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REPORT
f. OF THE 3
a
FOURTEENTH MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT YORK IN SEPTEMBER 1844.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1845.
p BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR,
PRINTE
FLEET STREET.
RED LION COURT,
CONTENTS.
Ossrots and Rules of the Association .........ssccssseceeeceeceeecceneees
Officers and Council ..
Places of Meeting tha: Oficers aia ohcsanannibak Aan aGe aon Geciadian sree
Table of Council from commencement ...........++ ‘ doaeadicy
Officers of Sectional Committees and Disesestacicisns Meontierd odedieass
Treasurer's Account .. EYE RE OY Bh dae Bacar ccmaenaaeeeeimeseaumes
Reports, Researches, ed Pedaames Finguamasganisginesdatss pau sue aaiets
Recommendations for Additional Reports and hse A ay in Solpass
Synopsis of Money Grants ............ eaplbaws Us chs sna de
Arrangements of the General inal “Meetings $06 bectidvecened cbevohebe
Address of the President .. TTT
Report of the Council to the ened Committee ase bSueanteny ss kibpe aioe
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
On the Microscopic Structure of Shells. By W.Carrenter, M.D., F.R.S.
Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca, By JosHuA ALDER
and AtBany Hancock.. eS ool venncn fay anby
Researches on the Hy Aberive of Lines on ae Gaiden of ‘Seeds and
the Growth of Plants. By Rogert Huyr ..........
Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir Joun W. F. seer en
WHEWELL, and Mr. Bairy (deceased), appointed by the British
Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ......
On the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada. ua! Lieut.-Colonel Epwarp
SaBIneE, R.A., F.R.S. aad bes Ge
Report on some recent es. into nine. eaniaitg pa and
(Economy of the Araneidea made in Great Britain. ae Joun BLAcK-
WALL, F.L.S..
On the Paeietion of lane fieficotne Telescopes, By the ee
SRS LEMNSIIG cde tac oivainia’s cede dante decoish «deel sai
Report on a Gas Bienen for Experiments on Vitrifaction aa othe
Applications of High Heat in the Paget ee the Rev.
Witiiam Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &. oo... eee eee
Report of the Committee for registering Earthquake Shocks i in geaetaad
Report of a Committee appointed at the Tenth Meeting of the Associa-
tion for Experiments on Steam-Engines. Members of the Com-
mittee: — The Rey. Professor Moserey, M.A., F.R.S.; Eaton
' Hopexinson, Esq., F.R.S.; J. S. oe aes EGS. ; "Professor
Pore, F.G.S. (Reporter) .. Ge PRRs E A ioe ete
90
Iv CONTENTS.
Page
Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race
Fourth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. E. Srrickianp, Esq.,
Prof. DausEeny, Prof. Henstow and Prof. aera ine to
continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds...........sseseeeeee 94
On the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of ‘Smoked “a
WVEIUAM PATRBAIBN, ESQ. cass cec ces csecesscecescesccecss cencnesysuacenmens ume
Report concerning the Obsery Sars of the British Association at cb.
from August the Ist, ai to dea the 31st, 1844. ie FRANCIS
Ronatps, Esq., F.R. S... .. 120
Sixth Report of the Canes Saag of ‘Sir a “Hesse ‘the
Master oF Trinity Cotiece, Cambridge, the DEAN or Ety, Dr.
Lioyp and Colonel Sazine, appointed to conduct the Co-operation
of the British Association in the system of Simultaneous Magnetical
Bae eceorolomieal OUSETVALIONS ...,..<..+00i+ss0n8 one teseduspaseeeptanins 143
On the influence of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth,
on Metamorphism in general, and particularly the ea of
the Scandinavian Alum Slate. By Prof. G. ForcHHAMMER............ 155
Report on the recent Progress and present State of Onithology. on
H. E. StricKLAND, M.A., ENGSS iS 80s) cian oles rene sere
Report of Committee appointed to conduct Oise vations on Auittanies
nean Temperature in Ireland. By T. OLpHam, Esq., M.R.LA....... 221
Report on the extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain
Fossils indicative of the former existence in that Continent of large
Marsupial Representatives of the Order PAacHYDERMATA. Prof.
wine ERS. acess ecdesss aes oe
Report on the Working of ieee eal Osler’ s ee at Ply-
mouth, for the ae 1841, Bile 1843. my W. Snow * ae fe Ss
F.R.S., &c.. . 241
Report on Peoheric Wav yes. By W. R. ‘ieee aot eB 4.
Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de foo de Boned "Pals cass,
with translation ............ mene ke)
Report on Waves. Ee J. Saath eval Da M. i “ER. s. Edin,
made to the Meetings in 1842 and 1843. Members of the Com-
mittee: — Sir Joun Rosison, Sec. R.S. aoe and J. Scott
PPEISREDUL, WARS. Ed. ov..ccccecsescctassevessecccceecen tocecs een sheneeeaaaaaenanmm
Provisional Reports and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en-
trusted to Committees and Individuals..............ccssceessseeeceeseeeeeees 390
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
Tur Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
RULES.
MEMBERS.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to conform
to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association. Hey
The officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution, recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Members of the Association, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
SUBSCRIPTIONS.
The amount of the Annual Subscription shall be One Pound, to be paid in
advance upon admission ; and the amount of the composition in lieu thereof,
Five Pounds.
An admission fee of One Pound is required from all Members elected as
Annual Subscribers, after the Meeting of 1839, in addition to their annual
subscription of One Pound.
The volume of Reports of the Association will be distributed gratuitously
to every Annual Subscriber who has actually paid the Annual Subscription
for the year to which the volume relates, and to all those Life Members who
shall have paid Two Pounds as a Book Subscription.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
If the Annual Subscription of any Member shall have been in arrear for
V1 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he shall cease to be a
Member.
MEETINGS.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the previous
Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of
the Association..
GENERAL COMMITTEE.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or longer,
to transact the business of the Association, It shal] consist of the following
persons :—
1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au-
thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.
8. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceeding
three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.
4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.
5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the Meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.
6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex
officio members of the General Committee for the time being.
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.
The Committee shall report what subjects of investigation they would par-
ticularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and brought
under consideration at the next Meeting.
The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of par-
ticular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, for
the information of the Annual Meetings.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommen-
dations.
LOCAL COMMITTEES.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist ir making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
/
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Vil
OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
‘COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the weex of the Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1844—45.
pa bros
Trustees (permanent).—Roderick Impey Murchison, Esq., F.R.S., P. Geog. S.
John Taylor, Esq., f.R.S. The Very Reverend G. Peacock, D.D., Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
President.—The Very Reverend George Peacock, D.D., Dean of Ely.
Vice-Presidents.—The Earl Fitzwilliam, F.R.S. Viscount Morpeth, F.G.S.
The Hon. John Stuart Wortley, M.P., F.R.S. Sir David Brewster, K.H.,
F.R.S.L. and E. Michael Faraday, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. Rev. William
VY. Harcourt, F.R.S.
President Elect.—Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S.
Viee-Presidents Elect.—The Right Hon. The Earl of Hardwicke. The
Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Norwich. The Rev. John Graham, D.D.,
Master of Christ’s College. Rev. Gilbert Ainslie, D.D., Master of Pembroke
Hall. G.B. Airy, Esq., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. Rev. Adam Sedgwick,
F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor.
General Secretaries,— Roderick Impey Murchison, Esq., F.R.S., P. Geog.S.,
London. Lieut.-Col. Sabine, F.R.S., Woolwich.
Assistant General Secretary.—Professor Phillips, F.R.S., York.
General Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi,
London.
Secretaries for the Cambridge Meeting in 1845.—Wm. Hopkins, Esq.,
M.A., F.R.S. D.T. Ansted, Esq., M.A., F.G.S., Prof. of Geology in King’s
College, London.
Treasurer to the Meeting in 1845,—C. C. Babington, Esq.
Council.—Sir H. T. Dela Beche. Rev. Dr. Buckland. Dr. Daubeny.
Professor E. Forbes. Professor ‘I. Graham. W.Snow Harris, Esq. James
Heywood, Esq. Dr, Hodgkin. Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq. Leonard Horner,
Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. Charles Lyell, Esq.
Professor MacCullagh. ‘The Marquis of Northampton. Professor Owen.
Rev. Dr. Robinson. Capt. Sir J, Ross, R.N. The Earl of Rosse. H. E.
Strickland, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes. William ‘Thompson, Esq. H. War-
burton, Esq. Professor Wheatstone. C.J. B. Williams, M.D.
Local Treasurers.—Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. C.C, Babington, Esq., Cam-
bridge. Dr. Orpen, Dublin. Charlies Forbes, Esq., Edinburgh. Professor
Ramsay, Glasgow. William Gray, jun., Esq., York.’ William Sanders, Esq.,
Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. G. W. Ormerod, Esq., Manchester.
James Russell, Esq., Birmingham. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Henry Woollcombe, Esq., Plymouth. James Roche, Esq., Cork.
Auditors. —Robert Hutton, Esq. Leonard Horner, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes.
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MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. 1X
II. Table showing the Members of Council of the British Association from
its commencement, in addition to Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries, for a list of whom see p. viii.
Rev. Wm. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &c. ...... 1832—1836.
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ............ 1835.
General Secretaries. < R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., F.G.S. ........cceeceeeee 1836—1844,
Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. .......0000 1837, 1838.
Lieut.-Colonel Sabine, V.P.R.S. .......ee.eceee eee 1839, 1844.
General Treasurer. John Taylor, F.R.S., Treas. G.S., &c. 1.2.2... 1832—1844
Charles Babbage, F.R.SS. L.& E., &c. (Resigned.)
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., &c.
Trustees (permanent.)< John Taylor, F.R.S., &c.
Francis Baily, F.R.S., (Deceased.)
The Dean of Ely.
Suet. al } Professor Pluilliag Puce e020 - eivessacdedoncseoss 1832—1844,
Members of Council.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal ...... 1834, 1835, 1841.
MeV THOthy IMD). ccckeccecc~.cacce~covcsbilcc's'es 1838, 1839, 1840.
Francis Baily, V.P. and Treas. R.S. ......... 1837—1839.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S...............0005 1841—1844.
George Bentham, F.L.S. .........sseseeseceeeees 1834, 1835.
Robert Brown, D.C.L., F.R.S.........ceeceeeee 1832, 1834, 1835, 1838—184].
Sir David Brewster, F.R.S., &c. .......00..000e 1832, 1841—1842.
Sir Thomas Brisbane, Bart. ............ceeeeeeee 1842.
Sir M. I. Brunel, F.R-S., &. ....c.scsccecenecs 1832.
Rey. Professor Buckland, D.D., F.R.S., &c.1833, 1835, 1838 —1844.
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S...............0008 1838, 1839.
Rev. T. Chalmers, D.D., Prof. of Divinity,
PIP TED Nt, tes ccspasceaciedeeen-ceceserae'sa 1833
Professor Clark, Cambridge.................0000- 1838.
Professor Christie, F.R.S., &C. oo... eee eee eee 1833—1837.
William Clift, F.R.S., F.G.S. .........ceeeeeees 1832—1835.
J. C. Colquhoun, Esq. ...........sceecsveeeeeers 1840.
John Corrie, F.R.S., &c. ....c.ccecesseecentecees 1832.
Professor Daniell, F.R.S. .........ccccececeececes 1836, 1839.
pe teeny, PES. , sai qinorenusvonntceesovsrece 1838—1844.
Pepbre Prink Water ~.esscelecscs cnesencetaddccsco une 1834, 1835.
Sir Philip G. Egerton, Bart., F.R.S............ 1840, 1841.
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L., F.R.S., &c...1833.
Professor Forbes, F.R.S. L.. & E., &c. ...... 1832, 1841, 1842.
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., V.P.R.S., &c. ...... 1832.
Professor R. Graham, M.D., F.R.S.E. ......1837.
Professor Thomas Graham, F.R.S...........+ 1838, 1839—1844.
John Edward Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c....... 1837—1839, 1840, 1843.
Professor Green, F.R.S., F.G.S. .......00ec0eee 1832.
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S., F.G.S. ............ 1832—1839—1843.
Henry Hallam, F.R.S., F.S.A., &c.......0.00. 1836.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, F.R.S. ........ceceeesees 1842,
Sir William R. Hamilton, Astron. Royal of
eeland VERITON. %.- isetetnoee hence cece 1832, 1833, 1836.
W. J. Hamilton, Sec. G.S. ........ ee repeee: es 1840—1842.
W. Snow Harris, F.R.S...........0. Bee aeeaete 1844,
James Heywood, Esq., F.R.S........c.c0eeceees 1843, 1844.
(Ses hail CF gn ah da 1832.
Thomas Hodgkin, M.D. ............cecceeeeeees 1833—1837, 1839, 1840, 1842.
Eaton Hodgkinson, Bisqe, BeBe Si isicheews ees’ 1843, 1844.
Prof. Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.1832.
Leonard Horner, F\R.S. ..sscccccessescceeeeeeee1841—1844,
x MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.
Rey. FP. W:- Hope; M.A. F.L.S: Jcsecssepss-ons 1837.
Robert Hutton, F.G.S., Sib. cviessadat Faced oes ett 1838, 1839—1843, 1844,
Professor R. Jameson, F. Rios Lis Buble euesen 183
Rev. Leonard Jenyns, F.L.S. .....csceceeeeeeee ise
H Ba dlerrard, Ws. ...2.s5-sscasevtescapsoesessae 1840.
UE OSes ccccs cocessaccdee Fes kbac ine egeans dagee 1839,
Sir Charles Lemont Bart. 5: ukti.c- saceseceers 1838, 1839, 1842—1844,
even Gardner. oosseseseceseneosoe¥esgsevens Gaus 1838, 1839.
Professor Lindley, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. «4... 1833, 1836.
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. 1832, 1833, 1841—1843.
J. W. Lubbock, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Vice-
Chancellor of the University af oral. .1833—1836, 1838, 1839.
Rev. Thomas Luby ....+s+sssessseeeressreeeeeres 1832.
Charles: Lyell,.jun;, Pt. ..c.sceseeaseoeeedey 1838, 1839, 1840, 1843, 1844.
Professor MacCullagh, IMRT Asce.cttsbevsecs 1843, 1844.
William Sharp MacLeay, F.L.S...........044. 1837.
Professor John Macneill .........sceeeeeeecerere 1843.
‘Professor Miller, ‘WGN iiees. ccbeateescess Ae eee 1840.
Professor Moseley, F.R.S........seeceseseeeeees 1839, 1840, 1843,
Patrick Neill, UL. D., PERS. By iss-d-cscestecee 1833.
The Marquis of Northampton, P.R.S. ......1840—1843, 1844.
Professor Richard Owen, F.R.S., F.L.S. ....1836, 1838, 1839, 1844.
Rev. George Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c. ...1832, 1834, 1835, 1839—1842.
©. Pendarves, Hsqsp FP sitar dgsatsesscassasecas 1840.
Rev. Professor Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Bite oo 1837, 1839, 1840.
J. @Prichard; M.D, WR SA ees, ccs crcess 1832
George Rennie, FSRiS: s5....<cscecsseuessosnees 18331835, 1839, 1841.
Sir John Rennie, Pete Dwweivacthusseceseendes ess 1838
(Dr: Richardson,PVRS.. .3:25o eh esstassascesd es- 1841—1843,
Rev. Professor Ritchie, F.R.S, «.......seeeees 1833.
Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D....... stag Shvalex cane 1841, 1844.
Sir John Robison, Sec. R.S.B. .....eseeseeeee 1832, 1836, 1841, 1842.
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S., &c...1834—1837, 1841, 1842.
The Earl of Rosse, F. R.S. ass scrape OF.
Capt. Sir J. C. Ross, R.N., “ERS. gaa:
Lieut.-Colonel Sabine, F,R.S....,..+0eceeeeeees 1838.
Uiord Sandon... vcsesccepbsouns eaevameeeeeset eaters 1840.
Rev. Professor Sedgwick, M.A,, F.R.S. ...1842, 1843.
Rey. William Scoresby, B.D., F. R. S.L.&E. 1842,
H. E. Strickland, Esq., F.G. jhe tale 1840—1842, 1844.
Lieut.-Col. W. H. Sykes, F. R.S., F.L.S., &c.1837—1839, 1842—1844.
H. Fox’ Talbot, Hsq., FsR.Seveieb>-s6:>senes 1840.
Rev. J. J. Tayler, B. ‘A., Manchester ......... 1832.
William Thompson, F, ERE A RR 1843, 1844,
Professor Traill, M.D.......... BSesehres-cessanst 1832, 1833.
N. A. Vigors, M.P., D.C.L., F.S.A., F.L.S.1832, 1836, 1840.
James Walker, Esq., P.S.C. RS 1840.
Captain Washington, VAIN, seat ipa ss >see ccont'e 1838, 1839, 1840.
Professor Wheatstone, F.R.S.......ceceeeeecees 1838—1844.
H. Warburton, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. G.S. ...1844,
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.,MasterofT.C.Camb.1838, 1839, 1842, 1843.
Professor C. J. B. Williams, M.D., F.R.S..1842—1844.
nev. Prof. Willis, MoAcs Hob cbpaesstscser ces 1842.
William! Yarrell,, Hela Senumerpeheeeees ses aste rs 1833—1836.
James Yates, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. ........000 1842,
Secretaries to the { Edward Turner, M. ae SS. L. & E. 1832—1836.
Council. James Yates, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 1831—1840.
a OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. x1
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE
YORK MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—The Ear] of Rosse, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor MacCullagh, M.R.I.A. Rev. Dr. Robinson,
M.R.I.A. Rev. Dr. Whewell, F.R.S. Professor Wheatstone, F.R.S.
Secretaries——Professor Stevelly, M.A. Rev. Wm. Hey, M.A., F.G.S.
SECTION B,—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY ;
(including their applications to Agriculture and the Arts.).
President.—Professor T. Graham, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Marquis of Northampton, F.R.S, Professor Grove,
F.R.S. Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S.
Secretaries-—Dr. L. Playfair. E. Solly, Esq., F.R.S. T.H. Barker, Esq.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Henry Warburton, Esq., M.P., President of the Geological
Society of London.
Vice-Presidents.—The Ear] of Enniskillen, F.R.S. Sir H. T. De la Beche,
F.R.S. R.I. Murchison, F.R.S., P.R.Geog.S. (President for Geography)
Rev. Professor Sedgwick, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor Ansted, M.A., F.R.S. E. H. Bunbury, M.A., F.G.S,
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
President.—The Very Rev. The Dean of Manchester.
Vice-Presidents—Professor Owen, F.R.S. Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S.
W. Spence, F.L.S. Dr. Falconer, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor Allman. Dr. Lankester. Harry Goodsir, Esq.
Dr. King.
SECTION E.—MEDICAL SCIENCE.
President.—J. C. Prichard, M.D.
Vice-Presidents —W.P. Alison, M.D. H.S. Belcombe, M.D. George
Goldie, M.D. Thomas Simpson, M.D.
Seeretaries.—I. Erichsen, Esq. R. S. Sargent, M.D.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
President.—Lieut.-Col. W. H. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.
Vice»Presidents.—Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., F.G.S. Sir C. Lemon,
Bart. T. Tooke, Esq. G.R. Porter, Esq.
Secretaries. James Heywood, Esq. Joseph Fletcher, Esq. Dr. Laycock.
SECTION G.—-MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—J. Scott Russell, F.R.S.E. Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—C. Vignoles, Esq. Thomas Webster, Esq.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Secretary of the Institute,
Paris. A.D. Bache, Philadelphia. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Pro-
fessor Bessel, Kénigsberg. Professor H. von Boguslawski, Breslau. Pro-
fessor Braschmann, Moscow. Professor Dela Rive, Geneva. Professor Dumas,
Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Professor Encke, Berlin. Dr. A. Er-
man, Berlin. Dr. Langberg, Christiania. M. Frisiani, Astronomer, Milan.
Baron Alexander von Humboldt, Berlin. M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg. Pro-
fessor Jacobi, Kénigsberg. Dr. Lamont, Munich. Professor Liebig, Giessen.
- Professor Link, Berlin. Professor CErsted, Copenhagen. M. Otto, Breslau.
Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal, Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor C.
Ritter, Berlin. Professor Schumacher, Altona. Professor Wartmann, Lausanne.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from
RECEIPTS.
EN to pas Gs
To Balance in hand from last year’s Account ........ songertep: 496 5 Il
To Life Compositions received at the Cork Meeting andsince 160 0 0
To Annual Subscriptions ...... Ditto...... Ditto...... Ditto...... 446 0 0
——- 606 0 0
To received for Ladies’ Tickets at the Cork Meeting ..... Hen. 160 0 0
To received for Sections’ ......... DittOy. tite. Ditto............ ae 0 (0
To received Compositions for Books (future publication) ... 66 0 0
To received Dividends of £5500 in the 3 per cent. Consols,
12 months to July 1844..........s.sceceuee isesachevanevspaancans 165 0 0
To received from the Sale of Reports, viz.
Ist vo]., 2nd Edition.......:..cecseccssers SF Jats 212° 4
DNC VOlioscnandcsccss scutes covenseeseeeceeey eeea eet ts 3.0 0
OL! VOL wactneasscteeccee i tarees. Us coer nce MOM eeeeG 216 0
AL VO). caccocseosns sve sceessdandecdacetee tees eeemek 3.6 7
Sth VOI. .esecccnscocsscee AR cot ebelewcocevevieds eee 4 3 2
GEM VO), .coceersandaese eevevevcce Siodssapeevvencusesa 615 4
MEI VO). ceccvensss ioosabechinwenstececdseceusates “S TO 9A0
8th vol. ..... odscovscwccbecces sadadaseet te aeddee we vee 918 1
Otliwoldc.cpeskersetee sb enepacvaees aneayeredeees aesea 20 15 0
NOCH VOl ceeccexsvcenrsss eocccccccccceneducuecscosaccas 18 10 0
DEH VOM Near ccates senses Senensanapasle aseceseces Jouewe 34 611
P2thivole 7. ccccutbosttaceas cbse sapeeaes Sch coscd beecee 17 11 6
Lithograph Signatures ........0...seeseesseecens = Oe 140
———_._ 1131 ‘18 11
Balances stedetdetecetcctusascsskens 478 1 5
£2135 16 5
The General Treasurer on Account of the Printing
To Cash received from Her Majesty’s Government towards the expense of
Printing the Catalogues of Stars of Lalande and Lacaille ........ wires LO00 0,0
£1000 0 0
British Association for the
To Balance in hand of the Account for Printing Lalande and Lacaille’s
Catalopitestica.cvasstes cig. ce een Roth sce eee es or rceer nes wanes ea
£934 2 0
Se eee
WM. YARRELL, sis
JAMES HEYWooD, f @“@/07s-
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
15th of August 1843 to the 26th of September 1844.
PAYMENTS.
By Sundry Disbursements by Treasurer and Local Treasurers,
including the Expenses of the Meeting at Cork, Adver-
tising, and Sundry Printing .........c....sesceseeseseeceares
By Printing, &c. of the 12th Report (11th Mal.)) diese. foe zwemews
By Engraving, &c. for the 13th Report (12th vol.)............
By Salaries to Assistant General Secretary, Accountant, &c...
By Paid on Account of Grants to Committees for Scientific
purposes, viz. for—
Meteorological Observations at Kingussie and Inverness...
Completing......... ditto......... at Plymouth .............. we've
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-operation ..........sses00e .
Publication of the British Association Catalogue of Stars...
Observations on Tides on the East Coast of Scotland ......
Revision of the Nomenclature of Stars ..............0008 1842
Maintaining the Establishment in Kew Observatory ......
Instruments for............ GIGEC LS sree sun GittO sess civessovaacens
Influence of light on Plants ...........cececscececeeeneeseeeees 2
Subterraneous Temperature in Ireland..,........ Naeenaas cess
Coloured Drawings of Railway Sections .....-....sc.seseeeee
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of the Lower Tertiary Strata
Registering the Shocks of Earthquakes............s0+.0+ 1842
Researches into the Structure of Fossil Shells ...............
Radiata and Mollusca of the Augean and Red Seas ...1842
Geographical distributions of Marine Zoolog By Nedaren oo»
Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall .........secseeeseeee
Dosnc.aes vee. Corfu,..... Ueanbaverseneesgcaccseensecesease
Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ......... te scensesccseee
Dittocaest ere eeeecnee ditto......... eecevcce seeceveee L842
Researches on Exotic Anoplura...... Senate ae eden Seereenoos nee
Experiments on the Strength of Materials ............ eases
Completing Experiments on the Forms of Ships ...........+
Inquiries into AsphyXia ...........scescosseceeseeees Spence espunas
Investigations on the internal Constitution of Metals Braces
Constant Indicator and Morin’s Instrument....,.......1842
of Lalande and Lacaille's Catalogues of Stars.
bo
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ecocococo"ococooocooronoonsncooonooe
—
Oooooowwococoocooocooacowwaooros
>
bo
— Ts a)
CoN w
98112 8
£2135 16 5
By Cash paid on Account of Superintending the Press Work, &c. &c. .....-
Balance ....e..0-
Advancement of Science.
By Balance due on the General Account
eeeseeosace eeceeeteeseee
By Balance in the Bankers’ hands ............. or ece Asan cece
Ditto...... General Treasurer’s hands
Ditto..,...Local Treasurers’ hands
pees ee ec cereneeees
fee eeeesseseee feereee
—e ve .
xiv REPORT—1844.
The folloning Reports on the Progress and Desiderata of different branches
of Science have been drawn up at the request of the Association, and
printed in its Transactions.
1831-32.
On the progress of Astronomy during the present century, by G. B. Airy,
M.A., Astronomer Royal.
On the state of our knowledge respecting Tides, by J. W. Lubbock, M.A.,
Vice-President of the Royal Society.
On the recent progress and present state of Meteorology, by James D.
Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh.
On the present state of our knowledge of the science of Radiant Heat, by
the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry,
Oxford.
On Thermo-electricity, by the Rev. James Cumming, M.A., F.R.S., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry, Cambridge.
On the recent progress of Optics, by Sir David Brewster, K.C.G., LL.D.,
F.R.S., &c.
On the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy, by the Rev.
William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S.
On the progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of Geology, by the
Rev. William Conybeare, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c.
On the recent progress and present state of Chemical Science, by J. F. W.
Johnston, A.M., Professor of Chemistry, Durham.
On the application of Philological and Physical Researches to the History
of the Human Species, by J. C. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., &c.
1835.
On the advances which have recently been made in certain branches of
Analysis, by the Rev. G. Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
On the present state of the Analytical Theory of Hydrostaties and Hydro-
dynamics, by the Rev. John Challis, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
On the state of our knowledge of Hydraulics, considered as a branch of
Engineering, by George Rennie, F.R.S., &c. (Parts I. and IL.)
On the state of our knowledge respecting the Magnetism of the Earth, by
S. H. Christie, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics, Woolwich.
On the state of our knowledge of the Strength of Materials, by Peter
Barlow, F.R.S.
On the state of our knowledge respecting Mineral Veins, by John Taylor,
F.R.S., Treasurer G.S., &c.
On the Physiology of the Nervous System, by William Charles Henry,
M.D.
On the recent progress of Physiological Botany, by John Lindley, F.R.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of London.
1834.
On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S.
On the Philosophy of Contagion, by W. Henry, M.D., F.R.S.
On the state of Physiological Knowledge, by the Rev. Wm. Clark, M.D.,
F.G.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge.
On the state and progress of Zoology, by the Rev. Leonard Jenyns, M.A.,
F.L.S., &c.
=
ad RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XV
On the theories of Capillary Attraction, and of the Propagation of Sound
as affected by the Development of Heat, by the Rev. John Challis, M.A.,
F.R.S., &c.
On the state of the science of Physical Optics, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, M.A.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dublin.
1835.
On the state of our knowledge respecting the application of Mathematical
and Dynamical Principles to Magnetism, Electricity, Heat, &c., by the Rev.
William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S.
On Hansteen’s researches in Magnetism, by Captain Sabine, F.R.S.
On the state of Mathematical and Physical Science in Belgium, by M.
Quetelet, Director of the Observatory, Brussels.
1836.
On the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mineral and Thermal
Waters, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., &c., Professor of
Chemistry and of Botany, Oxford.
On North American Zoology, by John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., &c.
Supplementary Report on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids, by the Rev.
J. Challis, Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Cambridge.
1837.
On the variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different points of
the Earth’s surface, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
_ On the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind, by the Rev.
William Taylor, F.R.S.
On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous Bodies,
by Professor Johnston, F.R.S.
On the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under the British
Government, by Col. Sykes, F.R.S.
1838.
Appendix to Report on the variations of Magnetic Intensity, by Major
Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
1839.
Report on the present state of our knowledge of Refractive Indices for
the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media, by the Rev.
Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Ast.S., Savilian Professor of Geo-
metry, Oxford. f
Report on the distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles,
by Edward Forbes, M.W.S., For. Sec. B.S.
Report on British Fossil Reptiles, Part 1., by Richard Owen, Esq., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., &c.
1840.
Report on the recent progress of discovery relative to Radiant Heat, sup-
plementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first
volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A.,F.R.S.,F.R.Ast.S., F.G.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford.
Supplementary Report on Meteorology, by James D. Forbes, Esq., F.R.S.,
es las Ed., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edin-
urgh.
xvi - REPoRT—1844, 0 © :
u 1841. i"
Behan on the Conduction of Heat, by Professor Kelland, F.R.S., fees’
Report on the state of our knowledge of Fossil Reptiles, Part IL, by Pro-
fessor R. Owen, F.R.S.
1842.
Abstract of Report of Professor Liebig on Organic Chemistry applied to
Physiology and Pathology, by Lyon Playfair, M.D.
: Report on the Ichthyology of New Zealand, by John Richardson, M.D.,
-R.S,
Report on the Establishment of the German Meteorological Association,
by Dr. Lamont of Munich,
Report on Chemical Geology, by Professor Johnston (Parts I. and II.).
Report on British Fossil Mammalia (Part I.), by Professor Owen.
1843.
Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, by Professor Agassiz.
Report on British Fossil Mammalia (Part II.), by Piofessoe Owen.
Report on the Fauna of Ireland (Invertebrata), by William Thompson, Esq.
1844.
On the recent Progress and present State of Ornithology, by H. E. Strick-
land, M.A., F.G.S.
The following Reports of Researches undertaken at the request of the Associa-
tion have been published in its Transactions, viz.
1835.
On the comparative measurement of the Aberdeen Standard Scale, by
Francis Baily, Treasurer R.S., &c.
On Impact upon Beams, by Eaton Hodgkinson.
Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic
Force in Ireland, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, Capt. Sabine, and Capt. J. C. Ross.
On the phenomena usually referred to the Radiation of Heat, by H.
Hudson, M.D.
Experiments on Rain at different Elevations, by Wm. Gray, jun., and
Professor Phillips (Reporter).
Hourly Observations of the Thermometer at Plymouth, by W. S. Harris.
On the Infra-orbital Cavities in Deers and Antelopes, by A. Jacob, M.D.
On the Effects of Acrid Poisons, by T. Hodgkin, M.D.
On the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the Dublin Sub-Committee.
On the Registration of Deaths, by the Edinburgh Sub-Committee.
1836.
Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial Magnetic
Force in Scotland, by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S., &c,
Comparative view of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the
Neighbourhood of Dublin, the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and the South-
west of Scotland, &c. ; drawn up for the British Association by J.T. Mackay,
M.R.1.A., A.L.S., &c.; assisted by Robert Graham, Esq., M.D., Professor
of Botany i in the University of Edinburgh.
Report of the London Sub- Committce of the Medical Section of the
British Association on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. Xvii
Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and
Nervous System.
Account of the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides which
have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the
disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association,
by J. W. Lubbock, Esq.
Observations for determining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays
of the Solar Spectrum in various media, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A.,
F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford.
Provisional Report on the Communication between the Arteries and
Absorbents, on the part of the London Committee, by Dr. Hodgkin.
Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature, under the direction
of a Committee, consisting of Professor Forbes, Mr. W.S. Harris, Professor
Powell, Lieut-Colonel Sykes, and Professor Phillips (Reporter).
Inquiry into the validity of a method recently proposed by George B.
Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated De-
grees; undertaken, at the request of the Association, by Professor Sir W, R.
Hamilton.
1837.
Account of the Discussions of Observations of the Tides which have been
obtained by means of the grant of money which was placed at the disposal
of the Author for that purpose at the last Meeting of the Association, by J.
W. Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S.
On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced by the
Cold and the Hot Blast, by Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., &c.,
Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow.
On the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Ob-
servations, made as commanded by the British Association, by the Rev. 'T.
R. Robinson, D.D. %
On some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Tem-
perature of Mines, by Robert Were Fox.
Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British
Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the
Organs producing them. ‘
Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the Glands,
&c. of the Human Body, by G. O. Rees, M.D., F.G.S.
Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section of
the British Association, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart.
Report from the Committee for making experiments on the Growth of
Plants under Glass, and without any free communication with the outward
air, on the plan of Mr. N. I. Ward of London.
Report of tle Committee on Waves, appointed by the British Association
at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir John Robison, K.H., Secretary of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Edin. (Reporter).
On the Relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Cast Iron ob-
tained by Hot and Cold Blast, by Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq.
On the,Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and
Cold Blast, by W. Fairbairn, Esq.
1838.
Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Channel to the En-
glish Channel, during the year 1837-38, by Mr. Bunt, under the Direction
1844 b
Xvill REPORT—1844.:
of a Committee of the British Association. Drawn up by the Rev. W.
Whewell, F.R.S., one of the Committee.
A Memoir on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamie Lines in the British
Islands, from observations by Professors Humphrey Lloyd and John Phil-
lips, Robert Were Fox, Esq., Captain James Clark Ross, R.N,, and Major
Edward Sabine, R.A., by Major Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
First Report on the Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Rail-
way Constants, by Dionysius Lardner, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.
First Report upon Experiments instituted at the request of the British
Association, upon the Action of Sea and River Water, whether clear or foul,
and at various temperatures, upon Cast-and Wrought Iron, by Robert Mal-
let, M.R.I.A., Ass. Ins. C.E.
Notice of Experiments in progress, at the desire of the British Association,
on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganie
and Organic Substances, by Robert Mallet, M.R.I.A.
Experiments on the ultimate Transverse Strength of Cast Iron made at
Arigna Works, Co, Leitrim, Ireland, at Messrs. Bramah and Robinson’s, 29th
May, 1837.
Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en-
trusted to Committees and Individuals.
1839?
Report on the application of the sum assigned for Tide Calculations to
Mr. Whewell, in a letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq., Bristol.
Notice of Determination of the Are of Longitude between the Observato-
ries of Armagh and Dublin, by the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., &c.
Report of some Galvanic Experiments to determine the existence or non-
existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of
the Mountain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston
Moor, by H. L. Pattinson, Esq.
Report respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations
kept in Scotland at the expense of the British Association, by Sir David
Brewster, K.H., LL.D., F.R.SS.L. and E.
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British
Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle.
Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the
Plymouth Dockyard, Devonport, by W. Snow Harris, Esq., F. Rs.
1840,
Report on Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Ply-
mouth, by W. Snew Harris, Esq., F.R.S., &c.
Report on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the London Com-
mittee of the British Association for 1839-40.
An Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry, by Professor Schonbein
of Basle.
Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt,
clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast ir on, Wrought Iron, and
Steel, by Robert Mallet, M.R.I.A., Ass. Ins, C.E.
Report on the Observations recorded during the Years 1837, 1838, 1829
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical
iatitution, Birmingham, by A. Follett Osler, Esq.
Reportrespecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept
at Inverness and Kingussie, at the Expense of the British Association, from
Nov. Ist, 1838, to Wow Ist, 1839, by Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S., &c.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xix
) Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Divi Vertebrata, Drawn up, at the re-
quest of the British Association, by William Thompson, Esq. (Vice-Pres. Nat.
Hist. Society of Belfast), one of the Committee appointed for that pur-
ose,
: Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-tubes,
by Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., F.R.S.
Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on the Preservation
of Animal and Vegetable Substances, by the Rev. J.S. Henslow, F.L.S.
1841.
On the Tides of Leith, by the Rev. Professor Whewell, including a com-
munication by D. Ross, Esq.
On the Tides of Bristol, by the Rev. Professor Whewell, including a com-
munication by T. G. Bunt, Esq.
On Whewell’s Anemometer, by W. S. Harris, Esq.
On the Nomenclature of Stars, by Sir John Herschel.
On the Registration of Earthquakes, by D. Milne, Esq.
On Varieties of the Human Race, by T. Hodgkin, M.D.
On Skeleton Maps for registering the geographical distribution of Animals
or Plants, by — Brand, Esq.
On the Vegetative Power of Seeds, by H. E. Strickland, Esq.
On Acrid Poisons, by Dr. Roupell.
Supplementary Report on Waves, by J. S. Russell, Esq.
On the Forms of Ships, by J. S. Russell, Esq.
On the Progress of Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, by Sir
John Herschel.
~ On Railway Constants, by Dr. Larduer.
On Railway Constants, by E. Woods, Esq.
‘On the Constant Indicator, by the Rev. Professor Moseley.
1842.
Results of Hourly Meteorological Observations at Inverness, from Nov. 1,
1840 to Nov. 1, 1841, by Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S.
Second Report of the Committee for registering Earthquakes, by David
Milne, Esq.
Results of Investigations on Waves, by John Scott Russell, M.A.
On the Progress of simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions, by Sir John Herschel.
On the Electrolysing Power of a simple Voltaic Circle, by Professor
Schonbein.
_ Results of Researches on Marine Zoology by means of the dredge,—off
the Mull of Galloway by Captain Beechy, R.N.,—off the Mull of Cantyre by
Mr. Hyndman,—off Ballygally Head, Co. of Antrim, by Mr. Patterson.
‘On the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances, by C. C. Ba-
bington, F.L.S.
Reports of Committee on Railway Sections, by Rev. Dr. Buckland and
Mr. Vignoles.
On the Fishes of the Devonian Rocks and Old Red Sandstone, by M.
Agassiz.
On the Growth and Vitality of Seeds, by H. E. Strickland, F.G.S.
On Zoological Nomenclature, by H. E. Strickland, F.G.S.
On the Races of Man, by T. Hodgkin, M.D.
On the Form of Ships, by John Scott Russell, M.A.
OY 4c! ; b 2
XxX _ REFORT—1844,.
On the Constant Indicator, by Professor Moseley.
On the Meteorological Observations made at Plymouth during the past
year, by William Snow Harris, F.R.S.
On Vital Statistics, by Colonel Sykes, and the Committee on that subject.
1843,
Third Report on the action of Air and Water on Iron and Steel, by R.
Mallet, M.R.I.A.
Report of Committee for simultaneous Magnetic and Meteorological co-
operation.
Report of Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines.
Report of Committee for Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds.
Report on Tides of Frith of Forth and East coast of Scotland, by J. S.
Russell, M.A. Y
Report of Committee on the Form of Ships.
Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines, by J. Blake, M.R.C.S.
Report of Committee on Zoological Nomenclature.
Report of Committee on Earthquakes,
Report of Committee on Balloons.
Report of Committee on Scientific Memoirs.
Report on Marine Testacea, by C. W. Peach,
Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aigean Sea, by Professor E,
Forbes.
Report of the Excavation at Collyhurst, near Manchester, by E. W.
Binney.
