acknowledgments ; and 
I trust that those distinguished men among his subjects who have honoured 
us with their presence on this occasion, will bear back to him evidence of the 
fact, that the followers of science in England duly appreciate his conduct 
towards their countrymen. You will learn in those Sections through what 
new channels the electrical inquirer has directed the fluid which Franklin 
snatched from Heaven, into what shapes, and what service, the grasp of 
science has compelled the imponderable Proteus it is his mission to enslave 
to his bidding. ‘The communication and the discussion of these past achieve- 
ments, the suggestions of new methods and branches of inquiry which spring 
from such discussion, are among the main purposes of our meeting, and the 
volumes of this Society’s Transactions bear ample witness to their accom- 
plishment. We have, indeed, no longer to deal with conjecture in this respect ; 
we have no longer an estimate to show, but an account, a profit, and a divi- 
dend. It was well for the originators of this Society to enter into calculations 
of prospective advantages, to foreshow that from personal intercourse and 
collision, light and heat would be elicited, that dormant energies might be 
excited in various parts of the country by the nomadic principle of this So- 
ciety, that scientific operations which require simultaneous exertion on an 
extensive scale, might derive their necessary element of combination, and 
their necessary funds, from the voluntary association of men in this shape. 
All this it was reasonable to predict, and fortunately it is no less easy now to 
show that the prediction has been in all particulars of importance ratified by 
the result. It has been observed on more than one former occasion,—it was 
noticed on the last by my predecessor in the Chair, and at York in 1831,— 
that in the whole range of physical science Astronomy was the only one which 
_ had, generally speaking, derived direct assistance from governments, or even 
enjoyed what I may call the patronage of society at large. It was also re- 
_ marked, with equal force and truth, that many other subjects are specially in 
need of that species of assistance which the power of the State, or the opu- 
lence of individuals, can afford to the otherwise solitary man of science. It 
has come, as you well know, within the scope of the operations of this Society 
to endeavour, in many instances, to meet and remedy this deficiency. To the 
science of the stars the first rank in the table of precedence may indeed be 
cheerfully conceded. Let it walk first in that dignity with which its very 
nature invests it, but let it net walk alone. The connexion, indeed, between 
that science and the State, between Greenwich and Downing Street, rests 

d 


XXXIV REPORT—1842. 


now upon the soundest principles of mutual advantage. It was not always 
thus that the astronomer found favour and footing in the councils of states- 
men and the courts of princes. Time was when the strange delusions of 
judicial astrology reduced such men as Kepler to the level of Dr. Dee; and 
it is melancholy to think how much of such a life as Kepler’s was wasted in 
casting the nativities of princes, and calculating the fortunes of their foolish 
and wicked enterprises. The sun of science has drunk these mists. The tele- 
scope of a Wellington was pointed, uot like that of Wallenstein from his ob- 
servatory in Egra on the heavenly bost, but on the frowning masses of his 
country’s foes. He knew but one, the Homeric omen, the defence of his 
country and the performance of his duty. Three centuries ago, a Mr. Airy 
might have been distracted from his intense and important labours at Green- 
wich, to mark what star was culminating at the birth of a royal infant. We 
do not now watch the configuration of the heavens on such events; but to 
that Providence which has shielded the mother, and under that Providence to _ 
the love and prayers of a loyal people we cheerfully confide the fateand fortunes 
of the infant hope of England: still, though such delusions are swept away, it 
is impossible that in this maritime country the protection of the State should 
not in the first instance be accorded to the science which directs her fleets. 
Even here, as you well know, the labours of this Society have not been 
wanting nor inefficient. Her advice has been followed, the contribution of 
her funds has been accepted. It is to the suggestion and the actual assist- 
ance of this Suciety that the country owes the reduction of observations now 
in progress under Mr. Airy ; and were this the only practical result of which 
we had to boast, I might ask whether this were a mere trifling benefit con- 
ferred upon the nation which has aecepted it at your hands. On this parti- 
cular point, were it in the least degree doubtful, I might hereafter find an 
opportunity of appealing to Prof. Bessel, whose authority was specially quoted 
on a former occasion, and who will shortly be here in person to support it. 
Yes; and the railroad on Monday will convey in one of its carriages a most 
important freight. Adam Smith says, that of all luggage man is the most 
difficult to transport; fortunately the difficulty is not commensurate with the 
value of the article. 
«© Weigh’d in the balance hero dust 
Is vile as vulgar clay.” 


Were it otherwise I doubt whether the workshop of my friends, Messrs. Sharp 
and Roberts, could construct an engine of power sufficient to draw here in 
safety a freight so illustrious as one which is shortly expected here by such 
conveyance. If ever accident is destined to happen on the Birmingham and 
Grand Junction rail-road, I hope it may be spared us on an occasion when 
two such companions as Herschel and Bessel are trusting their lives to its 
axles. May they convey to us in health and safety the illustrious stranger, 
the accuracy of whose observations, and the grasp of whose calculations 
have enabled him, if I am rightly informed, to pass the limits of our planetary 
system and the orbit of Uranus, to expatiate extra flammantia menia mundt, 
and to measure and report the parallax and the distance of bodies, which 
no contrivance of optics can bring sensibly nearer to our vision—and which 
remain on the mirrors of our most powerful telescopes, the same points of 
unextended light which they appeared to the Chaldean shepherd. 

I have been speaking of matters for some time past in progress, and no- 
torious to all who have taken an interest in your proceedings. They are gra- 
tifying as proofs that the impulse of this Society has been communicated and 
felt in high quarters. It is surely desirable that, under any form of go- 


ADDRESS. XXXV 


vernment, the collective science of a country should be on the most amicable 
footing with the depositories of its power; free, indeed, from undue control 
and interference, not dangling in antechambers, nor wiping the dust from 
palace staircases, uncontaminated by the passions and influences with which 
statesmen have to deal, but enjoying its good will and favour, receiving and 
requiting with usury its assistance on fitting occasions, and organized in such 
a manner as to afford reference and advice on topics with respect to which 
they may be required. One more recent instance of the operations of this 
Society in this respect I may mention, in addition to those I have slightly 
enumerated. I do not refer in detail to other most important operations 
which owe their origin to this Society—the Magnetic Expedition now in pro- 
gress ; the extension of the Trigonometrical Survey on an expanded scale, sug- 
gested by you, and liberally adopted by the Board of Ordnance—these and 
many other similar matters are recorded in your Transactions; and to those 
Transactions, rather than to any defective catalogue of mine, I would refer 
those who may doubt the benefit of our labours. The most recent instance, 
however, I cannot omit; I mean the important accession to the means of this 
Society of a fixed position, a place for deposit, regulation, and comparison of 
instruments, and for many more purposes than I could name, perhaps even 
more than are yet contemplated, in the Observatory at Kew. This building 
was standing useless. The Council of the Association approached the throne 
with a petition that they might occupy it, and I am happy to say that the 
sceptre was gracefully held towards them; and I think this transaction a 
fair instance of that species of connexion between science and government, 
which I hope may always be cultivated in this country. I am informed 
that the purposes to which this building is readily and immediately appli- 
cable, are of an importance which none but men advanced in science can 
appreciate. You will hear further of them in the Committee of Recom- 
mendations. 

With reference to the past transactions of the Society, it would be a pre- 
sumption in me to enter upon any detail. I confess, however, that on looking 
over the printed Transactions of the year 1839, my eye was caught by a pa- 
ragraph of the introduction to Prof. Owen’s treatise on the fossil reptiles of 
Great Britain, in which he avows that but for the assistance of the Associa- 
tion he should have shrunk from the undertaking of that work. The context 
to this passage is a vast one. Those who wish to feel the entire force of the 
commentary it conveys, must follow it through the pages of subtle disquisition 
which succeed it. I ask you, learned and unlearned alike, to give but a glance 
at those pages. See how the greatest—am I wrong in calling him so ?—of 
the British disciples of Cuvier walks among the shattered remnants of former 
worlds, with order and arrangement in his train. Mark how, page after page, 
_ and specimen after specimen, the dislocated vertebre fall into their places,— 
how the giants of former days assume their due lineaments and proportions, 
some shorn of the undue dimensions ascribed to them on the first flush of 
_ discovery, others expanded into even greater bulk, all alike bearing the inde- 
lible mark of adaptation to the modes of their forgotten existence, and preg- 
nant with the proofs of wisdom and omnipotence .in their common Creator. 
This is a portion, at least, of the results of this Society. I select it for no- 
tice, because it deals with a subject which comes, partially at least, within the 
_ comprehension of those to whom algebraical formule or the hieroglyphics 
of mathematical science are a sealed letter. 

Gentlemen, I have endeavoured by these remarks to convey to you the ge- 
neral reasons which induced me, an unscientific man, to wish this Society 
success, and to endeavour to assist that success by any means at my disposal. 


XXXVI REPORT—1842. 


I would ask leave, before I conclude, to further illustrate these views and 
feelings which are incidental to my own position, by reference to a scientific 
transaction of no very distant date. Some two years ago, as I have under- 
stood, an adventurous and scientific party, with Prof. Agassiz at its head, un- 
dertook the ascent of that Swiss mountain, whose name indicates that it had 
for ages been pronounced inaccessible to the foot of man. They applied, 
however, to physical difficulties in this case the energies and perseverance 
which have won them many triumphs over intellectual obstacles, and they 
succeeded. I doubt not that there were many who, from the chalet and the 
pasturage beneath, directed their glasses to those peaks of ice, and watched 
with intent and thrilling interest the progress of those adventurers. Perhaps 
among them were some who, by some trifling incursions into those awful re- 
gions, in pursuit perhaps of the artist’s or the hunter's pastime, had learned 
to appreciate the dangers of the crevice, the toil of the ascent, cut step by step 
with the hatchet in the precipitous ice, and the general magnitude of the en- 
terprise. Be assured, you climbers of the heights of science, and there are 
many of you here, that individuals so situated hail the progress they cannot 
share,—that they sympathize with your advance, lament when you are baffled ; 
and that when you plant your flag on some hitherto virgin summit, their 
shout of applause would reach you from below,—if it could be conveyed to 
your organs by the pure and attenuated atmosphere it is yours, and yours 
alone, to breathe. Dwellers in the peopled valley as we are, absorbed by 
other cares, and I hope discharging other duties, breathers of a heavier and 
too often tainted atmosphere, we yet can look upwards. We watch and 
count your triumphs; and as you gain them, we gladly add your names to the 
list of those who have done honour to their country and service to their kind. 
For your labours have this privilege, that while their results become the com- 
mon property of man, for that very reason, and because they confer that com- 
mon benefit, they elevate the country in which they originate in the scale of 
nations, and gratify the most reasonable feelings of national pride, while they 
fulfil to the most unrestricted extent the obligations of our common hu- 
manity. 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herscuer, the 
Master or Trinity Cotitece, CamBrince, the Dean or Eny, 
Dr. Luoyp, and Colonel SABine, appointed to conduct the co- 
operation of the British Association in the system of Simulta- 
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations. 


YOUR Committee have great pleasure in being enabled to continue their 
hitherto favourable report of the progress of the important operations which 
they have been delegated to watch over; and the extent of their operations 
being now vastly increased, by the addition of new foreign establishments 
observing upon the same concerted plan, and at the same hours,—by the adop- 
tion of a system of colonial and national magnetic Surveys, based upon and 
_ correlative with the fundamental determinationsatthe fixed magnetic centres,— 
and by the introduction of new instruments and processes of observation, afford- 
‘ ing great facilities for magnetic determinations to travellers both by land and 
‘sea,—it will be convenient, both for clearness and precision, if we subdivide this 
our report into several distinct sections, according to the subject matter of 
these and other heads. And as offering grounds of the warmest interest and 
most lively sympathy to a British audience, we shall commence with the 


1. Antarctic Expeditions 


- Our last year’s report brought down the account of the progress of the ex- 
pedition to its departure from Hobart Town in November 1840. The pub- 
lished extracts from the dispatch of Captain Ross, dated April 7, 1841, con- 
taining the details of the brilliant success of the expedition in penetrating the 
formidable barrier of ice, which had bafiled the efforts of the French and 

_ American navigators, (an achievement as daring as any which has illustrated 
the annals of British nautical prowess,) and of his discovery of the great vol- 
_ eanic and lofty continent of Victoria in the previously unexplored seas far to 
_ the southward of that barrier, must be too fresh in your recollection to need 
_ any recapitulation in this report. It is with the magnetic observations and 
results of the voyage only, that our immediate concern lies, 
Landing on the Auckland Islands shortly after leaving Hobart Town, Cap- 

_ tain Ross observed there the November term of 1840. Abandoning then, by 
reason of the ill success of his predecessors in that direction, his original in- 
tention of sailing across the isodynamic oval surrounding the point of maxi- 
mum intensity, his adopted course led him between the two southern foci. 

And although his return to the northward was by a more westerly route, it 

_ Seems probable that he was generally to the eastward of the present locality of 

the greatest intensity. The magnetic observations accumulated in this voyage, 

however, have only lately reached England. Their full import therefore can- 
42, B 


2 REPORT— 1842. 


not yet be known; but it is understood that intensities have been observed by 
Captain Ross in these regions exceeding 25 timesthe minimum observed by him 
near St. Helena; and that intensities of this high value prevail with little 
variation over a space extending from the 47th to the 77th degrees of lati- 
tude. The intensity in lat. '76°, where the nearest approach was made to the 
magnetic pole, was found to be actually less than in 47°. The nearest ap- 
proach to that interesting point, viz. the magnetic pole, was made in lat. 76° 
12', long. 164° east, the dip being between 88 and 89 degrees. 

It was mentioned in our last Report that the publication of the magnetic 
observations of the expedition had, at the request of the Admiralty, been 
placed under the superintendence of Lieut. Col. Sabine. The first portion 
of this work has been published in the Phil. Trans. of the present year, con- 
taining the observations of intensity made at sea between England and Ker- 
guelen Island. In this paper, the 3rd of a series of “ Contributions to Ter- 
restial Magnetism” which we owe to Col. Sabine’s zeal and industry, the whole 
series of interesting observations made on board each of the ships with Fox’s 
‘statical or deflecting magnetometer, are carefully analysed, projected, and rea- 
soned on. The results are every way most satisfactory as regards the prac- 
ticability of observing with precision at sea, in all sorts of weather; as a 
proof of which, it will be necessary only to mention, that out of 647 observa- 
tions of this kind made between London and the Cape of Good Hope, on 
board the Erebus, one only was found so far irreconcileable with their general 
tenor as to be declared doubtful: while the observations taken on board both 
ships, when compared, exhibit a steady accordance which cannot be accidental, 
and may well be termed beautiful. From this examination it would appear (if 
earlier observations can be relied on) that the line of least intensity on suc- 
cessive meridians in the middle and eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean is tra- 
yelling rapidly northward. ; 

In addition to the sea observations, the expedition since our last Report 
has made absolute determinations and observed terms as follow :— 


DESO INOW. Ged ireieeliobeids u .... Auckland Island. 
1841. May and June .......... Van Diemen Island. 
DWN isize a dede Hele ays Sydney. 


Aug., Sepf., Oct., Nov..... New Zealand. 

The November term having been kept in the Bay of Islands, the expedi- 
tion, according to the last letter received from Capt. Ross, dated Nov. 22, 1841, 
was to sail thence the day following to resume the exploration of the Antarctic 
regions. His intention, as stated in that letter, was to traverse the isodynamic 
oval surrounding the focus of greatest intensity, supposed to be in lat. 60°, 
long. 235° east, a and steering thence directly south to the edge of the ice-pack, 
to make, on reaching it, for the point at which the first year’s exploration of 
the coast of the new continent terminated, with intention to pursue the barrier, 
wherever its course may lead. The working out of this arduous undertaking 
may of course involve a winter spent within the antarctic circle. Should it 
be otherwise, we may expect shortly to hear of the arrival of the expedition 
at the Cape of Good Hope, or at the Falkland Islands *. 


2. British and Foreign Observatories.—Extension of the period for which the 
British Establishments have been granted by the British Government. 


All the British and Indian magnetic observatories, that at Aden excepted, as 
* By letters received since the meeting of the British Association at Manchester, we laern 


that the Expedition arrived at the Falkland Islands in April of the present year, and was to 
gail again for the Antarctic Circle in October, 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 3 


well as those Continental ones which can be regarded as intimately connected 
with and bearing part in the great operations in progress—are of course, and have 
long been, in full activity. The Russian Government has been pre-eminently 
active in the establishment of new observatories, and supported by the power- 
fal protection of M. le Comte Cancrine, Minister of Finance, as well as 
aided by funds placed at his disposal for the purpose by Prince Mentchikoff 

and other Russian noblemen of distinction, the zealous and energetic director- 
general of the Russian observatories, M. Kupffer, has succeeded in procuring 
the establishment of magnetic observatories at Kasan, Barnaoul, Nertschinsk, 

and Catherinebourg, and in bringing them by his personal exertions into a 
state of efficient activity, as well as in obtaining the re-erection of the old 
and insufficient observatories of Tiflis and Nicolaijeff, and the prospect of a 
new foundation for the same purposes at Moscow, under the auspices of Count 
Strogonoff, curator of the university of that city. 

This vast development of the original plan of operations, followed up as it 
has been by almost every European power, has of course not been accoms 
plished, to say nothing of expenditure, without the lapse of much valuable 
time. ‘The original term of observations granted by our own Government 
and the East India Company, was three years, which expire in the current 
year—just when in fact everything is come into full action, and the fruits of 
so much labour and expense are beginning to be regularly gathered in, on a 
scale commensurate to the exertions used. The necessary preparations, the 
instruction of officers, their conveyance to their points of destination, the 
building of observatories, the establishment and adjustment of instruments, 
were all works of time. The first year of the term was necessarily thus oc- 
cupied, and in some cases a considerable portion of the second; so that in no 
case has anything like the three years of actual observation contemplated, 
been secured. Under these circumstances, and considering that a pause for 
the presént, and resumption at some future time of the observations, would 
involve the breaking up of the whole system so auspiciously commenced, the 
dismantling and decay of the existing observatories, the fresh initial expense, 
delays, and difficulties of concerted organization in their re-establishment, it 
was considered advisable by the President and Council of the Royal Society 
that application should be made to Government on their part for the con- 
tinuance of the observatories during another period of three years, to termi- 
nate with the end of the year 1845. At the same time it was officially inti- 
mated on the part of the Russian Government, that the Russian observatories 
should be kept on as long as the British; Baron Brunow at the same time 
stating, that so far from supposing the period thus asked for long, his com- 
munications led him to presume that it would be considered as the shortest 
time in which the objects contemplated were likely to be accomplished, and 
in which adequate returns could be made for the great exertions and outlay 

‘occasioned in the establishment of the observatories. 

To these representations your Committee are happy to be enabled to re- 
port that an unhesitating assent on the part of the British Government has — 
been given, and that in consequence the continuance of the general system for 
three additional years must be considered secure. Whatever may be the 
€ourse of men’s opinions as to the additional burdens recently imposed on the 
country, men of science may at least congratulate themselves that their quota 

of the general contribution will be devoted to objects which they cannot but 
heartily approve. 

. To this new period that which is on the point of elapsing must be consi- 

dered (independent of the rich and valuable results it has yielded) as a pre- 

-paration of incalculable value, since whatever modifications and improvements, 
B2 


4 REPORT—1842. 


under a revised system of instructions, it will be found necessary to introduce, 
will now be based on mature experience, and adopted with sound deliberation. 
Uniformity can now be insisted on in points which were necessarily at first 
open to peculiarities of local and individual practice. Hourly in place of two- 
hourly observations may possibly be found generally practicable. Instrumen- 
tal corrections, and especially that for the temperature of the magnets, which 
has proved to be the most important of all, as well as the most difficult to as- 
certain, will have been accurately determined, and can henceforward be con- 
fidently applied. 

But in regarding what has been done as preparatory to what is to follow, 
we are not to lose sight of its actual independent value. Were it only on ac- 
count of its affording so vast a basis of comparison with the itinerant results 
of the antarctic expedition, it would have been inestimable. The demonstra- 
tion it has afforded of the ubiquity over the whole globe of those singular dis- 
turbances to which the name of Magnetic Storms has been applied, could 
have been no otherwise obtained, and is in itself a physical result of the first 
importance. The data it has afforded for the revision of the Gaussian theory: 
are numerous, and beyond all comparison more exact than any which had ever 
before been collected. In a word, were the series broken off at this point, 
though we must have grieved to find ourselves arrested in full career, we 
shouldstillhave found cause to regard the operation as conspicuously successful. 


3. Magnetic Surveys. 


Southern Africa.—Lieut. Clerk, R.A., who is noticed in the last Report as 
having been ordered by the Master-General of the Ordnance to join the mag- 
netic observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, in anticipation of an application 
for this survey, arrived at the Cape in December, and has since taken part in 
the duties of the observatory as assistant to Capt. Wilmot. In the estimate 
which has been forwarded to the Treasury of the expenses of the magnetic 
establishments under the department of the Ordnance for the newly autho- 
rized period, Lieut. Clerk and one additional gunner are included in the 
strength of the Cape observatory, the survey having been made part of the 
duties of that establishment. It is proposed that the survey shall comprehend, 
in addition to the colony itself, as extensive a portion of the earth’s surface in 
all directions from the observatory as time and circumstances will permit. 
Application has been made to the Admiralty (who have on all occasions shown 
the utmost readiness to promote magnetical inquiries, ) to permit the sea por- | 
tions of this survey to be carried into execution by occasional opportunities 
which the Admiral at the Cape station may be able to afford without prejudice 
to the public service in other respects, in Her Majesty’s ships and vessels 
under his command. This will include the coasts of Africa on either side of 
the Cape. When this portion of the survey shall have been considerably ad- 
vanced, we shall be better able to judge of the expediency of completing the 
circle by an excursion into the interior. With a view to this, inquiries have 
been set on foot at the Cape, and answers received from the colonial autho- 
rities in the commissariat and surveying departments, relative to the most de- 
sirable route, the strength of the party, time required, mode, and probable 
cost of transport and subsistence, &c. The Geographical Society have also 
furnished notices of high interest as to the points of geographical discovery 
(including the discovery of the Great Lake in the interior of South Africa, 
whose existence is considered certain, but which has never been visited by 
any European), which might be accomplished consistently with the objects of 
such survey. 


North America.—Lieut. Lefroy, R.A., has been appointed successor to Lieut. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 5 


Riddell, in the principal direction of the observatory at Toronto, and of the 
survey there, which, as at the Cape of Good Hope, is made a part of the ge- 
_ neral duties of the establishment. Having been relieved at St. Helena by 

Lieut. Smyth, Lieut. Lefroy is now in England preparing instruments for the 
survey, and will proceed to America in a few weeks. Since Lieut. Riddell’s 
return to England in January 1841, on account of health, the observatory at 
Toronto has been conducted in the most satisfactory manner by Lieut. Young- 
husband on the excellent system established there by Mr. Riddell. Exten- 
sive as is the field of research which now opens in that quarter of the globe, 
and arduous as will be the task of profiting duly by the opportunities likely 
to be afforded, the zeal, intelligence, and perseverance which have been al-' 
ready shown by Messrs. Lefroy and Younghusband, give the best assurance 
of the good performance of the further service entrusted to them. The Hud- 
son’s Bay Company, with its accustomed readiness to promote scientific in- 
quiries of all kinds in their extensive territories, have most liberally under- 
taken to furnish conveyance in the summers of 1843, 1844, and 1845, over 
the countries to the north and west of Canada, extending to the shores of 
' Hudson's Bay and to the Pacific Ocean, and have made the further offer of 
a passage in one of their annual ships from Hudson’s Bay to England, so as 
to include in the survey the interesting magnetic region of Hudson’s Bay 
and Straits. 

The operations thus contemplated in the north will connect themselves 
with magnetic surveys actually in progress by several distinguished magneti- 
cians in the United States. Mr. Bache has during the last summer com- 
pleted the systematic survey of Pennsylvania, commenced in the preceding 
year, including the three elements of Declination, Inclination, and Intensity. 
_ Professor Loomis has extended his series of observations of the Inclination 
over many parts (previously unvisited by him) of the States of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, and Missouri. M. Nicollet has also observed in the same region, and 
Dr. Locke has added a contribution. These and other similar operations 
which we may expect in the United States, from the increasing interest which 
magnetism excites there, will connect the Northern British survey with the 
determinations of Captain Barnett, R.N., commanding H. M.S. Thunder, on 
the southern coasts of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico. Cap- 
tain Barnett is well provided with instruments both for sea and land observa- 
tion, and has shown himself a zealous and careful observer. 


4. Observations made at Sea. 


It has already been stated in the last year’s Report, that by the use of Mr. 
Fox’s instrument the inclination or dip, andthe magnetic intensity may be mea- 
sured at sea, if not with absolutely the same precision as at land, yet with a 
_ precision quite as great as is requisite for every possible use to which obser- 
_ vations at sea can be turned, that is to say, for the purpose of tracing out the 
_ isodynamic and other magnetic curves in the portion of the globe occupied by 
_ water; and the probable absence of local attractions and disturbances in open 
ocean, while it renders such curves more easily traceable, so it affords a ready 
method of checking each particular observation by reference to the chain of 
determinations of which it forms a part. To extend and facilitate the use of 
‘this valuable instrument, a set of instructions for its use has been drawn up 
by Col. Sabine, and printed by the Admiralty for general circulation. The 
use of this instrument has been adopted by Captain Blackwood in his sur- 
veying expedition to Torres Strait, and the same system of daily observation 
is practised with it, as in the Erebus and Terror ; and the example it is to be 
hoped will be followed, not only in voyages designed expressly for purposes 


6 REPORT—1842, 


of survey and exploration, but in ships pursuing ordinary tracks, so as at 
length to furnish data for the construction of complete magnetic sea-charts, 
founded on observation alone, for these important elements, as well as for 
the declination. 

For the formation of such charts, however, it is necessary to eliminate the 
influence of the ship’s iron, an influence which the continually increasing 
quantity of iron on board of vessels renders an evil of great and increasing 
magnitude. Instructions for this purpose, as regards the declination, have 
also been issued by the same authority, founded on the experience obtained in 
our aretic expeditions, and embodied in rules which are substantially the same 
with those given by Col. Sabine in his paper in the Phil. Trans, on Compass 
Deviations on board the Isabella and Alexander in the arctic voyage of 1818, 
consisting in simultaneous sea and shore observations, and reciprocal bearings 
with the ship’s head laid in succession round every point of the compass. 

In reference to contributions made to our knowledge of the magnetic ele- 
ments in various parts of the globe, it would be unjust to omit the mention 
of the. valuable series of such determinations made by Captain Belcher, R.N., 
of H. M.8. Sulphur. These determinations, the first portion of which have 
been reduced by Col. Sabine, and published in the Phil. Trans. for 1841, 
have been continued by Captain Belcher at more than 20 stations in the 
islands and coasts of the Pacific and China Seas. The observations are 
arrived in England, and will shortly be reduced, forming altogether a very 
valuable contribution towards the data accumulating for the revision of the 
numerical elements of Gauss’s Theory. 

Still less pardonable would it bein this Report to omit signalizing the final 
publication during the last year of Professor Erman’s magnetic results in his 
journey into Siberia and voyage round the world. It is true that these results 
are already in part interwoven with the numerical computations of M. Gauss’s 
magnetic coefficients, and so constitute an integrant part, and a most import- 
ant one, of that vast and laborious work. But this has been by the especial 
favour and liberality of that eminent traveller, in placing at the disposal of 
those engaged in theoretical researches, results to them invaluable, and which 
have actually proved most useful even without that final revision and labo- 
rious reduction which he has ultimately given to them. When we consider 
the vast extent of sea and land traversed by this indefatigable traveller, his 
long residence in the dismally cold and inhospitable regions of Siberia, the 
infinite labour of the obseryations themselves, and the care with which they 
have been made, we shall see reason to regard this work as one which must 
constitute an epoch in the history of magnetic science, both for the mass of 
information it contains and the personal devotion it indicates, 


5, Magnetie Disturbances. 


M. Gauss truly remarks, that “Zé ts one of the great results of British 
enterprise, that the existence of disturbances extending over the whole globe has 
been ascertained.” As a physical fact deeply connected with the general 
causes of terrestrial magnetism, this is indeed a result of the first magnitude ; 
and its consideration under all its circumstances, and especially as modified 
by distance and geographical locality, is eminently calculated to lead to spe- 
culations on those causes, and to theoretical views tending to connect these 
abrupt variations with the usual course of the magnetic phenomena. To dis- 
connect, in the phenomena of the magnetic storms, what is local from what 
is general, and to trace individual shocks occurring in them from observa- 
tory to observatory, and from station to station, until they become so far en- 
feebled by the effects of distance from their origin as to be confounded and 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 7 


masked by the growing influence of other shocks whose point of action is 
nearer, is now one of the principal points to which attention must be directed. 
The great mass of the magnetic bars used for the regular determinations, and 
for observations of small and moderate disturbances, throws some obstacles 
in the way of this inquiry, when the changes of magnetic force are very sud- 
den and irregular, which seems more likely to be prosecuted effectually by 
the use of very small bars capable of being instantly affected by short and 
sudden shocks. But however this may be, the occurrence of many and re- 
markable storms during the continuance of these observations, at the most di- 
stant localities, and with all their detail of circumstances, has given a very 
high degree of immediate interest to this branch of the inquiry, and occa- 
sioned a change in the contemplated order of publication of the reports. It 
has been considered advisable to collect together from all the returns the cases 
of remarkable disturbances observed, arrange them in chronological order, 
and publish them in volumes by themselves. Those of 1840 and 1841 will 
appear in the course of the summer. By pursuing this course it alone be- 
comes practicable to mature such a plan of extra or storm observation (whee 
ther by the use of smaller needles or by other processes which will suggest 
themselves, ) as can be fairly tried and effectually brought into action while 
the colonial observatories still subsist. Among those which will be included 
in this first publication, the great disturbance which took place on and about 
the 25th of September, 1841, though not the greatest in point of actual devi- 
ation which has occurred, is yet in many respects one of the most remarkable. 
It was observed at Greenwich and immediately made the subject of a circular 
communication addressed by the Astronomer Royal to his brother observers. 
Speedily accounts dropped in of the observation of the same disturbance at 
outlying stations, from Toronto, from St. Helena, from the Cape of Good 
Hope, nay, even from Trevandrum in Travancore. All these accounts ar- 
rived in time to be. inserted in the Report of this Association for 1841, and 
it must surely be regarded as a signal proof of the efficiency of the arrange- 
ments made on all hands, that a phenomenon, casual in its nature so far as 
we yet see, and manifested by no external and visible premonitory symptoms, 
should have been thus seized upon by our observers in Europe, Asia, Africa 
and America, reported thence to England, reduced, printed and circulated 
‘in three months and a week after its occurrence. “ Zantwm series june- 
turaque pollet” !* 

Anomalous magnetic moyements of unusual magnitude take place on the 
average 3 or 4 times in the month, but apparently with greater frequency 
in some months than in others. The returns from the different stations 
show hitherto without exception that these disturbances are general, that is 
to say, that though the movements individually may not be, and in fact are 
not, always simultaneous, the observations of the same day never fail to ex- 
hibit unusual discordances at all the stations. Generally the disturbances 
are characterized by a diminution more or less of horizontal intensity, pre- 
vailing more or less for several hours together, everywhere, and mostly ac- 
companied by a movement, also general, of the north end of the needle to- 
wards the west. By a memorandum of Lieut. Younghusband on the disturb- 
ance on the night of the 15th April 1842, which was so considerable that the 
range of the declination in little more than an hour extended over 2° 15! in 
are, it appears that with the 15-inch bars used in the observatory, which re- 
quire 17° for a vibration, a change of more than 50 divisions of the scale, or 

* Dr. Lamont states that during the most intense part of this disturbance, (the whole of 


___ which was observed by him at Munich,) the movements exhibited no correspondence, taken 
 ‘Seriatim, with those at Greenwich. : 


8 REPORT—1842. 


35 minutes of are, occasionally takes place in the time required for the three 
vibrations which give the mean place entered in the tables. . 

Experience has somewhat diminished the value of the term observations as 
a principal means of detecting disturbances ; especially since our observatories 
have adopted hourly observations, by which a departure from the normal 
state cannot continue long without notice ; and thus the disturbance furnishes, 
of itself, at all the stations, a natural signal for extra and simultaneous ob- 
servation. Besides our Colonial and East India observatories, the disturbances 
are watched with the greatest diligence at Prague, Munich, and Greenwich. 


6. New Magnetic Instruments and Modes of Observation. 


Transportable Magnetometer—Among the most useful services that have 
been rendered to the magnetic cause in the year elapsed, has been the ma- 
king this a thoroughly practical instrument, and the instructions which have 
been drawn up by Mr. Riddell for its use. These instructions are now in 
progress of printing. They are of the most distinct and practical kind, and 
contain the formule of correction and reduction with numerical examples 
from actual practice. This instrument and the instructions for its use, freely 
supplied to officers of the army and navy, will multiply absolute determina- 
tions, term observations, and disturbance observations far beyond what could 
ever be done by fixed observatories, and also in localities where such could 
not be established. Already have these improved instruments been supplied 
to the ships of Capt. Blackwood and Capt. Sulivan, the first proceeding to 
survey Torres Strait, and the latter the Falkland Islands, and the officers have 
been instructed in the use of the instruments at Woolwich. Another has 
been supplied to Mr. Lefroy, and will enable him to keep the terms in what- 
ever part of America he may find himself on the days appointed. Others are 
preparing for Capt. Barnett and Capt. Grove, R.N., who are engaged in sur- 
veys at Bermuda and Malta, both being stationary for several months in the 
winter. From Capt. William Allen, R.N., of the Niger expedition, we have 
received the November and December terms, 1841, kept at Ascension, with 
the original German transportable magnetometer, as also the absolute deter- 
minations made with it in the same island. é 

Professor Lloyd's new Inclinometer.—The vertical element of the magnetic 
force is one of difficult determination with that precision which is required to 
become comparable with the determinations of its horizontal component, so as 
to afford a perfectly correct means of calculating the changes of the incli- 
nation and of the total intensity. The instrument hitherto used for the 
purpose, called by Prof. Lloyd the Balance Magnetometer, has been found 
scarcely adequate to its intended purpose. ‘‘ Unexceptionable as its principle 
is in theory, the accuracy of its results has not been commensurate with that 
of the others. This inferiority is owing to the large influence which the un- 
avoidable errors of workmanship necessarily have on the position of equili- 
brium of a magnet supported on a fixed axle.” “The sources of error seem 
to be inherent in every direct process for determining the third element, and 
it is only by an indirect method that we can hope to evade them.”* Such a 
method has accordingly been recently proposed and subjected to trial by Dr. 
Lloyd, by means of an instrument to which he has given the name of an 
Induction Inclinometer, the principle of which is the measurement of the 
intensity of the magnetism induced ona vertical bar of soft iron (which must be 
considered as due to the vertical magnetic component only) by the deviation it 
is capable of causing in a horizontal bar suspended near it. The details of 


* Account of the Magnetical Observatory at Dublin, &c., by the Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 9 


the construction and adjustments: of ‘this instrument are given in the work 
cited below. 

Weber's Inductive Inclinometer.—Similay in respect of its general principle, 
but widely different in the mode of application of that principle, is a recent 
invention of M. Weber for the same purpose. The deflection of the horizontal 
magnet in this instrument is produced by the earth’s magnetism, induced not 
on a vertical soft iron bar at rest, but on a ring, sphere, or plate of copper 
made to revolve about a vertical axis with a perfectly uniform and given ve- 

‘locity by clockwork. This ingenious instrument has not been tried in Eng- 
land, but is stated by M. Kupffer to perform very satisfactorily. 

M. Lamoni's Inclinometer.—A third and much less simple mode of ac- 
complishing the same object of measuring the intensity of the earth’s mag- 
netism by its inductive power has been devised by M. Lamont. As in Dr. 
Lloyd’s process, a bar of soft iron is used as the temporary magnet, but in 
other respects the application of the general principle is widely different. 
The bar so temporarily magnetized is made to act unequally on the two 
bars of an astatic magnetic couple, thereby tending to draw them aside from 
a given position in which they would otherwise be held by a fixed magnet of 
given power. ‘This tendency however is destroyed by another magnet placed 
in a given position and distance. A series of reversals and changes of di- 
stance in the soft iron bar and the neutralizing magnet is then operated, which 
furnishes equations by which everything but the intensity sought and known 
quantities can be eliminated. 


7. Publication of Magnetic Observations, Descriptions of Observatories, Sc. 


As it isnot by any means the object of this Report to give a historical 
view of the progress of magnetic science generally, except in so far as the 
immediate purposes for which your Committee is constituted are concerned, 
and as bearing on the practical operations over which they are delegated by 
the Association to watch,—it must suffice under this head to notice very 
briefly the appearance of several works and memoirs, in which observations 
are recorded or discussed, instruments and observatories described, &c. 

None of the returns of the regular observations at our stations are as yet 
printed; but, as has been noticed, those of the disturbances in 1840 and 1841 
will appear in the course of the present year. In this respect however we 
are not more in arrear than our Russian coadjutors, the observations made 
in the whole extent of which empire under the superintendence of M. 
Kupffer, for the year 1839, have appeared in the course of 1841, forming the 
regular continuation of that noble collection, the “ Annuaire Magnétique et 
Météorologique du Corps des Ingénieurs des Mines de Russie”. Nor indeed 
does it seem practicable in works of this vast extent, and where the returns 
have to arrive from such distant quarters, to place a much less interval be- 
tween the making and publication of the ordinary observations. 

_ The’year elapsed has also been marked by the publication of the first vo- 
lume of the magnetic and meteorological observations made at Prague by M. 
Kreil, containing the observations from July 1, 1839 to July 1, 1840; a sin- 
gular departure from the usual and far more convenient practice of packing 
together in the same volume the observations of each separate year. In this 
work the observations are not only registered, but very amply discussed and 
reduced, and the daily, monthly, and yearly march of the results investigated. 
The suspected influence of the moon on magnetic and meteorological phe- 
nomena is made a subject of especial discussion by M. Kreil. 

- M. Quetelet continues his praiseworthy labours in collecting and project- 
_ ing meteorological observations on the solstitial and equinoxial term days. 


10 REPORT—1842. 


These, and his observations of the magnetic terms with their graphical pro- 
jections, continue to be regularly published by him in the Bulletins of the 
Royal Academy of Brussels. 

Dr. Lloyd, Dr. Lamont, and Messrs. Lovering and Bond have respectively 
furnished descriptions of the magnetic observatories under their direction at 
Dublin, Munich, and at Harvard University, Cambridge, N.S. In the last- 
mentioned of these works (published in the Memoirs of the American Acade- 
my of Boston,) are also printed the term observations made in 1840 and the 
commencement of 1841 at that Institution, projected, and in the case of the 
term of Oct. 21, 1840, compared with the corresponding observations at 
Toronto (as regards the declination), and exhibiting (conformably to what has 
been found to obtain in stations not more distant from each other in Europe) 
a close and minute agreement in the march of the deviations, which on that 
occasion was very irregular. 

Dr. Lamont’s observations are characterized by the use of very small 
needles. Some anomalies appear to have been produced in their readings by 
circulating currents of air arising from inequality of temperature in their 
_ glass inclosures; but these he has succeeded in great measure in destroying. 
Indeed there seems no good reason why such needles should not be sus- 
pended in vacuo. Assuredly if very small needles could be used in place of 
large ones, (for those observations, that is to say, which do not depend on 
observed times of vibration, for to such they are quite inappropriate, ) not only 
would the costliness of apparatus be much diminished, and its portability in- 
creased, but the temperature corrections would become more certain, by rea- 
son of the rapid distribution of heat through the whole extent of the needle, 
(neither would there probably be found much difficulty in keeping such 
needles constantly up to a definite state as to magnetic saturation) not to re- 
fer again to what has been already said of their applicability to a closer: ana- 
lysis of the shocks producing irregular disturbances. 

Dr. Lloyd’s paper may be advantageously referred to for a full account of 
the construction, adjustments and mathematical theory of all the magnetic in- 
struments employed, and in this respect must be considered as a very useful 
and valuable contribution to the cause in hand. 

Col. Sabine has reduced and discussed during the past year the observa- 
tions of Capt. Belcher on the west coast of America and at Otaheite in the 
second series of his ‘‘ Contributions to Terrestrial Magnetism” published in the 
Phil. Trans., 1841, and in his third series of such contributions has passed 
under examination the sea observations of intensity made on board the Erebus 
and Terror in the voyage from England to Kerguelen’s Land. 

Professor Loomis’s observations of intensity and dip in several stations in 
the United States, made in the years 1838, 1839, 1840, have also appeared in 
the year elapsed. 


The subject of the mutual action of permanent magnets, with a view to 
their best relative position in an observatory, has been resumed by Dr. Lloyd 
in a supplement to his former paper on that subject published by the Royal 
Irish Academy. Choosing among the incompatible conditions which a total 
destruction of the mutual actions of three magnets would require those of 
most importance to satisfy, he has been enabled to propose several arrange- 
ments adapted to specific purposes, which accomplish their object with great 
simplicity and convenience. 

A considerable extent of correspondence has taken place on the important 
subjects of the best formula to be used and method to be adopted for deter- 
mining the absolute intensity of a magnet by deflection observations, Mr. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 11 


Airy contending for the inadequacy of Gauss’s formula, and proposing a 
different method, and Dr. Lloyd for its practical sufficiency. The subject 
must be considered as still under discussion, and the necessary revisal of the 
instructions for the new period will either cause both methods to be practised, 
or otherwise bring the point to a satisfactory issue. Opportunity will also be . 
afforded for attention to many other valuable practical suggestions which 
have been offered as the result of experience already gained; such as Mr. 
Lamont’s correction for change of magnetism in the deflecting bar in the 
same class of experiments, when in the meridian, and when perpendicular to 
it; as also Dr. Lloyd’s determination of the ratio of the distances of the de- 
fleeting bar which shall give the smallest possible error in the resulting in- 
tensity corresponding to a given force of deflection, and his suggestion re- 
specting the employment of the bifilar suspension for the purpose of magni- 
fying small declination-changes, whether such changes require to be mea- 
sured for ascertaining the temperature correction of a deflecting magnet, or 
simply for their own sake, at stations near the equator where they are habitu- 
ally very small. — 

No expense beyond a charge of 10/. 8s. 10d. for observatory registers sup- 
plied to Mr. Boguslawski for the new period of three years, has been incurred, 
but your Committee pray a continuance of the remainder of their grant to 
meet such demands as may arise. 

Signed on the part of the Committee, J. F. W. Herscuer. 


Annual Report of Professor Von Boguslawski, addressed to Colonel Sabine, 


«My DEAR SIR, “ Breslau, June 18, 1842, 

“TI have received with great pleasure, although much retarded, your es- 
teemed communications of May 19th, 1841, and January 11th, 1842, as well 
as the highly interesting inclosures, but am still in expectation of the arrival 
of the required forms, as also of the new books for observations of this year, 
from 2 to 2 minutes. They will however arrive in time, because for this year 
past, extraordinary obstacles to the labours of the observatory have taken 
place, which however have now been happily removed. The only assistant 
who was associated with me was suffering under a complaint of the chest, 
which rendered him incapable of continued work. The labours thereby fallen 
to my share were increased by the death of Dr. Scholtz, Professor of Mathe- 
maties, part of whose lectures I was obliged to take upon me until his place 
was supplied again. 

*‘ Not without much exertion I have taken care, that all the magnetic term 

observations were made complete, and that everything was prepared to proceed 
presently to the absolute observations under more favourable circumstances, 
as also not to omit observations of perturbations out of terms. 
*‘ During the vacancies of the Easter holydays I have caused to be made for 
_ that purpose, not without difficulty, a deep blind (niche) within the old thick 
and strong wall of the tower, in order to get thereby sufficient room for ob- 
servations of deviations of the declination needle also in the westerly direction. 
_ I place much confidence in the new assistant, who is to arrive by the Ist 
July, and live in hope that my request for a second assistant will be acceded 
to, so that the magnetic observations will be continued with redoubled zeal, 
and more time can then be given to the forming of the abstracts and registers 
for you. 

“T beg to request of you the favour of communicating this to the Council of 
the British Association, and to present to them at the same time my most 
sincere and hearty thanks for the honour conferred upon me for naming me 
@ corresponding member.” 


12 REPORT—1842, 


Report on the present state of the Ichthyology of New Zealand. By 
Joun Ricuarpson, M.D,, F.R.S., &c., Inspector of Naval 
Hospitals, at Haslar. 


Now that New Zealand has become the adopted home of thousands of our 
countrymen, whose numbers are daily receiving fresh accessions, and whose 
efforts are primarily directed to the overthrow of the native forests with a 
view to their replacement by farm-houses, verdant pastures, rich crops of the 
cerealia, and the other accompaniments of a successful agriculture ; we may 
expect that a corresponding change will follow in the distribution of animals. 
Some will become rare or perhaps entirely disappear, while others, casually 
or intentionally introduced, and finding appropriate food and protection, will 
increase, and people the land. It is of importance to zoology that the num- 
ber, range and habits of the animals should be ascertained and recorded be- 
fore the din and bustle of civilisation scare them from their native haunts; 
and it was with the view of facilitating the execution of such a task, that 
J. E. Gray, Esq. of the British Museum, and I undertook, on the reeommenda- 
tion of the general committee assembled at Plymouth, to draw up a report, 
of which the present paper is a part. 

The islands of New Zealand crossing thirteen degrees of latitude, and pos- 
sessing from their narrowness and their remoteness from continents, a purely 
maritime climate, are well situated for showing how far the distribution of 
animals is influenced by an increasing distance from the tropic, independent 
of other considerations. Several able zoologists have gone to reside in this 
the most remote of our colonies, and it is to them that we look for an accu- 
mulation of facts bearing on this question, before the unwearied assiduity 
and continual progress of the Anglo-Saxon race, and the ravages of the do- 
mestic beasts of prey which follow in their train, shall have compelled the 
various species to overpass the demarcations of their ancient ranges, which 
could have been but little disturbed by the operations of the thinly scattered 
aboriginal inhabitants. These observations apply more extensively to the 
birds than to the other vertebrata, for quadrupeds are very rare in New 
Zealand, Cook having observed only two, the dog and rat, and Polack, in his 
recently published popular account of the Colony, says that it nourishes no 
serpents or snakes of any description. Three individuals of the genus Pela- 
mys were indeed thrown ashore on a piece of timber; but from the way in 
which the fact is mentioned, I suppose that they were destroyed by those 
who witnessed the descent. A large agama (Hatteria, Gray) is known to 
the settlers by the name of iguana, but it is now scarce, having been nearly 
extirpated by wild cats sprung from the introduced domestic race. 

Mr. Gray with the assistance of his brother has prepared a list of the birds, 
and also drawn up one of the reptiles and invertebrata known to inhabit New 
Zealand; but he has lately received an accession of specimens which require 
time for examination, and has therefore found it expedient to defer his report 
to another year, that he may be able to present it in a more complete state. 
The fish have hitherto been more neglected than the other vertebrata or the 
mollusca, and had I designed to draw up an orological report, or to make ex- 
tended observations on the peculiarities of organization exhibited by the fish 
which inhabit the seas of New Zealand, I must also have deferred this paper 
until materials accumulated ; but my object is the much more humble though 
still useful one of furnishing the naturalists now at work on the ichthyology 
of those distant seas with a list of the known species and references to their 
figures and published descriptions. 

It is to the accurate observers who accompanied Cook on his first and 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 13 


second voyages, that we are indebted for almost all that is known of the fish 
of New Zealand. They figured or described upwards of sixty-five species, to 
which nine have been added by Cuvier and Valenciennes in their admirable 
‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ and sixteen by other writers, making in all ninety. 
Even in this small list it is to be feared that in two or three instances the same 
species is mentioned more than once under different names. 
From the great prolongation of the islands in a north and south direction, 
_ the deep indentations of their coast-lines, the different exposures of their bays, 
the variety of the beaches, the existence of sand-banks off their shores, their 
numerous rivers and interior lakes, we should expect to find them rich in 
fish, and in fact Polack says that few countries possess a greater abundance 
or variety of the finny tribes. There is no place in the northern hemisphere, 
situated in the same manner as New Zealand, so that it can be used as a 
standard of comparison ; but the Mediterranean sea embraces similar parallels 
of latitude and it is known to nourish at least 230 species of acanthopterygii 
alone. The fish which frequent the shores of New Zealand are probably as 
numerous as those which visit the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and we may ex- 
pect to find among them a greater variety of the wandering oceanic kinds. 
Lesson, in the zoological part of the account of the voyage of the Coquille, 
gives an eloquent sketch of the general distribution of fish in the Southern 
seas, which may be consulted with advantage ; but much information is still re- 
quired to complete this department of zoology. Seamen are so well acquainted 
with the general forms of the pelagic fish, that they have ceased to regard 
them as objects of curiosity, or to record their appearance; and we conse- 
quently lack observations on the precise ranges of the species. It is of the 
more local kinds, owing to their peculiar habits and strange shapes, that navi- 
gators on visiting a foreign coast form the bulk of their collections. Of these, 
some are strictly littoral in their haunts, and prey on the minute crustacea 
which deposit their spawn in such localities; others browse on sea-weed or on 
coral, and are not likely to traverse large districts of the ocean destitute of 
such productions. The boleophthalmi and some other Gobioides even ascend 
the beach, and like little lizards chase their insect prey through rocky crevices. 
The plectognathi seem to be peculiarly adapted for living in the surf of coasts 
exposed to all the fury of the ocean, and particularly among the coral barriers 
of the intertropicalisles. Their powers of natation are small, aided though the 
caudal be by the approximation to it of the other two vertical fins, and they are 
apparently tossed about at the mercy of the waves. Some of them are protected 
by hard elastic cuirasses, strengthened by strong spines placed at the angles ; 
others have their soft integuments studded by projecting flexible spines like 
those of the terrestrial hedge-hog or sea echinus; and they possess moreover 
the power of rendering themselves more buoyant by inflating the skin with 
air, or of steadying themselves by taking in water as ballast. Australian spe- 
cimens of these fish abound in every museum. 
_ The predominance of marsupial quadrupeds over the other Mammalia in 
Australia is the distinguishing feature of its zoology, and it would form a 
curious subject of inquiry, to ascertain whether there be anything analogous 
in the other divisions of the animal kingdom existing in that quarter of the 
world. Mr. Owen has shown that the marsupial structure is peculiarly 
adapted to the necessities of animals that are required to traverse large tracts 
of poor and barren country in search of food. Now an inhabitant of the 
_ waters must be in a condition somewhat similar to the kangaroos in the wastes 
of New Holland, when the element in which it is primarily organized to move 
_ and from which it draws its subsistence is occasionally deficient. Immedi- 
ately without the tropics there is a zone of various width but nowhere passing 


14 REPORT—1842. 


the 34th parallel, within which little or no rain falls. We can trace this zone 
from Pitis and Lower California across the new world to the Atlantic. In 
the old world it includes the Sahara and lesser deserts of Northern Africa, 
Egypt, Arabia Deserta, and certain districts in Asia, being interrupted chiefly 
by the intrusion of lofty mountain chains. This arid belt is bounded by 
zones of periodic rains, which on the north side of it fallin the winter season, 
and on the south side in the summer only, the rains having a more uniform 
character in the latter district. Similar zones exist in the southern hemi- 
sphere, though they are less easily traced from the intervention of large tracts 
of ocean. We find them well characterised however both on the Pacific 
and Atlantic coasts of South America, again north of the colony of the Cape 
of Good Hope, and in the southern half of New Holland, where as at the 
Cape the rivers are for the most part mere chains of ponds. Some provision 
must be made for the preservation of fish inhabiting the ponds in such coun- 
tries, in the dry season; and we observe, accordingly, that in Australia vari- 
ous Cheironectes, Batrachi, Gobioides, Megalopes and Apodes bury themselves 
in the mud as the water dries up, and like the lepidosiren of the Gambia re- 
main in an inert state until the rain falls. Im South America some siluroids, 
such as the Callichthys, also bury themselves in the mud, while the Doras 
hancochi when the water fails marches overland in dense bodies in quest of 
another river. The Anabasidee have a peculiarity in the structure of the 
pharynx enabling them to retain a supply of water in seasons of drought, which 
has been compared by some authors to the water-bag of the camel, that 
ship of the desert. These fish are most abundant in the southern parts of 
Asia, a few range to the Indian archipelago, and the genus Spirobranchus 
peoples the rivers of the Cape of Good Hope. The Indian Anabas, a member 
of the family, is said to ascend palm-trees in quest of little pools of water to 
be found in the axils of the leaves. None of the group have as yet been de- 
tected in Australia, though the nature of the country would lead us to ex- 
pect to find them there: but the rivers have been scarcely explored by the 
ichthyologist. As to New Zealand, its maritime, aud consequently more humid 
climate, seems to render any peculiarity in the structure of the respiratory 
apparatus of its fresh-water fish less necessary. With regard to the marine 
fish the proportion of known species is as I have already said too small to en- 
able us to draw any very precise conclusions; but we cannot fail in reckoning 
the known Australian fish (including those of New Zealand) to be struck with 
the unusual number which are furnished with simple pectoral rays, more or 
less divided from the rest of the fin. The cottoid family, in which this strue- 
ture is predominant, is as numerous, if not more so, in the Australian seas, as 
in the corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere, and there are in 
addition many Polynemi, Cheironemi, Aplodactyli, Cheilodactyli, Nemadac- 
tyli, and Latres, all furnished with simple pectoral rays. Many Australian 
genera exist also in the seas of China. Of the Cyprinoids which are so 
very abundant in India, but one species is known to exist in Polynesia or 
Australia. - 

Inthe following list “ Solander” refers to that naturalist’s manuscript ‘ Pisces 
Australiz,’ containing his descriptions of the New Zealand fish obtained on 


Cook's first voyage. The term “ Australia” as used by him relates solely to — 


New Zealand, which was supposed until Cook cireumnavigated it, to be part of 
a great southern continent. The figures of fish executed in the same voyage 
are quoted under the name of the artist “ Parkinson”. “ G. Forster” indicates 
the drawings made on the second voyage, which are preserved with those of 
Parkinson, and Solander’s manuscripts in the Banksian library. “ J.R. Forster” 
refers to the description of the species in Schneider’s edition of Bloch. Forster's 


OO ht DIRE arte a 5 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 15 


manuscripts are kept at Berlin, and are said to be at present in the course of 
publication in an entire state. The ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ is quoted under 
the initials of its authors, and reference is occasionally made to the 9th vo- 
lume of the Annals of Natural History, in which I am now publishing “ Con- 
tributions to Australian Ichthyology.” 


PERCOIDEE. 


1. SERRANUS LEPIDOPTERUs (Rich. Annals, 9, p.18.). The Butterfly-bar- 
ber-fish. (Perca lepidoptera J. R. Forster MS. II. 58. apud Schn. Epi- 
nephelus lepidopterus, Bl. Schn. p. 302.) 

This fish was discovered on Cook’s second voyage, and has recently been 
detected by Dr. Lhotsky on the shores of Van Diemen’s Land. It belongs 
to the group of Serrant, which is named “Les Barbiers” in the ‘ Histoire des 
Poissons,’ and which is nearly equivalent to Bloch’s genus Anthias. The 
works above quoted contain all that has been published respecting it. 


9. Potyprion cerNuuM (C.& V.3.p.24. t.42.), Wreck-fish, Cherny or 
Jew-fish. (Sciena gadoides, Solander, p.38. Parkinson, 2.t. 74. Perca 
prognathus, et “Palo-tera,” G. Forster, 2.t.18. J. R. Forster, MS. iv. 19. 
Eipinephelus oxygeneios, Bl. Schn. p. 301.) 

Few of the finny tribes have a wider range than this curious fish, which is 
remarkable among the percoids for its considerable size, and the peculiar ar- 
mature of its head. It is abundant in the Mediterranean, where the fisher- 
men have long applied to it an epithet expressive of its worthlessness and con- 
sequent rejection as an article of food; and it has been taken on both sides 
of the Atlantic, from the coast of Cornwall to the Cape of Good Hope. Yet 
it seems to have been quite overlooked by European ichthyologists until the 
publication of M. Valenciennes’ paper upon it in the eleventh volume of the 
‘ Mémoires du Museum,’ unless Duhamel intended to represent it in his 
‘ Péches,’ pl. 6. (vide C. & V.3., p. 23.). In the same year however as the pub- 
lication of Duhamel’s work, this fish was an object of interest to Solander, who 
was then with Cook, navigating the seas of New Zealand. His ‘Pisces 
Australie’ contain an extended description of a specimen taken off Motuaro, 
which embraces most of the peculiarcharacters of the genus. Parkinson’s figure 

- was executed at the same place, and most probably is a portrait of the same 
individual. On Cook’s second voyage the species was seen by the Forsters 
at Queen Charlotte’s Islands, near the 19th parallel of south latitude and 138th 

_ meridian, where it was known to the natives by the name of “ Palo-tera”. G. 

Forster's drawing of it is preserved in the Banksian library, and J. R. Forster's 

description may be found in Schneider’s edition of Bloch. 


_ 3. CenTRoprisTes TRUTTA (C. & V.2. p. 54.). (Sciena trutta, G. Forster, 2. 
en t. 210. Perca trutta, J. R. Forster, apud Bl. Schn. p. 542.) 
___ This fish was procured by the Forsters in one of the coves of Queen Char- 
~ lotte’s Sound, and Schneider quoting from the manuscripts of J. R. Forster, 
informs us that it was named by the natives “ Kahavai,” and by the sailors 
““ Salmon-peel,” on account of its rich and delicate flavour. Cuvier adopted 
‘the species in the second volume of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ under the de- 
‘Signation that it has in Schneider's edition of Bloch ; but in the third volume 
of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ he supposes that the species may prove to be 
the same with the Centropristes? truttaceus procured by Messieurs Quoy and 
Gaimard at Port Western. Several very closely resembling but distinct 
Species appear to exist in the Australian seas. Two of them are named be- 
low, and Polack in his popular list of New Zealand fish mentions “ Kahawai” 


16 ; REPORT—1842. 


or colourless Salmon, but gives us no clue by which to discover the species 
to which he alludes. 


4, CENTROPRISTES MULLOIDES. (Sciena mulloides, Parkinson, 2.t.68. Sci- 
ena mulloides, (3. (sapidissima), G. Forster, 2. t. 211. 
This species was obtained by Parkinson at Hetrawai, and by the Forsters 
in Queen Charlotte’s Sound. 


5. CENTROPRISTES SAPIDIssIMuS. (Mulloides sapidissimus, Solander, p. 22. 
. Parkinson, 2. t.67.) Gh. 
Solander has given a pretty full description of this species in his ‘ Pisces 
Australie,’ and mentions that it inhabits Tegadoo bay, and Tolaga, between 
the 38th and 39th parallels of latitude. Parkinson procured the specimen 
which he has figured at Opooragi. The drawings of these three, variously 
named Centropristes, being unfinished, we are not in a condition to point out 
their distinctive characters, neither is it quite certain that they are all speci- 
fically different from the New Holland Centropristes truttaceus (C. and V.), 
C. georgianus* (C. and V.), and C. salar (Zool. Trans. 3.p.78.). Some ob- 
servations on their peculiarities may be found in the paper last quoted. 


6. APLODACTYLUS MEANDRATUS (Rich. Zool. Trans. 3. p. 83.). (Scie@na 
meandrata, Parkinson, 2. t.65. Meandrites, Solander, p.2.) 

It was not until the year 1831 that the genus Aplodactylus was made 
known by Cuvier, on M. d’Orbigny bringing specimens of punctatus from 
Valparaiso. A second species, the arctidens, from Van Diemen’s Land, is 
described in the third volume of the Zoological Transactions, now in the 
course of publication ; and a third, not yet named, exists in the Museum of 
Fort Pitt. But as long ago as October 1769 Solander was in possession 
of a New Zealand species, which was taken off Cape Kidnappers, otherwise 
named Matamawi, in the forty-second parallel, and Parkinson made a draw- 
ing of it. This figure in conjunction with the extended description contained 
in the ‘ Pisces Australie’ leaves us no reason for doubting the genus of the 
fish. 

7. Percis corras (C. and V. 3. p.273.). Coaly Percis. (Labrus macrocephalus, 
Solander, p.27. Parkinson, 2.t.57., Gadus colias, and New Zealand Cole- 
fish, G. Forster, 2.t.181. J. R. Forster, MS. II. 36. apud Schn. Enche- 
liopus colias, Bl. Schn. p. 54.) 0, 

This fish was discovered on Cook’s first voyage off Owhooragi, and was 
named “ Cole-fish” by the seamen. Parkinson’s figure was done from a spe- 
cimen which was taken at Motuaro. The Forsters afterwards found it on the 
same coast, and ascertained its native name to be “nera-warre.” The painters 
and describers of this fish differ in the numbers of the fin rays, and we may 
conclude either that the species is variable or that two species haye been con- 
founded. 

D. 5 | 20; A. 12 Solander, Pisc. Austr. 
0 Wh”, aa Sy 4 Parkinson, fig. 
6 | 233,., 20 G. Forster, fig. 
5|25; 1|17. J. R. Forster, apud Schn. 

The two drawings however are very like one another, and there is no other 

marked discrepancy in the descriptions than the variation of the numbers of 

the rays. 

8. Percis nicrHEMERA (C.and V. 3. p. 274). 

Messieurs Lesson and Garnot brought this fish from the Bay of Islands, and 


* Arripis georgianus, Jenyns, Zool. Beagle. 


collected by Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 17 


Cuvier says that he should be inclined to consider it as the same with J. R. 
Forster’s Gadus colias, but for its very different numbers of rays, which are 
the same as in Parkinson’s figure of macrocephalus, above quoted. It is pos- 
sible that there may be a mistake or misquotation of the dorsal rays by 
Schneider, in which case the nicthemera would most probably have to be 
razed from our list of species. Solander mentions that the opercular bones 
of macrocephalus are the only scaly parts of the head, and this character is 
considered in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ as a peculiarity of nicthemera. He 
also states that six or seven brown bands are faintly visible on the body of the 
living fish, the colours in other respects being those ascribed to nicthemera. 
The banded distribution of the darker tints is a prevailing one in the genus. 


9. URANnoscorus MAcULATUs (Forster). Bearded Star-gazer. ( Uranoscopus 
maculosus, Solander, p.21. U. maculatus, J. R. Forster apud Schneider. 
G. Forster, 2. t.176.177. U. monopterygius, Bl. Schn. p.49. U. cirrhosus, 
C. and V. 3. p.314. U. forsteri Idem, p.318. U. kouripoua, Lesson, 
Voy. par M. Le Cap. Duperrey, pl. 18. U. maculatus, Rich. Annals, &c 
ix. p. 207.) 

In the last-quoted paper reasons are assigned for considering the several 
names here quoted as synonyms of a single species, examples of which were 
procured at Tolaga bay on Cook's first voyage, in Queen Charlotte’s Soundon 
his second voyage, and in the Bay of Islands by the naturalists of La Coquille. 
Lesson states that ‘Kouripooa,’ is the name given to it by the natives of New 
Zealand, while Forster says that they call it « Bedee’. 

10. Upeneus viAmineti (C.and V. 3. p.452.). (Labrus calophthalmus, So- 

lander, p. 35. Parkinson, 2.t.46. Up. vlamingii, Annals, 9. p. 211.) 

This fish came under the observation of Solander and Parkinson in Queen 
Charlotte’s Sound. It exists likewise in the Indian ocean, Admiral Vlaming 
having left a figure of it which was copied by Renard. Specimens were als 
1]. UrEeneus porosus (C.and V. 3. p.455.). 

This Upeneus was detected by Peron in Van Diemen’s Land, and by Les- 


' son and Garnot in the rivers of New Zealand. 


‘The following percoid-fish inhabit the seas of New Holland. Apogon rex- 
mullorum (C.and V.); Ap. aprion (Annals, ix.); Serranus lepidopterus, 
(Annals, ix.); S. gélberti (Annals, ix.); S. merra (C. and V.); S. stellans 
(Annals, ix.); S. wra (C.and V.); S. crapao (C.and V.); Plectropoma den- 
tex(C.and V.); Pl. serratum (C. andV.); Pl. nigro-rubrum (C. and V.); Meso- 


prion yapilli (C.and V.); M.carpo-notatus ( Annals, ix.); M.? emeryii (Icon. 
 Pise. fase. i. t. 3.f.2*); Centropristes truttaceus (C. and V.); C. georgianus 
_ (C. and V.); C. scorpenoides (C. and V.); Grystes macquariensis (C. and 
_ V.); Cheironemus georgianus (C. and V.); Therapon servus (C. and V.) ; 


Th. theraps (C.and V.); Th. rubricatus (Annals, ix.); Pelates guadrilineatus 
C.and V.); Helotes sexlineatus (C. and V.); H. octolineatus (Jenyns, Zool. 


Beag.); Sillago maculata (C. and V.); S. bassensis (C.and V.); S. punctata 


~ 


C. and V.); S. burra (Annals, ix.); Beryx lineatus (C. and V.); Trachich- 
thys australis (C.and V.); Aphritis urvillii (C.and V.); Uranoscopus levis 
(C. and V.); Ur. maculatus (Annals, ix.); Polynemus plebeius (C. and V.); 
P. tetradactylus (C. and V.); Percis emeryanat (Annals, ix. Icon. Pise. 1. 


_ £.1); P.nebulosa (C. and V.); Upeneus porosus (C. and V.). 


4 
Ww 


r 


* Icones Piscium, or Plates of Rare Fishes, by John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., &c. London, 
84 ; 


1842. 
__ t This is Dentex fasciatus discovered by Solander on the coast of New Holland, May 24, 
ie 1770. Itis also, perhaps, the variety’ of Percis nebulosa, noticed in C. and Y. iii. p. 263. 


e. c 


18 REPORT—-1842. 


CorroipEz. 


12. TRIGLA PAPILIONACEA (Solander, p.23.). The Kumu. (Trigla pa- 
pilionacea, Parkinson, 2. t.104. Tr. kumu, Lesson et Garnot, Coquille, 
pl. 19., C. and V., 4. p. 50. Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, p. 27.). 

Parkinson and Solander saw this gurnard in Tolaga bay, at Opooragee, 
and on other parts of the coast of New Zealand. M. Lesson, and at a later 
period Mr. Darwin procured specimens of it in the Bay of Islands. Solander 
describes the colours of the recent fish more fully than any succeeding writer. 


13. ScoRPANA CARDINALIS (Solander, p. 28.) ; Parkinson, 2.t.12. Annals, 
ix. p. 212.) 

The ‘Pisces Australi’ contain a long description of this species. The 
habitat there assigned to it is Motuaro, but on Parkinson’s drawing the more 
general one of Eaheenomauwee, or the northern island of New Zealand, is 
given. Much of Solander’s description is quoted in the Annals of Natural 
History. 


14. Scorrp#na corrorpeEs (Forster apud Schneider.). (Scorpena cottoides, 
G. Forster, 2.t.190. Synanceia papillosa, Bl. Schn. p. 196.) 
Forster's figure hasastrong resemblance tothe Scorpena ergastulorum of Van 
Diemen’s Land (Annals, ix.), but wants the black mark on the first dorsal 
fin. Cuvier compares it with the cirrhosa and venosa of the ‘Histoire des 
Poissons.’ Its New Zealand name is “ enooheetara.” 


15. Scorp#NA PLEBEIA (Solander, p.21.). (Rich. Annals, ix. p. 214.) 

Little is known of this species. Solander, who found it in Tolaga bay, de- 
scribed its colours merely, and there is no figure of it extant. It remains 
therefore for the local investigator of the Zoology of New Zealand, to com- 
pare it with the established species. 


16. ScorP#NA CRUENTA (Solander, p. 5. Annals, ix. p.217.). 


Neither have we any figure of this fish. It was procured off Cape Kid- 
nappers, and has the black mark on the dorsal fin which is so conspicuous in 
the European scrofa and ergastulorum of Van Diemen’s Land. 


17. SEBASTES_PERCOIDES. (Scorpena percoides, Solander, p.4. Parkinson, 2. 
t.16. Annals, ix.) 

This fish was obtained at Motuaro in Queen Charlotte’s Sound on Cook’s 
first voyage. Parkinson’s unfinished drawing does not express the generic 
characters with precision, and Solander’s description is confined to the tints of 
colour exhibited by the recent fish. 

The following members of the cottoid family frequent the coasts of New 
Holland: Scorpena miles (Zool. Tr. 3.); Se. jacksoniana (Quoy et Gaim.) ; 
Se. burra (Annals, ix. p.215); Se. panda (Annals, ix. p. 216); Se. ergas- 
tulorum (Annals, ix.p.217); Platycephalus endrachtensis (C.and V.); Pl. — 
fuseus (C.and V.); Pl. bassensis (C.and V.); Pl. levigatus (C.andV.); 
Pl. inops (Jenyns, Zool. Beagle); Apistes australis (C.and V.) ; Apistes 
——? (Jenyns, Zool. Beagle) ; Synanceia trachynis (Annals, ix. p. 385). 


SCLENOIDER. 


18. CHEILODACTYLUS CARPONEMUs (C. and V. p. 862.). (Setenotdes abdo- 
minalis, Parkinson, 2.t.52. Sparus carponemus, G. Forster, 2. t.206; Chei- — 
lodaetylus carponemus, Zoo). Trans. 3. p. 99.) 
This species was obtained on Cook's first voyage at Matarruhow, and on — 

the second in Dusky Bay. Quoy and Gaimard found it in King George's 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 19 


Sound, New Holland, and it is a common and highly prized fish at Hobart 
Town. 


19. CHEILoDACTYLUS MACROPTERUS. (Sciena and seienoides abdominalis, 
Solander, p. 11. and 27.; Parkinson, 2.t.40.; Secena macroptera, G. Fors- 
ter, 2. t.206; J. R. Forster, MS. ii. 54. apud Schneider ; Cichla maerop- 
tera, Bl. Schn. p. 342; Cheil. macropterus, Rich. Zool. Trans, 3. p. 101.) 
In the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ this species is confounded with the prece- 

ding one, but it seems to be sufficiently distinct and to be characterized not 

only by a more conspicuous black mark above the shoulder, but also by a 

different number of rays, thus— 

D. 17| 26; A. 3 | 14. maeropt. Sol. and Schn. 

17 | 31; 3 | 19. carponem. C.& V. and Rich. 

The tip of the tenth ray of the pectoral passes the beginning of the anal, be- 

ing proportionally longer than that of carponemus. Specimens were pro- 

cured on Cook’s first and second voyages off Cape Kidnappers, in Queen Char- 
lotte’s Sound and in Dusky Bay. 


20. Larris? saLmonga. (Sciena salmonea, Parkinson, 2. t. 66 ; Latris? sal- 
monea, Rich. Zool. Trans. 3. p.114.) 


The ‘ Pisces Australiz’ contains no account of this fish, which was procured 
in Totezranue Cove, Queen Charlotte’s Sound, and Parkinson’s figure is not 
complete enough to render the genus perfectly certain, though the general 
aspect is that of Latris. 


21. Larnis rinzaTA. Yellow-tail. (Sciena lineata, G. Forster, 2. t. 204; 
J. R. Forster, MS. ii. 52. apud Schneider ; Cichla lineata, Bl. Schn. p. 342; 
Latris lineata, Rich. Zool. Trans. 3. p. 108.) 
This inhabitant of the rocky narrows of Dusky Bay was discovered on 
Cook’s second voyage, and immediately named by the sailors “ Yellow-tail.” 
It is very like the “ Trumpeter” of Van Diemen’s Land (Zatris hecateia), and 
may possibly prove on examination to be the same, but the specimens of the 
Trumpeter which have been transmitted tothis country do not show any yellow 
tints on the tail. 


22. Larnis criraris (Rich. Zool. Trans. $. p.115). (Sciena ciliaris, G. Fors- 
ter, 2. t.205. and 2. t. 209. ; J. R. Forster, MS. 2. 55. apud Bl. Schn. p.311). 


_ Two sketches of this fish were made on Cook’s second voyage, one (205) 
in Dusky Bay, where it bears the native appellation of “ moghee ”; the other 
(209) in Queen Charlotte’s Sound. Two ciliated tubercles placed above the 

_ eyes are peculiar to this species. 

__ The characters of the genus Zatris are detailed in the third volume of the 

Zoological Transactions, and a full description with an accurate figure is 

1ere given of the Trumpeter; Parkinson’s and Forster’s figures of the three 

New Zealand species have much of the general character of the genus, but 

do not clearly show the simplicity of the lower pectoral rays*. 

The Sciznoid fish known to frequent the coasts of New Holland are E/e- 
ginus bursinus (C. and V.); Scolopsis longulus (Aunals, ix. p. 389) ; Cheilo- 
dactylus carponemus (Zool. Tr. 3.); Latris hecateia (Zool. Tr.); Nemadactylus 

_concinnus (Zool. Tr.) ; Amphiprion melanostolus ( Annals, ix. p. 390) ; Amph. 

cinctus (Annals, ix. p.391); Pristipoma sealineatum (Q. and G.). 


____* And it may be proper to mention, that there is in the Museum of the College of Surgeons 
a fish, procured on one of Cook’s voyages and presented to the Museum by Sir Joseph 
Banks, having a very close external resemblance to Latris, but with more dorsal spines 
than any species here enumerated, and the lower pectoral rays branched like the uppermost. 

c2 


20 . REPORT—1842. 


SPAROIDER. 
23. Pacrus GuTTuLatus (C. and V. 6. p. 160.). 


M. Lesson procured this fish in the mouth of one of the rivers of New 
Zealand, and Peron and Quoy and Gaimard found it on the coasts of New 
Holland. 


24. PAGRus MiIcRoprerus (C. and V.6. p. 163.). 


The account of this species in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ was drawn up 
from a specimen which was taken in the estuary of the river Thames, New 
Zealand, by Mess. Quoy and Gaimard. 


25. Pacrus Latus (Rich. Annals, ix.p.392). (Sciena lata, Solander, p. 25; 
Se. aurata, G. Forster, 2. t.208; J. R. Forster, apud Schn.; Labrus aura- 
tus, Bl. Schn. p. 266.) 

Solander procured this fish between Owhooragi and Opooragi, and Forster 
found it on the second voyage in Queen Charlotte’s Sound. The natives of 
the latter locality name it “‘ ghoo-paree.” 

Pagrus guttulatus (C. and V.); P. unicolor (C.and V.) ; Pentapus vitta 
(C.and V.); P. iris (C.and V.); Lethrinus cyanowanthus (Icon. Pise. 4. f-1); 
L. cinnabarinus (Id. 4. f.2); and Oblata tricuspidata (C. and V.) are Sparoid 
forms which have been detected in the Australian seas. 

We have the Manoid Gerres subfasciatus (C.and V.); and G. filamento- 
sus (C. and V.) from the same seas, which likewise produce the following. , 
Chetodontoidee: Drepane punctata (C.and V.), Chelmon marginalis (An- 
nals), Platax leschenaldi (C. and V.), Pl. orbicularis (C. and V.), and 
Scorpis georgianus (C.and V.). No Anabasidee have as yet been brought 
from New Holland. 


ScoMBEROIDER. 


26. SCOMBER (SCOMBRUS) SOLANDRIs. (Scomber scombrus, Solander, p. 31 5 
Richardson, Annals.) 

Solander observed a mackerel in Queen Charlotte’s Sound, which he thought 
was the well-known European species. He neither describes nor figures it, 
but merely mentions the number of its rays, and states that the ordinary size 
of the fish is greater than in Europe. It is probably the Scomber loo of the 
‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ . 


27. THYRSITES ATUN, altivelis (Rich. Zool. Tr. iii. p.119). (Scomber splen- 
dens, Solander, p. 37 ; Scomber dentex, G. Forster, ii. t. 216; Se. dentatus, 
J. R. Forster, MS. II. 58, apud Bl. Schn. p. 24. 

Solander saw this fish in Murderer’s Bay, and the Forsters found it in 
Queen Charlotte’s Sound, and learnt that its native name was “maga.” So- 
lander’s description is full and characteristic, and the figure corresponds pretty 
well with a specimen from Port Arthur, Van Diemen’s Land, which is de- 
scribed in the ‘ Zoological Transactions.’ An actual comparison of specimens: 
is required to decide whether it be the same with the 7hyrsites atun of the 
Cape of Good Hope, described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ viii. p. 137, 
pl. cexix. 

28. GEMPYLUS SOLANDRIS (C.andV. viii. p.216). (Scomber macrophthalmus, 
Solander, p. 40; Parkinson, ii. t. 91; Gempylus solandris, Annals, ix.) 
The account of this inhabitant of the seas washing Eaheenomauwee, in the 

‘Histoire des Poissons,’ rests upon Solander’s description and Parkinson’s 

dente. Some passages are quoted from Solander in the ‘ Annals of Natural 
istory.’ ; ) 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 21 


Polack mentions Sword-fish in his list of the productions of New Zealand, 
but the latitude with which popular names are applied prevents us from form- 
ing any decided opinion as to the genus. He may have seen the Histiopho- 
rus indicus, which probably ranges southwards to New Zealand. ‘The true 
sword-fish (Xiphias gladius) is confined as far as we know to the Atlantic. 
The same writer also includes “pilot-fish” in his list. He may perhaps mean 
the Naucrates indicus (C.and V. viii. p. 326). ; 


29. CHoRINEMUS FORSTERI (Rich. Annals, ix.). (Scomber maculatus, G. 
Forster, ii. t. 228; J. R. Forster, MS. II. 120, apud Schn.; Se. forsteri, 
Bl. Schn. p. 26. 

The Forsters found this fish in New Zealand, and a New Holland specimen 
is described in the ‘Annals of Natural History.’ It is named “milinjidnee” by 
the natives of Port Essington, and is very probably the same species with the 
Chorinemus commersonianus of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ viii. p. 370. 


30. Tracuurus Nov ZeLanvi# (C. and V. ix. p. 26). 

This ¢rachurus belongs to the group which has the lateral line armed by 
fewer than eighty shields, and differs little in external appearance from the 
common European Caranx trachurus, but there are peculiarities in the strue- 
ture of its skeleton and viscera. It was brought from New Zealand and Am- 
boyna by Quoy and Gaimard, and from Shark Bay, New Holland, by Lesson 
and Garnot. 
$1. Tracuurus? cLuPEorDEs (Ann. ix.). (Scomber clupeoides, Solander, 

p- 31.) 

Solander obtained this species in Dusky Bay. There is no figure of it, but 
his description points it out to be a Caranzx, and most probably of the group 
of Trachuri. ; 
$2. CaraANnx LUTESCENS (Annals, ix.). (Scomber lutescens, Solander, p. 38.) 

Was procured in Queen Charlotte’s Sound on the 30th of March, 1770. 


33. CARANX SINUS-oBSCURI (Annals, ix.). (Scomber trachurus, varietas, 
G. Forster, il. t. 223. C. and V. ix. p. 20.) 
This Caranz, discovered by the Forsters in Dusky Bay, is, like the preceding 
species, a member of the third of the three groups into which the “ caranx 
proprement dit” are divided in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ x. p. 4.5. 


34. CARANX PLATINOIDES (Annals, ix.). (Scomber platinoides, Solander, 
p- 13 
An inhabitant of Tolaga Bay. hut depending as a species on Solander’s too 
brief description. . 


35. CARANX GEORGIANUS (Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, p.'71.). (Scomber micans, 
_ Solander, p. 27; Parkinson, 2. t.89. Caranx georgianus, C. and V. ix. 
_ p. 85?) 
Inhabits Opooragi, New Zealand, and Shark Bay, New Holland. 
_ Polack mentions Dories as inhabiting the seas of New Zealand, but whether 
he alludes to the same species that is taken at Van Diemen’s Land or not re- 
mains to be ascertained. 

The Australian Scomberoids are Scomber australasicus (C. and V.), Thyn- 
nus bicarinatus (Q. and G.), Thyrsites atun (C.and V.), Chorinemus forsteri 
(Annals), Cybium clupeoideum (C. and V.), Trachurus ? (C.and V. ix. 
_ p20), Trachurus declivis (Jenyns), Caranx clupeoides (Annals), Car. geor- 
gianus (C.and V.), Car. lessonit (C. and V.), Car. platinoides (Annals), Car. ~ 


22 REPORT—1842. 


speciosus (C.andV.), Psenes leucurus(C.and V.), Zemnodon saltator (C.andV.), 
Seriola cultrata, and Capros australis (Zool. Tr. iii.). 


SIGANOIDER. 


36. ACANTHURUS TRIosTEGUS (Bl. Schn.). (Harpurus fasciatus, Forster 
apud Schn.; Teuthys australis, Gray, King’s Voy. to New Holl.; Acan- 
thurus triostegus, C. and V. x. p. 137.) 

An inhabitant of the seas of the Mauritius, New Zealand, New Holland 
and Polynesia. 

Amphacanthus notostictus (Annals), Amph. gymnopareius (Annals), Amph. 
lunifrons its and V.), Amph. nebulosus (C. and V.), Amph. maculosus (Q. 
and G.), Acanthurus triostegus (C. and V.), Ac. grammoptilus (Annals), are 
Australian Siganoidez. 

MuGILoipEz. 


37. Muir ForsTER! (C. and V. xi. p. 141). (Mugil albula? G. Forster, ii. 

t.239; J. R. Forster apud Bl. Schneider, p. 120.) 

Forster states that this mullet ascends the rivers of Dusky Bay in shoals in 
the month of April. 

Polack says that mullet frequent the deep banks on the eastern coast of 
New Zealand, and are named “ kanai” by the natives. 

Mugil peronii (C. and V.), M. aeutus (C-and V.), M. argenteus (Q,and G.), 
Dajaus diemensis (Zool. Tr.), Atherina hepsetoides (Annals), Ath. pectoralis 
(C.and V.), Ath. presbyteroides (Annals), Ath. endrachtensis (C. and. V.), 
Ath. nigrans (Annals), and Ath. jacksoniana (C. and V.), are New Holland 
fish. 

GoBIOIDEs. 


Fish of this family abound in great variety in the seas of New Zealand and 
Australia, examples of most of the generic and sub-generic forms described 
in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ having been brought by voyagers from that 
district of the ocean. The exposed haunts, singular habits and strange forms 
of many gobioid fishes subject them to easy capture, and we find accordingly 
that they form a considerable portion of the collections of the casual visitors 
of the shores which they inhabit. 


38. Cxuinus LitToREUS (C. and V. xi. p. 389). (Blennius littoreus, G. Fors- 
ter, ii, t. 184; J. R. Forster, MS. II. 42, apud Schn.; Bl. guadridactylus, 
Bl. Schn. p. 177.) 

Named “kogop” by the inhabitants of Queen Charlotte’s Sound, where 

the Forsters saw it on the 24th of October, 1774. 


39. ACANTHOCLINUS Fuscus (Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, p. 93, pl. xviii. f. 2). 


This form is peculiar to New Zealand. Mr. Darwin procured his speci- 
mens in the Bay of Islands. It is remarkable for the number of its anal spines. 
Mr. Jenyns remarks that the preceding species is probably another member 
of the genus, but this supposition is discountenanced by Forster’s figure, 
which shows only nine anal rays. 


40. CRISTICEPS AUSTRALIS (C. and V. xi. p. 102). 

Peron discovered this fish in Van Diemen’s Land, and Quoy and Gaimard 
afterwards found it in the river at Hobart Town, and drew the portrait of a 
specimen which measured seven inches. Another paragraph in the ‘ Histoire 
des Poissons’ mentions that the last-named naturalists brought three very 
small examples of the species from New Zealand. » 


eee ee ecus 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 93 


41. TRIPTERYGION NIGRIPENNE (C. and V. xi. p. 413). 
Lesson and Gamot, when they accompanied Duperrey, discovered this 
species in the rivers of New Zealand. 


42, TRIPTERYGION VARIUM (C. and V. xi. p.414). (Blennius varius, G. Fors- 
ter, ii. t. 185; J. R. Forster, II. 43, apud BI. Schn. p. 178.) 
A finished drawing was made by G. Forster of a specimen of this fish, 
captured on the 9th of Nov. 1774, in Queen Charlotte’s Sound. Its native 
name is “ke kogop.” 


43, TRIPTERYGION FoRSTERI (C. and V. xi. p.415). (Blennius tripinnis, 
_J. R. Forster, MS, 11.41, apud Bl. Schn. p. 174.) 

This Tripterygion is also from New Zealand, notwithstanding the following 
passage in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons:'—“ On ne nous dit pas oti il avait été 
trouvé.” But in Forster’s ‘ Notes,’ as quoted by Schneider, we find, under 
Tripterygion fenestratum, “ Habitat cum sequentibus circa insulam Nove 
Zelandie, inter saxa ad ostia rivulorum aque dulcis, locis estu mari irrigatis.” 

Now in Forster’s manuscripts the species stand in the following order :-— 
MS. II. 39. Tript. fenestratum. ~ MS. II. 42. Clinus littoreus. 

— 40. —— 43. Tript. varium. 
— 41. Tript. forstert (B.tripinnis). 44, Scorpena cottoides, sc. 


44, TRIPTERYGION FENESTRATUM (C.and V. xi. p.410). (Blennius fenestra- 
tus, G. Forster, ii. t. 186 ; J. R. Forster, MS. II. 39, apud Bl. Schn. p. 173.) 
G. Forster executed a figure of this species in Dusky Bay with more than 

usual care. It frequents the mouths of rivulets, and is named “ he-tarooa” 

by the natives. 


45. TRIPTERYGION CAPITO (Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, p.94, pl. xix. f. 1.). 
Mr. Darwin captured this little fish on tidal rocks in the Bay of Islands. 
Several gobies and periophthalmi have been detected on the northern shores 
of New Holland, and in the islands of Torres Straits, but none exist in any 
of the collections that have hitherto been made in Van Diemen’s Land and 
New Zealand. 
46. ELEoTRIs GoBIorvEs (C. and V. xii. p.247). Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, p. 98. 
Discovered by Quoy and Gaimard in the fresh waters on the north-east 
coast of New Zealand. Forster named another member of this family, which 
he found on the island of: Tanna, Blennius gobioides. It is the Salarias al- 
ticus of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ : 


47. Exgorris RADIATA (C, and V. xii. p.250). 
Found by Quoy and Gaimard in the mouth of the river Thames, in Febru- 
ary 1827. 


48. ELEOTRIS BASALIS (Gray, Zool. Mise. p. '73.). 
Inhabits the river Thames. 


49. HemEROcH#TES ACANTHORHYNCHUS (C. and V. xii. p. 311). (Callio- 
nymus acanthorhynchus, G. Forster, ii. t.175; J. R. Forster, II. 30, apud 
Schneider; Call. monopterygius, Bl. Schn. p. 41.) 

No specimen of this curious fish having been seen since the time of Cook, 
our knowledge of it is entirely derived from the figure and description of the 
_Forsters. It was thrown up after a storm in Queen Charlotte’s Sound. The 
natives named it “ kogo-hooee,” probably from some fancied resemblance or 

connexion with Hleotris nigra, which is termed “kogo” in the Polynesian 


24 BEPORT—1842, 


language. “ Hoee-hoee” signifies poisonous or man-killer in the same tongue, 
and is the appellation given to the Tetraodon hispidus at Parietea. Since 
writing this passage, I have, through the kindness of Mr. Gray, seen a drawing 
by Dr. Dieffenbach of a Hemerocetes from New Zealand, which may be thesame 
species*. It appears to differ in some of the markings from Forster's figure, 
but I have not hitherto had an opportunity of comparing them accurately. 

The following Australian Gobioids have been noticed by naturalists :— 
Blennius tasmanius (Zool. Tr. iii.); Blennechis anolius (C. and V.); Salarias 
meleagris (C. and V.); S. forsteri (C. and V.); S.kingit (C. and V.); Clinus 
perspicillatus(C. and V.); Cl. despicillatus (Zool. Tr. iii.) ; Cristiceps australis 
(C.and V.); Eleotris trabeatus (Annals) ; Eleotris mogurnda (Annals). 

Batrachus diemensis (Le Sueur) and Cheironectes politus (Zool. Tr. iii.) 
are among the representatives of the Batrachoidee on the coast of New 
Holland. 


LABROIDER. 


50. LABRUS P@cILOPLEURA (C.and V. xiii. p. 95). 


Lesson and Garnot discovered this species at New Zealand, and ascertained 
its native name to be “ paré-quiriquiri.” 


51. Jutis? rusicinosus (Annals). (Sparus rubiginosus, Parkinson, ii. t. 
38; Solander, p. 7.) 
Solander discovered this fish off Cape Kidnappers. The species resembles 
Julis decussatus. 


52. Jutis Noratus. (Sparus notatus, Solander, p. 16; Parkinson, ii. t.37.) 


This fish was found in Toteranue Cove and Tolaga Bay. It resembles 
Julis decussatus still more closely than the preceding species. 

The ‘ Pisces Australie’ contains accounts of the colours merely of Sparus 
stellatus and of a Labroides asellinus, but no drawing of them being extant, it 
is impossible now to say whether they ought to be referred to the Wrasse 
family or not. This point remains to be settled by the ichthyologists who 
may hereafter explore the bays in question. The two following species are 
nearly in the same predicament, though a description of their forms is to be 
found in Schneider's edition of Bloch. 


53. Jutis MILEs. (Labrus coccineus, J. R. Forster apud Schneider ; Labrus 
miles, Bl. Schneider, p. 264.) 


Forster's notes, as quoted by Schneider, inform us that this fish resembles 
Labrus lunaris of Linneus, meaning most probably thereby the Julis blochit 
which Cuvier distinguishes from the true Julis lunaris. All three have lunate 
caudal fins. The New Zealand fish was captured with the hook by the sea- 
men, who named it the “soldier” on account of its red jacket. 


54. JuLis ceLipotus. (Labrus celidotus, J. R. Forster apud Schn.; Bl. 
Schneider, p. 265.) 
Taken at the same place with the preceding fish. 2 
The Sparus prasiophthalmus of Solander (p. 5) has six obscure bands, while 
celidotus has only three, and also a large black lateral mark over the anus not 
noticed as existing in prasiophthalmus. There being no description of the form 


* Since the report was read I have had an opportunity, by the kindness of Mr. Owen, of 
examining a specimen of this rare fish, which was presented by Dr. Dieffenbach to the Col- 
lege of Surgeons. Forster’s description has been misunderstood in some material parts. The 
species will be described in the appendix to Dr. Dieffenbach’s account of New Zealand, which 
is now preparing for the press. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 25 


of the latter given, the genus of the fish must remain for the present uncer- 
tain, since in Solander’s time the genus Sparus was made to include very 
various forms. 


55. Opax puttus (C. and V. xiv. p.304). (Scarus pullus, G. Forster, ii. 
t. 202; J. R. Forster, MS.1V.17, apud Schneider, p. 208.) 
Inhabiting Queen Charlotte’s Sound, and known there by the name of 
*“ marraree.” 


56. Opax ? virtatus (Annals, ix.). (Coregonoides vittatus, Solander, p. 1 
and 39 ; Callyodon coregonoides, Parkinson, ii. t. 24.) 

Two entries of this fish occur in the ‘ Pisces Australiz,’ the second being’ 
an account of the differences between the old and young. It was taken at 
Mataruhow. = 

The following Labroids have been taken in the Australian seas. Labrus 
tetricus (Zool. Tr.) ; Z. fucicola (Zool. Tr.) ; L. psittaculus (Zool. Tr.) ; L. 
laticlavius (Zool. Tr.) ; L. eyanodus (Rich.ined); Z.iris(Solander); Tautoga 
melapterus(C.aadV.); Cheilio lineatus(C.and V.) ; Julis lineolatus(C.andV.); 
J. auricularis (C. and V.); J. notatus ( Sparus, Solander); J. dringit (Rich. 
Icon. Pisce. 3. f. 1); Odax pullus (C. and V.); Odax algensis (Zool. Tr.) ; 
Hoplegnathus conwayi (Zool. Tr.). 

Of the extensive family of Siluroidee, of which nearly 300 species are de- 
seribed in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ not a single individual has been brought 
from New Zealand. Nor was it to be expected that many species should have 
been found there, since most of the family are inhabitants of fresh water and 
of the lower latitudes. In North America one species only is known to reach 
the 55th parallel, and the only European species is partially diffused over 
similar latitudes. The plotosus ikapor or lineatus (C.and V. xv. p.412), a 
widely spread inhabitant of the Indian and Polynesian oceans, descends to 
the west coast of New Holland, and is the most southerly Siluroid which is 
known to us. 

' We have no Cyprinoid fish to enumerate among the productions of the 
fresh waters of New Zealand, though it is highly probable that some will here- 


_after be brought from thence. The Leuciscus (Ptycholepis) salmoneus, which 


is the Mugil salmoneus discovered by Forster at the island of Tanna, exists at 
Port Essington, New Holland. A specimen brought from thence by Mr. 
Gilbert has enabled me to ascertain that this fish is not an Elops, as Cuvier 


‘has said in his ‘ Régne Animal’ (ii. p. 324). Solander notices briefly, in his 


‘Pisces Australie,’ a Mugil lavaretoides, which is also referred to Blops in 


the ‘ Histoire des Poissons; but the little that Solander says of the fish ap- 


plies entirely to Mr.Gilbert’s specimen of salmoneus, though his account is not 
particular enough to establish their specific identity ; we may therefore quote 
Solander’s New Zealand fish, with some doubt, as 


57. Leuciscus? LAVARETOIDES. (Mugil lavaretoides, Solander, p. 15.) 
Esocipz. 
58. GALAXxIAS ALEPIDoTUS (Cuv. Reg. An. ii. p. 283). (Hsox alepidotus, 
G. Forster, ii.t.235; J. R. Forster, MS. II. 62, apud Schneider, p. 395.) 
Taken with the hook in the lakes and rivulets which flow into Dusky Bay. 
The aborigines name it “he-para.” Cook’s sailors called it “rock-trout.” 
Another species, most probably the éruttaceus of Cuvier, inhabits the rivers 
of Van Diemen’s Land, where it obtains the appellation of “ the trout.” 


59. GaLaxtas Fascratus (Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 73.). 


__ This species was discovered by Dr. Dieffenbach in the river Thames. 


26 REPORT—1842. 


60. Mzsirrs ATTENUATUS (Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, p. 123, pl. xxiv. f. 5). 

This fish was taken in the fresh waters of the Bay of Islands by Mr. Dar- 
win. The genus Mesites seems to be very nearly allied to Galawxias, and this 
species in particular to be scarcely distinguishable from a young Galaxias 
fasciatus. 

61. Saints scomMBROIDES. (Hsox scombroides, Solander, p.40; Esow saurus, 
G. Forster, ii. t. 233 ; J. R. Forster, MS.II.65, apud Bl. Schneider, p. 394.) 

Solander first saw this very handsome fish in lat. 393° S., long. 2044° W., 
between New Zealand and New Holland. He describes it as having the most 
intense ultramarine or “garter-blue” on the back, and a silvery hue on the 
belly. Forster’s description corresponds with Solander’s, both agreeing in the 
colours, and in mentioning a blue network on the caudal fin, in the numbers 
of the dorsal and anal finlets, and in the upper jaw being only about two lines 
shorter than the lower one. They may therefore be considered as identical, 
or at least as very closely allied species. The specimen figured by G. Forster 
was captured on the 27th March, 1773, in Dusky Bay. The aborigines named 
it “he-eeya.” 

62. HemiraAmeuus MARGINATUS (Cuv. Reg. An. ii. p. 286). 

Polack includes “ Flying Fish” in his enumeyation of the animals of New 
Zealand. The Hxocetus exiliens and volitans inhabit both oceans, and both 
are mentioned by White in his ‘ Voyage to Botany Bay,’ as existing in the 
seas of New Holland. We have no means of judging what the species are to 
which Polack alludes, unless the Hsow subpellucens of Solander (‘ Pisces 
Australie,’ p. 14) be an Exocetus. The only particulars of form that he men- 
tions are, that the upper jaw is longest ; that there is a barbel beneath, and an 
appendix at the base of the pectoral. It cannot therefore be either of the 
common species, but is rather allied to the bearded ones of America, and will 
stand in our list as 
63. ExoczTuUS? SUBPELLUCENS. 

An inhabitant of Tolaga Bay. 

None of the voyagers, whom we have consulted, mention any of the Salmon 
family as peopling the waters of New Zealand. Sawrus and Aulopus exist in 
the sea that washes the north-west coast of New Holland. Vide Icon. Pise. f.1. 

Esox lewinii (Griff., Cuv. pl. 60) is from New Holland. 

CLUPEOIDEX. 


64. CuurEa LATA (Solander, p. 17). 

Solander records the colours merely of this fish, and as there is no figure 
of it, the group of Clupeoidez, to which it ought to be referred, must remain 
for the present undecided. It was procured in Tolaga Bay. The Clupea se- 
tipinna of Forster, discovered by him in the island of Tanna, is a Megalops 
which ranges southwards to the coast of New Holland. 

GADOIDEZ. 

Polack mentions Cod-fish, bearing the native name of “wapuka,” as inhabit- 
ing deep banks on the east coast of New Zealand. He also particularises Hake, 
Haddock and Polack as being frequently taken, though it is not likely that they 
correspond exactly with the European species, whose names the settlers have 
appropriated to them. 

65. Lora Baccna (Cuv. Reg. An. ii. p.334). (Gadus bacchus, G. Forster, ii. 
t. 180; J.R.Forster, MS.II. 34, apud BI. Schneider, p. 53, sub Encheliopode.) 

This is probably the Haddock mentioned above, as it has a large black spot 

on the upper base of the pectorals. Solander obtained it in Murderer’s Bay, 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. ay 


and has recorded a pretty full account of its colours when fresh. George 
Forster's figure is coarsely executed, but in conjunction with J. R. Forster's 
notes, quoted by Schneider, it renders the species easily recognisable. Its 
native name, in Queen Charlotte’s Sound, is ‘‘ ehogoa.” 


70. Lota ruacina. (Gadus rhacinus, G. Forster, ii.t.179; J. R. Forster, 
MS. iv.16, apud Schn.; Phycis rhacinus, Bl. Schn. p. 56.) 
This resembles the preceding species in form, but differs in colour and in 
the numbers of the fin-rays. It was also taken in Queen Charlotte’s Sound, 
where it bears the appellation of “‘ahdoroo.” 


71. Brosmius veNustus. (Blennius venustus, Parkinson, ii. t. 5.) 

This is doubtless one of the Hakes mentioned by Polack. Parkinson’s figure 
was executed from a specimen obtained in Toteranue, or Ship Cove. Solan- 
der gives no account of it, unless the brief notice of his Blennius rubiginosus, 
in p. 14 of the ‘ Pisces Australi,’ ought to be referred to this species.. As 
he mentions only a single dorsal, it is most likely a congeneric fish, and there 
is no great discrepancy in the colours so as to point unequivocally to a distinct 
species. He took it in Tolaga Bay. 

We have already seen that the “Cole-fish” of the sailors is a Percis: whether 
the “ Polack” of the settlers be another Percis or a true Gadoid fish we have 
no means of ascertaining. 

The Lepidolepri, or Macrouri, which are considered by Cuvier to be nearly 
allied to the Gadoid family, but by the Prince of Canino to form a group of 
the Ganoid order, having much affinity with many fossil genera, exist in the 
depths of the Australian seas, and will probably be hereafter added to the list 
of New Zealand forms. 

: PLATESSOIDER. 


Polack says that the seas of New Zealand produce Flat-fish, which are named 
“pitiki” by the natives, and are intermediate between the large flounder 
and the sole. 

72. Ruomsus? scapHa. (Pleuronectes scapha, G. Forster, ii. t.193; J. R. 
Forster, MS. II. 46, apud Bl. Schn. p. 163.) 

An inhabitant cf Queen Charlotte’s Sound, named “mahoa” by the abo- 
rigines, and compared by Forster with the Platessa limanda. The eyes are 
on the left side. 


73. Ruomsus PLeBEIuS, Solander, p. 12. 


Solander having noticed only the colours of this flat fish, without describing 
_ its form or dentition, we cannot refer it to its proper genus, but it is very pro- 
_ bably a Rhombus brought from New Zealand by Dr. Dieffenbach, which 
_ agrees with the little that Solander says of the species. The eyes are on 
_ the right side. It was taken in Tolaga Bay, and, like the preceding one, 
_ measured a foot in length. : 
; _ Mr. Jenyns notices a Platessa which was found by Mr. Darwin in King 
_ George’s Sound, but does not name it. He says that it scarcely differs from 
_ the Platessa orbignyana of Bahia described by Valenciennes in the ‘ Voyage 
_ of Orbigny.’ Another species from Port. Arthur, Van Diemen’s Land, is de- 
scribed in the ‘ Zoological Transactions,’ vol. iii. 


Discosout. 
74. LepapoGAsTEer PInNuLATus (Forster, MS, IV. 15, apud BL. Schn. p. 
: 199). (Cyclopterus pinnulatus, G. Forster, ii. t. 248.) 
_ Three portraits of this fish, under different aspects, were made by George 
_ Forster from a specimen which was taken in Queen Charlotte’s Sound on the 


98 REPORT—1842, 


23rd of October, 1774. Its general appearance is very similar to the Gobiesox 
marmoratus of Chiloe, figured in the ‘Zoology of the Beagle’ by Mr. Jenyns, 
but it has a square pectoral disk with mammillated edges behind the trian- 
gular one of Gobiesox. The L. pinnulatus haunts stony beaches at the mouths 
of rivulets, and is named by the New Zealanders “ moyéadoo.” 


75. GOBIESOX LiTToREuS (Cuv. Reg. An. ii. p. 345). ( Cyclopterus littoreus, 
J. R. Forster, MS. II. 27, apud Bl. Schn. p. 199.) 
An inhabitant of stony beaches. 
At least two species of Echeneis exist in the Australian seas, and it is pro- 
bable that the islands of New Zealand are within their range. 


ANGUILLIFORMES. 


76. ANGUILLA AUSTRALIS (Rich. Zool. p.22.). (Anguilla australis, Jenyns, 
Zool. Beagle, p. 162.) 

This Eel was sent to me from Port Arthur, Van Diemen’s Land, by Deputy 
Assistant Commissary General Lempriere, and fully described in a paper read 
before the Zoological Society on the 9th of March, 1841. Mr. Darwin had 
previously found it in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, and it has recently 
been described by Mr. Jenyns in the ‘ Zoology of the Beagle.’ 


77. ANGUILLA DIEFFENBACHII (Gray, Zool. Misc.). 
Discovered in New Zealand by the gentleman whose name it has received. 


78. OpHipiuM BLAcopDES (Forster). ( Ophidium blacodes, G. Forster, ii. t. 
174; Bl. Schneider, p. 285; Cuv. Reg. An. ii. p. 359.) 


This fish is named “ekokh” by the inhabitants of New Zealand. Schneider, 
who describes it without making the usual reference to Forster’s notes, in- 
forms us that it is voracious, torpid and sluggish, and lurks in stony places at 
the bottom of the sea, whence it may be easily extracted by an eel-spear. It 
is much prized by the natives as an article of food. 

Anguilla australis (Zool. Proc.), Gymnothorax wilsoni (Schn.), Gymn. 
scriptus (Schneider), and Macherium subducens (Rich.), inhabit the waters 
of Australia. 


LorHOBRANCHI. 


79. HippocAMPUS ABDOMINALIs (Lesson, Mém. de la Soc. Nat. IV. p. 411 ; 
Voy. du Duperrey, Zool. p. 125). 

This species inhabits the ereeks of the Bay of Islands, and is named “kiore ” 
by the natives. We have received it also from Van Diemen’s Land along with 
several other species. The Hippocampus foliaceus seems to range over the 
entire circuit of the coasts of New Holland. 


PLECTOGNATHI. 


* The Australian seas are very rich in fish belonging to this order, and doubt- 
less many of the same species frequent the coasts of New Zealand, though 
only a few have hitherto been brought from thence. The Diodon nycthemerus 
is abundant at Van Diemen’s Land. 


80. TETRAODON HAMILTONI (Nob.). 

This species was brought from New Zealand by J. M. Hamilton, Esq., As- 
sistant Surgeon in the Royal Navy, and the specimen is now in the Museum 
of Haslar Hospital. It resembles the Tetraodon fluviatilis of Hamilton (Fishes 
of the Ganges, t.30.f.1). Van Diemen’s Land produces another species of 
the same group, which is said to have poisoned several of the settlers. 


I 
” 
‘ 
6, 


™ 
oF 
} 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 29 


The Zetraodon sceleratus, discovered by Forster in New Caledonia, descends 
to the west coast of Australia, where it attains a great size. It bears the re- 
putation of being very poisonous. Another species is named at Otaheite 
“hoee-hoee” (kills men). 


81. Monacantuus scaBEeR. (Balistes scaber, G. Forster, ii. t.247; J. R. 
Forster, MS. II. 72, apud Bl. Schneider, p. 477.) 

This is known at Queen Charlotte’s Sound by the name of “ baddeek.” 
There is nothing either in the figure or description which disagrees with a. 
species seen by Solander at Motuaro and off Cape Kidnappers, and entered 
twice in his ‘ Pisces Australie’ under the names of Balistes unicornu (p. 9) 
and Balistes scabrosus (p. 35). ; 

Diodon nicthemerus (Cuv.), Balistes jacksonianus (Q. and G.), Monacan- 
thus spinosissimus (Q.and G.), Mon. papillosus (Cuv.), Mon. megalourus 
(Rich. ined.), Aleuteres maculosus (Rich.), Aleuteres paragaudatus (Rich.), 


' Al.ayraud (Q.and G.), Al. spilomelanurus (Q.and G.), Al. velutinus (Jenyns), 


Ostracion auritus (Shaw), Ostr. ornatus (Gray), Ostr. flavigaster (Gray), 
Ostr. spilogaster (Zool. Proc.), Osétr. lenticularis (Zool. Proc.), are New Hol- 
land species. 
CHIMERID. 
82. CALLORHYNCHUS ANTARCTicUS (Lacep. I. xii.). (Chimera callorhyn- 
chus, Solander, p. 18). 

Solander observed this fish in Murderer’s Bay on the 16th of January, 
1770. His description extends merely to the colours of the recent fish. Its 
aboriginal name is “erké-perképé;” its designation by the English settlers 
“elephant-fish.” The species of Callorhynchus have not been rigidly com- 
pared with each other, but two certainly exist, if the size of pectoral fins be 
considered as a specific mark. 

ScyLLia. 
83. Scyitt1um? Lima. (Squalus lima, Parkinson, i. t.53; Sq. Isabella, 
Brousonnet, No. 1, Bl. Schneider, p. 127.) 
Inhabits Eaheenomauwee. 
CARCHARIZ. 


84. CarcHARIAS (PRIONODON) MELANOPTERUS (Miiller und Henlé, Pla- 
ore p-43.). (Carcharias melanopterus, Q.and G. Freye. pl. 43. f. 
1 and 2. 


3 TInhabits the Zealand and Australian seas. 


SPINACES. 
85. AcanTHIAs? macuLatus. (Squalus maculatus, Parkinson, i.t. 52.) 
Inhabits Eaheenomauwee. ‘ 
: . SQUATINORALE. q 
86. Ruinopates (Syrruina) Banxsit (Miller und Henlé, pp. 123 and 
192.) (Raia rostrata, Parkinson, i. t. 45.) 
87. TRyGonorHINA FascIATA (Miiller und Henlé, Plagiostomen, p. 124.) 
(Raia fasciata, Parkinson, i. t. 47.) 
” Raiz. 
88. Rata nasurA (Parkinson, i.t.44.) (Miiller und Henlé, Plagiostomen, 


p: 150.) 
Inhabits Toteranue. 


30 REPORT—1842, 


89. TRYGONOPTERA TESTACEA (Miiller und Henlé, Plagiostomen, p. 174.) 
(Raia testacea, Parkinson, i. t. 146.) 4 


MyLioBATIDEs. 


90. Myxiosatis nreuHoFII (Miller und Henlé, Plagiostomen, p. 177.) 
(Raia macrocephala, Parkinson, i. t. 48.) 

The following Plagiostomi inhabit the Australian seas :— Hemiscyllium 
malaianum (M. und H.), Crossorhinus barbatus (M. und H.), Carcharias 
(Prionodon) maoo (M. und H.), C.(Pr.) melanopterus (M. und H.), He- 
miscyllium ocellatum (M. und H.), H. trispeculare (Richardson), Cestracion 
phillipi (M. und H.), Trygonorhind fasciata (M. und H.), Teniura lymma 
(M. und H.), Nareine tasmaniensis (Richardson). 


: CycLosTomI. 


91. Herratrema Dompeyi (Lacepede, i.23). (Petromyzon cirrhatus, G. 
Forster, ii. t. 251; J. R. Forster, MS. IT. 24, apud Schn. p. 532; Home, 
Phil. Tr. for 1815, p. 258.) 


Discovered by the Forsters in Dusky Bay. 


Report on the Progress of the Meteorological Observations at 
Plymouth. By W. Snow Harris, F.B.S., &e. 


Since I last had the honour of presenting to the Association the results of 
the discussion of the hourly meteorological observations, made and registered 
at H. M. Dock-yard at Devonport, three additional years have been nearly 
completed ; and I shall be in a position at the close of the present year (1842) 
to revise and bring under one general view the results of the series, con- 
tinued now hourly, without any material omission, since the year 1832, and 
which will hence complete for temperature ten years’ observations. The vast 
mass of registered observations of the different instruments which the Asso- 
ciation has entrusted to my care, have not been so far discussed and brought 
under an appropriate form, as to enable me, on the present occasion, to enter 
fully upon them ; nor indeed is it desirable to do so before the observations 
of the present year are complete and can be included with the preceding 
years. The only notice, therefore, of the further progress of the meteoro- 
logical register at Plymouth, which it is at present in my power to submit for 
the consideration of the Section, is a general discussion of five years’ results 
of the barometer and of experiments on the wind made with Whewell’s ane- 
mometer, and which I venture to hope the Association may deem not alto- 
gether unworthy its attention. 

In the annexed table and accompanying chart (pl. iv.) will be found the 
mean hourly pressure for each of the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 
1841, together with the mean of these years deduced from 43,800 observa- 
tions, at 75 feet above the level of the sea, and reduced to 32° of Fahren- 
heit’s scale by Schumacher’s tables, from the table referring to the expan- 
sion of the mercury without reference to the scale of measure, the instrument 
employed being of the peculiar construction already noticed in the Reports 
of the Association*, and to which that table is most perfectly applicable. 

In laying down the graphical delineations given in this chart, the same 
method was resorted to as in my preceding Report three years since, viz. 


* Reports of the British Association for 1833, p. 415. 


METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT PLYMOUTH. 31 


the mean points were first marked off, and then a continuous line was passed 
through them by means of a flexible batten, so as to include the greatest 
number ; the points of deviation from such a continuous and fair curve being 
marked by astar. Now, I have to call the attention of the Association to 
the surprising coincidence in the general character of all these lines, and the 
very few and small deviations which they present; a result which I cannot 
but deem somewhat remarkable, considering the frequent atmospheric dis- 
turbances to which we are liable in these latitudes. The observations them- 
selves must have been most carefully made, otherwise such a constant result 
_ could not possibly have been arrived at; and I cannot but deem it my duty 
; to impress on the Association, the propriety of preserving with great care the 
} 
bg 


ate 


a ee 


original manuscript of the observers and printing the whole series, as being 

calculated to advance the present state of meteorology. The meteorologist 

will have then at his command a series of hourly records obtained at con- 
_ siderable cost in money and time, of as unexceptionable a character as in 
_ the nature of the circumstances under which they have been made, and the 
present state of science, it is possible to obtain. 


Taste, containing the mean hourly pressures for each of the years 1837, 1838, 
1839, 1840 and 1841, together with the mean of these years from 43,800 
observations, at 75 feet above the mean level of the sea, reduced to 32° of 
Fahrenheit’s scale-—The periods of maxima are denoted by the sign +, 
the minima by the sign —, and the mean by a*. See pl. iv. 


1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. |Mean of the5 years, 


29:8719 + |29-7565* | 29-7768 |29:8366 | 29-7173" | 29-7919* 
29°8696 |29-7547 | 29-7735* | 29-8340" | 29-7153 29-7894 
29-8626* | 29-7518 |29-7688 |29:8294 | 29-7104 29-7846 
29-8608 |29:7507 | 29-7670 | 29-8261 — | 29-7086 —| 29-7826 — 
29:8606 — | 29-7507 — | 29-7670 — | 29-8271 | 29-7093 29-7829 
298619 |29°7552 | 297710 | 29°8297 | 29-7191 29-7860 
298666 | 29-7585  |29°7755 | 29-8331 | 29-7175 29-7902 
29-8706* |29-7615* |29-7772* |29-8364* |29-7217* | 29-7935* 
298717 129-7637 |29:7790 | 29-8400 | 29-7258 29-7960 

| 29-8732 + | 29-7645 + | 29-7807 + | 29-8409 + | 29-7294 +] 29-7977 + 
298720 | 29-7627 | 29-7788 | 29-8395 | 29-7288 29°7964 
29°8663 | 29-7587* |29-7755 | 29-8361 | 29-7262 29-7926 
29:8627* |29°7540 | 29-7705* |29-8310* | 29-7217 29°7880* 
298580 |29:7517 |29-7670 |29-:8283 |99-7184* | 929-7847 
298567 |29°7500 |29-7657 | 29-8266 —_| 29-7167 29-7831 
298558 — | 29-7475 — | 29-7652 — | 29-8262 — | 29-7166 —| 29-7893 — 
29-8597 | 29-7532 |29-7685 | 29-8293 | 29-7181 29-7858 
29-8629 |29:7557 29-7725 |29-8334 |29-7207 | . 29-7890 
29:8679* |29-7610* |29°7770 | 29-8393* |29-7244* | 29-7939* 
298740 | 29-7645 | 29-7798* | 29-8441 | 29-7978 29-7980 
298779 |29-7672 29-7832 |29:8478 | 29-7303 +] 29-8013 
298792 + | 29-7665 + | 29-7840 + | 29-8482 + | 29-7293 29-8014 + 
29:8790 _|29°7665  |29-7822 | 29-8470. | 29-7276 29-8065 
29:8783 . |29°7639 |29-7775 |29:8438 | 29-7254 29°7978 


29-7579 29-7743 29-8356 29°7208 29°7912 


‘Thaye little further to observe on this table; the differences from the ge- 
neral results already deduced in my Report for 1839 not being considerable, 
_ the mean pressure of the five years corresponding with that already obtained. 
_ I may briefly remark that from the series of five years we find the line of 
_ mean pressure crossed between the hours J and 2, and 7 and 8 a.m., and 
i again between 12 and 1, andG and 7pm. The hours of max. pressure are 


32 REPORT—1842, 


10 a.m. and 10 p.m., being, with only one exception, a uniform result for 
the whole series. 

The hours of minima are 4 A.M. and 4 P.M., being also a uniform result of 
the five years without any exception. ; 

When we consider that the few deviations from a fairly continuous curva- 
ture, as laid down in the graphic delineation of the mean hourly march of the 
atmospheric pressure (pl. iv.), apply to the fourth place of decimals, we have 
fair ground for believing that by these observations we have really arrived at 
the general laws of the horary oscillation at Plymouth. 

My Report for the year 1839 contains many general deductions from these 
observations ; and Professor Airy, to whom they were submitted, seemed to 
think that at present little more could be effected by them. I cannot, how- 
ever, but again remind the Association that 48,000 hourly observations on 
pressure and 87,600 hourly observations on temperature, of a very fair and 
perfect kind, made and discussed with great labour and at great cost to the 
Association, should not be lost sight of, and be allowed to exist only in the 
fragile form of a manuscript, but should be permanently secured and placed 
at the disposal of the scientific world generally. There are members of this 
Association so highly gifted with powers of physical research, that it would 
be by no means unreasonable to hope that, should their attention become di- 
rected to particular views of this branch of science, they would with such a 
mass of accredited observation at their command, find themselves in a posi- 
tion to contribute essentially to the future advance of meteorology. 

My last Report on Whewell’s anemometer contained an account of the 
general indications of the instrument for one year, and of the means IJ pro- 
posed to pursue with a view of giving its indications not only a relative but 
an absolute value. Although the tempestuous and unsettled weather which 
marked the close of the last meeting of the Association greatly impeded the 
experiments which I proposed to make, and the early period of our meeting 
this year has somewhat abridged the intermediate time, I have been to a 
great degree enabled to realize the view I entertained of the possibility of 
deducing, by actual experiment, the absolute velocity of the aérial current 
corresponding to certain indications of the instrument, so as not only to de- 
termine the mean direction of the wind for a given time, but the absolute 
mean rate at which it has moved. 

It does not appear requisite at present to enter into a minute detail of the 
various experiments ; it may perhaps be sufficient to state that the pressure 
and yelocity of the wind were observed simultaneously with the anemometer, 
and the results tabulated and discussed. From these results the following 
deductions were arrived at. 

1. When the pencil tracing the integral effect of the wind moved by the 
revolutions of the fly at the rate of 1 division of the scale of measure, or *1 
of an inch per hour; the current of air for the same time moved at a mean 
rate of 11 feet per second. 

2. The space described by the pencil appeared to be proportional to the 
square of the velocity of the aérial current acting on the fly. Thus when 
the pencil described 4 divisions of the scale in an hour, the velocity, by a 
mean of many observations, amounted to 22 feet in a second. ' 

When the velocity was 15 feet in a second, the pencil had described about 
“two divisions of the scale in an hour, and so on. 

Having then the velocity due to a given rate of indication per hour taken 
as unity, it is easy to find the velocity of the wind due to any other rate of 
indication, since we have only to multiply the square root of the given rate 
by the constant 11, the velocity per second corresponding to a space of 1 divi- 


METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT PLYMOUTH. 33 


sion of the scale. I have in this way endeavoured to arrive at something like 
an approximation to the velocity and direction of what I believe would 
amount to a trade-wind in the place of observation. The general type of the 
wind, as laid off on the principles suggested by Mr. Whewell, I have now 
the pleasure of exhibiting to the Section; and it will be seen that it furnishes 
a general resultant, directed from about S.S.W. to N.N.E., being from the 
southerly to the northerly points of the compass*. - 

In the annexed table will be found the mean velocity of the current for 
each successive month, taken without regard to direction, together with the 
mean velocity for the whole year ; the period of observation being from April 
1841 to April 1842. 


TABLE showing the mean velocity of the wind by Whewell’s Anemometer. 
Bo eR REE * ee ae? Se ee ee ee ee eee ee eee 


Velocity of wind in feet Month, Velocity of wind in feet 


Month per second, per second. 
Ts ee October...... 15:29 
May .. 11°6 November .... 14°96 
PORE sows! 10°9 December .... 12°54 
: 9°0 January...... 12°76 
August ...... 12°87 February .... 13:97 
September... .. 15°42 Eels is, Sy, 14°63 


Mean velocity 13°16 feet per second, or about 9 miles per hour. 


As I do not pretend to a degree of precision in these first results greater 
than is requisite to entitle them to consideration as useful and important ap- 
proximations to a more refined inquiry, I have not thought it requisite to 
treat them more elaborately than their present state demands. If we dimi- 
nish the mean velocity arrived at in this table, in the proportion of the whole 
length or trace of the wind described, to the general resultant, we shall have 
some general idea of the course and velocity of the aérial current, as deduced 
by this species of inquiry. Now the whole space described in this case is to 
the resultant as 2:1 nearly; we may therefore take the resulting velocity at 
about 4°5 miles an hour, and the general direction as N.N.E. 

I shall be prepared to lay before the Section at our next meeting, typical 
delineations of the wind for 3 years, as deduced by this instrument, accom- 
panied by more extended and corrected results than have been as yet arrived 
at. I hope what has been done is sufficient to show, that the instrument it- 
self is capable, when well employed, of furnishing highly important results. 
It would necessarily have failed under the form in which it was first placed 
in my hands ; but set up as stated in my Report for 1840, and constructed 
in a firm and solid way with little friction, I believe it highly calculated for 
meteorological observation. But whether we register by this or any other 
instrument the daily direction of the aérial currents, I feel persuaded that 
little advantage will ever be derived to meteorology, unless the observa- 
tions be reduced to the form prescribed by Mr. Whewell, who has certainly 
taken the only correct view of the nature of such observations. Without 
deducing the integral effect of the wind, that is to say, a space proportional 
to that which a particle of air would pass over in a given time, taking into 
account the velocity of the wind and the time for which it blows, we can 


* The mean velocity has been deduced by determining a value of V? for every 24 hours, a 
method which, although not mathematically exact, is still sufficiently approximative for our 
present purpose, ' 

1842. D 


34 REPORT—1842,: 


never hope to arrive at anything like a correct view of the great annual 
movement of our atmosphere. 

In the preceding calculations it is to be understood that I hoe only been 
dealing with mean results, and not with particular ones, which would of 
course give velocities far surpassing anything exhibited in the preceding table. 

I have now, in concluding this short notice of the progress and present 
state of the meteorological observations at Plymouth, merely to suggest to 
the Physical Committee of the Association, the propriety of either closing 
these observations after the completion of another year, or otherwise recom- 
mending the further continuance of the observations at the Dock-yard to the 
consideration of Her Majesty’s government: a system and method of observa- 
tion having been completely organized there, the inconvenience and expense 
to the naval department of the government would be too small to merit con- 
sideration. My own view is, that the ten years’ observations which will be 
speedily complete, are sufficient for deducing the principal laws of tempera- 
ture and pressure at this place ; but that, inasmuch as similar observations are 
now being recorded through the instrumentality of the Association in various 
parts of the world, it would be so far desirable to have simultaneous observa- 
tions made at Plymouth. I cannot but hope that the cies hates Committee 
will give this matter serious consideration. 

_ Plymouth, June 10, 1842. 


Second Report of a Committee consisting of Mr. H. E. StrickLAND, 
Prof. DauBENy, Prof. Hunstow, and Prof. LinDLEY, appointed 
to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. 


In order to earry out the objects of this Committee arrangements have been 
made for the formation at the Botanic Garden, Oxford, of a depdt of seeds to 
be preserved in various ways, and to be submitted, at successive periods, to 
experiment. The amount of labour required for the preservation of these 
seeds, the conduct of the experiments, and the tabulating their results, has 
necessitated the appointment of a curator at a small salary, whose report for 
the present year is annexed. 

The expenses incident to these experiments have amounted to £9 15s. 11d. 
As a considerable number of jars and other materials for preserving seeds 
will be required for the further prosecution of the inquiry, the Committee re- 
‘spectfully recommend that the sum of £15 be this year granted for the pur- 
pose. 

The Committee having now established a permanent place of deposit for 
seeds to be submitted to experiment, they wish particularly to request the 
contribution of specimens from persons who may be interested in this i inquiry. 
Parcels of seeds of various species, both recent and of old dates, in quantities 
sufficient for a considerable number of experiments, and accompanied with 
remarks specifying the years in which they were collected, and the conditions 
under which they have been preserved, will be highly acceptable, as will also 
specimens of soils taken from excavations of various depths, and carefully pro- 
tected from the access of extraneous matter, in order to ascertain the species 
of plants which may spontaneously vegetate in them. All communications 
on this subject to be sent to Prof. Daubeny, Botanie Garden, Oxford. 

H. E. SrrickLanp, 
C.. DAUBENY. 


Curator’s Report. 
In submitting to the British Association a statement of the progress made 


ON THE GROWTH AND®*VITALITY OF SEEDS. 35 


during the present year towards forming an extensive collection of seeds of 
at least one species of as many genera of plants as practicable, to be sub- 
jected to various modes of preservation, for the purpose of carrying on a se- 
ties of experiments with the view of ascertaining the true limit of their ve- 
getative durability, the curator begs to say, that he has, under the immediate 
superintendence of the Committee appointed to investigate the same, since 
October 1, 1841, received and collected seeds of 78 species of 60 genera, 
illustrating 25 natural families of plants, which are now preserved according 
to the mode decided on as that to be generally adopted ; namely, in brown- 
paper parcels placed in earthen jars with one aperture, and covered with a 
stratum of fine sand. 

Besides the mode just referred to as particularly determined on for general 
adoption, the curator has also put up some wheat and also seeds of Lasthenia 
californica, gathered in 1841, each in a mass in porous earthen jars with two 
apertures, which are covered with fine wire-gauze. A few seeds also of some 
of the same species as those preserved according to the prescribed mode are 
put up in waxed cloth, by way of comparison of methods of preservation. 

The subjoined is a list of seeds, of which, with few exceptions, a sufficient 
quantity of each species has been obtained and already put up for experiments, 
if sown according to the scheme entered in the resolutions, up to the year 1909. 

Of these seeds a portion has been purchased, and the remainder has been 
received from the London Horticultural Society, the Oxford Botanic Gar- 
den, and the Editor of the Gardener’s Chronicle. 

A certain number of seeds of each of the species entered in this list have 
this spring been sown, as directed, at the Oxford Botanic Garden, the Cam- 
bridge Botanic Garden, and also at the Garden of the London Horticultural 
Society at Chiswick, the result of which will be seen by reference to the 
following table:— 


No. of | No. of Seeds of each 
Seeds | Species which vege-| Time of vegetating. 


Name and Date when gathered. oa tafpd th viahiae tim 
sown, | Ox- | Cam- |Chis-] Ox- | Cam- | Chis- 
1842. |ford.| bridge. |wick.| ford. | bridge. | wick. 


Hypericum Kalmianum. .« .|. 150 
|Passiflora Herbertiana....| 125 


3 1835. 


\Gilia eapitata. ....-+--+| 5600 
_|Gypsophila elegans... - ~~} 5OO |..ccee|esseseeee] L- | eeesee|eerveeeee| 28 
Polemonium gracile .....} 125 
ypecoum procumbens ... 50 
Potentilla nepalensis. ..-.}| 300 
Horminum pyrenaicum ... 50 
Euphorbia Lathyris .....| 25 
Berberis Aquifolium.....}| 20 


1836. 


Clematis erecta. .......} 50 
_|Hypecoum procumbens ,..| 50 } 
D2 


36 


Name and Date when gathered. 


1836 (continued). 


Potentilla, sp. from Douglas. 
Tacsonia pinnatistipula .. . 
Turritis retrofracta. ..... 
Lupinus polyphyllus..... 
Pentstemon diffusus ..... 
— pubescens .... 
pulchellus.... 
atropurpureus. . 
——_——— digitalis. .... 
levigatus .... 
gracilis... +... 
— procerus..... 
Eschscholtzia californica. . . 
Mimulus moschatus .....- 
Ononis angustifolia. ..... 
Coreopsis Atkinsoniana .. . 


1837. 


— 


Geum, sp. 

Allium fragrans ....... 
Conium maculatum ..... 
Clarkia elegans... 
Cinothera, sp. from Douglas . 
Lupinus grandifolius 
Camassia esculenta . 
Oxyura chrysanthemoides . . 
Godetia lepida 
Calandrina grandiflora... . 
Chryseis crocea. ....+.-.- 
Delphinium flexuosum... . 
Lupinus lucidus ....... 
rivularis ....... 
Papaver orientale....... 


1841. 


VICI Bath Ye cosas ole lane L404 i Se 
Daucus Carota, .%. ieieaciess 
Cannabis sativa. .... 

Pastinaca sativa 
Brassica Rapa .......% 
Linum usitatissimum..... 
Lepidium sativum ...... 
Polygonum Fagopyrum ... 
Phalaris canariensis 
Brassica Napus........ 
ERSTE AW @ES CTF np a oe eee 


eee ee 


éitinéceteie 0 & 


REPORT—1842., 


No. of | No. of Seeds of each 
Species which vege- 


Seeds 
of each 
Species 
sown, 

1842. 


400 
50 
500 


Ox- 
ford. 


tated at 


Cam- 
bridge. 


300 
500 
250 
250 
300 
250 
500 
4.00 
200 
1000 
100 
300 


500 
150 
150 


BOO )| Seta | sated aise 


600 
100 
100 

75 


250! |e. sesh 


200 
100 
200 
50 
25 
500 


50 
100 

50 
100 
300 
150 
100 

50 
100 
150 
200 


In days at 
Chis-| Ox- | Cam- | Chis- 
wick.| ford. | bridge. | wick. 
1 .| 28 
3 60 
1 60 
15 .| 30 
Bde Vinee conde ooeeiees 21 
2 60 
AGO eee 11 14 
GONG 11 21 
2024 SEN 6 3 
68 oos| 14 | 14 
TAG Gee 5 3 
130 92. 6 3 
STAN 5 2 
BOM aa 15 | 14 
69 |... 9 | 14 
OOM. i208 5 


Time of vegetating. 


ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS. 37 


No. of | No, of Seeds of each 
Seeds | Species which vege-| Time of vegetating, 


Name and Date when gathered. vitae Me bg inidaye at 
sown, | Ox- | Cam- |Chis-| Ox- | Cam- | Chis- 
1842. | ford.| bridge. | wick.| ford. | bridge. | wick. 
1841 (continued). 
Petroselinum sativum .... 50 | 36 23 3) i ee 17 18 
Trifolium ? repens ......| 150] 18] 36 | 65 |...... 6) a1 
Lactuca sativa ........ 50] 5 5 {VAS RA 8 3 
Brassica oleracea. ...... 50} 17 {| 20 | 30}...... 7 3 
Pisum sativum ........ 50 | 37 VS PAD ee 8 5 
Faba vulgaris. ........ DE | FS 25> OF Pee 10 | 14 
Phaseolus multiflorus .... DRA PEO 19 OHM 9 10 
Triticum estivum ...... 100 | 82 ? 98 }...... 7 14 
Hordeum vulgare ....../ 100/94) 90 | 71 }...... 6 5 
Avena sativa......... 100 | 90 ? 90 |...... 7 | 14 
/Ethusa cynapioides .....| 100 | 10 enh 21 30 
Antirrhinum majus...... 300 | 13 | 224 |280 }...... ITE hs 
Calendula pluvialis......| 100} 98 | 74 | 84 ]...... 6 | 14 
Collinsia heterophylla ....| 300 |125 | 176 | 21 |...... 9 | 30 
Datura Stramonium .....{! 100|43 | 37 | 72 4|...... 13 10 
Gilia achilleefolia ...... 200 | 21 94 LOM, 7 14 
Lasthenia californica. ....| 200] 50 | 113 {180'}...... 74 14 
jLigusticum Levisticum ...| 100 | 30] 28 | 98 }...... 24 | 28 
Pzonia, mixed vars...... LOO [Aah ob ifn PE 
Verbascum Thapsus.....}| 500] ? POR hn ecg 19 | 28 
? 1820. 


Gossypium sp. . 2... ees 2 


At Oxford, with the exception only of those seeds which are usually sown 
on a hotbed, the seeds here registered were sown this season (1842) on the 
3rd of May, on a warm south border in the Botanic Garden. 

The table shows that the three species of seeds gathered in 1834 and sub- 
jected to experiment in 1842, had entirely lost their vegetative power, as was 
the case with the eight species of the growth of 1835, the eighteen species of 
the growth of 1836, and also thirteen species of that of 1837, fifteen species 
having been sown. The whole under these dates were preserved according 
to the usual mode, viz. in stout brown paper: thus involving the necessity 


_ of procuring, if possible, new seeds of those species, during the current sea- 


son, to be subjected to future experiments for the purpose of ascertaining the 
actual limit of their vegetative durability. 

Although the above-registered seeds are all that can in conformity with 
the resolutions of the Committee be looked upon as constituting a portion of 
the experiments to which this report has strict reference, it may still be well 
to add that in the spring of 1841, having the same object in view which these 
experiments it is hoped will determine, many seeds of old dates were sown on 
a gentle hot-bed, principally in the Oxford Botanic Garden. 

They were,— 

I. Experimented on by Professor Daubeny, taken from Professor Morison’s 
Herbarium at the Oxford Botanic Garden, bearing date, in many instances, 


88 ; REPORT—1842. 


of 1706. One hundred species were sown, but as it is supposed that they 
had been brushed with corrosive sublimate, this experiment is not of much 
value, and it is therefore not necessary to enumerate the species, A list of 
them is however preserved for reference. 

II. Twenty-four species from Dr. Sibthorp’s Collection at the Oxford Bo- 
tanic Garden, dated about 1787, experimented on by Professor Daubeny. 
These seeds having been imperfectly preserved and injured by insects are not 
of much authority, and it is therefore needless to enumerate them. 

III. The following species, from a very old Herbarium in Merton College 
Library, Oxford, given to the Committee by the Rey. J. Bigg, experimented 
on by Professor Daubeny. | 

Atropa belladonna. Hedera helix. 
Viburnum Opulus. Aspidium Filix mas. 

IV. One hundred seeds of Wheat, Barley, and Lentils respectively, from 
Egyptian catacombs, given to the Committee by the Trustees of the British 
Museum, experimented on by Professor Daubeny and H. E, Strickland, Esq. 

V. Twelve seeds of Maize, brought from Peruvian graves by Mr. Cuming, 

iven to the Committee by Dr. Robert Brown, experimented on by H. E, 
trickland, Esq. 

VI. Fourteen seeds of Green Melon, gathered in 1814, given to the Com- 
mittee by Dr. Lindley, experimented on by H. E, Strickland, Esq., and Pro- 
fessor Daubeny. 

In all these instances a purely negative result was obtained, no vegetation 
taking place in any of the cases. 

The expenses incurred up to the present date (June 1842) are in detail as 
follows :— Gomevd. 


Printing Citeulars 0. jes re) Sede Qhal oh eo va rw fee gens 
Books for registering Experiments . . ....+ + + 1 O 6 
Jars and material for preserving Seeds . 5 Sor TY 
Serbig OR 5 1, oh kee cept r ENE et oliwca: | Ta) Me “ter co Ae a eit 
Half-year’s Salary, due April 1,1842 . . ... +... 2 10 O 
Totaly. 3) os) hos ech 

Oxford, June 20, 1842. W. H. Baxter, Curator. 


Report of the Committee on Railway Sections. By CHARLES 
Vienoues, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.RIA., M. Inst. C.E., Professor 
of Civil Engineering, University College, London. 


A GRANT of 200/. from the Association was made at the Glasgow Meeting in 
1840, on a joint application from the Geological and Mechanical Sections, 
towards obtaining profiles of the various railways in the United Kingdom, 
chiefly with a view (before the slopes of the excavations become soiled over and 
covered with vegetation) of putting on record the geological appearances and 
strata developed by the many vast openings made through the country by the 
operations of modern engineering. 

At the Meeting in 1841, a renewal of the unappropriated balance of the 
first grant was made: the whole of this sum has however since been ex- 
pended, and further liabilities have been incurred; and the results are now 
laid before the Sections which originated the subject, in the shape of nume- 
rous plans and sections of several of the railways, and of the enlarged parts 
of the profiles of the excavations only. 

The Committee appointed by the Association have great pleasure in report- 


ON RAILWAY SECTIONS. 39 


ing, that in obtaining these documentsthey have been aided in the most effective 
and satisfactory manner by all the Railway Companies to whom they have 
applied, and also by their several officers; the engineers in particular having 
taken extreme pains and great interest in forwarding the views of the Asso- 
ciation. When so many parties have thus zealously co-operated, it might be 
almost invidious to name one without specifying all; but in particularly men- 
tioning Mr. Swanwick the engineer of the North Midland Railway, the Com- 
mittee wish to do so for the purpose of remarking on the great care taken 
by that gentleman to. mark upon the sections as his works went on, all the 
geological detail shown in the excavations of that’ railway which passes 
through so interesting a region. There has consequently been put into pos- 
session of the Committee a vast extent of most valuable records of the kind 
sought for, and which at the same time form a most striking example, well 
worthy of imitation, of the combination of engineering and geological infor- 
mation available for ceconomic purposes. 

The Committee were not at first able to organize a system of working the 
grant to their entire satisfaction, but after some experience they ascertained 
that, with the favorable disposition shown by all the Railway Companies, they 
might (without increasing the expense) by degrees and in no great time be 
able to form an interesting and valuable collection, not only of the sections of 
the excavations of the railways, but of the whole of the plans and sections of 
the lines, which, concentrated in a public depository and open to the inspec- 
tion of all scientific and literary bodies and individuals, and to the public in 
general, under proper regulations, would be of high interest. In fact such do- 
cuments were almost necessarily required as the mere indices whereby to iden- 
tify the particular geological profiles; but so useful and important is such a 
collection likely to become, that it is not unreasonable to hope and believe 
that after another year’s experience shall have matured the arrangements of 
the Committee, and perfected their proposed system of record, and brought 
down the expense to a certain and moderate rate per mile, the subject may be 
taken up by Her Majesty's Government, and made to form part of the great 
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, conducted by Sir Henry De la 
Beche in connection with the Trigonometrical Survey now carrying on by 
Colonel Colby and the Officers of the Corps of Royal Engineers. 

The Committee are therefore not without hope that the Geological Section 
will again apply to the General Committee for a further grant at the present 
meeting to enable them to complete the organization they have begun. ‘The 
documents which the Committee have to submit are the following :— 

1st. Plans and sections of the whole of the Midland Counties Railway from 
Rugby to Derby and Nottingham, about 68 miles. 

Enlarged sections of the cuttings only of this railway, prepared to be filled 
in geologically. The chief characteristics of this district are the gypsum 


beds, commonly called plaster of Paris, and the water-setting lime, well known 


to engineers as the Barrow lime. 

- 2nd. Plans and sections of the whole of the North Midland Railway from 
Derby to Leeds, about 72 miles. The geological detail, as furnished by Mr. 
Swanwick, is laid down on the working sections of the cuttings, but as it has 
been considered by the Committee that a uniform system should be observed, 
enlarged sections have been prepared, on which, as on the similar sections of 
the other lines, the strata should be delineated. It may be observed here, that 
these enlarged sections are laid down in the proportion of one inch to forty feet 
upon the natural scale, that is, the vertical and horizontal scales are alike, 
_ which is not always the case in ordinary geological sections, and very seldom 
so with the working sections for earth-work and similar engineering purposes. 


40 REPORT—1842. 


This railway intersects the coal districts for many miles, and is replete with 
interesting subjects. : 

8rd. Plans and sections of the Manchester and Leeds Railway from Man- 
chester to Normanton, about 50 miles. 

These latter are not quite finished, but will be so before the close of the 
Meeting. 

Enlarged sections of a considerable portion of the excavations only on this 
railway, filled up with the geological detail. 

4th. Enlarged sections of the excavations only on the Glasgow, Paisley, and 
Greenock railway, about 15 miles, with the geological detail. : 

5th. Similar sections of the Manchester and Bolton Railway, about 11 miles, 
containing full details of the strata where the remarkable fossil trees were 
found, and of the trees also, models of which are in the Exhibition-room at the 
Royal Institution in Manchester. The liberality of this Company will afford 
several opportunities for the members of the Association to visit these trees, 
and the particular profile of the excavation where they were found will remain 
in the Geological Section, or in the Royal Institution, with the models. 

6th. Similar enlarged sections of the cuttings only on the Hull and Selby 
Railway, about 20 miles, with the geological detail. 

The whole of these enlarged geological sections were furnished by Mr. 
Wright; and others are stated to be preparing for the Committee, but they 
have not yet come to hand. 

These records, according to the directions of the Association, will be depo- 
sited in the Museum of (Economic Geology in London, where they may at all 
times hereafter be usefully referred to. 

In conclusion the Committee cannot refrain from observing, that the docu- 
ments thus collected are equally important and interesting to the philosopher, 
to the geologist, and to the engineer. To the theoretical investigator they 
present the curious and varying features of the crust of this portion of the globe ; 
to the practical engineer they offer a memorial of the experience of the pro- 
fession, whence many a serviceable lesson for future operations may be learned, 
whereby difficulties and expense may be hereafter avoided and diminished, 
and from which valuable information may be derived for the appliance of 
materials in constructions (it being one of the greatest arts of the engineer 
to avail himself of the most immediate natural resources which he has to dis- 
place in one instance, and to apply them usefully in another, when in juxta- 
position). On the other hand, the minute variations of the strata and soil, 
thus accurately delineated, and referred to well-defined altitudes above the 
general level of the sea, become of the very highest interest to the geolo- 
gist, and no less so to the mining engineer; more especially on the lines: 
of railway intersecting the coal and mineral districts, where in so many in- 
stances labour, directed by science and sustained by commercial enterprise, 
has laid bare in deep chasms the secrets of nature, and the stores whence 
this country has derived so many advantages; and drawn from our mines 
of coal and rude metallic ores, that abundant wealth and prosperity which 
the more splendid productions of Potosi and of Mexico have failed to bestow 
on their possessors. 


Report of the Committee for the Preservation of Animal and 
Vegetable Substances. 


In making a report for the Committee for the preservation of Animal and 
Vegetable Substances, consisting of the Rev. W. L. P. Garnons and myself, I 


Sy ere 


ON THE PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL & VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 41 


only propose to state the results, and terminate the series of experiments com- 
menced by the former Committee appointed at the Liverpool Meeting in 1837, 
as we consider them to have been now continued for a sufficient time to sup- 
ply us with very considerable negative evidence upon the preserving powers 
of the different materials taken separately. Upon receiving notice of our ap- 
pointment, we determined that as no report upon these experiments had been 
printed by the Association, it would be advisable to defer the commencement 
of any new ones until after we had had an opportunity of giving a short state- 
ment concerning those already in progress, but hope in the autumn of the pre- 
sent year to commence a new series, in which it is proposed that vegetable 
substances should occupy a more prominent place. 

The experiments to which this report refers were commenced in June 1838, 
having thus continued for four years, and were made by placing in small glass 
jars (5 inches by 2) solutions in water of the different substances unmixed, 
but tried in three proportions, namely, (1) a saturated solution, (2) a solution 
diluted with an equal quantity of water, and (3) with a double quantity. The 
following are lists of them, arranged according to their value as preservatives 
of animal substances. 


1. Good Preservatives. 


Subcarbonate of potash. 
Naphtha employed in the proportion of 1 part to 7 of water. 


2. Moderately good, but the specimens rather too soft. 


Sulphate of magnesia. Arseniate of potash. 
3. Moderately good when examined in 1840, but the specimens now decom- 
posed. ; 

Alum. < Sulphate of zine. 
Muriate of ammonia. Bicarbonate of potash. 
Muriate of magnesia. Arsenious acid. 
Nitre. 

4. Quite useless for the purpose of Preservation. 
Sulphate of iron. Nitrate of soda. 
Sulphate of copper. Muriate of barytes. 
Sulphate of soda. Muriate of lime. 
Sulphate of potash. Phosphate of soda. 
Carbonate of ammonia. Chloride of potash. 
Nitrate of barites. Oxalic acid. 
Nitrate of ammonia. Rough pyroligneous acid. 


Nitrate of strontian. 


A few drops of kreosote in water is a good preservative, but stains the 
specimens brown. 

Corrosive sublimate preserves perfectly, but hardens the substances too 
much. 

Concentrated acetic acid decomposes the skin, bones, and cellular mem- 
brane, but leaves the muscles untouched. 

The vegetable specimens are well preserved in oxalic acid, concentrated 
acetic acid, naphtha and kreosote ; moderately well in muriate of ammonia, 
nitrate of ammonia, and corrosive sublimate : none of the others appear to have 
succeeded, nor indeed is the colour of the vegetables well preserved in any case, 
and.on the whole the experiments with them are far from satisfactory. 


uy CHARLES C. BABINGTON.- 


42 REPORT—1842. 


Abstract of Professor Liebig’s Report on “ Organic Chemistry ap- 
plied to Physiology and Pathology. By Lyon Prayrarr, M.D. 


Tue first part of Professor Liebig’s Report consists in the examination of 
the processes employed in the nutrition and reproduction of various parts of 
the animal ceconomy. 

In vegetables, as well as in animals, we recognise the existence of a force 
in a state of rest. Jt is the primary cause of growth or increase in mass of 
the body in which it resides. By the action of external influendes, such 
as the presence of air and moisture, its condition of static equilibrium is dis- 
turbed; and entering into a state of motion or activity, it occupies itself 
in the production of forms, which, though occasionally bounded by right 
lines, are yet widely distinct from geometrical forms. This force has re- 
ceived the appellation of vital force, or vitality. 

Vitality, though residing equally in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, 
produces its effects by widely different instruments. Plants subsist entirely 
upon matter belonging to inorganic nature. Atmospheric air, the source 
whence they derive their nutriment, is ranked with minerals by the most 
distinguished mineralogists. All substances, before they can form food for 
plants, must be resolved into inorganic matter. 

But animals, on the other hand, require highly organised atoms for nutri- 
ment; they can only subsist upon parts of an organism. They possess within 
themselves a vegetative life, as plants do, by means of which they increase 
in size, without consciousness on their part; but they are distinguished from 
vegetables by their faculties of locomotion and sensation—faculties acting 
through a nervous apparatus. The true vegetative life of animals is in no 
way dependent upon this apparatus; for it proceeds where the nerves of vo- 
luntary motion and sensation are destroyed, and the most energetic volition 
is incapable of exerting any influence on the contractions of the heart, on the 
motion of the intestines, or on the processes of secretion. ’ 

All parts of the animal body are produced from the fluid circulating within 
its organism, by virtue of vitality, which resides in every organ. A destruc- 
tion of the animal body is constantly proceeding ; every motion, every mani- 
festation of force, is the result of the transformation of the structure, or of its 
substance ; every conception, every mental affection, is followed by changes 
in the chemical nature of the secreted fluids; every thought, every sensation, 
is accompanied by a change in the composition of the substance of the brain. 

It is to supply the waste thus produced, that food is necessary. Food is 
either applied in the increase of the mass of a structure (i.e. in nutrition), or 
it is applied in the replacement of a structure wasted (i. e. ix reproduction). 

The primary condition for the existence of life is the reception and assimi- 
lation of food. But there is another condition equally important—the con- 
tinual absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. 

All vital activity results from the mutual action of the oxygen of the at- 
mosphere and the elements of the food. All changes in matter proceeding 
in the body are essentially chemical, although they are not unfrequently in- 
creased or diminished in intensity by the vital force. The influence of poi- 
sons and remedial agents on the animal ceconomy, proves that the chemical 
combinations and decompositions proceeding therein, and which manifest 
themselves in the phenomena of vitality, may be influenced by bodies pos- 
sessing a well-defined chemical action. Vitality is the ruling agent by which 
the chemical powers are made to subserve its purposes, but the acting forees 
are chemical. It is from this view, and from no other, that we ought to view 
vitality. Wonders surround us on all sides: the formation of a crystal is not 


ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 43 


less incomprehensible than that of a leaf or of a muscle; the production of 
vermilion, from the union of sulphur and mercury, is as much an enigma as 
the production of an eye from the substance of the blood. 

According to Lavoisier, an adult man takes into his system every year 
827 lbs. of oxygen, and yet he does not increase in weight. What then be- 
comes of the enormous quantity of oxygen introduced in the course of a year 
into the human system? The carbon and hydrogen of certain parts of the 
body have entered into combination with the oxygen introduced through the 
lungs and through the skin, and have been given out in the form of carbonic 
acid and the vapour of water. At every moment, with every expiration, 
parts of the body are thus removed, and are emitted into the atmosphere. 

No part of the oxygen inspired is again expired as such. Now it is found 
that an adult inspires 324 ounces of oxygen daily ; this will convert the car- 
bon of 24 lbs. of blood into carbonic acid. He must therefore take as much 
nutriment as will supply the daily loss. And in fact it is found that he does 
80; for the average amount of carbon in the daily food of an adult man, 
taking moderate exercise, is 14 ounces, which require 37 ounces of oxygen 
for their conversion into carbonic acid. 

But it is obvious, as the inspired oxygen can be removed only by its con- 
version into carbonic acid and water, that the amount of food necessary for 
the support of the animal body must be in direct ratio to the quantity of 
oxygen taken into the system. Thus a child, in whom the organs of respira- 
tion are naturally in a state of great activity, requires food more frequently, 
and in greater proportion to its bulk, than an adult, and is also less patient 
of hunger. A bird deprived of food dies on the third day; whilst a serpent, 
which inspires a mere trace of oxygen, can live without food for three months. 


_ The number of respirations is less in a state of rest than in exercise, and the 


amount of food necessary in both conditions must vary also. 

An excess of food is incompatible with a deficiency in respired oxygen, 
that is, with deficient exercise ; just as violent exercise (which implies an in- 
creased supply of food) is incompatible with weak digestive organs. 

The capacity of the chest in an animal is a constant quantity ; we there- 
fore inspire the same volume of air, either at the pole or at the equator, But 
the weight of the air, and consequently of the oxygen, varies with the tem- 
perature. ‘Thus an adult man takes into the system daily 46,000 cubic inches 
of oxygen, which, if the temperature be 77°, weigh 324 oz.; but when the 
temperature sinks down to the freezing point (32°), it will weigh 35 oz. Thus 
an adult in our climate in winter may inhale 35 oz. of oxygen; in Sicily he 
would inspire only 284 oz.; and if in Sweden, 36 oz. It is obvious also, that 
in an equal number of respirations we consume more oxygen at the level of 


_ the sea than on a mountain. The quantity of oxygen inspired, and carbonic 


acid expired, must therefore vary with the height of the barometer. Hence 
we expire more carbon in cold weather when the barometer is high, than we - 
do in warm weather; and we must consume more or less carbon in our food 
in the same proportion. In our own climate, the difference between summer 
and winter in the carbon expired and therefore necessary for food, is as much 
as 3. y 

Even when we consume equal weights of food, an infinitely wise Creator 
has so adjusted it as to meet the exigencies of climate. Thus the fruit, on 
which the inhabitants of the south delight to feed, contains only 12 per cent. 
of carbon; whilst the bacon and train-oil enjoyed by the inhabitants of the 


arctic regions, contain from 66 to 80 per cent. of the same element. 


Now the mutual action between the elements of food and the oxygen of 
the air is THE SOURCE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 


44 _ REPORT—1842. 


All living creatures whose eXistence depends on the absorption of oxygen, 
possess within themselves a source of heat independent of the medium in 
which they exist. This heat, in the Professor's opinion, is wholly due to the 
combustion of the carbon and hydrogen contained in the food which they 
consume. Animal heat exists only in those parts of the body through which 
arterial blood, (and with it oxygen in solution) circulates; hair, wool, or 
feathers do not possess an elevated temperature. The carbon and hydrogen 
of food, in being converted by oxygen into carbonic acid and water, must 
give out as much heat as if they were burned in the open air. The only dif- 
ference is, that this heat is spread over unequal spaces of time; but the actual 
amount is always the same. 

«As animal heat depends upon respired oxygen, it will vary according to 
the activity of the respiratory apparatus of the animal. Thus the temperature 
of the body of a child is 102°, whilst that of an adult is 992°. That of birds 
is higher than that of quadrupeds, or than that of fishes or amphibia, whose 
proper temperature is 3° higher than the medium in which they live. All 
animals, strictly speaking, are warm-blooded ; but in those only which pos- 
sess lungs, is their temperature quite independent of the surrounding medium. 
The temperature of the human body is the same in the torrid as in the frigid 
zone. But as the body may be considered in the light of a heated vessel, 
which cools with an accelerated rapidity, the colder the surrounding medium, 
it is obvious that the fuel necessary to maintain its heat must vary in different 
climates. Thus less food is necessary in Palermo, where the temperature of 
the air is that of the human body, than in the polar regions, where it is about 
90° lower. . 

It has formerly been stated that the quantity of oxygen respired in the 
colder regions of the earth is greater than that inhaled in the tropics ; and 
by a more abundant supply of food, a greater generation of heat must ensue. 

The human body may be aptly compared to the furnace of a laboratory 
destined to effect certain operations. It signifies nothing what intermediate 
forms the food or fuel of the furnace may assume; it is finally converted into 
carbonic acid and water. But in order to sustain a fixed temperature in the 
furnace, we must vary the quantity of fuel, according to the external tempera- 
ture, that is, according to the supply of oxygen. 