Concluding Report of Railway Committee.
1844.
On the Microscopie Structure of Shells, by W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S.
Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca, by Joshua Alder and
Albany Hancock.
Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the
Growth of Plants, by Robert Hunt.
Report of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars.
On the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada, by Lieut.-Colonel Edward
Sabine, R,A., F.R.S.
Report on some recent Researches into the Structure, Functions and Gico-
nomy of the Araneidea, made in Great Britain by John Blackwall, F.L.S.
On the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes, by the Earl of Rosse.
Report on a Gas Furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory, by the Rev. William Vernon
Harcourt, F.R.S., &c.
Report of Committee for registering Earthquake Shocks in Scotland.
Report of Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines.
Report of Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race.
Report of Committee for Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds.
On the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention cf Smoke, by William
Fairbairn.
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew,
from August the Ist, 1843, to July the 31st, 1844, by Francis Ronalds,
F.R.S.
Report of Committee for simultaneous Magnetic and Meteorological co-
operation.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XX1
On the influence of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on
Metamorphism in general, and particularly the Metamorphosis of the Scan-
dinavian Alum Slate, by Professor G. Forchhammer.
‘Report on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland, by T. Oldham, Esq.
Report on the extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain
Fossils indicative of the former existence in that Continent of large Marsu-
pial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata, by Professor Owen, F.R.S.
Report on the Working of Whewell’s and Osler’s Anemometers at Ply~
mouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843, by W. Snow Harris, F.R.S., &c.
Report on Atmospheric Waves, by W. R. Birt.
Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l'Argile de Londres, par L. Agassiz.
Report of Committee on Waves, by J.S, Russell, M.A., F.R.S.E.
Provisional Reports and Notices of Progress in Special Researches en-
trusted to Committees and Individuals.
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE YORK
Meetine 1n Sept. anp Oct. 1844.
Recommendations for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money.
That the Thanks of the British Association be given to Her Majesty’s
Government for their prompt and liberal acquiescence in the request of the
Association for the publication of Mr. Forbes’s Aigean Researches at the
public cost.
That a representation be made to Her Majesty’s Government on the im-
portance of providing adequate funds for the development of the Cautley
Collection of Siwalik Fossils, and publication ofan account of the same. The
representation to be made by a Committee consisting of the President of the
British Association, the President of the Royal Society, the President of the
Geological Society, in co-operation with the President of the Royal Asiatic
Society.
That, in consequence of the difficulty, delay, and expense which attend the
transmission of Scientific Journals between the British Isles and foreign coun-
tries, an application be made to Government by the President and General
Secretaries, to take the subject into its favourable consideration.
That the Dean of Ely be requested to accept the office of a Trustee of the
‘Association, in the room of F. Baily, Esq. deceased.
». That Sir John Herschel, the Astronomer Royal, and Lieut. Stratford, R.N.,
be requested to continue the Reduction of Stars in the ‘ Histoire Céleste’ of
Lalande and the ‘Ccelum Australe Stelliferum ’ of Lacaille.
That Sir D. Brewster be requested to continue his investigations on the
action of different bodies on the Spectrum.
That Col. Sabine, Professor Wheatstone, Prof. Miller and Prof. Graham, be
‘a Committee for superintending the translation and publication of Scientific
Memoirs.
~ That Col. Sabine’s Paper ‘On the Meteorology of Toronto’ be published
entire among the Reports.
That Professor Schénbein be requested to prepare a Report on Ozone.
“That! Professor Kuhlman of Lille, be requested to extend his Researches
on the Silicification of soft Minerals.
Xxil REPORT —1844,
That Dr. Forchhammer’s Paper on the influence of fucoidal Plants in the
formation of strata and on the Metamorphic Phenomena in the Rocks of
Scandinavia, be printed entire among the Reports.
That Mr. West be requested to extend his analysis of English Mineral
Waters, and report the results,
That H. Goodsir, Esq. be requested to prepare a Report on the Cirripeda,
That G. J. Johnston, M.D. be requested to prepare a Report on the British
Annelida.
That J. Paxton, Esq., J. Taylor, jun., Esq., J.S. Russell, Esq.,and E. Hodg-
kinson, Esq., be requested to make and report the results of Experiments on
the Hydrodynamical Phenomena of the Reservoir and Fountain at Chatsworth.
That E. Hodgkinson, Esq. be requested to continue his Experiments on
the Strength of Materials.
That W. Fairbairn, Esq. be requested to continue his Experiments on the
Internal Constitution of Metals.
That the Meteorological Obseryations made at the request of the Asso-
ciation be discontinued, and the instruments transmitted to the Kew Physical
Observatory, except in the cases where the observations can be continued
gratuitously.
That the Council be authorized to invite, in the name of the British Asso-
ciation, the attendance of MM. Humboldt, Gauss, Weber, Kupffer, Arago,
Plana, Hansteen, Kreil, Lamont, Boguslawski, Gillip, Quetelet, and other di-
Stinguished foreigners who have taken a leading part in the great combined
system of magnetic and meteorological observations which are now in progress,
at the next Meeting of the Association at Cambridge, with a view to a con-
ference on the expediency of continuing the observations for another triennial
or longer period, and for the adoption of such measures with respect to the
observations which have been or may hereafter be made, as they may deem
best calculated to promote the advancement of those branches of Science.
That Mr. Bateman, C.E. of Manchester, be requested to furnish a Report on
the fall of rain in elevated tracts of country, and on the best means of collect-
ing and retaining the water for the supply of towns for agricultural and
manufacturing purposes, and for affording motive power to hydraulic machines.
That it be referred to the Council to consider of the propriety of modifying
the title and regulations of Section E, so that it may include a more general
range of subjects, and to report on the best mode of carrying that modification
into effect.
Recommendations of Special Researches in Science, involving Grants of
Money.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Robinson, Prof,
Challis, and Lieut, Stratford, R.N., for the purpose of continuing the publica-
tion of the British Association Catalogue of Stars, with the sum of £615 at
their disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Rey. Dr. Robinson, Col,
Sabine, and Prof. Wheatstone, for the purpose of conducting experiments with
Captive Ballooas, with the sum of £50 at their disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Rey. Dr. Whewell, the Dean of Ely, the Astronomer Royal, Rev. Dr. Lloyd,
and Col. Sabine, for the purpose of Magnetic and Meteorological co-operation,
with the sum of £50 at their disposal.
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXili
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Sir John Herschel, the Rev.
Dr. Whewell, and the Astronomer Royal, for the purpose of revising the No-
menclature of Stars, with the sum of £10 ar their disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of F. Ronalds, Esq, Prof. Wheat-
stone, and the Astronomer Royal, for the purpose of conducting the Electri-
cal Experiments at Kew, with the sum of £50 at their disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of W. S. Harris, Esq., Col.
Sabine, and Prof. Forbes, for the purpose of reducing the existing anemo-
metrical observations made at the request of the Association, with the sum of
£25 at their disposal.
That the Bills for Meteorological Instruments due to Mr. Adie and Mr,
Johnstone of Edinburgh, amounting to £18 12s, 6d., be discharged.
That the sum of £57 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the pay-
ment of expenses incurred in the provision of electrical apparatus for the Kew
Physical Observatory. :
KEW OBSERVATORY.
That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the pur-
pose of maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory.
That the sum of £30 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the erec-
tion of Kreil’s Barometrograph at the Kew Observatory.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Prof. Graham, Dr. Lyon Play-
fair, and Mr. E. Solly, for the purpose of analysing the ashes of Plants grown
on different soils in the British Islands, and reporting the results, in case the
Royal Agricultural Society of England concurs with the Association in making
the request and is willing to contribute to the expense, with (in that case) the
sum of £50 at their disposal.
That this Resolution be communicated to the Royal Agricultural Society,
and that they be requested to co-operate with the British Association in con-
ducting the inquiries, and to assist in defraying the expense of the analyses.
That the Marquis of Northampton, and Sir J. Johnstone, be requested to
press this subject upon the attention of the Royal Agricultural Society.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Lyon
Playfair, for the purpose of continuing their researches on the Gases evolved
from Furnaces used in the manufacture of iron, and reporting thereon, with the
sum of £50 at their disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Dr. Daubeny, Dr. Kane, Dr.
Apjohn, Mr. Ball, Mr. Babington, Prof. Owen, Prof. Forbes, and Mr. Goadby,
for the purpose of continuing examinations into the best method of preserving
Vegetable and Animal Substances, with the sum of £10 at their disposal.
That Dr, Kane be requested to continue his researches on Tannin, and res
port thereon to the next Meeting, with £10 at his disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Kane be requested to continue his researches into the nature of
Colouring Substances, and report thereon to the next Meeting, with £10 at
his disposal for the purpose. i
That Mr. R. Hunt be requested to institute experiments on the Actinograph,
with £15 at his disposal for the purpose.
Nag GEOLOGICAL SCIENCE, :
That, Mr, Oldham be requested to continue his observations on Subterra-
_ nean Temperature in deep mines in Ireland for one year, with £4 at his dispo-
sal for the purpose.
XXiv REPORT——1844.
GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY.
“That Dr. W. Carpenter be requested to continue his Microscopic Researches
into the Structure of Recent and Fossil Shells, &c., with £20 at his disposal
for the purpose.
That Dr. Carpenter’s Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells be
illustrated by Lithographic Plates not exceeding twenty in number.
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Professor Owen, Prof. E.
Forbes, Dr. Lankester, Mr. R. Taylor, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Ball, Prof. Allman,
Mr. Hugh E. Strickland, and Mr. Babington, for the purpose of preparing a
Report on the registration of periodical phenomena of animals and vegetables,
with the sum of £5 at their disposal for the purpose. :
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Sir W. Jardine, Mr. Yarrell,
and Dr. Lankester, for the purpose of continuing their researches on the Exotic
Anoplura, and reporting the results to the next Meeting, with the sum of £25
at their disposal.
That aCommittee be appointed, consisting of Mr. H.E. Strickland, Dr. Dau-
beny, Dr. Lindley, Prof. Balfour, and Mr. Babington, for the purpose of con-
tinuing researches on the Vitality of Seeds, with the sum of £10 at their
disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Prof. Forbes, Mr. Thompson,
and Mr. Ball, for the purpose of assisting Capt. Portlock in investigating the
Marine Zoology of Corfu, with the sum of £10 at their disposal.
That aCommittee be appointed, consisting of Prof. Forbes, Mr. Goodsir, Mr
Patterson, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Ball, Mr. J. Smith, Mr. Couch, and Dr. All-
man, for the purpose of continuing their investigations of the Marine Zoology
of Britain by means of the dredge, with the sum of £20 at their disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Prof. Owen, Prof. Forbes, Sir
C. Lemon, and Mr. Couch, for the purpose of aiding Mr. Peach in his researches
into the Marine Zoology of Cornwall, with the sum of £10 at their disposal.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Dr. Hodgkin, Dr. Prichard,
Prof. Owen, Dr. H. Ware, Mr. J. E. Gray, Dr. Lankester, Dr. A. Smith, Mr.
A. Strickland, and Mr. Babington, for the purpose of continuing researches
on the varieties of the Human Race, with the sum of £25 at their disposal.
MEDICAL SCIENCE.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. Blake, and Dr. Williams,
for the purpose of reporting on the Physiological Action of Medicines, with
the sum of £29 at their disposal.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Dr. Laycock, Dr. Alison, and
Mr. E. Chadwick, for the purpose of inquiring into the relative Statistics of
Sickness and Mortality in thecity of York, with the sum of £40 at theirdisposal.
GENERAL NOTICE. :
Gentlemen engaged in scientific researches by desire of the British Asso-
ciation, are requested to observe that by a Resolution of the General Com-
mittee at the Manchester Meeting (1842), all Instruments, Papers, Drawings
and other property of the Association, are to be deposited in the Kew Ob-
servatory (lately placed by Her Majesty the Queen at the disposal of the
Association), when not employed in carrying on Scientific Inquiries for the
Association ;-and the Secretaries are instructed to adopt the necessary mea-
sures for carrying this resolution into effect.
- SYNOPSTS/" © XXV.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee, at the York Meeting, October 2, 1844, with the
~ Name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee, is
entitled to draw for the Money.
Mathematical and Physical Science.
£8 a
Rosrnson, Dr.—For the Publication of the British Association
Catalogue of Stars ....... oticidnde 2E cent sleanldelaee . RGe ED.
Rosinson, Dr.—For conducting experiments with Captive Bal-
TOONB sh sods ee 0 a eate (ump Oils seb bacnceds Wiodls 46.8% -to. 50 0 0
Herscuet, Sir J.—For Magnetic and Meteorological Co-opera:
VOB. chen avasian quis WHR 18s 1s Ose sition sates OO 1G HO
Harnis, W. S.—For Reduction of praeehicoans ber (Obstrcahintin 25 0 0
Herscuet, Sir J.—For Nomenclature of Stars........ eoeeee 10 0 0
Ronatps, F., Esq.—For Electrical Experiments at Kew...-.. 50 0 0
Expenses Incurrep.—For continuing hourly Meteorological:
Observations at Inverness ..........-+ 80 18 11
—- For Meteorological Instruments at Edinburgh 18 12. 6
—— For Electrical Apparatus at Kew ........5. 57 0 0
£906 11. 5
Kew Observatory.
For maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory ...... 150 0° 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph Ve seddcetvosenveccesctevevve 30° 0 DO
£180 0 0
Chemistry y and Mineralogy, including their application to Agriculture and
the Arts.
Bouwssn, Professor.—For Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 0
Davzeny, Dr.—-For Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Sub-
StANCES 2. cece senceeeaes nee ce cece e cece eececscnes 10 0 0
Kane, Professor.—For inquiries into the Chemical History of
IED bx Ws, = © 0.90 aie Biniels » 9p Sinle's a.niain, AREA Sled sictsls dail’ 10 0 0
Kanz, Professor.—For investigating ‘the Chemical History of Co-
SEC LULTED 5.5 6 «Gls pial site fis pins sia. tus Lain itive > ae wae a 10 6 0
Hunt, R., Esq.—For Experiments on the Actinograph aise hy van ye ioe a
Granay, Professor.—For Ashes of Plants Seah s a a.m & Areca ROCESS Lae
ne —
£145 0 0
Geology and Physical, Geography.
Opa, T., Esq.—For experiments on Subterraneous Tem-
perature in Ireland .......... 6 a fRGISSi ere bie o WEL 1Q.6yd Ip 5 0 0
Carrenter, Dr.—For Researches into the Microscopic Struc-
ture of Fossil and Recent Shells, &c. .. sees. eee eeeees 20 0° 0
£25 000
XxXVi REPORT—1844.
Zoology and Botany.
Owen, Professor.—For Periodical Phenomena of Organized
Betegs saa2 ia tes owe sees ale cteeeeceescreeapevee OO
JARDINE, Sir W., Bart. ose Rescarchet on Exotic Anoplura.. 25 0 0
Srrickianp, H. E., Esq.—For Experiments on the Vitality of
DEBUG has SSS se. Th annie lelgisinipigcie ss este ee se 10 OMNyH
Portiock, Captain.—For a Report on the Marine Zoology of
Corfu Plies VEY) eS TET ee 10 0 0
Forses, Professor E.—For Researches on the Marine Zoology
OMEritain, 4b ey tee ee eke ae en bre reels sale eo0e's 20 oO! '®
Owen, Professor.—For Researches on the Marine Zoology of
Cormnwall ss als g oe sade ud pecercegsenersesseseces. 10) 09
Hopvexin, Dr.—For Inquiries into the Varieties of the Human
Race eee weer ee ee eer wee eee see eee eames seseeeeeoeeseenens 25 0 0
£105 0 0
Medical Science.
Brake, J., Esq.—For Physiological Action of Medicines .... £20 0 0
Statistics.
Laycocx, Dr.—For Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in
VGH, aco fers Aferton Sl. poeene Ae Rei Stcte-broe/sue.e ohhe Sele. £40 0 0
Total of GrantS se-.sscose £1421 14°°5
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for
Scientific Purposes.
1834, 1837.
£ s. d. foe yee
Tide Discussions .... 20 0 QO Brought forward 435 0 0
Tide Discussions..,.... 284 1 0
: h : 1835 Chemical Constants .. 24 13 6
Tide Discussions .... 62 0 0 Tunar Wutaiih ccc eae eee
BritishFossillchthyology 105 0 0O Observations on: Waveds 100) 4a)
x ae Tides at Bristol ..... - 150 0 0
£167 0 0 Meteorology and Subter-
1836. ranean Temperature. 89 5 0
Tide Discussions .... 163 0 O VitrificationExperiments 150 0 0
BritishFossillchthyology 105 © 0 | Heart Experiments.... 8 4 6
Thermometric Observa- Barometric Observations 30 0 0O
tions, & Cc... 202s es 50 0 O | Barometers...... B47") Be 6
Experiments on long- —
continued Heat .... 17 1 O £918 14 6
Rain Gauges ........ » 46""0 :
Refraction Experiments 15 0 0 1838.
Lunar Nutation ...... 60 0 0 | Tide Discussions...... 29 0 0O
Thermometers ...... 15 6 O | British Fossil Fishes .. 100 0 0
Carried forward £435 0 0 Carried forward £129 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Xxvii
£ s. d.
Brought forward 129 0 0
Meteorological Observa-
tions and Anemometer
(construction) .-,... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (strength of). 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable
Substances (preserva-
ee cnet BO FLO
Railway Constants .... 41 12 10
Bristol Tides .,...... 50 0 0
Growth of Plants .... 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers ...... 3 6 6
Education Committee.. 50 0 0
Heart Experiments.... 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level .. 267 8 7
Subterranean Tempera:
PURE ries! s o-0 $v. e,0-asainin 8 46
Steam-vessels.....--- 100 O O
Meteorological Commit-
FAGr Stele vaawads eb oO
Thermometers ,-.»-- 16 4 0
£956 12 2
: 1839.
Fossil Ichthyology .... 110 0 0
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth ... 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves.. 144 2 0
Bristol Tides .,.....- 8518 6
Meteorologyand Subter-
ranean Temperature, 21 11 0
VitrificationExperiments 9 4 7
‘Cast Iron Experiments. 100 0 0
Railway Constants.... 28 7 2
Land and Sea Level .. 274 1 4
‘Steam-Vessels’ Engines, 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste 331 18 6
Stars in Lacaille...... 11 0 0
StarsinR.A.S.Catalogue 6 16 6
Animal Secretions .... 1010 0
Steam-engines in Corn-
Welle es as ccean sie neo
Atmospheric Air,..,.. 16 1 0
Cast and Wrought Iron, 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies 3 0 O
Gases on Solar Spec-
BENET" ae pig «sin @ ie a alas ieee sO
Hourly Meteorologica
Observations, Inyer-
ness and Kingussie.. 49 7 8
‘ Carried forward £1427 8 3
£ ss. d.
Brought forward 1427 8 3
Fossil Reptiles ...... 118 2. 9
Mining Statistics,.,... 50 0 0
£1595.11. 0
1840
Bristol Tides ..... ene? 100; ; 000
Subterranean ‘T’empera-
tUNE |e a eiele.ss le o's seoe 13.18. 6
Heart Experiments..,, 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments .. 8 130
Tide Discussions...,.. 60 0 0
Land and Sea Level .. 11 6 91
Stars (Histoire Céleste), 242 10 0
Stars (Lacaille) ..... on) 4a ED
Stars (Catalogue) .... 264 0 90
Atmospheric Air..... «) Died 6
Water on Iron...,.... 10 0 @
Heat on Organic Bodies 7 0 0
Meteorological Observa-
HIGNS ..0y ese cccccs 382 17 6
Foreign Scientific Me-
Morsese. whist! LheoptAle
Working Population .. 100 0 0
School Statistics ...... 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels ...- 184 7 0
Chemical and Electrical
Pheenomena.....-,- 40 0 0
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth ,, 80 0 O
Magnetical Observations 185 13 0
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves, 30 O O
Meteorologyand Subter-
ranean Temperature, 8 8 O
Actinometers ......+. 10 0 0
Earthquake Shocks .. 17 7 0
Acrid Poisons...,+++. 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents.. 3 0 O
Mud in Rivers....,..- 5 0 O
Marine Zoology ...--. 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps ..... ay Bh! 0
Mountain Barometers,. 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste), 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille) ...... 79,45, 0
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17 19 6
Stars (Catalogue of) .. 40 0 0
Water on Iron........ 50 0 O
Carried forward £494 10 8
XXVili
£
at Brought forward 494 10
Meteorological Observa-
’ tions at Inverness ..
Meteorological Observa-
S.
i)
tions (reduction of).. 25 0
Fossil Reptiles3322..'° 50 0
Foreign Memoirs .... 62 0
Railway Sections .... 88 1
Forms of Vessels .... 193 12
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth .. 55 0
Magnetical Observations 61 18
Fishes of the Old Red
Sandstone ........ 100 0
Tides at Leith...... 200 0
Anemometer at Edin-
eels. ..47..%o ene OO
Tabulating Observations 9
Races of Men.... 5
Radiate Animals...... 2
d.
8
o
£1235 10 11
1842.
Dynamometric Instru-
MATENES’ 0.7 eo Sc%e'etete ee VLG
Anoplura Britannize 52 12
Tides at Bristol ...... 59 8
Gases on Light ...... 50 14
Chronometers........ 26 17
Marine Zoology ...... Ke5
British Fossil Mammalia 100 0
Statistics of Education.. 20 0
Marine Steam-vessels’
EAINES | s%'e'20.%6's'e'e 28 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste), 59 0
Stars (British Associa-
tion Catalogue of) .. 110 0
Railway Sections .... 161 10
British Belemnites .... 50 0
Fossil Reptiles (publica-
tion of Report) .... 210 0
Forms of Vessels . 180 0
Galvanic Experiments on
ROCKS je, ore eisveis sens aie 5-8
Meteorological Experi-
ments at Plymouth.. 68 0
Coustant Indicator and
Dynamometric Instru-
MREDUS. | aise Slate ie lactate 90 0
Force of Wind ...... 10 0
Carried forward £1376
coco anoon
oo
“ REPORT—1844, ©
£& gi) id.
Brought forward 1876 6 9
LightonGrowthofSeeds 8 0 0
Vital Statistics ...... 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of
Séeds .. 28% ane ee Spey 1
Questions on Hutiin
Race s..o8HROeor. 7°90
£1449 17° 8
1843,
Revision of the Nomen-
clature of Stars .... 2 0 0
Reduction of Stars, Bri-
tish Association Cata-
logue .. JIQT¢2 hs ORI
Anomalous Tides, Frith
OL FOrtht ./o%07ete%ets%ofo's 120 0° 0
Hourly Meteorological
Observations at Kin-
gussie and Inverness. 77 12 8
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth .. 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorolo-
gical Anemometer at .
Plymouth a Ogee oO Ae a
Meteorological Observa-
tions, Osler’s Anemo-
meter at Plymouth... 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorolo-
gical Observations .. 30 0 0
Meteorological Instru-
ments and Gratuities. 39 6 0O
Construction of Anemo-
meter at Inverness... 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation. 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder
for Kew Observatory 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light 1816 1
Establishment at Kew
Observatory, Wages,
Repairs, Furniture,and
Sundries .......... 183 4 7
Experiments by Captive
Balloons .......... 81 8 0
Oxidations of the Bails
of Railways... 20 0. 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles .... 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of
Railway Sections.... 147 18 3
Carried forward £937 6G 7
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£s. d.
Brought forward. 937. 6 7
Registration of Earth-
quake Shocks...... 30 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red
_ Sandstone near Man-
chester. » enerclele sae Ai) 46
Report on Zoological
_ Nomenclature...... 10 0 0
Vegetative Power of
Seeds ....eeeeee Beory Sw hii 8
Marine Testacea (Habits
Be Oh) te os ance cere sia 1040150. 0
Marine Zoology...... -10 0 0
Marine Zoology...... 2 14 11
Preparation of Report
on British Fossil Mam-
~ malia ....seseeeee 100 0 0
Physiological operations
of Medicinal Agents 20 0 0
Vital Statistics.....+. «86.5. 8
Additional Experiments
ontheFormsofVessels 70 0 0
Additional Experiments
onthe Formsof Vessels 100 9 0
Reduction of Observa-
tions on the Forms of
Vessels....ssee-++- 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and
Constant Indicator... 69 14 10
Experiments on _ the
Strength of Materials 60 0 0
£1565 10 2
Kew Observatory Esta-
_ blishment.......... 150 0 0
Kreil’s Barometrograph 30 0 0
British Association Cata-
logue of Stars...... 615 0 0
Captive Balloons..... wp OO Os 70
Meteorological Observa-
30 18 11
tion at Inverness....
~_—
Carried forward £875 18 11
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.
XX1X
£ os. d.
Brought forward, 875 18 11
Magnetic and Meteor- /
ological Co-operation 50.0, 0
Meteorological. . Instru-
ments at Edinburgh... 18 12. 6
Reduction of Anemome-
trical. Observations.. 25.0.0
Nomenclature of Stars... ,.10 0 0
Electrical Experiments
at Kew. .eecevecs >» 50.0 0
Electrical Apparatus... 57 0 0
Gases from Iron Fur-
NACES. oc ofeceld ofall do 50 0 0
Preservation of animal
and vegetable Sub-
stanceS....eeeeoeee 10 0.0
Report on Tannin .... 10 0 0
On Colouring Matter... 10.0 0
Experiments on the Ac-
tinograph.....+602. 15,0 ,.0
Ashes of Plants ...... 50 0 0O
Subterranean Tempera-
tureinIreland...... 5 0 O
Microscopic Structure of
Shells, &c......---. 20 0 0
Periodical Phenomena of
Organized Beings ... 5. 0.0
Exotic Anoplura ..... 25 0.0
Vitality of Seeds...... 10,0,.0
Zoology of Corfu .... 10.0.0
Marine Zoology of Bri-
2 py CAIN Sete 0 c's) ea ts wreyele dt Be Oyj Oes0
Marine Zoology of Corn-
Wall Bas ciee'a es cove AO aOR 0
Varieties of the Huma
Race * 6 c\ecieeumohs sti4:20) O90
Physiological Action of
Medicines ..... sapinasOreDire
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York,. 40 0 0
£1421 11 5
- Committees and individuals to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.
, Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
bn. REPORT—1844,
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered
by the General Committee.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London, for
such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
On Thursday evening, September 26th, at 8 p.m., in the Festival Concert
Room, York, the late Presideiit, the Earl of Rosse, resigned his office to the
Very Rev. the Dean of Ely, who took the Chair at the General Meeting, and
delivered an Address, for which see p. xxxi.
On Friday evening, September 27th, in the same room, Charles Lyell, Esq.,
F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the Geology of North America, particularly
noticing the latest surveys of the Western Coal-fields of the United States, and
new facts which had been discovered, bearing on the recession of the Fails of
Niagara. The discourse was illustrated by Diagrams and other drawings.
On Saturday evening, September 28th, in the same room, Dr. Falconer,
F.G.S., delivered a Discourse on the Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik Hills
in India, illustrated by a restoration drawing of the full size (20 feet) and
specimens of particular bones of the fossil.
On Wednesday evening, October 2nd, at & p.m., in the same room, the
Concluding General Meeting of the Association was held, when the Pro-
ceedings of the General Committee, and the grants of money for scientific
purposes, were explained to the Members.
ADDRESS :
BY
THE VERY REV. GEORGE PEACOCK, D.D.,
DEAN OF ELY, F.R.8., F.R.A.S., &c.
GentieEmen,—The Noble Lord to whose office I succeed, and who has
introduced me to your notice, has spoken of me in terms which, however
flattering to my pride, I can only accept as the expression of his friendship
and good wil!; and I nope ie will permit me to add, that whilst there are few
persons for whose characte® and attainments I feel a more sincere respect,
there is none whose favourable opinion I should be more anxious to merit.
The Members of the Association who were present at the Meeting at Cork,
can bear witness to the courteous, dignified and able manner in which he
discharged the duties of his office ; whilst others who, like myself, had the
opportunity of seeing them, could not fail to be deeply impressed with the
magnificent works which are accomplished, or in progress, at his noble resi-
dence at Birr Castle. Whatever met the eye was upon a gigantic scale:
telescopic tubes, through which the tallest man could walk upright; tele-
scopic mirrors, whose weights are estimated not by pounds but by tons,
polished by steam power with almost inconceivable ease and rapidity, and,
with a certainty, accuracy and delicacy exceeding the most perfect produc-
tion of the most perfect manipulation ; structures of solid masonry for the
support of the telescope and its machinery more lofty and massive than
those of a Norman keep; whilst the same arrangements which secure the sta-
bility of masses which no ordinary crane could move, provide likewise for their
obeying the most delicate impulse of the most delicate finger, or for following
the stars in their course, through the agency of clockwork, with a movement
so steady and free from tremors, as to become scarcely perceptible when in-
creased one thousand-fold by the magnifying powers of the eye-glass.
The instruments, which were mounted and in operation at the time of my
visit, exceeded in optical power and in the clearness and precision of their defi-
nition of celestial objects, the most perfect productions of the greatest modern
artists; and though much had been then accomplished, and great difficulties
had been overcome by a rare combination of mechanical, chemical and ma-
thematical skill and knowledge in the preparation for mounting the great tele-
scope of six feet diameter and fifty-four feet focal length, yet much remained
to be done ; but I am quite sure that the Members of the Association will learn
with unmixed satisfaction that the Noble Lord has entirely succeeded in his
great undertaking; that the great telescope has already made its first essay,
and that its performance is in every way satisfactory; and that he proposes to
communicate to the Mathematical and Physical Section, in the course of the
present Meeting, an account of the process which he has followed in the pre-
paration and polishing of his. mirrors, and of the expedients which he has
XXXli REPORT—1844,
adopted for bringing under the most perfect control the movements of the vast
masses with which he has had to deal.
It is now more than sixty years since the elder Herschel, by the superior
optical and space-penetrating powers of his telescopes, began a brilliant career
of astronomical discovery, and the interest which the construction of his great
forty-foot reflector—a memorable monument of his perseverance, genius and
skill—excited amongst men of science of that period, was, if possible, not less
intense than what now attaches to the similar enterprise of the Noble Lord:
nor were the expectations which were thus raised disappointed by the result;
for though this noble instrument was generally reserved for the great and
state occasions of astronomy only, requiring too great an expenditure of time
and labour to be conveniently producible for the daily and ordinary business
of observation, yet the very first time it was directed to the heavens it dis-
covered the seventh satellite of Saturn, and contributed in no inconsiderable
degree to the more complete developement of those views of the construction
of the heavens (I use his own expression), which his contemporaries never suf-
ficiently appreciated, but which present and future ages will probably regard
as the most durable monument of his fame.
It is no derogation to the claims of this great discoverer that art and know-
ledge are progressive, or that a successor should have arisen, who, following in
the track which he has pointed out, should bring a coordinate zeal and more
ample means to prepare the way for another great epoch in the history of as-
tronomical discovery ; and I know that I do not mistake the sentiments of
the accomplished philosopher who has succeeded to his name and honours,
and who throughout his life has laboured with such exemplary filial piety and
such distinguished success in the developement and extension of his father’s
views, that no one takes a deeper or more lively interest in the success of this
noble enterprise, and no one rejoices more sincerely in the vast prospects of
discovery which it opens.
Gentlemen, it is now thirteen years since the British Association held its first
Meeting in this ancient and venerable city, under the presidency of the Noble
Earl Fitzwilliam, who is always the first to offer his services in the promotion
_of the interests of science and of every good and useful undertaking. It was
in this city that its constitution and laws were first organized, and it is by these
laws, for which we are chiefly indebted to the excellent sense and judgement
of Mr. William Vernon Harcourt, with very unimportant changes, the Associa-
tion has continued to be governed. It is in conformity with the spirit of these
laws that we should seek to cooperate, and not to interfere, with other societies
which have pursuits and objects in common with our own; that we should
claim no right to the publication of Memoirs which are read at our Sections,
and which are not prepared at our request; that we should endeavour to con-
centrate and direct the influence of the public opinion of men engaged or in-
terested in the pursuits of science in favour of such objects, and such objects
only, as they agree in considering important for its interests ; and, above all,
that we should avail ourselves of the advantages which we possess, in the ex-
tensive range of our operations, and in our independence of particular so-
cieties and particular localities, of organizing and carrying into effect well-
digested systems of cooperative labour.
Again, our Meetings were also designed to bring men who are engaged in
common pursuits and interested in common objects into closer union and more
frequent intercourse with each other; to encourage the more humble and less
generally known cultivators of science, by bringing their labours under the
notice of those men who are best able to appreciate and to give currency to
- ADDRESS. XXXiil
their value; to enable our Members to see us in the places which they visited, —
where all establishments are, with rare exceptions, most liberally thrown open
to their inspection,—whatever is most remarkable in the productions of their
manufactures, in the principles and construction ot their machinery, in their
eollections connected with art or the natural sciences, in their public esta-
blishments for charity or education, in the moral or physical condition of their
inhabitants, or whatever other objects their neighbourhood presents which
may interest the antiquary, the geologist, or the lover of picturesque scenery.
We may venture to add, likewise, that they were designed for purposes of
social as well as of philosophical recreation,—a consideration of no small
importance with men whose occupations are frequently monotonous and
laborious, and such as require the occasional stimulus of change and variety.
In accordance with these views, we have visited, in their turn, the most re=
markable localities of the three kingdoms, including the universities of En-
gland, Scotland and Jreland, the great seats of our manufacturing industry, the
great marts of our commerce ; and it is not necessary for me to speak of the
success which has marked our progress. The numbers who have attended our
Meetings have been always large, and sometimes so great as to embarrass our
proceedings from the difficulty of finding adequate rooms to receive them ;
the communications which have come under the notice of our several Sections
have continued to increase in importance and interest, more particularly since
the great cooperative inquiries of our body have come into full operation.
We have been enabled, by the application of our funds, to complete some and
to forward many scientific enterprises of the highest importance and value,
and IT see no reason to apprehend that the future Meetings of the British
Association will not continue to advance in scientific interest, or cease to
exercise a most powerful influence in originating and promoting scientific
labours, which will equally tend to promote the interests of knowledge and
the honour of the empire.
The founders of the British Association justly conceived that men of dif-
ferent shades of political opinion or religious belief would rejoice in the
opportunities which such Meetings would afford them of coming together, as
it were, upon neutral ground, where their mutual warfare would, for a season
at least, be suspended, and no sounds be heard but those of peace: they felt
persuaded that the softening influence of reciprocal intercourse would tend to
soothe the bitterness of party strife, and would expose to view points of con-
tact and union even between those whom circumstances had most violently
estranged from each other, and show them that the features of the monsters
of their apprehension were not so repulsive as their imaginations or intole-
ranee had drawn them. I know that there are some zealots who are ready
to denounce the interchange of the commonest charities of life with those
‘whose opinions, however honestly and conscientiously formed, they believe to
be unfounded or dangerous. But there is a wide and fundamental distinction
‘between the condemnation of opinions and of the persons who hold them ;
and though | should be far from advocating that spurious and false liberality
which should assume that in the selection of friends, or even in the ordinary
‘intercourse of society, there should be a total suppression of all that is di-
stinctive, both of profession and of opinion, yet there are numberless occasions
‘on which we can neither, notice them or know of their existence without the
‘violation of all those rules of courtesy and good breeding which the most
‘serupulous regard for the integrity of our christian profession and for the best
‘interests of mankind would equally teach us to practise and to respect.
© Tewas with a view of securing this neutral ground as the exclusive basis
1844, c
XXXiv REPORT—1844,
of their operations, that the founders of the Association cautiously guarded
against any extension of its boundaries which might tend to admit new claim-
ants to its occupation. ‘They did not attempt to define the precise limits at
which accurate science terminates and speculation begins, but they endea-
voured to keep sufficiently within them to prevent the intrusion of discussions
which might disturb the peace of our body or even endanger its existence.
Experience has fully established the wisdom of this law, and the absolute
necessity of a rigid adherence to its provisions.
In returning to the scene of our first labours, the place of our nativity,
it becomes us, as grateful children, to acknowledge our filial obligations to
our founders.
I regret to say that, for my own part, I can claim no share in the honour
which that character confers, having been engaged at the time, in common
with my friends the Master of Trinity College and Professor Sedgwick, in
duties at Cambridge from which it was impossible for us to escape. I ven-
ture, therefore, in the name of all those who are similarly circumstanced with
myself, to render our just tribute of gratitude to the venerable Archbishop
of this province, who bears the honours of his high station in a green and
vigorous old age, and whose munificent patrenage and support we must ever
be ready to acknowledge ; to the Noble Earl, our first President, who main-
tains so worthily the honours of the house of Wentworth ; to Viscount Mor-
peth, the accomplished representative of the name and honours of another of
the princely houses of this great county; to Sir J. Johnstone, who so gene-
rously protected the old age of the Father of English Geology ; to Sir'Thomas
Macdougall Brisbane, who is equally eminent as a patron and a cultivator of
astronomy, and whose infirm health alone prevents his being present at this
Meeting ; to Sir David Brewster, so justly celebrated for his numerous and
important discoveries in physical optics, and in almost every department of
physical science, who first suggested and urged the scheme of our Institution ;
to Mr. William Vernon Harcourt, our lawgiver and proper founder ; to our
indefatigable General Secretary, Mr. Murchison, who assisted so materially
in our first organization and subsequent progress, and who has only once been
absent from our Meetings, when engaged in extending his own Silurian system
to the feet of the Ural Mountains and into the steppes of Siberia; to Dr.
Daubeny, who has studied so successfully the relations of chemistry to geology
and agriculture, and who has at all times laboured so strenuously in our ser-
vice; to Professor Johnston of Durham, who has taken a distinguished part
in the great extension which agricultural chemistry has recently made, and
who has at various times been a valuable contributor to our Reports; to
Dr. William Pearson, so distinguished as a practical astronomer and the libe-
ral founder of the observatory in this city; to Mr. Greenough, whose map
was so important a contribution to English geology; to Professor Forbes of
Edinburgh, one of the most distinguished of the living cultivators of physical
science, and whose important scientific tours alone have prevented his attend-
ance at some of our later Meetings; to Dr. Scoresby, whose early adven-
tures contrast so remarkably and yet so honourably with the labours and
occupations of his maturer years ; to Professor Phillips, who has so long and
so ably organized the complicated machinery of our Meetings, and reduced
our annual volumes into order and form; and to Mr. J. Taylor, our excellent
Treasurer, whose punctuality and vigilance has kept order and system in every
department of our finances.
A reference to the list of our founders presents, as might be expected after
a lapse of thirteen years, some very distinguished names who have been lost
eae me
ADDRESS. XXXV
to science : in their number we find the name of Mr. William Smith, who first
received at our meetings the ample recognition of the value of those original
and unaided researches, which must for ever entitle him to be considered as the
father of English geology; of Mr. William Allen, of Edinburgh, the eminent
mineralogist ; of Dr. Lloyd, Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, the father of
our excellent colleague, Professor Lloyd, and the founder of that truly illus-
trious school of accurate science in that university, which has given to the
world a Robinson, a Hamilton, and a MacCullagh; of Sir J. Robison, who
inherited from his father, the well-known Professor Robison, his taste for
science and its application to the arts; of Dr. Henry, one of our most di-
stinguished theoretical and practical chemists, and only second in reputation
to his fellow-townsman, Dr. Dalton, whose very recent loss we have occasion
to deplore, and whose name, under such circumstances, it would be unbe-
coming in me to pass over with merely a passing notice.