In the animal body the food is the fuel, and by a proper supply of oxygen, 
we obtain the heat given out during its combustion. In winter, when we 
take exercise in a cold atmosphere, we respire a greater amount of oxy- 
gen, which implies a more abundant supply of carbon in the food; and by 
taking this food, we form the most efficient protection against the cold. A 
starving man is soon frozen to death ; and every one knows that the animals 
of prey of the arctic regions are far more voracious than those of the torrid 
zone. 

Our clothing is merely an equivalent for food, and the more warmly we 
are clothed, the less food we require. Were we to go destitute of clothes, 
like certain savage tribes, or if in hunting or fishing we were exposed to the 
same degree of cold as the Samoyedes, we could with ease consume 10 lbs. 
of flesh, and perhaps a dozen tallow-candles to the bargain, as warmly-clad 
travellers have related with astonishment of these people. Then could we 
take the same quantity of brandy or blubber of fish without bad effects, and 
learn to appreciate the delicacy of train-oil. 

We thus perceive an explanation of the apparently anomalous habits of 
different nations. The maccaroni of the Italian and the train-oil of the Green- 
lander and the Russian are not adventitious freaks of taste, but necessary 
articles, fitted to administer to their comfort in the climates in which they 


ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 45 


have been born. In cold regions, the food must contain a greater quantity 
of carbon, or, in other words, be more combustible. _ 

The Englishman in Jamaica perceives with regret the disappearance of his 
appetite, which in England had been a constant recurring source of enjoy- 
ment. By the use of aromatics he creates an artificial appetite, and eats as 
much food as he did at home. But he thus unfits himself for the climate 
in which he is placed; for sufficient oxygen does not enter his system to 

_ combine with the carbon contained in the food, and the heat of the climate 
prevents him from taking exercise to increase the number of his respirations : 
the carbon of the food is therefore forced into other channels, and disease 

results. ‘ 
_ England, on the other hand, sends her dyspeptic patients to southern cli- 
mates. In our own land, their impaired digestive organs are unable to fit the 
food for that state in which it best unites with the oxygen of the air, which 
therefore acts on the organs of respiration themselves, thus producing pul- 
monary complaints. But when they are removed to warmer climates they 
absorb less oxygen and take less food, and the diseased organs of digestion 
have sufficient powers to place the diminished amount of food in equilibrium 
with the respired oxygen. 

_ Just as we would expect from these views, in our own climate hepatic dis- 

eases, or diseases arising from an excess of carbon, are more prevalent in 

_ summer; and in winter pulmonic diseases, or those arising from an excess of 

_ oxygen. 

3 ‘The cooling of the body, by whatever means it may be produced, implies 
a greater demand for food. Violent exercise, loud and long-continued speak- 
ing, the crying of infants, moist air, all exert an appreciable influence on the 
amount of food which is taken. 

The whole process of respiration appears most clearly developed in the 
case of a man exposed to starvation. 

$24 oz. of oxygen enter into his system daily, which never again escape, 
except in combination with parts of his body. Currie mentions the case of 
an individual who was unable to swallow, and whose body lost 100 lbs. in 
weight in one month ; and Martell, in the Transactions of the Linnean So- 
ciety, recounts the case of a fat pig, overwhelmed in a slip of earth, which 
lived for 160 days without food, and had diminished in weight during that 

_ time 1201bs. The history of the hybernating animals and of those which 

_ acquire a periodical accumulation of fat, proves that the oxygen of the air 

_ readily combines with the carbonaceous matters; whilst in their winter 

_ sleep they may be considered in the light of a lamp slowly burning, the oil 

_ or fat for which has been stored up in sufficient quantity to sustain the com- 

_ bustion, that is, the animal heat; for nutrition, properly so called, does not 

_ proceed in these animals during winter. The more fat then an animal con- 

_ tains, the longer will it be able to exist without food, for that will be con- 

_ sumed before the oxygen of the air acts upon the other parts of the body. 

__ From all this it will be seen, that in Liebig’s view respiration is the fall- 

ing weight, the bent spring which keeps the clock in motion; the inspirations 

__ and expirations are the strokes of the pendulum which regulate it. In our 

ordinary time-pieces we know with mathematical accuracy the effect pro- 

duced on their rate of going, by changes in the length of the pendulum, or 

_ in the external temperature. Few, however, have a clear conception of the 

_ effect of air and temperature on the health of the human body ; and yet the 

research necessary for keeping it in the normal state is not more difficult 

than in the case of a clock. 
No one ¢an deny that the nerves have considerable influence in the re- 


tae 


“ 


46 ‘REPORT—1842. 


spiratory process, and some have even gone so far as to suppose that they 
are capable of generating heat. When the pons Varolit is cut through in a 
dog, or when a sudden blow is inflicted on the back of the head, the dog 
continues to respire, perhaps more quickly than before, but its body cools as 
rapidly as if sudden death had occurred. Exactly similar effects ensue on 
the cutting of the spinal cord, or the par vagum. These experiments have 
been supposed to prove that animal heat is due to nervous influence, and not 
to combustion ; but this singular view has arisen from the erroneous con- 
ception that the combustion proceeds in the blood itself. Nothing could be 
more erroneous. As will afterwards be shown, the compounds which are 
consumed by the oxygen of the air are produced by the viscera, and these 
being paralyzed in the experiments alluded to, are unable to furnish com- 
pounds for combustion, so that the heat disappears. 

Others, on the contrary, have ascribed animal heat to the contraction of 
the muscles, just as heat is evolved when caoutchouc is allowed to contract 
from a state of extension. Some have gone so far as to ascribe part of the 
heat to the mechanical motions of the body, as if these motions could exist 
without an expenditure of force consumed in producing them. Let us in- 
quire in what manner this heat is produced. 

We kindle a fire under the boiler of a steam-engine and generate steam, 
which steam may be applied to a machine destined for producing friction. 
By this friction heat is disengaged, but it is quite impossible that the heat 
thus obtained can ever be greater than that employed to heat the boiler. We 
employ a galvanic current to produce heat; but the amount of heat obtained 
is never greater than we might have by the combustion of the zine used in 
producing the current. 

The contraction of muscles produces heat; but the force necessary for the 
contraction has manifested itself through the organs of motion, in which it 
has been excited by chemical changes. The wltimate cause of the heat pro- 
duced is therefore to be found in these chemical changes. 

Professor Liebig then proceeds‘to prove that the heat evolved by the com- 
bustion of carbon in the body is sufficient to account for all the pheenomena 
of animal heat. He shows that the 14 oz. of carbon which are daily con- 
verted into carbonic acid in an adult, disengage no less than 197°477° of heat; 
a quantity which would convert 24 lbs. of water, at the temperature of the 
body, into vapour. And if we assume that the quantity of water vaporized 
through the skin and lungs amounts to 3 lbs., then we have still 146.380° of 
heat to sustain the temperature of the body. And when we take into caleu- 
lation the heat evolved by the hydrogen of the food, and the small specific 
heat possessed by the organs generally, no doubt can be entertained that the 
heat evolved in the process of combustion, to which the food is subjected in 
the body, is amply sufficient to explain the constant temperature of the body. 

From what has preceded, it is obvious that the amount of carbon con- 
sumed in food ought to depend on the climate, density of air, and occupa- 
tion of the individual. A man will require less carbon when pursuing a 
sedentary occupation, than when he is engaged in active exercise. 

Professor Liebig having thus discussed the source of animal heat, proceeds 
next to consider what are the ingredients in the food which may be properly 
considered to be nutritious. Physiologists conceive that the various organs 
in the body have originally been formed from blood; if this be admitted, it 
is obvious that those substances only can be considered as nutritious which 
are susceptible of being transformed into blood. 

When blood is allowed to stand it coagulates and separates into a watery. 
fluid called serum, and into the clot, which consists principally of fibrin. 


j 
} 
: 


ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 47 


These two bodies contain in all seven elements, amongst which sulphur, phos- 
phorus and nitrogen are found; they contain also the earth of bones. The 
serum holds in solution common salt and other salts of potash and soda, of 
which the acids are carbonic, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids. Serum when 
heated coagulates into a white mass called albumen. ‘This substance, along 
with fibrine, constitutes the globules of blood, along with a red colouring 
matter in which iron is a constituent. 

Analysis has shown the singular result, that fibrine and albumen are per- 
fectly identical in chemical composition. The arrangement of their particles 
is different, as the variation in their forms proves, and their composition in 
100 parts is exactly the same. They may be mutually converted into each 
other. In the process of nutrition both may be converted into muscular 
fibre, and that in return into blood. 

All organized parts of the body, 2. e. parts possessed of a decided shape, 
contain nitrogen. The principal ingredients of blood contain 17 per cent. of 
nitrogen, and there is no part of an active organ which contains less than 17 
per cent. of this element. 

The nutritive process is simplest in the case of the carnivora. This class 
of animals lives on the blood and flesh of the graminivora; but this blood 
and flesh is identical with their own. The nutriment of carnivora is derived 
originally from blood, and on the entrance of the nutriment into their system 
it is again converted into blood. With the exception of hair, horn, hoof and 
feathers, every part of a graminivorous animal is susceptible of assimilation. 
In a chemical sense, therefore, it may be considered that a carnivorous 
animal in taking food feeds upon itself, for its nutriment is identical in com- 
position with its own tissues. 

_ But at first sight the nutritive process of graminivorous animals seems al- 
together different; their digestive apparatus is less simple, and their food 
contains very little nitrogen. From what constituents of vegetables is their 
blood produced ? 

_ All vegetables contain nitrogenized compounds, and the most ordinary ex- 
perience shows us, that the greater the quantity of these compounds which 
are in the food, the less is the quantity of food required for the purposes of 
nutrition. The nitrogenized compounds of vegetables are called vegetable 
fibrine, vegetable albumen, and vegetable casein. Vegetable fibrine is fami- 
liarly known as gluten; vegetable albumen is obtained from decoctions of 
the juice of nutritious vegetables, such as cauliflowers, asparagus and man- 
gel-wurzel ; vegetable casein is principally found in leguminous seeds, such as 
peas, beans, and lentils. 

_ These three compounds are the only nitrogenized bodies which form food 
for graminivorous animals, for all others existing in plants are rejected from 
the system. 

_ Now analysis has led to the interesting result that they are exactly of the 
same composition in 100 parts; and, what is still more extraordinary, that they 
are absolutely identical with the chief constituents of the bleod—animal fibrine 
andanimal albumen. By identity, be it remarked, we do not imply similarity, 
but absolute identity even, as far as their inorganic constituents are concerned. 

_How beautifully simple, then, by the aid of these discoveries, does nutrition 
appear! Those vegetable constituents which are used by animals to form 
blood, contain the essential ingredients of blood ready formed. In point of 
fact, then, vegetables produce in their organism the blood of all animals ; for 


_ the carnivora, in consuming the blood and flesh of the graminivora, consume, 
_ strictly speaking, the vegetable principles which have served for the nourish- 


ment of the latter. In this sense, we may say that the animal organism gives 


48 REPORT—1842. 


to blood only its form; and further, that it is incapable of forming blood out 
of other compounds which do not contain the chief ingredients of that fluid. 
Liebig does not, indeed, maintain that other compounds may not be trans- 
formed in the body, for we know that they are; but that they cannot form 
the blood, the starting-point of the series. 

Animal and vegetable life are therefore closely connected; for the first 
substance capable of affording nutriment to animals is the /ast product of the 
creative energy of vegetables. The seemingly miraculous, in the nutritive 
power of vegetables, disappears in a great degree; for the production of the 
constituents of blood cannot appear more surprising than the occurrence of 
the fat of beef and mutton in cocoa beans, of human fat in olive oil, of the prin- 
cipal ingredient of butter in palm oil, and of horse fat and train-oil in certain 
oily seeds. : 

Whilst considerations such as these have led Liebig to these conclusions 
regarding the increase of mass in animals, he has still to account for the use 
of the substances in food, which are destitute of nitrogen, but which we 
know are absolutely necessary to animal life. Such substances are starch, 
sugar, gum and pectine. In all of these substances we find a great excess 
of carbon, with oxygen and hydrogen in the same proportion as in water. 
They therefore add an excess of carbon to the nitrogenized copstituents of 
food, and they cannot possibly be employed in the production of blood, be- 
cause the nitrogenized compounds contained in the food already contain exactly 
the amount of carbon which is required for the production of fibrine and 
albumen. Liebig enters into proofs to show that very little of the excess of 
this carbon is ever expelled from the system either in the form of solid or liquid 
compounds. It must therefore be expelled in the gaseous state. In short, by 
a train of admirable reasoning, he arrives at the interesting conclusion, that 
- they are solely expended in the production of animal heat, being converted by 
the oxygen of the air into carbonic acid and water. The food of carnivorous 
animals does not contain non-azotized matters, so that the carbon and hydro- 
gen necessary for the production of animal heat are furnished in them from 
the waste of their tissues. The transformed matters of the organs are ob- 
viously unfit for the further nourishment of the body, that is, for the increase 
or reproduction of the mass. They pass through the absorbent and lymph- 
atic vessels into the veins, and their accumulation in these would soon put a 
stop to the nutritive process, were it not that the blood has to pass through 
a filtering apparatus, as it were, before reaching the heart. The venous 
blood, before returning to the heart, is made to pass through the liver and 
the kidneys, which separate from it all substances incapable of contributing 
to nutrition. The new compounds containing the nitrogen of the transformed 
organs, being utterly incapable of further application in the system, are ex- 
pelled from the body. 

Those, again, which contain the carbon of the transformed tissues, are 
collected in the gall-bladder as bile, a compound of soda, which being 
mixible with water in every proportion, passes into the duodenum and 
mixes with chyme. All the soda of the bile, and ninety-nine-hundredths of 
the carbonaceous matter which it contains, retain the capacity of resorption 
by the absorbents of the small and large intestines—a capacity which has 
been proved by direct experiment. 

The globules of the blood, which in themselves can be shown to take no 
share in the nutritive process, serve to transport the oxygen, which they give 
up in their passage through the capillary vessels. Here the current of 
oxygen meets with the carbonaceous substances of the transformed tissues, 
and converts their carbon into carbonic acid, their hydrogen into water. 


% 
as 


~# 


ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 49 


Every portion of these substances which escapes this process of oxidation, is 
sent back into the circulation in the form of bile, which by degrees com- 
pletely disappears. 
This view of Liebig’s, of the use of bile, is highly ingenious and important. 
In the young of carnivorous animals, the circulation and the respiration are 
more rapid; but an infinitely wise Providence has furnished in the butter of 
__ the milk of the mother a highly carbonaceous substance, by which the loss of 
_ the organized tissues by the action of the oxygen of the air is prevented. In 
_ the young of carnivorous birds milk is not required, because the absence of 
all motion is an obvious cause of a diminished waste in the organs. 

It is obvious also, that in the system of the graminivora, whose food con- 
tains relatively so small a proportion of the constituents of the blood, the 
process of metamorphosis in existing tissues, and consequently their restora- 
tion or reproduction, must go on far less rapidly than in the carnivora. Were 
this not the case, a vegetation a thousand times more luxuriant would not 
suffice for their sustenance. Sugar, gum and starch, which form so large 
a proportion of their food, would then be no longer necessary to support life 
_ in these animals, because in that case the products of waste, or metamor- 
i phosis of the organized tissues, would contain enough of carbon to support 
cs 
‘ 

Ps 


POPE PT Saw 


_ the respiratory process. 
Man, when confined to animal food, requires sources of nutriment more 
_ widely extended than the lion and tiger, because when he has an opportunity 
he kills without eating. This is the reason that a nation of savage hunters 
cannot multiply themselves beyond a certain extent; but when civiliza- 
_tion reaches them, and they become herbivorous as well as carnivorous, 
_ the population rapidly increases. When exercise is denied to gramini- 
F _ yorous and omnivorous animals, this is tantamount to a deficient supply of 
_ oxygen. The carbon of the food not meeting with sufficient oxygen to con- 
_ sume it, it passes into other compounds containing a large excess of carbon 
and deficiency of oxygen, or, in other words, faé is produced. It is thus that 
the sedentary ladies of oriental countries acquire so much embonpoint, and 
stall-fed animals so much fat. That fat does arise in some such way as Liebig 
describes is obvious; for the herbs and roots consumed by the cow contain 
no butter; in the hay or other fodder of oxen no beef-suet exists; no hog’s- 
lard can be found in the potato refuse given to swine ; and the food of geese 
_ or fowls contain no goose-fat or capon-fat. The fat must be formed in the 
_ organism, and for this purpose oxygen must be separated from the carbona- 
‘ ceous constituents of food. Liebig is led to the startling conclusion, that fat 
is altogether an abnormal and. unnatural production, arising from the adapta- 
tion of nature to circumstances, and not of circumstances to nature, altogether 
resulting from a disproportion of carbon in the food to that of the oxygen 
_ Yespired by the lungs or absorbed by the skin. Wild animals in a state of 
nature do not contain fat. The Bedouin or the Arab of the desert, who 
_ shows with pride to the traveller his lean, muscular, sinewy limbs, is altoge- 
_ ther free from fat. And the Professor points out the diseases arising from 
this cause, and furnishes some valuable hints to therapeutics. 
_ . From all that has preceded, we may sum up the nutritious elements of food 
_ as follows. The ingredients adapted for the formation of the blood, and 
_ which the Professor calls the plastic elements of nutrition, are as follows :— 
, Vegetable fibrine. 
Vegetable albumen. 
Vegetable casein. 
Animal flesh. 
ous , Animal blood. 
1842. E 


50 ;  REPORT—1842. 


The other ingredients of food being fitted to sustain the temperature of th 
body, he calls the elements of respiration. They are, . 


Fat. Sugar of milk. 
Starch. Pectine. 
Gum. Bassorine. 
Cane-sugar. Wine. 
Grape-sugar. Beer. 

Spirits. 


Having been led to give at such length an account of Professor Liebig’s 
general principles of nutrition, we must dismiss with a mere announcement 
the details of which the second part of his work consist. In this he examines 
the chemical processes engaged in the production of bile, of urea, uric acid 
and its compounds, as well-as of cerebral and nervous substance. The con- 
clusions to which he has arrived on these subjects are of the most intense in- 
terest, and have surprised their author as much as they must his reader. In 
fact, we dare not venture to make an abstract of them, without entering into 
the calculations with which they are accompanied, lest their beautiful har- 
mony with known operations would incline the reader to think that they are 
the creations of a brilliant imagination, instead of being (as they are) the re- 
sults of sober calculation. 

His explanatory remarks on digestion are highly beautiful, and we cannot 
pass them without referring to the singular function which he ascribes to 
saliva. 

In the action of gastrie juice on the food, no other element participates 
except the oxygen of the atmosphere and the elements of water. During 
the mastication of food the fluid saliva is secreted into the mouth. This fluid 
possesses the remarkable property of enclosing air in the shape of froth, in a 
far higher degree even than soap-suds. This air, by means of the saliva, ac- 
companies the food into the stomach, and there its oxygen enters into combi- 
nation with the constituents of the food, whilst its nitrogen is again given 
out through the lungs or skin. This, then, accounts for the fact discovered 
by physiologists, that pure nitrogen is given out by the lungs and skin. The 
greater the resistance of the food, that is, the longer digestion continues, the 
greater is the quantity of saliva, and consequently of air, which enters the 
stomach. Rumination, in certain graminivorous animals, has plainly for one 
object a renewed and repeated introduction of oxygen; for a,mere mechani- 
eal division of the food only shortens the time required for solution. Of 
course, the Professor does not mean to infer that this is the only mode by 
which oxygen enters the stomach; it does so also by the property possessed 
by all animal tissues of being permeable to air. 

The Professor, in treating of the formation of bile, shows the very inter- 
esting result, that if the formula of the compounds existing in urine and 
those of the bile be added together, we obtain the precise formula of the 
blood ; as was indeed to be expected from his view, that the nitrogenous 
matters go principally to the former fluid, the carbonaceous matters to the 
latter. He enters largely into the hitherto mysterious transformations of 
bile into choleic acid, taurine, &c.; and as a consequence of this examination 
he obtains the remarkable result, that if the elements of proteine and starch 
(oxygen and water being also present) undergo transformation together and 
mutually affect each other, we obtain, as the products of this metamorphosis, 
urea, choleic acid, ammonia and carbonic acid, and besides these no products 
whatever! This is full of significance with regard to the processes which 
we actually know to proceed in the animal ceconomy. 

Following out the subject still further, he accounts very happily for the 


ema te 


ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 51 


formation of calculi; a subject upon which, for obvious reasons, we cannot 
enter. In fact, in this second part of his report, all the most interesting 
transformations of the food of the various organs and tissues of the body are 
discussed with his usual success. Whilst examining the action of organic 
remedial agents on the animal ceconomy, he touches upon the use of tea and 
coffee as an article of food; and as this is a subject of very general interest, 
we will briefly state his opinions. 

It is well known that recent chemical research has proved the fact, which 
the boldest imagination dared not have ventured to conceive, that the active 
principles of tea and coffee, viz. theine and caffeine, are absolutely one and the 
same body, being perfectly identical in every respect. The presence of this 
in two vegetables belonging to different natural families, and derived from 
different quarters of the globe, proves that the action of tea and coffee on the 
system must be the same. Some cause there must be to explain how the 
practice of taking them has become a necessary of life to whole nations. 
Now caffeine (theine) is a highly nitrogenized body. Bile, it is well known, 
contains an essential nitrogenized ingredient, taurine. Now Professor Liebig 
considers that caffeine goes to the production of this taurine ; and by caleu- 
lating the formulas of both, he shows, that if nine atoms of water and nine 
atoms of oxygen be added to the formula of caffeine, we obtain the formula 
of two atoms of taurine. Two and eight-tenths of a grain of caffeine is sufficient 
to form the taurine contained in one ounce of bile; and if we admit that the 
infusion of tea consumed contained no more than one-tenth of a grain of caf- 
feine, still if it contribute in point of fact to the formation of bile, the action 


even of such a quantity cannot be looked upon as nullity. 


» Neither can it be denied, that in case of using an excess of non-azotized 
food, or deficiency of motion, which is required to cause the change of matter 
in the tissues, and thus to yield the nitrogenized matter of the bile; that in 
such a condition the state of health may be benefited by the use of tea or 
coffee, by which may be furnished the nitrogenized product produced in the 
healthy state of the body, and essential to the production of an important 
element of respiration. . It is only in a chemical sense that these remarks are 
intended to show, that such compounds as caffeine or theine, asparagine and 
theobromine, are better adapted to this purpose than all other vegetable 
principles. ; ! 

The American Indian, with his present habits of living solely on flesh, 
could not with any comfort use tea as an article of food, for his tissues waste 
with such rapidity, that, on the contrary, he has to take something to retard 
this waste. And it is worthy of remark, that he has discovered in tobacco 
smoke a means of retarding the change of matter in the tissues of his body, 
and thereby of making hunger more endurable; and that he cannot with- 
stand the captivation of brandy, which, acting as an element of respiration, 
puts a stop to the change of matter by performing the function which pro- 
perly belongs to the products of the metamorphosed tissues. With the Indian 
savages, brandy administers to their feelings of comfort, which tea in their 
cases would not do. hk 

- The third part of Professor Liebig’s report treats of the recondite laws of 
the phenomena of motion. His observations on these fully bear out the high 
character of the other parts of the report; but as they require more detail in 
order to be understood, we can better afford to shorten our abstract by 
merely referring to the report itself. 

The Professor concludes his valuable communication by two chapters, one 
on the Theory of Disease, the other on the Theory of Respiration. With a 
very few words on these subjects, we will close this abstract. 

EZ 


52 REPORT—1842. 


The whole life of animals consists of a conflict between chemical forces 
and the vital power. In the normal state of the body of an adult both stand 
in equilibrium ; that is, there is an equilibrium between the manifestations of 
the causes of waste and the causes of supply. Every mechanical or chemical 
agency which disturbs the restoration of this equilibrium is a cause of disease. 
Disease oceurs when the resistance offered by the vital force is weaker than 
the acting cause of disturbance. 

Death is that condition in which chemical or mechanical powers gain the 
ascendency, and all resistance on the part of the vital force ceases. This re- 
sistance never entirely departs from living tissues during life. Every abnormal 
condition of supply or waste may be called disease. 

But it is evident that one and the same cause of disease, that is, of disturb- 
ance, will have different effects according to the period of life. A cause of 
disease added to the cause of waste, may in old age annihilate the resistance 
of the vital power, or, in other words, occasion death; while in the adult 
state it may produce only a disproportion between supply and waste, and in 
infancy only an abstract state of health, z.e. an eguzlibrium between supply and 
waste. 

Now from what has preceded, it is obvious that a deficiency of resistance 
in a living part to the cause of waste is in fact a deficiency of resistance to 
the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere. Professor Liebig has shown, 
in that part of the report which I have omitted, that the phenomena of mo- 
tion are dependent upon the change of matter ; consequently, if by a diseased 
transformation of living tissues a greater amount of force be generated than 
is necessary for the production cf the normal motions, it is seen in an acce- 
leration of the involuntary motions, as well as in a higher temperature of 
the diseased part. 

This condition is called Fever. 

And when a great excess of force is produced by change of matter, the 
force, since it can only be consumed by motion, extends itself to the appara- 
tus of voluntary motion. 

This state is called a FEBRILE Paroxys. 

Should there be any products formed during disease, which the organs in 
their immediate vicinity cannot employ in their own vital functions, erema- 
causis will ensue, which may be communicated to other parts of the body. 
The physician sometimes removes those diseased conditions by exciting an 
artificial diseased state in their vicinity, such as by blisters or by setons. In 
this case he throws a less important part of the body into a state in which it 
more readily yields to the oxygen, and therefore removes the causes of waste 
from the diseased organ. When this cause of waste is reduced, the resistance 
or vital force increases, and renovates the part removed by oxygen. 

In cases of a different kind, where artificial external disturbance produces 
no effect, the physician adopts other indirect methods to exalt the resistance 
offered by the vital force. He diminishes the number of blood-carriers (the 
globules), and by this means the cause of change. He excludes from the’ 
food all matter capable of conversion into blood, and gives chiefly or entirely 
non-azotized food, which supports the respiratory process. 

In regard to the nature of the vital force, it is plain that it must be con- 
nected, with other physical forces, for its manifestations are similar; it is de- 
void of consciousness or volition, and is, as we know, subject to the action of 
a blister. 

Perhaps we cannot give a better notion of the Professor’s theory than by 
comparing the human body to a self-regulating steam-engine. 

Eyery one knows that the tube which conveys the steam to the cylinder, 


ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 53 


where the piston-rod is to be raised, contains a stop-cock of a peculiar con- 
struction, through which the steam must pass. By an arrangement connected 
with the regulating-wheel, this stop-cock opens when the wheel moves slower, 
and shuts when it moves more rapidly than is necessary to produce a uniform 
motion. When it opens, more force (steam) is admitted, and the motion of 
the machine is accelerated. When the stop-cock shuts, the steam is more or 
less cut off, the force in the cylinder diminishes, the tension of the steam or 


force increases, and is preserved for subsequent use. The force, that is, the 


tension of the vapour, is produced by the change of matter by the combustion 
of coals. The force increases with the temperature of the fire-place. There 
are in these engines other arrangements, all intended for regulation. When 
the force augments beyond a certain point, the channels fcr the admission of 
air close themselves, combustion is diminished, and less force generated ; 
but when the engine goes slower more steam is admitted to the cylinder, its 
tension decreases, the air-passages are opened, and the cause of the disen- 
gagement of heat, that is, of the production of force, increases. Another 
arrangement supplies the fire-place incessantly with coals, in proportion as 
they are wanted. 

The body, in regard to the production of heat and of force (in Liebig’s 
view), acts just like one of those machines. With the lowering of the external 
temperature, the respiration becomes deeper and more frequent; oxygen is 
supplied in greater quantity and of greater density ; the change of matter is 
increased ; and more food must be supplied if the temperature of the body is 
to remain unchanged. 

It has been proved that iron is ot necessary to the colouring matter of the 
blood, but that it forms an essential constituent of blood-globules. These 
globules, it is well known, take no part in nutrition. Liebig proves that iron 
is contained in a state of protoxide in venous, and in the state of sesquioxide 
in arterial blood. The latter very readily yields its oxygen to organic matter, 
the former becomes very readily oxidized; but the sesquioxide, in yielding 
its oxygen to organic tissues, produces carbonic acid, which (according to 
well-known facts) protoxide of iron readily absorbs. The globules of blood 
darken when exposed to carbonic acid gas, but become florid when exposed 
to oxygen, whilst all the carbonic acid is again evolved. Therefore,.the or- 
ganic compound of iron which exists in venous blood, recovers in the lungs 
the oxygen which it had lost, and liberates its carbonic acid. Professor 
Liebig conceives that the iron is therefore the great means of conveying to 
the lungs the carbonic acid formed in the system; and he has made a calcu- 
lation of how much the iron contained in the body could thus actually con- 
vey, and the result of the calculation shows that twice as much carbonic acid 
could thus be conveyed as actually is expelled daily from the system. 

In conclusion, I entreat that this abstract may not be regarded as doing 
justice to Professor Liebig. It is difficult indeed to abstract from a work in 


which every sentence contains some new views, if possible, more interesting 


and more important than those preceding. And when the very unfavour- 
able circumstances under which this abstract was prepared are considered, 
I am sure that justice will be done to my learned friend by consulting the 
report itself. 

In the opinion of all, Liebig may be considered a benefactor to his species, 
for the interesting discoveries in agriculture published by him in the first 
part of this report. And having in that pointed out means by which the food 
of the human race may be increased, in the work now before us he follows 
up the chain in its continuation, and shows how that food may best be 
adapted to the nutrition of man. Surely there are no two subjects more 


54 “REPORT—1842. 


fitted than these for the contemplation of the philosopher ; and by the con- 
summate sagacity with which Liebig has applied to their elucidation the 
powers of his mind, we are compelled to admit that there is no living philo- 
sopher to whom the Chemical Section could have more appropriately entrusted 
their investigation. 


Report on the British Fossil Mammalia. By Ricnarp OwEn, Esq., 
F.R.S. 


Part I. Unguiculata and Cetacea. 


By many recent valuable works there may be evidently discerned in the 
labours of the Naturalists of the present day a tendency to the acquisition 
of complete and precise knowledge of the animals and plants of particular 
countries and localities. ‘The birds of Europe, the freshwater fishes of the 
same continent, the vertebrated animals of Italy, those of the northern re- 
gions of America, the fishes of Scandinavia, have had respectively their 
historians in a Gould, an Agassiz, a Bonaparte, a Richardson, and a Nillson ; 
and, not to mention many other faunz and flore of foreign countries, the 
series of excellent zoological works, published by Mr. Van Voorst, have in- 
cluded able surveys by our most eminent Naturalists of the existing species 
of different classes of animals of Great Britain. 

The British Association has favorably promoted the acquisition of analo- 
gous knowledge of the extinct animals of these islands, and the result of such 
investigations in regard to one class, encourages their application to other 
departments of primeval zoology. ' 

How marvellous is the contrast, for example, which the catalogue of the 
British Fossil Reptiles presents in regard to the number, diversity, bulk, and 
outward forms of its subjects, with that of the existing species! In this com- 
parison Prof. Bell’s instructive volume on British Reptiles seems to form but a 
small appendix to that which treats of the extinct forms ; to so small a group 
of diminutive species have the cold-blooded air-breathing animals dwindled 
down in our portion of the earth’s surface. 

The contrast promises to be, though not so striking, still very great, be- 
tween the catalogues of the extinct and existing British Mammalia; and in 
undertaking, at the request of the Association, the present survey of the British 
Fossil Quadrupeds and Whales, the number and variety of these have made it 
requisite to divide the subject, and prolong the researches which it demands 
into another year. 

It is proposed in this Report to record the fossil remains of extinct British 
Mammalia; first, according to their zoological relations, following them in 
the descending order; and, secondly, to enumerate them according to the 
strata, and in the same order. 

The present division of the Report includes the Quadrumana, Cheiroptera, 
Insectivora, Carnivora, Rodentia, Marsupialia, and Cetacea. 

This simple enumeration makes known the remarkable fact, that two 
orders of Mammalia, one of which has totally disappeared from the conti- 
nents of the old world of the geographer, and the other is hardly recognized 
as’ European, have once possessed representatives in the land which now 
forms the island of Great Britain. So that whilst the Zoologist, enumerating 
the existing mammals of this island, finds the nearest approach to man in 
the diminutive bats, the paleontologist, by the extinct forms, can ascend 
another step, and commence his catalogue with a species of the quadruma- 
nous order. 


ee a ee 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA, 55 


Order QUADRUMANA. 
Genus Macacus. 


The existence of this genus during the earlier tertiary epochs was esta- 
blished by the discovery, in sand, beneath a stratum of blue clay, at Kyson 
near Woodbridge, Suffolk, of a fragment of a lower jaw, including the socket 
of the last molar, with that highly characteristic tooth entire and in place, 
and the anterior part of the base of the coronoid process. This fossil was 
determined by me in August 1839*; it was of a dark colour and brittle 
from the loss of its original animal matter, but less absorbent than the cave 
fossils usually are. The crown of the tooth presents five tubercles, the four 
anterior ones being arranged in two transverse pairs, the fifth forming the 
posterior heel or talon. This conformation of the crown of the last molar of 
the lower jaw, is characteristic, as is well known, of two families of catarrhine 
or old-world monkeys,—the Semnopithecide, including Semnopithecus and 
Colobus, and the Macacide including Macaeus, Cynocephalus and Papio. 
In the. Semnopithecide the fifth tubercle or talon is large but simple. In 
most of the Macacide it presents two cusps, the outer one being much 
larger than the inner one. This character is well marked in the fossil, and 
reduces it to the lower group, or Macacide; in which, after a close com- 
parison with several recent species, it appears to me to come nearest to the 
true Macaci. But the fossil exhibits the following differences from the re- 
cent Macaci :—-the whole tooth is rather narrower in proportion to its length; 


_ the transverse ridge at the anterior part of the tooth crossing the base of the 


two anterior tubercles is a little more prominent, and passes more obliquely 
from the outer to the inner side; the second transverse ridge uniting the 
first pair of tubercles, rises nearer to their summits; the portion of the jaw 
is more compressed than the corresponding part of the jaw in the recent 
Macaci; the internal wall of the socket of the tooth is flatter and much 
thinner ; the ridge on the outer side of the alveolus, which forms the com- 
mencement of the anterior margin of the coronoid process, begins closer to 
the tooth. These characters are sufficiently important and well-marked to 
establish the specific distinctions of the Macacque to which the portion of 
the jaw belongs, and are the more valuable as corroborating the evidence 
already adduced in proof that the fragment in question is a true fossil of the 
Eocene stratum in which it was discovered. 

A second specimen of the fossil Macacus consists of the crown and one 
fang of the second molar, left side, lower jaw; or the tooth which corre- 
sponds with the second ‘bicuspis’ in human anatomy ; it was discovered in 
the same stratum and locality as the preceding. The crown presents four 
tubercles arranged in two transverse pairs, the anterior pair being the most 
distinctly developed, and rising the highest ; there is also a very small ridge 
at the anterior, and another at the posterior side of the crown; the latter is 


‘placed between and connects together the two posterior tubercles. The 


fangs are two, strong and divergent; the anterior one has been broken off. 
The grinding surface of the tooth presents two depressions, a small one in 
front of the anterior pair of tubercles, and a larger one between the two pairs 
of tubercles. The tooth has evidently belonged to an old individual, for the 
tubercles are worn, and the posterior concavity is smoothed and deepened 
by attrition. It differs from the corresponding tooth of a recent Macacus 


* See Magazine of Natural History, 1839, p. 444. 
+ A newspaper critic, when this discovery was first announced, suggested that the sup- 
posed fossil might be nothing more than the remains of some monkey belonging to a 


- travelling menagerie, which had died and been cast out.in the progress through Suffolk. 


56 REPORT—1842. 


of the same size in having a slight ridge along the base of the anterior part 
of the crown, and in being a little narrower from side to side, and the same 
characters distinguish the posterior molar of the fossil Macacus above de- 
scribed. As, moreover, the present fossil molar bears exactly the same pro- 
portion to the above-mentioned fossil posterior molar, which obtains in the 
corresponding teeth of the recent Macaci, I have no doubt that the two fos- 
sil teeth belong to the same species of extinct Macacus. 

The evidence on which this ancient British monkey has been recognized, 
is of the same nature as that which has proved the existence of another and 
higher organized Quadrumane, in a contemporary formation in the South of 
France. During the life-time of Cuvier no fossil referable to the quadru- 
manous order had been discovered in any part of the world. Such remains 
have, however, been subsequently determined not only from tertiary strata 
in England and France, but also from tertiary beds in the East Indies and 
South America ; four different genera of apes and monkeys being now known 
to have co-existed with the stranger Mammalia of the tertiary periods which 
have become extinct. 


- 


Order CHEIROPTERA. 


The most common situations in which the fossil bones of the bat-tribe 
have been met with are the bone-caves, in some of which, as in the cavern 
at Késtritz, they occur mixed with the bones of existing as well as extinet 
animals, and may have been introduced at a recent period. I shall not, 
therefore, here notice the remains of existing species of bats found in the 
superficial stalactites of caves, and which appear also to have been acci- 
dentally and recently introduced, like the remains of the human species, into 
caves containing the true fossil bones of extinct animals. 

In the cavern called Kent's Hole, near Torbay, Devon, fragments of the 
skeleton of a bat have been found so associated with the remains of the ex- 
tinct animals as to claim a like antiquity. A ramus of the lower jaw presents 
two large cuspidated molars in place, the socket of a third, those of two small 
premolars, and a canine, from which I am disposed to refer these fossils to the 
genus Rhinolophus, typified by the horse-shoe bat of the present fauna. 

A species of small insectivore, referable only, as it appears to me, to the 
bat-tribe, has left indications of its presence during the remote tertiary pe- 
riods in which the Macacus, already described, existed. These indications 
consist of two molar teeth, apparently the last and penultimate of the right 
side of the lower jaw. 

One of these small grinders (penultimate or antepenultimate grinder) has 
the crown composed of four triangular prisms, placed in two transverse rows, 
with an angle turned outwards, and a side or flat su#face inwards, the sum- 
mits being sharp-pointed. The exterior prisms are the largest; the crown 
swells out abruptly above the fangs, defending them as it were by an over- 
hanging ridge. There is a small transverse eminence or talon at the anterior 
part of the crown; and a very small tubercle is placed between the bases of 
the two external prisms. The second molar differs from the preceding in 
having the two posterior prisms suppressed, and replaced by a flattened tri- 
angular surface. The anterior prisms are present, and their apices project 
far beyond the level of the posterior surface. There is a small ridge at the 
anterior part of the tooth. These teeth agree more nearly with the ante- 
penultimate and last molars of the larger insectivorous bats, than with any 
other teeth with which I have as yet compared them; they differ chiefly in 
the presence of the small tubercle at the basal interspace of the exterior 
prisms; a difference which M. de Blainville regards as ground for doubting 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 57 


the legitimacy of their approximation to the Cheiropterous order at all*. 
Since, however, an anatomist so familiar by his recent researches with all 
the modifications of the teeth of the Mammalia has been unable to refer the 
fossil molars in question to any of the terrestrial or aquatic genera of Insec- 
fivora, but has given my figures of these molars a place in the plate illus- 
trating the ancient Vespertiliones in his ‘ Osteography,’ I deduce from that 
fact additional confidence in my original determination. It is to the grinders 
of a tropical species of Molossus, in the collection of Mr. Cuming, that the 
present British fossils make the nearest approach. 


Order InsEcTIVORA. 
Genus Talpa. 


Moles have been introduced into the retreats of owls and other birds of 
prey, and these remains have been detected in-the earth at the bottom of 
caves, as in that at Paviland+}, but these cannot be regarded as true fossils. 

The almost entire skeleton, figured as a Saurian in the ‘Geology of Bacton,’ 
by Mr. Green, unquestionably belongs to the genus Talpa, as I have ascer- 
tained by examination of the characteristic humeri, which in the figure 
alluded to are placed so as to correspond with the coracoid and pelvic bones 
of Saurians. This mole’s skeleton was discovered in a lacustrine deposit 
consisting of a greenish kind of mud intermixed with sand, underlying a 
stratum of bluish mud, with patches of brown clay, itself covered by the 
hard ferruginous crag and the superficial till. 

The associated skeleton{ of a quadruped, combining a dentition like that 
of the ruminants, with, apparently, a divided metacarpus and metatarsus, as 
in the Anoplotherium gracile, would indicate this formation to belong to the 
older tertiary series; but of this I shall be enabled to speak with more cer- 
tainty, after a personal examination of the fossil and strata previous to the 
preparation of that part of the present report which will treat of the herbivo- 
rous Mammalia. 


¢ 


Genus Sorex. 


Fossil remains of shrew-mice have been found in the bone-cave at Kent's 
Hole §; in the collections of bones in the raised beaches near Plymouth, 
and in other recent formations: they offer no evidence of species distinct 


“from those now existing in Great Britain. 


Genus Amphitherium. ‘ 
The mammalian fossils which have excited most interest, and been the 


‘subject of closest examination and warmest discussion, are the small jaws 


from the oolitic calcareous slate at Stonesfield near Oxford, first indicated 
as evidence of the mammalian class by Dr. Buckland, in his celebrated 
paper on the Megalosaurus, published in 1823 in the ‘ Transactions of the 
Geological Society of London,’ vol. i. 2nd series, p. 399 ; and there referred, 
on the authority of Cuvier, to the genus Didelphys. 

A statement of so much importance as that of the existence of the remains 
of a terrestrial mammal in a secondary formation, much lower than the 
chalk, excited, as might be expected, much scepticism and close inquiry, 
first, in regard to the geological relations of the alleged oolitic stratum, and 
next as to the zoological affinities of the fossils. 


* Osteographie des Cheiroptéres, p. 93, pl. xv. fig. ix. 

T Reliquie Diluviane, p. 93. 

{ Green’s Geology of Bacton, plate ii, pp. 13-18. 

§ As they have likewise been found in the cave at Kostritz, and in the bone-caves of 
um. 


58 REPORT—1842. 


The first exception to any generalization which has assumed the cha- 
racter of a law, is always admitted with difficulty, and by the strict or 
mechanical systematists with reluctance. The geological arguments by 
which M. Prevost endeavoured to invalidate the conclusions of Dr. Buck- 
land, were soon and satisfactorily refuted by Dr. Fitton; and the question 
as to the real age of the rock containing the bones in question has not since 
been agitated. The attempts to remove the supposed anomaly by inter- 
preting the appearances in the fossils as indications of a cold-blooded spe- 
cies, have been more frequent and persevering; and they assumed the 
character of so systematic a refutation of the Cuvierian view, in the me- 
moirs communicated by M. de Blainville to the French Academy in the 
year 1838, that a close and thorough re-examination of the fossils in ques- 
tion became imperatively called for, in order that the doubts cast upon their 
mammalian nature might be tested. For this purpose the original fossil jaw 
described by Dr. Buckland, and those subsequently obtained from the 
Stonesfield slate and preserved in the Oxford Museum, were submitted to 
my inspection. I carefully examined the specimen described hy Mr. Brode- 
rip and presented by him to the British Museum, and likewise that which is 
preserved in the Museum of the Philosophical Society at York. The results 
of these examinations were communicated to the Geological Society, and 
have been published with new and more exact figures of the fossils in the 
6th vol., 2nd series, of the Transactions of the Society. 

By a very singular coincidence the mammalian fossils from the Stones- 
field slate, hitherto determined, are all portions of the lower jaw; whether 
belonging to individuals of different species, or of different genera, or even, 
as appears by examination of new specimens acquired since the publication 
of my memoir of 1838, of different orders of Mammalia. 

The first fossil was referred originally to the genus Didelphys, from the 
resemblance of the grinders to those of the opossums; but Cuvier expressly 
states that they exceeded in number the molar series in that or any other known 
carnivorous genus of mammal. M. Agassiz, originally regarding this fossil as 
insufficient to determine the nature of the animal to which it belonged, sub- 
sequently proposed, nevertheless, a generic name, Amphigonus, for that 
animal, expressive of its supposed ambiguous nature. M. de Blainville, 
likewise, though participating in the incertitude or doubt which M. Agassiz 
had cast upon the original determination of the Stonesfield fossil, had as 
little hesitation in suggesting a name for the new genus which it seemed to 
indicate, whatever might subsequently prove to be its characters or affinities ; 
and it is remarkable that the Greek compound ‘ Amphitherium,’ should 
imply by its terminal element a relation to the class Mammalia, which the 
two memoirs read to the French Academy by its inventor were designed to 
disprove. 

M. Valenciennes, in his reply to M. de Blainville, arriving at the eonclu- 
sion that the fossil jaw described and figured by M. Prevost and Dr. Buck- 
land not only belonged to a mammalian but likewise to a marsupial animal, 
proposed for it a third generic name, indicative of these presumed affinities, 
viz. Thylacotherium. 

The arguments of M, Valenciennes were opposed in a second detailed 
memoir by M. de Blainville, who concluded by stating that he felt himself 
compelled to pause, at least until fresh evidence was produced, in the con- 
viction that the portions of fossil jaws found at Stonesfield, certainly did not 
belong to a marsupial—probably not to a mammalian genus, either insectivo- 
rous or amphibious—that, on the contrary, it was most likely the animal had. 
been oviparous, and that, had not M. Agassiz decidedly given his opinion 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 59 


against the fossils in question belonging to fishes, he would rather have been 
= to suppose that they might have been the remains of an animal of that 
class. 

With respect to the term ‘amphibious, in M. de Blainville’s conclusion, 
this has reference to a later opinion expressed by M. Agassiz*, who, admit- 
ting the Stonesfield fossils to be certainly those of mammals, rejects them 
from the marsupial and insectivorous orders, observing that “ each separate 
tooth resembles the greater part of those of seals, near which group (am- 
phibious Carnivora) the animal to which the jaws belonged should form a 
distinct genus. In fact,” adds M. Agassiz, “ the aspect of these fossil 
fragments is so peculiar, that it draws our attention towards aquatic animals 
rather than away from them.” 

_ A mammiferous animal, not larger than the water-shrew, may manifest 
aquatic habits, but can hardly be supposed to have been piscivorous, or to 
have been endowed with instincts and an organisation like those of the 
seals ; at all events it must be admitted, in the absence of any evidence of 
the locomotive extremities, that such an affinity can only be matter of mere 
conjecture ; which a close examination of the dental and maxillary characters 
will show to have little probability. 

The fossil first discovered by Professor Buckland, and figured by the Pro- 
fessor, by M. Prevost and myself, is the left ramus of a lower jaw wanting 
the anterior extremity, containing ten of the molar teeth more or less broken, 
and measuring ten lines in length. 

This specimen, however, plainly exhibits,—first, a convex articular con- 
dyle ; secondly, an indubitable and well-defined impression of what was once 
a broad, thin, high, and slightly recurved triangular coronoid process, rising 
immediately anterior to the condyle, having its basis extended over the 
whole of the interspace between the condyle and the commencement of the 
molar series, and having a vertical diameter equal to that of the horizontal 
ramus of the jaw itself; thirdly, the angle of the jaw continued to nearly the 
same extent below the condyle as the coronoid process reaches above it, and 
with its apex continued backwards in the form of a process ; fourthly, the 
parts above described forming one continuous portion with the horizontal 
ramus of the jaw, which is not compounded of three or four distinct pieces. 
As respects this last statement, it is to be observed that an inferior marginal 
groove has been considered as evidence of the composite structure of the 
jaw under consideration ; but there is no other mark that could be inter- 
_ preted as an indication of this reptilian structure, whilst a similar groove 

characterizes the lower jaw of the marsupial Myrmecobius and Wombat, and 
of some large species of Sorex. 

M. de Blainville was led to suppose that there was no trace of a convex 
_ condyle, but that in its place there existed an articular fissure, somewhat as 
in the jaws of fishes; that the teeth, instead of being imbedded in sockets, 
had their fangs confluent with, or anchylosed to, the substance of the jaws ; 
and that the jaw itself presented evident traces of a composite structure. 

- The point, therefore, which first demanded the closest attention, was 
the actual condition, in the Stonesfield fossils, of the articular or condyloid 
process, in regard to which they give the same evidence. In the jaw examined 
by Cuvier, in the second specimen of the same species examined by M. Va- 
lenciennes, and in the lower jaw of another genus described and figured by 

‘Mr. Broderip, a prominent convex articular condyle is more or less distinctly 

‘revealed ; itis most entire and unequivocal in Mr. Broderip’s specimen which 


sites Neue Jahrbuch Mineral, und Geol. von Leonhard und Bronn, 1835, iii, p. 185. 


60 REPORT—1842. 


I shall subsequently describe. What M. de Blainville has mistaken for an 
articular fissure, “‘ une sorte d’échancrure, articulaire un peu comme dans 
les poissons,” must be the entering angle or notch, either above or below the 
true articular condyle. 

The angle of the jaw in the original fossil is produced backwards in the 
form of a process, as in the insectivorous and .in all the carnivorous Mam- 
malia, with the exception of the seals; but it could not be determined in 
that specimen whether this process was likewise bent inwards in the way 
which so strikingly characterizes the Marsupialia. A very complete half- 
lower jaw from Stonesfield, obtained since my paper was printed in the 
Geological Transactions, determines this question in the negative ; and at the 
same time, therefore, turns the scale of evidence in favour of the affinities 
of the present ancient mammal to the placental insectivora. 

Before, however, describing this fossil, I shall proceed to offer a few ob- 
servations on the second specimen of Amphithertum figured in my paper in 
the Geological Transactions; and on the evidence which it affords of the 
affinities of this most interesting genus. 

In this specimen the whole of the exposed surface of the lower jaw, with 
the exception of the coronoid, articular and angular processes, is entire; the 
smooth surface near the anterior extremity of the jaw is in bold relief, and 
slopes away at nearly a right angle from the rougher articular surface of the 
elongated symphysis. It may be supposed that this symphysial surface, 
which at once determines the side of the jaw, might be obscured in the 
plaster cast studied by M. de Blainville, but there is no possibility of mis- 
taking it in the fossil itself; it is long and narrow, and is continued forwards 
in the same line with the gently convex inferior margin of the jaw, which 

thus tapers gradually to a pointed anterior extremity, precisely as in the jaws 
of the Didelphys as well as in other IJnsectivora, both of the marsupial 
and placental series. Its lower margin presents a small but pretty deep 
notch, which possesses every appearance of a natural structure, and a corre- 
sponding but shallower notch is present in the same part of the jaw of the 
Myrmecobius. In the relative length of the symphysis, as in its form and po- 
sition, the jaw of the Amphitherium corresponds with that of the Didelphys, 
Myrmecobius and Gymnurus. A greater proportion of the convex articular 
condyle is preserved in this than in the foregoing specimen, and it projects 
backward to a greater extent. The precise contour of the coronoid process 
is not so neatly defined in this as in the first specimen of Amphitherium, but 
sufficient remains to show that it had the same height and width. 

The exposed surface of the coronoid process is slightly convex. The sur- 
face of the ascending ramus of the jaw is entire above the angle, whence we 
may conclude that if the process from the latter part had been continued 
directly backwards, it would also have been entire; but the extremity of the 
angular process is broken off, proving it to have originally inclined inwards 
or towards the observer: as, however, the greater part of the angle is entire, 
it could not have been inflected to the same extent as in the Didelphys, 
Dasyurus, or the Phascolotherium next to be described. A groove is ex- 
tended from the lower end of the articular condyle forward to the orifice of 
the canal for the dental artery, where it divides ; the upper branch terminates 
in the dental orifice, the lower and larger division is continued forward near 
the lower margin of the jaw, and is gradually filled up half way towards the 
symphysis: this smooth vascular groove has no resemblance to an articular 
fissure. There is a broader and shorter groove in the corresponding part of 
the jaw of the Myrmecobius; and a narrower groove in that of the Wombat. 
The alveolar wall of the posterior grinders makes a convex projection, cha- 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL’ MAMMALIA. 61 


racteristic of the inner surface of the ramus of the lower jaw. The posterior 
grinder in the present jaw is fortunately more complete than in the first ex- 
ample, and shows a small, middle, internal cusp, with part of a large external 
cusp, both projecting from the crown of the tooth in nearly the same transverse 
line. The enamel covering the internal cusp, which is vertically fractured, is 
beautifully distinct from the ivory, and considerably thicker in proportion to 
the size of the tooth than is the enamel or its analogue in the teeth of any spe- 
cies of reptile, recent or fossil. The six molars anterior to the one in place, are 
broken off close to the sockets; both the fifth and fourth false molars are en- 
tire: the anterior cusp presents the same superior size as in the first specimen. 
The thick external enamel, and the silky, iridescent lustre of the compact ivory, 
are beautifully shown in these teeth. The third and second grinders are more 
fractured than in the first specimen, but sufficient remains to show that they 
possess the same form and relative size; but the most interesting evidence as 
regards the teeth, which the present jaw affords, is the existence of the sockets 
of not less than seven téeth, anterior to those above described. Of these 
sockets the four anterior ones are small and simple, like those of the mole, 
being more equal in their size and interspaces than in the Didelphys. The 
fifth socket contained a small premolar with double fangs, and so likewise 
did the sixth and seventh sockets.. Thus the two false molars, with perfect 
crowns in the present specimen, are the eighth and ninth teeth, counting 
backwards, ‘or the fourth and fifth of their class, viz. premolares or false 
molars. This fossil, therefore, gives evidence that the dental formula of the 
Amphitherium must have included thirty-two teeth in the lower jaw (sixteen 
on each side); that these, instead of presenting an uniform, compressed, tri- 
cuspid structure and being all of one kind, were divided into three series as 
regards their form: five, if not six, of the posterior teeth are quinque-cuspi- 
date, and must be regarded as molares veri. Some of the molares spurti are 
tricuspid and some bicuspid, as in the opossums ; but these are six, if not 
seven in number. Anterior to the molars are four simple teeth, of which the 
fourth may be regarded as the representative of the canine, and the anterior 
three as incisors. Thus the Amphitherium differs considerably from the ge- 
nus Didelphys in the number of its teeth. Indeed at the time when Cuvier 
wrote respecting it, believing it to have had ten molars, no mammiferous 
ferine quadruped was known to possess a greater number of these teeth 
than the Chrysochlore, which has nine molars on each side of the upper jaw, 
and eight molars on each side of the lower jaw. The Chrysochlore, however, 
is not the only mammal in which the molars exceed the number usually 
found in the unguiculate Mammalia. The marsupial genus, Myrmecobius, 
has nine molars on each side of the lower jaw, besides one small canine and 
three conical incisors. 

The teeth of Amphitherium, moreover, differ from those of Didelphys not 
only in number but also in size, being relatively smaller. The teeth of Myr- 
mecobius, besides their approximation in number to those of Amphithertum, 
resemble them in their small relative size more than do those of Didelphys, 
but they are still smaller than in Amphitherium, which in this respect, as 
well as in the structure of the teeth, appears to hold an intermediate posi- 
tion between Didelphys and Myrmecobius. The Didelphys Prevostit being 
evidently, as Cuvier states, a distinct genus from Didelphys properly so 
called, a distinct generic name was no doubt desirable for it, and the term 
Amphitherium fulfils all the requisite conditions. In my memoir of 1838 I 
ventured to observe in reference to the new name proposed by M. Valen- 
ciennes, that it would have been more prudent to have chosen one less de- 
seriptive than Zhylacotherium, since the affinities of the fossil insectivore to 


62 '- REPORT—1842, 

the marsupial order were indicated only with a certain degree of probability, 
and required further evidence before the desired demonstration could be at~ 
tained. But the determination of the particular order of mammals to which 


the fossils in question belonged, was a matter of very inferior importance to | 


the discovery of the class of vertebrate animals in which it ought to rank. 
In reference to this point the evidence afforded by the two jaws above de- 
scribed, decisively proves, in my opinion, that they belong to a true, warm- 
blooded, mammiferous species, referrible also to the higher or unguiculate 
division of the class Mammalia, and to an insectivorous genus; with a pro- 
bability of the marsupial character of such genus. 

The probability entertained in 1838, and supported by the degree of re- 
semblance between Amphitherium and Myrmecobius in the number and form 
of the molar series of teeth, has since been diminished, if not destroyed, by 
the discovery of the right ramus of a lower jaw, presenting its external sur- 
face to the observer, and in which the angular process is shown not to have 
extended inwards. This jaw, now in the possessioh of Prof. Buckland, con- 
tains the whole series of twelve molar teeth, the last six being quinque-cus- 
pidate ; the six anterior ones uni-cuspidate, with one or two small basal ac- 
cessory cusps; one small canine and three small incisors ; altogether amount- 
ing to sixteen teeth on each side of the lower jaw, as indicated by the sockets 
of the second specimen above described. The convex condyle, the broad 
and high coronoid process, the projecting angle, the varied kinds and double- 
rooted implantation of the teeth, all unequivocally displayed in this fossil, 
establish the conclusions which I had deduced from the foregoing fossils, of 
the existence of a small insectivorous mammal during the oolitic epoch; and 
turn the scale in fayour of the placental affinities of this ancient insectivore, 
for which, therefore, I shall retain the generic name Amphitherium, in pre- 
ference to the later one of Thylacotherium, proposed by M. Valenciennes. 
Other fossils, also portions of the lower jaw, establish the existence of small 
Mammalia in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield; but they present more decided 
characters of the marsupial order, and will be, therefore, noticed after a sur- 
vey of the fossils belonging to the larger placental Carnivora. 


UrsIDz. 


In regard to the langer extinct carnivorous quadrupeds, the remains of 
which are dispersed in the superficial drift or diluvial gravel, but are more 
especially accumulated in caves, it has been proved, chiefly by the researches 
of Dr. Buckland, that England differs very remarkably from the rest of 
Europe in the small number of its ancient bears as compared with the 
hyzenas; the proportionate numbers of Ursus speleus and Hyena spelea 
being reversed in the island and on the continent. How far this difference 
may be taken as an indication of some geographical separation having ex- 
isted at the remote period of these beasts of prey, analogous to that which 
now divides us from the continent, may be worthy of closer inquiry ; but 
the facts in regard to the Carnivora in question are indisputable. _ 

I shall first indicate the chief localities of Ursine remains in this country, 
and then enter upon the question of their specific characters and relations. 

The tusk of a bear, equalling in size that of the Ursus speleus, has been dis- 
covered in the celebrated hyzena-cave at Kirkdale in Yorkshire. The soli- 
tary character of this specimen is made more remarkable by the fact of the 
incalculable numbers of hyznas’ teeth which have been discovered in the 
same cavern. The size of the Ursus speleus must be regarded as one of its 
striking and remarkable characters, but if this character were not associated 
with modifications of the osseous and dental. structures, it might only indi- 


5 Calas 


‘pay 
Lows 


ne, 


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he ee en 


SENT ee 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 63 


cate that the brown bear of Europe was a degenerate descendant of the same 
species, as M. de Blainville has recently endeavoured to show. The diffi- 
culties which oppose themselves to the view of the specific identity of the 
great cave bear and the existing European bears, I shall point out after 
noticing other localities in which the Ursus speleus of Cuvier have been 
found in this country. 

In the cave at Paviland, in the lofty limestone cliff facing the sea on the 
coast of Glamorganshire, the following parts of a large species of bear are 
enumerated by Dr. Buckland:—Many molar teeth, two canines; the sym- — 
physial end of two lower jaws, exhibiting the sockets of the incisor teeth 
and of the canines; the latter are more than three inches deep; a humerus 
abo entire; many vertebra, two ossa calcis; metacarpal and metatarsal 

ones. 

At Oreston, on the coast of Devonshire, several caverns or cavernous fis- 
sures were discovered during the quarrying of the limestone rock for the 
construction of the breakwater at Plymouth. The first of these, described 
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1817, contained the bones of a species 
of Rhinoceros; in the second, a smaller cavern distant one hundred and 
twenty yards from the former, and described in the Philosophical Transac- 
tions for 1821, were found, associated with the tooth of a rhinoceros and 
parts of a deer, some teeth and bones of a large species of Ursus. 

_ The fossils referable to the bear here discovered, include a canine tooth, 
left side, lower jaw; a canine tooth, left side, upper jaw ; the penultimate 
grinder, right side, upper jaw; the penultimate grinder, left side, lower jaw ; 
a portion of the sacrum; portions of two tibi ; a portion of the ulna; a 
portion of the femur. 

The richest cave-depository of the fossil bones of bears hitherto found in 
England is that called Kent’s. Hole, near Torquay. The natural history, with 
a special account of the organic riches of this cave, will be given in the se- 
cond volume of the ‘ Reliquiz Diluviane,’ which Dr. Buckland is now pre- 
paring for the press. It is to the assiduous researches of the late Rev. Mr. 
Mac Enery that the discovery of the various and interesting fossils of this 
cave is principally due, and some of the rarest and most valuable of this 
gentleman’s collection have been lately acquired by the British Museum. 
Among the Ursine fossils meriting especial notice, are portions of the skull 
and teeth of the Ursus speleus, some of the latter equalling in size the 


_ largest specimens from the German caverns. 


The anterior portion of a lower jaw, including the anchylosed symphysis, 
with two enormous canines, is likewise remarkable from the circumstance of 


its retaining a small and simple-fanged premolar in the interspace or dia- 


stema between the canines and the double-fanged molars. 
A second interesting fossil is a large proportion of the lower jaw, in- 
cluding the symphysis and the whole dental series of each ramus ; the sockets 


of two small simple-fanged premolars are visible in the diastema above de- 


seribed ; one close to the canine, the other, less completely preserved, near 
the first double-fanged molar. 

Amongst the bones of the trunk and extremities there occur remarkable 
examples of diseased action; a lumbar vertebra, for example, presents ex- 
tensive exostosis from the under part and sides of the body; the distal 
extremity of the radius exhibits an oblique fracture of that bone, in the 
attempt to heal which a new and irregular ossific mass has been deposited 
on the surface of the bone. Several bones and teeth of the Bear from 


Kent's Hole exhibit very decided marks of having been gnawed, most pro- 


4 
Berd 


bably by a hyena. One of the fragments of the lower jaw of a young Bear 


; my 
G3 


64 _ -REPORT—1842. 


shows the same interesting transitional state of dentition as has been dis- 
covered in fossils from the continental bear-caves. 

The drift or diluvial deposits in several localities of England have yielded 
remains of large carnivorous quadrupeds, and among these of the Bear. 

In the valley of the Thames this deposit affords considerable quantities of 
brick-earth, and in working this material at Grays in Essex, and also at 
Whitstable, remains of a large species of Ursus have been discovered. 

An entire skull and portions of the upper and lower jaws of a bear have 
been discovered in Manea Fen, Cambridgeshire, five feet below the surface. 
The skull forms part of the collection of Professor Sedgwick: the portions 
of the jaws are in the possession of Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton, Bart. 

These, though belonging to a genus extinct in Great Britain, can scarcely 
be considered as fossil bones, and they are included in the present report, 
rather as satisfactory objects of comparison with the remains of Bears from 
the caverns and drift formations. 

I proceed now to inquire into the relations which the Bears, formerly inha- 
hitants of this island, have to the existing species in Europe or other parts 
of the world;—an inquiry which the recent doubts published by M. de 
Blainville as to the real nature of the specific differences pointed out by 
Cuvier between the Cave Bears (Ursus speleus, U. priscus, &c.) and the 
existing species render more necessary. 

For this purpose I have critically compared most of our British fossils with 
specimens from the German caverns, in the museums of this country, and 
with the skeletons of the largest existing species, as the Ursus ferox, U.ma- 
Titimus, arctos, &¢. 

Cranium.—John Hunter, who first instituted an anatomical comparison 
between the Cave Bears and those of the present period, selected the great 
Polar Bear for this purpose, as being the largest existing species with which 
he was acquainted. Hunter, however, restricts himself to pointing out the 
difference in the proportion of length to breadth in the skull of an old White 
Bear and in that of the great Cave Bear: the individual skulls which he 
compared are still preserved in juxtaposition in the Museum of the College 
of Surgeons, as they were left by Hunter when removed by death from this 
the latest field of his extensive and various researches. 

This difference in the proportions of the skull, though one of the most 
striking between the fossil and recent species of Bears, is not the only one. 
The last molar tooth of the upper jaw in the White Bear has a smaller an- 
tero-posterior diameter, and a narrower posterior termination. The inter- 
space between the antepenultimate molar and the canine tooth presents the 
remains of two sockets, one near the molar, the other near the canine, which 
in young full-grown Polar Bears contain small and simple-fanged premolars. 
The youngest specimens of Cave Bear which I have seen, exhibit no trace of 
either of these small premolars, or of their sockets: they doubtless existed 
in the foetus, but normally were very soon lost ; the exceptions are extremely 
few in which their traces are visible in the jaws of full-grown Cave Bears. 
The posterior palatal foramina are situated opposite the middle of the last, 
molar tooth in all the skulls of the White Bear examined by me, but oppo- 
site the interspace between the penultimate and last molars in the skulls of 
the Cave Bear. The zygomatic arches are wider and shorter, and the base 
of the zygomatic process behind the glenoid cavity is more horizontal in: 
the White Bear than in the Cave Bear. The Grisly Bear ( Ursus ferox),—a 
larger species than the White Bear, and unknown to Hunter,—agrees with 
the Cave Bear in the great proportional size of the last molar tooth, but the 
interspace between the antepenultimate grinder and the canine is relatively 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 65 


less than in either the Cave Bear (WU. speleus) or White Bear (U. maritimus), 
and it contains two small and simple premolars in specimens, which from 
the worn state of the molar teeth have belonged to older individuals than 
those to which the skulls of the Cave Bear have belonged, which present no 
trace of premolars. 

, The lower jaw of the Ursus speleus differs from that of the Ursus ferox 
m the greater breadth of the posterior molar as compared with its length, 
and in the greater convexity of the inferior contour of the ramus of the 
jaw, in which latter circumstance it differs, though in a somewhat less degree, 
from the Black Bear of Europe ( Ursus arctos). 

The lower jaw of the Grisly Bear, in differing by the larger size of its 
molar teeth, especially of the last molar from the Polar Bear, in the same 
degree differs less from the Ursus speleus. 

The Ursine remains from the Paviland Cavern, and some of those from 
Kent's Hole, are unquestionably identical with the Ursus speleus. 

To this species, also, I should refer, on account of the size of the canines 
and the extent of the diastema between these and the large molars, the 
anterior part of the lower jaw from Kent's Hole ; notwithstanding the presence 
of a small simple-fanged premolar in that diastema : since a few exceptional 
instances have occurred of the persistence of these teeth in lower jaws of 
the Ursus speleus from the German and Belgian caverns. 

The fossil humerus from Kent’s Hole likewise manifests all the characters 
of that of the Ursus speleus; characters which appear to me to be as well 
marked as those which can be pointed out as distinguishing the same bones 
in any other two species of one genus. 

- Cuvier, as is well known, conceived that he had met with two very distinct 
‘forms of the humerus, belonging to equally gigantic extinct species of Cave 
Bears. 

“ On trouve deux sortes d’humérus, tous deux appartenant a des ours, et 
cependant fort différens l’un de l'autre, John Hunter les a déja représentés 
(Phil. Trans. 1794, pl. xx.); mais depuis on n’a insisté dans aucun ouvrage 
sur leur différence. La deuxiéme sorte d’humérus de ees cavernes, pl. xxv. 
fig.4, 5, 6, et 7, m’est comme par un échantillon bien entier que notre Mu- 
séum posséde, par la gravure de Hunter, et par le dessin que je dois a feu 
Adrien Camper d’une portion qui en comprenoit les trois quarts inférieurs. 
Elle différe éminemment de la précédente par un trou percé au dessus du 
condyle interne pour le passage de l’artére cubitale. ( Voy. a, fig. 4 et 5).”"— 
Ossemens Fossiles, 4to. 1823, tom. iv. p. 362. 

Whatever may be deemed the value of the character of the perforation of 
the inner condyle, I can affirm that it derives no accession from the other _ 
differences manifested by the figure in Hunter’s memoir, which Cuvier sup- 
posed to be of a fossil Bear; that figure having been, in fact, taken from the 
humerus of an old Polar Bear, inserted in the plate (pl. xx. Phil. Trans. 
1794.), and placed above the figure of the fossil humerus in order to illus- 
trate the differences between the recent and fossil species. The bone of the 
Polar Bear was placed by Hunter in the same drawer with two humeri of the 
Cave Bear from Gailenreuth, which it exceeds in size, and which are the 
identical specimens alluded to in the following passage of Hunter's Memoir:— 
‘© These are two ossa humeri rather of less size than those of the recent White 
Bear.” Hunter does not allude to any other differences, probably intending 
these to be illustrated by the figures. These, in fact, show that the humerus 
of the White Bear is broader at both extremities, and thicker in proportion to 
its length. The supinator ridge forms an angle instead of being continued 
downwards in a gentle convex curve; the internal condyle is much thicker 

1842. F 


‘ 


66 REPORT——1842. 


and stronger, where it bounds the olecranal cavity, and it extends inwards to 
a greater distance from the articular surface; the deltoidal ridge reaches 
lower down in the White Bear ; the antero-posterior diameter of the proxi- 
mal third part of the bone of the White Bear exceeds in a marked degree 
that of the extinct species. 

The decease of Hunter took place before the printing of his observations 
on the fossil eave-bones, and the individual to whom the task of superin- 
tending the printing was entrusted, described both the figures of the humeri 
in the Plate, as belonging to the fossil species. Cuvier, who did not perceive 
the resemblance of the upper figure to the humerus of the White Bear, and 
who therefore did not recognise the mistake, avails himself of it to illustrate 
his opinions respecting the specific distinction of his Ursi speleus et Are- 
toideus. 

Cuvier, in fact, possessed a humerus of one of the great Cave Bears, the 
internal condyle of which was perforated, as in the feline tribe, whilst other 
humeri were imperforate, and corresponded with the lower figure in Hunter's 
plate. But the perforated fossil humerus figured by Cuvier differs from that 
of the White Bear in the shorter deltoid ridge, the narrower proximal and 
distal extremities, the convex outline of the supinator ridge, and the inferior 
production of the inner condyle; in short in all those characters by which the 
imperforate fossil humerus has been shown above to differ from that of the 
White Bear. Not any of the three fossil humeri in the Hunterian Collec- 
tion have the perforation of the internal condyle; and amongst the ex- 
tremely numerous humeri that have since been obtained from the bone- 
caves of Germany, not any have been found to present the perforation which 
Cuvier regards as the specific character of this bone in the Ursus speleus ; it 
is most probably therefore, as Professor de Blainville conjectures, an acci- 
dental anomaly. But the differential characters which both the imperforate 
and perforate humeri of the great Cave Bear present, when compared with 
those of any recent species, cannot be reconciled by the hypothesis that these 
are merely degenerated descendants of the Ursus speleus. 

The humerus from Kent's Hole presents all the characters of that of the 
Ursus speleus above described. 

Uina.—The ulna of the Cave Bear ( Ursus speleus), compared with one 
of the same length from the Polar Bear, is less straight, being more convex 
towards the radius ; is thicker, particularly at the anterior part of the shaft ; 
the ridge on the outside of the distal end of the bone is more produced ; the 
styloid process is more pointed; and the coneavity on the inner side of the 
proximal articular surface is deeper, ‘ 

The ulna from Kent’s Hole agrees with that of the Ursus speleus from the 
German caves, 

The difference between the femur of the Ursus speleus and the femur of Ur- 
sus arctos or ferox, is analogous to that which has been pointed out in the hu- 
meri; the femur of the Grisly Bear being broader in proportion to its length, 
especially at its two extremities : it is owing to this breadth that the lesser tro- 
chanter is thrown wholly to the posterior surface of the bone, the inner mar- 
gin being continued beyond it, whilst in the Cave Bear the lesser trochanter, 
though on the posterior surface of the bone, projects a little beyond the inner 
margin. At the distal end of the bone the tuberosity above the internal 
condyle, corresponding with that in the humerus, is larger and more promi- 
nent in the Grisly than in the Cave Bear; the same difference in the position 
of the lesser trochanter is presented by the White Bear as compared with 
the Cave Bear, and the extremities of the bone are relatively broader. 

I have not been able to detect any other well-marked modification of form 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 67 


in the remaining bones of the extremities of the Ursus speleus, but the co- 
incidence of such appreciable modifications in the femur, ulna, humerus, 
with those in the form and proportions of the head, and in the form and the 
relative size of certain teeth, seem to offer as good grounds for the specific 
distinction of the Ursus speleus as for that of the Ursus maritimus, or any 
other existing species proposed by Pallas and Cuvier, and admitted by the 
best modern zoologists. ‘ 

The question which the Palzontologist ought to propose to himself in his 
first survey of the fossils of any particular district, is the value of the distinc- 
tive characters which such remains may present, as compared with those 
which distinguish species, according to the zoological systems and principles 
of the time being. For if he disregard or suppress such differential cha- 
racters in the fossils, because the limits of variation by the influence of time 
and surrounding circumstances may not be determined, he rejects one of the 
valuable means whereby the ultimate resolution of such higher and mo 
general questions in zoology may be effected. ; 
To refuse to recognise such differences as have been pointed out in the 
skeleton of the great Cave Bear, because they may be possibly or hypothe- 
tically accounted for by degeneration of the specific type, and thereupon to 
record the fossil species as the primeval Ursus aretos, seems a voluntary 
abandonment of the most valuable instrument in all ulterior inquiries. 

Observation has well determined the extent of modification which the 
skull of a carnivorous species may undergo according to age, to sex, to the 
free or the constrained exercise of its destructive weapons; and the relative 
size of the intermuscular crests, the relative strength of the zygomatic arches 
and the proportions of the canines to the other teeth are well known to vary 
within certain limits. 

But in the Ursus speleus we have to account for the greater relative size 
and complexity of certain molar teeth; for the more extended diastemata, 
accompanying more lengthened jaws; for a premature loss of certain teeth 
and their sockets, without any predominating development of neighbouring 
-eanines to account for it; for narrower zygomata, with longer and higher 
parietal crests; for large frontal sinuses impressing a striking and readily 

scognisable feature upon the skull. 
_ “Tt has been endeavoured to explain the last-cited modification, by assert- 
ing that the primeval Bears had their frontal sinuses more developed in 
virtue of their respiring a fresher, drier, and more invigorating atmosphere 
than their less fortunate and degenerated descendants*. But we may question 
whether the flat-headed Ursus ferox has a less exposed locality or breathes 
amore humid and impure atmosphere on the rocky mountains of North 
America, than did the old Cave Bears of the German and British forests ; 
_ and we may more than doubt that the cold and bracing sea-breezes inhaled 
by the still flatter-headed Polar Bear, should be less efficient in expanding 


Bs __ the sinuses along the respiratory tract, than the musty air of the sepulchral 


treats in which the Cave Bears slept. 


Existing species of Bears, reckoned distinct by modern zoologists, do in 


q fact differ in the relative convexity of their forehead, and the flat-headed 


Species, as the Polar and American Bears, are unquestionably not those which 


habitually respire the least pure and invigorating air. Instead of speculating 


_.* “L’intensité méme de l’acte respiratoire dans les lieux plus découverts, ou l’air est plus vif, 
"plus sec, plus frais, développe tous les sinus qui se trouventsur le trajét de l’air, et, des-lors, les 
frontaux sont dans ce cas aussi bien que tous ceux qui entourent les fosses nasales; des-lors 
aussi, par l’écartement des deux lames de’os, le gonflement des fosses frontales, indépendantes 
et separées par un sillon.”—De Blainville, Osteogr., p. 36. 

F2 


68 “REPORT—1842. 


on the atmosphere as a physical cause of the inflation of the bony cells, it 
would be more profitable, if it were possible, to trace the relationship between 
the different degrees of development which the frontal sinuses may present in 
different species of Bears, and their peculiar habits and modes of life. We 
may thus, I think, see the reason why, in the piscivorous species of the Polar 
ice, the receptacles of air in the bones of the head are least developed, viz. 
to offer least resistance to its progress through the water when diving after 
its prey. 

The opposite extreme in the condition of the frontal sinuses of the Ursus 
speleus, may have had some corresponding relation to the habits of that gi- 
gantic extinct species. 

From the great proportional size and more complicated tubercular surface 
of the posterior molar teeth, especially in the upper jaw, and from the 
greater complication on the crown of the smallest persistent molar in the 
lower jaw, one might be led to suppose that the Ursus speleus fed more on 
vegetables than the Grisly Bear does. 

If this were the case, one might infer from the slight raided of abrasion in 
the teeth of full-grown specimens, that the vegetable food, in whatever pro- 
portion it entered into their diet, was of a soft nature, as berries, or tender 
twigs or sprouts. The size and strength of the Ursus speleus would, how- 
ever, enable it to cope with the large Ruminants and ordinary Pachyderms, 
its contemporaries in ancient Britain and on the Continent, and to success- 
fully defend itself against the large Lion or Tiger, whose remains have been 
found in the same caverns. 

I proceed next to speak of other species of Ursus, of which the fossil re- 
mains have been found jn the caves and superficial deposits in this country. 

A large proportion of a lower jaw, with the incisors, canines, and the entire 
series of molar teeth on both sides, from Kent’s Hole, corresponds with the 
jaw of the Ursus priseus, Goldfuss. The size is much inferior to that of the 
Ursus speleus ; while the worn surface of the teeth proves the animal to have 
been mature, and probably aged. 

The socket of the first fangless small premolar is immediately behind the 
canine, and a trace of the socket of a similar premolar is visible near the first 
double-fanged molar. The interspace containing the simple sockets of the 
two small premolars is relatively longer than in the Brown Bear or White 
Bear. The last true molar is relatively smaller than in the Ursus speleus. — 

The Oreston Ursine fossils appear to me to be referable also to the Ursus 
priscus. 

The most remarkable fossils of the Ursine family which have been found 
in this country, are those of the Ursus cultridens, or at least of a species closely, 
allied to that from Auvergne and the Vald’Arno; the singularly compressed 
and serrated canines of which suggested to Cuvier the specific name above 
quoted. Tke evidence of this species, since made the type of a distinct 
sub-genus under the names of Machairodus and Stenodon, which British 
localities have afforded, consists of detached canine teeth found in Kent’s 
Hole. These are larger and broader in proportion to their thickness, and 
have shorter fangs than the Auvergne tooth figured in the ‘ Osteography ’ 
of M. de Blainville. 

The crown of one of the canines of the Ursus cultridens, from Kent’s Hole, 
measures 25 inches; the fang of a second canine, with the apex of the canine 
worn down, i is 24 inches in length ; the breadth of the base of the crown is 
1 inch 2 lines ; its thickness half an inch. 

The oldest fossil referable to the genus Ursus which I have yet seen, is the 
crown of a molar tooth, found associated with remains of a large species of 


T 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL MAMMALIA. 69 


Felis in the red crag, below the so-called mammaliferous crag near Wood- 
bridge, Suffolk ; the Ursine fossil in question is the antepenultimate grinder 
of the right side, upper jaw; it is smaller than the corresponding tooth in the 
Ursus speleus. i 

The most recent remains of the Bear which can claim to be included in 
the present Report, are those already mentioned, which have been disco- 
vered about five feet below the surface in the Manea Fen, Cambridgeshire. 

Sir Philip Egerton possesses a fine example of the right superior maxillary 
and intermaxillary bone of the Bear from this locality. 

The jaw nearly equals in size that of the Ursus speleus, but differs in the 
much shorter interspace between the canine and the third molar tooth, count- 
ing from behind forwards ; likewise in having this interspace occupied by 
two small and simple-fanged false molars. The crown of the penultimate 
grinder is broader in proportion to its length or antero-posterior diameter. 
The difference in regard to the presence of the two first false molars must be 
allowed due weight, since the present Fen Bear has its grinders much worn, 
whilst the Cave Bear, with which it is compared, is a younger but full-grown 
specimen, with the tubercles of the grinding teeth entire, and the last molar 
tooth of the Fen Bear has a narrower posterior termination than in the Cave 
Bear. The Fen Bear differs also from the Ursus priseus, which retains the 
two first false molars, by their being in contact, which results from the nar- 
rower interspace between the canine and the third false molar, which inter- 
‘space is relatively as wide in the Ursus priscus as in the Ursus speleus ; and 
a great proportion of this interspace divides the first from the second false 
molar in the Ursus priscus. ‘This likewise canuot be a difference dependent 
on.age or sex, for the jaw of the Fen Bear here described belonged to an 
individual absolutely larger than the Ursus priscus, with which it is com- 
pared ; and, judging from the size of the canine incisor teeth, the Fen Bear 
was probably an old male. The grinding surface of the molars prove it to 
have been a much older individual than the Ursus priscus with which. it is 
compared, and to have attained that age when no difference could be ex- 
pected to take place in the length of the interspaces of any of the teeth. In 
all the characters in which the upper jaw of the Fen Bear differs from that of 
the two species of Cave Bear with which it has been compared, it agrees with 
the Ursus arcios, especially the Black, or Norwegian variety. 

In the museum of Prof. Sedgwick at Cambridge there is an entire cranium 
of the same species of Bear from the Manea Fen, which enables us to extend ° 
the comparison of this ancient British species with those still existing in 
Europe. In regard to which it may be observed that the cranium of the 
Manea Fen Bear in its less convex forehead, and the length of the sagittal 
‘erest, which commences at a greater distance, in front of the occiput, resembles 
the black variety of Ursus arctos more than it does the Brown Bear. 

As it may serve to further elucidate the characters of the Cave Bears (Urst 
speleus et priscus), as well as those of the Ursus arctos, of which I regard 
the specimens under consideration to be a variety, I shall add a few observa- 
tions arising out of the comparison of the lower jaw of the Fen Bear. The 
specimen, which is in the collection of Sir Philip Egerton, consists of the left 
ramus of the lower jaw, from Manea Fen, Cambridgeshire. It equals in 
length the largest specimen of the lower jaw of the Ursus speleus, but differs 
from that species in the more simple form of the last spurious molar, or the 
fourth grinder counting from behind forwards ; for, whereas the Cave Bear 
has two distinct cusps developed upon that tooth, in the present species there 
is only one cusp, as in the Black, Brown and White Bears. The Bear of the 
Fen also differs from the Ursus speleus in the shorter interspace between the 


70 REPORT—1842. 


last-described molar and the canine, even when compared with the lower jaw 
of a Cave Bear absolutely shorter. The preceding interspace in the Fen Bear 
contains the sockets of two small spurious molars, *each with a simple fang, 
but there is no trace of these in the Cave Bear, save in very rare excep- 
tions ; and this difference cannot be the effect of age, because the lower jaw 
of the Fen Bear, which has the grinders moderately worn by mastication, is 
here compared with the jaw of a young and small Ursus speleus, in which 
the tubercles of the grinding teeth are all entire. The Fen Bear resembles 
the Ursus priscus in so far as the latter retains the first false molar, but dif- 
fers in possessing the second, which is wanting in a younger specimen of the 
Ursus priscus; it differs also in the greater extent of the interspace between 
the canine and the third false molar ; and, more importantly, in the form of 
that tooth, which in the Ursus priseus presents a second cusp on the inner 
side, and a little behind the first, which is wholly wanting in the Fen Bear. 
The ramus of the jaw is deeper, and the slope of the symphysis is more gra- 
dual. In all the particulars in which the Fen Bear differs from the two ex- 
tinct species above cited, from the caverns, it agrees with the existing Black 
Bears of Europe, from which it does ot appear to differ in any well-marked 
specifie character. The Grisly Bear of North America agrees with the Cave 
Bear in the absence of the first two false molars and in the more complicated 
crown of the third false molar of the lower jaw. 


Subgenus Meles. 


Fossil remains of the Badger (Meles vulgaris) have not been discovered in 
British strata more ancient than the diluvium. They offer no characters 
distinguishable from those of the existing species: the comparison support- 
ing this conclusion has been made on the right branch of the lower jaw, with 
the entire series of teeth, of the fossil Badger, from Kent’s Hole, Torquay. 

Remains of the Badger have been found fossil in the cave at Berry Head, 
Devon. 


Genus Putorius. 


Remains of a species of Weasel, not to be distinguished from the bones of 
the Putorius vulgaris, have been obtained from the bone-cave at Kirkdale, 
and from Kent’s Hole, near Torquay. The collection of the late Mr. 
Mac Enery contained a nearly entire skull, having all the characters of that 
of the common Weasel, but evidently a contemporary with the Cave Bears 
and Hyznas, now extinct. 

Remains of a somewhat larger species of Putorius, probably Put. Armi- 
neus, have been discovered in the bone-cave at Berry Head. 

A cranium stained red and absorbent from the loss of animal matter, of 
the size and conformation of that of the Putorius Furo, was obtained, with 
other fossils, from one of the raised beaches at Plymouth. 


Genus Canis. 


Amongst the fossils referable to the Wolf (Canis Zupus) which have been 
discovered, associated with those of the Hyena and Bear in most of the 
bone-caves of England, as at Kirkdale, at Paviland, at Oreston, in Kent's 
Hole, in the Mendip caverns, &c., the most remarkable is an almost entire 
skull, discovered in Kent’s Hole. This does not exceed in size the skull of a 
fine male Arctic Wolf, but the penultimate molar is a little larger, and the 
lower border of the jaw rather more convex. 

Remains of a smaller species of Canis, not distinguishable from those of 
the Fox (Canis vulpes), have been found in Kirkdale (a caleaneum and 


ee OMG AE Te ~ 


ON BRITISH FOSSIL) MAMMALIA. 71 


many teeth); at Oveston (teeth and bones of the extremities) ; and in Kent's 
Hole (an entire left ramus of the lower jaw, with other less perfect and in- 
structive specimens ). 


Genus Hyena. 


In regard to the extinct British species of the genus Hyena, little remains 
to be added to the accurate and graphic history of these Ossivora contained 
in the ‘ Reliquiz Diluviane’ of Dr. Buckland. 

Besides the cave at Kirkland, in which the abundance of Hyznas’ teeth 
and bones is so extraordinary, the remains of the same species of Hyena 
have been found in the caverns at Oreston, at Paviland, at Kent’s Hole, and 
in the Mendips. 

The ancient British Hyena resembles more closely the Hyena crocuta of 
South Africa than the Hyena vulgaris of North Africa and Asia Minor: it 
differs however from the Cape Hyzena in the smaller interspace between the 
occipital condyle and the mastoid process ; and in the greater relative depth 
of the posterior plate of the glenoid cavity for the lower jaw. In the spotted 
Hyena the anterior and-internal tubercle of the penultimate molar (upper 
jaw) is relatively larger, and the small posterior molar is a little further 
removed from the penultimate one. The posterior ridge of the second molar 
tooth of the lower jaw is relatively broader in the fossil than in the recent 
Hyzena; the first molar lower jaw is also relatively larger, especially in its pos- 
terior division, and it is nearer the canine in the fossil Hyzena. The numbers 
of the Hyena spelea in England may be conceived, when the remains*of not 
fewer than from 200 to 300 have been discovered in a single cavern, as that 
at Kirby Moorside. 

Fossil Hyznas have been shown by Dr. Buckland to be found in this 
country, as on the Continent, in situations of two kinds, viz. caverns and drift, 
or the so-called diluvial gravel. In the latter formation they were first dis- 
covered in England in the year 1822, at Lawford near Rugby, associated 
with bones of the Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Equus, Bos, &c. ‘The integrity of 
the Hyzna’s under-jaw from this locality presents a remarkable contrast 
with the uniformly fractured condition of the bones from the caverns, and the 
explanation of, and deductions from, this difference, given by the author of 
the ‘ Reliquiz Diluviane,’ are replete with interest. 


Genus Felis. 


The remains of a feline animal surpassing in size the largest existing 
Lion or Tiger, have been found in the bone-caves of the Mendip Hills, in 
those at Oreston, at Kirby Moorside, and in Kent’s Hole. Of this remarkable 
species, to which the name of Felis spelea has been given, most of the cha- 
racteristic bones have been discovered in the caves at Gailenreuth, proving 
its true feline structure and its large relative size. ; 

The metacarpal bone of a large Felis from the Hyzna-cave at Kirby Moor- 
side does not exceed in size the corresponding bones of the Tiger: it might 
have belonged to a young individual of the Felis spelea. In a collection of 
fossil teeth from the red crag of Newbourne near Woodbridge, the genus 
Felis is represented by a posterior molar, belonging to the left side of the 
lower jaw: of a species equal in size to the Leopard. This tooth presented 
the saitie mineral condition, and had been subject to the same mechanical 
attrition as the fossil teeth of an extinct Shark ( Carcharias megalodon) found 
along with it. 
~The lower jaw of a species of Felis about the size of the Wild Cat (felis 
catus) has been found in Kent's Hole. 


72 REPORT—1842. 


Genus Lutra. 


Of this genus [ have determined characteristic remains of a species about 
the size of the common Otter, in the so-called mammaliferous crag at South- 
wold, and near Aldeburg, Suffolk. 


Order CETACEA. 

Most of the remains of this order of Mammalia, have been, in Great Britain 
found in gravel-beds adjacent to estuaries or large rivers, in marine drift or 
diluvium, and in’ the subjacent clay-beds: but although these depositories are 
the most superficial, and belong to the most recent period in geology, the 
situation of the cetaceous fossils generally indicate a gain of dry land from 
the sea. Thus the skeleton of a Balenoptera, 72 feet in length, found im- 
bedded in clay on the banks of the Forth, was more than twenty feet above 
the reach of the highest tide. Several bones of a whale, discovered at Du- 
more Rock, Stirlingshire, in brick-earth, were nearly forty feet above the 
present level of thesea. The vertebree of a whale, discovered by Mr. Richard- 
son in the yellow marl or brick-earth of Herne Bay, in Kent, were situated 
ten feet above the occasional reach of the sea on that coast. A large verte- 
bra of Balena mysticetus was discovered fifteen feet below the surface, in 
gravel, by the workmen employed in digging the foundation for the new 
Temple Church. The teeth of a Cachalot have been discovered by Mr. Brown 
in the diluvium of Essex. Part of the tusk of a Narwhal (Monodon) has 
been discovered in the London clay; presenting the usual condition of the 
fossils#from that old tertiary stratum. 

The most completely petrified remains of this order are a series of anchy- 
losed cervical vertebra of a large Delphinus in the museum of Prof. Sedg- 
wick. Their-fossilized condition indicates a higher antiquity than the Ceta- 
cean fossils above noticed: they were discovered in Cambridgeshire, but the 
stratum and locality were unfortunately unknown. 

No specimens of herbivorous Cetacea have hitherto been discovered in 
British strata. 

Order RopENTIA. 


The British fossil remains of species of this order hitherto detected are 
referable to the genera Castor (Beaver), Arvicola (Water-vole, Field-vole), 
Mus (Rat and Mouse), and Lepus (Hare and Rabbit); which have been 
found in superficial drift, bogs and fens, (Castor), in bone-caves, in the 
brick-earth deposits, in the mammaliferous crag, and in the subjacent red 
crag. The ancient Rodents from the last two tertiary formations belong to 
the genus Arvicola. The fossils of the Beaver above noticed agree with the 
species of the Danube. Besides these, the remains of the great Castor Tro- 
gontherium have been found in the submarine forest at Bacton. 


Order MarsvpiatLia. 
Genus Didelphys? 3 

In the eocene sand, underlying the London clay, at Kyson near Wood- 
bridge, Sussex, a small portion of jaw, with a spurious molar tooth, has been 
found. This fossil has been referred to the Opossum (Didelphys), but the 
evidence which it afforded is, in my opinion, insufficient to support that con- 
clusion. There is no tooth so little characteristic, or upon which a deter- 
mination of the genus could be less safely founded, than one of the spurious 
molars of the smaller carnivorous and omnivorous Fere and Marsupialia. 
A large, laterally compressed, sharp-pointed middle cone or cusp with a small 
posterior, and sometimes also a small anterior talon, more or less distinctly de- 
veloped, is the form common to these teeth in many of the genera of the above 


ON BRITISH ‘FOSSIL: MAMMALIA. 73 


orders. It is on this account, and because the tooth of the fossil in question 
differs in the shape of the middle and size of the accessory cusps from that 
of any known species of Didelphys, that I regard its reference to that genus 
as premature, and the affinities of the species to which it belongs as needing 
further evidence before they can be determined beyond the reach of doubt. 
Mr. Charlesworth, by whom the present fossil was first described and figured, 
has accurately specified the differences above alluded to in the shape of the 
crown of the tooth as compared with the false molars of the true Opossums: 
they are seen in the more equilateral or symmetrical shape of the middle 
cusp, the greater development of the posterior talon, and the presence of 
the anterior talon at the base of the middle cusp: the grounds on which his 
determination of the fossil was founded are not stated. 

The crowns of the spurious molars of the placental Fere, which present the 
same general form as the fossil, are thicker from side to side in proportion to 
their breadth ; the spurious molars of the Dasyurus, Thylacinus, and Phas- 
cogale, differ in like manner from the fossil. It is in the marsupial genera 
Didelphys and Perameles that the false molars present the same laterally 
compressed shape as in the fossil. Now besides the perfect tooth, the fossil 
includes the empty sockets of two other teeth ; and the relative position of 
these sockets places the Perameles out of the pale of comparison. On the 
hypothesis that the present fossil represents a species of Didelphys, the tooth 
in situ unquestionably corresponds with the second or middle false molar, 
right side, lower jaw. This is proved by the size and position of the an- 
terior alveolus. x 
_ Had the tooth in situ been the one immediately preceding the true molars, 
the socket anterior to it should have been at least of equal size and in juxta- 
position to the one containing the tooth. The anterior socket, however, is 
little more than half the size of the one in which the tooth is lodged; it is 
also separated from that socket by an interspace equal to that which separates 
the first from the second false molar in the Didelphys Virginiana. ‘This is 
well shown in the inside view. In the placental Mammalia, in which the first 
small false molar is similarly separated by a diastema from the second, the 
first false molar has only a single fang. In the present fossil, the empty 
socket of the first false molar proves that the tooth had two fangs, as in the 
* marsupial Fere and Jnsectivora. There is nothing in the size or form of the 
socket, posterior to the implanted tooth of the fossil, to forbid the supposition 
that it contained a false molar, resembling the one in ‘place ; had it been the 
socket of a true molar, then the fossil could not have belonged to Didelphys, 
or to any other known marsupial genus, because no known marsupial animal, 
which presents the posterior false molar of a similar form and in like juxta- 
position with the true molars as the tooth in the present fossil (on the sup- 
position that it immediately preceded the true molars), has the next false 
molar so small as it must have been in the fossil on that supposition. 

Upon the whole, the conclusion that the present eocene tertiary fossil is 
marsupial is the most probable one, but the evidence is insufficient to demon- 
strate its truth. Cuvier, however, might have failed to convince contem- 
porary naturalists that the corresponding formation in France contained the 
remains of a Didelphys, unless he had had the good fortune to demonstrate 
the marsupial bones in their natural connections with the pelvis. 


Genus Phascolotheriwn. 


With regard to the fossil on which the genus Phascolotherium is founded, 
the maxillary evidence is more complete. Two rami of lower jaws, one con- 
taining the whole dental series, have been discovered in the oolitic slate at 


74 REPORT—1842. 


Stonesfield, associated with the Amphitherium described in a preceding sec- 
tion of the Report. 

In the Geological Transactions, vol. vi., second series, p. 58, will be found 
the description and figures of the most complete of these fossils, and the ob- 
servations in proof of the marsupial affinities of the Phascolotherium. It has 
four true molars, and three, or, at most, four false molars—one canine and 
three incisors in each ramus of the lower jaw. In the proportionate size of 
the molars, especially the small size of the hindmost tooth, the Phascolothe- 
rtum resembles the Myrmecobius more than the Opossum or Dasyure, but it 
more resembles the Zhylacine in the shape of the grinding teeth. It likewise 
agrees with the Zhylacine in the low position of the condyle, and in the lon- 
gitudinal extent of the inwardly inflected angle of the jaw. The close ap- 
proximation of the Phascolotherium to marsupial genera, now confined to 
New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land, leads us to reflect upon the in- 
teresting correspondence between other organic remains of the British oolite 
and the existing forms now confined to the Australian continent and neigh- 
bouring seas. Here, for example, the Cestracion swims which has given the 
key to the nature of the “ palates” from the oolite, now known as teeth of 
congeneric gigantic forms of cartilaginous fishes. Living Trigonie and Te- 
rebratule abound in the Australian seas, and afford food to the Cestracion, 
as their extinct analogues probably did to the Acrodi, Psammodi, &c. of the 
oolitic period. Araucariz and cycadeous plants flourish on the Australian 
continent, where marsupial quadrupeds abound, and thus appear to complete 
a picture of an ancient condition of the earth’s surface, which has been su- 
perseded in our hemisphere by other strata and a higher type of mam- 
miferous organization. 


Addendum to Report on British Fossil Mammalia, Part I. 


Srxcz the printing of the first part of the above Report, I have, in the course 
of an investigation of the mammalian fossils of Essex and Norfolk, examined 
the skeleton “combining a dentition like that of the ruminants, with, appa- 
rently, a divided metacarpus and metatarsus,” and alluded to at p. 57, in re- 
ference to the stratum containing the remains of a mole. 

The bones placed in the position of the metacarpus and metatarsus, and 
so described in Mr. Green’s work*, do not belong to the same animal as the 
jaws-and the rest of the skeleton : one of the so-called metatarsals is the tibia 
of a quadruped about the size of a hare, the other is a shorter bone, with a 
wide medullary cavity, like the shaft of a femur. The two metacarpals are 
the un-united divisions of the metatarsal, or cannon-bone, of a very young 
or foetal ruminant. A portion of the vertebra dentata, and the distal epiphy- 
sis of the right radius of the animal to which the chief part of the skeleton 
belongs, are placed in the position of the tarsal bones ; the distal end of the 
right femur is placed above the tarsus as the distal end of the left tibia: in 
short, the parts of the skeleton in question have been artificially and arbi- 
trarily fixed in the position in which they are represented in the plate in Mr. 
Green’s work, and in the drawing originally submitted to me. 

The portion of the skull, jaws and teeth, vertebra, pelvis, scapula, hume- 
rus, radius and ulna, femur and tibia, are parts of the same individual, which 
is a ruminant closely resembling the Roe-deer (Cervus capreolus), probably 
female, arrived at full size, as the dentition proves, but immature, as the state 
of the epiphyses shows. The bones have lost much of their animal matter, 
and are of a brown colour. 


* Geol. of Bacton, p. 18. 


ey <M ae ome ae 


4 
* 


ON THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON'SEEDS AND PLANTS. 45 


Reseurches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds 
and the Growth of Plants. By Mr. Roserr Hunt, Secretary to 
the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. 


Tue British Association having committed to my care this interesting in- 
quiry, to which I had the satisfaction of first drawing attention, I feel it is 
incumbent on me to furnish to the present meeting some account of the 
results of my researches, as far as I have proceeded with them. I wish it 
to be particularly understood, that this communication does not pretend to 
contain anything, which can fairly be looked upon as pointing to any defi- 
nite laws, or which can support any theoretical view of the influence of 
solar light on vegetation. As it was not possible to commence my ob- 


- servations, in series, until January, the short time which has elapsed has not 


permitted of my varying the conditions under which my experiments have 
been tried. Had I been enabled to do so, I should in all probability have 
had it in my power to explain with some approach to correctness, the causes 


- which have operated in the production of some of the effects described, but 


on which I am scarcely enabled to speculate in the present state of the in- 
quiry. I simply record the facts as they stand, trusting they will prove the 
singular importance of the subject, which promises to lead us to a clear 
view of many of the most mysterious functions of plants, to explain some of 
the most interesting phenomena of vegetable life, and beyond this, to deve- 
lope properties in light which have not yet been discovered. 

Before I proceed to the principal subject of this paper, it is necessary I 
should particularly describe the arrangements with which I have operated. 

Six boxes have been so prepared, that air was freely admitted to the plants 
within them, without permitting the passage of any light, except that which 
passed through the coloured glasses with which they were covered. 

These glasses permitted the permeation of the rays of light in the follow- 
ing order. 

1. A Rusy Grass, coloured with Oxide of Gold—This glass permits the 
permeation of the ordinary red, and the extreme red rays only. 

2. A Brown Rep Grass.—The extreme red ray appears shortened ;_ the 
ordinary red ray, and the orange ray pass freely, above which the spectrum 
is sharply cut off. 

_ 3. Orance GuAss.—The spectrum is shortened by the cutting off of the 
violet, indigo, and a considerable portion of the blue rays. The green ray is 
nearly absorbed in the yellow, which is considerably elongated. The whole 
of the least refrangible portion of the spectrum permeates this glass freely. 

_ 4, YeLtow Grass, somewhat Opalescent.—This glass shortens the spec- 
trum by cutting off the extreme red ray, and the whole of the most refran- 
gible rays beyond the blue ray. 

_ 5. CozaLtt Buiue Guass.—The spectrum obtained under this glass is 
perfect from the extreme limits of the most refrangible rays down to the 
yellow, which is wanting. The green ray is diminished, forming merely a 
well-defined line between the blue and the yellow rays. The orange and 
red rays are partially interrupted. 

6. Derr Green Guass.—The spectrum is cut off below the orange and 
above the blue rays. Although the space on which the most luminous por- 
tion of the spectrum falls appears as large as when it is not subjected to the 
absorptive influence of the glass, there is a great deficiency of light, and on 
close examination with a powerful lens, a dark line is seen to oceupy. the 
space usually marked by the green ray. 

_ A case has also been prepared containing five flat vessels filled with dif- 


76 . REPORT—1842. 


ferent coloured fluids. Much delay has been occasioned in the observations 
with these, owing to the difficulty of securing the contents in the glass cells 
from leakage and evaporation ; the sun, the alkalies, and the acids acting on 
the cements used to secure them. At length I have procured some very flat 
flint glass bottles, which answer extremely well; in these the fluids are about 
an inch thick, and observe the following order in their absorptive actions :— 

A. Rep, Solution of Carmine in Supersulphate of Ammonia.—This gives 
a spectrum nearly in all respects similar to that given by the ruby glass (1); 
all the rays above a line drawn through the centre of the space occupied by 
the orange being cut off. 

B. Yettow. A saturated Solution of Bichromate of Potash.—This beauti- 
fully transparent solution admits the permeation of the red and yellow rays, 
which are extended over the space occupied by the orange ray in the unab- 
sorbed spectrum. The green rays are scarcely evident. 

From the absorptive powers of the sulphurets of lime and potash in solu- 
tion, I was very desirous of using them, but they were found to be so liable 
to decomposition when exposed to the sun’s rays as to be quite useless for 
my purposes, sulphuretted hydrogen being liberated in such quantities as 
to burst the bottles with great violence. 

C. Green. Muriate of Iron and Copper.—This medium is remarkably 
transparent; the blue, green, yellow and orange rays pass freely, all the 
others being absorbed. 

D. Buus. Cupro-sulphate of Ammonia—This fluid obliterates all the rays 
below the green ray, those above it permeating it freely. 

E. Wuitr.—This is merely water rendered acid by nitric acid, for the 
purpose of securing its continued transparency. It should be noted that 
spaces in the cases have been left open to the full influence of the light, that 
a fair comparison might be made between those plants growing under ordi- 
nary circumstances, and the others under the dissevered rays. 

It will be seen from the above that the following combinations of rays 
have been obtained to operate with. 

1 and A. The calorific rays, so called, well-insulated. 

2. A smaller portion of these rays mixed with a small amount of those 
having peculiar illuminating powers. 

3. The central portion of the solar spectrum well-defined, and all the rays 
of least refrangibility, thus combining the luminous and calorific rays, so 
called. j 

4. The luminous rays mixed with a small portion of those having a calo- 
rific influence. 

5. The most refrangible rays with a considerable portion of the least so; 
thus combining the two extremes of chemical ‘action, and affording a good 
example of the influence of the calorific blended with the chemical spectrum. 

6. Some portion of those rays having much illuminating power, with those 
in which the chemical influence is the weakest under ordinary circumstances. 
[Some information given me with great kindness by Sir John Herschel 
shows that this is not a correct expression of the case, as he has discovered 
some preparations on which these rays act with the greatest intensity. ] 

B. The luminous rays in a tolerably unmixed state. 

C. The luminous rays combined with the least actively chemical ones, as 
in 6; but in this case the luminous rays exert their whole influence. 

D. The most refrangible or chemical rays well-insulated. 

E. White light. 

Although I have adopted the terms usually employed to designate the 
divisions of the spectrum, yet it is necessary to bear in mind that these terms 


ON THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON SEEDS AND PLANTS. 77 


are not absolutely correct ; Sir John Herschel has shown that the calorific 
and the luminous spectra are co-extensive with the chemical one; and my 
own observations have proved that every ray of the prismatic spectrum 
exerts a decided chemical action, the relative intensities changing with the 
material upon which it is made to act. 

These are matters of the first importance when the peculiar influences of 
light are to be studied, and it will be apparent from some of the results 
which I have already obtained, that they demand the most rigorous investi- 
gation. When we look on a spectrum which has been subjected to the 
influence of some absorptive medium, we must not conclude, from the 
coloured rays which we see, that we have cut off all other influences than 
those which are supposed to belong to those particular colours. Although 
a blue glass or fluidemay appear to absorb all the rays except the most re- 

frangible ones, which have usually been considered as the least calorific of 
the solar rays; yet it is certain that some principle has permeated the glass 
or fluid which has a very decided and thermic influence, and so with regard 
to media of other colours. 

The relative temperatures indicated by good thermometers placed behind 
the glasses and fluid cells, which I have used, will place this in a clear light; 
the thermometers were carefully compared with a very excellent standard 
one at the Polytechnic Hall, Falmouth. The following results present a fair 
average series, and distinctly mark the relative degrees in which these media 
are permeable by the heating rays :— 


GLASSES. 
Colour. Rays not absorbed. _- Temperature. 

1. Ruby. Ordinary red, and the extreme Peet Ser saan 87° 
2. Red. Ordinary red, and orange, portion of extreme red. 83° 
3. Orange. Little blue, green, yellow, orange, red, and ex- 

tremered. «+ + + 6+ © © * * * 8 104° 
4. Yellow. Red, orange, green, and blue. + + + + + > 88° 
5. Blue. Violet, indigo, blue, little green, and some red. ° 94° 
6. Green. _ Orange, yellow, green, and RTOs toekive a tielay 74° 

FLuIps. ; 


A. Red. Ordinary and extreme red. «© + + + + + + 78° 
B. Yellow. Ordinary red, and yellow. - + + + + 2 + > 80° 
C. Green. Blue, green, yellow, orangee + + + + * + * 69° 
D. Blue. Green, blue, indigo, and violet. . - + + + + 73° 
E. White. Green, blue, indigo, and violet. . - + + + + g9° 


It will be found that these results are in strict accordance with those 
obtained by Sir John Herschel. An interesting account of the thermic 
spectrum, and the manner of obtaining it, will be found in a valuable Me- 
moir, Philosophical Transactions, Part 1 for 1840, page 51. I contemplate 
a series of similar experiments on light, subjected to the analysing plates or 
fluids, considering it highly probable that the various Zhermographs formed 
may indicate the condition of the calorific rays in a clearer manner than we 
can expect by the thermometer. , 

There are some other points on which it is desirable to obtain conclusive 
experimental evidence, particularly with regard to the absorption or other- 
wise of the luminous spectrum, by the media through which it passes. 

The results obtained with the arrangements I have described are, up to 
the present time, as follows :— 

Bulbous and tuberous rooted flowers (tulips and ranunculuses) were 
planted in pots, and placed in boxes under the glasses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 


78 REPORT—1842. 


The first appearance of germination took place with the tulips under the 
orange glass (3), which was followed in three days by those under the red 
glass (2), then by those under the ruby glass (1), and next by those under 
the influence of the yellow (4), blue (5), and green glasses (6). The roots 
under the orange glass developed the cotyledons a week earlier than those 
under the yellow, blue, and green glasses. But that the ranunculuses ob- 
served the same relative order in germinating, I should have suspected that 
some peculiarity in the bulbs had influenced the result, although these had 
been selected with the most scrupulous care, At first the greatest pro- 
gress was made by the tulips under the yellow(4)} and orange glasses (3) ; 
but the leaves under each of these were by no means healthy, particularly 
under the yellow glass (4), which had a singularly delicate appearance, being 
of a very light green, and covered with a most delicate white bloom. 


The leaf-stalks of the tulips shot up remarkably long, and were in both © 


cases white; at length an exceedingly small flower-bud appeared on the 
plant under the orange glass (3), which perished almost as soon as it ap- 
peared, and the death of the plant immediately followed. The tulips under 
the yellow glass (4) never showed any buds, and their vitality soon failed 
them. The condition of the ranunculuses was in most respects similar to 
that of the tulips; they exhibited the same exuberant length of stalk 
but the leaves were of a more healthful appearance. These plants, however, 
never showed any flower-buds, and they died nearly about the same time 
with the tulips. 

It may be’ proper to mention that the garden-pots in which these roots 
were planted, were filled with a mixture of fine earth, sand, and well-rotted 
manure from a hot-bed. A few days after their exposure, those under the 
orange and yellow glasses threw up several fungi, and continued for some 
days to do so, which was not the case with any of the others. 

Under the ruby (1) and red glasses (2), the tulips shot up a single lobe, 
which maintained a little life for three or four weeks, but never rose more 
than two inches above the soil. There was a marked redness upon this 
stunted formation, which I often fancied was in some respects characteristic 
of the kind of medium under which they were placed. The tuberous roots 
perished in the soil; sufficient moisture and warmth had called into action 
the latent principle of germination, but being unable to maintain it against 
the destructive influence of the light, they rotted. 

Beneath the green glass (6) the plants grew all of them, slowly but tole- 
rably strong. They were, however, marked by a more extraordinary length 
of stem than those before mentioned ; some of the stems of the ranunculuses 
being above ten inches in length, having a small leaf at the end not more 
than two-thirds of an inch in diameter. These plants all show flower-buds, but 
none of them could be made to flower, notwithstanding the greatest care 
and attention was bestowed upon them ; the effort of throwing up the buds 
appeared to exhaust their powers, and the whole of these plants soon died. 

The results under the blue glass (5) were very different ; the roots germi- 
nated, I think, a little less quickly than they did in the open ground, forming 
compact and healthy plants, developing their flower-buds strongly. Most un- 
fortunately the wind on a tempestuous night overturned this box and seat- 
tered its contents, preventing of course the formation of the perfect flowers, 
which but for this accident there ean be no doubt would have ensued. 

Numerous experiments have been tried with the seeds of mignonette, 
many varieties of the flowering pea, the common parsley, and cresses ; with 
all of them the results have been similar to those already described. The 
seeds have germinated, in general, the most rapidly under the red glass (2), 


it Me cee, a 


bn 


ON THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON SEEDS AND PLANTS. [79 


and, next under the ruby, blue, and orange glasses (1, 3, and 5). Except 
under the blue glass, these plants have all been marked by the extraordinary 
length to which the stems of the cotyledons have grown, and the entire abs- 
ence of the plumula. No true leaves forming, the cotyledons soon perish, 
and the plant dies. Under the green glass(6) the process of germination 
has been exceedingly slow, and the plants, particularly the cresses and 
mignonette, have speedily died. 

Under the blue glass (5) alone has the process gone on healthfully to the 
end, and although | have found a few instances of a perfect plant under the 
yellow glass (4:), it has not on any occasion yet endured to the formation of 
a flower; excepting the plants under the yellow and blue glasses (4 and 5), 
all have been more or less etiolated. 

The most remarkable phenomenon remains to be noticed ; under all ordi- 
nary circumstances plants bend towards the light, whereas those growing 
under the red glass (2) have invariably bent from it. 

The experiments with the light analysed by the fluéd media, have been in 
every respect confirmatory of the results I originally obtained, which were 
published more than two years since in the Philosophical Magazine. Ger- 
mination has been in nearly all cases prevented by the absorptive powers of 
yellow and red fluids(A and B). I say in nearly all cases, as I have within 
the last few weeks, since the sun has shone with more than usual fervour, 
noticed a few symptoms of weak germination under the yellow fluid (B). 
It will be seen by reference to my paper above referred to, that I suspected 
the difference in the results obtained by Professor Draper and myself, arose 
from some peculiar difference between the condition of the rays of the sun 
in Virginia and in England. The above fact confirms me in this opinion. 
The absorptive powers of the atmosphere I have no doubt are constantly 
changing, not merely with regard to its influence on the solar beam, but va- 
tying as it regards particular rays; and I think it will be found that the 
condition of the prismatic spectrum is not on all occasions the same. I be- 


_ lieve Sir David Brewster has proved this to be the case; 1 am not, however, 


acquainted with the facts. 

Under the green medium (C) the cotyledons only have been formed, and 
these have all been etiolated. 

A very large wooden case was perforated with four small holes, two within 
a few inches of each other, on either side of the front of the box, one pair being 
about three feet from the other. These holes were covered with coloured 
glasses, red (2), yellow (3), blue (5), green (6); thus arranged it was turned 
over on the ground, several potatoes having been planted close to the back 
of the box, at the greatest possible distance from the holes through which 
alone light was admitted. 

The red and yellow glasses were at one end, and the blue and green at 
the other. 

After some weeks, when examined, it was found that the shoots from the 
potatoes, and the weeds which had sprung up from the ground, had, all of 
them, in the most marked manner, run towards the yellow glass, through 
which the greatest quantity of the luminous rays passed. This, I think, 
proves that the luminous spectrum has two distinct influences on the plant; 
or otherwise, that its action is modified by some peculiar functions of the 
plant itself. ‘ 

I submit these few results, incomplete as they are, to the attention of the 
Association without any further remark. I do not consider that my experi- 
ments have as yet proceeded far enough to warrant my taking up the time 
of the Meeting with any opinion I may have formed. I hope the result of 


80 REPORT—1842., 


another year will place the matter in a clearer light, and remove many of 
the apparent contradictions which at present exist. I have planned many 
new experiments, and every Member of the Association must be aware that 
these experiments require much time, and often to be repeated. We have 
to deal with a subtile agent, and the few results which I have already ob- 
tained, convince me of the existence of some secret principle in light, which 
I hope to render evident to the senses by its operations; although it may not 
itself be sensible to the human eye. ; 


Falmouth, June 20, 1842. 


Report on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red 
Sandstone. By Louis Acassiz*, Professor of Nat. Hist. at 
Neufchatel. 


Havine been requested by the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science to draw up a report on the Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sand- 
stone, I think it my duty, in the first place, to mention the favourable cir- 
cumstances which have allowed me to undertake this labour, and under 
what auspices I have been able to accomplish a part of the important task 
confided to me. 

It would be very difficult for me to give at present an idea of the limited 
extent of the knowledge possessed a few years back of the fossils of a for- 
mation very little known at that time, and which, nevertheless, is found at 
the present day to extend over a considerable portion of the surface of 
Europe. But if the rapid progress of discoveries in this field renders 
the appreciation of their limits almost impossible, I must nevertheless ac- 
knowledge, above all, that it is to the persevering researches and indefatiga- 
ble zeal of English geologists that science is indebted for the knowledge of 
one of the most curious faunas, I might even say one of the strangest, that 
has hitherto engaged the attention of palzontologists. When I Visited Scot- 
land for the first time, in 1834, Dr. Fleming and Messrs. Sedgwick and Mur- 
chison were the only persons who had signalized fossil fishes in the old red ; 
the first having described various scales from Clashbinnie, which he consi- 
dered allied to the sturgeons; while Messrs. Sedgwick and Murchison, as- 
sisted by Cuvier, Valenciennes, and Pentland, published the description of 
two new genera of fossil fish from Caithness. The total number of species 
then determined amounted only to four, and only one of these had been 
figured. I have already mentioned in various parts of my ‘ Recherches sur les 
Poissons Fossiles,’ the numerous communications which were made to me at 
that time on the subject, principally by Mr. Murchison, Mr. Lyell, and Dr. 
Traill, who enabled me to increase the number of genera to ten, and that of 
the species to seventeen, previous to the appearance of Mr. Murchison’s great 
work on the Silurian system. Such was the impetus given to the study. of 
the ancient rocks by the publication of this important work, that on visiting 
Scotland again in 1840, during the meeting of the British Association at 
Glasgow, I had occasion to examine, in consequence of communications 
which were made to me, nearly double the number of genera, and treble 
the number of species of fossil fishes, which had all been recently discovered, 
and had not yet been described. In one of the meetings of the Geological 
Section, I was, nevertheless, able to draw the attention of geologists and 
palzontologists to some of the most curious types I had just examined the 
characters of, forms agreeing so little with all we knew previously in re- 
gard to fossils, that it was impossible to. determine at first sight even the 


i 


a. 


ON THE FOSSIL FISH OF THE’ DEVONIAN SYSTEM. 81 


‘class’ to which they belong. Never shall I forget the impression which 
the sight of these creatures, provided with appendages resembling wings, 
produced upon me, when I ‘had assured myself that they belonged to the 
class of fishes. It was an entirely new type which was about to figure for 
the first time since it had ceased to exist in the series of beings,—again to 
form a link which nothing of all that had been revealed up to the time, 
with regard to extinct creations, would have led us even to suspect the exist- 
ence of; showing forcibly that observation alone can lead us to the recogni- 
tion of the laws of development of organized beings, and how much we should 
guard against all those systems of transformation of species which the ima- 
gination invents with as much facility as reason refutes them. The merit 
of the discovery of these curious fossils is chiefly due to Mr. H. Miller, and 
I had only to fix their characters, and their relatious to the fossil fishes al- 
ready known, for all their importance to be appreciated. I believe that the 
minute and comparative study of the type which I have called Pterichthys, 
and of the not less curious genusdiscovered at Caithness by Messrs. Murchison 
and Sedgwick, and to which I have applied the name Coccosteus, will open to 
comparative paleontology a field not less fruitful than was the first announce- 
ment, now nearly a quarter of a century ago, of the Ichthyosauri and Plesio- 
sauri. How many interesting relations of organization have we not a right to 
expect to discover in analysing the solid remains of animals which have been 
regarded by the most able naturalists successively as Tortoises, Fishes, Crus- 
tacea, and even Coleoptera! Mr. Miller has already made known, in a separate 
publication, a portion of the palzeontological treasures contained in the old red 
sandstone of the neighbourhood of Cromarty. The difficulties, almost insur- 
mountable, which have occurred in determining fossils, varying so much from 
those already known‘as thesetwo genera, have necessarily required on my part 
numerous and repeated comparisons, and a minute study of the smallest frag- 
ments preserved in all the collections of Scotland, to which I should have been 
unable to apply myself, notwithstanding the facilities afforded me for this exa- 
‘mination by all the persons possessing any of these fossils, had it not been for 
the assistance which the British Association has kindly afforded me. 

Among the recent contributions which have so considerably increased our 
knowledge of the fossil fishes of the Devonian system, I must place in the first 
rank what has been accomplished by Lady Gordon Cumming in order to il- 
lustrate this ancient fauna. Not satisfied with collecting and distributing 
among geologists with unequalled liberality the numerous specimens of these 
remains, which she had collected in a quarry worked on purpose, she studied 
them with care, placed aside the most perfect specimens, and painted them 
with a precision of detail and an artistic talent to which very few naturalists 
have been able to attain. These drawings, indeed, and those of her daugh- 
ter, who constantly assisted her in her studies, will form one of the principal 
ornaments of my ‘ Monograph.’ On the point of presenting this selection to 
the public, it is painful to me to think that this noble lady will no more be 
able herself to receive from geologists the tribute of gratitude which she so 
justly deserved. May this record, planted upon her grave, remind her esti- 
table companion that the willingness with which she assisted her parent has 
contributed to raise for her a lasting monument in the scientific world. 

Dr. Malcolmson has likewise deserved well of the geology of the old red 
sandstone by the memoir which has been recently inserted in the Transactions 
of the Geological Society of London. Endeavouring to characterize this 
formation with the greatest possible precision, he had caused to be made 
beautiful drawings of a very large number of fragments of fish which occur 
in it; their fragmentary state, however, did not allow of my determining 

1842. G 


82 REPORT—1842. 


them with sufficient accuracy previous to the printing of his memoir for the 
paleontological portion to be published at the same time. These drawings, 
however, will not be lost.to science; perhaps the larger portion are already 
published. Alexander Robinson has also devoted himself with much success 
to the investigation of the fossil fishes of the old red : he even forwarded to me 
some very rare ones, with a book of drawings executed in a superior style, 
representing those contained in the Museum of Elgin and in several private 
collections. The collections of Lord Enniskillen and of Sir P. Egerton have 
likewise furnished very beautiful specimens from the old red sandstone of 
the North of Scotland; and these gentlemen have had the great kindness to 
cause Mr. Dinkel to draw for me all those which it appeared desirable to 
publish. Dr. Traill and Mr, Strickland again have increased the number of 
known species, already so considerable, from the schists of the Orkney Islands, 
which appear to be an inexhaustible deposit. 

While the North of Scotland thus furnished treasures hitherto unknown, 
Professor Jameson and Mr. Anderson were collecting in the counties of the 
South the species contained in the upper strata of this formation, which are 
not less curious nor less well-preserved, and of which several have been 
figured very fairly by Mr. Anderson in his interesting Memoir on the 
Geology of Fifeshire. 

Thanks to the distant excursions of Mr. Murchison, I need not confine 
my report on the fishes of the Devonian system to the species found in the 
British Islands, but I am able to compare them with those which that inde- 
fatigable gedlogist has brought with him from Russia, and which exhibit the 
most perfect identity with those of Scotland. On the continent, MM. Omalius 
d’Halloy and Hoeninghausen have likewise found some scaly-plates of fishes 
irom this formation. My Report would be imperfect were I not to notice 
the doubts which have long since been entertained with regard to these 
large scaly plates of the old red sandstone, which have been cast at various 
times into the most different classes of the animal kingdom, and even of the 
vegetable kingdom, and which are at present solved in a satisfactory manner. 
They must be referred to the Crustacea, of which Dr. Buckland and myself 
were convinced at the meeting at Glasgow. 

At present I will offer some general considerations on the characters and 


the geological distribution of the species of fossil fishes which are found in. 


the various strata of the Devonian system, reserving the descriptive details 
for the special part of my ‘ Monograph.’ 

On this occasion I cannot refrain from making a general observation on 
the method to be followed in determining these fossils. There was a period, 
already remote from us, when the most superficial approximations between 
the organic fragments buried in the strata of the surface of our globe and 
the species at present living at its surface sufficed for the investigations of 
the time. Cuvier was the first who applied to these determinations the ne- 
cessary precision, establishing them on satisfactory comparison one with the 
other and with the living species: and the results, therefore, at which he 
arrived, have undergone no modification with time. Unfortunately, the 
method employed by Cuvier is not yet very generally followed; nume- 
rous works on fossils might be mentioned whose authors have never studied 
the recent animals which might have some analogy with the fossils they de- 
scribe, trusting to the general results obtained by their predecessors, or else 
establishing their analogies from the comparison of simple figures. More- 
over, now that a new and efficacious means of determining accurately the 
structure of fossil remains has come into use, it is less possible than ever to 
admit into the sanctuary of science results which have not been submitted to 


ON THE FOSSIL FISH OF THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM. 83 


the test of the most severe criticism. It suffices, in fact, to look at the bril- 
liant results obtained by Mr. Owen from the structure of the teeth, to be 
convinced that in future no paleontologist will be able to avoid microscopical 
researches, if he wishes to arrive at a profound knowledge of the beings of 
which he has undertaken to reconstruct the forms and the organization, even 
in its most minute particularities. If, however, such detailed researches are 
indispensable to establish general results, which sooner or later become public 
property, it is not less important that they be expressed in the most simple 
and correct manner, to render them intelligible to the largest number. 

One of the first observations to make on the ichthyological fauna of the 
éld red sandstone is, that it is wholly peculiar to this formation ; its numerous 
species differ alike from those of the Silurian system and from those of the 
carboniferous strata; the greater portion of the genera even of the Devo- 
nian system are restricted to the duration of this geological system, and of 
this number are those containing most species, such as the genera Prterich- 
thys, Coccosteus, Cephalaspis, Osteolepis, Dipterus, Glyptolepis, Platygna- 
thus, Dendrodus, Diplacanthus, Cheiracanthus, and Cheirolepis. Among 
the genera which have representatives in the Silurian rocks or in the car- 
boniferous series, such as the genera Onchus, Ctenacanthus, Ctenoptychius, 
Ptychacanthus, Acanthodes, Diplopterus, and Holoptychius, I am not ac- 
quainted with a single one of which the species are identical in these dif- 
ferent formations; but, on the contrary, each formation in which they are 
represented has its peculiar ones. This result agrees admirably with those 
which I haye already obtained for the other strata of the series of rocks of 
which the crust of our globe is composed, as well in my researches on fos- 
sil fishes as also in those on the fossil Echinodermata and Mollusca. And 
if my conclusions with regard to this latter class of animals were frequently 
not in harmony with those of the greater number of conchologists, I have 
at least the satisfaction of finding at present M. d’Orbigny arrive at the same 
results from the study of other families and of other formations than those I 
examined. This difference in the results which I had obtained arises, with- 
out doubt, from my having applied, in determining the fossil remains of the 
Mollusca, the same principles of criticism which have always guided me in 
the determination of the fossil Vertebrata. 

- It is now a truth which I consider as proved, that the “ensemble” of or- 
ganized beings was renewed not only in the interval of each of the great 
geological divisions which we have agreed to term formations, but also at the 
time of the deposition of each particular member of all the formations; for 
example, I think that I can prove that in the oolitic formation, at least 
_ within the limits of the Swiss Jura, the organic contents of the lias, those of 
the oolitic group properly so called, those of the Oxfordian group, and those 
of the Portlandian group, as they occur in Switzerland, are as different from 
each other as the fossils of the lias from those of the Keuper, or those of 
the Portlandian beds from those of the Neocomian formation. I also be- 
lieve very little in the genetic descent of living species from those of the va- 
rious tertiary layers which have been regarded as identical, but which, in 
my opinion, are specifically distinct. I cannot admit the idea of the trans- 
formation of species from one formation to another. In advancing these 
general notions, I do not wish to offer them as inductions drawn from the 
study of any particular class of animals (of the fishes for instance), and ap- 
plied to other classes, but as the results of direct observation of very con- 
siderable collections of fossils of different formations, and belonging to dif- 
ferent classes of animals, in the investigation of which I have been spe- 
cially engaged for many years, in order to assure myself whether the con- 
G2 


84 REPORT—1842. 


clusions which I had drawn from the tribe of fishes were applicable to this 
class only, or whether the same relation existed in the other remains of the 
animal kingdom. 

Another fact results in the most evident manner from the simple inspec- 
tion of the specimens of these fossils which have hitherto been collected, 
viz. that the very large majority of the species are of middle and even of 
small size. I dwell on this circumstance because it has afforded me an op- 
portunity of rectifying an exaggeration which has been pretty generally 
adopted, and which consists in representing the species of ages anterior to 
our own as being generally larger than those now existing. The idea of a 
gigantic size has become, so to say, the necessary reflection of a tableau of 
fossils of all the geological epochs, and nevertheless such a manner of view- 
ing the question is quite out of the pale of truth. In fact, if it seems strange 
to us to find in the diluvial strata of Europe, and even of the northern por- 
tion of this continent, fossil fragments of Pachydermata very similar to those 
now existing in the tropical regions, and differing very much from those 
which inhabit these countries at present, it would nevertheless be an exag- 
geration to represent those fossils as vastly superior in size to the animals 
of the same families and even of the same genera which live in our days; 
and even as regards the species of Pachydermata of the lower tertiary rocks, 
it is necessary to admit that those of our time, taking all into consideration, 
are evidently larger than the former. I do not pretend on this account to 
deny the fact of the existence in certain fossil families of types much larger 
in size than those of the present day, I only intend to state that these propor- 
tions have been exaggerated, and that this disposition to exaggeration has 
occasioned a neglect of the study of the remote relations of these types be- 
tween each other, and with those which have preceded and those which have 
followed them—relations which appear to me alone capable of solving this 
enigma. It is incontestable, for instance, that the reptiles of the oolitic rocks, 
the Ichthyosauri and the Megalosauri in particular, possessed dimensions to 
which no type of the reptiles of our time has been found to attain; but 
in comparing them with reptiles now existing, it must not be forgotten that 
these gigantic reptiles lived at a time when the Mammifera did not yet exist, or 
at least had not yet acquired the preponderance they now have; when theCeta- 
cea and Pachydermata were as yet only projected in the plan of Nature ; when 
the class of fishes and that of the reptiles reigned in sovereignty ; and when, 
consequently, it is not surprising tosee the Reptilia,—which, in separating from 
the Fishes after the carboniferous formations, are examples of a real progress 
in this series of the Vertebrata,—prepare a new progress, a movement towards 
the class of the Mammifera and that of the Birds by the introduction of the 
type of the Ichthyosauri, which announces in some measure the Cetacea; of the 
type Megalosaurus, which might be considered in relation with the Pachy- 
dermata ; and of the bird-like type of the Pterodactyli. For my part, there- 
fore, I cannot regard simply as ordinary reptiles those types precursory of 
analogous types which are met with at a later period in other classes; I am 
rather inclined to view them as types prophetic of the more recent ages; and 
hence it is necessary to apply to their study’a different measure from that 
which should be employed when the object is to fix the degree of analogy 
existing between contemporary types. I might apply these same considera- 
tions to other families, and carry them even further, if I had not already ob- 
served elsewhere that among the fossil fishes the family of the Sauroids, of 
which the carboniferous series contain such remarkable fragments, might be 
viewed as announcing, by its ambiguous characters, the introductlon of the 
reptiles, at a period when this class was not yet represented on the earth. Nor 


ON THE FOSSIL FISH OF THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM. 85 


is it here the place to examine, under this point of view, the invertebrated ani- 
mals, the study of which has likewise led me to very curious considerations ; 
I will confine myself solely to the mentioning, in relation to the fishes of the 
old red sandstone, that the small size of the great majority of the species, 
compared with those of more receut periods, is a fact agreeing with what is 
observed relatively to the first development of the greater part of the classes 
of the animal kingdom. The genera of fish of the old red sandstone, the 
species of which are of middle or small size, are the following :—Pverichthys, 
Cephalaspis, Osteolepis, Dipterus, Glyptolepis, Acanthodes, Diplacanthus, 
Cheiracanthus, and Cheirolepis; and I mean by species of middle or of small 
size in the class of fish, such as do not exceed the length of one or two feet. 
The genera Diplopterus, Coccosteus, and the four Placoidian genera of this 
formation, contained species certainly larger, but which nevertheless appear 
to me not to have exceeded two or three feet. in length. The genera Holo- 
ptychius, Dendrodus, and Platygnathus, alone contained species of larger size ; 
but I doubt if any one of them has attained the dimensions of our Sharks 
and our Sword-fish, and much less those of the large Tunny. 

The close relation which appears to exist between the size of animals and 
their organization, is evident in nearly all the families of the animal kingdom; 
to be convinced of this, it suffices to pass in review a small collection only of 
animals. . 

Nothing is more striking in a museum arranged systematically, than the 
conformity in size of species of the same family, where the extremes of the 
differences are generally circumscribed within very narrow limits. How little 
do the Quadrumana differ in reality one from the other in size; what uni- 
formity in this respect in their ensemble, among the Cheiroptera, the Insecti- 
vora, the Rodents, the Ruminants; among the birds of prey, the Granivora, 
the Chelonians, the Anourous Batrachians ; among Insects, taken as a whole, 
compared with, other classes; among Infusoria, &c. &c. The same rela- 
tions equally exist between the families of Fishes; and the diversity in size 
which I have just noticed, among the species of different genera of this 
formation, is indeed the first indication of the diversity of the types to 
which they belong. I will point out, in the first place, four genera of the 
Placoidian order, the genera Ctenacanthus, Onchus, Ctenoptychius and Pty- 
chacanthus, which are provided with spinous rays to the dorsal fins, re- 
sembling the gigantic Ichthyodorulites of the carboniferous and jurassic for- 
mations, but differing in their less considerable size; they are distinguished 
among themselves by the forms and the ornaments of their rays. In the order 
of Ganoid fishes, the genera Acanthodes, Diplacanthus, Cheiracanthus, and 
Cheirolepis, present themselves at first sight as a separate group; for although 
covered, like the others, with enamelled scales, these are so small that they im- 
part to the skin the appearance of shagreen. The manner in which the fins 
are sustained by spinous rays, or the absence of these rays, and the position 
of the fins themselves, have served as characters in the establishing of these 
genera. The genera Pterichthys, Coccosteus, and Cephalaspis, form a second 
group exceedingly curious: the considerable development of the head, its 
size, the large .plates which cover it, and which likewise extend over the 
greater portion of the trunk, and the moveable appendages in the form of a 
wing, placed on the side of the head, give to them the most remarkable ap- 
pearance. It is these peculiarities, indeed, which caused the class to which 
these genera belong for a long time to be misunderstood. The large bony and 
granulated plates of Coccosteus led to their being considered as belonging to 

Trionyx ; and it will be a sufficient excuse for this error to call to recollection 
that the greatest anatomist of our age had sanctioned this approximation. 


86 REPORT—1842. 


The form of the dise of the head of the Cephalaspides, which has the appear- 
ance of a large crescent, and their more numerous but very elevated scales, 
resembling the transverse articulations of the body, explain how it was possi- 
ble to see in these fishes Trilobites of a particular genus. Lastly, the winged 
appendages of the sides of the head of Péerichthys, as moveable as fins, have 
easily given rise to the variety of opinions concerning the true affinities of these 
singular creatures, and has caused them to be taken at one time for gigantic 
Coleoptera, at another for Crustacea or small marine Tortoises; so little do 
the types of the classes appear fixed in certain respects at those remote times. 
Another singularity of these genera is the association to the bony plates of 
the head of a vertebral appendage, which is far from having acquired the 
. same solidity, but appears, on the contrary, to have remained fibro-cartilagi- 
nous during the whole life of the animal, resembling in this respect the ske- 
leton of the Sturgeon. 
_ It would be difficult to find among recent fishes types presenting any direct 
analogy with the genera Pterichthys, Coccosteus, and Cephalaspis; it is only 
from afar that they can be compared to some abnormal genera of our epoch. 
Thus the Sturgeons, (and especially Loricaria and Callichthys), offer but a 
slight analogy with the Cephalaspis in their shielded head, and in the bony 
plates of their flanks; the bony shields ornamented with sculptures and re- 
gular granulations, which protect the head of the Trigle, of the Peristediones, 
and of the Dactylopteri, in a slight degree call to mind what is seen in the 
genus Coccosteus, without however the analogy being perfect ; the structure 
of the throat and the remainder of the skeleton are very different ; and lastly, 
I find it impossible directly to compare those moveable appendages of the 
sides of the head of Pterichthys to anything observable in fishes of the present 
period. Perhaps they have some relation with the moveable sub-orbitals of 
the Acanthopsis of the family of the Cyprinoids ; perhaps they might likewise 
be compared to the prolongations of the preoperculum of certain Trigle, 
and in particular of the genus Cephalacanthus ; but I have found it impossi- 
ble as yet to determine precisely with what bone of the head these extraor- 
dinary appendages must be considered parallel. As to the less solid nature of ~ 
the vertebral column of these fishes, they have it in common with the greater 
part of the species of the older rocks. The analogy which they offer on the 
one hand in form with the dorsal cord of the embryo of fishes, together 
with the inferior position of their mouth, which is equally met with in the 
embryos, and, on the other hand, the distant resemblance of these fishes to 
certain types of reptiles, present the most curious assemblage of characters 
that can possibly be conceived. 

A third group of fishes belonging to this formation comprises those genera 
whose vertical fins are double on the back and under the tail, and which 
approach very near to the caudal. These are the genera Dipterus, Osteo- 
lepis, Diplopterus, and Gilyptolepis, which differ from one another by the 
form of their scales and their dentition. 

And lastly, it seems to me necessary to regard as a fourth group of this 
order the genera which are characterized by large conical teeth situated 
on the.margin of the jaws, between which are alternately smaller, and in- 
deed very small ones in form of a brush; such are the genera Holoptychius 
and Platygnathus, and the genus recently established by Mr. Owen under 
the name of Dendrodus, and respecting which this learned anatomist has 
given some exceedingly interesting microscopical details. These were evi- 
dently the Pirates of their day; but it would be difficult to determine pre- 
cisely their size, for the very simple reason that nowhere have any portions 
of their body of any considerable size been discovered assembled together. 


ON THE FOSSIL FISH OF THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM. . 87 


What we possess of them is nothing more than some detached scales, isolated 
teeth, and some broken bony plates. 

This primitive diversity of the ichthyoid types of a formation so ancient 
as the old red sandstone, is, in my opinion, one of the facts the most con- 
tradictory to the theory of the successive transformation of species, and of 
i descent of organized beings now living from a small number of primitive 

corms. 

In support of these general observations I add the synoptical table of all 
the species of this formation which I have to the present time been able to 
determine, and of which the detailed descriptions will be found in my 
‘ Monograph.’ 


~ Synoptical Table of the Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian System. 


PLACOIDIANS. Pterichthys hydrophilus, dg. — Dura 
Den. 
Onchus arcuatus, 4g.—Wales. Coccosteus oblongus, 4g.—Lethen Bar. 
...  Semistriatus, 4g.—Wales. ..  latus, dg.—Caithness and 
ce ae ornatus, 4g.—Sapey and Orkney. 
Abergavenny. ss cuspidatus, dg.— Cromarty 
Ctenoptychius priscus, 4g.—Scotland. and Gamrie. 
tip a dubius, 4g.—Aberga- | Cephalaspis Lyellii, 4g.—Glammis. 
Sven. bs rostratus, 4g.—Whitbach. 
2 genera yet undetermined.—Babrodery a Lewisii, 4g.—Whitbach. 
a and Elgin. .. Lioydii, 4g.—Shropshire. 
, 3rd Group. 
Ganorpians. Osteolepis macrolepidotus, 4y.—Caith- 
ness and Croma 
ist Group. microlepidotus, 4g:—Caith- 
MisiaeReaeeyindltaas ay .— Gordon Castle. ness. 
Diplacanthus striatus, 4g.—Cromarty. va major, 4dg.—Lethen Bar. 
: striatulus, dg. — Lethen oes arenatus, 4dg.—Gamrie. 
Bar. Dipterus macrolepidotus, Cuv.—Caith- 
longispinus, .4g.—Lethen ness and Wales. 
Bar and Cromarty. And several varieties of this species. 
crassispinus, 4g.—Caith- | Diplopterus macrocephalus, 4g.—Lethen 
ness. : N Bar. 
Cheiracanthus Murchisonii, 4g.—Gam- + borealis, 4g.—Caithness. 
J rie. the affinis, 4g.—Gamrie. 
minor, 4g.—Stromness. | Glyptolepis leptopterus, 4g.— Lethen 
microlepidotus, 4g.—Le- Bar 
then Bar. dep elegans, Ag.—Gamrie. 
Cheirleps Cummingie, 4g. — Lethen 4th Group. 
Bar and Cromar : Aiea 
Traillii, Ag. gic 3 peer ea apne Ag.—Clash- 


Uragus, 4g.—Gammie. sae Flemingii, 4g.—Dura Den. 


vhs 2nd Group. giganteus, 4g.—Scotland. 


Dendrodus biporcatus, Owen. 7 
Pterichthys Milleri, 4g.—Cromarty. dfs sigmoideus, Owen. Corn- 
productus, 4g.—Lethen Bar. ee incurvus, Owen. stone in 
latus, 4g.—Lethen Bar. 1 latus, Owen. Murray- 
: cornutus, 4g.—Lethen Bar. ry compressus, Owen. | shire. 
ae testudinarius, 4g. — Cro- ae strigatus, Owen. . 
marty. « Platygnathus paucidens, Ag.— Caith- 
oblongus, .4g.— Cromarty ness. 
and) Gamrie. ke Jamesoni, 4g.—Dura Den. 


cancriformis, 4g.—Orkney. was minor, 4g.—Dura Den. 


88 REPORT—1842. 


It results from this table, that the Devonian system contains not less than fifty- 
five species of fossil fish belonging to twenty different genera; a number more than 
ten times that which was nominally known in the entire series of formations of the 
British Islands ten years ago. Who at that time would have believed that fifty-five 
species of vertebrated animals would have been discovered in one of the formations 
of the transition rocks ? 


Appendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast 
Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast. By Wiiu1aM Fair- 
BAIRN, Esq. 


THE experiments, of which the present is a notice, were entered upon in 
March 1837, and subsequently the British Association did me the honour to 
print them in their seventh volume of Transactions. They were intended to 
determine an important quality in the strength of materials, viz. the powers 
of crystalline bodies to sustain pressure for an indefinite period of time, and 
to ascertain whether cast iron, when subjected by a given weight to long- 
continued transverse strain, would, or would not, be subject to fracture. 

It appears that former writers on the transverse strength of materials had 
come to the conclusion, that the bearing powers of cast iron were confined 
within the limits of that force which would produce a permanent set, and 
that it would be unsafe to load this material with more than about one-third 
of the weight necessary to break it. This assumption is, however, incorrect, 
as the experiments which follow will abundantly testify. 

It would be superfluous to offer in this notice any observations on a dif- 
ferent theory, as the recent experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson and myself fully 
prove* that cast iron takes a permanent set with a load considerably under 
one-sixth of the breaking weight. 

From these experiments, it will be found that cast iron is more to be de- 
pended upon, and exhibits more tenacity in resisting heavy strains long con- 
tinued, than is generally admitted, and its bearing powers have deserved a 
much higher reputation than has at any former period been given to them: 
indeed it is evident from the experiments, that a cast-iron bar is capable of. 
resisting for a series of years a force equal to {ths, and sometimes ;,ths of 
the load that would break it. 

In the application of this force, it must be observed, that the room in 
which the experiments were made, and which are now in progress, is not 
entirely free from vibration, being slightly affected by persons crossing the 
floor, particularly when two or more are walking at the same time. 

The experiments already published on the “ Affects of Time,” embrace a 
period of fifteen months, from the 6th of March 1837 to the 23rd of June 
1838. Up to that time the deflections of both hot and cold blast iron were 
carefully registered ; and the present is a continuation of the same experi- 
ments, exhibiting the changes that have taken place for the last four years, 
and the effects which the permanent weights have produced upon the bars. 
It is satisfactory to observe that, during the whole time of the experiments, - 
the bars (whether loaded with the lighter or heavier weights) exhibited little 
or no change beyond what may be traced to the variations of temperature. 
One of the bars was, however, found broken some time since, but whether. 
from accident or the effects of continued strain I am unable to determine with 
certainty ; I am inclined to believe that the former was the cause, as the cor- 
responding bars still retain their position, indicating changes so exceedingly 

* See Reports on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron in the seventh volume 
of the Transactions of the British Association, and the sixth volume of the Manchester 
Memoirs. ; 


ON THE PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. 89 


minute as to be scarcely perceptible, even when examined with our best in- 
struments. 

The following tables exhibit the progressive state of the bars from the 
93rd of June 1838, up to April 19th of the present year. 


Tascel. 


Table of deflections, as exhibited with permanent weights of 336 Ibs., sus+ 
- pended from the centre of bars of cold and hot blast Coed-Talon iron, 
cast to be one inch square, and left to determine the effect produced on 
each bar after given intervals of time. 
Distance between the supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


EXPERIMENT I. + EXpPERIMEMT 2. 
ae : © Les 
Cold Blast Iron, No. 2. & ||; Hot Blast Iron, No. 2. 
‘| Breadth of Bar... 17020 © _ || Breadth of Bar... 1-020 
Depth of ditto ... 1°030 |) Date of Observation, = || Depth of ditto ... 1-040 
(eve as ao a 1 | al 
dou aly 28 1838 to 1842. gel. oP of 
Ei \s2d| 22 855, \e23| 2e 
aa|e8a| 88 3 | e4/282| 38 
B- | §82| S¢ e | s- |g82| S- 
Pata) ae As Sime (a As 
336 | 1:293 Feb. 7, 1839. | 54°|| 336 | 1-524 
336 | 1°304 March 8, ... 35 || 336 | 1°532 
336 | 1°304 April 5 .. 38 || 336 | 1°531 
336 | 1:305 | July Sol aes 72, || 336 | 1°533 
336 | 1°304 Aug. 15, ... 63 || 336 |.1°532 
336 | 1303 Nov. Tlcwhebe 50 ||, 336 | 1°531 
336 | 1°303 Dec. TEBE RE 39 || 336 | 1°531 
336 | 1°305 Feb. 14, 1840. | 50 || 336 1°531 
| 336 | 1-309 April 27, «. 63 || 336 | 1-519 
336 | 17303 | © June Gai see 61 || 336 | 1°520 
386 | 1°305 Aug. hy iaes 74 || 336 | 1°523 
336 | 1°305 Sept. 14, ... 55 || 336 | 1613 
336 | 1°306 Nov. 22, 1841. | 50 |) 336 1:620 
336 | 1°308 April 19, 1842. | 58 || 336 | 1°620 


Results in the preceding table and the previously published report, showing 
the progressive and inereased ratio of deflections, from the 23rd of June 
1838 to April 19th of the present year. 

Weight on bar 336 lbs. 


Cold Blast is Hot Blast 
Iron. : Temp. Tron. 3 
Deflection in Date of Observation. vane} Détesuon in Remarks: 
inches. ° : anhes, 


_———_—_—<—$—$_$—$—$—$—$—_—$_ 


1:316 June 23, 1838. | 78° 1°538 

1°305 July 5, 1839. 72. 1°533 Previous to the time of 

1:303 June 6, 1840. | 61 1°520 Panga Be it 
. oy. an ril, t 0 

1366 | Nov. 22,1841. | 50 | 16201 | blast bar had been di- 


1:308 || April 19, 1842. 58 1°620 sturbed. 


90 REPORT—1842, 


If we examine the results of this table, it will be observedthat the deflec- 
tion in the cold blast iron has not increased but rather decreased since June 
1838, an anomaly not easily accounted for, unless from some error in writing 
down the figures 1°316, which—according to the progressive increase which 
has been going forward since the commencement of the experiments—should 
have been 1:306. On comparing the rate of increase of the deflection in 
this table with Table XII. in my former Report, it will be seen that the 
tendency downwards has been regular and progressive (with the above ex- 
ception) up to the present date. In the hot blast iron it is also progressive, 
the increase of deflection in four years being ‘082. 

It will be observed, that the state of the atmosphere has considerable in- 
fluence upon the bars, an increase of temperature producing a correspond- 
ing increase of deflection, and vice versd. 


TABLE II. 


Table of deflections, as exhibited with permanent weights of 392 lbs., sus- 
pended from the centre of bars of cold and hot blast Coed-Talon iron, 
cast to be one inch square, and left to determine the effect produced on 
each bar after given intervals of time. 


Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


EXPERIMENT 1, EXPERIMENT 2. 


Hot Blast Iron, No. 2. 
Depth of Bar ... 1°050 


Cold Blast fron, No. 2. 
Depth of Bar ... 1:030 


3 
E 
Breadthof ditto... 1/020 | Date of Observation, |= || Breadthofditto... 1-000 
8 aS 
oat ee Be 1838 to 1842. 25 & A} 
Lin a 2 a2) 4 38 ap 
2, |ees| 38 #0] 2. /ee8| 38 
mE ESS! 38 & |S /FSs| 38 
ST EBay) Be a | 2 | 888] Sc 
om! eens | ha alae Na seeks ak 
392 | 1°815 Feb. 7, 1839. | 54°/| 392 | 1°784 
392 | 1-822 | March 8, ... | 35 || 392 | 1-795 
392 | 1°822 PPT Oy >) <0 38 || 392 | 1°796 
392 | 1°824 SIO, Oy ase 72 || 392 | 1°798 
392 | 1°824 Are 5, aii. 63 || 392 | 1-797 
392 | 1:824 Nov. 7, .. | 50 || 392 | 1-796 
392 | 1°823 Déc. 9) ks 89 || 392 | 1°796 
392 | 1:824 Feb. 14, 1840. | 50 |} 392 | 1-797 
392 | 1:818 April 27, ... | 63 || 392 | 1-802 
392 | 1°825 gune’ 6, <.: 61 || 392 | 1°798 
392 | 1:826 Aug. 3, ... | 74 || 392 | 1'801 
392 | 1°826 Sep. 14, ... 55 || 392 | e802 
392 | 1:829 Noy. 22, 1841. | 50 || 392 | 1-804 
392 | 1:828 April 19, 1842. | 58 || 392 | 1812 


Results in the preceding table and the previous reports, showing the pro- 
gressive and increased ratio of deflections, from the 23rd of June 1838 to 
April 29th of the present year. 


or 


tia ea 


‘ 


ON THE PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON. ‘91 


Weight on bar 392 lbs. 


Cold Blast Hot Blast 


iron. A Temp. Tron. Ratio of Incre f 
Deflection in Date of Oleevapam; Fahr. | Deflection in “Dedigatiin, : 
inches. inches. 
1°824: June 23, 1838. 78° 1°803 
1°824 July 5, 1839. 72 1-798 
1°825 June 6, 1840. 61 1-798 
1°829 Nov. 22, 1841. 50 1°804 
1°828 April 19, 1842. 58 1°812 
004 Tnerease......| ...... 009 1000 : 2250 


With a load of 392 Ibs. we have a slow but steady increase of the deflec- 
tions, being for four years only :004 for the cold blast and -009 for the hot 
blast, which shows a ratio of increase in the hot blast of 1000: 2250. In other 
respects the bars continue to maintain their position with little or no variation. 


TABLE III. 


Table of deflections, as exhibited with permanent weights of 448 lbs., sus- 
pended from the centre of bars of cold and hot blast Coed-Talon iron, 
east to be one inch square, and left to determine the effect produced on 
each bar after given intervals of time. 


Distance between supports 4 ft. 6 in. 


EXPERIMENT 2, EXPERIMENT 3. 


Cold Blast Iron, No. 2. 
Depth of Bar... 1-020 
Breadthof ditto... 1-030 || Date of Observation, 


Hot Blast Iron, No. 2. 


1838 to 1842. 


Temperature at the time of 
Observation. 


Ww 3 a 3 
i i ius ea (sh Bebe! ae 
o oog ey Es] oo 
eae | Aa plat? Ag 
448 | 1433 Feb. 7, 1839. | 54° 
448 | 1°445 March 8, 35 
448 | 1445 April” 5, 03. 38 
448 | 1-446 Wily, 5, Vie. 72 
448 | 1446 Be 1535 4%, 63 
448 | 1°4.45 INGVS 47, <Y. 50 
448 | 1°445 Dec. 9, 82, 39 
448 | 1°446 : Feb. 14, 1840. 50 
448 | 1°445 ADE 24. c.a05 63 
448 | 1°445 June Gyr <2 61 
448 | 1°44:7 PEE ih Gy ides 74 
448 | 1°447 Sept. 14, 55 
448 | 1°449 Noy. 22, 1841. 50 


448 | 1°449 April 19, 1842. | 58 


92 REPORT—1842, 


Results in the preceding table and the previous reports, showing the progres- 
sive and increased ratio of deflections, from the 23rd of June 1838 to 
April 29th, 1842. 


Weight on bar 448 lbs. 


Cold Blast Hot Blast 
Iron. Ramee Temp. Tron. 
Deflection in NS od Fahr. | Deflection in ALCIORERES 
inches. . inches. 
eS 

1457 June 23, 1838. 78° _ Another bar of cold blast 

1°4.46 July 5, 1839. 72 iron broke after sustaining 
7 the weight of 448 Ibs, for 

1°445 June 6, 1840. 61 37 days. 

1-449 Nov. 22, 1841. 50 The hot blast bars broke 

1-449 58 at once with 448 lbs. 


April 19, 1842. 


Decrease. 


In these experiments the same anomaly is present as in Table I., namely, a 
decrease of ‘008 in the deflections, which may be accounted for in the same 
way as before. These discrepancies are the more apparent, as the deflection 
in March 1838 was 1°439, in June of the same year it increased to 1°457, 
and in the February following it returned to 1:433 ; thus corresponding in 
some degree with the temperature of the room, which varied as the respect- 
ive numbers 51°, 78° and 54°. In every other respect the bars have been 
tending to rupture, and since the deflections were taken one of them has 
broken. 