Mr. Dalton was one of that vigorous race of Cumberland yeomen amongst
whom are sometimes found the most simple and primitive habits and manners
combined with no inconsiderable literary or scientific attainments. From
teaching a school as a boy in his native village of Eaglesfield, near Cocker-
mouth, we find him at a subsequent period similarly engaged at Kendal, where
he had the society and assistance of Gough, the blind philosopher, and a man
of very remarkable powers, as well as of other persons of congenial tastes
‘with his own. In 1793, when in his twenty-third year, he became Professor
of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in the New College in Mosley Street,
Manchester, a situation which he continued to hold for a period of six years,
and until that establishment was removed to this city, when he became pri-
vate teacher of the same subjects, occupying for the purposes of study and
instruction the lower rooms of the Literary and Philosophical Society in
George Street, rarely quitting the scene of his tranquil and unambitious la-
bours beyond an annual visit to his native mountains, with a joint view to
health and meteorological observations.
He made his first appearance as an author in a volume of “ Meteorological
Observations and Essays,” which he published in 1793, a book of humble
pretensions and form, but which contains the germ of many of his subsequent
speculations and discoveries, more particularly as regards the co-existence
of an atmosphere of air and aqueous vapour, and their relations to each other :
and his first views of the atomic theory, which must for ever render his name
memorable as one of the great founders of chemical philosophy, were first
distinctly suggested to him during his examination of olefiant gas and carbu-
retted hydrogen gas. This theory was noticed in lectures which he delivered
at Manchester in 1803 and 1804, and much more explicitly in others delivered
at Edinburgh and Glasgow in the two following years; it was however first
made generally known to the world in Dr. Thomson’s Chemistry in 1807, and
' was briefly but very explicitly developed in his own “System of Chemical
Philosophy,” the first part of which appeared in the following vear; and
though his claims to this great generalization were subject to some disputes
_ both at home and abroad, yet in a very short time both the doctrine and its
author were acknowledged and recognized by Wollaston, Dayy, Berzelius,
and nearly all the great chemists in Europe.
It is quite true that many important laws of chemical synthesis had been
discovered before his time: Richter, Wenzel and Proust, at various periods
between 1777 and 1792, had established the constant proportion in which
the elements of many bodies combine, and had likewise hinted at the import-
ant derivative law, that if two elements combine in a certain proportion with
c2
XXXVI REPORT—1844.
a third, they may combine in the same proportion with each other. In 1787,
Dr. Higgins of Dublin had approximated to the law of the combination of
different multiples of the elements of bodies, in the case of sulphur and iron:
but these discoveries, considerable as they were, were not generally known,
and the laws derivable from them were not formally enunciated; they had
hitherto exercised no influence upon the processes or the results of analytical
chemistry; and so little was their authority recognized, that even Berthollet,
one of the greatest chemists of his age, continued to maintain that the ele-
ments of bodies might combine in variable proportions, a conclusion which the
vague forms under which the analyses of bodies, more particularly those of
the mineral kingdom, were commonly exhibited, was not a little calculated to
favour.
The atomic theory, however, by the clear conception which it enables us
to form of the conditions of the co-existence of the elements of bodies in
chemical combinations, by which they acquire permanent and distinctive
characters, as different from the results of their indefinite aggregation and
mixture, has totally changed the whole face of the science of chemistry. It
was by considering the weights as well as the number of the elementary atoms
which form the compound atom of the resulting body, that this theory was
not merely distinguished from the vague speculations of the atomic philoso-
phers of a former age, but became, when it was once admitted and established,
the guide as well as the basis of all accurate chemical analysis. The very de-~
finite and comprehensive form in which this law was enunciated by its author
was the immediate expression of his primary conception of the constitution of
bodies ; and simple, natural and obvious as it may appear to us who are now
familiar with the results to which it leads, it was not, on that account, a less
important step in the science of chemistry, whose form and language it rapidly
changed : the revolution which it effected in our views of the laws and results
of chemical combination, was nearly as great as that which was produced in
Physical Astronomy by the discovery and enunciation of the law of universal
gravitation.
It has been contended, however, that he only discovers who proves, and
that inasmuch as most of the analyses which Dalton made the foundation of
his law, were either erroneous or insufficient, he has no sufficient claim to the
character of its discoverer. The atomic weight which he assigned to oxy-
gen was 7 instead of 8°01, that of hydrogen being 1; and his analyses of ole-
fiant gas and carburetted hydrogen, which he made, in the first instance, the
basis of the law of multiple combining proportions, was likewise imperfect :
the theory of atoms also, in the form in which he presented it, was not free
from very serious objections, as involving assumptions respecting the ultimate
constitution of bodies, which are not only removed beyond the range of our
experience, but opposed to our primary conception of matter as susceptible
of infinite divisibility. But admitting the defects of his analyses, it may be
justly contended that they in no respect affect the form in which he ex-
pressed the law of definite proportions ; and what is more important, they were
not of such a nature as to affect the form and character of the researches,
which, even if his fundamental analyses had been found to be perfectly accu-
rate, would still have been necessary for its further and complete develop-
ment; and what is more, that the bearing of such investigations upon the esta-
blishment or refutation of the theory had been fully pointed and exemplified :
whilst, in reply to the last objection, it might be contended that not only is
our conception, of the infinite divisibility of matter, rather geometrical than
physical, but likewise that it by no means precludes other modes of exhibiting
ADDRESS. XXXVI1
the theory in a form in which the use of the term atom would be hypothetical
only, and not absolute and indispensable.
It is always unsafe and perhaps unphilosophical to speculate upon the
amount of the good fortune which is connected with the time and circum-
stances of any great discovery, with any view to detract from the credit which
is due to its author; but it has been contended that Wollaston, Berzelius and
others were already in the track which would naturally lead to this important
generalization, and that it could not Jong have eluded the vigilant pursuit of —
those distinguished chemists. In reply to this insinuation, however, we may
venture to repeat, what has been often before observed, that if philosophy be
a lottery, those only who deserve to win them, ever draw its prizes; that
those only who have scrutinized closely and cautiously the well-known and
recognized approaches to the temple of nature, have ever been able to dis-
cover the new paths which lead to its unexplored treasures, however plain
and obvious, when they are once made known to us, they may appear to be.
To Dalton this discovery was not due tu any momentary philosophical inspi-
ration, for which his previous contemplations had not prepared his mind; it
was the legitimate result of long and profound reflection upon the relations,
which chemical analysis had made known to him, of their separate elements
to the gaseous, fluid or solid bodies which they composed, and also of the va-
rious circumstances which appeared to determine their combination with each
cther ; it was, in fact, the capital conclusion, to which his speculations, from
the earliest period of his philosophical life, had constantly heen tending.
The atomic theory is not the only great contribution to chemical science
which we owe to Dalton; he discovered contemporaneously with Gay-Lussac,
with whom many of his researches run parallel, the important general law of
the expansion of gases; that for equal increments of temperature all gases
expand by the same portion of their bulk, being about three-eighths in pro-
ceeding from the temperature of freezing to that of boiling water. His con-
tributions to meteorology were also of the most important kind.
Dr. Dalton was not a man of what are commonly called brilliant talents, but
of a singularly clear understanding and plain practical good sense; his ap-
proaches to the formation of his theories were slow and deliberate, where every
step of his induction was made the object of long-continued and persevering
thought; but his convictions were based upon the true principles of inductive
philosophy, and when once formed were boldly advanced and steadily main-
tained: the style of his writings, particularly in his ‘ System of Chemical Phi-
losophy,’ bears strongly the impress of his philosophical character ; it is clear,
precise, and unembarrassed ; always equal to his subject, and never above it.
“Though Dalton’s great discovery,” says the historian of the inductive
sciences, ‘ was soon generally employed and universally spoken of with ad-
miration, it did not bring to him anything but barren praise, and he conti-
nued in his humble employment when his fame had filled Europe, and his
name become a household word in the laboratory. After some years he was
appointed a Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, which may
be considered as a European recognition of the importance of what he had
done ; and in 1826, two medals for the encouragement of science having been
placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by the King, one of them was
assigned to Dalton for his development of the atomic theory. In 1833, at
the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science which
was held at Cambridge, it was announced that the King had bestowed upon
him a pension of £150* ; at the preceding meeting at Oxford, that University
* This was afterwards increased to £300.
XXXVill REPORT—1844.
had conferred the degree of Doctor of Laws, a step the more remarkable
since he belonged to the sect of Quakers. At all the meetings of the British
Association he has been present, and has always been surrounded with the re-
verence and admiration of all who feel any sympathy with the progress of
science. May he long remain among us thus to remind us of the great ad-
vance which chemistry owes to him.”
This was written in 1837, the year in which an attack of paralysis se-
riously impaired his powers. He last appeared among us at Manchester,
where he received the respectful homage of the distinguished foreigners and
others who were there assembled. He died on the 27th of July last, in the
78th year of his age: his funeral, which was public, was attended by all classes
of the inhabitants, who felt justly proud of being the fellow-citizen of so
distinguished a man.
[ now proceed to notice some other topics which are connected with the
distribution of the funds, and the general conduct of the affairs of the Asso-
ciation.
Like other public bodies, we have had our periods of financial prosperity
and decline, and like other bodies, we have sometimes drawn more freely upon
our resources than their permanent prospects would altogether justify; the
statement which will be read to you by our excellent Treasurer (see ante,
p. xii. ), will show that during the last year our capital has been reduced: the
great number of life subscribers, which at one time rapidly augmented our re-
sources, has a natural and necessary tendency to reduce our annual subscrip-
tions at every succeeding meeting, and some alterations in the conditions of
admission for those inhabitants of the places where we are received, who are not
likely to follow the further movements of the Association, have not tended to
swell our receipts, though rendered at the time necessary by the great num-
bers who crowded inconveniently some of our sectional meetings.
I regret to find that some currency has been given to the notion, which I
believe to be altogether erroneous and unfounded, that a large excess of in-
come above our necessary expenditure, which may be devoted to the promo-
tion of scientific researches and scientific objects, is essential to the successful
working of the business of the Association, and that our movements should
therefore be always directed to those places where our coffers are most likely
to be filled: it may be quite true that the objects of the Association are most
certainly and effectually promoted by going to those places which are likely
to attract the largest concourse of scientific visitors, and that our financial thus
becomes immediately dependent upon our general prosperity; but if under any
circumstances these two principles of selection should ever come into collision
with each other, there can be no doubt to which of them our preference should
be given; and though I think we should very imperfectly accomplish the de-
sign of our institution, if our tour of visits did not comprehend in their turn
every important district in the three kingdoms, yet it would be not only un-
advisable, but dangerous even to our very existence, if we fixed our standard
in any locality which did not present a reasonable prospect of procuring the
requisite scientific supplies, and of not sustaining the union as well as vigor-
ous action of the body to which we belong.
There are some great principles which have generally governed the Com-
mittee of Recommendations in recommending, and the General Committee in
confirming, grants of money for scientific objects, which I hope we shall never
lose sight of,—that no part of our funds should ever be applied to defray the
personal expenses or to compensate the loss of time or labour of any of our
members in making researches or experiments, even when they are undertaken
ADDRESS. XXXIX
or made at the request of the Association; that they should not be granted
for the general promotion of this or that branch of science, but for specific
and well-defined objects; that in no case should they be applied to make a
bookselling or other speculation remunerative, which would otherwise not
be so; that the results of ipquiries which are carried on partly or wholly at
our charge, should so far belong to the Association as to secure its just claim
to the scientific credit which they are calculated to confer. I know that some
of these principles have been in some instances partially departed from, under
very pressing and peculiar circumstances ; but the remembrance of the dis-
cussions to which some claims of this nature have given rise, which it was im-
proper to grant, but difficult and painful to refuse, has tended to confirm my
own impression not merely of the wisdom of those important rules, but likewise
of the almost imperative necessity of adhering to them.
It was at the memorable meeting of the Association at Newcastle, a period
of great financial prosperity, that it was resolved to recommend and to under-
take a very extensive system of astronomical reductions and catalogues: the
first was the republication, under a greatly extended and much more com-
plete form, of the Astronomical Society’s Catalogue, exhibiting the latest and
most accurate results of astronomical observations, reduced to a common
epoch, with the permanent coefficients for their reduction which the Nautical
Almanac does not supply. The second was the reduction of all the stars in
the ‘ Histoire Céleste’ of Lalande, nearly 47,000 in number, containing the
most complete record which existed sixty years ago of the results of obser-
vation, and affording therefore an interval of time so considerable as to en-
able astronomers, by comparing them with their positions as assigned by
modern observations, to determine their proper motions and other minute
changes, almost independently of the errors of observation: a third was a simi-
lar reduction of the stars in the ‘Coelum Stelliferum Australe’ of Lalande,
8700 in number, which had assumed an unusual degree of importance from
the recently completed survey of the southern hemisphere by Sir John Her-
schel, and the establishment of observatories at Paramatta and the Cape.
Another work of still greater expense and labour, was the reduction and
publication of the Planetary and Lunar Observations at Greenwich, from the
time of Bradley downwards, which was undertaken by the Government at the
earnest application of a Committee of the Association, appointed for that
purpose and acting in conjunction with the Council of the Royal Society: this
great undertaking has been nearly brought to a conclusion under the systema-
tic and vigilant superintendence of the Astronomer Royal.
The publication of these works must form a great epoch in astronomy ;
and though the expense to which it has exposed the Association has been very
considerable, and will amount when completed to nearly £3000, yet it cannot
fail to prove a durable monument of the salutary influence which it has exer-
cised upon the progress of science. The catalogues of Lacaille and Lalande
are to be printed and published, as is already known to you, at the expense
of Her Majesty’s Government, and the first, which has been prepared un-
der the superintendence of Professor Henderson, is nearly complete: the
catalogue of Lalande and the British Association Catalogue were placed
under the superintendence of Mr. Francis Baily, and in referring to the irre-
parable loss which astronomical science has so recently sustained by his death,
I should neither do justice to my own feelings nor to his long and important
connection with the Association if I did not detain you for a few moments.
Mr. Baily was undoubtedly one of the most remarkable men of his time;
it was only in 1825 that he retired from the Stock Exchange with an ample
xl REPORT—1844,
fortune, and with a high character for integrity and liberality; but his subse-
quent career almost entirely belongs to astronomy, and is one of almost un-
exampled activity and usefulness. The Astronomical Society was almost en-
tirely organized by him, and throughout life he was the most considerable con-
tributor to its Memoirs; the catalogue of the Astronomical Society, the funds
for which were contributed by several of its members, was entirely formed under
his superintendence, and we are chiefly indebted to his exertions for the more
ample development which the Nautical Almanac has of late years received,
and which has added so much to its usefulness. There was no experimental
research connected with the more accurate determinations of astronomy or
physical science, undertaken in this country, which was not generally en-
trusted to his care.
The discovery, or rather notice, by Bessel of the correction due to the re-
sistance of the air, which had been neglected in the reduction of the experi-
ments for the determination of the length of the pendulum by Kater, and
which consequently vitiated the correctness of the definition of the standard
of length which had been prematurely adopted by the legislature, first di-
rected his attention, not merely to the character and influence of this correc-
tion* as affected by the forms of the pendulums which were used, but like-
wise to the modes which had been adopted for suspending them; and the
discussion of the elaborate series of experiments which he instituted for this
purpose, which was given in the Philosophical Transactions for 1829, is a
model of that happy union of precise and luminous theoretical views with the
utmost minuteness of practical details, for which his memoirs are generally
so remarkable. The reduction and discussion of the pendulum observations
made by Captain Foster, in his well-known voyage in the Chanticleer, to which
that experimental inquiry had been preliminary, were entrusted to him by the
Admiralty, after the unfortunate death of that valuable officer, and were pub-
lished in the seventh volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society,
forming a contribution to this branch of science which was only second in im-
portance, whether we regard the character of the observations themselves or
of the conclusions to which they were subservient, to those which recorded the
observations which had been previously made by Colonel Sabine in his various
scientific voyages.
His comparison of the Standard Scale of the Astronomical Society with
the Parliamentary Standard and its various representatives, as well as with the
French métre, presents another remarkable example of his unequalled accu-
racy and care in conducting experimental inquiries of the most delicate and
difficult nature, and the result of them has acquired an additional value and
importance, from the destruction of our national standards in the burning of
the Houses of Parliament. He had also undertaken, for the Commission of
Weights and Measures, the conduct of the process for forming the new
Standard Yard from the scale which he had thus constructed, but unfortunately
little progress had been made in the execution of this task, for which his
habits so peculiarly fitted him, when death put an end to his labours.
It was in consequence of a suggestion of Mr. De Morgan that he undertook,
at the expense of the Government, the repetition of the celebrated experiment
of Mr. Cavendish, and his account of the various precautions which he con-
sidered necessary to obviate every source of uncertainty and error, and to
overcome the practical difficulties which presented themselves in the course
of the inquiry, as well as his theoretical discussion of the conclusions to which
* This correction had been previously determined by Colonel Sabine, by swinging a pen-
dulum in air and in vacuo,
ADDRESS. xli
they lead, which forms a recent volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical
Society, will be a durable monument to his patience, perseverance and skill.
He published, at the request of the Admiralty, the Correspondence and
Catalogue of Flamsteed, with a most laborious examination and verification
of all his authorities. He presented to the Astronomical Society a volume
containing the catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulugh Beigh, Tycho Brahe, and Heve-
lius and Halley, with learned prefaces and critical notes, showing their rela-
tions to each other, and to later catalogues. His preface and introduction
to the British Association Catalogue, and more than one third of the catalogue
itself, are already printed, and from the critical examination of the authorities
upon which his assumed positions rest, and the careful distribution of the stars
which are selected, (more than 8000 in number) in those parts of the heavens
where they are likely to be most useful to observers as points of comparison,
it promises to be the most important contribution to the science of practical
astronomy which has been made in later times. The whole of the stars of the
‘Histoire Céleste’ are reduced and a considerable portion (more than one-fifth)
printed, but it is not known whether the introductory matter, which from him
would have been so valuable, was prepared at the time of his death.
Mr. Baily was the author of the best Treatise on Life Annuities and In-
surances which has yet appeared, as well as of several other publications on
the same subject ; his knowledge of the mathematicians of the English School
was very sound and complete, though he had never mastered the more re-
fined resources of modern analysis. His conception of mechanical principles
and of their bearing upon his experimental researches, was singularly clear
and definite, and though in the prosecution of the Cavendish and other ex-
periments, he freely availed himself of the assistance of the Astronomer Royal
and of Mr. De Morgan, in the investigation of formula, which required the
aid of dynamical or other principles which were somewhat beyond the reach
of the mathematics of the school with which he was familiar, yet he always
applied them in a manner which showed that he thoroughly understood their
principle, and was fully able to incorporate them with his own researches.
In the midst of these various labours (and the list which I have given of
them, ample as it is, comprehends but a small part of their number), Mr. Baily
never seemed to be particularly busy or occupied; he entered freely into so-
ciety, entertaining his scientific as well as his mercantile friends at his own
house with great hospitality. He was rarely absent from the numerous scien-
tific meetings of Committees and Councils (and he was a member of all of
them), which usually absorb so large a portion of the disposable leisure of
men of science in London ; but if a work or inquiry was referred to hin, it
was generally completed in a time which would have been hardly sufficient
for other men to make the preliminary investigations. Much of this was un-
doubtedly owing to his admirable habits of system and order; to his always
doing one thing at one time ; to his clear and precise estimate of the extent of
his own powers. Though he always wrote clearly and well, he never wrote am-
bitiously ; and though he almost always accomplished what he undertook, he
never affected to execute, or to appear to execute, what was beyond his powers.
This was the true secret of his great success, and of his wonderful fertility, and
it would be difficult to refer to a more instructive example of what may be
effected by practical good sense, systematic order, and steady perseverance.
It was the same Meeting at Newcastle which gave rise to the design for the
greatest combined scientific operation in which the Association has ever been
engaged, for the extension of our knowledge of the laws of magnetism and
meteorology.
xlii REPORT—1844.
It was the publication of Colonel Sabine’s ‘ Report on the Variations of the
Magnetic Intensity at different points of the Earth’s Surface,’ and the maps
which accompanied it, which appeared in our volume for 1837, which first en-
abled the celebrated Gauss to assign provisionally the coefficients of his series
for expressing the magnetic elements: the proper data of this theory are
the values of the magnetic elements at given points uniformly and systema-
tically distributed over the surface of the earth, and it was for the purpose
of supplying the acknowledged deficiency of these data and of determining the
laws which regulated the movements of this most subtle and mysterious ele-
ment, which induced the Association to appoint a Committee to apply, in con-
junction with the Royal Society, to Her Majesty’s Government to make a
magnetical survey of the highest accessible latitudes of the Antarctic seas, and
to institute fixed magnetical and meteorological observatories at St. Helena,
the Cape, Hobarton, and Toronto, in conjunction with a normal establishment
at Greenwich, and in connection with a great number of others on the con-
tinent of Europe, where systematic and simultaneous observations could be
made, which would embrace not only the phenomena of magnetism, but those
of meteorology also. It is not necessary to add that the application was
promptly acceded to. The views and labours of the framers of this magnifi-
cent scientific operation, the brilliant prospects of discovery which it opened,
the noble spirit of cooperation which it evoked in every part of the civilized
world, were alluded to in terms so eloquent and so just in the opening ad-
dress of Mr. William Vernon Harcourt, when occupying this Chair at Bir-
mingham, that I should do little justice to them if I employed any terms but
his own, and I must content myself with simply referring to them. Much of
what was then anticipated has been accomplished, much is still in progress,
and much remains to be done; but the results which have already been ob-
tained have more than justified our most sanguine expectations.
Sir James Ross has returned without the loss of a man, without a seaman
on the sick list, after passing three’'summers in the Antarctic seas, and after
making a series of geographical discoveries of the most interesting and import-
ant nature, and proving in the language of the Address to which I have just
referred, “ that for a man whose mind embraces the high views of the philoso-
pher with the intrepidity of the sailor, no danger, no difficulty, no inconvenience
could damp his ardour or arrest his progress, even in those regions where
Stern famine guards the solitary coast,
And winter barricades the realms of frost.”
The scientific results of the two first years of this remarkable voyage have
been discussed and published by Colonel Sabine in his ‘ Contributions to Ter-
restrial Magnetism,’ in the Transactions of the Royal Society, and they are
neither few nor unimportant. ‘They have shown that observations of the de-
clination, dip and intensity, the three magnetic elements, may be made at sea
with as much accuracy as on land, and that they present fewer anomalies from
local and disturbing causes; that the effects of the ship’s iron are entirely
due to induced magnetism, including two species of it, one instantaneous, coin-
cident with and superadded to the earth’s magnetism, and the other a polarity
retained for a shorter or longer period, and transferable therefore during its
operation by the ship’s motion from one point of space to another ; that in both
cases they may be completely eliminated by the observations and formule
which mathematicians have proposed for that purpose. No intensity greater
than 2°1 was observed; and the magnetic lines of equal declination, dip
and intensity, were found to differ greatly from those laid down in Gauss’s
theoretical map, the northern and southern hemispheres possessing much
ADDRESS. xliii
greater resemblance to each other than was indicated by that primary and ne-
cessarily imperfect essay of the theory.
The range of Sir James Ross’s observations extends over more than three-
fourths of the navigable parts of the southern seas, and you will learn with
pleasure that one of his most efficient officers, Lieut. Moore, has been des-
patched from the Cape with a vessel under his command to complete the
survey of the remainder,
Nothing could exhibit in a more striking light the completeness of the
organization and discipline of the system of magnetic observatories than
the observations of the great magnetic storm of the 25th of September 1841;
it was an event for which no preparation could be made, and which no ex-
isting theory could predict ; yet so vigilant and unremitting was the watch
which was kept, that we find it observed through nearly its whole extent,
and its leading circumstances recorded at Greenwich, in many of the obser-
vatories on the continent of Europe, at Toronto, St. Helena, the Cape, Ho-
barton, and at Trevandrum in Travancore; for even the mediatized princes
of the East have established observatories as not an unbecoming appendage
to the splendour of their courts. Some of the observations of this remark-
able phenomenon, and of many others (twenty-seven in number) of a similar
nature, have been discussed with great care and detail by Colonel Sabine, and
lead to very remarkable conclusions. They are not absolutely simultaneous at
distant stations, nor do they present even the same succession of phases as at
first anticipated ; and it is the disturbances of the higher order only which
can be considered as universal, They are modified by season as well as by
place; the influence of winter in one hemisphere and of summer in the other,
on the same storm, being clearly distinguishable from each other. The simul-
taneous movements in Europe and America have been observed to take place
sometimes in opposite and sometimes in the same direction, as if the disturb-
ing cause was in one case situated between these continents, and in the other
not; and we may reasonably expect, when our observatories are furnished
with magnetometers of sufficient sensibility to indicate instantaneously the
effects of disturbing causes, that the localities in which they originate may be
approximately determined. These are very remarkable conclusions, and well
calculated to show the advantages of combined observations. In such inqui-
ries, observations in a single and independent locality, however carefully they
may be made, are absolutely valueless.
The meteorological observations are made, in all these observatories, on the
same system and with equal care with those of magnetism; they embrace the
mean quantities, diurnal and annual variations, of the temperature, of the
pressure of the atmosphere, of the tension of the aqueous vapour, of the di-
rection and force of the wind, with every extraordinary departure from the
normal condition of these elements, as well as of auroral and other pheenomena.
It would be premature to speak of the conclusions which are likely to be de-
duced from these observations, inasmuch as the reduction and comparison of
them, with the exception of those at Toronto and Greenwich, has hitherto
made little progress; but they cannot fail to be highly important ; for it is
by the comparison of observations such as these, made with reference to a
definite system, with instruments constructed upon a common principle and
carefully compared with each other, and by such means alone, that the science
of meteorology can be not only advanced but founded.
Our philosophical records have for the last century been deluged with me-
teorological observations ; but they have been made with instruments adapted
tono common principle, compared with no common standard, having reference
xliv REPORT—1844,
to no station but their own, and even with respect to it possessing no sufficient
continuity and system; they have been for the most part desultory, indepen-
dent, and consequently worthless. It would be unjust however to the merits
of one of the most assiduous and useful of our members, Mr. Snow Harris,
if I did not call your attention, in connection with this subject, to his Reports
(included in the Reports of our Twelfth Meeting) on the meteorological obser-
vations at Plymouth made by him, or under his superintendence with the aid of
a very moderate expenditure of the funds of the Association. They compre-
hend observations of the thermometer at every hour of the day and night
during ten years, and of the barometer and anemometer during five years,
carefully reduced and tabulated, and their mean results cymographed or pro-
jected in curves. Nothing can exceed the clearness with which the march of
the diurnal changes are exhibited in these results, and I sincerely hope that
means may be found for printing them in such a form as may secure to them
their permanent authority and value.
Another discussion of the meteorological observations made at sixty-nine
stations, at the equinoxes and solstices, in the years 1835, 1836, 1837 and
1838, which have been reduced and cymographed with great care by Mr. Birt,
at the expense of the Association, forms the subject of a Report by Sir John
Herschel in the volume of our Reports for the present year, and may be con-
sidered as a prelude, on a small scale, of the species of analysis which the
results of the great system of observations now in progress should hereafter
undergo. The inferences which are drawn from the examination of the
changes of atmospheric pressure, with more especial reference to the Euro-
pean group of stations only,are in the highest degree instructive and valuable.
The system of magnetic observatories was at first designed to continue for
three years only, but was subsequently extended to the Ist of January 1846 ;
for it was found that the first triennial period had almost elapsed before the
instruments were prepared or the observers instructed in their duties or con-
veyed to their stations; the extent also of cooperation increased beyond all
previous expectation. Six observatories were established, under the zealous
direction of M. Kupffer, in different parts of the vast empire of Russia, the
only country, let me add, which has established a permanent physical obser-
vatory. The American government instituted three others, at Boston, Phila-
delphia and Washington ; two were established by the East India Company,
at Simla and Sincapore ; from every part of Europe, and even from Algiers,
offers of cooperation were made. But will the work which has thus been
undertaken with such vast prospects be accomplished before the termination
of the second triennial period ? or is it not probable that the very discussion
of the observations will suggest new topics of inquiry or more delicate methods
of observation ? If the march of the diurnal, monthly and annual movements
of the needle be sufficiently determined, will its secular movements be equally
well known? in other words, shall we have laid the foundation of a theory,
which may even imperfectly approximate to the theory of gravitation in the
accuracy and universality of its predictions? It is with reference to these
important questions, and the expediency of continuing the observatories for
another triennial term, that M. Kupffer has addressed a letter to Colonel
Sabine, suggesting the propriety of summoning a magnetic congress, to be
held at the next Meeting of the British Association, and at which himself,
Gauss, Humboldt, Plana, Hansteen, Arago, Lamont, Kreil, Bache, Quetelet,
and all other persons who had taken a Jeading part in conducting, organizing,
or forwarding these observations should be invited to attend.
This proposal has been for some time under the anxious consideration ot
ADDRESS. xlv
your Committee of Magnetism, consisting of Sir John Herschel, Colonel Sabine,
the Astronomer Royal, Dr. Lloyd, the Master of Trinity College, and myself;
and it will be for the General Committee, before we separate, to decide upon
the answer which must be given. I think I may venture to say that there
would be but one feeling of pride and satisfaction at seeing amongst us the
whole or any considerable number of these celebrated men; and there can be
little doubt but that whatever be the place at which you may agree to hold
your next Meeting, they will experience a reception befitting the dignity of
these great representatives of the scientific world.
It is quite true that the preparations for such a meeting would impose upon
your Committee of Magnetism, and more especially upon Colonel Sabine, no
small degree of labour. Reports must be received from all the stations, up
to the latest period, of the state of the observations; their most prominent
results must be analysed and compared, and communicated as extensively as
possible amongst the different members of the Congress, so as to put them in
possession of the facts upon which their decision should be founded. Great
as is our reliance upon the activity and zeal of Colonel Sabine and of his ad-
mirable coadjutor, Lieut. Riddell, perfect as is his acquaintance with every
step of an inquiry with the organization and conduct of which he and Prof.
Lloyd have had the principal share, I fear that he would require greater
means than his present establishment could furnish, to meet the pressure of
such overwhelming duties.
But if it should be the opinion of such a congress, that it was expedient to
continue the observations for another triennial period, and if such an opinion
was accompanied by an exposition of the grounds upon which it was founded,
there can be little doubt that there is not a government in the civilized world
which would not readily acquiesce in a recommendation which was supported
by such authority.
The last volume of our Transactions is rich in reports on natural science,
and more especially in those departments of it which have an important bear-
ing on geology ; such is Prof. E. Forbes’s Report “ On the Distribution of the
Mollusca and Radiata of the A.gean Sea,” with particular reference to the
successive zones of depth which are characterized by distinctive forms of ani-
mal life, and the relation existing between living and extinct species. You
will, I am sure, be rejoiced to hear that Her Majesty’s Government have not
only secured the services of its author in connection with the Geological Sur-
vey, but have most liberally undertaken, upon the application of the Council,
to defray the expense of printing the very interesting work upon which this
Report is founded. The Report of Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, on an ana-
logous branch of the Fauna of Ireland, is remarkable for the minuteness and
fullness of the information which it conveys. Prof. Owen has continued his
Report “On the British Fossil Mammalia,” which was begun in the preceding
volume, and towards procuring materials for which a contribution was made
from the funds of the Association. I regret to find that a class of reports on
_ the recent progress and existing state of different branches of science, which
occupied so large a portion of our earlier volumes, and which conferred upon
them so great a value, have been almost entirely discontinued. Ifthe authors
of these Reports could find leisure to add to them an appendix, containing the
history of the advances made in those branches of science during the last
decad of years, they would confer an important benefit on all persons engaged
in scientific inquiries.
The history of the sciences must ever require these periodical revisions of
their state and progress, if men continue to press forward in the true spirit
xlvi REPORT—1844.
of philosophy, to advance the boundaries of knowledge ; for though there may
be impassable boundaries of human knowledge, there is only one great and
all-wise Being, with whom all knowledge is perfect, who can say, “ Thus far
shalt thou go and no further.” The indolent speculator on the history of the sci-
ences may indulge in an expression of regret that the true system of the uni-
verse is already known, that the law of gravitation is discovered, that the pro,
blem of the three bodies is solved, and that the mine of discovery is exhausted
and that there remain no rich masses of ore in its veins to make the fortune
and fame of those who find them; but it is in the midst of this dream of hope-
lessness and despondency that he is startled from time to time by the report
of some great discovery—a Davy has decomposed the alkalies, a Dalton has
discovered, and a Berzelius has completely developed, the law of definite pro-
portions ; a Herschel has extended the law of gravitation to the remotest dis-
coverable bodies of the universe, and a Gauss has brought the complicated and
embarrassing phenomena of terrestrial magnetism under the dominion of ana-
lysis; and so it will ever continue to be whilst knowledge advances, the high-
est generalizations of one age becoming the elementary truths of the aext.
But whilst we are taking a part in this great march of science and civilization,
whilst we are endeavouring to augment the great mass of intellectual wealth
which is accumulating around us, splendid as may be the triumphs of science
or art which we are achieving, let us never presume to think that we are
either exhausting the riches or approaching the term of those treasures which
are behind; still less let us imagine that the feeble efforts of our philosophy
will ever tend to modify the most trivial and insignificant,—if aught can be
termed trivial and insignificant which He has sanctioned,—of those arrange-
ments which the great Author of Nature has appointed for the moral or ma-
terial government of the universe. Far different are the lessons which he
taught us by the revelation of his will, whether expressed in his word or
impressed on his works; it is in a humble and reverent spirit that we should
approach the fountain of all knowledge, and it is ina humble and reverent
spirit that we should seek to drink of the living waters which for ever flow
from it.
Report or tHe Councrn to tHE GENERAL CoMMITTEE.
1. The General Committee assembled at Cork in August 1843 having
passed a Resolution to the effect that an application should be made, on the
part of the British Association, to the Master-General of the Ordnance, en-
treating his assistance in the proposed experiments with Captive Balloons, the
Council has to report that the application has been accordingly made, and that
a reply has been received from the Master-General, stating that the Com-
mandant of the Garrison at Woolwich has been directed to afford the facilities -
and assistance which are requested.
2. The General Committee assembled at Cork having directed that “an
application be made to Her Majesty’s Government for the insertion of Contour
Lines of Elevation on the Ordnance Maps of Ireland, such lines being of great
value for engineering, mining, geological and mechanical purposes,”—the
Council has to report, that a copy of this Resolution was transmitted to Her
Majesty’s Government, accompanied by the following Memorial :—
“ The undersigned Membersof the British Association for the Advancement
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Xxlvii
of Science have the honour, by the direction of the General Committee of the
Association, assembled at Cork in August 1843, to make an earnest applica-
tion to Her Majesty’s Government for the addition to the engraved sheets of
the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, of a series of contour lines, representing the
various degrees of elevation of the surface of the country from actual survey.
* The grounds of this application are, that the execution of such lines would
prove eminently serviceable to the landed, commercial, and mining interests
of Ireland; that it would afford information and assistance of the highest value
to persons engaged in the cultivation of science, and in applying scientific
discoveries to practical purposes ; and that the work sought to be accomplished
can be performed by the present Ordnance establishment in Ireland within
a short time and at a moderate cost.
** Tn all cases where the improvement of farms, by opening them to markets,
or to each other, by the cheapest roads, by drainage or by irrigation, is
desired—in all the operations for ameliorating the condition of towns, espe-
cially by diverting for their use existing streams of water, or obtaining new
supplies by Artesian wells—in arranging the situations of coal-pits and mining
adits—in planning or diverting roads, railways and canals, a knowledge of the
inequalities of level of the surface of the country is of primary importance.
“ This knowledge, contour lines, engraved on the Ordnance Maps, would
supply, not only in a general sense, but with an exactness suited to particular
cases and actual operations, and thereby facilitate in a high degree the pre-
paration of good plans for public improvement, and save the heavy expense
of innumerable special surveys, which, however well performed, cannot be
compared in authenticity and applicability with theresultsof a general system,
which, once completed, would be available for new cases and future times.
* Independent of the assistance which the Ordnance Maps thus rendered
complete would afford to public works and private enterprises, their aug+
mented value in a multitude of cases, embracing the applications of science
and the ordinary concerns of life, is worthy of attention. In fact, without the
introduction of such lines marking inequalities of level, these splendid maps
would be incomplete, and less useful to the public than they might be made.
“ The British Association has been assured that this desirable addition to
the Irish maps is extremely practicable at the present time, because in the
progress of the survey a great number of the lines and stations necessary for
contouring have been determined, and a large body of persons has beentrained
to the correct use of the instruments which must be employed in the process,
whose services are now disposable. As experiments, the county of Kilkenny,
and parts of Donegal and Louth, have been already contoured for general
purposes ; a property of the Crown at Llangeinor, in South Wales, for mining
operations, and Windsor for sanatory objects.
“From these trials the probable cost of the operations, by which the data
for contouring the whole of the Maps will be supplied, has been estimated at
£10,000, a sum which it is hoped Her Majesty’s Government will deem
altogether inconsiderable in comparison with the public advantages which
cannot fail to arise from the performance of the work. It is also worthy of
notice, that the newly-discovered process of electrotype is applicable to the
purpose of enabling duplicate plates to be produced at an extremely small
cost, in which these lines can be inserted, leaving the original plate unaltered,
to furnish other duplicates for other purposes—such, for example, as the in-
sertion of geological lines.
“The British Association therefore begs leave to solicit from Her Majesty’s
Government a favourable consideration of the subject; and that Her Majesty’s
xlviil REPORT—1844.,
Government will be pleased to authorise the officers of the Ordnance depart-
ment to take immediate steps for contouring on the whole of the maps of Ire-
land, according to the specimen already executed for the county of Kilkenny.”
(Signed by the Earl of Rosse, President; the Marquis of North-
ampton and John Taylor, Esq., Members of the Committee.)
No direct reply has been received to this application ; but the Council has
learnt from other sources that the Contour Lines are to be inserted in the
Ordnance Maps.
8. The General Committee assembled at Cork having passed a Resolution
to the effect that application be made to Her Majesty's Government to give
its aid in the publication of Professor Edward Forbes’s researches in the
#gean Sea, the Council has to report that the General Secretaries, accompanied
by Mr. Lyell, waited on Sir George Clerk, one of the Secretaries of the Trea-
sury, and presented a Copy of the Resolution passed by the General Committee,
accompanied by the following Memorial :—
«Professor E. Forbes was engaged as naturalist in the ‘ Beacon’ surveying-
vessel, under the command of Captain Graves, employed in a Hydrographical
Survey of the Mediterranean, by direction of the British Government. While
thus engaged, he embraced every occasion of obtaining, by the dredge, exact
knowledge of the contents. of the Egean Sea, at all depths, ranging from the
surface to 230 fathoms: he studied the fauna and flora of the isles of the
Archipelago and the mountains of Lycia, and, by carefuland copious notes and
drawings, he has preservedauthentic and complete accounts of the information
thus gathered.
“ During the survey of the submarine zoology of the Agean, and in the ex-
amination of the coasts and interior country, Professor Forbes observed up-
wards of 150 species of animals which he regards as altogether new to science,
and a much larger number which have been previously unknown in these
localities.
“ Among many interesting results established by careful registration of the
circumstances under which the several races of plants and animals were dis-
covered in the Aigean, it appears that several distinct zones of depth are
naturally defined in the Augean Sea, by distinct and peculiar groups of plants
and animals; that the lower we pass downward in this sea the more do the
organic forms resemble species which occur near the surface of the ocean in
arctic regions; and that some species of Mollusca have been dredged alive
in the Egean of which the remains only had been previously known ina fossil
state, and were thought to be extinct.
“These and some other conclusions derived by Professor Forbes from his
researches, have an important bearing on the philosophy of natural history,
and on the establishment of general truths in geology. The announcement
of them in a report to the British Association has created great interest among
persons devoted to natural science ; and it appears desirable for the advance-
ment of knowledge that the data on which the conclusions rest should be
published in a complete form. This cannot be done upon the expectation of
remuneration through the ordinary channels of trade ; nor is it compatible
with the means or the course of proceeding of the Association to undertake
such a publication, though the sum of £100 was willingly devoted from their
funds to assist Professor Forbes in defraying the cost of the dredging opera-
tions, whose results are esteemed to be so valuable: except by aid from the
Government, the'results of Professor Forbes’s labours can never be fully given
to the public. If published in detached fragments and at various times, they
will bealmost inaccessible,exceptto a very small numberof students; whereas,
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. xlix
published by Government, the whole may be produced in a complete and
creditable form, and be placed within the reach of the public at a moderate
price, and given to foreign institutions of science, from which returns of like
nature may be expected.
“ To fulfil these conditions, to render the publication possible, and to make
it useful by a sufficient series of illustrations, would probably require a sum
not exceeding £500.”
The Council has now the pleasure of stating, that Sir Robert Peel has con-
sented to Mr. Forbes’s work being published at the expense of Her Majesty’s
Government, under the superintendence of the Comptroller-General of Sta-
tionery, and agreeably to the plan submitted by the General Secretaries, viz.
that the publication should consist of about 300 pages of text in octavo, and
about 100 plates; 500 copiesto be printed of the text, and the plates to be taken
off as required ; that 50 copies should be presented in the name of the British
Government to public libraries and institutions at home and abroad, according
toa list to be furnished; that 50 copies should be at the disposal of Mr. Forbes,
to be presented to persons who had assisted in his researches, or contributed
towards the work; and that the remainder of the copies should be sold at a
price considerably less than that of their cost.
4. The Council reports that the General Treasurer has received from Her
Majesty's Treasury the sumof £1000, granted by Government for the publica-
tion of the Catalogue of Stars in the ‘ Histoire Céleste’ of Lalande, and of La-
caille’s ‘ Catalogue of Stars in the Southern Hemisphere.’
5. The Council reports that the railway geological sections and documents
connected therewith, which had been made at the expense of the British Asso-
ciation at a cost of £363 6s. 9d., have been transferred to the Museum of
conomic Geology, upon theassurance that these sections and documents shall
be open to the public, as other documents in the Mining Record Office at the
Museum now are, and with the understanding that the sections are to be con-
tinued by the authority and at the expense of Government, for which purpose
a sum of £250 has been taken on the estimates of the Museum of Ciconomic
Geology for 1844—-45.
6. The Council has added the name of Dr. Langberg, of Christiania, to the
list of Corresponding Members of the British Association.
7. TheCouncil has requested Professor Wheatstone to prepare a Report on
the performance of the Self-registering Meteorological Apparatus belonging
to the Observatory at Kew, and to present it at the Meeting at York.
8. The Council has requested Messrs. Wheatstone and Ronalds to prepare
a Report on the performance of the Electrical Apparatus established at Kew,
and on the results obtained with it; to be presented at the Meeting at York.
9. The Council, having ascertained that the Earl of Rosse, President of the
Association, would not be indisposed to communicate to the Meeting at York
an account of the recent improvements which he has effected in the construc-
tion of Reflecting Telescopes, has requested His Lordship to prepare a Report
on that subject ; to be presented at the York Meeting.
10. It having been stated to the Council that since the electrical apparatus
has been fitted up in the cupola of the Kew Observatory, Mr. Galloway has
been required, in addition to the general duties for which he was engaged, to
attend to its registry every day from half an hour before sunrise until night ;
and that the same constant attendance would continue to be required of him
for this and other meteorological registries, the Council has increased Mr. Gallo-
way’s salary to One Guinea a week, on the understanding that for this salary
his whole time should be at the service of the Association.
1844. d
] REPORT—1844.,
11. TheGeneral Committee assembled at Cork having placed at the disposal
of the Council a sum of £200 for the purpose of maintaining the establish-
ment at Kew, the Council reports that of this sum £118 5s. 23d. has been
expended in the year which now closes, for salary and house-expenses.
12. Letters have been received from the Mayor and Town Council of the
city of Bath ; from the Chairman, Committee and Secretary of the Bath Royal
Literary and Scientific Institution ; and from the President and Vice-Presidents
of the Bath Mechanics’ Institution—inviting the British Association to hold its
meeting in the year 1845 in that city.
13. The Council has been informed that the Senate of the University of
Cambridge has passed a grace to the effect that if the meeting of the British
Association should take place at Cambridge in 1845, the use of the Senate-
house, and such of the public buildings and lecture-rooms as may be required
for the different general and sectional meetings of the Association, should be
granted under the superintendence of a syndicate ; and further, that the Phi-
losophical Society of Cambridge designs, at the York Meeting, to invite the
British Association to hold their Meeting in 1845 at Cambridge.
14. A letter has been received from Charles P. Deacon, Esq., Town Clerk
of Southampton, containing an invitation from the Mayor and Borough Coun-
cil to the British Association, to hold its Meeting for 1845 at Southampton ;
and stating that in such case the Guildhall, Audit-house, and other public
buildings, should be placed at the disposal of the Association ; and that the
Literary and Scientific Society and the Polytechnic Institution would also place
their lecture and other rooms at the disposal of the Association, and most
cheerfully co-operate with the authorities in affording every facility and as-
sistance in their power.
(Signed on the part of the Council) Rosse.
York, September 25th, 1844.
REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
On the Microscopic Structure of Shells. By W.Carprenter, M.D.,
F.R.S.
I. Introductory Remarks.
I mAvE in vain searched the works of recent Conchological writers, for any
indication that Shell has any claim to the title of an organic structure. The
researches of Reaumur and Hatchett appear to have induced the universal
belief, that shell is an inorganic exudation from the surface of the mantle,
consisting of calcareous particles held together by a sort of animal glue. It
seems to have been formerly maintained by Herissant, however, that shell has
an organic structure, and that it grows by interstitial deposit in the manner of
bone. I have not been able, however, to find his original paper; and only
make this statement on the authority of a reference which I have found to it
in the article Conchyliologie in the ‘ Encyclopédie Méthodique,’ in which he is
quoted as having endeavoured (but failed) to establish by “les expériences
ingénieuses, bien plus que solides,” that shells grow by intus-susception, in-
stead of by accretion, as demonstrated by Reaumur. In this doctrine he was
undoubtedly wrong, as I shall hereafter show; since, although all shell pos-
Sesses a more or less definite organic structure, this structure rather cor-
responds with that of the various Epidermic appendages of Vertebrated
animals, than with that of their internal vascular skeleton; and its mode of
_ growth must therefore be analogous rather to that of the former than to that
of the latter.
The idea that such would be probably found to be the case, I expressed in
the second edition of my ‘ Principles of General and Comparative Physio-
logy’ (October 1841), as follows :—‘ The dense calcareous shells of the Mol-
lusea, and the thinner jointed envelopes of the Crustacea, have been com-
monly regarded as mere exudations of stony matter, mixed with an animal
_ glue secreted from the membrane which answers to the true skin. The hard
_ axes and sheaths of the Polypifera, however, have been also regarded in the
_ same light; and yet, as will hereafter appear, these are unquestionably formed
_ by the consolidation of what was once living tissue*. From the analogy
_ which the shells of Mollusca and Crustacea bear to the epidermic appendages
of higher animals, there would seem reason to believe that the former, like
the latter, have their origin in eells, and that these are afterwards hardened
by the deposition of earthy matter in their interior.’—(§ 44.)
Acting upon this view, I commenced, in the spring of 1842, a series of in-
* Reference was here made to the researches of M. Milne-Edwards, upon the development
and growth of some of the corals. The nature of their organic structure has been subse-
quently elucidated with great success by Mr. Bowerbank.—(Phil. Trans. 1842.)
1844. B
2 REPORT—1844.
quiries into the structure of the shells of Mollusca, Crustacea, and Echinoder-
mata; which I have since been prosecuting as time and opportunity have been
afforded me. About the same period, Mr. Bowerbank commenced an inde-~
pendent series of observations ; which have had reference, however, rather to
the formation of shell, than to its microscopic characters when complete ; and
which have been limited to a comparatively small number of species, whilst
my own have included a very extensive range. Finding that our paths of in-
quiry were so distinct, Mr. Bowerbank and I agreed to pursue them inde-
pendently of each other; and the results of our researches were simul-
taneously communicated,—on his part to the Microscopical Society,—and on
mine to the Royal Society,—in January 1843. A brief sketch of my own
inquiries was laid before the British Association at its Cork meeting ; and,
with the aid of the grant which was then made to me from the funds of the
Association, together with the assistance I have received from various quar-
ters, in regard to the collection of subjects for examination,—especially from
the Geological Society, the Council of which has liberally permitted me to
examine duplicate specimens from its valuable museum, and from Messrs. H.
Cuming, S. Worsley, S. P. Pratt and J. Morris,—I have made during the past
year little short of a éhousand preparations of shell-structure. A considerable
part of my labour has been directed to the determination of the questions,—
whether an uniform structure prevails through every part of the same shell,
so that the structure of the whole shell may be predicated from that of a
small portion of it,—and whether the same structure is found in different in-
dividuals of the same species, and among different species of the same genus.
It is obvious that a settlement of these questions must be of great importance
in the application of the Microscope to the determination of fossil shells ; and
I think that I am now entitled to answer them with some degree of confi-
dence. I have, in a considerable number of instances, submitted every por-
tion of a shell to microscopic investigation, selecting such specimens as, from
the peculiar characters of their structure, would serve as types to which
to refer others; and I have invariably found that an uniform structure
pervades the whole of each; so that the examination of but a very small
fragment is sufficient to determine the structure of the entire shell. I feel
equally certain with respect to the correspondence between the structure of
different individuals of the same species; as I have never found any decided
variation, although I have in some instances examined several specimens of
one kind. With respect to the degree of difference which may exist among
the several species of the same genus, I am not yet prepared to speak with
certainty. In general I have found the correspondence such, that the size of
the elementary parts is the chief point of difference ; but occasionally I have
found particular forms of structure present in one species and absent in
another. It will hereafter appear, however, that this difference corresponds
with other variations, which are probably to be considered as establishing
generic distinctions in the cases in question.
In the following Report, it is my intention to give a general account of the
chief forms of elementary structure, which I have met with in Shell; and to
enter into systematic details in regard to the group of Brachiopoda, and the
families of Placunide, Ostracee, Pectinide, Margaritacee, and Unionide,
among the Lamellibranchiate Bivalves. The remaining families of Bivalves,
and the whole group of Univalves, must be reserved for a future report.
I am desirous that it should be understood that, where I do not express
myself to the contrary, my statements are the result of my own researches ;
and that I am ready to substantiate them by reference to the preparations on
which they are grounded, all of which are in my possession.
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 3
I shall commence with a brief outline of the researches and conclusions of
Mr. Hatchett (Phil. Trans. 1799), and of Mr. Gray (Phil. Trans. 1633) ; the
only two original inquirers on this subject, so far as I am aware, since the
time of Reaumur.
The experiments of Mr. Hatchett led him to divide Shells into two classes,
the porcellanous and the nacreous. He stated that those belonging to
the former group are composed of carbonate of lime, held together by so
small a proportion of animal matter, that, although its presence may be recog-
nized by the effects of heat upon the shell, no membranous film is left after
the action of dilute acid upon it. Under the zacreous group he placed those
shells which, though they do not all exhibit the nacreous lustre, possess an
amount of animal membrane sufficiently great for the form of the shell to be
more or less perfectly preserved, after the calcareous matter has been com-
pletely dissolved away by dilute acid. To such shells the term membranous
has been subsequently applied with much greater propriety ; and of the class
of membranous shells, the true nacreous form a subordinate division. This
distinction, however, cannot now hold good; since all shells, without excep-
tion, have a distinct animal basis, as will be shown hereafter.
According to Mr. Gray, another classification of Shells may be founded
upon the manner in which the carbonate of lime is deposited in their sub-
stance; some shells exhibiting a distinctly crystalline fracture, whilst others are
granular or concretionary. Mr. Gray states that, among the crystalline shells,
some may be found, in which the carbonate of lime exhibits a rhomboidal
erystallization, whilst in others it is prismatic. I think it will appear from my
inquiries, that the calcareous matter in ail shells is nearly equally crystalline
in its aggregation ; and that the particular forms which their fracture presents
are determined, chiefly if not entirely, by the arrangement of the animal basis
of the shell, which possesses a more or less highly organized structure.
I shall now proceed to describe the principal varieties of structure which
I have met with in the examination of upwards of 400 species of Shells, recent
and fossil, selected from all the principal families of Mollusca. When exami-
ning recent shells, I have, in nearly every instance, submitted them to micro-
scopic investigation in at least two ways; first, by making thin sections of
them, so that their structure might be examined by transmitted light; and
second, by examining the animal membrane left after the removal of the cal-
careous matter by dilute muriatic acid, which I shall name for convenience
the decalcifying process. In many instances also, I have found the examina-
tion of the natural or fractured surfaces of the shell by reflected light, or of
the thin laminz into which many shells will readily split, to afford valuable
information. These methods of investigation mutually aid and correct each
other; and neither can be prosecuted alone, without much liability to error.
Il. On the Condition of the Calcareous Matter in Shell.
1. All thin sections of recent Shell are translucent, except those which con-
tain a large amount of opake colouring matter, or which (as sometimes hap-
pens) have a layer of calcareous particles deposited in a chalky or concre-
tionary state between the proper lamine of shell-structure. This is the case
in the common Oyster, as pointed out by Mr. Gray ; and in many other shells
which possess an opake white aspect, such as Fusus despectus. But I can-
not regard such layers as forming part of the proper structure of the shell;
since the particles of carbonate of lime, of which they consist, are not con-
nected by any organic basis.
2. Again, all thin sections of shell possess the power of depolarizing light,
so that the portion of shell appears bright upon a dark ground, when the
B2
4 REPORT—1844,
polarizing and analysing plates or prisms are so arranged as to prevent the
transmission of ordinary light.
3. From these facts I think we are entitled to conclude, that the caleareous
matter of shell is in a state of crystalline aggregation, even when no crystal-
line forms are presented by it. The absence of the latter is probably due to
the mode in which the calcareous matter is set free from the whole surface at
once ; so that there is not room (so to speak) for these forms to be generated.
This conclusion is strengthened by the remarkable fact, that crystalline forms
do present themselves under peculiar circumstances. Thus I have met, in the
Oyster, with layers incompletely calcified; so that, instead of being covered
by a continuous and uniform deposit of carbonate of lime, the membrane was
studded with a multitude of minute rhomboidal bodies, varying in size from
about the 1-6000th to the 1-2000th of an inch across (fig. 16); the effect of
polarized light and of chemical reagents upon which, left no doubt that they
are crystals of carbonate of lime*. In very thin sections of parts of Cyprea
and other porcellanous shells, in which the quantity of animal matter is ex-
tremely small, I have frequently seen the apparently-homogeneous calcareous
deposit crossed by lines, inclined to each other in such a manner, as to indicate
a rhomboidal crystallization in its substance. And in the tooth of Mya
arenaria, I have seen an appearance which seems to me (from a comparison
of it with numerous allied forms of structure) to indicate the crystallization
of the carbonate of lime in a radiating manner, (the centres being the nuclei
of the cells, within which each group of crystals was originally inclosed,)
somewhat after the manner of radiating Arragonite or Wavellite (fig. 14).
III. Of the Animal Basis of Shell.
4. When a portion of any recent Shell is submitted to the decalcifying
process, a perfectly definite animal basis remains. This basis may be nothing
more than a film of membrane, so delicate as almost to elude detection+}, but
evidently not an amorphous residuum; or it may be a membrane of firmer
consistence, presenting regular plications or corrugations ; or it may consist
of an aggregation of cells, having very definite membranous walls, and a
more or less regular form. My first division of shell-structures, therefore, is,
according to the character of the animal basis, into the cellular and the mem-
branous ; these I shall now proceed to describe in detail.
IV. Prismatic Cellular Structure.
5. If a small portion be broken away from the thin margin of the shell of
any species of Pinna, and it be placed without any preparation under a low
magnifying power, it presents on each of its surfaces, when viewed by ¢rans-
mitted light, very much the aspect of a honeycomb; whilst at the broken
edge it exhibits an appearance which is evidently fibrous to the eye, but
which, when examined under the microscope with reflected light, resembles
that of an assemblage of basaltic columns. The shell is thus seen to be com-
posed of a vast multitude of prisins, having for the most part a tolerably
regular hexagonal shape and nearly uniform size. These are arranged per-
pendicularly (or nearly so) to the surface of each lamina, so that its thick-
ness is formed by their length, and its two surfaces by their extremities. A
more satisfactory view of these prisms is obtained by grinding down a lamina,
* It is stated by Wagner, that minute crystals of calcareous matter are to be found in the
ae envelope of Ascidia mammillata.—(Lehrbuch der vergleichenden_Anatomie,
p- 60.
+ When such films have not been visible in the menstruum, I have found them inyolyed in
the bubbles that lay on the surface after the effervescence was over.
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 5
until it possesses a high degree of transparency ; and it is then seen, that the
prisms themselves appear to be composed of a very homogeneous substance,
but that they are separated by definite and strongly-marked lines of division
(fig. 3). In general the substance forming the prisms is very transparent,
but here and there is seen an isolated prism, usually of smaller size than the
rest, which presents a very dark appearance, even in a section of no more
than 1-400th of an inch in thickness, as if the prism contained an opake
substance (fig.6). These dark cells are seen in very great abundance, when
we examine a lamina in which the natural external surface has been pre-
served, the reduction of its thickness having been effected by grinding down
the under side only ; and it is then seen that their degree of opacity varies
considerably (fig. 5). To the cause of this appearance I shall presently revert,
as it is a matter of some interest in reference to the formation of this kind of
shell-structure.
6. When a piece of the shell of Pinna has been submitted to the action of
dilute acid, the carbonate of lime being dissolved away, a consistent and
almost leathery membrane remains, which exhibits the prismatic structure
just as perfectly as does the original shell; the hexagonal division being seen
when either of its surfaces is examined, and the basaltiform appearance
being evident on the inspection of its edge. No resemblance can be stronger
than that which exists between a layer of this membrane and a corresponding
layer of the pith or bark of a plant, in which the cells are hexagonal prisms.
In many instances I have been able to detect distinct nuclei or eytoblasts in all
the cells of a naturally thin layer; although, from some cause which I am not
able to explain, these are generally invisible (fig.8). I have often been able
to detect them with reflected light, however, when I could not distinguish them
with transmitted. As the nucleus occupies one of the ends of the prismatic
cell, it is of course useless to look for it when the natural surface of the
lamina has been removed by grinding. The decalcified membrane presents
no trace of the opake cells just now mentioned ; indeed the small cells which
would probably have presented this appearance in a section of the shell, are
now, if anything, rather more transparent and free from colours than the rest.
7. The action of dilute acid having thus enabled us to obtain the mem-
branous element of shell in a separate state, we are enabled to inquire into
the condition of the calcareous element, by means of specimens, in which the
animal matter has been removed by the long-continued action of water. I
am indebted to Mr. S. Stutchbury for an interesting specimen, in which the
thick outer layer had become disintegrated during the life of the animal, by
the decay of its organic structure, and the prisms of carbonate of lime were
left in situ, but not in any way held together, so that they could be sepa-
rated by a touch. On treating these prisms with dilute acid, I have found
them encircled by an extremely delicate membranous film ; the remainder of
the cells in which they were originally formed having been removed by decay.
In the fossil Pinne of the oolite and neighbouring formations, it very fre-
quently happens that the prisms exhibit a similar tendency to come apart, so
as to admit of separate examination. . It is then seen, that whilst some of
them are ¢runcated at both ends, so that their extremities appear at the two
surfaces of the layer which they form, others gradually come to a poznt at one
end, so that this is lost in the thickness of the layer (figs. 9-11). A careful
examination of these prisms, and of their irregularities of form, quite disproves
the idea that their shape is due to a prismatic crystallization of carbonate of
lime, it being evident that they are casts of the interior of organic cells, the
shape of. which is determined by their mode of origin and formation. The
variations in the size of the prisms at different parts of their length, accounts
6 REPORT—1844,
satisfactorily for the varying size of the reticulations as shown on a transverse
section of them,—some of the cells being cut across at their thickest, and some
at their thinnest part. The very small hexagons which are occasionally seen
in the midst of larger ones (fig. 7), are evidently the sections of prismatic
cells, which are coming to a pointed termination. Of this fact I shall pre-
sently make further use (§ 14).
8. The great thickness of the basaltiform layers in many of the fossil
Pinne (and their allied genera) renders them very favourable subjects for
examination of their structure, by a section at right angles to their surfaces.
It is then seen that the direction of the prismatic fibres is seldom quite
straight. In the same section they are often cut longitudinally in one part,
and obliquely or almost transversely in another. Hence, although it is
plain from the appearances shown on fracture, or by the disintegration of the
shell, that most of the fibres pass continuously from one surface to the other,
it is seldom that the whole length of them canbe displayed in any one sectton,—
one set frequently passing off by a change of direction, and another coming
into view. Even to the naked eye, the curvature of these fibres is often
sufficiently evident in the large Pinne and Inocerami; a circumstance which
may, I think, be regarded as adding weight to the conclusion, that the pris-
matic character of the fibres is not to be attributed to crystalline action, but
to the form of the cells in which the calcareous matter is deposited.
9. The general structure of the outer layers of the shell of Pinna (and,
as I shall hereafter show, of many other genera) may be thus described :—
it consists of a stratum of prismatic cells, usually more or less hexagonal,
adherent to each other by their sides, and forming the surfaces of the layer
by their flattened terminations. Most of these cells pass continuously from
one surface to the other, so that their length corresponds with the thickness
of the layer; but some of them end, by acute terminations, in the interior of
the layer, when its thickness is considerable (figs. 2 and 10). These cells are
filled with carbonate of lime, which give firmness to what would be otherwise
a soft membranous stratum. From the universality with which this kind of
structure, when it presents itself at all, forms the external layers of the shell,
and from the complete correspondence between the form and aggregation of
its cells, and those of the Epithelium covering the free surfaces of the other
membranes of the body, I think we are justified in regarding the prismatic
cellular substance of shell (which is the term by which I have designated
this kind of structure) in the light of a calcified epithelium. It would thus
correspond with the Enamel of Teeth, to which it is analogous in every re-
spect, save the character of the mineral deposit, and the much larger size of
the prisms.
10. A more minute investigation of this structure throws some additional
light on the mode in which it is at first produced. When a thin section is
made of the shell of Pinna nigrina parallel to its surface, it exhibits a beau-
tiful reddish-violet hue by transmitted light, which is not, however, uniformly
diffused over the whole section, some parts being commonly almost or com-
pletely colourless (fig. 1). This appearance is completely explained by the
examination of a thin section made in the opposite direction; and it is then
seen that there is an alternation of coloured and colourless strata through the
whole thickness of the layer; so that the variations in the hue of the hori-
zontal section are due to the mode in which these strata crop out, one from
beneath another (fig.2). If the section, however, should happen to traverse
one layer only, its hue will be uniform throughout; and thus I have sections
of the same shell, taken from the same part of it, in some of which the whole
is colourless, whilst in others it is uniformly tinted. Now these facts are in-
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 7
teresting, as proving, I think, beyond a doubt, that the filling up of these long
prismatic cells with carbonate of lime was not accomplished at one nisus ;
and that there must have been a succession of deposits, of which some were
tinted by the admixture of a coloured secretion, whilst others were left
colourless. The ouéer portion of each layer will of course be the part first
formed; and the coloured layers are usually most numerous and deeply
tinted in its neighbourhood.
11. The idea of a succession of deposits is borne out by a very curious ap-
pearance, which is presented by the two elements of the structure, when they
are separately examined. The prismatic cells of the decalcified membrane ex-
hibit a series of transverse markings at a small distance from each other, which
bear no small resemblance (as Mr. Bowerbank has remarked) to the transverse
striz of muscular fibre. These markings may be best seen by looking at
the sides of the cells, in a vertical section which has been decalcified by
dilute acid; and they impart to the long prisms very much the aspect of the
sealariform yessels of plants (fig.11). But they may frequently be well seen
in a horizontal section (with or without decalcification), when, as often hap-
pens, the direction of some of the prisms is somewhat oblique, instead of being
perpendicular to the plane of the section. Markings of a precisely similar
nature are seen upon the calcareous prisms themselves, both from recent and
fossil shells ; and they evidently correspond with those which the cell-walls
exhibit.
12. These markings are attributed by Mr. Bowerbank to the existence of
a vascular network, by which he supposes each stratum of prismatic cells to
be surrounded. He thinks that a network of tubes, passing round each cell,
may frequently be seen in the decalcified membrane; and that the slight
bulging inwards, which the passage of the tube between the contiguous walls
of two cells will give to each of them, is the cause of the marking in question.
I cannot but think, however, that this view has been somewhat hastily
adopted. In the first place, we know of no instance in which vessels pass in
this manner through a cellular structure, except in the adipose tissue of
animals, to which the fabric of shell bears no resemblance. I have in vain
looked, in many scores of carefully-prepared specimens, for appearances
distinctly indicative of the passage of tubes between these cells; but have
never succeeded, I can in any one, however, readily produce the appear-
ance figured by Mr. Bowerbank as a vascular reticulation, by throwing the
cut edges of the membrane a little out of focus, Moreover, if these tubes
have a real existence, they ought to be very evident in the shell, before decal-
cification; in which I have never been able to find a trace of them, although
I have examined more than 100 sections, cut in various directions, of various
species of Pinna alone. When it is considered that the strize are seldom
more than 1-5000th of an inch apart, and are frequently much less, it is
evident that there must be at least 5000 strata of this vascular network in a
layer of shell an inch thick. According to Mr. Bowerbank, these strata
communicate with each other by vertical tubes passing upwards and down-
wards from the angles of the reticulations. These also I have failed to see,
although I have used *every variety of magnifying power and of method of
examination. I may mention also that, as will presently appear, I have
found numerous instances, in which a tubular structure of great delicacy is
readily discernible in Shell ; so that I am quite familiar with the appearances
which such a structure in Pinna might be expected to present.
13. By submitting the eut edges of the membranous wall of the prismatic
cell to a high magnifying power, under favourable circumstances, I have
been able to discoyer what I believe to be the real cause of the transverse
S REPORT—1844. :
striation in question. The membrane evidently projects inwards at those
parts, not in consequence of being pushed inwards from without, but be-
cause its own thickness is there increased. This appearance corresponds well
with the conclusion already drawn, in regard to the progressive formation of
each layer of shell; and I am much inclined to believe that each transverse
marking indicates a distinct deposit. Whether, during the time when this
succession of deposits was taking place, the prismatic cells grew at their
bases, and these lines indicate the additions which were progressively made
to the length of the cells,—or whether the long prismatic cells, as we now find
them, are made up by the coalescence of a number of layers of flat pavement-
like epithelium-cells, placed one upon another, and the lines indicate their
points of junction,—I do not feel warranted in affirming with certainty, as the
question could be only rightly decided by examining the shell in the progress
of its formation, which I have not yet had the opportunity of doing. I am
much inclined, however, to adopt the latter view ; which was suggested to me
by Professor Owen. The coalescence of cells, linearly arranged, so as to
form a single long cell or tube, is an occurrence with which Animal and Ve-
etable Physiologists are alike familiar. The idea derives strength from the
fact, that I have occasionally met with a layer of prismatic cellular structure
of such extreme tenuity, that it was almost impossible to separate it, lying
between thicker layers of the same in the shell of Pinna. The cells of this
layer, instead of being elongated prisms, were flat and pavement-like, resem-
bling the epithelium of serous membrane; and it was in such that I have
found the cytoblasts most perfectly preserved (fig. 8). It is hardly to be
supposed that this layer was produced by a distinct act of shell-formation, as
it would not add in any appreciable degree to the size or solidity of the shell ;
and it seems probable that it was a supplemental portion, which had not
coalesced with the remainder of the layer, of which it should properly have
formed a part.
14. The last point to which I shall advert, is one which I have already
noticed,—the presence of dark or semi-opake cells in great numbers on the
natural outer surface of the layers of prismatic cellular substance in the
Pinna (fig.5); their presence in a much diminished proportion, and only as
small cells, in sections taken from the interior of the layer (fig.6); and
their complete absence (in general at least) from the natural internal surface
of the layers (fig.7). I have nearly satisfied myself, that the appearance of
opacity is due to the presence of a small quantity of air in or near the ex-
tremities of the celis. That this, being enveloped in a substance of so high
a refracting power as carbonate of lime, would give the appearance of opa-
city, is easily understood on optical principles, and is practically well known
to the microscopist. Now when we consider that the exterior surface, on which
this appearance is chiefly seen, is the one furthest removed from that surface
on which the carbonate of lime is being poured forth, it does not appear
surprising that the calcifying substance should not always find its way to the
ends of the cells, but should occasionally leave a void space there. And
when it is remembered that the dark cells of the interior of the layer are few
and small, and that, as already shown, these small cells are the sections of the
acute terminations of prisms which do not pass on to the surface, it is obvious
that the same view fully accounts for their occurrence in this situation.
15. Although the prismatic cellular structure has not yet been observed
in actual process of formation, yet certain appearances which are occasionally
met with in the marginal portions of its newest layers, throw great light upon
its mode of growth, and indicate its strong resemblance to cartilage in this
respect ; for in these situations we find the cells neither in contact with each
+
: /
®
t
.
»
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 9
other nor polygonal in form, but separated by a greater or less amount of
intercellular substance, and presenting a rounded instead of an angular
border (fig. 12¢.). Upon looking still nearer the margin, the cells are seen
to be yet smaller, and more separated by intercellular substance (fig. 12 6.) ;
and not unfrequently we lose all trace of distinct cells, the intercellular sub-
stance presenting itself alone, but containing cytoblasts scattered through it
(fig. 12 a.). This appearance has been noticed by myself in Perna and
Unio, and by Mr. Bowerbank in Osérea; so that I have no doubt that it is
general in this situation. We may, I think, conclude from it, that the cells
of the prismatic cellular substance are developed, like these of cartilage, in
the midst of an intercellular substance, which at first separates them from
each other; that as they grow and draw into themselves the carbonate of
lime poured out from the subjacent surface, they approach each other more
and more nearly ; and that as they attain their full development, their sides
press against each other, so that the cells acquire a polygonal form, and the
intercellular substance disappears.
V. Membranous Shell-substance.
16. Under this appellation I describe the substance, of which (under va-
rious forms) all those shells consist, that do not present the prismatic cellular
tissue just described. In this substance no trace of cells can for the most
part be discovered; and when they do present themselves, they are usually
scattered through it with little or no regularity, and do not form a continuous
stratum, when the calcareous matter has been removed by acid. In no shell,
even those most decidedly porcellanous, have I failed in detecting some
membranous basis, although the film is often of extreme tenuity. I believe
that there is no shell, in which this kind of structure does not exist under
some form ; for even where almost the entire thickness is made up of the
prismatic substance, as in Pinna and its allies, there is still a thin lining of
nacre, which I shall presently show to be but a simple modification of the
ordinary membranous structure.
17. Although I cannot yet speak positively on the subject, still lam much
disposed to believe, that in every distinct formation of shell-substance there is a
single layer of membrane; and J am further of opinion that this membrane was
at one time a constituent part of the mantle of the mollusc. The late researches
of Mr. Bowman upon mucous membrane, have shown that the essential consti-
tuent of this tissue is a delicate, transparent and homogeneous expansion, the
free surface of which is usually covered with epithelium-cells, whilst the attached
side is in contact with that complex tissue (composed of areolar structure,
blood-vessels, lymphatics, &c.) to which the name of “mucous membrane”
is commonly applied. This expansion is termed by Mr. B. the “ basement
membrane ;” and it is found, not merely on the mucous membranes, but also
on the external surface of the true shin, lying beneath the epidermic cells.
_ Now the manile of the Mollusca, being essentially analogous to the true skin
of higher animals, may be inferred to possess this element; and if it be pe-
_ Yiodically thrown off and renewed, we have a case strongly analogous to the
formation of the “decidua” in the human uterus. Whether this be or be
not the origin of the membranous residuum, which is found after the decal-
cification of shell, the correspondence between this tissue and the basement-
membrane of Mr. Bowman is extremely close. In its simplest condition, the
former, like the latter, is a pellucid structureless pellicle of extreme delicacy
and transparency, exhibiting no trace either of cells, granules or fibres (fig. 19).
T have occasionally found it, however, of a somewhat granular appearance, as
if formed by the solidification of a thin stratum of fluid, including an immense
10 REPORT—1844.
number of minute molecules. In other cases, again, I have found it studded
here and there with what seemed to be incipient cells. And lastly, I have
occasionally found these cells more developed, and forming an almost conti-
nuous layer on the surface of the membrane. In this state they somewhat
resemble the incipient form of the prismatic cellular substance. These cells
may be occasionally seen in sections of the shell itself ; and they will be often
found in very different degrees of development, even in the corresponding
layers of two shells of the same species. Coupling the appearances which I
have myself observed with the observations of Mr. Bowerbank on the forma-
tion of shell, and keeping in view the general doctrines of cell-action, which
I have elsewhere endeavoured to develope, I am inclined to believe that
these cells are, like the cells of the prismatic cellular structure, the real
agents in the production of the shell, it being their office to secrete into their
own cavities the carbonate of lime supplied by the fluids of the animal.
But whilst the cells of the prismatic cellular structure advance in their de-
velopment, so as to form a perfect tissue,—the “ calcigerous cells,” of which we
are row speaking, appear to burst or liquefy, and to discharge their contents
upon the surface of the subjacent membrane, on which a shelly layer is
thus formed. A greater or smaller proportion of these being left entire,
and being included in the substance discharged from the rest, would pre-
sent the appearances I have mentioned as occasionally manifesting them-
selves in sections of membranous shell-structure, and in the decalcified mem-
brane. Thus in Mya, Anatina, Thracia, and other allied genera, I have met
with obvious indications of a cellular structure in sections of the exterior
layer of the shell (fig. 15) ; but I have seldom been able to obtain any distinet
layer of cell-membrane (like that existing in the shell of Pinna and its allies) by
the action of acid, except in Thracia and Pandora ; although traces of seattered
cells do present themselves. Hence it is evident that the cells, if they ever
existed as such (of which I have little doubt), have ceased to exist ; but that
their solid contents have been left. The difference between this kind of
structure and the regular prismatic cellular substance, will be made evident
by a comparison of the two forms delineated in figs. 3 and 15. The sharp-
ness and definiteness of the lines dividing the cells in the former, are in
striking contrast with the irregularity of the spaces intervening between the
latter. In the shells of the family Myide, too, I have seen other appearances
which fall in with the view just expressed in regard to the “fusion” of cells
with each other; these I shall describe more particularly in a future Report ;
but in the mean time I may direct attention to fig. 13, as most clearly indi-
cating the existence of such a “fusion ;” its various stages being evident in
the different parts of the same specimen.
18. The Membranous shell-substance presents many curious varieties of -
aspect, which may be generally accounted for by corresponding diversities in
the arrangement of the basement-membrane. ‘Thus it sometimes presents a
simple homogeneous character, as if the shelly matter had been uniformly
diffused over a plane surface ; but this is comparatively seldom the case, for
there are few instances in which the shell does not present, in some part of
its thickness, an appearance which indicates an unevenness of surface on the
part of the basement-membrane (fig. 43); and this appearance is usually
found to correspond with the aspect of the membrane after decalcification.
Sometimes this unevenness amounts simply to a corrugation or wrinkling,
closely resembling that of morocco leather. The boundaries of the wrinkles
are so strongly marked in some shells, that even the experienced Microscopist
may be deceived into the belief that he is looking at a section displaying fusi-
form cells. Such is the case with the inner layer of the shell of Patella. In
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 11
all these instances, the decalcification of the shell affords a tolerably con-
elusive test of the real nature of the structure; for the absence of cells in
the membranous residuum, coupled with the existence of the corrugations in
the membrane itself, clearly indicates its character.
19. In many other instances the membrane is still more gathered up into
plaits or folds, which lie over one another, so that their edges present them-
selves as a series of lines, more or less exactly parallel. I shall presently
show that the peculiarity of nacreous structure is dependent upon this kind
of arrangement; and that another very remarkable form of it is characteristic
of the Zerebratule and their allies.
20. I am at present inclined to believe that a great part of the appearances,
which are attributed by Mr. Gray to the rhomboidal crystallization of the
carbonate of lime, are really due to the corrugation or plication of the base-
ment-membrane; for there may be noticed in the disposition of the folds,
exactly that variation between the different layers, which Mr. Gray has pointed
out as resulting from the different directions of the crystallization. Thus in
Cyprea and its allies, the three layers of shell are easily made to come into
view in the same section, and it is then seen that the corrugations of each
layer cross those of the adjoining one. A different explanation has been
offered however by Mr. Bowerbank ; and until I have examined the subject
afresh, I avoid expressing a positive opinion on the subject.
VI. Nacreous Structure.
21. The superficial aspect of nacre (or mother-of-pearl), and the’ optical
phenomena which it presents, have been examined and described by Sir D.
Brewster* and Sir John F. W. Herschel+. My inquiries into its structure
will enable me, I think, to give a more satisfactory description of its forma-
tion than has yet been offered ; and also to explain some of the optical pha-
nomena, which have not yet been fully accounted for.
22. When a thin layer of nacre is submitted to the microscope, its surface
is seen to be marked with numerous delicate lines, which traverse it with
greater or less regularity: sometimes these lines are almost straight, and
run nearly parallel to each other at tolerably regular intervals ; whilst in other
parts of the same specimen they are seen to follow a more irregular course,
and to diverge widely from each other (fig.17). Sir J. Herschel has not
unaptly compared this appearance to that of the surface of a smoothed deal
board, in which the woody layers are cut perpendicularly to their surface in
one part, and nearly in their plane in another. ‘These lines are seen on the
natural interior surface of the nacre, and no polishing obliterates them. Their
distance from each other is extremely variable ; I have seen them only 1-7500th
of an inch apart; but,they are usually in much less close proximity.
23. When the nacre-lines are carefully examined, it becomes evident that
they are produced by the cropping-out of lamine of shell, situated more or
less obliquely to the plane of the surface. The greater the dip of these
_ laminz, the closer will their edges obviously be; whilst the less the angle
they make with the surface, the wider will be the interval between the lines.
When the section passes for any distance in the plane of a lamina, no lines
will present themselves on that space.