Viewing the subject in all its bearings, it appears evident from these ex- 
periments, that ¢¢me is an element which in a greater or less degree affects 
the security of materials when subjected to severe and long-continued press- 
ure. It may at first sight appear that the cohesive powers and the resist- 
ance may be so nicely balanced as to neutralise each other, and in this state 
continue ad infinitum, provided there be no disturbing force to produce de- 
rangement of the parts, and thus destroy the equilibrium of the opposing 
forces. ‘This cannot, however, be expected: in practice, disturbing causes 
often occur, and I think we may reasonably conclude that long-continued 
strain will tend to lessen the cohesive force which unites the particles of mat- 
ter together, and will ultimately destroy that power of resistance which has 
for the last five years been so strongly exemplified in the above and previ- 
ously printed experiments. ; 


Report of the Committee appointed at the Meeting of the British 
Association held at Plymouth, in 1841, for registering Shocks of 
Earthquakes in Great Britain. By Davin Mitnz, Hsq., M.A., 
FLRS.E. 


I. Tue Committee have continued to promote the object for which they were 
appointed, by sending additional instruments to Perthshire, where shocks of 
earthquake still continue to be felt. The following is a list of the shocks ob- 
served at Comrie since the date of the report given in last year to the Asso- 
ciation. 

In the following Table column | represents the day of the month, column 
2 represents the total number of shocks felt during that day, column 3 re- 


Sx Wtoct es we 


ee 


RODS ED, 


ON EARTHQUAKES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 93 


presents the hour of the three strongest shocks, and column 4: represents the 
degree of severity of each shock, reckoning at 10 a shock which occurred on 
October 23, 1839. 


1. 2. 3. 4.)) 3. 4, Remarks. 
1841. = 
July 23} 1 | 1 am) 2 
25, 1 | 42 p.m) 3 ||... Instrument moved. 
“2751 al C08 ES Vay 7 el) eed | as ... | Instrument moved. 
30] 12) 8 am. 2 |} 2} p.m 8 -M.| 2 | Instrument moved. 
Bb Sol Si ial Dai. cddve 1 
PROSE Tap Br Pere. Loker 1 
LOND NGS eR i a (Tee tate 1 
12) 1 |10 a.m 
SOW hy woes 1 
Sept. 8} 2 | 3 am 1 
9} 1 |112 p.m} 5 |} ...... Instrument moved. 
1013 | Qf a.m] 3 |) 440] 1 
16| 2 AMm.| 1 || 93 p.m} 1 
17} 2) 1 am. 1 || 44 a.m.) 1 
. 99) 1 \114 pm.) I 
93} 1 | 2am) 1 
29| 2 Am. 1 || 95 a.m. 1 
Oct. 5) 1 AM. I 
93\ 1 |12 a.m.| 2 
Noy. 3] 1 {12 a.m} 1 
5} 14,1 am 
6| 1 8 Am 
TAWA DA as ees I 
8} 1 
18} 1] 8 a.m 
Dec. 3 85 A.M 
6} 1 | 3 a.m 1 
71/3 am. 1 
1842. 
Jan. 2/1 AM. 1 
7| 2 A.M.| 1 AM. 1 
Mar.10} 1 | 1 p.m.) 1 
Apr. 21; 1 | 3 BMJ) 1 
22) 2 1103 p.m.| 1 |j1l p.m.) 2 
June 1} 1 |12 a.m.| 1 
Dl Aoiote waren.) 2 
8| 2 | 1dam,... | 1% a.m Instrument moved. 


It will be perceived that out of the 60 shocks above recorded, felt during 
the last eleven months, there were three occasions on which the instruments 
were moved. From this it is evident, that the instruments are not sufficiently 
sensitive to indicate the great proportion of the shocks now occurring, how- 
ever well adapted they may be for registering those of a more violent cha- 
racter which occurred in 1839 and 1840. 

II. Referring to the Report of last year (published in the last volume of 
the Transactions of the Association) for the nature and number of the in- 
struments which were then at Comrie or its neighbourhood, the Committee 


94. REPORT—1842. 


will now mention what additional instruments have been sent there, and to 


whose charge they have been entrusted. 

The additional instruments for indicating earthquake shocks are seven in 
number. 

Four of these are on the principle of the watchmaker’s noddy described in 
last year’s Report. 

Another instrument consists of four horizontal glass tubes, slightly turned 
up at each end, and filled with mercury. These tubes are laid down on the 
solid floor of a room, according to the different points of the compass; and 
it is expected that, when a shock takes place, the mercury will flow out of 
one or more of these tubes. If there is a horizontal movement of the earth’s 
surface, say in a direction from W, to E., the mercury will flow out of the 
west end of the tube placed in that direction, and partially out of two 
other tubes. If there is no horizontal movement, but an inclination of the 
ground only, the mereury will flow out of the tube or tubes affected by the 
inclination, and probably in a larger measure from the ends of the tubes to- 
wards the dip. ‘This instrument was made by Mr. Newman of London, under 
the directions of Professor Wheatstone and Mr. Milne. 

The two remaining instruments are intended exclusively to indicate any 
vertical movements of the ground. They consist of a horizontal bar, fixed 
to a solid wall by means of a strong flat watch-spring, and loaded at the op- 
posite end. If the wall suddenly rises or sinks, the loaded end of this hori- 
zontal rod remains, from its vis inertia, nearly at rest, and thus can move any 
light substance (as paper or a straw) brought against it by the vertical move- 
ment of the ground, and which light substance is so adjusted as to stick 


- wherever the rod leaves it. 


4 


One of this last mentioned class of instruments, and the one formed with 
glass tubes, have been set at Comrie, in the upper story of a house occupied 
by Mr. Macfarlane, post-master there,—a very intelligent person, and most 
anxious to aid the Committee in their inquiries. He has kept an accurate 
register of all the shocks felt at Comrie during the last three years. 

In regard to the instruments formed on the principle of the watehmaker’s 
noddy, one of them has been placed at Crieff (six and a half miles east of 
Comrie), under the charge of the Rev. Mr. M’Alester. A second has been 
placed at St. Fillans (a small village five and a half miles west of Comrie) 
under the charge of the Rev. Mr. Logan. A third is placed at Invergel- 
die, about five miles north of Comrie, under charge of the farm-overseer 
there. A fourth instrument of this kind is about to be sent to Kinlochmoi- 
dant, near Strontian in Argyleshire, where shocks are occasionally felt. It 
is to be taken charge of there by Wm. Robertson, Esq., the proprietor of 
Kinlochmoidart. 'To the same place there is to be sent one of the horizontal 
bars intended to indicate vertical movements of the ground. 

Besides the foregoing instruments, others of a meteorological character 
have been placed at Comrie, in order that the state of the atmosphere at the 
moment of the shocks, and the nature of the weather generally during their 
occurrence, may be as nearly as possible ascertained. These instruments 
consist of a barometer, double thermometer, and a rain-gauge. They are 
under the charge of Mr. Macfarlane of Comrie, by whom their indications 
are regularly registered. 

. III. The Committee will next notice any effects produced on the instru- 
ments, during the course of last year, by earthquake shocks. The instru- 
ments sent lately by the Committee have not yet been affected, having been 
but a short time at their respective stations. Those which have been af- 
fected, were the instruments sent last year. 


i es 


4 


ON EARTHQUAKES IN GREAT BRITAIN, 95 


1. On the 26th of July 1841 (as Mr. Macfarlane reports), a shock oc- 
curred, which is noticed in the register. The inverted pendulum set in the 
steeple of Comrie parish church was thrown about half an inch to the west, 
apparently indicating a horizontal movement of the ground as much towards 
the east. Another instrument, invented by Mr. Macfarlane himself, on the 
principle of the common pendulum, and kept at his own house, about 150 
yards from the church, had vibrated in a direction due east and west. On 
this occasion an wpward heave of the ground, to the extent of half an inch, 
was also indicated by two instruments, one of them being a horizontal bar, 
of the nature before described. 

2. The next shock by which the instruments were affected, occurred on 
the 30th of July 1841. Mr. Macfarlane reports that the two inverted pen- 
dulums in his house vibrated to the extent of half an inch, and in a direction 
south and north, which is different from previcus indications. At Tomperran 
(about a mile and a half east of Comrie), an instrument on the principle of 
the common pendulum vibrated east and west. The instruments for showing 
any vertical movement were but slightly affected. 

Notwithstanding the slight nature of the effects of this shock on the in- 
struments, Mr. Macfarlane reports that it was very severe, though not so 
violent as the one which occurred in October 1839. Reckoning this former 
one at 10, he says the shock of July 30, 1841, may be reckoned 8. He adds, 
that “it was distinctly double, the latter part, if anything, more violent than 
the first: the noise and shake awful, at least I felt them so in the house, 
and those out of doors gave the same account. It is difficult to account for 
the smallness of its effects on the instruments. Perhaps the vibrations of the 
ground, though violent, were short and frequent, and thereby interrupted the 
natural swing of the pendulums. I recollect some person, on the occurrence of 
one of the former severe earthquakes, describes his feelings as if on horseback, 
when the animal shook itself: Somewhat such were my impressions on the 
30th, even before I had looked at the instruments. It is said here that there 
were twelve shocks that day. I felt nine myself; there was one about 
8 A.M., pretty smart, and none else till the great one about 25 p.m. Jmme- 
diately after it there were two or three slight shocks, and about an hour 
afterwards a loud one, &e. The weather was cold and inclined to stormy 
about the time of the severe shock, and for a day or two before and after.” 

In a subsequent letter, dated August 9, 1841, by which time Mr. Macfar- 
lane had visited all the places in and near Comrie affected by the shock, he 
gives some details, which it may not be out of place here to notice. “A 
house at Garrickrow (about two miles west of Comrie) was so severely 
handled that three out of four chimney-tops will require to be rebuilt or re- 
paired, and there is a rent in the west gable of the house. A man from 
Comrie, who happened to be working at the time on the hill behind, de- 
scribes the shock as awful indeed; and he says the trees around him were so 
much agitated that he thought they would have been torn out of the roots, but 
he cannot remember exactly in what direction they waved, but thinks it was 
east and west. The wall of one of the houses of Ross (the neat suburb of 
our city) was rent, and the miller’s house (you'll recollect it), in spite of its 
numerous abutments, has had its rents much enlarged. This shock, I learn, 
has been felt as far east, at least, as Newburgh, about thirty-eight miles from 
Garrickrow ; as far to the west as Dalmally, the distance of which I do not 
exactly know (but probably it may be about the same); as far north as Glen- 
lion, thirty miles; and as far south as Alloa and Stirling, twenty to thirty 
miles. 

“ T have seen several of tne shattered buildings; one of the chimney-tops 


96 REPORT— 1842. 


in Duneira House is slightly rent ; one in the stable behind very much ; two 
of the gardeners’ cottages behind that again considerably ; one so much that 
it was taken down and rebuilding when I saw it. The directions in which 
the stones have been moved, seem to have been various. It is remarkable 
that neither the row of chimney-stacks on the hot-house wall, of the same 
construction with those of the gardener’s cottage (octagonal), nor those of 
the gamekeeper’s house, which is a little up the hill, have been injured. 
The gardener told me the foundation of all the buildings thereabout (except 
the last) was upon a gravelly soil, but how near the subjacent rock he could 
not guess. A person who happened to be on the hill or rising ground im- 
mediately to the west of Duneira House, told me asa proof of the shock 
having come even there from the west, that after the shock passed him he 
heard the rattle of the slates and of the buildings about Duneira; but this 
you will at once see was not evidence of the alleged fact. Another stand- 
ing on the hill above, said that he thought he saw the disturbance of 
the woods pass eastward. This was near Comrie. Those in the wooden 
shed at the saw-mill near Duneira, saw the roof open fora moment; and 
when they rushed from the shed, they observed that the water in the mill- 
head was for a short time dammed backwards, and raised about four inches 
above its former level at that place; and from this, and other indications, 
they judged that the earth there was heaved directly upwards about sia inches. 
There were traces of electricity in the clouds at the time, and other pecu- 
liarities in the appearance of the sky, but nothing amounting to the least 
hint, so far as I could judge, that we were to be so roughly handled. I re- 
collect before of noticing the appearance of the sky as lurid and particularly 
sombre when we had quakings below, but I have frequently since seen the 
same, or even stronger marks of the same kind, and yet all pass peaceably 
off, and, on the other hand, earthquakes when the sky was clear and open. 
Even a course of previous wet weather, which, from its being hitherto an 
almost constant forerunner of the violent and frequent shocks, warranted 
the inference that they were somehow connected, does not seem to be a sine 
qua non ; sO that the remark of a sagacious old man, one well-known here 
as ‘Deacon Reid,’ will hold, good, who long ago, in the first series of our 
earthquakes, had been paying particular attention to the phenomena, and 
being asked if he had made out whether they affected the weather or the 
weather them, replied that he had attended particularly to that point, and all 
that he could make of them was, that there was ‘aye some kind o’ weather 
when they happened.’ I may here add, it was omitted in its proper place, 
that the only difference I could observe in the circumstances of the shattered 
chimneys about Duneira, was that they were all on walls or gables running 
south and north, while those untouched had the walls on which they stood 
east and west. Dykes were thrown down in many places.” 

With reference to the part of Mr. Macfarlane’s letter last quoted, it may 
be proper to explain, that the spot from which the Perthshire shocks of 
earthquake appear to emanate, is situated about a mile north of Duneira, and 
therefore it is not difficult to understand why walls running north and south 
should chiefly or exclusively have been rent, whilst walls running east and 
west should have escaped. This explains the fact mentioned in Mr. Mac- 
farlane’s letter, that the hot-house wall and range of chimneys on it escaped 
injury, whilst the west gable of the house at Garrickrow (a quarter of a mile 
east of Duneira House) was rent. ; 

Accounts have been received by a Member of the Committee, of the effects 
produced by the same shock in other parts of the country, which in so far as 
interesting, will be given in a treatise he is publishing on British earthquakes. 


ON EARTHQUAKES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 97 


3. On the 9th of September 1841, another pretty severe shock was felt 
at Comrie, at about ten minutes before midnight. Mr. Macfarlane reports 
concerning it, “ The next morning the Association’s instruments indicated as 
follows :— 

“The steeple one was inclined to south three-quarters of an inch. The 
Comrie House one inclined north half an inch. 

*‘ No damage, that I have heard of, has been done. The weather for the 
two preceding days was remarkably wet and close, much resembling that 
in which the shocks occurred in 1839; so much so was the sky, that the 
evening previous I was remarking to some folks here, that it looked very 
like an earthquake night. But I have more than once observed the same 
misty and lurid sky without any shock; so that, after all, the thing may be 
a mere coincidence.” 

The indications of the instruments, mentioned.in Mr. Macfarlane’s note, 
do not coincide with those produced by previous shocks, and are in them- 
selves somewhat perplexing, if they are assumed to have been caused by one 
and the same shock. Comrie House is about half a mile due north from 
Comrie Church, and it is difficult to understand how Comrie Church could 
have moved three-quarters of an inch to the north, whilst at the same time 
Comrie House was moved half an inch to the south, unless on the supposi- 
tion that the intermediate ground was lifted up to an extent which certainly 
would have been perceivable by the inhabitants. 

But it will be seen from the register, that after the Severe shock near mid- 
night on the 9th ef September, two other shocks occurred before the instru- 
ments were examined. It is very possible, therefore, that the indications 
registered were not the effects of only one shock. 

4, On the 8th of June 1842, two shocks were felt at Comrie between one 
and two in the morning, by which the horizontal pendulum in Mr. Macfar- 
lane’s house (recently rent) was affected. It indicated a vertical upheave of 
the ground of fully a quarter of an inch. 

From the foregoing details, it seems probable that the opinion entertained 
by those acquainted with the locality, that the particular spot from which 
the Perthshire shocks emanate on the earth’s surface, is situated about one 
mile north-north-east of Duneira House, and about one mile and a half north- 
west of Comrie, may be correct. It is desirable therefore to have additional 
instruments placed at Duneira, and in the neighbourhood of it, with the view 
of approximating still nearer to the exact spot of discharge or emission. . Two 
instruments have been lately sent to Duneira and St. Fillans, from which, if 
the shocks continue, some useful data may be expected. 

Further, it is evidently desirable to have instruments greatly more sensi- 
tive than any which the Committee yet possess ; and the Committee would 
be greatly obliged for any hints which may be given to them with that view. 
Some of the members of the Committee are now making experiments which 
promise well: and if the Committee be reappointed, with a renewal of the 
grant, they hope, even before the earthquaking season (autumn and winter) 
commences in Perthshire, to be prepared for a correct registration’ of most 
of the shocks. 

_ IV. The Committee wish particularly to call the attention of the Associa- 
tion to the importance of carrying on meteorological observations at Comrie. 

There seem strong grounds for the opinion entertained by many, that an 
intimate connection of some kind or other exists between earthquake shocks 
and the state of the weather, or rather those various agents which affect the 

- weather. Some persons, indeed, maintain, that the shocks are nothing else 
than electrical discharges fromthe earth, and are preceded as well as followed 

1842. H 


98 REPORT—1842. 


by certain meteorological symptoms, which are capable of accurate registra- 
tion. This view of the matter is, for the sake of the theory of earthquakes, 
deserving of being tested by meteorological observations: and such observa- 
tions have accordingly been commenced at Comrie, by means of instruments, 
sent there in accordance with the recommendation contained in last year's 
Report, and understood to have been approved of and sanctioned by the As- 
sociation. At present the barometer and thermometer are observed at Com- 
rie only twice in the twenty-four hours. It would, however, be evidently 
desirable to have much more frequent observations, in order that the state 
of the atmosphere immediately before, as well as immediately after shocks, 
should be ascertained. The Committee understand that there are two places 
in Scotland, where, at the expense of the British Association, hourly obser- 
vations of the barometer and thermometer are now made and registered. 
The importance of these observations to meteorology is unquestionable; and 
it is manifest that great additional value would be given to them were they 
earried on at Comrie, where they would become subservient to another 
branch of scientific research. In this view of the matter they are strongly 
supported by the Meteorological Committee of the Association, whose con- 
vener (Sir David Brewster) may be with propriety consulted on this subject. 

The Committee have ascertained that proper persons can be found at 
Comrie, who, under the superintendence of Mr. Macfarlane, would observe 
the barometer and thermometer every hour in the twenty-four hours, at an 
expense of 40/. yearly ; and the Committee express a hope that the Associa- 
tion will enable them to carry this plan into effect. 

On this subject the Committee will only further observe, that they would 
be glad if some other meteorological instruments could be sent to Comrie. 
For an anemometer there is an excellent situation, viz. on the steeple of the 
parish church. It would be very desirable also to have some instrument 
capable of indicating the existence of any sudden changes in the electrical 
state of the earth or the atmospheres and it is understood that the expense 
of these instruments is not great. 

V. The Committee have not yet attempted the registration of earthquake 
shocks occurring in any other part of this country, except Scotland. Else- 
where the shocks are not so frequent, or so regular in their recurrence, as to 
warrant the establishment of instruments: at the same time there do appear 
to be some parts of the country much more subject to shocks than others. 
For example, the primary districts of Cornwall and Wales have pretty often 
experienced shocks; and if in the course of the following year any are re- 

eated in these quarters, it may be right to send some instruments there. 

VI. The Committee have finally to report, that the sum of 26/. 16s. have 
been expended by them in the prosecution of their inquiries. 


Report of a Committee appointed at the Tenth Meeting of the Asso- 
ciation for the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-en- 
gines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the 
Single-acting Engine at different periods of the Stroke. Members 
of the Committee :—Eaton Hopexinson, Esq., F.R.S.; J. Enys, 
Esq.; the Rev. Professor Moseuey, M.A., F.R.S. (Reporter). 


In the conclusion of their last report the Committee stated it to be their 
purpose, during the present year, to apply the indicator to some of those en- 
gines whose work is registered by other means, and to compare the result of 
the two registrations. It is to this comparison that their labours have ac- 


ON A CONSTANT INDICATOR FOR STEAM-ENGINES. 99 


cordingly been directed. Of the numerous engines whose duty is periodi- 
cally recorded, none seemed to be so well adapted to their purpose as the 
Cornish engine at the East London Water-works. The long-continued and 
careful experiments of Mr. Wicksteed upon that engine*, have made the work 
performed by it better known probably than that of any other engine. The 
request of the Committee to be allowed to apply the indicator to it was at 
once and most liberally acceded to, and every facility was afforded to them 
during the progress of their experiments by the servants of the company. 


Results of a Trial of the Constant Indicator upon the Cornish Engine at the 
East London Waier-works. 


The indicator was put to work on the 28th of January and continued its 
registration, without intermission, until the 25th of February. The numbers 
registered by the counter of the engine and by the indicator were taken by the 
engineer every morning and evening. These numbers are contained in the 
two first columns of the accompanying table. 


Number of | Number regi-| yfoan regi- 


Number Number _ | Sttokes made |stered by Indi-| + ation made 
Date. registered by | registered by | , PY Engine | cator between by Indicator 
Counter. Indicator. |, Petween each | each two suc-| a+ each stroke 
two succeeding] ceeding ob- | of Engine. 
| observations. | servations. 
Jan. 28 | 07680006 | 000429°5 
be 07685564 | 0046132 5558 4183°7 “752 
29 | 07691430 | 008945°4 5866 4332-2 “738 
“3 07696378 | 012546°3 4.94.8 3600°9 “728 
30 | 07699548 | 014863°2 3170 2316°9 “730 
31 | 07702161 | 016768°5 2613 19053 °729 
» 07707828 | 020946°3 5667 4177°8 "737 
- Feb. 1 | 07712075 | 024055°5 4947 3109°2 "132 
» 07717805 | 028317°6 5730 .| 42691 743 
2 | 07722387 | 031693°3 4532 3375°7 “744 
3 | 07738647 | 0437764 16310 12083°1 "740 
4 | 07742155. | 046378°6 3508 2602°2 “74d 
eds 07743790 | 047586°3 1635 1207:7 738 
5 | 07747184 | 050113°5 3394 25272 “744, 
» 07750988 | 052917°2 3804: 2803°7 EY) 
6 | 07756340 | 056982:4 5352 40652 "759 
» 07761966 | 06130674 5626 43240 ‘768 
7 | O7766741 | 064847°3 4775 3540'9 “TAI 
» 07768676 | 066285°3 1935 1438-0 “743, 
8 | 07775229 | 0711426 6553 4857°3 “741 
» 07780816 | 075336°6 5587 4.194°0 “750 
9 | 07788825 | 081257°6 8009 5921°0 "739 
” 07792228 | 083786°5 | . 3403 2528'9 "743 
‘10 | 07798391 | 0884194 6163 4632'9 “751 
11 | 07801012 | 090405°6 2621 1986:2 “157 
” 07806022 | 094299°3 5010 3893'7 “T77 
12 | 07809569 | 09694:7-4 3547 2648'1 “746 
» | 07814786. | 100910°5 §217 3963°1 “759 
13 | 07819727 | 104619°4 494) 3708°9 “750 


* Experimental Inquiry, &c., by Thomas Wicksteed, 1841, Weale. 
P wry, y 9 
H 


100 REPORT—1842. 


Taste (Continued). 


Number of | Number regi- 


; | Mean regi- 
Number Number “) ae phere Deane stration made 

Date. registered by | registered by by Indicator 
Counter. Indicator. | between each | each two suc- | 5+’each stroke 


two succeeding] ceeding ob- 


: g of Engine. 
observations. | servations. gt 


3841°8 "743 
4190°8 439 
2228'9 “741 
6717°9 “74:7 
343774 “738 
3070°0 NTS, 
62789 746 
3433°8 “746 
2743°3 “738 
6121:0 “746 
2816°7 “T5L 
59543 *750 
6277°5 758 
6159°0 "752 
62542 “756 


Feb. 14 | 07824891 | 108461:2 
9 07830561 | 1126520 
15 | 07833566 | 1148809 
16 | 07842556 | 121598°8 
17 | 07847210 | 1250362 
” 07851371 | 128106-2 
18 | 07859783 | 134385-1 
» 07864386 | 137818°9* 
19 | 07868100 | 140562°2 
20 | 07876295 | 146683°2 
21 | 07880045 | 149499°9 
22. | 07887975 | 155454°2 
23 | 07896246 | 161731°7 
24 | 07904433 | 167890°7 
25. | 07912703 | 1741449 


The difference of each two consecutive numbers taken from the counter 
shows the number of strokes made by the engine between the correspond- 
ing observations, and the difference of each two consecutive numbers taken 
from the indicator shows the number registered by the indicator whilst this 
number of strokes is made by the engine. These differences are given in 
the third and fourth columns of the table. 

The number registered by the indicator whilst any number of strokes is 
made by the engine, being divided by that number of strokes, gives the mean 
registration of the indicator per stroke of the engine, between the periods of 
observation. The quotients obtained from this division, in respect to all the 
observations, are shown in the last column of the table. 

Between the 28th of January and the 18th of February the engine made 
179777 strokes, and the indicator registered the number 133955°6, being a 
mean registration of 7451 per stroke of the engine. 

Between the 28th of January and the 25th of February (being the whole 
time of the working of the indicator) the engine made 232617 strokes, and 
the indicator registered the number 173176°7, being a mean registration of 
"7444 per stroke of the engine. 

Now the general formula for determining the work of the engine from tke 
number registered by the indicator, as demonstrated in the report made by 


* On the 18th the cord got out of the pulley of the indicator, and it is not known how 
much was lost in the registration before the accident was discovered and the cord replaced ; 
supposing, however, that throughout the 4603 strokes made by the engine between the two 
observations on the 18th, the registration had continued the same, ‘746 per stroke, as between 
the two preceding observations, the number registered would have been 3433°8, which added 
to the previous registration, gives 137818°9 for the number which would have been shown by 
the indicator; the number actually shown was 137280:2: so that on this supposition the 
number lost by the indicator, whilst the cord was out of the pulley, was 538°7. This num- 
ber is added as acorrection to all the registrations of the indicator after the 18th. The num- 
bers in the last column can only be affected by any error in it on the 18th and 19th; any such 
error must be inconsiderable. 


ON A CONSTANT INDICATOR FOR STEAM-ENGINES. 101 


the Committee to the British Association of Science at their last meeting, 
when reduced* by the substitution in it of the particular values assigned to 
the constants in these experiments, is as follows :— 


U = 161°4474.N — -09051L, 


where N represents the number registered by the indicator during the period 
for which the work of the engine is to be determined, L the space in fect de- 
scribed by the piston of the engine during that time, and U the number of 
units of work (in Ibs. one foot high) done by the steam upon each square 
inch of the piston of the engine during that time. The second term of the 
formula is exceedingly small as compared with the first, and is a correction 
for the influence of the friction of the indicator on the number registered by it. 

The mean number registered by the indicator per stroke of the engine 
between the 28th of January and the 18th of February being -7451; the 
mean work done by the steam (in lbs. one foot high) on each square inch of 
the piston per stroke during that time (according to the indicator) was, by 
the above formula, ‘ 


161-4474 x °7451 — 10 x -09051 = 119-3883. 


Also the mean stroke of the engine, during that time, was (by the measure- 
ment of the engineer) 9 ft. 103 in., or 9°875 ft., so that the mean effective press- 
ure of the steam upon each square inch of the piston was, by the indicator, 


11993883 4 js 0 
9875 12:09 lbs. 

The whole number of units of work done upon each square inch of the, pis- 
ton, between the 28th of January and the 15th of February, was, by the in- 


dicator, 21 ,464,067°1727. 


This number multiplied by the number of square inches in the piston, which 
is 5019°5, gives the whole number of units of effective work done by the 
steam upon the piston of the engine during the time of the experiments, or 
the whole number of lbs. of water which would have been raised one foot 
high by the engine during that time, had it not been for friction and other 
prejudicial resistances. ‘This number is 


107,738,885,310'4. 
During this time 1226} ewt. of coals were consumed by the engine; whence 


* The general formula as proved in the report is, 
d m aay eT 22 
U = 1:67052 (“) N—-3017 (1 =) fed 


where m represents the ratio of the space described by the piston of the engine to that de- 
scribed in the same time by the circumference of the pulley of the indicator ; \ the additional 
deflexion of the springs, in inches, for each additional Ib. in the strain upon them; p the 
number of times the engine expands. 

Now (by the measurement of Price the engineer) the cord passing over the pulley of the 
indicator described 373 inches, whilst the piston of the engine made a stroke of 10 feet, so 


that m = Ma = 3°2215; also (by the experiment of Mr. Timme, Mr. Holtzapffel’s draughts- 
4 
1 


man) the springs deflected exactly 3 inches under a strain of 90 Ibs., so that \ = a = 30! 
whence it follows that 167052 (=) = 161°4474; also the steam was cut off at 3 ft. 6in. 


10 2 D 2 
Label) gaye stele BQ] ¢ ¢. =) = 09051. 
Pry tty ? a UM 


t This is the mean pressure of the steam adove the vacuum resistance. 


102 REPORT—1842. 


it follows, that by the indicator the duty done by the steam upon the piston 
for each ewt. of coals consumed, was 


87,852,427°049 *. 


Comparison of the Results given by the Indicator with the Experiments of 
Mr, Wicksteed. iy 


The effective work done by the steam per square inch of the piston per 
stroke of the enyine, as determined by the experiments of Mr. Wicksteed 
(Experimental Inquiry, p. 22), was 

129°4 — 730+ = 1221. 

In Mr. Wicksteed’s experiments the engine was assumed to make a mean 
stroke of 10 feet. At the time of the experiments with the indicator, the 
mean stroke of the piston was 9 ft. 104 in. (by the measurement of the en- 
gineer). The mean stroke being thus 14 in. short of its former length, the 


1 
work done per stroke is to be diminished by the th part, or the ath part. 


This deduction being made, we obtain ‘ 
Work per stroke per square inch by experiment 120°574; 
120°574 9.04 


Mean pressure by experiment oa75 


The duty done per ewt. of coals, consumed between the 28th of January 


and 15th of February, estimated by the water raised, was, by Mr. Wicksteed’s 
calculation, 81°627,4°71. 


y 
On the whole, therefore, we have 

“Ibs. one foot high per square inch per stroke by experiment 120°574 
Ibs. one foot high per square inch per stroke by indicator 119°388 
Mean effective pressure of steam per sq.in. of piston by experiment 12°21 Ibs. 
Mean effective pressure of steam per sq. in. of piston by indicator 12:09Ibs. 
Duty done at pumps with 1 ewt. of coals, as shown by water raised 81,627,471. 
Duty done by steam on piston with 1 ewt. of coals, as shown by in- 

CEs Rn me ea esi eed hl ak At pi Ss = sanr area Rseeads 


Variations in the Registration. 


The greatest variations from the mean registration per stroke, as shown by 
the table, occur on the 6th and the 11th of February. The latter differs from 
the mean by °032, which is equivalent by the formula to 4°26 units of work. 

These variations are due,—Ist, to a variation in the length of the stroke, 


ua 
amounting to 23 in. at least, and giving a variation of the ath part, or the 


et or 2548 


wth in the work per stroke, which variation is equivalent to 
units of work per square inch of the piston. 


* The coals used were small coals of the worst quality, Mr, Wicksteed haying, it is well 
known, adopted the excellent expedient of contracting with the coal-merchant, on the part 
of the company, to pay not according to the quantity or quality of the coals supplied, but 
according to the pounds of water which the engine is made to raise by them one foot high ; 
j. e. to pay the coal-merchant so much per unit of work done by the coals. Had the best 
Welch coals (such as are used in Cornwall) been used on this occasion, the duty would have 
been 110 millions per cwt. 

+ The work expended per stroke on the vacuum resistance is here deducted to get the 
effective work, which is evidently that shown by the indicator, 


ON A CONSTANT INDICATOR FOR STEAM-ENGINES. 103 


Qndly. To the continual variation of the level of the water in the well, 
which variation amounts, according to the statement of the engineer, to 16 
inches, and often continues for days together. The variation in the registra- 
tion which results from this cause amounts to 10274 X 14 = 1:2842 unit of 
work per square inch of the piston. 

The possible variation in the registration due to these two causes amounts, 


therefore, 
Units per square inch. 
By variation in length of stroke, to 2°543 
By variation in water-load, to ..., 1284 


Total,..... 3°827 


That further variation in the work of the engine which is due to a different 
state of the packing of the piston and a different supply of oil, it is of course 
impossible to estimate; but it is not too much to assign to it a possible varia- 
tion of ;4ths of a unit of work per square inch of the piston per stroke. This 
small variation, added to that shown to be due tothe length of the stroke and 
the water-load, accounts for the entire amount of the greatest variation in the 
daily registration of the indicator, as shown by the table. 

If the friction of the indicator be neglected altogether, the work shown by 
it per stroke will be 120-2944, whilst the work by experiment is 120°574. 

_ The difference is on this supposition, therefore, only *27, or about one quarter 
of a unit of work out of 1203 units. 

In respect to these results it is sufficient to say, that no others ever obtained 
by any of the instruments applied for a similar purpose have approached to 
them in the accuracy of their registration of the work, although that regis- 
tration, which was by those instruments limited to a single stroke, has been 
by this extended continuously over 179,000 strokes; and that Mr. Wicksteed 
has expressed an opinion that the results given by the indicator are probably 
nearer to the true work of the engine than his own experimental results. 

These experiments having sufficiently established the general accuracy of 
the instrument and its working qualities, as applied to single acting stationary 
engines, the Committee became desirous of trying it on the marine engine, and 
the directors of the Great Western steam-ship having kindly given their con- 
sent, it was fixed upon the engines of that vessel when about to proceed on 
her first voyage in the present year. 

Unfortunately no trial could be obtained of the particular expedients adopt- 
ed for this new application of the instrument until the vessel was actually 
upon her voyage, and the Committee regret to state that this costly experi- 
ment was rendered useless for their purpose by circumstances which would 
have been obviated had such a trial been possible, and which would have 
been wholly unimportant and soon remedied on shore, Of these the princi- 
pal was the accidental unscrewing of one of the pistons from the extremity 
of the piston rod. 

The knowledge which would be supplied by a series of registrations of such 
aceuracy as those given by the indicator, as well in regard to the duty of 
marine engines as in respect to the general conditions of the resistance op- 
posed under different velocities to the motion of a vessel of the dimensions of 
a steam-ship, is of vast importance practically and scientifically ; it is there- 
fore desirable to repeat this experiment under more favourable circumstances. 

The attention of the Committee was directed by the Association, in the 
second place, to an application of the admirable chronometrical instrument 
suggested by M. Poncelet, and contrived and applied by M. Morin, to an ad- 
measurement of the velocity of the piston of the steam-engine at different pe- 


104 | REPORT—1842. 


riods of the stroke. This velocity is dependent in engines working expan- 
sively upon the particular law, according to which the pressure of the steam 
varies as its volume expands; any such law being assumed, the velocity may 
be expressed by a mathematical formula in terms of that law and of other 
given elements of the question. The determination of it by experiment thus 
supplies a means (and apparently the best) of verifying the different formule 
which have been proposed to represent the true law of the expansion of steam. 

M. Morin has himself kindly undertaken to superintend the construction of 
one of his instruments for the use of the Committee. It is in the hands of M. 
Breguet, and they hope to receive it early in November. 

Nothing has hitherto approached to the admirable accuracy of the admea- 
surements stated to have been given by this instrument. It discriminates be- 
tween spaces described in successive intervals of time, whose duration does 
not exceed the 10,000th part of a second, and measures them. 


Report of a Committee on the Form of Ships. By Joun Scorr 
RussE.i, M.A. 


Ir contained upwards of 20,000 observations, the result of careful experi- 
ments on the resistance to models of ships of more than a hundred different 
forms and sizes, and extending from small models of 30 inches long, to ves- 
sels of 25 feet, 60 feet, and 200 feet long, and above 1000 tons burden. 
These experiments were under the general superintendence of a Committee 
of the Association, consisting originally of Sir John Robison, Mr. Scott 
Russell, and Mr. Smith. Unfortunately, the ill-health of Mr. Smith’s family 
had altogether deprived the Committee of his advice and assistance, but the 
observations were personally conducted by Mr. Scott Russell, who had to 
acknowledge the pleasure he had derived from conferring with his friend 
Sir John Robison, with whom he had frequent occasion to consult during 
the progress of the observations. The smaller experiments had been made in 
a reservoir in the ground attached to his (Mr. Russell’s) residence, and the 
larger onesin the open sea. It was probable that these results, maturely di- 
gested, and illustrated by accurate drafts of the forms of the ships subjected 
to experiment, would be published in such completeness as might be practi- 
cally serviceable to the naval constructor and mercantile ship-builder; and 
he would therefore confine the present Report to a general account of the 
objects contemplated in the experiments, and the method by which these 
designs had been carried out. Several series of experiments have already 
been made, both by scientific bodies and by public-spirited men, for the ad- 
vancement of naval architecture. These had cost large sums of money, and 
consumed much valuable time and talent. To most of them it had been ob- 
jected—unhappily not without reason—first, that they had not been con- 
ducted with an adequate knowledge of the wants of the constructor; se- 
condly, that the forms of bodies submitted to experiment were by no means 
such as are used by the ship-builder ; thirdly, that the scale on which these 
bodies were constructed was too small to claim for the results, as applied on a 
large scale, any considerable degree of confidence ; fourthly, that it had not 
been established by what law the results of experiments on one scale of mag- 
nitude are to be transferred to a different scale, either greater or less; and, 
fifthly, that the apparatus formerly used was liable to errors which it was 
difficult to eliminate from the results. To obviate such objections was one 
great object in these experiments. Mr. Russell had contrived a new appa- 
ratus, which was so simple and convenient, that a uniform propelling force. 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 105 


was obtained, by which vessels of any magnitude might be drawn by a uni- 
form mechanical force along any given distance. The forms of the models 
employed were not confined to mathematical and arbitrary solids, but were 
these of such classes of ships as are either actually employed in navigation, 
or have been proposed for that purpose. Among these were some of the 
highest reputation. It was found that there were other circumstances be- 
sides the form of the vessel which affected the result ; and that the form and 
dimensions of the channel were as important as those of the vessel in deter- 
mining it. Experiments had been instituted on the largest as well as the 
smallest scale, to show the law of relation between different scales. These 
various modes of experiment were illustrated by reference to drawings and 
tables which were prepared for publication. As an illustration of the value 
of giving a proper rorm to ships, altogether independently of proportion or 
dimension, the following remarkable experiments were adduced :—Four ves- 
sels, of about twenty-five feet length, having all the same dimensions of breadth 
and depth, of the same capacity and weight, and of the same draft of water, 
were towed together at the same time, under the same circumstances and at 
the same velocity. Some writers on naval architecture have asserted that, 
in such circumstances, vessels would have precisely the same resistance. 
The forms of these four vessels were not, to an inexperienced eye, very dis- 
similar: they were all good sea boats, and each of them found its admirers 
to give its shape a preference over the others. These vessels, alike in all 
their principal dimensions, and weight, and area of midship section, and draft 
of water, differed so much in resistance, that the one had nearly double re- 
sistance to another: thus, at 7} miles an hour, the resistances were as fol- 
lows :— 


Noi deform suey od 20% 56°6 lbs. resistance. 
No. Il. iss) ot Mn ba ea 138°5 Beet Ls 
IN@eTy 904 AL) ee ARB ae 

IN DIVER ODY oa bog ihe 90:2 Se ld 


' All of these were good sea boats, and it was one of the most valuable of 
these results, that No. I., the form of least: resistance, was found also the best 
sea boat, the easiest, and the driest. The whole of the observations, com- 
prising more than 20,000, were in the course of preparation for publication, so 
that the whole body of the observations would be at the disposal of the Mem- 
bers of the Association. It had been the aim of the Committee to reduce the 
whole into the form most immediately conducive to the purposes of the naval 
constructor and mercantile ship-builder, and the drawings had been made on 
the scale and with the accuracy of the drafts of ships of the largest class. 

Mr. Russell also explained a model showing the waves in a channel arising 
from the natural channel wave and the wave resulting from the form of the 
boat. 


Report of a Committee appointed “ to consider of the rules by which: 
the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform and 
permanent basis.” 


[ Minute of Council, Feb. 11, 1842. 


« Resolved,—That (with a view of securing early attention to the following 
important subject) a Committee consisting of Mr. C. Darwin, Prof. Hen- 
slow, Rev. L. Jenyns, Mr. W. Ogilby, Mr. J. Phillips, Dr. Richardson, Mr. 
H. E. Strickland (reporter), Mr. J. O. Westwood, be appointed, to con- 
sider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established 


106 | REPORT—1842. 


on a uniform and permanent basis; the report to be presented to the Zoolo- 
gical Section, and submitted to its Committee, at the Manchester Meeting. 


Minute of the Committee of the Section of Zoology and Botany, June 29, 
1842. 


“ Resolved,—That the Committee of the Section of Zoology and Botany 
have too little time during the Meeting of the Association to discuss a 
Report on Nomenclature, and therefore remit to the special Committee 
appointed to draw up the Report, to present it on their own responsibility,” 


Tue Committee appointed by the Council of the British Association to 
carry out’ the above object, beg leave to report, that at the meetings which 
they held in London the following gentlemen were added to the Committee 
and assisted in its labours:—Messrs. W. J. Broderip, Prof. Owen, W. E. 
Shuckard, G. R. Waterhouse, and W. Yarrell. An outline of the proposed 
code of rules having been drawn up and printed, copies of it were sent to 
many eminent zoologists at home and abroad, who were requested to favour 
the Committee with their observations and comments. Many valuable sug- 
gestions were obtained from this source, by the aid of which the Committee 
were enabled to introduce several important modifications into the original 
plan. A few copies of the plan as amended were then printed for the use of 
the Committee, and the total cost of printing these two editions amounts to 
£4 10s. 

As the probable success of this measure must greatly depend on its ob- 
taining a rapid and extensive circulation among foreign as well as British 
zoologists, the Committee beg to recommend that a small sum (say £5 10s.) 
be appropriated for printing and distributing extra copies of this report in 
the form which it may finally assume in our Transactions. 

The plan as amended has been further considered by the Committee du- 
ring the present meeting at Manchester, and the Committee having thus 
given their best endeavours to maturing the plan, beg now to submit it to 
the approval of the British Association under the title of a 


SERIES OF PROPOSITIONS FOR RENDERING THE NOMENCLATURE 
OF ZOOLOGY UNIFORM AND PERMANENT. 


PREFACE. 


All persons who are conversant with the present state of Zoology must be 
aware of the great detriment which the science sustains from the vagueness 
and uncertainty of its nomenclature. We do not here refer to those diver- 
sities of language which arise from the various methods of classification 
adopted by different authors, and which are unavoidable in the present state 
of our knowledge. So long as naturalists differ in the views which they are 
disposed to take of the natural affinities of animals there will always be di- 
versities of classification, and the only way to arrive at the true system of 
nature is to allow perfect liberty to systematists in this respect. But the evil 
complained of is of a different character. It consists in this, that when 
naturalists are agreed as to the characters and limits of an individual group 
or species, they still disagree in the appellations by which they distinguish it. 
A genus is often designated by three or four, and a species by twice that 
number of precisely equivalent synonyms ; and in the absence of any rule on 
the subject, the naturalist is wholly at a loss what nomenclature to adopt. 
The consequence is, that the so-called commonwealth of science is becoming 
daily divided into independent states, kept asunder by diversities of language 
as well as by geographical limits. If an English zoologist, for example, visits 
the museums and converses with the professors of France, he finds that their 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 107 


scientific language is almost as foreign to him as their vernacular. Almost 
every specimen which he examines is labeled by a title which is unknown 
to him, and he feels that nothing short of a continued residence in that 
country can make him conversant with her science. If he proceeds thence 
to Germany or Russia, heiis again at a loss: bewildered everywhere amidst 
the confusion of nomenclature, he returns in despair to his own country and 
to the museums and books to which he is accustomed. 

If these diversities of scientific language were as deeply rooted as the ver- 
nacular tongue of each country, it would of course be hopeless to think of 
remedying them ; but happily this is not the case. The language of science is 
in the mouths of comparatively few, and these few, though scattered over di- 
stant lands, are in habits of frequent and friendly intercourse with each other. 
All that is wanted then is, that some plain and simple regulations, founded 
on justice and sound reason, should be drawn up by a competent body of 
persons, and then be extensively distributed throughout the zoological world. 

The undivided attention of chemists, of astronomers, of anatomists, of 
mineralogists, has been of late years devoted to fixing their respective lan- 
guages on a sound basis. Why, then, do zoologists hesitate in performing 
the same duty ? at a time, too, when all acknowledge the evils of the present 
anarchical state of their science. 

It is needless to inquire far into the causes of the present confusion of 
zoological nomenclature. It isin great measure the result of the same branch 
of science having been followed in distant countries by persons who were 
either unavoidably ignorant of each other’s labours, or who neglected to in- 
form themselves sufficiently of the state of the science in other regions. And 
when we remark the great obstacles which now exist to the circulation of 
books beyond the conventional limits of the states in which they happen to 
be published, it must be admitted that this ignorance of the writings of others, 
however unfortunate, is yet in great measure pardonable. But there is another 
source for this evil, which is far less excusable,—the practice of gratifying 
individual vanity by attempting on the most frivolous pretexts to cancel the 
terms established by original discoverers, and to substitute a new and un- 
authorized nomenclature in their place. One author lays down asa rule, 
that no specific names should be derived from geographical sources, and un- 
hesitatingly proceeds to insert words of his own in all such cases; another 
declares war against names of exotic origin, foreign to the Greek and Latin ; 
a third excommunicates all words which exceed a certain number of sylla- 
bles ; a fourth cancels all names which are complimentary of individuals, and 
so on, till universality and permanence, the two great essentials of scientific 
language, are utterly destroyed. 

It is surely, then, an object well worthy the attention of the Zoological 
Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to devise 
some means which may lessen the extent of this evil, if not wholly put an 
end to it. The best method of making the attempt seems to be, to entrust 
to a carefully selected committee the preparation of a series of rules, the 
adoption of which must be left to the sound sense of naturalists in general. 
By emanating from the British Association, it is hoped that the proposed 
’ rules will be invested with an authority which no individual zoologist, how- 
ever eminent, could confer on them. The world of science is no longer a 
monarchy, obedient to the ordinances, however just, of an Aristotle or a Lin- 
nus, She has now assumed the form of a republic, and although this revo- 
lution may have increased the vigour and zeal of her followers, yet it has de- 
stroyed much of her former order and regularity of government. The latter 
can only be restored by framing such laws as shall be based in reason and 


108 REPORT—1842. 


sanctioned by the approval of men of science ; and it is to the preparation of 
these laws that the Zoological Section of the Association have been invited 
to give their aid. 

In venturing to propose these rules for the guidance of all classes of zoolo- 
gists in all countries, we disclaim any intention of dictating to men of science 
the course which they may see fit to pursue. It must of course be always at 
the option of authors to adhere to or depart from these principles, but we 
offer them to the candid consideration of zoologists, in the hope that they 
may lead to sufficient uniformity of method in future to rescue the science 
from becoming a mere chaos of words. 

We now proceed to develope the details of our plan ; and in order to make 
the reasons by which we are guided apparent to naturalists at large, it will be 
requisite to append to each proposition a short explanation of the cireum- 
stances which call for it. 

Among the numerous rules for nomenclature which have been proposed by 
naturalists, there are many which, though excellent in themselves, it is not 
now desirable to enforce*. The cases in which those rules have been over- 
looked or departed from, are so numerous and of such long standing, that to 
carry these regulations into effect would undermine the edifice of zoological 
nomenclature. But while we do not adopt these propositions as authoritative 
laws, they may still be consulted with advantage in making such additions to 
the language of zoology as are required by the progress of the science. By 
adhering to sound principles of philology, we may avoid errors in future, 
even when it is too late to remedy the past, and the language of science will 
thus eventually assume an aspect of more classic purity than it now presents. 

Our subject hence divides itself into two parts; the first consisting of Rules 
for the rectification of the present zoological nomenclature, and the second of 
Recommendations for the improvement of zoological nomenclature in future. 


PART I. 
RULES FOR RECTIFYING THE PRESENT NOMENCLATURE. 
[Limitation of the Plan to Systematic Nomenclature. 


In proposing a measure for the establishment of a permanent and universal 
zoological nomenclature, it must be premised that we refer solely to the Latin 
or systematic language of zoology. We have nothing to do with vernacular 
appellations. One great cause of the neglect and corruption which prevails 
in the scientific nomenclature of zoology, has been the frequent and often 
exclusive use of vernacular names in lieu of the Latin binomial designations, 
which form the only legitimate language of systematic zoology. Let us then 
endeavour to render perfect the Latin or Linnzan method of nomenclature, 
which, being far removed from the scope of national vanities and modern 
antipathies, holds out the only hope of introducing into zoology that grand 
desideratum, an universal language. é 


[Law of Priority the only effectual and just one. ] 


It being admitted on all hands that words are only the conventional signs 
of ideas, it is evident that language can only attain its end effectually by 
being permanently established and generally recognized. This consideration 
ought, it would seem, to have checked those who are continually attempting 
to subvert the established language of zoology by substituting terms of their 
own coinage. But, forgetting the true nature of language, they persist in 

* See especially the admirable code proposed in the ‘ Philosophia Botanica’ of Linnzus. If 


zoologists had paid more attention to the principles of that code, the present attempt at 
reform would perhaps haye been unnecessary. 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 109 


confounding the zame of a species or group with its definition; and because 
the former often falls short of the fullness of expression found in the latter, 
they cancel it without hesitation, and introduce some new term which ap- 
pears to them more characteristic, but which is utterly unknown to the science, 
and is therefore devoid of all authority*. If these persons were to object to 
such names of men as Long, Little, Armstrong, Golightly, &c., in cases where 
they fail to apply to the individuals who bear them, or should complain of 
the names Gough, Lawrence, or Harvey, that they were devoid of meaning, 
and should hence propose to change them for more characteristic appella- 
tions, they would not act more unphilosopbically or inconsiderately than they 
do in the case before us} for, in truth, it matters not in the least by what 
conventional sound we agree to designate an individual object, provided the 
sign to be employed be stamped with such an authority as will suffice to 
make it pass current. Now in zoology no one person can subsequently claim 
an authority equal to that possessed by the person who is the first to define a 
new genus or describe a new species; and hence it is that the name origin- 
ally given, éven though it may be inferior in point of elegance or express- 
iveness to those subsequently proposed, ought as a general principle to be 
permanently retained. To this consideration we ought to add the injustice 
of erasing the name originally selected by the person to whose labours we 
owe our first knowledge of the object; and we should reflect how much the 
permission of such a practice opens a door to obscure pretenders for dragging 
themselves into notice at the expense of original observers. Neither can an 
author be permitted to alter a name which he himself has once published, 
except in accordance with fixed and equitable laws. It is well observed by 
Decandolle, “ L’auteur méme qui ale premier établi un nom _n’a pas plus 
qu'un autre le droit de le changer pour simple cause d’impropriété. - La pri- 
orité en effet est un terme fixe, positif, qui n’admet rien, ni d’arbitraire, ni 
de partial.” 

For these reasons, we have no hesitation in adopting as our fundamental 
maxim, the “ law of priority,” viz. : 

§ 1. The name originally given by the founder of a group or the 
describer of a species should be permanently retained, to the exclu- 
sion of all subsequent synonyms (with the exceptions about to be 
noticed). 

Having laid down this principle, we must next inquire into the limitations 
which are found necessary in carrying it into practice. 


[ Not to extend to authors older than Linneus.] 


As our subject matter is strictly confined to the binomial system of nomen- 
elature, or that which indicates species by means of two Latin words, the one 
generic, the other specific, and as this invaluable method originated solely 
with Linnzeus, it is clear that, as far as species are concerned, we ought not 
to attempt to carry back the principle of priority beyond the date of the 
12th edition of the ‘Systema Nature.’ Previous to that period, naturalists 
were wont to indicate species not by a ame comprised in one word, but 
by a definition which occupied a sentence, the extreme verbosity of which 
method was productive of great inconvenience. It is true that one word 
sometimes sufficed for the definition of a species, but these rare cases were 
only binomial by accident and not by principle, and ought not therefore in 
any instance to supersede the binomial designations imposed by Linnzus. 


* Linneeus says on this subject, “ Abstinendum ab hac innoyatione que nunquant cessa- 
ret, quin indies aptiora detegerentur ad infinitum,” 


110 REPORT—1842. 


The same reasons apply also to generic names. Linnzeus was the first to 
attach a definite value to genera, and to give them a systematic character by 
means of exact definitions; and therefore although the names used by pre- 
vious authors may often be applied with propriety to modern genera, yet in 
such cases they acquire a new meaning, and should be quoted on the author- 
ity of the first person who used them in this secondary sense. It is true, 
that several of the old authors made occasional approaches to the Linnzan 
exactness of generic definition, but still these were but partial attempts ; and 
it is certain that if in our rectification of the binomial nomenclature we once 
trace back our authorities into the obscurity which preceded the epoch of 
its foundation, we shall find no resting-place or fixed boundary for our re- 
searches. The nomenclature of Ray is chiefly derived from that of Gesner 
and Aldrovandus, and from these authors we might proceed backward to 
A.lian, Pliny, and Aristotle, till our zoological studies would be frittered 
away amid the refinements of classical learning*. 

We therefore recommend the adoption of the following proposition :— 

§ 2. The binomial nomenclature having originated with Linnzus, 
the law of priority, in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to 
the writings of antecedent authors. : 

[It should be here explained, that Brisson, who was a contemporary of 
Linneus and acquainted with the ‘ Systema Nature,’ defined and published 
certain genera of birds which are additional to those in the 12th edition of 
Linnzeus’s work, and which are therefore of perfectly good authority. But 
Brisson still adhered to the old mode of designating species by a sentence 
instead of a word, and therefore while we retain his defined genera, we do 
not extend the same indulgence to the titles of his species, even when the 
latter are accidentally binomial in form. For instance, the Perdix rubra of 
Brisson is the Tetrao rufus of Linneus ; therefore as we in this case retain the 
generic name of Brisson and the specific name of Linnzus, the correct title 
of the species would be Perdix rufa. ] 


[ Generic names not to be cancelled in subsequent subdivisions. ] 


As the number of known species which form the groundwork of zoological 
science is always increasing, and our knowledge of their structure becomes 
more complete, fresh generalizations continually occur to the naturalist, and 
the number of genera and other groups requiring appellations is ever be- 
coming more extensive. It thus becomes necessary to subdivide the contents 
of old groups and to make their definitions continually more restricted. In 
carrying out this process, it is an act of justice to the original author, that 
his generic name should never be lost sight of; and it is no less essential to 
the welfare of the science, that all which is sound in its nomenclature should 
remain unaltered amid the additions which are continually being made to it. 
On this ground we recommend the adoption of the following rule:— 

§ 3. A generic name when once established should never be can- 
celled in any subsequent subdivision of the group, but retaimed in a 
restricted sense for one of the constituent portions. 


[ Generic names to be retained for the typical portion of the old genus.] 


When a genus is subdivided into other genera, the original name should 
be retained for that portion of it which exhibits in the greatest degree its 
essential characters as at first defined. Authors frequently indicate this by 
selecting some one species as a fixed point of reference, which they term the 


%* ¢ Quis longo evo recepta vocabula commutaret hodie cum patrum ?”—Linneus. 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 111 


“type of the genus.” When they omit doing so, it may still in many cases 
be correctly inferred that the first species mentioned on their list, if found 
accurately to agree with their definition, was regarded by them as the type. 
A specific name or its synonyms will also often serve to point out the parti- 
cular species which by implication must be regarded as the original type of a 
genus. In such cases we are justified in restoring the name of the old genus 
to its typical signification, even when later authors have done otherwise. We 
submit therefore that 
§ 4. The generic name should always be retained for that portion 
_of the original genus which was considered typical by the author. 
Example.—The genus Picumnus was established by Temminck, and in- 
cluded two groups, one with four toes, the other with three, the former of which 
was regarded by the author as typical. Swainson, however, in raising these 
groups at a later period to the rank of genera, gave a new name, Asthenurus, 
to the former group, and retained Picumnus for the latter. In this case we 
have no choice but to restore the name Picumnus, Tem., to its correct sense, 
cancelling thegname Asthenurus, Sw., and imposing a new name on the 3-toed 
group which Swainson had called Picumnus. 


[ When no type is indicated, then the original name is to be kept for that sub- 
sequent subdivision which first received it. | 


Our next proposition seems to require no explanation :— 

§ 5. When the evidence as to the original type of a genus is not 
perfectly clear and indisputable, then the person who first subdivides 
the genus may affix the original name to any portion of it at his dis- 
cretion, and no later author has a right to transfer that name to any 
other part of the original genus. 


[A later name of the same extent as an earlier to be wholly cancelled.) 


When an author infringes the law of priority by giving a new name to a 
genus which has been properly defined and named already, the only penalty 
which can be attached to this act of negligence or injustice, is to expel the 
name so introduced from the pale of the science. It is not right then in 
such cases to restrict the meaning of the later name so that it may stand side 
by side with the earlier one, as has sometimes been done. For instance, the 
genus Monaulus, Vieill. 1816, is a precise equivalent to Lophophorus, Tem. 
1813, both authors having adopted the same species as their type, and there- 
fore when the latter genus came in the course of time to be divided into two, 
it was incorrect to give the condemned name Monaulus to one of the por- 
tions. To state this succinctly, ; 

§ 6. When two authors define and name the same genus, doth 
making it exactly of the same extent, the later name should be can- 
celled in toto, and not retained in a modified sense*. 

This rule admits of the following exception :— 

§ 7. Provided however, that if these authors select their respective 
types from different sections of the genus, and these sections be after- 
wards raised into genera, then both these names may be retained in 
a restricted sense for the new genera respectively. 

Example—The names Gidemia and Melanetta were originally co-exten- 


* These discarded names may however be tolerated, if they have been afterwards pro- 
posed in a totally new sense, though we trust that in future no one will Anowingly apply an 
old name, whether now adopted or not, to a new genus. (See proposition g, infra.) 


112 REPORT—1842. 


sive synonyms, but their respective types were taken from different sections 
which are now raised into genera, distinguished by the above titles. 

[ No special rule is required for the cases in which the later of two generic 
names is so defined as to be /ess extensive in signification than the earlier, for 
if the later includes the type of the earlier genus, it would be cancelled by 
the operation of §4; andif it does not include that type, it is in fact a distinct 
genus. ] 

But when the later name is more extensive than the earlier, the following 
rule comes into operation :— 


[A later name equivalent to several earlier ones is to be cancelled.) 


The same principle which is involved in § 6, will apply to § 8. 
§ 8. If the later name be so defined as to be equal in extent to two 
‘or more previously published genera, it must be cancelled in éoto. 

Example.—Psarocolius, Wagl. 1827, is equivalent to five or six genera 
previously published under other names, therefore Psarocolius should be 
cancelled. ‘ 

If these previously published genera be separately adopted (as is the case 
with the equivalents of Psarocolius), their original names will of course pre- 
vail; but if we follow the later author in combining them into one, the fol- 
lowing rule is necessary :— 


[A genus compounded of two or more previously proposed genera whose cha- 
racters are now deemed insufficient, should retain the name of one of them.] 


It sometimes happens that the progress of science requires two or more 
genera, founded on insufficient or erroneous characters, to be combined to- 
gether into one. In such cases the law of priority forbids us to cancel all 
the original names and impose a ew one on this compound genus. We must 
therefore select some one species as a type or example, and give the generic 
name which it formerly bore to the whole group now formed. If these ori- 
ginal generic names differ in date, the oldest one should be the one adopted. 

§ 9. In compounding a genus out of several smaller ones, the earli- 
est of them, if otherwise unobjectionable, should be selected, and its 
former generic name be extended over the new genus so compounded. 

Example——The genera Accentor and Prunella of Vieillot not being con- 
sidered sufficiently distinct in character, are now united under the general 
name of Accentor, that being the earliest. So also Cerithtwm and Potamides, 
which were long considered distinct, are now united, and the latter name 
merges into the former. 

We now proceed to point out those few cases which form exceptions to 
the law of priority, and in which it becomes both justifiable and necessary to 
alter the names originally imposed by authors. 


[.A name should be changed when previously applied to another group which 
still retains it. | 


It being essential to the binomial method to indicate objects in natural 
history by means of éwo words only, without the aid of any further designa- 
tion, it follows that a generic name should only have one meaning, in other 
words, that two genera should never bear the same name. For a similar 
reason, no two species in the same genus should bear the same name. When 
these cases occur, the later of the two duplicate names should be cancelled, 
and a new term, or the earliest synonym, if there be any, substituted. When 
it is necessary to form new words for this purpose, it is desirable to make 
them bear some analogy to those which they are destined to supersede, as 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 113 


where the genus of birds, Plectorhynchus, being preoccupied in Ichthyology, 
is changed to Plectorhamphus. It is, we conceive, the bounden duty of an 
author when naming a new genus, to ascertain by careful search that the 
name which he proposes to employ has not been previously adopted in other 
departments of natural history*. By neglecting this precaution he is liable 
to have the name altered and his authority superseded by the first subsequent 
author who may detect the oversight, and for this result, however unfortu- 
nate, we fear there is no remedy, though such cases would be less frequent 
if the detectors of these errors would, as an act of courtesy, point them out 
to the author himself, if living, and leave it to him to correct his own inad- 
vertencies.- This occasional hardship appears to us to be a less evil than to 
permit the practice of giving the same generic name ad libitum to a multi- 
plicity of genera. We submit therefore, that , 

§ 10. A name should be changed which has before been propose 
for some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species 
in the same genus, when still retained for such genus or species. 


[A name whose meaning is glaringly false may be changed.] 


Our next proposition has no other claim for adoption than that of being a 
concession to human infirmity. If such proper names of places as Covent 
Garden, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Newcastle, Bridgewater, &c., no longer sug- 
gest the ideas of gardens, fields, castles, or bridges, but refer the mind with the 
quickness of thought to the particular localities which they respectively de- 
signate, there seems no reason why the proper names used in natural history 
should not equally perform the office of correct indication even when their 
etymological meaning may be wholly inapplicable to the object which they 
typify. But we must remember that the language of science has but a limit- 
ed currency, and hence the words which compose it do not circulate with 
the same freedom and rapidity as those which belong to every-day life. The 

‘attention is consequently liable in scientific studies to be diverted from the 
contemplation of the thing signified to the etymological meaning of the sign, 
and hence it is necessary to provide that the latter shall not be such as to 
propagate actual error. Instances of this kind are indeed very rare, and in 
some cases, such as that of Monodon, Caprimulgus, Paradisea apoda and 
Monoculus, they have acquired sufficient currency no longer to cause error, 
and are therefore retained without change. But when we find a Batrachian 
reptile named in violation of its true affinities, Mastodonsaurus, a Mexican 
species termed (through erroneous information of its habitat) Picus cafer, or 
an olive-coloured one Muscicapa atra, or when a name is derived from an 
accidental monstrosity, as in Picus semirostris of Linneus, and Helix dis- 
Juncta of Turton, we feel justified in cancelling these names, and adopting that 
synonym which stands next in point of date. At the same time we think it 
right to remark that this privilege is very liable to abuse, and ought there- 
fore to be applied only to extreme cases and with great caution. With these 
limitations we may concede that 

§ 11. A name may be changed when it implies a false proposition 
which is likely to propagate important errors. 


[Names not clearly defined may be changed. ] 


___ Unless a species or group is intelligibly defined when the name is given, it 
cannot be recognized by others, and the signification of the name is conse- 
quently lost. Two things are necessary before a zoological term can acquire 


* This laborious and difficult research will in future be greatly facilitated by the very useful 
work of M. Agassiz, entitled “ Nomenclator Zoologicus.” 


1842. I 


bal 


114 REPORT—1 842. 


any authority, viz. definition and publication. Definition properly implies a 
distinct exposition of essential characters, and in all cases we conceive this to 
be indispensable, although some authors maintain that a mere enumeration of 
the component species, or even of a single type, is sufficient to authenticate 
a genus. To constitute publication, nothing short of the insertion of the 
above particulars iz @ printed book ean be held sufficient. Many birds, for 
instance, in the Paris and other continental museums, shells in the British 
Museum (in Dr. Leach’s time), and fossils in the Scarborough and. other 
public collections, have received MS.names which will be of no authority until 
they are published*. Nor can any unpublished descriptions, however exact 
(such as those of Forster, which are still shut up in a MS. at Berlin), claim 
any right of priority till published, and then only from the date of their pub- 
lication. The same rule applies to cases where groups or species are pub- 
lished, but not defined, as in some museum catalogues, and in Lesson’s § Traité 
d’ Ornithologie,’ where many species are enumerated by name, without any 
description or reference by which they can be identified. Therefore 

§ 12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some pub- 
lished work should be changed for the earliest name by which the 
object shall have been so defined. 


[ Specific names, when adopted as generic, must be changed, | 


The necessity for the following rule will be best illustrated by an example. 
The Corvus pyrrhocorax, Linn., was afterwards advanced to a genus under 
the name of Pyrrhocorax. Temminck adopts this generic name, and also 
retains the old specific one, so that he terms the ‘species Pyrrhocorax pyr- 
rhocorax. The inelegance of this method is so great as to demand a change 
of the specifie name, and the species now stands as Pyrrhocorax alpinus, 
Vieill. We propose therefore that 

§ 13. Anew specific name must be given to a species when its old 
name has been adopted for a genus which includes that species. 

N.B. It will be seen, however, below, that we strongly object to the 
further continuance of this practice of elevating specific names into generic. 


[ Latin orthography to be adhered to.] 


On the subject of orthography it is necessary to lay down one proposition,— 

§ 14. In writing zoological names the rules of Latin orthography 
must be adhered to. 

In Latinizing Greek words there are certain rules of orthography known 
to classical scholars which must never be departed from. For instance, the 
names which modern authors have written Aipunemia, Zenophasia, poioce- 
phala, must, according to the laws of etymology, be spelt A/pycnemia, Xeno- 
phasia and peocephala. In Latinizing modern words the rules of classic 
usage do not apply, and all that we can do is to give to such terms as clas- 
sical an appearance as we can, consistently with the preservation of their 
etymology. In the case of European words whose orthography is fixed, it is 
best to retain the original form, even though it may include letters and com- 
binations unknown in Latin. Such words, for instance, as Woodwardi, 
Knighti, Bullocki, Eschscholizi, would be quite unintelligible if they were 
Latinized into Vudvardi, Cnichti,, Bulloeci, Fssolzi, &c. But words of bar- 
barous origin, having no fixed orthography, are more pliable, and hence, 
when adopted into the Latin, they should be rendered as classical in appear- 


* These MS. names are in all cases liable to create confusion, and it is therefore much to 
be desired that the practice of using them should be avoided in future. 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 115 


ance as is consistent with the preservation of their original sound. Thus the 
words Tockus, awsuree, argoondah, kundoo, &¢c. should, when Latinized, have 
been written Toccus, ausure, argunda, eundu, &c. Such words ought, in all 
practicable cases, to have a Latin termination given them, especially if they 
are used generically. 

In Latinizing proper names, the simplest rule appears to be to use the ter- 
mination -ws, genitive -2, when the name ends with a consonant, as in the above 
examples ; and\-ius, gen. -é7, when it ends with a vowel, as Latreille, Latreillit, 
&e. 

In converting Greek words into Latin the following rules must be attended 
to:— 


Greek. Latin. Greek. Latin. 
ae becomes 2. 6 becomes th. 
€L 1; i. ¢ ‘+s ph. 
os terminal, us - 4 a ch. 
ov ” um. K ” Cc. 
ov becomes u. Xx, af neh. 
ot ” a. VY ” ng- 
v ” y: ; ” Sie 


When a name has been erroneously written and its orthography has been 
afterwards amended, we conceive that the authority of the original author 
should still be retained for the name, and not that of the person whe makes 
the correction. 


PART II. 
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE NOMENCLATURE IN FUTURE. 


The above propositions are all which in the present state of the science it 
appears practicable to invest with the character of laws. We have endeavour- 
ed to make them as few and simple as possible, in the hope that they may be 
the more easily comprehended and adopted by naturalists in general. We are 
aware that a large number of other regulations, some of which are hereafter 
enumerated, have been proposed and acted upon by various authors who have 
undertaken the difficult task of legislating on this subject; but as the enforce- 
ment of such rules would in many cases undermine the invaluable principle 
of priority, we do not feel justified in adopting them. At the same time we 
fully admit that the rules in question are, for the most part, founded on just 
criticism, and therefore, though we do not allow them to operate retrospec- 
tively, we are willing to retain them for future guidance. Although it is of 
the first importance that the principle of pricrity should be held paramount 
to all others, yet we are not blind to the desirableness of rendering our sci- 
entific language palatable to the scholar and the man of taste. Many zoolo- 
gical terms, which are now marked with the stamp of perpetual currency, are 
ie so far defective in construction, that our inability to remove them without 

fringing the law of priority may be a subject of regret. With these terms 
we cannot interfere, if we adhere to the principles above laid down; nor is 
there even any remedy, if authors insist on infringing the rules of good taste 
by introducing into the science words of the same inelegant or unclassical 
character in future. But that which cannot be enforced by law may, in some 
measure, be effected by persuasion ; and with this view we submit the follow- 
ing propositions to naturalists, under the title of Recommendations for the 
improvement of Zoological Nomenclature in future. 


[ The best names are Latin or Greek characteristic words. | 


The classical languages being selected for zoology, and words being more 
easily remembered in proportion as they are expressive, it is self-evident that 
12 


116 REPORT—1842. 


§ A. The dest zoological names are those which are derived from 
the Latin or Greek, and express some distinguishing characteristic of 
the object to which they are applied. 


[ Classes of objectionable names.] 


It follows from hence that the following classes of words are more or less 
objectionable in point of taste, though, in the case of genera, it is often neces- 
sary to use them, from the impossibility of finding characteristic words which 
have not before been employed for other genera. We will commence with 
those which appear the least open to objection, such as 

a. Geographical names.—These words being for the most part adjectives 
can rarely be used for genera. As designations of species they have been so 
strongly objected to, that some authors ( Wagler, for instance) have gone the 
length of substituting fresh names wherever they otcur ; others (e.g. Swain- 
son) will only tolerate them where they apply exclusively, as Lepus hiberni- 
cus, Troglodytes europeus, &c. We are by no means disposed to go to this 
length. It is not the less true that the Hirundo javanica is a Javanese bird, 
even though it may occur in other countries also, and though other species of 
Hirundo may occur in Java. The utmost that can be urged against such 
words is, that they do not tell the whole truth. However, as so many authors 
object to this class of names, it is better to avoid giving them, except where 
there is reason to believe that the species is chiefly confined to the country 
whose name it bears. 

6. Barbarous names—Some authors protest strongly against the introduc- 
tion of exotic words into our Latin nomenclature, others defend the practice 
with equal warmth. We may remark, first, that the practice is not contrary 
to classical usage, for the Greeks and Romans did occasionally, though with 
reluctance, introduce barbarous words in a modified form into their respective 
languages. Secdndly, the preservation of the trivial names which animals 
bear in their native countries is often of great use to the traveller in aiding 
him to discover and identify species. We do not therefore consider, if such 
words have a Latin termination given to them, that the occasional and judi- 
cious use of them as scientific terms can be justly objected to. 

ce. Technical names.—All ae expressive of trades and professions have 
been by some writers excluded from zoology, but without sufficient reason. 
Words of this class, when carefully chosen, often express the peculiar charac- 
ters and habits of animals in a metaphorical manner, which is highly elegant. 
We may cite the generic terms Arvicola, Lanius, Pastor, Tyrannus, Regulus, 
Mimus, Ploceus, &¢., as favourable examples of this class of names. 

d. Mythological or historical names.—When these have no perceptible re- 
ference or allusion to the characters of the object on which they are conferred, 
they may be properly regarded as unmeaning and in bad taste. Thus the 
generic names Lesbia, Leilus, Remus, Corydon, Pasiphae, have been applied 
to a Humming bird, a Butterfly, a Beetle, a Parrot, and a Crab respectively, 
without any perceptible association of ideas. But mythological names may 
sometimes be used as generic with the same propriety as technical ones, in 
cases where a direct allusion can be traced between the narrated actions of a 
personage and the observed habits or structure of an animal. Thus when the 
name Progne is given to a Swallow, Clotho to a Spider, Hydra to a Polyp, 
Athene to an Owl, Nestor to a grey-headed Parrot, &c., a pleasing and bene- 
ficial connexion is established between classical literature and physical science. 

e. Comparative names.—The objections which have been raised to words 
of this class are not without foundation. The names, no less than the defini- 
tions of objects, should, where practicable, be drawn from positive and self- 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 117 


evident characters, and not from a comparison with other objects, which may 
be less known to the reader than the one before him. Specific names expres- 
sive of comparative size are also to be avoided, as they may be rendered in- 
accurate by the after-discovery of additional species. The names Picordes, 
Emberizoides, Pseudoluscinia, rubeculoides, maximus, minor, minimus, &c. are 
examples of this objectionable practice. 

J. Generic names compounded from other genera.—These are in some de- 
gree open to the same imputation as comparative words; but as they often 
serve to express the position of a genus as intermediate to, or allied with, two 
other genera, they may occasionally be used with advantage. Care must be 
taken not to adopt such compound words as are of too great length, and not 
to corrupt them in trying to render themshorter. The names Gallopavo, Te- 
traogallus, Gypaetos, are examples of the appropriate use of compound wofds. 

g. Specific names derived from persons.—So long as these complimentary 
designations are used with moderation, and are restricted to persons of emi- 
nence as scientific zoologists, they may be employed with propriety in cases 
where expressive or characteristic words are not to be found. But we fully 


_ concur with those who censure the practice of naming species after persons 


of no scientific reputation, as curiosity dealers (e. g. Caniveti, Boissoneauti), 
Peruvian priestesses (Cora, Amazilia), or Hottentots (Kdass?). 

h. Generic names derived from persons.—Words of this class have been 
very extensively used in botany, and therefore it would have been well to 
have excluded them wholly from zoology, for the sake of obtaining a memo- 
ria technica by which the name of a genus would at once tell us to which of 
the kingdoms of nature it belonged. Some few personal generic names have 
however crept into zoology, as Cuvieria, Mulleria, Rossia, Lessonia, &e., but 
they are very rare in comparison with those of botany, and it is perhaps de- 
sirable not to add to their number. 

t. Names of harsh and inelegant pronunciation.— These words are grating 
to the ear, either from inelegance of form, as Huhua, Yuhina, Craxirex, Esch- 
scholtzi,,or from too great length, as chirostrongylostinus, Opetiorhynchus, 
brachypodioides, Thecodontosaurus, not to mention the Hnaliolimnosaurus 
crocodilocephaloides of a German naturalist. It is needless to enlarge on the 
advantage of consulting euphony in the construction of our language. As a 
general rule it may be recommended to avoid introducing words of more than 
five syllables. 

k. Ancient names of animals applied in a wrong sense—It has been cus- 
tomary, in numerous cases, to apply the names of animals found in classic 
authors at random to exotic genera or species which were wholly unknown 
to the ancients. The names Cebus, Callithrix, Spiza, Kitta, Struthus, are 
examples. This practice ought by no means to be encouraged. The usual 
defence for it is, that it is impossible now to identify the species to which the 
name was anciently applied. But it is certain that if any traveller will take 
the trouble to collect the vernacular names used by the modern Greeks and 
Italians for the Vertebrata and Mollusca of southern Europe, the meaning of 
the ancient names may in most cases be determined with the greatest preci- 
sion. It has been well remarked that a Cretan fisher-boy is a far better com- 
mentator on Aristotle’s ‘ History of Animals’ than a British or German scho- 
lar. The use however of ancient names, when correctly applied, is most de- 
sirable, for “in framing scientific terms, the appropriation of old words is 
preferable to the formation of new ones*.” 

l. Adjective generic names.—The names of genera are, in all cases, essen- 
tially substantive, and hence adjective terms cannot be employed for them 


* Whewell, Phil. Ind. Sc. v.i. p. xvii. 


118 REPORT—1842, 


without doing violence to grammar. The generic names Hians, Criniger, 
Cursorius, Nitidula, &c. are examples of this incorrect usage. 

m. Hybrid names.——Compound words, whose component parts are taken 
from two different languages, are great deformities in nomenclature, and na- 
turalists should be especially guarded not to introduce any more such terms 
into zoology, which furnishes too many examples of them already. We have 
them compounded of Greek and Latin, as Dendrofalco, Gymnocorvus, Mo- 
noculus, Arborophila, flavigaster ; Greek and French, as Jacamaraleyon, Ja- 
camerops ; and Greek and English, as Bullockoides, Gilbertsocrinites. 

n. Names closely resembling other names already used—By Rule 10 it was 
laid down, that when a name is introduced which is édentical with one pre- 
viously used, the later one should be changed. Some authors have extended 
the same principle to cases where the later name, when correctly written, only 
approaches in form, without wholly coinciding with the earlier. ' We do not, 
however, think it advisable to make this law imperative, first, because of the 
vast extent of our nomenclature, which renders it highly difficult to find a 
name which shall not bear more or less resemblance in sound to some other ; 
and, secondly, because of the impossibility of fixing a limit to the degree of 
approximation beyond which such a law should cease to operate. We con- 
tent ourselves, therefore, with putting forth this proposition merely as a re- 
commendation to naturalists, in selecting generic names, to avoid such as too 
closely approximate words already adopted. So with respect to species, the 
judicious naturalist will aim at variety of designation, and will not, for ex- 
ample, call a species vivens or virescens in a genus which already possesses a 
viridis. 

o. Corrupted words.—In the construction of compound Latin words, there 
are certain grammatical rules which have been known and acted on for two 
thousand years, and which a naturalist is bound to acquaint himself with be- 
fore he tries his skill in coining zoological terms. One of the chief of these 
rules is, that in compounding words all the radical or essential parts of the 
constituent members must be retained, and no change made except in the 
variable terminations. But several generic names have been lately introduced 
which run counter to this rule, and form most unsightly objects to all who are 
conversant with the spirit of the Latin language. A name made up of the. 
first half of one word and the last half of another, is as deformed a monster 
in nomenclature as a Mermaid or a Centaur would be in zoology ; yet we find 
examples in the names Corcorax (from Corvus and Pyrrhocorax), Cypsnagra 

from Cypselus and Tanagra), Merulaxis (Merula and Synallaxis), Lowigilla 

Loxia and Fringilla), &c. In other cases, where the commencement of both 
the simple words is retained in the compound, a fault is still committed by 
cutting off too much of the radical and vital portions, as is the case in Bu- 
corvus (from Buceros and Corvus), Ninox (Nisus and Noctua), &e. 

p» Nonsense names.— Some authors having found difficulty in selecting ge- 
neric names which have not been used before, have adopted the plan of coining 
words at random without any derivation or meaning whatever. The following 
are examples: Viralva, Xema, Azeca, Assiminia, Quedius, Spisula. To the 
same class we may refer anagrams of other generic names, as Dacelo and Ce- 
dola of Alcedo, Zapornia of Porzana, &c. Such verbal trifling as this is in 
very bad taste, and is especially calculated to bring the science into contempt. 
It finds no precedent in the Augustan age of Latin, but can be compared only 
to the puerile quibblings of the middle ages. It is contrary to the genius of 
all languages, which appear never to produce new words by spontaneous ge- 
neration, but always to derive them from some other source, however distant 
or obscure. And it is peculiarly annoying to the etymologist, who after seek 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 119 


ing in vain through the vast storehouses of human language for the parentage 
of such words, discovers at last that he has been pursuing an ignis fatuus. 
gq. Names previously cancelled by the operation of § 6.—Some authors con- 
sider that when a name has been reduced to a synonym by the operations of 
the laws of priority, they are then at liberty to apply it at pleasure to any new 
group which may be in want of a name. We consider, however, that when a 
word has once been proposed in a given sense, and has afterwards sunk into 
a synonym, it is far better to lay it aside for ever than to run the risk of ma- 
king confusion by re-issuing it with a new meaning attached. 

r. Specific names raised into generic.—It has sometimes been the practice 
in subdividing an old genus to give to the lesser genera so formed, the names 
of their respective typical species. Our Rule 13 authorizes the forming a 
new specific name in such cases; but we further wish to state our objections 
to the practice altogether. Considering as we do that the original specific 
names should as far as possible be held sacred, both on the grounds of justice 
to their authors and of practical convenience to naturalists, we would strongly 
dissuade from the further continuance of a practice which is gratuitous in itself, 
and which involves the necessity of altering long-established specific names. 

We have now pointed out the principal rocks and shoals which lie in the 
path of the nomenclator; and it will be seen that the navigation through 
them is by no means easy. The task of constructing a language which shall 
supply the demands of scientific accuracy on the one hand, and of literary 
elegance on the other, is not to be inconsiderately undertaken by unqualified 
persons. Our nomenclature presents but too many flaws and inelegancies 
already, and as the stern law of priority forbids their removal, it follows that 
they must remain as monuments of the bad taste or bad scholarship of their 
authors to the latest ages in which zoology shall be studied. 

[ Families to end in ide, and Subfamilies in ine.] 

The practice suggested in the following proposition has been adopted by 
many recent authors, and its simplicity and convenience is so great that we 
strongly recommend its universal use. 

§ B. It is recommended that the assemblages of genera termed fa- 
milies should be uniformly named by adding the termination ide@ to 
the name of the earliest known, or most typically characterized genus 
in them; and that their subdivisions, termed subfamilies, should be 
similarly constructed, with the termination ine. 2 
' These words are formed by changing the last syllable of the genitive case 

‘into ide or ine, as Strix, Strigis, Strigide, Buceros, Bucerotis, Bucerotide, 
not Strivide, Buceride. 

[ Specific names to be written with a small initial. | 

A convenient memoria technica may be effected by adopting our next pro- 
position. It has been usual, when the titles of species are derived from pro- 
per names, to write them with a capital letter, and hence when the specific 
name is used alone it is liable to be occasionally mistaken for the title of a 
genus. But if the titles of species were invariably written with a small ini- 
tial, and those of genera with a capital, the eye would at once distinguish the 
rank of the group referred to, and a possible source of error would be avoided. 
It should be further remembered that all species are equal, and should there- 
fore be written all alike. We suggest, then, that 

§ C. Specific names should always be written with a small initial 
letter, even when derived from persons or places, and generic names 
should be always written with a capital. 


“” 


120 REPORT— 1842. 


[ The authority for a species, exclusive of the genus, to be followed by a di- 
stinctive expression. | 

The systematic names of zoology being still far from that state of fixity 
which is the ultimate aim of the science, it is frequently necessary for correct 
indication to append to them the name of the person on whose authority they 
haye been proposed. When the same person is authority both for the specific 
and generic name, the case is very simple ; but when the specific name of one 
author is annexed to the generic name of another, some difficulty occurs, 
For example, the Muscicapa ecrinita of Linnezus belongs to the modern genus 
Tyrannus of Vieillot ; but Swainson was the first to apply the specific name 
of Linneus to the generic one of Vieillot. The question now arises, Whose 
authority is to be quoted for the name Zyrannus crinitus? The expression 
Tyrannus crinitus, Lin., would imply what is untrue, for Linnzeus did not use 
the term Tyrannus ; and Tyrannus crinitus, Vieill., is equally incorrect, for 
Vieillot did not adopt the name erinitus. If we call it Tyrannus crinitus, 
Sw., it would imply that Swainson was the first to describe the species, and 
Linnzus would be robbed of his due credit. If we term it Tyrannus, Vieill., 
crinitus, Lin., we use a form which, though expressing the facts correctly, and 
therefore not without advantage in particular cases where great exactness is 
required, is yet too lengthy and inconvenient to be used with ease and rapi- 
dity. Of the three persons concerned with the construction of a binomial 
title in the case before us, we conceive that the author who jirst describes 
and names a species which forms the groundwork of later generalizations, 
possesses a higher claim to have his name recorded than he who afterwards 
defines a genus which is found to embrace that species, or who may be the 
mere accidental means of bringing the generic and specific names into con- 
tact. By giving the authority for the specific name in preference to all others, 
the inquirer is referred directly to the original description, habitat, &c. of the 
species, and is at the same time reminded of the date of its discovery ; while 
genera, being less numerous than species, may be carried in the memory, or 
referred to in systematic works without the necessity of perpetually quoting 
their authorities. The most simple mode then for ordinary use seems to be 
to append to the original authority for the species, when not applying to the 
genus also, some distinctive mark, such as (sp.) implying an exclusive refer- 
ence to the specific name, as Tyrannus crinitus, Lin. (sp.), and to omit this 
expression when the same authority attaches to both genus and species, as 
Ostrea edulis, Lin.* Therefore, 

§ D. It is recommended that the authority for a specific name, when 
not applying to the generic name also, should be followed by the di- 
stinctive expression (sp.). 

[New genera and species to be defined amply and publicly. ] 

A large proportion of the complicated mass of synonyms which has now 
become the opprobrium of zoology, has originated either from the slovenly 
and imperfect manner in which species and groups have been originally de- 
fined, or from their definitions having been inserted in obscure local publica- 
tions which have never obtained an extensive circulation. Therefore, although 
under § 12, we have conceded that mere insertion in a printed book is suffi- 
cient for publication, yet we would strongly advise the authors of new groups 
always to give in the first instance a full and accurate definition of their cha- 
racters, and to insert the same in such periodical or other works as are likely 
to obtain an immediate and extensive circulation. To state this briefly, 

_* The expression Tyrannus erinitus (Lin.) would perhaps be preferable from its greater 
brevity. 


ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 121 


§ E. It is recommended that new genera or species be amply de- 
fincd, and extensively circulated in the first stance. 


Ae The names to be given to subdivisions of genera to agree in gender with the 
original genus. | 

Tn order‘to preserve specific names as far as possible in an unaltered form, 
whatever may be the changes which the genera to which they are referred 
may undergo, it is desirable, when it can be done with propriety, to make 
the new subdivisions of genera agree in gender with the old groups from which 
they are formed. This recommendation does not however authorize the 
changing the gender or termination of a genus already established. In brief, 

§ F. It is recommended that in subdividing an old genus in future, 
the names given to the subdivisions should agree in gender with that 
of the original group. 

[ Etymologies and types of new genera to be stated.) 

Tt is obvious that the names of genera would in general be far more care- 
fully constructed, and their definitions would be rendered more exact, if 
authors would adopt the following suggestion :— 

§ G. It is recommended that in defining new genera the etymo- 
logy of the name should be always stated, and that one species should 
be invariably selected as a type or standard of reference. 


In concluding this outline of a scheme for the rectification of zoological 
nomenclature, we have only to remark, that almost the whole of the proposi- 
tions contained in it may be applied with equal correctness to the sister sci- 
ence of botany. We have preferred, however, in this essay to limit our views 
to zoology, both for the sake of rendering the question less complex, and be- 
cause we conceive that the botanical nomenclature of the present day stands 
in much less need of distinct enactment than the zoological. ‘The admirable 
rules laid down by Linnzus, Smith, Decandolle, and other botanists (to 
which, no less than to the works of Fabricius, Iliger, Vigors, Swainson, and 
other zoologists, we have been much indebted in preparing the present docu- 
ment), have always exercised a beneficial influence over their disciples. 
Hence the language of botany has attained a more perfect and stable condi- 
tion than that of zoology; and if this attempt at reformation may have the © 
effect of advancing zoological nomenclature beyond its present backward 
and abnormal state, the wishes of its promoters will be fully attained. 


(Signed) H, E. StrickLanp. J. S. Henstow. 

June 27,1842. Jounx PuHivuies. W. E. Sauckarp. 
Joun RicHARDSON. G. R. WATERHOUSE. 
RicHarp OWEN. W. YARRELL. 

, LEONARD JENYNS. C. Darwin. 


W. J. BRopERIP. J. O. WEestTwoop. 


Report of a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science, consisting of Lieut.-Colonel W. H. Syxxs, F.R.S., Lord 
Sanpon, M.P., G. R. Porrer, Esq., F.R.S., J. Hevwoon, Esq., 
F.R.S., Dr. W. P. Auison, and EK. Coapwick, Esq., on the Vital 
Statistics of large Towns in Scotland. 

Your Committee, in pursuance of the Resolution of the General Committee 

of the Association in 1840, at Glasgow, selected the towns of Edinburgh 

(with Leith), Glasgow, Aberdeen, Perth and Dundee, as best suited for their 

inquiries, from their population, the occupations of their inhabitants, and 


122 REPORT—1842, 


their local positions, not only as affording data for useful comparison be- 
tween towns having a corhmon character, but also between those with dif- 
ferences in their social organization or in their physical circumstances. Mr. 
Alexander Watt of Glasgow, who has established a claim to public respect 
by his Mortality Bills of Glasgow and other statistical works, was good 
enough to undertake the severe labour of accumulating the facts which con- 
stitute the present Report. From the very imperfect state of the Registers 
of Marriages, Births and Deaths in Scotland, it required no ordinary perse- 
verance and tact to obviate the deficiencies; but Mr. Watt’s zeal enabled him 
to surmount all difficulties, and he presented to the Committee a series of facts 
absolutely embarrassing from their amount and elaborate and detailed cha- 
racter. Mr. Watt’s facts were comprised in 119 tables, and in the state in 
which they were presented it was found that, together with the text, the re- 
port would occupy 199 pages of the annual volume of the Association, a por- 
tion of the volume which the Committee felt they ought not to desire to have 
appropriated to their report. With this feeling a re-arrangement of the tables 
and text was attempted, and by new modelling, dove-tailing and trifling omis- 
sions of certain columns in the tables, and by some omissions and reconstruc- 
tion of a few paragraphs in the text, the tables have been reduced to eighty 
in number, and the pages occupied by the report will not exceed eighty-seven. 
It is believed that these alterations have been effected without the omission 
of any important facts; it certainly has been effected without the omission of 
one of the original tables, although it must be admitted that certain columns 
have been left out in the marriage tables to which Mr. Watt attaches some 
weight ; and in justice to him this explanation is made. But the marriage 
tables, as a whole, are necessarily imperfect, and the omission therefore of 
details intended to explain the elements of the totals in the marriage tables 
it was thought might be made without injury. The original manuscript, 
however, of the report will be deposited in the archives of the British Asso- 
ciation, and will be available to those whq may be desirous of instituting 
comparisons between it and the printed report. 

While the sheets of this report were passing through the press, the Fourth 
Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths and Marriages in 
England was presented to Parliament. As it contained later information than 
that on which the tables for English towns, LXXV., LXXVII., LX XIX. and 
LXXX. of this report, had been originally founded, it was thought right, 
with a view to insure greater accuracy, to substitute the present tables of 
the mortality in England for the former tables. The elements for determin- 
ing the averages in tables LXXV., LXXVII. and LXXIX., are supplied by 
the Registrar-General’s report ; and table LXXX., containing the proportion 
of deaths to the population in certain English towns, has been copied from 
the same report. The English tables offer valuable standards of comparison 
with those from the Scottish towns. 

The Committee close their Report on the Vital Statistics of large Towns 
in Scotland with the expression of their regret that the want of a systematic 
plan for the registration of marriages, births and deaths renders their report 
less perfect than they could have desired ; nevertheless the facts accumu- 
lated open out a prospect of ascertaining, in the continued progress of their 
researches, certain physical laws in vital statistics, the knowledge of which 
may be of considerable importance, not only in the formation of more cor- 
rect estimates of the value of life in the different relations of society, but also 
in guiding the judgement of the legislator and the philanthropist in encoun- 
tering the physical evils resulting from moral causes. 


W..H. Sykes, Chairman of the Committee. 


123 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 


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125 


TICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 


ON THE VITAL STATIS 


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ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 127 


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129 


ON THH VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 


1842. 


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“XI TTAV LE 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGH TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 131 


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132 


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Pa nk a ee ee eS ge 


133 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 


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(‘panuyuog) °X ATAVYI, 


134 REPORT—1842. 


MARRIAGES. 


Till within these three years the amount of proclamations of marriages has 
enerally been given as the amount of marriages, both in the Glasgow and 
Dundas mortality bills, the only towns in Scotland where attention has been 
paid to the regular publication of bills of mortality. The preceding tables of 
the proclamations of marriages for Edinburgh and Leith, Glasgow, Aberdeen, 
Perth and Dundee, furnish sufficient evidence, that to assume the total num- 
ber of the proclamations as the amount of marriages, in any case, is exceedingly 
fallacious. For example, Table III, shows that in Edinburgh, in 1839, the 
proclamations of marriages amounted to 1269, whereas the number of regular 
marriages (Table I.) amounted only to 1026, A similar difference will be ob- 
served between the amount of proclamations and the number of marriages du- 
ring the several years for all these towns, arising from a number of the parties 
residing in different parishes, in which cases there are two proclamations for 
one marriage. The arrangement which has been followed in these tables is 
that lately adopted in the Glasgow mortality bills; and, in the event of the 
clergyman who celebrated the marriages, as well as the other parties con- 
cerned, haying adhered to their strict line of duty in enforcing the parties 
married to produce the proper warrants of the preclamations of banns from 
their respective parishes, the accuracy of the results in these tables is not to 
be doubted. It is known, however, that several irregularities take place with 
regard to the fulfilment of the law, in relation to the proclamations of mar- 
riages,—a circumstance which necessarily produces some inaceuracy, however 
slight, in the results brought out in the marriage tables, ; 

The proclamation fees are considerably lower in some parishes of Scotland 
than in others, and parties have been known to make false statements of their 
places of residence to escape paying the higher fee; this has taken place - 
more especially in those cases where one of the parties resided in the parish 
where the low fees are paid. In other cases this irregularity has taken place to 
save the payment of double fees, which would be necessary, were the parties 
proclaimed in their respective parishes as required by law. Cases are also 
known in which ministers have married parties on the production of one 
warrant, although the parties were known to have resided in different pa- 
rishes; so that marriages have taken place in a few instances where the war- 
rants were not called for. On the other hand, some cases have oceurred in 
which the parties were not married although the warrants were called for, 
These cases may therefore be considered as balancing each other; and not- 
withstanding these irregularities, the foregoing tables of marriages, con- 
structed as they are from the returns made by the respective session clerks, 
may be considered as nearer to the truth than any tables in other depart- 
ments of vital statistics in Scotland, arising from the very defective and par- 
tial system of registering births and deaths that exists in the country. 


EDINBURGH. 


It will be found, that of the inhabitants of the city of Edinburgh, ineluding 
the parishes of St. Cuthbert’s and the Canongate, the average annual number 
of males married during the years 1839, 1840, and 1841 is 10092, females 
10504 ; the total average annual number of individuals married during these 
years being 2060. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 135 


Therefore the average annual number of males 
married in Edinburgh, compared tothe num- 
ber of male inhabitants ascertained by the 


Census of 1841, isas 2... wees eee eee 1 to 60°725, or 1°646 per cent. 
The average annual number of females mar- 

ried, to the female population, as........ 1 to 73°185, or 1366 per cent. 
Greater proportion of the male than of the fe- . — 

male population married, by ..........++e+++ 9s Bade bb 4 0'280 per cent. 


While there is on an average of these three years 0°280 per cent, more of the 
male than of the female population of Edinburgh married, it appears that on the 
average of these years there is 3°87 per cent. more females than males married*. 

The average annual number of individuals married, to the total population, 
is as 1 to 67:078, or 1:490 per cent. 

It will be observed, that in the different tables of the proclamations of 
marriages, it is assumed that all the females after marriage went to reside in 
the parish to which their husbands belonged, and the females of the double 
proclamations are accordingly deducted to obtain the amount of the resident 
marriages. The following table is constructed on this principle. 


Tasre XI. 


Exhibiting the proportion which the resident marriages in EDINBURGH 
and suburban districts of St. Cuthbert’s and Canongate, during the years 
~ 1839, 1840 and 1841, bear to the population of these years. 


. . Proportion of Marriages to the 
Years, | Population, | Marriages. | °""Dcpulation being as 2 to 


1839. 137,756 1030 133°743, or 0°747 per cent. 
1840. | 187,986 998 138262, or 0°723° 
1841, | 138,182 1007 137-221, or 0°728 


The average annual amount of marriages, to the mean po- 
pulation, of these three years, being as 1 to 186:394, or 0:733 
per cent. 


LEITH. 


_ It will be found, that of the inhabitants of North and South Leith, the 
ayerage annual number of males married during the years 1839, 1840, and 
1841 is 2552, females 246 ; the total average annual number of individuals 
‘married during these years being 5013. 
Therefore the average annual number of males 
married in Leith, compared with the num- 
ber of males as ascertained by the Census 


of 1841, isas.......... yc spe de dee Re 1 to 51°857, or 1°928 per cent. 
The average annual number of females mar- 

ried, to the female population, is as,..... 1 to 61°508, or 1°625 per cent. 
Greater proportion of the male than of the fe- —— 

male population married, by ............2+ee+- seers 0°303 per cent. 


While there is on an average of these three years 0°303 per cent. more of the 
male than of the female population of Leith married, it appears that on the ave- 
rage of these years there is 3°65 per cent. more males than females married t. 


* By the Census of 1841, there are 125°37 females to every 100 males in Edinburgh. 


‘ Lee the Census of 1841, there are 11427 females to every 100 males in North and South 
eith, 


136 REPORT—1842. 


The average annual number of individuals married, to the population, is 
as 1 to 56°593, or 1°767 per cent. 


Taste XII. 


Exhibiting the proportion which the resident marriages in the parishes of 
North and South LEITH, during the years 1839, 1840 and 1841, bear to 
the population of these years. 


3 4 | 
| Years. | Population. | Marriages. Peper rsion, betes) 2 ne 
1839. 27,846 246 113-195, or 0°883 per cent. 
1840. 28,103 246 114-239, or 0°875 i... 
1841, 28,372 274 | 103°547, or 0-965 


The average annual amount of marriages, to the mean po- 
pulation of these three years, being as 1 to 110:063, or 0-908 
per cent. 


EDINBURGH AND LEITH. 


As the inhabitants of Edinburgh and Leith are so intimately connected 
with each other, the results obtained from the marriages of the two com- 
bined, to their united population, may be the nearest to the truth. These are 
as follows. 

Of the inhabitants of Edinburgh and Leith, the average annual number of 
males married during the years 1839, 1840 and 1841 is 1265, females 12962 ; 
the total average annual number of individuals married during these years 
being 25614. 


The average annual number of males married 

in Edinburgh and Leith, compared with the 

number of males as ascertained by the 

Census of 1840, teasi oo e2 setae eae ae 1 to 58935, or 1°696 per cent. 
The average annual number of females mar- 

ried to the female population, as........ 1 to 70°969, or 1°409 per cent. 
Greater proportion of the male than of the fe- —_ 

male population married, by ........ a arava ea een ora -- 0°287 per cent. 


While there is on an average of these three years 0-287 per cent. more of 
the male than of the female population of Edinburgh and Leith married, it 
appears that on the average of these years there is 241 per cent. more fe- 
males than males married *. 

The average annual number of individuals married, to the total population, 
is as 1 to 65°026, or 1°537 per cent. 


* By the Census of 1841, there are 123-40 females to every 100 males in Edinburgh and 
Leith. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE ‘TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 137 


TasxE XIII. 


Exhibiting the proportion which the resident marriages in EDINBURGH 
and LEITH, during the years 1839, 1840 and 1841, bear to the’ popula- 
tion of these years; also the average annual amount of marriages to the 
mean population. 


. 5 Proportion of Marriages to the 
Years. Population. | Marriages. Populdtion; being as’) #6 


1839. 165,602 1276 125782, or 0°770 per cent. 
1840. | 166,089 1244 183:512, or 0748... 
1841. |} 166,554 1281 180-019, or 0°769 


The average annual amount of resident marriages, to the 
mean population of these years, being as 1 to 131:088, or 
0°762 per cent. 


GLasGow. 


The tables of marriages published in the Glasgow Mortality Bills for 1839, 
1840 and 1841, show that of the inhabitants of the city of Glasgow and the 
suburban parishes of Barony and Gorbals, the average annual number of 
males married during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 1841, was 21861, 
females 21664; the total average annual number of individuals married 
during these years being 4353. 

Therefore the average annual number of males 
‘ married these five years in Glasgow and 
_ suburbs, compared with the number of 

males as ascertained by the Census of 

Lisi SLSR CUE REA AD ok SRA DOME aL aL tee 1 to 61°333, or 1°630 per cent. 
The average annual number of females mar- 

ried, to the female population, as........ 1 to 68°325, or 1:463 per cent. 
Greater proportion of the male than of the —- 

female population married, by.......... Sos alta aaa 5 0:167 per cent. 

While there was on an average of these five years 0°167 per cent. more of 
the male than of the female population of Glasgow married, it appears that 
on the average of these years there was 0°887 per cent. fewer females than 
males married*. 

_ The average annual number of individuals married, to the total population, 
is as 1 to 64°813, or 1°542 per cent. 


* By the Census of 1841, there were 110-41 females to every 100 males in Glasgow. 


138 REPORT—1842, 


TABLE XIV. 


Exhibiting the proportion which the resident marriages in GLASGOW and 
Suburbs, during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 1841, bear to the 
population of these years; also the average annual amount of marriages 
to the mean population. 


Proportion of Marriages to the 
Population, being as 1 to 


1837. 128-200, or 0-780 per cent. 
1838. 116-457, or 0858. 
1839. 127-272, or 0°824_—,,.. 
1840, | 272,900. 118-962, or 0°840 


282,134 118-444, or 0-844 

The average paved meattteat of marriages, to the mean 
population of these fiye years, being as 1 to 120-290, or 0-831 
per cent. 


ABERDEEN. 


It will be found, that of the inhabitants of New and Old Aberdeen, the 
average annual number of males married during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 
1840 and 1841 is 4522, females 454; the total average annual number of 
individuals married during these five years being 9062. 


The average annual number of males married 
in Aberdeen, compared with the number 
of males as ascertained by the Census of 
1841, 18:08 ¢-...6 sees ae cvctigieaaere>-sa; 140 62°609, or. 1°497 percent. 

The average annual number of females mar- 


ried, to the female population, as........ 1 to 80°266, or 1°245 per cent. 
Greater proportion of the males than of the a f 
female population married, by ..,....--+++++;++:+++;  0°352 per cent. 


While there is on an average of these five years 0°352 per cent. more of 
the male than of the female population of Aberdeen married, it appears that 
on the average of these years there is 0°30 per cent. more females than males 
married *. 

The average annual number of individuals married, to the total population, 
is as 1 to 71°451, or 1°399 per cent. 


* By the Census of 1841, there were 128-59 females to every 100 males in Aberdeen. 


ne 


2 nei, aioe 
ee 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 139 


: TABLE XV. 


Exhibiting the proportion which the resident marriages in ABERDEEN, 
_ during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 1841, bear to the population 
. of these years; also the average annual amount of marriages to the mean 
population. 
Proportion of Marriages to the 
Population, being as 1 to 


Population. | Marriages, 


LSS _——————————————— SS 
61,985 460 134-750, or 0-742 per cent. 
62,672 456 137:438, or 0727 ss, 
63,366 483 146°341, or 0683. : 
64,068 A485 147-282, or 0678 
' 64,778 AG9 135-235, or 0739... 


"The average annual amount of resident marriages, to the 
mean population of these five years, being as 1 to 140-004, or 
0-714 per cent. 


PERTH, 


It will be found, that of the inhabitants of Perth and suburban district 
of Kinnoul, the ayerage annual number of males married during the years 
1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 1841 is 140, females 1482; the total average 
annual number of individuals married during these years being 2883. 


The average annual number of males married 

in Perth and Kinnoul, compared with the 

number of males as ascertained by the Cen- ; 

Peudiot 4e4l, te epee). 4s pene eee . 1 to 73’471, or 1°361 per cent. 

The average annual number of females mar- 

ried, to the female population, is as...,., 1 to 80*094, or 1°248 per cent. 
Greater proportion of the male than of the ‘ — 

female population married, by ...... eecrensenenecees OL1S per cent. 


. While there is on an average of these five years 0°113 per cent. more of 
the male than of the female population of Perth married, it appears that on 
the average of these years there is 5°66 per cent. more females than males 
married *. 

_ The average annual number of individuals married, to the total population, 
is as 1 to '76°879, or 1-300 per cent. 


* By the Census of 1841, there were 115°55 females to every 100 males in Perth. 


140  REPORT—1842. 


Tasie XVI. 


Exhibiting the proportion which the resident marriages in PERTH and the 
suburban district of Kinnoul, during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 
and 1841, bear to the population of these years; also the average annual 
amount of marriages to the mean population. 


Proportion of Marriages to the 
Population, being as 1 to 


Years. | Population. | Marriages. 


1837. 22,489 142 158-373, or 0°631 per cent. 


1838. 22,409 145 154-544, or 0647 
1839. 22,330 153 145-947, or 0°685 
1840. 22,251 127 175-204, or 0570... 
1841. 22,172 132 167-969, or 0595... 


The average annual amount of resident marriages, to the 
mean population of these five years, being as 1 to 159-728, or 
0°626 per cent. 


DuNDEE. 


It will be found, that of the inhabitants of the town of Dundee, the ave- 
rage annual number of males married during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 
and 1841 is 519%, females 5044; the total average annual number of indi- 
viduals married during these years being 10234. 


Therefore the average annual number of males 
married in Dundee, compared with the to- 
tal number of males as ascertained by the 


Census of 1841, is aS,... 22.222 e eee: -» 1 to 54°486, or 1°835 per cent. 
The average annual number of females mar- 

ried, to the female population, is as...... 1 to 65°904, or 1°517 per cent. 
Greater proportion of the male than of the eon 

female population married, by-............ SUTUS Lo S168 percent. 


While there is' on an average of these five years 0°318 per cent. more of 
the male than of the female population of Dundee married, it appears that 
on the average of these years there is 2°96 per cent. more males than females 
married *. 

The average annual number of individuals married, to the total population, 
is as 1 to 60°109, or 1°663 per cent. 


* By the Census of 1841, there were 117:37 females to every 100 males in Dundee. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 141 


Tasie XVII. 

Exhibiting the proportion which the resident marriages in DUNDEE, during 
_ the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 1841, bear tothe population of these 
years; also the average annual amount of marriages to the mean popula- 
_ tion. 


Proportion of Marriages to the 


Years. Population. | Marriages. Population, being as 1 to 


1837. 54,467 506 107-642, or 0-929 per cent. 
1838. 56,156 535 104-964, or 0952... 
1839. 57,897 550 105-267, or 0:949_ ... 
1840. 59,691 478 124-876, or 0°800 

1841. 61,540 529 116-332, or 0-859 


The average annual amount of resident marriages, to the 
mean population of these five years, being as i to 111-426, or 
0:897 per cent. 


TasieE XVIII. 


Average annual proportion of marriages in the towns comprised in the Re- 
port compared with each other. 


Marriages Marniages 
of Per- to Per- 
Individuals centage, Population centage. 
4 as 1 to as 1 to 

Edinburgh and Leith.....| 65°026 1:537 131-088 0-762 
Glasgow and Parishes..... 64:813 1-542 120-290 0-831 
@ | Aberdeen..........seesceeee 71-451 1:399 140-004 0-714 
Perth and Kinnoul.........) 76°879 1-300 159-728 0:626 
Dundee ........+... eSesesena 60:109 1-663 111-426 0:897 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


The principal objects held in view in arranging the foregoing statistical in- 
formation, have been to exhibit as accurately as possible the annual number 
of individuals married who are resident within the boundaries.of the chief 
towns in Scotland, and to compare the amount of annual marriages which 
take place on an average of years, in the belief that observations on the dif- 
ference in the amount of annual marriages in those towns where the condi- 
. tion of the inhabitants is so various may lead to interesting results. 

The differences in the amount of these annual marriages are found to be 
very great; but to point out the exact causes of these differences would re- 
quire a more minute and accurate knowledge of the moral condition and 
physical circumstances of the people than we are possessed of, and would 
exceed the limits of this Report; but by the statement of facts contained in 
the preceding pages an advance is made which has long been desired in 
Scotland, where so little attention has been generally paid to vital statistics. 
The tables open a new field, though still a limited one, to the statist whose 
object it is to trace the immediate causes of changes which affect the welfare 
of the people, with a view to suggest such improvements as may arrest in 
its progress a retrograde movement in the condition of the inhabitants of 
large towns: a movement to which public attention has lately so frequently 
been drawn. 


To acquire, for instance, a correct knowledge of the causes of the great 


142 REPORT—1842, : 


difference in the amount of annual marriages in Perth and in Dundee, would 
be of moment. These two towns are situated within twenty miles of each 
other, with every facility of intercourse by coach and by steam-boat. 

A large proportion of the inhabitants of Perth are in easy and comfortable 
circumstances; and it will be observed, that the average annual amount of 
marriages in that city for the last five years is 1 to 159°72, while in Dundee, 
where there isa large proportion of poor and destitute people, as appears 
from the great proportion of burials at the public expense; the average an- 
nual amount of marriages for the last five years, to the mean population, is 
as 1 to 111-42! : 

In Edinburgh, exclusive of Leith, the average annual amount of marriages 
for the last three years, to the mean population, is as 1 to 136°39, while in 
Leith, with numerous poor, they are as 1 to 110°06 to the mean population of 
these years. In Glasgow and suburbs, where a very large proportion of the 
inhabitants is in destitute circumstances, arising from the influx of labour being 
greater than the demand, and from other causes, the average annual amount 
of marriages, to the mean population, for the last five years, is as 1 to 120°29. 

And in Aberdeen, where the poor and destitute bear a much smaller pro- 
portion to the whole inhabitants than they do in Glasgow, the average an-+ 
nual amount of resident marriages is as 1 to 140:°00*. It would appear 
from these observations, therefore, that in those towns where there is the 
greatest amount of poverty and destitution, and where, as will afterwards 
appear, the mortality is greatest, the annual number of marriages is the 
greatest. It is to be feared a moral law is here shadowed out, the result of 
physical causes; but we would not, however, be understood as coming at 
once to this conclusion, although in accordance with other observations, as 
there is much yet required to be done by the statist before we can arrive at 
a full and accurate knowledge of the social condition of the inhabitants of 
large towns in Scotland. Were the registers so kept that we could ascertain 
the ages and occupations of the parties married, more light would be thrown 
on this subject. 

The law for the regulation of marriages in England allows parties from a 
distance, by a residence of eight days before marriage in any of the towns, 
to be recorded in the Register of Marriages as inhabitants of the town. 
This is understood frequently to take place, and more especially where one 
of the parties is an inhabitant of the town; consequently the amount of 
marriages for some of these towns, as exhibited in the reports of the Regi- 
strar-General, must appear greater than they really are; and, compared with 
those towns of Scotland for which the marriages are stated in the preceding 
pages, would lead to inaccurate results. It would be desirable to ascertain 
the amount of the male and of the female inhabitants married of each town 
and district, which is not shown in the Registrar-General’s reports, with a 
view to give an accurate knowledge of the proportion of the marriages in 
any given place to the population of that place. It is necessary to remark, 
that in the preceding tables of marriages, instead of deriving our informa- 
tion from the amount of marriages which take place, and which are nearly 
as imperfectly recorded in some registers as the births, owing to the care- 
lessness and inattention of the parties themselves, we were obliged to have 
recourse to the records of the proclamations of marriages, to which, in all 
cases of regular marriages in Scotland, both the parties married and the 


* Tt is also worthy of observation, that in Perth, on an average of years, there are an- 
nually married 82 more females than males; in Dundee 152 more males than females; in 
Edinburgh 413 more females than males; in Leith 95 more males than females ; in Glasgow 
203 more males than females ; and in Aberdeen 13 more females than males. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 143 


clergymen who celebrate the marriages, are bound by law strictly to ad- 
here. Were records of marriages as strictly enforced as those of the pro- 
clamations, we would have been enabled to avoid errors to which our present 
statements are liable. 

_ A uniform and well-digested plan of registers for England, Scotland and 
Ireland, and also for exhibiting the information deduced from them, would 
obviously be of high iniportance; and the results obtained by this uniform 
plan, by showing the effects produced on the amount of births, marriages, 
disease and death, by the condition of the people in different states of so- 
ciety, whether of town or ¢ountry, rich or poor, of sedentary or of laborious 
employments, might ultimately lead to salutary laws for the amelioration of 
the condition of the people. 

The system adopted in the registers of marriages in England, and the 
mode of publishing the amount of individuals married in the large towns, do 
hot admit of an accurate comparisor with the amount of individuals married 
in towns similarly situated as to local circumstances in Scotland. 

The extent to which prudential motives operate on the respectable portion 
of the mechanies and artizans of towns in prevention of early marriages, 
appears to be considerable. The desire to establish themselves first in com- 
fortably furnished houses is alone a sufficient check. But if we look to the con- 
dition of that numerous class of the inhabitants of towns who have sunk— 
more especially of late years—into a reckless state of poverty; and where the 
woes of fever and other diseases, together with a limited supply of work 

+ which they can earn a livelihood, have reduced masses of them to an 
extreme state of wretchedness, we shall find a very different feeling. In the 
large towns of Scotland this wretchedness is known to exist not only from 
personal inquiry, but it has been ably pointed out in late publications *. 
So far from it operating as a check, the very hopelessness of their condition 


- ‘would seem to make this class blind and callous to consequences ; and uniohs 


are formed which ultimately can only enhance their sufferings. 

The importance of obtaining correct statistical information, therefore, as to 
the amount of annual marriages among the different classes of society requires 
no further illustration ; and though we are aware of the caution to be ob-- 
served in coming to any conclusion from the facts yet obtained and detailed 
in the foregoing pages (imperfect as the system of registration may be from 
which our data are obtained), yet these data prove that the greatest amount 
of marriages is found to take place in those localities where the greatest 
proportion of the wretchedly poor are congregated together; and this fact 
goes far to strengthen the opinion that the diminution of destitution, by 
raising a great miass of the town population above their present reckless state 
of poverty, would prove a salutary check upon early marriages, by giving a 


_ taste for the comforts and decencies of lifet. 


! * Seé the work of Dr. Alison, Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in the University of 
Edinburgh ; of the Hon. Archibald Alison, Sheriff of Lanarkshire; and of the Rev. Dr. Chal- 
mers, Professor of Divinity in Edinburgh, on the poor. The publications of C. R. Baird, 
Esq., Captain Miller and the late Dr. Cowan of Glasgow, Mr. Wilson of Aberdeen, Sheriff 
Barclay of Perth, the Rev. Mr. Lewis of Dundee, Mr. Simons, Dr. Taylor, and many others. 

_ + It may be noticed in proof of the effect of habitual destitution on marriage and population, 
that the handloom weavers, the poorest inhabitants of Glasgow, are known to marry earlier 
than any other class. This fact is stated by Mr. C. R. Baird, in his ‘ Report on the General 
and Sanatory Condition of the Working Classes and the Poor in Glasgow.’ And 455 . 
weavers outof work, whose cases were examined and reported to the Association for Inquiring 
into the Pauperism of Scotland, in Edinburgh, by Captain Miller of Glasgow, had among them 
1851 children. Many other striking examples to the same effect are stated by Dr. Alison in 

_ his work on the Poor-Law of Scotland. ‘ 


REPORT—1842. 


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ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 145 


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146 REPORT—1842. rr) 


BIRTHS AND BAPTISMS. 


The inattention which prevails among parents in Scotland in regard to the 
recording of the births of their children in the public registers, even though 
the parties themselves continue to experience great inconvenience on many 
occasions on account of the omission, is so very great, as to render the ab- 
stracts of births of no avail to the statist, in so far at least as regards the 
statistics of human life. If we compare the proportion of births recorded for 
England and Wales, as exhibited in the Registrar General’s Report for 
1839-40, the year for which the number of births for England have been 
most fully ascertained, we may form a pretty correct judgement of the deti- 
ciency of the registers of births in Scotland. The proportion of births re- 
corded for England and Wales for 1839-40 to the population of 1841 is 
3°153 per cent., while the number of births or baptisms recorded for Edin- 
burgh and Leith for the years exhibited in the preceding abstracts, to the 
mean population of these years, isO’992 per cent.; for Aberdeen 1°311 per cent.; 
for Glasgow 1°160 per cent.; for Dundee 1°4.97 per cent.; and for Perth 1°704 
per cent. It will thus be perceived that the smallest proportion of births or 
baptisms are recorded for Edinburgh and Leith, and the greatest for Perth ; 
and that the whole of these records are so incomplete, as to give no indica- 
tion of the true number of births for these towns. 

The preceding abstracts of births or baptisms are useless to the statist, 
and the only advantage to be derived from their publication is the proof they 
afford of the utter inefficiency of the present mode of registering births in 
Seotland, and to show the necessity there is for some legislative measure 
being obtained to remedy this great national defect. Among the public as 
well as private advantages which would arise from the improvement of Scotch 
registers of births, it may be mentioned, that, in the event of an alteration 
taking place in the Poor Laws of the country, complete registers of this na- 
ture would be the most legitimate and least inconvenient means of proving 
the birth-place of parties requiring aid from the public funds. 

More than one attempt-has been made in Glasgow to obtain complete re- 
turns of the amount of children baptised, from the clergymen of all denomi- 
nations, within the limits of the bills of mortality, without leading to a 
satisfactory result. It \is‘ therefore to be feared, that this very important 
branch of the vital statistics of Scotland must remain incomplete till Govern- 
ment be induced to apply a remedy. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 147 


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REPORT—1842. 


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TABLE XXXII.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of EDINBURGH an¢ 
18 periods of life at which they took place; with calculations showing the total number of deaths ateach period, and th 
the population. c 1839.—Populatior 


Under 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50° 
1 & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under 
Diseases. Year. 2, 5. 10. 1b. }) By: 30. 40. 50. 60. 


F.|M.| F.|M.| F.|M.| F.|M.| F.|M.} F.|M. 


wi Ltd} 99 

ee I ee ae oe “ol 

Bowel Complaints. ode | od 
Catarith ccttcns.: sa0 saute el be ma (ee he = be 

Childbirth «....0¢...| 2. |... Sh a tae) 


12] 19} 18| 14| ‘59 
slh3 


oes kes G0 4| 3 
7\12 
1} 2) 3 
AoA ye eS We) | ae 4); 2) 6 4 
Hooping-cough.... sei lie 
Inflammation....... 6| 4] 38 


Peer Oren etna 


8} 8) 9) 11) 15} 14, 8 1 


137|135/123)135/137|136)138|12 
14) 11} 15) 19) 25) 18) 15) 14 


178|149/124|143 151)146/188)154/162|154)153/14 


es a _- 


519 | 327 | 267 | 159 | 90 | 87 | 997 | 299 | 316 | 294 

Propor. to whole ! 1 , : ; ; } ’ F 
Death is as 1 vol f 64] 13] 126] 211} 373) 386) 113] 15] 106] 11-4 
To the Population.| 265-4 | 421-2 | 515-9 | 66-3 |1530-6|1583-4| 463-8 | 471-7 | 435-9 | 4685 


TABLE XXXIII.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of EDINBURGH an 
18 periods of life at which they took place; with calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and tk 
the population. 1840.—Populatic 


Bowel Complaints.| 6 


9) 51 
Dl ecell 


Hooping-cough ... 
Inflammation ...... 


et eee ee a ey eee 


se teeenees 


358 
Propor. to whole : Ne : 3 : fi , F 4 é 
Deathia'ts axl t0 6-05 | 102 | 91 | 16-76 | 34-46 | 55-04 | 12-58 | 12-94 | 11-56 | 13-17 


To the Population.) 226°5 |[385-4 | 340-7 | 627-2 | 1289-5 |2059:3| 470-9 | 484-1 | 432-5 | 492-8 
154 


ithan districts of St. Cuthbert’s and the Canongate during the year ending December 31, 1839, classified according to 
a, which these, and the number of deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to 
756. 


75 80 85 90 95 100 
under | & under | & under | & under | & under} & under} & up- 
wards, 


Ages not 
ascer- 
tained. | 


_ | Proportions to the 


Whole | Popula- 


85. 90. 95. 100. Deaths.| tion. 


1to every| 1 to every 


1743-7 
3123 
2221-8 
637-7 
8103-2 
5298-3 
28699 
231-1 
1287-4 
441-5 
470-1 
2551-0 
4051-6 
483-3 
593-7 


8 +18} 4) 9} 2 | ...7:. 


9)18}4)9),2). 


OO Se ee ee 


. |1525'1552|3077 
151 


156} 21-5 


11 
137| 288) 11-6 


4919-8 
27551 
3359°9 

883-0 


44-7 
4783 


i 


OOS nn PEPE FET oN ORE TTA 


. |1676)1689/3365| 1-0 


40-9 


| 97°} 27° | 13°] 2 3365 
34-7) 124-6| 2588] 1682- 10 
26-4 | 1020-4 | 1147-9 | 1420-1 | 5102-0 | 10596- | 68878- 40-9 


——— 


coast of St. Cuthbert’s and the Canongate during the year ending December 31, 1840, classified according to 
7 h these, and the number of déaths from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to 


80| 461 
425; 86 
57| 64:7 
229} 16+1 
2} 8) 461-0 |17248-2 
20/ 184-4 | 6899°3 
47| 78-4 
594} 6-2 
130} 28:3 
285} 12-9 
282} 13:0 
35] 105°3 
268) 13:7 
275| 134 
69) 5d°4 
6| 13) 283-6 
85) 43°38 
164) 22-4 
118} 233) 158 


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4}10}4}1 


1) 4) 1) 3 
| 61} 21 | 58 | 35 | 52 
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/43|64|81|54|/23/28| 4/10) 5/1/14] 1 (17 
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90 | 47|65)/31|58| 24/28] 5 


11 
9°4 


72>) 137 | 112 89 52- 16 6 59 3688 
356 26-9} 329] 4144] 70:9| 2305|614-66| 1844-| 625 10 


78. 1007°2 | 12320 | 1550-4 | 26536 | 8624-1 | 22997: | 68993- | 2338-7 | 37-414 
| CER nes | 155 


ha 


TABLE XXXIV.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of EDINBURGH. 
18 periods of life at which they took place; with calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and t 
the population. 1839.—Populati 


Under 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 
1 & under | & under} & under} & under} & under | & under} & under | & under} & 
Diseases. Year. Of 5. 10. 15. 20. 30. 40, 50. 
M.| F.|M.} F.|M.| F.|M.] F.|M.| F.|M.| F.|M.| F.| M.| F.] M. 
Accidents ........... Zi sal|) 2) 1 7 2] 4] 1} 2] 4 13) 4) 8) 2) 6) 3 
PIG BO, J arian scteetndy « apui] en 7|) <0 ew fie aati iea'l| ge silfe 
AUSHAT Ae cose settee s|iees.|6Did| ce | aa>,|rcce lors wot] tl base owls | “ade 1; 2; | 5| 5) 6 4 
Bowel Complaints.| 91} 66] 23] 21] 7) 5) 2]...| 2]...] 2] 1] 2} 2) 1) J | 8 
Crabtree memeeer <n Liga). 1) Liss | wacilwesifices pices il/ece fi one | oes [ieee ate Gate Nich itieoei lt eet 
Childbirth ..........|... |... si | eel abil eal feces embulte dee | eet |) aap 15] ...} 18)...] 3}. 
Croup) scaday. dese... 7| 1 6} 11) 12/12) 1) 2}...]... Mh apf smb mtg sete ere bette |g otal 
Decline..........:... 32) 27} 10} 12) 16)11}21}13}10| 9) 22/19) 57] 63! 59] 60} 43) 50 
DILOPBY i 406+--se55. TV}eu) 1) ...) 4) 2) 5) 11...) 2) 1) 1) 5) 9] AL 14) Weir 
Fever....cccceeeeses-| 4) 2) 2) 3) 7/11)15/11| 3]}12]11] 6| 21] 24) 44) 42) 36] 34 
Head, of ............ 42) 44) 18) 16) 17/12/10) 8) 2) 7} 1) 38} 7 3] 9} 11} 10) 11 
Heart, Of c..0ss...|csk MONT] We] 2 | seatf est] 2) ol BS) 2) Bl ws) Bh Gp 
Hooping-cough...| 12) 13} 9) 4) 4) 7|...] 3]...]... acta | web t| lene cee bambi ate nals) | Galeotti 
Inflammation ...... 31} 22) 17) 13] 11 4/13} 2) 5] 5| 5] 138] 23] 10) 12] 9} 14 
Measles........+++05 Ay oly Bios) 2 seo \])eep | gen | cap.) seni 'gob.| see | imee:|) PE ecEal ieee il Toub lt 
Nervous .......++.+. 5} 4/...} I} 1 LY ast eas eT et GL ie Ue es ARS 2 
Scarlet Fever ...... 8} 2) 6) 4] 21 71}10| 2 21.0) Bl dina Falls 
Small-pox ..........| 5) 3} 1) 4! 6 Ue BSS ie Vy eek) Bliek | ek| eee ome, teeta ara | 
Miscellaneous......| 38) 40] 2) 2] 6 5; 3} 4} 6] 3] 1] 4] 9} 13) 13] 6} 22) 23) 1 


Total ascertained.../283/232|100| 94/129| 87 | 76 |72| 26 | 45 | 58 | 41 [1301160 165|1831135\171\146l1 
Do. not ascertained) 55] 47} 14) 8] 14/10} 6| 9|.7] 3] 6] 4] 4) 3] 7| 5! 10) 13] 13/1 


| Deaths, M. and F.../838)279)114/102|136| 97 | 82 | 81 | 33 | 48 | 64| 45 \134/163)172/188]145|184/159/1 


Cee een OR es 


Total.....-00 617 | 216 233 | 163 81 109 | 297 | 360 | 3829 | 323 


Propor. to whole , , ‘ ; : é ; Y P b 
Destin ia ac 1 tel 8 16-2 | 15:0} 215 | 43:2) 32-1] 11:8 97 | 106} 10 


To the Population.) 223:9 | 639-7 | 593-0 | 847-7 | 1705-9 | 1267-7 | 465-2 | 383-8 | 420-0 | 427- 


TaBLE XXXV.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in North and South LEITH duri 
showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number of deaths from 


1840.—Populati 
Alccidents..... scsvee-|Peee | cde] cee | ce StL siz 1) 2}2[ 4 1 4]... 
Aged ..ccesseseseeces}isoe | sceilfeoe | ove | cae lone | one fe sa 
ASEDM Ars cccs<ctpore| ise | oe2| ce SSA SE ANSE aS apis 2 1 
Bowel Complaints.) 16|16}10; 3) 1] 1]...| 1]...]... 1 1}. De les 1}. 
MDA ge Toate abhisce fhe. | ‘erie | Pata ll veto | cee NIRA ESE Leta SE 1 Ee: ee aS ut 
bald inti se dedecsscahtaes || beesp occ] des | tots ale cali SUE + tel livable ESE Hawt | Boe 
COUP. ...eseeeceeeees| vee 7) IR as Ba AV Ue Pe ES bee hares fe te I aml eae 
Decline ...........+- Gi sects 45) ccf De 2) -2)-1)-2) 2) 413 ].81138) 7) 9) 6 5S 
Dropsy spies. cesses «idee | Saa)| oo Pca eae! Sey bea eh Ly 2) oot Ditheene 0 
Fever .:2dic..zeuice liesatl lede|l. hes, Vg 1 2) 2| 3] 4] 6] 6] 4 
Head, of ........0+4. del aeerte bh Be BA a De cae a (es 2) 1) 1) 3 
Heart, Of cscet tee. 4\fees:|| opel |) see.| ie eices ete diote| [Peal eseiltesedte atl sasilgredliess 
Hooping-cough ...J 3} 6) 9) 7| 5| 6} 1] 1)...]... eeulie oral ieee 
Inflammation....... Son Mee Bl Ad Viet 2 2) Ti Bie 3s 
Measles ........20++- SP fet en be 2 I spill de 
NEeTrvouS.......cese0e J Peel beionul este ll acats[{ ents (cs ol 5 La 
Scarlet Fever.......|%.. 2) 4] 1) 9] 6} 5) 3) 1 LWP as all be § Bl ees| tovb ultecs 1 
Small-pox .......... 2 Neel dees | cen eo Ve sep ah 
Miscellaneous...... Bil Malte top eo atolls aed ll ] 3} 2| 4] 4 
Total ascertained...| 41 | 43 | 40| 18 | 25 | 32|23|}13| 3 | 5 |14] 8 |16| 24] 19) 28)| 23/19 
Do.not ascertained] 8}10} 5) 5| 8} 9] 5| 1/2] 11]} 2]...| 2] 5/11] 5] 8] 7 


ELOEAL. se «<0 102 68 74 42 11 24 AZ 63 57 

Propor. to whole ; f F ‘ i : : : é 
TMadihnin na i to } 67 | 10-1 93} 16:4 | 62:7] 28-7) 146] 10:7) 121 
To the Population.) 275°5 | 413-2 | 379°9 | 699-1 {2554-8 | 1170-9) 597-9 | 446-0 | 493-0 | 573° 
ER EE a es Cla | | PD head sah Oe De Meese we er 


156 


‘districts of St. Cuthbert’s and the Canongate during the year ending December 31, 1841, classified according to 
ion which these, and the number of deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to 


82 


60 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 |Ages not Proportions to the 
under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under} -&up- | ascer- Total. | aa 
75. 80. 85. 90. 95. 100. | wards. | tained. @ 4 | Whole | Popula- 
1 RRR TES PRR AS) FEO eee SS SS ee a eee | es Deaths.| tion. 
M.| F.|M.| F.| M.| F.| M.| F.| M.| F.]M.} F.|M.] F.]™M. | FF.) M. | F. z 1to every|1 to every 
———— |_| —_| >. _ | —_ | | | |__| | | | — |) —_— | | | | | | 
1} 3} 1] 3] 1) 7) 1) 1 eT yal et Pal WE Eat Wl Re WL 56} 31] 87} 40:3 | 1588-2 
40} 65) 34) 43/23)59|12)22| 7) 6) 1) 3)...)..)... 172) 262) 434) 8-0 318°3 
aN POH AD) ec} ses 2 He 1} 32} 37| 69} 50-8 | 2002-6 
1} V1 we aed aad 138) 111) 249} 14:0 554-9 
Fg MOTE He ae ae = 2 9} 11}3818-8 |12562:0 
seetlt ana" its we wee 36} 36] 97:4 | 3838°3 
ape ay Perel ab 27| 26) 53) 66-1 | 2607-2 
eRe Ue Sed Hos 1} 310! 307] 617) 5:6 223-9 
6| 5) 2} 5) 1} 2 63) 84} 147) 28:8 940:0 
Ff ee Ra Rd ae 186} 192) 378) 9-2 365°5 
9| 8 6} 3) 3). 2]...)...]..- 166} 167) 333) 10:5 414-9 
eet apt | dee [reese | « 36} 28) 64) 54:7 | 2159-0 
balls dee hee 25) 27| 52) 67:4 | 2657-3 
a 2}... 1} 116) 188) 254) 13:8 544-0 
oe © te We 8 oat i oat bead ee 9 2} 11/3818°8 |12562-0 


16} 11) 27) 129°8 | 5117°8 


wae | wee | wee 


Pe igi a He TW) ee “5 i 127| 129| 256} 136 | 539-7 
72 |100l 47|57(29|66{13/2417/7/1131...|...| 1] 3li54iiledssisis4| 11] 43:3 
|S Soe Ran ec De Ce 7 |/11| 166 157| 323| 108} 497-8 

167) 79 |108| 49|59|29|67/13/24/ 7/7] 1] 31...|...] 8 |14|1707|1800/3507) 1-0 | 39-401 


—- | —L_— 


Taye | 108° | | 96°) ap) (4h) ) 488) iO) aa) abo7 
2 | 187 | 324) 365) 947] 2505| 876) ... | 1594) 1-0 
(44-3 | 738-9 |1279-4 | 1439-3 | 3734-6 | 9870-1 |34545-| ... |6281-0| 39-401 


IPM er Ei goes) Jes eA skies item eweilidatteeiice il desl ee | shee] IQEY -71y-28:) Laon) TORE 
14}16/11/15) 9 )11) 2) 5 ]...) 3 L |. |e] ee]. | 45) 57/102) 67 | 275-5 
Seaton | as | ces | ss less | abarl ees 7| 3) 10) 69:0 | 2810:3 


Be) beth ct cus ticetece ee hicd deed outs aol an loc) a1) gabhone qe be eie9 
el ede EL A eg] ©): <8 Laaeehegeg-e 


Re Ch aT coef uedueetatee | aae'f eee] coetl ast ever] cot cost (eee | oo 4b 4 07 aebe 7025-7 
pees eth lt ed heb tet ca] hla af oct| dl 2 Sy 2} Bb 7am [2341-9 
“sa TER Be ee ea) A a re Pa 43| 40| $3] 83 | 338-5 

oo gh A] IRR RE RS ae We ed ee 8| 13] 21] 32:8 | 1338-2 

EIN A a Ree ea RE aT Oe Be We 19| 24] 43] 16-0 | 653-5 

1 SH alee tea dete cdl |e eel ea es 16| 20] 36] 19-1 | 780-6 

Pe Res eel ee ae 2| 2) 4/1725 | 7025-7 

er eta eed es 18] 20} 38] 181 | 739-5 

1 11 RS PRS OTN Be al | OC ea Ae es ot Be 28| 16] 44] 15:6 | 638-7 

atte lsecclteatiteeiticctlicceleeatheel mec oatee elas 8| 5] 13) 53-0 | 2161-7 

eS CT RE Se REDE ee ea ee Re Wee ee ee 1 1| 690-0 |28103-0 

oh ER PRS PRS RS TS OE We We Be 20) 14} 34] 20:2 | 826-5 

Mea ios| eel Patani Pala ctl A, 2) °5| 7) 985 | 4014-7 

a 2 vecfecefece| 12] 15} 27] 25:5 | 1040-8 

18}16}13}17)/ 9/11] 2) 5]..) 8} 0.) Dye} fide. 2861279|565| 1:2) 49-7 

-o here |) eel pC FSR Ro Pg le ae Aa Pe ps Dn ...| 67] 58/125] 55 | 224-8 


éfaalislielisli7j9lijels]...{3]...l1|...1.../...1... [358 /337/690| 1-0 | 40-728 
tea pl eons A ete (2 setae fe Sac pastas fe Meeeee: Anhentrer iets aoe * 

ES ae ae ee se a 

11s | 202] 230) 345) 985] 2300} 690] .. |... 1-0 

484-5 | $26:5 | 936-7 |1405-1| 4014-7 | 9367-6|28103-| ... |... | 40-728 


* Exclusive of 26 in Newhaven. 157 


showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and 


Deaths is as 1 to 


wee l wee 


Under 
1 

Diseases. Year. 
M.| F. 
Accidents ,.....4+.++| se. ae 

awed ba tpey..- Se 
ASthMA) <5 50 sparpes digs. ike 
Bowel Complaints.) 20 | 24 
Catarrh 1 
Childbirth a 
Croup: spoes}-- ps0 oy 1 
Decline 6 
Dropsy asa 
BVEN s wtp igs « -hecesty« 2 
Head, of. 1 
EleGrt, Of;<;..,5c500}as- 1 
Hooping-cough....| 2| 2 
Inflammation ..,... 6| 8 
MBBRCS iss pisasest irs | ode 
Nervous.,...-.005++- 2 | Ley 
Scarlet Fever...,...|... ] 
Small-pox .......... 4| 4 
Miscellaneous......| ... 2 
Total ascertained.,| 50 | 53 
Do.not ascertained) ...| 3 
Deaths, M.and F...| 50 | 56 
DDotalvp: site 106 
Propor. to whole 57 


Pye XXXVI,—Exhibiting the number of fatal coms of disease that occurred in North and South LEITH, rin 


the number of deaths from th 
1841 -—Pop atio) 


1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 
& under | & under} & under | & under} & under | & under | & under | & under | & unde: 
2. i¥ 10, 15. 20. 30. 40. 50. 60, 
M.} F.|M.j F.| M.| F.| M.j] F.}| M.} F.| M.} FL] M.] FB, M, F.| M. F, 

ie] Alotel. 2] Mleeloc] Al dl 4l cel ldal alae) elie 
Fe i Ra pS A i 1} 11..1 dl a) al el 
Fahey nD eae ToT el asl 
el MSlatdacteet talc acca Ltn ae) ae 
Te] 20 TSP SPT SP eta Fh St Ola oral 
Sy Wh a al SCAT ATE at fails 3] 4 
24} 4)8} Bf Tl) 3] ot até! zlas} sliolqal 6l10 
6| 3 4] 5] 8) 111 ]}..) 1]..]..1 at at af al al elon 
AT LT ae 1] Db | el 
Bia el tel Gleb | cbetecke | abe BF ee er ee a 
ve] 8) Lon s AA Ue ok 3}°2) 3) 113) 17 
Weletel Pl Aclelebclelclcclecleclact aT Meee a 
ORL RS 1 a a UTR OTe ate 
WF 1 Se GW al a a Se Ag As bg ea 
ART Dl chelated oped chal al cpcl cel sat et PML i Cau let 
20| 24/17) 16/13) 10] 4 | 6 |12| 6 | 25/24/38 |95|29| 29130 | a4, 
ede Tae teil delat dP TL | ade) al eee ele 
20/25|17]16|13{10| 4 | 7 |13| 7 |28|24|40|25{/31|a0/34| 24 
45.| 33 | 93.| 11 | 20 | 52 | 65 | 6h,| 58,4 
136 | 185 | 266| 55-7| 306] 117!] 941 100] 105 


545°6 | 436-4 | 465-1 | 489-1. 


TasBLeE XXXVII.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that oceurred in the City of ABERDEEN a B 
calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number o 


Deaths is as 1 to 


1837.—Populatig 


To the Population.| 866°7 | 659-4 | 455-7 | 673-7 | 1549-6 | 1087-4 | 712-4 | 503-9 | 548-5 613-7, 


Accidents .....,,....| ..- SFal dpe ra | ee dent Tet asd «nc 24.) 2 2) -g) tp ey ate 
BOC a eetbanaaesuedot lives |icee:| =p = deo ligss | Sad eeell aoe shed sooth «nel [tse ol] oe Paed bach b del bool ei 
WAR Wikis. ossthh-sp]ine [iet- | oes mee Liasailuaeasl aealll textile apa shalieber lice tis 4} iL] '2) 12] 
Bowel Complaints,}11} 3) 8| 7] 6} 4]...|...]. aS choll deol ate: Lobe | se Te a 
Gatarrh .sciis.<i--+-1 cy Ri G Te oe hed bs al il: eo {act 2) 4) 9|'9 
Ghildbirth, ;...5..:-h})o-. | oe | coe | ae god Wiel dee ilies : Salicea tees Deel (BAbaildbs tad ata 
CLOUD $4425..2-G4--, Via ih Bl Peeteail tox dest |, ace 1 A A ge aledes Lee babe ae ee 
Decline .........25++. UF Pe eae foefere| (2) (4) (21 21 40 Lila) 4} 5, OT iS Sy tay tee 
DOREY. Gish > 0 ge dee 1k) Ree] feet) RM Hides, trae Pits 2) 2) sy 1S) Se ee 
Fever. (iu.5.., 53. >> Deeb) Liv26y TT Lt iTT it) ST 6t 8) 6 iaay pay tet ae 
Head, DESE..0Gep-- Beet | tas dee DP MS HEL heel RG dowrd alec] des 1 ay ye ia ae 2 
Heart; ipE,5 fj -pe +> Ege Pst tes Peaupee il eee fig betas doanliae dso 400) Reo a | Biehl 
Hooping-cough....| ... Vota Fa 1) YP Sa A «| sesidi duet] deblbae ett a oi iaele [ha 
Inflammation ......| 2]... |... iG 2 en NE A Lil) 2] 3] 2 ee eLie ina 
Measles........02.+ DR Aipeest ype 1 40) Hes) plow | bc ae es OL a (P= 2h eat te oe | daa 
Nervous .....-...++. A oi Od Sn eA PA eel bade onl bad didaantite alllide > fact de obdides) ide xt aa 
Scarlet Fever.......} ... |... SR er AES OA) ea ER Pe ke 1 eed Py OF aS 
Small-pox .......00.] o0+ | eve | eee Nisei ees tibss | soe} bee | ponc| tesil dae) |idise deailids Lleeasitiaesl |/eectt eeotind 
Miscellaneous...... deo | EE er) leh | Oe) bad ow 1 Bs 3} 2) 2] 1] 4} 2) 6] € 
Total ascertained..| 41 | 28 | 23 | 18] 84 | 38 13| 14 6} 5/12) 5}17|19] 19} 33 | 27 | 24] 22] 24) 
Do. not ascertained) 56 | 44 | 31 | 22 | 29 | 35 et baz 15 | 14] 17 | 23 | 25 | 26 | 31 | 40 | 27 | 35 | 28) 2 
Deaths, M.and F...}97 | 72|54| 40| 63|73| 53/39/21 |19|29| 28] 42| 45/50/73 /54/59| 50/5 
POtal ip <sicaves 169 94 136 92 40 57 87 123 113 101 | 
Propor. to whole)| go! 148] 102] 15:1| 348] 244] 160] 1031 123 137 


158 


-year ending December 31, 1841, classified antag % to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with calculations 
Wera diseases, bear to the total numb er of deaths, and also to the population. 


70 cs pi Ages not Proportions to the 
! faa | & under ee inder seunde Ar sender &under| & up- | ascer- ‘ ; ‘ 
75. 90, 100. wards, | tained, Sante ‘dan 


ito eve every} 1 to every 


bo bo Re bo OD CO 


_ 


- 


18} 8 | 8} 34138} 6) 5) 14.6)... )..6] 2) ..6]--. |---| 803 | 290) 593} 1:0 
1 stale atoswdhins ahcapailinbaetliap aiteas cde | CHO 2005 Ob 

soel[ere | eve] soe [ove | eee] oe] O14) 299/613). 1:0 
— Se joe * 


a 613 
38:3] 383) 55:7| G613°| ... ted be 10 
B | 945-7 | 1773-2 | 1773-2 | 2572-2 | 28732-| ... fou a: 46-283 


during the peer ending December 31, 1937, classified ctr’ to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with 
from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population, 


24) 11) 14 7\i3 “BIS 7}i0 ey 


«| ewe | wee 


$104). bad chaos ie-b-rleshal 29g GIO 587 
4a ee BS wee [ese | eee | oo | 382] 423) 805 


- | 659 | 733 |1392 


1392 
10 
44529 


* Exclusive of 34 in Newhaven. 


Taber XXXVIII.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of ABERDEEN andj. 
calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number of 


Diseases. 


seseeeeeens 


Catarrh 


Croup 


HEGGCE, Ofsse>.sc2ece8 
Hooping-cough ... 
Inflammation 
Measles 
Nervous 
Scarlet Fever 
Small-pox 
Miscellaneous 


aeeeee 


seeeee 


Total ascertained... 
Do. not ascertained 


Deaths, M.andF... 


Propor. to. whole 
Deaths is as 1 to 
To the Population. 


1838.—Population}, 
Under | 1 2 5 10 15 0 30 0 o 
1 & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under J 
Year 2. 5. 10. 15. 50. 60. if) 
————— |] | —____]| |__| 
M.| F. || e-}a.] e. || F.} | F. | or, r.|M.| F.| | F | 
ee | eR feta ay peal RM Cee mt me ee a ta | ————| |__| 
Sh) Bae 2) 2} 1}-11 1}. eeu | 
oN ieeey eee eee das Pedatbeetheaeabe corte oo eh ak Se all 
lee il adetfisaetlscer| saett seat eeeh Pea oe] 2) 2 A | 
GS Sp Bl Me Wl olen ee te ed eg eed ae | 
Revif sae'| weatfiaeet|” wal Mer) weahh ts gartds nah Soa" [fo b.cti|iterg at Cote Sk reek eee ] iW 
bee fiwastltace'fscot| sect lt otf mee} enw wastl ves nbd feadetn 24 *see 
vee] vach| eae} BL BT BA B 9| 5} 1} 3] 
DB): By By. LE) Sl: Ll 9| 4| 5) 2 
del Ble ee a ee |-  L 1; 1| 3) 3 
Pes | bee Sa" Sastl ceatt tenant eect htebar| Neett ya Ne be 
1] slr eee les A en a a 5 eal ste ltees!] scene 
PAIS) cbc ss. 2) 1) 2) 1) 4]. 4| 3} 2) 2 
>] ie a Ga) Cd Oe ned a De Uy a a De wod'['eb all 
15[ TS) Dts Be Ltd cats 4 ho] sell 
1 ie] Pe) ore ce o8 a nod 2) a 3 ¥ ae 
GE) a Bale By eae]? de] aT oil tatetey | alee 
GLE cehe Dae Dye dye Dada Dele 3) 3) 5| 4 
49| 45/14/18 /97/15|20/14113] 5 31/21 | 19/20. 
62) 55) 35 | 26) 58 | 35 |25|28)18) 10 33 | 28 | 42| 42 & 
111}100} 49 | 44 85 50 | 45 | 42131115 50/62/61 | 64/49|61. 62 | 
211 93 135 87 46 113 123 
66 15-1 10-4 | 16-2 30°6 ‘12-4 11-4 


Tasie XXXIX.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of ABERDEEN an 
calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number ¢ 


PRGRIMETS oe teeeset| nec ficcetl cae lees 1 Oe Oe eae 
Avr edeeecccessscscesss| (ses || lew] vee |(cquil sosil| lanai] vee ebay we 
Asthma..... pal Sacilteet abel icee tiie ceniiheb's 
Bowel Complaints.} 3} 2]. Bi sail cael ool hes Bears 
MEANT eee ecco es cal erailisces| seaileboil tcGetl eben ieee lessell etl aac 
MHA M TELS oe: oeac] fas Lesvos tone antace bel cee lone 
rapes saescarssoes| coe i|feaall coeiisse ies i haes [chai spe |rame 
Decline ..........+8. 1 ie bol We EON ea fatal iiete's epi: 
Dropsy ....... “anecr|Wal| Solis 5 55 eee 5 “ea he ILA Sou fib Soh ae 
WCVEtiteceerecsten saat] ieee |iacel| eos Fil kston aes aay le 8 a a 
Head) Df, cccsceves UTR) Pics I aes OD al Ui Pace is a We i 
Heart, of Ale Uoleen dle otiteren eibete Tope cbs Irene’ 
Hooping-cough ...) 2] 1] ...] 2} ..e} eee] eee] oes eet 
Inflammation ...... AOS eet cere ie tas. 
Measles .........+..- UA) oe Ele tig aD a aU 
Nervous ............ Pe tic ONTE ST be shel] see |'ams 
Scarlet Fever .:....]:-.] eco} Lec} 11. 1 bibs Sy 
MAE POs se casaceea| cop | enmdl ewe|iaead| (ood) pee te 
Miscellaneous......|... 1 il cect oss Pee bS sth 
Total ascertained...|14}14] 6}11/11/10} 6} G| 7| 1 
Do. notascertained| 52 | 53 |}37|35|51|45|31)20) 11/10 
Deaths,M. and F...| 66 | 67 | 48 | 46 62| 55 37 | 26)18)| 11 
Totals. cess 133 89 7 63 29 
Propor. to whole f ee d ‘ ; 
Deaths is as 1 to shed eis he Sib A alg 


To the Population.| 476-4 | 711-9 


552-7 | 1005-8 | 2185-0 


1839.—Populatio 

Wea, ND ET OL: dyad 

niateccluct el dete a eae 
Oe iis es Wee oe Ltt os 

acto tacl Etch pee eet da 
shalabglalstslals 3 
eet cteed| ee | wees Hast etapa eee lee 1 
1} 1} 3} 3} 7] 1) 11513] 1 

Pest at tL Pore 1| 2 

slilsislalalsbslsl: 
wef |ove ve ae fone one fan a 
a ies Dies is as ee Chacha 
31 WT te Lbs ates mae 
at wee Pesteae Tt Bil ae 
13| 5!10/13/15|13|12/19\13| 8 
19] 14| 29 | 32| 30/23 |27|35 | 41|35 
32/19]39| 45 | 45|36|39|54/ 54/43 
51 | 84 | 81 | 93 | 97" 

225| 1361 141] 123] 118 


1242-4| 754-3 | 782-2 | 6813 | 653-2 
160 


| 


suburbs during the year ending December 31, 1838, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with 
“T is from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population. at RAE 
072. 


-60 70 75 80 85 90 95 100. | Ages not Proportions to the 

& under } & under | & under | & under | & under | & under} & under} & up- | ascer- |~ Total. 4 | Whole | Popula- 
ee pL ee EL roeh ) | tee) ) | Sri Shustd Tar |. Fae. | oor 33 Deaths,| tion. 
Jp let 


1to every] 1 to every 


ee a Seve ee eean Sees ee es a 


MT eld fo.) tales facts] al alte] -tg)astsctse| a} 5] 18) gaa 
9/15| 6/16| 6liz} 8{13} 2] 9] 1] 1]...} iy. dy .. ...| 382] 67] 99} 14-2 
each cleat ee aul cadens | decderclccdscdeed es] i 8) 20 | 19)" 7a 
@]...|. 1 t: 13| 19] 32] 44-0 
Bi). bi 2} 5] 7/2015 
Sea i a | Bl 3/4703 
elit Oh 4} 1| 5] 282-2 
dal. S 40| 29| 69] 20-4 
TB) 5. E Ag 6| 3] 9[156-7 
im! 2 A Ps aE a Be Ney eS hy 37| 27| 64] 22-0 
on. ons J. 18| 18} 36} 39-1 
Pehel | i. + 3 3| 470-3 
det. 1. a 4| 4| 911763 

2). + 31| 17| 48| 29-3 
Bed Be Ai 8 14| 100-7 
Bert: A 16| 14] 30) 47-0 
b hie 9} 6| 15| 94-0 


28|28| 8/16] 6|12| 913] 2| 9| 1| 1|...| 1|...|...|-..|...|304|272| 576) 2-4 
98 3212/24] 14/13|14]17| 6] 7) 1] 2}...)...|- 1 yaga| 411} 935} 1-6 
5660/20) 40/20|25|/23|30| s{i6| 21 3]...| 1|...| 11... |...}728|683l1411| 1-0 | 
16 | 60 | 45 | 53 | 24 5 1 Eaib|.api| | 14h 
121 | 235| 31:3/ 266| 587| 292| 1411-| 14u1-| ... 1-0 


540-2 | 1044-5 | 1392-7 | 1182-4 | 2611-3 | 12534-| 62672: | 62672-| ... 44-416 


ip bs during the year ending December 31, 1839, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with 
aths from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population. 
as, 
10| 114°9 
67| 17-1 
7| 164-1 
10] 114-9 
9] 574-5 
2) 574:5 
2574-5 | 
38] 30-2 
1]| 104-4 
35| 32°8 
26] 44-1 
3) 3830 
5} 229°8 
34| 33:7 
1]} 104-4 
9| 127-6 
7| 164-1 
6} 191-5 
12| 16} 71:8 
2 | cc]... | 145]156] 301) 3° 
1|...}483|415 | 848) 13 


is 


113) 3) 9) 6| 9] 2] 3] 2) 83] Ll... [fed 28 
2 


pesdsw kan 
{c=} ae 
bo 


— 
a 
_ —— : 
Oren co Co ket or re Oho bho” sho 


bo" 


1]...}578|571 {1149} 1-0 


1149 


wed aed) 55148 
M 161 


Tisne XL—Exhibiting the nuinber of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of ABERDEEN i page be 
calculations showing the number of deaths at each period, and the propottion which these, and the number : 
1840. —Population 


a 


eat re ee pms ae SR a ee eT Oe a a a a a a ac el 


Perce re eee 


Hooping Cough ... at 
Inflammation ......):..] IT]. ).-- 


wee | eee | wee 


Scarlet Fever.......} -.- 
Small-Pox. ..250..c8}'s50 [ode] obo [see 
Miscellaneous...... 