24. As far as I can understand Sir D. Brewster’s idea of the structure of
nacre, he appears to me to suppose, that it consists of a multitude of layers
of carbonate of lime alternating with animal membrane, and that the pre-
nea Transactions, 1814; and “Optics” in Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia,
pp. 115-120.
{ Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. ii.
12 REPORT—1844.
sence of grooves on the most highly-polished surface is due to the wearing-
away of the edges of the animal lamin, whilst those of the hard calcareous
laminz stand out. If each line upon the nacreous surface, however, indi-
cates a distinct layer of shell-structure, a very thin section of mother-of-pearl
ought to contain many thousand such layers, in accordance with the number
of lines upon its surface. But when the nacre is treated with dilute acid, so
as to dissolve away its calcareous portion, this is found not to be the case.
The number of layers of membrane bears no proportion whatever to the
number of lines upon its surface ; and it is impossible therefore to imagine,
that the laminations indicated by these lines are so many distinct layers of
shell-structure.
25. It is generally difficult to ascertain anything from the examination of
the decalcified membrane, as to its disposition in the nacreous structure ; since
the disengagement of carbonic acid more or less completely unfolds the plaits,
of which some indications remain in it (fig. 19): but one shell affords us the
opportunity of examining the plaits iz seéw, and thus presents a clear demon-
stration of the real structure of nacre. The shell I allude to is Haliotis splen-
dens, in which, as Mr. Gray has remarked *, a considerable quantity of animal
matter intervenes between the layers of nacre. This is not disposed in spots,
however (as stated by Mr. Gray), but in the form of numerous plates of a
horny substance, very like tortoise-shell in colour and aspect. As the sur-
faces of these plates usually follow the curvature of the shell, a plane sec-
tion will not pass through any one of them for any considerable distance,
and consequently its cut portion will appear as an insulated spot. If a piece
of this shell be submitted to the action of dilute acid, the calcareous por-
tion of the nacreous layers, which intervene between these plates and hold
them together, is dissolved away, and they readily separate. Each horny plate
is then seen to be covered on one side with the membranous residuum of the
nacre, whilst on the other it is bare,—this surface being applied, in the un-
altered shell, to the layer of nacre which adheres to the next plate. Only a
single layer of nacre-membrane exists between each pair of horny lamine,
and we have thus a most favourable opportunity of studying its disposition.
It is generally found that, when the horny plates fall asunder in the dilute
acid, some of them exhibit the nacre-membrane in an undisturbed condition,
and their surfaces then exhibit the iridescent lustre, although all the calcareous
matter has been removed from the structure. On looking at the surface with
reflected light, under a magnifying power of about 75 diameter, it is seen to
present a series of folds or plaits more or less regular (fig. 18); and the iri-
descent hues which these exhibit are of the most gorgeous description. If
the membrane be extended with a pair of needles, these plaits are unfolded,
and it covers a much larger surface than before ; but the iridescence is then
completely destroyed.
26. I think it will be admitted that this is an expertmentum erucis, in regard
to the cause of the iridescence of nacre, demonstrating that the peculiar
lineation of its surface (on which the iridescence undoubtedly depends) is
due, not to the outcropping of alternate layers of membranous and calea-
reous matter, but to the disposition of a single membranous layer in folds or
plaits, which lie more or less obliquely to the general surface ; so that their
edges present themselves as lines, at a greater or less distance from each
other, according to the direction in which the section traverses them.
27. Besides the images described by Sir D. Brewster, another optical phe-
nomenon has been pointed out by Sir J. Herschel, as presented by mother-of-
pearl, when light is reflected from its surface. This he has aptly compared
* Philosophical Transactions, 1833.
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 13
to the minute ripples which cross the surface of the larger waves. I think
that my observations furnish the explanation of these appearances. The
lines which mark the edges of the plaits are seldom or never quite even, but
are more or less wavy. Of these irregularities, some are caused by the mi-
nute scratches or indentations left by the polishing material; but these may
be readily distinguished by the experienced observer; and there is, besides
them, a regular series evidently caused by slight transverse undulations in
the plaits themselves, which thus form a secondary series of minute corruga-
tions, lying at right angles with the principal plaits. These secondary cor-
rugations, however, are seldom deep enough to overlie one another, and
hence they exhibit no lined edges. I have been able to detect them very
readily in the decalcified nacre-membrane, when it has suffered no exten-
sion ; when it has been in the least degree stretched, however, the secondary
corrugations are flattened, and the edges of the primary folds become quite
straight. The reason why the optical appearances resulting from this arrange-
ment cannot (as Sir J. Herschel has remarked) be communicated, like those
of the primary series, to surfaces of wax, resin, &c., appears to me to be sim-
ply this, that the folds are not deep enough to overlap each other, and that
thus no lined edges are produced; consequently the corrugations give rise
to no inequalities on the polished surface, and cannot communicate any pecu-
liar character to substances impressed upon it.
28. In no nacreous shells that I have examined, have I failed to discover
the structure which I have described ; and my examination has comprehended
examples, both recent and fossil, from all the tribes in which this character
presents itself.
29. There are several shells which present what may be termed a sub-
nacreous structure, their polished surfaces being covered with lines indicative
of folds in the membrane; but these folds being destitute of that regularity
of arrangement, which is necessary to produce the iridescent lustre. This is
the case, for example, with most of the Pectinide, also with some of the
Mytilacee, and with the common Oyster. It is easy to understand, therefore,
why there should be a variation in this respect within the limits of a single
genus. Thus in Ostrea there is usually no perfect nacre, yet there are spe-
cies which are truly nacreous. On the other hand, in Mytilus there is usu-
ally a truly nacreous interior; yet there are species in which this is wanting.
When so very slight a difference in the arrangement of the folds will produce
this variation, it is not surprising that it should occur among the species of
the same genus. A want of transparency, also, appears to be one cause of
the absence of the iridescent lustre. Thus in a very thin layer of the shell
of Ostrea edulis, the nacreous lineation is here and there very characteristi-
cally shown; yet the shell possesses no iridescence, partly in consequence, I
am inclined to think, of the presence between its layers of the chalky, depo-
sits formerly mentioned (§ 1), which can neither transmit nor reflect light.
VII. Tubular Structure.
30. All the different forms of membranous shell-structure are occasionally
traversed by tubes, which seem to commence from the inner surface of the
shell, and to be distributed in its several layers. These tubes vary in size
from about the 1-20,000th to the 1-2000th of an inch; but their general dia-
meter, in the shells in which they most abound, is about 1-4.500th of an inch.
The direction and distribution of these tubes are extremely various in differ-
ent shells; in general, where they exist in considerable numbers, they form
a network, which spreads itself out in each layer, nearly parallel to its sur-
face; so that a large part of it comes into focus at the same time, in a section
14 ; REPORT—1844.
which passes in the plane of the lamina (fig.20). From this network some
branches proceed towards the nearer side of the section, as if to join the net-
work of another layer; whilst others dip downwards, as if for a similar pur-
pose. The most characteristic examples of this structure which I have met
with are to be found in the outer yellow layer of Anomia ephippium (fig. 40),
the external layer of Lima scabra, and in Chama florida. In other in-
stances, the tubes run at a distance from each other obliquely through the
shelly layers, and they are then usually of large size. This is the case for
instance in Arca Noe, and Pectunculus. In no cases have I seen any such
variation in the size of the tubes of the same sheli, as would convey the idea
of their resemblance to blood-vessels ; and even where a division occurs, the
size of each of the branches is usually equal to that of the single trunk.
Sometimes these canals are quite straight, whilst in other instances they are
sinuous. That they are not mere channels or excavations in the shell-sub-
stance, is proved by the fact that they may be seen in the decalcified mem-
brane (fig. 41). I have frequently seen in them indications of a cellular
origin, as if they had been formed by the coalescence of a number of cells
arranged in a linear direction ; and I find that Mr. Bowerbank has come to
the same conclusion.
$1. The tubular structure is usually found only in the ordinary membra-
nous shell-substance ; in fact, I have seldom observed it in the nacre, except
where the tubes penetrate this, to be distributed in a layer external to it,
as is the case, for example, in Anomia and Trigonia. I have nowhere found
it coexisting in the same shell with any great amount of prismatic cellular
substance ; consequently it is for the most part absent in the Margarita-
ceé and .Vayadee, and but very slightly manifested in the true Ostracee.
In most of the families of Bivalves, however, in which the lobes of the
mantle are united, some traces of it may be detected ; though these are often
very scanty. There is less regularity in regard to this character, than in
respect to most others furnished by the microscopic examination of the
shell. Thus I have found a little collection of tubes in one spot of the nacre
of an Avicula, in no other part of which did I meet with any; and I have
frequently found one species of a genus extremely tubular, whilst another,
closely allied to it, was almost or entirely destitute of tubes. Nevertheless,
in conjunction with other characters, I consider that the presence or absence
of this structure may often afford valuable assistance in determining the
position of an unknown specimen. Of this I shall presently adduce a stri-
king example.
VIII. Cancellated Structure.
32. I give this denomination to a peculiar structure closely resembling
the cancellated texture of bone, which is remarkably characteristic of that
very peculiar and perplexing group,—the Rudistes. I can scarcely de-
scribe this structure so well, as by comparing it with the prismatic cellular
structure of Pinna and its allies, upon a large scale; with this important dif-
ference, however, that in this cancellated structure the prismatic cells are
not solid but hollow*. It is true that in many specimens of Hippurite and
Spheerulite, the cancelli are found to be completely tilled with carbonate of
lime ; but there are appearances about this deposit, which lead to the belief
that it is the work of subsequent infiltration; and this view is confirmed by
the fact, that the Rudistes of the Chalk are commonly found with their can-
celli empty. In what manner these minute chambers were occupied during
* This structure has been described by Mr. Gray in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany,
vol. ii. p. 228.
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 15
the life of the animal, it is impossible now to say; as there is no existing
group, to which the Rudistes seem to bear any close resemblance. The shape
of each is usually that of a very short hexagonal prism, terminated at each
end by a flat partition: consequently a section in one direction will exhibit
the walls of the chambers disposed in a hexagonal network (fig. 22); whilst,
when the section passes in the opposite direction, the transverse partitions
come into view (fig. 23). The cancellated structure is externally and inter-
nally covered with a shelly plate, in which no perforations whatever can be
seen. It is difficult to imagine, therefore, how any communication could
have existed between the animal contained within the shell, and the cancel-
lated structure which forms its thickness.
33. The only approaches to this structure, so far as I am aware, presented
by any recent shells, are to be found in the irregular cancellated structure of
the base of some of the sessile Cirrhopods; and in a similarly irregular can-
cellated structure, which has been described by Mr. Gray* as existing be-
tween the lamine of an undescribed species of Oyster, named by him Ostrea
purpurea. 1 have not myself met with anything at all to be compared with
it among the shells of ordinary Mollusca ; and I cannot but think that its ex-
istence, as nearly the sole component of their shells, marks out the Rudistes
as a group altogether distinct from them. The position which I should be
myself inclined to assign to them, from the structure of the shell, is between
the Ostracee and the sessile Balani; and I believe that the most complete
information we possess on the character of the animals, would lead to the
same conclusion.
34. The presence of this structure in any fossil, whose situation is doubt-
ful, appears to me a sufficient reason for referring it to the group of Rudistes.
Thus from finding it in Pleurorhynchus Hibernicus (figs. 24, 25), { should
almost unhesitatingly assign this position to that shell, notwithstanding its
strong resemblance in form to some of the Curdiacee. It has not the least
correspondence, however, to the Cardium cardissa, or to any of the Cardiacee
that I have examined, in regard to the structure of its shell, which entirely
consists of cancellated texture,—the cancelli being formed by the intersec-
tion of planes at right angles to each other. When the shell disintegrates,
the casts of these cancelli, which are produced by the infiltration of carbonate
of lime, are disposed to separate from each other; and thus a layer of iso-
lated parallelopipeds are found in place of the shell.
35. Having now described the principal component elements, of which the
shells of Mollusca are made up, I proceed to detail the results of my inquiries
into the combination of these, in the several groups which altogether form
this sub-kingdom. From what has been already stated, the question natu-
rally presents itself, how far the elementary structure of the shell may furnish
characters of importance in classification and in the determination of fossils.
My inquiries, so far as they have yet proceeded, tend to establish this po-
sition, that where a recognizable and constant diversity presents itself in the ele-
mentary structure of the shell among different groups, that diversity affords
characters, which are to a very high degree indicative of the natural affinities
of those groups. It is not always that peculiarities sufficiently distinctive pre-
sent themselves, even between what are regarded zoologically as distinct fami-
lies ; but where a marked diversity does exist, I believe that it will always be
Indicative of the affinities of the animal. Thus the conformity in structure
between all the shells of one natural family is usually so close, that any
strongly-marked difference in a particular genus would make me hesitate in
* Loe. cit.
v/v
’
16 REPORT—1844.
admitting it into the group. I think it well at once to premise, that the cha-
racters derived from the intimate structure of the shell are not likely to serve
for the distinction of species from each other, and that they will not often
distinguish genera ; but for the separation of some natural families, I believe
that they will furnish the best single set of characters that the naturalist pos-
sesses, especially among particular groups, in which the application of other
characters is very uncertain.
IX. Brachiopoda.
36. The shells of the Brachiopoda or Palliobranchiata (Owen) present
many interesting objects for inquiry; their structure is, in almost every in-
stance, quite distinct from that of the shells of the Lamellibranchiate bivalves ;
so that, as I shall presently show, even amorphous fragments of shell may be
referred with certainty to this group, when not altered by metamorphic action.
I have recognized in the shells of Brachiopoda two leading types of con-
formation; one of which is a peculiar variety of the plicated membranous
structure; whilst the other is an equally peculiar form of the éubular. The
former occurs in the genus Terebratula and its allies, the latter in Lingula
and Orbicula.
37. The shell of Terebratula psittacea, which (for a reason preseutly to be
specified) I shall take as a type of the first of these structures, is remarkable
for its divisibility into thin micaceous plates, which may be split into lamin
of extreme tenuity. I do not know any one of the Lamellibranchiate bivalves
whose shell corresponds with it in this respect, except Placuna and Anomia,
which evidently verge towards the Brachiopoda. This facility of lamination
characterizes a large number of the fossil species of the group; especially
those which correspond with the one now under consideration, in its peculiar
characters. The natural laminz thus obtained frequently aflord better sub-
jects for microscopical investigation than can be procured by making sections
in the ordinary manner. When these lamine are examined with a good
microscope, they are found to present a most remarkable and characteristic
appearance; they are traversed by a very regular series of lines, usually
nearly straight, but sometimes slightly curved, and running quite parallel to
each other (figs. 27,28). The distance of these lines from each other averages
about 1-2000th of an inch, and from this average I have never found any very
wide departure,—the greatest distance I have met with being in Terebratula
octoplicata, where the space between them is about 1-700th of an inch.
38. When the broken extremities of these natural lamine are examined, it
is seen that the lines in question are produced by sharp foldings of the shelly
layer, which foldings are parallel to each other; and this view is confirmed by
examination of the decalcified membrane, of which only one continuous stra-
tum exists in each lamina.
39. When the natural internal surface of the shell is examined, a very
beautiful appearance is presented by it; a most regular imbricated arrange-
ment is seen, exactly resembling a tiled roof, in which the lower margins of
the tiles are rounded, instead of being quadrangular (fig. 29). If a portion
of the surface be slightly rubbed down, so that the connection of these tile-
like markings with the interior structure can be traced, it is seen that they
are the extremities of the longitudinal folds just mentioned, each row of them
belonging to one lamina, and a series of these laminze cropping-out, one be-
neath another.
40. When artificial sections, instead of the natural laminz or surfaces of
this shell, are examined, a great variety of appearances will be presented, ac-
cording to the mode in which the plane of the section traverses the plaited
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 17
surface (fig. 30). These appearances, however, are all reconcileable with the
description which I have given of this peculiar kind of structure, and are
easily recognized as appertaining to the group in question, and to this alone.
41. When any other recent species of ZYerebratula is examined, an addi-
tional peculiarity is observed ; this consists of the presence of a large number
of perforations in the shell, generally passing somewhat obliquely from one
surface to the other, and terminating by an orifice at each (figs. 33-39). The
size of these perforations is sufficiently great, to enable them to be detected
with a hand-magnifier, as minute punctations on the surface ; and as such they
have been recognized by many, who have madethis group their particular study.
I am not aware, however, that the fact of these punctations being the orifices
of large canals, passing from surface to surface of the shell, has been previously
- noticed. The diameter of these perforations in the shells of recent Tere-
bratule varies from about ‘0006 to *0024 of an inch; they are readily distin-
guished in the decalcified membrane, and are seen to be lined by a tubular
prolongation from it. Of their object or purpose I can give no definite ac-
count ; and not having had the opportunity of examining a recent specimen
with the animal preserved, I am unable to speak confidently as to the degree
of connection, which these passages have with the mantle and with the interior
of the shell.
42. Having examined all the recent Terebratule in the British Museum,
and in the collection of Mr. Cuming, I feel able to state as a general fact,
that all these species possess this remarkable character, with the exception of
Terebratula psittacea; which, in the opinion of many, has other distinctive
characters of its own, quite sufficient to separate it from the group. Upon
turning my attention to the fossil species, however, a difference in this respect
soon became obvious; for whilst some presented these perforations very
distinctly, others were found entirely destitute of them. The presence or
absence of the perforations cannot be detected in the fossil species, as in the
recent, by the examination of the surface of the shell with a hand-magnifier ;
since, owing to the filling-up of the passages with the fossilizing material,
their extremities are not sufficiently distinguishable from the surrounding sur-
face. Hence, in order to determine the existence of this character in the
fossil species, it is necessary to make a section of the shell. Believing that it
must have some intimate relation with the structure and habits of the animal,
and that it must consequently be a character of zoological importance, I
have endeavoured to carry out this kind of examination to an extent sufficient
to test its value; and the following is the result of the examination of thirty-
five fossil species of the genus Terebratula :—
Perforated. Not Perforated.
Acuta. ~! Coarctata.
Ampulla. Concinna.
Bidens. Depressa.
Biplicata. Inconstans.
Bullata. Latissima.
Caput serpentis. Nuciformis.
Carnea. Obsoleta.
Detruncata. Octoplicata.
Digona. Plicatella.
Fimbria. Reticularis.
Globata. : Rostrata.
Hemispheerica. Spinosa.
Oblonga. Subrotunda.
1844. Cc
18 REPORT—1844,
Perforated. Not Perforated.
Obovata. Variabilis.
Ornithocephala. Subplicata.
Ovata. Tetraedra.
Perovalis. Wilsoni.
Spheeroides.
This list will enable any one conversant with the genus to see, that, with
searcely an exception, the perforated species are smooth, or but slightly pli-
cated, not exceeding in their plication the Terebratula caput serpentis, which
is, I believe, the most plicated of the recent species; whilst the non-per-
forated species are deeply plicated*. Besides the species named in this list, I
have examined about ten other species of non-plicated Terebratule, whose
names I was unable to ascertain; they all agreed with the other non-plicated
species, in the possession of the perforations.
43. Among the genera most nearly allied to Terebratula, I have usually.
found a similar variation. Thus, Orthis canalis and Orthis ( Spirifer, Phil.)
Jiliaria present exactly the same structure as the perforated Terebratule ;
whilst Orthis hemipronites, Orthis resupinata, and another species from the
Silurian formation, Ohio, are destitute of perforations.
44. In Spirifer, again, the perforations are present in some of the species,
and absent in others. For want of good specimens I have not been myself
able to examine many species of this genus; but I have found the perforations
very well marked in Spirifer Walcotii of the Lias, whilst they are absent in
Spirifer cuspidatus and another Mountain Limestone species, and in a species
from the Devonian formation at Hudson’s Bay. I learn from Mr. Morris,
that he has remarked the punetations in the Spirifers of the Silurian and
later secondary strata, but not on those of the mountain limestone; which
circumstance he attributed to the metamorphic condition of the shell in the
latter. I am satisfied, however, that such is not the case ; since, although the
structure of the shell is often obscured by this action, I possess sections in
which it is extremely well preserved, and in which there is an evident absence
of the perforations.
45. In no Atrypa, however, have I met with perforations. The species I
have examined are Atrypa ajffinis, A. pugnus, A. lineata, A. galeata, and a
crag species closely allied to Zerebratula psittacea, if not identical with it.
46. In Pentamerus Knightii I have found the structure characteristic of
the group, but without perforations.
47. The structure of the shells of Zingula and Orbicula is equally peculiar,
but very different from that which has been now described. ‘These shells are
almost entirely composed of laminz of horny matter, which are perforated
by minute tubuli, closely resembling those of ivory in size and arrangement,
and passing obliquely through the lamine (fig.22). Near the margin of the
shell, these tubuli may be seen lying nearly parallel to the surface.
X. Placunide.
48. This family has been separated by Deshayes from the Ostracee, and con-
stitutes, according to his views, “a descending and lateral line, really inter-
mediate between the ordinary Bivalves and the Brachiopoda,” The propriety
of such an arrangement is completely borne out by the microscopic structure
* There are one or two apparent exceptions to this, as the case of the Terebratula sub-
plicata, in which the plications are very slight; but this is thought by Mr. Morris to be the
young of a deeply-plicated species; and the same explanation will probably apply to other
cases.
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 19
of the shells; for Placuna and Anomia agree in several particulars, in which
both differ from the Ostracee. The principal part of the shell of the Pla-
cunide consists of true nacre, the laminz of which are peculiarly separable
from each other, thus in some degree corresponding with Terebratula and
other Brachiopoda. In the Oyster, the shelly layers are more divisible than
they are in most other Conchifera, and so far it approaches the Placunide ;
but this divisibility is not nearly so great as in the latter. In the form of the
nacreous lineation, too, the Placunide show more resemblance to Producta
than they do to the ordinary Conchifera. Their chief point of distinction
from the Ostracee is the entire absence of the prismatic cellular structure
which characterizes the latter, and the presence, in its stead, of a tubular
structure which is found in the nacre itself of Placuna and Anomia, but
more particularly in the yellowish external coat of the upper valve in the
latter genus (figs. 40, 41). The tubuli are about 1-2000th of an inch in dia-
meter; they sometimes form a network parallel to the laminz, and sometimes
dip down and penetrate them obliquely or vertically ; the wavy direction of
the tubes is particularly evident in these shells. By these characters I should
have no difficulty in identifying a small fragment of a shell belonging to this
family, as I know no other shells which have so regular a distribution of
large tubes in their nacreous layers.
XI. Ostracee.
49. This family now contains only the genera Ostrea and Gryphea, between
which there is a very close resemblance in general characters, so that it is
doubted by many conchologists whether they are really distinct, the one
passing gradually into the other. This correspondence exists also in their
microscopic structure; in both we find a layer of prismatic cellular sub-
stance, in which the cells are very obliquely arranged, forming the margin
of each lamina (fig. 44), whilst the general structure of the shell is sub-
nacreous (§ 29). Between the recent Gryphea and Ostrea, I have not been
able to detect any difference; but in the Gryphea incurva of the lias, I
have found the nacre perforated by scattered tubes, of which no trace exists
in Ostrea edulis.
XI. Pectinide.
50. In the several genera of this family, the structure of the shell is almost
exclusively membranous. There are generally two very distinct layers, an inner
and outer; but there is no essential difference in their structure, the chief point
of distinction being usually in their colowr, as in Pecten and Spondylus. Ihave
occasionally met with traces of cellular structure, especially on the external
surface of the shell; but I am not inclined to believe that these are to be
regarded as constant, or as peculiarly characteristic of the group (fig. 42).
No distinct cellular layer can be obtained by the decalcification of the shell ;
but cells are seen here and there seattered among the folds of the basement-
membrane. Hence J am inclined to regard them simply as the remains of
the original calcigerous cells, by which the shell was at first formed.—The
most characteristic feature of the shells of the Pectinide is the coarsely-
corrugated structure which they exhibit, both in their inner and outer layers
(fig. 43): there is also, in some instances, an extremely delicate corrugation,
visible only with a high power, and giving to the shell the appearance of
possessing a delicate fibrous texture. Both these arrangements are seen in
the decalcified membrane, as in the shell itself. In some shells of this family
there is a very remarkable amount of tubular structure ; in fact, I have no-
where found a more characteristic example of it than in Lima scabra, but it
is not constantly present even in species of the same genus.
51. We shall hereafter find that this corrugated structure, with a greater or
c2
20 REPORT—1844,
less amount of tubular perforation, is characteristic of several other families of
Lamellibranchiate bivalves, which have the mantle wholly or partially closed ;
and it would not, therefore, serve by itself to distinguish a fragment of a shell
of this family from those alluded to. But it is guzte sufficient to distinguish
a shell of this family from any of the neighbouring families, to which, in its
general characters, it might possess an affinity. The following is a charac-
teristic example of its use:—A shell was described by Prof. Philips, in his
‘ Geology of Yorkshire,’ as an Avicula, which had been previously described
by Messrs. Young and Bird as a Pecten. The same species, or one closely
allied to it, found near Bristol, was described by Mr. S. Stutchbury as an
Avicula; he not being at the time aware, that it had been met with and de-
scribed elsewhere. The mixture of characters is such, as would sanction its
being placed in either group, according to the relative value attached to
them. Thus, in the form of its hinge it is most allied to Avicula, whilst in
the flatness of its under valve, and in the disposition of its coste, it rather
corresponds with the Pectens. The intimate structure of the shell here
serves, I think, to decide the point; for we find no trace of either the pris-
matic cellular substance or the nacre, which are characteristic of Avicula;
but we meet, on the other hand, with the coarsely-corrugated and somewhat
tubular structure of the Pectinide.
XIII. Margaritacee.
52. I employ the above designation of this family, because I believe it to be
the one most applicable to the genera I include in it, which are the follow-
ing :—Perna, Malleus, Crenatula, Vulsella, Avicula and Pinna, with the
addition of the fossil genera Gervillia, Inoceramus and (I presume) Catil-
lus*. All the genera thus associated together exhibit a remarkable uniformity
as to the structure of their shells,—the exterior being composed of prismatic
cellular substance, and the interior of true nacre,—both of which structures
here present themselves in their most characteristic form. There is no dif-
ference whatever, that I have met with, except as to the size of the cells, be-
tween the elementary structure of any of these shells. This difference is often
very considerable; thus the average diameter of the hexagonal cells of the
large fossil Penna is about 1-100th of an inch, whilst that of the cells of a
small (unnamed) species of Vulsella, kindly presented to me for examination
by Mr. Cuming, is about 1-2800th of an inch. One cell of the former would
contain, therefore, in its area, about 784 of the latter. In three species of
recent Pinna which I have examined, the average diameter of the cells has
been found very nearly the same, namely, 1-500th of an inch. One of these,
however, shows a remarkable difference in the size of the cells at the exterior
and interior of each layer, the average of the former being about 1-380th of
an inch, whilst that of the latter is about 1-833rd: this difference is due to
the fact, that several of the cells of the superficial part of the layer are not
prolonged through its thickness, but cease near its middle, as shown by exa-
mination of the vertical section, so that there is room for the enlargement of
the others. In the genera Perna, Avicula and Malleus, I have found more
variation in the size of the cells in the same shell than in the preceding; a
layer of much smaller dimensions than the, average, being generally found
where this tissue comes in contact with the nacreous substance (figs. 45-50).
53. Although the genus Pinna has been placed by nearly all Conchologists
in the family Mytilacee, yet I have ventured to associate it with the other
genera I have named, on account of its close conformity with them in the
structure of its shell, and its entire difference in this respect from the true
Mytilacee. And this alteration of its position seems justified by a careful
* T have not had an opportunity of examining this genus.
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 91
comparison of the general characters of the animal, with that of Avicula on
the one hand, and Mytilus on the other. In Mytilus there are always two ad-
ductor muscles, the anterior very small, the posterior much larger; the lobes
of the mantle are united posteriorly at one point, so that there is a single anal
siphon ; the aperture of the mouth is not furnished with papille ; and the liga-
ment is altogether external. In Pinna there are stilltwo unequal adductor
muscles; the lobes of the mantle have no posterior commissure (though partly
united along the back), and consequently there is no anal siphon; the mouth
as well as the lips are covered with membranous papille ; the ligament is
very narrow and elongated, often covered by a thin testaceous lamina, and
loses almost all the characters of the external ligaments. In Avicula there
is no longer any anterior adductor muscle; there is no posterior commissure
of the mantle ; the mouth is furnished with papillze, and the ligament has no
longer any of the characters of external ligaments, entirely resembling those
of the other Monomyaria. The animal of Perna, so far as it is known, ap-
pears to be very closely allied to that of Avicula. Hence the only impor-
tant character by which Pinna is connected with Mytilus, is the presence of
an anterior adductor muscle; but against this are to be set the want of the
posterior commissure of the mantle, the difference in the position of the
ligament, and the presence of papilla: on the inner surface of the mouth and
lips,—in all which points there is a much closer approximation to Avicula.
Thus we see how correct is the determination which would have been formed
from the sole consideration of the structure of the shell; and even if we con-
sider this but as a single character, to be taken into account with others in
the determination of the position of the genus, I think it difficult to resist
the preponderance of evidence for detaching Pinna from the family Myt-
lacee, and for uniting it with the Margaritacee.
XIV. Nayadee.
54. Although this family is usually separated widely from the Margaritacee
by systematists, there appear to me many points of resemblance between
_ them. Contrary to Lamarck’s statement, the lobes of the mantle in both
- Unio and Ancdon are entirely open along their whole extent, and the chan-
nel which forms the anal passage is made up of the two branchial lamine,
which are there adherent together. Now it is extremely interesting to find
_ that in this group, which conducts us so remarkably from the Lamellibran-
chiata with the lobes of the mantle entirely open, to those in which it is closed,
_ the prismatic cellular structure so characteristic of the former division is
still found, but in small quantity. The principal part of the shell is nacreous ;
__ and the prismatic cellular structure forms but a very thin layer beneath the
_ periostracum (fig. 51). It is to this that the dead-white aspect of the shell
is due, when the epidermis has been frayed off (as it often is during the life
_ of the animal, especially near the umbo) without the nacre being brought into
View. I can discover no difference between Unio and Anodon in the micro-
_ Scopic characters of the shell; and consequently can offer no objection on
_ this score to the reunion of these two genera, as proposed by M. Deshayes.
___ 55. In connection with these last families, I may allude to the structure of
‘the curious genus Ltheria; in regard to the place of which, there is not yet an
_ agreement amongst systematists. By many Conchologists it has been arranged
‘among the Chamacee, chiefly on account of its tendency to attach its lower
_ valve to solid bodies. Its removal from these, however, has been proved to
be required by additional knowledge regarding the structure of the animal.
Mz. Deshayes seems inclined to rank it among the Nayadee ; M. de Blain-
ville thinks it should be associated with the Margaritacee. The lobes of its
mantle are entirely open, but there is an anal passage formed by the adhesion
|
92 REPORT—1844.
of the branchiz, as in Unio; and, as in the Nayadee, there is a large foot.
When we add to these characters the attachment of the shell by one of its
valves, as in Ostracee and Chamacee, the assemblage becomes very per-
lexing. The microscopic structure of the shell here affords, I think, valu-
able aid (fig. 52). The prismatic cellular structure here exists in large amount,
as in Pinna; and the interior is nacreous or sub-nacreous. In these respects
it entirely differs from the Chamacee, in which there is not a trace of pris-
matic cellular structure, and in which the inner layer has characters which
that of Htheria does not possess.
56. In all the preceding families, the lobes of the mantle are disunited ;
and it is very interesting to find how completely the Prismatic Cellular sub-
stance is restricted to the group thus constituted. The only approaches to
it, which I have met with in other Bivalve Mollusca, are among the family
Myide ; and it is only in the very aberrant genus Pandora, that it shows
itself in a truly characteristic form. Of this group I should be disposed
to take the Margaritacee as the typical or central family. From these
we might pass off towards the Brachiopoda on the one hand, by the true
Ostracee, which conduct us towards the Placunide. Again, by Avicula and
Pinna, we are led towards the Mytilacee. By Etheria we are conducted to
the Nayadee, and these lead us towards the Chamacee. The most aberrant
family, in respect to the structure of the shell, is that of Pectinide, in which
the prismatic cellular structure is entirely absent, whilst there is also an ab-
sence of the true nacreous character. Now although the general structure of
the Pectinide is not usually regarded as widely different from that of the
Ostracee, their habits depart most widely from those which prevail in the
group; for while the Oysters are fixed by the adhesion of their shells, and
the Margaritacee by a byssus, the Pectens are usually free, and seem to
possess more locomotive power, together with a more complete sensory appa-
ratus, than any others of the group. It seems to me that, in these respects,
they have a relation of analogy with the Cardiacee: and if such a relation
exist, it is remarkably borne out by the intimate structure of the shell, which
is closely allied in these two families; as well as by that ribbed surface, which
is well known to be characteristic of its exterior, at least in the typical genera
of each family.
List or ILLUSTRATIONS.
Prate I.—Fig. 1. Section of Pinna nigrina, parallel to its surface, under
a power of 10 diameters; cutting the prismatic cells transversely, and
showing the outcrop of the coloured layers (§ 10).—Fig. 2. Section of
Pinna nigrina, perpendicular to its surface, under a power of 50 dia-
meters; showing the alternation of coloured and colourless layers (§ 10).
Prate II.—Fig. 3. A portion of fig. 1, magnified 185 diameters.—Fig. 4.
A corresponding portion, after immersion in dilute acid, showing the
residual membrane, composed of cells (§ 5, 6).
Prate III.—Fig. 5. External surface of Pinna marina, showing nu-
merous large dark cells; magnified 185 diameters.—Fig. 6. Section
parallel to the surfaces, but through the middle of the thickness of the
same layer; showing a comparatively small number of dark cells. Mag-
nified 185 diameters.—Fig. 7. Internal surface of the same layer;
showing the entire absence of the dark cells, and the greatly-increased
size of the remainder (§ 5, 14).
Pirate IV.—Fig. 8. Thin (natural) lamina of Pinna ingens, showing the
nuclei of the cells. Magnified 300 diameters (§ 6).—Fig. 9. Separate
;
ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 23
calcareous prisms of outer layer of Pinna. Magnified 185 diameters
Puate V.—Fig. 10. Section of Pinna nigrina, perpen dicular to the sur-
face, cutting the prismatic cells longitudinally. Magnified 185 dia-
meters (§ 11).—Fig. 11. The same decalcified by immersion in acid;
showing the residual membrane (§ 11).
Piarr VI.—Fig. 12. Various stages of cell-formation in Perna ephippium ;
showing at a small cells (?) in incipient stage of development, imbedded
in intercellular substance; at 5, their development more advanced ; at
¢e, their polygonal form beginning to show itself; and at d, their com-
pletion, their walls coming into contact with each other, and the inter-
cellular substance disappearing.—Fig. 13. Various stages of cell-trans-
- formation in the same shell; showing at a the distinct cells; at 6, the
process of fusion beginning to manifest itself ; and at ¢, the fusion so far
advanced, that the partitions between the cells cease to be discernible,
except at the angles. Magnified 250 diameters.
Prate VII.—Fig. 14. Cells in external layer of Mya arenaria. Magnified
125 diameters (§ 3).—Fig. 15. Cells in external layer of Anatina olen.
Magnified 250 diameters (§ 17).—Fig. 16. Crystals in imperfectly-cal-
cified layer of Ostrea edulis. Magnified 350 diameters (§ 3).
Piate VIII.—Fig. 17. Polished surface of Nacre, showing the lines by which
it is marked. Magnified 85 diameters (§ 22).—Fig. 18. Decalcified
membrane of the same, from Haliotis splendens, with the plaits undis-
turbed. Magnified 75 diameters (§ 25).—Fig. 19. Basement-membrane
of Naere irregularly extended.
Puare IX.—Fig. 20. Tubular structure of Lima scabra. Magnified 200 dia-
meters (§ 30).—Fig. 1. Portion of the same, magnified 412 diameters.
Gan 22. Tubular structure of Lingula. Magnified 400 diameters
§ 47).
oot X.—Fig. 23. Section of Hippurite—horizontal. Magnified 10 dia-
meters (§ 32).—Fig. 24. Section of Hippurite—vertical. Magnified 10
diameters (§ 32).
Pirate XI.—Fig. 25. Section of Pleurorhynchus Hibernicus, parallel to the
surface. Magnified 10 diameters (§ 34.).—Fig. 26. Vertical and oblique
sections of ditto. Magnified 10 diameters (§ 34). wee
Puare XIIL.—Fig. 27. Fractured surface of Terebratula (Atrypa) psittacea.
Magnified 125 diameters (§ 37).—Fig. 28. Thin shred of ditto. Mag-
nified 250 diameters (§ 38).
Pxare XIII.—Fig. 29. Internal surface of Terebratula (Atrypa) psittaeea.
Magnified 75 diameters (§ 39).—Fig. 30. Section of ditto, parallel to
the surface. Magnified 185 diameters (§ 39).
Puate XIV.—Fig. 31. Section of Zerebratula octoplicata, parallel to the
surface. Magnified 250 diameters (§ 42).—¥Fig. 32. Fractured surface
of ditto. Magnified 250 diameters (§ 42).
Piate XV.—Fig. 33. Internal surface of Terebratula truncata. Magnified ~
75 diameters (§ 40).—Fig. 34. Internal surface of Terebratula. Mag-
nified 125 diameters (§ 40). ;
Pirate XVI.—Fig. 35. Horizontal section of Terebratula truncata. Magni-
fied 125 diameters (§ 41).—Fig. 36. Horizontal section of Zerebratula
bullata. Magnified 125 diameters (§ 41).
Puate XVII.—Fig. 37. Vertical section of Zerebratula truncata. Magni-
fied 55 diameters (§ 41).—Fig. 38. Vertical section of Terebratula am-
pulla. Magnified 125 diameters (§ 41).—Fig. 39. Vertical section of
Terebratula variabilis. Magnified 125 diameters (§ 41).
S aeeniealiaaeaiate
24 REPORT—1844. .
Prate XVIIL.—Fig. 40. Tubular structure of Anomia ephippium. Mag-
nified 250 diameters (§ 48).—Fig. 41. Decalcified membrane of ditto.
Magnified 250 diameters (§ 48).—Fig. 42. External surface of Lima
squamosa, showing its cellular structure. Magnified 200 diameters (§ 50).
—Fig.43. Section of internal layer of Lima sqguamosa; showing corru-
gated structure. Magnified 125 times (§ 50).
Piate XIX.—Fig. 44. Prismatic cellular structure from Ostrea edulis. Mag-
nified 250 diameters (§ 49).—Fig. 45. Ditto from Perna ephippium.
Magnified 125 diameters (§ 52).—Fig. 46. Ditto from Avicula marga-
ritacea. Magnified 125 diameters (§ 52).—Fig. 47. Ditto from Malleus
albus. Magnified 125 diameters (§ 52).
Prats XX.—Fig.48. Ditto from Vulsella. Magnified 250 diameters (§ 52).
—Fig. 49. Ditto from fossil Pinna of Oolite. Magnified 40 diameters
(§ 52).—Fig. 50. Ditto from Gervillia mytiloides. Magnified 125 dia-
meters (§ 52).—Fig. 51. Ditto from Unio occidens. Magnified 125 dia-
meters (§ 54).—Fig. 52. Ditto from Etherta. Magnified 125 diameters
(§ 55).
Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca. By JosHua ALDER
and ALBANY Hancock.
Tur Mollusca Nudibranchiata of Cuvier, although forming a small order in
the class Gasteropoda, are sufficiently peculiar in their characters and in-
teresting in their zoological relations to allow of their being reported upon
separately from the extensive class to which they belong. ‘Their interest in
a physiological point of view has also been much increased lately by the re-
searches that have been made into their structure and mode of development.
The anatomical researches of M. de Quatrefages have disclosed, according to
his views, so many peculiarities of conformation in some of the species, that
he has been induced to detach a considerable portion of this order, and, uniting
them with some other Mollusca rather dissimilar in external appearance, to
institute for them a new order, which he has called Phlebenterata. Not en-
tirely coinciding with the views which M. de Quatrefages has taken, we shall
content ourselves in the present report with considering the Mollusca Nudi-
branchiata of Cuvier as still forming one entire group, divisible into two
sections, distinguishable from each other by external characters, and probably
equally so by physiological peculiarities, the limits of which have not yet
been ascertained in the several genera.
The little animals forming this interesting group were long neglected by
naturalists, and were scarcely known to any of our earlier writers. Six spe-
cies only were described by Linnzeus in the twelfth edition of his ‘ Systema
Nature.’ These were included in the class Vermes, and formed the genera
Doris, Scyliea and Tethys. ‘Miiller paid more attention to them. Four-
teen species are published in his ‘ Zoologia Danica,’ the figures and descrip-
tions of which, considering the time at which they appeared, are good. Not-
withstanding the contributions of Miiller, Fabricius and some others, these
animals still continued a neglected tribe, until the appearance of the cele-
brated memoirs of Cuvier, published in the ‘ Annales du Muséum,’ formed a
new era in their history, and laid the foundation of those enlightened views
of their structure and affinities which were carried out in his ‘ Régne Ani-
mal,’ where the order Nudibranchiata was first instituted for their reception.
It is to be regretted however that so few species were known even in Cuvier’s
time, and that he was obliged to have recourse to specimens in spirits for his
descriptions. So far as their anatomy is concerned the disadvantages arising
from this circumstance were not greatly felt, but those only who have seen
ON THE BRITISH NUDIBRANCHIATE MOLLUSCA. 25
these animals alive can know how very imperfect an idea of their external
characters specimens preserved in spirits can convey. Considering the early
period at which the British naturalists of the Linnean school applied them-
selves to the study of species, we are surprised to find how little was effected
in this department. Pennant published his ‘ British Zoology’ in 1777, which
contains just three species of Mudibranchiata, under the names of Doris
Argo, D. verrucosa and D. electrica. The latter has not since been recog-
nised. No further attention appears to have been paid to these animals until
Colonel Montagu, to whom we are so deeply indebted for his contributions
to British zoology, published figures and descriptions of several species found
on the Devonshire coast in the Linnean Transactions. In 1807 Dr. Turton
published his ‘British Fauna,’ where nine species were described, one only
of which appears to have been introduced from personal observation ; three
are those of Pennant and five of Montagu. The whole number of species
described by Montagu is twelve, published at different times between 1802
and 1811. For more than twenty years afterwards scarcely anything was
done in this department. A few species collected by Dr. Leach are pre-
served in the British Museum, and some additional species observed by Dr.
Fleming and other Scottish naturalists appeared in his ‘ British Animals’, pub-
lished in 1828, at which time the number of species, including Pennant’s and
Montagu’s, only amounted to twenty. Dr. Johnston’s excellent monograph
on the Scottish Nudibranchiata appeared in the first volume of the ‘ Annals of
Natural History’ in 1838. This treatise gave a new impetus to the study of
the order, and with it the first adequate knowledge of the British Nudibran-
chiate Mollusca may be said to have commenced. An anatomical and phy-
siological account of the animals comprised in the order was given as far as
then known, and an attempt was made to extricate the synonyms from the
confusion in which they had long been involved,—a task of no easy accom-
plishment, but necessary to remove a chief obstacle to the study of these
animals. This monograph, which was entirely confined to Scottish species,
contains descriptions of twenty-one species, ten of which were new to Bri-
tain. In the extensive researches that Professor Edward Forbes has made
among the Jnvertebrata.of our shores, and the many new species that he has
added to our Fauna, the Nudibranchiata were not forgotten; nine or ten
species have been added by this gentleman in different publications, and Mr.
Thompson of Belfast, whose success in the cultivation of Ivish zoology is so
well known, has added at least an equal number. During the time that
your reporters have paid attention to the subject, it has also been their good
fortune to meet with many new species. Those published by them in the
‘Annals of Natural History,’ at different times during the last three years,
amount to thirty-one species.
The present number of known British species, making allowances for some
erroneously raised to that rank, may be stated at seventy-five, which are dis-
_tributed in the following genera :—
Doride. Tritoniade.
Doris ERY Goan Fi L'2° METItOMIA poceccaetiocs cece st
Goniodoris ............. 4 Melibcea ........c.ccceceee. 4
Dolyeera \ iis sv twice GB Proctonotus,...<ssecsevenat
Thecacera ............ 1 Eubranchus ............... 1
Euplocamus............. 1 Molise ccs aetecsee ste eee oe
== Pterochilus ............... 1
29 Callinpzea) 3. issiet i gateisie 2B
RIM Tass okt et eeks ca
LS OA INES ES RCRA a ea OY 46
26 REPORT—1844.
This number far exceeds that of any other country. In the present im-
perfect state of our knowledge it would be impossible to give an accurate
statement of their geographical distribution on our shores. The attempt
which we shall now make must therefore be considered little more than an
approximation to such a result. For this purpose we shall consider it sufficient
to divide the coast of the British Islands into three principal districts, viz.—
Ist. The north and east. This division will comprise the north and east
coast of England and Scotland, which may be expected to approximate to
the character of the Fauna of northern Europe and the North Sea.
9nd. The south, including the whole of the south coasts of England and
Ireland. This division may be expected to show some indications of the
Fauna of southern Europe.
3rd. The west, including the west coast of England, the south-west of
Scotland, and the whole of Ireland, with the exception of the southern coast.
This division will be found to be of a mixed character, uniting some of the
characters of both the former with features peculiar to itself.
1 | 2|3
Dorin#. pee es a
1. Doris tuberculata, Cud. ....+.+++ a | x | «|| 87- Proctonotus mucroniferus, A.andH.\...
2. coccinea, For. .....seesesees|ees x | x || 38 Alderia amphibia, Allm. .s.seeeeeres}eee
3. flammea, A. and H...+.+.+05|+0 .«.| y || 39. Eubranchus tricolor, 07. ..s+++s++0-[+++Jone
4, Obvelata, JOMN..c...sseeeeeees ye lee] ye || 40. Eolis papillosa, Linn. ....ssessseeeeees
5. repanda, d. and H. ....- g lees] ye || 41 Zetlandica, For. ...sss.sseeseeeees
6. mera, A. and Ay .essesvevees * 42. rosea, 4. ANd H. ...ceseeseserenees *
tf miuricata, Mill, ..ecscsereelees wee] y |] 43. obtusalis, 4. and H...sseseersesees -
8. aspera, 4. and H. ......06 ve | | || 44+ angulata, 4. and H..++..+++ sadees Fe
9. Ulidiae, TROMp...+.seeeersverelees «| y || 45. stipata, d. and Hy wsssssseee vodaaloys
10. bilamellata, Linn. .++...++- we |e | % || 46. nana, A. and HH. ..secevecceeseeees|
11. affinis, TROM. ..sccessereeeeelers see] ye |] 47. aurantia, 4. and H......+.+46 aes
12. depressa, 4. and H....+++++ % |x 48. concinna, d. and H.....+. ssseeees *
13. pilosa, Gm. ..s..csereeeereees xe | «| || 49- Olivacea, A. and H..+...seeveeesee| x
14, similis, 4. and FH. wssssseee * 50. Northumbrica, 4. and H.......+. *
15. Leevis, Linn. ..cssesecesceceees a 51. Viridis, P07. ...csessceeeeeeoes adgconlicun] sit
16. sublaevis, THOM. «sscessssese|eee|s* y || 52. Hystrix, 4. and H, ..++++0++ itacs a *
17. quadricornis, Mont. ......+++|+++ * 53. vittata, 4. and H. ..... acaxesers *
18. Maura, Ford. ...cceseecsseealere|ene 4 || 54. pallida, 4. and H. w.sscessesesees gi lied
19. Goniodoris nodosa, Mont. ...... x |x | ¢ |] 55. Farvani, 4. and H. .s.ssseescscvesleoeles
20. marginata, Mont....s0seevee.|e+ x | x || 56. violacea, A. and H. .++s++.... seape| ge foes
21. elongata, Thom. ..+.++..se00/+e/++ ye [57 — Foliata, FOr. ...s+ssessseeeseereaeers -
22. emarginata, FOr. ..++++sss++|se0]-+- || 58. coerulea, MOnt.....sseessereeeeses colooel we
93. Polycera quadrilineata, Mull...) | s | x || 59 alba, 4. and H. cssccccorerseesseeles lowed ae
D4, — by Pica, THOM, «+e.reeeeeereeelerelere y (60. — coronata, For. ...+..essseeeees edhe [ele
D5. ocellata, 4. and H. .....000 se | & | «|| 61- pedata, Mont. ...0...seereeees deaf *
26. cristata, A1d..1......seeeeeeees | | x || 62: Cuvieri, JOAN. .....scesessseecscses ¥
Bile Citrina, Ald. ....6...seeeeeeee ye [eee] || 63. Drummondi, Thom,.......++seeres|ereleee sa
28. Thecacera pennigera, Mont. ...|.--| x 64. curta, A. and H. ...0.e0...seseeee x
29. Euplocamus claviger, Mull. ...| x |x| x 65. rufibranchialis, John. .....+.0. 5
66. pellucida, A. and TH. ..s.sseesees
67. gracilis, A. and H. ...+essesseeeee %
TRITONIADA, 68. longicornis, Mont. ...++e.ssseeeer|ers -
30. Tritonia Hombergii, Cuv. ...++-| | | || 69- purpurascens, Flem. ++.....000 *
31. —_ plebeia, John. ..-+.0....04+ wel ge] ge] ef} 20: plumosa, Flom. ......eeesseeee ooo]
32. arborescens, Mab.......+++++ Se lokel ae idl Minima, LOr. .seeceseeeeeceseenes Se
33. Meliboea fragilis, M07.......-++4+5 x || x || 72 Aespecta, John. .1...sseeseenesonses x loo] se
34. coronata, John. «ss. wx | || 73- Pterochilus pulcher ...+.++++ssse09 Seblest|ss *
35. pinnatifida, Mont............ oan 74, Calliopea dendritica, A. and H....++6|se+] x
36. maculata, Mont. .......se+ee|ee- se 75. P Pili, WMOi. ccscetacenecte taebedlevs ce
In the division No. 1 (north and east) there are,—
Doridva. .0i0 se sss aN 0 Shae onanism 16
Tritoniade ....e0-sceseeceseeesss 30
ON THE BRITISH NUDIBRANCHIATE MOLLUSCA. 27
No. 2 (south),—
Doride sis iiss BAG VR WOU ORRE Ke Se 14
PPeitoniadee '. 2 Shei de wes 3's ofa. weds
— 29
No. 3 (west),—
Doride ......- Pe er Hewes aes s 22
Tritoniade .......... oii ads. ete 20
— 49
The principal thing to be remarked in these catalogues is the deficiency of
Tritoniade in the south and west compared with the north-eastern division.
That this family, particularly the genus olis, is a northern form, will be-
come still more apparent if we compare our native species with those of
foreign countries. The whole number of foreign species described, as far as
we have been able to ascertain, is
Doride ......5. PES ase scssue 104
Tritoniades ei seiacacesaseeeseea 43
— 147
of these the genus Doris contains........+....-++ 88
Golis...... EPewd ie iat bieveses, 22
Comparing these with the number of British species of the two families,
Doride wii.) ses...) 29 Doria cave veaes. bi ea 1B
Tritoniade.......... 46 Bolis' wsci wes cede. «- 33
and taking into account that a majority of the foreign species are from
warmer climates than our own, we see that the Doride greatly predominate
in the southern and tropical seas, and the T’ritoniade, particularly the genus
Folis, in the northern. Some allowance however must be made for the
great imperfection of our knowledge of foreign species, and the circumstance
that the Dorides being the largest and most conspicuous animals of the class
would be the first to be observed; but that this is not sufficient to account
for the difference will be evident if we compare the Nudibranchiata of the
Mediterranean with those of our own coast. The Mediterranean has been
searched by many able naturalists, and its Fauna pretty accurately ascer-
tained. A glance at its species of Nudibranchiata will at once show the
predominance of the Dorides, their superiority in number as well as in size
and brilliancy of colour over those of our northern climate. But if we look
to their Eolides, we shall, on the contrary, find them few in number and
small in size, and not at all to be compared with those of the British shores.
The embryology and development of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca have
not until lately engaged much attention. M. Sars was the first to announce
(in Wiegman’s Archives for 1841) that these animals undergo a true meta-
morphosis, and that in their young state they are inclosed in a shell, a fact
which your reporters have since had the opportunity of verifying in several
of the genera. Dr. Grant had previously published, in the Edinburgh
Journal of Science for 1827, an account of the development of several of the
_ Mollusca, in which he pointed out the existence of vibratile cilia in the em-
bryo, and their use as a means of locomotion on its exclusion from the egg ;
but he had failed to distinguish the peculiarities of the Nudibranchiate species,
as he states that there is a remarkable similarity between them and the young
of Buccinum and Purpura, species which do not undergo any metamorphosis.
The spawn of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca is deposited in the shape of a
gelatinous band, always arranged in a more or less spiral form, and fast-
ened to corallines and the under sides of stones by one of its edges. The
ova are minute and very numerous, amounting in some species to several
thousands. Before the period of exclusion, the young may be seen revolving
28 REPORT—1844,
on their own axis by means of vibratile cilia, and on escaping from the egg,
they swim about freely in the water by the same means. The larva is ex-
tremely minute, and has more the appearance of a rotiferous animalcule than
a Mollusk. It is inclosed in a transparent, calcareous, nautiloid shell, with
an operculum. Its structure is very simple, showing no signs of the external
organs that distinguish the future adult. The principal portion visible out-
side the shell is composed of two flat discs or lobes, fringed with long cilia,
by the motion of which it swims freely through the water. These are often
withdrawn into the shell, and the operculum is closed upon them when the
animal is at rest. We have not yet been able to trace the animal further
than the first stage of its development, and are therefore unable to say by
what process it assumes the very different form of the adult state. We have
succeeded in bringing out the larve of Doris, Tritonia, Melibea, and Eolis,
between all of which there is a very great resemblance. The embryology of
the Mollusca has been so little investigated, that it would be difficult to point
out the alliances that this mode of development appears to indicate. M. Van
Beneden has shown the existence of a similar larva in Aplysia, and it is pro-
bable that Bulla and some others of the Yectibranchiata will be found to
follow the same type. The majority of those Gasteropoda whose embryology
is known do not undergo any metamorphosis. The ciliated discs observed
in the young of Buccinum and Purpura after birth cannot be considered an
exception, as they disappear almost immediately, and the shell and other
organs with which the young animal is furnished on its exclusion from the
egg are essentially the same that it retains to the latest period of its existence.
The anatomy of the Doride was carefully studied by Cuvier, and found
by that distinguished naturalist to agree in all important characters with the
true molluscan type.
The Eolidians, however, which comprise most of the Tritoniade, vary in
this respect from the rest of the order. M. Milne-Edwards was the first to
draw the attention of physiologists to the fact, and more recently M. de Qua-
trefages has investigated the subject with great elaboration.
In most of the Gasteropodous Mollusca the liver is largely developed, but
in this division of the Nudibranchiata that organ entirely disappears from
the abdomen. At the same time a system of vessels is found to exist in
connection with the stomach, and branching into the dorsal papillz, the in-
terior of which is clothed with a coloured glandular substance, which probably
acts the part of aliver and contributes to the digestive process. This system
of vessels has been called gastro-vascular, and is stated to receive the more
refined products of digestion immediately from the stomach. It is compared
by M. Milne-Edwards and M. de Quatrefages to the circulatory system of
the Meduside on the one hand, and of Nymphon and some of the Annulosa
on the other. It appears, however, according to our observations, to be merely
an appendage of the digestive system, while the vessels of the Meduside unite
the two functions of digestion and circulation into one. The circulation of
the blood is provided for in the Eolidians by a separate system of vessels, con-
sisting of a heart and arteries; but according to M. de Quatrefages the veins
disappear in his genus olidina, their place beiag occupied by lacune. The
respiratory function resides chiefly in what are called the branchial papillz.
The skin, however, considerably assists in aérating the blood. This function
is therefore more diffused than is usual in the Gasteropoda, in most of which
respiration is provided for by highly developed branchiz. In the typical
Doride the branchial plumes are of a very elaborate character, but we may ~
perceive in some of the thin-skinned genera of that family, as in Polycera,
an indication, by the presence of vibratile cilia over other parts of the body,
ON THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 29
that the skin participates in the respiratory functions, as in Holis and other
of the Tritoniade.
These are some of the principal deviations from the normal character of
the order, which have induced M. de Quatrefages to detach the genus Eolis
and its allies from the order Mudibranchiata, and to place them in his new
order Phlebenterata, in which they are associated with some Mollusca of very
inferior organization, containing the genus Acteon of Oken (of which the
Aplysia viridis, Mont. is the type), and some other genera still more simply
organized. The point of agreement between these is stated to be the pre-
sence of a gastro-vascular system, but in the latter genera, which are united
into a suborder (Dermobranchiata), this system appears to perform the three
functions of digestion, circulation and respiration, which, indeed, is stated by
M. de Quatrefages to constitute the dominant character of the order Phle-
benterata. We think, however, that no satisfactory evidence has been adduced
of such union of functions in any of the Nudibranchiata, and so far as we
have examined the species our experience is against the supposition.
The senses are as highly developed in the Nudibranchiata as in any of the
other gasteropodous Mollusks. The eye is furnished with a well-formed
pigment-cup, a spherical lens, a cornea, and a general capsule. It is present
in all the genera, but in Doris it can only be seen externally in young indi-
viduals; the thickening of the cloak obscuring it in the adult animals, and
probably impeding the function. The auditory apparatus is composed of a
small vesicle, containing concrete vibratile bodies. ‘Touch is perceived by
the whole surface of the body, but is most likely specialized in the labial
tentacles, and taste may be inferred from the fleshy lining of the mouth. In
a paper read before the last meeting of this Association, we gave reasons for
supposing that the sense of smell resides in the dorsal tentacles. These
organs have a much more elaborate structure in the Nudibranchiata than in
any of the other Gasteropods, and approach so nearly in their lamellated
structure to the olfactory apparatus of fishes, that we entertain little doubt of
their performing the same function. The sense of smelling is therefore
probably enjoyed by them in a higher degree than in any other of the Gas-
teropoda.
In both the great divisions of the order the senses are equally well deve-
loped, and we should instance this fact as a reason for keeping them united.
Tn both the nervous systems are the same, as are also the generative organs ;
and in both too there is a considerable similarity in the respiratory organs, and
perhaps when the circulatory systems are better understood, less deviation
will be found to exist in them than is at present supposed. The relationship
between the two divisions is also seen in the similarity of the spawn, and,
what is still more striking, in the perfect similarity that exists in the larva
state of each, and the consequent metamorphosis that both must undergo.
For these reasons we are disposed to adhere at present to the arrangement
_ of Cuvier, though, from the discoveries that have been recently made in their
anatomy, some alterations become necessary in the divisions of the order.
Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and
the Growth of Plants. By Rospert Hunt, Secretary to the Royal
Cornwall Polytechnic Society.
In the course of these investigations many very curious, and in some cases
apparently anomalous results have presented themselves, and tended greatly
to increase the difficulties of the question. Experiments have been con-
30 REPORT—1844.
tinued during the whole of the beautiful summer of 1844, and many are now
in progress. It will be necessary to repeat these during another season; and
I feel, therefore, under the circumstances of difficulty in which I am placed
by the publication of very different results obtained on the other side of the
Atlantic, compelled to defer until the next meeting of the Association any-
thing like a regular report. TI shall, however, place upon record a few of the
experiments, as they may serve to direct attention to an inquiry, in itself of
the greatest interest, and leading to the development of some of the most im-
portant problems connected with the dependence of organization and life on
the solar influences.
It must be understood, unless it is distinctly stated to the contrary, that
the arrangements have been the same in principle, although on a much more
extended scale, as those which I have described in thereport made to the
Association in 1842.
I have used different absorptive media, and by a most careful prismatic
analysis of the rays by which they have been permeated, I have ascer-
tained with considerable correctness the condition of the rays which have
been in active operation. Not only have I examined the luminous spectrum
produced after the rays have undergone absorption, but I haye ascertained
the relative quantity of the active chemical principle (AcTinism) which has
passed through the coloured glasses and fluids, by obtaining in every case
several spectra impressed upon photographic papers.
I have found, that by using different thicknesses of glass, by superposing
glasses of different tints, and by varying the depth of colour in my solutions,
I have been enabled to procure with tolerable purity well-insulated rays.
Asin the former report I have spcken of the colours of the glasses and fluids
as bearing some relation to the unabsorbed rays, I shall continue to do so.
It will not be improper to state that the following arrangement may be re-
garded as fairly representing all the conditions of each experiment. When
I speak of a BLUE MEDIUM, it will indicate the presence of the most chemi-
cally active rays.
A RED MEDIuM the presence of the most calorific rays.
A YELLOow MEDIUM the greatest amount of light with the least quantity of
heat and chemical power.
A GREEN MEDIUM will indicate in most cases, light and chemical power
nearly balanced.
On the 20th of March I sowed seeds of the sweet-scented pea in the open
ground, and in a box divided in partitions, so that each division was under
the influence of that light only which had permeated the media by which it
was covered. Under the influence of the blue and red media the seed ger-
minated six days before those sown in the open ground. The seed under the
yellow and green media germinated, and threw up their leaves at the same
time as those which had been placed under perfectly natural cireumstances.
These pea plants were all of them allowed to grow until the 18th of April,
when they were drawn from the soil; their roots cut off, and the plants,
twelve from each compartment, carefully weighed. Their respective weights
were as follows :—
Twelve plants grown under blue media 195,5 grs.
Twelve plants grown under red media 276 grs.
Twelve plants grown under green media 243,95 grs.
Twelve plants grown under yellow media 264 grs.
It is important to notice, that all the plants which had grown under the ©
blue medium were of a fine fresh and healthy green colour. ‘Those which had
ON THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 31
grown under the influence of the yellow had white stalks, all the lower leaves
were of a very delicate green, whilst the upper ones were yellow. An open-
ing in the upper cover of the box admitted a little white light from the
northern sky, and under its influence the leaves above the yellow ones became
green. These specimens were carefully dried in the sunshine, by which they
lost in weight respectively as follows :—
Those grown under the blue media 1789 grs. or 91°4 per cent.
Those grown under the red media 252°2 grs. or 91°3 per cent.
Those grown under the green media 219-4 grs. or 90°1 per cent.
Those grown under the yellow media 239°1 grs. or 90°6 per cent.
When, however, these were placed ona stove, and still higher dried, the
results were more equalized ;
The plants under the blue losing 92°84 per cent.
The plants under the red losing 92°75 per cent.
The plants under the green losing 92°40 per cent.
The plants under the yellow losing 92°31 per cent.
From the above results it would appear that the rays which permeated the
green and yellow media, had the property of occasioning the secretion of
larger quantities of woody fibre than the other rays, the quantities of water
or volatile matter being greater in the plants grown under the blue and red ;
Those under the blue leaving ‘7°16 per cent. of woody fibre.
Those under the red leaving 7-25 per cent. of woody fibre.
Those under the green leaving 7°60 per cent. of woody fibre.
Those under the yellow leaving 7°69 per cent. of woody fibre.
These facts certainly appear to strengthen the opinion which has been ex-
pressed by Dr. Daubeny and others, that the decomposition of carbonic acid
in plants is effected by the yellow or luminous ray. I have on two previous
- occasions stated the blue rays of the spectrum to be the most active in effect-
ing this decomposition, and in all my experiments made with a particular
view to the examination of this question, I have found the liberation of oxygen
‘More abundant in tubes which were placed at the blue end of the spectrum ;
_ these tubes being filled with water holding carbonic acid in solution, and
some small leaves plucked from my garden. I have only stated the results of
one set of my experiments in which the balance was used to test them. It
_ is due to those holding a different view from myself, to state that three sets
_ of experiments gave nearly similar results. At the same time, as these expe-
_ Yiments would appear to show that yellow light is not injurious to the growth
of young plants, it must be most distinctly understood that the contrary has
_ been, in every instance, proved to be the case. The plants have always been
more or less etiolated, whereas those which have grown under the influence
_ of the blue rays, have always presented lively and beautifully green leaves, I
- cannot, therefore, admit at present that the formation of chlorophylle is due to
_ the luminous rays.
_ April 19th.—Seeds of the sweet-scented-pea and mignonette were planted
‘in the partitions of boxes, arranged as above. On the 29th the seeds under
the blue and red media had thrown up leaves in abundance ; those under the
blue being marked by their yery healthful character. A few dwarfed and
miserably pale plants had appeared under the green media, but not one under
the yellow media, After a few days the peas under the yellow began to
germinate, and the plants presented the same aspect as I have described.
But although the most careful attention was given I could not succeed in
ae REPORT—1844.
producing the germination of mignonette under the influence of those rays
which have permeated the bichromate of potash in solution.
In my first published experiments, I stated that the luminous rays acted
most injuriously upon germination and prevented the growth of young plants.
Every experiment has tended to confirm my first statement, and however
much uncertainty—and I have not endeavoured to hide this—there may be
about some other phznomena of vegetation, there is not any on this point.
Light prevents healthful germination and is injurious to the growth of the
young plant. A number of fine young Pansies were placed in the most fa-
vourable circumstances under different absorptive media, on May 19th. On
the 1st of June the Panseys under the yellow media were found to be dead,
whilst all the others were growing well. When planted these plants all had
small flower-buds, but with the exception of the plants under intense red
media I could not get a flower to form upon any. Several of the ten-week
stocks were removed from the garden in the most healthy conditions when of
about a fortnight’s growth; the stocks exposed in the yellow light died in ten
days. With these plants I succeeded in obtaining flowers both under the
influence of the blue and the red media. I reserve the statement of many
other experiments to a future occasion. In justice, however, to myself, I
am bound to state that I have repeated Dr. Gardner’s experiments on the
production of chlorophylle without success.
Postscript, Nov. 20.—On my return to Falmouth after the York meeting,
I found all the peas aud mignonette dead, except under the red fluid. This
mignonette was very healthy, abundant and in full flower, in which state it
continues to this time. Would not this point to the use of red media for pre-
serving delicate plants in the winter season ?
Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Herscuen, Mr.
WHEWELL, and Mr. Batty (deceased), appointed by the British
Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars.
THE obvious importance and necessity of arriving at some definite practical
conclusion which might be satisfactorily acted upon in assigning a uniform ~
system of constellations, letters, numbers and names to the stars in each and
all of the three great Catalogues now in course of preparation under the
auspices of this Association, viz. the “British Association Catalogue,” the
Southern Catalogue of Lacaille and the extensive Catalogue of the Histoire
Céleste, has caused your Committee to assign this particular object as the
present term and scope of their labours, the Catalogues in question being
fully prepared for publication, and being actually in course of printing. The
great extent and high authority of these Catalogues,—their appearance all at
one epoch,—their preparation on a uniform system digested and arranged by
the master-mind of our late lamented colleague,—and the use of the same
nomenclature throughout all the three,—can hardly fail to give that nomen-
clature universal currency in every observatory for a very long time to come,
and to do away at once and for ever with the uncertainty and confusion which
has so long and so unhappily prevailed in this respect.
In resting at this point, therefore, your Committee consider that a great prac-
tical benefit will have been conferred on astronomy. And in resolving on
this course they have necessarily abandoned (not without much discussion,
extensive foreign correspondence, interchange of opinion with British astro-
nomers, and many partial modifications of the design,) the idea which they
had originally entertained of a total remodelling of the southern constella-
a
ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE STARS. 33
tions and redistribution of them into groups more easily recognizable than
those which have obtained currency.
Your Committee, however, are desirous to be distinctly understood that for
certain astronomical purposes, although not for those to which catalogues of
stars arranged in order of right ascension are especially applicable, such a
remodelling, not only of the southern constellations but of those in both
hemispheres, is both desirable and necessary. Neither are the means of
putting such a project in execution wanting, as heretofore. The celestial
charts of Messrs. Argelander, which have arrived in this country and been
consulted by your Committee, would alone furnish data for such an under-
taking. To their general accuracy in respect of the magnitudes of the stars,
as far exceeding that of any other publication which has come to our know-
ledge*, we are prepared to testify—one of our number (Sir J. Herschel)
having (since the appointment of this Committee and in ignorance of M. Ar-
gelander’s labours) carried out over the whole of the northern hemisphere,
and that part of the southern which lies between the Equator and the tropic
of Capricorn, a survey for the express purpose (in continuation of a similar
survey previously begun and completed by him for the southern constella-
tions), in which the whole surface of the heavens has been divided into tri-
angles, and each triangle examined seriatim down to stars of the sixth mag-
nitude.
Nevertheless your Committee do not propose to extend their labours at
present to such a general remodelling. A resting-point has been attained,
and one of great value, even considered as a step to such an ulterior design,
as will be found explained in a statement, embodying the nature of the con-
clusions arrived at by the corrections effected and the alterations which it has
been found indispensable to make, drawn up by our late lamented colleague
Mr. Baily, and forming part of his preface to the Catalogue of the British
Association, which we append to this report.
It ought to be mentioned, that the whole of the labour of revising and cor-
recting the nomenclature of the constellations visible in Europe, constituting
by far the most difficult and delicate part of the task undertaken, and in-
volving the necessity of a hardly credible amount of patient and persevering
research, has been executed by him, together with the very considerable
additional work of applying the general principles agreed on for the south-
ern circumpolar regions to the stars occurring in all the catalogues, and dis-
posing finally of the many difficulties which arose in so doing.
No part of the remainder of the original grant of the Association (amount-
ing to £32 Os. 6d.) has been actually disbursed during the current year by
the Committee, but liabilities have been incurred by the purchase of Messrs.
_ Argelander’s and Schwinke’s maps, and for some items of less importance,
_ which it has not been possible finally to discharge or even precisely to ascer-
_ tain owing to the recent melancholy event above alluded to, which will render
_ it necessary to continue to regard the grant in question disposable for those
_ purposes, though in other respects this report may be considered as final.
(Signed on the part of the Committee) J. F. W. HerscueEL.
_* The charts of M. Schwinke which, at the date of our last report were understood to be
either published or in immediate course of publication, were ordered for the Committee, but
have not yet come to hand. The examination of M. Argelander’s however had proved so sa-
tisfactory, as confirmatory of their views on a great many points, that it has not been considered
expedient to defer coming to a final conclusion (which would have retarded indefinitely the
printing of the Catalogues) for the arrival of the others.
1844. D
34 REPORT—1844.
APPENDIX.
Revision of the Constellations*.
The advantage and importance of having the boundaries of the constella-
tions of the stars distinctly and properly defined on our maps and globes, must
be evident to every one that has occasion not only to refer to so useful and
convenient an auxiliary to the practical astronomer, but also to consult a
eatalogue of stars. For unless due attention is paid to some clear and well-
organized plan of arrangement, and to some regular method of drawing the
lines that constitute the limits of the constellations, much confusion and in-
tricacy soon enters into the system, and not only does the whole become an
unintelligible mass of intersecting and undefinable boundaries, but the nomen-
clature of the catalogues also becomes sadly deranged. ‘This is no ideal an-
noyance; for the present state of all our modern maps and globes bears
evident proofs of the existence of the evil to which I have here alluded; and
the catalogues likewise partake largely of this confusion. But the time has
arrived when this inconvenience, now become so troublesome and perplexing,
can be no longer tolerated. The extended state of the present catalogue (in
which there are a number of additional stars selected from various works,
differing very essentially in the nomenclature of the stars which they con-
tain) requires that every star thus introduced should be located on maps in
which the boundaries of the constellations are constructed and drawn (or
assumed to be constructed and drawn) upon some definite and systematic
plan ; so that the name of the constellation, to which the star may be thus
found to belong, should be correctly affixed thereto, and thus show at once
its true and accurate locality in the heavens. This can only now be done
by a general revision of the whole system.
Ptolemy drew his figures on the globe in such a manner that the stars
should occupy the positions that he has designated in the descriptions of
them in his catalogue: and the boundary of each figure thus drawn was, in
fact, the limit of the constellation intended to be represented. For, when he
observed any stars that were beyond the outline of his figures, he denomi-
nated them dpcpdwro, unformed; and this method was long followed by his
successors. But, in the time of Tycho Brahé, this plan was in some measure
departed from, and a more comprehensive extension of the original limits
adopted, by including the unformed stars within the boundaries of one or
other of the contiguous constellations ; so that all the constellations abutted
against one another, and the whole of the heavens was thus occupied by one
portion or another of some known constellation; the figures remaining {the
same. Some confusion however soon crept into this arrangement: for it
appears that one of Ptolemy’s unformed stars in Libra (543 of my eatalogue
of Ptolemy) was very justly placed by Tycho within the boundary of the
same constellation; in which arrangement he has been followed by Flam-
steed, who designates it 20 Libre. But Bayer has unfortunately placed it in
the constellation Scorpio, an arrangement which has been adopted by He-
velius, Lacaille and others. Thus some confusion in this part of the boun-
daries of these two constellations has been introduced, and which continues to
the present day. I have adopted Tycho’s arrangement, and made the dis-
cordant catalogues agree therewith ; as it cannot be tolerated at the present
day that this confusion should be perpetuated, or even now exist. When
Hevelius formed his catalogue, he observed many stars, in the large spaces
between Ptolemy’s figures, that had not been previously noticed; and in-
* This section forms the substance of a Paper that was read at a meeting of the Royal As-
tronomical Society, on May 12, 1843.
ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE STARS. 35
these spaces he introduced new figures, or constellations, many of which are
still retained. But the greatest innovator on this system was Bode, who al-
though no great observer himself, has, in his catalogue and in his maps, filled
the heavens with a host of new figures and constellations that were by no
means requisite, and that tend only to annoy and confuse, without presenting
one single advantage.
In these remarks I have reference only to the constellations in the northern
hemisphere; or, at least, to those constellations only that are visible in the
northern latitudes, which, of course, include many of the southern stars.
When the southern ocean however was visited by European navigators in .
the sixteenth century, a map of the portion of the heavens, there visible and
not hitherto described, became requisite and was soon formed: but it was
not till the time of Halley that any catalogue or map of the southern constel-
lations could be depended upon. The constellations that were adopted or
introduced on this occasion were in some measure altered and increased in
the last century by Lacaille, who has, at the same time, encroached on the
boundaries of the former constellations, which, although situate to the south-
ward, had been tolerably well defined and agreed upon by the northern as-
tronomers; whereby he has created much confusion and ambiguity. For
this reason, and in order to remove such confusion of terms and identity, it
has been considered requisite to revise also the constellations and nomencla-
ture introduced by Lacaille. I shall however again advert to this subject
when I have gone through the proposed revision of the northern constella-
tions. i
When Hevelius formed his catalogue of stars, he at the same time con-
structed maps of the constellations, in which they were to be respectively
placed. By this method he in some measure preserved an uniformity in his
classifications and arrangements, and obviated any considerable distortion of
the boundaries of the constellations, having himself defined the limits. But
Flamsteed did not possess this advantage, since his maps were not constructed
till long after his catalogue had been formed, and indeed not till many years
after his decease: and as Hevelius’s maps were not published till after Flam-
steed had commenced his observations with the mural quadrant, the ‘ Urano-
metria’ of Bayer was the only authority to which he could refer even for an
approximate classification of any new stars that he might observe. This
however appears to have been often done either without due consideration
and attention, or from ignorance of the true limits; and the name of a con-
stellation was frequently written down, in the margin of the observation-
book, as that which, at the time of observation, Flamsteed supposed to be the
true constellation under review ; but which afterwards, when the observations
came to be reduced and arranged, have been found to be incorrect. An in-
spection of Flamsteed’s manuscript books, at the Royal Observatory at Green-
wich, and indeed the second volume of his ‘ Historia Ceelestis,’ will fully con-
firm this remark. The consequence has been that several of the stars in his
catalogue have been inadvertently arranged and classed under erroneous con-
stellations: and our modern map-makers (instead of correcting these obvious
errors in due time, and in a proper manner, or of laying down any general
principle, on which the boundaries might be constructed and drawn, in all
cases of new discoveries) have suffered the evil not only to continue, but to
increase to such a degree by subsequent innovations, that the celestial maps
have at length become a system of derangement and confusion. For, a prac-
tice seems to have been adopted that whenever a modern astronomer has, in
his catalogue, inadvertently introduced a star which he has designated by an
erroneous constellation, the map-maker, or globe-maker (probably through
D2
36 REPORT—1844,
ignorance), immediately extends the circuit of the constellation so as to em-
brace the star within its limits; although in so doing he causes the most
inconvenient and absurd distortion of the boundary lines, and, in some cases,
actually includes thereby stars that ought not to have been disturbed; which
consequently renders the map, or the globe, a mass of confusion and intricacy,
and totally unfit for accurate reference. An inspection of most of the modern
celestial maps or globes will fully confirm this remark.
Before a catalogue of any considerable extent, containing new stars, is
finally arranged as to its nomenclature, a specimen map of the constellations,
or at least their general outlines or boundaries, ought to be laid down upon
some uniform and acknowledged system, for the guidance of the astronomer.
The plan which was pursued by Ptolemy, and which with some slight altera-
tions has been continued down to the present time, may serve as a basis for
modern guidance and improvements. Its antiquity, and the numerous refer-
ences which have always been, and still are, constantly, made to it, render it
now difficult (even if it were desirable) to make any considerable deviation
from a system which is associated with so many scientific, historical, and
mythological recollections. But whatever plan be adopted, it ought to be
preserved with some degree of uniformity and regularity: so that if an author
has inadvertently designated a star by a wrong constellation, the name in the
catalogue should be amended, rather than the boundary of the constellation
distorted. This however will occasionally admit of some laxity ; for, if such
star should happen to be near the confines of a constellation. a slight variation
in the curvature of the boundary may be justly allowed in the case of a well-
recognised star, more especially as the precise limits are in some measure ar-
bitrary. But where a star in any catalogue is designated by the name or title
of a constellation, to which it manifestly does not belong, and has been inad-
vertently recorded and arranged as one of the stars in such constellation, the
only proper mode of correcting the error is to alter its name and character in
the catalogue, and thus restore it to its proper designation and position.