EE | | | 


Total ascertained...| 13 | 10) 12 
Do. notascertaitied 60 | 48 | 47 | 40 | 64 | 56 


a ee ee ees ee pe 


Total......+0 
Propor. to whole 
Deaths is as 1 to +108 
To the Population. 489°0 616-0 


TAsie XLI.—Exhibitin Sy nuiiber of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of ABERDEEN 3 
calculations showing the t number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, ac the number 
1841,—Population 


i} | Accident$....1.....+ I). Tae 
|. | Aged.....00+. op apd) obehl abe 
| | Asthind......sees- apere le 2Bhvtg 
| | Bowel Complaints 3 aise}: og 
} | Catarrh.. sve base fate 
j Childbirth site coe fruse fate 
Croup ..ceeesdeeerees “ee Pate 
. tis = Es Waa. tifidae [eed | aet-f ves 2). 2). 3 
TO ecoscccdetscosal coe soe | ob 
he sepacee deeceoes 1 2 +e: 
| | Head, OBA ,cfiis.uf DPAE | Sp Bp Dp Bp Be Dpaoact cee paeepdoey | Mpa) Oy seeds 3} 24-8 
| | Heart, GE ie. othe =e odie diobal 
: Hooping-cough .. as 3 43 cts} doe-bioer faba fioha 
Inflammation «....- : 4 1} ...| 2 
} Measles ::ssdesteertapteee | tes | 2 fia:faes cach death coach cea f des p dese coarh das-b dee | dow | aeurf covsf cee Pose tiene fone 
| | Nervous .....+.--.+- F . ods 
| | Scarlet Fever......| zo | he ode 
Small-pox ..:.....--}--+ | s+ olay 
_ | Miscellaneous -....- des 1}. 3} 2 
Total ascertained...| 12 | 16 9) 1 14 
Do. not ascertained) 65 | 44 7 13 | 16 FA 31 | 26 | 24} 27 |23 | 28 
Deaths, M. and F. .| 77 38 40 32 | 28) 19 u 29 25 | 44} 48 | 43 | 37 ni 30 42 
/ Totalj......4. 71 68° 
{ |Propor. to whole ! . rr ; , 
Deaths is as 1 to } a7 : oaks 


To the Population. —_ his 830-4 | 10796 | 2159-2 1378-2 | 704-1 | 8077 | 9123 | 952% 


to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with, 
also to the population. 


hd ending Decémber 31, 1840, ‘classified accordin 
ey aang De bear to the total number of deaths, an 


“tel Oa 85 90 P, 4 
& under) & under| & under] & under | & under | & under} & up- A | Papportons to the 
ty 80." HY 90. 95. : i & Whole Popula- 
Deaths.} tion. 


1 toevery}1 to every 


see] eee eee 


692'0 
1384-0 
B84 


Cet ae Se SS. ae 


aa ae ae 
ee ee See 


- * ee 


nb dng the year Siding December 31, 1841, Classified : bapadians to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with! 
it from the = diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also a the population. nets if 


62 “a 45 29 
‘166 (26°2!| 22-9] 356 Nese 2585 | 1034- 


TABLE XLIL—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of PERTH (not including 
they took place; with calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, 
1837. Populate et 


ae 
be 


sidan IPO Wa As kT 
Under l. 
1 & under & under & under Pb eunte Paes ana ac ena & wok 1 
Diseases. Year. 10 15. 20. “30. 40. 50. 60. 
M.| F. F.|M.| F.|M.| F.| M.| F.|M.| F M F.|M.} F M F 
Accidents .....060+| «s+ | «+ uk 1| 3 2 3 46) if 
Aged) jegeies.sdanis.| bgp +58 ! aeeit cert osce Ihe ab Mivet te of Nop 
Asthma ..s)..s00. ivebl Lveatdeetot lip tahliwebt teuml Hlenwilen ht] ve 1 Li} eepifia 3] 3| 6 
Bowel Complaints. 's i ON aa eds sab lwcell wabiticcbil envi] eabl| ‘oobil cudgel ila at lament med 1 
Catarrh SAE deencl 4s] 1.) esbil ses Mt vacee|ts hil iwcbal teres 10) psec fu ea Dn | 4| 3) 1 
1) 3 Ot Sy wa Boh acailienallieail heed bap 
Bile Uy celled 1}. 3] 1] 5; 4] 2! 6] 6) 8] 6 4/10} 9 
ae ae ee) aos bil abhllesteul leach «ee wept Iie Bil cosileorily o ool dm ot 
2) 2 Bl Bl 2 By. 1} 1| 7| 4) 9] 9 8} 4) 7 
1} 1 Bice ly. BS Md] bil iene tlisep 1} 1} 3) 2 1; 1} 3 
oe bcc. Mie.c| Sboplredeh leas | eda pee sab aah aS le Aabhl ead sok ttneet he 
Hooping-cough...} 4) 6| 5 3)... suthliase ve | eee [eee | soe | vee [ieee 
Inflammation ...... 1; 1} 1 2 1 Ws 2h) Si Se AM ed 
3 3/ 6 pI | A Mies | se 1 5 
Risks het... 4% 1. Pe 1 EAL 
Scarlet Fever ... ES mat pee Bi, Mil ewehttaes Me 
Small-pox a et) hes ea ee Bil cob ll wobl easpil wonidiaspldicosltimett line phd ge&)| loont neat ies bla 
Miscellaneous sobiligan Viespsliaew Ive=s seh uBiltcshitrecblivesetlicctMt Lit) atliecstlaee 
Total ascertained... 29 | 40} 25) 16|20 ome 11/12| 8| 6} 8 | 6 | 24) 16} 27 | 26 | 23 | 25 | 30} 31 
Vp ccs lise) See Lat ES ae 
25 | 25 | 31/321)" 


ae teil cy re lL 
Deaths, M. and F..| 30] 41 | 25|16|20|24/11/13/ 8 | 6 | 8 | 6 | 24/16} 28/27 


iat oweed 24 14 14 40 \ 55 50 63 

Propor. to whole EB , " 6 i ‘ t r 
Deaths is agil to } 14:7 | 27:0 46:3} 463) 162) 11:8] 129] 103 
To the Population.| 275'7 | 477-5 | 444-9 815°7 | 1398:5|1398-5| 489-4 | 355-9 | 3915 | 310-7 | ~ 


TanLe XLILI.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of PERTH (not including © 
they took place; with calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, _ 
1838.—Population 


Accidents ... 

Aged . apdikies| RET ont 

Asthniad Ged... es AT! dott liocd duock {oock divs dtanpidvech Wiackitimcs tigen 

Bowel Complaints. id 1 RY Re a 908 dueop | .weel| caoel| opaificoa | aed 

Catarrh .w0.. ee eit PE oe lee ud Uvecwul yee balcco med) Clay WOU lneat swe aes bcc axa peat ok lesen teas 

Childbirth . BS he seus mot luecb de 

Cromp)jssbe.. reek: 3| 2) 2)..1)..5).4).. as Hil ese de 

Decline ...5...600++ | eh 2y.-2)..5)...4..4 Wed a 

Dropsy | «++... Ray -b Rel 6 1 Paull iscsi 1 URS SB a | ee Me Wesel tes: 

Rever ..$02.5..58 oof caked abe BAB) B72). 2 Rios 

Head, of ....+....+++ PAS BR a 0 Pe AA hee 8d SOM I lae 

Heart, of....--.+.4++ WE alicede mek fehl oe lies st [Vans diesen] ideal) aes nahi ack | cot | noel pager eee 

Hooping-cough «..| ...| 4} 4) 4) 2] 4 eee 

Inflammation ......] 1] 2] 1) 1] 5]...4... oll ob as Ol aas'e 

Measles. .......40.- we] (Gb Slo |.-41,.4).. raw stl ieee ese 

Nervous «s.....000-. SG (he SP eT tT 1 

Scarlet Fever ...... Srl Sele BD G.94..4)..6) 1)2 

Small-pox ......:.. G} SF] DL) BLD] FY. V | coe [ove | nee | nee |ices mY: 

Miscellaneous...... TR cobiax' ino. Desa doe PMs i) ass. | ow Diesels afical lewd 

Total ascertained. Ey 46|26|25|46/37/11/13| 5| 6| 6 18 | 29 

Do. not ascertained Dilake| aaa loos 1}. pl 

"Deaths, M. and F..| 29| 51|26|25/47|37|12|138| 5| 6| 6| 9|22|15/21|16)18|22 20 | 32 
Wotal..ct-ss.. 80 51 84 25 11 15 37 37 40 52 


113 68} 231] 525| 385) 156) 156) 144] Id 
382-4 | 232-2 | 780-2 |1773-3| 1300-4] 527-2 | 527-2 | 487-6 | 375-1 


Propor. to whole) | 7.9 
Deaths is as 1 to 
To the Population.| 2438 


T60°|. 70° | 75 80 85 90 95 100 [Ages not 
& had eras & vena! & under | & watt & under|& under| & u ascer- Total. 
0 85. ; 95. 100. wards. | tained. 


_————$$$—$ $$ 
<= rer see 

he suburban district of all: during the year ending December 31, 1837, classified according to 18 periods of life at which 
1 ‘of deaths: from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and’ at to the: population. 


Proportions to the 


3.2 | Whole | Popula- 
Es Deaths,| tion. 


ltoevery|1 to every 


a0 ie OB, a lA aR wey ee IR 9| 6) 1305-2 
ible 36|16|'8 12 12/93} 42) V pT pec poh bp. 56| 74/130 1506 
5} 9) 3) 4 ski Hsdettathsccpratssibtsuy? 14} 98 }) 8% 529-1 

<a aa a Jy | PRE Oe re TR De NY 16] 24} 40 489-4 
4-71 3) 6) 1) 2) 1) 1 20} 28] 48 4078 
ULE eee 2 at BT 8 6526°3 
DREMEL cui} sce il'seoi} cos | os 10| 7 1151-7 
Se ee 31| 39| 70 279°7 

NE OT LIP ay esol anf cekil toh con Pe tae | ook [cep osn Pty 11} 8 1030°4 

RN REG RE PA PS eee ev eee ee 43| 42] 85 2303 
MT Ri sc th seh tL san onet|"ta | ong | Cob d poni]iese | ooh Toee [ase Pose 28| 19) 47 4165 

eS ee 1}. Dy ets ee pass here ween erica ee ee ee 65263 
te [ace [eee [cee | coe [eee [eee | soe [eee Pees [eee Pees [see Piece [cae | eee Pace | oes Il} 12 8512 
EMT og Yecratt ak eeoh bc cuilts cb seh Poca dete tak ft say (neay Peek 13| 15} 28 699-2 
ML Ech 1 ont/('ocgdecoti| ck, | ap | wabi] soait Zap {cae fosabi Peon Peab Pod 12} 11 851-2 
Eck Sch tachi seul sak Tecesd oan Vtekil vee [teh Powe Pep Peg ook Bees 16| 10 753-0 
ee ee Feb ce 4 ott d egy er betel ler | RESM HS Ol else eS ee 2) 1 6526-3 
MEAs reci'c Lanse Pachdtzagt taki sat [*oss Proce Peet Proos oc Peg 3/ 2 3915-8 
tt 2}... 1) 2]. 10; 8 1087-7 

55 27/52 as 16) 16}24) 4; 3) VV psf... ppb pe. ane 332| 640] 1 30-5 
| a We 721 | 2175-4 
| me jf27|a2|ielie|i6|24}4|2/ala]...[...)..[..[ [2 /s1s [330 649 | 1-0 | 30-167 


6 get a Le ot. Tgag 
ee) gabe) L289 Le 10 
oe 331-8 | 611-8 | 489-4 32631197895; ... |... | .. | 30-167 


oo ee 


: subt a district of Kinnoul) during the year ending December 31, 1838, classified according to 18 periods of life at which 
‘ iaeoaahert deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population. 
iP? Mest 
eee hea Ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee a a a Ce et 
12) 8/12/17) 7/11) Sfi2) 2p 4p PL pep lye) Abt 54) 95 6°0 | 205°3 
a} 5) 1 MT A Ree iteedif coe tecet cot ces ecm coe fcc cca Pp cctul son 9} 13| 22) 26:2 | 8866 
fi fee | oe eS 14| 18} 32} 18-0} 609°5 
ie la ae eats 2| 4 6) 963 | 3251-1 
Haelisee |-= fee .. | 2] 2/2890 | 9753+5 
ifs vee [os vee 10} 7) 17) 840 | 1147-4 
a Pe bee Le RSE RSE pO oa Oe ee eR eee en at Se UN aS oD a fe he 
BY) 2)... ]... Deal so DAUR ee ie eet ce enendee epee ELE 9| 20| 28:9 | 975°3 
ay 1) ev beau meat Rou Ecce pete det | soe | Say (ae) ae: ELD 375'1 
3 a Hiroe bec (ecu Poeadocd Trace Meese Preeti Rose treok Deceit ccs FNS]: (25H 4a 11 Lae) Rast 
Lpeee Jee aT: reem fy HE Pee oi A a 2) 2| 4) 144-5 |4876-7 
Be lS aD He 6| 12} 18] 82-1 | 1083-7 
Bo Se ae ee ry: 16| 9) 25) 23-1 | 780-2 
HUM MMMM Ie aehrase) | cee! |'~on! | we¥ | vee | sccl] cou | woe | ace | coe fiers | eee [ees Lae | wee 7| 14) 21} 27-5 | 9289 
Py ee Peat he aca ltees Peet eee Toca eee Tecee [eook oak food Beek Teng P 201 [20 | 20}: 28iG apo Ford 
| pow fieee nt 16) 24! 40} 14-4 | 487°6 
SED wet eck sou fsee fect | coe frost treet | st |isek [eee [acct [aoe lueee 21} 15| 36] 16:0} 541°8 
2) ) 4) 3 us Eras tet ttl sd peed fess 14| 14| 28| 206 | 696-6 
28 25 | 18): 20 poy TS Sa ae es ee Lb bap ca 299 | 566 1:0 34-4 
1} 1)...|... PT e ist focts-k eck Gast tee 6| 12} 48-1 | 1625-5 
29 | 26 | 18/20)10/13] 8 [14) 2], 4 }...] Lye pi. [epee | |. | 2738 [805 | 578 1-0 33°749 
= —— — = —— —— —— —o 
| 55 | 38 | 23 weer tener tet it = Be 578 
05 15:2 25- 1] 26-2 96 "3 578*| 578| ... hep 10 


ini al 513-3 | 848-1 | 886-6 |3951-1/19507-|19507-| ... | ... | 33-749 


7 


165 


F.|M.| F.|M.] F. 


| | | —— | | —— | —_—| ——_|——| ——_| ——__| 


F.| M. 


Horpel Gpomplainia ha | @) 41201 1) 1t Alec bepdes le | cut 
Catarrh BBW) Neep |iaeh'|, | L Pieates| aoe |igspsluamp | anh | wef fie 
Childbirth oot wall veseil ase tet libee Wes: [isebulha 
Cromp).vs sud.) ais Dolcces| hbo] @epvitee Vicet' | ash 
i | LT] L]...| 2) 4] 1 
Dropsy coo | DL] cee | snp | coe | see | oop 
Fever . 1] 1] ..e| 2] ane | aoe Bie 
Head, of ee Ce Hea ' il 
Heart, Of.......00200] -++ | sep] 29 | oe Sibi b ines teat =f nap b)iew 4 [esp 
Hooping-cough ...| 1} 3} 1] 1} 2) 2 A PI AUR TAR 
Inflammation ,..... Pa 9 ae ee eg ee 8 Per peers a A es WA 
Measles ........0s00:| +» | + Sle Aileet Vosb link licap Ieewbitcead\ isa: lice i | oe 
Nervous ...0...s0000+ Hr RB BS ilvcek |iceh vosh |ienp |icoe\| neg A tee | 
Scarlet Fever ...... LT] ..6] 2] 2] 2] 3] 2] By. |e] ney] oo 
Small-pox ....,.....] «+. | «+ Bab fines By Denk \oohifisas 1a > 
Miscellaneous,..... 3]... oth [hess 1 Biicob ilies} 
Total ascertained..| 30|28|14/15/14}13} 7| 6] 3} 6} 9| 2/18/15 
Do.not ascertained] 4/ 2}...|-- Peetleet test leet ttssti sedi pest <sb send 
Deaths, M. and F...| 34130) 14{15)14|13} 7| 6 6| 9| 2)18]15 
Botal.s<-d.-<00 64 29 27 13 9 11 33 
Propor. to sy | 66| 147| 158] 329| 475] 389| 129 


Deaths is as 1 to 


670-1 | 719°8 | 1495-0 | 2159-4 


_'Tapux XLYV.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of PERTH (not includir ; 
which they took place; with calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion whi 


Accidents .,.-...-+++ % 

75 eee Saag eR Ss 
ARLDITIA, Saas a sdgnes sf aot) <an 
Bowel Complaints.| 6| 2 
Childbirth, /..:...-+-} ¢2- | s*- 
Croup ...-.. abe pa imme | 
Decline ........0.+0. oe 
Dropsy .sesseseeseees| or 1 
POVRr scp b+ ovages: Lia 
Head, of ..........+. 1; 1 
Heart, Of... 5.ce.se.| s- med 
Hooping-cough ...| 3] 3 
Inflammation ..,...| 1] 2 
Measles ......... see.| 6| 5 
Nervous ..........-. 4| 9 
Searlet Fever .. ...| ---.| -+- 


Small-pox ,......- 
Miscellaneous 


Total ascertained..| 24 | 27 


Do. not ascertained} 2} 3]. 


Deaths, M.and F...| 26 | 30 


56 


} 79 


Propor. to whole 
Deaths is as 1 to 


1840.—Population 


er Sr Ps ce tee es cee 
Se ee ee ee ee ee 
St dialt diodes beads AG eae eS kG Rb 
ewe ate Pater La ret i PAS RE A eS 
He Ge eG AG a se NG Wel eG et Hee el be G rh hm 8): 
wea Kes Ei Uae har eG RG eG COG pt AG OS EEE CG oi 
“{-1) 2] 3} 21°15} 1] 21 31 91 9| 3] 5| 6} 3] Bt 8 
Si ik Oi eat hah lg atk as B Gea 2} ea feefcet Qt ME UE 
TSS) oh ey Sea at Dp ay 
at 2} aaa abe Tb et sh ap ay ed 
WW AT By 3 ptr RO Gn CG Ee GO PN EO 
eaten ete Bhdoe Py 3) a) TP Ber Pere 
61 5| 5) 4\..{ | 11. ma bag aS 24.) | Ee 
sinh ata eG te ba PEONEGEA COS Alturas 
HT a: a, BG fae Bh 2: Tee 
mit i)? SOM Geb Pkg Pe BONA De Ga Fh il...) 1) 118 i| 
ys}ialo2lis{12| 7!1| 2] 4| alislig| 7| 9|22\13|/15/11 
aa bitaalsaals. 2} 1\.,| 11 2| 4] 9/1] a] 
18/15|23{19/12| 7|11| 2| 4| 6|16/19| 8/11|26|15|16{ 191 
b3 | 42 | 191 33.1 10 1 Bod 190] 4fad Boum 
is4| 105] 23-4| 342] 445| 127] 2934] 105] 158 


To the Population.) 345°8 


586:8| 461-0 | 1019-2| 1489-6 )1936:5| 553-2}1019-2| 472:3| 691-6 


a 


166 


year ending 


classified according to 18 periods of life at | j 


‘the Deeem er 31, 1839, 
pe diag seyeral sation De to ne total pag a of deaths, and also to the ‘population, 


100 {Ages not _ | Proportions to the 
aacer Total. g4 Whole | Popula- 
3 | at ig tained. é F Deaths ton 
M.| F.| M.| F.|M.| F.| M.| F.| M.| F.| M.| F.) M.| Fi} M. | FF. Itoevery|1 to every 
Doh). Ul. 12 2| 14} 305] 1388:2 
43] 37) 80| 5:3) 242-9 
5 8| 13} 32:9] 1495:0 
22} 17) 39} 10:9) 4983 
1 2 3| 142'6| 64783 
BH 3 3| 142-6] 6478-3 
: 2! 8) 5] 85:6] 3887-0 
‘ 33} 24) 57 7:5] 3409 
A 16 7| 23] 186) 845:0 
-! 9) 12) 21] 20:3} 925-4 
... | 28] 21) 49 87] 3966 
; Al} 8] 7} 61:1) 2776-4 
4) 6] 10} 42-8) 1943-5 
12} 11) 23} 186) 845-0 
1) ... | 1} 428-0 119435-0 
8} Il) 19] 22-5} 1022-8 
7 8} I5| 28:5] 1295-6 
4 3 7| 61:1) 2776-4 
16) 13| 29| 14:7} 670-1 
227\191/418| 1:0| 46-4 
6 10| 42:8) 1943-5 
| ee de iitlnas #1 Laas @ 233 | 195 | 428 1:0} 45°408 
Be 4 428 
es : 10 
, 7 45-408 


gee 


striet of a the year ending December 31, 1840, classified according to 18 periods of life at} 
number of deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population, 


2h TT Tt 2 Ty TON aor ; 11; 3| 14) 317) 13832 

119} 8] 10 ii} 18 9 a # 3 ans , “83! 72)105} °° 4:2] 1844 

lah Lt Bt. i 8 eo he Phe | ek a ae Ee ; 9} 11} 20] 22-2| 968-2 

al whee : R 16| 7] 23} 193] 841:9 

1}. sos i : 2} 3] 5! 89:0] 38730 

os sik {| 1] 1] 445-0 |19365-0 

ms 4 i t AS eae sh | 4| 4] 8| 55-6| 24206 

ike bab gee bop Ca ae aah i oa 33| 30} 63] 7-0] 307:3 

Tee ee bat pak ee? ga dah gaits tel de 3} 9! 12] 37-0| 16137 

rag tee iudinndi i! 9| 9] 18| 24-7} 1075:8 

Tod. Etode f 17| 15] 32| 13-9} 605-1 

bas ae 1} 1] 2] 2225) 9682-5 

NY | A i 13| 12] 25| 17:8] 7746 

i a | 18| 7| 25| 17:8] 7746 

of J 18| 15| 33] 13-4] 5868 

. 5| 11] 16| 27:8} 1210-3 

F 1| ... | 1] 4450 |19365-0 

Se ee ee) Or ae w-| 1] 1] 445-0 |19865-0 

Be Uae ck ce Peed coed cas Tae 9| 6] 15| 29-6] 1291-0 

4/953 14| 12 sal 19 Fi 6| 1) 8 .|202|217|}419| 10} 46-2 

12! 14} 26! 17-1) 744-8 

0 29 | 15 |26\14| 12/12} 19 ail BL] Ble [ace [eee bere fore fore 214 | 981] 445] 10] 43516 
41 | 26 31 | 8. 4 a? ae 445 
105) Wl) 143) 556} 112-2 : me 1:0 
496:5 4723} 7448 Lise 40 4841:2|. .., ti we | 43516 


Tasie XLVI,—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of PERTH (not including 
they took place; with calculations showing the total number of deaths at each period, and the Prapennonnreeen shen td 
1841.—Population © 


am a 


seewewewe| Bi LD] aoe | one 


weer eee 


Bowel Complaints. 10 
C 


we eeeeseeteeeeel! cen | coe 


beter ee ewane 


wee ee eeenene 


Hooping-cough ... 3 
Inflammation ..,... 2 
3 
2 


rreer errr 


Scarlet Fever ......]...]... 
Small-pox -.......+-| ose:} cals 
Miscellaneous......| ... |... |... 


D eses: oe 


23 | 17 | 22) 19 


23 |17|22| 19 
40°} 41 
16] 113 


Propor. to whole 
Deaths is as 1 to 
To the Population. 


Tasiz XLVII.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the town of DUNDEE during the oH 
the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number of deaths from ae a 2 
1839.—Population. 


vse Pap} vee a War UR el | oats 1| 2 
Bowel Complaints.| 57| 41/15 | 20) 6} 6)...| 2)...]... Ae |) Were, ae) fel Rs esd abe bee lee 
CAL BETA van orpicne z= 0s DAP PRS SOLIS pal cet teeat| este) cco] ees Be Ly se eee eed are ol abe | a ee 
ae <hoy eect iad 1 Man IBALL ema nese fern pes- 
Sie 04 ag T- 7 9 
wigecas spay oe 1 ms 
va Sapp sot ata ds 2 4 
mbed habeas 7 2 
’ 1 rik] eet cagad | ae os 
Hooping-cough ...] 20} 19] 15} 15] 11) 20) 3) 2)...]...)...] eee] eee | ee 
Inflammation ...... 12) 15| 6) 6 3) 6) 3) 2)...) 2) 38) 1) 7) 7 4) 6) 5) 2 
Measles ........ sce 17| 20) 24) 40} 33) 41) 9/12) 1). Soe | cme “| af]? denill Meet een Capea Oe 
Nervous .........-..+ C7) fi 5 lie a Ves 4 Pitacenasolll schiltees Tineke fiseb foect 1 i I hey ies 
Scarlet Fever ...... 2| 2) 8] 4} 12) 21/10) 4) 8] 3] 3 Dre cal een 1 2 
Small-pox ......... TAT Ser HO! IGG ee Ba ek hse Dh Heine HESS ees Pen tac 
Miscellaneous...... WG VA et pa AN Gace et tee | eee 3{ 4} 9} 1) 1} 41°38 
Total ascertained..|159!162| 93 |122/119]152) 44 | 42 | 20 | 22} 21/13/55 | 46] 41/59 | 60) 55 
Do. not ascertained} 19) 18}... | ...]... |]... |... 1 Weds SA A Mn tae! EE Hee Cee fo 2 mA 
Deaths, M.and F...|178/180) 93 |122\119|152| 44 | 43 | 20 | 22 | 21 | 13} 56 | 47 | 43 | 59 | 60| 55 


Toga: | ve<3 358 | 215°] 271 87 42 34 103 102 | 115 90 


Propor. to whole ‘ i : ; ¢ j f ’ ‘ ; Ri 
Deaths is as 1 to 4:6 76 60} 189} 392) 484) 15:9) 161) 143) 183 )5 


To the Population.| 161-7 | 269-2 | 213°6 | 665'4 | 1378°5| 1702-8} 562-1 | 567-6 | 503-4 643°3 | 


es 1 
ented ‘deaths from 'the'several diseases; bear to the total number of deaths, and also’to'the population. 


293. ——~—O 


district of Kinnoul) during the year ending December 31; 1841, classified according to 18 periods of life'at which 


| 70 TR ee ” a - a - Em ry Ages not Bil Proportions to the 
: under} & - | aseer- otal. | a 
(aw rt age » Sage bg a er + oy ler — or he a ota’ EE: Whole Popula- 
a ener Gee] Re ee ees eee Sit ibe Soa | en 
{.) F.]M.| F.)M.| F.|M.} F.|M.| F.|M.| F.)M.] F.}M.| F.]M.] F.] uw. ] or, - 1toevery|1 to every 
helt ss Mics hetMecsthesall Geel Gscilcedll lA, Peed sdk. Ahanlll <5 | 64 ye }-aataobanad 
4) 8} 9)16)13}18)11} 18} 2) 11) ..)-5) 2 pa dacbie dood. 41| 76/117] 3:9 | 164-8 
EE I I 2) a (a 14] 13] 97] 172) 7145 
, Oa a dei Natl ed ee eo psd 18} 15) 33) 141 | 5846 
Bl ee Asse. ss 4 3} 2| 5| 93:2 | 3858-6 
ure saith : 2 we | 6] 6} 77-6} 3215-5 
,. | y 5| 4| 9) 51-7 | 21436 
|. J ved 22) 34) 56| 83) 344-5 
i ; " 7| 8} 15} 31-0 | 1286-2 
be bed 9| 6] 15] 31-0} 1286-2 
nh ae Ls J 20} 16] 36] 12:9} 535-9 
Brae Ms : ai lesed 4] 4} 8) 582°} 2411-6 
bem it babecdibacclibend tel Dal Boh IIB ality! 8| -7| 15]°31-0' | 1286-2 
PLP Ohoit... 1 hed 15| 20] 35} 133°] 551-2 
Sehehy Robes ohh 8) 4] 12} 388 | 1607-7 
be ee rt 15] 15| 30] 155°) 643-1 
tee ay) ikeee 5] 4] 9] 51-7 | 2143-6 
Wapif.. = || Ooh ae oe Ny) Yo} 11) 21] 294) 9187 
D)i7)is|e2/is/e2lnilisl3lil../slel.ta.l..!.). 209|250/459| 1-0 | 420 
OE ES a ae Ba eee ee caalihae 3] 4| 7| 66:5 | 2756-1 |. 
147/15 |22)15/ 22/11] 18/3 |i}... f 5 12]. fe. P off e1e}a5a] 466] 1-0 | apaor 
38 37 | 99 | 14 5 2 466 
122 125 | 160] 332] 93-2| 233-0 1-0 
07°7 | 521-4 | 521-4 | 665-7 | 1378-0| 3858-6 | 9646-5 41-401 
dbintiniivcseictoee 31, 1839, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; ‘with calculations showing 
ases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population. 
Paes 
; Rae acc ab Bild hod 1) a OU ee 27| 6) 33) 499% 17544 
20/10/12 /11/16)1}3)14-3 bs... Vip dbardtesd 49| 73| 122} 135°) 474-5 
We Md Bod al 28} 18) 46} 35-8 112586 
self 83] 78| 161! 10'2 | 359-6 
Dh isd! elt ead Peau ba ban dlbssdl bog Bead bres) 10| °5| 15)109+8 |°3859-8 
ar eee tl ered ee ieee hate eee ee | 9] 9/183-0'| 6433-0 
se Ulead eed hare ok ai wal [esa [escaMt oc Pood Rc 6] 24} 30! 54-9] 1999-9 
81] 90| 171) 9-6 | 338-5 
OP ee ee 29| 39| 68) 24-2 | 851-4 
OAL Pec} fas a aS LR EIR OTR 87| 90| 177|° 93°] “315-8 
EIR Rar pa | a 51| 33| 84} 19:6 | 689-2 
ear dibe: Move ld.) 10} 7} 17} 96:8 | 3405-7 
Se et 49| 56] 105) 15°6 | 551-4 
Be et 47| 55| 102! '16'1' | 567-6 
84/113] 197} 83 | “293-8 
Ys hy aR 8| 18] 26} -63:3°} 2296-8 
Fy A 40} 39] 79} 20:3 | 732-8 
- 34) 43/77) 21°3'| 751-9 
PPO had and RE veefoefee] 41} 42] 83) °19'8"l! 697-5 
29/13/13/138/17}1]}3)]11-3 1 May Pe! 764 | 838 |1602! 10°) © 36-1 
SS Se ee ee ES Selif sould aie 24} 21| 45} 366 | 12866 
29/13/13)138/17/1/3}/1]3 1} 1]... ) 0.0)... 1788) 859 11647110 135-153 
0 | 54° | 26 | 30 4 4 1 1 1647 
49° 305) 633) 549] 41%} 411} 16474! 1647: 1-0 
163) '1072"1 | 2226-8} 1929-9 | 14474-| 14474: | 57897+|57897- 35°153 


Tapux XLVILI.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred inthe Town of DUNDEE rring 
“the total number of deaths at cach period, and the proportion which these, and the number of deaths fron Ln 


1 2 5 10 1s | 20 30 40, ! 
. & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under |} - 
Diseases. 2. 5. 10. 15. 20. i 40. 50. 0. f 


Accidents ......00++] . + 
ABQ... veryecreroven sl on 


Asthma.,,+.,.-..,21+] « Pe | |e 
} aa us 2 
cea edi eaewlven ts Wy ccth Gl es ( ee “aN 
9| 4/10) 5] 4] 6] 3} 5/24/20) 8/12 3 
Gee | AA RS Hy Key NBA mee ae PR pla | oa es i 3 
1]...| 5} 5] 91 4{ 3] 3] 5| 3] 7] 9/16] 9 4 
Wisi waa esd, Wlsed Less Py an a aan 3 
Ree ceal tus Lestat es sete heed Lcd At seul | zed |i cocklent, dbl ccek plead naaal (Vand fake 
Hooping-cough ... WAS GIG al Bh ond |ccates sd lcasthline aie wantin 
Inflammation ,..... Gi 4{ 4(- 9) 4) St Bra) ad 4 
Measles..,.0---y-+0++ A vent eek heh ieee |cvaiswalls cemiivasl lis sagii 
Nervous ,,-.--, 1S 9d ese me Re eal raed busaad dls art 
Scarlet Fever ... 2} 2) 4] 2/g3a) 1} 1}. Li. ois | Pe 
20|14/23/18} 9; 7} 2; 1j...} 1 
dcpabet |) Seal aieaodil ewe Qi bY). 8). 2) Al. ] 
Total ascertained..|154)114| 73 | 63 | 74/58 | 42/39) 14/17}11)15 
Do.not ascertained] 20) 15)... |... |... | wee | ceo] eee | cee | vee] wee | eee 


Deaths, M, and F,..|174|129} 73 | 63 | 74| 58 | 42|39/ 14/17/11) 15 


etal. ¥.... 303 | 136 | 132 | 81 | 31 | 26 | 94 | 90 i 
Propor. to whole} 4.3 | g7 | 100] 162| 425| 507| 140| 146 


Deaths is as 1 to 
To the Population.| 197-0 | 438-9 | 452-2 | 736-9 |1925:5 | 2295-8 | 635-0 | 663-2 579°5 hii. 


Tasie XLIX.—Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the Town of DUNDEE during th t 
the total number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number of deaths from the Ld eral | 
1841.—Population 


Acciclents...:....4..-] 06. | oe 1 

ADEM . pe cesiys=saserde| -29 

RIT hss tlects [isda scaibe tit esti | ses 

Bowel Complaints.| 43) 34) 21 | 23 ? : 
Gatarrh 5 cseyas sass. Bl deed tisse aac aati aad Liaee as He sadl| ST Bntae 
Geared was bes vasl| ge lng! lvaedilieee ved [wed Lose [a Bil soaltiedl [hg aealiteeal baad Thee 
NGOs avecise saves: 3 

Decline ...........5. 7 

DOFOPSYeqachtd=onade--} neal oe 

BQyer:) |. (livdet> a ptioe- 3 

Head, of......... bie of ae 

Fleptt, Of.0{-> ital «- iL | RH APES fee Bad sedil ooultanes - 
Hooping-cough....| 1é aA set lisae Weed Ladbliace |. ostilansail @aeiie ne eae ie 
Inflammation ...... 1 he a 

Scarlet Feyer. PA) iy oa aed Ree a Res, 


Small-pox.....+...-. sna lusie Dh om Gilkmes linet leeame kag ealieel 
Miscellaneous..,...| 1} J} 4|..,]..- 


JJ J | | a 


Total ascertained,,.|126| 95) 90 | 78 41) 51) 87 | 45 | 37 48 
Do.not ascertained) 1 fie sath: chil on katosd Vis 


Deaths, M.and F...|143]104} 90 | 78 | 92 |103} 45 | 89 | 26 | 18 3 
247 | 168 | 195 | 84 | 44 | 84 | 82.) 95.) 62.) Baum 
54 | 80| 69| 161] 308] 399] 165 | 142] 165 | logy 
366°3 | 315°5 | 7326 | 1898-6 | 1810-0} 750-4 | 647-7 | 7504 | 71559 
ee T70 = 


Propor. of whole 
Deaths is as 1 to 
To the Population.| 249-1 


‘ar ending December 31, 1840, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place: with calculations showi 
seases, bear to the total number of deaths,‘and also to the population, i hi et si 


691. 
60 f Sito 25) 80 | ; : A i 

under ee Aig Ms & under | & under | & under & under hn en) Total. | 3 ere 
70. a5. A a | 100. | wards. ‘| tained. £3 eee Popula- 
F,] M.| F.| M.} F.| w F, lto every] 1 to every 
Pe Wm 24| 5| 99) 45:5 | 20583 
8134) 1} re] eee} ref eee] 57] 82] 139] 9-4] 429-4 
7| 3 Satbisd bauad ae 23} 20| 43 1388-1 
4| 2) suilasehean <td »| 85} 67} 152 392-7 
if 2 BY diy et Ge ee bh a Para 6632°3 
mi) ee bolesdliealinveoh Ae) ole 4591-6 
1 A ee | 9| 6] 15 3979°4 
La : 104} 89] 193 309-2 
paR ROME CRD Hetil coe Ll ciilissstd aaahccedacelvocn bon deze vel 16| 30| 46 1297-6 
DRE Premren bh) Biecegds hy Pod ace] ce | coed acct cet cee 60} 65} 125 4775 
Le a dad J OO da SP ba 50} 40) 90 663-2 
1 peti: A ANE NA 5426-4 
: 31| 27] 58 1029°1 
: qc j 51| 25| 76 785-4 
E ; Z| 9) 16 3730°6 
ieaneee } sede] 1B) 9) 29 27132 
; x 12| 7) 19 3141-6 
SPEER Lack | ond [vest s+] /-0- [eos |iece'| vas | env fare] coe fess | vos | cost aoe 78 | 79) 157 380-1 
G py) ee 39} 29] 68 8778 
62 29 RS ies Ben diese 668 | 613 |1281 46-5 
‘ w]e | 23] 16] 39 1530-5 
3 | 62| 36 | 29 | wef T] eee |oe |. |... | 691] 629 [1320 45-2 

110 ey ah 1320 

120] 203} 41:2] 57:3 : | 1320: .,. SAL (meets I 


26 | 918-3 | 1865-3 | 2595-2 | 8527-2| 14922-|59691-| ... |... 45-2 


ending December 31, 1841, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with calculations showin 
ases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population. - ; > i 


be-iHeeg | Saiee 1 |... [e.-|...[.-. fo. |...[ 26) 14] 40) 33-9 | 15385 

O}12) 8)12)/ 347) 115 |p polit... 45} 91] 136} 99) 4525 
bed Vener | nest oaslif wo tree [eee [eee] cee | ace [eve] oe | 27] 34) 61) 22-2 | 1008-8 
ee as see [nee | ee] one sev]cer] ove fee] vee] 79} 79] 158} 85 | 389-4 

silotes od aad SeeV aed oiss i] Wall geal tove 15| 10} 25) 54:3 | 2461-6 

merteceal |’ =abl fie . spahane fl aseil (aes terfece| see | 12] 12) 1131 | 5128-3 

Sail taatls mnbhihicig srefece} eee] ed eee} 8) 13] 21) 64-6 | 2930-4 

aclianet sap foo 85] 88| 178} 78 | 355-7 

as OT 29| 41) 70} 19°4 |) 879-1 

sentreee } 31} 31} 62] 21:9 | 992-5 

Baa |imeel| ace 43| 50} 93) 146} 661-7 

ae | eres ee " 5} 7| 12) 11381 | 51283 


25| 34) 59) 23:0 | 1043-0 
47| 382] 79) 171} 778-9° 
58| 47| 105} 12:9 | 586-0 
10} 11) 21) 64:6°| 2930-4 
62| 56) 118} 11:5 | 521-5 

7| 10) 17) 94-7 | 3620-0 
Bl} 34] 65) 23:6 | 946-7 


9/13/a|slile 1{..}1/..\...]638|69ouhse7; 1-0) 463 
see hl w|i fi 18} 13] 31} 438 }19834 

9/13}3|8}1f6]-..121...11|.../...l6s11707 0358) 3-0 | 453 

2 | WU 7 1 1 .. 11858 

61-7| 193-4) 194-0] 1358] 1358+]... 10 


809-7 | 1810-0 | 2797-2 | 5594-5 | 8791-4 | 61540°|61540-| ... 45°3 
171 


172 REPORT— 1842. 


[It being found inconvenient to bring in Tables L. to LIV. in their proper order, the 
reader is referred to the end of this Report, after p. 204.] 


. 


FEVERS AND ERUPTIVE DISEASES. 
EDINBURGH. 


Taste LV.—Exhibiting the average annual number of fatal cases of FEVER at different ages 
which occurred in the City of Edinburgh, including St. Cuthbert’s and Canongate, du- 
ring the years 1839, 1840, and 1841, with the proportion which the deaths by fever at 
these ages bear to the whole deaths by fever; also the proportion which the total amount 
of these deaths bear to the mean population. © : 


Proportions. 
Ages. ’ Males, |~ Females.. |~° Total. Ist. 2nd. 
8 ‘ To the whole To the 
of the deaths | population, 
by Fever. 137,986. 
Per cent. Per cent. 


12-410 0-029 
29-743 0:070 
70:256 0:165 
100-000 0-235 


Under 5 years.....+... 
Under 20 years ...... 
20 years and upwards 


Totals .....0,.seeevee 
Under 5 years........+ 92°307 0-069 
Under 20 years ...... 99°679 0-075 
20 years and upwards 0:320 0-000 
Totals ...... Spd afeve — 48 104 100-000 0:075 
Cases of SCARLET FEVER. 
Under 5 years.....+++. 22 463 64-055 0°033 
Under 20 years ...... 35 7 98-156 0-051 
20 years and upwards f eS 3 1°843 0-000 
Totals .rccssrcceeees 354 72% 100-000 0-052 
Cases of SMALL-POX. 
Under 5 years.....++.. 34 292 63% 82-683 0-046 
Under 20 years ...... 395 34 73k 95°238 0:053 
20. years and upwards 2 2 33 4-761 0:002 
Totals}...-ise.coases AVE |... BBR. 77 100-000 0:056 
Cases of FEVERS and ERUPTIVE DISEASES. 
Under 5 years......... 1294 119 2482 42-939 0°179 
Under 20 years ...... 178 1663 3444 59°596 0:249 
20 years and upwards 1215 112% 2333 40-403 0-169 
Totals. 1. j.se0, see. 2995 279 5783 100-000 0-419 
GLASGOW. 


Taste LVI.—Exhibiting the average annual number of fatal cases of FEVER at different 
ages which occurred in the City of Glasgow and suburbs during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 
1840, and 1841, with the proportion which the deaths by fever at these ages bear to the 
whole deaths by fever; also the proportion which the total amount of these deaths bear 
to the mean population. 


Proportions, 
5 Vy 2nd. 
Ages, Males. Females. Total. To enters eral 4 
of the deaths | population, 
by Fever. 264,010. 
Per cent. Per cent. 
Under 5 years......... 723 694 142 12:072 0:053 
Under 20 years ...... 1664 1752 3414 29-059 0-129 
20 years and upwards! 4764 3582 8342 70-940 0-316 
Babele-nierr geen yeeis | 6422 5334 | 476i || 100-000 | 0-445 _ 
eee De Re en ee ee ee ee ee 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 173 


GLASGOW—(continued). 
Taste LVII.—Cases of MEASLES. 


Proportions, 
Males. Females. Total. ist. 2nd. 
To the whole To the 
of the deaths | population, 
by Measles. 264,010, 
Per cent. Percent 
Under 5 years......4.. 2354 2264 4612 88:087 0-174 
Under 20 years ......} 2654 2542 5202 99:350 0°197 
20 years and upwards 4 24 32 0°649 0:001 
Totals ...... aiseweve 267 2564 5234 100-000 0-122 
Cases of SCARLET FEVER. 
‘Under 5 years .......+. 933 872 ' 1802 0-068 
Under 20 years «..... 1272 1222 2492 0-094 
20 years and upwards 23 pes 52 0-001 
Totals ......,.400 eee 1294 125 2544 0-096 
Cases of SMALL-POX. 

| Under 5 years......... 1692 1572 3264 85-729 0-128 
Under 20 years ...... 1864 1754 3622 95-120 0-137 
20 years and upwards ll 72 182 4:879 0-007 
Totals ......... dees. 1972 | 1882 3812 100-000 0-144 

% Cases of FEVERS and ERUPTIVE DISEASES. 
‘Under 5 years....0....| 570 541 1111 47:559 0-420 
‘Under 20 years ..... 746 7282 14742 63-116 0-558 
20 years and upwards 491 3702 8613 36°883. 0:326 
TQtals,..<epvesensnsss 1237° | 1099 | 2336 |, 100-000 0-884 

1 PERTH. 


Taste LVIII.—Exhibiting the average annual number of fatal cases of FEVER at different 
ages which occurred in the City of Perth, exclusive of the suburban district of Kinnoul, 
during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, with the proportion which the deaths 
by fever at these ages bear to the whole deaths by fever; also the proportion which the 
total amount of these deaths bear to the mean population. 


Proportions. 
r t d. 
Ages. Males, Females. Total. aa pias , re the 
of the deaths | population, 
by Fever. | 19,435. 
Per cent. Per cent, 
Under 5 years)......... 24 32 6 15-706 3 
emileny YEATS) sis0s. 6 4 114 30390 | 0-060 
| 20 years and upwards 13 132 262 69-109 0-135 
Biv TO RANG |. cassssiadions 19 os 382 {| 100-000 "| 0-196 
. Cases of MEASLES. 
| Under 5 years......... 82 82 162 92-222 0-085 
| Under 20 years ...... gz 82 18 100-000 0-092 
20 years and upwards 
Totals ......cccseeee- 92 84 18 100-000 0-092 
Cases of SCARLET FEVER. 
Under five years ..... 34 44 83 63:235 0-044 
Under 20 years ...... 6. 7z 132 98-529 0-068 
20 years and upwards oa 2 z 1-470 0-001 
SLOPES Lo ecsdseceaas one 62 72 132 100-000 | 0-070 


Vea cre REPORT—1842. 
PERTH—(continued). 
Tazre LIX.—Cases of SMALL-POX, 


Proportions. 


Females, ahi Ist. 
To the whole 
of the deaths 


. 2nd. 
To the 
population, 


by Small-pox. 19,435, 


. P t. 
Under 5 years........ 2 87-755 
Under 20 years 91-886 


20 years and upwards 2 4 $163 | 
oF 100-000 | 


Cases of FEVERS and ERUPTIVE DISEASES. 

Under 5 years... 394 50-000 
Under 20 years 2 4 2 65°577 
20 years and upwards 3 $ 34-422 
100-000 


DUNDEE. 


Taste LX.—Exhibiting the average annual number of fatal cases of FEVER at dif- 
ferent ages which occurred in the Town of Dundee, during the years 1839, 1840, and 


Per cent, 


0:046 
__ 0-004 
0-050 


0-204 
0-268 
0-140 
0-409 


1841, with the proportion which the deaths by fever at these ages bear to the whole deaths ' 
by fever; also the proportion which the total amount of these deaths bear to the mean 


population. 


Proportions, 


Ages, > hi iy Ist. 2nd, 
ges Males Females Total To Pa, eine 
of the deaths} population, 
by Fever. 59,691. 
Per cent, Per cent. 
Under 5 years......... 101 131 232 19505 | 0-039 
Under 20 years ...... 292 322 624 51°373 b 
20 years and upwards 292 291 59 48°626 
WOtgIs ccc weetcteeses 59% 62 1212 100-000 
Cases of MEASLES, 
Under 5 years......... 441 512 952 90:251 
Under 20 years s..5.}- 492 562 106 100:000 
20 years and upwards af wei ot Sn 
} .0Hobals :.. vss Givevend 493 563 106 | 100-000 
: Cases of SCARLET FEVER. 
Under 5 yearS......... 244 231 47% 66-203 
Under 20 years ...... 365 32 682 95-370 
20 years and upwards 1: 2 34 4-629 | 
Morals 3 cccteeespeses 38 342 72 100-000 
Cases of SMALL-POX. 
Under 5 years...... wep. 332 373 714 85-258 
Under 20 years ...... 375 412 792 94-820 | 
20 years and upwards 2 22 44 5-179 
Potals «2. avin: 39% df BBE 100-000 
e Cases of FEVERS and ERUPTIVE DISEASES. ° 
Under 5 years......... 1122 1254 2384 62-228 
Under 20 years ...... 1533 1622 3164 82-593 
20 years and upwards 33 332 662 17-406 | 
Totals ....... Eassithe 1862 1962 383 | 100-000 


N.B.—The Aberdeen records are not sufficiently perfect to admit of similar tables for that town. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 175 


: ‘skep Jo Jaquinu 4¥y3 0} ay¥r outs 
oy} 38 papuayxe pey syjuOUT asoy} Ur ApITe}AOUL OY) Jr se UEyxL} St UOIZA0doad oy} SKep ouO-AyIIG) ULY} TOMS OLE Q1dY) YOIYA UT SYUOW as04} UT ~ 


€E9E spend [eo], 


896 goss 4 sea0, 


a a | a 


| 679-0 8F6:8 L196 | 98 seeees gpquiaoaqT 

600-1 GOGOL | FOS | 86g | """"'" ~zoquieaony 

S10 FAL =) 999-2 e8z seeeeeers 1940399 

| 199-0 ggs-2 6168 28S seeeee Jaquiajydag 

GES-0 oak 786-2 GSPL ecZ seesereee snony 
#090 681-2 £6LL . | 616 sersereeesereee Rp 

658-0 T1-2 £208 | 1tZ oeseeeerese “eroun fy 

169-0 268-2 670-8 | ogg | eters dep 

007-0 | GLe8 6198 pag | eee qady 

Zor || “" | ves-6 ZES-8 gee | eens ypaeyy 


68h | “|| SOF-OL 920-6 
0&S |. “|| RGF 861-01 


it sereesees Kyenaqag 
ae soreevoee Kronur 


*mossepy |'ysimquipy 


urssooxg || ulssaoxq | ‘syyzop y[e 0} |*sq3vop q[e.0y| “UFO || *su3¥ap “ut0q a a a *u10q *"sy}vep 


mosse[y yainquipy by 1830], TMS TOL 1S TROL 
*Ky1[ey100r | ursyjvep | ursyjeap - “stQuON 
|| 30 apex A i ae Jo "yu00 10d jo*ju990 10g “TFSI j Geet t aca 


+, Syjuour asay} Suunp MossepH, pue ysanquipy ur Ap7e310u1 Jo-o}er oatyeredu0s ony pue ‘saved asoyy Suranp-syjyeep jo yanowe {e303 ay} 03 
vaq SYJUOUT [eI9AIS JY} UT swap Jo JUNO eI} ay} YOTYM MorI0doxd eyIYyIIM ‘IPEl pue “OSI ‘ESsT sivas oy) SuLANp YSinquipy Jo sqingng 
“pure Aig ay) Jo sueysiSeqy punosS-Zurkang 943 UI papsovar sv ‘uEAPTIYO Uxog-][4s JO pue syIwep Jo yuMoWe oy} SuBIQIYxy—'[XT sIeVL 

. | _ ‘HOUATNIGT jare .). cae ite 


ee ee +--KIHINDP[ UTNE RET TVENO YY 7 ee eee 


wis 


REPORT—1842, 


176 


5 ra ee opt ee 


LLO'SY 6096 196 osts elcl 98801 speLing [20], 
BFE 6IL 4 c09 Ge 919 **udog TIS “OM 
Perar 9888 1é88 Goel BE69 OLz°01 * sqqewap [2301 


eects | 


—_—$—$———— 


EFZE|FENGZE | GIL |SLEF|FISF) OL |LSEF/OLFF| 209 Le9¢\g68¢ €8¢ ZFPEOGEE 919 |z¢8| ear | STROL 


696-0 a. L1S-6 sreo-g |19z| Lee | IF |9FE| 9Ge| 9 | F8F | SEF] ZO | S8E| COF) EF | 16z 908| SF | are] 488 | Toquisse(T 


ZOO -- | 969 | oes | sea! cree. | 2g | sce 198). 09 | 22¢| 88) Zo | FOE | F9E| 9F | 89B| Tes] BF | 14s) Gee JaquaAroNy 
ZrO - | goes | pore [ere] 9eoe | 6r.|ete| Zea} ¥9 | 922 | e9e| OG |9te | ste] ee | TFs] Fea] OF | 222) OGe | TT" AO 
199-0 «| ¢izg | geez |ore| Pore | 29 |68a| SFE] 1g | F8E| FEE | SF | S45 |8Ge| SE | Fes) OFZ) LF | 266) OSE yaquiardag 
| geen | acre | ree2 | Fes| see | Fo [ore] ese] ap | epe| sze| Lr | rSe |6se) Ih | sea) Lee) OF | Ze) L27 sereeeree, gondny 

_ 09-0 = | sanz | G8LL | tre! 190e | sr |G6a| 4ee| 9¢ | Ice] ose| 98 [oe] tee] SP | 1G / 961) FF |8cE) Pe | verre AINE 
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‘ATHLNOJ CALIGIHXG ALITVLUOJ] 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS. OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 177 


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ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 179 


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180 REPORT—1842, 


Taste LXVI.—Comparative per-centage of Monthly ok in the dif- 
ferent Towns reported on. 


Monthly per-centage of Deaths to the whole Deaths; 
average of five years. 


Edinburgh. Glasgow. Aberdeen. Perth. Dundee. 


January ..... veee| 10/198 12-428 11:379 13°561 14-516 
February | ° 9:026 10-465 10-930 10-829 10°465 
March..... .| 8532 9-534 9-433 8690 8-763 
April ......... .| 8-679 8:279 8-953 8778 8-205 
May ..0....00- .| 8-049 7392 8-381 8°651 8-497 
TUNE weeeeeeeee .| 8023 7171 7898 6040 7561 
TUly....occesccesecees 7-793 7:189 7000 6°858 6:973 
August .....00sceses 7-452 7:984 6°498 7677 6:68] 
September 8-219 7558 7104 7-570 6589 
October ......0-.00 7566 7-154 7-173 7-131 7437 
November «....... 8-904 7-902 8-012 8054 7°205 
December 9517 8948 9°307 8183 9-068 


PROPORTION OF MALE AND FEMALE DEATHS. 


EDINBURGH, INCLUDING St. CUTHBERT’S AND CANONGATKE. 


By referring to Table L., it will be seen that the total amount of male deaths 
during the three years 1839, 1840, and 1841, is 5197, and the female deaths 
5363; being in the proportion of 103-194 females to every 100 males. 

The average annual amount of male deaths during these three years end- 
ing with 1841, is 17323, and of female deaths 17872; while the males living 
in 1841 is 61,313, and the females 76,869 ; being in the proportion of 
125°37 females to every 100 males. 


The average annual number of male deaths, 

compared to the males living in 1841], is ~ 

therefore! as); ci .gk Haeanc spake rien fe sie wre 1 to 35°393, or 2°825 per cent. 
And the average annual number of female 

deaths to the females living in the same 

YEA, AS ong shew bi ajerens reps, ois PES .- 1 to 42°999, or 2°325 per cent. 

AMTEKERL! C0 Vale oes. Beef sy 1s ONE DER Pent. 

The female life in Edinburgh and suburbs, exclusive of Leith, is therefore 
better than the male life by 0°500 per cent.; while the number of female 
deaths during these three years is 3°194 per cent. greater than the number of 
male deaths. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 181 


Totrat DEAtuHs, EDINBURGH. 


Taste LXVII.—Exhibiting the proportion which the deaths, exclusive of 
still-born children, in Edinburgh and suburban districts of St. Cuthbert’s 
and Canongate, during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, bear 
to the population of these years; also the proportion of the average annual 
amount of deaths to the mean population of these years. 


Proportion of Deaths to the 


Years. | Population. Deaths. Population, being as 1 to 


1837. 137,345 5,009 | 27-419, or 3647 per cent. 
1838. 137,527 4,176 | 82:932, or 3036. 
1839. 137,756 3,365 40:937, or 2442. 
1840, 137,986 3,688 |.37:414, or 2672... 
1841. 138,182 3,507 | 39-401, or 2°537 a. 


The average annual amount of deaths these five years to 
the mean population being as 1 to 34°904, or 2°864 per cent. 


As the Registers of Deaths are not complete for the whole of Leith, we 
are unable to give the proportion of male and female deaths to the living. 
The following table gives those of the total deaths :— 


Toray Dratus, LEITH. 


Taste LXVIII.—Exhibiting the proportion which the deaths, exclusive of 
still-born children, in North and South Leith, during the years 1837, 
1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, bear to the population of these years; also 
the proportion of the average annual amount of deaths to the mean popu- 
lation of these years. 


Years. | Population. |\ Deaths.  populaion, being aa me 
1837. 27,331 886 30°831, or 3:24] per cent. 
1838. | 27,586 S62 | 32-002, or 3124... 
1839. 27,846 679 41-010, or 2°438 
1840. 28,103 710 39°581, or 2°526 

1841. | 28,372 647 | 43-851, or 2-280 


The average annual amount of deaths these five years to 
the mean population being as 1 to 36°794, or 2°717 per cent. 


Toray Deatus, EDINBURGH AND LEITH. 


Taste LXIX.—Exhibiting the proportion which the deaths, exclusive of 
_ still-born children, in Edinburgh and Leith, during the years 1837, 1838, 
1839, 1840, and 1841, bear to the population of these years; also the pro- 
portion of the average annual amount of deaths to the mean population of 
these years. 

Vite 


Proportion of Deaths to the 


Years, Population. Deaths. Population, being as 1 to 


1837. 164,676 5895 27-934, or 3:579 per cent. 
1838. 165,113 5038 32°773, or 3-051 i... 
1839. 165,602 4044 40-950, or 2°441 
1840. 166,089 4398 37-764, or 2°647 
1841. 166,554 4142 40-211, or 3°486 


The average annual amount of deaths these five years to 
the mean population being as 1 to 35°208, or 2°840 per cent. 


182 REPORT—1 842, 


GLAscGow. 

By referring to Table LI., it will be seen that the total amount of male 
deaths in Glasgow and suburban districts, during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 
1840, and 1841, is 21,795, and the female deaths 20,639; being in the pro- 
portion of 94°696 females to every 100 males. 

The average annual amount of male deaths during these five years ending 
with 1841, is 4359, and of female deaths 41274; while the males living 
within the range of the Glasgow Mortality Bill, in 1841, is 134,087, and the 
females 148,047; being in the proportion of 110°41 to every 100 males. 
The average annual number of male deaths, 

compared to the males living, in 1841, is : 

therefore as. ;...,cteesteesalakn ack « beat. - 1 to 30°760, or 3°250 per cent. 
And the average annual number of female 

deaths to the females living in the same 

FEATS, AS}. « «rece pepelee ase umeine|r sj-'s.0,9. 8 5 1 to 35°865, or 2°788 per cent. 

Difference... -..-»»- PArve Coen 0°462 per cent. 

The female life in Glasgow and suburbs is therefore better than the male 
life by 0°462 per cent.; while the number of male deaths during these five 
years is 5*303 per cent. greater than the number of female deaths. 


Tora Deatus, GLASGow AND SUBURBS, 

Taste LXX.—Exhibiting the proportion which the deaths, exclusive of 
still-born children, in Glasgow and suburbs, during the years 1837, 1838, 
1839, 1840, and 1841, bear to the population of these years; also the pro- 
portion of the average annual amount of deaths to the mean population of 
these years. 


Deaths. Proportion of Deaths to the 


Years. Population. Population, being as 1 to 


1837. | 247,040 | 10,270 | 24-05, or 4:15 per cent. 
1838. | 255,390 | 6,932 | 3684,or271 .,. 
1839. | 264,010 | 7,525 | 35°08, or 2:85 

1840. | 272,900 | 8,821 | 30-93, or 3-23 

1841. | 282,134 | 8886 | 31-75, or 3-14 


The average annual amount of deaths these five years to 
the mean population being as 1 to 31-108, or 3°214 per cent. 


ABERDEEN. 

By referring to Table LII., it will be seen that the total number of male 
deaths in Aberdeen and suburban district, during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 
1840, and 1841, is 3172, and the female deaths 3198; being in the propor- 
tion of 100°819 females for every 100 males. 

The average annual amount of male deaths, during these five years ending 
with 1841, is 6342, and the females 6392; while the males living in 1841 is 
28,337, and the females 36,441; being in the proportion of 128°59 females 
to every 100 males. 
The average annual number of male deaths, 

compared to the number of males living in 

1841, is therefore as......4-s0e-+ eee: 1 to 44°667, or 2°238 per cent. 
The average annual number of female deaths 

to the females living in the same year, is as 1 to 56°974, or 1°755 per cent. 


Difference’) 220 22 Se eee .e»- 0°483 per cent. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 183 


The female life in Aberdeen and suburban district is therefore better than 
the male life by 0°483 per cent. The number of male deaths during these 
five years is 0°819 per cent, greater than the number of female deaths. 


‘ 


ToraL Dearus, ABERDEEN. 


still-born children, in Aberdeen and suburbs, during the years 1837, 
1838, 1839, 1840, and 184], bear to the population of these years ; also 
the proportion of the average annual amount of deaths to the mean popu- 
lation of these years. 


Proportion of Deaths to the 


Years. | Population. | - Deaths. Papulation, being as 1 to 


1837. 41,985 1392 44-529, or 2-249 per cent. 
1838. 62,672 1411 44-416, or 2:251,., 
1839. 63,366 1150 55°100, or 1:814 
1840. 64,068 1385 46:258, or 2-161 
1841. 64,778 1034 62-647, or 1:596 


The average annual amount of deaths these five years to 
the mean population being as 1 to 49-722, or 2:011 per cent. 


PERTH. 


By referring to Table LIII., it will be seen that the total number of male 
deaths in Perth, exclusive of the suburban dictrict of Kinnoul, during the 
years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, is 1245, and the female deaths 1321 ; 
being in the proportion of 106104 females to every 100 males. 

The average annual amount of male deaths during these five years, ending 
with 1841, is 249, and the female deaths 2644; while the males living in 
1841 is 8988, and the females 10,305; being in the proportion of 115:55 
females to every 100 males. 


The average annual number of male deaths, 
compared to the number of males living in 
1841, is therefore as...... aaa enamels fe 1 to 36°096, or 2°770 per cent. 
And the average annual number of female 
_ deaths, to the females living in the same 
WERE ASI is ge ci ol ee ie MeL Ses Bes -. 1 to 39°004, or 2°563 per cent, 


okt PR ota ap aba aincs, one, oy LOT per cent. 

_ The female life in the city of Perth is therefore better than the male life 
by 0°207 per cent. The number of female deaths is, however, greater than 
the number of male deaths by 6°104 per cent. 


184 REPORT—1842,  - ij Ab 


Toray Deatus, Pert. 

Taste LXXIJ.—Exhibiting the proportion which the deaths, exclusive of 
still-born children, in the City of Perth (not including the suburban district 
of Kinnoul), during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, bear to 
the population of these years; also the proportion of the average annual 
amount of deaths to the mean population of these years. 


i Proportion of Deaths to the 
Years. | Population. Deaths. Population, being as 1 to 


1837. 19,579 649 30167, or 3°314 per cent. 


1838. 19,507 . 578 33°749, or 2-963 
1839. 19,435 428 45408, or 2-202 
1840. 19,365 445 43'516, or 2:297 
1841. 19,293 466 41-401, or 2-415 


The average annual amount of deaths these five years to 
the mean population being as 1 to 37°870, or 2°640 per cent. 


DuNDEE. 


By referring to Table LIV., it will be seen that the total number of male 
deaths in Dundee during the years 1839, 1840, and 1841, is 2130, and the 
female deaths 2195. And by referring to the Dundee Mortality Bills, it will 
be found that the male deaths, during 1837 and 1838, amounted to 1594, and 
the female deaths during these two years to 1624 ; the whole amount of male 
deaths, during these five years in Dundee, is therefore 3724, aud the female 
deaths 3819 ; being in the proportion of 102°551 females to 100 males. 

The average annual amount of male deaths during these five years, ending 
with 1841, is 7444, and the female deaths 7634, while the males living in 
1841 is 28,311, and the females 33,229; being in the proportion of 117-37 
females to every 100 males. 

The average annual number of male deaths, 
compared to the number of males living in 
1844; ‘is therefore as.vec6. cl 1 to 38°01], or 2°630 per cent. 

And the average annual number of female 
deaths, to the females living in the same 
Yea, AS..---- se eeeseeee Sevcle ads oars 1 to 43°504, or 2°298 per cent. 

Differemee ts 8 Sel. Lae eee oe 0°332 per cent. 

The female life in the town of Dundee is therefore better than the male 
life by 0°332 per cent. The number of female deaths is greater than the 
number of male deaths by 2°551 per cent. 

Torat Deatus, DuNDEE. 

Tasie LXXIII.—Exhibiting the proportion which the deaths, exclusive of 
still-born children, in Dundee, during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, 
and 1841, bear to the population of these years; also the proportion of the 
average annual amount of deaths to the mean population of these years. 


Proportion of Deaths to the 


Years. Population. |' Deaths. Population, being as J) to 


1837. 54,467 1821 29-910, or 3°343 per cent. 
1838. 56,156 1397 40-197, or 2-487... 
1839. 57,897 1647 39°153, or 2°844 

1840. 59,691 1320 45-220, or 2-211... 
1841. 61,540 1358 45°316, or 2°206 


The average annual amount of deaths these five years to 
the mean population being as 1 to 38°377, or 2°605 per cent. 


oa 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 185) 


Scorcu Towns. 


Taste LXXIV.—Exhibiting the annual average* number of deaths under five years of age, 
‘in five of the principal towns of Scotland, with the proportion which these deaths bear 
to the total average annual amount of deaths, as well as to the population, in the different 

towns; also the comparative rate of mortality at these ages in Edinburgh and the other 

towns mentioned in the Table. 


Proportion of | Comparative rate Comparative rate 
theaverage | to the average t to the mean 
annual deaths| annual deaths. “ Ng population. 


Towns, Males,| Fe- | Total. | Mean vo- | at these ages |__| of # 
males. pulation. | to the whole Greater} Less uidn Greater | Less 
average an- | than in | than in . than in | than in 
nual deaths. | Edinb. | Edinb. * | Edinb. | Edinb. 


Percent.| Percent. 
Edinburgh.| 6323} 5513) 11833] 137,986] 33-626 ose eee | 0°857 
Glasgow ...| 2015 | 1769 | 3784 | 264,010} 44-586 | 10-960)... 1-433 | 0°576 
Aberdeen..| 1993) 175 | 3742) 63,366| 29-399 .. | 4:227| 0-591} ... | 0266 
Perth ...... 763| 773) 1542) 19,435] 30°046 ... | 8580} 0-793] ... | 0:064 
Dundee ...| 3454) 3293) 675 | 59,691 46°820 |13:194) ... 1:130} 0°273 


ap | | a | a | a, 


Taste LXXVI.—Exhibiting the annual average number of deaths under twenty years of . 
age, in five of the principal towns of Scotland, with the proportion which these deaths bear 
to the total average annual amount of deaths, as well as to the population, in the different 
towns; also the comparative rate of mortality at these ages in Edinburgh and the other 
towns mentioned in the Table. 


Proportion of | Comparative rate P 
the average | to the average oe to the mean 
; annual deaths} annual deaths. | °°®t@g¢) population. 
Towns. Males. | Females.| ‘otal. cs arip at these ages of the 
. : population.) to the whole | Greater| Less bert Greater} Less 
average an- | than in | than in ots than in | than in 
nual deaths. | Edinb. | Edinb. | 7°?" 


Per cent. |Percent.|Percent. 
Edinburgh.| 8153) 729 | 1,5443) 187,986 43°882 Wee iif 1-119 
Glasgow ...| 2,5104} 2,2382 | 4,749 | 264,010 55°957 | 12-075)... 1:798 | 0°679 
Aberdeen..| 2923] 2572| 5494) 63,366 43-148 ed 0-734! 0°867| ... 0-252 
Perth ...... 100 962 1962) 19,435 38-269 “oi 5°613| 1010) ... 0-109 
|Dundee ale 426 4033} 8294] 59,691 57526 | 13,644) ... 1:389 | 0-270 


| ‘Taste LXXVIII.—Exhibiting the annual average number of deaths at twenty years of age 
aud upwards, in five of the principal towns of Scotland, with the proportion which these 
deaths bear to the total average annual amount of deaths, as well as to the population, in 
the different towns ; also the comparative rate of mortality at these ages in Edinburgh 
and the other towns mentioned in the Table. 


ip: Proportion of | Comparativerate| Comparative rate 
: t the average | to the average vas to the mean 
r annual deaths| annual deaths. | °°? rg population. 
| Towns. Males. | Females.| Total. mea at these ages |__| the 
Ba) , population.| +, the whole Gsbater Vi hices mean 


Greater| Less 
ria than in | than in 
Edinb. | Edinb. 


average an- | than in | than in 
nual deaths. | Edinb. | Edinb. 


Percent.|Percent. 


: P t. 
Edinburgh.) 9162| 1,0582| 1,9754| 137,986| 56-117 |... |---| 1-431 
Glasgow ...| 1,848: | 18895 | 3,7373| 264010} 44-042 | ... |12,075| 1-415) ... | 0-016 


Aberdeen..| 3412] 3822| 7242) 63,366] 56-851 | 0734) ... | 1-142] ... | 0:289 
PATER. .sn05 149 1672| 3162} 19,435| 61-730 | 5613) ... | 1-630} 0-199 
Dundee ...| 284 3285] 6125] 59,691] 42-473 ... | 13,644] 1-025] ... | 0-406 


* It has to be observed, that the average is for five years in Glasgow, Aberdeen and Pertli, while 
or Edinburgh and Dundee the average is only for three years. : 


Comparative rate 


Edinb, | Edinb. 


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B88 KM ALTOO REPORT—1842., 


BurIALs AT THE Pusiic EXPENSE. 


The returns for Edinburgh and Glasgow for these burials have not yet. been 
fully received for 1840 and 1841. 
The per-centage of the whole spe 1839. in 1838. in 1837 

which took place at the public expense ifm pa a fe 

in Edinburgh and Leith ® ° ‘ 1S80 = ie ee 
And in Glasgow “ie «+ » se», 21°66 - 23°20 . 26330 per cent, 

ABERDEEN.—In the city of Aberdeen the average annual amount of burials — 
at the public expense these five years is 4°115 per cent of the whole burials. 

Pertu.—In the city of Perth the average annual amount of burials at the 
public expense these five years is 4°398 per cent. of the whole burials. 

Dunpvee.—In the town of Dundee the average annual amount of burials 
at the public expense these five years is 11°560 per cent of the whole deaths. 


GENERAL REMARKS. 
MORTALITY. 


The principal object of the preceding tables being, as far as possible, to 
supply that defect in the knowledge of the vital statistics of large towns 
in Scotland which has so long existed, care has been taken to exhibit, on an 
uniform plan, as extensive a collection of facts relative to disease and death 
as the defective state of the registers in these towns will afford ; from which 
deductions may be drawn as to how far the amount of deaths is influenced 
by the local circumstances of the various towns, or to the moral and physical 
condition of their inhabitants—differing, as they do, in the occupations in 
which the people are engaged, and the comparative numbers of those in ex- 
treme poverty, and of those in comfortable or wealthy circumstances. 

The mortality of the towns reported on being so various, and all of the 
towns showing a greater proportion of deaths than is observable in country 
districts, it becomes a matter of high importance to trace these differences to 
their true causes, by which means the philanthropist and the legislator might 
be guided in adopting such measures as might tend to remove these causes, 
and ultimately lead to an effectual amelioration of the condition of the people. 

But to trace the causes of the numerous results exhibited in the preceding 
tables to the local peculiarities of these towns or to the condition of the 
people, would require a very minute knowledge of the circumstances of the 
inhabitants, and would inconveniently extend the limits of this Report. All | 
that can be here attempted, therefore, is to point out some of the most remark- 
able of the results, and to offer a few observations as to how far these results 
may have been oceasioned by local circumstances, and to endeavour to dis- 
cover—limited as our present knowledge is with regard to the vital statistics 
of the country—if there be not general laws governing the distribution of 
disease, and the amount of deaths from each disease: at ‘the different ages of 
the town population. 

Before proceeding to a summary of the leading facts elicited in these _ 
tables, a few observations may be necessary in explanation of the tables 
themselves, and of the manner in which they have been constructed. 

The want of a proper system for the registration of deaths as well as of 
births and marriages, has long been much felt in Scotland, and repeated at- 
tempts have been made to introduce a legislative measure for its improve- 
ment, but without success. In the absence of a proper system for the 
registration of deaths, considerable attention has been paid by the magi- 
strates, kirk sessions, and other parties of some of the large towns, in whom 


* Paper read at the Statistical Section of the British Association at Glasgow in 1840. 


. 


mal 


cal eS IGE iis 


CS i 


an 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 189 


is vested the management of burial-grounds, to procure registers of burials. 
No uniform or systematic method of recording the causes of death has been 
adopted; but in some of the towns the names of the fatal diseases, as stated 
by the friends of the deceased, together with the ages at which death took 
place, have been carefully noted; and the data from which the preceding 
tables have been constructed have been obtained from these records. In 
Aberdeen the causes of death have been but partially recorded, which ren- 
ders the tables for that city less satisfactory than we could have desired. 
Tn all cases, however, the ages at which death took place appear to have 
been carefully attended to, which is an important feature in the tables. 

~The only portion of these towns where a proper system of recording the 
diseases which cause death is to be found, is in the parish of South Leith, 
where Mr. Lyon has introduced the system recommended by the Committee 
of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, appointed to consider the 
best mode of framing public registers of deaths. This system is admirably 
adapted for the purpose, and it would be most advantageous to the advance- 
ment of our knowledge of the vital statistics of the country were it uniformly 
adopted for all burying-ground registers. It is to be feared, however, that 
there is no hope of this being done till government be prevailed upon to in- 
troduce a legislative measure. There is proof of this, in no register whatever 
being kept for the burial-ground of Newhaven, situated in North Leith, 
which prevents us from completing the mortality tables of that town on the 


py: principles as the others, though for one of the burying-grounds (South 


Leith) there is at present one of the best registers in the country. 
__ The classification of diseases used in the foregoing tables is far from being so 


perfect as would be attainable were the system of registration recommended 


by the Edinburgh Royal College of Physicians adopted. The arrangement 
followed in these tables was first drawn up, with the assistance of medical gen- 


_ tlemen, in 1835, for the construction of the tables given in the Glasgow Mor- 


ity Bills. This arrangement, which will be found in the Appendix, though 
y no means so complete as could be wished, is probably as much so as it 


‘an be made in the present state of the registers of deaths in Scotland. 


__ Whatever defects, Is»wever, may be observable in the arrangement of dis- 
eases in these tables, as the registers from which our information is obtained 
ure kept in a manner similar to each other, and as the results are brought 


Out in the tables on an uniform plan, a comparison of the amount of mortality 


xhibited under the heads of the different diseases and at yarious ages in the 
lifferent towns, will necessarily afford useful information. 
_ It will be observed, that one of the distinguishing features of these disease 


tables is, that the number of deaths at the different ages is made to appear 


nder the head of the diseases which caused death at these ages; and for 
those whose local and general information on these matters may enable them 
assist in advancing our knowledge of the physical and moral condition of 


the people, the proportions which the deaths at the different ages, and the 
proportions which the amount of fatal diseases bear to the whole deaths, and 
_ also to the population of the different towns, are carefully exhibited in sepa- 


rate columns. 

In those tables in which the amount of deaths by the several diseases at 
different ages is specified, in some cases for five and in others for three years, 
not only the number as compared with the population is given, but the pro- 
portion per cent. of the deaths at the different ages, and of the causes of 
death, are added; these proportions being well suited to a comparison of 
the mortality which takes place in the several towns. 

_ Comparing the mortality of the different towns each year with their popu- 
Jation as ascertained by the census of 1841, it is obvious that the proportion 


190 REPORT—1842. 


of deaths, in all the years antecedent to 1841, would appear under the truth. 
As we may assume that the increase of population from 1831 to 1841 has been 
progressively uniform during the intervening years, the amount of population 
for the several towns of Scotland, as exhibited in the tables, has been calcu- 
lated accordingly ; and on the amount of population thus obtained, the pro- 
portions of the relative mortality of the different towns have been caleulated. 

As it is an object of great interest and importance to observe the effect of 
the seasons on the amount of mortality in different localities, tables are 
added, showing the amount of deaths monthly for these towns, and also ex- 
hibiting the proportions which the average of deaths in each month bear to 
the annual average of deaths. 

Tables are also added, showing the amount of burials in each burying 
place within the boundaries of the different towns; but, as it does not always 
follow that the inhabitants of the different localities make use of the burying- 
ground in their immediate neighbourhood, no great reliance can be placed on 
any information of this nature. These tables, however, assist to test the 
aceuracy of the other tables. ft 

Tables are also given, showing the amount of deaths by fever and eruptive 
diseases under five, under twenty, and above twenty years of age, and the 
proportion the deaths by these diseases bear to the whole deaths. The 
results exhibited in these tables are well worthy of consideration. In the 
present limited state of our knowledge of the vital statistics of the country, 
it is obviously desirable that a minute analysis should be made of the fatal 
effects produced by the various diseases on the population at different ages, 
and under every variety of circumstances. By such analysis we may be en- 
abled to trace those general laws by which nature appears to govern the di- 
stribution of disease and mortality. Should this object be attained, a most 
important step would be gained in the progress of our knowledge of vital 
statistics, and the science itself be enhanced in utility. 

For several years past much labour has been bestowed on the Mortality 
Bills of Glasgow, in order to exhibit the amount of mortality arising from the 
various diseases at different ages; considerable uniformity was noted in the 
results of the fever and eruptive fever tables of Glas$ow and other towns; 
and the confirmation this uniformity has received from the more extended 
results now before us, leads to the belief that it cannot be looked upon as a 
matter of chance, but that it indicates the possibility of our arriving, by a 
still more extended sphere of observation, and by a more correct system in 
the registration of the fatal diseases, at a knowledge of precise laws which 
seem to regulate the amount of deaths at different ages by fever and eruptive 
diseases. It may be too much to speak confidently of arriving at this very 
desirable result, yet the evidence is sufficiently strong to justify the bringing 
these circumstances under particular notice, which will be done in the re- 
marks we have to make on the leading results brought out in these tables. 

With regard to the hospitals and dispensaries for the poor inhabitants of 
these towns, they are placed on a very equal footing. To visit the Royal 
Infirmary or the Dispensary of any one of these towns will lead to a correct 
judgment of all the others. Differences may be observed as to the newness 
of the building, or in some of the minor arrangements, but superintended as 
they all are by suitable officers, the same high character of efficiency is com- 
mon to all of them, and renders the benefit they confer on the poor and 
destitute in time of sickness and bodily distress one of the greatest blessings 
they enjoy. The differences, therefore, that are to be observed in the 
amount of mortality in the towns, are not traceable to differences in the 
means of affording medical relief! 

The first difference to be observed in the amount of the annual mortality 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 191 


in the towns reported on, is that which appears to arise from atmospheric in- 
fluence or some other unknown cause, which seems to have a greater or less 
effect on the human frame in different years. The influence of extreme 
cold on the amount of mortality has been frequently noticed by writers on 
this subject; and though others have attributed the excess of mortality 
which is sometimes observable more to sudden changes of temperature than 
“to extreme cold, it is very evident that excessive cold, though it is not the 
only atmospheric influence to be guarded against, has a powerful influence 
in producing a great mortality, and the effect of that influence is inversely 
as the abundance of nutritive food, clothing and fuel at the command of the 
people to guard against it?¢ Table LXVI. testifies in the strongest manner to 
the effects of temperature and the changes of the seasons upon vitality. 
The most fatal month in the year to human life is January, the per-centage 
_ deaths of the total number of deaths ranging from 10 to 144 per cent. The 
next most fatal month is February; and a singular uniformity prevails in the 
per-centage deaths to the whole deaths in all the towns; then follow Decem- 
ber and March, and the mortality diminishes until July—August, gradually 
inereasing again with the fall of the year until it is at its maximum in Janu- 
ary; in short, having a close correspondence with the progress of the sun in~ 
the ecliptic, the maximum intensity being when the sun is furthest removed 
from our latitudes, and its minimum effects occurring when the sun is in the 
neighbourhood of the northern tropic. It might probably be more correct 
‘to say that the mean mortality accords with the monthly mean temperature. 
The tables exhibit a somewhat singular feature in the proportional excess of 
deaths in Edinburgh in the summer months over the other towns, combined 
‘with a somewhat smaller proportion in the month of January, but an excess 
in the month of December. These anomalies may possibly originate in the 
‘topography of the town, or in the averages being for three years only for 
Edinburgh and for five years for the other towns. The influence of high 
winds in removing infection and disease has also been noticed by writers, 
and is a subject of great interest in cénnexion with the sanitary condition of 
_ great towns, where the inhabitants are often crowded together in closely 
_ pent-up houses, where a free circulation of air is not to be expected. 
_, Sir Gilbert Blane, in describing the effects of a hurricane which took place 


bs in the West Indies, in October 1780, after some observations on its beneficial 


effects on the prevailing diseases of the country, except where the old and 
delicate suffered from mechanical violence, says, “ This is a fact so paradoxi- 
_ eal, that if I had not a concurrence of testimony, and in some degree my 
_ Own observation, I could neither credit nor would venture to relate it. It 


___ had a visibly good effect on the diseases of the country; fevers, fluxes, and 


_ chronic diarrhceas, the consequence of dysenteries, were also cured by it. 
_ But the diseases upon which it operated most visibly and sensibly were pul- 
_ monic complaints. Some cases, supposed to be beginning consumption, and 
_ even the acute state of pleurisy, were cured by it*.” 
In connexion with any inquiry into the sanitary condition of large towns, 
_ it is therefore of importance to ascertain what state of the atmosphere is most 
prejudicial or most favourable to health, operating as its changes do toa 
greater or less extent, according to the local circumstances of these towns, in 
regard to the free circulation of air, proper drainage, cleanliness, and the com- 
forts of the people in lodging, food and clothing}. Itis to be feared, however, 


4 a A aria -yalaammaas on several subjects of Medical Science, by Sir Gilbert Blane, Bart., 

: +, DP. 370. 

” + The propriety of publishing meteorological tables for these towns in connexion with this 

subject is sufficiently obvious, and would have been attended to, had not the construction of 
__ the preceding tables necessarily occupied much more time than was anticipated. 


192 5 REPORT—1 842. 


that our meteorological observations are not yet sufficiently extensive to en- 
able us to forma correct judgment of the specific effects of atmospheric 
phznomena, when combined with the local circumstances of large towns, 
nor to point out how these effects are to be most effectually obviated. «It 
is not only necessary to know the temperature and weight of the air at par- 
ticular times but also the direction and force of the wind, with the quantity 
of moisture it contains; also its electrical state, together with the quantity of 
rain that falls.” 

From the imperfect system followed in recording the deaths in many of the 
registers, we are obliged to assume that those deaths which oceur beyond the 
limits of any of these towns, and in which burial takes place within their 
limits, are balanced by those eases in which death takes place in the towns 
and the burials elsewhere. In Perth, where there is a steady and somewhat 
decreasing population, there may perhaps be rather an excess of those who 
die at a distance buried within the limits of the city. With regard to Aber- 
deen, Bailie Forbes and others, whom we have consulted on the subject, in- 
form us that a considerable number of inhabitants who die in that city are 
buried at a distance, often where the family of the party may have origi- 
nally been seated; and although the ages at which death takes place in 
that town, and other circumstances, clearly prove that Aberdeen is favour- 
ably situated as to its sanitary condition, we are inclined to believe that the 
average annual mortality of that town is very considerably understated at 
1 in 49°737, as in the preceding tables: With regard to the other towns, it 
would be difficult to form an estimate as to whether the amount of those who 
die beyond and are buried within their limits, or those who die within and 
are buried beyond the limits, is the greatest. As the proportion of such 
burials, however, may be considered uniform throughout the year, a fair 
judgment may be formed as to the relative effect of the seasons in connexion 
with other causes on the mortality of the different towns. 

In Aberdeen, it will be observed, there is an excess in the proportion of 
deaths over those of Edinburgh during the months of January, February, 
March, April and May. It will be perceived that in February the excess is 
the greatest, and amounts to 1:90 per cent. of the average annual deaths. 
During the seven last months of the year the proportion of deaths is greater 
in Edinburgh than in Aberdeen; the greatest difference being in September, 
in which month the excess in Edinburgh amounts to Ili per cent. of the 
average annual deaths. For the relative mortality in these towns for the 
different months, see Table LXIII. : 

From Table LXIV. it will be found that there is an excess of deaths in 
Perth over those in Edinburgh during the months of January, February, 
March, April, May and August; the greatest excess is in January, amounting 
to 3°36 per cent. of the whole deaths* ; and in June, July, September, October, 
November and December, there is an excess of deaths in Edinburgh as com- 
pared with Perth; the greatest excess is in June, amounting to 1-98 per 
cent. of the annual average of deaths.., 

In Dundee there is an excess of deaths in the months of January, February, 
March, and May as compared with Edinburgh; the greatest excess is in 
January, and amounts to 4°31 per cent. of the annual average of deaths. 
During all the other months the excess of deaths is in Edinburgh, amounting 
in September to 1°63, and in November to 1°69 per cent. See Table LXV. 

It is much to be regretted that circumstances have prevented the construe~ 
tion of monthly tables of mortality for five years instead of three for Edin- 
burgh. Had this been the case, the proportionate mortality would not have 

* The great mortality which was caused by fever and influenza in January 1837, is the 
reason of this proportion being so high, . 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN’SCOTLAND. 193 


been quite so favourable for that city during the winter months as is made to 
appear by these tables. The amount of deaths from fever and influenza, 
which was, excessive in the beginning of 1837, is included in the: results 
brought forward for the other towns, but it has not been obtained for Edin- 

_ burgh. The relative proportions of the deaths during the different months, 
as exhibited in these tables, are therefore more correct for the other towns 
than they are for that city. 

Whatever influence the vicissitudes of the atmosphere may have, there are 
obviously other causes greatly affecting mortality, such as a free circulation 
of air, drainage, cleanliness, temperance, the abundance of wholesome food, 
clothing, fuel, and the occupations of the people. 

One of the objects of research in vital statistics is to make comparisons of 
the effects produced on different communities similarly situated with regard 
to these various circumstances, and to observe how far the same causes pro- 
duce the same results on the human frame. ' 

But it must be of rare occurrence to find two towns similarly situated 
in all these respects. In the towns for which these tables are constructed, it 
will be observed, that while some approach near to each other in some 
points, both in regard to their sanitary condition and the circumstances of 
the people, yet they differ in others, and the difference is accompanied with 
a greater or less amount of mortality. 

From the tables in which the deaths are brought forward for aseries of years, 
it will be seen (Tables XXXII. to XLIX.) that the greatest number of deaths 

_ at the very early ages takes place in Glasgow and Dundee, towns possessing 
_ many features common to both; their manufactures, commerce and public 
_ works resemble each other, the wages of the working classes, the appearance 
__ of their houses, and the rents paid for them, are much the same, and the price 
_ of food is nearly equal in both places. The deficiency of proper drainage, the 
accumulation of impurities, and the want of a free circulation of air, are very 
_ observable in both cases. In both towns there is a large proportion of the 
wretchedly poor, though the largest proportion is decidedly in Glasgow. 

_ It appears (Tables LI. and LIV.) that the average annual amount of mor- 
_ tality in Glasgow for the last five years is as 1 to 31-10, or 3°21 per cent.; 
and in Dundee, for the same years, as 1 to 38°37, or 2°60 per cent. We have 
_ already stated that the accuracy of these results depends on whether or not 
__ the number of deaths which take place in these towns, with burial in the 
_ country, or the deaths that take place in the country, with burial in the 
_ towns, balance each other. A more correct judgment may therefore be 
. formed of the relative mortality of these towns by a comparison of the ages 

_ at which death takes place than by these general results. 
___ Byreferring to Tables LI. and LIV., it will be found that the proportion of 
_ deaths at Glasgow under one year of age, to the population on an average 
of years, exceeds that of Edinburgh by 0-178 per cent. In Dundee the pro- 
_ portion is greater than in Edinburgh by 0:086 percent. The excess of deaths 
__ at one and under two years of age in Glasgow over those in Edinburgh, is 
_ ©-21 per cent.; in Dundee, 0°07 per cent. At two and under five years of 
__ age the excess of deaths in Glasgow is greater than in Edinburgh by 0°18 
_ per cent.; and in Dundee by 0°11 per cent. Again (Table LXXIV.), it ap- 
_ pears that in Glasgow the average annual proportion of deaths under five 
years of age, to the mean population, is 1°43 per cent., and to the whole 
average annual deaths is 44°58 per cent.; while in Dundee the proportion of 
deaths under these years, to:the population, is 1:13 per cent., and to the 
_ whole average deaths is 46°82 per'cent. Table LX XVI. shows that in Glas- 
_ gow 1°79 per cent. per annum of the population. die under twenty years of 
_ age, and in Dundee 1°38 per cent. It will be observed, however, that the pro- 

— +1842. co) 


ae a 


BAG Ses ets PsP r 


194 REPORT—1842. 


portion of deaths under twenty years of age in Glasgow, to the total deaths, 
is 55°95 per cent., whereas in Dundee it amounts to 57°52 per cent. 

It will also be observed that at the higher ages there is an excess of deaths in 
Edinburgh over either Glasgow or Dundee, with the exception of those above 
ninety-five years of age, at which ages the excess of deaths takes place in Glas- 
gow and Dundee. Table LX XVIII. shows that 1°41 per cent. per annum of the 
population of Glasgow die above twenty years of age, and that 1-02 per cent. 
of the population of Dundee die above that age ; 44°04 per cént. of the whole 
deaths taking place in Glasgow above that age, and 42°47 per cent. in Dundee. 

It is plain, therefore, that as the proportion of deaths at the different ages 
under five years, under twenty, and above twenty years of age, to the whole 
deaths, leads to the belief that Dundee is a less healthy town than Glasgow, 
and that the deaths at the two former ages, to the population, show that 
Glasgow is the least healthy of the two towns, the inference to be drawn is 
either that those deaths which take place beyond the limits of Glasgow, and 
in which burial takes place within the limits, exceed the number of those 
cases in which death takes place in the town, and the burials elsewhere, or 
that the opposite of this is the case in Dundee. 

It is to be regretted that we are unable to give tables of mortality and of 
marriages for the town of Ayr. As that town is so similarly situated in many 
respects to Perth, a very interesting and useful comparison might have been 
made of the relative amount of the marriages and deaths in these towns. 

There is a very considerable difference between the local circumstances of 
Perth and those of Glasgow or Dundee. This town is chiefly dependent on its 
connexion with the rich agricultural districts that surround it; it has some 
factories of flax, woollen and cotton, but these are of inconsiderable extent *. 
Of the towns for which we have constructed tables, Edinburgh approaches 


* Of the population of Perth there are about 900 adults employed as hand-loom weavers, 
and a considerable portion of them produce a fabric somewhat peculiar to themselves ; and 
as the manufacture of this species of goods has not fallen off so much as the goods manu- 
factured in Paisley, the weavers have been comparatively well off in this district lately, many 
of them making from 10s, to 12s. per week; some of them, however, do not make half so 
much. The wages of the ordinary labourer are rather lower than in some other towns; the 
price of food, however, is considerably lower, The 41b. loaf retails at 7d., whereas at Glas- 
gow it is 9d., and till very lately 10d.; and all other kinds of food seem to be cheaper than 
at Glasgow. On inspection, it does not appear that there is so much of that extreme desti- 
tution and utter wretchedness which is to be met with in some other towns. The houses of the 
poorer classes are better, and the rents more moderate than elsewhere. Some of the lodging- 
houses for the poor, though better than in some other towns, are certainly capable of im- 
provement; but, generally speaking, good beds, blankets and sheets are provided, and con- 
siderable attention seems to be paid to their cleanliness. It does not appear that there are 
so many lodgers crowded into one room as at Aberdeen, Dundee, or Glasgow. 

Perth is a fine, open, well-aired town. With regard to drainage, it possesses great advan- 
tages in the command of a fine stream of water, which enters at the north-west part of the 
town, and is there divided into three branches, passing through different portions of the 
city, carrying off the impurities which are thrown into it from various parts of the town by 
surface drains. The improvement of covered drains, as contemplated by the Lord Provost, 
must still further add to the comfort and health of the inhabitants. The greatest attention 
is paid to the scavenger department of the police, and the manure is carefully removed to the 
outskirts of the town. Accumulations of this kind are unknown in any part of Perth. 

As the county of Perth is well known to be a wool-growing country, it may be mentioned 
that great encouragement has been extended by the Lord Provost and magistrates to the 
woollen manufactures, and various premiums have been offered to those who may introduce 
or increase these manufactures ; and as the county town should form a very suitable mart for 
these manufactures, a wool fair has lately been established under the same auspices, and it has 
been very successful. 

Without entering into further detail, it may be stated that Perth, without being subject to 
a high state of prosperity or of adversity, possesses many advantages which tend to promote 
the comfort and well-being of the inhabitants, 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 195 


the nearest to it, though there are some important particulars in which they 
differ considerably. 

It will be seen (Table LXVII.) that the average annual mortality in Edin- 
burgh for the last five years, to the mean population of these years, is as 1 to 
34°90, or 2°86 per cent., and in Perth it is as 1 to 37°87, or 2°64 per cent, It 
will also be observed (Table LIII.), that there is an excess in the proportion of 
deaths in Edinburgh at nearly all the ages up to fifty years, over those which 
took place at Perth, with the exception of those at two and under five, and 
those at fifteen and under twenty years; and that the greatest proportion of 
deaths at all the ages above fifty years in these towns is in Perth. It will be 
observed, that the difference in the proportion of these deaths, at any of the 
ages stated in the table, does not extend to high numbers ; the greatest excess 
in Edinburgh being of the deaths under one year, which amounts to 0:07 per 
cent. of the whole population; and the greatest proportion of deaths in 
Perth over those of Edinburgh is at the age of seventy and under seventy- 
five years, which amounts to 0°09 per cent. 

It may further be observed (Table LXXVI.), that in Edinburgh the deaths 

_ under twenty years of age amount annually to 1:11 per cent. of the population, 
and to 43°88 per cent. of the whole deaths; while in Perth the deaths under 
the same age amount to 1°01 per cent. of the population, and to 38°26 per 
cent. of the whole deaths. Again (Table LXXYVIII.), the deaths in Edinburgh 
above twenty years of age amount to 1°43 per cent. of the population, and to 
56°11 per cent. of the whole deaths ; while in Perth the deaths above the same 
age amount to 1°63 per cent, of the population, and to 61°73 per cent. of 
the whole deaths, 

_ The differences in the mortality of these two cities might be traced to 
the local circumstances of the inhabitants, but to pursue this subject further 
would lead us beyond the limits of this Report. ; 

_, With regard to Aberdeen, partaking as it does partly of the character of 
Perth as a county town, and of the character of Glasgow and Dundee in the 
extent of its factories for the manufacture of flax, cotton and woollen goods, 
the defective state of the registers prevents us from making the tables show- 
ing the causes of death so complete as for the other towns*. By a careful 
_ examination of the mortality tables for this town, it will be found that they 
afford good reason to believe that Aberdeen is very healthy +; although, as 
____* We have been very obligingly favoured with extracts of Registers and Reports from the 

Hospitals and Royal Infirmary, by several of the medical gentlemen of that city, for the pur- 

pose of supplying this deficiency to a certain extent. 
___. = Much has been done of late years to improve the city of Aberdeen, by removing old, 
 closely-built and ill-aired houses, and by building wider streets, more healthy houses, and 
elegant public buildings in their stead. A considerable number of lanes and closes, sur- 
_ rounded by the worst description of houses, have been in this manner removed. And in visiting 
any of those closes where this class of houses is still to be found, it is gratifying to observe 
that great attention is paid to the scavenger department of the police, None of those offen; 
/ sive accumulations of animal and vegetable matter, which are so conspicuous in some parts 
of Glasgow, Leith and Dundee, are allowed to remain to destroy the comfort and the health 
of the inhabitants. Through the kind attention of Captain Barclay, superintendent of 
_ police, we have been able to compare the condition of the poorest class of the inhabitants 
_ with the condition of those in other towns. There is perhaps no town in which there are 
_ worse cases of miserable destitution than are to be met with in Aberdeen, but, fortunately 
_ for that city, these cases bear a much smaller proportion to the population than is to be met 
___-with in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dundee, or perhaps in Liverpool, The lodging-houses for 
the poor in Aberdeen are often densely crowded, In Peacock’s Close, for example, above 
____ twenty people are frequently to be found sleeping in a room from ten to twelve feet square, 
with a smail closet adjoining. In the majority of these lodging-houses, however, the white- 
| _ ness of the sheets and blankets indicates a much higher degree of comfort than is to be ob- 
__ Served among the same class of people in the towns above alluded to. 
. The trade and commerce of Aberdeen have long been of a steady and prosperous nature; 
_ bankruptcies are of very rare occurrence in ao city. The price of animal food is con- 
U re) s 


ny a 


~ 


ee 


196 REPORT—1842. 


has been already stated, from some of the inhabitants being buried beyond 
the limits of the town, the probability is that the deaths which are recorded 
are not the whole deaths, and therefore the returns from the burying-grounds 
may be considered incomplete, and make the proportionate mortality of this 
town appear somewhat less than it really is. 

The average annual mortality in Aberdeen appears (Table LXXI.) to be as 
1 to 49°72, or 2:01 per cent.; and it will be observed (Table LII.), that with 
the exception of the ages at fifteen and under twenty years, there is an excess 
of mortality at all the ages specified in the tables up to eighty years in Edin- 
burgh over the proportion which takes place at these ages in this town. At 
all the ages above eighty years, consequently, the greatest proportion of deaths 
which take place in these towns is in Aberdeen. It is further shown (Table 
LXXVI.), that in Aberdeen the deaths under twenty years of age amount to 
0°86 per cent. of the population, and to 43°14 per cent. of the whole deaths ; 
and that (Table LXXVIII.) the deaths above twenty years of age amount to 
114 per cent. of the population, and to 56°85 per cent. of the whole deaths. 


DISEASES. 

The tables commencing with No. XXXII. and ending with No. XLIX., ex- 
hibit the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the different towns 
during successive years, classified according to eighteen periods of life at which 
they took place ; and show also the total number of deaths at each period, 
and the proportions which these and the number of deaths, from the several 
diseases, bear to the total number of deaths, and also to the population. It 
will be observed, that our information on these heads extends only to three 
years for Edinburgh and for Dundee*. Circumstances have prevented tables 
of this description from being made for these towns for the years 1837 and 
1838, as was intended. For the other towns, with the exception of Leith, 
these tables extend to five years. It is to be regretted that the state of the 
registers of Leith prevents tables of this kind from being made out for more 
than two years; and even these are not so complete as the others, owing to 
no registers being kept for the burying-ground of Newhaven. The amount 
of mortality in these towns, caused by the various diseases at different ages 
during successive years, may be seen by referring to the tables. We may 
here, however, notice some of the more marked results brought out in the 
five following tables, No. L. to LIV., in which the results are brought for- 
ward and comparisons are made for the several towns, on an average of 
the different years for which these tables have been constructed. 

It will be observed (Table L.), that there is a proportionate excess of deaths 
in Edinburgh over those in Glasgow, by the causes classed under the heads 
“aged,” “diseases of the head,” “of the heart,” “inflammation,” and by those 
diseases which are not distinctly brought out, as stated in the Appendix, but 
which are classed under the head of miscellaneous diseases. The greatest 
proportion of deaths by all the other diseases takes place in Glasgow. The 
greatest excess of deaths in Edinburgh over those of Glasgow, appears to be 


siderably lower than in Glasgow. Fish is about one-third cheaper than in that town. The 
wages of the working classes appear to be much the same as in other towns. There does 
not appear to be too great a supply of labour for the demand for it. We have the authority 
of Lord Provost Blackie for stating that, till the late severe depression of trade, no man who 
was willing to work could be at a loss to procure employment. 

* These tables for Dundee have been constructed from extracts from the registers 
of that town for the purpose. The data which have enabled us to extend the other _ 
mortality tables for that town to five years, have been obtained from the Dundee Mortality 
Bills, which have been very ably drawn up by W. B. Baxter, Esq. And the data from which 
the other tables for Edinburgh have been constructed were obtained from the paper on Vital 
Statistics, read to the Statistical Section of the British Association at Glasgow, by Mr. 
Alexander Waitt. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 197 


caused by diseases of the head, amounting to 0:047 per cent... The greatest 
excess in Glasgow is by fever, amounting to 0:21 per cent. | It is here to be 
observed, however, that the great excess of deaths by fever during) 1837, in 
these towns, is included for Glasgow, though the amount has not been ob- 
tained, and is not included in this table for Edinburgh: so that the excess of 
deaths by fever in Glasgow over those in Edinburgh appears greater than it 
really is. The excess of deaths by bowel complaint in Glasgow, over those 
in Edinburgh, amounts to 0:20 per cent. For the per-centage of other diseases 
see the Table. 

As Table LIV. gives the amount of deaths in Dundee by the different 
diseases for the same years as those in which it has been obtained for Edin- 
burgh, the comparison is still more satisfactory than for the other towns. It 
will be observed, that the greatest excess of deaths in Dundee over those in 
Edinburgh is caused by asthma, bowel complaint, catarrh, croup, dropsy, 
hooping-cough, measles, nervous diseases, scarlet fever, and small-pox; the 
highest excess being by measles, amounting to 0°102 per cent. The greatest 
proportion of deaths by all the other diseases is in Edinburgh. The highest 
proportion of deaths in that town over those of Dundee is by decline, and 
amounts to 0°137 percent. For the other proportions see the Table. 

The names of only 33°8 per cent. of the fatal cases of disease have been 
ascertained for Aberdeen, and exhibited in the tables for that town; and as 
these bear but a small proportion to the total amount of deaths, the propor- 
tions to the population have been omitted in the tables, as they could form 
no data for comparison with the amount of fatal cases of disease ascer- 
tained for the other towns. ‘The proportion of deaths by the several diseases 
ascertained, to the whole of the fatal cases of ascertained disease, is, how- 
ever, given in Table LII. 

It should be noticed, that for the different towns, with the exception of 
Aberdeen, the diseases stated under the head “not ascertained,” consist 
chiefly of such diseases as the relatives of the deceased could not exactly 
describe ; several of them being named in the registers “inward complaints,” 
&c. It is obvious, that to whichever columns the numbers under this head 
ought to be transferred, very few of them belong to the columns of fever, 
or eruptive fevers, the characteristics of which are so strongly marked. 

There are some cases upon the recording of which due attention has not 
been bestowed; yet the proportion of deaths stated in all the tables, but 
those for Aberdeen, may be considered as being tolerably accurate. 

We have already called attention to the uniformity in the proportion of 
deaths at the different periods of life by fever and eruptive fevers, to the 
whole deaths, by these several diseases. Although in several instances there 


_is a considerable difference in the proportion of these diseases to the amount 


of population, yet the uniform proportion of the mortality by these diseases 


which falls on the different ages is very striking, and leads to the belief, as 
before stated, that by a still more extended range of observation, and by a 
_ more correct system of registration of the fatal diseases, we might find that 


fixed laws regulate the amount of deaths at different ages by the several 
diseases. , 

Table LV. shows, that while the proportion of deaths by fever, under five 
years of age, for the last three years in Edinburgh, amounted to 0:029 per 


cent. of the population, it amounted to 12°41 per cent. of the whole deaths 


by fever. In Glasgow (Table LVI.), while the deaths by fever, at the same 
age, for the last five years, amounted to 0:053 per cent. of the population, 


_ they amounted to 12-07 per cent. of the whole deaths by fever; being very 


hearly the same proportion to the whole deaths by fever as in Edinburgh. 


_ Again (same tables), while the deaths by fever, under twenty years of age, 


198 REPORT—1842. 


for the last three years in Edinburgh, amounted to 0‘070 per cent. of the 
population, they amounted to 29°74 per cent. of the whole deaths by fever. 

In Glasgow, while the deaths by fever, at the same age, for the last five 
years, amounted to 0°129 per cent. of the population, they amounted to 29:05 
per cent. of the deaths by fever, being still very nearly in the same propor- 
tion to the whole deaths by fever as in Edinburgh. Again, in Edinburgh, 
while the deaths by fever, above twenty years of age, during the last three 
years, amount to 0°165 per cent. of the population, they amount to 70°25 per 
cent. of the whole deaths by fever. And in Glasgow, while the deaths by 
fever, above that age, amount to 0°316 per cent of the population, they 
amount to 70°94 per cent. of the whole deaths by fever. 

By referring to the tables for the other towns, it will be perceived that the 
proportions of the deaths by fever, at the different ages, to the whole deaths 
by fever, are not so very close to each other as they are in Edinburgh and 
Glasgow; yet the difference is not great, and may be accounted for partly by 
the defective state of the registers, as well as by some local circumstances 
which cannot yet be clearly traced. 

We have had time only to construct tables similar to those immediately 
referred to, fora few of the fever cases, exhibited in the Reports of the Regis- 
trar-General for towns in England. As those we have constructed, however, 
show very striking results for Manchester and Liverpool, we here insert the 
results corresponding with those above quoted. 


Proportions of Deaths by Fever, at different ages, during 1839*. 


In Manchester. In Liverpool. 
Of the Of the 
Of th Of th 
whole Me hy Bupultions ei ree by Population. 
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 

Under 5 years of age... 16-037 0-018 15-081 0-016 
Under 20 years ......... 38°679 0:043 30°163 0-033 
20 years and upwards..| 61:320 0-069 69°836 0:077 
ee Aa ae 0-118 O11 


The uniformity of the following proportions of deaths by the several dis- 
eases at certain ages, to the whole deaths by these diseases, is still more 
striking, although the amount of deaths, when compared to the population, 
was very different. 


Proportion of Deaths by Measles, at different ages, during 1839. 


In Manchester. * In Liverpool. 


Of the " Of the 
Of th Of th 
nes sopra by Population: ang Poms ag by Population. 
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 

Under 5 years of age... 92-496 i 91-271 0°133 
Under 20 years ......... 99°353 0:273 99°750 0-146 
20 years and upwards.. 0-646 0-002 0-249 0:000 
Totaliiiai. 100:000 0:275 100-000 0:146 


* The data from which these proportions are obtained will be found in the Third Annual 
Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths and Marriages in England, see pages 70 
and 74. It will be observed, that the deaths by remittent fever and typhus are included in 
these proportions. 

+ See pages 70 and 74 of the Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths and Mar- 
Tiages ip England. { : 


ON THE VITAL STATISTIOS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 199 


Proportion of Deaths by Scarlatina, at different ages, during 1839. 


In Manchester. In Liverpool. 
Of the 7 Of the 
Of the Of the 
whole Deaths by 3 whole Deaths b 2 
Searlatina, Populations Scarlatina, -| Population. 


Per cent. Per cent, Per cent, Per cent. 
Under 5 years of age...) 72-659 : 74598 : 
Under 20 years ....... a 97°752 0:093 98:930 0°135 


20 years and upwards.. 2247 0:002 1:069 0-001 
. Total.scsssesseee| 100-000 0-095 100-000 0-136 


te ‘ ahh ; 
Proportion of Deaths by Small-pox, at different ages, during 1839. 
i | , In Manchester. In Liverpool. 


to Of the Of th 
Of th Of th 
Ppt ae hy Bogidatirin, BPR, hoe hy, Population 
’ rat Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 
Under 5 years of age... 87-341 i $5:328 0:087 
Under 20 years .......4. 98-312 0-082 97-683 0:092 
; 20 years and upwards.. 1687 0001 2:316 0-002 
< Total. sce... 100/000 0-084 100-000 0:094 
5 For the proportions of the deaths by measles, scarlet fever and small-pox 


at the different ages, to the whole deaths, for the towns in Scotland, and 
their striking correspondence with the above, we have to refer to the preceding 
tables, in which they are exhibited. The following results brought out for 
other diseases, in a similar manner, show, that were the Scotch registers so 
improved that we could rely upon their accuracy, there is a great probability 
that the proportion of deaths at different ages, in a given population, by any 
particular disease, would. be found to be nearly uniform, whatever the total 
amount might be; and that when there was a departure from a certain pro- 
portion at these ages, a local cause might be found to account for it. 

It will be found from the tables showing the average annual amount of 
_ deaths by the several diseases, that the proportion of the total deaths by the 
_ diseases included under the head of bowel complaints, amounts to 0°167 per 
cent. of the population in Edinburgh; to 0:171 per cent. of the population in 
Perth ; to 0°263 per cent. in Dundee; and to 0°370 per cent. in Glasgow. 


The following is the annual average proportion which the deaths by Bowel 
~ Complaint, at different ages, bear to the whole annual average deaths by 
that complaint, in different towns, and also to the population. 


te) 

‘a 

‘f Dundee. Glasgow. 
* 

oe de lbestod eiantieentEgunvamemenss 
a oe eee soz | 248 | go4| 286 | 23% | 282 | Boa |] ge8 
. Sea | 828 | BSS | Soe | ESS | B28 | S89 | See 
Es 

q sen | Be | Bea | BoE | Bsa | Boe) Bea | Ste 
; 2 Ae TN Raed Pacey aS Vinal AS 


. | Percent, | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Percent. 
79-041 | 0-135 | 77-919 4 4:066 | 0311 
82-634 | 0°142 | 84°288 | 0°221 | 90-693 | 0-335 
85:029 | 0146 | 86-886 | 0-228 | 93-475 '| 0-346 
14:970 | 0°025 | 18-163 | 0-034 | 6-524 | 0-023 


Se Per cent. 
| Under 3 years of age.) 79-106 
| Under 5 years......... 85-014 
| Under 20 years....... 87:608 
20 years and upwards.| 12391 


200 ? REPORT— 1842. 


We have made out tables like the above for some of the other diseases. 
The results are all similar to those in the following table for Inflammation, 
in which there is a great variation in the proportions for the different towns. 
It is to be doubted, however, if much reliance can be placed on the accuracy 
with which these diseases are recorded in the registers. 

It will be found by the tables above referred to, that the proportion of the 
total annual average deaths by inflammation to the mean population of Edin- 
burgh amounts to 0°196 per cent.; in Glasgow to 0°185 per cent. ; in Perth 
to 0139 per cent.; in Dundee to 0°143 per cent. 


The following is the proportion which the deaths by Inflammation, at different 
ages, bear to the whole deaths by inflammation, in different towns, and also 
to the population. 


Edinburgh. Dundee. 


S28 | S22 | S58 | £83 | 823 | 888 | Bes | 283 

E28 | Fo | £29 | Foe | 22° | £25] 28° | Fae 

Per cent. } Per amy .| Percent. Per cent. | Per cent. 

Under 5 years of age.| 44°103 | 0-08 0-083 51-361 | 0-073 
Under 20 years ...... 55°651 | 0109 | 58-006 | 0-107 62-645 | 0:089 
20 years and upwards.| 44:348 | 0-087 | 41-993 | 0:077 37°354 | 0-053 


The tables from No. LXXIV. to LXXX. exhibit the average annual number 
of deaths under five, under twenty and above twenty years of age, in five of 
the principal towns of Scotland, and also for all England, and for the City 
of London and town of Manchester ; with the proportions which the average 
annual deaths at these ages bear to the whole average annual deaths, and 
to the mean population. | 

Tables LX XIV. and LXXV. show, that the proportion of deaths under five 
years of age amounted in the three years specified to 0°85 per cent. of the po- 
pulation in Edinburgh, and to 33°62 per cent. of the whole deaths in that town. 
For England it was 0°871 per cent. and 39°59 per cent. of deaths. In London 
the proportion of deaths under the same age, in the years specified, amounted 
to 1:066 per cent. of the population, and to 40°49 per cent. of the whole 
deaths. In Glasgow the proportion of deaths under five years of age in five 
years specified, amounted to 1°43 per cent. of the population, and to 44°58 
per cent. of the whole deaths. By referring to the tables, it will be found 
that there is a greater mortality under five years in London than in the 
Scotch towns; but the mortality in Manchester exceeds that of the most un- 
healthy Scotch towns. 

Tables LXXVI. and LXXVII. show, that in Edinburgh the proportions of 
deaths under 20 years of age amounted to 1-119 per cent. of the population, 
and to 43°88 per cent. of the whole deaths, For all England the proportions 

~ were respectively 1-118 and 50°83 per cent. In London the proportion of 
deaths under that age amounted to 1°296 per cent. of the population, and to 
49°23 per cent. of the whole deaths. In Glasgow the proportion of deaths 
under that age amounted to 1°79 per cent. of the population, and to 55°95 per 
cent. of the whole deaths ; and in Manchester the proportion of deaths under 
the same age amounted to 2:027 per cent. of the population, and to 60°99 per 
cent. of the whole deaths. 

Tables LXXVIII. and LXXIX.show, that in Edinburgh the proportion of 
deaths above 20 years of age amounted to 1°43 per cent. of the population, and 


+ 
} 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS IN SCOTLAND. 201 


to. 56°11 per cent. of the whole deaths. In England these proportions were re- 
spectively 1082 and 49°17 percent. And in London the proportion of deaths 
amounted to 1°36 per cent. of the population, and to 50°77 per cent. of the 
whole deaths. In Manchester only-39:01 per cent. of the whole deaths take 
place above 20 years of age, and 1°296 per cent. of its population. 

_ It is worthy of observation, that the mortality at the different ages in Man- 
chester (the greatest manufacturing town in England) bears nearly the same 
proportion to that of London, as the mortality at these ages in Glasgow (the 

_* greatest manufacturing town in Scotland) bears to that of Edinburgh. 
b It will be seen (Tables LXXIV. and LXXYV.) that the proportion of deaths 
under 5 years in Manchester is 10°83 per cent. of the whole deaths, and 0°639 
: per cent. of the population greater than in London; and in Glasgow the pro- 
_ portion of deaths under the same age is 12°07 per cent. of the whole deaths, 
_ and 0°67 per cent. of the population greater than in Edinburgh. Again, it 
will be found (Tables LX XVIII. and LXXIX.) that the proportion of deaths 
above 20 years of age in Manchester is 11°76 per cent. of the whole deaths, 
and 0:040 per cent. of the population less than in London; and in Glasgow 
the proportion of deaths above that age is 12-07 per cent. of the whole deaths, 
and 0:016 per cent. of the population less than in Edinburgh. 

The average annual proportions of deaths to the mean population in the 
towns of England, is exhibited in Table LXXX. In London the average an- 
nual proportion of deaths during the years 1837-38, 1838-39, and 1839-40, to 
the mean population of these years, was as 1 to 37°34, or 2°67 per cent.; in 

fanchester as 1 in 28°06, or 3°563 per cent.; in Liverpool as 1 to 28°30, or 
3°537 per cent.; in Leeds as 1 to 36°76, or 2°720 per cent.; and in Birming- 
_ ham as 1 to 36:82 or 2°716 per cent.* 

We have already had occasion to notice the tendency which reckless po- 
verty and the absence of artificial comforts in the dwellings of a large pro- 
portion of the town population has to increase the number of improvident 
marriages, and consequently of births. The effect of extreme poverty 
_ in extending disease and mortality among the inhabitants of these towns, is 
also apparent from the results exhibited in the preceding pages. Other 
causes are mentioned as having a powerful influence in producing those fatal 
effects observable in the amount of mortality in large towns, such as intem- 
_ perance and inattention to cleanliness, together with a want of proper drain- 
_ age and a free circulation of air among the houses of the poor. 
_ The abuse of spirituous liquors has been well described as “at once the 


OL ae ae ee 


Ce wl ed 
a 


haw te 
~ es 


o* In regard to this comparison of the mortality in the English and Scotch towns, parti- 

cularly in early life, it is to be observed, that in several of the former, in the years compared, 
there were unusually severe epidemics of small-pox, measles and scarlet fever, the mortality 
from which falls almost entirely on the early periods of life. Thus in London, in 1838-39, 
“small-pox caused 3817 deaths, or 1 in 138 of the whole mortality, and in 1839-40 measles 
and scarlet fever together caused 4535 deaths, or 1 in 10 of the whole mortality; in Man- 
“chester in 1839-40 measles alone caused 113] deaths, or 1 in 871 of the whole mortality ; 
in Liverpool in 1837-38 small-pox caused 634 deaths, or 1in 7-7 of the whole mortality, and 
in 1839-40 measles and scarlet fever caused 934 deaths, or 1 in 9:8 of the whole mortality ; 
while in Glasgow, and still more in Edinburgh, there have been no such virulent epidemics of 
these diseases. 
“Now these are epidemics which no doubt affect the poorer classes of the population in any 
_ town more than the richer, but which extend rapidly through all ranks, and the extension of 
_ which must be regarded as accidental, depending apparently more on the peculiar viru- 
lence ofits specific poisons than on any remediable causes. In estimating, the average de- 
_ gree of unhealthiness of a town, or drawing any inference as to the social condition of the 
people, the mortality from such epidemics should be omitted from the calculation, or else the 
_ estimate should be framed on the comparison of such a number of years that unusually severe 
epidemics may be included in the records of all the towns. 


202 REPORT—1842. 


cause and consequence of destitution *;’ and as inattention to cleanliness 
may also be considered as an universal attendant of extreme poverty, it is 
not easy to see how the effects of the one can be traced without these effects 
being found in some degree to be influenced by the other ; nor, indeed, does 
it seem possible to distinguish ,the effects of extreme poverty from those of 
defective ventilation and draining, because the poorest people have no choice 
of residence, and cannot avoid congregating in such numbers as to imply 
very deficient ventilation. 

The effect of intemperance on the human constitution in producing disease 
and death is undoubted; and we too often witness the pernicious effects pro- 
duced on the family of the drunkard by his expending on what is to injure 
his health, degrade him in the eyes of his fellow men, and bring him to an 
early grave, those funds whereby he would be enabled to procure a greater 
abundance of wholesome food, clothing and fuel for his family, to protect them 
against the inclemency of the seasons and the ravages of disease, and by be- 
stowing upon them a better education at once to procure a more happy home 
for himself and for them.. It is gratifying, however, to learn from well-in- 
formed parties in the towns reported on, that marked improvement has taken 
place in the temperance habits of the people: and too much praise cannot 
be bestowed on those philanthropic individuals whose exertions have been 
the means of urging forward this salutary reformation. 

We have endeavoured, but without success, to ascertain the exact quantity 
of spirituous liquors consumed by the population of Glasgow. The quantity 
brought into the city may be easily ascertained ; but the quantity that is sent 
out of Glasgow, in such portions as may not require a permit for its protec- 
tion, or even where the requirement of a permit may not be attended to, 
and which is consumed by the agriculturists, and by many inhabitants of the 
towns and villages to a considerable distance round Glasgow, cannot be as- 
certained, and therefore the amount of population by which the spirits entered 
in the books of the Excise is consumed cannot be stated. 

Without being in possession of sufficiently accurate information to enable 
us to state whether a greater excess in the use of intoxicating liquors is more 
customary in Glasgow than in the other towns for which our tables are 
constructed, it will readily be admitted that this pernicious vice is too pre- 
valent in all of them; and the amount of destitution and misery arising in 
consequence of it is greatly to be deplored. It has frequently been stated 
as one of the principal causes of female life being better than that of the 
males, that the men are more intemperate in their habits than the women. 
Were this the case, the greatest abuse of spirituous liquors may be looked 
for in Edinburgh, as the female life in that town is 0°50 per cent. better than 
the male life. And the most moderate use of spirituous liquors may be 


looked for in Perth, as the male life is only 0°20 per cent. worse than the © 


female life in that town. In Glasgow the female life is better than the male 
life by 0°46 per cent.; in Aberdeen by 0°48 per cent.; and in Dundee by 
0°33 per cent.t Were, therefore, the relative mortality of men and women 
as the indulgence in intoxicating liquors, and the women alike temperate 
in their habits in the different towns, then these figures would form a sort of 
index of the degree of intemperance indulged in by the men. It may be 
objected to this, that the number of females employed at the factories of 
Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee, may have injurious effects on female life, 
and make the difference in the proportion of male and female deaths in these 
towns to be less than it otherwise would be. As, however, the inhabitants 


* Dr. Arrot’s Report on the fever cases of Dundee. 
+ See abstracts of the proportion of male and female deaths. 


ON THE VITAL STATISTICS OF LARGE TOWNS.IN SCOTLAND. 203 


' 

of Edinburgh and Perth are more like each other as to the nature of their 

employments, should intemperance on the part of the males be a principal 

cause of the difference in male and female deaths, then the proportion of in- 
temperance should be as five in Edinburgh to two in Perth. 

Whatever may be the influence of intemperance in producing a high 
rate of mortality, both by the direct effects it produces on the human frame 
and by the destitution and misery which result from it, there are too many 

eases of extreme destitution in the towns of Scotland, arising from causes 
aeeyond the control of the sufferers, and for which there is no adequate re« 
lief provided by law. The effect of destitution in producing disease and 
death, seems to be admitted by all writers on the subject. Differences may 
arise as to the particular disease or diseases most affected by it; but all 
agree, that where a great degree of destitution exists, there is to be found 
a high amount of mortality. 

It is especially to be observed with regard to the years of severe depression 
of trade, that the case of the really destitute poor in the manufacturing towns 
of Scotland is not then so bad as during the years of ordinary prosperity. Many 
of the better class of operatives require to submit to a much greater degree of 
_ suffering and privation than they are accustomed to, and. the effects of these 

_ privations are much to be dreaded in the event of an unhealthy season set- 
_ ting in upon them. But the extraordinary exertions made by subscriptions 
from the more wealthy inhabitants, and from public funds, to supply food 
_ and clothing to the poor—by means of soup-kitchens, distribution of old 
 elothes and otherwise, over and above the ordinary parochial relief,—often 
renders the condition of the really destitute much better at these times than 
it is under ordinary circumstances. We cannot, therefore, form such a cor- 
rect judement of the effects of destitution during these years on the mortality 
__ of large towns in Scotland as is generally imagined. 
_ Were the local distribution of the population in towns the same as in 
_ Edinburgh and Glasgow, where the rich and the poor are found to occupy 
distinct districts, a more correct knowledge of the mortality among the dif- 
ferent classes of the people would be come to than has yet been obtained. 
In the report of Monsieur Villermé, in vol. x. of Archives Générales, it is 
_ shown, that in the three districts of Paris in which the mortality is least the 
inhabitants are the wealthiest, and in the three districts in which the inhabit- 
ants are'the poorest the mortality is the greatest. 
_ Inavaluable paper*, “On the best means of supplying the poor with 
‘cheap and nutritious food,” read to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow by 
r. R. D. Thomson, he says,—“ We trust the day is fast approaching when 
e light of science will enable the guardians of the poor to manage our po- 
‘yerty-stricken fellow-men by precise and definite rules, and will teach all 
lasses of the community that the quantity of vital air supplied by the 
reator to man is based on fixed laws which require the imbibition of a cer- 
tain amount of food. An adult consumes every day 304 ounces of oxygen 
or vital air from the atmosphere. To consume this, and to convert it into 
“earbonic acid, he requires, according to Liebig, about 13 ounces of carbon, 
oh the form of food. If the food is withheld, the carbon must be supplied 
_ from the muscles and substance of the body; the latter becomes thinner and 
weaker, and, like an expiring taper, is extinguished by the influence of the most 
trivial causes.” Dr. Thomson, after noticing the amount of deaths in England 
by starvation, or purely from want of food, also says, “how many persons 
_ died by piecemeal starvation, or by disease engendered by bad food or want 


x 

p 

' 8s 
Dm 
a 

i] 


+ * See Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, Fourteenth Session, 1841-42. 


204 REPORT—1842. , tea 


of it, has not yet been pointed out by statistical data.” Though we may not 
be able to trace the effects of destitution in its different stages on the increase 
of disease and death, yet by the improvement of registers, and by greater 
attention to the vital statisties of various localities, and of different classes of 
the people, more certain knowledge may be attained on this most important 
subject. The proof, however, which the preceding tables afford that the mor- 
tality for the different towns is in proportion to the amount of the poor and 
destitute in these towns, is supported by the amount of burials which take 
place in them at the public expense. 


Appendix. 


Classification of Diseases used in the preceding Tables. 


Classes. 


Accidents ....essee| eeeeeeeees peas ssprigeaaace es Fractures, Wounds, Burns, Bruises, Drowning. 
Aged ...ccerseersees Decline aboye60 years | And without any particular Disease. 
ARCHING. xt steanseiel gamabe Sena tecedarens acnehae Shortness of Breath. 
Dysentery ...........08. Flux, Bloody Flux. 
Bowel Hives............ Inflammation of Bowels in Children. 
Bowel Com- Looseness ......e0000008 Diarrhea. 
plaints...... Teething. 
Cholic ..... piveiancabonn Tliac Passion. 
Cholera. . 
Catarrh ...... Seealarcrerteeeeeratsebesetbaccae Cold, Influenza. 
GHGS HIEDI AT. | FU EE. RI aes Puerperal Fever. 
COUP | cecseesesbsea|/cocnbacseeneriessoness ecee Stopping. 
Decline Consumption .......... Pulmonary, Phthisis, Wasting. 
aes Tabes Mesenterica ...| Consumption of Young from Diseased Glands. 
Dropsy, General. 
Dropsy «seeeree ' of Chest. 
of Belly. 
Fevers) scscbebasesel de cecnaccdess nie cosachesnsns Typhus, continued Fever, or Nervous, or Putrid. 
Apoplexy .....0....++2-- Rupture of Vessel in, or overflow of Blood to, Head. 
Head, diseases | | Palsy ......sessereeeseees Paralysis. 
OP. -tsragncebee. Water in the Head ...| Hydrocephalus. 
Inflammation of Head | Head or Brain Fever. 
Hooping-cough ..| ....sssssesesereeeereeeenes Chin-Cough. 
Heart, diseases Of | ....-sscssesscesseessenrens Aneurism, Ossification. 
General, OF «s.«scadsacten Not specified. 
of Chest. 
Inflammation of Bowels. 
of Liver. 
of Throat. 
Measles. : 
Nervous Diseases | ..-sesssssceeressseeereesees Convulsions, Fits, Lock-jaw, Epilepsy. 
Scarlet Fever. 
Small-pox. 
Abscess Lumbar .......| Suppuration of the Loins. 
PANCET* sisepknctwsarsaice Of Breast, of Lips, of Bowels; Schirrus. 
Carbuncle. 
Diabetes. 
Dyspepsia .sesceseseeees Stomach Complaints. 
Erysipelas ....s.cesesees Rose. 
Miscellaneous Flooding. 
Diseases ..... Jaundice. 
Joints Diseased ....... White Swelling, Diseased Hip-joint. 
Rheumatism. 
Rupture ........++0.++++-| Hernia. 
Spine Diseased. 
Spitting of Blood. . 


{| Stone in Bladder. 


ollie Taste L. 


and 1841, classified aqshowing the total average 
otal average annual ntomparative rates of mor- 


2 years 137,986. 


Comparative 
rate of Mortality 
from each kind 
of Disease. 


85 90 
& under | & under 


Diseases, &c, 


am | &¢ 
as BS 
#8 | ee 
RS mo 
rae 1 Accidents. 
15 | 25 Aged. 
Nett ae Asthma. 
Bowel Complaints. 
Catarrh. 
Childbirth. 
Croup. 
Decline. 
Dropsy. 
Fever. 
Head, of. 


Heart, of. 
Hooping-cough. 
Inflammation. 
Measles. 
Nervous. 
Scarlet Fever. 
Small-pox. 
Miscellaneous. 


Total ascertained. 
Do.notascertained. 


91-034| 245-581| tage annual Deaths is as 1 to the 


0-028 0:010 
0:017 


0-006 


0-011 


0:004 


animale 


Tare L. 
ES peaber us fae Stati ie ene opmea the City and Suburbs of EDINBURGH during the years 1839, 1840 and 1841, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with calculations showing the total average 
falityin Edinburgh and Glisgor 5 proportion which these, and the number of deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total average annual number of deaths, and also to the mean population of: these years; with the comparative rates of mor- 
Mean Population of these three years 187,986. 
oS Ee Proportions 4 oo C a 
POMS laee: g ali, micot tera 
7 4 . > = |e.) 8) s i m each ki 
Under 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 ‘Ages not re ii 23 a ae sie ‘of Disease, 
te 1 funder | &under | & under | &under | &under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under \@& under | & under | & under & ascer- Total. | 2¢ 35 5. EE Eee Ae ste 
: | acl : a beat e+, Be. 
Year. 2 Ch 10. 15. 20. 30. 40. rs ll chy 70. 7. 80. 85. 90. 05. 100 <upwards. | tained, 23 | 82 aii ai fez 233 56 fs 
se |28| 252) 28 |235|s22| 42 | 96 
. 32 |gF|sog| ss | Bee] eca| gs | 22 
= - - ——- Ze ]e | 232| 2 |S55)355| eg | ke 
| M.| FL] M.| Fo} M. | Fo | a] Fo] Me] Fo] we) Fl an] Flan] wii, | F | | Flo | | oe] | aor] elo | & | | & | | mw lo | F. |! a8. Flan |r | an) af P< oe & S$ é 
} — | | 
+ ltoevery| 1toevery |Percent,|Percent,|Percent,| Percent, 
Accidents | 4] 2] 4 14) 5) 11] 10] 9] 3) 7)... 3) 9) 8) Gi | 138) 1) 2 1] ..] 2 | .. |e |. | 156) 90) 246] 82 | 42-926] 1682-756 |0-059 |0-071 |... | 0-012 | Accidents. 
van [lose 25 a we 91} 180) 102] 149) 77 |173) 41 | 66 7| 4} 1 | 1 | ..+| .. | 490} 810} 1300] 4333] 8123] 318-429] 0-314 | 0-282 |0-032 | .. | Aged. 
Vian 1 1 1 7\ 12) 9) al 1 |) ya) 2 | L| 92} 96] 188} 623! 56-170) 2201-904| 0-045 | 0-077 |... |0-032 | Asthma. 
80] 66] 23] 18] 8) 2] 2) 1 1 I) |) Re ec || ee 4| 4 | 385| 309] 694) 2314) 15-216] 596-481| 0-167 | 0-370 Bowel Complaints, 
tarrh | oul eal 1 1 1 coe |. | 18) 18) 36] 12 [293-333 |11498:833 | 0-008 | 0-037 Catarrh. 
Childbirth 29 Sel} ahs 1 ma ioe | 82) 82) 274)128:780| 5048-268} 0:019 | 0-031 Childbirth. 
Croup... 17| 14] 21) 21] 29] 34) 4| 6 ||| os esl lee .. |... | 72) 76) 148| 494] 71-351] 2797-013} 0:035 | 0-062 Croup. 
Decline 85) 72| 43) 42] 51| 46| 50| 37| 35] 47) 57) 49 8 | 6 | 937] 870) 1807) 6023) 5-843) 229-086 0-436 | 0-523 Decline. 
Dropsy 3) 2) 4i..| 9] 6) 91 6 4| 4| 6 13] 17) 7] 11) 3] 3 .. | 1} 161} 223] 384) 128 | 27-000) 1078-015 | 0:092 | 0-099 Dropsy. 
Fever. 11| 10) 16} 16) 28] 40) 47) 39] 12) 26] 27) 18 | Al] oa ~ |... | 495] 480] 975 | 325 | 10°830| 424-572] 0-235 |0-445 |... |0-210 | Fever. 
Head, of. 94) 86) 48) 53) 56) 36) 37) 28] 19] 14] 3) 7 17| 24) 15) 12) 6 1] 3 | 480) 428) 908) 802%] 11-629] 455-900] 0:219 | 0-172 0-047 |. Head, of. 
Heart, of. Wie Bay, al a sat dh Gy) 3) 6) 6 Fil} a : .. |... | 84) 69} 153] 51 | 69-019] 2705-607 | 0-036 | 0-020 |0-016 |... | Heart, of. 
Hooping-cough 66| 68) 52) 47) 43) 50) 5] 19 Wi) as : oe ee 3 | 166) 188} 354] 118 | 29:880) 1169-372) 0:085 |0:165 |... | 0-080 | Hooping-congh. 
Inflammation 101) 88} 55] 43] 31] 41) 20) 24) 7} 17] 11) 15 52] 36| 82] 31] 33} 38 24] 19] 3] 10 5 5 | 402) 412} 814) 2712] 12-972] 508-547} 0-196 | 0-185 |0011 |... | Inflammation. 
Measles 35| 24) 73| 56| 44| 56| 14] 8] 1 oe) 3 These | coe lee lee || LPR RE) SD) SPEDE | aD] ca] il | |. } 168} 144] 312] 104 | 33-846] 1326-788 | 0-075 | 0-198 |... |0°123 | Measles. 
Nervous - M5) 19) 3il 0) 95) eal 1) 22) rial yt fall's 5| 3 | ay, SE EGE pl co} | |e | 82) 33} 65 | 214/162-461| 6368:584)0°015 | 0-020) ... |0-005 | Nervous. 
Scarlet Fever. 12) 7) 13) 17] 48] 42) 92) 31] 10) 7} 3| 1 1) les #0 | Gaal ecb he SPP ye pee pepe pe py oD | oo | |. | 1} 106] 217] 723) 48-663) 1907-640 0-052 | 0-096 | ... | 0°044 | Scarlet Fever. 
Small-pox . 49| 39] 20] 25| 33] 25) 12) 12] 2)...] 2] 1 EME SII 6 icces|liseesl [inzo||icou | litera fienc| lineal [Nee aM Ss Il Geel [ees | Recs [eal eas ll or “| | 1 | aga) 10s) 232] 774) 45°517| 1784-301 | 0-056 [0-144 |... | 0-088 | Small-pox. 
Miscellaneou: 63) 57| 11] 11] 11] 12] 13) 9] 9] 10] 6| 2 29| 35| 36| 39) 61| 45| 48| 42) 29] 14] 13 a) a CT Ly. y ey | lp | 5 | 2 | 321) 324) 645] 215 | 16-372] 641-795 | 0-156 | 0-107 |0-049 | ... | Miscellaneous. 
Total ascertained 414 | 445 | 420 | 445 | 414 | 386 | 387 | 438| 165 | 276) 138) 192] 91 | 185) 45 | 70 | 15 4] 1 | 1 | 18 26 |4694\4866] 9560 31863] 1-104] 43-301] 2-309 |3-113 |0-084 |... | Total ascertained, 
Ditto not ascertained...|158|131| 99] 23| 35| 27| 21| 27| 16| 13] 9| 12| 33] 37| 38| 40| 51| 48| 45| 52] 35| 46 8 iH) 6) 4) 1 5) 1/.. 1 . ae | 21 | 503] 497) 1000) 3334) 10-560 413-958 | 0-241 | 0100/0141)... Do.notascertained. 
Deaths, Males & Females) 960 | 785 | 474 | 427 | 463| 442) 279 | 263) 130 | 148 | 141| 122 | 432 | 455 | 452 | 485 | 471 | 493 | 459 | 438 | 422 | 484) 173 | 286 | 144| 196 | 92 | 190) 46 | 70 | 16 4 1 | 34 | 47 5197/5363) 10560 )3520 | 1-000) 39-200) 2550 | 3-214) ... |0'664 | Deaths, M. and F. 
Total...-.-.-+» veene] 1745 901 905 542 278 263 887 937 964 897 906 459 340 282 116 43 12 2 81 10560 | Grand Total Deaths. 
See ae Deaths) 5812) 3003 | 3013 | 1803 924 873 | 2952 | slay | 3214 | 299 | 302 153 1135 94 sz | 144 4 03 27 3520 | Average annual Deaths these three years. 
ratvaved WF Proportion which the above bear to the ayerage annual Deaths is as 1 to the 
Propar.otahoveto aver, 6-051) 11-720 | 11-668 | 19-483 | 37-985] 40-152] 11:905 | 11-270] 10-954] 11:72} 11-655 | 23-006 | 31-058] 37-446] 91-034) 245-581] 880-000] 5280-000] 130:370) 1-000 Sees (elt BUDE DLE CONSE 173 
tore ahaa Eonula; } 237225 459-442 | 457-401 | 763-760 | 1489-057 | 1573-984 | 466-694 | 441-790 | 429-417 | 461-491 | 456-907 | 901-869 |1217-528 | 1467-936 | 3568-603 | 9626-930 '34496:500| 206979-000 | 5110°592| 39:200 | And to the mean Population as 1 to these. 
eae ae } 0-421] 0:217| 0-218} 0130) 0:067| 0-063) 0-214] 0226) 0232] 0216] 0218] 0-110] 0082] 0068] 0-028} 0-010) 0-000) 0-000} 0-019] 2550 | Per-centage of the Population in Edinburgh. 
Per-centage of the Po- i . aang ¥ vf hh an Soi) 9 194 9 F 08 , 017 1 002 0-000 0-000) d214 Per-centage of the Population in Glasgow. 
pulation in Glasgow.,| 0299] 0-481 | 0-402 | 0184] 0077/0104) 0264) 0-267) 0251) O194) 0 200 | 0097 | 0-063) 0-049] 0-017) 0006) 0 B 
| Excess of Deaths in} y 0-022 0-018 0-013 0-019 0019} 0-011 0-004 con is ove Excess of Deaths at these ages in Edinburgh. 
ich ee Fo os re i. re a - tee bes 
Excess of Deaths in! 


Glas, if 0178) 0-214 0-184 0-054 0010 0-041 0-050 0-041 O01 an aa rea tics ff on an 0002. ne xh 0-664 Excess of Deaths at these ages in Glasgow. 
BOW ieverscupanesars 


TasBue LI, 


8, 1839, 1840 and 184ulations showing the 
as diseases, bear to thyears; with the com- 


ive years 264,010 


arative 
f fet ind 
+h kind 
_ 80 85 go fsease. 
&under | &under | & und : 
he Diseases, &c, 
85. 90. 95.| °F » 
oe 
aa 
<>] 
}|Percent. 
-... | Accidents. 
0-032 | Aged. 
... | Asthma. 
Bowel Paes: 
Catarrh.) . 9. +). 
Childbirth. . 
Croup.) 5 - 
| Decline. ag 
Dropsy. *' 


... | Fever. 

0-047 | Head, of. 

0-016 | Heart, of. 

.-. | Hooping-cough. 

0-011 | Inflammation. 

..» | Measles. 

.». | Nervous. 
Scarlet Fever. 

... | Small-pox. 

0-049 Miscellaneous. 

Total ascertained. 

0-141 Do.notascertained. 


Deaths, M. and F. 


| 64-784| 181:341| 46g-’erage annual Deaths du- 
015-343 | 5641-239 |14506- 
0-017 0: 
0-028 


0-049 
0-068 | 


0-011 


0:019 


GLASGOW. Taste LI, 


Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that oceurred in the City and Suburbs of GLASGOW during the years 1837, 1898, 1839, 1840 and 1841, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with calculations showing the 
total average annual number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number of deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total average annual number of deaths, and also to the mean population of these years; with the com- 
parative rates of mortality in Glasgow and Edinburgh. : 

Mean Population of these five years 264,010 


| 2 Proportions es Comparative 
FI fe rate of Mortality 
S ee E 23 g 5 _| from each kind 
Under 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 | 2. aid 2 oat cd of Discase, 
| SE to ‘a, z = 
Diseases, &c 1 funder | &under | &under | &under | &under | & under | &under | &under | &under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under | & under & Total. as | &. Ef 3 oa 5 
4 5 rales a : SoS | 445, : 1, Ke, 
Year. 2. 5. 10. 15, 20. 30. 40. 50. 60. 70. 75. 50) BB) 90. 95. Aa, yg nie 22 oe ; Pia BEE auc es 23 Diseases, &e, 
a | 24g | £& |assises| 32) #2 
5 3 S 253) 23 f2 | §2 
= E =| ba b : a i) See! | El Ere FZ) 80 | 33 
| M./| F. | M.) Fo] M.) Fo) M.| FO] M.] Ro] M.| Ro] oe] BR] Mm} Fp] Blo. | Bo] MM. | Ff oe] ef | me fon] Fr] oe) eB] | | | ee] om Fr. M. F. & é aoe io 5° | Bae 
| | 
: every every |Pe Pr ,|Pe 4 
Veetant 49| 33] 34| 17] 60| 10 3 Aled | 671| 276] 947| 189g] 44-808 1393-098 | 0-071 | 0-039 | OOT2] | Accidents, 
Aged .... ih i 338 | 78 10] 16] 5 1544] 2180) 8724) 7444] 11-394] 354-470] 0-282] 0314]... | 0-032) Aged. 
[Astin ; mou #7 10} 1 a 500} 518) 1018) 2032] 41-683 1296-709 | 0:077| 0-045 v. | Asthma, 
Bowel Compl: 8) 9 4|.. aD 2670| 2219] 4889) 9773 270-004 0-167 Bowel Complaints. 
Catarrh ... 4) 5 2) 1 on 217 0-008 Catarrh. 
Childbirth dl 388 || 05 ib FB 0-019 Childbirth, 
| Croup ... allies Se: 443 0035 Croup. 
| Decline . 406 eel} oa te Gives 05 0436 ... | Decline. 
122 7| 3 1 644 0-099 | 0-092) 0:007) ... | Dropsy. 
456) 2 ee se 3212 e 0-445 | 0-235| 0210]... | Fever. 
43) 6 1 1331 18586 0172) 0-219) ... 0-047 | Head, of. | 
16 Bei lhicas 158 160:128 0-020] 0-036)... | 0016) Heart, of. 
Hooping-cough . oon sacl lies 1099 0165 0-080)... | Hooping-cough. 
Inflammation 39 99) 0-185 «» | 0011) Inflammation. 
Measles . 4 S20 0-198 0-123)... | Measles. 
| Nervous 9 9 0020, 0:005| ... | Nervous. 
Scarlet Fever 8 5 4 0-096, 0-044)... | Scarlet Fever. 
Small-pox 16| 43) 25} 10] 10) 9] al... ie O44 0-088]... | Small-pox. 
Miscellaneou 16] 55) 64) 74) 81) 103) 118) |) a lie fen 0107 + | 0-049] Miscellaneous, 
Total ascertained ., 2 1247/1116) 491 | 515 | 669 670 |1705|1698)1747|1680\1680|1518)1245)12% 84/138] 30] 59/11/17) 5 | 6 [21,104 3-113) 2-309) 0-804)... | Total ascertained. 
Do. not ascertained 68| 39) 28} 9] 2] 24) 15] 41) 43) 62] 42) G4) 58| 47] Bile GI 0 a |!) res ese eal eee | amg 991-773 | 0-100] 0241]... | 0-141) Do.notascertained. 
Deaths, Males & Females|4310/3601/3005)3 50) 2550/1286 1144) 500 | 517 | 693 | 685 |1746 1741|1809|1722/1744|1576)1292|1269]1325|1321) 558 | 732 | 363 | 472270) 385) 87 |147) 31 | 60) 11/17) 5 | 6 |21,795 [20,639/42,484) 84865) 1-000) 31-108) 3214) 2550 Deaths, M. and F. 
Wotaltsersseernist 7911 5699 | 5310 | 2430 | 1017 | 1378 | 3487 | 3531 | 3320 | 9561 | 2646 | 1290 835 655 234 91 28 1 42,434 Grand Total Deaths. 
| Average enue Br 1582z| 11393 | 1062 486 2032| 2753 | 6972] 706;| 664 512; || 5292 | 258 | 167 131 463 184 53 23 84863 | Average annual Deaths these five years. 
| Propor. of above to aver. “9 | 7 r ‘ “79 798 216) H Qe 5 7 99: 4 a aatd ra MGETIRG ' The proportion which the above bear to the total average annual Deaths du- 
Te eatheis ae tel t 97863) 7445 | 7-991 | 17-462 | 41-724) 30-793) 12169] 12-017] 12-781] 16569] 16034] 82:894| 50-819) 64-784] 181-341] 466-407| 1515-500] 3857°636 1-000 ine EuesOie cane abn teontietfareslne 
eee toe Popula-| | 166-862| 231-628 | 248-596 | 543-230 |1297-984| 957-946) 378:563| 373845] 397-605| 515-443] 498-885 | 1023-294 | 1580-898 | 1015-343 | 5641-239 |14506043.47144642) 120004545) 31-108 And to the Population as 1 to these. 
Per-centage of the P } 0599 | 0-481 | 0-402) 0184] 0-077) 0104] 0264) 0267) 0251) 0-194) 0200) 0-097) 0-063) 0-:049| 0-017} 0-006) 0-002) 0-000) 3-214 Per-centage of the Population in Glasgow. 
| pulation in Glasgow 
| Per-centage of the Po- ¥, 9 “9 S y 062 .9 99 999 3 9 : 089 \ (9 r 00 000 2: 7 jon in Edi & 
| pulationin Edinburgh| f 42! | 0217 | 0-218] 0130 | 0-067/ 0-063) 0-214) 0226] 0232] 0216] 0218] 0-110 0-082 0-068 01028 O-010; 0-000 0-000 2550 Per-centage of the Population in Edinburgh. 
Brie aes nll 0178 | o214| 0184] 0054) 0-010) 0041) 0-050) 0-041] 0019]  ... 4) oe 7m ie Bs ee 0-002)... 0-664 Excess of Deaths at these ages in Glasgow. 
Bxcese ory deaths tut ra. Be ae us < ‘a ice a ss 0.022) 0-018) 0013| 0-019! 0019} o-011) 0004)... Ry a Excess of Deaths at these ages in Edinburgh. 
JASZOW «eee eee --see ae 


vt 
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{ 


841, classifi 
P several dis: 


, 
As 
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p , 
4 ay 078 
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. 2 
. 


ABERDEEN. Taste LII. 


Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of ABERDEEN and Suburbs during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 1844, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; with 


calculations showing the total average annual number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number of deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total average annual number of deaths, and also 
to the mean population of these years; with the comparative rates of mortality in Aberdeen and Edinburgh. ; 


Mean Population of these five years 63,366. 


| | zg = 3 
Ae 3 38 aie 
Under 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 6o 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Be € é a oe is 
Be wo = s 
Diseases, Kc. 1 &under | &under | &under | &under | &under | &under | &under | under | &under | & under | &under | &under | Xunder | &under | Kunder | & under & Total. 24 a5 ae aa zi Diseases, &c. 
Year, 2. 5. 10, 15, 20. 30. 40. 50. 60. 70. 75. 80. 85. 90. 95. 100. upwards, 58] a= 25 seg 
e4| Se | 82 | obs 
ifn || Be Ss iieapes 
| 2 3 el ga 
; ce a | 83) 858 
M. F, | M. F. | M. F. M. F. M. F. M. | F. M. F. | M. F, M. F. | M. F. M. F. | M. F.| M. F. | M. F, M F, M F, M F, M F, M F, S 4 é 
| a 1 toevery| 
Accidents tp cn GH FAL ey tal} on 5]... 6 ON Ee) CO 2 a ee ea on i 1 ore we 72 148) 29:958 | Accidents. 
Aged .. : 2 eal sal a55 a, refi | este l| teas [oo 34] 55! 37] 61 28) 51] 15 10) |B |S o 404 | 803) 5339) Aged. 
Asthma A ne 5 = Fol) Nese || et) 1Gh talk esi] GH EN i Le] TEM oN) os 1 = ap 68 | 133) 31720) Asthma 
Bowel Complaint 25 15| 22) 8] 6 iM) cas E 1 1 5 Nile TU) OU es 5) 3 1 Tih | Gees 4 223! 18:921 | Bowel Complaints. 
Catarrh .. Maa || eel cath Sah Saf ne | al alll valle Ncce|\eco|) EH) SI) 3) 9) ea) hy an) ee Wil 5 32 62| 67406 | Catarrh. 
Childbirth Pre ee La linerdl EEN ec [Lan tt Seem econ ere 3 | eens MW sa |oooll ae Re eealhess sillres 7 33/126882 | Childbirth. 
Croup .. Ane. Oy) Ut] ) SANE SSH i oon eee Pe wat 1 eal eons) | | se Peo Peco ing a. _ pleas 15 3 |143'800 | Croup. 
Decline Bi WN cee |) 13] | Rea Bina eA |B 07 29| 26] 28] 22] 19] 10| 14 ee eagle 259 | 513) 8328) Decline. 
Dropsy PUN ZU aU) Uy Ze ARN ec Py) Gl 28) a) a) a) a ra an ae | ee 71 | 144) 30380) Dropsy. 
Fever .. Wy EM al) cule 3 TA) we fall ya fa) a3 81| 33) 21] 32] 24) 19) 14] 12] 7 1 a. ea 307 | 612) 7026 | Fever. 
Head, o 10] 12) 7} 2] 10] 17] 9} 10) 1) 2) 1 4| 3| 4] 6| 2] 7] 9] 11] 3 55) || Pilea allies 139 | 273) 16517) Head, of. 
Heart, of S| eee ere WW A Een : fr a ee PA vt fol era 1 < Rk i 22/196:090 | Heart, of, 
Hooping-cough . 8| 6] 6| 5| 2} 7) 1] 28] 1 aa oa a “ellie 38 | 73) 56763 | Hooping-cough. 
Inflammation S17 lieee 1} 9) 1) 5] 6] 10 5 7| 9) 8] 16| 8 ll] 5 —* 152 302) 14190) Inflammation. 
Measles .. UY al Tah AEN) bu ea Za e Aes 2 mo a . oe; 51 10}) 42294 | Measles. 
Nervous BYAL ZEA EN WPA Ry Sel ceo Illisccdl | oss ae El | eee 1 1 ‘ Bi 85 17 | 25376 | Nervous. 
Scarlet Fever . 1} 3] 5) J| 17) 12) 10) 7 1} 1 5 2 1 ae og fs 67 132\ 32194 | Scarlet Fever. 
Small-pox . 6| 7) 4| 6| 6] | 4) 3] 1 5 25 ym may | hag ese || Bea) | oe | be Ta | aa | see ees | ae sid 55 11 | 39218) Small-pox. 
Miscellaneous. 9) 3) 8) 12) 8| 8) 2) 3] 2) 2) 4 5| 12] 10) 14] 16) 19] 16) 17) 15) 2) VW)... )..) i ; 200 | 40 | 10785 | Miscellaneous. 
Total ascertained ...... 129/113) 63| 64|100| 94) 50| 56] 40] 18| 60| a5|102| 89|103| 98/110 91| 85| 77|114|ii4| 46) 70| 27 | 45) 33 | 53) 15 al Ziel oll calles || ce 2157 | 4312) 1-000 \Total ascertained. 
Ditto not ascertained... 295 | 244 | 180| 156} 231 | 204/159} 141] 72) 61 | 75|100|146|175| 159] 170] 152) 159] 179} 157|177|195| 89/117] 63 | 88) 62] 88) 28) 49|10) 20) 1 | 9) 1 4214 | 8423) }Do.not ascertained, 
Deaths, Males & Females| 424 | 357 |243| 920 | 91 |298|218|197|112| 79 |1a5|135|248| 264 | 262| 268| 262 |250|264| 234 | 291|309|135|187| 90 |133) 95 |141] 43] 83/14] a0] 4 | 12] 1 | 1 [arzalai9s) 2 | 6371 12744) Deaths, M. and F. 
A ar 781 | 463 629 415 191 270 512 530 512 498 600 322 223 236 126 44 16 2 6371 Grand Total Deaths. 
Average annu: eaths a = aa ay F e 9 a 3 . 951 1 2 W742 Average annual Deaths these five years. 
these 5 years Mere 156; | 922 1253 83 BBE 54 1022 106 1022 993 120 642 443 474 254 83 3E 02 7Ay ave eS Se a TG 
ropor. of above to aver. 5 = re Be : " z| *f 1c) 79 19 4 H i ual Deaths during these 
Benn) Deaths is aslto|; 8156| 13°758| 10127 | 13-349 | 33-351) 23:592| 12-440) 12-018) 12-440) 12-791) 10:616| 19:782] 28565) 26-991] 50555) 144-772) 898-125) 3185-000 1-000 al Bare ee ig 
it) aT -, 
LReiSe Se } 405-673 684-298 | 503-704 | 763-445 | 1658-795! 1173-448] 618:808 | 597-792 | 618-808 | 636-204 | 528-050 | 985-944 | 1420-762] 1342500 | 2514-523 | 7200-681 | 19801-875 | 158415-000] 49-737 | And to the population as 1 to these. 
Per-centage | | 9. Per-centage of the whole Population in Aber- 
pulation in Aberdeen! f 0-246) 0146) 0-198} 0130} 0-060) 0-085] 0161} 0167) 0161) 0157} 0189) 0-101 0-070) 0-074) 04039) 0-018 0-005 0-000) 2-010 deen Aes 
Per-centage of the Po-! | re Per-centage of the whole Population in 
pulationin Edinburg! f 0-421} 0:217| 0:218| 0-130] 0-067) 0-063] 0-214] 0-226] 0232) 0216] 0218} 0110) 0-082) 0:068) 0-028) 0-010 0-000 0-000) 2550 { Edinburgh. 
Arnie Ce } 0-022 in ein 450 a ai con er 0-006 0-011 0008, 0-005 60 ann Excess of Deaths at these ages in Aberdeen. 
Edinburgh ... a } 0175) 0071] 0:020| ... 0-007)... 0-053} 0-059) 0-071) 0:059] 0029} 0009) 0012) ... a ao || a0 om 0-540 | Excess of Deaths at these ages in Edinburgh. 


Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the City of PERTH (exclusive of the Suburban parish of Kinnoul) during the years 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840 and 
place ; with calculations showing the total average annual number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, and the number of deaths from the several diseases, 
mean population of these years; with the comparative rates of mortality in Perth and Edinburgh. 

Mean Population of these five years 19,435. 


PERTH. 


Tasxe LIII. 


1841, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took 
bear to the total average annual number of deaths, and also to the 


| 
} 
| 


| | 2 Proportions z é Comparative 
| 2 2S a 55 | Ss |rate of Mortality 
Under 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 5 os Be z 3 25 See s 
S a Lt 
Daniel aS 1 and under | and under and under | and under | and under] and under | and under | and under) and under and under | and under | and under| and under| and under! and under|and under| and Total. | 8 a> iz os Bee FE : Discases, &c. 
Year. 2, 5. 10. 15. 20, 20. 40. 50. 60. 70. 75. 80. 85, 90. 95. 100. upwards. 3 |e gis Fil aie | Ses) | See a 
% : & /e8| 382] ge | 382/253) gs | $3 
“)er| age | 25 | Age /28e| 28 | fa 
— = - g°| 3 Fe 32 
um. | F. | a] Flor | we ] oon |e | | F. | ar | F.jM.|rja.jr | w|n ja] wefan | re jae} fae | fon] don] en fade fan] we lon] elon] |W esinieadl ne) flats | AE K a 
| — — | ee | 1 Lo every) 1 to every |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.| Percent, 
Reside esti sti} on SHS ep OU SN MN Sse 500) BUN Al) SU EN yh 3) call all no] EU) S| cen aa 47) 18) 65) 13 | 39-476 /1494-230| 0-066 | 0-059 [0-007 |... | Accidents. 
Aged Pail fects | ota och ll eerel tee Il aceal | ceo resulleeon | ee Salliteen see eeee| 474| (07) 77| 44 | 55 | 52 2 214) 313) 527/1053) 4-869) 184-297] 0542 | 0314 |0:298 |... | Aged. 
athe Whecs | eae peels falcon eee Mies al |) BLN) Ea 16| 12] 18] 97 10} 3 4 ae 51] 68) 119} 2331 81568 §16:176/ 0122 |0:045 | 0-077 Asthma. 
a é 44| 387| 26/25| 3] 3] 1] 1 My] | UA = || ta ee | S| re | ea if ore 1 86) 81) 167) 833%) 15-365) 581-586| 0-171 | 0-167 | 0-004 Bowel Complaints. 
eS ener Haclaed ieee saiecril: Sai sell a rien A el] Pls 5| 2] 6] 9 8) 2) 2) 1 28) 89) 67) 13% 38-298 |1449-626 | 0-068 | 0-008 | 0-060 Catarrh. 
Childbirth 22a lice | aoealfscall ese ees Ho || cco) |fewe iecsll weal lPees |v mall teal ae Allces ea ieee es llen i .. | 15] 15] 3°/171-066|6475-000/0-015 |oo19 |... CHIR ett 
Croup |g] 5) 7] 5| 11] 13) 4] 2 aa eR... lectins spalll wecel| egal Se hae = eh 31] 25) 56] 114) 45°821/1734-375 | 0-057 | 0-035 Croup. 
Deane! 7| 12] 4) 4] 12] 5] 8) 5 9 | 15 | 16 | 36 | 36 | 22 | 26 21] 80) |. allies = i" 154] 163] 919) 633| 8043] 304-467 (0-928 | 0-408 bee 
Dropsy | 0], ai|feceee |i 01love fees Pea Sienna 6) IIB al) ad 10) 13) °8] 6 3) 4 me 48) 41] 89) 173) 28:831|1091-292| 0-091 | 0-092 Dropsy. 
rary 1} ai) 7) 2))) 6! a0) 7/1" 2/3] 5] 12/13] 17 | 15 6] 15] 9] 5 eH sa} al) a 3 95 § 4] 508:507| 0-196 | 0-235 Fever. 
Head, o} | 3| 6] 9] 8} 13] 13] 8] 3 2] WV)... | 4) 6) 10) 6 14] 16} 18} 21 5) 1) 3) 2 vas 111 469-202 | 0-213 | 0:219 Head, of. 
Haat oH | P| SU faes eB Stl &) fy Ube Th DS Rte eves lle re 14] 10) 24) 43/106-916 4046-875 | 0-024 | 0-036 | |. Heart, of. 
Weanaeteank AO LON eZ EN sea TAN ae | oll cas con fl aoe Hl one ace cades a Pea ere eee Ue MEL Poe ie 42] 49] 91] 182) 28-197|1067:307| 0-093 | 0-085 | 0-008 Hooping-cough. 
HAE 8/13] 5/ 6| 6! 6| 2) 9] 4) 9] 4] al 9] 4] 517 EH) tal peed ah ee ae a » 74) 62) 186) 273) 18867) 714154)0-139 }0196 | _.. Inflammation. 
Mesalen os 7| 15] 19/12] 16] 14) 3) 2] 1 A ee a us| seal ie [feeeaa | essa | resell cted eval | ewe es a 46) 44] 90 18 | 28:511/1079-166| 0-092 | 0-075 | 0-022 Measles. 
SORE 87) 46] Ji 1 <6 ‘ail 3) a) 1) allen TM or 2) 2 braless Salle : i 54) 57) 111) 223) 28117] 875-000) 0-114 |0-015 | 0-099 Nervous, 
aEpes 1] 6| 4) 4| a] ali0| 9] 9/3 peel lia é sail ail cea] cra anf pelle i 31] 87} 68) 134] 87-735 |1428:308 | 0-070 | 0-052 | 0-018 Scarlet Fever. 
Renton AN call wil) Gil cell BN ce esl] wll age || Wey bl eee eel ee al eee fhe - as} ail 49) 91) 52367 1982143 0-050 | 0056 |. Sls 
POX as : aos 3 an al) eeleraal ce Va co) Voll ts p 221) 23-11 : ‘114 | 0° i . 
Miscellaneous. Ail) 43ilress 1 2 | lesctaless 1 3| 1 2) 2) 6| 6] 6 11} 9) 10) 12) 6 4/ 5] 1 shy} a 1 ax} 59} 52) 111) 223 7| 875-000 4 | 015) Miscellaneous. 
if iy a g 2502/5 2) +02 | | ys! +8 i 
Fs . 5 = 5 =a ie 7 malin ! 87 |114| 66 | 70 | 60] 87] 18/98] 2) 12/2] 1 .» {1218]1289/2502|5002) 1-025) 38-818) 2-576 | 2-309 |0-267 | ... | Total ascertained. 
A be areca | ATP AV De mec ea CS |G ee ee Soe Te ee ee toa hea Rares Poca les lies “| 33) 33] 64) 128] 40-093 [15175780065 [0-241 |... [0-176 |Do.notascertained, 
Do, not ascertaine: ll | 12)... 2 1) 1 i eon || ed 2 |)... 2 
Deaths, Males & Females 151) 188|106| 88 /126/112| 52 | 42 | 28 | 25 | 37 | 27 | 90 | 84 | 78 | 89 105/111) 133/148] 88 116] 66 | 71 | 60 | 87} 181298] 2/12) 211 1245]1521}2566 5133) 1-000) 37:850) 2-641 | 2550 | 0:091 Deaths, 'M: and’ F, 
Motwani | 339 194 238 94 53 64 174 167 196 216 281 203 137 | {147 46 14 3 2566 | Grand Total Deaths. 
Average annual Deaths 672 384 478 183 103 123 B42 332 394 43y 563 403 272 292 9: 24 03 513% | Average annual Deaths these five years. 
these 5 years B B 2 : a i : " é 
Fabov Foes ' 5 2. 3 A. 783 $3285 55: ' The proportion which the above bear to the total average annual Deaths 
Propormapovetoaver) | 769) 13.296) 0781 | 27-297) 48415| 40-093] 14-747 | 15-365 | 13-091 | 11879 | 9131 | 12-640 | 18729 | 17-455 | 55:782| 183285] 955-333 1-000 { re ian Ula eg eats 
Bonne ae Popula-| | osg-504) 500-644 | 408-088 |1033-244 |1832-547 |1517578| 558-189 | 581-586 | 495°535 | 449-602 | 345-640 | 478-448 | 708-041 | 660-714 | 2111-413 | 6937-500 [32375000 37-850 | And to the Population as 1 to these. 
tion as to *] 
Bercentare of the Po. 0-349! 0-199 0245 0-096 0-054) 0-065 0-179 0-171 0-201 0-222 0-289 0-209 0-141 0-151 0:047 0-014 0003) 2641 Per-centage of the whole Population in Perth. 
pulation in Perth...... an - : 
Per-centage of the Po- 0-421) 0-217 0-218 0-130 0-067 0-063) 0-214 0-226 0232 0216 0-218 0-110 0-082 0-068 0.028 0:010 0000) 2550 |  Per-centage of the whole Population in Edinburgh. 
| pulation in Edinburgh| + = 
| 
| Excess of Deaths in 0-027 0-002 0-006 0-071 0-099 0-059 0-083. 0-019 0-004 0-003 0-091 Excess of Deaths at these ages in Perth. 
Perth .. : - | 
ae 0! : eaths in| 0:072| 0-018 0-034 0-013 0-035 0-055 0-031 Excess of Deaths at these ages in Edinburgh. 
Edinburgh ...sceceerees 


Exhibiting the number of fatal cases of disease that occurred in the Town of DUNDEE durin 
number of deaths at each period, and the proportion which these, 
of mortality in Dundee and Edinburgh. 


DUNDEE. 


Mean Population of these three years 59,691. 


g the years 1839, 1840 and 1841, classified according to 18 periods of life at which they took place; 
and the number of deaths from the several diseases, bear to the total average annual number of deaths, 


Taste LIV. 


with calculations showing the total average annual 


and also to the mean population of these years; with the comparative rates 


| Awe | Proportions 22 | comparative 
=) 2. |e cee eae 
Under 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Oi Eile 35 rie Sts | g2 of Disease. 
aie. o fr) 3 
Discases, &c. 1 and under | and under | and under | and under| and under | and under | and under | and under | and under| and under | and under | and under| and under| and under | and under| andunder| and Total, [3s | Ey be Es 56 ae Ditesscs 0 
oo os b Be 4 Goa’ 
year. 2. 5. 10. 15. 20. 30. 40. 30. 60. 70. 75. 80. 85. 90. 95. 100. upwards, BP eg | agg ag BE5 SHE og | £8 
Ti é = | £52 oe |295/3°5| ga g3 
a = iSeig ES Ges |eko| SF $s 
= ra] gee as f2s|/5382| xe re 
<= al = Pe Sse a A232] ges] 89 | ag 
Mw |] rim |e jo|r [a | ele) elon |e fjande fa |e la |e lal elo |e || la eR lon |e lane foe le | oe M.| F. | M & i EeSieaees 8 6 a 
r 1 to every! 1 to every |Percent.|Percent.|Percent,| Percent, 
| Accidents cmp |lcco.|]  23}]) 3 SH eM eet UN a) ay) UE EM ES ces |] TEM Fall 7 5] 2 iy) ky ty) at pallies 25) 102) 34 | 42-421 1755-617 | 0-056) 0-059 003 | Accidents. 
Aged ... a alec lic alee allecelllece Sorta letter cobb ede fetes ll cent Pe 44| 73 69| 26 | 38 | 29 1/1 246] 397) 1825] 10:394| 451-065 | 0-221) 0-314 0-093 | Aged. 
Asthma |< lleeen| eee se |) it aes xo || | ui fall Gi) I] TI 3B 26| 18 fl) ifn | alles 72) 150] 50 | 28-833 |1193-820| 0-083) 0:045] 0-038] ... | Asthma. 
Bowel Complaints 150/103] 49} 65 iki eee eI) sof) 24 24, BH eH wl) BI 5| 8 All) G3)| e2a\\ee 224| 471) 157 | 9:182| 380-197| 0-263] 0-167) 0-096 Bowel Complaints. 
Catarrh 3 Bf ean iU)) coo llheced lee) || 30 fie | OU] Seal SH) au Gl Gi co Il een If oe 22) 49| 16%) 88-265 |3654-551| 0:027| 0-008] 0-019] ... | Catarrh. 
Childbirth 7 ||rcoes| eee. |] cos || ceo. |} cee |) coe |! dees | eo] | ces ll ero dl 2Ellrrnl) lls] Allen ll 2 eae || ereelll eos ies | eeu tee ll ses .-. | 84] 34) 114 |127-205 |5266-852| 0-018| 0-019] ... | 0-001 | Childbirth. 
Cronp .. EU EM UV TG Tey Teul iU) 6}hees | den ll os lliced| col) ontllloe ll an|f oe dee lccetl asl il ell eae [Wesel cal ess 23) 43) 66) 22 | 65:530|2713-227| 0-036| 0-035] 0-:001| ... | Croup. 
Decline 29))| 31) 22) 9) 95) 16)/ 151) 14] 14] 16 | 17/13] 54) 55) 36) 44] 44) 37) 14] ga)\.. |e} ee | ot | |e 270| 267) 587] 179 | 8:054| 333:469| 0:299) 0-436] ... | 0:137| Decline. 
Dropsy BPD) 8H 1) 10} 10) 4) 19)) 51 | 7 || 2) |) 2) 6) 4) 75] 18!) Bi Ws |) 14!) 93))| | 16] 3) <7) 4) Tl 74) 110] 184! 614| 23:505 | 973-222| 0-102| 0-092] 0-010) ... | Dropsy. 
Fever .. 8] 13) 6] 8] 17] 19] 21/ 11) 8] 11] 8] 10) 21| 26] 33] 30) 25| 26] 15] 14) 8] 12] 6] 3] 2) 2]. 178) 186] 364) 1214] 11-881| 491-958] 0-203] 0-235/ ... | 0-032] Fever. 
Head, of 31) 13] 9] 11) 23) 21] 9] 15] 5] 2) 2] 2] 6] 4] 8| 10] 15] 10) 12] 10] 12] 13/ 6] 10) 5] 1] 1 144) 123] 267] 89 | 16-198] 670-685 | 0-149] 0-219 0:070 | Head, of. 
Heart, o} ZN OW ee ae leila Sl ee) Sloe lh yl) al) eal Fal) EM Seay ea bea eal ee) aul eae Hl coe Hl ans 22) 18] 40) 134 |108-125 /4476:825 | 0:022| 0-036) ... | 0:014| Heart, of. 
Hooping-coug 42| 33 2 (SI) Gill cee |) oe Ifrosa ioag || ccs || capil | ots eae sail lieeaillluceeu|| eee liner 105] 117] 222) 74 | 19-481) 806635 | 0:123) 0-085) 0:038| ... | Hooping-cough. 
Inflammation . 45| 27 8] 4) 8] 4] 7 13| 8 7| 6) 7| 8] 2 145] 112} 257] 852| 16-828] 696-782 | 0-143] 0-196) ... | 0°058 | Inflammation. 
Measles... 28| 28 siya a2 eel ee Sli: alles md 149] 169] 318) 106° | 13-600) 563:122| 0:177| 0-075| 0-102] ... | Measles. 
Nervous 23| 27 eat | ae || ee 1 a aa wo 31| 38) 69) 23 | 62-681 [2595-260] 0-038) 0-015 | 0-023 Nervous. 
Scarlet Fever . 6| 9 98| 17| 5] 8] 4 2 vill cee |] cre 5 114) 102] 216) 72. | 20-023) 829-041] 0:120| 0-052] 0-068 Scarlet Fever. 
Small-pox .. 40) 52 10] 10) 2] 1]... Fa Poeeal ll tase liteal hoes Ihe 119} 132] 251] 833 | 17-231] 713-438] 0:140] 0-056] 0-084] ... | Small-pox. 
Miscellaneous. 20) 17 GI) By SH) ay it 16] 11] 18] 14] 12) 6| 4 111] 105] 216) 72 | 20-023) 829-041] 0:120| 0-156] ... | 0:036] Miscellaneous. 
. =| ales 5 a Fs 2065 /2145\45 zi 2. 7 7 rf ined: 
Total ascertained .......| 489/371 131/120} 60 | 57 | 51 145/116 | 140) 188/168) 84/111] 45 | 47] 33 | 42] 5 | 17] 4 | 3 | 1 | 1 [2065/2145|4210) 14035] 1-097) 42'535| 2:50) 2309] 0-041) ..._ | Total ascertaine 
Do. not aueneitioal -| 56) 42 ors 1 » oy a 1 1 Tile ail ecal basen Recon [ically || hase alll eral ce a. ... | 65) 50) 115) 384] 37-608 |1557-146 | 0-064) 0-241) ... | 0:177|Do.notascertained. 
Deaths,Males & Females| 495 | 413 121| 60 | 57 | 51 | 43 | 138] 141/130) 157 | 154] 146/117 | 141) 141/168} 84 | 111] 45 | 47 | 33 | 42) 5 | 17] 4 | 1 3 | 1 | 1 [2180(2195)4325| 14413] 1-000] 41-404 | 2-415] 2-550 0-136 | Deaths, M. and F. 
Morales 908 519 598 252 17 94 279 287 300 258 309 195 92 75 22 15 3 2 4325 | Grand Total Deaths. 
ae enue Deaths 8025 173 1994 84 39 314 93 953 100 86 103 65 303 25. 7 5 1 0% 14415 | Average annual Deaths these three years. 
Fabove to aver. 7 F The proportion which the above bear to the total average annual Deaths during 
Papen chabore toiaver, 4763) 8383) 7-282) 17-162) 36-965] 46010) 15-483) 15-069) 14-416] 16-763] 13-996] 22179| 47-:010| 56333) 192-045) 288-333) 1411-666] 2162-500) 1-000 { ioe eae casi ttatsuelesreecinee 
Ropsher ean: Ropu, 197-216] 345°034) 299-453 | 710-607 |1530-538 |1905-031| 641-838) 623:947| 596-910| 694-081| 579524 | 918-323 | 1946-445 | 2387-640 |8139-G81 |11938-20059691-000/89536:500| 41-404 | And to the mean Population as 1 to these. 
TE eel 0507} 0289! 0333/ 0140] 0065! 0:052) 0155; 0-160) 0167) 0144) 0172) 0-108) 0-051} 0-041) + 0-012| 0-008} 0-001! 0-000) 2-415 | Per-centage of the whole Population in Dundee. 
Ber reine eg oranue LO, +49 B +2 5 q q 5 "29 p +2 B hi i r +02 +010) 0-000) 000) 2-5: Per-centage of the whole Population in Edinburgh. 
pulation in Edinburgh] ; 421) 0-217) 0-218} 0130] 0-067|  0-:063/ 0-214) 0226) 0232] 0216] 0218/ 0-110) 0.082) 0-068) 0-028 0-00 50 | Per-centag : P' 
Excess Pete sn 0-086) 0-072) 0115) 0-010 we tO sce eat oon om ” 0-001 cen Excess of Deaths at these ages in Dundee. 
HEA ae | oa 0-002} 0-011) 0:059| 0-066] 0-065] 0:072| 0-046} 6-002) 0-031} 0-027} 0-016} 0-002 0:135 | Excess of Deaths at these ages in Edinburgh. 


| 


PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 205 


alin 
PROVISIONAL REPORTS, AND NOTICES OF PROGRESS IN 
SPECIAL RESEARCHES ENTRUSTED TO COMMITTEES 


f Collingwood, June 3, 1842; 
JOMMITTEE having been appointed, consisting of myself, Mr. Henderson, 
d Mr. Airy, for the purpose of effecting the reduction of Lacaille’s stars, I 
ye the pleasure to report, that under the superintendence of Mr. Hender- 
, the whole of that work is now completed, and the resulting catalogue, 
arranged in order of right ascension, is fairly written out and ready for 
ress. The total number of stars reduced and catalogued is about 10,000, 
e sum of 1052. remaining of the original grant unappropriated ; which the 
Committee recommend to be applied (with such additional grant as may be 
ed) to the printing and publication of the catalogue, without which, it is 
nt, that little or no benefit can result to Astronomical Science from the 
so accomplished. With the catalogue, and:forming an introduction to 
account of the process pursued in the reductions, the constants used, 
all other matter needful for a complete understanding of the work, ought 
to be printed, and should it be the pleasure of the Association to order 
publication, will be furnished by Mr. Henderson. The estimated cost of 
ublication so recommended, may be roughly stated at about 250/. for 
ting, paper, &c. of 500 copies of the catalogue and introduction. 

J. F. W. Herscuet. 


port of the Committee for the Reduction of the Stars in the Histoire 
Céleste. 
" June 16, 1842. 
[AVE the satisfaction of reporting that the whole of the stars in the ‘ His- 
Céleste’ have been reduced, agreeably to the method proposed: those 
being omitted for which there are no tables of reduction; and that there 
w remaining, of the grant for this purpose, the sum of £9, which will 
be required in the further prosecution of this portion of the work. But 
main object of this undertaking will be defeated, if the catalogue be not 
printed for general use and information. The number of stars reduced is up- 
wards of 47,000; and I have caused an estimate to be made of the expense 
printing 500 copies in an octavo form. And it appears that the cost of 
per and printing will be about £415, but that 1000 copies will cost £100 
we. There is, however, another expense which must be taken into the ac- 
t, which is the copying of the catalogue, in a proper order for the press, 
and the correction of the press during the printing, which I apprehend will 
be £60 or £70 more. Taking the whole of those estimates together, it would 
appear that 500 copies would cost about £500, and that 1000 copies would 
ete £600. Should the British Association decide on the printing of 
_ the catalogue, I would draw up a statement of the method pursued in making 
_ the reductions, together with such other remarks as might be requisite. This 
_ probably would not add another sheet to the work. 

ora] Francis Balzy. 


206 REPORT—1842. 


Report of the Committee on the British Association Catalogue of Stars. 


I nAve the honour to report on the subject of this catalogue, that the cal- 
culations of the places of the stars, with the annual precessions, secular va- 
riations, and proper motions, together with the logarithms of the requisite 
constants, are completed for nearly 8300 stars, which is about the number 
originally contemplated ;—that the same are fairly copied out for the 
press; and that the construction of the table of synonyms is now in pro- 
gress, two-thirds of which are already completed; that the whole of the 
sum granted at the last meeting of the Association has been expended, and 
that a further sum of £25 will be required for the completion of some of the 
above stars in peculiar positions, and for the final completion of the syno- 
nyms ; that the above sum of £25 is all that will be wanting in future, as Mr. 
Farley (the principal computer and superintendent) has undertaken to com~ 
plete the work, ready for the press, without any further remuneration, and 
which will be ready for delivery in a few weeks. Under these circumstances, I 
have caused an estimate to be made of the expense of printing the same: and 
I find, that the cost of paper and printing 500 copies in quarto, will be about 
£550, but that 1000 copies will cost £150 more. It will be requisite, how- 
ever, to employ some one to correct the press, and to superintend the arrange- 
ment of the work, which will add to the expense here mentioned. A pretty 
large preface will be requisite, explanatory of the mode adopted in bringing 
up the several stars to the given epoch, and of various circumstances connect- 
ed with the investigation, as well as descriptive of the method of using the 
catalogue in its present form. But on these points I am willing to render 
any assistance in my power. Francis BAILy. - 


On the erection of one of Mr. Osler’s Anemométers at Inverness, one 
of the Stations at which Hourly Observations with the Barometer 
and Thermometer have been made at the request of the British 
Association. By Sir Davip Brewster. 


Owrne to the difficulty of obtaining a suitable place for the erection of the 
anemometer, the observations did not commence till the 15th of April. The 
indications of the rain-gauge commenced on the 6th of May, so that a com- 
plete series of observations for one year will be laid before the meeting of the 
Association for 1843, The observations are registered and superintended by 
Mr. Thomas Mackenzie and the Rey. Mr. Gray, Rector of the Royal Academy 
of Inverness. 


On the Hourly Series of Meteorological Observations made at Inverness 
during the Meteorological year from the 1st of November 1840, to 
the 1st of November 1841. By Sir Davin Brewster, 


THE mean temperature of Inverness for the summer months was 52°258 ; 
the mean temperature of the winter months 40°287; and the mean tempe- 
rature for the whole year 46°-272. This mean temperature occurred at 
8) 33™ a.m. and 75 42™, the critical interval being 11" 9™, differing only a 
few minutes from the result obtained by similar hourly observations made at 
Leith. The observations made with the barometer, when reduced to the 
level of the sea, and to the temperature of 60°, indicate very distinctly the 
daily variation, with its two maxima and minima. The mean annual average 
of all the observations was 29°680 inches, The monthly mean indicated a 
maximum in December and in June, and a minimum in March and in October. 


PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 207 


Letier from Dr. Lamont of Munich to Col. Sanine on the System of 
Meteorological and Magnetical Observations on the Continent. 

i Ie Munich, June 12, 1842. 
_ My bear S1r,—My time has been so entirely taken up with magnetic expe- 
riments and the usual business of the observatory, that am sorry to say I haye 
_ been unable to draw up the report I intended to lay before the Council of the 
_ British Association on the system of meteorological and magnetical observations 
_ lately commenced on the Continent. I therefore request you, merely for the 
present, to mention, that the system in general is the same as that of the “So- 
eietas Palatina,” instituted at Manheim in 1780. At the most part of our 
stations only the meteorological instruments are observed; at the principal 
magnetic observations are also made three or four times a day. The 
_ results are given in the ‘ Annalen fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus,’ 
x eae by Prof: Grunert of Greifswald, Prof. Koller of Kremsmiinster, 
_ Prof. Kreil of Prague, Prof. Plieninger of Stuttgard, Prof. Stieffel of Carl- 
‘sruhe and myself. Prof. Grunert furnishes meteorological and magnetic 
observations made by himself at Greifswald, and meteorological observations 
made at five other stations in the North of Prussia. Prof. Kreil and Prof. 
_ Koller send observations from Prague (magnetic term days), Kremsmiinster 
_ (magnetic and meteorological observations), Milan (magnetic observations), 
_ Pavia, Venice, Lemberg, Ofen (meteorological observations). Prof. Plieninger 
_has superintended for many years the meteorological observations made in 
_ Wurtemberg: the number of stations is eleven. The whole of these observa- 
_ tions will now be published in the ‘ Annalen.’ Prof. Stieffel communicates 
_ the observations made by himself at -Carlsruhe. Besides, he is now arrang- 
_ ing meteorological observations at many other places in Baden ; twenty-five 
_ of these places have beep furnished with instruments from the observatory of 
“Munich. The observations in Bavaria are superintended by myself: the 
system has already been mentioned at the meeting of the Association at Glas- 
gow. A considerable addition has been made of late, the members of the 
“Pfalzische Gesellschaft” in the Rhine province having joined us with 
_ twenty-three stations. Contributions for the * Annalen’ (regular series of 
teorological or magnetic observations) have been promised by Prof. Kaiser 
tf Leyden, Prof. van Rees of Utrecht, Prof. Wenckebach of Breda, Prof. 
Moebius of Leipzig, Prof. Reich of Freyburg (Saxony), Prof. Weisse of 
eau, M. Becker of Cronberg (near Frankfurt), M. Voigt of Bensberg 
itary school near Cologne), M. Littrow of Vienna, Prof. Kottinger of 
zburg, Prof. Gintl of Gritz, M. Valz of Marseilles, M. Colla, Director of 
_ the meteorological observatory of Parma. Communications may be expect- 
‘ed (though I do not know at present to what extent) from Prof. Fournet at 
ons, M. Amici at Florence, M. Capocei at Naples, M. Keserii, Director of 
Observatory of Carlsburg (near the Turkish frontier). In Greece, a mag- 
hetic station and several meteorological stations are shortly to be established. 
A yery extensive correspondence is carried on at present, and if the future 
success is equal to the past, there is reason to expect that in a short time the 
*Annalen’ will present a regular and systematic meteorological account of 
_ the vast tract between the Pyrenees and the Russian frontier. In communica- 
ting this to the British Association, I must request you to mention that the 
ndertaking was commenced only seven months ago; at the same time I beg to 
ss my regret that other avyocations have prevented me from laying a full 
, of our proceedings before the Association ; I hope, however, I shall be 
2 to do so at the next meeting. 


Lamont. 


208 REPORT—1842. 


Report of the Committee for the Reduction of Meteorological Obser- 
vations. 


Ir was the earnest wish of your Committee to have made their final report 
on this subject at the present meeting; owing, however, to the severe illness 
of Mr. Birt, to whom the execution of the reduction and projection of the 
observations has been intrusted, and his subsequent change of residence, 
together with the unusually early period of the meeting this year, it must be 
deferred yet another year. Meanwhile the annexed letter from that gentle- 

man will show the present state of the inquiry and the progress made :— 
“Western Literary and Scientific Institution, 

47 Leicester Square, June 6, 1842. 

“ Dear Srir,—I regret exceedingly that I am unable to send you a greater 
number of the projected curves than those now inclosed, which nearly com- 
plete the European series, including the British isles, during the years 1836, 
1837 and 1838. The following are the stations omitted :—Greenwich, two 
sets in 1836; Geneva, June 1837; Turin, March, June, September and 
December 1837; Kremsmiinster, March 1838; Gibraltar, March and June 
1837; and Cadiz, for 1837 and March 1838. The Turin curves were 
omitted in consequence of the reduction of sidereal to mean time not having 
been accomplished, and the remainder, with the exception of Greenwich, not 
presenting those marked features of agreement which are so conspicuous 
in most of the others. 

“] have just discovered that the European curves for December 1836 have 
not been projected, and as the time of the meeting is now so rapidly approach- 
ing, I have thought it best to forward those completed without waiting for 
this sheet, which I will immediately proceed with. 

“T have not included the tables which I have been unable to complete, 
principally in consequence of my illness during the autumn, which, with the 
loss of strength resulting therefrom, prevented my close attention to them for 
nearly four months. Had this not have occurred, I have no doubt the whole 
of the projections and tables would have been completed by this time. 

“T inclose in this parcel the American curves formerly sent,—namely, De- 
cember 1835, and March 1838,—as I considered it probable that you might 
wish to see the contemporaneous observations on each side of the Atlantic. I 
have'also included South Africa and Asia for June 1836. 

“J have had no time on this occasion to look over the sheets previous to 
sending them to you; in the mere glance I have given them the curves of 
December 1837 strike me as peculiarly interesting, especially the fall west- 
ward and the rise eastward of Brussels. 

“ Apologizing for the inconvenienee which I feel you will experience in 
not having had the whole completed, 

“T remain, dear Sir, 
“Yours very respectfully, 


“ Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.” “W.R. Birr.” 
Your Committee pray the continuance of the grant, on which no further 
charges have been made this year. J. F. W. HerscueE. 


In reference to the Report which had been requested from Mr. A. D. Bache 
of Philadelphia, relative to the meteorology of the United States of America, 
Col. Sabine made the following statement to the Section. “Our valued 
corresponding member Mr. Bache has requested me to explain to the Sec- 
tion the causes which have prevented him from completing in time for the 


PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 209 


present meeting the report which has been just called for. Mr. Bache was re- 
quested to prepare this report at the Meeting at Newcastle in 1838, which he 
personally attended ; it was also at that Meeting that the system originated of 
combined magnetical and meteorological observations which is now in full and 
successful action, and in which various governments and scientific individuals 
_ of allnations participate. In our own and most other countries the expenses of 
the establishments at which these observations are made have been defrayed 
from national funds; but in the United States this has not been done; and 
_ the task of procuring the necessary funds by private subscription for the 
_ magnetic observatory at Philadelphia has been undertaken by Mr. Bache, in 
_ addition to that of establishing it and superintending its progress. His exer- 
tions in carrying into effect the wishes of the Association on this subject have 
_ engrossed the time which he could otherwise have devoted to the preparation 
_ of the report on the meteorology of the United States. We may, however, 
expect that the report will be ready for a future meeting, and I need not say 
_ to those who are acquainted with Mr. Bache’s qualifications, that whenever 
_ presented it cannot fail to form a very valuable contribution to our Transac- 
j tions.” In reference to the progress and present state of the magnetic ob- 
_ seryatory at Philadelphia, Colonel Sabine read the following communication 
from Mr. Bache. 
; “ Philadelphia, May 10, 1842. 
“My pEAR Cotonet,—As I shall not have the advantage of joining the 
magneticians in June, will you report to Section A. what we have been doing 
; a in concert with them? The bi-hourly observations of declination and 
orizontal and vertical force have been carried on regularly since their com- 
mencement in June 1840, as well as the term-day observations. The me- 
_ teorological instruments, including the barometer, the dry and wet bulb ther- 
_ mometer, Daniell’s hygrometer, the blackened bulb and radiation thermome- 
_ ters, have also been observed at the intervals assigned in the general instruc- 
_ tions. Osler’s self-registering anemometer and rain-gauge have been kept 


_ The meteorological term-days have been kept as well as the magnetic, making 
two during the month. These observations have been made with instruments 
_ and in an observatory belonging to the Girard College of Philadelphia, and 
have been kept up by voluntary contributions, chiefly from members of the 
American Philosophical Society, and by funds furnished by the Society. 
__ “We have made some changes in the instruments which we consider im- 
_ provements. Since January 1841 the vertical-force instrument has been 
_ provided with a mirror, and is observed at a distance, like the declination and 
horizontal-force instruments of Gauss. The only disadvantage which has 
“occurred in this is an increase in the correction for temperature, but the fa- 
cility and certainty of the observations compensate for this. The arrange- 


connecting the plate which receives the action of the wind with slightly- 
‘curved brass bars, or springs, placed at the side of the registering table ; 
the action of the instrument is thus rendered much more regular. As we 
haye much snow in the course of a season, it was a problem of some inter- 
_ est to measure its fall by the registering apparatus: this has been effected 
_ by raising the temperature of the funnel of the gauge slightly above the 
_ freezing point, by vapour from a boiler within the observatory. 

_ “During the first year the observatory was not heated artificially, but the 
_ large and uncertain amount of the corrections for temperature induced me to 
Sah a different course during the past winter, and without any of the bad 
a pets which I had apprehended from currents of air. The instruments, 

42, P 


w 


210 REPORT—1842. 


however, are the large ones of the German makers. In regard to the cor- 
rection for temperature of the horizontal-force instrument, I arrived at no 
satisfactory result by the ordinary method of obtaining it. This winter an 
approximation to the correction has been obtained by allowing the observa- 
tory to cool down on Sunday. If we had had a second set of instruments 
for comparison these results would have been unexceptionable ; as it is, the 
method of vibrating a declinometer bar and of observing a portable vertical- 
force instrument for comparison, led to no satisfactory result. Had the winter 
been of its usual severity so as to give us aresult every week, this comparison 
would have been of less consequence. 

“ Having ascertained by the observations in 1840 and 1841 nearly the 
hours of maximum and minimum of the magnetic pheenomena, I have during 
the present year caused observations to be made within those limits as fre- 
quently as on term-days. As these observations occupy, with moderate 
intervals, the whole twenty-four hours, I hope to be able to render a better 
account of disturbances than heretofore. This makes me more than ever 
anxious to keep up the observatory during the present year. The regular 
bi-hourly observations form a part of this series. 

* You have doubtless a report from the observatory at Harvard, and know 
how zealously they are at work. Mr. Gilliss, of the navy, keeps up his ob- 
servations of the declination and vertical force at the observatory at Wash- 
ington city. 

“Tn reference to our knowledge of the magnetic elements in different parts 
of the United States, the work goes bravely on. Prof. Loomis has contri- 
buted within the year a large quota in his observations of dip, chiefly in 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. Mr. Nicolet has observed in the same 
region, and has added a few observations of horizontal intensity to those of 
the dip. You will see an account of these results in the Proceedings of the 
American Philosophical Society, and at a later day in their Transactions. 
Dr. Locke has also made his contribution, which you will find in Silliman’s 
Journal. I completed last summer a systematic survey of Pennsylvania com- 
menced the year before, and hope to be able to calculate the observations du- 
ring the coming vacation. The observations were for declination, dip, and hori- 
zontal intensity at the chief stations, and for dip and total intensity by Lloyd’s 
method, at the subsidiary points. By observations made at the same station 
with different instruments, it appears that we now have several dipping circles 
which may be relied on to furnish accordant results, and they are in hands 
which will not let any opportunity pass of using them. The visit of Lieut. 
Lefroy will doubtless stimulate us to further exertion by showing an example 
of activity near. 

“The Association have now a great work before them in drawing out of 
the results at the magnetic and meteorological observatories the interesting 
laws which they must furnish. Wishing you and your co-labourers all 
success, “T remain, very truly yours, 

* Lieut. Colonel Sabine.” “ A.D. Bacue.” 


Report of the Committee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign 
Scientific Memoirs. 


Since the last meeting of the British Association the Committee have obtain- 
ed and published in the ninth Number of Taylor's “ Foreign Scientific Me- 
moirs,” translations of the two following works, viz. Gauss, ‘General Propo- 
sitions relating to Attractive and Repulsive Forces, acting in the inverse ratio » 


_  —] 


PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 911 


of the square of the distance ;’ and Dove, ‘ On the Law of Storms.—These 
translations were presented to the Committee by Lieut.-Col. Sabine, and as 
no illustrations were requisite, it has not been necessary to expend any por- 
tion of the grant placed at the disposal of the Committee. 
bi Epwarp SABINE. 


il 


© 


On the Mode of conducting Experiments on the Resistance of Air. 
By Eaton Hovextinson, F.R.S. 


Mr. Hopexinson said, that, having been honoured by the Association with 
a request to pursue some experiments on the resistance of the air, he was de- 
sirous of exhibiting an instrument prepared for making the first series of those 
experiments. He proposed, in the first instance, to seek for the force of the 
wind moving at different velocities upon plane surfaces of given dimensions, 
these surfaces being either perpendicular, or inclined at any angle, to its cur- 
_ rent: to determine this, he intended to place the apparatus upon the front of 
the first carriage of a railway train; the road along which the train passed 
having for a short distance poles stuck up, 100 or 200 yards asunder. He 
would try the experiment only on days when there was no perceptive wind : 
and then, if the time in seconds taken in passing between two poles be care- 
fully observed, and the pressure indicated upon the discs (which were of 
two and of four feet area, both round and square), the resistance per square 
foot, with a given velocity, would be obtained. He hoped to determine these 
_ facts, with various velocities and at different angles of inclination in the dises ; 
trying the same experiments with both discs at the same time, to ascertain 
__ whether the resistance to a square surface and a round one, of equal area, was 
the same, and that the results might correct each other. The directors of the 
_ Manchester and Birmingham Railway had kindly consented, at Mr. Buck’s 
request, to allow him to make these experiments; and he was indebted to Mr. 
_ Fairbairn for the apparatus. This was placed on the table. It consists of two 
_ dises of wood (which may be of any form), made inclinable at any angle by 
__ means of screws, and having an attached quadrant to measure the angle. To 
ascertain the force of the wind, one of Salter’s balance springs is placed be- 
__ hind each dise, attached to the cross piece which connects the two rods of the 
 dises; and this, it was expected, would indicate the force of the wind at any 
moment. If other apparatus were found necessary it would be applied. 


Experimental Inquiries on the Strength of Stones and other Materials, 
od By Eaton Hopexinson, F.RS. 


_ Arter noticing the present state of knowledge on this subject, and the 
_ experiments of Barlow, Rennie, and: experimentalists on the continent, Mr. 
‘Hodgkinson said, he had long felt anxious to ascertain how the three forces 
_—the crushing, the tensile, and the transverse strength—and the position 
‘of the neutral line (that separating the extended and compressed fibres 
_ in a bent body)—were connected in bodies generally : and his experiments 
had for several years been directed to discovering facts upon each of these 
ma , in order to determine the question. His experiments some years 
ago, made for the British Association, with respect to the values of hot and 
‘cold blast iron, had shown that the ratio of the forces uf ultimate tension 
nd compression was nearly constant in all the species of cast iron; and a 
w experiments made at that time on sandstone and marble, had led him to 
aspect that nearly the same would be the case in these and other hard bo- 
lies. Through the liberality of his friend Mr. Fairbairn (who had, as usual, 
PZ 


muy 


212 REPORT—1842. 


given him every assistance his establishment afforded), he (Mr. Hodgkinson) 
had inade a great many experiments upon wood, sandstones, marbles, glass, slate, 
ivory, bone, &c., to ascertain the tensile, crushing, and transverse strength of 
each ; also, as far as possible, the situation of the neutralline. He had sought 
for these in thirteen kinds of timber, including oaks, pines, teak, &c.; all the 
different sorts of experiments were made, as far as possible, out of the same 
specimen in each case. The wood was of good quality, and perfectly dry, having 
been chosen for this purpose, and laid in a warm dry place for four years or 
more. After describing the mode and character of his experiments on the va- 
rious substances named above (speeimens of which he produced), Mr. Hodg- 
kinson gave the following summary of their comparative results on marbles 
and stones of various degrees of hardness :— _ 


: Transverse 
force per Cemele fogs strength of bar 

square inch, P ‘nck 1 inch square, 

called 1000. . and 1 foot long. 


Crushing 
_ Description of Stone. 


Black anarbless . eprttoramxiererth ieysxe) oye 10Q0 143 10°1 
Jtaliay, marbles | s.ereareths aageie Ree? 1000 84. 106 
Rochdale flagstone .........--+- 1000 104 99 
High Moor stone .......... aes ab 1000 100 
Stone called Yorkshire flag ...... 1000 ties 9°5 
Stone from Little Hulton, near 1000 70 88 
Bolton ....... Atend abe aime Grete 
Mean rates.... 1000 100 9°8 


or calling the mean crushing strength per square inch, in the different articles 
experimented upon, 1000, we have,— 


: Ratio of mean 
‘ ensile Transverse tensile to 
Crushing strength 1000. strength. strength. crushing 
strength. 
TnStrnibeb a sc cestensces se 1000 1900 85°1 lto 0°55 
CCAS TOM) «.-15) Caledon Joie anit LOUD 158 19°8 HP sp ial o3) 
Glass (plate and crown) .. 1000. 123 10° I Re pa flare} 
Stone and marble ...... 1000 100 9°8 1 ,, 10°5, or, 


taking the hardest only, 8°9. 


The ratio of the crushing force to the transverse force is nearly the same in 
glass, stone, and marble, including the hardest and the softest kinds. Hence, 
if we know the transverse strength in any of these bodies, we may predict the 
other; and, as glass and the hardest stones resist crushing with from seven to 
nine times the energy that they do being torn asunder, we may get an ap- 
proximate value of the tensile force from the crushing force, or vice versd. 
These results render it probable that the hardest bodies, whether cast-iron, 
glass, stone, or marble, admit of certain atomic displacements, either in tear- 
ing asunder or crushing; these displacements being in a given ratio to each 
other, or nearly so. In future calculations as to the strength of bodies, the 
crushing strength ought to be made the fundamental datum, for the reasons 
shown in this notice. The ratio of the transverse strength to the crushing 
strength is greater in cast-iron than in glass, marble, and sandstones, arising 


PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 213 


from the ductility of that metal. The necessity of enlarged inquiries in these 
matters will be seen, when it is reflected that calculations of the tensile strength 
of cast-iron, or marble, or stones in general, nade from the transverse strength 
by the modes used by Tredgold, Navier, and others, give the tensile strength 
twice or three times as great as it ought to be. The paper, of which a short 
notice is here given, will, when completed according to the author’s wish, be 
offered to the Royal Society. 


Report of the Committee for Deep Dredging. 


Mr. Patterson stated that the Dredging Committee were continuing to 
collect the materials for their Report on the Marine Zoology of Britain, and 
announced the results of dredging at depths varying from fifty to one hun- 
dred and forty-five fathoms, off the Mull of Galloway, by Captain Beechey, 
R.N., drawn up by William Thompson, Esq.*; also results of dredging by 
Mr. Hyndman* off the Mull of Cantire, and off Ballyally Head, co. An- 
trim, by Mr. Patterson. 


To the Committee of the British Association for advancing our know- 
ledge of British Belemnites. 


In consequence of receiving from the British Association, through the Com- 
‘mittee appointed at Plymouth in 1841, “for the purpose of advancing our 
knowledge of Belemnites,” the sum of 50/., I have renewed the preparations 
for publishing the Figures and Descriptions of British Belemnites, which 
were presented (by request) to the Meeting of the Association at Dublin. 
_ Notwithstanding the lapse of time since that meeting, but few additional spe- 

cies have come to my knowledge, though doubtless such may be known to 


_ other geologists. I propose, by circulating proof plates already engraved, 


and of others in progress, to collect information regarding the localities of 
the known, and the nature of any new species, before printing the descrip- 
tions already prepared ; but I hope to lay before the Committee, previous to 


or at the meeting in 1842, specimen pages and plates for their consideration ; 


and I entertain no doubt that previous to the meeting in 1843, if not in the 


as; _ beginning of that year, I may be able to complete and publish the work. It 
is proposed to print in quarto, on the same size and general plan as the works 
of Voltz and Blainville: there will be from ten to twenty plates, arranged 

_ with as much regard both to natural affinity and geological position as prac- 
_ ticable. - The number of plates already in hand is six. 


Malvern, May 13, 1842. JoHN PHILLIPS. 


* For these two communications see Transactions of the Sections, pp. 70-75. 


NOTICES 


ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION . 
es Wee FOR THE files i, 
Ki ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, - 


MANCHESTER MEETING, JUNE 1842. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


Tue Eprrors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible only 
for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are abstracted. 


CONTENTS. 


oe 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS 
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


Page 
Correction of an error in this part of the Report for 1841 ....scsscsseecsseeseeeees 4 
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 

_M. Bessex on the Astronomical Clock..i.......ccccccesecececcevccescceces dvadvtaa canee™, 1 

_ M. Jacosr on a New General Principle of Analytical Mechanics............ esints <5 2 
_ Professor BrascuMann’s Extract from a Memoir entitled ‘‘ Considerations on 

the Principles of Analytical Mechanics” ..........secsesecesesceeesceceeeccseeeees 4 
_ Dean or Ety on the Report of the Commissioners for the restoration of lost 
standards of Weights oa Measures, and upon their proposal for the intro- 

PEME LION (Ol A WIECHItAl SYRLCML, fo passe taswcds6ecuvsdsccddeachdusnacesescoadelostsanphinvas 8 
_ Professor WueEatstone’s Letter to Colonel Sabine, on a New Meteorological 

MTG EISBN sre 560 cis taihnd dd Seana sb al cnade UoevahbeaManaisvacshs (sivebesteareccbisenaverede 9 
Mr. Fouzer Oszer on the Application of the Principle of the Vernier to the 

SEBEL VICI FOL MTG! iets a sus mu aksbon obs 46 cdusanacchpseshwaesssaesassvoaeceTiaasaness dae 9 

_ Mr. E. J. Dent on the Longitude ‘of DIRT Sy MS Ae ee cine A 

on the Rate of Protected Chronometer Springs............ a 9 

on the Rate of a Patent Compensating Pendulum......... senses) 10 

———— on a New Chronometer Compensating Balance............+..++. 10 
_ Sir W. Hamixron on a Mode of expressing Fluctuating or Arbitrary Func- 

Setons by Mathematical Formule: ....2.......000.ccc0-secsccontsecsssenensecnavevnceces 10 
Mr. Moszs Hotpen on a simple Method of arriving at the decimal part of the 
Sine or Tangent geet second of a degree, to the ->4yoth or ryphuoocth part 

of it. PITTTEUTILITITILITITTLI TITEL TL r errr iri iti ri Peeesccnsces Pe deaceseeesesees seee 10 

a Anrnony Pxacock Oh Decimal Fractions) 2 .iiscissencctdessbeeciesccdswocds ods 10 
_ Professor Nicuot’s Extracts from a Letter on the state of the Observatory at 

_ Glasgow (25th June 1842).........-. SUAUEpe lecnsnans cas cokauasenyas sss sse)-a6eeeeke saveee 12 
Professor MacCutiaen on the Mathematical Expressions which lead to an 

__ Explanation of all the ordinary Phenomena in Optics ............ssseseeessrseee 12 
Sir Davin Brewster on a New Property of the Rays of the Spectrum, with 
_ Observations on the Explanation of it given by the Astronomer nage on the 

me Principles of the Undulatory Theory ......cccccsssscsccecsenssscrersescccecavcecs 12 
on the Dichroism of the Palladio- chlorides “of Potas- 

sium GU AMMONIOMIS. 6 ccci sie cscs ete cockvoanincscctbsoseetiesessiy ocet¥essinecs coe 13 
on the existence of a New Neutral Paint, aid two 

Semeaticiary. Netitral PONG... soos incesecneesscccnactensssscncescenosivecsitonih écbabeuierts 13 

ofessor PowELt on certain Cases of Elliptically Polarized Light......... seeeee 13 

Sir Davin Brewsrer on Crystalline Reflexion ............ eee sseeeesescceeeesesserees 13 
Professor BrssEeL on a very curious fact connected with Photography, dis- 

__ covered by M. Moser of Kénigsberg, communicated to Sir D. Brewster...... 14 
4 § Davip Brewster on the Dichroiam of a Solution of Stramonium in 

SE OIL « Gah cAies 505 «tha qdAwaards s$sh<¥dh swhwdnopiiu bbsvuscecathead bos chisdveainuie te aedasey 14 
aE on the Gonatic Fina, th Laws of Illumination 
of the Spaces which receive the Solar Rays, transmitted through Quadrangu- 

lar Apertures ........ 4 .dewekeebate eT es PRCIEET ER TT Te Cr Te ee eet 15 
-—————— on Luminous Lines in certain Flames corresponding to 

A ‘the defective Lines in the Sun’s Light ..........c.sssccsssessertesecesens Ti Nevisie 15 


on the Structure of a Part af the Solar Spectrum 
NOES CN RMMMIMIRIEKS ~<a 4c ccnp ote. ads c¥eVA Ab bkUadaredadA SAbURabee AAU sdvide OLS 


iv CONTENTS. 


* ‘Page 
Sir Davip Brewster on the Luminous Bands in the Spectra of various ; 
PARIS cicassisptei seaneemuasnio nase <p cogent apsiay bh pee vabaesnga ci camee tani Seiscinseestins soe 15 
Mr. H. Fox Taxsor on the Improvement of the Telescope en nise pea nieaaengaenaaa 16 
Mr. Joan Goopman on the Theory of Magnetism,...........s0scscsssusscesecescees 17 
——_ on the Cause of Dissimilarity of the Voltaic and Ordi- 
Mary WleChrCies 0555 csc sceess's deiacvessice veces sees adepotclnueusnss oneepapenspnees aaa 18 
Rev. C. J. Kennepy on the Positive and the Negative Streams of Electrified 
Air, and on an Electrical Machine fitted for examining them...............+e+008 19 
Rev. W. Scorzssy on Improved Magnets, and the different Modes of deter- 
mining their Powers, with an Account of certain undescribed Phenomena in 
PGEMIANENG VLAD DELICR:.ceccenay cess -p0soesassessuacssee seuss st dadsatnesnne i eiMasnen reas 19 
Mr. J. S. Russe.x’s Supplementary Report of a Committee on Waves ......006 19 
Mr. Wiiit1am WatkeEr’s Observations on Oceanic Waves ......0:-esesesseeteees seal 
Mr. Roox on the Tidal Phenomena in the Bay of Fundy and the River de la 
Plata...... nousstsdansassJetWenenecetete sh itesborsb seek sesenk tech cep ebicss saamaces desiee aanaeee 22 
Colonel Syxes on the Meteorology of the Province of Coorg, in the Western 
Ghats (Of Tniieies Ss esse cs ceecencsatsaed teacncstcpeescsscertrececce nas iemeeeaemaeeeentee 22 
Mr. Luxe Howarp on a Cycle of Eighteen Years in ‘Atmospherical Phee- 
nomena. Accompanied By) fe Oliarty Junnosape aces acacecee sn copeenecn aie Seemeeetaetes 24 
Mr. Joun Pricuarp’s Meteorological Register for 1841-42, from Diurnal Ob- 
servations taken at Beddgelert in the County of Carnarvon ......--sseeeeessseee 25 
Mr. Tuomas Hopxins on the Meteorology of the Northern Atlantic, the 
South-west Monsoon of India, and places adjacent .......... Ae AO ee ee 
——_—————————_ on a Meteorological Chart............ccceesesecseeseceeeeeene 26 
Mr. James Nasmytu on the Application of the Law of Definite Proportions to 
the Stratification Clonds-.s! cose. oticssscsevacectcc Seven esecsose atavaneansmemannecas 26 
Mr. Henry Farrparrn on the Changes in the Climate of England ............ 26 
Sir Joun Rozison on a new Optical Instrument ..........cesssececsesceceseeecerers a7 
Professor SteraNo Marianinti’s Abstract of an unpublished Memoir upon the 
Magnetizing Action of Transitory Electric Currents, in which it is proposed 
to explain the Variations in Magnetic Susceptibility which are frequently ob- 
served in Iron as often as it has been magnetized .......... BEC ace a may DT 
CHEMISTRY. 
Professor ScHONBEIN on the Electrolysing Power of a simple Voltaic Circle... 30 
Mr. J. P. JouxE on the Electric Origin of the Heat of Combustion ............ 31 
Professor PowELt on Apparatus for applying Circular Polarization to Chemi- 
cal Inquiries....... Hemme saw cinniola ole pscicioyins ona npjersinene encase cae uata teat es eee sseaWainse 32 
Mr. Mercer on some peculiar instances of (so- called) Catalytic Action......... 32 
Professor O. L. ErpMann on Hematoxylin, the Colouring Principle of Log- 
WOUHE, ..cvtbmabascnetcuan cee waaesenb ations scekciestelanctids Aa buwics us shies «hi Wel avenue Reet Seat 33 
Dr. C. Bromeis on the Formation of Cyanuret of Potassium in a Blast Fur- 
TACE waceeeeceees Wine nBednaceboreedenewedeweesaceensaseuasceecostaevbeeeescecsuuesacnscunadsahnin 34 
——_———— on the Compounds of Carbon and Iron .............+esee0e edtiows 34 
Professor BunsEN on Kakodylic Acid and the Sulphurets of Kakodyl............ 35 
Dr. Lyon PLayrarr on some New Oxides of certain of the Metals of the Mag- 
TCSIATN WeATOA ING ge jel cern sailetcm diate le wollemaaas enpinsjoisicmoleiemavesmee sade eek «ee teem aan 35 
—____————_’s Note on the Composition and Characters of Caryo- 
PII. poate stasitelonaepuctciedeommmemeccececstetece ks dates each use ve decl aeeek Cee an mane 36 


Mr. RicHarpson’s Contributions to the History of the Magnesian Limestones 37 
Dr. Dauseny on the Agricultural Importance of ascertaining the minute por- 
tions of Matter derived from Organic Sources that may be preserved in the 
Surface Soil, and on the Chemical means by which its presence may be 
Aekerted (iss.tts dct. wee cena pest peppeeeeeice «ehedubanbiees o<bex's ves sec chmereweaa aaa tenet 37 
on the Causes of the, Irregularities of Surface which are ob- 
servable in certain parts of the Magnesian Limestone Formations of this 
COUNTY: 9:s5itets Aas co aeans seeteeaveneoe ook terasetes to Tes acess lease halts py sree ee aa ana 39 
Mr. Leicu on a new Product obtained from Coal Naphtha ............sssceeeceeee 39 
Professor HarpincEr’s Account of the Mineralogical and Geological Museum 
of the Imperial Mining Department of Vienna ...........cseceeeeeneeeeeeees |!) 


a CONTENTS. 


; Mr. Joun Datron on the Phosphates and Arseniates ..........6004 GERM ER 
————  0n Microcosmic Salt .........cssccseceecsseteeseeeenseneeseeeeenees 

on a new and easy Method of Analysing Sugar............0+ 
Professor Nassx on the Composition of the Blood and Bones of Domestic 
PPIMEIAIS Ss croc seccseccvarrestcddccdecedcroceserssducdevevewsctawedddecssdacusFecddéanaadads 
Mr. Wm. Buiyrs on the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid ........ceecscceeceeeeeees 


‘ 


MBOHN 5 fe ca cisacess dumceteommeemectte cs sock cour ad cup atau tnuatOconcbaidsencaee sels evecevedsves 
Professor ScHONBEIN on a peculiar Condition of Tron ..........seeeeeee Ctote ite 
Mr. C. Wye Wittiams on the Advantages and Disadvantages of Hot Air in 
~ effecting the Combustion of Coal ..........ssscsscssesecesscesenseceeueeeesseesenesede 
Mr. W. Lucas on the Production of an Artificial Copper Pyrites ..............+ 
‘Mr. A. Boor on some Fires produced from Spontaneous Combustion ...+... 
Professor T. Granam on some Thermo-chemical Researches ..........+. gededeee 


GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Professors H. D. and W. B. Roczrs on the Physical Structure of the Appala- 
chian Chain, as exemplifying the Laws which have regulated the elevation of 
great Mountain Chains generally .....csecosssecsecsseeecseescesenecsecceedececeeeeees 

Rev. Mr. Scpootcrarr on the Production of “Sand Storms and Lacustrine 
Beds, by causes associated with the North American Lakes ..........asesseeeee 

Mr. Ricuarp Kine on the Geography of the North-west Coast of biel ted 

Mr. R. I. Murcutson’s Notice of a Memoir on the Geology of the Western 


States of North America, by David Dale Owen, M.D., of Indiana............. 
on the Geological Structure of Russia (delivered at an 
__ Evening Lecture)......... SLES ah deduce nwcueee vers bdectededs Mauce heh bbe d. tudebatnae 


Professor ApotpHEe ERMAN’s Contributions to a Geological Sketch of North 


_ Mr. Joun S. Dawes on the Occurrence of Vegetable Remains, supposed to be 
Marine, in the New Red Sandstoric...........cceecseeeees hideaadewtWk sbcwancadneniaea 

’ Mr. Joun Purixtirs on the Microscopic Structure of Coal ...ssececcsseseseneeees 
7 Mr. W. C. Wituiamson on the Origin of Coal...... Saasecedecee sacked wasieeswens trigna 
_ Mr. E. W. Binney on the Great Lancashire Coal Field ........2...scsesesceeneeee 
_ Mr. Ricuarp Grirritn’s Statement of the Fossils which have been discovered 
in the several Members of the Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone of Ire- 
land, with a view to show the Zoological identity of the whole Series, to- 
_ gether with a Comparison of the Fossils which occur in the Mountain Lime- 
_ stone of Ireland with those which have been obtained from the same Series 
in Great Britain, and also with the Fossils of North and South Devon, illus- 
trated by Maps, Sections, Drawings and Specimens ...cs.....-seesenseeeeeeeeeees 
r. R. [. Murcutson’s Notice on the distinction between the Striated Surface 
_ of Rocks and Parallel Undulations dependent on Original Structure............ 
ty Rey. D. Wruxrams on the Stratified and Unstratified Volcanic Products of the 
— __ West of England.........sssssseerereeereeseeesees Saagantereeanee Sapeesb ans Noesene an seat 
Mr. Epwin LankESTER on some , peculiar Inorganic Formations and Fossils of 
the Magnesian Limestone ..c.sscecsssecesssenecscsceescesenenceccnrscenesceesessneenens 
r. Joun Travis Cray on the Occurrence of Boulders in the Valley of the 
Calder ...... PUUNAER MCSA SE se aesodeE CEREUS cccspodecusectonsadecswecensescsecdeserrenatayen 
R Mr. Hawxsuaw’s Notice of the Fossil Footsteps in n the New Red Sandstone 
Quarry at Lymm, in Cheshire ..........sscssssvsecveceeeccecseancneceeneas hecractdsc: 

- Dr. Buckiann’s Notice of Perforations in Limestone ..........sscsececeeeeeerecnes 
- on Recent and Fossil Semi-circular Cavities caused by air- 
nt on the surface of soft clay, and Dace impressions of rain- 
s MBAs. hbaitsnccsses RdReEBCAN SAC EMER TSH: JS eetitiesess te tucceatinens cates: stacteuedartes 
Rey. P. B. Bropiz on the Discovery of Insects in the Lower Beds of Lias of 


ae 
a> 


La Mr. Ex1as Hatu’s Notices of the Geology of Derbyshire and Neighbouring 
eu algnih sbpisthc's (hAaRMRNDN CuO bhi ednewuGebebycersSanbaves cumsts cs socten sears “a eee 


BRIGEMESECTSINING) 20d c duGoteut sy cadeiecccaset toes cdcdedsucetdcsduedsatasdeiucsaemedenees seace 


Mr. Jonn Davies onthe Manufacture and Purification of Gases obtained from . 


vi CONTENTS. 


Page 
Rev. D. Wixttams on the Discovery of the Remains of Fishes at the base of 


the Mountain Limestone in the Vicinity of Bristol........:scsececsseceeeseeeeesees 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


Professor Roy e on the different Species of Cotton ter get and of the Culture 


Of CottanpinyINdidasus-devecncssssswase sds eenscsadesiseginasds svenecat>coasneg ise caee eee 
Mr. G. W. Haut on the Promotion of Vegetable Growth sraeateane ts ovncaseaceas 
Rey. J, B. Reape on Liebig’s Theory of Fallow Crops....., eoeveeecestenmassecens 


Dr. Dauseny on an Irregular Production of Flowers, in an ‘Aloe, at Ham 
Court, near Bristol...... staveepacvsceuntosstanparateylsees sss vad) Kents paves mmnnCe teens 
Mr. Jon. Coucu on the Migration of Birds and Flowering of Plants i in Corn. 
VC POEM OL thers Terie EEE ee ATOLL TOTO ee bo periiens 
Mr. Joun Brackwatu’s List of Summer Birds “observed i in Denbighshire i in 
ERGAOPYINE OF USAT concacoas>caetsecerosavos tip vetsecds>easedseeeavcesenueesseaeemadegdes 
Mr. C. W. Pracu on the Nidus and Growth of the Purpura lapillus, and also 


on the Patella pellucida and P. levis ......... bea caus «cowise vas shundeeseeeeaeoEeeN 
Mr. Joun BLack WAL on the Palpi of Spiders..........«..scoossssasscvs avamansie. 
——__-_———————’s Account of a Species of Ichneumon whose Larva i is 

parasitic on Spiders......... Pearals case chanede aaewesetseeeantinic te suapbocene doses saveuonne 
Mr. JosHva ALDER’s Notices of Eolis, Doris, &C...s...cscccscctsesccesceseces Pes 


Dr. RicHarpson on a Specimen of Macherium subducens from Port Essington, 
New Holland, belonging to the Collection made by Mr, Gilbert, Mr. Gould’s 


ASaIBi Ant 'd- <uddeasiontgadsp ilies Gece -5as7 Sraadates ey ree Higyieb wien Resavade 
Mr. H. E. SrRIcKLAND’ s Notice of Halcyon Smyrnensis ......+. és Giimaeias ster oboek 
Dr. Hopexin on the Varieties of the Human Race .....ceeesecereecseeeees oe etbdalie 
Mr. Grorce C, Hynpman’s Note of Species obtained by deep ene near 

SanajIsland, off the Mull of Cantire. 5. <u sscccise snes oss 0 ccccdasene sccsbadeeadvetaet ¥ 
Capt. Brzcuey’s Results of deep Dredging off the Mull of Galloway ......+ be 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


Mr. C. J, B. Wiixrams on the Construction and Application of Instruments 


used in Auscultation ..... UbSsdeasabiont do tne i's Co SSk> GAMRT RTs Rado shes senda tees aa tone 
Professor WiLLIAMs’s Observations on the Therapeutic bess of Air- 
Tight PADTIC agibdeenssaesacdsrwnnlsnsansy Rnsiseees Sass siees ods osaveths¥ phn deh stl aes 


Mr. J. E. Ericusen on the Influence of the Coronary Circulation on the 
Heart's ACHOMscsic.aaacaiavsdssptuusendses »uyits cde thieds locaveNesnespislanas sh <Matelenehine 
Mr. ALEXANDER SHaw on some Peculiarities in the Circulation of the Liver... 
Mr. Cartow on the Relation of the Season of Birth to the Mortality of 
Children under two years of age, and on the probable duration of Life, as it 
is affected by the Month of Birth solely, and by the Months of Birth and 
Death conjointly...... Caw h Ean ne gth cnis¥eseh DudheleGebpeadmbshhdessciberanheboes (ar ieligebh 
Mr. James Carson, jun. on the Uses of the Musciler Fibbes of the Browehial 
UES) ve satwactse Weed snanansscceradewens soanheans Se eas Snape each eines kth ues senseneeocccsecese 
Dr. Laycock on a general Law of vital Periodicity .-+-++..:++:seess00++ acon eee eas 
Mr. Joun Roperton on the period of Puberty in Negro Women ‘ceogpebann 
Prof. Owrn’s Notice of Dr. Martin Barry’s Researches on basi published i in 
the Transactions Of, thie Royal Socicty..,.ccossecrrsssasscececsoosvsponassennsebuan er 
Dr. Fowirr’s Observations on the best Mode of expressing the Results of 
Practice in Therapeutics...++-.-scsssseeeeere erectus caries chaaae dni eMtaeeeaee re 
Dr. R. Fowier’s further Particulars respecting a Young Woman Deaf, Dumb 
and Blind, of whom a full Account was given last Year at Plymouth ......... 
Sir Davip J. H. Dickson on Cases of enormous Hydropic Distension of 
the Abdomen, and of sudden Death from the Rupture of an Aneurism of the 
Thoracic Aorta ...... ins to sblaes GAb scape net's kav ApUpNOniCape oe -4ebo eae) SRRRRMCISAIESR func 
Dr. J. Ricarpson’s Abstract of the Case of a Diver employed 01 on the Wreck 
of the Royal George who was injured by the bursting of the Air-pipe of the 
Diving Apparatus .........escreeessees Aas SAU URGRdah PARAY# S43 CEURUSRARE AER GELLEEEE elena 
Dr. Carson on a Case of unusual PBLAlYSiB ie v00sisesesee vines der ens sen eesceanences 


60 


84 
85 


ie 

i CONTENTS. vii 
3 ; Page 

Dr. C. Cray’s Observations on the Evils arising from the Use of Common Pes- 
SATIS ......e00008 a ADS Sep- Ny eoameld Oy Man cad nad bai tlds es sea teune Apnea eaten Made oh. ST 
Dr. Barpsiey on a Case of ‘Monstrosity . REST atiattlis Sits suse hie /adSe sank ea VdavegenSe 
\ Dr. C. Cray on Diabetes mellitus .......... Pisowpeannpadeheveeebdudcvoiens fdihiees adeded 87 
Mr. Witson on Lithotomy and Lithotripsy ........:s..cssceseeecseceeeeecees toaeede 87 
_- Mr. Rosert Cuampers on Mr, Fleming’s Plans for Ventilation ......ccc00. 87 

STATISTICS. 

On the Vital Statistics of Manchester, by a Committee of the Manchester Sta- 
tistical Society...... FR ee Ren are eh feet Re Ua ean REL aT Le 87 

Rev. R. Parginson on the Registers of the Collegiate Church of Man- 
BRESLOD A UarHte RG ctuTicui rence cedincestatcdttsctsicanqee cas ot A 5- Ngods Ceneg gapracuc nog oan 92 
Sir Cuar.zs SHAW on the Criminal Statistics of Manchester .............sceseeee 92 

Mr. SuurrLeworrs on the Vital Statistics of the Spinners and Piercers em- 
ployed in the fine Cotton-Mills of Manchester ............. dandy hi dadsedecescseeeas 93 

Mr. Henry Asuwortu on the Increase of Property in South Lancashire since 
BHEVR CNG] ULIOMensabcMaeecbocscteh cavbbeccelPiscctediead lesu dues. ceddebaasceedeedtcleel we «94 
Mr. Hopkins on the Criminal Statistics of Lancashire ............seeesssessoeeees 95 

Mr. Garpner on the Industrial and Training School about to be erected in 
the neighbourhood of Manchester .:....cccsssee seccsscececerececeterspeeesuess veces 96 

Mr. Nostz on the Influence of the Factory System in the development of 
Rebanieteictr yO ontenitiep tioned 65525 PAUSINI, WON eens 96 

Dr. Asuton on Vital Statistics, with Remarks on the Influence which the At- 
mosphere exerts over the rate of Mortality ..........0c..sececseecssecvcseveccseeeues 97 

Dr. Auison on the Destitution and Mortality of some of the great Towns of 
SAL GT ce sordasgsnocden onabadcneacepcdendcds Sconpdadosatsasecdadaccacducsoqdegceicueocnode 97 
Mr. Henry Woo tcomsBe on the Statistics of Plymouth .........cccsceeeeeeeees 98 
Mr. Henry Joun Porter on Loan Funds in Ireland ........c...cccccccceeeeeeeees 98 
on the Monts de Piété in Ireland................0000- 98 
Rev. H. L. Jonzs on the Commercial Statistics of France in 1840...........000+ 98 

Mrs. Davies GiuseErt on the Advantages arising from Spade Husbandry and 
PNGRICHICOTA HM AUCAUION fence sd.sottececsteess stiascereeosrsenseccescvecssaccesieeesce tosses 99 

Mr. G. Wess Hatt on the Differences of the Quality of the Milk of Cows a 
the different purposes of Milk and Cheese, numerically expressed...........+... 99 

Mr. James Heywoop on the Comparative Statistics of the Universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries ...............02 99 

Rev. Bapen PowELu’s Contributions to Academical Statistics, continued from 
ERE EERE 9S Satie Meta Ca Se “Aner Reet Pbetele aA 100 

MECHANICS. 


; Mr. Cuartes Vienoxzs’s Abstract of a Lecture upon the Atmospheric Railway, 
____ prepared at the request of the Council for the Twelfth Meeting of the British 
Association, and delivered in the Athenzum of Manchester on the evening of 


Mondaysthe 27th, of Mune, MS42 pisses. decnecdeceaascesasbachascecsbeuceeowtles a tigsads 100 
Prof. VieNoxEs on Straight Axles for Locomotives ........scceeseecsscseeeeeeeeeees 104 
Mr. James Nasmyru on the Strength of hammered and annealed Bars of Iron 
and Railway Axles...... RenGenine eM  seladew sas Ueldleais's uslant cipwlaemensinn heaieaeeaueeee 105 
Prof. VicNozs on the best Form of Rails and the Upper Works of Railways 
REMAN oi antec a'o Sernaviae vows ative (oll cees ccedcvenslaueSssesaulaedvauspacanteneaesats 106 
‘Mr. Wo. Fairsarrn on Combustion of Coal, with a view to obtaining the 
greatest Effect, and preventing the Generation of Smoke ............ss0ssse00004 107 
Mr. C. W. Wrxt1ams on testing the Efficacy of the several Plans for abating 
the Nuisances from Smoke by effecting a more perfect Combustion ..... aR tee 108 
tr. J. S. Russevr on an Indicator of Speed of Steam Vessels ...........0000006 109 
Mr. Rosert Cuamsers on certain Plans for Ventilation recently adopted in 
BSB Witteteet a dos cass scedddede cpt ects soit cecace cues davedseces@ondoul advoudbapupdes seek 109 


_ Mr. J. F. Bareman’s ‘Abstract of a Bemieee of a Self-acting Waste Weir 
© and Scouring Sluice.......scssescesesssreeesesees 


TROP OTTER E ROOT ee aeeOTREEHE HEHE EER EED 110 


7 


Vill CONTENTS. 


Pa 
Mr. Suaw on a New Steam-engine worked with three kinds of Pressure, i 
viz. Action of high-pressure Steam, the Expansion of Steam, and the At- 
mospheric Pressure caused by its Condensation ...... {edd degeedecsece o sib sbidueidall ees 111 
Mr. Circe ona dry Gas-Meter ............csscscsscecsscsees atuneoeneset. augh seaemetaas 111 
Sir M. I. Brune on the Thames Tunnel in its completed Condition............. 111 
Prof. VienoLes on the Use of Béton and Concrete in constructing Break- 
WALES So. cccccccscseccncccsvavccssccsresccensccssctevecscecvencssnssvesscecerensvenanesos 112 
Mr. Witi1am BRockEDON on the Construction of a New Rope employed as 
a Core in the formation of the Patent Stoppers, a Substitute for Corks and 
BSUS Revo cectatantige iw chh cps-tesemlareseeesh ng <adis oonacd sagescseds Seas saasioemayaee aeeeeen eee 112 
Sir J. Roprson’s Notice of Mr. Prosser’s Method of making Earthenware or 
Porcelain from dry Powder of Clay compressed............sssseeeeee ag aasneenmaiee 114 
Mr. James Toomson on Wigston’s Self-acting Railway Signals .......... on yas 114 
Mr. J. Smiru on a New Steam-Boiler............... Sn eee sasha ery ee oe KLLG 
ADDENDUM TO MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 
Mr. S,. Russexx on the Abnormal Tides in the Frith of Forth............ Febwathes 115 


Indexigievectaeve dapsssuge heed (endive 4s ais aude stiga iced suey sd soeendedducvneed iucsenne ermeeeene May 


List of Book Subscribers. 


Gy 
a 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


Correction of an Error in this part of the Report for 1841. 


Iy the Addendum to the Report of the Transactions of the Sections in 1839, one of 
the documents, viz. the Letter on p. 5, from Mr. Phillips to Mr. Nasmyth, dated Au- 
gust 10, 1840, is incorrectly terminated. ‘The last sentence of the letter should have 
been in these words:—‘“‘ Should you, however, instead of this easy and obvious mode 
of correcting any error of mine, resolve to appeal to another tribunal, the public, I 
can make no other objection than that I fear you will not have chosen the course 
‘most advantageous to your views,” instead of ‘‘ Should you, however, instead of this 
easy and obvious method of correcting any error of mine, resolve to appeal to another 
tribunal, the public, I will give you the only proof in my power to offer of an un- 
biassed mind, by transmitting copies of all the letters I have received from you, to 
render any statement you may think proper to make as complete as possible.”’ 
The mistake was pointed out by Mr. Nasmyth, in a communication to the Presi- 
dent, dated June 7th, 1842, and appears to have occurred in the following manner : 
_ —There was a prior draft of the same letter, and this by some mistake was preserved, 
' and after a very long interval of time was, with other documents in Mr. Phillips’s 
possession, bearing upon the subject, sent to be examined by the authority of the 
Council. It was this draft, supposed to have been followed in the actual letter, that 
__ the printer copied, and hence the error which Mr. Nasmyth has pointed out, 


q 


_ MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 
= | On the Astronomical Clock. By M. Bressxt of Konigsberg. 


Having ever been of opinion that the most indispensable of astronomical instru- 
ments, the transit-clock, will only acquire the greatest possible perfectness, if the 
pendulum, separated from the wheel-work, is made to vibrate in equal time, whatever 
_ the temperature and the are may be, I beg leave to communicate to this Associa- 
_ tion some hints relative to this matter. Some artists have endeavoured to compen- 
_ sate a variation of the arc, from summer to winter, by not completely compensating 
_ the pendulum for the variation of heat; others have contrived very ingenious means 
_ for producing always an equal arc. But experience, at least my own, has shown no 
_ so complete success, that astronomers, though they feel themselves truly indebted to 
_ the skill and the ingenuity of artists, should not be tempted to wish that further en- 
>» deayours might not be considered as useless. 
Some years ago, Mr. Frodsham communicated to this Association a very ingenious 
contrivance, which he calls the isochronal piece, the purpose of which is to compensate, 
by the effect of the suspension spring, that of a variation of the arc. Supposing that 
_ experiments of this universally celebrated artist have shown this contrivance to answer 
_ the purpose, there will be no longer a difficulty in making the rate of a pendulum in- 
_ dependent, as well of the arc as of the heat. What I wish to submit to his judge- 
ment, is only whether the very expeditious method of coincidences might not be em- 
_ ployed for checking a pendulum in both respects. The pendulum, without the clock, 
_ being suspended from the wall, a clock, taken out of its case,. may be placed before it 
at a distance of 6 or 8 feet; an object-glass, of 3 or 4 feet focal length, may be placed 
between both, so that it produces, exactly at the lower end of the pendulum of the 
' 1842. B 


2 REPORT—1842. 


clock, an image of the lower end of the other. Then the coincidences of both pendu- 
lums may be very accurately observed with a telescope, placed in the straight line 
with both, at a convenient distance. A similar contrivance has been described in the 
account of pendulum experiments made at Konigsberg; and I may here be permitted 
to add, that the accuracy of the method is such, that the relative rate of both pendu- 
lums may be ascertained with the required accuracy in a time of ten or twenty minutes. 
This arrangement supposed, it will be very easy to adjust the isochronal piece of Mr. 
Frodsham. After this has been effected, the rate of the pendulum is to be tried in dif- 
ferent temperatures. A box, having at its lower end an opening covered with glass, 
may be fastened to the wall, so that the pendulum swings within it. A couple of 
metal tubes pass through this box, and may be heated by boiling water or steam, in 
order to heat the air within the box. Previously to the heating, the air is to be de- 
prived of its moisture. Two or three thermometers will show whether the heat within 
is pretty uniform, The pendulum being swung before and after the heating, it will 
be easy to correct the compensation for heat. ' 

I believe that not only the readiness with which both these experiments may be 
made, but also the perfect isolation of the pendulum will recommend this method to 
artists and astronomers. I have indeed been desirous of trying it myself before pro- 
posing it to others, but having been delayed beyond expectation with the construction 
of a pendulum provided with Mr. Frodsham’s isochronal piece, I am obliged to leave 
the experiment to others. 

With respect to the construction of the pendulum, I believe that attention should 
be paid to one point of view, which hitherto seems to have been overlooked. It often 
happens that thermometers fixed at the top and at the foot of the case of a clock do 
not agree; whence it is evident that a compensation acting only below will not always 
compensate the variation of the length of the whole rod. I should prefer, for this 
reason, the gridiron pendulum to the mercurial pendulum, especially if the former is 
constructed in such a manner that the several rods begin as little as possible below the 
point of suspension, and end at the centre of gravity of the lens. I should also think 
proper to make the several rods of equal diameter, and to coat them uniformly. Per- 
haps the application of galvanism, which the deservedly famed Mr. Dent has made 
for coating the balance-spring of chronometers with gold, would best answer the pur- 
pose. I finally believe that the utmost care in the construction of the pendulum is 
very essential, in order to remove every danger of its derangement by the spring of 
the metals, 

Supposing a pendulum perfectly regulated, as well with respect to the heat as to 
the arc of vibrations, only one cause will interfere with the regularity of its vibration 
time; this is the effect of that part of the buoyancy of the air which depends upon 
the variations of the height of the barometer. The other part, depending upon the 
variations of the thermometer, is comprised in the adjustment of the compensation for 
heat, if made by the above-described process. There is indeed the possibility to com- 
pensate the former part too, by fastening a barometer-tube to the pendulum; and it 
would not be difficult to find the suitable diameter of this tube ; but I am aware that 
this complication of the pendulum would be rather inconvenient. At all events, the 
effect of the variations of the barometer is not very great, especially if the specitic 
gravity of the pendulum is made as great as possible. 

The pendulum of a clock being carefully adjusted, every variation of the rate of the 
clock, not explicable by a variation of the barometer, will originate in the escapement 
or the wheels. Though the uniformity of the rate of many clocks is more to be won- 
dered at than their occasional small variations, yet I believe that further improve- 
ments are possible, and that they only will be obtained by the separation of the causes 
of perturbations. From this point of view I might consider it as very desirable severely 
to test the isolated pendulum by the method which I have submitted to the judgement 
of the celebrated artists, whose admired works have lately so greatly contributed to the 
accuracy, as well of astronomical observations as of the determination of longitudes. 


On a New General Principle of Analytical Mechanics. By M. Jacost of 
Konigsberg. 

In the different problems relative to the motion of a system of material points which 

have been hitherto considered, one may make an important and curious remark, “ that 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


__ whenever the forces are functions of the coordinates of the moving points only, and 

the problem is reduced to the integration of a differential equation of the first order 
___ of two variables, it may also be reduced to quadratures.” Now I have succeeded in 
_ proving the general truth of this remark, which appears to constitute a new principle 
_ of mechanics. This principle, as well as the other general principles of mechanics, 
_ makes known an integral, but with this difference, that whilst the latter give the first 
integrals of the dynamical differential equations, the new principle gives the last. It 
possesses a generality very superior to that of other known principles, inasmuch as it 
applies to cases in which, when the analytical expressions of the forces, as well as the 
equations by which we express the nature of the system, are composed of the coordi- 
nates of the moveables in any manner whatever, principles (such as the principle of 
the conservation of living forces, of the conservation of areas, and of the conservation 
of the centre of gravity) are superior to the new principle in several respects. In.the 
first place, these principles afford a finite equation between the coordinates of the 
moveables and the components of their velocities, whilst the integral found by the 
new principle is simply reduced to quadratures. In the second place, we suppose in 
the application of the new principle that we have already succeeded in discovering 
all the integrals but one, a supposition which will be realized in a small number of 
problems only. This will be sufficient to convince us of the importance of the new 
principle ; but this may be made still more manifest, if I am permitted to illustrate 
its application by a few examples. 

Ist. Let us consider the orbit described by a planet in its motion round the sun. 
The differential equations in dynamical problems being of the second order, we may 
present them under the form of differential equations of the first order, by introducing 
the first differentials as new variables. In this manner the determination of the orbit 
_ of the planet will depend upon the integration of three differential equations of the 
_ first order between four variables. We find two integrals by the principles of living 
forces (forces vives) and areas. The question is thus reduced to the integration of a 
‘single differential equation of two variables and of the first order. Now, by my gene- 
ral theorem, this integration may always be reduced to quadratures. If therefore we 
choose to reckon this theorem amongst the other principles of mechanics, we see that 
__ the general principles of mechanics alone are sufficient to reduce the determination of 
the orbit of a planet to quadratures. 

: 2nd. Let us consider the motion of a point attracted to two centres of force, after 

Newton’s law of gravitation. The initial velocity being directed in the plane passing 
through the body and the two centres of attraction, we still have to integrate three 
differential equations of the first order amongst four variables, one integral of these 
equations being furnished by the principle of living forces. Euler has discovered an- 
_ other, and thus has succeeded in reducing the problem to a differential equation of 
the first order between two variables. But this equation was so complicated, that any 
_ person but this intrepid geometer would have shrunk from the idea of attempting its 
_ integration and reducing it to quadratures. Now, by my general principle, this re- 
_ duction would have been effected by a general rule without any tentative process, 
_ without any extraordinary effort of the mind. 

__ 8rd. Let us consider also the famous problem of the rotatory movement of a solid 
_ body round a fixed point, the body being under the influence of no accelerating force. 
In this problem we shall have to integrate five differential equations of the first order 
_ amongst six variables. The principle of living forces gives one integral, that of areas 
_ gives three others, and the fifth is found by my new principle. We thus see all the 
_ integrals of this difficult problem found by the general principles of mechanics alone, 
without our being required to write a single formula, or even to make a choice of 
_ variables. 
___ I will endeavour now to enunciate the rule itself, by means of which the last inte- 
_ gration to be effected in the problems of mechanics is found to be reduced to quadra- 
tures, the forces being always functions of the coordinates alone. Let us suppose, in 
the first instance, any system whatsoever of material points entirely free. Let there 
be found a first integral f’ = const., the variables which enter into the function /' 
_ being the coordinates of the moveables, and their first differentials taken with respect 
_ tothe time. I avail myself of the equation 
. ia f'= const. ¢ 
_ for the purpose of eliminating any one of the variables, and I call p! the partial differ- 
4 BZ 


4. REPORT——1842. 


ence of f!, taken with respect to this variable. Let #"” = const. be a second integral. 
By means of this equation I eliminate a second variable, and I call p" the partial dif- 
ference of f!’ with respect to this variable. Let us suppose that we know all the in- 
tegrals of the problem but one, and that with respect to each integral f= const. we 
seek the corresponding partial difference p with respect to the variable, which we elimi- 
nate by means of this integral. The number of variables exceeds by unity that of 
the integrals: we eliminate by means of each integral a new variable, and we thus 
succeed in expressing all the variables by means of two of them. Let us call these 
two variables z and y and a’ and y’, their first differentials taken with respect to the 
time. We shall express. by means of « and y the quantities 2! and y’, as well as all 
the quantities p’, p'!, &c.: since x' and y’ are the first differentials of x and y taken 
with respect to the time, we shall have the equation 

y' dx —a' dy=0, 
where a! and y! are known functions of the two variables « and y. It is this differen- 
tial equation, the last of all of them, which we must integrate in order to obtain the 
complete solution of the problem. Now I show that on dividing this equation by the 
product of the variables p’, p", &c., its first member becomes an exact differential, and 
therefore the integration of this equation is generally reduced to quadratures. 

When we have any system whatsoever of material points, the simplicity of the pre- 
ceding theorem is in no respect altered, provided we give to the dynamical differen- 
tial equations that remarkable form under which they have been presented for the 
first time by the illustrious Astronomer Royal of Dublin, and under which they ought 
to be presented hereafter in all the general researches of analytical mechanies. It is 
true that the formulas of Sir W. Hamilton are referrible only to the cases where the 
components of the forces are the partial differences of the same function of the coordi- 
nates; but it has not been found to be difficult to make the changes which are neces- 
sary in order that these formulas may become applicable to the general case, where 
the forces are any functions whatever of the coordinates. 

When the time enters explicitly into the analytical expressions for the forces, and 
into the equations of condition of the system, the principle of the final multiplier, 
found by a general rule, is applicable also to this class of dynamical problems. There 
are also some particular problems into which enters the resistance of a medium, which 
give rise to similar theorems. It is the case of a planet revolving round the sun in a 
medium whose resistance is proportional to any power of the velocity of the planet. 

The analysis which has conducted me to the new general principle of analytical 
mechanics, which I have the honour to communicate to the Association, may be ap- 
plied to a great number of questions in the integral calculus. I have collected these 
different applications in a very extensive memoir, which I hope to publish upon my 
return to Kénigsberg, and which I shall have the honour of presenting to the Asso- 
ciation as soon as it shall be printed. 


Extract from a Memoir entitled “ Considerations on the Principles of Ana- 
lytical Mechanics.” By Professor BRascuMAnn of Moscow. 


The principle of virtual velocities, on which is based the theory of equilibrium 
and of motion, has not, in my opinion, been explained in a manner which is clear 
and unobjectionable; and I am also inclined to believe that the problem of equili- 
brium has not been treated analytically in a point of view sufficiently general, and 
that there are still many observations to be made on the correctness of the applica- 
tion of the principle of virtual velocities to certain problems. 

Similar observations may be made also with regard to the theory of motion. M. 
Ostrogradsky brought forward, some years ago, some new and general ideas on the 
laws of equilibrium and of motion in two memoirs, one of which bears the title, ‘‘ On 
the Momenta of Forces ;” and the other, “ On the instantaneous Displacements of 
the points of a System.’”’ Profiting by his enlightened views, I published, in 1837, 
a treatise in the Russian language on the equilibrium of solid and fluid bodies, from 
which I will now give a very short extract relating to the method I have there fol- 
lowed, and I shall add some observations which escaped me at the time of the pub- 
lication of that work, respecting the number and the character of conditions of 
equilibrium. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 


In the first place, I demonstrate the parallelogram of forces*, and then pass on to the 
composition and decomposition of forces, and to the equilibrium of a free point. 

To find the conditions of a point, or of a system of points, which is not free, it is 
__ hecessary, and at the same time sufficient, that the forces cannot effect any displace- 
_ ment which the obstacles allow of, or that they can only produce impossible displace- 
ments. It is this condition which we will endeavour to express analytically. 
_ I show that a force acting on a point subjected to a certain obstacle can never give 
rise to a displacement, forming either a right or obtuse angle with the direction of 
_ the force, but that it can cause a displacement which forms an acute angle with the 
direction of this force. As a point can sometimes .only be displaced in a straight 
line by an infinitely small quantity, I shall only consider infinitely small displace- 
ments, but perfectly arbitrary. I will designate one of these displacements by ds, 
and its projections on the rectangular axes 2, y, 2, by da, dy, dz, then the conditions 


that a force R-cannot cause a displacement ds will be expressed by cos (Rds) 36% 


ig : hi ae Rida Why Zdz 
or since Rand d t tities, and cos (R,ds) =~“ +— 4 os 
. r sinc and.d§ are positive quan ities, and cos (R, ds) Rds + Rds + Rds 
the analytical expression of the condition that a force does not tend to produce the 


displacement ds will be 
Xda+Ydy+Zdz<0... hia Sondeaaie Ay, 


where X, Y, Z are the projections of R on the three axes 2,y,z. Let us now see how 
we can express the condition that the displacement of a point subjected to obstacles 
is possible, independently of the means which may occasion this displacement. 
For this purpose I observe, that whatever may be the condition which hinders some 
_ displacements, it may always be represented by one or by several fixed planes. I sup- 
_ pose, at first, that there is but one sole plane of dimensions infinitely small which 
prevents the displacement of the point. I imagine a normal prolonged from the 
point in space where the displacement is possible, and [ de- 
signate the angles of this normal with the axes a, y, z, by 
a, B, y; it is then evident that only such displacements are 
possible as form a right or acute angle with the normal, 7. e. 


that cos (N,ds),or cos « ae + cos aly + cosy az > 0 ex- 
ds ds ds = 


B.S presses the condition that one displacement is possible ; cos 
@, cos B, cos y may be functions of the coordinates of the point, which renders 
_ this expression an exact differential or not; in the first case the point will be found 
on a curved surface, and a, 8, y will be the angles of the normal of the surface with 
"x,y, 2; in the second case it will not be so; consequently, making generally cos 
dx+cos@dy+cosydz=Adzx + Bdy + Cdz,where this expression is or is not 
an exact differential, the condition will be expressed that a displacement is possible by 


a Adin + BidgeiCad gO «ities «. (2.) 
and the whole of these conditions (1.) and (2.) will be the analytical expression that 
aforce cannot effect a possible displacement, the projections of which are dx, dy, dz. 
“Let us see what conclusions we should draw from these two inequalities for the 
equilibrium of a point. 
For the sake of shortness, I make Adx+ Bdy + Cdz=dL, where dL ex- 
; presses an arbitrary quantity infinitely small, which is the complete differential of a 
_ function of the three variables x, y, x, or simply an infinitely small one, which does 
t possess this property; I add to this equation two others, perfectly arbitrary, 
aq A,dx+B,dy+C,dz=dM, 


es A,dx+B,dy+ C:dz=dN, 
¢ where A,, B,, C,, A,...are the arbitrary functions. I find the expressions of these 
_ three equations in the following manner :— 
aoe de=adL+bdM+cdN, 
Le dy=adL+b,dM+¢dN, 
: dz=a,dL+b,dM+cdNn. 
* It seems to have escaped attention, that in order to demonstrate that the resultant of two 


forces falls within the angle of these forces, it is necessary to admit that the dependence be- 
tween the resultant and the components must be given by a continuous function. 


’ 
6. REPORT—1842. 

On substituting these values in the expression X dx + Y dy + Zdz,and placing 
aX+a,Y+a,Z=h &c., we find 

Xda+Y¥dy+Zdz=adL+edM+ dN; 
but since the values of d M and dN are quite arbitrary and independent of dL, the 
expression «dM + »dN may always render the second member adL + wd M 
+ vdN positive, whilst that for the equilibrium Xdzx + Y dy + Zdz must not be 
positive; it will consequently be requisite at first, for the equilibrium, that ~dM 
+ »dN=0; andsincedM and dN are arbitrary, it is necessary that «= 0, »=0, 
and Xdx+Ydy+Zdz=adL. 

When a displacement makes dL = 0, that is, when the obstacles are expressed 
by equations, we have Xd «+ Ydy + Zdz=0 for the possible displacements, the 
sign of the quantity a then remains arbitrary ; but for the displacements which give 

*dL>0, Xdx+ Ydy+Zdz must not be positive; it is consequently necessary 
that a be negative, or carrying the whole to the other side Xdx+ Ydy+ Zdz 
+adL=0, or a is positive; that is, it has the same sign as d L for the possible dis- 
placements. On substituting Adx + Bdy + Cdz for dL, and observing that a is 
independent of the displacements, and always retains the same value, whatever be the 
displacements under consideration, we shall obtain, since dz, dy, dz are entirely 


arbitrary, 
X+aA=0 
Ytap=ol.........@)s 
Z+aC=0 
Hence results XuVYo4. ati, Besehesa =—A; but R being positive, 


S=R=t 
Aor BG —a/ A2 + B2+ C2 
and — a a negative quantity, it is necessary to keep the sign —; consequently 


Bo 5.441 C 
oe gs RT FS BT iv the force R must be op- 


R V+ B+ C 
posed to the normal N, and must press the point against the plane; the magnitude 
of this force remains arbitrary. 

When there are two conditions, 

Ade+Bdy+Cdz=dL, 

Ajdx+B,dy+C,dz=dM, 
and the above manner is adopted, it will be shown at first that y= 0, and Xda + 
¥dy+Zdz=adL+edM. Since, for one of the possible displacements, d M 
=0, and Xdz2+ Ydy+Zdz=Aa4dL, it is requisite that a be negative, or, carried 
to the other side, positive; in the same manner it is shown that y& is positive, 
2, e. that in the expression 
Xde+Ydy+Zdz+adL+pedM=0, 
a and y% have the same signs as d L and dM for the possible displacements. From 
_ this equation is obtained X+aA+yeA,=0, 

Y¥+a~aB+,.B,=0, 

Z+aC+a,6,=0, 
whence it results that the point may be considered perfectly free, if to the given force 
be added two others, the projections of which on the axes are a A, ~ B, aC, wA, 
&c. ; the value of these forces remains perfectly arbitrary, but their direction will be 
determined. 

When a point is subjected to three conditions, and the same course is adopted as 
above, it will again be found that Xdw+ Ydy+Zdz2+adL+pdL+pdM+ 
vdN=0, where a, y, » are indeterminate but positive quantities ; this equation does 
not afford any equation for the equilibrium, since the three equations which may be 
derived from it are identical, when for 4, , » their values are substituted, but the con- 
ditions of equilibrium will consist of the three inequalities A >0, ~>0, »>0. 

Suppose, for instance, a solid sphere to be situated within the angle of the posi- 
tive coordinates, and the conditions that the centre is not affected by any dis- 
placement be required, then in this case we shall have for the possible displace- 


ments three conditions, da = 0, dy 5 0, dz = 0; consequently Xdx + Ydy+ 


_ * The point might therefore be considered perfectly free, if to the given forces another A y 
A A? + B? + C? be added, the projections of which on the axes are A A, AB, AC, 


| 
. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 


Zdz+tady + vdz=0, whence at+K=0,4¢+Y=0,» +2Z=0; that is, the 
magnitude of the force may be arbitrary, but its direction must be such, that X, Y,Z 
be negative, since A, #, y are positive; whence it results, that the direction of the 
force must be comprised within the angle of the negative coordinates, 


If there are more than three conditions, ama) on combinations may be 


made by three, and ha a inequalities are obtained, some of which may 


be comprised in the others. 

By transforming any known demonstration, (I have transformed the demonstra- 
tion of Cauchy, as well as that of Lagrange,) it may be proved that the condition 
that a force does not tend to produce displacements, the projections of which on the 
axes are, for the’ first point of the system, dz, dy, dz, for the second, da',.dy', 
dzi, &. .... is expressed by Xda+YV¥dy + Zdzt+ Xda! + V'idy' + Z'd2! 
+X" do"4+..... <0, the conditions of the system must be of the form Adz 
4+Bdy+Cdz+A' da' + .....— 0; and by proceeding in the same manner, 


that for the point A, w,v...+ are found to have the same signs as dL, dM, dN 
.... for the possible displacements, and that the conditions of equilibrium are 


X+aAtpaA tvAg+.---=0 
YtaB+euB,+»B+..--=0 
Z+aC+acC,+aC,+.-...=0 
xX, +aA'+ eB + Be LU IE tomer OP 
The same is demonstrated for the flexible wire. There is still one observation to be 
made on the solution of this problem ; in the case that gravity 
alone acts on the wire of a constant thickness, an equation of 
the following form is obtained for the curve ABC 


where } is an arbitrary constant, which is determined by a 
transcendent equation 
bt —bt 


e* —e 2? =q, 
b 
where J and g are known quantities. Then, since a transcendent equation may have 


an infinity of roots, it is requisite to demonstrate that this equation only admits one 


real root, which may be done in a very simple manner. 


the fluid which is not indicated by the usual analytical considerations. It is also 


q __ evident that the form of the surface containing the fluid has no influence on the 
equilibrium. , 


With respect to the principles of the curvilinear movement of a point, it is first 


shown that the space described by a point, during an infinitely small time dt is ex- 
. pressed by an infinitely small quantity of the second order, that this space is the 
chord; no other straight line can give an approximation which goes beyond this 


order, consequently it is useless to choose any other. f : 
- But if we do not wish to have an exact idea of the magnitude combined with the 


direction of the movement, but simply to express this magnitude, we are able to ob- 


tain it as approximately as desired by choosing a curved arc. From what I have 
stated above, a sufficient notion may be formed of what M. Ostrogradsky has done 


for the movement of a system subjected to variable conditions. 


8 REPORT—1842. 


On the Report of the Commissioners for the restoration of lost standards of 
Weights and Measures, and upon their proposal for the introduction of a 
Decimal System. By the Dean or Exy. 


After stating that the imperial standards of weights and measures (the yard, the pound, 
the gallon, and several of their multiples) had been lost in the fire which destroyed 
the two Houses of Parliament, the author said that a commission (of which he was a 
member) had been appointed to report on the best means of restoring these standards. 
The commission recommended to the government that the standards of length and 
weight should be independent of each other, which was not the case before. The 
standard pound weight was Troy weight (5780 grains), though the pound avoirdupois 
(7000 grains) was used throughout the country, in the proportion, perhaps, of 10,000 to 
one of Troy. The commission recommended that, hereafter, the use of the Troy 
pound should be abolished, except for a very limited number of transactions, and that 
the avoirdupois pound should be considered as the standard pound of Great Britain. 
They recommended that measures of capacity should be determined by measures of 
weight—by far the most convenient method, inasmuch as weighing was a much more 
accurate operation than, for instance, the formation of a perfect cube. The commis- 
sion also ventured to recommend strongly some alterations in the coinage, and the 
systems of weights and measures, arising out of a more extensive introduction of the 
decimal scale. The nearly unanimous determination of the commission was, that any 
attempt to interfere materially with the primary units of the coinage, weights and 
measures in ordinary use, would produce much confusion and bad consequences in 
the ordinary transactions of life. They would therefore adhere strictly to a]l those 
primary units, viz. the pound sterling, the yard (and also the foot, for there were two 
primary units in this measure), the acre, the gallon, and the imperial pound. The 
coinage must necessarily be the basis of any changes leading to the more extended 
adoption of a decimal scale. Taking the pound sterling as the primary unit, they 
propose to introduce a coin of the value of 2s. (one-tenth of the pound); another, 
either silver or copper, of one-tenth of 2s. (or 2d. and a fraction), which might be 
called a cent (the hundredth of a pound) and the thousandth part of the pound ster- 
ling, or nearly the value of our farthing (of which there are 960 in the pound), which 
new coin it was proposed to call a millet (or thousandth). The difference in the value 
of the copper coinage was less important, as it was merely a representative coinage, 
and had not an approximate intrinsic value like the gold and silver coinage. For the 
proposed coin of 2s. various names had been suggested, as Victorine, rupee, or florin ; 
it being not much different from the value of some of the rupees of the East Indies, or 
the florin of the continent. Under this new decimal scale the shilling would be re- 
tained, and also the sixpence (but the latter under another name, more representative 
of its value). For the half-crown would be substituted the 2s., or Victorine. The 
very rev. gentleman dwelt at some length on the advantages of this change’in the ex- 
tensive money transactions and accounts of bankers and merchants; in the Bank of 
England, for instance, where a thousand clerks were employed, it would greatly facili- 
tate the operations of calculations and book-keeping. ‘Thus, discarding millets (for 
bankers now excluded the subdivisions of a penny in their accounts), the sum of 172. 
3 Victorines, 7 cents, would be represented at once by 17°37; only two places of |de- 
cimals, instead of as now in pounds, shillings, and pence. He showed how the prin- 
ciple was applicable, with still greater advantage, in cases of weights and measures 
(where the scale was now most anomalous and absurd). Suppose the rental or value of 
30°64 acres of land to be required, and that the land cost 69/. 3 Victorines, 4 cents an 
acre. ‘The reduction in common arithmetic was one of very considerable labour, 
difficulty, and time. But by this plan the result might be obtained in five lines of 
decimals, containing only twenty-one figures. As to weights, the most extensive 
change recommended by the committee would be to introduce the uniform weight of 
10lbs. to the stone, instead of the varieties of 8lbs. in some, and 14lbs. or 16lbs. in other 
parts of the kingdom; the hundred weight to be called centner (a German term). 
These were all the changes proposed in weights; the commission not wishing to in- 
terfere with the subdivision of the pound, which admitted of four subdivisions into 
8 oz., 4 0z.,20z.,and 1 oz. The pound and ounce would remain, therefore, exactly the 
same asat present. As to the measure of length, the commission thought it too vio- 
lent a change to alter all the milestones; but there would be no difficulty (with re- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9 


ference to the standing orders of Parliament in railway matters, &.) in introducing 

_ the measure of 1000 yards, which might be called a milyard. However, the commis- 

sion made no recommendations as to nomenclature, leaving that to the legislature. 

_ Thus the changes proposed to be introduced, not only to ensure a decimal coinage, 

_ but a decimal subdivision of weights and measures, were by no means of that formi- 

_ dable and appalling character which many persons suppose they must of necessity 
_ possess. ‘ 


Letter from Professor Wheatstone to Colonel Sabine, on a New Meteorologi- 
cal Instrument. 


a The importance of multiplying stations at which simultaneous meteorological obser- 
_ vations may be made does not require any discussion. The chief obstacle to their 
_ establishment is the necessity for the constant attendance of an observer to register 
_ the indications of the instruments, which difficulty is greatly increased when the ob- 
servations are required to be made by night as well as by day. All attempts to make 
_ self-recording thermometers, barometers, &c. by mechanical means have hitherto 
failed, because the mechanical force exerted by the rise of the mercury in the tubes is 
_ insufficient to overcome the frictions of the attached mechanism, and only very inac- 
curate indications can be obtained. The principle, however, which I employ in my 
- meteorological telegraph, viz. the determination (by means of a feeble electric current) 

of any required mechanical force by the mere contact of the mercury in the tube with 
_ a fine platina wire, enables all these difficulties to be overcome, and a Meteorological 
_ Recorder may now be made, which shall register every half hour the varying indi- 
cations of the barometer, thermometer and psychrometer, as accurately as the most 
_ careful observer would be able to do, and which will require only a few minutes at- 
tention each day to put it in proper order to act for twenty-four hours. I propose 
| therefore that such an instrument, the cost of which I estimate will not exceed 501., 
shall be constructed, under my direction, for the Richmond Observatory. If, after a 
_ few months’ trial at the Observatory, it shall be found to succeed, as I confidently ex- 
pect it will, a great impediment to the advancement of meteorological science will be 
' removed. Persons in almost every locality may be found who would not object to de- 
- vote a few minutes per day to prepare such an instrument for use, but who would 
find it impossible to give the requisite attention to make hourly or half-hourly obser- 
vations themselves; and the cost of the apparatus (which may hereafter probably be 
_ considerably reduced) is, considering the important objects in view, too inconsiderable 
_ to stand in the way of its general adoption. 


_ On the Application of the Principle of the Vernier to the Subdividing of 
. Time. By Fouier Osuer. 


_ Mr. Osler’s idea was, to have a pendulum, which should make, say ten swings in 
the time that the principal pendulum made eleven, furnished with asmall dial, and so 
placed as that the coincidences, or want of coincidence, could be observed. The strokes 
of such a pendulum being counted, the time of every observed stroke of it, reckoned 
ck from its coincidence with the principal, or seconds pendulum, would, it is ob- 
vious, be found in tenths of a second. 


- On the Longitude of Devonport. By E. J. Dent’. 


ongitude of the landing-place on the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound , _,, 

D> by four chronometer .....0......csecssececssceessssceresccseeesencerseecee 16. 39°60 West 
Longitude of staff on Mount Wise by Trigonometrical Survey ......... 16 38:10 , 
The same, by mean of four chronometers .......sseeeeseeserersaeeeeereees 16 39°80 


era} 
ah) 


" DIfPETONCE) .:oncedeensnigasenaeaaemionataaiin ult 7O) 


On the Rate of Protected Chronometer Springs. By E. J. Dent. 
. The author stated, that by trial at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, between the 


10 , REPORT—1842. 


temperature of winter and 96° Fahr., it was proved that the rate of going of chrono- 
meters, furnished with the gold-covered steel spring, was not injured by that covering. 


On the Rate of a Patent Compensating Pendulum. By E, J. Dent. 


The invention consisted in giving impulse to the pendulum at the centre of percus- 
sion instead of the usual place, which is near to the centre of suspension. Mr. Dent 
stated the performance of clocks thus made to be very satisfactory. He mentioned, in 
connection with this subject, the invention of a new escapement by the Astronomer 
Royal, which had been found of advantage in preventing the stopping of clocks at low 
temperatures. 


On a New Chronometer Compensating Balance. By E. J. Dent. 


The ordinary compensation balance is constructed of two segments of a circle, of 
brass and steel, and from the circular form of these pieces, the compensation weights 
attached to them are moved out too far from the centre of motion in cold, and not — 
sufficiently in toward the centre in warm weather. Hence chronometers thus con- 
structed gain on their rates at the mean temperature, and lose at both extremes. 

Mr. Dent stated, from experiment, that the compensation weights were carried over 
‘nearly equal spaces for equal increments and decrements of heat, whereas the mathe- 
matical rule requires that they should be carried over spaces proportioned to the 
square of the distance from the centre of motion. 

Mr. Dent’s invention of a new compensation balance consisted in the compensation 
pieces being made into such curves as would practically meet the case required. The 
experimental investigations on which this construction was founded, were described at 
length. 


On a Mode of expressing Fluctuating or Arbitrary Functions by Mathema- 
tical Formule. By Sir W. Hamitton. 


A simple Method of arriving at the decimal part of the Sine or Tangent below 
a second of a degree, to the si 5pth or z5555G0 th part of it. By Moszs 
HOLpeEN. 


On Decimal Fractions. By AntHuony PEAcocK. 


If the successive remainders in finding the reciprocal of a prime number be placed ~ 
over each quotient figure, the whole will form a table of the decimals equivalent to such 
number as a denominator, and the respective remainders as numerators. By this ar- 
rangement the several properties of pure repetends may be studied with great advantage. 
1. 10. 13. 14. 24. 8.22. 17. 25. 18. 6. 2. 20. 26. 
rapa ae ee tS 2S Pe: Bean rae) Oe ay 
28. 19..16. 15. 5. 21. 7. 12.4, I]. 28. 27. 9. 3. 

ETERS TaT SRE Sn Ey itil 7: SI IK: ay Ca a He | 


The figures in the upper line are the several remainders, or numerators, and may 4 


be called the indices of the series; the under figures are the repetend: thus = 4 
27 


= 1379310344, &e,, = = -93108448, &e., oo “03448275, &e. 


29ths. 


From the two following original properties of a reciprocal repetend various practical ‘ 

rules have been devised. é 

1st. The product of any two numerators or indices is equal to the numerator stand- 

ing in the sum of the places, reckoning from right to left, unless the product exceed the j 

* denominator, in which case the numerator is the remainder from the product divided 
by the denominator: thus, in 29ths, 4 and 7 are the indices inthe 6th and 8th places, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ll 


 and4 xX 7= 28isinthe6+8=14thplace. Again, 12 and 6 are in the 7th and 18th 
12x6 
29 
2ndly. If the last index of a reciprocal repetend from a denominator ending in 9 be 
made a multiplier, and multiplication be made from the last figure, the unit figures of 
the successive products will be the left-hand following digit of the series. In 29ths the 
last index is 3, and as the several products are placed over the series, this curious pro- 
perty may be seen to advantage, 

As this property belongs to all repetends formed from denominators ending in 9, by 
a knowledge of the last index, and the last figure in the series, any repetend may be 
very easily calculated by multiplication, from the last figure of the series to the first ; 
while by a particular arrangement of the process, no multiplier need be above 9. 

The last index may be distinguished as the circulate multiplier, and is always one 
more than the tensin any number ending in 9; the circulate multiplier for 19 is there- 

' fore 2; for 49 itis 5; and for 199 it is 20. 

Since every prime number terminates in either 1, 3,7, 9, and the products of 1, 3, 7 
by 9, 3,7 respectively terminate in 9, the circulate multipliers for numbers ending in 
1, 3, 7 will be the circulate multipliers of such products ending in 9; for example, 
7 X 7=49 gives 5 for the circulate multiplier for 7ths. 


Ae or i 21, 14, 42. 28. ss. Indices. to be divided 


gives a remainder 14, which is in the 7 + 18 = 25th place. 


place, and 


Ke PR Ri Seg og 2 Ph sae + 


Ee SAB: Wwe oF by 7 for 7ths. 


PIE EIIENE S° 


49ths, 


The last figure of the series, from denominators ending in 9, is always the unit figure 
of the numerator. : 

Having the circulate multiplier, and the last figure in the series, the repetend, as was 
before observed, may be found by multiplying the circulate multiplier into the last figure, 
then into the unit figure of the product, then into the unit of the next product, and so 
on successively, until the whole of the series is produced from the end to the beginning. 


Example 1. Required the repetend of ae 


Here 4is the circulate multiplier, and 5 the last figure of the series. 
39ths daauan? 5. 11. 32. 8. 2. 20. 
" USeries. Y 283 0°5 


Example 2. Required the circulate of ae 


L a Here the circulate multiplier is 12, the last figure of the series 5 with 6 to carry into 
the first product. 
Products. 116. 89. 57. 94. 107. 118. 109. 19. 71. 115. 79. 76. 26. 103. 78. 66. 
Dedric: 97 4 7) 8.9.9 Lo.) D6, 6,8, 865 
$ 99. 38. 23. 111. 39, 33. 92. 87. 37. 18. 11, 110. 29. 42. 44. 83. 
Bee oe ta ewe oe Ee Os LOD ee BG 
65. 55. 74. 26. 22. 101. 58. 104. 88. 47. 118. 59. 114. 69. 95. 117. 
ae A Gi Dosh Big te 8 7 3 be i es ey 


___. When the denominator is not a prime number, the numerator may be commensura- 
ble with it, in which case all the products may be divided by the greatest common mea- 
_ sure of the fraction; the results will be the indices of a circulate from a prime denomi- 
“nator, of which the given denominator is the product by the common measure. 
___ For example. Required the repetend of am 

In this question the circulate multiplier is 12, the last figure of the series 6, with 5 


ey 
ee carry in. But ak = at consequently the series will be 17ths. Therefore, if the 


products be divided by 7 (the common measure), the quotients will be the indices of 
the repetend of 17ths. 


= 


12; REPORT—1842. 


119ths nate. 56. 84. 7. 70. 105. 98. 28. 42. 63. 35. 112. 49. 14, 21. 91.77. 
ThSerig® - 7 7 ae Be OU Siesene2 Ot 1. Repti, 
Indices of 17ths, 8, 12.1. 10.15. 14. 4. 6. 9% «5. «16. 7. 2.3. 13. 11. 


In a similar manner to the last example, the circulate for any prime denominator 
whatever may be found. 


Extracts from a Letter on the state of the Observatory at Glasgow (25th 
June, 1842). By Professor NicHou. 


“The members of the Physical Section will be pleased to know, that our great transit 
circle, made by Ertel, is now in operation. The object-glass of the telescope is 6:2 
inches, and the diameter of the directed circle 3% feet. The construction of this circle 
is somewhat different from those formerly furnished by the same celebrated artist. 
Its circles are placed outside of the pillars on which it rests, and the alidada, instead 
of verniers, carries microscopes. ‘The position of the alidada, secured roughly by a 
clamp, is ascertained on any observation, by the state of a delicate level, each of 
whose divisions values 2*'4 of space, so that the power of the eye to subdivide this 
quantity along the breadth of a division of this level gives the ultimate limit of the 
precision of the instrument for a single observation. Two fixed collimators, watched 
by levels, each of the divisions of which values 3”, enable the observer to determine 
the position either of the horizontal line or of a line, at a known angle with the hori- 
- zontal line ; and it will be clear that observations on both collimators necessarily indi- 
cate the horizontal collimation errors of the middle levers of the telescope, as well as 
the errors arising from flexure. 

“Our meteorological department is nearly complete ; and I have just received no- 
tice of the arrival of the declination- and horizontal-force magnetometers for our mag- 
netic pavilion, from Meyerstein of Gottingen.” 


On the Mathematical Expressions which lead to an explanation of all the 
ordinary Phenomena in Optics. By Professor MAcCULLAGH. 


On a New Property of the Rays of the Spectrum, with Observations on the 
Explanation of it given by the Astronomer Royal, on the Principles of the 
Undulatory Theory. By Sir Davin BrewsTER. 


If we eover half the pupil of the eye with a thin plate of any transparent body, and 
thus view a prismatic spectrum, so that the rays which pass by the plate interfere with 
those which pass through it, the spectrum is seen crossed with beautiful black and nearly 
equidistant bands, whose breadth, generally speaking, increased with the thinness of 
the plate. Ifthe edge dividing the ray were directed to the red end of the spectrum, 
then fringes were seen; but no such fringes appeared when it was turned to the 
violet end of the spectrum, One peculiarity of these fringes, not before noticed, was 
that they had not the forms of bands, but rather the appearance of screws, or dotted 
black lines, or as if they were formed by the shadow of a plate of metal perforated by 
small openings. This, which appeared to be a new property of light, and to indicate 
a polarity in the simple rays of light, when separated from each other by refraction, 
he had commented on at the meetings of the Association at Liverpool and Bristol ; 
and Mr. Airy, the Astronomer Royal, had given a paper and two publications on the 
subject, in which he endeavoured to account for this upon the undulatory theory, 
arguing that the appearance and magnitude of the fringe depended upon the diameter 
of the pupil, or of the object-glass. Sir D. Brewster said he had repeated all his ex- 
periments under every variety of form, varying the diameter of the pupil from its 
greatest expansion to its greatest contraction, and the diameter of the object-glass 
from four inches to a quarter of an inch, and the fringe remained utterly unaffected 
by these variations. He further found, that these fringes varied in magnitude with 
the distance of the eye from the refracting body, and not with the magnitude of the 
pupil. He stated several other results, all of which, he thought, could not be explained 
on the principles of the undulatory theory, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13 


On the Dichroism of the Palladio-chlorides of Potassium and Ammonium. 
By Sir Davip Brewster. 


Dr. Wollaston had found that a long crystal of either of these salts, when looked 
_ ~ through transversely, had a green colour, but when looked through from either end, 
had a red colour; and he (Sir D. Brewster) placed one of these long crystals trans- 
» versely over another, in a cruciform shape, and then found that those portions of the 
centres of both, which were in contact, gave a red colour, while all the ends of the 
crystals were red. 


On the existence of a New Neutral Point, and two Secondary Neutral Points. 
By Sir Daviv BRewstTER. 


After noticing the two neutral points (points where there is no polarization of light) 
of MM. Arago and Babinet, Sir David Brewster said he had discovered a third. 
He also mentioned amongst some general results of observations continued for a long 
time, that instead of the point of maximum polarization being always, as supposed, at 
90° from the sun, he had found it more frequently 88° fromthe sun. He also de- 
scribed a polarimeter or polariscope, by which, he said, the rectilinear bands in polar- 
ization were seen more clearly than by other methods. 


On certain Cases of Elliptically Polarized Light. By Prof. Pow... 


___ At the last meeting of the Association, Prof. Lloyd* gave a theoretical investigation 
_ of certain results obtained by Sir D. Brewster relative to thin films from which polar- 
_ ized light is reflected. Besides completely explaining those results, Prof. Lloyd infers, 
_ that such films ought to give the portions of light reflected at their two surfaces differ- 
ing in phase, and that the light should be consequently in general eldiptically polarized. 
__ The author of the present paper, before he was aware of the investigation of Prof. 
_ Lloyd, had made many observations on the elliptical polarization of light by reflexion 
_ from metallie and other surfaces,—the method of observation being by the well-known 
dislocation of the polarized rings. Some of these experiments went merely to prove 
_ the existence of elliptic polarization in cases where it had not previously been detect- 
ed, as in certain minerals and other bodies in whichit is seen though of small amount. 
In other cases the reflecting surface consisted of the thin films formed on polished 
metal by tarnish, by heat, or by the galvanic process of Nobili. In these instances, a 
_ verification was afforded of Prof. Lloyd’s theory by direct observation. But, further, 
_ these films give periodic colours; and in passing from one tint to another, the ellip- - 
ticity, as disclosed by the form of the rings, underwent regular changes, passing from 
_ a dislocation in one direction to the opposite, through points of no dislocation or of 
_ plane polarization, the rings being alternately dark and bright centred. This afford- 
_ eda further field for the application of theory, and Mr. Airy investigated a formula 
_ for the rings under these varying conditions, with which the phenomena are in perfect 
_ accordance. 
eo. 


On Crystalline Reflexion. By Sir Davin Brewster. 


_ _ Having (said Sir David), in a conversation with Prof. Kelland, had my attention 
directed to Prof. M‘Cullagh’s interesting memoir on the laws of crystalline reflexion 
_ and refraction, [ have felt it necessary to make a communication on the subject to 
_ the British Association. In consequence of the results which I laid before the Bristol 
q meeting, Prof. M‘Cullagh was led to revise the views to which he had been led by my 
earlier experiments in 1819. I had at that time the advantage of communicating with 
him personally and by letter; and, having preserved copious abstracts of his paper on 
_ the subject, I did not look into the memoir itself till yesterday, when my attention 
was drawn to the following note :—‘ I was at this time in doubt whether the phz- 
 Nomena observed with oil of cassia could be reconciled to that theory; and when the 
note in page 36 was written, I was almost certain that they could not. But I have 
_ Since, I think, found out the cause of this perplexity: some of Sir David Brewster’s 
_ @xperiments were made with natural surfaces of Iceland spar; others with surfaces 


a * See Report, 1841. Transactions of the Sections, p. 26. 


14 REPORT—1842. 


artificially polished. I believe (though I have made very few calculations relative 
to the point), that the former class of experiments will be perfectly explained by the 
theory; the latter I am certain cannot, nor ought we to expect that they should; for 
the process of artificially polishing must necessarily occasion small irregularities by 
exposing little elementary rhombs with their faces inclined to the general surface, 
and the action of these faces may produce the unsymmetrical effects which Sir David 
Brewster notices as so extraordinary. If this does not account for such effects, I do 
not know what will.” Had Prof. M‘Cullagh communicated to me this explanation of 
the incapacity of the undulatory theory to account for the extraordinary unsymme- 
trical phenomena which I described to the British Association, and which exist to a 
much greater extent than I described; or had it been contained in the two abstracts 
of his memoir, with which I was familiar, I could at once have removed the difficulty 
referred to in the preceding note. The view he has taken of the action of an arti- 
ficially polished surface of Iceland spar, is a mistaken one. The exposure of ele- 
mentary rhombs with faces oblique to the general surface, would show themselves in 
separate rays inclined to the principal pencil, especially in solar light. It could not for 
an instant be overlooked by an experiencéd observer. Such faces I can produce at 
pleasure, by a slight chemical action upon the surface, whether polished by crystal- 
lization or by art; and it is impossible to confound the pencil which they reflect, with 
that which is given by the general surface. It is useless, however, to pursue this ar- 
gument any further, because I have obtained exactly the same results in using natural 
faces, and in using artificial ones, and especially on planes perpendicular to the axis 
of the crystal, where I have found the same results with the natural faces of the Chau 
carbonatée basée of Hauy, and with those produced by artificial grinding. In this case 
the coincidence is still more remarkable, as the very friction of the finger is capable 
of developing on this surface the faces of elementary rhombs; but the reflexions from 
these never disturb in the slightest degree the physical action of the general surface. 
I have no doubt that Prof. M‘Cullagh will concur in the accuracy of these views, and, 
with that candour which distinguishes him, will acknowledge, as he has almost done 
already in the preceding note, that the undulatory theory is, generally speaking, in- 
capable of explaining the phenomena of crystalline reflexion. _ 


On a very curious fact connected with Photography, discovered by M. Moser 
of Kénigsberg, communicated by Prof. Busse. to Sir D. Brewster. 


Sir D. Brewster said, he was requested to communicate an account of some remark- 
able facts connected with the theory of photography. A new process of producing 
photographic impressions had been discovered by Dr. Méser of Konigsberg; and an 
aecount of the discovery had been brought to this country by Prof, Bessel, who re- 
ceived it from the discoverer himself. The subject was most important, and it would 
have been a great misfortune if the Physical Section had separated without being 
made acquainted with it. The following were the general facts connected with it :— 
A black plate of horn, or agate, is placed below a polished surface of silver, at the 
distance of one-twentieth of an inch, and remains there for ten minutes. The surface 
of the silver receives an impression of the figure, writing, or crest, which may be cut 
upon the agate or horn. The figures &c. do not appear on the silver at the expiration 
of the ten minutes, but are rendered visible by exposing the silver plate to vapour, 
either of amber, water, mercury, or any other fluid. He (Sir D. Brewster) had heard 
Prof. Bessel say, that the vapours of different fluids were analogous to the different 
coloured rays of the spectrum; that the different fluids had different effects, cor- 
responding to those of the spectrum ; and that they could, in consequence of such cor- 
respondence, produce a red, blue, or violet colour, The image of the camera obscura 
might be projected on any surface,—glass, silver, or the smooth leather cover of a 
book, without any previous preparation ; and the effects would be the same as those 
produced on a silver plate covered with iodine. 


On the Dichroism of a Solution of Stramonium in Aither. 
By Sir Davin BREwsTER. 


The solution was yellow by transmitted light, but green by reflected light. 


. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 


On the Geometric Forms, and Laws of Illumination of the Spaces which 
receive the Solar Rays, transmitted through Quadrangular Apertures. By 
Stir Davip BrewsTeER. 


He said his attention was called to this subject by an accidental discussion on the 
_ point, whether or not Aristotle, in explaining the circularity of images formed by 
_ quadrilateral apertures, employed the appropriate idea when he said that those images - 
were, to a certain extent, quadrilateral, but appeared circular, from the eye being unable 
to recognise faint impressions of light. Prof. Whewell, in his ‘ History of the Philo- 
4 sophy of the Inductive Sciences,’ had distinctly stated, that Aristotle had not used the 
be appropriate idea, and that the question was entirely a geometrical one, the appropriate 
_ idea being the rectilinear nature of light. Having been led accidentally to consider 
_ the subject, he (Sir D. Brewster) had determined in a simple manner the form of the 
aperture at all distances, and had been led to take the same view of the subject with 
_ Aristotle, who seemed to have employed the appropriate idea. 


On Luminous Lines in certain Flames corresponding to the defective Lines in 
the Sun’s Light. By Sir Davip BRewsTER. 


< After noticing Fraunhofer’s beautiful discovery as to the phenomena of the line D 
in the prismatic spectrum, Sir David said, he had received from the establishment of 
_ that eminent man, at Munich, a splendid prism, made for the British Association, and 
one of the largest, perhaps, ever made ; and, upon examining by it the spectrum of 
_ deflagrating nitre, he was surprised to find the red ray, discovered by Mr. Fox Talbot, 
_ accompanied by several other rays, and that this extreme red ray occupied the exact 
lace of the line A in Fraunhofer’s spectrum, and equally surprised to see a luminous 
_ line corresponding with the line B of Fraunhofer. In fact, all the black lines of Fraun- 
 hofer were depicted in the spectrum in brilliant red light. The lines A and B turned 
_ out in the spectrum of deflagrating nitre to be both double lines; and, upon examining 
_ a solar spectrum under favourable circumstances, he found bands corresponding to these 

double lines. He had looked with great anxiety to see if there was anything analogous 
_ in other flames, and it would appear that this was a property which belonged to almost 
every flame. 


On the Structure of a Part of the Solar Spectrum hitherto unexamined. 
By Sir Davip Brewster. 


He had, by means of the prism from Munich, been enabled to extend the solar 
_ Spectrum beyond the point where, according to Fraunhofer, it terminated immediately 
at the side of the line A, and he (Sir David) found one part to consist of about sixteen 
; lines, placed so near to each other, that it was difficult to recognise the separation ; 

but the lines, as they approached to A, were much nearer to each other than as they 
eceded from it; consequently, that portion of the spectrum appeared concave, resem- 

_ bling so much the scooped-out lines of a moulding on wood, that it was scarcely pos- 
_ sible to suppose that the beholder was not looking at such a moulding. He was led to 
_ observe an analogous structure near the line B; and upon carrying on this comparison 
of structure of one part of the spectrum with that of another, it seemed to him, that, 
by and by, something important would result; for there was a repetition of a group 
_ of lines, and similar lines, through different parts of the spectrum, as if the same cause 
which produced them in one part produced them in another. 


ie On the Luminous Bands in the Spectra of various Flames. 
ar . 
pa By Sir Davin Brewster. 


He had endeavoured to procure all the minerals and artificial salts and other sub- 
_ stances capable of combustion which could be had; and, in order to have a suitable 
_ combination, he used an oxygen light analogous to the Bude light. Every one con- 
_ ducting these experiments was aware that it was necessary to pass the light through a 
_ Rarrow aperture; but this would reduce the intensity of the light so much, as to make 
__ it difficult to observe the rays at the extremity of the spectrum; but he found that he 
_ could obtain the effect of a small aperture, by merely inclining the prism ; so that, with 
_ 4 good prism, the great lines in the solar spectrum might be seen by using an aperture 


16 REPORT—1842. 


three or four feet wide, the whole breadth of the window, by the mere inclination of 
the prism, which had the effect of producing a narrowing, facing the light. He had 
obtained 200 or 800 results, which he had not had any leisure to group; but he would 
mention some of the general results. When nitrate of lead was thrown into combustion, 
remarkably fine lines were produced in the spectrum. The luminous line, D, of Fraun- 
hofer, existed in almost every substance, especially in all into which soda entered, par- 


ticularly in the flame of a common tallow candle; probably owing to the muriate of — 


soda existing in the tallow. The hydrate of strontites gave the lines very remarkably in 
yellow and green. The iodide of mercury did the same. Also in that remarkable 
substance, the lithoxanthemate of ammonia, first discovered and published by Mr. Fox 
Talbot, the fine lines were seen throughout the whole length of the spectrum; and 
there was a remarkable blue band, which he (Sir David Brewster) had not distinctly 
recognized in any other flame. Indigo gave fine green and orange lines at equal di- 
stances from the D of Fraunhofer. Prussian blue did the same; calomel, nitrate of 
magnesia, litharge, also showed lines; the sulpho-cyanite of potash gave a violet and 
orange flame, with the lines extremely distinct. He hoped, at the next year’s meeting 
of the Association, to be able to embody these various results in a regular report. 


On the Improvement of the Telescope. By H. Fox Tarzot, F.R.S. 


Mr. Fox Talbot said, that this subject occurred to him about two years ago, when . 


the Earl of Rosse (then Lord Oxmantown) was making much larger specula for re- 
flecting telescopes than had ever been obtained before; and he thought, if once we 
had a very large and perfect speculum, it might be possible to multiply copies of it by 
galvanic means. He had observed, that if an electrotype cast were taken from a per- 
fectly polished surface, the cast was also perfectly polished; so that no defect of form 
from this cause could have an injurious effect on the speculum. The great and ob- 
vious defect was, that electrotypes were in copper, which reflected but little light. 
He mentioned these ideas to Prof. Wheatstone, to whom the same views had occurred 
previously, as he showed Mr. Talbot a paper which he had drawn up some few 
months before, in which he suggested the making specula of platina, palladium, silver 
or nickel, by precipitating a sufficient thickness of these metals upon the mould to ob- 
tain a perfect surface, and afterwards precipitating a less valuable metal, as copper, to 
form the body of the new speculum. 

Though it had occurred to Mr. Talbot to precipitate white metals, yet he did not 
think that platina would have a sufficiently beautiful white metallic polish. Prof. 
Wheatstone had, however, made choice of platina; and, varying the quantity till he 
found the required proportion, he obtained a mirror in platina, which appeared to him 
(Mr. Talbot) to have quite brilliant polish enough, and to be white enough to answer 
the purpose; and he considered, therefore, that Prof. Wheatstone had proved, that, at 


least in one form, the specula of telescopes might be made by voltaic precipitation. © 


His own idea was, that it might be possible to whiten the surface of the copper without 
injuring the form; and, therefore, haying obtained a speculum in very bright, polished 
copper, be (Mr. Talbot) whitened it, and transformed it into sulphuret of copper, by 
exposing it for a minute to the vapour of hydrosulphuret of ammonia, which did not 
injure its polish, but after passing through a series of varied colours (scarlet, blue, 
&c.) rendered it very white; and after having retained this speculum about a year, he 
did not perceive the smallest alteration in any respect. This, therefore, appeared to him 
a mode by which important results could be obtained. There was no danger of such 
a speculum being oxidated by the air, since it was already in combination with sul- 
phur, a more powerful chemical affinity than oxygen. 

For the last year, perhaps, nothing further had been done, either by Prof. Wheat- 
stone or himself; but lately, being at Munich, he visited Prof. Steinheil, and saw his 
inventions, and learned from him that he had discovered a method of making specula 
by the electrotype. It so happened, that both Prof. Steinheil and himself had pub- 
lished their respective methods about a month or six weeks before; the Professor 
having read a communication on the subject before the Academy of Sciences at Mu- 


nich, and printed it, and Mr. Talbot having published his in England, Their modes _ 
were, however, different, as Prof. Steinheil precipitated gold upon the speculum which — 


was to be copied, and having precipitated a certain thickness of gold, he then precipi- 
tated copper on the back of the gold, to give it sufficient thickness. He (Mr. Talbot) 


| 
of] 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17 


should have thought beforehand that gold would not reflect light enough to be available; 
but Prof. Steinheil informed him he had found, by careful experiment, that it reflected 
more light than polished steel. He allowed Mr. Talbot to look through a Gregorian 
reflecting telescope, of which the speculum was a common one, but gilded, and he 
found the image perfectly clear and well-defined, though a slight tinge of yellow was 
_. thrown overall the objects. Prof. Steinheil said, that in the course of a year he should 
have avery large telescope, furnished not only with a speculum, but also with other 
apparatus, voltaically formed, so that telescopes might be made all from a good model, 
so as to insure greater accuracy of proportions; and in this way even very large tele- 
scopes might be constructed: at a comparatively trifling expense. With reference to 
precipitating copper on the back of the gold, the Professor had a simple expedient for 
securing adhesion. He first precipitated gold fromm the cyanide of gold, and he mixed 
with it cyanide of copper, and kept gradually increasing the quantity of the Jatter, 
so that an alloy was precipitated, which was continually increasing the copper with 
respect to the gold, till he had a speculum whose surface was gold, and which then be- 
came an alloy, the quality decreasing, till, at the bottom, it became pure copper. This 
was important; because, without such experiments, one would not have known that 
such results would have followed; for some philosophers supposed, that, if we attempt 
to precipitate the salts of two metals, only one is precipitated; but Prof. Steinheil 
informed him that they precipitated in union. He thus obtained a speculum with a 
face of gold and a back of copper. 
: But, supposing the largest, cheapest, and best speculum was obtained, the framework 
of the telescope would be so gigantic, that few observers would be able to use the in- 
_ strument. With a focal length of sixty to eighty feet, it would be quite unmanageable 
for any private individual. The idea occurred to him (Mr. Talbot), to have a tube 
_ fixed in an invariable position, and to have a perfectly true plane mirror, of a size 
: somewhat larger than the concave speculum, placed in front of the tube, with an aper- 
_ ture in the centre. This plane reflector should be moveable about its centre in any 
_ direction; so that rays from luminous bodies, falling first upon the plane reflector, were 
_ then reflected against the concave reflector, and then passed through the aperture. The 
_ only motion requisite for the plane mirror would be one about its centre. The me- 
i chanical difficulties in the way of this plan would be far less than in the common method. 
_ Prof. Steinhéil’s idea on this point was somewhat different. He (Mr. Talbot) had 
thought of placing the tube in a horizontal position, which, in the case of a tube of 
very great length, has manifest advantages. Prof. Steinheil’s idea was, that it should 
be pointed directly to the pole of the heavens. 


a pre 8p. ta 


On the Theory of Magnetism. By Joun GoopMan. 


_ Having frequently attempted in vain to produce electro-magnetic effects by the 
current from the electrical machine and metallic conductors, the author at length 
‘resolved upon employing such imperfect conductors of the current as would arrest 
the speed of the frictional fluid, and cause it to progress more in the manner of vol- 
taic electricity. For this purpose he used a slip of common writing-paper as a con- 
ductor in place of copper wire employed in electro-magnetism, and instead of the 
‘soft iron substituted a plate of thin window-glass. This plate being arranged upon 
‘insulating pillars, it was found, after several test experiments, that the greatest 
_ weight that could be sustained was supported by suspending the same to a card or 
_ paper armature affixed to the under surface of the glass, whilst @ continuous current 
_ from the positive to the negative conductor of the machine was transmitted along 
_ the upper surface of the plate by means of two half sheets of writing-paper. In 
» this manner a weight of five ounces and twenty grains was sustained for some time, 
_ which, in proportion to the quantity of electricity in the current, is probably as great 
as is ever supported by any electro-magnet whatever. 
_ From the success of this experiment the author contended, that for anything at 
et known this may be the principle of magnetic action; nor does he see any 
_ reason for seeking other explanation of magnetic phenomena than the simple laws 
of ordinary electric attraction and repulsion. He also suggested that the crystalline 
“nature of iron may render it more capable of polarization by electric influence than 
the = metals ; and if a polar effect be obtained, so that the electricity of one par- 
1842. c 


4 


18 REPORT—1842¢, 


ticle shall pass on to the next in the series, and so on throughout the length of the 
bar, and shall not be enabled to return without the removal of the inducing force, 
the elementary particles of such bar will be placed in a condition for exalting the 
tension of each other from end to end (as is the case in the multiplication of pairs 
of plates in a voltaic battery), and produce what may be termed “ reciprocal polari- 
zation.” 

The particles of steel may be so separated by the carbon which it contains, and by 
the process of hardening, as entirely to prevent the return of the fluid after polari- 
zation has been effected ; and finally, if the force of each particle be doubled by the 
reciprocal polarization of the one next in line, and this by the next, and so on 
throughout the series, it may readily be conceived that a degree of tension would be 
produced at each end of a bar magnet, which would be capable of inducing ina 
piece of metal of a similar kind, the same condition at a considerable distance, and 
develope indeed all the phenomena exhibited by this wonderful agency. 


On the Cause of Dissimilarity of the Voltaic and Ordinary Electricities. 
By Joun GoopMan. 


There had arisen on the part of Dr. Faraday and other eminent electricians, ob- 
jections to the use of the guarded poles in decomposing water, described by Dr. 
Wollaston as being unidentical with voltaic decomposition, but the poles made use 
of in an apparatus constructed by Mr. Goodman were of fine platina wire completely 
unguarded. Poles of this description, one-eighth or one-sixteenth of an inch in length, 
had been frequently employed by the author, and had readily decomposed water by 
the current alone from the electrical machine. 

Mr. Goodman then proceeded to point out his view of the cause of dissimilarity in 
the two fluids, and in so doing adverted to the phenomena exhibited in the employ- 
ment of the condensing electrometer. 

On electrolyzing the plate in communication with the gold leaves, the latter in- 
stantly diverge, and exhibit considerable ‘‘¢ension.”” But on drawing near the 
opposing uninsulated plate, a gradual collapse of the leaves is uniformly the result, 
approaching each other as the plate advances, and when it has arrived at a given 
distance, the Jeaves are found in perfect opposition. But on removing the same they 
again diverge, and this process may be repeated many times under favorable circum- 
stances. During the period when the leaves are apart, the electricity by which the 
electrometer is charged is found to possess much “ tension,” that is (according to - 
the views of the author), powerful attractive and repulsive properties, and in conse- 
quence much elasticity of character, great mechanical force, momentum, and capa- 
bility of resisting atmospheric pressure, and considerable magnitude of spark, &c. &c.; 
but when the plates are in a given degree of apposition, all these properties disappear, 
and are supplanted by others more resembling the character of the voltaic than ordi- 
nary electricity. Its high tension is subdued, and the increased capacity of the plate 
for a further supply of electricity of the same kind, evinces the disposition of the 
fluid to become more and more condensed, and assume that condition which may 
with great propriety be termed ‘‘ intensity.”” Hence we may infer, as stated by Dr. 
Faraday, what ‘‘an enormous quantity of electricity is present in matter,” the 
atomic particles of the same being at all times subject to the polarizing influence of 
each other, at atomic distances, and inducing thus an amazing capacity for, and con- 
densation of fluid. It is not improbable that electricity in this condensed condition 
occupies the interior of metallic bodies, that it is indeed the peculiar fluid of the 
atomic particles of matter, and yet that of high tension resides on the mere surface of 
metallic conductors. The cause then of dissimilarity in the two modifications is, 
that in the one case (the voltaic) the elementary particles of all the matter, fluid and 
solid concerned in its production, are continually in contiguous relation to each other ; 
and in the other modification (the frictional) the ¢wo main antagonist or opposing 
forces are removed and separated by the revolutions of the cylinder to a considerable 
distance from each other. The- positive fluid upon the surface of the cylinder is re- 
moved completely out of the sphere of action of its opposing negative force, situate 
in the rubber, and is afterwards subject only to polarizing influence from remote 
bodies. Mr. Goodman exemplified this view of the subject by diagrams and fur-~ 
ther explanations. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 


On the Positive and the Negative Streams of Electrified Air, and on an 
Electrical Machine fitted for examining them. By the Rev. C.J. KENNEDY. 


hw 


; ‘On Improved Magnets, and the different Modes of determining their Powers, 
_ with an Account of certain undescribed Phenomena in Permanent Mag- 
oS netics. By the Rev. W. Scorrssy, DD. F.R.S., Sc. 


The author having called attention to the varying relations of capacity for, and 
_ retention of, the magnetic condition in specimens of steel of different mass, hardness, 
and quality, showed by experiments with compound magnets, constructed by himself 
after an extended investigation of their relations, the possibility of communicating 
and retaining very unusual magnetic energy in systems of bars, suited for various 
practical purposes. A magnet exhibited was stated ‘to be of nearly ten times the power 
of one on the ordinary principle of equal mass. The phzenomena exhibited by it 
were, indeed, very striking, particularly its capability of suspending above 10,000 
‘small nails in a loop which could be moulded like plastic clay. 

In respect to the different methods of determining the powers of straight bar mag- 
nets, Dr. Scoresby showed the superiority in convenience and comparability, of the 
method of deviations, over that of torsion, and mentioned as a general result, that 
small bars exhibited greater proportionate magnetic energy than large bars. 

It appeared to have escaped notice that a considerable proportion of the energy of 
magnets taken in combination existed in a state of elastic suppression, so that, on se- 
paration of the bars, a great increase of energy is exhibited in their individual powers. 
‘This weakening of some bars placed in contact might even in some cases proceed so 
far as to give to such bars an opposite magnetic condition whilst in the mass, and 
thus really diminish the power of the combination. 

The result of his numerous experiments on the subject of the communication and 
retention of magnetism, was to enable him to show what, for any specific purpose, 
was the best quality and denomination (as blister-steel, cast-steel, &c.) of steel, and 

the right degree of hardness. For certain researches concerning the earth’s ‘mag- 
netism, Dr. Scoresby proposed powerful short compound bars (six inches or less in 
length), of sufficient mass to carry reflecting mirrors for determining minute changes 
pa of direction. : 


Pi ‘Colonel Sabine read a letter which enclosed Boguslawski’s Report ‘On the Ob- 
_ servations made by him in Breslau with the Magnetic Instruments belonging to the 
British Association.’ é 


| Supplementary Report of a Committee on Waves. By J.S. Russert, M.A. 


_ Much of the difficulty experienced in attaining clear conceptions of the phanomena 
and mechanism of waves is to be attributed to this circumstance, that we are apt to 
 eonfound with each other, under the general name of Wave Motion, a variety of phae- 

nomena essentially different in their origin, their form and their laws: | This essential 
diversity the author of this paper had formerly endeavoured to establish, more espe- 
' cially in the case of that species of wave which he had called the Wave of Transla- 
tion. In his memoir of observations made in 1834—35, he had indicated the existence © 
d described some of the phenomena of two other classes of waves, as also in the 
mer printed Reports of the Association; but he had lately embraced an opportu- 
nity of extending his observations and maturing a classification, which he now sub- 
mitted to the Section. 

_ Of waves, there seem to be three great orders obeying very different laws :— 

\ G.) Wave of the First Order.—The wave of translation is solitary, progressive, 
depending chiefly on the depth of the fluid; has two species, positive and negative. 
(2.) Waves of the Second Order.—The oscillatory waves are gregarious, the time 
of oscillation depending on the amplitude of the wave ; of two species, progressive and 
ationary. d 

_ (8.) The waves of the third order are capillary waves; gregarious: the oscilla- 
tions of the superficial film of a fluid, under the influence of the capillary forces, ex- 
tending to a very minute depth, short in duration; of two species, free and constrained. 
The last of these classes he had not before minutely examined, and to them he 


c2 


= 


20 REPORT—1842. 


wished to draw the attention of the Section, as amongst the phenomena which we 
most frequently see and have yet failed to examine. Although these waves were 
noticed by the author in 1834 and figured in a memoir of his own, which drawing had 
since been published by M. Poncelet in his ‘ Mécanique’ along with an announcement 
that he had observed the same waves in running water, yet they had not hitherto 
attracted notice, or been thoroughly examined by Mr Russell or any one else. He 
believed them to be the minute waves or dents indicated by the theory of Poisson, he 
had therefore thought it his duty to examine them. 

The waves of the third order were observed by Mr. Scott Russel] in the following 
manner. A slender brass wire was,inserted vertically into a still fluid, and drawn in 
that position slowly along its surface. When the velocity is one foot per second, the 
surface of the water exhibits a group of waves of great beauty and regularity, extending 
forwards before the exciting point and spreading on both sides of it in the form of a 
con-focal group of hyperbolas; the focal distance of each hyperbola and its asym- 
ptotes being determined by the velocity of the motion. Although the exciting 
point was of no more than ,th of an inch in diameter, these waves extend over 
several feet, and the diagrams exhibited the phenomena as having great regularity 
and beauty. Numerical results, showing the number of these waves in an inch of 
distance from the exciting point, were given, and are nearly as follows :— 


Velocity of moving point. Number of wayes in an inch. 
55 feet per minute. 2 
60 yo» 3 
65 ” ” 4 
72 ” ” b) 
800 yo» 6 
90 ” , 7 
103, os 8 
120 ” ” 9 


These waves were examples of capillary waves not in free but constrained motion. 
He had generated them in a different manner, so as to examine them in free motion 
uninfluenced by the generating point, and found that the capillary waves when moving 
freely have a constant velocity of 8} inches per second; that their duration is short, 
becoming insensible in about twelve seconds after describing a path not longer than 
eight or nine feet: in the free state this breadth is very small at first, gradually in- 
creases, and just before vanishing attains an amplitude of nearly an inch. 

The capillary waves are among the phenomena we most frequently observe. It is 
in generating them that a gentle breeze forming over the surface of a smooth lake 
destroys the translucent and reflective power of the surface; they are also to be ob- 
served in all cases of primary and secondary wave motion when the superficial film is 
by any cause compressed so as to produce corrugation; and they always disappear in 
about twelve seconds after the exciting cause is removed. 

The second order of waves had also been made the subject of careful observation. A 
mode had been discovered of generating those waves in large groups, so that instead of 
observing single waves the length of one could be deduced from the measured length of a 
number, thus getting the advantage of repetition of the quantity observed. Ithad thus 
been finally determined that these oscillating waves follow Newton’s law, in so far that 
the velocities of transmission are as the square roots of the amplitudes; but the abso- 
lute velocity differs from that of Newton, so that instead of having the wave whose 
period is a second of an amplitude = 3°26, it is found to be = 3°57. The velocities 
determined are as follows :— 


Velocity of transmission of wave. Amplitude. 
3°01 feet per second 2°65 feet 

S165 5,2? 2) 294 ,, 

3:29. 5, Ba 3°125 ,, 

3°37 sy ” 3°26 5, 

*3°57 yy ” *3°57 55 

B°7Bi6 55) i 3°913 ,, 

3°84 oy, ” 4:20 5, 

4:16 ” ” 5:00 ” 


462, ” 625 


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ms gesteds x ed 2°| 88 = sa cbros oe 3 ale meine Shoo 
a egies qT ESS 33 12 ga _—_—— oF “a: any Spee 
om Pais 19}8, e183 B83 ap |oe ets 429. N : BEES 
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92 ; REPORT+1842. 


second, and the height of an unbroken wave was 27 feet above the surface level! These 
waves were breaking in five and six fathoms. On the 1st of October the velocity of the 
waves travelling at right angles to the wind, was 46 feet per second, the distance be- 
tween the waves was 345 feet, and their height only 5 feet! 


On the Tidal Phenomena in the Bay of Fundy and the River de la Plata. 
By Mr. Roox. 


On the Meteorology of the Province of Coorg, in the Western Ghdts of 
India. By Colonel Syxus, F.R.S. 


In offering a further contribution in support of an almost established law in me- 
teorology, a few prefatory observations may be useful. Towards the end of the last 
century it was remarked, in a series of barometrical observations made at Calcutta, 
that there was a periodicity in the daily rise and fall of the mercury ; the barometer 
throughout the whole year being highest between 9 and 10 a.m., and lowest between 
4 and 5 p.m., the semi-diurnal oscillation however varying from ‘030 to ‘150 or even 
‘170. Humboldt determined the same fact in South America, not only at the level of 
the sea, but on the elevated plateaux of the Andes, finding however that there appeared 
to be a gradual diminution of the oscillations between 9—10 a.m. and 4—5 p.m. i 
proportion to the ascent or elevation above the level of the sea. These phenomena 
led to hourly barometrical observations, and it was found that whereas during the 
day there was a maximum pressure between 9 and 10 a.m. and a minimum pressure 
between 4 and 5 p.m., so during the night there was a maximum pressure between 
10 and 11 p.m. and a minimum pressure about 4 or 5 a.m.; thus establishing two 
ascending and two descending waves or tides in the atmosphere during the twenty- 
four hours. My meteorological observations, carried on for several years in the 
Deccan at 2000 feet above the sea, and published in the Philosophical Trans- 
actions, were entirely confirmatory of those made by Humboldt; there never having 
occurred a single instance, whatever the season of the year, wet or dry, hot or cold, 
in which the barometer was not higher at 9—10 a.m. than at 4—5 p.m. The same 
facts were obtained from the Nilgherry mountains at 8000 feet above the sea—by 
Colonel Sabine from the coast of Africa—and from numerous other places within the 
tropics. From the irregular movements of the barometer beyond the tropics, the phz- 
nomena escaped observation for some time, but of late years numerous careful ob- 
servations and a series of averages have eliminated the same facts which characterise 
the tropics, the amount or range of the semidiurnal oscillation, however, gradually 
diminishing from the equator towards a parallel not yet determined, in very high 
latitudes (but which is beyond 70° N..), where the hours of maximum and minimum 
pressure are not the same as at the equator. Mr. Snow Harris’s singularly uniform 
successions of curves of average pressure of the barometer at Plymouth for several 
years, sliow the same hours of maxima and minima that I found in the Deccan; and 
by a series of observations transmitted to Colonel Sabine from Finmarken, in latitude 
70° N., the average height of the barometer is still found in that high latitude to be 
greater at 9 a.m. than at 3r.m., the mean annual temperature of the place of obser- 
vation approximating to the freezing point. 

Although there is a perfect accordance in the hours of maximum and minimum 
pressure within and without the tropics, there is not the same accordance in the ex- 
tent or range of the semidiurnal oscillation of the barometer. In the tropics it is 
considerable; in high latitudes very small; and from such observations as have been 
made in intermediate latitudes, grounds are afforded for the belief, that the amount 
of the. semiditurnal oscillation gradually diminishes from the equator toward the 
poles, and that the time of the occurrence of maxima and minima are reversed, 
the exact latitude where this change takes place not being yet satisfactorily de- 
termined. 

With these prefatory observations I may state, that the meteorological observations 
obligingly communicated to me by Dr. Blest of the Madras army, from a new locality 
in the Western Ghats, are entirely confirmatory of those I made in the Deccan re- 
specting the movements of the barometer. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 


The following is the acceptable Meteorological Register from Dr. Blest of the 
Madras Medical Service, which he prefaces by a quotation from an official Report 
made by Dr. Baikie:— —- 

“ Temperature——The temperature of Coorg is one of the most moderate and 
equable in the world, the daily range in doors never exceeding 6° or 8°, often not 
beyond 2°, and the thermometer seldom rising higher than 74°, nor sinking below 
60°, in the open air. The range is a little higher during the dry season, the daily ex- 
tremes being between 52° or 53°, and 68° or 70°; the annual extremes are probably 
52° and 82°. The want of a maximum and minimum thermometer prevents my even 
_ guessing at the mean annual temperature, but it cannot exceed 65° or 66°. 
© Pressure-—The maximum of the barometer occurs during the dry season, the 

highest noted being 26-220, and the lowest in July during the monsoon 25-912. The 
greatest daily range-observed was ‘076; the mean daily range (which is very regular) 
050. ‘The diurnal maximum occurs at 10 a.m., the minimum at 5 p.m, with such re- 
gularity that I have often detected an error in the supposed time by looking at the 
barometer at these hours. ‘he barometer appears to offer no indication whatever of 
approaching changes of weather, and I have not been able to detect any influence of 
the lunar phases on it. 

“ Moisture —The hygrometrical state of the atmosphere during half the year is 
that of extreme moisture, closely approaching to saturation. During the dry season it 
is occasionally very dry, and sometimes undergoes most remarkable difference to the 
eye or feelings.” —Evwtract from Dr. Baikie’s Report. 

The above, in reference to temperature, Dr. Blest observes, differs somewhat from 
the result of his observations, owing to greater exposure of his instruments, which 

. were self-registering thermometers. According to Dr. Blest the following are the 
results of three years’ observations :— ‘ 
Annual mean MAXIMUM .....ssncessscsecsseeseesess 764 


Annual mean MiniMuM...........esceeceeeeees Be 60Ns 
Annual mean temperature...... Hobt otnesoo karutitios 68 °6 
Annual mean diurnal range ........... Aap ooh Piss? 15 eal 9 


Monthly Abstract of the daily Meteorological Register kept at Merkara*, in Coorg— 
; the mean for three years, 1838, 1839, and 1840. 