As an example of the confusion which is created by such misnomers, I need
only adduce the case of two stars in Flamsteed’s catalogue; one of these is
called 44 Zyncis, but whose position is in the middle of Ursa Major, and was
so located by Ptolemy; and the other is called 19 Urse Majoris, which evi-
dently belongs to Zynz. Now the map-maker, in order to comprise these
stars within the limits of the constellations in which Flamsteed has thus inad-
vertently and erroneously located them, has extended the boundaries of each
of these constellations in such a confused and intersecting manner that the
limits are scarcely intelligible. The proper mode would have been to alter
the nomenclature, at once, in the catalogue; and thus prevent the perpetuity
of the error. Another example (still more remarkable) occurs in the star
13 Argus in Flamsteed’s catalogue; a star that is in fact situate in the con-
stellation Canis Minor, which lies to the north of the intermediate constella-
tion Monoceros : and the map-maker, in order to include this distant star within
the limits of Argo, has in a similar manner traced a double line directly through
the body of Monoceros, which thus appears like two distinct constellations. _
Many other similar examples of distortion might be adduced, but it is need-
less to multiply proofs of such evident absurdities, which need only be seen to
be duly estimated and repudiated.
Cases of another kind occur where the constellation is improperly and_
unnecessarily extended, although there may not be any intersection of the
boundary lines: such as that which may be seen in Flamsteed’s catalogue of
stars, in the constellation Crater, where many of the stars there introduced
do not fall within the limits of the figure drawn by Bayer; nor is Flamsteed’s
pe
ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE STARS. oe
extension of the boundaries warranted by Ptolemy’s description of the position
of the stars in that constellation *.
Much confusion has also arisen from inattention to a regular classification
and arrangement of certain clusters of stars that lie near the adjoining con-
fines of two contiguous constellations ; such as the cluster of stars about the
head of Serpens, which are strangely intermixed with the stars that are con-
sidered to be in the arm of Hercules: and many similar cases may be seen in
Monoceros and Hydra, Draco and Cepheus, Auriga and Camelopardus, Libra
and Hydra, Hercules and Ophiuchus, Vulpecula and Cygnus, &c.
But the most striking proof of the inattention of map- and globe-makers to
accuracy of arrangement, occurs in the cases where the author of the catalogue
has placed the same star in two distinct constellations, and where unfortu-
nately (in constructing the map) the erroneous one has been selected for its
location. A singular case of this kind occurs with Flamsteed’s 25 and 27
Aquarii, which are the same stars as 6 and 11 Pegast. The map-maker has
correctly placed the stars in the head of Aquarius, as drawn on the map; but
then, as if doubtful of such a step, or desirous of preserving the double inter-
pretation, has extended the boundary line of Pegasus so as to embrace it
within the limits of that constellation.
Cases of such double insertions in a catalogue are not to be wondered at in
the early state of the science, where minute accuracy was not always attain-
able, nor the error always discoverable on account of the mode of classifica-
tion; and we accordingly meet with a few of such cases in the catalogues of
Ptolemy and others. But in more modern times the error has arisen princi-
pally, if not solely, from the method of arranging the stars, in a catalogue,
under distinct and separate constellations, whereby the similarity of position
is not readily discovered; and this will account for the synonyms that occur
inthe catalogues of Flamsteed and Hevelius: but when discovered they ought
to be at once corrected, and not suffered to remain a perpetual blot in the
catalogue. The modern mode, however, of arranging the whole of the stars
in a catalogue, according to the order of their right ascension, without any
regard to the order of the constellations in which they may be placed, pre-
vents the occurrence of a similar inconvenience in future.
But a like source of error arises, and frequently causes doubt and difficulty
to the map-maker, and even to the astronomer, when the authors of two dif-
ferent catalogues vary in their decision as to the constellation in which a star
should be located. Numerous instances of this kind may be seen in comparing
the catalogues of Hevelius and Flamsteed, or either of these with the cata-
logues of Piazzi or Taylor: which confusion has arisen from a want of a system
of well-defined and acknowledged boundaries to the respective constellations,
whereby the astronomer may know when he is correct in locating the observed
stars. Let any one examine the stars in Hevelius’s first constellation (Andro-
meda), and he will there find that Flamsteed has placed some of them in Pe-
“gasus, one in Perseus, and one in Lacerta; whilst Piazzi places one of them
in Cassiopea. Those only who have to make frequent references to the class
of smaller stars, and are desirous of identifying them, and of comparing the
results of different observers, can justly appreciate the labour and inconveni-
ence that occurs from such a confused state of location. And with respect to
the map-maker, it is a forlorn hope to expect from him anything like regu-
larity, uniformity, clearness or precision so long as he continues the present
system of circumscribing every star with the boundary line of the constella-
* An exception, perhaps, might here be made to Flamsteed’s 11 Crateris, and which Bayer
has designated by the letter 8: a star which Ptolemy places in Hydra, at the same time how-
ever describing it as pera tHv Baowv Tov Kparipos. I have followed Bayer and Flamsteed.
38 REPORT—1844.
tions to which the author of the catalogue, in which it is found, considers it
to belong, and rejects every attempt at improvement.
On the maps published by the executors of Flamsteed, there are not any
boundaries surrounding the figures that are there drawn: for, all the stars in
Flamsteed’s catalogue are placed in their true positions (as to right ascension
and declination) as given in the British Catalogue, without any boundary
lines ; and those who consult the maps are at liberty to draw the boundaries
in such manner as they may think most proper. It is the catalogue which is
in error, and not the maps; and it is very probable that the editors were
aware of this circumstance, having found out the mistake when it was too late
to mend it.
Bode appears to have been the first that drew boundary lines to the con-
stellations ; and in so doing, instead of correcting the catalogue and preserving
an uniform system of drawing his lines in a simple and regular manner between
contiguous constellations, whereby the contour was distorted as little as pos-
sible, he introduced the practice (above mentioned, and which has been im-
plicitly followed by most of the English map- and globe-makers) of hooking
within such limits all the stars that Flamsteed or any subsequent astronomer
had inadvertently designated by a wrong constellation ; thus disfiguring and
distorting the boundaries and rendering them very intricate, perplexing, and
annoying. In his large set of celestial maps, however, which he published
about twenty years afterwards, he became sensible of his error, and very pru-
dently discontinued this absurd practice, and confined his boundaries to their
proper restriction. But the English map- and globe-makers, instead of fol-
lowing this laudable example, have not only continued the evil, but have
carried the practice to such an enormous and ludicrous extent that the mo-
dern celestial charts and globes at the present day exhibit a complete mass
of intersecting and conflicting lines, utterly subversive of the object and de-
sign of such a divisional arrangement of the heavens. Harding, in his Celestial
Atlas, has avoided this confusion: and so likewise has Argelander in his recent
‘Uranometria.’ So that there is probably now some prospect of our being able
to obtain, in this country, celestial maps and globes freed from all the mis-
chievous confusion with which they are encumbered: and if the globes (and
also the maps) were confined to such stars only as are visible to the naked
eye, their utility and convenience for an ocular view of the heavens would
be much improved*.
In order that our catalogues and our maps (or globes) should speak the
same language, and that they should at the same time be clear and intelligi-
ble to those who consult them for the purpose of identifying the stars in the
heavens, it is requisite that the nomenclature of the stars, or, in other words,
the boundaries of the constellations, should be placed on a more uniform,
regular, and well-defined plan: but, in making this necessary reform, regard
must be had (especially in the northern hemisphere) to long-established names
and authorities, which by their antiquity and constant use have acquired full
possession of the public opinion and favour. Now, it fortunately happens
that very material improvements may be made in the present mode of deli-
neating the boundaries of these constellations, without encroaching at all on
any of the ancient arrangements, and without much alteration in those of
more modern date. All that is required will be the correction of some of
those manifest errors which have been caused principally by following too
closely and implicitly the arrangement and classification of the stars in the
constellations in Flamsteed’s catalogue; and which has opened the door to
further encroachments by his successors.
* Argelander’s ‘ Uranometria’ is an excellent pattern for such a system of map-making.
‘4 —e
ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE STARS. 39
I have alluded here to the correction of Flamsteed’s catalogue only, not
however as being the only one (or even the most discordant) that requires
reform, since similar anomalies, and equal in amount, are to be found in the
catalogues of Hevelius, Piazzi, Taylor, and perhaps some others; but because
it is the only one in these latter days (if we except Hevelius’s, which is not
very frequently referred to) in which the stars are quoted and known by the
numerical order and position in which they stand in the respective constella-
tions; those of other astronomers being always designated by the order of
their right ascension. And as all our map- and globe-makers fill up the
boundaries of the constellations with Flamsteed’s numbers as they find them
in his catalogue, whether properly located or not, it is requisite in the first
instance to place those stars in their proper positions. The method which I
propose for carrying this object into execution, and for reforming the boun-
dary lines, is the following: viz.
1°. That Ptolemy’s constellations be preserved, and form the basis of the
construction and arrangement of the constellations in the northern hemisphere.
2°. That nine of the constellations, adopted by Hevelius, be retained; but
that no others be introduced in the northern hemisphere. These nine con-
stellations are Camelopardus, Canes Venatici, Coma Berenices, Lacerta, Leo
Minor, Lynx, Monoceros, Sextant, and Vulpecula; which, having been
adopted also by Flamsteed, are still referred to at the present day, and con-
sequently should be retained. But the rest, as well as all the other constella-
tions introduced by Bartsch, Bode, Hell, Kirch, Lalande, Lemonnier, and
Poczubut, having fallen into general disuse, need not be revived or continued.
Eyen those which are retained as above mentioned might be diminished with
much benefit to the practical branch of astronomy: for this modern pro-
pensity to multiply the number of constellations has led to great confusion
and annoyance (especially where they interlace with each other) without
being attended with a single advantage.
3°. That Ptolemy’s figures be attended to, so that the drawings (if any)
should embrace all the stars mentioned by him, and within their true outlines.
Libra perhaps may be an exception to this rule, as this constellation has been
introduced instead of the claws of Scorpio adopted by Ptolemy. There are
also four stars in Ptolemy’s catalogue that are common to two adjoining con-
stellations: namely Flamsteed’s 52 Bootis, which is common to Hercules ;
112 Tauri, which is common to Auriga; 79 Aquarii, which is common to
Piscis Australis; and 21 Andromedae, which is common to Pegasus.
4°, That if Bayer or Flamsteed has introduced any star from anether con-
stellation that would distort the correct drawing, it must be named, in the
catalogue, after the constellation to which it correctly belongs, and its pseu-
donym must be discontinued, In other words, the catalogue must be cor-
rected, but not the boundaries of the constellations distorted. Thus, Flam-
steed has, after the example of Ptolemy, correctly placed 51 and 54 Andro-
mede in the right foot of that figure: but Bayer, inattentive to Ptolemy’s
description, erroneously makes these two stars form part of the sword of
Perseus; and his mode of lettering those constellations is consequently inac-
curate. Again, Ptolemy’s 13 Arietis, which is distinctly described by him as
being “in the extremity of the hind-foot,” is erroneously placed by Flam-
steed in Cetus and is 87 Ceti in his catalogue; although it appears that both
he and Halley, at one time, maintained the contrary*; and that Halley in-
deed inserted it in Aries, in his catalogue (1712). The proper mode of cor-
recting such errors is to return to the original authority ; a method which I
have here adopted.
* See my Account of the Rey. John Flamsteed, page 287.
40 REPORT—1844.
5°. That the errors of Bayer or Flamsteed being thus rectified, and the
figures of the constellations introduced by Hevelius being properly drawn (if
requisite) within the intermediate spaces, the boundaries of the constellations,
thus decided on, be carefully drawn and laid down agreeably to some syste-
matic plan, which may thus serve as the perpetual limits of the constellations :
and that no distortion of the outlines or boundaries of any of these constella-
tions, in the northern hemisphere, be permitted in consequence of the mistakes
of any subsequent astronomers in arranging their stars under improper divi-
sions of the heavens.
6°. That as all Flamsteed’s stars are designated by the numerical order in
which they stand in the constellation, and as these numbers are in most cases
well known and recognised, it is desirable to preserve his stars within the
boundaries of their respective constellations, wherever it can be conveniently
done. But, in the case of synonymous stars (amounting to 22) this is evidently
impossible ; and there are also several other cases, which have been already
alluded to (amounting to 66, of which 19 belong to Crater), where it is im-
practicable, consistently with the rules here proposed*. These anomalous
stars must be corrected in the catalogue, and there located in their proper
constellations; which will thus in future be a guide to the globe-makers.
7°. That as all the stars in the catalogue of Piazzi are designated and
always quoted by their nwmber in the hour of right ascension, and those of
Taylor and others, by their ordinal number, it is not so requisite to pay spe-
cial attention to inscribing such stars within the boundaries of the constella-
tions to which they are assumed to belong; and which will frequently be
found to be discordant: still, that if any of these stars lie near to the boun-
daries so assumed, a slight detour be allowed in the drawing.
Such is the plan which I have pursued in the present arrangement of the
stars in the northern constellations ; aud which I propose also to adopt in the
classification of the stars deduced from the observations recorded in the ‘ His-
toire Céleste.’ I shall now proceed to state the several alterations that have
been proposed by Sir John Herschel for amending the boundaries and no-
menclature of the southern constellations. But, as I cannot add to the clear-
ness and precision with which he has treated this subject, I shall here subjoin
his statement in his own words.
“« The idea, originally proposed of entirely re-modelling the southern con-
stellations+, has (after very mature consideration and much discussion, and
after consulting the opinions of some of the most eminent continental astro-
nomers, which have been found very adverse to the idea of so decided a
change) been laid aside ; at least in so far as regards the present undertaking.
It is conceived however that if the nomenclature of the constellations, gene-
rally, be ever destined to undergo a systematic change at all (and many rea-
* The following is a statement of the 66 stars in Flamsteed’s catalogue, which I have as-
sumed to be incorrectly arranged: viz. 13 Argus belongs to Canis Minor; 33, 34, 35 Camelo-
pardi belong to Auriga; 50 Cumelopardi belongs to Lynx; 85, 87 Ceti belong to Aries; 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29 Crateris belong to Hydra; 3 Cygni
belongs to Vulpecula; 80 Draconis belongs to Cepheus; 3 Herculis belongs to Serpens; 66
Hercules belongs to Ophiuchus; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Leonis Minoris belong to Lynx; 6, 41, 49 Leonis
Minoris belong to Leo; 25 Leonis Minoris belongs to Ursa Major; 37, 39, 44 Lyncis belong
to Ursa Major; 30, 31 Monocerotis belong to Hydra; 32, 33, 34 Ophiuchi belong to Hercules ;
47 Ophiuchi belongs to Serpens; 23 Piscium belongs to Pegasus; 1 Sagitte belongs to Vulpe-
cula; 2 Sagittarii belongs to Ophiuchus; 24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38 Scorpii belong to Ophiu-
chus; 48 Serpentis belongs to Hercules; 10, 11 Sextantis belong to Leo; 16 Trianguli belongs
to Aries; 10, 19 Urs@ Majoris belong to Lynx; 46 Urse Majoris belongs to Leo Minor; 101
Virginis belongs to Bootes.
T By Sir John Herschel himself, as stated in his Paper inserted in vol. xii. of the Memoirs
of the Roy. Ast. Society,—F. B.
ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE STARS. Al
sons may be adduced for considering such a change desirable) the first and
most important step towards it will be found in the present work itself, and
in the catalogues, now publishing simultaneously with it on the same system
of nomenclature*, which clear the ground of all existing confusion; and by
assembling into one distinct view, and under names and numbers at least
definite and recognised, all the individuals of which the new groups must be
composed, render it easy at any future time to pass, by a single table of
synonyms and by one decided step, from one to the other system, whenever
the convenience and consent of astronomers may dictate the propriety of a
change. Such views, if entertained, would render the nomenclature of the
_present catalogues so far provisional that a more rational and convenient
system of groups (confined not to the southern hemisphere, but extending
over both) may yet be contemplated by astronomers. Nevertheless, so long
as the ancient system is at all retained, a general and scrupulous adherence
to the nomenclature here adopted is most earnestly recommended to the
astronomical world, as the only mode of escape from a state of confusion at
present quite intolerable. As regards the southern constellations, the follow-
ing are the principles proposed to be adhered to: viz.
«1°, That all the constellations adopted by Lacaille be retained, and his
arrangement of the stars preserved; subject however to certain alterations
hereafter specified.
“9°. That all the stars, having a doubtful location, such as those which
Lacaille (after the manner of Ptolemy) has considered as apdppwroe (un-
formed), be included within the boundaries of either one or other of the con-
tiguous constellations, so as to preserve a regularity of outline.
« 3°. That all the rest of Lacaille’s stars be placed within the boundaries
laid down by him, with the following exceptions: first, a few stars which are
located too far from the border of the constellations in which they are re-
gistered, to admit of an uniform contour of the lines; secondly, such stars as
have been previously observed by Ptolemy or Flamsteed, and by them located
in other constellations, or which interlace and are confusedly mixed with such
previously observed stars+ ; thirdly, the six stars that are placed by Lacaille
in the end of the spear of Indus, but which are now assumed to form part of
the constellation Pavo, in order to render the contour of these two constella-
tions less circuitous.
« 4°, That the Greek letters, selected by Lacaille, be adopted in prefer-
ence to those introduced by Bayer in the southern constellations; but that
they be retained only as far as stars of the 5th magnitude inclusive. That
no Roman letters be used, except in the subdivisions of Argo, subsequently
mentioned.
« 5°. That Argo be divided into four separate constellations, as partly
contemplated by Lacaille; retaining his designations of Carina, Puppis and
Vela; and substituting the term Malus for Pizis Nautica, since it contains
four of Ptolemy’s stars that are placed by him in the mast of the ship.
“6°. That the original constellation Argo, on account of its great magni-
tude and the subdivisions here proposed, be carefully revised in respect of
_ * Sir John Herschel here alludes to Lacaille’s new catalogue of 9766 southern stars, and to
the catalogue of upwards of 48,000 stars, deduced from the‘ Histoire Céleste,’ both of which are
now printing at the expense of Government.—F. B.
4 “A single exception to this rule occurs in the case of the last star in the constellation
Piscis Australis, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, which Bayer has denoted by the letter «, and which
is presumed to be the same as that which has been designated by Lacaille as y Gruis. As
there is some ambiguity however in the position of this star in Bayer’s map, it is here assumed
(like some other stars already mentioned) as common to both constellations, in order to adjust
this discordance ; and, in the present catalogue, Lacaille’s designation of y Gruis is retained,
on account of its forming the principal object in the head of that constellation.”
42 REPORT— 1844,
lettering, in the following manner: first, in order to preserve the present no-
menclature of the principal stars, all the stars in Argo (that is, in the general
constellation, regarded as including the subdivisions above mentioned) indi-
eated by Greek letters, by Lacaille, to be retained, with their present letter-
ing, under the general name Argo: secondly, all the remaining stars, to be
designated by that portion of the ship in which they occur, such as Carina,
Puppis, Vela, and Malus, and to be indicated by Roman letters, as far as the
5th magnitude inclusive. And no two distant stars, in the same subdivision,
to be indicated by the same letter; but, in cases of conflict, the greater mag-
nitude is to be preferred; and, when they are equal, the preceding star to be
fixed upon.
«“ 7°. That the constellations, which Lacaille has designated by éwo words,
be expressed by only one of such words. Thus, it is proposed that the several
constellations, indicated by Lacaille as Apparatus Sculptoris, Mons Mense,
Calum Scalptorium, Equuleus Pictorius, Piscis Volans and Antlia Pneu-
matica, be called by the respective titles of Seulptor, Mensa, Celum, Pictor,
Volans, and Anétlia; contractions which have on some occasions been par-
tially used by Lacaille himself, and are very convenient in a registry of
stars.”
Such is the plan proposed by Sir John Herschel for a better arrangement
of the stars in the southern hemisphere: and, agreeing fully in the principles
here laid down, I have not hesitated in adopting them in the construction of
the present catalogue, and in the classification of the stars inserted therein.
On the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada.
By Lieut.-Colonel Epwarp Sasine, R.A., F.R.S.
[A communication made to the Mathematical and Physical Section at the York Meeting, and
directed to be printed entire amongst the Reports. ]
Tue subject which I am about to bring before the Section consists of a por-
tion of the results of the meteorological observations which have been made
at the magnetical and meteorological observatory at Toronto in Canada, in
the first two years of its establishment. It is well known to the members of
the Section, that in conformity with the recommendation made by this
Association, the British Government has formed establishments in various
parts of the globe, for the purpose of making magnetical and meteorological
observations on a systematic plan, and has created a department for the re-
duction and publication of the observations. As the officer entrusted with the
conduct of these operations, I regard it as not less a duty than a pleasure, to
communicate, from time to time, at the meetings of the British Association,
such of the arrangements, or of the observations themselves, or of the conclu-
sions to which they may have led, as I may suppose may be interesting to its
members. I have accordingly selected for the present occasion some portion
of the results which the meteorological observations at Toronto, in 1841 and
1842, have yielded, when subjected to a full process of reduction, and care-
fully examined. I have preferred the meteorological to the magnetical ob-
servations, partly on account of the more popular character of the subject
generally, and partly because the conclusions to which the meteorological
observations have already conducted appear to possess a completeness and
fullness not yet attained in magnetism. The observations, which will be treated
of in this communication, were made at every second hour throughout the
year, except on Sundays, Christmas day, and Good Friday. Subsequently to
the period which will be now passed in review, they have been made hourly,
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 43
and the results of these may possibly be brought before the Section on a
future occasion.
For the purpose of rendering this communication more interesting and
more useful, I have compared the meteorological results obtained at Toronto
with those obtained by M. Kreil at the magnetical and meteorological obser-
vatory at Prague in Bohemia*. It is frequently found that we gain more by
such comparisons,—by the points of resemblance and points of difference,
and by the analogies and contrasts which they bring to our notice,—than we
do by a simple direct investigation.
Prague like Toronto is situated at a considerable distance from the ocean
(between 300 and 400 miles) in the interior of a great continent, the latitude
and elevation moreover not being very dissimilar. The agreement which
will be shown in the leading features of their meteorology manifests that
these features belong to a locality so circumstanced, whether the continent
be Europe or America; whilst the minor differences point to climatological
distinctions of a secondary order, important indeed to discuss from their
bearing on the health and occupations of mankind, as well as in more purely
scientific respects, but into which time will scarcely permit me to enter on
the present occasion beyond a mere notice of some of the facts,
In all comparisons between places situated in Europe and in North Ame-
rica, there is one leading difference in respect to temperature which we must
expect to find, which is doubtless familiar to all the members of the Section,
viz. that in Europe we enjoy a climate of higher mean temperature in pro-
portion to the latitude than is the case in America; in other words, that the
isothermal lines descend into a lower latitude in America than they do in
Europe. It would occupy far too much time to discuss, on the present occa-
sion, the causes of this great climatological difference ; they have been largely
discussed by many eminent philosophers; but it may be well, before we pro-
ceed to further details, to notice briefly the amount of difference in this re-
spect which is shown by the observations at Prague and Toronto.
The following statement exhibits the particulars of the latitude, elevation
above the sea, and mean temperature of the two stations; as well as the cor-
rection of the difference of their mean temperatures on account of difference
of elevation :—
Toronto, latitude..... 43°39! Elevation...... 330 feet.
Prague, ss veie stats a0 05 rn Ainle eee Wied sep
Se ——
Difference.......... 6 26 Difference ...,. 252
Prague should be colder on account of its elevation . O%8 Fahr.
Mean temperature, Toronto 44°°4 : ‘
r Prague. 48 *7 + \ Difference .... 4°3
Difference of temperature corrected
for difference of elevation......
Whence it appears that Prague is 5°1 warmer than Toronto, although its
latitude is 6° 26' more distant from the equator.
——
} Prague warmer 5°1
TEMPERATURE.
We will now proceed to the distribution of the mean temperature into the
several hours of the day, and into the several months of the year; the first,
forming the diurnal variation of the temperature, or that variation which has
a@ day for its period; the second, the annual variation, or that variation which
has @ year for its period.
Diurnal Variation —The diurnal variation is the well-known consequence
* Mag. und Met. Beobachtungen : Prag. 1839-1842, T Kreil, Jahrbuch fiir 1843.
44 REPORT—1844.
of the earth’s rotation on its axis. It is a single progression ; having but one
ascending and one descending branch, the turning points being a maximum
early in the afternoon, and a minimum about sunrise. Each hourly mean in
each year in the subjoined table is an average of about 311 observations,
being one on each day, except Sundays, Good Friday and Christmas day.
Each hourly mean of the two years is therefore an average of about 622 ob-
servations. The mean temperature of each year, or of all the hours on all
the days of the year, rests on about 3732 observations ; and the mean tem-
perature of the two years on about 7464 observations. The very small
amount of the differences which the table exhibits in the results at the seve-
ral hours in 1841 and 1842, shows a probability that we have already deter-
mined the diurnal march of the temperature, (as far as it can be obtained
by two-hourly observations, ) with a very near approximation to the truth*.
Mean Annual Temperature at every observation hour.
6a.m.|8 A.m.|10 A.m.|Noon.|2 p.m.|4 p.m, |6 P.M,.|8 P.m.| 10 P.m.| Mid. |2 a.m.|4 A.m.| Mean.
—EE——— ee
° ° ) ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
S (1841...} 39°0 | 42°4 46°2 48°8 |50°4 | 50°3 | 48°1 | 44°0 42°0 40°7 | 39°5 | 38°8 | 44°2
& J 1842...| 39°8 | 42°9 46°5 49°1 |50°7 | 50°38 | 48°2 | 44°2 42°3 41°0 |40°2 | 39°6 | 44°6
—— | —___—— —_. —_——
°
2 ——|—
5 | Mean. 39°40 | 42°65 | 46°35 | 48°95 | 50°55 50°55 | 48°15 | 44°10 42°15 | 40°85 | 39°85 | 39°20 | 44-4
(Se sa eS ee a i ee ea ee a
Temperature at the several observation hours higher (+) or lower (—)
than the Mean Annual Temperature.
— 0°3
+ 0°8
4°55
— 4°55|— 5°2
—34
—44
+3°75
+ 3:7
+ 6°15} +4 615 — 1°25 |— 3°55
Prague...... —4:7|— 2°6 +52 |45°1 —11 |—2°3
Toronto....) — 5°0|— 1°75
+09 |+3°8
+ 1°95 [: 4°45
Toronto proportionally colder (—) or warmer (+) than Prague at
the several observation hours.
|- 03 |+ 085| + 1°05 |+ 0-65| + 0-95|-+ 1°05|+ 0°05] — Vl | — 0°15 |- 1°25|— 1:15|— 0'8 |
If we take the difference between the mean temperature at Toronto derived
from all the observations (44°-4:), and the mean of all the temperatures ob-
served at each of the observation hours, we have the mean diurnal march of
the thermometer as shown in the table, or how much the temperature amount
is above or below its mean at each hour of observation.
In the line immediately beneath the diurnal march of the temperature at
Toronto, is placed the diurnal march at Prague, by which means the general
resemblance and the minor differences can be at once perceived by the eye.
These latter are further shown in the last line, which points out the
hours when the temperature is proportionally warmer at Toronto than at
Prague, which hours have a + sign before them, and those when it is pro-
portionally colder, which are characterized by the — sign. It will be at
once obvious that the climate at Toronto is proportionally warmer during
the hours of the day, and colder during those of the night, than at Prague.
Toronto being in a lower latitude and therefore nearer the sun, the sun’s in-
fluence is proportionally greater during the hours of the day; but in the
absence of the sun, the powerful causes which, in spite of the difference
of latitude, depress the isothermal lines, show their unchecked influence in
the proportionally lower temperature of the hours of the night. So strong
indeed are those causes, that at no one hour of the twenty-four does the
absolute temperature at Toronto rise to an equality with that of Prague. _
* The building of the observatory at Toronto having been completed in September 1840,
the observations now under notice commence with October 1840. The year 1841 in this
communication is therefore more strictly the year which commences October 1, 1840, and ~
ends September 30, 1841. In like manner 1842 commences with October 1, 1841, and ends
with September 30, 1842.
5
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 45
The nights being proportionally colder and the days warmer than at Prague,
the mean daily range of the thermometer is greater, being 9°9 at Prague and
11°35 at Toronto. The mean temperature of the 24 hours occurs earlier in
the forenoon and earlier in the afternoon at Toronto than at Prague.
Annual Variation.—The next table exhibits the mean monthly temperatures
in each month of 1841 and 1842, and their average. In a separate column is
shown the amount by which the temperature in each month exceeds or falls
short of the mean temperature of the year. This forms the annual variation of
the temperature ; it is, as is well known, the consequence of the earth’s annual
motion in its orbit, which regulates the order and succession of the seasons, and
occasions a progression of temperature from a minimum in the midwinter to a
maximum in the midsummer. This also is a single progression, having but
one ascending and one descending branch. The annual variation of the
temperature at Prague is placed by the side of that at Toronto, by which
means the eye is at once enabled to judge of the general agreement and the
minor differences; the latter are also shown more distinctly in the final
column.
The several months Toronto
Toronto, Prague. |#bove (+-) or below (—)| proportionally
Mean of the annual mean. hotter (-+)
20 years. |__| 0r colder (—)
1841. 1842. Mean. Toronto, | Prague. | than Prague.
° Oo fe] Oo oO
January «........ 256 | 278 | 267 | 269 | —177 | —218 | +41
February......... 23°2 28:0 25°6 30'8 —1883 | —17:9 —0°9
March..........0. 28°] 36:2 321 38°6 —12°3 | —10-1 —2'2
BRTILS os cesess secs 39°5 43°6 416 48'8 — 28 | + 01 —27
AVIA iecisanaeslanean 51:2 49°8 50°5 580 | + 61 | + 93 —3'2
PINE) ceccesvessse 66°1 566 61:3 646 | +169 | +159 +1:0
LS a eee 65°4 64:8 65:1 68:1 +207 | +194 +1:3
August .........| 64:5 65°7 65:1 66-7 | +207 | +180 +27
September ...... 61:3 55°8 58°5 60-2 | +141 | +115 +2°6
October ......... A4-7 41:9 43'3 50:1 —1ll;);+14 —2°5
November ...... 35°7 35°3 35°5 38:8 | — 89 | — 9:9 +10
December ...... 24°8 29:8 27°3 330 —17:1 | —157 —14
Mean ............ 44:2 A4-6 44-4 48:7
Difference between the hottest and coldest month.
Prague ...... A1"-2
Toronto...... 39°5
In viewing the minor differences shown in the last column, we must not
overlook that our numbers are based on two years only of observation, and
that for an annual progression, a single year forms in fact but a single ex-
periment. When we view the differences which some of the months present
in the columns representing the observations in 1841 and 18442, we shall readily
acknowledge that more than two years are required to give that approxima-
tion to a mean annual progression which the present state of science requires.
There are, however, some features of difference which present such obvious
characters of system that we may have reason to expect that the observations
of a greater number of years will but make them more assured. Thus the
spring months are all proportionally colder, and the summer months hotter,
_ at Toronto than at Prague. There is also one remarkable difference, viz. in
January, which is proportionally a colder month by above 4° at Prague than
at Toronto; and from the magnitude of the amount, it wears the aspect of a
permanent climatological difference. Now it is well known that in the month
46 REPORT—1844.
of January the wind from the east and north-east prevails in Europe, bring-
ing with it our severest winter cold. This feature has not a parallel in North
America, where the cold of winter is more equably distributed. It would
occupy too much time to discuss the cause of this peculiarity in the European
climate ; and I must content myself with referring generally to M. Dove's
elaborate work on the distribution of temperature ; a work which cannot fail
to impress the reader strongly with the value of the conclusions to be derived
from long-continued series of observations subjected to a laborious and per-
severing study. It is a curious result from this excess of cold in Europe in
January, that notwithstanding the greater proportional warmth in summer
and cold in spring at Toronto, the extreme difference, or that between the
coldest and the warmest month of the year, is absolutely greater at Prague
than at Toronto, being 41°2 at Prague and 395 at Toronto.
It is a consequence of the minor differences already pointed out, that a
temperature equal to that of the mean temperature of the year occurs later
in spring and earlier in autumn at Toronto than at Prague ; and that the tem-
perature is higher than the mean of the year during seven months at Prague,
whilst at Toronto it is only so during five months.
I have inserted in the next table the mean range of the thermometer during
three years at Toronto and at Prague. It must be understood that the
maximum of each month inserted in this table is the mean maximum during
three years; viz. March 1840 to March 1843 at Toronto; July 1839 to July
1842 at Prague; and the same is to be understood of the minimum: the
range is consequently a mean range during three years, and is of course ex-
ceeded by the range in individual years.
Range of the Temperature in different Months.
Toronto (3 years). | Prague (3 years).
Max. Min. Range. || Max. Min. Range.
o Oo
Jaunary ......00. +473 | +18 455 || +468 | +4 40 428
February......... +42-7 — 10 43°7 +439 + 16 42:3
Marcht.cvctctcscss +59-1 + 7:0 520 +54:8 +13°8 A410
PADFilisscesecgdeces +723 4+-23:0 49°3 +726 +29:1 435
IVEY. tiessosetscant +75°7 +29°5 462 +835 +40:0 43°5
June ..... se) 82:3 +37'2 4571 +88:0 +47:0 41-0
SIULY) ctvcsscssers +85°5 +45:1 40°4 +92:0 -+50°6 41-4
PRUIDUISt! Secsceces +818 +470 348 +84:0 +484 35°6
September ...... +782 +32:0 46:2 +82°5 +40:2 42:3
October ......... +65°6 425'5 401 +69'8 +314 38-4
November ...... +576 +127 449 +59°5 +29'5 30:0
December ...... +426 + 37 39:0 +470 +124 34-6
Mean range ...| 43°9 Mean range ...| 39°7
Highest, June 29, 1841 +.91-7 Highest, July 18, 1841 +97-8
Toronto { Teer Feb. 16, 1842 — $-2* Prague Towrest, Dec. 15, 1840 — 7-0
Range ... 99°9 . Range ... 104-8
LASER EE ERTS IUEE RIN IVT! COR” RE ae”
* The thermometer ranged much lower in January 1840, before the commencement of
the series under notice, viz.—
January 2nd — 175 January 15th — 85
i on ws og » 16th — 150
» 4th —100 » ljth —19:2 lowest observation.
ww
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 47
Here also the general character shown by the comparison of the two sta-
tions is that of very close resemblance, while the minor differences also stand
out prominently. The greater variation to which the temperature is subject
at Toronto in March and April is very obvious in the column of range; as is
also the small amount of the variation in the month of November at Prague.
The mean monthly range deduced from the twelve months is 43°°9 at Toronto,
and 39°-7 at Prague; a considerable amount of difference, and which marks
the greater general vicissitude of the climate of Toronto: still it is deserving
of notice that Prague is occasionally liable to fully as great, and (during these
three years at least) even greater extremes of temperature than Toronto, as is
shown by the memorandum at the foot of the table; it is indeed curious to
remark how very nearly the stations approach each other in the extreme
amount of their thermometrical range. July and August are the only months
in which during three years the observations at Toronto never show a tem-
perature of the air so low as the freezing point. At Prague there are five
months, viz. from May to September inclusive, in which during the three
years the temperature was never observed so low as 32°.
If we seek in the old continent a station most nearly isothermal with To-
ronto, we must refer to a latitude considerably higher than Prague. The
station in M. Mahlmann’s list (Dove, Repertorium, b. 4, and Humboldt, Asie
Centrale, tom. 3.), which most nearly resembles it in the mean temperature
of the different seasons, as well as in that of the whole year, is Wexio in
Sweden, in latitude 56° 53’, and height above the sea 450 Parisian feet.
Toronto is in 43° 39’, and height above the sea 330 English feet. The mean
temperatures are—
Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Annual. Coldest month.Warmest month.
fe}
ce} oO ° Oo o Oo
Toronto 41°4 4 63°8 45°8 26°5 44d. 256 65°1
Wexio § 41°5 63°8 44°8 27°8 4405 27°0 66°0
AQurous VAPOUR.
I proceed to consider the elastic force or tension of the aqueous vapour
contained in the atmosphere, and the degree of humidity produced by it,
together with the diurnal and annual variations of these phenomena.
The elastic force of the vapour is considered to be one of the constituents
of the pressure upon the surface of the mercury in the cistern of the barome-
ter, which, conjointly with the other and much larger constituent, viz. the
pressure of the gaseous atmosphere, produces what in common parlance is
called the pressure of the atmosphere, measured by the height of the mercurial
column in the barometer. Although we have no instrument by which we can
measure the gaseous pressure independently of that of the aqueous vapour,
we possess in Daniell’s hygrometer, and in the wet and dry thermometers, the
means of ascertaining the aqueous pressure at any instant independently of
the gaseous pressure; and therefore, by the combination of the barometer and
of the wet and dry thermometers (or of the hygrometer before mentioned),
we should be able to obtain separately the pressure due to each constituent,
and the annual and diurnal variations of both. It will be understood, there-
fore, that when the “tension of the vapour” is here mentioned, it expresses
also the pressure on the barometer produced by the elastic force of the vapour
present in the air.
The scale in which the humidity of the air is expressed is the simple
natural scale in which air at its maximum of humidity (2.e. when it is satu-
48 REPORT—1844, | ‘
rated with vapour) is reckoned as = 100; and air absolutely deprived of
moisture as = 0: the intermediate degrees are given by the fraction
100 x actual tension of vapour,
tension required for the saturation of the air at its existing temperature.
Thus if the air at any temperature whatsoever contains vapour of half the
tension which it would contain if saturated, the degree is 50; if three-
fourths, then 75; and so forth.
Air of a higher temperature is capable of containing a greater quantity of
vapour than air of less temperature ; but it is the proportion of what it does
contain to what it would contain if saturated, which constitutes the measure
of its dryness or humidity.
The capacity of the air to contain moisture being determined by its tem-
perature, it was to be expected that an intimate connexion and dependence
would be found to exist between the annual and diurnal variations of the
vapour and of the temperature. I shall proceed to show how distinctly and
fully this connexion is exhibited by the observations at Toronto. We will
commence with the humidity.
Diurnal Variation.—The degree of humidity at the several observation
hours exhibits, as in the case of the temperature, a simple progression of one
ascending and one descending branch, having its turning points the same
as those of the temperature, namely, a maximum at or near the coldest,
_ and a minimum at or near the hottest hours of the day ; the progression is
inverse, but is in harmony with that of the temperature.
Mean degree of Humidity at Toronto at the several Observation Hours.
| | .
6a.m.'8a.m. 10A.M.| Noon. |2P.M. d4p.M. 6.M. 8P-M./10P.M.| Mid. 2A4.M.|4A.M.|| Mean.
1841...| 88 | 83 | 77 | 73 | 70 | 69 |72 |79
1842...) 86 | 81 | 73 | 70 | 68 | 67 |71 |78
82 | 84185 | 86 || 79
81 | 82 | 84 | 84 || 77
Mean.| 87 | 82 | 75 | 71°5| 69 | 68 |71:5 785) 815 | 83 | 84:5} 85 || 78
The accord of the two years’ observations is remarkably satisfactory ; they
unite in showing that in the average state of the atmosphere at Toronto, the
air is charged with between three-fourths and four-fifths (or more exactly
with 78 parts in 100) of the vapour required for its saturation.
When we proceed to the mean tension of the vapour at the several obser-
vation hours, we perceive an accord with the march of the temperature fully
as striking; one ascending, one descending branch ;—the turning points in
obvious dependence,—and the march harmonious ; in this case the progression
is direct, in relation to that of the temperature,—as it was inverse in the case
of the humidity.