Monthly mean of the bygrometrical Mean height and daily 


Monthly mean of fe yee 
prRrhonicter, state of the etmasphere, as taken at range of barometer. || S 22 
9A. ao 
258 
o . : oe : eH arg 
3 S18] es] g/# || $38 
e 3 = me a = es oss 
aa aro Ss g S : asi) 8 
25 ee es oe ee Oe | m |eF ese 
=a 3/8] ss] Fle o |a2|leas 
FE 215 38 A o a ‘a || 2a 
2 Ala A ial -te 


61-8) 52+5|| 26160} 26-100) -060) 
26:172} 26:135} -037 
26:140) 26-070) :070)| 1°51 
88-9) 61-7|| 26°103} 26-056) 047) 2-60 
79:3) 62-2|| 26:090} 26-040} 050) 7:37 
26:161) 26-012} - 
23-4 63-6) 26-088} 25-970) -030)) 55-88 
27 | 61:5} 26:007| 25-980) -027)| 27- 

31-8} 62-6|| 26-050) 26-010) -040) 11-91 
47-2| 61:5|| 26°070) 26-020) -050)} 4-60 
48-7| 56:2]! 26-115} 26:080} °035|| 1°38 
26-140) 26-100) * 


None. 
“A5 


68:2| 6:8) 216-2 
68-2| 7:1] 214-2 
68 | 6:3) 217 
68 | 4:4) 280 
65°5| 2 | 225-2 
64 |.2'2| 213-6 
*9) 65-2} 2°7) 219 

65-3) 4 | 213-1 
61-3) 4:3) 187-5 
58-5} 5°3| 125-3) 100-3) 40:8 


iy Bait Annual mean...|| 143°35 


a  Prevarine Winps.—January, N.E.; February, N.E.E.; March, N.E.; April, W. and 
| variable; May, N.W. by W.; June, W.S.W.; July, 8.W.; August, S.W.; September, S.W.; 
October, S.W. N.E.; November, N.E.; December, N.E. 


_ * N.B. The instruments (with the exception of Pluviometers) were kept in the outer re- 
cess of a window in the north side of Merkara Palace, and perfectly exposed to the open air, 
while protected from glare. : 


94 REPORT—1842. 


Merkara is the capital of Coorg, seated at an elevation above the sea of 4500 feet, about 
65 miles east from Caunanore, in that tract of land lying on the edge of the Western Ghats, 
between the parallels of latitude 12° and 12°52 N., and 73°30 and 76°°10 E., being about 
58 miles long by 25 broad, the whole tract being a mass of hills and narrow yalleys, varying 
in height from 2500 to 5700 feet. 

Remarks.—The months of January and February are cold and very dry ; the range of tem- 
perature is considerable; the morning and evening excessively cold, with dew throughout, 
and partial fog in the valleys from 3 to 5 p.M., while the heat of the sun in the middle of the 
day is tempered by a constant cold breeze from the N.E., frequently blowing with such vio- 
lence as to raise clouds of dust and become unpleasant. 

In March the cold of the night becomes less sensible, and the days are warmer, while the 
wind-is-less violent and is variable; days clear, the air still continuing in general dry, but 
fluctuates occasionally ; evenings occasionally foggy. 

April and May are delightful; the heat of the day, which begins to be oppressive out of 
doors, being tempered by frequent showers and thunder-storms ; occasionally, though rarely, 
there is some closeness in the air, but the nights are always cool. 

In June the monsoon sets in, but at variable periods of the month; the commencement 
is seldom violent, but about the end of the month the rain frequently falls in torrents. 

July. This month is characterised by universal gloom, impenetrable dense mist, high 
bleak winds saturated with moisture, and incessant rain, the greatest fall in twenty-four 
hours being inches 11°25 cents; a faint glimmering of sunshine for a few days. 

The rain continues more or less during August and September, with occasional short in- 
tervals of sunshine, the air loaded with moisture, and when the rain ceases there is usually a 
dense fog. 

In October there is an interval of bright and beautiful weather, rendered the more delight- 
ful by contrast, and by the intense green of the luxuriant vegetation; about the commence- 
ment of the month the wind usually settles in the N.E.,and when strong it is piercingly cold. 

November. The weather is extremely bleak and raw, the mornings characterized by dense 
mist and drizzle, swept along by a strong N.E. wind, the days gradually becoming clearer, 
but the evenings calm, mild and balmy. 

December is intensely dry, sky clear, strong steady wind from the N.H.; weather very 
pleasant ; nights and mornings extremely cold. 

Although the amount of rain recorded in the above register does not equal that 
which falls at Malcolm pait on the Mahabuleshwar hills, viz. 302°21 in., it still 
attests the deluge-like character of a monsoon in the Ghats of Western India. 

W.. H. Syxezs. 


On a Cycle of Eighteen Years in Atmospherical Phenomena. By Luxe 
Howarp, F.R.S. Accompanied by a Chart, Plate 11. 


In a Cycle of eighteen years, from 1824 to 1841, the seasons are found, by 
observation at the Friends’ School at Ackworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire, to 
go through their extreme changes of wet and dry, of warmth and coldness; returning 
at the end to the same (or nearly the same) state again. 

The lower figure of the Chart presents on a scale the mean or average T'emperature 
of each year, adapted by a curve to a mean line, representing the climatic (or eighteen 
years) average of the heat of the district. The yearly averages differ to the extent in 
the whole of 43 degrees of Fahrenheit; the spaces by which they exceed the climatic 
mean are coloured Red—those by which they fall below it, Blue. It will be seen at 
once that, in point of warmth, the years run through a cycle, the warm side of which 
lies to the left, and the cold side to the right, of the dividing line in the middle. 

Above are represented, in two columns, first the proportionate appearance (as in- 
dicated by observations made once a day) of the four classes of winds through each 
year; beginning at North (coloured blue) and proceeding to the point next the East; 
thence (coloured yellow) to the point next South; thence (coloured red) to that next 
West; and thence (coloured green) to North again; the remainder (left blank) repre- 
senting the number of days on which no decided wind blew. Secondly, on the right, 
the depth of rain for each year, as found by an accurate gauge placed at the level of 
the ground; adso its depth in each season of the year, shown by a dividing line—the 
whole of these referrible to a scale of inches on the right. 

The reader may thus compare, by a single glance, the state of different seasons, as, 
1. in respect’of calm and windy days, the white blanks differing greatly among them- 
selves, and exceeding greatly in amount on the warm side of the cycle; 2. in respect 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. - 25 


of ‘alt: prevalence of different classes of winds—as from the North and East during 
the coldest years of the cycle, and from the South and West: in stormy seasons’ 'pre- 
. eeding these; 3. in respect of amounts of rain, the wet and dry years being':con- 
__ spicuous; and of the proportions (found sometimes in gradual increase or decrease 
_ from year to year) in which it fell in the different seasons; the winter being ‘placed 
_ lowest, the autumn at top. All which becomes still more interesting, when we are able 
to refer by recollection, or by any good register of the weather, to past seasons; or 
when we may compare what is here presented with seasons occurring hereafter. 


Table of the Proportions of the Winds (by observation once a day) in each Year of 
the Cycle. 


1824 44 24 49 | 106} 148 || 1833 40; 10} 156 
1825 22 16 95 52 | 180 || 1834 44 9} 207 70 35 
1826 43 12) 138 46 | 126 || 1835 21 4] 225 66 49 
1827,| 34 18 | 177 58 78 || 1836 36 6| 251 55 18 
1828 26 13.| 165 71 91 || 1837 39 9/ 118] 100 99 
1829 51 16 |. 129 85 84 || 1838 68 | 57 77 | 137 26 
1830 16 7 | 163 73 | 106 || 1839 70 | 47] 189 )..101 8 
1831 29 13} 150 92 81 || 1840 62 | 28]. 146 97 33 
| 1832 37 15} 149 63} 102 || 1841 43) 39] 166 94 23 


i el 302 | 1384] 1215 | 646] 991 || Cold | 423 | 209 | 1485 | 7651 385 


North to East in warm period . : 302, ~incold 423 
East to South . - s 3 134 ‘ i 209 
South to West . i 3 2 SVAN 3 es - 1485 
West to North . : b f : 646 = . 785 | 
Variable and Calm. - : : 991 - 385 
_ If the Variable, &c. be distributed to the four classes in proportion to their amounts, 
_ the $.—W. will exceed on the warm side. 


Riis 
ed 


_ Meteorological Register for 1841-42, from Diurnal Observations taken at 
E Beddgelert in the County of Carnarvon. By Joun Pricwarp. 


Barometer oem Direction of the Wind. aa ACW the 
© | aed [ged] a) a) 5|2/2 a/ 2|.| 3 he 
mont.) 252 [SFE ) El EE ale lele|2) l2|\ 3 | alate 
| gee [Bs EIZ/Ele|F(e/3!] S18] § | sl lale 
a 9 Waleed fed Bred cue an a\ 3B Z é 
1841. in pts. as a oe 
May | 80:10: | 28-60 |69|42] 1] ...) 3} ...) 1) 4] 22 4:21 | 16). 5} ...| 10 
June “| 30:10 |29:08 |60|)51} 2} 4) 7) 2) 1) 3} 11) ...) 3:23} 20) 2 8 
- {July | 29:89 }28:90 | 62/50} 1} ...) 19) 3) ...) ... 8] ...| 7-77 9) 5 17) 
| August! 30:00 |29-11 | 60/52] 5)...) 8] 3) 1 14) ...) 11-76 |» 10) 13 8 
—{Sept. | 29:80 |28:40 |64/48] 2] ...) 1) 2) 6] 2) 17) ...) 5:39 | 13) 6)... 11 
~ (Oct. | 29:73 |28-16 |56/44| 5) 4) 6| 3} 4 9| ...| 9°72 9} 15} ...| 7 
ey: 30:10 | 28-00 |50/28] 3] 3} 7|...1 4! 3] 10 7-28 9| 6} 3 12 
‘ om 29°87 | 28°35 |50/31| 5} 3/10) 1] 1 10} 1] 9:32 3] 7] 1} 20 

‘1842. 

Jan. | 30:27 |28-50 |46}22} 6] 5] 6| 1] 3! 1 7] 2) 609! 16 4) 2! 9 

Feb. | 30-28 | 28:64 |46/28| 2) ...) 1] 4) 1) 1] 19] ...) 3:84] 15! 3! ...) 10 

March | 30-04 | 28-75 }48/36] 2) 1/11} 1] 1 15] ...) 819] 10} 5) ...1 16 

April | 30-10 | 28-86 | 60/34} 3) 3) 4) ...] .. 11] 3 6 2:35 | 26]... 1) 3 

—_——— | | | a | | ee | ee | ger em | a | ee | cece | ee | mee ee | | ee 
37] 23] 83] 20] 23| 25| 145| 9] 79-05 | 156) 71) 7/131 


___ The several instruments are read off everyday at 8 a.m. In noting the “ diurnal state 
___ of the weather,” it should be observed that by “ Fair” is meant, that no rain fell— 


[ 
a 


96 REPORT—1842. 


by “ Rain,” that the day has been decidedly wet—‘ Snow,” when any quantity fell— 
and “ Changeable,” showery and otherwise unsettled weather. The village of Bedd- 


gelert, where the above observations were taken, is situated on the south-west side of | 


the Snowdonian range of mountains, and about twenty yards above high-water mark. 
The last summer (1841) was unusually wet. 


On the Meteorology of the Northern Atlantic, the South-west Monsoon of 
India, and places adjacent. By Tuomas Hopkins. 


Mr. Hopkins argued that the common mode of accounting for the trade-winds and 
other great currents of the atmosphere was not correct. The general theory, he said, was 
that the action of the sun’s rays on the earth at the tropics raised the temperature of the 
atmosphere ; and that, as the air thus heated became specifically lighter, it naturally 
ascended; and, the cold air rushing in to supply its place, a current was produced. He 
did not mean to deny that such results took place, but he affirmed that the theory in 
question did not account for the various meteorological phenomena which have been 
observed, and that there was another cause which accounted for them in a much more 
satisfactory manner. He then proceeded to show, that the condensation of the air by 
great mountains, and the consequent precipitation of rain, must not be left out of ac- 
count in explaining the monsoons and other periodic winds. 


On a Meteorological Chart. By Tuomas Horxins. 


On the Application of the Law of Definite Proportions to the Stratification 
of Clouds. By James NAsMYTH. 


Mr. Nasmyth was first led to speculate on this subject by observing the arrange- 
ment of clouds in fine weather, when, towards the horizon particularly, they may be seen 
extended in parallel bands or stripes. He conceived that the excess of vapour floating 
in the atmosphere beyond what the air could combine with, formed clouds; and that 
the air, in each electric state, was capable of sustaining a definite proportion of vapour, 
and consequently that the clouds of one class or description floated (in what might be 
called a plane of equal electricity) at a uniform distance from the earth. 


On the Changes in the Climate of England. By Heyny Farrsarrn. 


The author proposes to prove that the low temperature of the summers of Europe 
is caused by the unusual presence of ice in the Atlantic Ocean. This he states to 
have been the fact during the four last cold summers, and adds, that the intelligence 
brought on the subject by steam-ships justified the expectation of the summer of 1842 
in Europe being also chilled from the same cause in the Atlantic. About halfa century 
since icebergs were a phenomenon in the Atlantic not visible until the autumn; now 
they increase annually in numbers, and appear as early as the month of March. 

Interposed between Great Britain and America, and drifted eastward by the Gulf- 
stream on the line of the north-west winds which prevail in summer, these moun~ 
tains of ice cool the air which blows from the west at that season, while the easterly 
winds are warm. ; 

The augmentation of ice in the Atlantic is referred by the author to the increase of 
warmth on the North American Continent, consequent on the cutting down of the 
forests and the extension of civilization. By this means the ice is detached from the 
circumpolar bays and rivers at an earlier period, and floats further south before being 
melted than heretofore. 


The President presented to the Section a pamphlet, transmitted for the acceptance 
of the British Association, from M. Lenz, containing two Essays, one ‘ On the Resist- 
ance of the Human Body to Galvanic Currents,’ the other ‘ On the Theory of Magneto- 
Electric Machines ;’ also ‘A Treatise on Atmospherical Electricity,’ by M. Peltier. 


SS 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 


On a new Optical Instrument. By Sir Joun Roxison. 


Sir John Robison informed the Section that he had lately ascertained, by trial, 
iat on a solid rod of glass being plunged into such a cavity as that of the external 
_ ear, the light reflected inwards, along the interior of the cylinder, illuminates the 
bottom of the cavity so as to render it distinctly visible through the matter of the 
glass, provided it be homogeneous, and the ends of the rod be properly figured and 

olished. He suggested that instruments on this principle should be made for the 
Beattthation of such cavities. 


To TH: SECRETARIES OF THE TWELFTH MEETING OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


I offer my warmest and most sincere thanks to you, illustrious and honoured Sirs, 
for the honour of the invitation which you had the complaisance to send me in the 
obliging letter of the 13th April, 1842, to attend the Twelfth Meeting of the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science. Iam very sorry to be unable to be 
present. In order to respond in some measure, and as much as is in my power, to 
an honour so conferred on me, I have desired my brother, who is at Turin, to send 
to the Meeting a copy of my Memoirs, published in Modena since 1836, and I have 
made an Abstract of my Sixth Memoir (not yet published) upon the Magnetizing 
Action of Transitory Electric Currents, which I take the liberty of sending you here- 
with. I trust that these productions may not seem unworthy to merit the attention 
of the meeting. I confide in your kindness and in that of your learned countrymen, 
and I hope you will receive my communication as a proof of my good wishes, and 
as a humble testirnony of gratitude and of the high esteem I entertain towards the 
British Association. 

» I beg you to accept the sentiments of lively gratitude and profound esteem and 

consideration with which I am proud to subscribe myself, Gentlemen, 

st ’ Your most obedient servant, Srerano MARIANINI. 

_ - Modena, Ist June, 1842. 

_ Abstract of an of oder: Memoir upon the Magnetizing Action of Trans- 

 itory Electric Currents, in which it is proposed to explain the Varia- 

_ tions in Magnetic Susceptibility which are frequently observed in Iron 
as often as it has been magnetized. (Addressed to the Twelfth Annual 

_ Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.) By 
Professor Sterano MariAnIni. 


__ A piece of iron magnetized to a certain degree, and afterwards deprived gra~ 
_ dually of its polarity by the circulation of electric currents round it, presents the phe- 
homenon, that, by a given current, it is magnetized more strongly or more feebly 
_ than it is in its natural state, according as the given current is so directed as to pro- 
_ duce the north pole in the same part in which it had been produced from the begin- 
_ hing, or is directed in the contrary way. This phenomenon furnished, three years 
ago, the subject of my Second Memoir upon the Magnetizing Action of Transitory 
- Electric Currents. But I then limited myself to the study of the laws of the ph- 
nomenon itself, of which it may not be inopportune to transcribe some here, for the 
_ better understanding of what follows :— 

ist. If the magnetic susceptibility of a piece of iron be in one direction increased 
(that is, so that it may have the north pole at a given extremity), and if it be 
i inished in an opposite direction, the susceptibility may be inverted by treating the 
_ same iron with currents or other magnetizing actions contrary to those first employed. 
__2ndly. The increase of magnetic susceptibility in one direction equals the decrease 
_ 0f magnetic susceptibility in an opposite direction. 
_ _ 8rdly. If the action of a given magnetizing current is repeated upon the same 
_ iron, the alteration in the susceptibility goes on always diminishing. 
After having long studied the means of depriving the iron of magnetic polarity, 
_ and especially the difference which occurs between the de-magnetizings produced by 
_ Operations which serve also to magnetize, and those produced by operations which 
Ri not serve to produce magnetism in a sensible degree; and after an equally long 
_ study of the actions of the transitory currents upon magnetized iron, it seemed to 


28 .. REPORT—1842. 


me that I was able to explain this singular phenomenon. The three following pro- 
positions, inferred from the said studies, may suffice for my present purpose :-— 

lst. When an electric current is made to circulate round an iron endowed with 
magnetic polarity, a second is generated, which, together with that pre-existing, forms 
a system of two polarities, more or less strong than the first, or even entirely 
neuter, according to the force and the direction of the current employed. 

2nd. The magnetic strengthening or weakening which is observed (when work- 
ing as above mentioned), is proportionably less when the pre-existing polarity is 
stronger. 

3rd. When magnetism is communicated to iron not magnetized, and not altered 
in its magnetic susceptibility, and a transitory current is then caused to circulate 
round it, a greater alteration is caused in the iron when it tends to magnetize it in 
a contrary direction, that is, to produce the north pole in the extremity in which the 
south pole is found. ; 

Let us endeavour to demonstrate these three propositions. The co-existence of 
two. conspiring polarities in one piece of iron I should not be able now to prove; 
but fortunately that is not necessary ; and to explain the phenomenon of which we 
treat, it suffices that the co-existence in a piece of iron of such polarities cannot be 
doubted when they are contrary. 

That such co-existence of opposite polarities is possible, is proved by the known 
fact, that two magnetic needles connected by poles of different name in contact, pre- 
sent a whole sometimes without any polarity, although, after whatever time they 
have been disunited they are both magnetized, as they were before they were con- 
nected. Still the consecutive points which are sometimes observed in magnetized 
needles, offer a proof that such magnetic systems may exist in the same iron. But 
here it is necessary to prove their existence in iron wires, in which not only are no 
consecutive points, but where there is no other trace of magnetism. 

To succeed in this separation, I set to work to study those operations which serve 
to destroy magnetism, but not to generate it, at least in small masses of iron, Such 
are heating, blows, shocks, friction, flexure, &c. Wires or cylinders of iron or steel, 
from four to nine centimetres in length, and weighing from four or five grammes to 
almost a hundred grammes, I have never succeeded in magnetizing by the said 
means, especially if the irons had never been magnetized, or, had they been so, if 
the magnetic state had been taken from them by heating, or by any other of the 
said operations. Thus, as often as I destroyed by such means the magnetism pro- 
duced in the iron by the electric currents, or by any other magnetizing agent, I never 
saw any variation in the magnetic susceptibility. The propositions deduced from the 
numerous experiments made upon the de-magnetizing action of the above-men- 
tioned operations, cannot be inserted in this abstract. It may suffice to record the 
following :— 

If an iron deprived of magnetism, and whose susceptibility has not been altered, 
be magnetized, and afterwards subjected to one of the said de-magnetizing opera- 
tions, the portion of magnetism it will lose will be greater when the magnetization 
communicated to it has been weak. The following is a proof :— 

A large iron wire, eight centimetres in length, and weighing twenty-seven grammes, 
was magnetized, so that the needle of the magnetometer deviated eight degrees*. 
Being let fall upon a table from the height of two decimetres, it lost so much force 
that the needle deviated but one degree. But having then magnetized it so that the 
needle deviated to 25°, and afterwards subjected it to a shock equal to the preceding, 
it yet did not lose the half of the magnetism which it had, since it caused the needle 
to deviate 14°. 

* This apparatus consists of a needle, from the extremity of the cap of which rises 
vertically a stick of brass, to which, by means of a running ring furnished with screws, 
in order to stop it at a convenient height, is attached a small horizontal rod, which carries 
a tube of glass surrounded by a coil of copper wire covered with silk. The tube is parallel 
to the magnetic needle, and its central point is in the perpendicular which passes through 
the centre of the needle itself. The wire is so placed that its axis coincides with that of the 
tube, and from the firm deviation of the under needle we may judge of the magnetic force 
which the iron already possesses, or of that which is acquired by it in discharging the 
Leyden jar upon the copper coil which surrounds it, 


+. ote 


sun “en a SNCS 


ig mees 


ey 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 299 


Let us then take a piece of iron, and after having magnetized it, by causing trans- 
itory electric currents to circulate around it, let us treat it with contrary and weaker 
currents than the preceding, until it no longer presents any polarity. If with the 
said contrary currents I produced in the iron polarities which did not mutually de- 
stroy, but only neutralized each other, what should happen if the iron were subjected 
to some shock? This act destroys a greater portion of the weak polarities than of 
the strong, and therefore the iron after the shock will appear possessed of some de- 
gree of magnetism, in the direction in which it had been more strongly magnetized. 
And this is conformable to what the experiment shows. 

An iron cylinder, nine centimetres in length and weighing fifteen grammes, after 
being magnetized so that the needle of the magnetometer deviated 60°, was deprived 
of all polarity by means of several electric currents, so that the needle pointed to 
zero. After this, having let the iron fall from the height of two metres upon the 
pavement, it recovered such magnetic force that the needle deviated 16°. 

If, instead of acting with moderate or weak currents to neutralize entirely the po- 
larity, some little is still permitted to remain, an iron is obtained, which has only 
force to cause the needle to deviate 6 or 7 degrees ; but after the shock the needle de- 
viated 16 or 17. 

And if the weak and contrary magnetizations are made use of until the iron causes 
the needle to deviate 4 or 5 degrees in a contrary direction (that is, towards the east, 
if it first deviated towards the west), then is the iron in such a state, that, by means 
of the shock, it changes polarity, that is, presents the south pole at the extremity 
which had the north, and vice versd. 

These facts, which may be varied in many ways, prove, if I err not, that ina 
piece of iron treated as I have mentioned, there exist systems of magnetic force, 
which altogether or in part neutralize each other. 

Let us proceed now to describe some experiments which show the truth of the other 
two propositions. 

An iron wire eight centimetres long, and weighing 118 decigrammes, was mag- 
netized until the needle of the magnetometer deviated 12°. A small Leyden jar 
(one square decimetre of coated surface), charged to the tension of 10° of the elec- 
trometer on the double quadrant of Volta, was discharged upon the coil in which 
was the iron, and so as to magnetize it in the same direction in which it was already, 
and the effect was that the needle of the instrument went from 12° to 25°. 

Having destroyed the magnetism of the said iron by means of shocks, and then 
magnetized until the needle of the magnetometer remained at 59°, and having dis- 
charged as above upon the coil the small jar charged to 10 degrees of tension, the 
needle moved from 59° to 63°. 

_ Whence it is seen, that the more the iron is magnetized the less a given current 
can strengthen its magnetism. 

I magnetized another iron equal to the preceding, so that it made the needle 
deviate 9°, and after having discharged upon the coil which contained the iron the 
jar charged to the usual tension, but so that it might tend to magnetize it oppo- 
sitely, the needle passed from the degree 9°, which it marked on one part to the 
1° on the opposite part. 

Having magnetized the iron again so that the needle deviated to 20°, and having 
afterwards discharged upon the coil the jar with its usual tension, and in a con- 


_ trary direction, the needle moved from the 20° to the 10°. 


_ Magnetism being also taken from the iron which then remained, then magnetized 
so that the needle remained at 60°, and then having caused to circulate round it the 
usual current excited by the small jar charged to 10° of tension, and so as to pro- 
duce a contrary magnetism, the needle moved from 60° and stopped at 44°. 


_. Thus, the more a piece of iron is magnetized, the less is its magnetism neutralized 


by a contrary current. 
_ Another piece of iron similar to the preceding being magnetized so that the 
needle was fixed at 29°, and the jar with the usual tension being then discharged, 
and so as to strengthen the magnetism already possessed by the iron, the needle 
moved from 29° to 41°. 

Having, by the usual mechanical operations, destroyed the magnetism of this iron, 
then magnetized so that the needle was at 27°, upon the discharge of the jar with 


30 ' REPORT—1842, 


the usual tension upon the coil, and so as to produce contrary magnetism, the 
needle moved from 27° to 12°, 

Thus the said current acting so as to strengthen the magnetism of an iron which 
caused the needle to deviate 10°, increased it so much that it deviated 21°. But that 
magnetism being removed, and the same experiment being then repeated by causing 
the current to act in an opposite direction, the deviation of 10° west was changed 
to 3° east. 

A given current, therefore, and the same degree of another magnetizing action 
has less effect when so directed as to strengthen, than when so as to neutralize the 
magnetism. 

Which things being established, it becomes easy to explain the variations in the 
magnetic susceptibility of iron, of which we are here treating. 

Let us suppose an iron magnetized with some force, as, for example, that the 
needle of the magnetometer may deviate 40°, and weaker currents being afterwards 
made to circulate round it, let it be reduced to the point of no deviation. This iron 
will be in such condition, that by a given current which circulates around it, it will be 
more strongly magnetized, when this serves to make the south pole appear from the 
same part at which it appeared when it was strongly magnetized, than when the 
same current is made so to act that it tends to produce the south pole from the 
part on which the lesser currents, which were made use of to neutralize the first 
magnetization, tended to produce it. 

In fact, if with these discharges of the Leyden jar I have produced so many magnetic 
systems, which now exist in the said iron, by causing to circulate around it a given cur- 
rent, so directed as to tend to magnetize the iron, in the direction in which it had been 
strongly, it is very true that it will but little strengthen the magnetic system having 
the south pole towards the west, but it is true also that it will much neutralize the 
weaker and opposite systems. Hence a polarity ought to be manifested in the said 
direction, stronger than that which would be obtained with the same current before 
the iron had been treated in the manner we have mentioned. Since things being 
placed in the state of the preceding experiment, that is, the magnetism of the iron 
being neutralized, if an equal transitory electric current is made to act so as to 
produce in the iron the south pole on the opposite part, the neutralization of the 
strong magnetic system should be small, and equally small the strengthening in the 
opposite magnetic systems, and thence the resulting magnetization will appear weak. 

I conclude this abstract with describing an experiment, in which, with a union 
of iron wires differently magnetized, the phenomena are imitated which the facts 
aboye stated make us suppose to exist in an iron when its magnetic susceptibility is 
changed. 

I magnetized a bundle of six iron wires eight» centimetres long, and weighing in 
all thirty-seven decigrammes, deprived of magnetism, and not changed in magnetic 
susceptibility, so that the needle of the magnetometer was caused to deviate 48° to- 
wards the west, With five other iron wires, slightly magnetized and in different 
degrees, united to the above bundle so that the north pole of the latter came in con- 
tact with the south poles of the former, I made a bundle of eleven wires which did not 
cause the needle to deviate. Having placed this bundle in the usual coil, and dis- 
charged upon it the small Leyden jar with the tension of 10°, and so directed as to 
produce the north pole in the said bundle, on the side where the six wires united to- 
gether had it, such a magnetization ensued that the needle deviated 49°. And the 
experiment being repeated from the beginning, and the jar with the same tension of 
10° being then discharged upon the coil, but directed contrarywise, a magnetization 


of only 22° ensued. _  Srerano Martanint. 
Modena, 3lst May, 1842, 


CHEMISTRY. 


On the Electrolysing Power of a simple Voltaic Cirele. By Professor 
ScuonseEIn of Basle. 


The object of the experiments detailed in this paper, is to investigate the conditions 
under which the electrolysis of water takes place when a feeble electric current is 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 


employed.. He found that when the negative platinum electrode is covered with a 
thin film of an oxidised substance, water is decomposed by a current, which under 
ordinary circumstances could not effect its electrolysis. From these experiments he 
was led to seek for evidence of a polarised state of the electrolyte, and he came to 
the conclusion, that the effects produced by oxidising and other substances in the 
vicinity of the electrodes, are partly due to the chemical action which takes place be- 
tween the ions of the electrolyte and the matters which surround the electrodes, or 
the substance of which they are composed, and partly to a depolarization of the 
electrodes effected by those substances. 


On the Electric Origin of the Heat of Combustion. By J. P. Jouir. 


The author had endeavoured, in a former paper (vide Phil. Mag. vol. xx. p. 98), 
to account for the heat evolved by combustion, on the hypothesis of its arising from 
resistance to electric conduction, and had shown that the affinity of atoms for one 
another is the measure of the heat evolved by their combination, In that paper he 
had introduced his own experiments on the quantity of heat generated by combustion. 
The simplicity of his apparatus had caused him to suspect that he had not collected 
all the heat evolved; but having lately reduced to English measure the results of 
Dulong’s experiments, which were executed in a manner very well adapted to pre- 
vent loss of heat, he finds them to agree so nearly with his own results as to prove 
that the method he used was not incapable of accuracy. 

_, The following is a table of results both of experiment and theory, reduced to de- 
grees Fahr. per lb. of water :— 


Quantities converted Corrected 


J. P. Joule’s 


. : Dulong’s Theoretical A 
opel ty iy . Bieta Experiments.| Results. cess 
40 ers. of Potassium 17°6 21°47 
33 = Zinc ...... 10°98 11°03 13°83 11°01 
28 —  Tron...... 9°00 9°48 12°36 8°06 
31°6 — Copper... 5°18 BEceR. 9°97 5°97] 
1 — Hydrogen | ' 8°98 8°36 10°47 10°40 * 


All the theoretical results in column 4, except that for potassium, which was ob- 
tained by a more complicated process, were calculated in the following manner :— 
The electromotive forces necessary to separate the elements of the various oxides 
ae the solutions of their sulphates were first ascertained ; and then the quantity of 
heat which ought to be produced per equivalent of currents of these intensities, ac- 
cording to the laws which regulate the heat produced by electricity, was calculated, 
on the assumption that the intensity necessary to separate oxygen and metal from 
the sulphate is the same as the intensity of current caused by the union of those 
bodies in combustion. 

_. Latterly, however, the author, finding reason to think that this is not the fact, but 


a that part of the force of a current engaged in electrolyzing these compound bodies 
ya ¢ used in separating the acid from the base prior to the decomposition of the latter, 


has endeavoured to obtain the correct results of theory by subtracting from the re- 


sults in the fourth column the heat due to that extra intensity of current. These 


corrections were obtained by ascertaining the heat evolved by the solution of the 
various oxides in dilute sulphuric acid, and when subtracted from the numbers in the 
fourth column they leave those in the fifth. 

_ The author is of opinion that he has thus succeeded in rendering evident the fact, 
that the heat of combustion is an electrical phenomenon, and that the method of its 
development is by resistance to electric conduction. 


* Prof. Daniell finds that = of an equivalent of sulphuric acid goes to the positive elec- 
trode when dilute sulphuric acid is electrolyzed. This demands the further reduction of the 
theoretical result for hydrogen by about one degree—-August, J. P. J. 


82 ~-REPORT—1842. 


On Apparatus for applying Circular Polarization to Chemical Inquiries. 
By Prof. PowE.t, F.RS., §¢. 


The application of the phenomena of circular polarization as characterizing certain 
liquid solutions, has been fully pointed out by M. Biot, and an apparatus has been 
devised by him of the most perfect and accurate construction, for ascertaining and 
measuring the effects in question. That apparatus is however complicated, expensive, 
and very difficult to adjust, especially for those not familiar with optical experiments : 
and where the object may be rather general indications than minute measures, it ap- 
peared to the author susceptible of considerable simplification, which though unim- 
portant to the more refined optical inquirer, might be valuable to the chemical student. 

In. general the essential parts of any such apparatus are,—lIst, a polarizing plate ; 
2nd, a tube containing the liquid under examination, so constructed that the polar- 
ized ray can pass along its axis; 3rd, an analyser of double-refracting crystal. 

In M. Biot’s apparatus the supports, &c. are complex and difficult to adjust. The 
tubes are of costly construction, each end being covered with plates of glass, so that 
when filled with liquid, and the glasses screwed on tight, the original luminous 
image is seen distinctly through a great thickness of the 
liquid, bounded by truly plane parallel surfaces. To 
fulfil these conditions is a very troublesome process. The 
analyser also must consist of cale spar of the greatest 
purity, cut and adjusted with perfect accuracy to give 
two truly achromatized images considerably separated. 

The simplified form proposed by the author is as fol- 
lows :— 

Ist. Instead of the tubes with parallel glass ends, &c., 
he uses merely common test tubes, having a hemispherical 
bottom and open at the top. The use of these is of 
course limited to the vertical position; and the polarizing 
plate (P) of black glass must be fixed below at 353° to the 
axis of the vertical tube (T). 

2ndly. It is consequently necessary to introduce a small 
silvered mirror (S) to throw the light upon (P) in the 
proper direction. 

3rdly. The tube must be enclosed in an opake case, 
and the light admitted at the bottom through a small 
hole. _ When the eye looks down it, the image of the lu- 
minous hole will be very irregular ; but, 

4thly. This evil is remedied by the remaining pecu- 
liarity in the analyser (A) ; which instead of the double 
refracting prism, consists simply of a double refracting 
crystal in its natural state, about three-fourths of an inch 
in thickness (R), on which the light falls through a hole 
(h), about one-twentiethof an inch in diameter ; the crystal 
is enclosed in a tube, in which slides another carrying a 
small lens (L), which at once magnifies the separation, and 
forms two distinct circular discs, however irregular the 
light, and in which all the optical changes are distinctly 
seen, either by the light of the clouds, or of a lamp, on 
making the analyser revolve about the axis, and measu- 
ring its rotation on a divided circular rim round if. 

The supports should be so contrived that the analyser 
may be adjusted to different heights, to allow of the in- 
sertion of tubes of different lengths from about six to 
NY eighteen or twenty-four inches. 


On some peculiar instances of (so-called) Catalytic Action. By 
Mr, Mercer. 


Mr. Mercer had long considered that instances of catalysis were merely examples 
of chemical affinity exercised under peculiar circumstances. A body never entirely 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 


yields up its chemical characters on uniting with other bodies. The iron in pro- 
toxide of iron has still an affinity for more oxygen, and has not lost that affinity by 
its first union with that element. The intensity of affinity, by which the simple ele- 
ments are joined in the complex molecule, must be the measure of the stability of 
the compound. Mr. Mercer argued, that when the elements of a body are in mere 
static equilibrium, by virtue of a feeble attraction, and when it is acted upon by 
another body possessing an affinity for one of its constituents, which constituent, on 
the other hand, from peculiar circumstances, is not prone to combine with it, that 
in such a case so-called catalysis must ensue. Thus, on mixing oxalic acid and 
nitric acid with a little water, and raising the temperature to 130°, no action ensues. 
But if a small portion of any protosalt of manganese be now added, the decom- 
position immediately commences, and all the nitric is converted into nitrous acid, 
whilst the oxalic acid passes into carbonic acid. He thus accounts for this singular 
‘action :—The carbonic oxide of the oxalic acid possesses a disposition to unite with 
oxygen. ‘To gratify this disposition, it endeavours to withdraw it from nitric acid, 
but is not sufficiently powerful to do so; still it places the atoms of the nitric acid 
in’a state of tension. Another body (protoxide of manganese) now being introduced, 
which also possesses an affinity for oxygen, exerts this affinity, and the combined 
forces thus acting upon the nitric acid occasion its decomposition. The moment the 
oxygen is withdrawn from its state of combination, it has two affinities to choose 
between, and the attraction of the oxalic acid being greater, it passes over to it, con- 
verting it inte carbonic acid. The protoxide of manganese still remaining will act 
on fresh portions ad infinitum. Most of the vegetable acids may be decomposed in a 
similar manner. Following up this view, Mr. Mercer had discovered a number of 
examples of what formerly would have been called catalysis. He showed, that 
when alumina (precipitated from a hot solution) is placed in contact with dilute nitric 
acid, no apparent action ensues. But as Dr. Playfair had described a peroxide of 
aluminium, it ought to have a disposition to unite with oxygen. To discover then 
whether the atoms of nitric acid were actually in a state of tension, he introduced a 
slip of calico rendered blue by indigo. When this came in contact with the preci- 
pitated alumina, the indigo was immediately discharged, although it remained un- 
affected in the supernatant liquor. Chlorous acid was a body well fitted for his 
purpose, as its elements were held together by a feeble affinity, and as its oxygen was 
very readily yielded. He showed that the peroxide of copper, discovered by Dr. Play- 
fair, occasioned a great evolution of oxygen from a solution of chloride of soda. 
This was owing to its endeavour to become cupric acid, which under certain cir- 
cumstances it did form. He had noticed many years since that a dark purple solu- 
tion is obtained on mixing chloride of lime, a salt of copper, and lime with water, 
and leaving the mixture at repose. No evolution of oxygen is occasioned by this 
purple solution, but by the peroxide of copper before passing into it. Peroxides of 
_ Manganese and cobalt exert a similar action. The reason was, that these metals 
possessed only a feeble affinity to pass into the metallic acids. Still the affinity was 
_ sufficient to occasion the withdrawal of oxygen from chlorous acid. The moment it 
_ was withdrawn elasticity came into play, and it escaped as a gas. A similar action 
_ is exerted by the peroxides of iron and lead. From these and several other instances 
_ which were described, Mr. Mercer concluded that almost all instances of catalytic 
_ action may be reduced to feeble chemical affinity. He concluded by some specula- 
tions on the atomic constitution of complex molecules. 


4 ok ry ; 
. On Hematoxylin, the Colouring Principle of Logwood. By Professor 
oni O. L. Erpmann of Leipsic. 


4 


q The hematoxylin used by the author in his experiments, was prepared by the 
ae: ‘process of Chevreul. Ina state of purity hematoxylin is not red; it is in itself no 
_ colouring matter, being merely a substance capable of producing colouring matters 
__ ina manner similar to lecanorin, orcein, or phloridzin. The colours which it pro- 
____ duces are formed by the simultaneous action of bases (particularly strong alkalies), 
; “y and the oxygen of the atmosphere. By the action of these it undergoes a process of 
__ eremacausis, which, after forming colouring matters, ends in the production of a 
___ brown substance resembling mould. - 

: : 1842. D 


34 REPORT—1842., 


The colour of hematoxylin varies from a pale reddish yellow toa pale honey 
colour. The crystals are transparent, possess a strong lustre, and may be obtained 
a few lines in length. Their form is a rectangular, four-sided prism, sometimes with 
a pyramidal summit. The taste of hematoxylin is similar to that of liquorice ; it is 
not very soluble in cold water, but dissolves freely, with a yellow colour, in boiling 
water. Its solutions are reddened by the action of ammonia and oxygen. Oxygen 
alone is incapable of producing this effect, but the most minute trace of ammonia 
imparts a purple colour to the solution. Hematoxylin forms, therefore, the most 
delicate test for ammonia, and is the easiest method of proving its presence in the 
atmosphere. Hzmatoxylin is soluble in alcohol and zther. When exposed to the 
influence of light it acquires a reddish tinge; on being heated it is decomposed, 
without giving any sublimate. It contains no nitrogen. When heated in the water- 
bath it loses 16 per cent. of water. The dry substance possesses the formula 
Cy Hy; O,;. There are two hydrates of hematoxylin. Acids do not act so ener-' 
getically on hematoxylin as bases. All the compounds of hematoxylin and bases 
are decomposed by air and moisture. 

The formation of the blue or red colouring matters which hematoxylin is capable 
of producing, takes place in general by the mutual influence of bases and oxygen. If 
an excess of ammonia or potash be added to a solution of hematoxylin, the liquid 
becomes at first of a deep red colour, afterwards opake and of a dark red. | After 
the lapse of some time it loses its red colour altogether, becoming of a dirty brown 
hue. When acetic acid is added to the solution, a voluminous brown precipitate is 
obtained; this body the author calls hematein. When the red solution is cautiously 
evaporated, a substance of a dark violet colour is deposited ; this body is hematein- 
ammonia. Heematein is analogous to orcein, phloridzein, &c.; it dissolves in water 
with a purple colour; by evaporating the solution, the whole of the ammonia is ex- 
pelled, and pure hematein remains. Hematein differs from orcein in containing no 
nitrogen: its formula is Cy Hy; Oys- _ Hematoxylin, therefore, in passing into 
hzmatein, under the influence of ammonia, takes up three atoms of oxygen, two of 
which combine with two of hydrégen to form water, and the third remains in the 
compound C4) Hy Oy; + O; = Ca H,; O,, + H, O,. _Hematein-ammonia is com- 
posed as follows :-—Cyy Hy No Oy, which is equal to Cy Hy, 0O,;+2NH, 0, 
Hematein must therefore have the following composition :—Cyy H,, O;; + HO. 
Heematein may be combined with most metallic oxides, Hzmatein is decolorized 
by sulphuretted hydrogen, but this is not the effect of reduction, for the solution re- 
gains its red colour when evaporated in vacuo, The author concurs.with Chevreul’s 
view, in supposing that sulphuretted hydrogen acts on reddened hematoxylin or 
hmatein in the same manner as a weak acid. 


On the Formation of Cyanuret of Potassium in a Blast Furnace. 
By Dr. C. Bromets of Cassel. 


M. Zincken discovered, at the bottom of the blast furnace at Magdesprung in the 
Hartz Mountains, a mass which Dr. Bromeis found to contain ferrocyanuret of po- 
tassium. The furnace from which it was obtained had been fed with charcoal. The 
other ingredients of the saline mass were caustic potash, carbonate, silicate, and 
manganate of potash, together with a large proportion of cyanate of potash and 
cyanuret of potassium. It is probable that the ferrocyanuret of potassium did not 
exist ready formed in the mass, but was produced after dissolving the cyanuret of 
potassium in water. The cyanate of potash, by its decomposition, gives rise to car- 
bonate of potash and ammonia. Dr. Bromeis supposes that the formation of cya- 
nogen must have been occasioned in the following manner :—The nitrogen of the 
atmosphere being exposed to a great pressure and high temperature, combined directly 
with the carbon. of the carburet of potassium, producing thereby cyanogen and cya- 
nuret of potassium, This explanation accords with the experiments of Defosse, 


On the Compounds of Carbon and Iron. By Dr. C. Bromets. 


Dr. Bromeis analysed various kinds of iron by burning them in a tube, witha 
mixture of chromate of lead and chlorate of potash. The combustion is conducted 


; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 
9 


exactly like an organic analysis, and is the method invented by Regnault. An im- 
portant point in the determination of the carbon in iron is to ascertain the propor- 
tion of carbon in a state of combination, in contradistinction to that which is 
mechanically mixed with the metal. Dr. Bromeis effected this by dissolving the 
mixture in muriatic acid; the carbon in chemical combination unites with hydrogen 
and forms carburetted hydrogen, while the carbon in mechanical mixture takes no 
part in the action, but remains unaffected, and may be accurately determined. This 
quantity, being subtracted from the whole carbon obtained by combustion, affords a 
means of estimating the quantity in chemical combination. 
- Dr. Bromeis found in crystalline white cast iron, 3°8 per cent. of carbon; but as 
some white cast iron has been found to contain 4°2, or even 5°3 per cent., Dr. Bromeis 
considers that manganese may be substituted for it; he sometimes found as much 
as 7 per cent. of this metal. It appears, therefore, that neither common nor white’ 
cast iron are polycarburets of determinate constitution. 
' In white cast iron Dr. Bromeis found only 0°5 per cent. of mechanically combined 
carbon, in other kinds nearly 1 per cent-, and in gray cast iron 2°3 percent. Hence 
it follows that the chemically combined carbon amounts only to 0°9 per cent. Kars- 
ten found 0°85 per cent. 
~ Cast steel, according to Gay-Lussac and Wilson, contains 0°93 per cent. carbon, 
Bromeis found in hard cast steel, 0°97 per cent. 

Gray cast iron may be considered as a mixture of very impure cast steel with 
carbon. This may possibly be the cause that it can be so easily hardened on the 
surface. 


+ 


On Kahodylic Acid and the Sulphurets of Kakodyl. By Prof. Bunsen 
organ of Marburg. 


__ In the present paper Prof. Bunsen examines the higher stages of oxidation: of 
kakodyl, and the sulphurets corresponding to them. He finds that by the oxidation 
_ of alkarsin, either by the direct action of the air or by means of oxide of mercury, 
_ kakodylic acid is formed; but there is also an intermediate oxide which cannot be 
_ obtained in a state of purity, which seems to be similar to the hyponitric acid, and 
_ to be a combination of kakodylic acid with the oxide. Kakodylie acid crystallizes 
out of. alcohol; its composition is Ct H® As? O* + HO, this atom of water’ being 
constitutional, and only to be replaced by a base; it is soluble in water but not in 
ether. A very remarkable fact with respect to this body is, that the poisonous pro- 
_ perties of the arsenic seem totally annihilated ; eight grains administered to a rabbit 
exerted no poisonous action. , 
_'Kakodyl-combines directly with sulphur, forming the protosulphuret which has 
_ been already described. This compound takes up another atom of sulphur, and 
‘produces the bisulphuret. There appears also to be a tersulphuret analogous to 
kakodylic acid. Prof. Bunsen has not, however, been able to obtain it in'a pure 
state. From the above results, it appears that kakodyl is precisely similar in its 
behaviour to some simple metals; and the formation of kakodylic acid by direct 
enon is in exact opposition to the theory of substitution of M. Dumas. 
diss ist: | : ( 
On some New Oxides of certain of the Metals of the Magnesian Family. 
Mave een Hi By Dr: Lyon Prayrair. 


_ The author first drew attention to the defective state of.our knowledge regarding 
_ the oxides of the magnesian family. Iron and manganese possess sesquioxides, but 
) r and zinc do not. Manganese has a high degree of oxidation represented by 
‘ ormula RO,, but none of the other metals mentioned have an analogous oxide, 
“There is nothing in the molecular structure of the metals to account for this dif- 
ference. “Tt is indeed true that Thénard has described compounds of copper, zinc, 
‘and calcium, to which he has ascribed the general formula of peroxide of manga- 
nese. But these compounds do not possess any chemical characters in common 

“with that oxide. They are very unstable bodies, being decomposed spontaneously in 
_ air, and more rapidly so by heat, by alkalies, and by acids; they are formed by the 
ion of peroxide of hydrogen on the protoxides of the metals, The author had 

Da 


36 1 REPORT—1842. 


found that.magnesian protoxides were very apt to form compounds with magnesian 
peroxides of the general formula RO + R.QO,. Hydrogen itself possesses all the 
characters of a magnesian metal, and hence should share this aptitude. Thénard 
found a deficiency of oxygen in the compounds obtained by him. ‘This deficiency 
would be accounted for on Dr. Playfair’s view, that they consisted of peroxide of 
hydrogen with a metallic protoxide, of the formula M O + H, O,, corresponding to 
the compounds obtained by the author, RO + R,O,. On this view, the proportion 
of the radical to the oxygen would be 3:5, whilst on Thénard’s formula of R O,, it 
would be 3: 6. 

Dr. Playfair then described at length the manner in which he prepared the true 
peroxides ; chloride of soda was employed to effect their oxidation. He had obtained 
a peroxide of copper of a brown colour, which evolved oxygen when dissolved in 
acids, and chlorine with muriatic acid. In its highest state of hydration it contained 
2 atoms of water; at 212°, 14 atom is expelled, thus showing that the correct for- 
mula of the oxide is Cu,O,. The water is held with different degrees of force, and 
compounds were described in which this water is replaced by oxide of copper. The 
author also obtained a compound of this peroxide with a sesquioxide of copper, 
corresponding to the mineral varvacite (MnO + Mn,O,) + HO. The new body 
possesses the analogous formula (Cu, O; + Cu, O4) + HO. . 

The author also obtained a peroxide of iron (Fe O,) by similar treatment. It pos- 
sesses analogous characters with peroxide of copper. \ Thus it contains 2 atoms of 
water, half an atom of which is held with considerable force. This peroxide is sus- 
ceptible of entering into combination with the sesquioxide of iron, and of forming a 
compound corresponding to varvacite in chemical composition. ‘The author had also 
obtained a peroxide of aluminium of similar properties with the preceding peroxides, 
but which differed in its relation to water. He concluded by announcing the dis- 
covery of some new oxides of zinc and chromium, the examination of which were 
not yet completed. 


Note on the Composition and Characters of Caryophyllin. 
By Dr. Lyon Prayrair. . 


_Caryophyllin may best be prepared by digesting cloves with alcohol for severa 
days, in the manner described in Liebig’s ‘Organic Chemistry.’ When pure, it is a 
snow-white crystalline substance, insoluble in water, but easily soluble-in hot 
alcohol. The addition of caustic ammonia or caustic potash to the alcoholic solu- 
tion does not occasion decomposition or precipitation. Caryophyllin has been ana- 
lysed by Dumas and Ettling, who found it to possess the formula Cio Hyg O:. The 
author of this paper found that, although this was the correct expression of the com- 
position of melted caryophyllin, it was not so of that body in its natural state. He 
found caryophyllin, kept for three days at 212°, to possess the empirical formula 
Cy Hyg3 O;, or the rational formula Cy H3. O, + HO. This shows that the formula 
given by Dumas and Ettling must be quadrupled. The anhydrous caryophyllin 
would seem to show that it is isomeric with common camphor, but this hydrate 
proves that it possesses twice its atomic weight, and brings it into the same category 
of bodies with pinic, silvic, and copahuvic acids. Caryophyllin has always been sup- 
posed to be an indifferent body, but the author showed that it is a weak acid, capable 
of forming salts. Caryophyllite of potash (from which all the metallic salts may be 
procured by double decomposition) is obtained by dissolving caryophyllin in an alco- 
holic solution of potash, agitating the mixture with an excess of bicarbonate of 
potash, evaporating the whole to dryness, and dissolving out the caryophyllite of 
potash with anhydrous alcohol. The salts formed with metallic oxides and caryo- 
phyllin are insoluble. Caryophyllite of potash is a white saponaceous body with a 
crystalline appearance. 

The oil of cloves possesses the formula C,,) Hs. By the absorption of one atom of 
oxygen it would be conyerted into caryophyllin, Cygo Hs O = Cy. Hy: Oy. The 
simplest view would, therefore, be to suppose that caryophyllin is a product of the 


oxidation of the indifferent oil of cloves, and not an educt of the cloves them- 
selves, i 


x, 
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 
: 


Contributions to the History of the Magnesian Limestones. 

iis By Mr. Ricuarpson. 

The author, considering the great importance of the magnesian limestones, both 
to the manufacturer and agriculturist, conceived that an account of their composition 
might prove acceptable. He examined the various limestones systematically, accord- 
ing to the excellent arrangement of Prof. Sedgwick, and collected the results of his 
analyses in a tabular form. The insoluble residue of the specimens subjected to 
analysis contained, in every case, organic matter. The analyses proved a very great 
variation in the quantities of lime and magnesia. Mr. Richardson argued, that the 
deposition of the lime and magnesia must have been effected simultaneously, from 
the fact of layers of limestone existing above and below the magnesian limestones, in 
which layers no magnesia can be detected. -He was inclined to ascribe their depo- 
sition to the influx of waters holding chloride of magnesium in solution, which, 
meeting with calcareous matter held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid, robbed 
it of that excess, and the two carbonates of lime and magnesia fell together. 


‘ 


On the Agricultural Importance of ascertaining the minute portions of matter 
- derived from Organic Sources that may be preserved in the Surface Soil, 
and on the Chemical means by which tts presence may be detected. By 

Dr. DauBeny. 

The researches of Sprengel and Liebig, by showing the manner in which minute 
quantities of certain ingredients may impart to the soil into which they enter as 
constituents entirely new properties with reference to the purposes of agriculture, 
have given additional interest to the methods of analysis, which aim at determining 
the chemical composition of the surface, and of the substratum from which the 
former principally derives its chief ingredients. The rude mechanical method adopted, 
even by such chemists as Sir H. Davy, is no longer considered sufficient. The 
nature, as well as the amount of the organic matter present, and the existence 
of phosphates, &c. in the proportion of -15,, or even, 1,,th part of the en- 
_ tire mass, are points deserving investigation, and afford a clue to the description 
of manures most likely to be useful, and to the general treatment which the 
land may require. It is also obvious, that the same importance attaches to a 
_ knowledge of the constitution of the subsoil, since the advantages of exposing to 
atmospheric influences, and thus disintegrating, the portions underneath, by deep 
ploughing, and other methods of bringing the subsoil to the surface, will in a great 
degree depend upon its containing ingredients which the crop requires for its sub= 
‘sistence, and of which the superficial soil has been already in a great degree 
exhausted. Thus, for example, it will often become a question with the farmer, 
whether it be more economical to mix with the soil a given quantity of phosphate 
__ of lime, or to incur the labour of so breaking up a portion of the subjacent rock, as 
_ to unlock, ‘as it were, for the use of the crop, that quantity which it contains in 
_ @lose union with its other constituents. This inquiry, however, presupposes a 
_ knowledge on his part of the existence of phosphate of lime in the soil, and of the 
_ relative proportion it bears to the other ingredients ; data which can only be obtained 
_ through the assistance of refined chemical analysis. A few simple and easy calcn- 
_ lations may show how very small a proportion of this ingredient might suffice during 
_ a long period of time, for the demands even of those crops which require the largest 
_ amount of it for their nutrition. Suppose the subsoil of a single acre of ground, 
_ turned up to the depth of a foot, to weigh 1000 tons: now if this rock should be 
found to contain only ygppth part of phosphate of lime, it will follow that no 
_ less than a ton of this substance might be extracted from the uppermost foot of the 
subjacent rock, by the action of the elements, or by chemical means. Now one 

ton of phosphate of lime would be adequate to supply 125 tons of wheat, or 680 
ons of turnips. And if we reckon the average crop obtained from an acre of land 
to be, of wheat, one ton, and of turnips, fifteen, it is evident that we have at hand 
‘as much phosphate of lime as would be necessary for 125 crops of the former, or 
_ forty-five crops of the latter. Dr. Daubeny said he had great reason to believe, that 
many of our secondary rocks, those especially which contain organic remains, and 
_ Which appear in a great measure to be made up of shells, would be found, if ex- 


38 276 REPORT—1842. 


amined, to-eontain as large a quantity of phosphate of lime as that mentioned. 
Though the soil of Great Britain be found deficient in the phosphates, there is reason 
to believe the subsoil might in many cases be made, by proper management, to im- 
part to it what’ was wanting. The discovery by Dr. Buckland, in the lias and 
other secondary rocks, of the solid feces of certain extinct animals, consisting of 
phosphate of lime, induced Dr. Daubeny, some years since, to testa variety of 
specimens of limestone, with a view of ascertaining whether traces might be found 
in them of the same ingredient. The result was, that phosphate of lime in minute 
quantities was much too commonly distributed to be attributed to coprolitic matter, 
or to afford any independent evidence of its presence. -When, indeed, we recollect 
that the shells of invertebral animals contain from three to six per cent. of phosphate 
of lime, and that, according to Mr. Connel, the scales of extinct fish, taken from 
rocks as old as the coal formation, possess no less than fifty per cent. of the same 
ingredient, it would be wonderful, indeed, if all traces of this substance had disap- 
peared from rocks which appear often to be made up in a great degree of the debris 
of shells and other marine exuvie. Dr. Daubeny was, therefore, not surprised at 
being informed by M. Schweitzer, who is intrusted with the management of the 
German Spa at Brighton, that he had detected in the chalk of Brighton Downs, 


as much as ;gppth part of phosphate of lime. From experiments since made 
by Dr. Daubeny on the: same rock, taken from various localities, he was inclined to 
believe, that minute portions of this substance are present not uncommonly in that 
formation. The frequent occurrence of phosphate of lime in calcareous rocks, and 
the probability of its having been derived from the shells or bony matter of the living 
beings contained in the calcareous rock, led Dr. Daubeny to suspect that traces also 
of the organic matter which contributed to make up the animal structure, might 
likewise be found accompanying it. He had accordingly availed himself in several 
instances of the property which a solution of nitrate of silver possesses of becoming 
black, by being brought into contact with organic matter on exposure to the light, 
as a ready means of ascertaining the presence of organic matter in a specimen of 
limestone; and whilst by this test he determined its entire absence from Carrara 
marble, chalk from the neighbourhood of a basaltic dyke on the coast of Antrim, and 
even in many instances from petrifactions of shells contained in the secondary rocks, 
he had obtained indications of the presence of some form of organized matter in se- 
veral of the tertiary rocks, and even in the chalk. 

This test, however, cannot be successfully applied, except when bituminous matter 
and every other form of mineral carbon are absent, and when the non-existence of 
common salt has been previously established by the absence of any cloudiness upon 
the addition of nitrate of silver after an exposure to light has taken place*; nor 
does this test enable us to determine whether the organic matter is of a vegetable or 
an animal nature; to ascertain the latter, a modification of Will and Varrentrapp’s 
process for estimating the amount of nitrogen in organic matter might probably be 
adopted, the insoluble portion being heated with quicklime and caustic alkali in an 
iron or platina tube, and the yapours being collected in a receiver containing muriatic 
acid, or tested with turmeric paper. 

Dr. Daubeny read a letter from M. Schweitzer, who states that he had been pre- 
cluded from employing the secondary limestones in obtaining carbonic acid where- 
with to impregnate his mineral waters, owing to an empyreumatical odour which the 
gas carried up, and which he attributed to an organic cause. To obtain a perfectly 
pure carbonic acid, for his imitation of the spas of the continent, he was compelled 
to resort to the white kinds of marble. With regard to the presence of organic 
matter in the subsoil, its detection may be a matter of some agricultural interest, 
when we remember that the small quantities of nitrogen which are required for the 
growth of those vegetables that first start up in a new country, could not haye 
been derived from an accumulation of mould by the decay of antecedent plants, but 
must have arisen in a great measure from the animal matter, which is contained in 
the rock upon which they grew, and which proceeds from the exuvie of races of 
beings belonging to a former period of creation. In a more advanced stage of vege- 
tation, this same material may be of some yalue to the crops that occupy the soil. 


* Common salt is present generally in chalk from the neighbourhood of the sea, and some- 
times even in specimens from the interior. LAOH: dhol 


_ TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


Dr. Daubeny suggested whether the more compact texture of certain calcareous 
rocks than of others, might not be connected with the existence in them of organic 
matter, which, by its interposition, may prevent a crystalline arrangement of its par- 
‘ticles from taking place. 1t may be, that the attraction between the particles of 
matter, which, if uncontrolled, would prove too powerful for the agents of decompo- 
‘sition to overcome, is weakened by the presence of organic matter, which thus enables 
the rock to supply the vegetables that take root in it with the solid matter which 
their structure requires. To the geologist, too, it cannot but be of interest to trace 
the several steps by which the organic matters, which primarily must have constituted 
so large a portion of the bulk of the various extinct animals and vegetables, have 
disappeared from the strata which enveloped them. 


On the Causes of the Irregularities of Surface which are observable in certain 
parts of the Magnesian Limestone Formations of this Country. By Dr. 
DavBeENy. 


The magnesian limestone rock in some of the quarries near Bolsover and Worksop 
in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, present a remarkable appearance. They do 
not possess an undulating surface, as limestones generally do, but the upper and 
under faces are covered with irregular elevations and depressions of a very marked 
character. In many instances the spicula or indentations run‘all in one uniform 
direction, and those on the under side of the block are exactly opposite to those on 
the upper. Prof. Sedgwick had cursorily noticed the configurations which these 
Magnesian limestones possess, and ascribes them to an arrangement”of the particles 
of the rock which took place during the act of consolidation. Dr. Daubeny, however, 
“was inclined to call in the action of atmospheric influences, and that of water im- 
pregnated with carbonic acid, as necessary to be resorted to.in order to afford a full 
explanation of the phenomenon ; appealing to the fact, that the exposed surfaces in 
the quarries of this limestone, in some cases present a similar appearance from the 
effect of weathering, and also to the circumstance, that some of the irregularities 
seen upon the faces of the blocks seem to approach in character to those produced 
‘in other limestones by these causes. 
__ Dr. Daubeny, in conclusion, referred to the paper he had read last year on the 
_ Tyrol, in which he had attempted to explain the appearances presented by the dolo- 
_ mitie rocks of that country, on principles similar to what he now suggested as ap- 
_ plicable to those exhibited on the small scale in our own rocks. 


On a new Product obtained from Coal Naphtha. By Mr. Leicu. 


The substance described, was obtained in the course of some investigations on an 
oil which Mr. Leigh discovered about three years and a half ago, as the result of the 
pean of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids on purified coal'naphtha. In their 
_ behaviour with potassa, both in aqueous and alcoholic solution, the crystals now 
_ brought under the notice of the section by Mr. Leigh have much analogy with the 
__ oil (like that of bitter almonds) obtained at the same time with them. The oil, when 
extensively exposed to the action of oxygen, becomes a crystalline solid, having much 
_ the same appearance as these crystals, It is probable the crystals differ from the oil 
_ i-containing a quantity of oxygen. Mr. Leigh had made no analysis of these 
_ compounds, . 
Beairienise) ar cates 
_ Account of the Mineralogical and Geological Museum of the Imperial Mining 
patio si: Department of Vienna. By Professor HawwinceEr. 


ofessor Haidinger, in this communication, gave a detailed account of the ar- 
ygements which had been adopted in the preparation of this celebrated museum. 
ie basis of this collection existed in the Museum of the Mining Department pre- 
ous to the appointment of Professor Mohs. Under the presidency of Prince Au- 
stus Lobkowicz the Museum ‘was considerably augmented, both by the exertions 
of the mining department and by contributions from private collectors. The method 
of arrangement employed in the Museum was suggested by Mohs himself, and fol- 


40 _ osrpoo REPORT—1842, 


lowed out by Prof. Haidinger after the death of the former ;, it consisted.in dividing 
the mineral products of the empire into four great general divisions; having in the 
centre those obtained from the rivers, and those procured from the principal chains 
of mountains as the boundaries on either side. The cabinets were so arranged as to 
form.a kind of section of the various geological formations.- The upper portions of 
the cabinets are filled with the rocks and minerals from the higher or,mountainous 
districts, whilst the lower divisions contain the specimens taken from the valleys. 
This arrangement has been found greatly to assist the memory, and to afford nume- 
rous points of comparison to those who study the constitution of the mountain 
chains. .The Professor concluded by some speculations on the changes which gra- 
dually take place in the metamorphic rocks, and which he considered might all be 
reduced to processes of oxidation or reduction. 


On the Phosphates and Arseniates. By Joun Dauton, F.RS. 
On Microcosmie Salt. By Joun Darrow; FIRS. 
On a new and easy Method of Analysing Sugar. By Joun Dauton, F.R.S. 


On the Composition of the Blood and Bones of Domestic Animals. 
By Professor Nass. 


On the Manufacture of Sulphurie Acid. By Wm. Buyrn. 


On the Manufacture and Purification of Gases obtained from Coal. 
By Joun Davies. 


On a peculiar Condition of Iron. By Professor ScHONBEIN. 


On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Hot Air in effecting the Com- 
bustion of Coal. By C. Wye WILLIAMS. 


On the Production of an Artificial Copper Pyrites. By W. Lucas. 


On some Fires produced from Spontaneous Combustion. By A. Booru, 
FLAS. 


On some Thermo-chemical Researches. By Professor T. GRAHAM. 


GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


On the Physical Structure of the Appalachian Chain, as exemplifying the Laws 
which have regulated the elevation of great Mountain Chains generally. By 
Professors H. D. RocErs and W. B. Rocers. 


The Appalachian Chain of North America is described by the authors as consisting 
of a series of very numerous parallel ridges or anticlinal lines, forming a mountain belt 
generally 100 miles in breadth and nearly 1200 miles in length, stretching from the 
south-eastern angle of Lower Canada te Northern Alabama. 1. The strata which 
compose this chain are the American representatives of the Silurian, Devonian and 
Carboniferous systems of Europe, united into one group of conformable deposits. 
The general direction of the chain being N.E. and S.W., there is a remarkable pre- 
dominance of S.E. dips throughout its entire length, especially in the south-east- 
ern or most disturbed side of the belt. Proceeding north-westwards, or from the 
quarter of greatest disturbance, N.W. dips begin to appear; at first few and very 
steep, afterwards frequent and gradually less inclined. 2, The authors consider the 
frequency of dips to the S.E., or cowards the region of intrusive rocks, accounted for 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. _4y 


“is LS ae 


by'the nature of the flexures, which are not symmetric, the strata being more inclined 
_ on the N.W. than on the S.E. of each anticlinal, amounting at length toa complete 
_ folding under‘and inversion, especially on the S.E. side of the chain, where the con- 
_ toftions are so closely packed as to present a uniform dip to the S.E. These folds 
gradually open out, the N.W. side or inverted’ portion of each flexure becomes verti- 
_ tal, or dips abruptly to the N.W.; proceeding further in this direction the dips gra- 
dually lessen, the anticlinals and troughs becoming rounder and flatter, and the in- 
tervals between the axes canstantly increasing till they entirely subside at about 150 
miles from the region of gneiss and intrusive rocks. The authors express their belief 
that a similar obliquity of the anticlinal axes will be found to obtain in a// great 
_ mountain chains, the axis plane always dipping towards the region of chief disturbance. 
_ ‘The inverted flexures are regarded by the authors as exhibiting simply a higher de- 
__ velopment of the same general conditions. The passage of inverted flexure into 

_ faults is*stated to occur frequently, and invariably along the N.W. side:of the anti- 
elinal or S.E. of the synclinal axes ; these dislocations, like the axes, maintain a re- 
markable parallelism. 3. The axes of the Appalachian chain are distributed in na- 
tural groups, the members of each group agreeing approximately in length, curvature, 
_ amount of flexure and distance apart. Nine principal groups are described, in five of 
which the axes are straight, whilst the four which alternate with them are curved; 
in two of the curved divisions the line of strike is convex to the N.W., in the other 
_ two it is convex to the S.E. In every part of the chain, the axes, whether curved or 

_ straight, maintain an approximate parallelism to those of their own division, and in 
the minor groups within the large divisions the parallelism is still more exact. The 
__ axes vary in Jength from insignificant flexures to lines frequently 100 and sometimes 
150 miles in length, and they deviate very little from a rectilinear course; or, as the 
ease may be, from a uniform rate of curvature. Some of the longer curved axes 
_ exhibit a difference of strike at their extremities of fifty degrees in a distance of ninety 
_ miles, and the rectilinéar axes of different divisions vary in their line of direction as 
‘much as 60°. As all the flexures were undoubtedly formed at one period, the authors 
consider these facts at variance with M. Beaumont’s hypothesis, that dislocations of 
the same geological age are parallel to one and the same great circle of the sphere. 
_4, The general declension in level of the Appalachian strata towards the N.W.,, or | 
away from the quarter of greatest local disturbance, is considered important by the 
‘authors in its bearing upon the subject of the elevation of broad continental tracts, 
_ The authors next proceed to notice memoirs, describing what they consider similar 
phenomena in Europe. 
= Theory of Flexure and Elevation of Strata.—From the consideration of the pre- 
ceding general facts the authors have arrived at a theory which they conceive appli- 
cable to the bending and elevation of strata generally. They state that the oblique 
form of all normal anticlinal and synclinal flexures “‘ indicates that the force produ- 
cing the dips was compounded of a wave-like oscillation and a tangential pressure ;” 
_ —a purely vertical force exerted simultaneously or successively along parallel lines 
_ could only produce a series of symmetrical flexures, whilst tangential pressure, unac- 
companied by a vertical force, would result in an imperceptible bulging of the whole 
_-Tegion, or in irregular plications dependent on local, irregularities in the amount of 

esistance. The alternate upward and downward movements necessary to enable 
e tangential force to bend the strata into a series of flexures, are such “as would - 
se from a succession of actual waves rolling in a given direction beneaththe earth’s 
st.” With this view all the phenomena observed are in accordance ; but it would 
difficult to account for them by any gradual prolonged pressure exerted either 
ertically or horizontally... The fermation of grand yet simple flexures cannot be ex- 
lained by a repetition of feeble tangential, movements, which could not successively 
ccord in direction and amplitude, nor by merely vertical pressures, for these could 
t shift in position through a series of parallel lines, nor if feeble and often repeated 
- return always to the same lines, until they became conspicuous flexures, The authors 
‘suppose the strata of the region in question to have beensubjected to excessive upward 
tension arising from the expansion of molten matter and gaseous vapours; the tension 
__ ‘would at length be relieved by many parallel fissures formed in succession, through 
% which much elastic vapour would escape, and, by thus removing the pressure adjacent 
4 ‘to the lines of fracture, produce violent pulsations on the surface of the fluid below. 


‘@ 


42 2VOlLTOSREPORT=—-1842, 


This oscillatory movement would communicate a series of temporary flexures to the 
overlying crust; which would be rendered permanent by the intrusion of mélten matter 
into the fractured strata. If during this oscillation we conceive the whole heaving 
tract to'be shoved bodily forward in the direction of the waves, the union of this 
tangential with the vertical movements may explain the peculiar steepening of the 
anterior side of each flexure, and successive similar operations might occasion under 
folding or inversion. The authors do not deem it essential to this explanation, that, 
in the production of axes of elevation, the strata should be permanently fractured to 
the surface. Fissures sufficient for the escape of vast bodies of elastic vapour, might 
open and close again superficially; and the strata may often be supported in their 
new position by subterranean injections not visible on the surface. 

Identity of the Undulations which produced the Axes, with the wave-like motion of the 
Earth in Harthquakes.—The authors suppose all earthquakes to consist in oscillations 
of the earth’s crust propagated with extreme rapidity ; and they ascribe this méve- 
ment to a sudden change of vertical pressure on the surface of an interior fluid ‘mass, 
throwing it into wave-like undulations, such as would produce permanent flexures in 


the strata if more energetic, and if accompanied by the formation of dykes; The - 


successive earthquakes of any region usually proceed from the same quarter of the 
compass, as must have been the case with the movements which gave rise to the 
parallelism of neighbouring anticlinal axes. In illustration of the power of producing 
permanent lines of elevation which earthquakes have exhibited in modern. times, 
the authors instance specially the Ullah Bund, an elevated mound extending fifty 
miles across the eastern arm of the Indus, which was the result of the great earthquake 
of Cutch in 1819. : : 

Date of the Appalachian Azxes.—The authors describe the elevation of this chain as 
simultaneous with the termination of the carboniferous deposits of the United States, 
and as the cause which probably arrested the further progress of the coal formation. 
With one local exception, on the Hudson, the whole series seems to have been depo- 
sited conformably,without any emergence of the land. That the elevation did not take 
placevat’a later period, is shown by the undisturbed condition of the overlying beds, 
proximately of the age of the European new red sandstone. The elevation of the chief 
‘part cf the great’ belt of metamorphic rocks on the S.E. side of the chain is referred 
to the same great movement. In conclusion, the authors remark that an incompa- 
rably greater change in the physical geography of North America, and perhaps of the 
globe, seems to have occurred at the close of the carboniferous epoch than at any 
previous or subsequent epoch; and they consider these changes, and the effect pro- 
duced by them on the organic world, as affording some of the highest subjects of geo- 
logical investigation. 


On. the Production of Sand Storms and Lacustrine Beds, by causes associated 
with the North American Lakes. By the Rev. Mr. ScuHooicRart. 


A-residence of nearly twenty years in the country whose physical geography is 
strongly marked by the North American Lakes, had impressed the author with the 


opinion, that these lakes afford a very striking example of the power of geological 


action possessed, at the present day, by large bodies ofinland water. For more than 
half the indicated period his location had been in the immediate vicinity of Lake 
Superior, and the present remarks are confined chiefly to that member of the series. 

Lake Superior itself may be considered as occupying an interstice between the 
most northerly portions of the great secondary and sedimentary formations of the 
Mississippi valley and the crystalline rocks of British America; and this ancient line 
of junction may be followed, down its outlet, through the Straits of St. Mary’s into 
Lake Huron, and is continued along parts of its north and north-easterly shores, north 
of the fossiliferous limestones of the Manatouline chain. 


The western and northern sections of this lake exhibit the strungest proofs of — 
ancient action and upheaval. ‘A colossal dyke of trap appears to have crossed the © 


lake, at about two-thirds of its length from east to west. Admitting (what appears to 
be' very probable) that the vast bed of the lake west of this dyke was ig rad pro- 
duced by the sinking down of the strata and the consequent elevation of its shores, 
wé may attribute to the same disturbing force the central breach and prostration of 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


this barrier, which has been subsequently widened by the force of waters, acting under 
the pressure of strong west and north-west winds, at an epoch when its water-line 
rested at one of its higher levels; so that, at this time, Isle Royal, Beaver and Castle 
islands, and the elevated and precipitous range of Keweena Point, all of which con 
sist of members of the trap rock; are the only existing monuments of this/ancient 
dyke.’ The heavy beds of trap boulders which lie east of this point, and reach, in 
blocks of large magnitude, to St. Mary’s Falls and the northern shores of Lake 
Huron, strongly denote the probability of such action. 
\) The most extensive effects of the existing energies of this lake are witnessed upon 
its grauwacke and sandstones, which have been broken up, comminuted into fine 
sand, and piled up in elevated ridges, or spread out over wide plains along its south- 
ern margin, A coast of winding bays and headlands, which measures, by a reduced 
computation, 450 miles upon this single section, may be conjectured to have en- 
countered heavy inroads from currents forced across the lake by north winds, or . 
acting diagonally from the north-east or north-west. By far the most extensive field 
of this action occurs between the easterly termination of the primary series.of rocks 
at or near Granite Point, and their re-appearaace in the elevated mountainous 
tange of Gros Cape at the head of St. Mary’s Straits, The vast sand dunes on this 
section, to which the French Couriers du Bois early applied the name of Les Grandes 
Sables, constitute a most unique and picturesque object. ‘Their perfect aridity and 
height above the lake, which has been computed at 300 feet, and the general paral- 
lelism of the tops of the series of hills, strongly fix attention. These sandy eleva- 
tions are found, however, to rest on beds of clay, loam, and gravel, of a. compact 
structure, which are only buried beneath a deep coating or upper stratum of 
louse yellow sand, manifestly washed up by the waves and driven: landward by 
_ the winds., Tempests of sand are thus formed, which spread inland, bury or kill 
; the tallest trees, and carry destruction and desolation in their track. Such is also 
_ the lake action upon districts of the coasts of Huron and Michigan; the two next 
_ in the descending series of the lakes. Dunes are at first formed, which spread inland, 
carrying sterility over thousands of acres of land formerly fertile and)well-wooded ; 
_ and. the tendency of this peculiar formation is constantly to extend its limits and 
arrest, as with the hand of death, the progress of vegetation. Another effect of these 
_ sand-rocks is to form ponds and lagoons at the temporary or fixed points of their 
_ terminus on the good land, and thus to destroy and render unfit for the use of man 
other legge belts of country ; besides which, these arrested waters are the. prolific 
sources of noxious vapours, generating extensive disease in their vicinity. Evidence 
_ of the comparatively recent era of this atmospheric formation is seen in the pro- 
_ strated and buried trees, freshwater shells and other organic substances, in a perfectly 
_ unaltered state, which are in some localities noticed in digging atgreat depths, and 
sometimes exposed by recent irruptions of the waves. 
» ‘Another arenaceous formation due to lake action’ cannot be mistaken in exami-= 
_ ning these shores, but is of an earlier age; when these lakes stood at a more elevated 
level, and discharged over their eventual outlet at Niagara a greater volume of water, 
_ *Lallude to large belts and tracts of sandy plains bordering on sections of the lakes, 
bearing a light growth of pines, poplars and birch, which but imperfectly conceal 
their comparatively recent origin. On penetrating these plains ridges of sand occur, 
| lying in wind-rows, as if recently formed by the winds and waves. The trees are of 
a foal diameter, and the wood of a loose and bad texture. The pent-up water be- 
tween these: ridges nourishes an aquatic vegetation, and constitutes a favourite retreat 
for the small-furred animals: The whole aspect of these plains denotes them to be 
of freshwater origin, and forces the conclusion, that they must. have emerged, at no 
ancient period, from the watery dominion of the lakes. That these lakes stood, in 
ne days, at a higher altitude, that they had several epochs df depression, and 
thus endowed with far greater powers of geological action, is clearly denoted by 
the existing water-lines on the mural faces of these rocks, and by the ancient water- 
ges of pebble beds and lake exuvie found at elevated points in the interior.’ 
_ The power of attrition possessed by these lakes, at this day, is so complete upon 
y the sandstone series, as to allow full scope to the principle of gravitation in the re- 
¢ oats on of the comminuted and up-heaved materials. Large portions of the 


ee a a Ee NE SO Ee 


Magnetic oxide of iron exist in the northern sandstones. As these surcharged strata 


44 ay REPORT—1842, 


are ground down in the great laboratory of the lake, this oxide is liberated from 
its siliceous connexion, and reproduced upon the shores in separate and pure beds 
of iron sand, which are not unfrequently twelve or fourteen inches in thickness, and 
line the shores for miles, L 

Wave action is indeed more fully apparent as a mechanical power on the southern 
shores of Superior, than at any other known point in the interior of the continent. 
The actual process, both of degradation and resistance, in the lighter-coloured and 
non-metallic sandstone, is nowhere better observed than along the walled and abraded 
coast, locally known under the name of the Pictured Rocks. About twelve miles of 
this mural coast is most completely fretted and riddled into curious architectural 
forms by the force of equinoctial gales. “ When I first saw this picturesque part of the 
coast in 1820, a vast and high headland hung in fearful grandeur over the water, the 
base of which was supported on pillars of the sandstone rock, forming a single arch 
_. of gigantic span with several minor arches. This prominence, locally called Le Por- 
tail, gave way the next year, throwing into the deep recesses of the lake walled masses 
of stone, of which it will convey some estimate to add, that for every ton of rock that 
went down with the Table rock at Niagara, one thousand tons were here engulphed. 
Some angular points of this engulphed stratum are yet visible above the water, but 
the latter is annually exerting its strong abrasive powers upon these rock ruins and 
casting up the product in beach sands.” 


On the Geography of the North-west Coast of America. By Ricuarp Kina. 


In this communication the author attempted to prove,—1. that it is not the insur- 
mountable obstacles presented by nature that have prevented us from accomplishing 
the grand problem of centuries—the N.W. passage. 

2. He endeavoured to point out the character of the surveyed lands contiguous to 
parts of the Pelar coast unknown. 

_ 3. He offered proofs of the probable existence of the Isthmus of Boothia. And, 

4. Indications of the remaining portions requiring to be explored, and the modes 
in which they may be surveyed. 


Notice of a Memoir on the Geology of the Western States of North America, 
by Davin Date Owen, M.D., of Indiana. By RK. I. Murcuison, 
Pres. GS. 


This memoir, with sections and characteristic fossils, having been sent: to the 
Geological Society of London, was brought to Manchester in ¢ransitu by a friend and 
countryman of the author. Perceiving the great value of this communication, the 
President of the Geological Society, to whom it was consigned, conceived that 
greater justice might be done to the author by first exhibiting the fossils and sec- 
tions to the Geological Section of the British Association, and by giving on his own 
part a brief exposé of the chief results of Dr. Dale Owen’s labours, which in the 
sequel would find their appropriate resting-place in the Transactions of the Geologi- 
cal Society. 

The Yad country in which the author had pursued his researches for a series of 
years, in the capacity of state geologist of Indiana, embraces the states of Illinois, 
Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Dubuque and Mineral Point districts of 
Jowa and Wisconsin. 

Illustrating his views by a general section across this region, he shows that the 
lowest rocks consist of various members of the Silurian system, the chief masses of 
which occupying high grounds in the east and west, subside in the central districts 
under an enormous trough of carboniferous limestone and great productive coal- 
fields, the whole being overtopped by the equivalents of the cretaceous system of 
Europe. Identifying many Silurian and carboniferous fossils with their types in 
Great Britain, the author shows that the old red or Devonian rocks are less distinctly 
developed in this than in the adjoining region to the East. At the same time he 
points out that the Pentremite limestone occupies such an intermediate position as 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 


may entitle it to be referred either to the base of the carboniferous or to the upper 
part of the Devonian system. 
_. The great lead-bearing magnesian limestone of Ohio and Indiana (Silurian) is 
_ stated to agree in great part with that of Niagara. 

_ After thus giving a general sketch of the Memoir, the President then called the at- 
tention of the Meeting to the very valuable collection of fossils by which it was illus- 
trated, and expressed his belief that their study, and a close comparison of them 
with the typical forms of the same age in the British Isles, would lead to very curious 
results touching the distribution of animal life in deposits of synchronous date found 
at great distances from each other, and in which the variations in the same species 
would be found to be analogous to those which now prevail in living nature in similar 
species which inhabit basins remote from each other. 

___. The President, in highly eulogizing the merits of Dr. Dale Owen, begged to re- 
_ mind the Meeting that the coal-field of which he treated was nearly as large as all 
_ England. 


’ 


On the Geological Structure of Russia (delivered at an Evening Lecture). 
By R. I. Murcutson, Pres. GS. 


‘Mr. Murchison gave a general sketch of the geological structure of Russia in Eu- 
rope and the Ural Mountains, which was illustrated by numerous large coloured sec- 
tions and a map. In explaining the chief results of the labours of his friends Count 
Keyserling, M. de Verneuil, and himself, he showed how the researches of two 
summers had enabled them to produce a classification of the sedimentary deposits 
_ which exclusively occupy the flat regions of Russia, where they are exempt from the 
_ ‘intrusion of igneous rocks; and also how the older members of the series, when 
altered by such igneous agency, as in the Ural Mountains, were the seat of various 
ores and minerals. 

_ After pointing out that, from the very distinct characters of the fossils of each 
_ group of the palzozoie rocks, the divisions of Silurian, Devonian (or old red) and 
_ earboniferous strata were unequivocally sustained over an enormous area, he stated 
that these masses were surmounted by a great development of red sands, marls and con- 
glomerates, with beds of magnesian limestone, salt and gypsum, the whole constitu- 
_ ting a system which is the equivalent of that group in western Europe of which the 
zechstein or magnesian limestone is’ the centre. Insisting upon the independence 
of the Permian rocks (so called because most spread out in Permia), as preved by 
_ their imbedded fauna and flora, including thecodont saurians and plants of peculiar 
_ forms, Mr. Murchison dwelt upon the singularity of this vast deposit, in being to so 
_ great an extent impregnated with copper ores, which mixed with the sand, grit 
_ and marl, form regular beds, the origin of which he referred to ancient cupriferous 
_ sources having flowed from the Ural Mountains, when the Permian strata were accu- 
_ Mulating in an adjacent sea. Passing rapidly over the consideration of the secondary 
and tertiary deposits, Mr. Murchison then made some statements confirmatory of his 
Opinions expressed at the Glasgow Meeting of the British Association, concerning 
the transport of the large erratic blocks which cover such large tracts of the northern 
_ and central governments of Russia and the adjacent countries of Germany, which 
_ having been deposited on what he conceives to have been the bottom of a sea, were, 
he conceives, carried to their present positions by floating icebergs liberated from 
ancient glaciers of the North. On the present occasion he showed, that such 
_ phzenomena, grand as they are, are after all local only, in reference to the surface cf 
the planet ; for an examination of the Ural Mountains had convinced him that up to 
_ 60° north latitude they never could have been the seat of glaciers, because their flanks 
_ are entirely void of coarse and far-transported detritus, though some of their peaks 
_ ise to upwards of 5000 feet above the sea. In confirmation of this opinion it was 
further said, that none of these strise (which are appealed to as proofs of glacial 
action) were observed upon the surface of the Ural rocks, though such marks are 
_ apparent in some of those tracts of Russia in Europe, over which the northern blocks 
ve been transported. 

pak Mr. Murchison concluded by a warm compliment to the Emperor, and to the 
_ Russians of all ranks, for the very kind reception, and for the cordial and liberal man- 


46 REPORT—1842, 


ner in which every assistance was afforded ; and apologizing for his wish to condense 
into a brief address the numberless topics to which he wished to have adverted, he 
referred the assembly to the Proceedings of the Geological Society, and intimated 
that a work and map descriptive of the geology of Russia would soon be offered to 
the public. 


Contributions to a Geological Shetch of North Asia. By Avotpue ERMAN, 
Professor at the University of Berlin. (Accompanied by a coloured Geo- 
logical Sketch of the Land between long, 100° and 160° East from Paris, 
lat. 51° and 63° North, and a Collection of 200 Geological Specimens.) 


In addition to a continued series of magnetical observations and other scientific 
investigations, the author was led to notice a variety of interesting geological pheeno- 
mena in the country above defined. The volcano of Klioutchi (14,780 Paris feet in 
height), with the streams of lava rushing down (to the height of 8000 feet); and the 
clouds of steam of volcanic ashes and cinders, extending to the height of nearly four 
English miles, was first noticed; and the author then presents a geographical sketch 
of the Valley of the Lena, of the Aldan Mountains, and the Marikan belonging thereto, 
and of the immense voleanie area of the Kamtsehatkic peninsula. 

The borders of Lake Baikal cousist of actual triturative conglomerate, alternating 
with granite, and belonging to the coal formation. North-east of this lake is wide 
table land 1600 feet above the sea, giving origin to the sources of the Lena, which 
flows in a narrow regular valley, with mural cliffs, and haying horizontal strata of 
sandstone and marls, chiefly of red colour, often ripple-marked, This red formation 
occurs also at Oust Kouck with salt and cellular (magnesigenous?) limestone. Near 
Kirensk these sandstones fold round a boss of the same limestone in a purer state. 
Near Jerbinsk this limestone, in lofty ranges, is largely cavernous, and in the caverns. 
(200 feet above the river) are stalactites of ice, which also invests the walls and covers 
the floor. Referring to his collection placed on the table, M. Erman here drew at- 
tention to an Asaphus in the red strata of the Lena, near Krywslouzk, and. to the 
probability of these red and variegated strata being of the geological age of the De~ 
vonian group. 

The Aldan Mountains (4000 Paris feet above the sea) show, on the right bank of 
the river Aldan, vast limestone rocks of the same kind as_ those of Jerbinsk in the 
valley of the Lena, Up the picturesque cross valley of Bjellaja, these calcareous 
rocks extend, and undulate near some dolerites which have broken through them. 
At the sources of the Bjellaja river these limestones dip westward, and rest upon 
slate rocks... Partially caleareous under the limestone, these bluish.gray slates be- 
come purely argillaceous in their deeper masses (‘‘ chemically of the nature of mica”), 
and beyond the Allachjuna valley, are followed by grauwacke, occupying a breadth; 
of thirteen miles, and an elevation from 1500 to 4000 feet. The slates contain seme 
small traces of coal. Near the slates are mountains of compact silicecus rock, 
speckled black hornblende and felspar. It is difficult, especially on going eastward 
from Lake Tungor through the Aldan chain, to determine whether these spots are 
crystals or fragments, In the pass called Kapiten Mountain, this rock alternates 
with conglomerate in vertical strata, apy ne 

The watershed of the glacial and the great ocean lies in the third or easternmost 
part of the Aldan system, which consists of petrosiliceous porphyry with hornblende 
crystals, and judging from the grayel brought down by the affluents to the Ochota, 
granite and serpentine exist in this part of the chain, - ' anit . 

Respecting the mineral called Marekanite, M. Erman made some investigations at 
Ochotzk, which led him to recognize that these stones occur not. merely in loose 
pebbles, but in massive rocks. ‘ 

On the eastern side of Ochotzk, granite projects in steep cliffs over the sea; then: 
a felspathic grauwacke rock, in steeply inclined strata, and containing very thin coal- 
beds, as in the grauwacke Aldan Mountains, Near a great dyke of pyroxenic por 
phyry, the strata have been altered by heat to marekanite or pearlstone, . In.a ravine 
the degrees of metamorphism from this cause may be seen, from the carboniferous: 
grauwacke through pitchstone with hyaline quartz, to marckanite and trachyte. 

Regarding the volcanoes and the other interesting geological phanomena of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. AV 


beautiful and interesting province of Kamtschatka,” M. Erman.referred to his map 

and to the,specimens on the table. By these means he illustrated the tertiary and 
_ perhaps cretaceous strata of the west coast ; the amygdaloid formation; the chain of 
_ the now. spent volcanoes in the middle of the land; and the magnificent rows of still 
_ burning:cones, and “ elevation craters” formed by andisite (viz. albite and horn. 
_ blende), interspersed with a few very remarkable fields of serpentine, clay slates, and 
even granite, which seem to have been scareely altered by volcanic action. 


x= 


On the Occurrence of Vegetable Remains, supposed to be Marine, in the New 
Red Sandstone. By Joun 8. Dawes. 


The object of this paper is to communicate the fact, that vegetable remains, pro- 
bably marine, occur in strata in which they have not, I believe, hitherto been no- 
ticed. A new line of canal is now being formed between Birmingham and the col- 
lieries near Tipton, through Gravelly Hill, Perry and Great Barr; at the latter place 
Silurian limestone has been found close to the surface, together with traces of coal 
-and other carboniferous measures, which appear to dip under the new red sandstone 
on the Birmingham side of the axis, thus affording evidence in favour of a recently 
expressed opinion, that the South Staffordshire coal-field will, ia all probability, be 
_ found to extend under that town. Not any organic remains characteristic of the 
_ lower new red have yet been met with, although other vegetable impressions are 
somewhat abundant, particularly in the deep cutting near to the old road from Bir- 
_ mingham to Walsall; the specimens, however, that have yet been examined, are 
perhaps too imperfect to admit of any positive description ; some of them appear to 
_ be fucoids, others possibly are of a higher organization ; they occur imbedded in 
_ dark red, argillaceous, ripple-marked flagstones, and in the adjacent red and light 
_ gteén-coloured marls, the whole being subordinate to a quartzose sandstone of con- 
_ siderable thickness, containing calcareous conglomerates, identical in composition 
with those found on the flanks of Clent, and which are understood to connect the 
gres bigarré with the lower part of the saliferous system ; but as these Devonian- 
_ looking beds can scarcely be supposed to belong to the latter division, they must, I 
should conceive, be included with the overlying marls, sandstone and conglomerates, 
thus constituting a more extensive equivalent of the magnesian limestone. Should 
_ the fossil remains prove to be characteristic, a knowledge of them will materially as- 
_ sist in the examination of this highly important series of rocks. 
RD widfii , 0: 


7 


me A? 
On the Microscopic Structure of Coal. By Joun Puiruirs, PRS, 
_~ Mr. Phillips observed, that there was now no difference of opinion as to the vege- 
table origin of coal, but only as regarded the circumstances under which those vege~ 
table masses were accumulated. tc order to determine this, several modes of ins 
_yestigation might be followed, one of which was to examine the coal itself, in order 
_ to ascertain the nature of the plants of which it was composed. In the microscopic 
‘examination of polished slices of coal, by means of transmitted light, some results 
had been obtained by Mr. Hutton of Newcastle; these observations had not been 
published, but he believed Mr. Hutton had detected a cellular structure in the sub. 
_ stance of the Northumberland coal, which at first sight might be imagined of vege- 
_ table origin, but from their size, form and distribution, were rather connected with 
the development of gas in the process of chemical changes to which coal had been 
ubject ; analogous cells exist in anthracite. It had been his intention to employ 
jome of the ingenious processes recommended by the Rey. J. Reade, who had diss 
eved the means of making fossil vegetable tissue apparent to the senses by a pro- 
of combustion, but having lately observed something remarkable in the coms 
ion of Staffordshire coal, he was induced to examine it microscopically, without 
iting to adopt any more refined process. He observed that the ashes of wood 
nd peat differed in appearance and structure; and this Staffordshire coal, which did 
"not cake, but burned to a white ash, resembled in its combustion sometimes wood, and 
_ sometimes the laminated peat of the north of England, or the compact black peat of 
Dartmoor. Upon examining these ashes, he found abundant traces of vegetable 
Structure, consisting of portions of woody tissue imbedded in other tissue, dpparently 
of plants much lower in their organization, He had also detected traces of vegetable 


48 REPORT— 1842, 


structure in the ashesof anthracitic coal received from Sir H. Dela Beche. Mr, Phil- 
lips considered this evidence, as far as he had collected it, rather in favour of the 
view that particular beds of coal were in a great measure formed by plants growing 
on the spot, and not by drifting: the evidence of such drifting existed in many cases, 
and formerly predominated ; but he had met with many phenomena, and this amongst 
them, which tended to diminish the force and generality of his former: conclusions. 
He was, however, still engaged in the prosecution of this inquiry, = * > ' v9 


On the Origin of Coal. By W.C. Witiiamson, F.G.S. 


In this communication the author had collected all the principal facts and phe- 
nomena bearing upon the origin and formation of coal, with the view of proving it 
to have originated in the drifting of yegetable matter into the sea, and not by the 
accumulated. growth on the same spot now occupied by the coal. The strata sepa- 
rating the coal seams were described as consisting of a great variety of rocks, from 
the coarse deposits and water-worn pebbles of the lower grits to the fine-grained 
shales and limestones of Ardwick ; they were acknowledged by all tc have been se- 
dimentary in their, origin, containing the remains of aquatic shells and animals. In 
many of these strata, as at Colebrook Dale, the scales and other remains of Mega- 
lichthys were found abundantly associated with Orthoceratites, Goniatites, Naticz, 


and a variety of other shells whose marine character had never been doubted; inthe — 


coal-measures.of Yorkshire Pecten papyraceus, several Goniatites, several species of a 
genus allied to Modiola, Lingulz, Crustaceans allied to the recent marine genera 
Cyamus and Cymothoa, were found, with remains of Megalichthys, Palzoniscus, Pla- 
tysomus, and.other fish. The abundance of shells commonly considered Unionide, 
did not, in the author’s opinion, militate against the marine origin of the former, as 
Dr. Fleming mentions having seen the dead shells of Unios, with their valves. still 
united by the ligament, in abundance at. Mount Vernon on the Potomac, and at 
Montmorenci on. the St. Lawrence, doth placed where the tide flows; and Mr. Wil- 
liamson inferred that if the current could carry them so far, some might also reach 
the estuaries of those rivers, and become mixed with marine remains. , He then de- 
scribed the conditions under which vegetable remains,such as Halonia regularis, Cala- 
mites, Sigillariz, Stigmariz,Lepidodendra, and the fruit of Trigonocarpon, were found 
imbedded in the coarse grits and solid sandstones of the Halliwell quarries and Peel. 
These remains had all lost their stalks or foliaceous appendages, and were so inti- 
mately a part of the sandstone, that if one was drifted the other must have been 
transported in the same way. Inthe beds of shale unconnected with coal, large ac- 
cumulations of plants were often found occasionally mixed with Unionidz and mi- 
nute Entomostraca, presenting the appearance of having been thrown down together, 
after floating about in the water; the author considered these layers only differed in 
amount from the coal-seams; in one case a large and dense mass of vegetable 
matter had formed the material of a bed of coal, in the other the fewness of the 
plants and their intermixing with mud, now forming the shale, had limited the pro- 
cess to the conversion of each plant into a thin layer of carbonaceous matter. The 
author attributed the scarcity of fish-remains in the coal itself to the action by the 
same chemical process which had converted the accumulated vegetables into coal ; 
the occurrence of scales of Megalichthys in the cannel coal of Dixon Green and 
Wigan, he attributed to some peculiarity in its origin or composition more favour- 
able to their preservation. The absence of the usual coal-measure plants in the fire- 
clay underlying the coal proved, in the author’s opinion, a want of any connexion 


between the two; and he was disposed to adopt the view of those who regarded the ~ 


Stigmaria of the fire-clay as a marine, or at least aquatic plant, growing in 
those estuaries in which the drifted vegetable remains of the higher country would 
be sunk, and form a deposit of coal over them; but he observed that, although 
coal rarely occurred without this subjacent layer of stigmaria, yet the latter was fre- 
quently found independent of coal. ‘[he author proceeded to state what he 
considered another proof of the drift origin of coal and associated beds in the dis- 
jointed and fragmentary condition of the fossil ferns and other plants, and the almost 
universal absence of their rhizomas and roots, which he stated he could only account 
for by supposing the remains had been long exposed to the action of water in rapids 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


_ and ‘violent currents, The absence or rarity of distinct traces of fructification was 
i also an argument in favour of their being drifted; as in the oolitic deposits of Gris- 
thorpe-bay, which afforded evidence of comparatively tranquil deposition in fresh 
_ water, the fronds were not merely grouped together by their rhizomas, but afforded 
_ frequent indications of fructification. The prevalence of fine-grained shales imme- 
_ diately over coal seams was, in the author’s opinion, highly unfavourable to the 
_ theory which accounted for the origin of coal by subsidences ; for if a sudden subsi- 
dence had taken place, a deposit of water-worn pebbles would have been strewed over 
_ the coal, indicating the violent action of aqueous currents; and if the submergence 
were slow and gradual, the plants, as before argued, would be found much more per- 
_ fect, as any currents sufficient to tear up the vegetation would also strew the surface 
with detritus; the absence of unconformability in the members of the coal-measure 
was also hostile to the idea of partial depressions. The argillaceous partings, which 
_ constantly occurred in coal seams, also favoured the supposition of a considerable 
amount of drifting. Mr. Williamson concluded by attempting to explain the upright 
position of the trees at Dixon-fold on the Bolton Railway, without having recourse 
_ to the supposition that they grew on the spot; one of these trees was described by 
_ Mr. Bowman as having its base raised fifteen inches above the surface of the coal, the 
_ foots only being in contact, which Mr. Williamson considered could not be accounted 
_ for by any condensation of the vegetable remains afterwards constituting the coal 
_ seam. One of the largest of these trees presented no trace of roots, which were 
more likely to be preserved than any other portion. As to their erect position, he 
considered the weight of their strong branching roots would be sufficient to main- 
_ tain them erect in water until a deposit of sediment and drift should accumulate 
_ round their bases; whilst the absence of trunks inclined at various angles might be 
_ accounted for by pressure, which would soon reduce all that were not absolutely 
_ Vertical to a horizontal position. One of the greatest objections in the author's 
mind to the drift theory was, the great extent and uniformity ofsome of the thin seams 
of coal, especially in the lower measures; he thought, however, the accumulation of 
vegetable remains in which these seams originated might have been as great as in 
_ many of the larger coal seams, but that in the chemical changes which they had un- 
_ dergone, a larger proportion of the gaseous elements had escaped, leaving the 
mass both thinner and less unequal in thickness than at first. Healso mentioned the 
laminated appearance of peat-bogs in the vicinity of Manchester, as exhibiting by 
_ its illustration of the structure of coal a fact favourable to the hypothesis which he 
_had been combating; and stated that as the true explanation of the phenomena was 
_ the only end he sought, he was ready to accept that view if the difficulties attend- 
ing it could be explained on rational grounds. 


. On the Great Lancashire Coul Field. By E. W. Binney, Sec. Geol. Soe. 
2 of Manchester. 


This carboniferous deposit, generally known as the Lancashire Coal Field, occu- 
2s the chief part of the southern division of the county of Lancaster, and extends 
portions of the adjoining counties of Chester, Derby and York, in a line from 

‘near Macclesfield to Colne it ranges about 46 miles due N. and S., and from Tarbock 
_ to Todmorden about 40 miles from W.S.W. to E.N.E. It commences with the 
kk wer millstone grit, and extends upwards into the limestoneof Ardwick, near Man- 
_ chester, now generally considered the highest portion of the coal measures hitherto 
rved in England. The author divides this series into three groups in descending 
:—1. The Manchester coal-field, containing the limestone of Ardwick, and the 
ted coal-measures of Clayton and Bradford, near Manchester, occupying the 
tract of country adjoining the new red sandstone plains.—2. The middle field, 
prising the thick coal seams of Poynton, Ashton, Middleton, Worsley, Wigan, 
Occupying the rising ground between the new red sandstone plains and the 
er parts of the country, and containing thé richest portion of the field—3. The 
ver coal-seams, found in the elevated parts of the country, along the sides of the 
enine chain, and the moorlands of the northern parts of Lancashire ; comprising 
e of Whaley Bridge, Mellor, Glossop, Rochdale, Todmorden, Colne, Blackburn, 
ley, &c.—seams of no great thickness, but valuable from their quality and po- 
a a and remarkable from their adjoining shales containing remains of the genera 

42. E 


50  REPORT—1842. 


Pecten, Goniatites, Posidonia, and other shells of marine origin, The total thick- 
ness of the deposits varies in different parts of the field; in a line from Manchester, 
through Ashton, to the limestone shales of Hollins Brook, the thickness is about 
2000 yards; and there are 75 beds of coal exceeding one foot in thickness, forming 
altogether 150 feet. In a line throngh Worsley, Bury, Burnley, &c,, to the lime- 
stone shales of Pendlehill, there are 36 seams, only ten of which are less than one 
foot in thickness, amounting to 93 feet of coal; in these sections the smaller seams 
are not taken into account. The author states that the variable character of these 
coal seams and the accompanying strata, make it difficult to lay them down upon a 
map; the lower seams can be classed by the gritstone rocks which contain them, as 
shown by Mr. Elias Hall, but the middle and upper seams divide and thin out in 
such a manner as to render thcir identification very difficult. He then proceeds to 
describe the roofs, or strata immediately overlying the coal seams, the coal itself, and 
the floors or strata immediately underlying the beds of coal. 

I. Roofs.—The deposits forming the roofs vary at different places, even over the 
same seam. There are four kinds of roofs:—1. A fine mixture of alumina and silica, 
with oxide of iron, and a trace of the carbonates of iron and lime; these are generally 
known as blue binds, and are of most frequent occurrence; they almost always con- 
tain ferns, and remains of Stigmaria, Sigillaria, Ulodendron and Lepidodendron, and 
beds of the Unio and other shells. The Sigillaria, &c. are often found standing 
erect at right angles to the planes of stratification; these instances chiefly occur in 
the middle field, at Pendleton, Dixon-fold, Wigan, &c. Sometimes they are found 
with their roots running into and resting on the seams, and more frequently the bole 
of the tree rests on the coal itself, without exhibiting any trace of roots. The Sigil- 
larize are by far the most common; at Pendleton and Dixon-fold they occur as abun- 
dantly as they could possibly have grown: the author had observed three specimens 
at Pendleton, 24 feet high and about 3 feet in circumference, standing in a shaft 11 
feet in diameter. 2%. Roofs of sandstone are not common, and where they do occur 
the coal is generally inferior in quality; the fossils found in the sandstone are usually 
prostrate coal plants, Stigmariz, &e. 3, Black shale roofs are frequent, and cover 
most of the best house-fire and caking coal; they seldom contain plants, though, in 
a few instances, upright Sigillarize have been found. Bivalve shells, detached scales 
and teeth of fish frequently occur in them, and with the Microconchus earbonarius 
and casts of Cyprides sometimes constitute nearly the entire mass; almost all the 
black shale roofs of the lower field teem with remains of Pecten, Goniatites, Posi- 
donia, and remains of fishes. 4. Shales with highly bituminous schists, forming roofs, 
are not of frequent occurrence; they are found at Peel and Pendleton, and contain 
abundant remains of fish, mostly entire. At Bradford and at Ardwiek, in the roof of 
the thin coal intercalated with the limestones, the detached teeth, bones and scales of 
fish occur, mingled with countless myriads of the remains of Cypris and Microconchys. 

II. Coal and Cannel Seams.—The author describes two varieties of coal, the cudical 
where the cross cleavage runs at right angles to the main cleavage, and the rhom- 
boidal where it makes an acute angle; the first form generally occurs in the ypper 
and lower portions of the field, the Jatter prevails in the middle. The main cleayage, 
he observes, is in most cases parallel with the principal fault in the vicinity. The 
beds of cannel are generally found on the top of the coal, and nearly always contain 
remains of fishes, often bivalve shells, but hitherto have exhibited no trace of Micro- 
conchus, and rarely any leaves or stems of plants, whilst the upper portion of coal 
seams frequently exhibit traces of Sigillaria, Lepidodendra, Calamites, &c, In the 
six-feet seam at the new pit of the Pendleton Company, several rounded stones of 
fine siliceous grit were found, but as they occurred near the great fault of 1000 yards, 
they might have falien in during the dislocation, The coal seams are either simple, 
and continue undivided over large tracts of country, or split and divide into several 
distinct seams; the former generally occur in the lower portion of the field, the lat- 
ter in the middle and upper part. It is owing to this tendency to divide, that the 
thick seams of Clifton and Radcliffe cannot be well identified with the thinner and 
more numerous seams of Oldham, Ashton and Bradbury; in the four-feet mine at 
Pendleton the author has observed that the coal on the N.W. forms one undivided 
seam.of 5 feet in thickness, bunt that towards the S.W. a thin bed of fire-clay full of 
Stigmarize appears in it; and in Mr. Fitzgerald’s pit to the S.E. it gradually thiekens 
until at a distance of 900 yards from the point first observed, it has increased to 3 


q 
' 
‘ 
‘ 
’ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 


feet, separating the coal into two distinct seams. At Alkrington the two Beat Mines 
are worked together, but to the §.E. a parting of fire-clay appears, which gradually 
increases in thickness, and at Oldham, 3 miles distant, the two Beat Mines are worked 
_ 10 yards apart; other instances of subdivision are known, all of them taking place 
_ towards the S.and S.E, Independently of the tendency to divide, many seams di- 
_ minish in thickness till they become evanescent; this is chiefly observable in the 
lower division of the coal-field, and in the simple seams six beds which have been 
worked in that series, give decisive evidence of this fact. The best examples are the 
eaking coal of Rochdale and the Foot mines, beds known by various names in different 
parts of the country, but easily identified by the remarkable nature of their floor, 
which is a hard crystalline stone, called Ganister, full of Stigmaria ficoides, and em- 
ployed as a material for mending roads, At Dulesgate, near Todmorden, the upper 
or ‘¢ Ganister coal” is 5 feet 8 inches in thickness, and the Foot coal, about 12 
yards below it, is 7 inches thick; the author has traced these seams about 11 miles 
to Quarlton, and ascertained that the Ganister coal gradually diminishes in thick- 
ness to one inch, while the Foot coal increases to two feet, the floors retaining the 
same character throughout, 

IIIf, Coal Floors.—The stratum on which the coal rests is always carefully noticed 
_ by practical miners, who believe that where a thin seam is found on a thick argil- 
‘ laceous floor full of Stigmarig, it is certain to become workable if followed. The 
_ floors are of three kinds—the fire clay, which is the most abundant ; the warrant, a 
; clay mixed with a larger amount of silica, occurring frequently ; and the rock floors, 
_ of which but two instances are known, namely, the floor of the Featheredge coal at 
Walmersley, which is a rough quartzose sandstone, .and the Ganister, before no- 
tieed, The latter is merely a-fine-grained admixture of silica and alumina, varying 
_ from 8 inches to 2 feet in thickness, always graduating into a fine fire-clay at its bot- 
tom, All the floors, with the exception of the rock floor of the Featheredge coal, 
contain Stigmaria ficoides, from the thin seams of the Ardwick limestone, to the two 
- seams in the millstone grit of Gauxholme, near Todmorden, a thickness of nearly 
- 1600 yards; all the fifteen floors of the Manchester coal-field contain it, and at least 
_ 69 beds in the middle and lower divisions, The Stigmaria generally occurs with its 
_ leaves attached, and in all instances of true floors without any intermixture of other 
plants, - These facts seem to indicate that all the deposits were formed under nearly 
similar conditions; the roofs and floors were evidently very quietly deposited, and 
_ formed a strong clay, well adapted for the growth of the vast masses of vegetable 
matter required for the formation of the coal seams. The absence of alkalies in the 
clay of the floors, might be expected from the exhausting properties of plants, and 
_ seems to strengthen the supposition that these beds supported the vegetation which 
now constitutes the coal, The remains of bivalve shells and fishes in the eannel beds, 
_proye that they were formed under water; but in the Lancashire coal-field no re- 
mains cf fishes or shells have yet been found in the coal, nor is there any indication, 
either by admixture of sand or silt in the seams of coal, to show that they were 
drifted into the places they now occupy by rapid currents of water. The occurrence 
_of forests of large trees standing upright on the seams, the pure vegetable matter 
2omposing the coal itself, with scarce any admixture of foreign ingredients, the posi- 
on of the coal upon a rich alluvial deposit well adapted to sustain a luxuriant vege-~ 
tation, seem to prove that, in most instances, the vegetable matter forming it grew 
on the spot where the coal is now found; whilst the splitting and alterations in 
the thickness of the seams themselves, show that the surface was most probably sub- 
ject to frequent subsidence, 


Statement of the Fossils which have been discovered in the several members of 
the Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone of Ireland, with a view to show 
the Zoological identity of the whole Series, together with a Comparison of the 
_ Fossils which occur in the Mountain Limestone of Ireland with those which 
have been obtained from the same Series in Great Britain, and also with the 
Fossils of North and South Devon, illustrated by Maps, Sections, Draw- 
ings and Specimens. By Ricnarv Grirvitu, £.G.S. 
The substance of this communication had already been printed by Mr. Griffith for 
_ distribution amongst the members of the naan it was accompanied by a catas 
f) E 


Snes * 


ae 


ee ee 


52 REPORT—1842., 


logue of all the fossils yet discovered in each of the subdivisions of the Irish moun- 
tain limestone series, in the strata of North Devon, and in the mountain limestone 
of Great Britain, arranged in parallel columns for the purpose of comparison ; the 
notice was also illustrated by coloured sections. 

Mr. Griffith stated that his object in this communication was to prove, by the evi- 
dence of fossils, that the lower members of the mountain series of Ireland, as arranged 
by him, really belonged to that series, and not to the old red sandstone, as advocated 
by some geologists. He described this series as containing two great bands of lime- 
stone, which he had denominated the upper and lower limestones ; interposed between 
these limestones were beds of shale, argillaceous limestone and sandstone, forming a 
series of great thickness, known by the name of calp or calp slate. Beneath the lower 
limestone was a second series of schistose beds, to which he had given the name car- 
boniferous slate; under the slate was a series of sandstone beds, frequently interca- 
lated with slate or shale, and occasionally with limestone; he had denominated this 
deposit the yellow sandstone ; its lower beds rested conformably on the old red sand- 
stone. Mr.Griffith stated, that those beds varied in thickness at different localities, 
but that the relative position of each member of the series was always the same; 
the upper and lower limestones were generally more persistent than the other mem- 
bers of the series. In some localities the carboniferous slate and yellow sandstone 
were altogether wanting ; in others the carboniferous slate only was absent, the lower 
limestone resting directly on the yellow sandstone. In the northern and middle dis- 
tricts of Ireland, the calp formed a very thick and important member of the series, 
but gradually thinned out towards the south ; it had not yet been discovered in the 
counties of Cork and Waterford, and was only occasionally traceable in Clare, Lime- 
rick and Kerry. In the middle district, the upper limestone formed the distinguishing 
feature ; in the southern section, the upper and lower limestones were most abun- 
dant, and the calp least so, whilst the carboniferous slate and yellow sandstone oc- 
cupied an inconsiderable superficial extent, but were important, as they contained a 
great variety of fossils. The carboniferous slate of the South of Ireland differed con- 
siderably in lithological character from that of the middle and northern regions, but 
the number of fossils common to the beds which occupy the same geological position 
in all three districts, showed the necessity of including the whole in one division. In 
the tables of fossils before mentioned, the occurrence of each species in the different 
members of the Irish series, was indicated for each of the three districts, and also 
their occurrence in North Devon, and in the English mountain limestone. From 
these general tables, Mr. Griffith had prepared tables of results, showing the number 

_of fossils of each class occurring in every division of the mountain limestone of Ire- 
land ; those peculiar to it, those common to it, and all the other members of the 
series, those that are common to each of the other divisions, and also those that are 
common to the mountain limestone of Great Britain, and to North Devon. Some 
of the results obtained were as follows :—Yellow sandstone, out of 122 fossils, 9 were 
peculiar to it: 113, or 925 per cent., common to the mountain limestone of Ireland 
generally; 49 species, or 40 per cent., common to the upper limestone; 87, or 71 


per cent., to the calp; 75, or 61 per cent., to the lower limestone, and 94, or 77 per ~ 


cent., common to the carboniferous slate ; 35 species, or 30 per cent., were common 
to North Devon; and 59, or 48 per cent., to the mountain limestone of Great Britain. 
—Carboniferous slate, of 275 fossils, 12 were peculiar to it; 263, or 95% per cent., 
common to the mountain limestone of Ireland generally; 99, or 36 per cent., com- 


mon to the upper limestone; 176, or 64 per cent., to the calp; 162, or 60 per cent., — 
to the lower limestone; and 94, or 34 per cent., common to the yellow sandstone; 


65 species, or 24 per cent., were common to North Devon; and 139, or 50 per cent., 
to the mountain limestone of Great Britain. From these data Mr. Griffith concluded, 
that the yellow sandstone, which contained 92% per cent., and the carboniferous slate, 
which contained 953 per cent. of fossils common to the other members of the moun- 
tain limestone of Ireland, must belong to that series. Mr. Griffith next proceeds to 


consider whether the mouutain limestone of Ireland generally should be classed with — 


that of Great Britain. By the table of results it appeared, that out of 180 species of 
fossils obtained from the wpper limestone, 133, or 73 per cent., were common to the 
British mountain limestone ; of the calp, out of 267 species, 148, or 55 per cent., and 


of the lower limestone, out of 391 fossils, 234, or 60 per cent., of the carboniferous — 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 


slate 50 per cent., and of the yellow sandstone 48 per cent., as already mentioned, 
were common to the British mountain limestone; and if the entire series were taken, 
it appeared that out of 430 species which had been described as occurring in that 
series, 287, or 67 per cent., were common to the mountain limestone of Ireland. 
Hence he concluded, that the mountain limestones of Great Britain and Ireland be- 
longed to the same geological suite, though the Irish series generally, and particularly 
the lower members, contained a great number of species, which had not hitherto been 
discovered in the British, From the foregoing data there appeared to be a greater 
affinity between the upper limestone of Ireland and the British mountain limestone, 
than between it and the other members of the Irish series. Again, the upper lime- 
stone of Ireland contained only 16 species of fossils, or 8 per cent., which were com- 
mon to North Devon, while the calp contained 43, or 16 per cent., the lower lime- 
stone 39, or 10 per cent., the carboniferous slate 65, or 24 per cent., and the yellow 
sandstone 35, or 29 per cent., in common with the same series. Thus there appeared 
to be a nearly regular gradation from the upper portion of the mountain limestone 
of Ireland into the upper Devonian; and although, owing to the predominance of 
ordinary mountain limestone fossils, the per-centage is not considerable even in the 
lower members, yet by reference to the table of results it appeared, that out of 122 
species of fossils from North Devon, 80, or 65% per cent., occurred in the mountain 
limestone of Ireland; and hence Mr. Griffith concluded, that hardly a doubt could 
be entertained as to the propriety of attaching the fossils of North Devon to the 
mountain limestone series of Ireland. He considered this a startling result, and one 
___ which could not have been foreseen from our previous knowledge of the fossils be- 
____ longing to the British mountain limestone, which contained only 22 species common 
- to North Devon, and made the conclusion of some distinguished geologists as to the 

separation of the Devonian system from the mountain limestone, perfectly legitimate, 

even as regarded the northern portion of the district. Mr. Griffith observed, that this 

comparison between the mountain limestone and the Devonian fossils had been con- 

fined to those of North Devon. By a similar comparison with South Devon, the re- 

sults were essentially different, inasmuch as out of 257 species of fossils obtained from 
_ that district, only 94, or 36 per cent., were common to the mountain limestone of 
__ Treland, and 26, or nearly 11 per cent., to that of Great Britain, a result which led 
_____ to the conclusion, that the fossils of South Devon generally belonged to a different, 
____ and, judging from the type of the fossils, to a more ancient period than those of North 

Devon, though possibly a portion adjoining the culm series might eventually be found 

to correspond with the period of North Devon. The fossils of North Devon were 

given in these tables as described by Mr. Sowerby, Mr. Lonsdale and Mr. Phillips, and 
_ those of the mountain limestone of Great Britain, by Mr. Sowerby and Mr. Phillips. 

In regard to the fossils of the mountain limestone of Ireland, nearly the whole of the 

fossils named in the table had been obtained by, and were in the collection of, the 

author; of the 568 species which it contained, 166 were supposed to be new by Mr. 
_ M‘Coy of Dublin, who had examined and named them. Mr. Griffith stated, that the 

_ collection also contained upwards of 100 additional new species, which were under 
_ examination, including several species of Entomostraca, from the calp of Bundoran, 
_ in the county of Donegal, the lower limestone at Armagh, and the carboniferous slate 
__ at Howth, in the county of Dublin; numerous remains of fossil fish had also been 
collected, but they had not yet been sufficiently examined to be named and intro- 
__ duced in the catalogue. Mr. Griffith observed, in conclusion, that these investiga- 
____ tions must still be considered as in their infancy; the collection from the upper lime- 
stone was particularly deficient, which had arisen from the circumstance of the di- 
strict containing the best development of that member of the series being situated near 
_ the summits of elevated crags, where no quarries had been opened ; and every geo- 
__ logist was aware of the difliculty of collecting a good suite of fossils under such 
____¢ireumstances. 


a 
s 


Notice on the distinction between the Striated Surface of Rocks and Parallel 
_ _Undulations dependent on Original Structure. By R. 1. Morcutsoy, 
ee res, GS. 


_.. The President called attention to an interesting notice just published in the Scots- 


: 


«man newspaper and sent to him by the author, Mr. Maclaren, “On the Striated 


54 REPORT—1842. 


Rocks of the Corstorphine Hills near Edinburgh ;”’ his object in so doing being to 
urge geologists to distinguish well between appearances caused by mechanical action 
and those resulting from structure. The existence of abraded surfaces of rocks in 
these hills was (he stated) pointed out long, ago by the celebrated Sir James Hall, 
but when they were inspected by himself in 1840, in company with Mr. MacLaren 
and Dr. Buckland, the surfaces which he then saw were marked by sets of wavy 
parallel grooves or undulations (precisely similar to the casts sent formerly to the 

useum of the Geological Society of London), which appeared to him to belong to 
a class of phenomena distinct from the striated surfaces so common around Edin- 
burgh and in many parts of Scotland. This opinion was confirmed by discovering in 
the newly quarried body of the same rock of the Corstorphine Hiils and at various 
levels, undulations and grooves precisely similar to those on the surface, which were 
thus shown to have been superinduced by, original structure, an opinion which he 
(Mr. M.) expressed upon the spot, and which he has published in his last Anniversary 
Discourse. This view is indeed accepted by Mr. MacLaren, but that author at the 
same time goes on to show, that on recent examination Sir G. Mackenzie and him- 
self observed that the surface of parts of the Corstorphine Hills were also marked by 
the small striz or irregular parallel scorings directed from west to east, and which 
they believe must have resulted from powerful abrading agency, whether gravel and 
water, glaciers or bottoms of icebergs. 

In thanking Mr, MacLaren for again calling attention to a subject he had so well 
illustrated (see MacLaren’s ‘ Sketch of the Glacial Theory’), the President said, that 
he was quite ready to agree in all that had been written by that author in reference 
to the Corstorphine Hills; for although he had not seen the rough striz in his hurried 
visit to that spot, he was well acquainted with such markings in many other parts of | 
Scotland, in which country, as well as in Sweden and Russia, he had endeavoured to 
account for their presence by the grating action of the bottom of floating icebergs. It 
was from this conviction (1840) that he opposed the terrestrial glacial theory of 
Agassiz, as applied by that naturalist and Dr. Buckland to the low countries of Scot- 
land, over which they contended that g/aciers had advanced, which had scored all the 
rocks, and which, on melting, had left moraines of gravel and sand. _He was there- 
fore happy to perceive, that in rendering justice to the merits of Sir J. Hall, Mr. 
MacLaren had adopted the opinion for which he (Mr. Murchison) originally con- 
tended; viz. that whilst icebergs very probably produced striated surfaces, the wavy 
undulations are unequivocally due to the original structure of the rock *. 


On the Stratified and Unstratified Volcanic Products of the West of England. 
By the Rev. D. WittiaMs, £.G.S. 


This communication was supplementary to that which Mr. Williams made last year 
at Plymouth. Subsequent investigation, on a far more extended scale, had confirmed 
him in the results he then announced, viz. that granite, gneiss, mica-schist, porphyry, 
greenstone, tufaceous ash, breccia, grit, chloritic, talcose, and clay slate, were all vol- 
canic products, and that no such distinction as the so-called “ plutonic rocks”’ really 
existed in nature—they were, in short, associated together by evidences of their com- 
mon origin, and connected together by a series of mutual dependencies, and as such 
were capable of definite classification, as erupted products, as rocks im situ, which 
have been fused, semi-fused, or had been in some other particular stage of fusion, 
and as rocks simply altered by contact with ejected burning lavas. His object was 
to reduce the entire family of ancient volcanic products within the scope of recog- 
nized laws, and the ordinary operations of nature. He pointed to a diagram he had 
constructed, of an ideal volcanic centre in a phasis of activity, which (by admitting 
modifications to a greater or less amount) he submitted might serve as an illustration 
of the process of fusion and conversion (so far as the rocks of the earth had been 
submitted to our view) throughout all regions and all times. He supposed an in- 
ternal nucleus of white incandescent lava, whose outer border was surrounded by a 
zone of gneiss, the zone of gneiss by an outer concentric zene of mica-schist, and the 
mica-schist by any sedimentary strata, as the case might be; under certain cireum- 


* Mr. Bowman has since (Phil. Mag, Noy. 1841) shown that some structural appearances 
in the rocks.of N. Wales might be mistaken for the result of glacial action. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 


stances, he contended that these strata, and the inner concentric zones of mica-schist 
and gnéiss would be invaded by ramifying and anastomosing veins emanating from 
the internal fluid, to an extent proportionate to the temperature; these veins (the 
result of the intense heat which formerly traversed and melted down the walls of the 
joints, and radiated thence laterally among the laminz of deposition), instead of 
being passively injected among the bounding sedimentary or igneous rocks, were the 
active instruments which fused and converted those rocks into trap, porphyry, or 
granite, as the case may be; these veins would thus convert the zone of gneiss into 
incandescent lava, the mica-schist into gneiss, and a proportionate thickness of the 
_ sedimentary strata into mica-schist; and if the wis d@ tergo of heat should be main- 
tained, such transformations would progressively advance till the superincumbent or 
outermost strata being reduced to their point of least resistance, they would necés- 
sarily yield to the pressure or expansive force of the augmenting volume of the liquid 
__ matter, and present all the phenomena of a crater of elevation. From the whole 
amount of his observations, taken round the granite of Dartmoor, Bodmin Moor, 
&c., he considered that if Von Buch had not proposed the theory of “ Elevation Cra- 
ters,” geologists would eventually have been constrained to have recourse to some 
hypothesis of the kind to explain the appearances presented by those granitic domes. 
_ With regard to the origin of the schist and slate rocks, a series of specimens might 
__ be gathered from many localities in South Devon and Cornwall which would show 
} an insensible transition from the coarser volcanic grits and breccias into the finest 
_ clay slate, every variety of which he had traced up to those more typical products. 
; Mr, Williams stated, that his inquiries had resulted in the conviction that granite, 
gneiss, mica-schist, clay slate, &c. are no evidence of age or position in the geological 
scale, but that they appertain to all formations, fromm the most ancient to the most 
recent 3 he considered gneiss and mica-schist were hot simply ‘metamorphic ” rocks, 
i but rocks in a particular or definite stage of fusion. The term “ metamorphic” was 
_ perfectly true so far as it went, but did not convey the entire sense which the facts 
and circumstances of this class of rocks so manifestly conveyed. He therefore sug- 
gested that they should be termed intermediate products, and granite, porphyry, trap, 
breccia, grit, ash, chloritic, talcose, and clay slate, immédiate products of volcanic 
action. . 


On some peculiar Inorganic Formations and Fossils of the Magnesian Lime- 
stone. By Epwin Lanxester, MD. hi 


This communication was descriptive of a series of specimens placed on the table, 
illustrating various appearances and forms assumed by the magnesian limestone. 


On the Occurrence of Boulders in the Valley of the Calder. By 
Joun Travis Cray. 


In consequence of the information given by Lieut. William Alexander of Halifax, 
_at one of the meetings of the West Riding Geological Society, that in prosecuting 
the works of the Manchester and Leeds Railway some pieces of granite had been 
found at Hebden Bridge, the author proceeded to investigate the formation of the 
alluvial deposits in the valley, and the result of the examination proved that boulders 
of granite and other hard rocks exist in considerable abundance along a distance of 
ny miles. a 
_. “The valley of the Calder along its whole course is bounded on both sides by 
abrupt hills, which enclose a narrow and almost always level tract of land. The 
hills are of the regular coal strata, and as far as I have been able to discover, are de- 
_ Stitute of a single boulder or even rounded pebble. The level portion, on the con- 
_ tfary, is entirely composed of removed matter, near the surface sand, clay and small 
pebbles; bit at about the depth of five feet there is a bed of boulders of a much 
} ‘size, the majority of which are from the neighbouring rocks, but also contain- 
ing many of granite, and others of similar origin: 
_ ©The peculiarity of this deposit, when compared with that which occurs so ex- 
k sively in the centre and eastern parts of Yorkshire, as well as in Lancashire, con- 
_ sists in its being confined to this harrow stripe, frequently not a quarter of a mile in 


. 


56 REPORT—1842. 


width, yet extending continuously in nearly an east and west direction for many 
miles: I have traced it from Hebden Bridge, near Halifax, to Wakefield, a distance 
of upwards of twenty miles, and I have no doubt that it extends further east till it 
unites with the great mass of drift which occupies the vale of York.” 

The author supposes that at the period when the drift was deposited, the eleva- 
tion of the land was much lower, which would cause the level parts of the country 
to be submerged, and the narrow dales of Yorkshire would be sea-locks, like those 
now existing in Scotland, along which icebergs detached from the glaciers of the 
Cumbrian mountains would be floated in every direction. 


Notice of the Fossil Footsteps in the New Red Sandstone Quarry at Lymm, 

} in Cheshire. By Mr. Hawxsuaw. 

The Lymm quarry is at a short distance from Lymm on its eastern side, and south of 
the turnpike road from that place to Altrincham. The general dip of the strata is 
§.S.W. at an inclination of three inches to the yard. The quarry is near the out- 
crop of the stratified beds that are worked therein. The nature of these beds will 
be understood by the measurement of their vertical section as exposed in the quarry, 
which is as follows :— 

Grass. 
Ift. Gin. of ... | soil. 
Gin. to 2ft. of | sand coloured with red oxide of iron. 


gray marl slightly stratitied at bottom, passing into a thin stratum 
Aft. Of... ; of shale in other parts of the quarry. 3 


Aft ofiw 018 arenaceous shale in lamine of 3th inch to 1 inch in thickness. 
3) gt REA arenaceous shale, harder than the overlying stratum. 

Dil Oleer-sse gray sandstone. 

eT os) Oe ee gray shale. 

lin. of ...... gray sandstone. 

Tin} ob visee-- shale. 

Ifte) ofsaGaths gray and red sandstone. 

Gir Oleretssece shale. 

iii eiRarene gray and red sandstone. 

QIN. Ofese econ. - shale. = 


lft. 8in. of ... | gray and red sandstone, redder than the upper beds. 
Rinsofi.\. Je. shale. 


Tin OF. OLIN red sandstone. 
aT aitestaseres |, Shanes 
Yin. of,........ red sandstone. 
NOL de cotes shale. 


oe Gia. red sandstone. floor of quarry. 


The rock underlying these strata is in thick beds or large homogeneous masses, _ 
either altogether or very indistinctly stratified. Most probably it was rapidly depo- — 
sited from deep water, containing vast quantities of sand in admixture, and the whole 
deeply impregnated with oxide of iron. a 

The strata of the quarry have evidently been formed under other circumstances. 
The thinness and regularity of the layers, varying both in texture and colour, some- 
times thin shale, sometimes stone, together with their position and outcrop, would 
seem to bespeak an ancient shore that had still and quiet waters, but which, never- — 
theless, were not uniform with respect to the matter they contained in admixture, 
but left a deposit frequently varying in the space of a few inches. 

The thin strata of shale are of a yellowish gray colour. The laminz of the upper 
and thick beds of shale have a black coating, probably carbonaceous, as though the — 
waters from which these upper beds were formed had come more into contact with — 


TRANSACTIONS. OF THE SECTIONS. 57 


vegetable life. The upper strata of sandstone, as the section explains, are gray ; they 
become variegated with red as they descend, and it is only the bottom beds of the 
quarry that have the dark red colour so common to this formation, 

_ The fossil footsteps have been found on nearly all the beds of sandstones; on the 
uppermost small pointed impressions as if from Crustacea, and others resembling the 
feet of birds. Impressions of Cheirotherium are on the upper strata also, but. they 
are of small dimensions, increasing in magnitude as the beds descend. Referring to 
the several specimens from this quarry in possession of the Warrington Natural Hi- 
story Society, and now in their museum, we notice a gray sandstone slab on which 
are footsteps of Cheirotherium, chiefly varying from {ths of an inch to 14 inch long, 
the largest impression being 4 inches in length. ‘The next, a slab of the same colour, 
has impressions 3 inches in length. Another gray sandstone slab has impressions 4 
inches in length. And upona slab of dark red sandstone is one impression 10 inches 
long, but of peculiar form, as though the foot that made it had been furnished with 

aws. 

The most remarkable specimens of Cheirotherium from this quarry that I have 
seen, are in the possession of Mr. John Robson, surgeon, of Warrington. Both are of 
the deep red sandstone of the lower bed. The largest specimen, a slab of about 20 
inches diameter, has two: footsteps in the usual position in which they are when left 
by the same animal, viz. the smaller preceding the larger footstep, which is 94 inches 
in length. The other specimen is a footstep of 74 inches long, on a slab of similar 
sandstone. 

Both these beautiful specimens are from impressions that appear to haye been left 
upon a thin stratum of the finest clay, which was so well prepared to receive the mould 
as to leave a cast so delicate as to give us the texture of the skin that covered the 
sole of the foot. This appears to have been covered with small papillz, about 100 
to the square inch in the larger specimen, and about 220 to the square inch in the 
smaller specimen ; showing that the sole of the foot was furnished with a rough skin, 
such as might have been expected in a creature that walked upon a sandy shore. 


Notice of Perforations in Limestone. By Dr. Buckuanp. 


Dr. Buckland laid on the table a slab of limestone from Plymouth, perforated with 
deep, irregularly rounded holes, which he attributed to the long-continued action of 
the slime of garden snails (Helix aspersa), and stated that he found litmus paper to 
exhibit a red tint if these snails are made to crawl over it. The feeble action of a 
small quantity of acid in their slime, continued on the same parts of the same stone 
during a long series of years, seems to afford an adequate cause for those effects, which 
were last-year adduced at Plymouth as the work of marine animals, and as affording 
evidence of a raised beach. On visiting the spot, Dr. Buckland found the slab now 
exhibited, with several living snails, and also shells of dead snails in the holes. In 
September 1841, he found similar holes, with shells of a smaller wood snail in them, 

‘on the under surface of blocks of limestone in Cumberland, and Mr. Baker has re- 
cently observed them in the limestone of Cannington Park, near Bridgewater. 


On Recent and Fossil Semi-circular Cavities caused by air-bubbles on the 
__ surface of soft clay, and resembling impressions of rain-drops. By Dr. 
. Buckianp. 


In July 1840, Dr. Buckland first noticed cavities of this kind upon the surface of 
some desiccated mud, which had been laid in small heaps by the side of the rail- 
Toad near Reading; they were mostly of the size of holes impressed by large rain- 
drops, but could not be referred to rain, because they existed only on certain spots 
__ Jower than the general surface of the heaps. The origin of these holes appeared to 
have been the rise of bubbles of air through the bottom of little partial shallow 
ponds of water on the mud, the general surface of which, from its convex form, had 

allowed no water to rest upon it. A slab of new red sandstone on the table, from 
near Birmingham, containing a few impressions of vegetables, was covered with small 
_ ‘tubercles in close contact with one another, and apparently caused by the deposition 


Pa 
| as 


58 REPORT—1842. 


of sand in holes formed by the rise of bubbles of air from a subjacent bed of clay. 
Dr. Buckland suggested that some of the cavities, and casts of cavities, on beds of 
sandstone at Storton Hill, near Liverpool, and also near Shrewsbury, which have 
been attributed to rain-drops, may have been due to the extrication of aitbubbles ; 
care would therefore be necessary to distinguish between these two causes of phe- 
nomena, which have hitherto been exclusively attributed to rain. 


On the Discovery of Insects in the Lower Beds of Lias of Gloucestershire. 
By the Rev. P. B. Bropre. 


Such fossils being comparatively of great variety, and with one exception not ha- 
yo Noe before discovered in the lias, the author was unwilling to delay any notice 
of the occurrence of these organic remains in the lowest member of our oolitic series, 
His former discovery of insects in the Wealden led him to a closer investigation of the 
strata in the neighbourhood of Cheltenham, and the result has proved highly satisfac- 
tory. He has already detected elytra of one or more genera of Coleoptera, one or 
two minute beetles, and a few wings of some insects, one of which resembles that of 
the Libellula. The above fossils are generally of small size; the largest elytron is a 
little more than half an inch long, and the largest wing about an inch in length; nor 
are they by any means abundant. 

The beds in which they occur consist of thin courses of blue, green and white 
limestone, forming some of the lower beds of the lias formation, so extensively deve- 
loped in the neighbourhood of Cheltenham and Gloucester. 


Notices of the Geology of Derbyshire and Neighbouring Counties. By 
Evias HALL. 


In illustration of this communication Mr. Hall presented models, maps and sections 
on a large scale. 


A skull which had been found in excavating a lock at the east end of the Forth 
and Clyde Canal, on the Firth of Forth, at twenty feet below high-water mark, was 
placed on the table. It belonged probably to the domestic breed of cattle. 


On the Structure and Mode of Formation of Glaciers. By JAMEs Stark, 
M.D., F.RSE. 


Dr. Stark presented his views on the stratified structures occurring in glaciers under 
the following heads :— : 

1. On the Occurrence and Mode of Formation of Horizontal Strata—Most writers 
seem to be agreed that these horizontal layers mark the additions which had been 
annually made to the glacier, each layer being the accumulated snows which fell 
during one year. Dr. Stark however showed, from a reference to the meteorological 
tables kept at the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard, that considerable doubts might 
be entertained as to this being the case. These layers of ice are in general from 1 foot 
to 3 feet in thickness, but the tables demonstrate that from 300 to 700 inches of 
snow fall during the six winter months alone, i. e. from October to March inclusive. 
Dr. Stark therefore thought it was quite possible that each horizontal layer denoted 
the separate storms or falls of snow, or if they marked the annual accumulations, 
apparently proved, what had not previously been suspected, that snow and ice waste 
nearly as rapidly in the upper as in the lower regions. 

2. On the Occurrence and Mode of Formation of Longitudinal and Vertical Strata.— 
Respecting the structure to which he referred the lamellar, banded, striated or rib- 
boned structure, mentioned by different observers, Dr. Stark offered the following 
explanation :—Late researches show that glaciers advance at the rate of from 200 to 
500 or 600 feet annually, and as it is generally allowed that this takes place only 
during the spring and summer months, the daily progression of the glacier must be 
from 14 to 3 feet. This daily movement extends more or less to the whole extent 


A ge AP > 


_ approached, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 


of the glacier; and as, in all the upper regions at least, the icy mass progresses from nar- 
rower to broader valleys, every movement has the effect of leaving a narrow space 
between the margin of the glacier and its containing walls. The granular snow which 
covers the flanks of the valleys, being loosened and softened during the heat of the 
day, slips down and fills these. spaces, when the descent of the temperature during 
the night, and the contact with the already formed icy mass consolidates it into a layer 
of solid ice. Layers of ice in this position are recognized to be always more or less 
granular, but to be divided from each other by plates of purer and more compact ice. 
Dr. Stark regarded these plates as a superadded structure, occasioned by the trickling 
of the water of the melted ice or snow over the external surface of each layer where 
they were in contact, or nearly so, with the containing rocky walls. The water 
would freeze as it trickled over the icy surface, and form a plate of pure and trans- 
parent ice very different from the recognized structure of ice formed from granular 
snow. Frem these Icngitudinal and yertical layers varying in thickness from a frac- 
tion of an inch to several inches, Dr. Stark regarded their formation as a matter of 
daily occurrence, the thicker layers being either produced by the spaces not having 
been filled up for several days, or from the glacier having advanced more one day 
than it did another. 

3. On the Combination of Horizontal with Longitudinal and Vertical Strata.—It was 
remarked that in this combination the-horizontal layers would always be found to 
occupy the middle of the glacier, whilst the longitudinal and vertical strata would 
compose its breadth. No writer known to Dr. Stark described such a combination 
of strata as occurring in any glacierg but it was mentioned that a careful examina- 
tion of the recorded observations of different authors who described the same glacier, 
showed that such a combination must exist. Dr. Stark stated that the only possible 
mode of explaining the apparently discordant statements of authors relative to the 
position of the strata in glaciers, was to suppose that as the mass composed of hori- 
zontal strata advanced onwards, it received in the manner above indicated a lateral 
increase of longitudinal and vertical strata, which, at the same time they increased 
its breadth, probably also added to its depth, by running for a greater or lesser ex- 
tent below the already formed icy mass. It was shown that so long as the glacier re- 
mained in the upper regions, it probably received additional horizontal layers from 
the snows of each year or each storm, which would cover both the already formed 
horizontal and longitudinal layers. When the glacier however descended so far as 
to waste away from its upper surface, the horizontal layers from lying uppermost, 
would first disappear, so that by the time it arrived at the level of the first line or so, 
only a narrow band of horizontal layers might occupy the middle of the glacier, or 
the whole might have completely disappeared, leaving the longitudinal alone appa- 
rent. The ascertained difference of depth between the glacier in the upper and 
lower valleys seemed of itself to prove, in Dr. Stark’s opinion, that such must be the 
way in which the horizontal layers disappeared, as all agree in stating that the 
depth of the icy mass in the upper valleys is three er four times greater than in the 
lower ones; and. as none allow that in .these elevated situations they melt away 
from their lower surface, they must become thinner by wasting away at their upper 


_ surface. 
4. On the Appearance of Longitudinal and Vertical Stratification in Layers depo- 


sited horizontally. 
5. On the Occurrence and Mode of Formation of Transverse more or less inclined 


_ Strata.—As the most remarkable and best-known point where this peculiar structure 


exists, and where it is seeu forming, Dr. Stark instanced the terminal portion of the 
Rhone glacier, after it falls into the valley of the Rhone over the rocky barrier or 
precipice which separates that valley from the Gallenstock. He stated, that,at) the 


central point on which the icy cataract falls no structure was visible, but that at some 
_ distance from this an appearance of layers running transversely began to be mani- 
_ fested, and that a series of transverse layers could be traced from, this spot. to the 
_ yery termination of the glacier, each layer lying at a lesser angle or dip as that 
_ termination was approached. The lowest or terminal layer was mentioned to lie 


at an angle or dip of from 10° to 15°, whilst every layer above that lay. at.a 
higher and higher ‘angle, rising even to an angle of 70°, as the central heap was 


60 REPORT—1842. 


Dr Stark offered the following explanation :—As each mass of ice tumbled over 
the rocky precipice it was dashed into a thousand pieces, in fact, resolved into the 
irregular crystalline particles of which it was composed. The melting of the surface, 
&c. saturates this granular mass with water, and so soon as any portion of it gets be- 
yond the disturbing influence of the falling masses, the low temperature of the ice, 
combined perhaps with the pressure of the overlying loose material, tends to solidify 
a portion, and thus forms a new layer. As the fall of the ice over the precipice is not 
a continuous but an interrupted process, each layer has time to acquire a certain 
amount of thickness and solidity, before another mass, by the concussion it occasions, 
disturbs the process, and by its additional weight causes the whole mass to move 
forwards. Dr. Stark thought that the depth and distance to which the concussion 
reached, and the weight of the overlying materials, would cause the layers to form 
at a dip cf 70°. Every layer was therefore formed originally at this angle or dip, and 
parallel to each other ; but as they advanced forwards in consequence of the success- 
ive falls of ice, and the formation of new layers behind them, they were seen to lose 
their parallelism to each other, and lie at lower and lower angles at every step of ad- 
vancement towards the termination of the glacier. 

Dr. Stark accounted for this by showing, that the melting of the base, which was 
necessarily greater at the termination of the glacier than where the Jayers were first 
formed, gave the whole mass a tendency to fall forwards from the want of the sup- 
port before and below, a tendency which was increased by the greater amount of 
friction at the base of the layers retarding the motion of that portion, whilst the 
forward motion aided still further their falline forwards, as there was no friction 
on the upper surface to oppose the retardation of the friction at their base. The 
plastic nature of the whole mass, and the transversely stratified structure, he 
thought would allow of this change of parallelism and of dip being accomplished 
with facility. ; 

Dr. Stark, in conclusion, remarked, that a glacier may, and probably in most cases 
does exhibit during its course all the chief forms of stratification described above. At 
its origin in the upper valleys the strata are horizontal. A little lower down the 
herizontal strata occupy only the middle portions of the glacier, whilst the longitu- 
dinal and vertical compose its breadth. Still lower down the vertical layers are alone 
apparent; and at the lower extremity of the glacier, if the original structure has 
been broken up and destroyed from any cause, the transverse stratification is alone 
apparent. 


On the Discovery of the Remains of Fishes at the base of the Mountain Lime- 
stone in the vicinity of Bristol. By the Rev. D. Witu1aMs, F.G.S. 


The author stated, that having recently discovered remains of mountain-lime fish 
in a thin conglomerate which mineralogically appeared to belong to the old red 
sandstone, he was induced to inquire what other evidences existed of a passage 
between these two formations; in this respect he found them singularly deficient 
compared with the neutral beds and common alternations he had been accustomed 
to meet with in Devon and Cornwall, between any two consecutive. divisions, of 
which a notable instance existed between the floriferous and carbonaceous series and 
the overlying killas : near Bristol, however, it was all a hard junction; the mountain 
limestone and old red sandstone were there in juxta-location, but the links and 
ties which determine gradation and uninterrupted succession elsewhere, were all 
wanting. 

The mode adopted by Mr. Williams of ascertaining the genera and species of the 
fish, as least liable to error, was by first comparing such palates as he possessed, with 
all the care he could, with the plates of Agassiz, and having identified them satis- 
factorily, he referred to the text for the formation and locality, which in every case 
gave mountain limestone in either England or Ireland. This process of determination 
gave the following genera and species, viz. Cochliodus contortus, Helodus simplex, 
Psammodus turgidus, P. cinctus, and P. reticulatus, 

On the south bank of the Avon (below the red breccia which contained the Ich- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ene 61 


thyolites so abundantly on the north side) he observed a coarse red conglomerate 
about! twelve feet thick, which, with the thin one containing ’the fish, and the inter- 
mediate grits, he considered as the true representatives of the conglomerate de- 
_ scribed by Mr. Murchison as extending from Monmouthshire into Pembrokeshire 
_ along the base line of the carboniferous limestone, and sometimes attaining a thick- 
ness of two hundred feet. On the evidence of this Bristol conglomerate and the 
_ fish remains, Mr. Williams referred all above it to the early period of the mountain 
_ limestone, and thus placed it in strict parallel with the alternations of limestone and 
_ red sandstone delineated by Professor Phillips in four sectional columns in his work 
on Yorkshire, as resting on the great conglomerate, in as many widely-remote locali- 
_ ties. His views necessarily required or implied an original elevation above the’sea 
level, and a subsequent submergence of the old red sandstone toa great depth below 
_ it; and this admitted, the red sandstone alternations of Mr. Phillips and the case of 
the St: Vincent's Rocks are referable to detrital matter abraded from the slowly and 
unequally submerging old red sandstone at the first formation of the mountain lime- 
stone. From the constancy of this conglomerate so interposed between the old red 
sandstone and carboniferous limestone, Mr. W. inferred that it chronicled an inter- 
val in time sufficiently capacious for the reception of the so-called Devonian system, 
(for that vast succession of mineral masses incompletely developed in the West of 
England, by terminating upwards with the killas group,) whose true place in the geo- 
logical scale was intermediate between the old red sandstone and mountain lime- 
stone, and (except on their respective confines) perfectly independent of either. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


On the different Species of Cotton Plants, and of the Culture of Cotton in 
India. By Professor Royvir, M.D. F.RS., of the East India House, 
and of King's College, London. 


__ The author observed, first, that plants yielding true cotton were natives both of the 
Old and of the New World, that the species (all referred to the genus Gossypium by 
botanists) were distinct. India, for instance, produced two species,—1, G. arboreum, 
or tree cotton, nwrma of the natives, with red flowers, little cultivated, though yielding 
_ a fine silky cotton; 2, G. herbaceum, the herbaceous or common Indian cotton, of 
_ which there were several varieties, including the Dacca cotton. This species has been 
_ spread from India to the south of Europe. — Both these species have small seeds with 
_ short adhering hairs under the cotton. There are also two distinct American spe- 
_ cies :—3, G. Peruvianum, or acuminatum, distinguished by its large black seeds, which 
_ adhere to each other, and by its pointed fruit and leaves: this species yields the 
. Brazil, Pernambuco, Bahia, &c. cottons. 4, G. Barbadense, is so called from having 
been early cultivated in Barbadoes. It has black seeds, free of short hairs, and is the 
‘same as the Sea Island cotton, and was long since introduced into the Islands of 
_ Mauritius and Bourbon. From an examination of specimens and coloured drawings 
_ this species appeared to be identical with the short staple or Georgian cotton, which is 
remarkable for its large seeds being covered with short hairs or fuzz in addition to the 
_ cotton. This is also the character of the New Orleans cotton which is said to have 
5 en obtained from Mexican seed ; and this would appear to be the native country of 
_ this species. If the fact were not supported by satisfactory evidence, it would be 
difficult to believe that cultivation combined with change of soil and climate could 
y so completely alter the nature of the seed, at the same time that the staple became 
_ both longer and finer. There may be other species of Gossypium in Africa and China, 
but we are without sufficient evidence on the subject, and the above appear to yield 
_ all the commercial cottous. 
Dr. Royle then proceeded to observe that these cottons were produced in a great 
_ Variety of countries, from the line to 40° of north latitude, in very different soils, with 
Ba ‘great diversity of climate and almost every variation in the mode of culture, and also 


Pre 


62 - REPORT—1842. 


that some were sold for double and treble the price of others. The Indian cottons 
were stated to be usually low in price from inferiority in length of staple and de- 
fective cleaning ; but that they had some useful properties, such as a good colour, 
taking dyes easily, and swelling in the process of bleaching, by which the cloth looked 
more substantial. This property the weavers of Dacca objected to as unsuited to their 
“¢ webs of woven air,” and therefore preferred the cotton grown near their town. Dr, 
R. inquired whether this variety grown in a moist soil and climate might be less dis- 
posed to absorb moisture than cotton grown in the drier soil and climate of the north- 
western provinces of India, which having the property of swelling, was esteemed by 
the weavers of Benares as well as by those of Manchester, Dr. Royle then contrasted 
the culture in America with that in India, and found that they differed in every re- 
spect; the American being more of the nature of garden culture, that is, where each 
plant was individually attended to, in the processes of ploughing, hoeing, weeding, 
heaping earth round it, and sometimes in pruning, besides great attention in picking, 
drying, and cleaning the cotton from its seeds ; in all which the Indian processes dif- 
fered in being exactly the reverse. In the American method, the spreading of the 
roots in the soil, the exposure of the leaves to the air, and the due influence on both 
of the stimuli of heat and light in a soil and climate not too dry nor over moist, were 
all well calculated to restrain the inordinate growth of leaves, and to favour the due 
production and perfection of flowers and fruit, and necessarily of cotton. There was 
nothing, however, in the culture, soil, or climate that could not be imitated in India, 
though it might no doubt require modification in degree from differences of soil and 
climate. 

It would be remarkable if attempts had not been made to improve the culture of 
cotton in India. In fact the Directors of the East India Company called the attention 
of their government in India to this subject as early as }788. They sent out seeds, 
instructions, machines, and even an American, Mr. Metcalf, to teach the use of these, 
and established farms for the improved culture of cotton in 1811, 1818, and lastly in 
1829. These are usually stated to have been failures, This the Professor denied, as 
good cotton had been produced and the culture was considered profitable, and only 
required planters to take it up on their own account. The American cotton is also 
said to degenerate in India, This also he considered incorrect, The Bourbon cotton, 
which is the same kind as the Sea Island, had been introduced into Tinnevelly, in 11° 
of north latitude, and Mr. Hughes continued to send it to the Liyerpool market for a 
series of years of good quality, and always obtained for it a higher price than any other 
cotton from India ever sold for, It has fallen off of late, but it has lost Mr. Hughes's 
skill, which was displayed in the growing of senna as well as in the culture of 
cotton ; Hughes's Tinnevelly senna selling for three and four shillings a pound, when 
the best Alexandrian senna does not bring more than one shilling and sixspence. The 
imports of Bourbon cotton from the Tinnevelly district have however increased in 
quantity, as the natives have taken up the culture, That all the cotton introduced into: 
India has not deteriorated, is also proved by Mr, Elphinstone, Collector of Rutna- 
gherry, and Dr. Burn at Kaira having produced cotton which has been pronounced 
nearly, if not quite equal to the best New Orleans, and some not much inferior to Sea 
Island, both from what appears to be acclimated Bourbon seed. Dr. Burn, in 1838, 
collected his seed from hedges where Dr. Gilders had made his experiments in 1817, 
Without careful culture cotton will deteriorate in America quite as readily as in 
India, 

Notwithstanding these repeated experiments and apparent failures, the Court of 
Directors of the East India Company determined upon making another great experi- 
ment, which should be sufficiently complete to set the question at rest, As is well 
known in Manchester, Captain Bayles was deputed to and brought with him ten ex- 
perienced planters of cotton, of whom three were sent to the Madras, three to the 
Bombay, and four to the Bengal Presidency, taking with them American seed, ploughs 
and hoes, gins and machines for cleaning cotton, and presses for packing it in a state 
fit for transmission to market. The results of their experiments in the first year 
Dr. Royle then proceeded to relate, chiefly from letters addressed to himself, and the 
proceedings of the Agricultural Society of India. The Bombay experiment, he was 
sorry to say, had been a failure ; but, in fact, it had not received a fair trial, and for 
the causes he referred to a letter lately published by the Hon, W. Baring to Mr, M, 


+ 
x 
i 


iets 


we 
eos 


La 


Sear 


ed 


TRANSACTIONS.OF THE SECTIONS. 63 


Gibson... He) added, however, that the planters confined their experiment to the 
black soil produced by disintegrated trap rocks of the Broach district, which only in 
appearance resembles the black alluvial soil of Louisiana, and which, though agree- 
ing well with the Indian, has in all the former experiments been found unsuitable to 
the American cottons, This is related in all the printed accounts of these experi- 
ments, But even in the present experiment, some American seed sown in a garden 
which differed in haying the common sandy soil of the district, produced good cotton 
plentifully.. The experiment has been ordered to be resumed by a planter from 
Bengal and another from Madras. 

The planters destined for Bengal were detained in this country, and visited Mane 
chester and Liverpool, where they had seen various brokers, spinners, and manu- 
facturers, from whom they received much valuable information respecting the kind 
of cotton, and quality best suited for the different manufactures, They did not, how- 
ever, reach their destination until March of last year, and had little time for choosing 
eligible sites and getting settled m their farms, as sowing usually commences in the 
middle of June, after the rains have set in. This year they did not begin until the 
20th of July, and lasted only six weeks instead of three months, as usual ; they were 
besides supplied with an insufficient number of large bullocks, the small ones of the 
country being unfitted for the American plough; but still, with all these disad- 
vantages, the experiment may be considered decidedly successful, inasmuch as 
though the quantity of cotton is small, the quality is good, and it is well cleaned; 
and one of the planters considers that the culture will be decidedly profitable, as cotton 
can be produced cheaper than in any other part of the world. But the most im- 
portant result obtained, was, that the American cotton continued to produce. blos- 
sons, bolls and cotton long after the Indian cotton cultivated by the natives had dried 
up. Also, the Indian cotton cultivated in the American method assumed quite a dif- 
ferent appearance, as, instead of growing like a straight stick, it threw out lateral 
branches, which were covered with flower-buds, and continued, like the American, 
to bear cotton long after all the same kind of cotton grown by the natives had com- 
pletely withered up. These points were confirmed by letters from Capt. Bayles, 
Messrs. Mercer and Finnie, two of the American planters ; also by the report of Mr. 
Lowther, the Revenue Commissioner, who had visited the farms for the purpose of 
inspection, Mr. Mercer is well pleased with the soil and the people, who readily 
adopt the improved methods when taught by example. He complains only of the 
dryness of the climate, and he has had a very trying season in that respect. The great 
eanal which has been sanctioned by the Court of Directors to be made through the 
centre of the Doab, and which is to be 500 miles in length, and will afford water for 
irrigating five miles on both sides, as it will render famine impossible, so will it make 
the cultivation of cotton easy and independent of dry seasons, 

The above experiments having been carried on in 27° of N, latitude, it is interest- 
ing and extremely important to find that a like result has attended those undertaken 
in the Madras Presidency in the district of Coimbatore, in about 12° of N, latitude. 
The planters were first sent to the Tinnevelly district, and afterwards removed to 
their present localities near Ernaud and Coimbatore ; so that in this way some time 
was unfortunately lost, Their experiments were made both with the New Orleans 
and with the native seed, in both the black and the red soil, the latter the result of 


_ disintegrated granitic rocks. 


The season here seems to have been at first untoward, apparently from the great 
dryness of the weather, as the accounts which were received by the January mail 
stated that the experiment had not succeeded in the way that had been anticipated, 
probably either from unsuitableness of soil or season, in reference to the times of 


_ Sowing and the modes of culture. Dr. Wight, however, the present superintendent, 
saw enough to be convinced that the American method, with some modifications, was 


sure to succeed, and he was ready to rent land for the purpose of establishing 
this culture. That he was not too sanguine was evident by his subsequent letters, 
all which gave more encouraging prospects. In that dated 17th April, 1842, he 
was enabled to say that he considered the experiment to haye completely succeeded, 
as the plants had thrown out fresh leaves and flowers, and that the bolls had set, 


ripened, and produced good cotton; so that from fields which they thought had 
_ geased to bear, they obtained no less than 15,000 lbs, of seed cotton, and were still 


64 ay “REPORT—-1842, °° 


collecting cotton... He’concludes’his letter by saying that next year, if the season is 
but moderately favourable, they will be enabled to send nearly if not quite 1000 
bales of American cotton. , 

The Professor concluded his paper by stating, that from the results of some of the 
former, as well as from many of those of the present experiments; and from the 
modifications in culture, which would be made to suit the several situations, he had 
no doubt that, by the acclimation of the American cottons in some localities, ‘and by 
the improvement of the native cottons in others, good cotton, that is, such as is re- 
quired for many of the Manchester manufacturers, would be produced with profit in 
India.’ In fact, the principal question remaining to be determined, was the quantity 
of cotton which would be produced per acre by adopting or modifying the American 
method of culture, so as to make them perfectly suitable to India. 

The paper was illustrated by drawings of the several species described ; the different 
kinds of seed, as well as with specimens of cotton grown by the American planters 
in all the three Presidencies, which were all well cleaned by the American gins sent 
out by the Court of Directors, and made by Mr. Laird, Liverpool, and with which 
the planters seem generally well satisfied, as well as with the ploughs ‘and hoes. 

The cottons produced were pronounced well cleaned and of good quality by some 
of the Manchester gentlemen present, and the New Orleans cotton grown in the red 
soil of Coimbatore, as good as any New Orleans cotton received from America, and 
that it would be a most useful cotton and much consumed in Manchester, 


Mr. Bazley exhibited specimens of cotton and living cotton plants. 


Mr, Dewbain exhibited the downy fruit gf the Black Poplar. It was the produce 
of a tree that had not hitherto borne fruit, and he had heard of several trees having 
this year produced fruit in like manner. 


On the Promotion of Vegetable Growth. By G. W. Hatt. 


Mr. Hall showed the importance of the subject, not only to the general resources of 
the country, but in its direct relation to the scientific objects of the Section. He traced 
the several causes of vegetable growth, and enumerated the elementary constituents 
needed for that object ; showing the progressive changes through which the simple 
elements were carried by the several processes of fermentation and combustion on 
organic vegetable matter. The products of each of these processes of dissolution 
he claimed-as the essential elements for promoting the growth of vegetation, arguing 
that that which had already been produced by vegetation, could again be applied, by 
the processes above described, to the same purpose, after separation into its original 
constituent parts. Founded upon this principle, he then described the mode adopted 
by Mr. Daniell of Tiverton, in taking advantage of this principle in the laws of vege~ 
tation, and by an application of the sources of fermentation and combustion to the 
soil, under circumstances of minute mechanical subdivision, and in a state fitted for 
solubility, to promote the fertility of the country, and the growth of the most useful 
and most needed plants. The long-continued experiments under which this had been 
accomplished were detailed to the Section, showing that the result was highly fa- 
vourable ; while, on the other hand, it was argued, step by step, from the nature of 
the elementary substances required, and the capability of these being afforded in the 
required way, that the philosophical reasons for such success were as simple and ob- 
vious as the facts were plain. 


On Liebig’s Theory of Fallow Crops. By the Rev. J. B. Reape, I.A., 
FURS. 


The fallow time, as Liebig observes, is that period of culture during which land is 
exposed to a progressive disintegration by means of the influence of the atmosphere, 
for the purpose of rendering a certain quantity of alkalies capable of being appro- 
priated by plants. Careful tillage increases and accelerates this disintegration, and 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65 


secures from:time to time a new supply of soluble alkalies, Now Liebig states that, 
- for the purpose of agriculture, it is quite indifferent whether the land be covered 
with weeds, or with a plant which does not abstract the potash inclosed in it. Accord- 
ingly, he would alternate with corn crops, which extract the alkalies of the soil, the 
usual fallow plants in the family of the Leguminosae, because, “ being remarkable on 
account of the small quantity of alkalies or salts in general which they contain,” 
they neither extract alkalies from the soil, nor do they exercise any injurious influ- 
ence on the corn which is cultivated after them. The farmer is hereby greatly ad- 
vantaged in being able thus to steal, as it were, an intermediate crop from his land, 
inasmuch as an entire absence of plants appropriating these unimportant quantities 
of salts would of necessity compel him to the constant repetition of bare fallows, in, 
order that the soil, during an interval of rest, might regain its original fertility. 
Such is the theory.. The fact, however, most unquestionably is this, that the plants in 
the family of the Leguminose usually cultivated as fallow crops, so far from acting 
bat slightly on the saline constituents of the soil, are remarkable, above all others, 
for the large quantities of soluble salts contained in them, ae 

The experiments by which this result may be arrived at are very simple. If two 
pounds of bean straw, and of clover hay, be submitted to the action of fire and allowed 
to burn till they cease to give any flame, they will yield about two ounces of ashes 5 
and distilled water (about two pints) being poured upon the hot ashes, and repeatedly 
filtered, after squeezing it from the insoluble residuum, is charged with the soluble 
matter which, to a certain extent, is set at liberty by the process of combustion, The 
quantity of soluble matter, chiefly potash, contained in the clover saline solution, 
appears, upon evaporation, to be about ninety grains, and in the bean saline solution 
about forty grains ; whereas by a similar dperation upon the ashes of wheat, barley, 
and oat straw, the soluble saline matter does not amount to thirty grains. The pre- 
sence of potash may be detected in these @olutions not only by the well-known smell 
peculiar to Liquor potasse, but also by the characteristic crystalline precipitate on 
the addition of bichloride of platinum, by the copious insoluble bitartrate cf potash 
on adding the solutions to tartaric acid in excess, and by the salts of potash formed 
with mineral acids. 

The saline solution from bean straw is also remarkable for containing lime in solu- 
tion, and hence, probably, we have one important cause of the streugth of bean straw 
manure. In twenty-four hours after the clear bean solution is obtained, a crystalline 
precipitate of carbonate of lime is attached to the sides of a stoppered bottle, and, in 
the course of a few days, it considerably increases in quantity, 

All the solutions, when evaporated to about half an ounce, exhibit a remarkable 
precipitate, which, upon being separated and washed, ceases to be soluble in water, 
_ and the action of acids and alkalies, as well as of the blowpipe upon this sub- 
stance, is accompanied with phenomena which deserve the attention of agricultural 
_ chemists. 

The condition of carbon. in these solutions ought also to be accurately exa- 
mined. 

~ The author concludes with the following question: may it not be the case, that the 
leaves which fall so abundantly from these plants, and the roots which remain in the 
ground being so copiously supplied with saline matter from the presence of potash in 
every cell, do really furnish more soluble alkalies by the subsequent process of tillage, 
than the soil, especially when of a sandy nature, could in any other way obtain for 

e future production of corn? 

- Mr. E, Solly, jun, exhibited specimens of the diseased bark of living ash trees, 
- occasioned by insects. 


—_—_——, —— 


_ On an Irregular Production of Flowers, in an Aloe, at Ham Court, near 
ae _ Bristol. By Dr. Dauseny, Prof. of Botany, Oxford. 


_. The aloe began to throw up its flower-stem in May 1841. The first blossoms 

_ opened about the end of July, and it went on flowering till October. 

___ Several suckers were removed from the plant after the blossom was over, and one 

oom grew on a kind of underground stem of perhaps two feet and a half long, 

" pg apparently been lengthened in seeking for a convenient place to reach the 
° F 


66 REPORT—1842. , 


light, had three buds at the end of it. This was planted, and in May 1842 one of the 
buds opened in the form of an imperfect flower, having some green leaves with 
spikes on the edge, as in ordinary leaves, and others approaching to the form and 
colour of true petals, and two perfect stamens, with anthers and farina, and others 
distorted. 


On the Migration of Birds and Flowering of Plants in Cornwall. 
4 Jon. Coucn, Esq., FLS, 


List of Summer Birds observed in Denbighshire, int he Spring 6 1842, 
By Jouw Buacxwatt, Esq., F.L.S he 


On the Nidus and Growth of the Purpura lapillus, and a on. the Patella 
- pellucida and P.levis. By C. W. Peacu. 


Ellis, in his ‘Essay on the British Corallines,’ says that the “Sea Cup” is the ovary 
of the Periwinkle shell-fish ; but from a series of observations made by Mr. Peach 
commencing in January of the present year and eontinued up to Monday the 20th 
of June, it appears that the “Sea Cup” belongs not to Turbo littoreus, but Pur- 
pura lapillus. Mr, Peach had seen the Purpura lapillus employed in the formation 
of these interesting fabrics, and on pulling these shells from the rock on which the 
were fixed, he found that they enveloped three or four of these cups with their man- 
tles, and that there were indentations in the mantle answering to the number of cups 
that it had covered. These ‘‘Sea Cups” are firmly attached to the rocks, and when left 
by the whelks the mouth is securely sealedup, and they are then of a pale yellowish 
colour: after some time the internal part assumes a granular appearance, and is of a 
pinkish hue; the young fry leave their habitation at the end of about four months, 
and take refuge in the crevices and shelter afforded by the sea-weeds and shells at- 
tached to the rotks. The author exhibited a series of specimens in all their various 
stages of growth, with some of the nidi, and amongst them some young shells which - 
had been reared in his house from the nidi kept in a dish of salt-water, and which had 
all the peculiarities of the adult, such as canal, strize, and propensity of remaining for 
considerable periods out of the water on the side of the dish ; leaving no douht that 
they were the Purpura lapillus. ' 

The author also stated that, from a series of observations and examination of thou- 
sands of specimens in all their various stages of growth, he does not hesitate to say 
that the Patella levis is the young of the Patella pellucida. The P. levis is first found 
on the leaves of the larger sea-weeds ; after a short time it descends to the stem, and 
as it increases in age lower and lower; and before reaching the lowest part it scoo Ss 
out a small cavity, and on arriving at age and strength it cuts a road through the 
roots of the sea-weed and takes possession of its final abode in a cup which it forms 
at the foot of the weed, and is there suspended apex downwards, The author has 
never found it attached to the rocks, like the P. vulgata, P. virginea, &c, 

The transition may be traced from youth to age, and all the beautiful blue rays ob- 
served with all the characteristic appearance. ; 

He also exhibited several other shells which had been taken from the corks and 
ropes used by the crab-catchers on the ‘coast of Cornwall, to show the ra idity of 
their growth: also specimens of the Anatifera fascicularis and A. levis on feathers, 


cork, coal and wood cinders, straws, wood, the shell of the cuttle-fish, &e. &c., the 
whole from the Cornish coast. 


Mr. Peach exhibited some undescribed species of Cornish zoophyta. 


On the Palpi of Spiders. By Jouw Bracxwauy, BLS, 


As arachnologists do not appear to have bestowed that degree of attention on the — 
palpi of spiders to which their greatly diversified structure and remarkable functions 
undoubtedly entitle them, a few observations relative to this interesting subject may — 
not perhaps be wholly devoid of utility. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 


Many spiders employ their palpi in assisting to collect into a small heap the slack 
line which results from their operations when engaged in ascending or drawing in 
such silken filaments as are attached to objects distinct from themselves by one ex- 
tremity only. > 

In conjunction with the mandibles, the palpi are employed by females of the species 
Dolomedes mirabilis and Dolomedes fimbriatus to retain their cocoons under the sternum, 
in which situation those spiders usually carry them wherever they move; the Lycos 
also avail themselves of the same parts in regaining possession of their cocoons when 
detached from the spinners. ‘ 

Varions species helonging to the genus Salticus, to which distinctness and ac- 
curacy of vision are of the utmost consequence, as they do not construct snares, but 
capture their prey by springing suddenly upon it from a distance, have the terminal 
joint of the palpi abundantly supplied with hairs, and constantly make use of those 
organs as brushes to remove dust, or any other extraneous matter, from the corneous 
coat of the anterior eyes. 

The palpi appear to afford direct assistance likewise to spiders in general in se- 
curing their prey, in changing its position while they are feeding upon it, and in re- 
straining the action of the wings of all their victims which happen to be provided 
with them. 

At the meeting of the Association held at Cambridge, the author communicated to 
the Section of Zoology and Botany the results of experiments having for their object 

_ the determination of the function performed by the remarkable organs connected with 

: rminal joint of the palpi of male spiders *, 

_ since that period he has greatly extended and varied his researches in connexion 
with this penis and it affords him satisfaction to state, that they promise, when 

omplete, to divest the matter of all uncertainty whatever; indeed, from the decisive 
ernie of the evidence at present in his possession, he does not hesitate to assert 
positively that the palpal organs, whose full development indicates a state of ma- 

_ turity, are the only instruments employed by male spiders in the propagation of their 

species. é' ; 

Pte several joints of the palpi of female spiders differ greatly in their relative pro- 

portions, not only in species constituting the same family, but even in those belong 
ing to the same genus; while, on the other hand, it frequently happens that females 

elonging to different genera bear a striking resemblance to each other in this 
particular. 

___ It is among male spiders, however, that these peculiarities are the most marked, 

and to them may be added structural differences and resemblances both of the palpi 
palpal organs still more conspicuous. : 

__A great similarity in the form of the palpal organs and in the manner in which they 
connected with the digital joint of the palpi may be observed in certain spiders of 
family Dysderide ; in Dysdera erythrina, Dysdera Hombergii, Segestria perfida, 

egestria senoculata, and Oonops pulcher, for example ; and this similitude is extended 
to various species belonging to the family Mygalide, 

_ Between Manduculus ambiguus and Tetraguatha extensa there is a near approxi- 

ion in the structure of the palpi and palpal organs, yet these spiders are not in- 

cue in the same family, the former belonging to the Theriditde and the latter to 
the Epeiride, 

4 Pe compare the spiders constituting the genus Clubiona with those of the genus 

Drasss and those of the genus Linyphia with the species comprised in the genus 

Neriéne ; or, extending the investigation still further, if we compare together the 

pees Walckenaéra, Theridion, Epeira, Eresus, Salticus, Thomisus, and Philodromus, 

_ humerous instances of correspondence in the relative proportions of the joints of the 

_ palpi will be perceived immediately, at the same time striking contrasts will present 

_ themselves to the eye of the observer, not as regards proportion alone, but organiza- 

_ tion also, even among nearly allied species, 

_ From these facts the following practical results appear to be fairly dedu- 

’ ei— : 

‘ re the full development of the palpal organs indicates a state of maturity in male 

ones, the skilful arachnologist is enabled, by attending to this circumstance, not 

7+ : _ 


peas i * See Report for 1833, p. 444, 
FQ 


68 REPORT—1 842. 


only to distinguish adult males from females, but likewise from immature individuals 
of both sexes. This knowledge is useful in preventing him from falling into the too 
common error of mistaking young spiders for old ones, and of describing them, and 
the sexes of spiders of the same kind, as distinct species. 

When any doubts exist respecting the specific identity of spiders’ of different 
sexes, which have been regarded as belonging to the same species, they frequently may 
be set at rest by placing the spiders together in captivity and noticing whether they 
pair or not. 

The great diversity of structure observable in the palpi and palpal organs of male 
spiders supplies excellent specific characters, and indeed frequently presents the 
only available means of distinguishing species of similar colours and dimensions from 
each other; but when we consider that this diversity of structure extends to spiders 
connected by the closest relations of affinity, it is perhaps in vain to expect that it will 
ever be applied with much success to the establishment of genera. 


Account of a Species of Ichneumon whose Larva is parasitic on Spiders. 
By Joun Birackwa tt, F.L.S. 


Immature spiders of the species Epeira autriada and Epeira cucurbitina, and adults 
of the species Linyphia minuta and Linyphia pusilla, are frequently infested by the 
larva of a small Ichneumon, which feeds upon their juices and ultimately occasions their 
death. This parasite is always attached to the upper part of the abdomen, near its 
union with the cephalothorax, generally in a transverse but occasionally in a longi- 
tudinal direction, and, though it proves a source of constant irritation, is secured by 
its position from every attempt of the spider to displace it. Being apodous, it ap- 
pears to retain its hold upon its victim solely by the instrumentality of the mouth 
and of a viscid secretion emitted from its caudal extremity. More than one larva is 
never seen on the same spider, which, indeed, could not supply sufficient nourish; 
ment for two. 

In the earlier stages of its growth this parasite has an oblong oviform figure, 
somewhat depressed on the under side ; it is whitish with a faint tinge of yellow ex- 
tending along the medial line, which seems to be occasioned by the contents of the 
viscera. At this period of its existence the external covering presents a smooth 
uniform surface; but when it has completed its moultings and attained its full size, 
the head becomes visible, the body exhibits thirteen distinct segments, and the pre- 
yailing hue is pale greenish yellow. : 

When about to assume the pupa state, it kills the spider which has supplied it 
with sustenance »by rapidly exhausting its physical energies, and quitting it con- 
‘structs on some adjacent object a cocoon of a quadrilateral figure tapering to its ex- 
tremities, which is composed of pale yellowish white silk of a compact texture. 
After the lapse of a month nearly, the perfect Ichneumon issues from the cocoon, and 
prepares to carry on the work of destruction assigned to its species ; a preliminary 
step towards which is the deposition of her eggs by the female on the bodies of her 
victims, care being taken that one only is attached to the same spider. - 

It is a fact deserving of notice, that immature spiders infested with the larva of 
this Ichneumon do not change their skins. Were it not forthis admirable provision 
of Providence, the larva, cast off with the integuments in the act of moulting, would 
inevitably perish, and the important purpose which its remarkable economy is so evi- 
dently intended to subserve, namely, the keeping of these deadly enemies of the in- 
sect tribes within due limits, would fail to be accomplished. 

The author described minutely the characters of the female and male Ichneumon, 
which he conjectures may be unknown to entomologists. 


Mr, Turner exhibited specimens of Goliathus regius and Goliathus giganteus. 


Dr, Lankester drew attention to a microscopic animal that had been found the 
day previous in the Botanic Garden, covering the stems of the Chara flevilis, and 
giving them a loose gelatinous white appearance. The moment they were touched 
this character disappeared, from some contractile power possessed by the animal, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 


Mr. Alder had examined the animal alluded to, and found it to be a very large spe- 
’ cies of Vorticella, which he had never before seen, The’ bell-shaped summits of the 
animal were visible to the naked eye. ; 


Notices of Eolis, Doris, §c:. By Josuva Auper, F.L.S. 


__ Mr. Alder of Newcastle read a description of three new species of Mollusca, of 

the genus Kolis, lately found by Mr. Albany Hancock on the Coast of Northumber- 

Jand ; and also exhibited drawings bythat gentleman of these, as well as of Some other 

new species of Nudibranchia, descriptions of which had appeared in the ‘Annals of Na- 

tural History.’ Mr. Alder took the opportunity of stating that Mr. Hancock and he 
__were still pursuing their examination of the British species of this order, and had 
lately had a further opportunity of confirming the fact of the existence of eyes in the 
genus Doris, having found a young specimen of the Doris depressa in which the 
eyes were very distinct. He stated that they had made some examinations with the 
microscope of the elegant appendage in Melibeea, T'ritonia and Eolis, which are 
usually considered to be branchiz. They found that in Melibea ornata vibratory 
cilia existed all over the body, but in a less degree in the supposed branchie than 
in other parts, and that an individual deprived of these appendages lived for several 
days afterward without apparent diminution of activity; thus proving that these 
were at least not the only means of respiration that the animal possessed, 


— 


Mr. Moore exhibited the head of a Grayling, showing its pear-shaped iris; also 
Specimens of Argulus foliaceus and other parasites. The specimens of Argulus folia- 
ceus were from the ponds of the Botanic Garden at Manchester, where they attacked 
the common carp, but not the gold or silver carp. 


On a Specimen of Machzrium subducens from Port Essington, New Hol- 
land, belonging to the Collection made by Mr. Gilbert, Mr. Gould’s As- 
sistant. By Dr. RicHaRrpson. f 


This fish, except in the teeth, has a strong external resemblance to the Echiodon 
Drummondii, lately discovered by William Thompson, Esq. in the irish seas, Its 
dorsal and anal, which are well developed, are united to the caudal, but the rays of 
‘the latter are more slender, rather shorter and more crowded, so the difference is 
readily recognized by the eye. The first ray of the dorsal and anal is simple and 
flexible, all the rest. are branched at the tips. The pectorals are small, and there 
are no ventrals. The body is much compressed, and its resemblance to the blade 
of a short sword or butcher's knife is the origin of the generic term*. The teeth, 
small and subconical, stand in a single series on the intermaxillaries and lower jaw. 
The palate and vomer are toothless. The orifice of the mouth is moderately large ; 
the maxillary, though sufficiently conspicuous, forms no part of itsmargin. The 
_ pedicles of the intermaxillaries run back over the orbit and permit the upper jaw to 
_ be considerably protruded. The lower jaw is articulated far back, the cheek is large 
and scaly, the opercular pieces smooth and very distinct, and the six branchiostegous 
_ rays are very obvious and by no means short. The gill-openings are moderately 
“large. There are no barbeis attached to the integument covering the! os hyoides, 
which is the character by which Macherium is most readily distinguished as the type 
_ of a generic or sub-generic group, from Ophidium. Another character may be found 
in the scales, which, though small, are regularly tiled, and not imbedded in the skin 
_ inascattered manner. The lateral line terminates before the anus, as in the Blen- 
nies, to which this fish seems to bear considerable affinity. Mr. Ball has said the same 
thing of Echiodon, though he afterwards ranged it with Ophidium, with which it is in 
_ fact still more closely allied. It would be perhaps better to bring the Blennies and 
_ Ophidia together. Agassiz has already separated the Blennies from the Gobies, and 
placed them in the Gadoid family. The Anguilliformes, or Apodes would evidently be 

_ more natural were the Ophidia removed also to take their. place near the Gadi. The 

_ Single character of the want of ventrals seems to be insufficient to keep them in sepa- 


* Th. paxatpa, gladius. 


70 REPORT—1842. 


rate order's, and we have ini fact in the jagulat barbels of the typical Ophidia a near 
approach to the single ventral rays of some of the Gadi. Machzrium and Echiodon — 
form links in the series terminated by the Fierasfers, which have the fins further 
reduced so that the dorsal becomes a mere fold of the skin. 


Notice of Halcyon Smyrnensis. By H. E. Strickianp, F.G.S. 


Mr, H.E. Strickland exhibited a specimen of Halcyon Smyrnensis (Linn,), transmit- 
ted from Asia Minor by Mr. Edward Forbes. This species, described by Albin more 
than a century ago, from a specimen procured at Smyrna by Consul Sherard, appears 
not to have been subsequently noticed on the shores of the Mediterranean. The pre- 
sent specimen is therefore of interest, both as verifying the general accuracy of 
Albin’s description, and because it is proved to be specifically identical with the Indian 
bird figured in Buffon’s Pl. Enl, 894, which some ornithologists have supposed to be 
distinct. 


Mr. Gaskell exhibited specimens of the horns of the Wapiti Deer: 


On the Varieties of the Human Race. By Dr. Hopexin. 


The immediate dbject of this paper was to state the progress which had been made 
in furtherance of the inquiry undertaken by the Section at a former meeting. It an- 
nounced the further circulation of the copious and systematic queries printed at the 
expense of the Association, and published in the last volume of the Transactions. 
The paper concluded by urging the reappointment of the Committee—the applica- 
tion for a further pecuniary grant in aid of the inquiry, and the solicitation of Govern- 
ment assistance in extending the inquiries amongst military and naval officers on 
foreign service—and more especially in calling for reports from the Protectors of 
Aborigines appointed in some of our colonies. 


Note of Species obtained by deep Dredging near Sana Island, off the Mull of 
Cantire. By Guorce C. Hynpman, Member of the Natural History 
Society of Belfast. 

When cruising about with my friend Edmund Getty, Esq., in the Gannet yacht on 
the 19th of July 1841, the following result was obtained by dredging at the depth of 
forty fathoms, about two miles east of Sana Island. The bottom was shelly, with a 
proportion of shell-sand. "The region “ coralline,” according to Mr. Forbes'’s defini- 
tion. Dredge down three times. 


false 
Za}es 
Species obtained, Ss} S23 Observations. 
-o 5 ov 
oo | eo 
FIsHEs, t 
Aspidophorus europeus} 1° 
Mo.uusea. 
Chiton levis ....... Fastehy buihsqe ges On fragment of Eehinus. 
Capulus hungaricus......|...... 6 |Small and worn. 
Emarginula fissura «....-|..++6 4 |Small. 
Trochus tumidus.......+.|....« 
millegranus....., 1 il gh 
Buccinum undatum.....,|...... 2 |Largest size, containing Pagurus Bernhardus. 
Fusus despectus s........Jec.e0s 3 
—— COFNEUS sesecessseee Bi baseet One very minute. 
Natica glaucina .........|... «| 2 Invested with Actinia (Adumsia) maculata, and 


coutaining Pagurus Prideauwiana. 


Montagui, Forb,}..«... 
——— Alderi, Forb. ..2)s..2e) 1 
Rissoa communis, Forb.]...... 1 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


eal Sa 
55/85 
| Species obtained., 38 Sa 
a dee a 1 
FisHES. 
Orthocera .......+- Rau cer 
AMOMIA ...cee.seeeeeeeeee|eeee te 14 
Nucula margaritacea ...|+++++ 4 
oblonga, Brown’s 
Tllus. cececscesceseeeseefertere] 1 
peegiola.volgars AP pal aga eae 
| Nucula rostrata ......e0.|--+++] 2 
Anatina pubescens ....-.|-++++-| 4 
Kellia suborbicularis «..|---+--| 1 
Mactra elliptica ......... seeeee| 20 
Goodallia triangularis 
Saal: ee ae 
Tellina crassa ....c.-eseeeferrees 12 
sammobia florida ......|:*++-+| 18 
Cardium levigatum......|------ 3 
| Lima subauriculata......|----+- 1 
7 
| — fragilis ......cese0.eeeeee] 12 


eee 


He GENETA ves ev reaccenvac|"* 


Pecten SINUOSUS «s.seseee|eeeees 
obsoletus......,..|¢+#2+* 
s+ opercularis ......} 2 


12 
50 


Pectunculus pilosus.ss«+.|+++»-- 


enus ovata 
fasciata .....ss00. 


- CASSINA .....seeeees 


Lucina undata.....ccsse0.|-seee" 
Nudibranchia Mollusca 
_ EcHINoDERMATA. 
Stellonia rubens 
. \Echinus sphera, Mill. 
F miliaris, Leske. |-..-++ 
Echinocyamus pusillus .|..-..- 
\Spatangus purpureus ... 6 


seeereleneeee 


wseeee 


ZooruyTss*. 
|Flustra foliacea. 
truncata. 
tuberculata. 
huiaria articulata. 
\ |Antennularia antennina. 


71 


Observations. . 


Single valves. 

Single valves. 

Odd valve. 

Single valves, chiefly small. 

All dead; two or three of each species perfect, 
and several odd valves. 

Single valves. 

Single valves. 

Single valves, small. 

“ Nearly half an inch in length,” as was a specimen 

~ procured by Mr. Jeffreys at Oban. 

Single valves. 

Not a single specimen with the valves united, but! 
some of them with the cartilage fresh. Many 

worn and covered with Serpule and crustaceous 
zoophytes. The specimens are generally large— 
one is 14 inch in length. Mr.J effreys found the 
species at Oban 1$ inch. 

Single valves. 

Single valves. 

Of the living specimens, one ‘was full-grown, the 
other small, The dead valves were separate anc 

much worn; a few of small size. 

Only one was perfect, the remainder odd valves 
mostly old and worn, and incrusted with zoo- 

phytes; very few small specimens. 


Single valves. 
Single valves. of 
Single valves, small and much worn. 


The living specimens and the perfect dead shell 
(the remainder were odd valves) small; the odd 
valves mostly full-sized. The animal has a 

. large hatchet-shaped foot, and a long siphonal 
tube... 

Single valves, 


From a very small size up to largest. ‘The intes- 
tines filled with fragments of shells. Do they 
eat the shell-fish and break up the shells, or 


do they swallow the shell-sand and extract the 
nourishment from it ? 


* Although Zoophytes were plentiful, no dige whatever ocewred. 


472 REPORT—1842. 


Species obtained. Observations, 


No, of living 
specimens 

No. of dead 
specimens. 


ZooPHyYTEs. 
Sertularia abietina. 
polyzonias. 
Plumularia falcata*. 
Thoa Beanii. 
Farcemia salicornia. 
Notamia Joriculata. 
Campanularia volubilis, 
Cellepora ramulosa. 
pumicosa. 
Crisia eburnea. 
Discopora hispida. 
Hippothoa lanceolata. 
catenularia. 
Tubulipora obelia. 
— serpens. 
Lepralia immersa. 
— variolosa. 
nitida. 
Celleporaperlacea. Delle 
ChiaieT. 
Macry. Delle 
Chiaie? 


Corallina officinalis. 


Results of deep Dredging off the Mull of Galloway. By Capt. Brxcuey, 
R.N. Drawn up by Wo. Tuompson, V. P. NV. H. Soc. of Belfast. 
Captain Beechey, the distinguished navigator, having in the month of April last 
been engaged in a survey of part of the Scottish coast in H.M. steam-vessel Lucifer, 
most kindly undertook to use the dredge in the deepest water in which his soundings 
might be made, and the following are the highly interesting results obtained on three 
occasions ; the products from the different depths being most carefully kept separate, 


i | 
From 50 fathoms, 8 miles From 110 to 140 fathoms, 5 miles | From 145 fathoms in Beau- 
ew: the Mull of Gal-\’"'s,W., the Mull of Galloway. fort’s Dyket. 
8. la [oo : a. 
Species obtained. ||.2 2/5 2 lse\s2 E3\g¢ 
eo\2o IZ o|g¢o y rFolla r, 
= 8/2 | Observations. ||F 5). & Observations, = e/2¢g| Observations. 
65/85 S'S /OS , os |O's 
Sais & 6 B)S 5 s8los 
1 dl ao Zee Zz a'\7 @ 
Mo3uvsca. 
Trochus papillosus || 1 |... |Adult ......0+4|| ces | ce Jeeseeeees Lae ca 1] 1 
—— millegranus |}... |... |Afewalive and)... | -- . Many dead and bro-|| 2 |... |A few dead. 
several dead . ken; chiefly small. h 
TUMIAUS ....0.]] «++ | eve [eceeeeeeererseres woe | owe (A few dead .......0. we. |». |A few dead. 
Cypreea europea ...|| ... Disa teceatsvades uae pani iees Ditto at dilck'ccSecnallisin, | cee TCE 
Fusus turricola ...|| ... I isebsraean ie spas vey | +++ |Ditto. 
MUTICATUS ...|] 14. | eee [eoersees sasensesee||eee | ree |DIttO  seeeereesenee eg] tras 
Bam ffitisse..)|| eco | cas lecvedenccectovosles|{eoe | oe- [DIGHO coscosecceneeenl| ope 'f ions |AxewMeads/small 
—— linearis ...... a stlietpsltSachs ssARyeabeeeall Jens) 


* Pl. myriophyllum was dredged up near the same locality in June 1842. 

+ These two species (hitherto unnoticed as British) and other minute ones have been de- 
termined by Mr. W. Thompson. 

+ A remarkable dyke, beginning about 5 miles S.W. the Mull of Galloway, and extending 
northward nearly to Corsewall. It is from a mile to a mile and a quarter wide. Its average 
depth in the centre is ]30 fathoms. 


° 


73 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE'SECTIONS. 


; ' From 50 fathoms, 8 miles || peo 1) 4 : é ¢ 
. s. S.W. the Muil of Gal. beens ag Me o4 fathoms, 8 ea From 1 Beau. 
. on . =. 
Species obtained. EF EE 25 E Z EF g5 
38 38 Observations, 38 se Crexr ations, 36 33 Observations. 
Bale wm l2 & Sele] * 
» Mot.vsca. 
re Fusus costatus.....- wee | O00 leocortecccncaseees|| 88" | ane leccveceseseuseessesesece Wee Large. 
~ J——$ Corneus .00...|] 200 | vee leoreeeeneceveosceei] eee | 2 [Small .....ceseceeeeeil eee | L | Small. 

Buccinum undatum)] ... | «++ |ececsscecsseeseeee|| eee | L |DittO cecccceeseeesee|| eee | L 

Natica Alderi ......|| 00. | co lecccssceveerseneee|| cee | 1 

—— Montaguii ...|] 0. | coe |esceecceseeeseenes vel 3 

Nasa macula ......|| sos | «oe |ecccssvevceseecevel] see | os 

Tornatellatornatilis|| ... | ... stailiats 

Bulima polita ......|| ... |. SE Perfect. 

Capulus hungaricus|| ... | -.. ses | oe Small. 

Emarginula fissura |]... | «+. |..sceseeseeeeesees see| ee Several dead. 

Chiton fuscatus, BY.|| ... | ees |essccceseceseevens cee | oe 

——discrepans, Br.?|] 1. | «e+ jecsssesssconee dasiii=s* | cue : 

Dentalium entalis .|| 3 | -.. |Several dead .|| --- | ... |Several small; som ... | A few living. 

—_— alive. 
Astarte Damnoniz || ... | -.- |Odd valves ...|| ««- |... \Several; alive......||...|... | A few odd valves, 
I$ SCOLTCA...4.|] woe | coe |psseeeceeceeeeeeeel] e#* | oe (Several odd valves ;||... |... Ditto; small. 
. chiefly small. 

Lucina radula ..,.+.|] «+ | es» jesccesessscsseeees|| *#* | oe» (Odd valve. 

Venus Virginea......|} +. | 2 |.ecccsseeseecceeee|] eee | eee (Odd valves; me- ... | A few odd valves; 
fk dium size. one perfect shell. 
 J— ovata .......+.|] +. | «» [Several dead .||-+- |... |Ditto chiefly ; afew]|...|...| Very few alive; 

alive. and some odd 

| , valves. 
j—cassina .....|| ++. | ++. |A few young,]| -+- |... |Ditto;severalsmall.||...|... | A number of odd 
alive. valves of all 

sizes. 

Myrtea spinifera ...|| +. | 2+ |.csccsssecseceesee|| 8% | coe [eecceescssecnceesccesces vee |... | One valve. 
| {Saxicava rugosa ...|| ... | 2+ |esseccsesceeseeeee|| #8 | vee A few odd valves. 
 |Nucula minuta eos | «+» [Odd valves ...|| +++ |... Many ditto ......... 1 

—— margaritacea.|]... | ++» |Ditto .......00|| «++ | we Ditto ditto ; small .||... | ... | A few odd valves. 

Cardium nodosum, || ... | ««. |A number, see | wee [Ditto ditto ..asie.s|| ++ | «| Ditto. 
| (Tart. Bivalves.) chiefly alive. ‘ ’ 
ncaa mag ope’ | che. (eeaeeencatar’ BeeRH SEE eamtl secre ssn vvccsatece cvhe «|... | An odd valve. 

_ {Pecten obsoletus...|| 1 |... Several dead .||-++ |... |A few odd valves ; 

Al A allsizés.. =) PR Bae Sev! odd valves. 
_|—— opercularis ...||... |.» Young, odd. |}++- |... |A few odd valves ;/|... |... Ditto; small. 
Pal valves. very small. 

ao SINUOSUS «.+444|] sae | eee |eeeceneeseeeeeseee|| eee | eee (Ditto; medium sizeé.||... |... Two odd valves. 

Nima fragilis ......|) ..+ | ++ |cescsseseees ssseeel| ete | «ee [A few odd valves...|| 1 | ...| Sev! odd valves, 
_ |Mactra elliptica?...|| ... | +++ |Odd valve......|| «++ | +++ [Ditto .ccceseseseceee|| aoe | one Two odd valves. 

Amphidesma_pris- j 

| maticum .........|| ..- | +» |Ditto. 

BOVRMeeesc. bl! <0. | sce lovesece evecessceee|| ee | «e+ (Odd valve. 
ontacuta substri-/ 1 | ++. |On Spatangus|| --+ |... |A few alive on Spa- 
purpureus. tangus purpureus. 
odiola communis || 2 |... |Small .........|| 2 |... |Living specimens, .| Numerous odd 
verysmall; several valves ;, mode- 
odd valves of mo- rate size. 
: ,| derate, size. 
MEMES Sve ceer}|\sobaenellegesabassresevesvall-on0||seesleccnecbioncanaaas Ba P| EET Ma 

Mya truncata ......|} ++ | «e+ |escsereeee aaabicpllinee lieds [acess eee ete esesesee|l vee ['ce| Odd valve. 

— JAmomia  .....46s0...|] «++ | e** |Odd valve......|| «+» |... |Many odd valves...|)...|...| A mumber of odd 
JOrbicula Norvegica valves. 
vy (Crania) Seevssves|| (000 | ©o> leewesssvecenevecee|| 882 | cee levcvscedessevecveescecee|| so 1 


_\Terebratula aurita .||-+« | sea | Two odd valves. 


#40 [ewccenesecencenens|| *** 


1 |Perfect .....ccseseee 


74 ‘REPORT+1842, © 


From 50 fathoms, 8 miles)! regi 110 to 140 fathoms, 6 miles #iddui1as fathoms in Beau- 
SR. the Mull of Gal-/"'W, the Mull of Galloway. fort’s Dyke*. 


. bo [eg a to 

Species obtained. Hy g £ 5 3 s H Z | 
cs — i lf 
SE Observations. |3.3/5°S| — Observatiotis, € 3.2 Observations. 
aa . o 
ge Sage is Big 5 

CIrRIPEDA. ‘ 
Balanus © .6sdisudsecll--- obs Fragments daaacapesl| coat obs Fragments, 


Creusia verruca ...|| + 


«+. [Few specimens; 
EcHINODERMATA, 


+ 1.4. {One small. 
. 1 1 Very small, 
POR Fal bea pie PR oe 1 | 1 |Ditto. 
«+ | 44. |Many alive; all un« 
der half size: 


«| «+ |A few living 
and dead. 


A few alive; many}).-. 


wo /A number, dead. 
dead. 


CRUSTACEA 
(all living). 
Ebalia Bryerii...... 
i—— Pennantii .., 
Eurynome aspera... 


Hyas coarctatus ... +. [ppaeeosaevsbadeodal} 4 
Inachus scorpio ...|| « 


PagurusBernhatdus 


. Small. 


ene Bae |e Vabe eb eect beedbweedeeed!) sae 


eee eeeeee 1 
eeeee dee eee 
In Buecinum 
undatum. 


ai |No crustacea. 


. Several small; none 
exceeding in body 
13 inch in lefigth. 

nis, Westwood... 

ANNELIDA. 
Aphrodita aculeata|| -..| ... b655b we obeaseceeal| . U 


Zoopuytes*, 
Plumularia faleata . ey 
——  myriophyllum]) ...} s+. |...ccsceceesceeees 


Sertularia abietina . 
cupressina ... cpslesecsvavvonsenl| 2 
vavssesscvseveaeesl] 2 |... (One specimen 
beaseoassstly 2 | os |Difto. 

beeseeeeras ai|| 2 b [edewe Lb beeeeereeee ‘ 3t obs Excepting this 

he he seceeaasl] (2 there are crus-| 
2 taceous species 

sAb || tet ase aes ces sms ace 2 only, a8 Le |) 
Ey EP ON Voc esmesscata «ves]| 2 | os (Orie specimen. _pralia, &e. 


ul me 4 Aiea Reidel 


I beg, in connexion with this and the préceding catalogue (by Mr, Hyndman), to 
call the attehtion of naturalists interestéd in the study of the mollusca to the results 
obtained in a third locality on the western coast of Scotland—at Oban—by Mr. Jef- { 


* No dlge were brought from any of the three dépths. 

+ These numbers denote the different depths at which thé species of Zoophytes were 
found; No. 1. at 50, No. 2. at 110, No. 3. at 145 fathoms. 

t S. margarita, Hassall, seems to be identical with this.. My speéimen is without vesiéles, 
It agrees with the desctiption and magnified figure of Solander ahd Bilis better than the 
figure of natural size, ; 


ea a eee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 


freys, published in Sowerby's ‘ Malacological Magazine’ (No. 2, 1839). Mr. Jeffreys 
obtained <‘ Terebratula aurita* plentifully in about 15 fathoms water,” and along 
with it found “ Crania personata not uncommon,” He procured also the three species 
of Lima—L. tenera, L. fragilis, L. subawriculata—taken off Sana Island. Nucula 
minuta was dredged at Oban as well as off the Mull of Galloway; it has been procured 
on different occasions by deep dredging in Belfast Bay, and many years ago was found 
at the Giant’s Causeway. The Myrtea spinifera, of which a single valve was brought 
up off the Mull of Galloway, was found to be not uncommon in deep water at Oban— 
on the strand at Red Bay, county of Antrim, I found an example of this shell. T'rochus 


- papillosus and Eulima polita, dredged by Capt. Beechey, were not procured at the 


more northern localities, Sana Island + and Oban—of the latter species, a single living 
example was taken in the course of the Ordnance Survey in Belfast Bay. The most 
northern locality on the Irish coast, in,which it had hitherto been obtained, was Dublin 


_ Bay: 


Many observations are suggested by these catalogues, and others of a similar nature 
in my possession, but to my friend Mr. E, Forbes must be left the treatment of a sub- 


__ ject in which he of all men possesses the most ample and important data. 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


On the Construction and Application of Instruments used in Auscultation. 
By C.J. B. Witt1aMs, MD., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine in University 
College, London. 


| The acoustic examination of the chest having been so profoundly as well as gene 
rally studied, it is not surprising that the instruments used in it should have needed 
modifications to make them exhibit better the phenomena which increased experience 
and skill have discovered. To make these improvements, some knowledge of acou- 
stic science is necessary ; and it might seem to be the province rather of the natural 
philosopher than of the physician to suggest them. But it must be borne in mind, 
that a good knowledge of the ends in view, as well as of the instrument, is required. 
To suggest what a stethoscope ought to be, a knowledge of acoustics is not more 
necessary than an acquaintance with disease and experience in its investigation. A ~ 


_ warit of these latter qualifications, in my opinion, renders some recent suggestions 


of the Professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh of little value to practical men. 
An imperfect acquaintance with all the purposes and ends of the stethoscope seems 


to me also apparent in other late proposals for its improvement. 


I now beg to offer a few remarks on the acoustic principle of the stethoscope, and 


on the best mode of applying this principle to obtain an efficient and convenient in- 


strument for auscultation. 
Laennec, the inventor, had no accurate views with regard to the principles of the 


- construction of the stethoscope. He declared that the instruments which he found . 


to be the best were not constructed according to the commonly received laws of 


natural philosophy. Experiment taught him that the solid cylinder does not convey 


the sound of the. breath or voice so well as the cylinder perforated or excavated at its 
pectoral end. Many yeats ago I pointed out that this fact, which is unquestion- 
able, is in perfect accordance with a law of acoustics, that sounds are best conducted 
by bodies of an elasticity or tension resembling that of the sonorous body. On the 
other hand, bodies differing in elasticity become bad recipients of each other’s vibra- 
tions. Thus wood, although an excellent conductor of sounds generated in itself or 
in other solids, receivés but imperfectly those produced in air. But by thinning wood, 
and bringing a large surface in contact with air, it is more readily affected by the 
vibrations of air, and becomes an excellent medium for transferring to air sounds of 
denser solids; and this is the principle of sounding-boards of musical instruments. 


8 * This species was dredged in Belfast Bay by the collectors attached to the Ordnance 
urvey. 

i tT DB June 1842, Mry Hyndman dredged a full-grown Trochus papillosus near Sana 
sland. - 


76 REPORT—1842.. 


The view which I have always given of the principle of the stethoscope, represents 
its operation as varying with the source of sound; that sounds produced in air 
(vocal and breath sounds) are best transmitted by an enclosed column of air; those 
produced by-solids (those of the heart, bronchi, friction) are better communicated by 
rigid solids of moderate density. This view I still hold, and I proceed to show how 
the principle may be brought into the best operation. 

I shall first point out the conditions by which the stethoscope may conduct aérial 
sounds. It has been lately questioned, that the air contained in the central canal 
and excavation in any degree assist in conducting sound. This doubt has arisen 
chiefly from the observation first made by Dr. Cowan, that plugging the central 
canal with cork or putty does not much impair the power of the instrument. Pro- 
fessor Forbes has repeated the same remark. 

I have made many experiments on this pointy and will now state some of the re- 
sults. Corking the pectoral end of the instrument decidedly impairs its conducting 
power, but stopping the ear-end does so in a much slighter degree. But in any way 
stopping the tube does impair the passage of sound; and, to be assured of this, it is 
necessary to try a test sound (as opticians use a test object), a sound just within the 
bounds of audibility, such as the sound of expiration, or a very faint cardiac mur- 
mur. But the impairing effect of such a stoppage is most obvious in the flexible 
stethoscope, in which, if used near the pectoral end, a cork in great measure stops 
the sound. That the stethoscope really conducts sound by its closed column of air, 
as well as by its solid walls, is further proved by the following facts :—Loud pectoral 
sounds, particularly of the heart and its murmurs, may be heard by bringing the ear 
end close to the ear, without touching it; the sound is then conveyed exclusively by 
the air, and may be totally intercepted by a plug. Ifa hole be made in the side of a 
stethoscope, its conducting power is greatly impaired, especially for aérial sound ; 
and it is at once restcred by closing the aperture with the finger. This depends not 
only on the accession of extraneous sounds through the orifice, but chiefly on the 
much lower power of conduction which an open column of air possesses. 

The closed state of the column of air is the chief condition necessary to give air a 
high conducting power. Following the assertions of acoustic writers, that the pulses 
of sound pass through air in straight lines like rays of light, I formerly recommended 
that the pectoral end of the stethoscope, instead of being made with a parabolic hol- 
low as directed by Laennec, should open by a very tapering cone, and that the whole 
interior should be made as smooth as possible to promote the most direct reflexion 
of the waves of sound. But this principle is more applicable to ear-trumpets, which 
receive sounds from the open air, than to the stethoscope, which receives vibrations 
from a solid surface. Air confined in a close tube vibrates as a whole, and its vibra- 
tions pass over angles and through the coils of a flexible tube with a facility which 
supersedes the idea of straight reflexion; and although they must be more freely 
transmitted through a straight smooth tube than through a crooked and rugged one, 
the difference is less than might be expected without a knowledge of the properties 
of close tubes. j 

The chief object in the formation of the hollow part of the stethoscope is to bring 
into closed contact with the walls of the chest a surface of air as large as possible, 
and to convey the pulses of this air as directly as possible to the ear. It is at the 
same time desirable to avoid a large hollow within the instrument, because such a 
hollow causes a conchal or tinkling echo, from the repeated transverse reflexion of 
the vibrations. For this reason the parabolic cavity is bad. The conical cavity is 
much better, and for the aérial vibrations is perhaps the best; but the trumpet or 
bugle-end does not appear to be inferior, and answers better than the conical end for 
transferring the vibrations of solids. 

We now proceed to consider the office of the solid walls of the stethoscope. I 
have before noticed the inferiority of the solid stethoscope. Those who consider the 
stethoscope to conduct only by its solid walls, ascribe this inferiority to the weight of 
its mass, and suggest that, if its weight be reduced by hollowing, the simple solid is 
still the best instrument. On this principle I had an instrument constructed, closed 
at the pectoral end with a thin plate of wood, but it proved to be much inferior to 
the open kind. ’ 

But finding the considerable share which the solid walls have in communicating 
the sounds, I have devised a form for the pectoral end of the instrument which qua- 


a! 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77 


lifies it for this office better than any now in’use; this is the bugle or trumpet-end, 
the edges of which being made very thin, and fitting flat on the walls of the chest, 
are most readily affected by their vibrations. The instrument thus constructed, if 
tried with a test-sound, will be found for most purposes superior to those now in use. 

But most stethoscopes are provided with a perforated stopper, the object of which 
is to shut out diffused sounds, and transmit by the central canal the sound from a 


‘spot only. I find that the same object can be pretty well attained with the new ste- 


thoscone by reversing it, applying the ear-end, which is made of dense wood, to the 
chest, and the hollow end to the ear; and, from its flatness, this pectoral end fits 
the ear very well, without hollow enough to give the conchal sound. 

An inconvenience early found in this instrument was its fragility in the pocket. 
This was readily obviated, and a convenient portability obtained, by taking off the 
ear-end and fitting it into the holloW end, which is thus supported in its thin part. 


PERCUSSION. 


Since I explained the principle of percussion in 1835, I have had almost daily op- 
portunities of proving its accuracy, and of deriving advantage from the varied modes 
of percussion which a clear understanding of that principle suggested. So delicate 
do J now find this test, that in many instances it discovers disease when other signs 
are negative. 

The principle is briefly this, that the sound on percussion is derived from the 
bodies which the impulse of the stroke reaches ; and the character of the sound de- 
pends on the conjoint vibration of these bodies. Thus gentle and flat percussion 
reaches, and is toned by, superficial parts only ; forcible percussion reaches, and is 
toned by, deep-seated parts also. 

The character of the stroke-sound differs not only in loudness and clearness, but 
also, and most remarkably, in pitch; the deepest tones being the healthiest in all 
cases except a few of pneumothorax and flaccid emphysema. In some instances the 
stroke-sound is much louder on the diseased than on the healthy side. This is re- 
markably the case where the sound is tubular, from condensation or compression of 
the upper lobes of the lungs from pneumonia, pleurisy, or tubercle; but in all these 
cases the morbid character of the sound is proyed by its note being higher than on 
the healthy side. ‘ 

In percussion of the abdomen, different degrees of pressure with the pleximeter or 
the hand struck on, will often afford useful results. The gentlest filliping percussion 
without pressure may sometimes detect the superficial dulness of a layer of serum, 
too thin to be discoverable by fluctuation: strong pressure, on the other hand, dis- . 
places the superficial parts, and brings the pleximeter within striking distance of the 
deep-seated parts. 

For general purposes I consider the fingers the best instruments for percussion ; 
and the various ways in which they may be used constitute one of their best recom- 
mendations. There are, however, a few cases in which a little instrument for per- 
cussion will give more accurate indications; and I will mention one which is very 
simple as well as efficient. Percussion plates generally are too large to be applied 
closely between the ribs: when made of hard materials they cause too much clack- 
ing on their own surface. The hammers recommended by Drs. Burne and Bennett 


‘are liable to the objection, that their strokes may not fall in the same direction; and 
‘thus the sound may vary from the mode of the stroke. 


To obviate these objections, I have a firm narrow slip of whalebone slightly bent, 


so that one end forms a handle, while the other is applied to the chest: this last is 
‘covered with leather and velvet, to deaden the clack of the surface. The hammer is 


made of a lenticular spheroid of lead, also covered with leather and velvet, with a 
small rod of whalebone for its handle. The pleximeter fits like a finger between or 


on the ribs : the hammer head being circular, can scarcely vary in the direction of its 
‘stroke, and both being elastic as well as firm in their handles, they may be used with 
“much ease and precision. 


Observations on the Therapeutic Application of Air- Tight Fabrics. 
0 By Professor WILLIAMS, 


~The use of oiled silk the author stated to be now of frequent practice, as a preventive 
] 


78 oO) Po REPORT—1842. 


of evaporation in water-dressing. This valuable addition to therapeutics was chiefly to 
be ascribed to Dr. Macartney, who was really the first, and not the Germans, to point 
out its utility, and to explain its pathological action; but, independent of water-dress- 
ing, oiled silk proved, simply by itself, of great value as a therapeutic agent, by pre- 
serving parts to which it is applied from changes produced by the atmosphere, by pre- 
venting evaporation, and thereby promoting perspiration and a return to healthy 
action. ‘his was found to be particularly the case in dry scaly affections of the skin, 
which in mild cases its use completely removed, as in slight attacks of psoriasis, lepra, 
and sealy affections of the scalp. He had also found it useful as a derivative, removing, 
when worn on the head, obstinate chronic ophthalmia and protracted coryza. Its use 
in water-dressing was well known, and extensively practised; but he found it equally 
valuable where it was necessary to use more active agents, metallic salts, in solution 
for different purposes; these lotions it materiall¥ improved in eases of severe eczema 
and prurigo. : 

He had found another application of air-tight textures of great use, to assist the 
operation of derivants or revulsives applied to the external surface. For this purpose 
Mackintosh’s India-rubber cloth answers best. Flannel or cotton cloths dipped in 
hot water, when covered with a piece of this cloth, act as a poultice or fomentation, 
and are very beneficial in slight inflammations of the chest or abdomen. By adding 
salt, mustard, ammonia, turpentine, or various other stimulants to the water, a counter 
irritant operation is added, which the superimposed air-tight cloth renders more equal 
and durable than that resulting from any common counter irritant. Such applications 
Pr. W. has found very serviceable in phthisis and other chronic affections of the 
chest. 

A third therapeutic use of air-tight cloth was one invented and lately made with 
success by Dr. Arnott, as a means of applying equal pressure to parts: this was by 
using a slack air-cushion or bladder containing a little air between the bandage or 
compress and the part to be pressed on. ‘This interposed a Jayer of air, which dif- 
fused the pressure equally and softly. 


On the Influence of the Coronary Circulation on the Heart's Action. 
By J. E. Ericusen. 


The influence of arterial blood on the voluntary muscles, the author stated, was ac- 
knowledged by physiologists ; and surgeons were familiar with the fact, that when the 
main artery of a limb, as the femoral or axillary, was tied, the contractility of the 
muscles of the extremity was much impaired, and was not restored until the complete 
reestablishment of the circulation. We ought then, @ priori, to expect that a similar 
influence would be exerted over the involuntary muscles, particularly oyer the heart. 
Dr. Marshall Hall, in his Gulstonian Lectures, attributes sudden death frequently to 
an interruption of the coronary circulation. Fyom the importance of the subject, in 
a pathological view, Mr. Erichsen undertook a series of experiments to demonstrate, 
as far as possible, the influence of the coronary civeulation on the heart's contractility. 
These were numerous and varied. The coronary vessels were tied after killing the 
animals, artificial respiration was kept up, and the time the heart, in its several parts, 
continued to contract was accurately noted; each experiment was detailed, and the 
following conclusions Mr. Erichsen deems fully established :—First, that an arrest of 
the coronary circulation produces a speedy, although by no means instantaneous, ees- 
sation of the heart’s action. Second, that an increase in the quantity of blood sent 
into or retained in the muscular fibre of the heart, produces a corresponding inerease 
in the activity of the organ. The latter deduction was made from experiments in 
which the aorta was tied, thus causing a greater quantity of blood than natural to be 
forced into the coronary artery; artificial vespiration was not kept up; the right ven- 
tricle continued acting for a much longer time than it would do, under similar cir- 
cumstances, when no ligature was applied to the aorta. In connexion with this ex- 
periment the following fact was observed :—that the order of cessation of the different 
cavities of the heart was reversed. In it the order of cessation was as follows :—First, ’ 
the left ventricle; second, the right auricle; third, the left auricle; fourth, the right 
ventricle. It has been established by Haller and subsequent physiologists, that the 
right auricle acts longest in ordinary death, and was therefore denominated the 
* ultimum moriens,” 


. In correspondence with the motions of respiration, Wit 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 


On some Peeuliarities in the Circulation of the Liver. By ALEXANDER 
ty) Ayelior bas Swaw, Surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital. 


~The object of this paper is to treat of the influence of the actions of respiration 
upon the circulation of the blood in the liver. Former writers have shown that, during 
the act of inspiration, the cavity of the pericardium undergoes a dilatation ; a dispo- 
sition for a vacuum to take place in the space around the heart, therefore, occurs at 
that time; and the consequence is, that the blood in the venous trunks is drawn 
with increased velocity to the right auricle. Sufficient attention, however, has 
not been paid to the effect of this auxiliary power in promoting the free discharge 
of blood from the hepatic veins, and thereby facilitating the circulation of the liver 
generally. To proye that the blood is sent with increased velocity from this gland to 
the heart during the act of inspiration, the author directs especial notice to three prin- 
cipal points,—first, to the place at whith the venze cave hepaticee join the inferior cava; 
segondly, to the structure of the hepatic veins; thirdly, to the mode in which the opening 
in the tendon of the diaphragm through which these veins pass is enlarged orcontracted, 

h regard to the first point, as 
the hepatic veins join the caya inferior just where it has entered the cayity of the peri- 
cardium, it follows that their mouths will be exposed directly to the influence of the 
vacuum described as occurring at inspiration in that cavity; secondly, as to the ana- 
tomical characters of the venz cave hepatice, the peculiar structure of these veins 
corresponds with the yiew that the blood is subject to be drawn out of them by the 
force of suction, It is a law in physics, that for fluid to be propelled along a tube by 
atmospheric pressure, it is a necessary condition that the tube communicating with 
the cayity in which the vacuum takes place should be of a rigid structure, otherwise 
its walls will become collapsed, The author first refers shortly to the mechanism 
described by Sir Charles Bell*, as provided in the neck for protecting the veins in 
that situation from the effects of the atmospheric pressure while the vacuum is form- 
ing in the chest during inspiration, and then proceeds to point out that a provision 
for the same object exists in the veins of the liver, He shows that, owing to these 
veins being contained in canals, the boundaries of which consist of the firm substance 
of the liver, and to the coats of the veins adhering closely to the interior of the canals, 
whereby they are prevented from collapsing, they may ke regarded as rigid tubes, 
capable of resisting the atmospheric pressure. e considers, therefore, that when 
there is a disposition for a vacuum to be formed in the cavity of the pericardium 
during inspiration, and the liver is subjected to compression, the venze cavee hepatic 
are enabled, by this peculiarity of their structure, to maintain their calibres of the 
natural size; and the blood is consequently drawn, or pumped out of the depths of 
the gland with accelerated velocity at that time +. Lastly, the author directs atten- 
tion to the difference in the relative dimensions of the opening in the tendon of the 
diaphragm, through which the hepatic veins pass, according as the muscular fibres of 


‘the diaphragm are in a state of contraction or of relaxation; and he likewise points 


to the change in the direction of this opening, as compared with the orifices of the 
veins of the liver, dependent on the shifting of the position of the parts in these two. 
conditions. During inspiration, not only is the opening in the diaphragm dilated, 
owing to the tension of the tendon at that time, but, from the protrusion of the liver, 
the veins are elongated, and their course made straighter and more favourable for the 
escape of the blood; whereas in expiration, the opening in the diaphragm is con- 
tracted, owing to the relaxed and flaccid condition of the tendon ; and from the change 
of position of the liver, the course of the veins from the point where they emerge from 
the gland to that where they pass through the diaphragm, is rendered oblique, or a 
kind of valvular obstruction takes place between the two openings, By these means 
it follows, that while the force of suction is in operation during inspiration, the chan- 
nel for the transmission of the blood is both wide and direct; but that during expi- 
ration, when from the contraction of the chest there is danger of the blood regurgi- 
ene from the heart into the open canals within the liver, their mouths are partially 
closed. 


* Practical Essays, Part I. 
_ + See the same subject treated of by M. Berard, Arch. Gen. de Med. 1826 ; also by Dr, 
Carson, ‘ Inquiry into the Causes of the Motion of the Blood.’ 2nd edition, 


80 REPORT—1842. 


On the Relation of the Season of Birth to the Mortality of Children under 
two years of Age, and on the probable duration of Life, as it is affected by 
the Month of Birth solely, and by the Months ef Birth and Death con- 
jointly. By Mr. Catiow. 


Mr. Catlow drew his inferences concerning the mortality of children from a table 
of 10,700 deaths under two years of age,from 1821-1838, extracted from the registry 
of the Rusholme Road Cemetery, in Manchester, whose natal month was determi- 
nable from the stated age. Following the estimate of the average number of births in 
each month by M. Quetelet, as an index to the debit number of deaths to be furnished 
from the births of each month severally, the average result is, that the winter births, 
or those of January, February, and March, supply 2:1 per cent. less than their debit 
quota of the mortality; and the autumnal bitths 2°7 per cent. less; while, on the 
other hand, the spring births supply 2°4 per cent., and the summer births 2°5 per cent. 
more than their debit quota of the mortality. It thus appears that summer and spring 
births have a Jess probability of arriving at the age of two years than winter and 
autumnal births. If we estimate the relation to the debit quota of mortality half- 
yearly, we find the general result to be a deficiency of 4°6 per cent. in the winter 
quota, that is, for births in the rising part of the year, or winter and spring, and of 


course a corresponding excess in the summer quota, that is, for births in the falling . 


part of the year. A second inference, then, appears to be, that children born in a 
generally increasing temperature have a greater probability of life up to two years 
than children born in a generally declining temperature. It may be inferred, thirdly, 
that the season of birth is one of the’ necessary elements in the estimate of the causes 
of infantile mortality in general, or at any particular period. From another table, 
exhibiting the quota of mortality furnished by each month of birth, we learn the re- 
markable fact, that the June and July births furnish the largest quota of mortality under 
two years, while, according to M. Quetelet, they are Jess numerous than the births of 
any other month. It was inferred by Mr. Catlow from these and other facts and tables 
submitted, that the tendency to death in a certain month is as inherent in the animal 
economy as is the tendency to a certain duration of life. Moreover, since death in 
a certain month does not produce the same effect on the average duration pf life with 
respect to every month of birth, but raises it in one case and depresses it in another, 
it seems fair to infer the existence of a special and fixed relation between the anniver- 
sary season of birth and that of death. Again, we may with reason consider that the 
seasons of birth and death are equally characteristic elements in the constitution of 
man, and are equally correlative with all his periodical changes. Nay, it is not diffi- 
cult to foresee that the different combinations of these two constitutional elements 
must be, on the one hand, promoted, and on the other hand prevented, by similar com- 
binations in both parents. 


On the Uses of the Muscular Fibres of the Bronchial Tubes. 
By James Carson, jun., MB. 


The object of this paper is to assign a use to the muscular fibres of the bronchial 
tubes, whose existence was first pointed out by Russessen, but the really contractile 
power of which was not established until it was made the subject of investigation by 
Dr. Williams, whose report was laid before the British Association atthe Glasgow meet- 
ing. The author of the present paper maintained, in opposition to the previously- 
received opinions on this subject, that the object of the muscular apparatus was to co- 
operate with the external inspiratory muscles dilating the cavity of the chest, in 
extending the superficies of the peculiarly organized membrane lining the air-vesicles, 
at which surfaces the change produced in the blood by the air is effected. This they 
effect by contracting during inspiration, and by thus determining in the air-cells or 
vesicles an increase of dimensions at least equal to the whole increase of volume of 
the chest arising from an inspiration. To illustrate the effect of this contraction of the 
tubes on the superficies of the vesicles, the following calculations, based on the suppo- 
sition that after an ordinary expiration there remain 100 cubic inches of air in the 
vesicles, and that the average diameter of the air-vesicles is +},th of an inch, were 
submitted to the Section, There are 190,985,000 such vesicles in the lung, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81 


. The contents of each of these vesicles is 0°000,000,523,599 cubic inches. 
Superficies ani ee is 0°000,314,181 square inches. 
The aggregate superficies of the whole is 60,000 square inches. 
The increase of superficies arising from the additional quantity of one cubic inch 
equally distributed through the whole, is 40-347 square inches, equal to 2-8 square feet. 
That arising from 5 cubic inches is . 1987 tee mae 13°79) |) exe 
See se 20 eee - 7621 sae eee 52-9 Les 
The correctness of these views was also inferred from stethoscopic phzenomena in 
health and disease. | 


— On a general Law of vital Periodicity. By Tuomas Laycock, M.D., 
q M.R.C.P., London, F.R.M.C.S., Physician to the York Dispensary. 


The object of this paper is to establish, by induction, a Jaw of periodicity, with a 
term of seven days, pervading the entire animal kingdom, and influencing the mani- 
festations of disease in man. The facts brought forward for this purpose are derived 
from periods of gestation, or of hatching, in fishes, reptiles, birds, and) mammals ; 
from the transformations and habits of insects; from the effects of morbid poisons on 
the animal economy, as more particularly exhibited in malarious, exanthematous, and 
infectious fevers; and from the phenomena of gout and the mutations of chronic 
diseases. In all of these classes of facts a periodical movement is found, with a strict 
reference to seven days, or its submultiple or multiple. Of the numerous facts stated 
the following are examples: of 129 species of birds and mammals, whose period of 
utero-gestation or incubation was examined, in 67 the period was a definite number of 
weeks or months, 24 were within one day of being so, and in the remaining 39 the 
period was so loosely stated as not to be of much weight for or against the accuracy 
of the measure of time adopted by the author. As special examples, it is stated that 
_ the period of incubation in the Grallide, Tetraonidz, and other birds of about the 
same size, is three weeks; in the Anatide four weeks; the Cygnide six weeks ; 

but in small birds, as the Musciparz, only two weeks. The period of hatching in the 
salmon is exactly twenty weeks; in the wasp, common bee, and ichneumon, half a 
_ week, or seven /unar days; in other insects a week and a balf, as in the Tenthredo 
caprea, or gooseberry gnat; while in the mole-cricket it is four weeks, and in the 
glow-worm six weeks. The author states, that the most remarkable confirmations of 
the law are to be found in insects by observing the periods regulating—first, the de- 
velopment of the ovum; second, the duration of the larva state, and the moults which 
take place in this stage of development; third, the duration of the pupa, or chrysalis 
period ; and fourth, of the imago state, or puberty, and of the vital manifestations 
then developed. Numerous examples from these conditions in many species are 
given, in all which a period of seven days, or its simple multiple, is traced. The 
phzenomena of disease in man are next examined in the order previously mentioned ; 
and the author endeavours to show that the stages, the duration, and the principal 
' changes of the whole class of febrile diseases, are governed by the same law, which 
_ really afforded the grounds for the establishment of the critical days of Hippocrates ; 
of these days, the most important being the seventh, fourteenth, and twenty-first, and 

_ the next in importance the fourth, seventh, and eleventh, the half-periods. The law 
is next traced through a paroxysm of gout, and through chronic diseases; and it is 
_ observed that the doctrine-of ‘septenaries,” which prevailed among the ancient phy- 
__ sicians, was founded on similar observations, by whom the fact of vital periodicity was 

_ assumed, as if it were too well known to be doubted. 
_ By extending this law to health and the performance of healthy functions, the 
author shows how it explains some hitherto inexplicable facts in pathology; as, for 
example, the latent periods of fever, and the limitation of them to a period of twenty- 
_ eight days. The extension of an epidemic amongst an entire population is also regu- 
» lated by it; and, according to the author's views, the individuals of a single family, 
- that is, of those born of a common mother, will be attacked at intervals of time regu~ 
w lated by the measure he has developed in the general law. It is remarked that those 
fevers, one attack of which affords immunity from a second, exhibit invariably the 
 quartan type; or, in other words, are measured by the half-period; and that this 
_ general fact must be considered of some importance in discussing the vexed question 
of contagion. The inquiry into the efficacy of remedial agencies may be rendered 


1842. G 


82 REPORT—1842. 


more satisfactory than it has been hitherto, by remembering that, by the operation of 
this law, the return to health, as well as various functional changes, may be altogether 
independent of any remedies whatever. In short, the author insists that the know- 
ledge and observation of this law is necessary to carry on all pathological inquiries 
with scientific accuracy, 

A further investigation of the law is recommended to naturalists, meteorologists, 
veterinary surgeons, and medical practitioners. Upon the naturalist is impressed the 
importance of accurately noting all vital changes or habits in animals which occupy a 
limited portion of time. The vast field presented to the entomologist is mentioned. 
The period also of moulting, in all animals, is instanced as worthy of notice, and so 
also the time occupied by birds in pairing, nest-building, and egg-laying, as well as in 
incubation. All observations, the author suggests, should be made with reference to 
known meteorological phenomena, so that the relations of the law may be ascertained 
and its regulating cause detected. ‘This, it is supposed, will be finally found in the 
moon’s motions round the earth, or in the combined movements of the. earth and 
moon. The time of the day at which periodic phenomena occur is in evident relation 
with the diurnal variations of the barometer and of the electric tension of the at- 
mosphere, as well as with the diurnal deviations of the magnetic needle. For example, 
it is stated that the barometer is at its minimum variation when the fits of quotidian 
and quartan agues begin, and at its maximum when they end, The silk-worm moth, 
and the hawk-moth of the evening primrose, constantly break forth from the pupa 
about the hour when the magnetic needle is at its minimum variation east, while the 
hawk-moth of the lime appears when the needle is at its maximum variation west, 
and the death’s-head moth at the hour of minimum variation east. The paroxysms 
of agues exhibit similar relations to the earth’s magnetic state, 

The author remarks, that it is of much less importance to observe the moon’s 
changes in connexion with periodic vital phenomena than to observe her apogee and 
perigee, her equinoxes and solstices; in short, rather her relations to our planet than 
to the sun. In accordance with these views, the author suggests the division of the 
year into lunar seasons, ef which he thinks there are six; or at least that the solar 
seasons be more accurately defined, and according to meteorological phenomena. 
Of these, the intermediate point should be at the equinoxes and solstices, so that mid- 
autumn would be about the 21st of September, mid-spring about the 21st of March, 
&c. The author concludes his paper by remarking, that it is only widely-extended 
and accurate observations of this kind which can form the foundation of a science of 
vital proleptics ; a science the most important of all, as having for its object the pre- 
vention or amelioration of social and individual suffering, by foretelling its occurrence 
and foreseeing its causes. 

*,* This communication is published at length in the first yolume of ‘‘ The Lancet” 
for 1842-3, pp. 124, 160. At p. 423 of the same volume is a second communication 
from Dr. Laycock, in which his views are further developed. 


On the Period of Puberty in Negro Women. By Jouyx Roserton, 
Manchester. 


The object of this paper is to prove, from a large body of well-ascertained facts ob- 
tained from three of the Moravian Mission stations in the West Indies, that there is 
no truth whatever in the common notion that the period of puberty is earlier in black 
than in white women; in a word, that the notion in question is no better than a vul- 
gar error. 

The data concerning the period of puberty in negro women in the West Indies are 
furnished by three independent witnesses ; two of them superintendents of Moravian 
stations in Jamaica, and the third a medical gentleman long resident in the Island of 
Antigua, employed by the Moravian superintendent in that island to conduct the in- 
quiry. The result is a body of facts of an nnexceptionable kind, consisting of tables 
of the ages of a number of negresses, with the age when puberty occurred. As a 


whole, the evidence goes to prove that negro females reach this period of life neither — 


earlier nor later than the women of Europe. 
N.B. The paper, in its entire form, will be found in the ‘ Edinburgh Medical and 
Surgical Journal’ for July 1842, 


3 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


Notice of Dr. Martin Barry's Researches on Fibre, published in the Trans- 
actions of the Royal Society. By Prof: OwEn. 


Observations on the best Mode of expressing the Results of Practice in Thera- 
; peutics. By Dr. Fowirr. 


The tabulating and recording all observations in accordance with some recognized 
physiological laws were strongly urged for this purpose. 


Further Particulars respecting a Young Woman Deaf, Dumb and Blind, 
of whom a full Account was given last Year at Plymouth. By RicHarD 
Fowter, M.D., Salisbury. 


In consequence of Mr. Tyrrel’s attention to her eyes and syringing her ears, she 
ean now get a glimpse of shining objects on the floor (a shilling), can sometimes 
eatch a ball on its cup, be made sensible of the return of Sunday, by counting her 
fingers and putting her hands and knees in the attitude of prayer. She starts at loud 
sounds, and expresses pleasure at the sound of a Jews’-harp between her teeth, By 
such exercises of the senses and constant communications by touch with two young 
girls, both her intelligence and comfort have been improved. 

Now, as our thoughts are expressed by muscular adjustments, and as these reci- 
provally excite thoughts (ideas) similar to those they express, is there not reason for 
hope that, by the frequent exercise of the muscles, some pleasurable thoughts may be 
excited even in minds as torpid as this poor girl’s? 


Cases of enormous Hydropic Diswnvion of the Abdomen, and of sudden Death 
from the Rupture i an Aneurism of the Thoracic Aorta. By Sir Davip 
J. H. Dickson, M..D,, F.RS.E., FL.S. 


Mr. James Frazer, superannuated boatswain, aged 65, stated that he had been 
affected with general dropsy for nearly two years, and that the disease had super- 
yened on a severe attack of rheumatism. He had only returned from Jersey within 
the previous week. He was received into the hospital on the 16th of April, at three 
o'clock p.m., and died early next morning. Besides the great distress, dyspnoea and 
. eough, &c. resulting from the enormous distension of the abdomen, the lower extremi- 


_ ties also were so loaded with serous effusion, that the integuments of the left leg 


(which from the knee to the ankle were of a fiery-red colour, in some places very 
dark and fast running into gangrene and sloughing) had given way, and thus some- 
what relieved the turgescence of the limb by a very profuse discharge of serum. 

The following are the principal morbid appearances elucidated by dissection, 
twenty-three hours after death :— 

The abdomen contained fifty-nine imperial pints of very viscid straw-coloured 
serum, which coagulated firmly on being heated. The visceral peritoneum was of a 
deep red or livid colour, and much thickened; the intestinal canal was dilated. The 
liver was about the natural size, but dense, indurated, and so much altered in shape 
as to resemble a very large kidney. The spleen and kidneys were nearly normal. 
_ The heart was considerably enlarged, and the pericardium was universally adherent; 
_ the left ventricle was hypertrophied, and the mitral valves were thickened and carti- 


_ laginous, so as to narrow the corresponding aperture, reducing it to a transverse slit. 


_ The lungs were congested and slightly cedematous, This is supposed to be the largest 
_ accumulation on record, 
__. Mr. John Anderson, boatswain, aged 64, who had been admitted for obstinate con- 
_ stipation a few days previously, and whom I had left sitting on his bed a few minutes 
before, suddenly became*faint, fell back and expired. 
_ Sectio Cadaveris, twenty-four hours post-mortem.—The cavity of the right pleura 
_ was found to be almost filled with blood, which had separated into serum and cras- 
_ samentum; the former amounted to three pints, and the coagulated portion, which 
_ was exceedingly firm, weighed about three pounds. The hemorrhage had proceeded 
_ from a large aneurism of the thoracic aorta, and the tumour, which resembled a cocoa- 
nut both in size and shape, corresponded to the three last dorsal and first lumbar 
G2 


84 REPORT—1842. 


vertebrz, the bodies of which were carious and deeply eroded, while the intermediate 
fibro-cartilages were, as usual, sound, and projected into the interior of the sac. The. 
cesophagus, which adhered closely to the anterior wall, was much flattened and thick- 
ened. ‘The sac contained a fibrinous coagulum, distinctly laminated at the circum- 
ference, together with a quantity of semi-fluid blood in the centre. The orifice lead- 
ing into the right pleura had a lacerated appearance and was situated close to the 
spine, and capable of admitting the little finger. The left ventricle of the heart was 
hypertrophied and its cavity diminished, but the valves were sound. The. aorta was 
generally dilated, the lining membrane thickened and puckered, and numerous cal- 
careous deposits existed between it and the middle coat. ‘The stomach, liver and 
kidneys were natural, but the spleen was very small, and the intestines, especially the 
colon, were much dilated. 


Abstract of the Case of a Diver employed on the Wreck of the Royal George 
who was injured by the bursting of the Air-pipe of the Diving Apparatus. 
By Joun Ricuarpsoyn, M.D., F.RS., Sc. Inspector of Hospitals at 
Haslar. 


In the operations that have been carried on at Spithead for two years past, for the 
removal of the wreck of the Royal George, under the superintendence of General 
Pasley, the divers are clothed in a water-tight caoutchouc dress. The legs of the dress 
are of one piece with the body and end in close feet, like stockings; the arms are 
open at the wrists to admit of the passage and free use of the divers’ hands, but are 
rendered air-tight there also, by the application of bandages. The diver enters the 
dress at the neck, which is then gathered into folds and closely secured to a brass 
collar, on to which the capacious helmet that incloses the head is screwed. This 
helmet is furnished with a window of thick glass in front of the eyes, a valve behind 
to permit the escape of air, and an aperture near the crown through which, by the in- 
tervention of a flexible tube of a length proportionable to the depth of water, atmo- 
spheric air is propelled by a forcing-pump. An external coarse canvas frock pro- 
tects the dress from injury, and thick woollen shirts and trowsers, worn next the skin, 
suffice for warmth. The shoes are heavily loaded with lead, and weighty plates of 
the same metal are hung over the shoulders and tied to the back and breast. The last 
act of the diver’s toilet generally consists in the screwing on of the glass window; the 
forcing-pump instantly begins to play, the dress is distended by the air, balloon fashion, 
and the diver, having a signal or safety-line tied to his waist, passes over the 
ship’s side, and descends leisurely into the sea bya rope ladder which reaches to 
the bottom. There he remains working on the wreck from half an hour to an hour 
and a half or more at one time. The forcing-pump, which is fitted with three pistons, 
is worked by double cranks manned by four labourers, and throws in a constant 
stream of air from the time that the helmet is closed before the diver descends until 
it is opened after his ascent. The heat generated in the air-pump by friction is abs- 
tracted by a stream of water which flows round the chambers, and the air is thus 
kept cool. The gauge, which stands at 15 under the pressure of one atmosphere, ge- _ 
nerally marks 34 when the diver is below—about equal to two atmospheres and a 
quarter. The dress loses its balloon shape and is pressed pretty closely to the limbs 
before the diver reaches the bottom. The helmet weighs 174lbs., the leaden 
weights 80lbs., and the whole dress, these included, 130lbs. ; but the weight is not felt 
as an incumbrance at the proper depth, which in the operations is from 13 to 15 
fathoms, according to the time of the tide. The diver generally takes about a minute 
and a half to ascend from the bottom, but can be drawn up in somewhat less than a 
minute when an alarm of danger is given. Six divers are constantly employed; they 
perform their work with much cheerfulness and alacrity, and they are very seldom 
known to suffer any inconvenience. Some persons, however, who have attempted to 
descend so dressed, always bleed at the nose and spit blood after they reach the bottom. 

On the 14th of October 1841, Roderick Cameron, a private in the Royal Engineers, 
a well-made, tall, active and intelligent man, who had been trained for some time 
as a diver, descended to the bottom in 13 fathoms, and in a few minutes afterwards 
the air-pipe burst close to the pump. ‘The air escaping with a loud rushing noise, 
which was heard at the distance of 50 fathoms, instantly made the accident known, 
and the workmen commenced immediately to haul the man to the surface by the 


se a 


otee © 


} 
' 
¢ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


safety-line, the air-pump being kept in action all the time. Cameron himself imagines 
that he became aware of the accident sooner than those upon deck, and he had time 
to make the signal of danger before he felt that they were pulling him up.) His 
first sensation was that of suffocation, from a want of air, and he felt the collar 
of the helmet, the leads on the back and breast and the dress on the body generally 
pressing upon him, as if he were about to be crushed, after which he lost all per- 
ception. It is supposed that he was brought to the surface in less than a minute, and 
air was immediately admitted into the helmet by unscrewing the eye-piece., No water 
had entered within the caoutchouc dress. In less than a quarter of an hour he reco- 
vered his consciousness and was soon afterwards able to speak.. He was immediately 
removed to Haslar Hospital, three miles distant from the scene of the accident. When 
first examined at Spithead, the face, neck and breast were discoloured, and the tint 
became darker before he reached the hospital. When he arrived there, his face 
was considerably swollen, his neck more so; both had a dark purple hue, and large 
patches of extravasated blood separated the conjunctiva from the sclerotica of both , 
eyes. He felt no uneasiness in the chest or head, but had much pain in the larynx, 
and considerable difficulty in swallowing. P. 65, rather full. Leeches were applied 
to the throat, and he was placed in a warm hip-bath. 

.. He passed a comfortable night; next day he felt giddy, the pupils were dilated, 
the eyes were pained by light, and objects were seen double, though his vision was 
less hazy than on the preceding evening. The pain in the larynx and difficulty of 
swallowing were almost gone, the swelling of the face and neck had greatly subsided, 
and parts of the face were resuming their natural hue. The conjunctiva of both eyes 
was punctured, and the more fluid portion of the extravasated blood allowed to escape. 
The discoloration of the face and neck went entirely off in a few days, with the ex- 
ception of the upper and under eyelids, which retained their dark purple tints for 
above a week, and the blood extravasated beneath the conjunctiva was not absorbed 
fora month, The natural vision was restored on the fourth day from the accident, 
and after that time till his discharge from the hospital he had no uneasy sensations. 
He was anxious to return at once to his duty as a diver, but was not permitted to do 
so again that season. The principal question of interest excited by this case is, repect- 
ing the cause of the crushing sensation experienced by the diver, and the extensive 
discoloration of the chest, neck and face. As the air must be propelled into the 
helmet with a force superior to the pressure of the water at any-given depth to which 
the diver may descend, it appears obvious that the bursting of the pipe must haye 
produced a sudden diminution of pressure. An accident of a similar nature occurred 
in the operations carried on by Captain Dickenson for the recovery of treasure from 
the Thetis, wrecked off Cape Rio. Two men were employed in the diving-bell, in 15 
fathoms of very clear water, when the air-pipe burst. They both dived under the edge 
of the bell, and one of them, named Haynes, reached the surface in from 11” to 15"; 
but perceiving that his companion, named George Davies, lingered below, he dived 
again and assisted him up. This was witnessed by John Leary, armourer, who was 


also present at the operations of the Royal George, and, in his opinion, Davies was 


-more swelled about the neck, and blacker from the waist upwards than Cameron *. 


) On a Case of unusual Paralysis. By Dr. Carson. 


I have taken the opportunity of the meeting of the British Association to lay be- 


_ fore the Medical Section a case of peculiar partial paralysis, which occurred at the 
_ Northern Hospital of Liverpool, in the practice of my friend Mr. Banner, and which 


he kindly afforded me an opportunity of observing, with permission to present it to 


_ the meeting. The patient, Mark Barnes, aged 23, has all his life-enjoyed good health, 


a E * Since the meeting of the Association an accident of a precisely similar nature to Came- 


ron’s has occurred to another of the divers employed on the Royal George, named John 


_ Williams. The discoloration of the face and neck was of a darker purple than in Came- 


Ton’s case, but did not extend to the hairy scalp; his eyes were much blood-shot, the neck 
‘swelled, and blood flowed from his nose, mouth and ears. This case has been published in 


detail by Dr. Liddell, Deputy Inspector of Hospitals at Haslar. Subsequent to the occur- 


rence of the last accident a valve has been fitted to the termination of the air-pipe, by which, 
in the event of the tube again bursting, the air will be retained in the helmet, to serve for 


_ respiration while the diver is ascending to the surface, 


86 REPORT—1842. 


with the exception of the inconvenience arising from the paralysis, which was not 
preceded by, nor is it accompanied with, any pain in the head or spine, nor any diseased 
sensations in the skin or extremities indicative of cerebral or central nervous lesion by 
which the paralysis might be explained. He is a joiner by trade, and about ten years 
ago he first experienced a loss of power in the right arm and an inability to bring into 
exercise all its movements. The principal inconvenience arose from the difficulty, 
amounting to inability, of raising the arm above the head to more than a right angle 
with the body. The loss of power gradually increased, and at the end of twelve 
months the base of the scapula on the right side was noticed to stand out from the back, 
and at the expiration of three years it assumed its present appearance. At the same 
time from the commencement of the attack the right lower extremity began to fail 
him, his gait becoming rather unsteady, and when in the bent position he experienced 
a little difficulty in raising himself. About four years ago, being six from the com- 
mencement of the attack, the arm of the left side became similarly affected, the 
scapula being displaced and the lower extremity being affected as on the right side, 
although he has retained more power in the left arm than in the right. The cir- 
cumstance which more prominently strikes the attention in the present case, is the 
appearance of the scapulz, more especially when the man attempts to raise and make 
use of the arm. In the quiescent position, the base of this bone, instead of lying par- 
allel to the spine, is approximated to it at the lower angle, and stands out from the 
ribs a distance of an inch and a half, leaving between the scapula a deep hollow 
channel, the upper angle being drawn high up into the neck, appearing on both sides 
to the observer in front midway between the shoulder and ear. The clavicle in front 
is in its natural position, as is also the acromion process of the scapula to which it is 
articulated. The acromion process stands considerably forward. When the patient 
attempts to raise the arms all these appearances are much exaggerated. The base of 
the scapula approaches nearly to a right angle with the spine, forming with the base 
of the scapula on the opposite side a very obtuse angle, and they both stand out on 
their whole length nearly three inches from the ribs. The arm cannot be raised be- 
yond the horizontal position ; after stooping at a right angle to the lower extremities 
he is quite unable to recover the erect position without help, and there is an evident 
lateral curvature of the spine; both which I conceive to be consequences of the loss 
of power in the longissimus dorsi and sacrolum bales, and the deep-seated extensors 
of the spine. In his ordinary position the upper part of the body is thrown back, evi- 
dently to balance the weight of the head and upper part of the body, which in the 
healthy person is supported in the completely erect position by the above muscles. 
In analyzing the actions of the muscles attached to and influencing the movements 
of the scapula, we found that he could raise and approximate to each other and to the 
spine, the upper angles of the scapula, showing a complete freedom of the trapezius and 
of the levator anguli scapule ; he can also approximate to each other the bases of the 
scapula, showing power in the rhomboidei. He can put his arm behind him freely and 
with force, showing that the latissimus dorsi is not involved. It is however doubtful, 
from the tilted-up position of the lower angle of the scapula, I conceive, that the slip of 
the latter muscle passing over the angle and assisting to bind down the scapula to the 
ribs, has lost its power, and do not pass beneath it. There is no reason to suppose 
any paralysis in the teres muscles, as the action of drawing the arm to the side and 
backwards is performed with ease. The sub- and supraspinous muscles are very 
much developed, and the deltoid is of moderate size and retains complete power. The 
condition of the subscapula muscle can only be conjectured, yet it appears to be 
healthy and in good condition. The only remaining muscle connected with the 
scapula is the serratus magnus, whose function in the motion of the scapula is, along 
with the deltoid, to raise the arm above the horizontal position, and, making the in- 
sertion into the scapula the fixed point, co-operates with the pectoralis major in those 
more energetic dilatations of the chest which are on occasions required for respira- 
tion. The power of this muscle on both sides is completely destroyed ; and this ra 
pears to be the most prominent lesion in the case. In elevating the arm above the 
horizontal position, this muscle takes up the action which has been carried so far by 
the deltoid, the supra and infra spinatus and the subscapularis. In the present case 
this action so far is perfectly performed; but the further action in the elevation of the 
arm, to effect which the subscapularis is absolutely necessary, is in the present case im- 
practicable. The muscle, in consequence of its, paralysis, is wasted and can scarcely 


RRS seep ias:, 


ppinatiediats 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87 


be distinguished. In both arms, in some degree, but in the right arm more particu- 
larly, the biceps, triceps, and coraco brachialis appear to be completely atrophied, and 
for some time [ was puzzled to know how the contractions of the fore-arm, whose 
muscles are well developed, could be effected, in the complete absence in both of any 
evidence of action in the biceps. It appears, however, that this motion altogether 
depends on the combined actions of the pronators and supinators, which are. well 
developed. ‘The study of the variety of partial paralysis appears to me one of the 
most fruitful means of examining the functions of different parts of the nervous cen- 
tres, and the present case is one, the record of which may at some future time 
illustrate a community of source on the nerves proceeding to the muscles affected. 
The serratus magnus is supplied with a nerve originating in the brachial plenus, 
which Bell has classed among his respiratory nerves. 


Observations on the Evils arising from the Use of Common Pessaries. 
By Cuarres Cray, M.D., Manchester. 


In this paper the agthor shows how very far removed from true mechanical prin- 
ciples all the contrivances hitherto in use to support the uterus im sitw have been, and 
how very contrary to the structural arrangements of the parts to which such con- 
trivances are applied; that these remarks not only apply to mechanical means, but 
to the various operations suggested of late by home and continental writers, which 
the author endeavours to prove are cruel and uncalled for. 

Finally, the author recommends a new pessary, frequently applied by himself and 
others with every success that could be desired, constructed on true mechanical 
principles, and in accordance with the structural arrangements of the parts concerned 
in its application ; a circumstance hitherto singularly neglected in the construction of 
pessaries. 


— 


Case of Monstrosity, By Dr. BARDSLEY. 


Dr. Bardsley presented a drawing of a case of monstrosity, which was born in 1837, 
and was alive in 1840. He had not heard of its death since, which he thinks he 
should have done if it had taken place. In addition to a well and full-grown male 
child, there were a pair of additional arms connected with the ensiform cartilage, and 
an additional pair of lower extremities connected with one of the lowest ribs near the 
transverse process of the corresponding vertebra. 


On Diabetes mellitus. By C. Cray, M.D. 


The author endeavours to show that this disease arises from debility, and recom- 
mends the tonic and astringent treatment of it. 


On Lithotomy and Lithotripsy. By Mr. Wixson. 


The author contrasted the advantages and disadvantages of both operations for re- 
moving calculus. Lithotripsy, he said, had not fulfilled in practice the hopes which 
its first advocates held out from it. Many circumstances rendered the practice of it 
not only formidable but fatal. ‘The statistics of lithotomy were stated at large, and 
the views entertained by the author supported by numerous cases, which he detailed 
at length to the Section. 


On Mr. Fleming's Plans for Ventilation. By Ropert CHAMBERS, F.RSE. 


STATISTICS. 


On the Vital Statistics of Manchester, by a Committee of the Manchester Sta- 
tistical Society. 

- The report on this subject consisted of abstracts and classifications of the registra- 
tion of births, deaths and marriages in the years 1840 and 1841, and was prefaced by 
observations on the growth and population of the district, on the peculiar influences 


88 REPORT—1842. 


to which the population is subjected, on the geological character of the country as 
connected with the subject of drainage, and cn the climate. It was illustrated with 
maps. The entire district, called in popular language the town of Manchester, com- 
prises eight different townships, the peculiar eircumstances of which were separately 
detailed. The following are extracts :— 


Population. 


Townships. Census. | Numbers., Increase. 


1801 70,409 | about 24 times in 40 years. 
1811 79,459 | 9,050, or 12-85 per cent. in 10 years. 


Manchester... 1821 | 108,016 |28,557, or 35°94 ss aeeeaee 
1831 | 142,026 |34,010, or 31°49 sae eae eee 
1841 | 163,856 | 21,830, or 15°37 = saseee soe 


1801 13,611 | about 4 times in 40 years. 
1811 19,114 | 5,503, or 40°43 per cgnt. in 10 years. 


apne 1821 25,772 | 6,658, or 34°83 ee 
1831 40,786 |15,014, or 5825 saceeceee 
1841 53,200 |12,414, or 30-44 —revevaeee 
1801 675 | about 42 times in 40 years. 
1811 2,581 | 1,906, or 282-37 per cent. in 10 years. 
1821 | 8,209 | 5,628, or 218-06 9 saseseees 
daaves 1831 20,569 | 12,860, or 15057 == aa saceeee 
[| 1841 | 28336 | 7,767,0r 37°76 0 sass ses 


1801 1,677 | about 16 times in 40 years. 
1811 3,081 | 1,404, or 83-72 per cent. in 10 years. 


1821 4,234 | 1,153, 0r 37°42 eeseereee 
1831 | 9,624 | 5,390, or 12730 casesseee 
1841 | 26,982 17,358, or 18036 seeaees 


1801 3,611 | about 3 times in 40 years. 
1811 4,805 } 1,194, or 33-07 per cent. in 10 years. 


Pendleton ... 1821 5,948 | 3,148, or 23°79 ss eeeeee 
1831® | 8,435 | 2,487, or 41°81 eee 
1841 | 11,0382 | 2,597, or 30-79 sate 


1801 1,762 | about 53 times in 40 years. 
1811 2,763 | 1,001, or 56-80 per cent. in 10 years. 


Ardwick...... 1821 3,545 i heY Puls) san te | en Se 
1831 5,524 | 1,979, or 55°85  ——— caaeavees 
1841 9,906 | 4,382, or 79°33  ———eeveeenes 
1801 1,204 | about 7% times in 40 years. 
Cheetham 1811 1,798 594, or 49°34 per cent. in 10 years. 
with 1821 2,987 | 1,189, or 63:25 —.. sae 
Crumpsall ... 1831 5,903 | 2,966, or 10099 a. . sees 
1841 8,827 | 2,924, or 49°54 ——seseeeeee 
1801 866 | about 43 times in 40 years. 
1811 825 
Broughton... 1821 880 55, or 6°67 per cent. in 10 years. 
1831 1,589 7209, 00 (80°57 |) Sescetans 
1841 3,794 | 2,205, or 188°77 ca nnn eee 


1801 93,815 | about 33 times in 40 years. 

1811 | 114,426 | 20,611, or 21-96 per cent. in 10 yéars. 
1821 | 159,541 | 45,115, or 39°43 
, 1881 | 234,456 | 74,915, or 46°96 ——— wsseeeaee 
1841 | 805,933 | 71,477, or 30-48 -  — weeeaeee 


Total of these 
eight divi- 
sions. 


Tables were given of the monthly mean height of the barometer at Manchester 
from 1794 to 1840, as recorded by Dr. Dalton; of the average monthly maximum, 
minimum and mean height of the thermometer at Manchester from 1819 to 1840 
inclusive, the mean being 50-1 Fahr.; of the mean monthly and annual quantities of 
rain during forty-seven years, ending 1840, the mean being 35°518 inches. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 


General state of Weather (exclusive of Temperature) for the Twelve Months, on 
the average of the five years ending with 1841. 


WIND. WEATHER, 
Number of Days. Number of Days. 
ElER ES| SISEIS3/ 42138) £1351 § | Bl sig 
Sisa/55| 3 lga\se/A |B) & | S| 2) 2) ala 
January ...... 1:2} 4:4} 5:0) 4-4) 4-4] 4:8] 1-4] 5-4] ° 9-0} 4:0) 11-4] 4:2] 0811-6 
February ...... 1-6} 1:4} 1:4] 4:8] 7-6] 5:8} 3-2} 2-4) 12:0| 2:2] 10-8}. 2-4| 0-6 [0-2 
March ......... 16| 8:0) 5:4) 3:2|.3:4] 4:0] 3-2) 2-2) 106] 3:6} 12:0) 3:8] 0-2 (0:8 
April ........... 1:8] 4:8] 7:6] 1:2} 3:2] 5:8) 1:8} 3°8| 13-8] 1-0} 11:6} 2-0] 0-2 1-4 
May ...ceescaeee 2:0) 7:0} 5:6} 0:8 | 3-6] 5°8| 2-8} 3-4] 13-4] 1:4] 15-0} 0:6] 0-2 0-4 
JUNE........0005 1-4} 4:6] 7-8) 1:2} 3:2} 8:0) 1:0] 2-8] 11-4] 1-8} 16:8 
July vc.cc.ceeee. 08} 1:4} 8-2] 26] 2-2) 82) 0-6) 7-0] 6:8) 0:6] 23-4) . 0-2 
August ......... 0°8| 2:0} 8:4] 1:4] 1-8] 9-6] 2:2) 4-8} 1:0] 0-6] 20:2) . 0-2 
September ....| 0°6| 2°83) 3:2} 2:8} 3:8|11-4| 1:4| 4-0] 82) 3-2] 186] ... | ... 0-2 
October ....... 1:2} 3:6} 5:8) 3:0] 4:2) 6:4) 1:0} 5-8) 6-8] 4:2] 19-6] ... | ... |0-2 
November ....| 0°38} 2:2} 3:2| 4:4] 5°0| 9:0! 4:0) 1-4] 5:8} 4:4] 18:6] 0-6] ... 10-6 
December ....| 0°6| 3°0| 3°0| 6°2| 6:4] 5:8) 2-4) 3-6] 6:0] 4:6} 19-0} 1-2 
14:4 |45:2 |64°6 |36-0 |48:8 |84:6 |25-0 |46°6 |113-8 (31-6 |197:0 |14°8 | 2:0 [5:8 


Average number of days on which rain fell in each quarter of the year, during a 
period of five years, ending with 1841 :— 


Ist quarter ............ 34:2 days : 

2nd quarter............ 43:4 days } 176 days. 
3rd quarter............ 62:2 days 

4th quarter ............ 57'2 days } ‘atishricd 2 


Selection from the Tables of Mortality, Sc. §c., for the years 1840 and 1841, 


Population of the Townships of Manchester, Salford, Chorlton-upon-Medlock, Ard- 
wick, Hulme, Broughton, Pendleton, and Cheetham with Crumpsall, according 
to the Census for 1841. 


Townships. Males. Females, | Total. 


Manchester ...ccccccsccescscees sacceoess 79,236 | 84,620 | 163,856 
Salford)... se0cncsaeme eile Mas comes. «ae 26,024 | 27,176 | 53,200 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock ............... 12,567 | 15,769 | 28,336 
ELGG. os ov ater ucnetsu clinch Raemepaeeeeh cee 12,970 | 14,012 | 26,982 
Pendleton ..........sceeeesenes Maacie sue 5,185-| 5,847 | 11,0382 
ALOWICK:’.'. 52 taccacsussosaeetoteterincscaseh 4,586 5,320 9,906 
Cheetham with Crumpsall ............ 3,967 4,860 8,827 
BLOUBHEOM ett vs ca vnienoanisstheares saesece 1,554 2,240 3,794 


Total in the above eight Townships] 146,089 | 159,844 | 305,933 


Marriages in the eight Townships. 


In the year 1840............ 2984, being one in 102-52 of the population. 
secon 1 Ode denen ae BOGS) ) eesrcaet PLUS ORAL T sevcsee de 
Per-centage. 1840. 1841. 


Of the Males married who cannot write...| 26°40 25-90 
Of the Females married who cannot write} 59-45 57-46 


REPORT—1842. 


Births in the Hight Townships. 


Classification. 


Total Number of Twins ......... 


Viz.— 


Male Twins .......... Weise wares 
Female Twins 


alford'..se.tecedestee reese 23:58 
Ard WiGk).:ccnces oot lotdeestecadous was 24:27 
Pendleton). .sccs.icewstterivee hk ca Aa 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock ... 26:06 
Manchester ......... Bie Sethe 26:82 
Cheetham with Crumpsall . 84°75 
Broughton.......... Weloneesehieg 36°83 


In the above eight Townships 25-92 


1840. | 1841. 


Propottion to the total 
Number of Births, 1840. | 1841. 


10261 | 90-90 


Being as one in 


Proportion to the total 
Number of Twins, 


Being as one in 


FAW ney Sfisseass sh tesmnetica see 22°00 
Salford | scctsaunassshaaioasesaae 29-43 
Manchester . ...ccc.csseessees : 24:75 
Pendleton ':..22.fassteweieah ves 25°07 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock ... 25°25 
Cheetham with Crumpsall. ... 31°63 
Broughton ...csessserverees Hii keebo ud 


In the above eight Townships 24:21 


Proportion of Births to the Female Population, 1840, 13°54; 1841, 12°65. 
Proportion of Illegitimate Births in total Births, 1840, 21:26; 1841, 20:47. 


Proportion of Births to Deaths. 


1840. 

Births. Deaths. 
Manchester .........0e0++. as 100 to 94°58 
Salford) Rvs. teese LOOW.§72'60 
Ardwick ......665 bis cvnsWdatewid 100 ... 69°36 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock . 100... 67:70 
Cheetham with Crumpsall 100... 64:96 
Hulme.) j.capevevstsertessts 100... 61:19 
Broughtoniyg .cossp. sone seek 100... 58°25 
Pendleton ...... pasweaie ean 100... 56°77 


1841. 

Births. Deaths. 
Manchester ......+s+-sss0s as 100 to 78°35 
Saltordisuenprastsdctuvea we. =: 1:00... 66°80 
HII Met Gaiapceaseshdswane du ROD cc 66°72 
Ardwick...sssesseees eee ae 100 ... 65°37 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock 100... 64:26 
Pendleton ......... sunegeet s | 100... 62°50 
Cheetham). caisccesdavccyees 100 ... 53°40 
Broughton............00e00 100 ... 48°67 


The above eight Townsh. as 100 to 81:43 | The above eight Townsh. as 100 to 71°95 


Proportion of Male Deaths to Male Population, 


ensunle 1840, 29:17; 1841, 31:90. 


Proportion of Female Deaths to Female Population, 1840, 34°73; 1841, 35°41. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 


Proportion of total Deaths to total Population, 


1840. 1841. 
Manchester ss:.s.ses.eseeees0s,0ne in 28°36 | Manchester ,ss..ssecsecvveeaeee ON in 31°59 
Salford ceccccscsecseceecesesees cee OVAT | Ardwick viscscsssereevceverseras nee 32°58 


Ardwick .sse+sseecesesesvene dece eee 84:88] Hulme ...s.sccseseeseee tseccedae) eae 02°98 
Hulme...ssc.eessceesseeees secee vee OBL] | Salford. cccccceseeeeeees asesecres eae 83'58 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock .... «. 38°55|Chorlton-upon-Medlock ... «+. 39:30 
Pendleton .......ccssecseseeeee we» 45°39 | Pendleton s.ssesesceseerneesens .. 40°11 
Cheetham with Crumpsall . ... 53:49| Cheetham with Crumpsall... ... 59°24 
Broughton ..i..66..5.0..0000s vee 63-23| Broughton vissceeesecessrreee vee 68:98 


In the above eight Townships 31°83| In the above eight Townships 33°64 


Comparative per-centage of Deaths at different ages in 706 Spinsters, 1746 Wives, 
i and 993 Widows, for the years 1840-41. 


‘ Norz.—Besides the above 3445 Women, there were 382 entered as ‘unknown ;’’ with reference to their de- 
; signation as Spinsters, Wives, or Widows. These, therefore, have been omitted in the following Table. 


3 Spinsters, | Wives Widows. Spinsters, | Wives Widows. 
| ba 706. | 1746. gus. i) AE 706. 1746. 993. 


92 REPORT—1842. 


On the Registers of the Collegiate Church of Manchester. By the Rev. R. 
Parkinson, B.D. 


Mr. Parkinson commenced his observations by giving a brief outline of the vari- 
ous laws which had been enacted for enforcing an accurate system of registration. 
The registers of the parish of Manchester commence in August 1573, and are-con- 
tinued to the present time, with the following exceptions:—one leaf for the year 
1589 is lost, and during the period of the Commonwealth a chasm occurs in the regi- 
sters for eight years and nearly three months. 


The number of Baptisms, Marriages and Burials recorded in the Register-books of 
the Collegiate Church, Manchester, from their commencement in the year 1573 
to the end of the year 1841, showing the total amount every twenty years. 


Baptisms. Marriages. Burials. 
From 1573 to 1580 (both inclusive) 1,439 367 1,117 
TSS OU ess c's 3,992 | 808 4,670 
HOOL vest B20 en, cesese. 5,145 1587 |, 4,991 
162) os. GIO ete 5,654 1,644 5,700 
1641 2... 1653 9s Jewous 2,681 634 4,032 
1654 ... 1661 (missing) 
1662 ... 1680 (both inclusive) 3,533 1,340 4,194 
GSP et ZO0) birc.se. 4,135 1,587 5,193 
LZOL ages! Bb sas cas 5,105 2,701 5,568 
172) SUZA0y OU as.c. 8,144 3,931 8,238 
ZS, E76)" bless 12,866 5,587 11,633 
H7G1 eel 780. Bicsd 19,750 8,436 13,806 
N7SL 28-1800. pies. ede 42,995 20,858 24,738 
1SOl 22c1820 b-....45 59,823 30,413 20,604 
NS2U ea LSA) BED... ous 104,592 53,316 26,380 
279,914 133,239 140,864 
BApvis WS" gon scan Secwares onsrechuness hee seks 279,914 
Marriages .........s0ee0 Mase cateedenes<o ek 133,239 
BUEIAIS. set wees candace dee sateace oe aR 140,864 
Total recorded .........ss.008 554,017 


Mr. Parkinson observed, that the most complete portion of the registers is that 
of the marriages, which is perfect for the whole parish up to July 1837. Assu- 
ming that a marriage might be taken to represent sixty-five couples, or 130 indi- 
viduals, which is about the usual proportion in large towns (a number which he stated 
as closely approximating with the Censuses of 1801, 1811, 1821 and 1831), he had 
constructed a table of the movernent of the population. From this it appeared that 
the population of Manchester and Salford retrograded from 1570 to 1600, advanced 
rapidly from 1600 to 1640, fell back by about one-third at or about the period of 
the Commonwealth, advanced to the point from which it had receded by the year 
1700, more than doubled itself in the next forty years, repeated this duplication in . 
the next similar period, nearly trebled itself in the succeeding period of twenty 
years from 1780 to 1800, advanced in proportion of three to two from 1800 to 1820, 
and has nearly doubled itself in the last twenty years, 


On the Criminal Statistics of Manchester. By Sir Cuar.es Suaw. 


This paper consisted of a statement and analysis of cases of misdemeanor brought 
before the police of Manchester on Saturdays and Sundays from the 22nd of January 
to the 15th of June, 1842. 

The total number of prisoners within the period in question was 646, of whom 
440 were males and 206 females. Of this number 320 had been out of employment 
an average of eight months and twenty-five days previous to their apprehension. Of 
the 326 persons who were in employment, 318 had received their wages on Saturday. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93 


» Of the 646 prisoners, there were English 446, Irish 172, Scotch 14, Welsh. 14. 

With regard to the influence of particular employments in disposing men to in- 
temperance, those engaged in laborious employments, as sawyers, smiths, carpenters, 
and porters, were much less addicted to intemperance than tailors and others engaged 
in sedentary occupations. Out of the 646 prisoners there were only seventeen fac- 
tory operatives. 


On the Vital Statistics of the Spinners and Piecers employed in the fine 
Cotton-Mills of Manchester. By Mr. SauttLewortu. 

Mr. Shuttleworth stated that the tables contained in his communication related to 
nineteen cotton-mills in Manchester, being the whole of the establishments in that 
town in which the spinning of fine numbers of yarn was carried on. 

The tables were delivered in evidence ta the Factory Commissioners when sitting 
in Manchester, and verified by the affidavits of himself and the agents employed. 

The summary of the facts obtained was as follows :— 

The nineteen mills worked sixty-nine hours per week. They employed 837 adult 
spinners, of which there were 

: 8 under 21 years of age. 
184 from 21 to 25 inclusive. 


198 ... 26to30 ...... 

| Ladle to Si ow 
; 154... 364040 wi. 

: 89... 41t045 

.. 33... 46to 50 ...... 

7 12... 51to55 ...... 

‘ 5 56 to 60 ...... 


1 above 60 
837 

The united ages of these spinners was 27,367 years, giving thirty-two years as the 
average age of each person. They had worked in cotton-mills 19,133 years, which 
was equal to twenty-two years and ten months for each person. In the year 1832, 
255 spinners, or nearly 303 per cent., were absent from work on account of sickness, 
an aggregate of 62961 days, or an average of twenty-four and a half days for each 
sick person, or seven and one-third days for the whole number of spinners employed. 
Of the 837 spinners, 

621, or 74: per cent., reported themselves to have “ good health,” 
171, or 203 per cent., reported themselves to have “ pretty good health,”” 
45, or 52 per cent., reported themselves to have “ indifferent health.” 

The 837 spinners employed 3233 boys and girls as piecers, or something Jess than 
an average of four piecers to each spinner ; and of these piecers 488, or 15 per cent., 
were relations to the spinners. 

The number of spinners married was 707, rather more than 84 per cent. The 
united ages of the wives when married were 15,376} years, equal to twenty-one 
_ years each. The number of years of the marriages was 7907 years and five months, 

_ . equal to eleven years and two months for each marriage. In this period twenty-six 
of the wives, or rather more than 3} per cent., were dead, and 681, or nearly 963 per 
cent., were living. Of the living, 

422, or 62 per cent., were reported to have “‘ good health,” 
151, or 22: per cent., were reported to have “ pretty good health,” 
108, or 153 per cent., were reported to have “ indifferent health.” 

The married spinners had had 3166 children, equal to four and a half to each mar- 
_ Tiage; of these children 1922, or 603 per cent., were alive, and 1244, or 393 per 
cent., were dead. 

Of the children alive, 1225, and of those who were dead, 1221 (making 2446, or 
773, per cent.), had never been occupied in any kind of work ; 640, or about 22 per 
cent. of the whole, had worked in cotton-mills, and fifty-eight, or near 1} per cent., 
had worked at other occupations. Out of the 640 who had worked in mills, eighteen, 
or about 23 per cent., were dead; and of the fifty-eight who had worked at other 
employments, four, or nearly 7 per cent., were dead. ‘The cases of distortion amongst 


94 | REPORT+-1842; 


the'640 children were eight, or 14 per cent., and there had been seven eases, or 
something more than 1 per cent., of mutilation from machinery, 


On the Increase of Property in South Lancashire since the Revolution. 
By Henry Asuwortu. 


Mr. Ashworth commenced his observations by stating that they more particularly 
related to the Hundred of Salford. The figures on which he proposed to found a 
comparison of the past and present state of Lancashire were taken from a Parlia- 
mentary return of the assessment for the Land-tax in 1692 and the authorized 
statements of the county assessment for 1841. With respect to the progress of the 
population he had no returns previous to 1801, 

In estimating the assessment value of property in 1692, he multiplied the gross 
amount of the land.tax, which was then 4s. in the pound, by five, which he considered 
a very close approximation to the real annual value of the property in the county at 
that period. 

The following table, constructed by Mr. Ashworth from the above data, shows the 
comparative increase in the several Hundreds of Lancashire. 


Hundreds. Value in 1692. Value in 1841, Increase per cent. 
Lonsdale......... £8,500 £301,987 £3,500 
Amounderness .. 10,288 364,454 3,500 
Leyland .......... 5,774 199,868 3,500 
Blackburn ...... 11,131 497,541 4,400 
NHLOYL ccerces- 25,907 2,703,292 10,400 
West Derby .... 35,642 2,124,925 5,900 

£95,242 £6,192,067 £6,300 


Showing an increase in the agricultural Hundreds of Lonsdale, Amounderness and. 
Leyland, of 3500 per cent,, and in the three remaining Hundreds of 7000 per cent, 


The following table shows the increase in various Towns and Townships. 


Name of Places. Value in 1692. Value in 1841. Increase per cent. 
Se Sid. £ £ 

Chorlton-on-Medlock.| 256 4 2 137,651 53,000 

TUGIP Neeser aatesne temas 152 10 5 75,733 49,000 
ATC WAIN. scsuinn tage sepansal :' MaDAS.D 46,471 26,500 ; 
Salford’ i vicrarsese teste) BUH Le. OF 162,847 20,100 
Cheetham. ,....<cessso0«> 215 18 4 38,933 18,100 
Manchester,......,...0«s- 4,025 0 0 721,743 17,900 
Heaton Norris ........-. 281 15 0 45,175 16,000 
Broughton ,....+.+...2+0 230 6 8 33,956 14,700 
Pendleton ...........0+00 363 12 11 ‘48,150 13,200 
Crumpsall ............... 9 6 3 13,237 13,000 
Rusholme ........ecseeee 14613 4 15,281 10,400 
Moss Side J.........000+6- 6l9° 2 4,958 8,100 
Great Bolton ......+0000+ 169 0 0 93,916 54,388 
Little Bolton ......,, BOS Wri i Us Mf 47,111 85,690 
BUry, srcothavnae pagdvincate® 320 14° 7 52,882 24,000 
(0) Gee Rae 2 ae ae 107,500 37,400 
Mayton ...., 9114 7 16,200 17,800 
Heap ... 265 14 7 41,652 15,700 
INCARSIGY cncesseere gangs e>> 56 7 9,035 16,400 
Farnworth 141 10 0 17,071 12,700 
Edgeworth 81-4 2 4,116 13,200 
Wardleworth ...........-| 3800 3 9 39,456 13,100 
Spotland .,..cievecvvevee| 524 9 7 58,796 11,200 
Ashton-under-Lyne ....| 1,845 0 0 143,803 - 10,600 


TRANSACTIONS. OF THE SECTIONS. 95 


In certain other towns, some of which lie contiguous to those contained in the last 
em the average increase has not exceeded 2100 per cent., as the following table will 
show. © 


Names of Places, Value in 1692. Value in 1841, Increase per cent, 
G's. d. £ & 
Chorlton-cum-Hardy| 28615 0 4579 1900 
Blakeley .........+++00+ 364 19 7 7673 2100 
Garton. scoiictercrasesas 435 11 3 9340 2100 
Moston ae 196 2 11 6743 2900 
Burnage..... ae 80 15 5 2413 3000 
Withington........ yee loa D Wie Sa 9565 3000 
Ashworth ...,. Facasics 87 5 0 1428 1600 
Longworth ............ 55 211 1038 1800 
Plexton .........cceeees 290 12 11 5412 1800 
Reddish .......s.sse00- 343 0 0 6503 1900 
Denton .......c000ceees 378 0 0 7890 2000 
Urmston ....cscesccseee 2049 7 | 4174 2000 
Lostock ..,ce-sseeuees i 1038 4 7 2244 2100 
Mivington ,,... eveeeee} LLL 12 11, 2336 2100 


As an instance of the increase of the value of land in the vicinity of large towns, 
Mr. Ashworth cited the township of Chorlton-upon-Medlock (adjoining Manchester), 
The assessed value of the township was in 1815 19,484/,, in 1829 66,645/., and in 
1841 137,6517.; the increase between 1692 and 1841 is shown in the second table, 

To show the advantages arising from a locality becoming the seat of manufactures, 
the case of West Houghton and Staley Bridge was cited. In 1812 one of the first 
power-loom factories in England was established in the township of West Houghton, 
near Bolton, and in the same year destroyed by rioters. That species of manufac- 
ture being thus driven from that district, was established at Ashton and Staley Bridge, 
The assessed value of the parish of Ashton-under-Lyne was in 1815 33,548/., in 1841 
143,8037, At West Houghton the value of that township was in 1815 7377/., in 
1829 9564/., in 1841 10,978/. That township was now the poorest of the twenty- 
four comprised in the Bolton Union. 

The Forest of Rossendale, containing an area of about twenty-four square miles, 
in the early part of the sixteenth century contained 80 souls, it was now increased 
to upwards of 21,000, and land used exclusively for farming purposes had been re- 
cently let for upwards of ten times the rental it fetched a century ago. 

- With respect to the population of Lancashire, in 1801 this was 672,564, in 184] it 
was 1,667,064. ~ 


On the Criminal Statistics of Lancashire. By Mr. Horxins. 


Mr. Hopkins stated, that since the year 1782 the number of persons executed in 
Lancashire was 260; of that number ten were females. The greatest number of exe- 
cutions took place in the years 1801 and 1816, when they amounted to twenty, 
There were no executions in 1783, 1793, 1823, 1837, and the three last years. In 
April 1838 one person had been executed at Kirkdale, and this was the only execu- 
tion which had taken place in Lancashire within the last six years. 

The crimes for which the parties had been condemned were, for 


Uttering forged notes .........scccececeenecseneceen enone 
Forgery ...... la Maiaeviclandcivada daria tog asedasivasatipds 13 
Miirden .capaytendemeenanes sccnessere nest Sale RO ALE Ca 33 
TRE PEAT NAMA thy thar ABBR OR ER Aanet Hac raee ay ye 48 
FLODDELP PE issinvacnesAescusecnen sarees sosapassaa*Sikeainneyen 53 
$ Horse-stepling .,.......esseresrcspseoraprencsncs Vatekeek se 9 
Malicious shooting ......,... LW agaee tach enaar et sie ritae ss 2 
Returning from transportation ............ stash Saas se 2 
Seducing a soldier .........cssseeaee dea bebe Weideenr es 1 
Waviotisy@ieniase cai,» spiasasncsennensaphuceehwapuertennns! ae 


260 


96 REPORT—1842. 


On the Industrial and Training School about to be erected in the neighbour- 
hood of Manchester. By Mr. Garvner. 


The projected building will be erected at Swinton, in the vicinity of Manchester, 
for the pauper children in the three Unions contained in the parish of Manchester. 
The building will accommodate 1500 children. Twenty-three acres of land have 
been taken in addition to the ground required for the building, in the cultivation of 
which the children will be employed. 


On the Influence of the Factory System in the development of Pulmonary 
Consumption. By Mr. Nosxe. 


Mr. Noble prefaced his observations by a statement that the opinions of medical 
men were at variance as to the effect of the factory system on the health of the 
operatives. 

In Manchester and Salford, according to the census of 1831, there were resident 
49,392 families. The total deaths registered in 1839 amounted to 9223, of which 
1454 were recorded as having been from consumption; that is, about one death 
from consumption to every thirty-four families; and in the total deaths from all 
causes, three from consumption in every nineteen. 

In Essex, with a population of 62,403 families, the deaths from consumption in 
1839 were 1201, and the total number of deaths 6352; the deaths from consumption 
being less by about 250 than in Manchester, although the population of Essex in 1831 
was 13,000 families above that of Manchester. The cases of consumption, however, 
were fewer, relatively, in the factory district than in agricultural Essex, being in the 
latter as four in twenty-one, in the former three in nineteen. 

In a district embracing Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and the southern parts 

of Lincolnshire, and comprising a population of 67,351 families, in 1839 the deaths 
from all causes were 7306, and those from consumption 1308, or nearly one in 
five, showing, as in the case of Essex, a much lower rate of mortality than that 
of these districts, but a greater relative proportion of deaths from pulmonary com- 
plaints. 
__Mr. Noble then compared other large towns where there were no factories with 
Manchester. In 1831 the population of Liverpool and West Derby was 43,026 
families ; in 1839 the number of deaths registered was 9181, being only forty-two 
less than the number of deaths in Manchester. The deaths from consumption were 
1762, or about 300 more than in Manchester. 

In 1831 the population of Birmingham was 23,934 families; in 1839 the number 
of deaths registered was 3639; those from consumption being 668, being again a 
smaller relative proportion than in Manchester. 

In 1831 the metropolitan districts contained 373,209 families; the deaths were 
45,441 ; those from consumption 7104, being in the preportion of two to 105 fami- 
lies, or three out of nineteen deaths from all causes. 

Considering that the township of Manchester contained a fair proportion of the 
factcry population, Mr. Noble had examined the registers of deaths from consump- 
tion for the years 1838, 1839, 1840, limiting his inquiry to the ages between fifteen 
and forty, In these three years he found that, with a population of about 160,000, 
and with an average of 6000 deaths from all causes annually, there were 1141 
registered deaths from consumption; of these 174 were of persons working in 


factories. : 
The factory operatives were divided thus :— 
SDUAGT S915. cxsuniviwew crveveedlohs saves ond 45 
Winders. seymscriss aire avd 49 
PAOCETS ssdpeipaspnqev ener seebee ena as ots 28 
Raalons ¥ fue dseyisvavscieiasive Does 15 
Rardersiy | wpisswosn ssdedensepeaaih de iss kus 11 
Frame-tenders .......0.ceceeseesapeis’s ot ll 
Not: specified .evissarsisvivseeresevee 2D 


—— tS 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97 


‘The ages of the 1141 deaths from consumption were,— 


Ages. Deaths, 
15 and under 20 ......... 195 195 
ag serials vit tz. fo 243 
gh Mel Faiigg uC iT: 260 \ 503 
SOS cc bmgpnes Ts 223 
Best eae semper ee 220 } saps 


A table compiled by Sir James Clarke from certain mortality returns of Berlin, 
Chester, Carlisle, Paris, Edinburgh, Nottingham and Philadelphia, gave the follow- 
ing proportions :— 


. Ages. Deaths. 
15 and under 20 ......... 99 in every 1000 
Vince JF81 BO! QBS» we 
30 wld 40 ....2.... 248 ee 


From these and other facts omitted in this abstract Mr. Noble drew the conclusion, 
that manufacturing habits do not exert any unusual influence in the production or 
premature development of pulmonary consumption. 


On Vital Statistics, with remarks on the Influence which the Atmosphere exerts 
over the rate of Mortality. By Dr. Asuton. 


After noticing that a great diminution in the rate of mortality had taken place in 

Europe within the last fifty years, Dr. Ashton called attention to the fact, that, not- 

_ withstanding the large town population, the average mortality of England and Wales 

was much lower than that of most other countries in Europe. He then showed the 

importance of proper ventilation in dwelling-houses, and the evils arising from a 
want thereof. 


On the Destitution and Mortality of some of the great Towns of Scotland. 
} By Dr. Autson. 


Dr. Alison, in confirmation of statements made by him at the Meeting of the Asso- 
ciation at Glasgow, stated, that in the early part of last winter it appeared that 
at Edinburgh 21,600 persons, in a population of 137,200 (excluding the garrison of 
the castle), were in a state of utter destitution, and were recommended for gratui- 
tous relief to a committee appointed to distribute a charitable fund raised by sub- 
scription on the birth of the Prince of Wales. In addition to these, 5000. more, 
_ who were not so miserably destitute, were recommended for relief in the way of 
_ provisions and fuel at a reduced price. To the 21,600 are to be added the inhabit- 
ants of the three workhouses and of the House of Refuge, making a total of above 
23,000 persons out of 137,200, or 16°8 per cent., who during at least a part of the 

_ year “ of necessity must live by alms.” Of this number not above 7000 are admitted 
as paupers to legal relief, so that 16,000, or 11°6 per cent. of the population, during 
part of the year have no lawful means of subsistence. . 
| Inthe several epidemics which had taken place in England since the English 
Registration Act came into force, he could not find that the annual mortality in any 
_ of the towns had ever exceeded 1 in 30. In Glasgow the mortality had reached this 
_ amount on an average of five years; and in 1837 it had been 1 in 24, exceeding that 
recorded in any year in Liverpool by 25 per cent. ee 
_ _ Dr. Alison stated that in a communication made by him to the London Statistical 

_ Society as to the mortality at Edinburgh and Dundee, there had been an error for 
want of the proper deduction for still-born children, but that after making that de- 
duction, the mortality at Dundee in 1836 (the worst year of epidemic fever there), 
_ appeared to be 1 in 30-1, equal to the highest recorded at Liverpool, a town nearly 
_ four times larger ; and the mortality in Edinburgh in 1837 appeared to be 1 in 27°4, 
exceeding the highest recorded in Liverpool by nearly 10 per cent., and the highest 
_ recorded in London by 19 per cent. ; 
___ With respect to the greater liability of the Scotch towns to suffer from contagious 
_ fever, Dr. Alison stated that the highest: mortality from that cause recorded in En- 
| gland was 7-7 per cent. of the whole mortality, and that only in London and Man- 


1842, H 


a 


” 
* 


98 REPORT—1842. 


chester, and only for one year.(the general proportion being about 4 per cent.), whilst 
from documents obtained by Mr, Watt, it appeared that of the whole mortality in 
Glasgow in 1837 that from fever was above 20 per cent;, in Dundee in 1836 15 per 
cent., in Glasgow on the average of the last five years 18°8 per cent., in Edinburgh for 
the last three years 9-2 percent., in Dundee for the last three years 8°4 per cent.,in Aber- 
deen for the last five years 14-2 per cent.,and in Edinburgh last year 10°27 per cent. 


On the Statistics of Plymouth, By Hexry Woo.tcomss, F.L.S, | 


Numerous particulars relating to the progress of population, the municipal go- 
vernment, the progress of crime, and local improvements of Plymouth were stated 
in this paper. It is a continuation of a paper communicated to the Association by 
Mr. Woollcombe at the Meeting at Plymouth in 1840, and will form part of a 
«History of the Past and Present Condition of Plymouth.’ 


On Loan Funds in Ireland. By Henry Joun Porter, F.S.S., 
Tandragee, Ireland. 


This paper was a continuation of the account of the operation of the Loan Funds 
in Ireland, read before the British Association at the Meeting at Plymouth in 1841. 
Since that time the following increase has taken place. There are now of these in- 
stitutions in Ulster 78, in Leinster 103, in Munster 60, in Connaught 27, in all 
Treland 268. 

The amount of money lent in 1841 was, iu Ulster, 572,000Z. ; in Leinster, 512,0002, ; 
in Munster, 262,000/. ; in Connaught, 90,0007, Total, 1,436,0007, 

The number of loans granted was to Ulster, 149,000/.; to Leinster, 142,000/,; to 
Munster, 98,000/.; to Connaught, 30,0007. ‘Total, 409,000/. 

The profits, after paying all expenses, were, in Ulster, 5836/. ; in Leinster, 67917. ; 
in Munster, 2802/.; in Connaught, 645/. Total, 16,0747. 

The number of persons who had invested their savings in these societies was, in 
Ulster, 1528 ; in Leinster, 1824; in Munster, 941; in Connaught, 235. Total, 4528. 


—_-_-_ 


On the Monts de Piété in Ireland. By H. J. Porter, F.S.S. 


This paper was a continuation of communications made by Mr, Porter at the 
Meetings of the Association at Glasgew and Plymouth. Mr, Porter stated that the 
total capital invested in these establishments was 26,8837. The number of articles 
taken in pledge in 1841 was 351,408, on which the sum of 61,944/. had been lent in 
sums varying from 30s. to less than 1s, 


—_—— —_——— 


On the Commercial Statistics of France in 1840. By the Rev. H. L. Jones. 


From this paper it appeared that the total amount in value of the trade of France 
(exports and imports included) in 1840 was 2063 millions of francs, an amount 
greater than in any preyious year. 

In 1826 the total trade (exports and imports included) was 1126 millions of francs. 

In 1836 basi etait enol Oe at 1876 Garwy 

In 1839 Gh gent -jiisnet ee: ROY’ dr ifiies ae 1950 pens 
giving an increase for 1840 of 113 millions of franes, 

The principal increase was in the imports (which at no former period had ex- 
ceeded 1000 millions, but) which in 1840 amounted to 1052 millions, The exports 
exceeded those of 1839 by eight,millions. The “ Special Commerce’? of France (that 
is, the produce of her own soil or manufactures exported, and the articles imported 
for her own consumption, and included in the 2063 millions) was, in 1840; imports 
747 millions, exports 695 millions; total, 1442 millions, 

Out of the total trade for 1840 the exports and imports by sea amounted to 1481 
millions, or about 712 per cent., and those by land to 58% millions, or about, 282 
per cent, of the 2063 millions, 

Of the imports and exports by sea, 705 millions, or 48 per cent., were effected in 
French bottoms, and 776 millions, or 52 per cent,, in. foreign bottoms. Of these 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99 


amounts 757 millions, or 51 per cent., were from or to European countries, 582 
millions, or 39 per cent., from or to countries out of Europe, and 142 millions, or 10 
per cent., from or to French colonies and fishing establishments. 

Mr. Jones concluded his paper by a long series of tables compiied from the pub- 
lished official accounts of the French Custom-House, showing all the details of the 
general and special commerce of France with England and the United States, and 
the full details of the silk and cotton trade of France with all nations. 


: 
On the Advantages arising from Spade Husbandry and Agricultural Edu- 
; cation. By Mrs, Dayies GILBERT. 


In this communication, being a continuation of that made at Plymouth, Mrs, Dayies 
i Gilbert stated, that by careful weeding, manuring and cultivation of the land, some 
of her tenants raised forty bushels of wheat per acre, and were paying double the 
rent which she had received for the same land when it was in large farms ; and that 
out of one hundred and twenty-four tenants among whom the land was now divided, 
not one had fallen a single farthing into arrear since 1830. 

With regard to an Industrial School founded under her patronage, it appeared 
that the schvolmaster paid yearly eleven pounds for his dwelling-house and school, 
and three pounds per acre for three acres of land. His school consisted of twenty 
' boys, of the average age of eight years, who worked for him at out-door labour three 
hours a day in return for three hours’ instruction in reading, writing and accounts. 
Such labour amply rewarded him for the instruction he gave them. 


On the Differences of the Quality of the Milk of Cows for the different pur- 
poses of Milk and Cheese, numerically expressed. by G. Wess Hat. 
Mr. Webb Hall stated the result of a number of experiments which had been made 

with a view to ascertain the relative richness of the milk of different cows, from 

which it appeared that the variation was much greater than was usually supposed. 


On the Comparative Statistics a the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
in the 16th, 17th, and 19th Centuries. By James Heywoop, F.RS. 


| Mr, Heywood had compiled part of this paper from a list of the number of persons 
had received the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Oxford from 1518 to 1689, in 

the Asbnotean Library at Oxford, and a list of the number of persons who had 

obtained a similar degree at Cambridge from 1499 to 1658, in the library of the 

_ British Museum. 

_ The number of degrees of Bachelor of Arts conferred in Cambridge,— 


Fab In 1500 was ..........005 Sf Th PS aA aah g 
nie In 1530)... mee ere Py ouah, 1Ro IS, ... 40 
vate Ter £560! 2980 SET OY Sidine Fo, BES, 60 
as FTG 1? od SRP se sae OF BONE Oy 154 
“oh Fa FROG) 22. Moule pw panes & Pe oe Te 167 
oni In 1620 ........ PERE NIB OD DLE 7) Oven a7) 
Pa VERE! CL ero ovortl th Meword:} 315 


From 1628 to 1658 the numbers decreased; the annual average from 1648 to 
1658 being 174. f | 

The lists of similar degrees granted at Oxford and Cambridge from 1830 to 
), showed that during the last ten years the increase had not been above the 
ber of B.A. degrees granted in 1628, and other years in the early part of the 


‘quarter of the 17th century, , ; 
he number of B.A. degrees granted at Cambridge in 1630 was 291; in 1630, 


; and in 1640, near the time of the ciyil wars, only 240; im 1830 it was 324 ; 
1835, 314: and in 1840, 339, 


Hg 


100 REPORT—1842, 


Contributions to Academical Statistics, continued from 1839. By the Rev: 
Bapen Powe rt, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry at Ox- 
ford. 

The author in this paper continued the table communicated by him to the British 

Association at the Birmingham Meeting in 1839, with the addition of a column con- 

taining the number of candidates for the examination. 


University of Oxford. 
$ Gia ai dat a v Pa Obtained Honours, 
Examination. | “*@™unation. | ical. | Mathematical. | Both. 
374 245 26 12 
419 323 6 


399 272 27 14 


es ee, Soe oor 


397 280 25 10 


SO SS SS | 


ee ee ee es 


Mean.| 276 | 178 18-6 3:3 10:3 


The general results are very nearly the same as before. 


MECHANICS. 


Abstract of a Lecture upon the Atmospheric Railway, prepared at the request 
of the Council for the Twelfth Meeting of the British Association, and de- 
livered in the Atheneum of Manchester on the Evening of Monday, the 27th of 
June, 1842. By Cuarves Vienowes, Civil Engineer, F.R.A.S., URLA., 
M.Inst. C.F, and Professor of Engineering in University College, London. 
The system of producing motion on railways by means of the pressure of the 

atmosphere, had acquired the popular designation of the ‘‘. Atmospheric Railway ;” 
and it was the growing interest felt in the public mind for this.new application of 
one of the very simple powers of nature to the uses of man, which had led the 
Council of the British Association to suggest the delivery of some public exposition 
of the principles on which it was based, and which had induced and perhaps justi- 
fied the Professor in coming forward to attempt an illustration of the very ingenious 
contrivances which had brought these principles into practical effect. When the 
enormous cost hitherto incurred in the construction of railways was considered, as 
well as the heavy daily expeuses in working these lines, it was not singular that 
efforts should have been directed to some means of producing similar useful results 
in a more economical manner. 

A brief history of the discovery and gradual improvements of the first invention 
was gone into, tracing back the original thought to the celebrated Papin; in suc- 
cession, long afterwards, came Lewis, Vallance, Medhurst, Pinkus, and lastly Clegg, 
all well known as active inquirers into this subject. But it was shown to have been — 
Medhurst, who, about thirty years since, first gave to the world the right idea of 
connecting the body in the pipe or tube, directly acted upon by the atmospheric 
power, with a carriage moving along exteriorly; and that to one (already well known 
to science as the practical applier, economically and on a large scale, of Gas for the 
illumination of large buildings and towns), viz. to Clegg, was due the merit of having 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101 


worked, out the suggestion of Medhurst to practical utility, in a way at once simple, 
efficient and capable of enduring the rough usage necessarily attendant on constant 
and rapid motion. 

Reference was then made to certain of the drawings and sections representing, 
drawn to the full size, an atmospheric apparatus equivalent in power to. an ordinary 
locomotive engine, but occupying much less space. It is described to be a cast- 
iron pipe or tube of twelve inches in diameter, laid, in lengths like water-pipes, be- 
tween the railway bars, and attached to the same cross-sleepers which support 

them; on the upper part of this tube is a narrow longitudinal slot or opening, 
covered by a valve, the peculiar mode of opening and closing down and sealing 
whereof constitutes the ingenuity of the contrivance. The valve isa simple flap 

of leather, one edge of which is fastened down, so as to act as a hinge; the upper 
surface of the leather being plated in successive links with flat bar-iron, and the 
under surface also plated, but with links of a segmental form, to complete the inner 
periphery of the tube when the valve is closeddown. In the tube moves a piston, 
made air-tight by one or more leather collars; at the end of the rod of this piston 

is a counterweight, to keep the rod parallel to the axis of the tube: a connection is 
made (by one or more plates of boiler-iron of sufficient size and strength, and called 
the coulter,) between the piston-rod and the perch of a leading carriage or guiding 
truck, in front of the train moving on the railway. In practice, the piston being in 
the tube, and at some little distance in advance of the opening of the valve, through 
which the coulter passes, a vacuum, more or less perfect, is made in that part of the 
tube in front of the piston by an air-exhausting-pump worked by a steam-engine or 


———————— 


other stationary power; the air enters by the open valve, and presses at once and 
directly at the back of the piston; the opening through which the coulter passes is 
raised only for a few feet-length at a time, and the valve is rapidly closed down again, 


as the piston, carrying forward with it the train, moves on; and being closed, the 
edge of the valve-opening is hermetically sealed up, and the tube rendered air-tight 
\ by a composition of bees’-wax and tallow, varied in certain proportions, according to 

season and climate: this composition is laid at the valve-edge, in a groove, into which 
it is pressed by a copper slide, kept just warm by heated charcoal in an attached box. 
The whole of the mechanical arrangements of rollers, heater, &c. are very far from 
being complicated, not liable to get out of order, and easily adjusted when deranged ; 
the operation being completely effected when the carriages travel at exceedingly 
high. velocities, as has been repeatedly done, leaving the tube ready to be again ex- 
hausted of its air, and allow the next following train to be impelled by the atmo- 
spheric pressure. In familiar illustration of the principle on which the piston-rod in 
_ the tube connects through the valve with the carriage outside, the movement of an 

_ ordinary pencil sliding in its case was referred to. 

One leading characteristic of this new system is that of substituting stationary 
for locomotive power, and in this substitution the advantages will in many cases 
be great. Even the old system of stationary power, connected with all the obstacles 
of ropes, sheaves, &c., has still its supporters, both where passenger as well as mi- 
neral traffic have to be carried on: but with the numerous economies which might 
be combined in the atmospheric system, the stationary engine, with steam or water 
as a prime mover to work the exhausting-pump, may once more take the field 
against the locomotive. This stationary power is to be erected at long intervals on 
_ the line of railway, and may certainly be placed at three or four miles, and pro- 
bably at five, or even six or seven miles apart, working the exhausting-pump, which 
_ will be connected by branches with the main tube lying befween the rails. 

_ The air being drawn out by the pump, a certain amount of vacuum is produced 
_ in front of the piston, creating a corresponding pressure on the opposite side of it, 
being about half alb. on every square inch of surface acted on by the atmosphere, for 
every inch rise of the barometer. In the ordinary practical working of tle apparatus, 
the usual. amount of vacuum obtained may be taken at that corresponding to 16 to 
18 inches of mercury, or 8 lbs. to 9 lbs. per square inch ; and experiments have fully 
‘proved that the whole, or very nearly so indeed, of the pressure due to the degree of 
_ exhaustion is obtained. 
__. The measure of the power for producing motion is the product of the transverse 
__ sectional area of the tube in square inches, multiplied by the number of lbs. pressure 
due to the yacuum ; various tables of these powers were exhibited, both for horizon- 


102 REPORT—1842. 


tal railways and for lines of every degree of acclivity, indicating also the respective 
corresponding loads, in tons, which may be taken. Thus from a tube of 12 inches 
diameter, with an 18-inch vacuum, or 9 lbs. pressure per square inch, there is ob- 
tained an atmospheric power of fully 1000 Ibs. ; being equivalent to the average ad- 
hesive power of a locomotive engine; and this power, with every deduction for fric- 
tion and resistance of various kinds (all which were specified and tabulated), will 
propel 462 tons, or 10 carriages over a horizontal railway; and 94 tons, or 2 ear 
riages up an inclined plane of so steep a gradient as 1 in 28. With larger tubes and 
greater pressure more power could be generated, and of course greater loads pro- 
pelled. These representations were not based on theory only; they were the results 
of the working on a piece of experimental railway for the last two years and up- 
wards on the West-London line at Wormwood Scrubs, only a few miles from the 
metropolis. The tube at this place is only nine inches diameter; but there will be 
a most complete practical demonstration on a larger s¢ale shortly, on the opening of 
an extension of the Dublin and Kingstown railway to Dalkey, now constructing upon 
the atmospheric principle ; the tube thereon would be 15 inches diameter, the incli+ 
nation of the railway being about 1 in 110; the stationary steam-engine, exhausting- 
pump, &c. calculated to propel thereon heavily laden passenger-trains at extremely 
high velocities. 

Reference was made to another peculiarity of this system :—If it were requisite to 
turn on a lathe with care and scrupulous accuracy the insides of the tubes, the éx- 
pense would exceed any reasonable limits; but a simple cutter is all that is necessary 
to pass through the pipes on coming out of the foundry-sand; they are then placed 
in @ proper receptacle and raised to the temperature of melting tallow; in that state 
a mop dipped in tallow is passed through the tubes, followed up by a wooden pis- 
ton, which spreads the unguent in a complete coating, producing an even interior 
surface: by frequent passage of the working piston, this tallow lining, or tinning, as 
it were, becomes perfectly smooth and nearly as*hard as plaster of Paris, atid no 
doubt aids considerably in preventing atmospheric leakage, causing the piston to 
work, practically speaking, in a tube of tallow, but protected by the iron pipe or 
casing: 

With regard to the velocity attainable by trains impelled by atmospheric pressure, 
it may be said to be independent: of load or gradient; in fact it is almost strictly 
regulated by the proportion between the area of the tube and that of the exhausting- 
pump ; that is, by the velocity with which the air is withdrawn from the tube by the 
pump. The exhausting-pump piston will travel at the same speed as the piston of the 
steam-engine working it, viz. not exceeding three miles an hour ; if the trains are re- 
quired to run at the rate of thirty miles per hour, then the transverse-sectional area 
of the air-pump must be made ten times that of the tube, and engine power must be 
provided accordingly ; andso of other velocities. This is independent of the load ; 
and gravity being practically an equivalent augmentation of the load to be moved, it 
is consequently also independent of gradient. The tables exhibited were calculated 
for various velocities, supposing there was no atmospheric leakage; this must be 
provided for, and is computed to require additional engine-power to the extent of 
six-horse for every mile of pipe; the chief leakage being at the longitudinal valve, 
and therefore nearly constant, whatever the diameter of the tube. 

It is evident this is a superior mode of employing stationary power, since 
there is nothing to be propelled or moved but the carriages, and nearly the full 
dynamic effect of the force generated is obtained. On the locomotive system, half 
the load, on the average of all trains, consists of the engine and tender; and in the old 
stationary system there is the weight of the rope, with the expense and friction of 
all the attendant mechanism, which is enormous; and of this the Blackwall rail+ 
way is a palpable example, although the rope-and-pulley system has probably 
been thereon carried to the greatest perfection of which it is susceptible. On the 
atmospheric system, there is substituted for a rope of hemp or wire, a rope of air, 
which, without weight or friction, transfers a power that may be called inexhaust- 
ible and boundless; and there is thus obtained the maximum of useful weight 
carried with the minimum of resistance to be overcome. 

In pointing out the table containing the several horse-powers of the stationary 
engines to work air-pumips of different diameters, and to create and sustain the 
vacutim in tubes of different sizes, an explanation was entered into of the term 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103 


horse-power, which was stated to be now generally computed by all makers 
and purchasers of steam-engines from the diameter of the cylinder and length of 
the stroke, taking in round numbers each such nominal horse-power as capable of 
raising 60,000 Ibs. one foot high with a given consumption of fuel: Watts’s old 
rule of 33,000 lbs. had long been abandoned, the principle on which it was origi- 
nally founded being now understood as incorrect, though after all it was but a con- 
ventional expression. ‘The Commissioners who had been appoiuted by the Board 
of Trade to investigate into and report upon the atmospheric railway, had not even 
used Watts’s rile correctly, and by this, and by reasoning and calculating on the 
exhausting-pump employed in their experiments as theoretically perfect, and by an- 
other unintentional misapprehension, the horse-power stated in their report as ne~ 
cessary to work tubes of certain lengths and diameters, was put nearly double the 
horse-power as understood by the practical engineer. Some of the other opinions 
and conclusions of the Commissioners were also adverted to and their soundness 
impugned. — 

oIt was then pointed out, that by means of self-regulating valves of a very simple 
character, drawings and models of which were exhibited, the trains might pass on 
continuously without necessarily stopping at each stationary engine; and it was 
also particularly observed, that it did not appear to be either necessary. or advisable 
to vary the diameter of the tubes at each variation of gradient; but that the most 
convenient arrangement would be to have the tube or main by no means limited in 
diameter, and to work the different rates of ascent with corresponding degrees of 
vacuuni; and this might conveniently be done, as such variation of pressure scarcely, 
if at all, affects the speed of the train ; this, im fact, is one of the great advantages 
of the system, asthe power expended in obtaining and keeping up the various degrees 
of exhaustion will be in the direct ratio of the increase of ascent and no more. If it 
occurs that an inclination intervenes, sharper than could be advantageously managed. 
in this way, alarger tube may be laid down in that particular length of the railway. 
» Acremark was made that the atmospheric system might be applied to any existing 
railway without interference with the mode of working with locomotive engines’ du- 
ring the operation. 

A peculiarity of this system was explained by diagrams, to the following effect :— 
Suppose the travelling load to be fifty tons, the degree of vacuum necessary to ob- 
tain a givem degree of velocity, producing a pressure of 10 lbs. per square inch on 
the piston; so long as the load is the same and the line level, the train will 
move with equal velocity, because the speed’is due to the rapidity with which the 
air is pumped out of the pipe. But if the load be only twenty-five tons starting 
with the same pressure as with fifty tons, the train then runs faster than the air is 
drawn out of the pipe; the power behind being so great in the first instance as to 
force the load forward at an increased rate. But this does not last long; the pump 


__ going slower in proportion than the train, the air gets packed up, as it were, in front 


of the piston, and becoming less rarefied offers greater resistance; the velocity of the 
train, which is very great at first, gradually diminishes until the amount of vacuum 
becomes proportionate to the weight behind it, and then the train goes on uniformly. 

gain; supposing the train to start with a load which is rather heavy, with a pressure 
of only five or six pounds, the air is then drawn out quicker than the load can follow, 
and makes the vacuum more perfect; and thus the power increasing gradually, the 
frain increases its velocity until it becomes balanced with the vacuum. To ascend an 
incline may be called equivalent to adding to the load, and to descend, equal to dimi- 
nishing it; when the train comes to an ascent it will reach the foot of the plane 
with a considerable velocity; but its rate will gradually decrease as it ascends, 
until the power is brought up equivalent to the pressure, that is, until by the ex- 
hausting-pump going faster than the train, a power is generated suflicieny to drive 
it up the hill. In coming down hill, the trains will start at the top with very great 
velocity ; but the air will immediately begin to act in front as a buffer until the 


pressure is reduced. The moment the train comes to the level, its velocity will 


3 immediately increase; and thus the speed is nearly uniformly regulated, whatever 


may be the inclination. 

_ In entering into the question of the cost of the at a railway, several tables 
were referred to, and it was distinctly and unreservedly Stated that from £10,000 to 
£12,000 per mile was sufficient to.constructa line on this principle in most parts of 


104 < REPORT—1842. 


any country. Details were prepared to show this, drawn from actual estimates 
made for the purposes of determining the expense of the apparatus and railway under 
several greatly differing circumstances ; and the various economies contemplated were 
mentioned. ' It was also observed that the recent improvements and simplifications 
by Prof. Wheatstone of his electro-magnetic telegraph, had very greatly reduced the 
expense of that invaluable invention; so that for this indispensable accompaniment 
of the atmospheric railway, no more than £100 per mile would be required. Much 
stress was laid on the advantage of getting rid of the locomotive engine, which is a 
constant source of dangers and accidents, and has always been the cause of the most 
fatal ones; at the same time adding greatly to the unprofitable weight of the train, 
and requiring everything connected with the present details of railway construction 
and furnishing to be proportionably large, heavy and expensive. On the atmospheric 
system, the rails, and upper works generally, the carriages, vehicles, stations, build- 
ings, and establishments, &c., will be all very much less costly. In laying outa 
line, it may be suited to the undulations of the country, and earth-work greatly re- 
duced; bridges, and all other works of art, will be on a much smaller scale, not 
simply in the arithmetical proportion of their heights or breadths, but more nearly 
in proportion to the cubes of those dimensions; and generally a saving in land, 
damages, &c. 

But the great paramount advantage is the perfect safety from collisions and 
similar accidents, on the single lines of the atmospheric system, which railways 
worked by locomotive engines, even with double lines, cannot possibly be free from. 

Reverting to the stationary power, it was stated that the adoption of other 
means than steam to work the air-pump and produce a vacuum in the tube, might 
often be expedient’and economical ; as water, where abundant, or where it could be 
collected in reservoirs ; or where trains were not constantly passing, a small steam- 
engine might be continually at work raising water to be used (over and over again 
if needful) at the stated times when the traffic had to pass, and a short experience 
would determine the exact quantity of water required to work a wheel for these given 
periods ; andasthetime necessary to produce the required exhaustion in any length 

_of tube is probably the same that the carriage would take to travel over the 
same space, the exact measure of power to create and sustain the vacuum could be 
calculated. But it is clear that the importance of obtaining the very cheapest 
method of exhausting the tube would soon attract the attention of scientific and 
practical men. 

Allusion was made to the facilities which this system possessed of disengaging 
the train from the piston-rod moving in the tube; and also to the very short space 
in which the train could be stopped, by the ordinary break, and by destroying the 
vacuum in front of the piston; rendered still more easy by the absence of the vast 
momentum, which from the weight of the locomotive and the heavier carriages, 
is always an accompaniment of the present trains. 

A ‘summary of the principles of the atmospheric railway concluded the lecture ; 
the Professor observing that the invention was but in its infancy, and that it was 
scarcely possible to appreciate the results, when further developments, practically 
brought out on a large scale, should bring this wonderful power still more within 
the grasp and command of man. 

Various models, drawings, tables, and formule were exhibited to the meeting, 
and constantly referred to in the course of the lecture, of which they were intended 
to be illustrations. 


On Straight Axles for Locomotives. By Professor VIGNOLES. 


He stafed that an unfounded prejudice existed in favour of cranked axles, which, 
in his opinion, were inferior to straight ones in almost every point of view. With 
straight axles the cranks were thrown outside the wheels, which gave more room for 
the arrangement of the working parts; and another great advantage was gained by 
lowering the boiler nearly fifteen inches, and thereby increasing the safety of the 
engine, by placing the centre of gravity nearer the rail. The original expense of the 
engine and of the repairs was also much lessened. These advantages might be 
shown by a reference to the Dublin and Kingstown Railway. By introducing 
straight axles and outside cranks the expenses had been greatly decreased, no acci- 


TRANSACTIONS OF, THE; SECTIONS. 105 


dent: had:ever occurred from, breakage,;, and, such. increase,.of. room, had. been. ob- 
tained, that they had. placed the tender, underneath the engine, thus fixing the centre 
of \gravity as low. as possible, and dispensing with the separate tender, By this 
arrangement they could run fifteen miles without stopping for water. He had found 
much difficulty in introducing the,straight-axled engine on this line; and, in fact, 
the great obstacle in obtaining a fair. trial for different forms of engines arose from 
_ the fluctuation, in public opinion... Straight axles and cranked axles, four-wheeled 
_ and six-wheeled. engines, had been used on, different lines, not,so much from the 
recommendations of the engineer as in compliance with the opinion of the several 
tailway boards. Just now a prejudice existed against four-wheeled engines, as being 
less safe than six-wheeled, more liable to run off the line, &c., whereas he con- 
tended that the four-wheeled engine per se was not open to these objections, . He 
believed that, the principal advantage which could be claimed for the six-wheeled | 
engine was in the disposition of the weight on the wheels, and having the third pair 
of wheels and.axle, in case\of accident to either of the other pair; and a consideration 
ot the fatal accidents which had lately. occurred on the London and Brighton and the 
Paris. and. Versailles railways, would show that they arose from other causes, and 
had no reference to the engine having four wheels. or six. He considered that both 
accidents arose from similar causes: in both cases heavy trains and two engines 
were coupled together, the smaller one leading; from some cause a check took 
place, the engine-man shut off the steam of the leading engine, and the following 
engine, with the immense momentum derived from weight and velocity, struck 
against it, forcing it off the rails, and causing the overturn of the carriages. It was 
considered objectionable to use an auxiliary engine behind a train, because, in case 
of any retardation of the engine in front, it cannot be checked in time to prevent 
great concussions. of the carriages. Similar objections applied to using two engines 
under any circumstances, especially when of unequal power. Many accidents had 
taken place in consequence of the breaking of cranked axles; and M. Francois and 
Col. Aubert, in their report to the French government, had remarked that the frac- 
tures of broken axles, instead of the fibrous appearance of wrought iron, presented 
the crystallized appearance of cast iron, which they attributed to magnetic or electric 
changes in the molecular structure of the iron, caused by friction in the bearings and 
great velocities; and-in his opinion it was probable that the continual strains and 
percussions to which the cranked axle is subjected will account for the changes in 
the molecular constitution of the iron. 


» On the Strength of hammered and annealed Bars of Iron and Railway 
F : Azles. By James Nasmyru. 

‘In locomotive engines the axle was the chief point of danger; and it was there- 
fore important, both as a scientific and practical question, to determine the nature 
and habitude of iron when placed under the circumstances of a) locomotive: axle. 
Experiment was the only way to discover this, and he would have wished to place 
iron under exactly similar circumstances; but the short time intervening since 
the subject had come before the Section had rendered it impossible to do so.'»One 
opinion was, that the alternate strains in opposite directions, which the axles were 
exposed to, rendered the iron brittle, from the sliding of the particles over each other. 
_ To illustrate this, Mr. Nasmyth took a piece of iron wire and bent it back and for- 
_ ward; it broke in six bends. He had suggested annealing as a remedy for this de- 
_ fect: in proof whereof he took a piece of annealed wire, which bore eighteen’ bends, 
_ showing an improvement of three to one in favour of annealing. He should there- 
_ fore advise railway companies to include in their specification, that axles should be 
_ annealed; and would moreover most strongly recommend that where any doubt 
existed as to'a change for the worse having (from whatsoever cause) taken place in 

respect to deterioration of the tenacity of the iron of the axle, the simple but effective 
_ process of annealing should be had recourse to, which would be found to restore its 
_ original toughness ; he did not like the custom of oppressing engineers with useless 
 minutie in specifications, but this was so useful and so cheap, that he thought it 

_ ought to be insisted on. To exhibit on a larger scale the effect produced on iron in 
our workshops, he showed a specimen of iron as it came from the merchant: 
being nicked with a chisel, it broke in four blows with a sledge, at the temperature 


106 REPORT—1842. 


of 60°, with a crystalline fracture; by raising the temperature 40° higher, it bore 
twenty blows, and broke with the fibrous or ligneous fracture; so that the quality 
of iron was not the only circumstance to be considered as influencing the fracture. 
Mr. Nasmyth noticed also the injurious effect of cold swaging, as causing a change 
in the nature and fracture of the iron. Swaging was necessary in many cases ; 
for instance, when an axle had collars welded on, these could not be finished with 
the hammer alone, certain tools called swages were used, from the action of which 
great condensation of the iron took place, and a beautiful polish was given to the 
surface, with what injurious effect he would show by the next specimen, which had 
been heated red-hot, and then swaged till cold; it broke at one blow without nick- 
ing, and the fracture was very close and beautiful, like steel. This showed the fal- 
lacy of considering close fine grain a good test of excellence in wrought iron; but 
moderate swaging was often necessary, and not injurious, unless where an over re- 
gard to finish carried it to excess. To prove that annealing restored the toughness 
-and fibrous texture, a portion of the last bar was heated, and swaged till cold as 
before, then heated dull red, and left to cool gradually; it bore 105 blows without 
breaking, as was shown by the specimen ; this proved that the fibrous structure was 
restored by annealing, and he therefore thought it should be insisted on in specifica- 
tions. The effect of heating to welding-heat was very injurious, unless the iron was 
subsequently hammered to close the texture ; a piece of the same iron heated to weld- 
ing, and left to cool, broke without nicking in one blow, showing very large crystals, 
especially in the centre. The effect of nicking was also very singular. The strength 
of iron was generally stated to be proportional to its sectional area; but,a nick not 
removing +,th of the area, took away ;'sth of the strength. Mr. Nasmyth broke 
a piece of nicked, or rather scratched wire, to illustrate this point. These and similar 
things did not prove that science and practice were at issue; but, as Halley reached 
the great accuracy of his prediction of the return of his comet by taking into account 
the disturbing forces of Jupiter and Saturn, and the other planets amongst ‘which 
the body had to pass, so scientific men should seek in the workshops correctional 
formule, by learning there the practical occurrences which would elucidate and cor- 
rect their theories. 


On the best Form of Rails and the Upper Works of Railways generally. 
By Prof. VicNoes. 

He wished to compare the two chief systems of laying down rails, with chairs 
and without, and to do so he referred to two diagrams :—No. 1, exhibiting the 
heavy rail and heavy chair used on the South-Eastern Railway, the weight of rail 
being 80 lbs. per yard, and the chair 20]bs.: the rail was fastened in the chair, not 
with iron, but with a longitudinal plug or key of wood: this mode of laying rails 
was found to answer very well. No. 2 was invented by Mr. Evans; it was rolled 
with a slot or groove running along its under side; this slot, after coming from the 
first rollers, was rendered dovetailed by compressing the bottom edges of the rail 
towards each other, thereby narrowing the slot at the bottom. These rails required 
no chairs, having continuous bearing on longitudinal wooden sleepers, being fastened 
down by bolts, with dovetailed heads slid into the groove, and which, passing 
through holes in the timbers, were secured with a nut and washer at the under side. 
He had suggested this improvement, as they had been previously fastened with a 
cotter. By this method all the difficulties attendant on fastening down the chairs 
were removed. The chairs had been fastened with bolts and screws, but he had 
found that on the slightest loosening the bolt-heads flew off, from the continual per- 
cussions, and the screws very soon allowed vertical play from the yielding of the 
fibre of the wood. By Evans’s rail we secured the rail without the intervention of 
the fibre of the wood. One inconvenience attending it was, the trouble of scraping 
away the earth to tighten the nuts when necessary; but this might be partially 
remedied by placing the bolts as often as possible in the transverse gutters for drain- 
ing the road, by which at least one-half the bolts might be easily got at; and the 
difficulty of tightening the remaining bolts would be lessened, if, as he recom- 
mended, the timbers were left uncovered. He preferred thus giving a free circula- 
tion of air, and disliked burying the sleepers in ballast. The weight of Evans’s rail 
was only 45 lbs. per yard, although quite strong enough, while that of the other with - 


7 
; ’ 
i 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107 


the necessary chair, was 100lbs. The bevel in No. 2 rail might be given in the 
wood-bearing ; in No. 1 it was arranged in the casting of the chair; this latter rail, 
from having its top and bottom sides alike, had this advantage, that when it’ began 
to wear it might be turned round, or even turned upside down, which was a very 
great advantage. He had for many years advocated wooden sleepers in preference to 
stone, from his experience on the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, where he found that 
the granite sleepers, the more massive they were the more injurious to the rails and 
carriages. These had all been taken up, and longitudinal wooden sleepers laid down, 
and the saving in expense of repairs would in a few years reimburse the outlay. The 
failway only costs now 507. per mile per annum for repairs, notwithstanding the 
great traffic over it. The rails were the old 42 Ib. rails, and, nevertheless, were still 
used, in consequence of the advantage gained by the continuous bearings. He re- 
commended keeping Evans’s rail to the gauge by light iron rods passed through 
holes in the rails, and secured by nuts: he thought these transverse ties should 
never be used as supports. . 


On Combustion of Coal, with a view to obtaining the greatest Liffect, and pre- 
; venting the Generation of Smoke. By Witt1aM Fairbairn. 


The author divided the subject into—Ist. The present state of knowledge as to 
the combustion of fuel, particularly as regarded the boilers of steam-engines. 2nd. The 
relation and proportion of the farnace and boiler.. 3rd. The dimensions and height 
of the chimney, and its proportion tothe boiler and furnace. 4th. The working of 
the furnace, and the mode of obtaining the nearest approach to maximum effect. 

_ In reference to the combustion of fuel, he observed, that our knowledge was 
limited ; but, from the care of the fire being intrusted to persons of little knowledge 
or experience, much lamentable waste occurred, from rapid combustion and the over- 
working of boilers. Great loss also ensued from want of boiler space, and by work- 
ing the engines to double what was ititended by the maker, thus rendering it neces- 
sary to force the fires to extract from the boilers sufficient steam. 2nd. With refer- 
ence to the relation and proportion of the furnace and boiler. It was observed, that 
in our present boiler furnaces, the ratio of fire-bar to flue surface is about 1 to 11, 
or 100 square inches of grate-bar to 8 square feet of flue. But the Cornish engines 
have much more flue surface, and other engines much less. He had always endea- 
voured to give 12°5 feet of flue surface to 100 square inches of grate, or 1 to 18 nearly ; 
and in marine boilers it is about 1 to 14°28. He found that, in a well-proportioned 
boiler of 1 to 14, a pound of good coal evaporated 7°46lbs. of water, which was the 
maximum effect produced in this district. By increasing the flue surface, the system 
of slow combustion was éstablished, arid the evaporative power increased. 

' Mr. Fairbairn then read a table of experimental observations respecting ten steam- 
engines working in Manchester; the meat results were, power of engine nominally 
44-5 horses, working up to 57°3 horses; area of grate, 48-2 square feet; area of flue 
surface, 542°5 square feet ; ratio of grate to flue surface, 1 to11 ; height of chimney, 
117 feet; coal consumed in pounds per horse per hour, 10°5 (the table contained the 
indicator diagrams of the several engines): Thus it appeared that the ratio of fur- 
naces to flues was of great importance. He had found that a marine boiler, with 100 
square inches of grate bar, and 10 square feet of flue (exclusive of the bottom sur- 


face of the flue), and having 40 feet of flue length from fire to funnel, generated an 


ample supply of steam without forcing the fires. He also directed attention to a 
table in which six different kinds of boilers were shown, with the ratio between their 
heating or recipient surfaces and their cubic contents, from which it appeared, that 


the best boiler in these conditions was the cylindrical boiler with internal tubular 
flues. 2nd. The cylindrical boiler with internal flue. 3rd. Waggon boiler with in- 


mal flue. 4th. Waggon boiler without fiue. 5th. Cylindrical boiler without flue ; 


d last, the old haycock, or circular boiler. _ 
3rd division. There is no certain rule respecting the dimensions of chimneys. In 


_ the Manchester district the custom was to place the chimney in some prominent po- 


sition at a distance from the furnace, requiring underground flues of sometimes 400 
feet long. This custom was injurious ; as, from damp, &c., the draft was diminished, 


anid it was ecessary to have recourse to descending flues, which were contrary to 


just principles. The chimneys should be placed near the boilers when practicable ; 


108 yo a REPORT—1842..... 


and descending, and even horizontal flues, avoided as much as possible. . With respect 
to the height of chimneys, we can hardly err in going too high, as the draft is as the 
height of the column of rarefied air; we thus can always obtain a plentiful supply 
of air to our fires. Some persons consider that the chimney should be widest at the 
top, to allow of the free passage of the rarefied air; but this was inconvenient in 
building, and he had not found it to give any advantage. In general, chimneys, in 
consequence of their great height, were built broad at the base and tapered towards 
the top, both externally and internally. This was also disadvantageous, as it throt- 
tled the draft. He found parallel flues, well-plastered, to be the best in every respect. 

4th. With respect to the best methods of working the furnace, and obtaining the 
nearest approach to maximum effect, he haa endeavoured to obtain, by direct experi~ 
ment, the comparative consumption of coal, in Mr. Williams’s plan, and the common 
practice. For this purpose he got Messrs. Hetherington and Co. to attach Mr. Wil- 
liams’s apparatus to their boiler in January last. This boiler supplied a 12-horse en- 
gine, and gave motion to machinery, tools, &c. During the experiment great care was 
taken to keep the work steady, and to regulate the firing, so as to give equal chances © 
to each system. The result was slightly favourable to the old plan; but as there was 
reason to doubt its accuracy, the trial was repeated, when the results showed a saving 
of ;!,!Zo in favour of the new system ; or, by taking the average of all the experiments, 
the consumption on the new system was to that on the old as 292 to 300, or about 
4 per cent. in favour of Mr. Williams’s plan on the score of expenditure; while, on 
the point of its abating the nuisance of smoke, no doubt could arise. 


On testing the Efficacy of the several Plans for abating the Nuisances from 
Smoke by effecting a more perfect Combustion. By C. W. WILLIAMs. 
The usual mode of measuring combustion, he stated, was the ascertaining the 

quantity of water evaporated by each pound of fuel; yet this was the most fal- 
lacious of all tests, as from the varieties of boilers and the differences in their eva- 
porative powers, their results were so at variance as not to be depended on. As re- 
gards the nuisance, the appearance of the chimney was a sufficient test: but when 
the question of economy was considered, a very different class of tests was required, 
Economy has reference to two distinct objects; namely, 1st, the obtaining the 
largest quantity of steam from a pound of coal; and 2nd, obtaining such quantity 
of steam in the shortest time. Thus economy has reference to fuel and to time; and 
it is important to observe, that the economy in the one is inversely as that of the 
other. Mr. Williams observed that economy in fuel, that is, obtaining the highest 
evaporative effect from each pound of coal, may be the ruin of the manufacturer ; 
for if his engine requires a given weight of water to be converted into steam within 
a given time, if such quantity be not supplied the engine cannot do the required 
work. Mr. Williams referred to a variety of experiments made by himself, Mr. 
Parkes, Mr. Wickstead and others, showing that, by quick or slow combustion of 
coal, the quantity of water evaporated from the same boiler, and by the same fur- 
nace, varied considerably. This view of the question showed the necessity for 
distinguishing between the boiler and the furnaces; for though heat may be gene- 
rated by a more perfect combustion in the furnace, yet, if the boiler is not equal 
to its absorption, the remainder will pass by the chimney and be lost ; and Mr. Wil- 
ljams showed that exactly in the degree in which the heat was increased in the flues, 
was the waste heat also increased by the chimney. If then we look to the quantity 
of steam generated, we must refer to the boiler and its evaporative faculty ; but if — 
we look to the quantity of heat generated, we must refer to the furnace and flues. 
Mr. Williams then urged the importance, in testing any plan of combustion, of look- 
ing as well to the temperature of the escaping products by the chimney as to the 
quantity of steam generated in the boiler. The true test then is to be found in 
ascertaining the quantity of heat generated rather than of the steam produced; and 
without any reference whatever to the boiler. Mr. Williams referred to an ingenious 
and practical mode adopted by Mr. Houldsworth for estimating the temperature in 
the flues of a boiler. 


Mr. J. Juckes exhibited and explained the model of his furnace for consuming 
smoke-and economizing fuel. His grate bars form an endless chain passing over 


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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109 


rollers, and moving forward about an inch per minute. The coals employed are 
common siftings or screenings, heaped in a hopper (which may be made'to' hold 
fuel for an unlimited time) outside the furnace door, which slides upwards. This 
door’ is left a little open, and the small coal is spread uniformly over the bars 
by passing under it. The air is constantly supplied through the bars, directly 
to the fuel while burning; and in this way perfect combustion is obtained. The 
bars being slowly moved on, carry the ashes to the ash-pit, which lies at the 
back of the grate. Clinkers are prevented from encrusting the bars by their passing 
under a gauge, which effectually removes them; and the burning away of the bars 
is prevented by their constant motion from the hottest place. ‘The bars or chains, 
with their rollers and driving wheels, are fixed in a frame, which can be completely 
drawn out from under the boiler for the purpose of removing injured bars, or any 
other purpose. 


On an Indicator of Speed of Steam Vessels. By J. S. Russery, RSL. 


This was'a simple application of a well-known principle ; it was not novel, but he 
had applied it successfully, although others had failed. 1t depended on the hydro- 
dynamical fact, that if a reservoir be filled with water to a certain height, the water 
will flow from an orifice at the bottom with a velocity proportionate to the height ; 
and conversely, if the reservoir be empty and this orifice turned towards a stream, 
the water, will rise in the reservoir to the height proportionate to the velocity. His 
plan was to pass a tube through the bow of the vessel, and carry it along the floor- 
ing to the centre of gravity of the vessel, where it terminated in a vertical glass 
tube, exhibiting the weight of water within. To this tube there was attached a 
moveable scale, the zero of which being placed on a level with the point at which 
the water stood when the vessel was at rest, the rise of the water in the tube when 
the vessel was set in motion exhibited the velocity at which the vessel was passing 
through the water. He had tested the accuracy of this indicator by sailing vessels 
at least twenty times, over a measured distance of 153 miles, and comparing his tube 
with Massey’s log, the common log, calculations from the number of strokes, &c., 
he found it more accurate than any. By putting a stopcock in the pipe just under 
the glass tube, he was enabled to regulate the orifice until the greatest regularity 
was obtained, and he could now depend on the indications within the twentieth of a 
mile. From these experiments he had constructed a scale, which he exhibited, and 
of which the following is an extract ; the first column exhibiting the speed in miles 
per hour, and the second the height of the water in the tube above the zero line, ex- 


pressed in feet :— 
Miles per hour. Feet on the scale. 
15 hes iz a wea 75625 
13 yan ee ass aia 5°6800 
11 bakads inh she ais $6 4:067 
9 <i ye ce BR 2°722 
7 A ‘ su 1647 
5 se ses 0°84 
3 cee oan one +94 0:3025 
1 we eve eee =. 0:0336 


On certain Plans for Ventilation recently adopted in Glasgow. 
By Rozert CuameBers, F.R.SLE. 


The plans described in this paper were suggested by Mr. Joseph Fleming, sur- 


pe 


-geon, Anderston (a suburb of Glasgow). Mr. Fleming wrote a pamphlet on the 


subject in 1833. The object of Mr. Chambers’s paper was to give an account, illus- 
trated by drawings, of the various modes in which Mr. Fleming’s principle had been 
‘applied since that period. 
: Bat principle is that which has been so well exemplified in other quarters—fire- 
raught. 

Mr. Chambers first described a large house connected with a mill in Anderston, 
which usually contains about five hundred inhabitants of the humblest class, and 
which used to be a constant focus of pestilential disease in consequence of the filthy 


110 -. REPORT—1842. 


habits and poverty of the people, united with deficient ventilation. There were at 
one time fifty-seven persons ill at one time with fever in this house, and five had 
been seen ill in one room. At the end’of 1832 a system of ventilation had been 
established, and since then fever has all but disappeared from the house, although, 
during five of the years which haye elapsed since 1832, there were above fifty-five 
thousand cases in Glasgow. The plan here adopted is extremely simple, and might 
be easily introduced in any place where there is a furnace or active flue not far off, A 
small tube is led from an upper corner of each room containing a family, It joins a 
main tube in the adjacent gallery, The main tubes of the yarious floors, four in 
number, join in one vertical tube descending along the gable of the house, which 
enters by a channel of brick-work-the flue of the mill. Thus a constant draught is 
kept up in every room of the house, fresh air being liberally enough supplied by 
chinks in the doors and windows. 

A description, illustrated by drawings, was then given of the application of the 
same plan to the Princess Royal, a steamer recently launched on the Clyde, In this 
case, cach berth in the vessel has a tube for drawing off the used air. These tubes 
join main ones, which unite in one which supplies a stove upon deck, The exchange 
of air thus produced in the necessarily small sleeping rooms of the yessel has been 
productive of a degree of comfort which is felt by every passenger. 

‘The paper also described a washing apparatus for infected clothes, and an hospital 
bed for fever patients, in both of which cases bystanders are secured from the volatile 
matter of infection by the drawing off of that matter through tubes towards a fire-place 
or grate. Finally, there were illustrated descriptions of an application of the plan 
to the Glasgow Fever Hospital. 


Abstract of a Description of a Self-acting Waste Weir and Scouring Sluice. 
By J. F. BaTEMAN. 


The mode of construction here suggested is one for obviating the injurious effects 
and inconveniences of fixed weirs in rivers, arising principally from the operations of 
floods in filling or silting up the channels of navigable or other rivers, and in inun- 
dating the adjacent country where it is elevated but little above the surface of the 
water, 

The plan proposed is to hang two gates vertically across the stream, one above 
the other, so adjusted upon horizontal axes that in an ordinary state of the river the 
pressure of the water will be sufficient to maintain the gates in their vertical position ; 
but that as the water rises in a flood, the pressure will so act upon the unequal por- 
tions or leaves of the gates, as to open them, by pressing outwards the upper part or = 
leaf of the upper gate, and the lower leaf of the lower gate, thus opening, in addition 
to the top, two passages for the escape of the water, a space between the gates and 
an opening at the very bottom of the weir, which will act as a scouring sluice, and 
allow all deposit of silt or other matter to be carried away. 

For example, suppose a waste weir twenty feet in length and five feet deep, con- 
sisting of two gates, the upper one three feet, and the lower one two fect in depth. 

If these gates are so hung that in an ordinary state of a river the pressure upon the 
lower leaf of the upper gate and the upper leaf’ of the lower gate exceed the weight 
upon the other two leaves 300 lbs., that will be the closing force exerted in keep- 
ing the gates in their vertical position. In this arrangement the area of the leaves 
against which the closing force is exerted will be only about one-half of the area of 
the opening leaves, so that in a rise of water above the top of the weir, éwo lbs. are 
added to the opening force for one to the closing force. A foot of rise would add 
a pressure upon the whole weir of 1250 lbs., say 1200 lbs., 800 of which would be 
exerted as an opening and 400 as a closing pressure, being a difference of 400 lbs. in 
favour of the opening force. As this is 100 lbs. more than the original closing press- 
ure of 300 Ibs., the gates would open with Jess than a flood of one foot in height. 

By making half the top of the gate rise higher than the level of ordinary water, a 
flood of under six inches would open the gates, and if so constructed, aspartial open- 
ing, by which the top of the weir should be depressed only about four inches, the 
surface in a flood would be but two inches higher than the ordinary level, while the 
quantity of water discharged over the top and by the openings below, would be equal 
to a flood over a fixed weir of the same length of upwards of three feet in depth, 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ill 


_ The sills against which the gates are made to fit, may be. regulated so.as to dis- 
charge the largest flood of a river without allowing the gates to open further than 
necessary, or in rivers where it is expedient to remove every obstruction to the cur- 
rent, to prevent inundation, or to pass very large bodies of water, the sills may be 
so arranged that the gates should assume a nearly horizontal position, opposing 
little more resistance to the water than the thickness of the material of which the 
gates may be composed. 


On a New Steam-engine worked with three kinds of Pressure, viz. Action of 
__ high-pressure Steam, the Expansion of Steam, and the Atmospheric Press- 
ure caused by its Condensation. By Mr. Suaw. 


The description was illustrated by models and drawings. The lower part of the 
piston fits the cylinder and is steam-tight; the upper part or plunger, in the form of 
a hollow cylinder, is longer than the cylinder, and passes through a stuffing-box in 
itsicover. The piston rod rises through the middle of the plunger, and is connected 
with the parallel motion; the valve is a modification of the single slide, the upper 
passage leading to the upper part of the cylinder, the middle to the lower part of the 
cylinder, and the lowest to the condenser. When the piston is descending, the valve 
admits steam to the annular space between the plunger and cylinder, when, the 
middle and lower passages being open, the direct pressure of the atmosphere upon 
the plunger, the high-pressure steam upon the annulus, and an additional pressure 
of one atmosphere upon the annulus from the vacuum beneath, concur to produce 
the down stroke; during this the steam is cut off from the cylinder, and the com- 
munication between the cylinder and condenser is shut; the steam, which before 
occupied the annulus, now acts against the plunger for the ascending stroke with 
the whole force of expansion, the annular surface of the piston being then passive. 

- Amodel and drawings of Mr, Shaw’s hydraulic engine were also exhibited. In 
this engine, the want of elasticity in water, which formed a great objection to the 
application of that fluid to a piston, is supplied by the elasticity of air in a chamber 
communicating with the cylinder; it is well fitted for situations where the fall is 
great, but the supply too small or the space too limited for the use of a water-wheel, 
as in mines. 


On a dry Gas-Meter. By Mr. Cixzaa. 


It acted on the principle of the differential thermometer, in which a difference of 
temperature between two bulbs partly filled with alcohol, was shown by the rising 
of the spirit in one and depression in the other. He had taken advantage of this 
principle by suspending two little glass vessels, partly filled with alcohol and con- 
nected by a tube, and by passing the gas over heaters it warmed one of these bulbs, 
and the spirit was driven into the other, which, becoming the heaviest, swung to the 
bottom of the arc in which the vessels vibrate ; here it in its turn becoming warm, 
was emptied of its spirit, and thus becoming lightest, was in turn displaced; the 
continuance of these oscillations marked the flow of gas, and being registered by the 

“usual train of wheel-work, the number of vibrations had been proved, by many 
careful experiments at all seasons of the year, to afford an accurate measure of the 
quantity of gas. 


On the Thames Tunnel in its completed Condition. By Sir M.1. Brune. 


_ A-representation of the machinery, designated the shield, by the agency of which 
the excavation had been effected and the structure simultaneously made up, was 
exhibited. 

_ The shield, standing as it does between the ground and the constructed portion, 
_ may be considered as the chief agent, on the functions of which everything essen- 
tially depends, 

_ The Thames Tunnel, he remarked, including the shafts at each end, is a quarter 
_ of a mile in length, its breadth is 37 feet 6 inches to 38. feet, and the height of the 


: _ excavation 22 feet 6 inches ; presenting therefore a sectional area of 850 feet. 
__.. The thickness of the ground oyer the structure, or over the shield, is 14 feet at the 


112 REPORT—1842, 


deepest part, and the head of water at the highest tides is nearly 36 feet, and only 
12 at the lowest tides. . 

The shield consists of 12 frames wholly independent of each other: each frame is 
divided in three stories, thus 36 cells are provided for as many miners in front of the 
excavation, and for a proportionate number ‘of bricklayers who are to form the 
structure at the back. The exterior part of the shield at the sides and top is covered 
with cast-iron sliding plates; and the front, viz. the whole face of the excavation, is 
covered with small boards (42 in the face of each cell), consequently 540 upon the 
whole: these are kept pressed against the ground by means of 1080 small screws, 
which admit of being abutted against the front of each frame. 

The frames at the back are made to bear against the structure by the interposition 
and agency of powerful abutment screws resting against capacious plates. 

The frames stand upon legs resting upon capacious shoes; and as an auxiliary 
way, the frames have arms by which each frame may relieve itself upon its neighbour. 

The body of the tunnel consists of a substantial square brick structure with two 
arches, ‘This structure fills the excavated area, and in this way all the mass of the 
surrounding ground remains undisturbed. 

The greafest attention, therefore, is to keep and to maintain the abutting screws in 
their respective functions, not only to support the surrounding pressure, but to pre- 
vent the ground becoming soft for want of resistance. 

Sir M. I. Brunel having so far explained his plan of proceeding, concluded by de- 
claring that the tunnel was accomplished in the manner represented in the drawing and 
model evhibited. 


On the Use of Béton and Concrete in constructing Breakwaters. 
By Prof. Vicnoves. 


The use of béton had greatly increased in France of late, especially in marine 
works ; it was similar to concrete, but not exactly identical with it. Béton, like 
concrete, was composed of lime mixed with broken stones, gravel and sand; but it 
required hydraulic lime, while concrete in this country was frequently made of 
common lime when not to be exposed to the action of water. Béton was first in- 
troduced in France by Belidor, and lately much advocated by Vicat; since then 
it had been much used, and he considered that attention was due to the use that 
‘had lately been made of it in the Port of Algiers by M. Poirel, the engineer of that 
harbour. 


On the Construction of a New Rope employed as a Core in the formation of 
the Patent Stoppers, a Substitute for Corks and Bungs. By WiLtiaM 
Brocxepon, F.R.S., Se. 


The patent substitute for corks and bungs is obtained by employing an elasti¢ core 
of fibrous materials of the form required, and covering it with a thin sheet of India 
rubber. By this combination the tendency of India rubber to harden in these high 
latitudes is overcome by the elasticity of the fibrous core, whilst the core is preserved 
elastic by the impermeable quality of the India rubber with which it is covered. 
But the matter which was more immediately offered to the attention of the Section, is 
the important improvement which the invention has received by the adoption of eot- 
ton cores, mechanically constructed, as a substitute for the felted wool which was 
originally used; by this improvement greater strength is obtained to resist the hold 
taken by the entanglement of the cork-screw, and greater precision in roundness and 
accuracy in size; with these come a train of consequent advantages and facilities in 
the processes of manufacture, which will now be described. But a very short sketch 
of the invention itself, prior to these improvements, is necessary. 

The idea of such a substitute for cork for stopping bottles and other vessels was 
suggested to the patentee by Humboldt’s researches in South America, wherein he 
states that the Indians were accustomed to employ plugs made of India rubber for 
stopping their vessels. The then recent importation of India rubber in large quan- 
tities by Messrs. Enderby, and the price at which it could be obtained, suggested to 
the patentee the idea, that if he could cut cores out of the solid blocks he should ob- 
tain a valuable stopper for decanters; he knew enough of India rubber to be certain 


TRANSACTIONS-OF THE SECTIONS. 113 


that in,the pure material there was. nothing to affect the flavour or odour of common 
drinks, wine, beer, spirits, &c. The machine was constructed which made the cores, 
but the first. cold weather that set in so hardened them as stoppers in bottles, that he 
might as well have attempted to withdraw, ivory, of the same form, from the bottles: 
he then directed his attention to the formation of an elastic core, and found felted 
wool the fittest for his purpose ; his first experiments with these were made at the end 
of the year 1834, and he carried them on for nearly five years before he secured his 
patents, and it was only when he was seeking to manufacture so cheaply as to com- 
pete with the price of common corks that he took out patents. Like most inventions, 
its progress is a history, but the patentee only described enough to make his improve- 
ments understood. 

For the attainment of his object he persevered through evil report and good report, 
and struggled with ignorance and prejudice ; the prize was a great one to attain, fora 
million gross of corks are consumed annually in Great Britain for the bottling of 
eommon drinks, and at least £250,000 paid for them. The inventor felt that he was 
possessed of a better and fitter instrument for closing vessels than such imperfect ma= 
terial as cork could furnish, for his stoppers are air-tight and firm, and will neither 
fracture nor decay, nor be destroyed by insects; he gave his constant attention to its 
improvement, and he is now finding his reward in a demand from wine-merchanis 
and others far exceeding the present means of supply; the manufacturers now em- 
ploy from sixty to eighty men and children, and they will soon be enabled, by their 
arrangements, to supply the stoppers to any extent, for the patentee has entered into 
a connexion with Charles Mackintosh and Co. in Manchester, and their means an 
energies to carry out any manufacture which they undertake require no comment. 

When that engagement began the only practicable plan was to form the core of the 
stoppers of coarse wool yarn, which in a long hank of fifty or sixty feet, and in quan- 

tity sufficient for the size required, was fastened at one end and twisted at the other, 

_ until it formed a round rope; this was lapped with flax twine to preserve its cylindri- 

eal form, until it had, by being beaten in fulling stock for some hours, become felted 

_ into a solid rope; the twine was then unwound, and the rope subjected to further 
fulling until it was felted to the hardness and size required: this rope was manufac- 
tured for the patentee by Messrs. Whitehead of Saddleworth. 

_ The rope, when dry, was lubricated with India rubber dissolved in rectified naph- 
tha, and then cut into convenient lengths of about three feet; these were covered 
with a sheet of India rubber; when they were hard and firm they were again cut 
into the lengths required for the stoppers; the ends were then charged with some of 

__ the same solution on a marble slab, and when dried off to a proper state of adhesive- 
ness, sheet rubber was attached to the ends also; the excess was then trimmed off and 
the stopper completed. But there was great difficulty in obtaining the wool-rope round, 
and of an equal or required size throughout ; the fulling-stocks produced an imperfect 
article; nor was it always clean; and dirt was charged as wool; and when inferior 
_ Material was used, too often the case, the felting, one great means of holding the cork- 
| screw, sometimes failed; cotton was resorted to for the core, and after many attempts 
_ and many failures, a core of cotton was combined, which the patentee then described. 
He takes a sufficient quantity of the slivers or rovings of cotton to form three 
_ strands of the patent rope; these are gathered and drawn through three different 
fixed holes or nozzles, around which bobbins, charged with strong flax thread, revolve, 
_ and lap the threads round the strands as they are drawn out, with about eight turns 
_ to the inch; the three strands so lapped are then brought together through another 
_ fixed nozzle of the size required for the stopper; around this revolves another bobbin 
_ charged with a lighter thread, which binds the rope as it is drawn through and pre- 
serves its cylindrical form, by lapping it with twenty or more turns to the inch; this 
being regulated by the different speed of the bobbins and that of the cylinder to which 
the rope is fastened, and which draws it through the machine. This machine will make 
_ about ten or twelvethousandstoppers per day, and isfurther capable, if required, of cover- 
ing the rope with a sheet of India rubber before being removed from the machine. 
____ This rope so prepared exposes on its surface more than one-third of the lapping of 
_ the strands of the strong flax thread, and when lubricated and the rubber attached to 
_ it, each turn becomes a loop, which cannot be torn from the rubber on ‘the surface 
_ without destroying it; and as each strand has eight turns to the inch, and the stopper is 
_ three-fourths or seven-eighths long, there are no less than eighteen or twenty such 
loops in each stopper$ and it is almost impossible to insert a cork-screw which will not 


1842. I 


ey 


114 REPORT—1842. 


become entangled in several of these ; and the effect is not merely that a greater hold- 
fast is obtained, but that the strain being oblique towards the centre, the stopper is 
actually diminished in diameter by the force applied, and easily withdrawn, though its 
resistance to pressure from within remains the same as to the felted stopper. It is a 
peculiar property of the patent stopper, that India rubber will not slide on a smooth 
dry surface, whilst it slides easily on a wet one; therefore, in application, the stopper, 
which cannot be forced in dry, when wet slides with perfect ease into the mouth of 
the bottle under the pressure of the thumb, and no more force than this is required in 
stopping effectually bottled drinks. As rubber has the property of taking up about 
one per cent. of water, the thin film of moisture between the surface of the stopper, 
when wetted for application in the liquor to be bottled, and the mouth of the bottle, is 
soon absorbed, the surfaces come into actual contact, and the stopper cannot be readily 
drawn out, for its resistance to sliding is so great, that in a few hours the power of a 
cork-screw is required to draw it: this quality to resist sliding renders unnecessary any 
wiring or tying of the stoppers, even for effervescing liquors. The advantage there 
fore of the cotton core, as the stopper is now constructed, is, that whilst it holds with 
equal firmness, it is more easily drawn by its diminishing under the force of the screw. 
The roundness obtained by the new core thus made by machinery, now enables the 
patentee to form the cylindrical sheet, on the surface of the rope itself, without a seam. 
This again enables him to subject the stoppers to a heat of 150° without bursting ; and 
this heat, whilst it perfectly purifies the stopper, by driving off the naphtha, gives the 
patentee also the opportunity, of which he avails himself, of putting on the last end of 
the stopper under this temperature; thus the expanded air at this degree of heat is all 
that the stopper contains when hermetically closed ; as it cools, the atmospheric press- 
ure compels a closer contact of the covering, and no temperature in future purifica- 
tion, or of climate, can affect them. f 


Notice of Mr. Prosser’s Method of making Earthenware or Porcelain from 
dry Powder of Clay compressed. By Sir J. Roztson, F.R.S.E. 

The advantage was, that no warping or alteration of shape (excepting a little 
shrinkage) took place in the burning. From the accuracy with which articles formed 
by compression retained the shape of the mould, they could be fitted together very 
easily and smoothly. Sir J. Robison showed a piece of tesselated pavement made 
of these tiles, which, although laid together without cement, was perfectly smooth 
on the surfate. He wished particularly to introduce to their notice a roofing-tile 
of a construction novel in this country: from the peculiar manner in which these 
tiles united by imbrication, a little Roman cement rendered them perfectly water- 
tight; and from their not being absorbent, they were not liable to exfoliate, and 
would, therefore, be almost imperishable. The old form of tile weighs about 
105 lbs. per square yard, while this only weighs 58lbs. They were manufactured 
at Stoke-upon-Trent, by Minten and Co. 


M. Bergeron, through Prof. Vignoles, explained his method of. instantaneously 
casting loose the locomotive engine from the carriages. It is effected by a con- 
trivance attached to the brake, and worked when necessary by the brakesman. The 
engine was attached by a large chain, the last link of which was held, not by a hook, 
but by a bar which could be shot back or forward like a common door-bolt or lock ; 
by drawing this back out of its staple, it was of course drawn out of the chain, 
which being cast loose, all connexion between engines and carriages was sundered. 


Mr. Taylor exhibited some specimens of a new kind of drawing-paper, in which 
the novelty lay in the cement, by which the paper was mounted on a species of linen - 
or canvas. The advantages offered were, equality of texture, neatness in junctures, 
and uniformity in expansion and contraction in both directions. 


Mr. L. Schwabe explained his method of spinning glass, and brought forward 
specimens of the glass thread, and also of the cloth woven ; he showed the spinning 
machine with which this was effected, and also displayed many other filamentous 
substances from which he had succeeded in fabricating cloths—Assam silk, fibres of 
the Pinna, &c. 


On Wigston’s Self-Acting Railway Signals. By Jamus Tuomson, C. &, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115 


fF RY atti On a New Steam-Boiler. By Mr. J. Smiru. 


' Anew and improved safety-lamp was sent for exhibition by Dr. Clanny, but by 
some error was mislaid til] the meeting had separated. 


ADDENDUM TO MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 
On the Abnormal Tides of the Firth of Forth. By Mr. Scort Russett. 


He had on a former occasion presented to the section the result of tidal observations 
on the Firth of Forth. These observations brought to light the existence of certain 
remarkable tidal phenomena, proving the occurrence on some parts of that Firth, 

of double tides, or rather perhaps of quadruple tides, being four high waters in each 
day, instead of only two, as usual. When this subject was formerly discussed, Mr. 
Russell had attributed these anomalies to the great southern tide-wave entering the 
Firth at a different period from the great northern tide-wave, to which the periods of 
_ high and low water on the east coast of Britain are principally due. But other expla- 
nations had also been suggested in quarters so high as to entitle them to great respect. 
For the purpose of settling this question, and, if possible, reducing these anomalous 
tides to some law, Mr. Russell had recently instituted a second series of observations 
on the tides of the Firth of Forth, conducted under very careful observers, the height 
of the tide being observed simultaneously by different observers, at the different sta- 
tions, who recorded their observations every five minutes, and continued them uncea- 
singly night andday. They had only as yet extended over a few weeks, but already 
there had come out of them results of a decided character, so as to set at rest the 
question of the origin of these tides, and to illustrate some curious points in the history 
of littoral tides. ‘The tides already observed had, he thought, proved the accuracy of 
the theory he had formerly advanced on this subject. But it would still be desirable 
that these observations should be continued and extended. He then proceeded to ex- 

_ hibit the results of the observations in a series of accurate diagrams of the tides, 


Hi, Hy 


¥ 
Y/ 


b/ 


Ao, aa L, L, x 


This diagram represents the two successive tides of a day, as usually observed on 
the coast of Britain. The line A 2, being on the level of a given low water, is divided 
_ into equal portions, representing hours, minutes, &c., and lines perpendicular to A z, 
namely ry, XY, vy, proportioned to the successive heights, so that H, is high 
water in the morning, Hy is high water in the evening, L, and L, being the succeed- 
i low waters. In this case the tides exhibit the usual form, and at the mouth of 
the Firth they are in tolerably close accordance with it. In the upper parts of the 
Firth they deviate from it very widely, as in the following diagram :— 


hs Ep 
Me 


ha f' : 
1% 
bea): tpoeny = 1, Ly 


- These diagrams exhibit the following changes produced in the tidal course. First 

of all, we have the tide rising to high water at /, falling to a low water at pj, 

rising to a second high water at Hj), with a very small low water at p:, between them; 
12 : 


116 REPORT—1842. 


then we have at the low waters, L; and L, an elevation, and two depressions of an 
equally anomalous kind. It also appears that the range or rise and fall of tide in- 
creases as it travels, instead of diminishing. As these observations were reduced to 
the same level, it further appeared that the high water-mark at Stirling was higher 
than high water-mark at Leith by ten to fifteen feet. These diagrams, being compared 
with the plan of the Firth, serve to show the effect of form of channel on the wave. 

Mr. Russell then proceeded to his explanation of these anomalous phenomena. 
He referred to the very great progress which had recently been made in our know- 
ledge of the laws and phenomena of the tides. Mr. Lubbock had succeeded in deriving 
all the principal phenomena of the tides most accurately from the equilibrium theory 
of Bernoulli; Mr. Whewell had constructed, from the discussion of a multitude of 
simultaneous observations, empirical formulz by which the progress of the tide-wave 
had been represented with a high degree of accuracy, and the theory of the tides had 
attained a high degree of perfection, But there still remained a multitude of anoma- 
lous facts for which received theory could not account, and amongst this number were 
these refractory double tides. Mr. Russell’s theory is this: that the tidal wave is a 
compound wave of the first order; that its phenomena are correctly represented by 
the wave which he has called the great wave of translation; that this tide’s motion 
along our shores is correctly represented by this type. Now the wave of translation 
in ascending a channel whose breadth and depth vary, exhibits the following phzno- 
mena:—First, a velocity varying as the square root of the depth of the channel ; second, 
an increase of height with the diminution in breadth and in depth of the channel; 
third, a dislocation of the centre, which is transferred forwards in the direction of 
transmission according to a simple and well-established law. And these changes ex- 
actly correspond to the epoch of high water, the law of rise and fall, and the exag- 
geration of range in the Firth of Forth. 

Of the four successive high waters of each day, he has ascertained the latter tide of 
each pair to be normal, and the earlier the abnormal tide. It is well known that the 
tide which brings high water to the east coast of Britain, as far at least as the Thames, 
comes round the north of Britain, and bringing high water to Aberdeen about noon, 
Leith about two, and London about twelve o’clock at spring tides. This wave is the 
same which brings to the whole of the Firth of Forth the normal high water, and of 
the double tides the Jater of each pair corresponds exactly with the time as predicted 
by the excellent tables of Mr. Lubbock. But if we conceive the great southern wave, 
which comes up the English Channel, to continue its course northwards in the oppo- 
site direction to the normal tide, it would enter the Forth at ten o’clock, being two 
hours previous to the normal tide, due to the succeeding transit of the moon, or 
the tide E at Leith will consist of the normal tide due to transit B and the abnormal 
tide due to transit A. Now the double tides are in exact correspondence with these 
conditions, the abnormal tide being generally about two hours in advance of the nor- 
mal tide. 

But the circumstance which most perfectly fixes the identity of the tides, as due to 
the successive transits A and B, is found in the character of their diurnal irregu- 
larities. If the theory adduced be correct, the normal and the abnormal tides will 
have opposite inequalities. The observations made exactly correspond with this view ; 
and, so far as they go, establish the soundness of the view which has been adduced 
for their explanation. 

Another remarkable confirmation of this view is derived from the examination of 
the diurnal inequality of places on opposite coasts at the mouth of the Forth, the 
diurnal inequality on the south side being that due to the northern or normal tide, 
and that on the northern coast being that due to the abnormal or southern tide-wave. 
At Leith both waves meet, and the inequalities nearly neutralize each other, and 
give only the difference of the inequalities. By the same process, using the wave 
of translation as a type of the tide-wave, some further anomalies of the tide-wave 
were explained, and the absence of all tide frequently observed on opposite and adja- 
cent coasts, as at the north of Scotland and the opposite coast of Norway. These are 
explained by the fact that the lateral transmission of the wave is slower than its trans- 
mission in the direction of its amplitude, so that the rapid advancement of one por- 
tion of the wave gives divergence to the branches, which thus separate and leave an 
interval of diminished tide or of no tide. 


faa 


OssEcts and rules of the Association, v. 

Officers and council, vii. 

Places of meeting and. officers from com- 
mencement, viii. : 

Table of council from commencement, ix. 

Officers of sectional committees and corre- 

4 sponding members, xi. 

Treasurer’s account, xii. 

Reports, researches, and desiderata of science 
published by the Association, xiv, xvi. 

Reports, &c. to be drawn up and presented at 
‘future meetings of the Association, xix. 

Recommendation involving an application to 
‘Government, xx. 

Recommendations of researches in science in- 
volving money grants, xx. 

Synopsis of sums appropriated to scientific 
objects at the Manchester Meeting, xxv. 
Extracts from resolutions of the general com- 

mittee, xxix. 
Address by Lord Francis Egerton, xxxi. 


Aberdeen and suburbs, vital statistics of, 126, 
188, 145,.150, 158, 177, 182. 

Africa, southern, magnetic surveys in, 4. 

Agassiz (Louis) on the fossil fishes.of the De- 

~ -vonian system or old red sandstone, 80. 

Air, mode of .conducting experiments on the 
resistance of, 211. 


large towns in Scotland, 121. 
Amphitherium, on the genus, 57. 
Anemometer, Osler’s, erection of one of, at 
Inverness, 206. 
, Whewell’s, mean velocity of the wind 
by, 33. 
 Anguilliformes, 28. 
Animal substances, preservation of, 40. 
_ Antarctic expedition, magnetic and meteoro- 
logical observations made during the, in 
-: 1840, 1. 


_ Babington (C. C.) on the preservation of ani- 
_____ mal and vegetable substances, 40. 

3 Bache (A. D.), letter to Col. Sabine on the 
meteorology of the United States, 208. 

_ Baily (Francis) on the reduction of the stars 
in the Histoire Céleste, 205. 

_ — on the British Association catalogue of 
stars, 206. 


Alison (Dr. W. P.) on the vital statistics of. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Baptism in large towns in Scotland, on.the, 
146. 

Belemnites, British, notice to the committee 
of the British Association for advancing 
our. knowledge of, 213. 

Birt (W. R.) on the reduction of meteorolo- 
gical observations, 208. 

Births in large towns in Scotland, on the, 146. 

Boguslawski (Prof. Von), letter to Col. Sa- 
bine on the magnetic observations at Bres- 
lau, 11. 

Breslau, magnetic observations at, 11. 

Brewster (Sir D.) on the erection of one of 
Mr. Osler’s anemometers at Inverness, 206. 

on the hourly series of meteorological 
observations made at Inverness from 1840 
to 1841, 206. 

Broderip (W. J.) on zoological nomenclature, 


Canis, on the genus, 70. 

Carchariz, 29. 

Cetacea, 54, 72. 

Chadwick (E.) on the vital statistics of large 
towns in Scotland, 121. 

Cheiroptera, 56. 

Chimeridz, 29. 

Clupeoidez, 26. 

Coed-Talon iron, experiments on bars of, 89, 
90, 91. 

Cottoidex, 18. 

Cyclostomi, 30. 


Darwin (C.) on zoological nomenclature, 105. 

Daubeny (Prof.) on the growth and vitality 
of seeds, 34. 

Devonian system, fossil fishes of the, 80. 

Didelphys?, on the genus, 72. 

Discoboli, 27. 

Diseases of large towns in Scotland, on the, 
196. 

Dredging, report of the committee for deep, 
213. 

Dundee, vital statistics of, 129, 132, 140, 145, 
152, 168, 174, 179, 184. 

, proportion of deaths by various diseases 

in, 199. 


Earthquakes, on registering shocks of, in Great 
Britain, 92. 


118 


Edinburgh and suburbs, vital statistics of, 
123, 134, 144, 147, 154, 172, 175, 180. 

, proportion of deaths by various diseases 
in, 199. 

Ely (The very Rev. the Dean of) on simul- 
taneous meteorological observations, 1. 

England, annual deaths in, during 1838 to 
1841, 186. 

Enys (J.) on the construction of a constant 
indicator for steam engines, and for the de- 
termination of the velocity of the piston of 
the single-acting engine at different pe- 
riods of the stroke, 98. 


Fairbairn (William) on the strength and 


other properties of cast-iron obtained from . 


the hot and cold blast, 88. 
Felis, on the genus, 71. 
Fishes, fossil, of the old red sandstone, 80. 
——, ——, of the Devonian system, 80. 
* , synoptical table of the, 87. 
Fossil mammalia, British, 54. 
, addendum to report on, 74. 


Gadoidex, 26. 
Ganoidians, 87. 
Garnons (Rev. W. L. P.) on the preservation 
of animal and vegetable substances, 40. 
Glasgow, vital statistics of, 137, 144, 149, 
172, 176, 182. : 
——, proportion of deaths by various diseases 
in, 199. 

Gobioidezx, 22. 

Great Britain, on registering shocks of earth- 
quakes in, 92. 


Harris (W. Snow) on the progress of the me- 
teorological observations at Plymouth, 30. 

Henslow (Rey. Prof.) on zoological nomen- 
clature, 105. 

on the growth and vitality of seeds, 


34. 

Herschel (Sir J. F. W., Bart.) onthereduction 
of Lacaille’s stars, 205. 

=—— on the system of simultaneous magneti- 
cal and meteorological observations, 1. 

Heywood (J.) on the vital statistics of large 
towns in Scotland, 121. 

Histoire Céleste, reduction of starsin the, 205. 

Hodgkinson (Eaton) on the construction of a 
constant indicator for steam-engines, and 
for the determination of the velocity of the 
piston of the single-acting engine at dif- 
ferent periods of the stroke, 98, 

on the mode of conducting experiments 

on the resistance of air, 211. 

on the strength of stones and other ma- 
terials, 211. 

Hunt (Robert) on the influence of light on 
the germination of seeds and the growth 
of plants, 75. 

Hyzna, on the genus, 71. 


Ichthyology of New Zealand, present state 
: of the, 12. 
Inclinometer, Prof. Lloyd’s new, 8. 


INDEX I. 


Inclinometer, Weber’s inductive, 9. 

, M. Lamont’s, 9. 

Indicator, constant, construction of a, for 
steam-engines, 98. 

——, result of a trial of the, upon the Cornish 
engine atthe East London water-works, 99. 

» comparison of results given by the, 
with the experiments of Mr. Wickstead, 102. 

Insectivora, 57. 

Inverness, erection of one of Mr. Osler’s ane- 
mometers at, 206. 

» hourly series of meteorological obser- 
vations made at, from 1840-1841, 206. 
Iron, cast, properties of, from the hot and cold 

blast, 88. 
——, Coed-Talon, experiments on bars of, 
89, 90, 91. 


Jenyns (Leonard) on zoological nomencla- 
ture, 105. 


Labroidee, 24. 

Lacaille’s stars, on the reduction of, 205. 

Lamont’s (Dr.) inclinometer, 9. 

—, letter from, to Col. Sabine, on the sy- 
stem of meteorological and magnetical ob- 
servations on the continent, 207. 

Leith, vital statistics of, 123, 125, 135, 144, 
148,156,181. 

Liebig’s ‘‘ Organic chemistry applied to phy- 
siology and pathology,’ Dr. Lyon Playfair 
on his report on, 42. 

Lindley (Prof.) on the growth and vitality of 
seeds, 34. 

Liverpool, proportion of deaths by various di- 
seases in, during 1839, 198, 199. 

Lloyd (Prof.) on the system of simultaneous 
magnetical and meteorological observations, 
1, ’ 

on his new inclinometer, 8. 

on the mutual action of permanent mag- 
nets, 10. 

London, annual deaths in, during 1838- 
1841, 186, 

Lophobranchi, 28. 

Lutra, on the genus, 72. 


Macacus, on the genus, 55. 

Magnet, absolute intensity of, by deflection 
observations, 10. 

, mutual action of permanent, 10, 

Magnetic surveys, in Southern Africa, 4. 

in North America, 4, 

and meteorological observations made 

on the Antarctic expedition, 1, 

in Britain and India, 2. 

in Southern Africa, 4. 

in North America, 4. 

—— at sea, 5. 

—— disturbances, 6, 

instruments and mode of observation, 8. 

Magnetic observations, publication of, and 
description of observatories, &e., 9. 

observations at Breslau, 11. 

, simultaneous, 1. 

——, system of, on the continent, 207, 


; 
A 
: 
x: 
‘ 7 
. 


INDEX I. 


Magnetometer, transportable, 8, 

Mammalia, British fossil, 54. 

, addendum to report on, 74. 

Manchester, proportion of deaths by-yarious 

. diseases in, during 1839, 198, 199. 

» annual deaths in, during 1838-1841, 
186. 

Marriages in large towns of Scotland, on the, 
135. 

Mentehatia, 72. 

Meles, on the subgenus, 70. 

Meteorological observations, simultaneous, 1. 

» hourly series of, made at Inverness, 

from 1840-1841, 206. 

, system of, on the continent, 207. 

——, on the reduction of, 208. 

—, progress of, at Plymouth, 30. 

Meteorology of the United States, on the, 208. 

Milne (David) on registering shocks of earth- 
quakes in Great Britain, 92. 

Mortality of large towns in Scotland, on the, 
188. 

Moseley (Rev, Prof.) on the construction of a 
constant indicator for steam engines, and 
for the determination of the velocity of the 
piston of the single-acting engine at differ- 
ent periods of the stroke, 98. . 

Mugiloidez, 22. 

Myliobatides, 30. 


New Zealand, present state of the ichthyology 
of, 12. . 
North America, magnetic surveys in, 4. 


Observatories, description of, 9. 

, extension of grant for magnetic obser- 

vatories by the British government, 2. 

, establishment of new magnetic, in Rus- 
sia, 3. 

Owen (Richard) on the British fossil! mam- 
malia, part I., 54. 

——, addendum to report on, 74. 

, on zoological nomenclature, 105. 


Percoidez, 15. 

Perth, vital statistics of, 129, 139, 145, 151, 
164, 173, 178, 183. 

, proportion of deaths by various diseases 
in, 199, 200. 

Phascolotherium, on the genus, 73. _ 

Phillips (John), notice to the Committee of 
the British Association for advancing our 
knowledge of British belemnites, 213, 

—— on zoological nomenclature, 105. 

Placoidians, 87. 

Plants, influence of light on the growth of, 75 

Platessoidez, 27. 

Playfair (Dr. Lyon) on Prof, Liebig’s report 
on “Organic Chemistry applied to physio- 
logy and pathology,” 42. 

Plectognathi, 28. 


_ Plymouth, progress of meteorological obser- 


vations at, 30. 

Porter (G. R.) on the vital statistics of large 
towns in Scotland, 121. 

Provisional reports and, notices, 205, 


119 
Putorius, on the genus, 70. 
Quadrumana, 55, 


Raiz, 29. 

Railway sections, 38. 

Richardson (Dr. John) on the present state 
of the ichthyology of New Zealand, 12, 

on zoological nomenclature, 105. 

Rodentia, 72. 

Russell (John Scott) on the form of ships, 
104, 


Sabine (Colonel) on the system of simulta- 
neous magnetical and meteorological ob- 
servations, 1. 

, letter to, from Prof.Von Boguslawski on 

the magnetic observations at Breslau, 11. 

, letter to, from Dr. Lamont on the system 

of meteorological and magnetical obserya- 

tions on the continent, 207. 

, letter to, from A. D. Bache, on the me- 

teorology of the United States, 208. 

on the translation and publication of 
Foreign Scientific Memoirs, 211. 

Sandon (Lord) on the vital statistics of large 
towns in Scotland, 121. 

Sandstone, old red, fossil fishes of the, 80. 

Scientific Memoirs, foreign, on the translation 
and publication of, 210. 

Sciznoidezx, 18. 

Scomberoidez, 20. 

Scotland, vital statistics of large towns in, 121. 

Scyllia, 29. 

Seeds, growth and vitality of, 34. 

A , table of experiments on the, 35. 

, influence of light on the germination 
of, 75. 

Ships, form of, 104. 

Shuckard (W. E.) on zoological nomencla- 
ture, 105. 

Siganoidez, 22. 

Sorex, on the genus, 57. 

Sparoidez, 20. 

Spinaces, 29. 

Squatinoraiz, 29, 

Stars, reduction of Lacaille’s, 205. 

, in the Histoire Céleste, 205. 

, British Association catalogue of, 206. 

Statistics, vital :— 
of Edinburgh and suburbs, 123, 134, 144, 

147, 154, 172, 175, 180; 

of Leith, 123, 135, 144, 148, 156, 181; 

of Aberdeen and suburbs, 126, 138, 145, 
150, 158, 177, 182; 

of Perth and suburbs, 129, 139, 145, 151, 
164, 173, 178, 183; 

of Dundee, 129, 132, 140, 145, 152, 168, 
174, 179, 184; 

of Glasgow, 137, 144, 149, 172, 176, 182. 

Remarks on, 141, 188. 

Proportion of births and deaths to the po- 
pulation in the great towns of Scotland, 
from 1836-1840, 1538. 

Comparative per-centage of monthly mor- 
tality in five large towns of Scotland, 180. 


120 


Statistics, vital—continued. 

Proportion of male and female deaths in 
six large towns of Scotland, 180. 

Average number of deaths in five of the 
principal towns of Scotland, 185. 

Annual deaths in England, London and 

' Manchester, during 1838-1841, 186. 

in London and ten large town districts, 
during 1838-1840, 187. 

Burials at the public expense in six large 
towns in Scotland, 188. 

Appendix, 204. 

Deaths in the cities of Edinburgh in 1840 
and 1841, Dundee 1839-1841, Glasgow, 
Aberdeen, and Perth, during the years 
1837-1841. See Tables L. to LIV. at 
end of Report. 

Steam engines, construction of a constant in- 

dicator for, 98. 

Stones, strength of, and other materials, 211. 

Strickland (H. E.) on the growth and vitality 
of seeds, 34. 

on zoological nomenclature, 105. 

Sykes (Lieut.-Colonel W. H.) on the vital 

statistics of large towns in Scotland, 121. 


Talpa, on the genus, 57. 


INDEX II. 


Trinity College, Cambridge (Master‘of) on si- 
multaneous meteorological observations, 1. 


Unguiculata, 54. 
United States, meteorology of the, iin 
Urside, 62. ' 


Vegetable substances, preservation of, 40. 
Vignoles (Charles) on railway sections, 38. 


Waterhouse (G. R.) on zoological nomencla- 
ture, 105. 

Weber’s inductive inclinometer, 9. 

Westwood (J. O.) on zoological nomenclature, 
105. 

Whewell’s anemometer, mean velocity of the 
wind by, 33. 


Yarrell (W.) on zoological nomenclature, 105. 


Zoological nomenclature, report of a com- 
mittee on, 105. 

» proposition for rendering it uniform 

and permanent, 106. 

, rules for rectifying the present, 108. 

» recommendations for improving, in fu- 

ture, 115. 


INDEX IL. 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO. THE 
SECTIONS. : 


As DOMEN, enormous hydropic distension 
of the, 83. 

Acid, kakodylic, 35. 

ABther, dichroism ofa solution of stramonium 
in, 14. 

Air-pipe of the diving apparatus, injury of a 
diver by the bursting of the, 84. 

Air-tight fabrics, therapeutic application of, 
fis 

Alder (Joshua) on Eolis, Doris, &c., 69. 

Alison (Dr.) on the destitution and mortality 
of some of the great towns of Scotland, 97. 

Aloe, irregular production of flowers in an, 65. 

America, geography of the north-west coast 
of, 44 

, on the geology of the western states of 
North, 44. 

Ammonium, palladio-chlorides of, dichroism 
of the, 13. 

Analytical mechanics, new general principle 
of, 2. 


Aorta, thoracic, sudden death from the rup- 
ture of an aneurism of the, 83. 

Appalachian axes, date of the, 42. 

chain, physical structure of the, 40. 

Ashton (Dr.) on vital statistics, with remarks 
on the influence which the atmosphere ex- 
erts over the rate of mortality, 97. 

Ashworth (Henry) on the increase of property 

_in South Lancashire since the revolution, 

94, 

Asia, north, contributions to a geological 
sketch of, 46. 

Astronomical clock, 1. 

Atmosphere, influence of the, over the rate of 
mortality, 97. 

Atmospheric railway, abstract of a lecture 
upon the, 100. 

Atmospherical phenomena, cycle of eighteen 
years in, 24, 

Auscultation, construction and arp aette. of 
instruments used in, 75. 


j 
' 
{ 
4 


INDEX ITI. 121 


Axes, date of the Appalachian, 42. 

-, identity of undulations which produced 
the, with the wave-like motion of the earth 
in earthquakes, 42. 

Axles, straight, for locomotives, 104. 

—, strength of hammered and annealed 
railway, 105. 


Balance, new chronometer compensating, 10. 

Bardsley (Dr.) ona case of monstrosity, 87. 

Bateman (J. F.) on a self-acting waste-weir 
and scouring sluice, 110. 

Beddgelert, meteorological observations taken 
at, 25, 


_ Beechey (Capt.), results of deep dredging off 


the Mull of Galloway, 72. F 
Bergeron (M.) on casting loose the locomo- 
_ tive engine from steam carriages, 114. 
Bessel (M.) on the astronomical clock, 1. 
on a very curious fact connected with 
photography, discovered by M. Méser of 

Konigsberg, 14. 

Béton, use of, in constructing breakwaters, 
112. 

Binney (E. W.) on the great Lancashire 
coal-field,: 49. 

Birth, relation of the season of, to the morta- 
lity of children under two years of age, 80. 

Blackwall (John), list of summer birds ob- 
served in Denbighshire, in the spring of 
1842, 66. 

— on the palpi of spiders, 66. 

—— on a species of Ichneumon whose larva 
is parasitic on spiders, 68. ; 

Blyth (Wm.) on the manufacture of sulphuric 
acid, 40. 

Booth.(A.) on some fires produced from spon- 
taneous combustion, 40. 

Botany, 61. 

Boulders, occurrence of, in the valley of the 
Calder, 55. 

Buckland (Dr.) on recent and fossil semi- 
circular cavities caused by air-bubbles on 
the surface of soft clay, and resembling im- 
‘pressions of rain drops, 57. 

— on perforations in limestone, 57. 

Bungs, substitute for, 112. * 


_ Bunsen (Prof.) on kakodylic acid, and the 


sulphurets of kakodyl, 35. 

Braschmann (Prof.) on an extract from a 
memoir entitled ‘Considerations on the 
Principles of Analytical Mechanics,” 4. 

Breakwaters, use of béton and concrete in 
constructing, 112. 


Brewster (Sir David) on a new property of 


‘the rays of the spectrum, with observations 
on the explanation ‘of it given by the As- 
tronomer Royal, on the principles of the 
undulating theory, 12. 
on the existence of a new neutral point, 
and two secondary neutral points, 13. 


_ —— on crystalline reflection, 13. 


onthe dichroism of the palladio-chlorides 
of potassium and ammonium, 13. 


_ —‘on the'dichroism of a solution of stra- 


monium in ether, 14.°' 


Brewster (Sir David) on the'geometric forms, 
and laws of illumination of the spaces which 
receive the solar rays, transmitted through 
quadrangular apertures, 15. 

on luminous lines in certain flames cor- 

responding to the defective lines in the 

sun’s light, 15. 

on the structure of a part of the solar 

spectrum hitherto unexamined, 15. 

on the luminous bands in the spectra of 
various flames, 15. 

Bristol, discovery of the remains of fishes at 
the base of the mountain limestone near, 
60. 

Brockedon (William) on the construction of 
a new rope employed as a cone in the for- 
mation of the patent stoppers, a substitute 
for corks and bungs, 112. 

Brodie (Rev. P. B.) on the discovery of in- 
sects in the lower beds of lias of Glouces- 
tershire, 58. 

Bromeis (Dr. C.) on the formation of cyanuret 
of potassium in a blast furnace, 34. 

on the compounds of carbon and iron, 34. 

Bronchial tubes, uses of the muscular fibres 
of the, 80. ; 

Brunel (Sir M. I.) on the Thames tunnel in 
its completed condition, 111. 


Calder, occurrence of boulders in the valley 
of the, 55. 

Cambridge, comparative statistics of the Uni- 
versity of, in the 16th, 17th, and 19th cen- 
turies, 99. ‘ 

Cantire, species obtained by deep dredging 
near Sana Island, off the Mull of, 70. 

Carbon, compounds of, 34. 

Carson (Dr.) on a case of unusual paralysis, 85. 

Carson (James, jun.) on the uses of the mus- 
cular fibres of the bronchial tubes, 80. 

Caryophyllin, composition and characters of, 
36 


Catalytic action, peculiar instances of (so 
called), 32. 

Catlow (Mr.) on the relation of the season of 
birth to the mortality of children under two 
years of age, 80. 

Chambers (Robert) on Mr. Fleming’s plans 
for ventilation, 87. 

on certain plans for ventilation recently 
adopted in Glasgow, 109, 

Chemical inquiries, apparatus for applying 
circular polarization to, 32. 

Chemistry, 30. 

Chronometer compensating balance, new, 10. 

springs, rate of protected, 9. 

Clay (J. T.) on the occurrence of boulders in 
the valley of the Calder, 55. ; 

Clay (Dr. C.) on the evils arising from the 
use of common pessaries, 87. 

on diabetes mellitus, 87. 

Clegg (Mr.) on a dry gas-meter, 111. 

Climate, changes of, in England, 26. 

Clock, astronomical, 1. 

Clouds, application of the law of definite pro- 
portions to the stratification of, 26. 


122 


Coal, combustion of, 107. 

——, microscopic structure of, 47. 

-—— naphtha, new product obtained from, 39. 

——, origin of, 48, 

Coal-field, great Lancashire, 49, 

7——» description of roofs of the, 50. 

, coal and cannel seams of the, 50. 

, description of the floors of the, 51. 

Cotton, culture of, in India, 61. 

Combustion, electric origin of the heat of, 31. 

Concrete, use of, in constructing breakwaters, 
112, 

Consumption, pulmonary, influence of the fac- 
tory system in the development of, 96. 

Coorg, meteorology of the province of, 22. 

Corks, substitute for, 112, 

Coronary circulation, influence of, on the 
heart’s action, 78, 

Couch (Jon.) on the migration of birds and 
flowering of plants in Cornwall, 66. 

Cows, relative richness of milk of different, 99. 

Crystalline reflexion, 13. 


Dalton (John) on microcosmic salt, 40. 

—— on a new and easy method of analysing 
sugar, 40. 

on the phosphates and arseniates, 40, 

Daubeny (Dr.) on the agricultural importance 
of ascertaining the minute portions of mat- 
ter derived from organic sources that may 
be preserved in the surface soil, and on the 
chemical means by which its presence may 
be detected, 37. 

on the causes of the irregularities of sur- 

face which are observable in certain parts 

of the magnesian limestone formations of 

this country, 39. 

on an irregular production of flowers in 
an aloe, 65. 

Davies (John) on the manufacture and puri- 
fication of gases obtained from coal, 40, 
Dawes (John 8.) on the occurrence of vegeta- 

ble remains, supposed to be marine, in the 
new red sandstone, 47. 
Decimal system, on the introduction of a, 8 
Dent (E. J.) on the longitude of Devonport, 
9. 


on the rate of protected chronometer 

springs, 9. 

on a new chronometer compensating 

balance, 10. 

on the rate of a patans compensating 
pendulum, 10. 

Derbyshire, geology of, 58. 

Devonport, longitude of, 9. 

Diabetes mellitus, 87. 

Dickson (Sir David J, H.) on enormous hy- 
dropic distension of the abdomen, and of 
sudden death from the rupture of an aneu- 
rism of the thoracic aorta, 83. 

Doris, notices of, 69. 

Dredging, species obtained by deep, near 
Sana Island, off the Mull of Cantire, 72. 

— , results of, off the Mull of Galloway, 72. 


Earthenware, on M, Prossex’s method of 


INDEX Ii. 


making, from dry powder of clay com- 
pressed, 114, 

Earthquakes, identity of the undulation eliich 
produced the axes, with the wave-like mo- 
tion of the earth in, 42. 

Education, agricultural, advantages arising 
from, 99. 

Electric currents, magnetising action of trans- 
itory, 27, 

, letter from Prof, Marianini respecting 
his sixth memoir on, 27. 

Electric origin of the heat of combustion, 31. 

Electricities, cause of dissimilarity of the vol- 
taic and ordinary, 18. 

Electrolysing power of a simple voltaic circle, 


Ely, (the Dean of,) report on the restoration 
of lost standards of weights and measures, 
and on the introduction of a decimal system, 
8. 


, Stratified and unstratified voleanic pro- 
ducts of the west of, 54. 

England, changes of climate in, 26, 

Eolis, notices of, 69. 

Erdmann (Prof. O. L.) on hematoxylin, the 
colouring principle of logwood, 33. 

Erichsen (J. E.) on the influence of the coro- 
nary circulation on the heart’s action, 78. 

Erman (Adolphe), contributions to a geolo- 
gical sketch of North Asia, 46. 


Factory system, influence of the, in the deve- 
lopment of pulmonary consumption, 96. 
Fairbairn (Henry) on the changes in the cli- 

mate of England, 26. 

Fairbairn (Wm.) on combustion of coal, with 
a view to obtaining the greatest effect, and 
preventing the generation of smoke, 107. 

Fallow crops, on Liebig’s theory of, 64. 

Fibres of the bronchial tubes, uses of the mus- 
cular, 80. 

Fishes, discovery of the remains of, at the 
base of the mountain limestone near Bris- 
tol, 60. 

Flames, luminous bands in the spectra of va- 
rious, 15. 

Flowers, irregular production of, in an aloe, 
65. 

Fossils, discovered in the carboniferous or 
mountain limestone of Ireland, 51. 

, comparison of, with those obtained from 
the same series in Great Britain, 53. 

—-, peculiar inorganic formations and, of 
the magnesian limestone, 55. 


‘Fowler (Dr.) on the best mode of expressing 


the results of practice in therapeutics, 83. 

on a young woman, deaf, dumb and 
blind, 83. 

Fractions, on decimal, 10. 

France, commercial statistics of, in 1840, 98, 


Galloway, results of deep dredging off the 
Mull of, 72. 

Gardner {Mr.) on the industrial and training 
school to be erected near Manchester, 96, _ 

Gas-meter, dry, 111, 


INDEX Il. 


Geological museum of the Imperial Mining 
Department of Vienna, on the, 39. 

Geology of Derbyshire and neighbouring 
counties, 58. 

Gilbert (Mrs. Davies) on the advantages 
arising from spade husbandry and agricul- 
tural education, 99. 

Glaciers, structure and mode of formation of, 
58. 

Glasgow, state of the observatory at, 12. 

» plans for ventilation recently adopted 
in, 109. 

Glass, method of spinning, 114. 

Gloucestershire, discovery of insects in the 
lower beds of lias of, 58. 

Goodman (John) on the theory of magnetism, 
17. 

—— on the cause of dissimilarity of the vol- 
taic and ordinary electricities, 18. 

Graham (Prof. T.) on some thermo-chemical 
researches, 40, 

Griffith (Richard) on the fossils discovered in 
the several members of the carbonaceous or 
mountain limestone of Ireland, 51. 


Hematoxylin, 33, 

Halcyon Smyrnensis, 70. 

Hall (Elias) on the geology of Derbyshire and 
neighbouring counties, 58. 

Hall (G. W.) on the promotion of vegetable 

_ growth, 64. 

“—=— on the differences of the quality of the 
milk of cows for the different purposes of 
milk and cheese, numerically expressed, 99. 

Hamilton (Sir W.) ona mode of expressing 
fluctuating or arbitrary functions by ma- 

_ thematical formule, 10, 

Haidinger (Prof.) on the mineralogical and 
geological museum of the Imperial Mining 
Department of Vienna, 39. 

Hawkshaw (Mr.) on the fossil footsteps in the 
new red sandstone quarry at Lymm in 
Cheshire, 56, 

Heart’s action, influence of the coronary cir- 
culation on the, 78. 

Heat of combustion, electric origin of the, 31, 

Heywood (James) on the comparatiye statis- 
tics of the Universities of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge in the 16th, 17th and 19th centu- 
ries, 99. 

Hodgkin (Dr.) on the varieties of the human 
race, 70. 

Holden (Moses) on a simple method of ar- 
_ riving at the decimal part of the sine or 
tangent below a second of a degree, 10, 
Hopkins (Thomas) on a meteorological chart, 


on the meteorology of the northern At- 
lantic, the south-west monsoon of India, 
and places adjacent, 26. 

Hopkins (Mr.) on the criminal statistics of 

Lancashire, 95, 

Howard (Luke) on a cycle of eighteen years 
in atmospherical phenomena, 24, 

Human race, varieties of the, 70. 

Hyndman (George C.) onspecies obtained by 


123 


deep dredging near Sana Island, off the 
Mull of Cantire, 70. 


Ichneumon, species of, whose larva is parasi- 
tic on spiders, 68. 

India, culture of cotton in, 61, 

Indicator of speed of steam-vessels, on an, 109. 

Insects, discovery of, in the lower beds of lias 
of Gloucestershire, 58. 

Ireland, fossils discovered in the carboniferous 
or mountain limestone of, 51. 

+ monts de piété in, 98. 

, loan funds in, 98, 

Iron, compounds of, 34, 

» strength of hammered and annealed 

bars of, 104, 


Jacobi (M.) on a new general principle of 
analytical mechanics, 2. 

Jones (Rev. H. L.) on the commercial sta- 
tistics of France in 1840, 98. 

Joule (J. P.) on the electric origin of the heat 
of combustion, 31. 

Juckes (Mr, J.) on consuming smoke and 
economizing fuel, 108. 


Kakodyl, sulphurets of, 35. 

Kakodylic acid, 35, 

Kennedy, (Rev, C. J.) on the positive and 
negative streams of electrified air, and an 

- electrical machine for examining them, 
19. 

King (Richard) on the geography of the north- 
west coast of America, 44. 


Lacustrine beds, production of, 42. 

Lancashire, on the great coal-field of, 49. 

, criminal statistics of, 95. 

» increase of property in South, since the 
revolution, 94. 

Lankester (Dr. Edwin) on some peculiar in- 
organic formations and fossils of the mag- 
nesian limestone, 55. 

Laycock (Dr. T.) on a general law of yital 
periodicity, 81. 

Leigh (Mr.) on a new product obtained from 
coal naphtha, 39. 

Lias, discovery of insects in the lower beds of 
lias of Gloucestershire, 58. 

Liebig’s theory of fallow crops, the Rev. J. B, 
Reade on, 64, 

Light, elliptically polarized, 13. 

Limestone formations, causes of irregularities 
of surface in certain parts of the magnesian, 
39. 

, contributions to the history of magne- 

sian, 37. 

, peculiar inorganic formations and fos- 

sils of the magnesian, 55. 

, Mountain, discovery of the remains of 
fishes at the base of the, near Bristol, 60. 
——, mountain, fossils discovered in the, of 

Ireland, 51. 

» perforations in, 57. 

Lithotomy, 87. 

Lithotripsy, 87. 


124 


Liver, peculiaritiesin the circulation of the, 79. 

Loan funds in Ireland, on, 98. 

Locomotives, straight axles for, 104. 

Logwood, colouring principle of, 33. 

Lucas (W.) on the production of an artificial 

, copper pyrites, 40. 

Lymn, fossil footsteps in the new red sand- 
stone quarry at, 56. 


MacCullagh (Prof.) on the mathematical ex- 
pressions which lead to an explanation of 
all the ordinary phenomena in optics, 12. 

Macherium subducens, specimen of, from 
Port Essington, 69. 

Magnesian family, new oxides of certain of 
the metals of the, 35. 

—— limestone formations, causes of irregu- 
larities of surface in certain parts of the, 39. 

Magnetics, on certain undescribed phenomena 
in permanent, 19. 

Magnetism, theory of, 17. 

Magnets, improved, and modes of examining 
their powers, 19. 

Manchester, vital statistics of, 87. 

, registers of the collegiate church of, 92. 

———-, criminal statistics of, 92. 

, Vital statistics of the spinners and piecers 

employed in the fine cotton-mills of, 93. 

» industrial and training school to be 
erected near, 96. 

Marianini (Steffano) on the magnetising action 
of transitory electric currents, 27. 

Mathematics, 1. 

, addendum to, 115, 

Mechanics, 100. 

, on a new general principle of analyti- 
cal, 2. 

Medical science, 75. 

Mercer (Mr.) on’ some peculiar instances of 
(so called) catalytic action, 32. 

Meteorological instrument, on a new, 9. 

—— observations taken at Beddgelert in the 
county of Carnarvon, 25. 

Meteorology of the northern Atlantic, 26. 

— of the province of Coorg, in the western 

’ Ghats of India, 22. 

Microscopic structure of coal, 47. 

Mineralogical museum of the Imperial Mining 
Department of Vienna, on the, 39. 

Monstrosity, case of, 87. 

Monts de piété in Ireland, 98. 

Mortality, influence of the atmosphere over 
the rate of, 97. 

Méser (M.) on a very curious fact connected 
with Photography, discovered by, 14. 

Murchison (R.I.), notice of a memoir on 
the geology of the western states of North 
America, by David Dale Owen, 44. 

, on the geological structure of Russia, 

45. 

, on the distinction between the striated 

surface of rocks and parallel undulations 

dependent on original structure, 53. 


Nasmyth (Mr.), correctlon of an error in a 
letter from Mr. Phillips to, 1. 


INDEX II. 


Nasmyth (James) on the application of the 
law of definite. proportions to the. stratifi~ 
cation of clouds, 26. 

, on the strength of hammered and an- 
nealed bars of iron and railway axles, 105. 

Naphtha, coal, new product obtained from, 39. 

Nasse (Prof.) on the composition of the blood 
and bones of domestic animals, 40, 

Negro-women, period of puberty in, 82. 

Neutral point, existence of a new, and of two 
secondary, 13. 

New red sandstone, occurrence of vegetable 
remains, supposed to be marine, in the, 47. 

quarry at Lymn, fossil footsteps in the, 


56. 

Nichol (Prof.) on the state of the observatory 
at Glasgow, 12. 

Noble (Mr.) on the influence of the factory 
system in the development of pulmonary - 
consumption, 96, 

Northern Atlantic, meteorology of the, 26, 


Observatory at Glasgow, state of the, 12. 

Oceanic waves, 21; table of observations on, 
ib. 

Optical instrument, new, 27. 

Osler (Follet) on the application of the prin- 
ciple of the vernier to the subdividing of 
time, 9. 

Oxford, comparative statistics of the university 
of, in the 16th, 17th and 19th centuries, 99. 

Oxides, new, of certain of the metals of the 
magnesian family, 35. 

Owen (David Dale), notice of his memoir on 
the geology of the western states of North 
America, by R. I. Murchison, 44, 

Owen (Prof.) on Dr. Martin Barry’s researches 
on fibre, 83. ‘ 


Palpi of spiders, 66. 

Paralysis, on a case of unusual, 85. 

Parkinson (Rev. R.) on the registers of the - 
collegiate church of Manchester, 92. 

Patella pellucida, nidus and growth of the, 66. 

levis, 66. 

Peach (C. W.) on the nidus and growth of 
the Purpura lapillus, and on the Patella 
pellucida, and P. levis, 66. 

Peacock (Anthony) on decimal fractions, 10. 

Pendulum, compensating, rate of a patent, 10. 

Percussion, 77. 

Pessaries, evils arising from the use of com- 
mon, 86. 

Phillips (J.), correction of an error in a letter 
to Mr. Nasmyth from, 1. 

, on the microscopic structure of coal, 47. 

Photography, on a very curious fact connected 
with, 14. 

Physics, 1. 

——, addendum to, 115. 

Plants, different species of cotton, 61. 

Playfair (Dr. Lyon) on some new oxides of 
certain of the metals of the magnesian fa- 
mily, 35. 

——, on the composition and characters of 

caryophyllin, 36. 


INDEX II. 


Plymouth, statistics of, 98. 


Polarization, circular, apparatus for applying 
to chemical inquiries, 32. 
Port Essington, specimen of Macherium sub- 
ducens from, 69. 
Porter (H. J.) on the monts de piété in Ire- 


~~ Jand, 98. 


, on loan funds in Ireland, 98. 

Potassium, palladio-chlorides of, dichroism of 
the, 13. 

, formation of cyanuret of, in a blast fur- 
nace, 34, 

Powell (Prof.) on certain cases of elliptically- 
polarized light, 13. 

—-, on apparatus for applying circular po- 
larization to chemical inquiries, 32. 

» contributions to academical statistics, 
continued from 1839, 100. 

Prichard (John), meteorological register for 
1841-42, from diurnal observations kept 
at Beddgelert, in the county of Carnarvon, 
25. 

Property, increase of, in South Lancashire, 
since the revolution, 94. 

Puberty, period of, in negro women, 82. 

Purpura lapillus, nidus and growth of the, 66. 


Rails, best form of, 106. 

Railways, best form of upper works of, 106. 

Reade (Rev. J. B.) on Liebig’s theory of fal- 
low crops, 64. 

Reflexion, crystallized, 13. 

Registers of the collegiate church of Manches- 

_ ter, on the, 92. 

Richardson (Mr.) on the history of the mag- 
nesian limestone, 37. 

Richardson (Dr.) on a specimen of Mache- 
rium subducens from Port Essington, New 

- Holland, 69. 

» on the case of a diver employed on the 
wreck of the Royal George, who was in- 
jured by the bursting of the air-pipe of the 
diving apparatus, 84, 

Roberton (John) on the period of puberty in 
negro women, 82. 

Robison (Sir J.) on a new optical instrument, 

, on M. Prosser’s method of making earth- 
enware or porcelain from dry powder of clay 
compressed, 114, 

Rocks, distinction between the striated sur- 
face of, and parallel undulations dependent 
on original structure, 53. 

Rogers (Profs. H. D. and W. B.) on the phy- 
sical structure of the Appalachian chain, as 
exemplifying the laws which have regulated 
the elevation of great mountain chains gene- 
rally, 40. © 

Rook (Mr.) on the tidal phenomena in the 
bay of Fundy and the river de la Plata, 22. 

Royal George, injury of a diver employed on 
the wreck of the, by the bursting of the air- 
pipe of the diving apparatus, 84. 

Royle (Dr.) on the different species of cotton 
plants, and of the culture of cotton in In- 
dia, 61. 


125 


Russell (J. S.) on waves; 19. 

» On an indicator of speed of steam ves- 

sels, 109. 

on the abnormal tides of the Firth of 
Forth, 115. 

Russia, geological structure of, 45. 


Sabine (Colonel), letter to, from» Professor 
Wheatstone, on a new meteorological in- 
strument, 9. 


_ Sana Island, species obtained by deep dred- 


ging near, 70. 

Sandstone, new red, occurrence of. vegetable 
remains, supposed to be marine, in the, 47, 

Sand storms, production of, 42. 

Schonbein (Prof.) on the electrolysing power 
of a simple voltaic circle, 30. 

, on a peculiar condition of iron, 40: 

School, industrial and training, to be erected 
near Manchester, 96. 

Schoolcraft (Rev. Mr.) on the production of 
sand storms and lacustrine beds, by causes 
associated with the north American lakes, 
42, 

Schwabe (L:) on spinning glass, 114. 

Scoresby (Rev. W.) on improved magnets, 
‘and the different modes of examining their 
powers, 19. 

Scotland, destitution and mortality of some of 
the great towns of, 97. 

Shaw (Alexander) om some peculiarities in 
the circulation of the liver, 79. 

Shaw (Sir Charles) on the criminal statistics 
of Manchester, 92. 

Shaw (Mr.) on a new steam engine worked 
with three kinds of pressure, 111. 

Shuttleworth (Mr.) on the vital statisties of 
the spinners and piecers employed in the 
fine cotton mills of Manchester, 93. 

Sluice, on a self-acting scouring, 110: 

Smith (J.) on a new steam boiler, 115. 

Smoke, on preventing the generation of, 107. 

, on consuming, 108. 

——, plans for abating the nuisances from, 
by effecting a more perfect combustion, 108. 

Soil, surface, on ascertaining the minute por- 
tions of matter derived from organic sources 
that may be preserved in the, 37. 

Solar spectrum, structure of a part of the, 
hitherto unexamined, 15. 

Spade husbandry, advantages arising from, 
99. 

Spectra, luminous bands in ‘the, ‘of various 
flames, 15. 

Spectrum, new property of the rays of the, 12. 

Spiders, palpi of, 66. 

, species of ichneumon whose larva is 
parasitic on, 68. 

Spinners and piecers, vital statistics of the, 
employed in the fine cotton mills of Man- 
chester, 93. . 

Stark (James) on the structure and mode of 
formation of glaciers, 58. 

Statistics, 87. 

, Vital, of Manchester, 87. 

——-, criminal, of Manchester, 92. 


126 


Statistics, vital, of the spinners and piecers 
employed in the fine cotton mills of Man- 
chester, 93. 

——-, criminal, of Lancashire, 95. 

» vital, with remarks on the influence 

which the atmosphere exerts over the rate 

of mortality, 97. 

, commercial, of France in 1840, 98. 

——, of Plymouth, 98. 

——,, comparative, of the universities of Ox- 
ford and Cambridge, in the 16th, 17th and 
19th centuries, 99. 

——, contributions to academical, continued 
from 1839, 100. 

Steam-engine, on a new, worked with three 
kinds of pressure, 111. 

Steam vessels, on an indicator of speed of, 109. 

Storms, sand, production of, 42. 

Stramonium, dichroism of a solution of, in 
ether, 14, 

Strata, theory of flexure and elevation of, 41. 

, occurrence and mode of formation of 

horizontal, 58. 

, longitudinal and vertical, 58. 

, of transverse, more or less inclined, 59. 

, combination of horizontal with longitu- 
dinal and vertical, 59. 

Strickland (H. E.) on Haleyon Smyrnensis, 
70. 

Sun’s light, luminous lines in certain flames 
corresponding to the defective lines in the, 
15. 

Sykes (Colonel) on the meteorology of the 
province of Coorg, in the western Ghats of 
India, 22. 


Taylor (Mr.) on a new kind of drawing pa- 
per, 114. 

Talbot (H. Fox) on the improvement of the 
telescope, 16. 

Telescope, improvement of the, 16. 

Thames Tunnel, on the, in its completed con- 
dition, 111. 

Thomson ‘(J.) on Wigston’s self-acting rail- 
way signals, 114. 

Tides, abnormal, of the Firth of Forth, 115. 

Time, application of the principle of the ver- 
nier to the subdividing of, 9 


Vegetable remains, occurrence of, in the new 
red sandstone, supposed to be marine, 47. 

Vegetable growth, promotion of, 64. 

Vernier, application of the principle of the, to 
the subdividing of time, 9. 


INDEX Il. 


Ventilation, plans for, recently adopted in 
Glasgow, 109, 

Vienna, on the mineralogical and geological 
museum of the Imperial Mining Depart- 
ment of, 39. 

Vignoles (Prof. Charles), abstract of a lecture 
upon the atmospheric railway, delivered at 
Manchester by, 100, 

—— on straight axles for locomotives, 104. 

on the best form of rails and the = 

works of railways generally, 106. 

on the use of béton and concrete in 
constructing breakwaters, 112. 

Vital periodicity, on a general law of, 81. 

Volcanic products of the West of England, 
stratified and unstratified, 54, 

Voltaic circle, electrolysing power of a simple, 
30. 

Vorticella, species of, on the stems of the 
Chara flexilis, 68. . 


Walker (William) on oceanic waves, 21. 

Waves, 19. 

, oceanic, 21. 

Weights and measures, on the restoration of 
lost standards of, 8. 

Weir, on a self-acting waste, 110. 

Wheatstone (Prof.), letter from, to Colonel 
Sabine, on a new meteorological instru- 
ment, 9. 

Williams (C. Wye) on the advantages and 
disadvantages of hot air in effecting the 
combustion of coal, 40. 

on testing the efficacy of the several 
plans for abating the nuisances from smoke 
by effecting a more perfect combustion, 
108. 

Williams (Dr. C. J. B.) on the construction 
and application of instruments used in aus- 
cultation, 75. 

Williams (Rev. D.), on the discovery of the 
remains of fishes at the base of the moun- 
tain limestone in the vicinity of Bristol, 60. 

on the stratified and unstratified volea- 
nic products of the West of England, 54. 

Williams (Prof.) on the therapeutic applica- 
tion of air-tight fabrics, 77. 

Williamson (W. C.) on the origin of coal, 48. 

Wilson (Mr.) on lithotomy and lithotripsy, 87. 

Woollcombe (H.) on the statistics of Ply- 
mouth, 98. 


Zoology, 61. 


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DUBLIN eciesice.icaseis. Dr. Orpen ...see-eesecseeeeeeee15 South Frederick Street, 
EDINBURGH seceeesscoee Charles Forbes, Esq. ....:....Apartments of the Royal Society. 
GLASGOW ..eccersseseeees Charles Forbes, Esq. ....:.... Union Bank. 

YORK .cscssescseveeeeeese+ William Gray, Jun., Esq. ...Yorkshire Museum. 

BRISTOL ...... wanes aia .... William Sanders, Esq. ......-Philosophical Institution, Park Street. 
LIVERPOOL seceseseeseeees Samuel Turner, Esq. ......... Bank of England Branch Bank. 


Mr. James Orme, Lit. and Phil. Society, 
MANCHESTER........++«-Rey. John James Tayler... Chapel Yard, 9 Cheapside, King er 
BIRMINGHAM ....eeceeeee James Russell, Esq....+.+.+0- Philosophical Institution. 
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. William Hutton, Esq....... ... Natural History Society. 
PLYMOUTH ...........6... Henry Woollcombe, Esq. ...Athenzum. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York 
and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, 10s. 


Contents :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., 
on the Tides ;—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ; —Prof. Powell, 
on the Present State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo- 
Electricity ;—Sir David Brewster, on the Progress of Optics ;—Rev. W. Whewell, 
on the Present State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Pro- 
gress and Present State of Geology ;—Dr. Pritchard’s Review of Philological and 
Physical Researches. ; tie! 

Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, 
Chemistry, Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Bo- 
tany, and the Arts; and an Exposition of the Object and Plan of the Association, &e. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833, 8s. 


Contents :—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—Mr. John Taylor, on Mineral Veins ; 
—Dr. Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the 
Nervous System ;—Mr. Peter Barlow, on the Strength of Materials 3—Mr. S. H. 
Christie, on the Magnetism of the Earth ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory 
of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics ;—Mr. George Rennie, on Hydraulics as a 


Branch of Engineering, Part I.;—Rev. G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Ana 
lysis. 

Together with Papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments 
and Mechanical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of 
Science. 


PROCEEDINGS or tut FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, 
10s. 


Contents :—Mr. H. D. Rogers, on the Geology of North America;—Dr. C. 
Henry, on the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. 
L. Jenyns, on Zoology ; Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on 
Physical Optics ;—Mr. G. Rennie, on Hydraulics, Part II. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the 
Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or true FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, 9s. 


Contents :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition 
of the Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat ;—M. A. Que- 
telet, Apercu de I’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges ;— Captain’ 
Edward Sabine, on the Phzenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, 8s. 


Conrents :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect 
to Mineral and Thermal Waters ;—Major Edward Sabine, on the Direction and In- 
tensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—Mr. John Richardson, on 
North American Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids; 
—Mr. J. T. Mackay, a Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which cha- 
racterize the neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scot- 
land, &c. ;—Mr. J.T. Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the more re- 
markable Plants which characterize Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London 
Sub-Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;— 
Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions and Sounds of the 
Heart ;—Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Ner- 
vous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., Account of the recent Discussions of Ob-« 
servations of the Tides ;—Rev. Baden Powell, on determining the Refractive Indices 
for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media;—Dr. Hodgkin, on 
the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of 
Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;—Prof. Hamilton, cn the Validity of a 
Method recently proposed by George B. Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Re- 
solving Equations of Elevated Degrees. ; 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837, 
ils. 


ContEnts >=~Major Edward Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity 
observed at different points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. William Taylor, on the 
vatious modes of Printing for the Use of the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the 
Discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been obtained by means of the 
grant of money which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at 
the last Meeting of the Association ;—Prof. Thomas Thomson, on the Difference be- 
tween the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. 
T. R. Robinson on the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Green- 
wich Observations, made as commanded by the British Association ;—Robert Were 
Fox, Esq., Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of 
Mines ; Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British 


Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the organs 
producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for Inquiring into 
the Analysis of the Glands, &c. of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the 
London Sub-Committee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions 
and Sounds of the Heart ;—Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge 
in regard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Col, Sykes, on the Statistics of the Four Collec- 
torates of Dukhun, under the British Government ;—Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq., on 
the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the 
Hot and Cold Blast ;—William Fairbairn, Hsq., on the Strength and other Proper- 
ties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Bast ;—Sir John Robison, and John 
Scott Russell, Esq., Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British 
Association at Bristol in 1836;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his 
Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of 
the Earth’s Surface ;—James Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and with- 
out any free communication with the outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, 
of London. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Traill’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


_ PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 
10s. 


Contents :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the 
Bristol Channel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions 
of Tides, prepared under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. Snow Harris, 
Esq., Account of the Progress and State of the Meteorological Observations at Ply- 
mouth ;—Major Edward Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in 
the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the Determination of the Mean Nu- 
merical Values of Railway Constants;—R. Mallet, Esq., First Report upon Expeti- 
ments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;— 
R. Mallet, Esq., on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on 
Inorganic and Organic Substances. 4 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr, Murchison’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


~ PROCEEDINGS or ruz NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 9s, 


Contents :—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge 
of Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different 
media;—Report on the Application of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to 
Mr. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, Esq., on some 
Galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or Non-existence of Electrical Cur- 
rents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Mountain Limestone forma- 
tion, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir David Brewster, Reports 
respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland at 
the expense of the British Association ;—Report on the subject of a series of Reso- 
lutions adopted by the British Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at New- 
castle ;—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on British Fossil Reptiles; Edward Forbes, 
Esq., Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles ;— 
W. Snow Harris, Esq., Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological 
Register at the Plymouth Dockyard, Devonport. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Ad- 
dress, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 10s. 


ConrEnts::—Reyv. Baden Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery 
relative to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject in- 
serted in the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science ;—James D. Forbes, Esq., Supplementary Report on Meteorology ; 
—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Report on Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in ope- 
ration at Plymouth ;—Report on “ The Motions and Sounds of the Heart,” by the 


London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Professor Schénbein, 
an Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—Robert Mallet, Esq., Second Re- 
port upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at 
various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Robert Were 
Fox, Esq., Report on some Observations on Subterranean Temperature ;—A. Follett 
Osler, Esq., Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839 
and 1840, by the Self-Registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institu- 
tion, Birmingham ;—Sir David Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly 
Meteorological Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, at the expense of the 
British Association, from Nov. 1st, 1838, to Nov. lst, 1839;—William Thompson, 
Esq., Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Diy. Vertebrata ;—Charles J. B. Williams, 
M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. 
J. S. Henslow, Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on the Pre- 
servation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major Ed- 
ward Sabine’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Com- 
mittees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 
1841, 9s. 


Rev. Philip Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Experimental 
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on 
Poisons ;—Mr. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of 
the Rey. W. Whewell ;—D. Ross, Report on the Discussion of Leith Tide Observa- 
tions, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, Esq., upon the 
Working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year ;—Report of 
a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintending the scientific co-operation 
of the British Association in the system of Simultaneous Observations in Terrestrial 
Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to provide Me- 
teorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of a 
Committee to superintend the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report 
of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Com- 
mittee for obtaining Instruments and Registers to record shocks of Earthquakes in 
Scotland and Ireland;—Report of the Committee for making Experiments on the 
Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the 
Races of Man ;—Report of the Committee appointed to report hew far the Deside- 
rata in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere 
may be supplied by means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the pro- 
bable Expense of such Experiments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in 
such circumstances ;—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;— 
Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—Diony- 
sius Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the 
Mean Value of Railway Constants;—Edward Woods, Report on Railway Con- 
stants ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for 
Steam-Engines. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES of the MEMBERS who met at Cambridge 
iu 1833, with the Proceediugs of the Public Meetings. 4to. Price 4s. (To Mem- 
bers, 3s.) een, 


List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume are supplied in conformity 
with the following Regulation adopted by the General Committee 


at the Eleventh Meeting in 1841. 


“The Volume of Reports of the Association will be distributed era- 
tuitously to every ANNUAL Svusscriser who has actually paid “the 
Annual Subscription for the year to which the Volume relates, and to all 

those Lire Mempers who have paid Two Pounds, as a fixed Book Sub- 


scription.” 


LF It is requested that Members who may perceive errors or omissions in this List will 
communicate corrections thereof (by letter post paid) to Messrs. R. and J. E. Taylor, Red 


Lion Court, Fleet Street, London. 


LIFE MEMBERS 
who have paid the Book Subscription. 


Ablett, Joseph, Llanbedr Hall, Ruthin, Den- 
bighshire. 

Adam, Walter, M.D., 39, George’s Square, 
Edinburgh. 

Adare, Edwin, Viscount,M.P.,F.R.S.,F.R.A.S., 
F.G.S., Dunraven, Castle, Glamorganshire. 

Ainsworth, Thomas, Egremont, Ulverstone, 
Cumberland. 

Aldam. William, Warmsworth, Doncaster. 

Alexander, William Maxwell, Southbarr, near 
Paisley. 

Allecock, Samuel, Arlington Place,Manchester. 

Allis, Thomas, York. 

Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, Stour- 
bridge, Worcestershire. 

Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 71, Mosley Street, 
Manchester. 

Atkinson, Joseph B., 5, Freemantle Square, 
Bristol. 

Auldjo, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Noel 
House, Kensington. 

Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Hon. 
M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., M.C.P.S., 1, Dorset 
Street, Manchester Square, London. 

Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

Backhouse, John Church, Darlington. 

Baddeley, Fred. H., Capt. R.E., Fort George. 

Bain, John, Portreath, Redruth. 

Bain, Richard, Gwennap, Truro. 

Ball, William, Rydal, neat Ambleside, West- 
moreland. 

Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Manchester. 

Barker, George, F.R.S., Birmingham. 

Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D.S., 6, Gar- 
diner’s Row, Dublin. 

Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle. 

Barnett, Richard. 

Barton, John, 44, St. Mary Street, Dublin. 

Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., Poplar Institution, 
East India Road, and Excise Office, Broad 
Street. 


Bayldon, John, York. 


Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., Sans Souci, Preste 
bury, Cheltenham. 

Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., F.L.S., South 
Lambeth. 

Bell, Thomas, Picton Place, Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. 

Binyon, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester. 

Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man- 
chester. 


. Bird, William, 5, Old Church Yard, Liverpool. 


Birks, Thomas Rawson, Watton, near Ware. 

Birley, Richard, Upper Brook Street, Man- 
chester. 

Blackburn, Charles, B.A.,40, Kensington Sq. 

Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Oakland, Llanrwst, 
Denbighshire. 

Blackwell, Thomas E., B.GS., Foxhangers, 
Devizes. 

Blake, William, Silver Street, Taunton. 

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., Birmingham. 

Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., 
F.R.A.S., Lilley Rectory, near Luton, Bed- 
fordshire. 

Blood, Bindon, M.R.LA., F.R.S.E., 22, 
Queen Street, Edinburgh. 

Boddington, Benjamin, Burcher, near Kington, 
Herefordshire. 

Bompas, George G., M.D,, Fish Ponds, Bristol. 

Bompas, G. J., M.D., Fish Ponds, Bristol. 

Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, Ireland. 

Botfield, Thomas, F.R.S., F.G.8., Hopton 
Court, Bewdley. 
Boughton, Sir W. E. Rouse, Bart., F.R.S., 
Downton Hall, near Ludlow, Shropshire. 
Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Stratford, 
Essex. 

Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, Wakefield; 
Yorkshire. 

Briggs, Major-General John, E.1.C.S., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., M.R.A.S., Cheltenham. 

Bright, Benjamin Heywood, F.G.S., Ham 
Green, near Bristol. 

Brisbane, Lt-General Sir Thomas Makdougall, 
Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., 


BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. 


L. & E., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., Makers- 
town, Kelso. 

Brockedon, Philip N., 29, Devonshire Street, 
Queen’s Square, London. 

Brogden, John, jun., Ardwick Place, Man- 
chester. 

Brooke, Charles, 35, Keppel Street, Russell Sq., 
London. 

Brown, William, Douglas, Isle of Man. 

Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock. 

Bruce, Haliday, M.R.D.S., 37 Dame Street, 
Dublin. 

Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, F.R.S., 18, Duke 
Street, Westminster. 

Buck, George Watson, Manchester. 

Buckland, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Canon of Christ Church, and Professor of 
Mineralogy and Geology in the University 
of Oxford. 


Buller, Sir Antony, Pound, Tavistock, Devon. 


Bulman, John, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe, Man- 
chester, 

Burke, Francis, 5, Upper Rutland St., Dublin. 

Burlington, William, Barl of, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Chancellor of the Uuiversity of 
London, 10, Belgrave Square. 

Campbell, James, Candleriggs, Glasgow. 

Campbell, William, 384, Candlerigg Street, 
Glasgow. 

Carew, William H. Pole, Antony House, near 
Devonport. 

Carne, Joseph, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., 
Penzance. 

Carpenter, Rev. Philip Pearsall, B.A., Stand, 
Pilkington, Manchester. 

Carr, William, Blackheath, Kent. 

Cartmell, James, Christ’s College, Cambridge. 

Cayley, Sir George, Bart., Brompton, North 
Riding of Yorkshire. 

Chadwick, Hugo Mavesyn, Mavesyn-Ridware, 
near Rugeley. 

Challis, Rev. James, M.A.,, F.R.A.S., Plumian 
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental 
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, 
Cambridge. 

Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Manchester. 

Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S., Pro- 
fessor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the 
University of Durham. 

Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert, Lord 
Bishop of. 

Chiswell, Thos., 63, Faulkner St., Manchester. 

Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., Professor of 
Mathematics in the Royal Military Aca- 
demy, Woolwich, Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S., The 
Common, Woolwich. 

Clark, Francis, Hazelwood, near Birmingham. 

Clay, J. Travis, Rastrick, near Huddersfield. 

Coathupe, Charles Thornton, Wraxall, Bristol. 

Cocker, Jonathan,28, Crown Street, Liverpool. 

Conybeare, Rev. William Daniel, M.A.,F.R.S., 
F.G.S., Axminster, 

Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works, New- 
port, Monmouthshire. 

Corbet, Richard, Adderley Hall, Shropshire. 


Cottam, Samuel E., F.R.A.S., Brazennose 
Street, Manchester. 

Cotton, Rev. William C., M.A., Windsor, Berk- 
shire, 

Courtney, Henry, 27,Upper Mount St., Dublin. 

Cox, Joseph, Wisbech. 

Crampton, Philip C., Hon. Judge, 50, Lower 
Baggott Street, Dublin. 

Crane, George, F.G.S., Yniscedwyn Iron 
Works, Swansea. 

Crewdson,ThomasD.,Dacca Mills,Manchester. 

Creyke, Capt. Richard, R.N., 7, Albemarle 
Villas, Stoke, Devonport. 

Crichton, William, Glasgow. 

Crompton, Rev. Joseph, Norwich. 

Crooke, G. W., Town Hall, Liverpool. 

Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants. 

Dalby, Rev. William, Compton Basset, near 
Calne, Wilts. 

Dalton, Rev. James Edward, M.A., Queen’s 
College, Cambridge. 

Daniell, John Frederic, For. Sec., R.S., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry, King’s College, London, 
and Examiner in Chemistry and Forensic 
Medicine in the University of London, 
Norwood. 

Darbishire, Samuel D., Manchester. 

Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D, Ald- 
rich’s Professor of Chemistry, Regius Pro- 
fessor of Botany, Oxford, F.R.S., Hon. 
M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Oxford. 

Davenport, Edward Davies, F.R.S., 28, Lower 
Brook Street, London, 

Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., 3, 
Allsop Place, Regent’s Park, London. 

Dawson, Henry, 14, St. James’s Terrace, Li- 
verpool. 

Dickinson, Jolin, 67, Stephen’s Green, Dublin. 

Dilke, C. Wentworth, jun., 118, Sloane Street, 
London. 

Donkin, Thomas, F.R.A.S., Westow, near 
Whitwell, York. - 

Downie, Alexander, Crosbastat, Glasgow. 

Drury, William,M.D., Garn GadHill, Glasgow. 

Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House, Fin- 
glass, Co. Dublin. 

Dury, Rev. Theodore, Westmill, near Bunt- 
ingford, Herts. 

Ebrington, Lord, 17, Grosvenor Sq., London. 

Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart., 
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park,Cheshire. 

Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone House, 
Malton, Yorkshire. 

Ellis, Thomas’ Flower, jun., M.A., F.R.A.S., 
15, Bedford Place, London. 

Enys, John Samuel, F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall. 

Exley, Rev. Thomas, A.M., Bristol. 

Fairbairn, William, Manchester. 

Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S.,4on. Mem. 
R.S.E., F.G.S., Fullerian Professor of Che- 
mistry in the Royal Institution of Great 
Britain, 21, Albemarle Street, London, 

Fellows, Charles, F.R.G.S., 30, Russell 
Square, London. 

Fisher, Rev. J. M., M.A., 34, South Hanover 
Street, Edinburgh. 


BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. 


Fisher, Rev. Thomas, A,M., Luecombe, Mine- 
head, Somerset, 

Fleming, Colonel James, Kinlochlaich, Appin, 
Argyleshire, 

Fleming, W. M., Baroehan, Renfrewshire. 

Fleming, William; M.D., Manchester, 

Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Manchester. 

Flower, Rev. William, jun,, M.A., York. 

Forbes, James David, F,R.S., Sec, R.S.E., 
F,G.S,, Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, 

Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S,, 12, Gld Burling- 
ton Street, Lendon, 

Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling. 

Forster, Robert, A.B,, Springfield, Dungan- 
non, Ireland, 

Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ireland. 

Foster, John, M.A,, Clapham, Surrey. 

Fowler, Robert, 19, Merrion Sq. South, Dublin. 

Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthar, near Truro. 

Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth, 

Fullarton, Allan, Greenock. 

Gadsden, Augustus William, F.S.A., Hull. 

Gibbins, William, Falmouth. 

Gilbert, John Dayies,M.A,,F.R.S.,East Bourne, 
Sussex, 

Goff, William, Moat, Ireland. 

Goodman, John, Salford, Lancashire. 

Gordon, James, 46, Park Street, Bristol, 

Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, A.B., Box- 
moor, Herts, 

Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering, 

Greme, James, Garvock, Perth. 

Graham, Thomas, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry in University College, 
London, 9, Torrington Square, London, 

Grahame, Captain Duncan, Iryine, Scotland. 

Graves, Rey. Charles, A.M., 2, Trinity Col- 
lege, Dublin. 

Graves, Rey. Richard H., D.D., Brigown 
Glebe, Mitchelstown, Ireland. 

Gray, John, Greenock, 

Gray, John Edward, F.R,S., F.G.S., F.R.G.8., 
British Museum, 

Gray, William, jun,, F.G.S., York, 

Greenaway, Edward, 9, River Terrace, Isling- 
ton. 

Greenock, Major-General Lord, K.C,B., 
F.R.S.E., F.G,8., 12, Carlton Place, Edin- 
burgh. 

Greswell, Rev. Richard, M.A., F.R.S., Beau- 
mont Street, Oxford. 

. Griffin, John Joseph, Glasgow, 

Griffith, Richard, F,G,.8,, Fitzwilliam Street, 
Dublin. 

Grooby, Rev. James, B.A., F.R. A. S., Swindon, 
Wiltshire, 

Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, Rathdrum, 
Co. Wicklow. 

Hailstone, Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S., Horton 
Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Hall, Rev. T, B., Coggeshall, Essex. 

Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.B,S., V.P.S,A., 
F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Wilton Crescent, London. 

Hamilton, Sir W illiamRowan,LL.D.,M.R.LA., 
F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal of Ireland, 


and Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the 
University of Dublin. 

Hamilton, Mathie,M.D.,Millport,by Greenock. 

Hamilton, Willlam John, Sec. G.S,, 14, Ches- 
ham Place, Belgrave Square, London. 

Hamlin, Capt. Thomas, Greenock. 

Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M,A., F.B.S., 
Hon. M.R.1.A., F.G.S., Bolton Percy, York. 

Hare, Charles John, M.B., 9; Langham Place, 
London. 

Harley, John, Wain Worn, Pontypool. 

Harris, George William, London Works, Bir- 
mingham. 

Harter, William, Broughton, Manchester, 

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham Street, Liverpool, 

Haryey, Joseph C., Youghal, Co. Cork, 

Haughton, William, 28, City Quay, Dublin. 

Hawkins, John Isaac, 26, Judd Place West, 
New Road, London. 

Hawkins, Thomas, F.G,.S,, Sharpham Park, 
Glastonbury. 

Hawkshaw, John, F.L.S,, Islington, near Sal- 
ford, 

Haworth, George, Rochdale. 

Hawthorn, Robert, C.E,, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 

Henry, Alexander, Portland St., Manchester. 

Henry, William Charles, M.D., Haffield, Led- 
bury, Herefordshire. 

Henslow, Rey, John Stevens, M.A,, F.L.S., 
F.G.S., Prof. of Botany in the University of 
Cambridge; Hitcham, Bildeston, Suffolk. 

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. 

Herbert, The Rey. William, Dean of Man- 
chester, Manchester. 

Heywood, James, F,.R.S., F.S.A., Acresfield, 
Manchester. 

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., Christ Church, Oxf 

Hill, Rowland, 1, Orme Square, Bayswater. 

Hill, Thomas Wright, Bruce Castle, Tottenham. 

Hill, Thomas, 28, Ardwick Green, Manchester. 

Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick, 

Hoare, George Tooker, Godstone, Surrey. 

Hoblyn, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., White Barns, 
Buntingford, Herts. 

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F,R,S., 17, Crescent, 
Salford, Manchester. ‘ 

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. 

Holden, Moses, 18 Jordan Street, Preston. 

Holditeh, Rev. Hamnett, Caius College, Cam- 
bridge, 

Holland, P. H., 86, Grosvenor St., Manchester. 

Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.D.S., 50, Harcourt 
Street, Dublin, 

Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,, 
St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. 

Horner, Leonard, F.R.S. L. & E,, F.G.S., 2, 
Bedford Place, Russell Square, London. 
Horsfield, George, 3, George St., Manchester. 
Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street, Man- 

chester. 

Hoyle, John, Ducie Street, Manchester. 

Hudson, Henry, M,D., M.R.LA., 24, Stephen’s 
Green, Dublin. 

Hull, William D., Fairburn, Rostrevor, Ireland. 

Hulse, Edward, All Souls College, Oxford. 

Hunter, Adam, M.D., Leeds, 


BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. 


Hutton, Robert, F.G.S., M.R.LA., Putney 
Park, Surrey. 

Hutton, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., Newcastle- 
on-Tyne. 

Ibbetson, L. L. Boscawen, F.G.S., Polytech- 
nic Institution, London. 

Ingram, Thomas Wells, 85, Bradford Street, 
Birmingham. 

Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Blackwater 
Town, Armagh. 

Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough. 

Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. 
Jardine Hall, Applegarth, by Lockerbie, 
Dumfries-shire. 

Jee, Alfred S., Dinting Vale, Manchester. 

Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.G.S., Professor 
of Divinity and Ecclesiastical History in the 
University of Durham. 

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
F.C.P.S., Swaffham Bulbeck, Cambridge- 
shire. 

Jerrard, George Birch,B.A., West Park, Bristol. 

Johnson, Thomas, 24, York Street, Manchester. 

Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, Bart., 
M.A.,M.P., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., 27, Grosvenor 
Square, London. 

Johnstone, James, Aloa, near Alloa, Stirling- 
shire. 

Jones, Christopher Hird, 2, Castle Street, Li- 
verpool. 

Jones, Josiah, 2, Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, Robert, 59, Pembroke Place, Liverpool. 

Jones, Major Edward, Plympton, Plymouth. 

Joule,James Prescott, New Bailey St., Salford. 

Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey St., Salford. 

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax. 

Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House, Bury, 
Lancashire. 

Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire. 

Kenrick, Samuel, Handsworth, Birmingham. 

Kerr, Archibald, Glasgow. 

Kerr, Robert, jun., Glasgow. 

Knox, G. James, 1, Maddox Street, Regent 
Street, London. 

Lacy, Henry C., jun., Kenyon House, Man- 
chester. 

Langton, William, Manchester. 

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L., 
F.R.S.L. &E.,52, Berkeley Square, London. 

Larcom, Captain, R. E., Phoenix Park, Dublin. 

La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., Castle 
Street, Dublin. 

Leah,Henry, Byerley Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield. 

Lee,Rev.James Prince, King Edward’s School, 
Birmingham. 

Lefroy, Lieut., R.A., Woolwich. 

Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., F.G.S., High 
Legh, Cheshire. 

Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, F.H.S., 
F.Z.S., Carton House, Maynooth. 

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
F.H.S., 46, Charles Street, Berkeley Square, 
London. 

Lewis, Capt. T. Locke, R.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Ibsley Cottage, Exeter, 


Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow. 

Lightfoot, W. B., Grove Street, Liverpool. 

Lindsay, Henry L., C.E., Armagh. 

Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S.,5, Tokenhouse 
Yard, London. 

Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey,D.D.,F.R.S.,M.R.LA., 
Professor of Natural Philosophy, Trinity 
College, Dublin. 

Lloyd, William Horton, F.S.A., F.L.S., 1 Park 
Square West, Regent’s Park, London. 

Lock, Sir Joseph, Oxford, 

Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swanswick, Bath. 

Logan, William Edmond, F.G.S., 4, York 

_ Gate, Regent’s Park, London. 

Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A., V.P. 
& Treas. R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., 23, St. 
James’s Place, London. 

Lucas, William, The Mills, Sheffield. 

Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., Hull. 

Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., 
F.G.S., 16, Hart St., Bloomsbury, London. 

M‘All, Rev. Edward, Brighstone, Newport, 
Isle of Wight. 

Macartney, James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., 
F.L.S., Professor of Anatomy, Trinity Col- 
lege, Dublin, 35, Upper Merrion Street, 
Dublin. 

MacBrayne, Robert, Barony Glebe, Glasgow. 

MacCullagh, James, LL.D., Professor of Ma- 
thematics in the University of Dublin. 

M‘Culloch, George, 6, St. Mary’s Street, Mary 
Square, Lambeth. : 

MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, Trinity College, 
Dublin. 

M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow. 

Mackenzie, Sir Francis A., Bart., Kinellan, 
by Dingwall. 

Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., Head- 
ingley, Leeds. 

Martineau, Rev. James, 12, Mason Street, 
Edgehill, Liverpool. 

Mather, Daniel, 58, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Mather, John, 58, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool. 

Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.I.A., 22, Upper 
Merrion Street, Dublin. 

Meadows, James, Green Hill, Greenheys, 
Manchester. 

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. 

Moilliet, J. L., Hampstead Hall, Birming- 
ham. . 

Money, Rev. Kyrle Ernle, M.A., Much 
March Vicarage, Ledbury, Herefordshire. 

More, John Schank, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Murchison, RoderickImpey,F.R.S.,Pres.G.S., 
Hon.M.K.1.A., F.L.S., 16, Belgrave Square, 
London. 

Murphy, Rev. Robert, M.A., University of 
London, Somerset House. 

Napier, Johnstone, Dinting Vale, Manchester. 

Newman, Francis William, 4, Cavendish 
Place, Manchester. 

Newman, William Lewin, York. 

Nicholls, John Ashton, Ancoats Crescent, 
Manchester. 

Nicholson, John A., M.D., Balrath, Kells, 
Treland. 


BOOK SUBSCRIBERS. 


Northampton, Spencer. Joshua Alwyne, Mar- 
quis of, President of the Royal Society, 
F.S.A., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., 145, 
Piccadilly, London. 

Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,D.C.L., 
F.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Northum- 
berland House, Strand, London. 

O’Reardon, John, M.D., 35, York St., Dublin. 

Orpen, Charles Edward H., M.D., 34, Hamil- 
ton Square West, Woodside, Birkenhead. 

Osler, A. Follett, Birmingham. 

Ossalinsky, Count, Chestnut Hill, Keswick. 

Outram, B. F., M.D., Inspector of H.M. Hos- 
pitals and Fleets, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 
1, Hanover Square, London. 

Owen, Jeremiah, Dockyard, Devonport. 

Palmer, William, Harcourt Street, Dublin. 

Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool. 

Pasley, Major-General Charles William, C.B., 
Royal Engineers, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
Board of Trade, Whitehall, London. 


.Patrick, John Shedden, F.R.S.E., Hessilhead, 


Beith, Ayrshire. 

Patterson, Robert, F.L.S., 3, College Square 
North, Belfast. , 

Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, Mutley 
House, Plymouth. 

Peel, George, Higher Ardwick Lodge, Man- 
chester. 

Peile, Williamson, F.G.S., Lowther Street, 
Whitehaven. 

Perigal, Frederick,33,Torrington Sq.,London, 

Petus, Edward. 

Philips, Mark, M.P., Park, near Manchester. 

Phillips, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., York. 

Philpott, Rev. Henry, M.A., Catharine Hall, 
Cambridge. 

Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork. 

Pitt, George, 4, Great Portland St., London. 

Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth. 

Poppelwell, Matthew, Rossella Pl., Tynemouth. 

Porter, Hen. John, Tandragee Castle, Armagh. 

Porter,G. R.,F.R.S.,Boardof Trade, Whitehall. 

Portlock, Capt. Jos.E.,Royal Engineers, F.R.S., 
M.R.I.A.,F.G.S., Ordnance Survey, Dublin. 

Powell, Rev. Baden, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 
Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford. 

Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
Lansdowne Place West, Bath. 

Prestwich, Joseph, jun., F.G.S., 10, Devon- 
shire Street, Portland Place, London. 

Pretious, Thomas, Royal Dockyard,Pembroke. 

Prince, Rev.John Charles, 63, St. Anne Street, 
Liverpool. 

Pritchard, Andrew, 162, Fleet Street, London. 

Pumphrey, Charles, New Town Row, Bir- 
mingham. 

Rancé, Henry, Cambridge. 

Rawlins, John, Birmingham. 

Read, William Henry Rudston, M.A., F.L.S., 
F.H.S., Hayton, Pocklington. 

Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S., 
Stone Vicarage, Aylesbury. 

Renny, H. L., late of the Royal Engineers, 
Assistant Professor of Practical Engineer- 
ing, Trinity College, Dublin. 


Richardson, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Has- 
lar Hospital, Gosport. 

Riddell, Lieut. Charles J. B., Royal Artillery, 
F.R.S., Woolwich. 

Roberts, Richard, Manchester. 

Robinson, John, Shamrock Lodge, Athlone. 

Robson, Rev. John, 193, Renfrew Street, 
Albert Terrace, Glasgow. 

Rogers, Rev. Canon, M.A., Penrose, Cornwall. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S., 
F.R.A.S., V.P.S.A., 39, Bernard Street, 
Russell Square, London. 

Rothwell, Peter, Bolton. 

Roughton, William, jun., Kettering, North- 
amptonshire. 

Royle, John Forbes, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Materia 
Medica, King’s College, London. 

Russell, James, Birmingham. 

Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham. 

Sabine, Lt.-Colonel Edward, Royal Artillery, 
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Woolwich. 

Sanders, William, F.G.S., Bristol. 

Satterthwaite, Michael, M.D., Grosvenor St., 
Manchester. 

Schemman, J. C., at L. Thornton’s, Esq., 
Camp Hill, Birmingham. 

Schofield, Robert, Rochdale, Lancashire, 

Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster. 

Scoresby, Rev. William, D.D.,F.R.S. L. & E., 
Vicar of Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. 
M.RB.LA., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Woodwardian 
Lecturer, Cambridge. 

Semple, Robert, Richmond Lodge, Wavertree, 
Liverpool. 

Shaen, William,49, Upper Bedford P!.,London. 

Shanks, James, 23, Garscube Place, Glasgow. 

Sharp, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Sherrard, David Henry, 84, Upper Dorset 
Street, Dublin. 

Sillar, Z., M.D., Rainford, near Liverpool. 

Simpson, Samuel, Lancaster. ’ 

Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy, Kilcoleman Par- 
sonage, Claremorris, Co. Mayo. 

Slater, William, Princess Street, Manchester. 

Sleeman, Philip, Windsor Terrace, Plymouth. 

Smales, R. H., Kingston Bottom. 

Smethurst, Rev. R., Green Hill, Pilkington, 
Manchester. 

Smith, Rev. George Sidney, D.D., Trinity 
College, Dublin. 

Smith, Rev. John Pye, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Homerton. ~ 

Smith, Rev. Philip, B.A., Cheshunt College, 
Hertfordshire. 

Smith, Robert Mackay, Windsor Street, Edin- 
burgh. 

Solly, S. Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A,, 
F.G.S., Surge Hill, King’s Langley, Herts. 

Solly, Edward, jun., 38, Bedford Row, London. 

Sopwith, Thomas,F.G.S.,Newcastle-on-Tyne, 

Squire, Lovell, Falmouth. 

Stanger, William,M.D.,Wisbech,Cambridgesh. 

Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ireland. 


BOOK SUBSCRIBERS 1842. 


Sutcliffe, William, 4, Belmont, Bath, 

Sykes, Lt.-Colonel William Henry, F.R.S., 
Hon. M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S., 
47, Albion Street, Hyde Park, London. 

Tayler, Rev. J. J., B.A., Manchester, 

Taylor, James, Todmorden Hall, Rochdale. 

Taylor, Joseph Needham, Captain R.N., 61, 
Moorgate Street, London. 

Taylor, John, Stronsham Court, Worcestersh. 

Taylor, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., 12, 
Bedford Row, London. 

Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., Coed-Di, near 
Mold, Flintshire. 

Taylor, Richard, jun., F.G.S., Wood, Penryn, 
Cornwall. 

Taylor, Richard, F.S.A., Assist, Sec. L.S., 
F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Red Lion 
Court, Fleet Street, London. 

Tennant, James, F.G.S., Professor of Mine- 
ralogy, King’s College, London; 149,Strand, 
London. 

Thicknesse, Ralph, jun., Beech Hill, Wigan. 

Thodey, Winwood, 4, Poultry, London, 

Thompson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield. 

Thompson, David Peter, M.R,I.A., Ballin- 
taggart, Dingle, Co. Kerry. 

Thomson, Edmund Peel, Manchester. 

Thomson, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., 
Primrose, Clitheroe, Lancashire. 

Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh. 

Thornton, Samuel, Camp Hill, Birmingham. 

Thorp, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Archdeacon of 
Bristol, F.G.S., Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Tidswell, Benjamin Kay, 65, King Street, 
Manchester, 

Tinné, J. A., Briarly Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Tobin, Sir John, Liverpool. 

Townsend, R. E., Springfield, Norwood. 

Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Northumber- 
land. 

Turnbull, Rey. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Caius College, Cam- 
bridge. 

Turner, Samuel, F.R,S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
Liverpool, 

Tweedy, William Mansel, Truro, 

Vallack, Rev. Benjamin W. S., St. Budeaux, 
Plymouth. 

Vance, Robert, Belfast; and 5, Gardiner’s 
Row, Dublin, 

Vivian, H. Hussey, Swansea. 

Walker, John, Pendleton, Manchester. 

Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Allerton Hall. 

Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S., Reader 
in Experimental Philosophy in Wadham 
College, Oxford. 

Walker, Thomas, 3,-Cannon Street, Man- 
chester. 

Wallace, Rev. Robert, 2, Cavendish Place, 
Grosvenor Square, Manchester. 

Ware, S. Hibbert, M.D., F.R.S.E., York. 


Warren, Richard B., 35, Leeson St., Dublin, _ 


Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., Halifax. 

Watson, Henry Hough, Bolton-le-Moors, 

Weaver, Thomas, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., 
16, Stafford Row, Pimlico. 


Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., Tretire, 
Ross, Herefordshire, 

West, William, Literary and Philosophical 
Society, Leeds. 

Westhead, Joshua Procter, York House, 
Manchester. 

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., Master of Tri- 
nity College, Cambridge, F.R.S., Hon. 
M.R.I.A., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S,, The 
Lodge, Cambridge. 

Whitworth, Joseph, Manchester. 

Wickenden, Joseph, Birmingham. 

Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester. 

Williams, Rev, David, F.G.S., Bleadon, Up- 
hill, near Bristol, 

Williams, William, Rood Lane, London. 

Williamson, Rev. W., Clare Hall, Cambridge. 

Wills, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Wilson, Alexander, F.R.S,, F.G.S.,34, Bry- 
anstone Square, London. 

Wilson, Rev. James, D.D., M.R.1.A,, 10, War- 
rington Street, Dubling 

Wilson, Thomas, Banks, near Barnsley, 

Wilson, William, Troon, Glasgow. 

Winsor, F. A., M.R.I.A., 57, Lincoln’ s Inn 
Fields, ae Hes 

Winstanley, Thomas W., Essex Street, Man- 
chester. 

Winterbottom, Rev. James Edward, M.A., 
F.L.S., F.G.S., East Woodhay, Hants, 

Wood, George William, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
Singleton Lodge, near Manchester. 

Woods, Edward, 7, Church Street, Edge 
Hill, Liverpool. 

Woodhead, G., Northam, Manchester, 

Woollcombe, Henry, F.S,.A., Crescent, Ply- 
mouth. 

Wormald, Richard, jun,, 6, Broad Street 
Buildings, London. 

Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett, near 
Bristol. 

Yates, Joseph Brooks, F.S.A,, West Dingle, 
Liverpool, 

Yates, R. Vaughan, Toxteth Park, Liverpool, 

Yorke, Lt.-Colonel Philip, 12, Duke Street, 
Grosvenor Square, London. 

Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones, Sheffield. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Agnew, Thomas, Exchange St., Manchester. 

Ainsworth,W. Francis, 15, Marylebone Street, 
London. 

Akroyd, Edward, Bankfield, Halifax. 

Alcock, John, Gatley Hill, Cheadle, Manches- 
ter. 

Alcock, Ralph, Milk Street, Manchester. 

Alcock, Samuel, Milk Street, Manchester. 

Alder, Joshua, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Alison, W. P., Edinburgh. 

Allen, Richard, Oxford Street, Manchester. 

Allies, Jabez, 17, High Street, Worcester. 

Alsop, John, Darley Dale, Derbyshire. 

Antrobus, Thomas, Shepley Hall, Ashton- 
under-Lyne, 


1 
| 
4 


Armitage, Elkanah, Cannon St., Manchester. 

Armstrong, Robert, Victoria Arches, Man- 
chester. 

Arrott, A. R., London. 

Ashton, Richard, 71, Mosley Street, Man- 
chester. 

Ashworth, Thomas, Poynton, Stockport. 

Atherton, James, Bridgewater Buildings, 
Manchester. 

Bannerman, Henry, Burnage, Manchester. 

Barbour, G. F., Portland Street, Manchester. 

Bardsley, James Lomax, M.D., Chatham St., 
Manchester. 

Barfoot, , Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire. 

Barlow, John, jun., Manchester. 

Barlow, Robert A., Northenden, Didsbury, 
Manchester. 

Barlow, Rev. William, M.A., Northenden, 
Didsbury, Manchester. 

Barnes, Richard Wilson, Cornbrook, Man- 
chester. 

Barratt, Joseph, Newton Heath, Manchester. 

Barratt, James, jun., Manchester. 

Barton, Alfred, Penrith. 

Barton, Richard, Cambridge. 

Barton, R. W., Mulberry St., Manchester. 

Bates, William, M.D., Oakenshaw, Accrington. 

Bayley, John Diggles, 4, Basinghall Street, 
London. , 

Bazley, Thomas, 4, Acton Square, Salford. 

Beamish, William, M.A., Beaumont, Cork. 

Beatson, William, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 

Beaver, Hugh, The Temple, Cheetham Hill, 
Manchester. 

Beckerleg, Edwyn James, St. John’s College, 
Cambridge. 

Bell, Andrew, 35, Scotland St., Edinburgh. 

Bell, Richard, Cockermouth, Cumberland. 

Bellhouse, James, Victoria Park, Manchester. 

Benson, William, Princess Street, Manchester. 

Bent, E. S., Manchester. 

Bentley, Rev. Thomas Rothwell, M.A., Great 
John Street, Manchester. 

Benyon, Henry, Roundhay Lodge, Leeds. 

Besley, William, Manchester. 

Bevan, William, M.D., Dublin. 

Binyon, Edward, St. Ann’s Sq., Manchester. 

Birchall, Samuel Jowitt, Leeds. 

Birkett, John, F.G.S., 2, Broad Street Build- 
ings, London. 

Birley, Hugh, Manchester, . 

Birley, Thomas Hornby, Manchester. 

Birmingham, William, New Market Lane, 
Manchester. 

Black, Donald, Manchester. 

Blackburne, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Rectory, 
Prestwich, Manchester. 

Bow, William, Blackfriars Street, Manchester. 

Blyth, Dr. William, Church, Accrington. 

Boutflower, John, Greengate, Salford,: 

Bowman, Eddowes, Victoria Park, Manchester. 

Bowman, John E., Victoria Park, Manchester. 

Bowman, Henry, Princess Street, Manchester. 

Bradford, James, York Street, Cheetham, 
Manchester. 

Brandt, Robert, Norfolk Street, Manchester, 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1842. 


Brewster, Sir David, K.H., LL.D., F.R.S., 
L. & E., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
St. Andrew’s, Scotland. 


“Brideson, Ridgway, Bridge House, Bolton. 


Bridson, Henry, Bolton. 

Bright, Benjamin, 59, Pulteney Street, Bath. 

Bright, Gratton, Rochdale. 

Brinsdale, P. A., Consul of the United States 
to the Sandwich Islands, 

Broadbent, James, 42, Church St.,Manchester. 

Broadhurst, Daniel, Manchester. 

Brockedon, William, F.R.S., 29, Devonshire 
Street, Queen’s Square, London, 

Brooke, Edward, Hanson’s Court, Manchester. 

Brooke, Peter, 20, Brazennose St., Manchester. 

Brooks, John, jun., Ardwick, Manchester. 

Brotherton, Joseph, M.P., Lower Broughton, 
Manchester. 

Brown, Richard, Ardwick Green, Manchester. 

Brown, Captain Thomas, Natural History 
Society, Manchester. 

Brown, Thomas, Green Hill, Chorlton-upon- 
Medlock. 

Brown, William, Chester. 

Brunel, Sir Mark I., Knt., F.R.S., Thames 
Tunnel. 

Buchannan, Walter M., Glasgow. 

Buckingham, , 102, Oxford Street, Man- 
chester. 

Bull, Rev. W. H., Sowerby Parsonage, Halifax. 

Bunting, J. P., Brown Street, Manchester. 

Bury, John, Scarborough. 

Busk, George, H.M.S. Dreadnought, Green- 
wich. 

Buss, R. W., 68, Warren St., Fitzroy Square, 
London. 

Butterworth, Henry, Rochdale. 

Butterworth, John, Messrs. Thomas Hoyle 
and Sons, Manchester. 

Butterworth, Joseph, Manchester. 

Byrth, Rev. Thomas, D.D., Wallasey, near 
Liverpool. 

Caid, Nathaniel, 53, Piccadilly, Manchester. 

Cairns, Alexander, Oxford Road, Manchester. 

Calvert, Charles T. Ardwick, Manchester. 

Campbell, Henry Cadogan, Water Street, 
Manchester. 

Capdevielle, Dominic, 103, Piccadilly, Man- 
chester. 

Carr, William, Leeds. 

Carrington, S. R., Cale Green, Stockport, 

Cartwright, Cornelius, Dudley. 

Catlow, Joseph P., Sidney Street, Chorlton- 
upon-Medlock. 

Chadwick, Robert, Oakfield, Salford. 

Chadwick, James, Oakfield, Salford. 

Chapman, John, 17, David St., Manchester. 

Charlewood, Henry, Princess St., Manchester. 

Chaytor, Gustavus A., M.D., 3, Oxford St., 
Manchester. 

Cheetham, John, Dukinfield. 

Christie, David, Edale, Derbyshire. 

Christye, Alexander, Fairfield, Manchester. 

Christye, Richard, Fairfield, Manchester. 

Clark, W. D., Bank Bridge, Droylsden, 
Manchester. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1842. 


Clay, Charles, M.D., Manchester. 

Clouston, Thomas B., Poolbeg St., Dublin. 

Cobden, Charles, Mosley St., Manchester. 

Colston, Hungerford, New College, Oxford. 

Compton, Joseph, Whalley Range, Moss Side, 
Manchester. 

Compton, Joseph, jun., Whalley Range, Moss 
Side, Manchester. 

Cooke, Thomas, jun., Pendlebury, Manchester. 

Cope, Richard, 12, Exchange St., Manchester. 

Copinger, John, M.D., Cork. 

Corser, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Stand, near 
Manchester. 

Cox, John, Edinburgh. 

Coward, Thomas, 66, Upper Brook Street, 
Manchester. 

Crewdson, Robert, Ardwick Green, Man- 
chester. 

Critchley, A. W., Upper Brook Street, Man- 
chester. 

Critchley, Thomas, Manchester. 

Croft, Henry Holmes, 35, Upper Gower St., 
London. 

Crompton, James, Kersley, Bolton. 

Crossley, James, Essex Street, Manchester. 

Crowley, John, Store Street, Manchester. 

Cubitt, Thomas, London. 

Cumber, Charles, 13, 
Manchester. 

Curtis, Matthew, Manchester. 

Daglish, Robert, Orrell Cottage, Wigan. 

Dancer, John A., 18, Cross Street, Man- 
chester. - 

Davies, John, Quay Street, Manchester. 

Davies, R. D., Messrs. G. Fraser, Son and 
Co., Manchester. 

Dawbarn, Robert, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. 

Dawbarn, William, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. 

Dean, James Joseph, 17, Grove Street, Ard- 
wick, Manchester. 

De Moleyns, F. W., M.A., F.G.S., Killar~ 
ney, Co. Kerry. 

Denny, Henry, Leeds. 

Dentith, William, Lime Grove, Oxford Road, 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock. 

Dockray, David, Manchester. 

Dockray, Thomas, Manchester. 

Dodds, Isaac, Sheffield. 

Duck, R. G., Manchester. 

Duffy, John, Dublin. 

Duncan, John, Lombard Street, London. 

Dunn, James, M.D., Kelvin House, Smeth- 
wick, Birmingham. 

Duppa, Thomas Dupp Lloyd, Cheney Long- 
ville, Shropshire. 

Dymond, Robert, 20, Southernhay Place, 
Exeter. 

Edgworth, Thomas, Wrexham. 

Ebbs, John, Tudor Hall, Dublin. 

Edmondson, Thomas, Manchester. 

Elphinstone, Sir Howard, Bart., Ore Place, 


Dickinson Street, 


Sussex. 4 
Etchells, James, Gas-works, Ashton-under- 
Lyne. 


Evans, Richard, Manchester. 
Evans, Richard. 


Eveleigh, Samuel, Plymouth Grove, Chorlton- 
upon-Medlock. 

Ewart, Joseph, Pall Mall, Manchester. 

Fairbairn, John, Manchester. 

Farmer, John, Cheadle, Manchester. 

Fawdington, William, Marsden Square, Man- 
chester. 

Felkin, William, Nottingham Park. 

Fernley, John, Stanley House, Manchester. 

Fleming, John, M.D., Aberdeen. 

Fletcher, Thomas, Pendleton, Manchester. 

Foster, George, 3, Chapel Square, Manchester. 

Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., Salis- 
bury. 

Frost, William, F.R.A.S., 5, Sutton Place, 
Hackney. 

Galloway, John, Knott Mill, Manchester. 

Gardiner, Addin, Manchester. 

Gardom, George, Salford. 

Garnett, Robert, Oak Hill, Cheetham, Man- 
chester. 

Garnett, William, Lark Hill, Salford. 

Gauthorp, George R., 37, Oxford Street, Man- 
chester. t 

Gibb, James, 29, Mosley Street, Manchester. 

Gibson, Rev. W. N., Ardwick, Manchester. 

Gillett, Joseph, 4, Cecil Street, Chorlton-upon- 
Medlock. 

Goddard, John Frederick, 20, London Street, 
Fitzroy Square, London. 

Goodlad, William, 46, Mosley St., Manchester. 

Goodwin, F. G., M.A., Wyvill Grange, Der- 
byshire. 

Gourlay, De la Cherois, Madeley, Salop. 

Grafton, Joseph Smith, Manchester. 

Grantham, John, Liverpool. 

Grantham, Richard, Gloucester. 

Gray, Rev. David, M.A., Royal Academy, 
Inverness. 

Greaves, George, Egerton Terrace, Hulme. 

Greenwood, Thomas, Polefield, Prestwich. 

Gregan, John E., 13, Princess Street, Man- 
chester. 

Greig, Thomas, Rosebank, Edenfield, Bury. 

Grundy, J. C., Exchange Street, Manches- 
ter. 

Guillemard, John Lewis, F.R.S., 27, Gower 
Street, London. 

Haliburton, Alexander Fowden, Whitley, near 
Wigan. 

Hall, Elias, Castleton, Derbyshire. 

Hall, George Webb, Sneed Park, Bristol. 

Hall, Joseph, Castleton, Bakewell, Derbyshire. 

Hall, Samuel, Basford, Nottingham. 

Halley, Rev. Robert, D.D. 

Halladay, A. P., Cornbrook, Manchester. 

Halse,Wm, Hooper, Brent, Ashburton, Devon. 

Hamilton, Dacre, New Park, Coote Hill, Ire- 
land. 

Hamilton, Thomas, Princess St., Manchester. 


- Hamilton, Rev. William, Royal Belfast Insti- 


tution, Belfast. 
Hampson, John Henry, 12, Norfolk Street, 
Manchester. 
Hardey, James, Chapel Street, Salford. 
Hardy, Robert, M.D., Manchester. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1842. 


Hare, Matthias, 98, Lower Baggot St., Dublin. 

Harter, James Collier, Chapel Walks, Man- 
chester. 

Harter, Rev. G. G., Broughton Hall, Man- 
chester. 

Haworth, Edmund, Bolton-le-Moors, Lan- 
cashire, 

Haworth, George,Church Bridge, Accrington. 

Heath, A. M., Manchester. 

Henfrey, Charles, Wilmslow, Cheshire. 

Heron, Joseph, Princess Street, Manchester. 

Hertz, James, Manchester. 

Higginbotham, W., M.D., St. Petersburgh. 

Higgins, Henry, 1, Mount Pleasant Square, 
Salford. 

Hill, Henry, 13, Orchard Street, Portman 
Square, London. 

Hill, William, Worcester. 

Hindle, James, Sabden, near Burnley. 

Hodgson, John, London. 

Hodgson, W. B., Liverpool. 

Hodgson, Steward, London. 

Holland, T. C., Loughborough. 

Hopkins, R. W., Preston. 

Hopkins, Thomas, 5, Broughton Lane, Man- 
chester. 

Howard, Luke, F.R.S., Ackworth, Yorkshire. 

Howard,RichardBaron, M.D., Princess Street, 
Manchester. 

Howard, George, Church, Accrington. 

Howarth, Edmund, Bolton-le-Moors. 

Hoyland, William Wheeler, Wood Street, 
Greenheys, Manchester. 

Hulme, James Hilton,Cliffe House, Derbyshire. 

Hunter, R. R., Auchterarder, Perthshire. 

Huntington, Rev. W., M.A., St. John’s, Man- 
chester. 

Ibotson, Robert, Kay Street, Chorlton-upon- 
Medlock. 

Irwin, Thomas, Audit Office, Somerset House, 
London. 

Jackson, George, Greengate, Salford. 

Jackson, Joseph, Messrs. Jackson, Watson, 
and Greig, Faulkner Street, Manchester. 

Jacson, John, Preston. 

Jago, John Sampson, Lieut. R.N., Falmouth. 

James, Paul Moon, Manchester and Salford 
Bank. 

Jarman, Francis (solicitor), Bristol. 

Jennings, Thomas, Cork. 

Jerdan, William, 7, Wellington Street, Strand, 
London. 

Jessop, William, Butterley Hall, Derbyshire. 

Johnson, George, Stockport. 

Johnson, William, 27, Dale St., Manchester. 

Johnston, Edward, 6, Newton Street, Man- 
chester. 

Jones, John, Spring Vale Iron Works, Wol- 
verhampton. 

Jones, Joseph, Walsham House, Oldham. 

Jones, Joseph, jun., Walsham House, Oldham. 

Jones, William, Ludlow. 

Juckes, John, Putney, Surrey. 

Kay, Alexander, Manchester. 

Kay, Samuel, Marsden Street, Manchester. 

Kay, Samuel, jun., Marsden St., Manchester. 


Keith, William, 20, Red Cross St., Manchester. 

Kelsall, William Strettell, Halliwell Place, 
Cheetham, Manchester. 

Kennedy, John L,, Ardwick House, Man- 
chester. 

Kennedy, Matthew, Manchester. 

Kentish, Rev. John, Birmingham. 

Kenworthy, Charles, Byrom St., Manchester. 

King, John, Quay Street, Manchester. 

King, John, jun., Quay Street, Manchester. 

King, Rev. W. H., Cheetham Hill, Manchester. 

Kirkman, Thomas, Salford. 

Kissell, George, Booth Street, Manchester. 

Knoblock, Dr. Robert, Moscow. 

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., I’.L.S., 19 A, Golden 
Square, London. 

Lamport, Charles, Manchester. 

Leigh, James Heath, Belmont, Cheshire. 

Leigh, John, St. John Street, Manchester. 

Levyssohn, E. H., Princess St., Manchester. 

Lillie, Joseph, Manchester. 

Lingard, Thomas Ogden, Water Street, Man- 
chester. 

Livesey, John, Douglas, Isle of Man. 

Lloyd, William, M.D., Birmingham. 

Lockett,John, Stocks, Cheetham, Manchester. 

Lockett, Joseph, Higher Broughton, Man- 
chester. 

Lockwood, W. J. J., Cleveland Buildings, 
Manchester, 

Lomas, William Melville, Preston. 

Lowe, Robert H., Manchester. 

Loyd, William Jones, Manchester. 

Luney, Rev. Richard, Plymouth. 

Lupton, Arthur, jun., Headingley, Leeds. 

Lynill, J. P.,29, Faulkner Street, Manchester. 

Lyons, Thomas, Cork. 

M°Connel, James, Manchester. 

M°Connel, William, Manchester. 

M‘Kerlie, Lieut., R.E., Manchester. 

M°Laren, Duncan, Edinburgh. 

M°Laren, James, Oxford Road, Manchester. 

M‘Lauchlan, Henry, F.G.S., Knaresbrough. 

Macdougal, Duncan, Brazennose Street, Man- 

chester. 

Malyn, John, 12, James Street, Buckingham 

Palace, London. 

Mann, Robert, Great Bridgewater Street, 

Manchester. 

Marriott, Thomas L., 90, Fountain Street., 

Manchester. 

Marsden, William, 1, Clifford Street, Man- 

chester. 

Marshall, John S., Troy, America. 

Massey, James, Manchester. 

Maude, Daniel, Manchester. 

Maule, Rev. T. Carteret, Hulme, Manchester. 

Mercer, John, Oakenshaw, Accrington. 

Mercer, John, jun., Oakenshaw, Accrington. 

Merck, Theodore, Manchester. 

Merrick, Josiah, 104, Upper Brook Street, 

Chorlton-upon-Medlock. 

Milne, Joshua, High Crompton, Oldham. 

Mitchell, Joseph, Inverness. 

Moore, William Cameron, 2, Ardwick Place, 

Manchester. 


a 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1842, 


Morris, John P., 19, Mosely St., Manchester. 
Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A,, F.R.S., Profes- 
sor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, 


King’s College, London. 


Murray, Sir James, Merrion Square, Dublin. 


Murray, William, Glasgow. 

Napier, General, London. 

Nasmyth, James, London. 

Neild, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester. 

Neild, Arthur, Mayfield, Manchester. 
Neild, William, Mayfield, Manchester, 
Nelson, George, York Street, Manchester. 
Neumark, Joseph, 29, Dale St., Manchester, 
New, Antony, Evesham, Worcestershire, 
Newton, F., Cheetham Hill, Manchester. 


Nicholls, Benjamin, Ancoats Cresvent, Man- 


chester, 


Nicklin, Edward, Moseley Road, Birmingham. 


Nicholson, Cornelius, Cowan Head, Kendal. 
Noble, Daniel, 105, Piccadilly, Manchester, 
Ogden, James, M.D., Manchester, 

Pacey, Jeptha, Strangeways, Manchester, 


Parkinson, Rey. Richard, B.D., Higher 


Broughton, Manchester, 


Parry, John, 19, Bank Street, Cheetham, 


Manchester, 


Parsey, Arthur, 2, Spur Street, Leicester Sq, 


London, 

Patchett, Thomas, Shudehill, Manchester, 

Pauling, George Clark, C.E., Manchester. 

Peacocke, R. A., Slyne Lodge, Lancashire, 

Peiser, John, Oxford Road, Manchester, 

Petrie, John, Rochdale. 

Phillips, Shakespear, Chancery Lane, Man- 
chester. 

Phillips, William, Morley Works, Plymouth. 

Pickford, ——-, jun., Mayfield, Manchester, 

Porter, John, 22, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London. 

Potter, Edmund, 4, Fountain St., Manchester. 

Potter, John, Evesham, Worcestershire, 

Potter, Vincent, Manchester, 

Pow, Robert, North Shields. 

Price, William, Mosley Street, Manchester. 

Pringle, Captain, Athenzum, Pall Mall, 
London. 

Procter, Daniel, Manchester, 

Procter, James, Manchester, 

Pryce, John, York Place, Oxford Road, Man- 
chester, 

Purdon, Wellington, Woodhead, Manchester. 

Quirk, Richard, Douglas, Isle of Man. 

Radford, Thomas, M.D., Higher Broughton, 
Manchester, 

Ransome, J. A.,St. Peter’s Square, Manchester. 

Rattray, William, Aberdeen. 

Rawson, Henry, jun., Manchester, 

Ray, Andrew, Pendleton, Manchester. 

Ray, James, Sheffield, 

Reade, Joseph, M.D., St. Patrick’s Hill, Cork. 

Ree, H. P., 11, Nicholas Street, Mosley St., 
Manchester. 

Reid, John, Bank of England Branch Bank, 
Manchester. 

Remington, Rey, Thomas, Cartmel, Miln- 
thorpe, 


Robberds, Rey. John, B.A., 18, Park Str 
Park Road, Liverpool. 

Robinson, Frederick, Mulberry Street, Ma} 
chester, 

Robinson, Samuel, Dukinfield, Manchester.} 

Robinson, Thomas, Settle, 

Roby, John, Rochdale. 

Rooke, John, Akehead, Wigton, Cumberlan 

Rooker, Alfred, Plymouth, 5 

Ross, Malcolm, Moston House, Manchester 

Royle, Vernon, Prestwich, Manchester, 

Ryland, Rev. John Howard, New Colleg 
Manchester, 

Sadler, Michael F., Palace Square, Mark 
Street, Manchester, 

Salkeld, Rev, Edward, Aspatria, Cumberlan 

Satterthwaite, Thomas, Salford, Manchester. 

Saull, William D., F.G.S., Aldersgate Stree 
London. : 

Schwabe, Louis, Portland Street, Manchester 

Schunck, Edward, Ph.D,, 21, Cooper Street 
Manchester, 

Schunck, Martin, Cooper Street, Manchester 

Schwabe, Salis, 38, Mosley Street, Manchester 

Scott, John Haigh, 4, Liverpool Terrace, 


Sellers, John, Ingleton, Yorkshire, 

Sever, Charles, Pool Fold, Manchester, 

Sharp, Robert C., Bramhall Hall, Cheshire, 

Shaw, Alexander, 23, Henrietta Street, Caven- 
dish Square, London. oo httar 

Shaw, Sir Charles, 79, Plymouth Grove, | 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock. 

Shaw, Benj. L., Honley, Huddersfield, 

Shimwell, Isaac, Manchester, 

Shuttleworth, J. G., Tiverton Street, Hyde | 
Road, Manchester. 

Simpson, William, 69, Market Street, Man- 
chester, 

Sleigh, Capt. A. W., Grosvenor Street, 
Chorlton-upon-Medlock. 

Smith, Horatio,Strangeways Hall, Manchester. 

Smith, John, Piccadilly, Manchester, 

Smith, John, Kingstown, Dublin, 

Smith, James, 5, Mosley Street, Manchester. 

Southam, George, Salford, 

Sowerby, G. B., F.L.S., 50, Gt. Russell St, 
London. ’ 

Spence, William, F.R.S., F.L.S., Hall. 

Spence, W. B., Hull, 

Spence, R. H., Hull, 

Stahclin, Christ., Basle, Switzerland. 

Stanger, Joshua, Wandsworth, Surrey. 

Statham, Jonathan B., Manchester, 

Staunton, John, Talton. 

Steel, John H., New Hampshire, America. 

Stephenson, J ames, Market Place, Manchester, 

Stevelly, Professor John, M.A., Belfast. 

Still, Henry, F.G.S., Ordnance Survey Office, 
Manchester, 


Stone, Daniel, Red Bank, Manchester. 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS 1842. 


Strickland, H. E., Cracombe House, Evesham. 

Surmon, Henry, Red Lion Yard, Aldersgate 
Street, London. 

Swain, Charles, Manchester. 

Talbot, William Hawkshead, Wrightington 
Hall, Wigan. 

Taylor, Colonel, Severn, Stoke. - 

Thistlethwaite, William, Penketh, Warrington. 

Thompson, James, Glasgow. 

Thompson, James, Kirkhouse, Brampton, 
Cumberland. 

Thompson, John, 14, St. Ann’s Street, Man- 
chester. 

Thomson, Charles, Primrose, Clitheroe. 

Thomson, Henry, Primrose, Clitheroe. 

Thomson, James, LL.D., Professor of Ma- 
thematics in the University of Glasgow. 

Thomson, John, Ardwick, Manchester. 

Tootal, Edward, 13, Pall Mall, Manchester. 

Tootal, Henry, Manchester.. 

Townend, Robert, Fountain Street, Man- 
chester. 

Townend, William, High Street, Manchester. 

Trimmer, Joshua, Putney. 

Tunder, F. S., Woodlands, Crumpsall, Man- 
chester. 

Turner, George, M.D., Stockport. 

Turner, James Aspinall, Cross Street, Man- 
chester. 

Turner, Thomas, 67, Mosley Street, Man- 
chester. 

Turner, Rev. William, Manchester. 

Turner, William, Paris. 

Turner, William, Meal Street, Manchester. 

Tysoe, Charles, Salford. 

Vantini, Zenon, Victoria Hotel, London. 

Vickers, William, jun., Nottingham. 

Vignoles, Charles, Professor, University Col- 
lege, London; Trafalgar Square, London. 

Vignoles, Hutton, C.E., Mill Street, Ancoats, 
Manchester. 

Vivian, John Henry, St. James’s Pl., London. 

Waddington, David, Rusholme, Manchester. 

Waddington, Nathan, Altrincham, Cheshire. 

Walker, Ibotson, Altrincham, Cheshire. 

Walker, John, Mosley Street, Manchester. 


Walker, Samuel H., Horrabridge, Tavistock, 
Devon. 

Walker, William, jun., Manchester. 

Warington, Robert, Apothecaries’ Hall,London. 

Watkin, Absalom, Manchester. 

Watson, James, Messrs. Jackson, Watson and 
Greig, Manchester. 

Watt, Alexander,15,St. Mungo Street,Glasgow. 

Watts, Thomas Hodgson, M.D., Manchester. 

Wellbeloved, Rev. Charles, York. 


’ Wemyss, Colonel, Manchester. 


Wheeler, Daniel, 24, West Clifton, Bristol. 

Whitmore, Edward, Bank, St. Ann’s Street, 
Manchester. 

Wightman,Alexander, 2, Dover Street, Chorl- 
ton-upon-Medlock. - 

Wilkinson, M. A. Eaton, M.D., 37, George 
Street, Manchester. 

Williams, Cadogan, New Casher, Glamorgan- 
shire. 

Williams, Richard Thomas, Bristol. 

Williams, Thomas Hartley, Manchester. 

Williamson, Edward Henry, Holywell. 

Williamson, James, M.D., Stretton Hall, 

_ Chester. 

Wilson, Rev. John, Manchester. 
Winkworth, Henry, Folygon Avenue, Ard- 
wick, Manchester, : 
Winkworth, Thomas, 44, Gutter Lane, Lon- 
don. 

Winter, Gilbert, St. Ann’s Street, Manchester. 

Wood,Charles, Brazennose Street, Manchester. 

Wood, Charles Hurd, Brazennose Street, 
Manchester. 

Woodcroft, Bennett, Ardwick Green, Man- 
chester. 

Worthington, Edward, Fountain Street, Man- 
chester. 

Worthington, John, Brocklehurst Hall, North- 
wich. 

Worthington, Thomas, Manchester. 

Wray, Rev. Cecil Daniel, M.A., Seedley, 
Manchester. 

Yates, Joseph St. John, St. James’s Cham- 
bers, Manchester. 

Young, James, Lesmahagow. 


PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


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