Mean Tension of the Vapour at the several Observation Hours,
|
GA.M. Iga. a./10 a.m] Noon. |2p.m.|4p.M./6r m.[Sp.m./10 P.m.| Mid. laa. M./4A.M, ‘| Mean.
| eee
n. | In. | In.
1841... 39 268 82 293 956 *287| -276 264 4 81 343 240 367
1842.. “234 *251| -259)| -271
-275| -273] +263} -250| +245 | -236) -233 ke “252
250 | 243} -238 zal +259
Mean. ey) 260 270 | 282 -285| 280) -269| -257
The direct evidence of connexion and dependence exhibited in the diurnal
march of the vapour and temperature at Toronto is the more deserving of
our notice, because in many climates, this connexion, though it always exists,
ON THE METEOROLOGY-OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 49
is partly obscured by other less direct influences of the temperature. Thus
at Trevandrum, in the East Indies, where the zeal of our indefatigable
associate Mr. Caldecott, Director of the Magnetical and Meteorological Ob-
servatory established by His Highness the Rajah of Travancore, has already
accumulated, reduced, and transmitted to England five years of hourly obser-
vations with the wet and dry thermometers, the maximum and minimum of
the tension are found to occur within three hours of each other; the mini-
mum coinciding with the coldest hour, viz. at 6 a.M.; but the maximum
occurring at 9 in the forenoon. This may possibly be a consequence of the
sea breeze, which springs up as the sun gains power, and as the earth warmed
by the solar rays heats the air in contact with itself and causes it to rise, occa-
-sioning an inpouring of the air from over the surface of the ocean. The sea
breeze brings an influx of fresh air charged with vapour; the air in its turn
is heated and ascends, but the vapour is subject to a different law ; and though
a portion of it is doubtless rapidly conveyed upwards by the ascending cur-
rent, it is probably the accumulation below which causes an immediate rapid
rise in the tension of the vapour, making its maximum to occur at a very early
hour. The few facts which are yet known regarding the diurnal march of
the vapour in different parts of the globe, present many phenomena of this
nature, which at first sight appear inconsistent with the dependence of the
progression of the vapour on that of the temperature; but which, when duly
explained, will doubtless be found directly or indirectly in accordance with it.
The knowledge of the phenomena of the vapour in different climates and
under different circumstances (such as in insular, littoral, or continental
situations, &c.), with the explanation of the various peculiarities which they
present, will form hereafter a very interesting and beautiful chapter in the
physical history of the globe.
Annual Variation—We will now proceed to the mean monthly humidity
and mean monthly tension exhibited in the following tables :—
Mean Monthly Humidity. Mean Monthly Tension.
Toronto. ee ae Toronto. ee (Ra
Sa a tea the! an= ———_ |than _ the an-
~ 1841.| 1842,!Mean. | nual mean. 1841.) 1842,|Mean| nual mean.
Jan...... 87 | 81 | 84 | + 60 In. | In. | In.
Feb...... 80 | 84} 82 | + 40 Jan. ...|°135| -130) -1382} — -127
March .| 79 | 76 | 77:5} — 05 Feb. ...|°107| 138) 123] — -136
April...) 70 | 71 | 70:5) — 7:5 March. .| °131) -162) -146} — :113
May.....| 67 | 64 | 65:5) — 12:5 April ...| °173} -199| :186] — -073
June ...| 72 | 76 | 74 — 40 May ...| °259) °227| -243) — -016
July 74|74|74 | — 40 June ...| 452) 347) -399| + -140
Aug 81 | 79 | 80 | + 25 July ....| 449) -438) 443) + -184
Sept. ...| 83 | 78 | 80:5) + 3:0 Aug. ...| 482) 491) -486) + -227
Oct. ...| 84 | 78 | 805] + 3:0 Sept. ...| 453/351) 402) + -143
Noy.....| 86 | 81 | 83:5| + 5°5 Oct. ..... +254) -210) -232) — -027
Dec 84 | 86 | 85 | + 7:0 Nov. ...|°185| +173) -179) — -080
ae ee eee Dec. ....| 122) +153] -138} — -161
Mean....| 79 | 77 | 78 ——_ |— |—__ |—__
*267| °251| :259
We perceive by the table in which the mean monthly humidity is shown,
that the months from March to July are drier than the average of the year,
and that the remaining months are more humid than the average. The drier
Tonths are those in which the temperature of the air isrising ; the most hu-
mid those in which the temperature is eitherfalling or nearly stationary. When
r aie is rising the warmth increases more rapidly than the air re-
Ye E
50 REPORT—1844,
ceives the addition to its vapour required to maintain an equal degree of humi-
dity, and the air becomes inconsequence drier. Thisis even the case in the
neighbourhood of extensive lakes, as at Toronto. May is the driest and De-
cember the most humid month in the year: and this is also stated to be the
case in Europe.
When we turn to the table in which the mean monthly tension of the
vapour is shown, we see most distinctly marked the connexion between the
temperature and the vapour pressure, and the dependence of the one upon
the other ; we see a simple progression, the turning points being the same as
those of the temperature, and a march as harmonious as we are perhaps en-
titled to expect from observations of only two years’ continuance.
I shall reserve what further I may have to say in regard to the range of
the vapour-pressure in different months, until we have before us the other
constituent of the barometric pressure, viz. the gaseous atmosphere, to which
1 now proceed.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
Toronto.
6 A.M./8 A.M.| 10 A.M. Noon. |2 p.a.| 4p.m.|6P.3../8 p.at,| 10 p.m. | Mid. |2 a.m.|4 A.m.|Mean.
Mean bar. (1841. | *624| °637] 638 | °616| °595| +591| ‘598| “609! 613 | -6o7| -606| -610
Pressure.. ) 1842. | °613| ‘628 631 612) °594/ +590] *595| *602| 603 *596| *593) °*595
29 inch. + |
Mean.| °618| ‘632 634 614; 594 +590! "596 “605 | 608 | *601| *600} *602
Deduct pressure : * é nical Seattne to i Meestrcta hat A. 2 ‘ -
of the cage a 242 260 270 282 285 280 269| 257 250 243 238 234
Press. of the ga- |
seous atmosph. *376| °372) °364 *332) °309/ °310| °327| °348/ 358 | *358 *362} +368
29 inches+ .. |
Pressure at each |
hour greater(+) |
or less (—) than }|+'027|+*023| +015 |—*017/—'040 |—'039}—‘022 —:001, +°009 |+'009|+°013|}+°019
themeanannual
pressure ......
Diurnal Variation.—The first two lines of this table exhibit the mean
monthly pressure on the mercurial column at Toronto at the several observa-
tion hours of 1840 and 1841,—the mean of the two years is shown in the third
line. The close accord of the mean pressure at the same hours in each of the
two years is a very satisfactory testimony of the confidence to which these
barometrical results are entitled: the mean at each hour of each year repre-
sents about 311 observations ; consequently in the two years the mean at each
observation hour represents about 622 observations, the mean of all the hours
in the one year 3732 observations, and in the two years 7464 observations.
The diurnal march of the barometer may consequently be regarded as a
very near approximation to the truth. The diurnal march of the vapour
pressure is obtained by an equal number of observations, and may therefore
also be viewed as a very near approximation to the facts of nature. By de-
ducting the vapour pressure from the whole barometric pressure at each ob-
servation hour, we should obtain the daily march of the gaseous atmosphere.
This is shown in the fifth line of figures in the table ; and by taking the differ-
ence between the last column, (7. e. between the mean gaseous pressure at
all the observation hours in the two years,) and the pressure at each hour,
we obtain the amount by which the pressure is greater or less at each ob-
servation hour than the mean general pressure at all the hours.
On first casting our eyes (in the last line of the preceding table) on this
representation of the diurnal variation of the gaseous atmosphere, freed from
the complication which its combination with the vapour pressure produces
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 51
in the indications of the barometer, we cannot fail to be immediately struck
with the very close correspondence of the diurnal march before our eyes with
that of the temperature which we have already examined. The maximum
of pressure is at 6 a.M.; the minimum at2 p.m. The progressions take place
in the opposite or inverse sense to each other, but they are remarkably har-
monious, and leave no doubt of a mutual connexion, and of the dependence
either of the one on the other, or of both on a common cause.
An explanation of this connexion, which presents itself to the mind as soon
as the facts are clearly perceived, may be thus stated :—As the temperature of
the day increases, the earth becomes warmed and imparts heat to the air in
contact with it, and causes itto ascend. The colunin of air over the place of
observation thus warmed rises, and a portion of it diffuses itself, in the higher
regions of the atmosphere, over adjacent spaces where the temperature at the
surface of the earth is less. Hence the statical pressure of the column is
diminished. On the other hand, as the temperature falls, the column con-
tracts, and receives in its turn a portion of air which passes over in the higher
regions from spaces where a higher temperature prevails; and thus the sta-
tical pressure is augmented.
This explanation is merely the extension to the particular case of the
diurnal variation, of principles which have long been familiar to meteorolo-
gists in accounting for various other atmospherical phenomena, such for
example as monsoons, and land and sea breezes. ‘To make the parallel com-
plete, it should be shown that, when the temperature rises, an influx of air
takes place towards the lower part of the column, proportioned to the ascend-
ing current, and tending to replace the air which is thus removed. The obser-
vations which will be cited in the sequel of this communication will show
that such is precisely the fact at Toronto. The force of the wind, taken
without reference to its direction, has also its diurnal variation, corresponding
in all respects with the diurnal march of the temperature and of the gaseous
pressure ; being a minimum at 6 a.M., and a maximum at 2 p.M.— increasing
with the augmentation of the temperature, and decreasing with its diminu-
tion. The air which thus flows in, becoming warmed, pursues in its turn the
course of the ascending current. We have thus the double evidence of the ex-
istence of this current,—Ist, in the diminution of pressure, showing the out:
pouring at one extremity; and 2nd, in the increased force of the wind, showing
the inpouring at the other extremity. As the temperature keeps continually
rising, both the demand for and the supply of fresh inflowing air progressively
inerease. The diminution which the gaseous pressure continues to undergo as
long as the temperature continues to rise, shows, as we might naturally ex-
pect, that the supply is continually somewhat in arrear of the demand.
The diminution of the gaseous pressure and increase in the force of the
wind being consequent on the rise of the temperature, the turning points of
the two former phenomena might be expected to occur somewhat later than
the instant of minimum temperature ; and this appears by the tables to be the
ease, but will probably be more clearly shown when the hourly observations
shall come under review.
_ Annual Variation —Let us now proceed to the mean pressure of the
gaseous atmosphere in each month of the year, and its consequent annual va-
riation. These are shown in the following table :—
EQ
52 - REPORT—1844.
Mean Montuty Pressure.
Toronto. ) Prague.
i
Gaseous | Gaseous
Barometer. abeane a Le oc =
G each month || ¢ each mont!
Parent | res. er (7) OF pense, Mee” (a
1841. 1842. | Mean. the mean an- | the mean
| nual pressure.| pressure.
January ...... wrt mar 0580 -132 | 29-454] 4-105 ||29-213| +-194
February...... "489, -54 5 "122 396| +:047 || 29-227 | +-208
MIRC «cae *657| °638| -647)|| -146 501] +152 29:089 | +-070
Ari ae *621| -548) °584)) -186 398} +049 || 28-973 —°046
May” .cscsta, 545! -586} -565 243 *322| —-027 28:923 | —-096
uve hese *543| +585) -564)) -399 165} —-184 || 28-898 —'12]
July sccccses an» “620; °655| -637|| -443 194) —-155 | 28-861 —'158
August ...... *698| °712| -705)| -486 219} —-130 28°882 —'137
September ...| *606| -662 “634 | -402 *232| —-117 || 28912} —-107
October ......| “636! +643) 639) -232 407} +:058 || 29-045 +:026
November ...| -615| 368] -592|) -179| -413| 4-064 || 29-047 | 4-098
December ...| °652| 597} °625 | 137 488/ +139 || 29°163 | +-144
———$$_—$_—___" —_ ——$ ———_—“_— \ c_c—
Mean ......... 29°612 ‘29-604 29-608 | *259 | 29-349 | 29-019
In turning our attention to the column which exhibits the excess or defect
of the mean monthly pressure on the mean of all the months, we at once
perceive another illustration of the principle which has been just stated. We
find the pressure of the gaseous atmosphere diminished in the summer months
and augmented in the winter months. The general dependence on the
march of the temperature is manifest; and it must remain for the additional
evidence which will be produced by the observations of subsequent years, to
determine, whether the minor deviations from a perfectly harmonious march
are mere accidental differences, which a wider observation basis will cause to
disappear, or whether they may not point to some other periodical influence
(possibly of the temperature also, but of a less direct nature) which is as
yet unrecognized *.
I will now ask the Section to turn its attention for a moment to the column
which presents the mean height of the barometer in each month of the
year. It is curious to observe how completely the annual march of the gaseous
atmosphere is masked in the barometer by its combination with the vapour
pressure, both being measured in one by the mercurial column ; the increase
of temperature, which causes the gaseous pressure to diminish, occasions the
increase of the vapour, and vice verséd; and so nearly are these two opposite
effects of the one cause balanced at Toronto, that the height of the barometer
remains very nearly the same in every month of the year; or at least, shows
no trace whatsoever of an annual period.
The principle which has been thus adduced for the purpose of explaining
the annual and diurnal march of the atmospheric pressure should be ge-
* The very few meteorological registers, which have been maintained with proper care for
several years together in Europe, are stated to afford very decided indications of the existence
of other fluctuations besides the annual and diurnal variations, which apparently do not
proceed from merely local causes, but recur regularly at stated periods of the year, and are
jis
recognisable simultaneously over widely extended spaces, such for example as a considerable -
portion of an entire continent. How far the high pressure of the month of March at To-
ronto may be a phenomenon of this class it may perhaps take some years to decide. It is
of very marked character, and is shown decidedly in both years. As I have already remarked,
each year is but a single experiment in investigations of annual phenomena.
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 53
neral in its application. I have inserted in the table the gaseous pressure
at Prague, as it is given by M. Kreil in his ‘Jahrbuch’ for 1843, from the
observations of three years. The march of the vapour, as far as it has yet
been determined at Prague, does not present a curve agreeing quite so satis-
factorily with that of the temperature as we have been able to deduce at
Toronto: whether this arises from disturbing influences in nature (such
possibly as indirect influences of temperature), or whether it will disappear
by longer-continued observation, cannot be yet anticipated. What is still
uncertain, however, at Prague, is not of magnitude sufficient to obscure the
dependence of the annual progression of the gaseous pressure on that of the
temperature. The measure of agreement in this respect at the two stations
cannot be viewed otherwise than as highly interesting and satisfactory.
Mean quantities derived from a greater number of years will in all proba-
bility show even a closer accordance.
We will now revert to the maximum, minimum and range of the vapour
pressure in the several months of the year, for the purpose of showing that
its variations are such, as to seem to claim a greater attention than they have
hitherto received, at the hands of those who are engaged in investigating the
non-periodic fluctuations of the atmosphere, by the comparison of observed
barometrical heights. In the next table we have the maximum, minimum, and
range of the vapour pressure at Toronto, taken from the mean of two years.
By thus exhibiting the mean quantities only of the two years of observation,
extremes are of course somewhat moderated ; but, on the other hand, there
is the advantage that the numbers are probably a more faithful representation
of what may be expected in ordinary course.
Maximum, Minimum, and Range of the
Range of the Barometer. Tension of Vapour. 8
Toronto—Mean of 2 years, || Prague—Mean of 2 years.
Toronto. | Prague. {{|2-———————_}] ——_______________
Max. Min. | Range. || Max. | Min. | Range.
in. in. in. in. in. in. in, in.
January ......... 1°335 1364 ‘221 | -050 | -171 306 | 051 | -255
February......... 1-221 1:156 “262 | 050 | -212 -238 | -052 | -186
March............ 1-275 1-158 +300 | 045 | -285 278 | 067 | -211
PPE Wash osesses ses 1-190 0864 *3885 | -085 | -300 ‘406 | -149 | -257
IAG) Vices ecceacees 0°846 0-881 “D382 | -105 | 427 555 | °163 | -392
MINTIE Vane. cao 00's. 0-623 0:873 “709 | 143 | :566 “659 | :222 | -437
JOY sec sccscgec cous 0°696 0°593 775 | 202 | 573 “662 | -245 | -417
August ........0. 0°656 0:647 762 | -262 | -498 ‘556 | 257 | -299
September ...... 0°754 0°755 727 =| -158 | -569 ‘567 | :217 | -350
October ......... 0:934 0-829 ‘487 | :096 | °391 ‘A47 | +124 | -323
November ....... 0945 1:036 ‘375 | 066 | -309 || 414 | -1388 | -276
December ....... 1527 1-222 ‘263 | -048 | -215 300 | 058 | -242
Mean ......... 1-000 0-950 486 | 109 | 377 449 | -145 | -304
We here perceive that the mean monthly range of the tension of the
vapour falls little short of four-tenths of an inch; and that in the summer
months of June, July, August, and September, when it is greatest, it is very
little less than the whole range of the barometer in the same months. Win-
ter is the season for the great fluctuations of the barometer ; summer for those
of the vapour pressure. If, as is believed by many modern meteorologists,
the fluctuations of the vapour pressure affect the barometer to their whole
extent, then the fluctuations of the gaseous atmosphere at Toronto approach
54 REPORT—1844.
much nearer to an equality in the two seasons of summer and winter, than do
those of the barometer. A north-west wind at Toronto is usually accompanied
by a rise in the barometer and a fall in the temperature with a diminution in
the tension of vapour; and a south or south-east wind, by a fall in the baro-
meter and a rise in the thermometer with an increased tension of vapour.
In a change from one of these winds to the other, consequently, the alteration
of the gaseous pressure would be greater than that of the barometric pressure,
which is partially counteracted by the accompanying change in the elastic
force of the vapour:-and as already noticed, the fluctuations in the vapour
pressure are very considerable in summer. I have selected some remarkable
instances in a single year, 1841, which are as follows :—
Variations of Vapour Pressure in 1841.
ah. & *¥,
Between May 30 16 and June 5 4 under 6 days 0594
D)
re Juneshi O25. oune 15010 s a 0°503
- June 30 2 , July 2 6 3 as eee
ie July 2G) - Sealy a. st eas ae OER
2 July 23 4 y» July 25 16 3) or 3 OuUe
6 Aug.18 2 ,, Aug. 23 14 = tail © puck at 0°496
If the principles are correct, of which we have here traced a portion of the
consequences, barometrical observations generally must lose an essential part
of their value when unaccompanied by hygrometrical observations, by means
of which the pressures of the air and vapour may be separated. Whenever
such complete observations are made, z.e. hygrometric as well as barometric,
the tension of vapour should be computed on the spot and at the instant.
When calculations of this nature are suffered to fall in arrear, unreduced
observations accumulate, and danger is incurred that the calculations are
never made, and that science will lose the advantage which the observations
were capable of affording.
The comparison of the barometric range in the different months at Toronto
and Prague exhibits a very satisfactory accordance, and shows how similar
are the phenomena which present themselves in this respect over the two
continents.
The comparison of the range of the vapour pressure at Prague and Toronto
exhibits only such differences as may be reasonably ascribable to the greater
range of the temperature at Toronto, and possibly to the greater facility with
which the air can acquire vapour at that station from the great lakes in its
vicinity.
It may be worthy of notice, that the highest and lowest barometric obser-
vations in the two years at Toronto occurred within a very few days’ inter-
val of each other, being apparently parts of one great atmospheric wave.
The highest and lowest barometric observations at Prague also took place
within a few days of each other, and at the same season, viz. midwinter, but
a year earlier. The observations were as follows, viz.—
Extreme Range of Barometer in 1840, 1841.
Toronto. Prague.
Max. Dec. 22, 1841 .... 30°17 Dec. 27, 1840 ... . 30°260
Min. Dec. 4, 1841 ... . 28°672 Jan. 4, 1841 .... 28654
Interval 18 days.... 1°745 Interval 9 days...... 1°606
We have undoubtedly made a considerable step in advance in meteorology,
if we thus correctly substitute the consideration of the separate daily march of
the pressures of the vapour and of the gaseous atmosphere, for the compara-
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 55
tively profitless study of the complex effect produced on the barometer by the
operation of these two distinct agencies. ‘The labour has been by no means
small which has been bestowed in the endeavour to generalise the diurnal
phenomena of the barometer by the formation of empirical formule ; it has
been in many instances the labour of highly accomplished men: but we
have the recent acknowledgment of a valued and distinguished member of
our own body*, who has himself engaged in this inquiry, that it failed in
conducting to a recognition of the causes of the phenomena. On the other
hand, the moment we apply ourselves to the contemplation of the separate
phenomena of the vapour and of the air, there appears to be revealed to
us a simple and beautiful dependence of each upon the diurnal march of the
temperature, producing effects which in their combination seem also to
afford a full and perfect solution of the problem of the daily rise and fall of
the barometric column.
It would be unjust to the meteorologists of Germany if we were not grate-
fully to acknowledge in how great a degree this advance in the science is to be
ascribed to their writings, and especially to those of M. Dove. Their mete-
orological researches have been pressed with an assiduity and devotion of
Jabour which is beyond allpraise. In the consideration which we (the mem-
bers of the British Association) are likely soon to be called upon to exer-
cise, whether any and what great combined endeavours are further desi-
rable to be made for the advancement of meteorological science, we should
be indeed inexcusable if we neglected to avail ourselves of the advice, and
look with becoming respect to the opinions, of men, who have spent years
of untiring labour, and brought great attainments to bear, on a branch of
science which has been comparatively less cultivated by ourselves.
Admitting M. Dove’s views, we can easily perceive that an empirical for-
mula, in which the diurnal oscillation of the barometer should be made to
vary as a function of the latitude, could never universally represent the
phenomena. The difference between an insular or littoral station, where
the vapour pressure attains its maximum at 9 in the forenoon, and an in-
terior station in the same latitude where the maximum is at 2 or 3 in the
afternoon, cannot both be represented with fidelity by a formula in which
this difference is not taken into the account. At stations where the maxi-
mum of vapour pressure takes place at 9 a.m., and the tension thencefor-
ward descends until the afternoon,—(as at Trevandrum),—the range of the
diurnal oscillation of the barometer will be greater, ceteris paribus, than
when, as at Toronto, the vapour pressure progressively rises from sunrise
to a maximum at 2 or 3 in the afternoon: the hours of maximum and mi-
nimum will also be somewhat modified.
The important problem of the equality or inequality of the mean press~
ure of the gaseous atmosphere at the level of the sea at different points
on the surface of the globe, has lately begun to occupy the attention of phy-
sical philosophers in a degree which will probably tend, before many years,
to its practical solution. In this labour the determinations of our co-operative
observatories may perform an important part. Great care has been taken that
the barometers of our colonial observatories shall speak precisely the same
language as the standard barometer in the Royal Society’s Apartments ; and
steps are now taking to ensure a similar comparison of the barometers, which,
in different parts of the United States, are now observed simultaneously with
Toronto by our American coadjutors ; and which may hereafter, if that obser-
vatory should be continued, form a very valuable extensive basis of induction
for the movements of the atmosphere over that great continent.
* Professor J. D. Forbes; Meteorological Report.
56 REPORT—1844. 7
1
Prague and Toronto furnish the materials for an interesting comparison
of their respective mean gaseous pressures. I have exhibited this comparison
in the subjoined table. After the proper corrections have been applied for
the reduction to an invariable scale of pressure, and of the pressure itself to
a common elevation above the sea, the residual difference in the pressure is
about four hundredths of an inch. This is within the amount of difference
that might reasonably be expected in so indirect a comparison. The infer-
ence therefore at present must be, that no unaccounted for difference of
pressure exists, or at least next to none, at these two stations in Europe
and America.
Inches.
Pressure of the dry atmosphere at Toronto .... 29°349
Pressure of the dry atmosphere at Prague .... 29°019
Difference...... owls, OBO
Reduction to an invariable scale of pressure.... 0°017
True difference of pressure.......... pti eioamccijevanly » eine
Difference of elevation equivalent to......,... 0°273
Difference of pressure unaccounted for 0°04
Modern researches have shown that the height of the barometer at dif-
ferent points of the earth’s surface is not only disturbed by self-adjusting
causes which produce temporary displacements, but that there are causes in
action which effect persistent differences in the mean height of the barometer
in different localities, strictly at the level of the sea; so that, to use the
words of Bessel, the mean atmospheric pressure depends on the geographical
co-ordinates of a station in latitude and longitude as well as in elevation.
This remark of Bessel’s is founded chiefly on Erman’s observations* ; and
Erman himself, who has considered the effect of the vapour pressure upon his
barometrical heights, concludes that the pressures which the air would have
exerted without the presence of aqueous vapour, indicate also persistent dif-
ferences of mean gaseous pressure depending on geographical position. The
instance quoted by Professor Forbes from Captain King+, who found the
mean height of the barometer 29°462 in observations repeated five times a
day in five consecutive months of summer at Port Famine, is an example of
an atmospheric valley, as it has been called, in the former sense, but not in
the latter. When allowance is made for the probable vapour pressure, the
gaseous pressure at Port Famine will be found greater than its ordinary
amount at the Equator; where indeed other observations have indicated a
gaseous pressure lower than in the adjacent extra-tropical latitudes.
Assumed equatorial barometer..........- eee seeeees 29°95
Deduct vapour pressure (assumed dew point 74°)...... 0°83
Mean pressure of the gaseous atmosphere at the Equator 29°12
Barometer at Port Famine in five summer months...... 29°462
Deduct vapour pressure (assumed dew point $8°)...... *230
Pressure of the gaseous atmosphere at Port Famine .... 29°23 ¢
* Erman, Met. Beob. bei einer Seereise um die Erde.
t+ Forbes, Reports of the Brit. Assoc., 1832.
{ This is of course only an approximate comparison ; to render it more exact, it would be
ea
iy
In these last remarks I have perhaps ventured further from the strict sub-
ject of this communication than I should have been disposed to have done,
had I not had in view to call the attention of the Section to what it is in the
power of our own country to accomplish, with its widely extended dominions,
in the solution of this great problem of the uniformity or otherwise of the
mean pressure of the atmosphere, by the establishment of colonial observato-
ries, conducted on a systematic plan, and continuing in operation only until
certain specified and definite objects should be attained ; such, for example,
as the mean values, and the periodical variations, of the several meteorological
elements. The present communication is an evidence of the important re-
sults which even a very brief duration of such observations may be sufficient
to accomplish. When such establishments are proposed, with the sanction
and support of the colonial authorities, and with the advantage of men of
assured competency to conduct them, we may venture to promise the fullest
co-operative aid (that may be compatible with circumstances) on the part of
the British Association, which has placed foremost amongst its objects “to
give a stronger impulse, and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry.”
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 57
I have one more point to bring under your notice; a point highly inter-
esting in itself, and completing the evidence of the harmony in the meteo-
rological variations.
It has been noticed that from the diminution of the gaseous pressure as
the temperature of the day increases, evidencing an ascending current, we
should be prepared to expect a corresponding influx of air at the station, or
a diurnal variation in the force of the wind (taken without reference to the
direction from which-it blows), which should have its minimum at or near the
coldest hour of the day, and its maximum at or near the warmest, and its pro-
gression in harmony with the curve of temperature, having one ascending and
one descending branch. Such is the fact. The subjoined table exhibits the
sum of the pressures, expressed in pounds avoirdupois, exerted on a square foot
of surface at Toronto, at each of the observation hours in 184.1, and the same
in 1842. The wind is proverbially uncertain, and our means of measuring its
pressure are more imperfect than we could desire; but these numbers afford
an ample evidence that there is a diurnal variation in the force of the wind,
and furnish a curve which, when projected, is found in remarkable corre-
spondence with the curve of the temperature. This fact, observed at Bir-
mingham by Mr. Osler, has been already brought under the notice of the
Association at a former meeting. The diurnal march of the gaseous atmo-
sphere furnishes the additional link in the chain of evidence, by which the
‘connexion between the temperature (producing an ascending current) and the
force of the wind (flowing in to replace it) may receive its explanation ;
placing before us in an intelligible form their mutual relations to each other,
as cause and effect.
necessary to regard the influence of the season of the year (summer) at which the barometer
Was observed at Port Famine; as well as the correction due to the effect of the variation of
gravity on the standard of measure. Both corrections would tend to increase the mean
pressure of the gaseous atmosphere at Port Famine in comparison with that at the Equator.
The barometrical observations made in the Erebus, in the late Antarctic Expedition, furnish
a beautiful illustration of the progressive decrease in the height of the barometer from the
tropics to the high latitudes, coincident with the diminution of the elastic force of the vapour
accompanying the decrease of temperature. I hope that Sir James Ross will shortly publish
these interesting observations, with the corresponding pressures of the gaseous atmosphere in
the different parallels.
58 REPORT—1844.
Sum of the pressures exerted by the force of the wind at Toronto on a sur-
face of one foot square at the several observation hours in 1841, 1842.
| d
|6 a.m. 8a.m.|1 A.M.| Noon. |2 p.m. |4P.M.|P.M. alot 10p.m.| Mid. | 2 4.m. |4a.m.
— | —- —_—__) j|| SS |S | | | |
Ibs. | lbs. | Ibs. lbs. Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs, | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
1841...| 96 |164] 168 | 186 | 204 | 169|120/109}| 121 | 111 103 | 101
1842...| 126 | 156] 201 | 288 | 285 | 256|)181/123] 113 | 112 | 128 | 143
| Mean jn 160| 184 | 212 | 244 |212/150/116) 117 | 112 | 116 | 122
Without ascribing anything like precision to the numbers in this table
(which are however likely to be more correct in relative than in absolute
value), they lead to the inference that the pressure of the wind, on the average
of the whole year, is doubled, or nearly so, between the coldest and warmest
hours of the day; 7. e. between 6 a.m. and 2r.m. The confirmation, or
otherwise, of this remarkable result by the observations of succeeding years
cannot fail to be a point of much interest. It appears from the registry of
Mr. Osler’s anemometer, during four years at Birmingham, that at that sta-
tion the increase in the pressure of the wind is considerably more than double
between the hours of the minimum and maximum temperature. It will in-
fluence many reasonings if it shall be found as a fact of pretty general oc-
currence, that so large a portion of the daily wind is put in circulation to
supply an ascending current*.
Synopsis of the Diurnal Variations at Toronto.
Observation F
irs oar em ea | | See
ae in. in, Ibs.
2 ALM. sseeesees| 398 +238 29:362 116
A AMS dassenes 39-2 Min, | -234 Min. | 29°368 122
G.AsMazesvacens 39°4 "242 29-376 Max.| 111 Min.
8 A.M. i c.cetecs| 42°C *260 29°372 160
IO A.M. ...0..| 46°3 ‘270 29-364 184
Noon ....sseee 489 ‘281 29°333 212
P53. Cer Ree, re 505 4 ‘285 Max. | 29:309 Min.| 244 Max.
A Pits vensecade 505 fs | :279 29-311 212
6 P.M. ....002-.| 48°1 268 29-328 150
SPM rcessceass 44-1 257 29-348 116
10pm. ......| 42°1 249 29-359 117
Midnight ....| 40°8 *243 29358 112
* To the agency of this current we should probably ascribe the upward conveyance of the
vapour of increasing constituent temperature as the warmth of the day increases, and which
appears to take place more rapidly than the vapour might of itself make its way if the air were
tranquil. M. Kreil remarks (Mag. und Met. Beob. Erster Jahrgang, p. 140), that in the sum-
mer months, when from the increased amount of the vapour its effects are more noticeable,
the clearness of the sky decreases from the commencement of the morning to about noon,
and then increases uninterruptedly till towards midnight. And M. Dove notices (Met.
Untersuchungen, p. 53), that on fine calm days, when there is little lateral wind to disturb
the ascending current, the clear morning becomes clouded towards noon; whilst towards
evening, when the ascending current has ceased, these condensed vapours, no longer up-
borne by its influence, descend into the warmer strata and are redissolved: hence the pecu-
liar transparency and beauty often observed in evening views.
a ks
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 59
Synopsis of the Annual Variations at Toronto.
Month. Temperature. | Vapour pressure. | Gaseous pressure.
° in. in.
NBMMALY) consascecacs 26°7 132 29-454
February......c0..s. 25°6 Min. *123 Min. 29-396
MIABGH cckos'csscses- se 32°1 "146 29-501 Max.
UGTA udee.cecss con 41-6 186 29:398
BERNE) (onus eaeavteowaes 50°5 241 29°324
UTI acum cdivsonans 61:3 “399 29-165 Min.
SNLVED consceccde<scss 65'1 } Mix. 443 29-194
August .........00 65:1 ‘| -486 Max. 29-219
September ......... 58:5 402 29-232
October ..........4 433 232 29-407
November ......... 35°5 179 29-413
December ......... 27'3 138 29°488
The Plates which are annexed exhibit—Plate XXI. the Diurnal variation,
projected in curves, of the temperature, tension of vapour, gaseous pressure,
and force of the wind. In each case the whole variation, 7. e. the difference
between the highest and lowest observation in the twenty-four hours, has
been made equal to 14 inch, and the proportionate amount has been laid off
at each hour of observation: the scales are of course wholly arbitrary.
Plate XXII. The Annual variation, projected in curves, of the temperature,
tension of vapour, and gaseous pressure. The whole variation of each has
here also been made equal to 14 inch, without reference to absolute values
or to the scales employed in projecting the diurnal variations.
Plate XXIII. represents, on a scale of four inches to one-tenth of an inch, the
diurnal variations of the barometer and gaseous pressure, projected in curves,
and connected at each observation hour by vertical lines proportioned to the
elastic force of the vapour. This Plate is illustrative of the conversion of the
single progression of the gaseous pressure, into the double progression of
the barometric pressure, by the presence and influence of the vapour pressure.
The detached curve is that of the diurnal march of the temperature, and is
inverted, for the purpose of showing more distinctly its correspondence with
the curve of gaseous pressure.
_ An inference of much practical utility to general observers may be drawn
from meteorological observations, made with the frequency which can only
be expected at those observatories, where a sufficient establishment is main-
tained for the express purpose of observation. We may find that compara-
tively a very few observations in each day, at hours not inconvenient in ordi-
nary life, may furnish a very close approximation to the mean values and to the
| annual and diurnal march of the atmospherical phenomena. Thus from the
complete record at Toronto we find, as shown in the subjoined table, that the
mean values of the temperature, of the vapour tension and of the humidity, of
the pressure of the gaseous atmosphere, and of the whole atmospheric pressure,
may all be obtained, with a very near approximation, by a single observation
at 8 p.M. (mean time), provided the observation be made with tolerable pre-
cision in regard to the hour. By combining with this an observation about
Sunrise, and another between 2 and 4 in the afternoon, the maximum and
minimum of the temperature, of the aqueous and gaseous pressure, and of
the humidity, may also be obtained. These hours are by no means inconve-
nient for persons whose avocations permit them to keep a register at all;
and appear in every way preferable to a selection which makes 3 o’clock in
the morning one of the observation hours. That hour is perhaps the most
generally inconvenient for the purpose of the whole twenty-four. The hours
here suggested must not however be understood to be of universal applica-
tion: they are not so thoroughly suitable, for example, at stations where, as
at Trevandrum, the vapour pressure attains a maximum in the forenoon.
60 REPORT—1844.,
Convenient hours of observation.
For mean values, 8 p.m. mean time (precise); which at Toronto gives the
following approximation : viz.—
Temperature ...... 2. 44e] Mean annual value 44°4
FAGIOMBILY © o)5,ctetee 4 = LOD 9 99 78:0
At 8 p.m. at
Toronto. )
Barometric pressure .. 29°605 » 9» 29°608
| Gaseous pressure .... 29°345 » F 29°349
For maxima and minima.
From 4 to 6 A.M., for minimum of temperature and tension of vapour, and for
maximum of humidity and gaseous pressure.
From 2 to 4 p.m., for maximum of temperature and tension of vapour, and —
for minimum of humidity and gaseous pressure.
I have now only to apologize to the Section for the length of time that I
have occupied them, and to thank them for their patient attention.
York, September 27th, 1844.
Postscript, Woolwich, Nov. 30.
After the preceding pages were printed, I received from Mr. Airy the f
volume of the Greenwich magnetical and meteorological observations for
1842, in which the meteorological reductions have been made in almost
exactly the same form as those of Toronto. The volume was accompanied —
by a suggestion from the Astronomer Royal, that it might increase the interest —
of this communication, if I were to add a few words by way of appendix, —
showing the points of similarity or dissimilarity in the results at the two —
stations. I have much pleasure in adopting this suggestion, and in availing
myself of Mr. Airy’s permission to do so; for I have had great satisfaction —
in noticing the very remarkable similarity which prevails in the results at
Greenwich and Toronto, with reference to several points which have been.
the objects of especial notice in the preceding discussion. In the diurnal
variations of the elastic force of the vapour,—of the gaseous pressure,—and ~
of the force of the wind,—the evidence of a direct dependence on the diurnal
march of the temperature is fully as striking at Greenwich as at Toronto, as
will be seen by the following synopsis :
Synopsis of the Diurnal Variations at Greenwich.
Oneeran |Barometer|Thermometer.| Vapour | Gaseous | Force of the
Sums of the
h m in. ° in. in. estimated forces.
1 20 a.m. | 29-826 | 45-4 307 29-519 974
3 20 a.m. -822 | 44-9 Min. | -302 Min. | -520Max.| 932
5 20am. "824 | 45-0 307 517 892
7 20a.m. "835 514 89 Min.
9 20a.m. “846 ‘511 1063
11 20 a.m. 845 498 1173
1 20pm. “832 483 1314 Max.
3 20pm. “823 ‘475 Min.| 129
5 20rM. “823 “485 1203
7 20pm. “830 500 1093 ;
9 20pm. “838 ‘517 102
ll 20pm. “836 “521 Max.) 95
Means of the | 99.839 | 49-6 326 29:506
Year.
Vapour tension ...... “257 ts te "259
ae oe ee to
ON THE METEOROLOGY OF TORONTO IN CANADA. 61
At Greenwich the force of the wind is estimated at each observation hour
in numbers varying within the limits of 0 to 6. At Toronto the estimation
is in Ibs. pressure on a square foot of surface kept perpendicular to the
current. In single instances the scales are comparable, because the square of
the number expressing the force at Greenwich corresponds approximately to
the pressure in Ibs. avoirdupois. But the comparability of the scales does
not hold good when the sums of the forces and the sums of the pressures are
taken. The sums of each are however comparable inéer se, and show the
hours of maximum and minimum force, and the regularity of the progression.
The registry of the anemometer at Greenwich shows that the pressure of the
wind is more than doubled in its mean diurnal range.
The following table exhibits the differences at the several observation hours
of Greenwich and Toronto, of the temperature, of the vapour pressure, and
of the gaseous pressure, from their respective mean yearly values. The sign
+ signifies above the mean value of the year, and — below it.
Observation hour. Temperature. Vapour pressure. Gaseous pressure.
Greenwich. | Toronto. ||Greenwich.| Toronto. ||Greenwich.| Toronto. ||Greenwich.| Toronto.
h, m. h. ° ° in. in. in. in.
1 20a.m.| 2 a.m. —4:2 —4°6 —019 |- —-021 || +°013 | +:013
3 204.m.| 4 a.m. —47 —5:2 —'024 | —-025 || +:014 | +-019
5 20a.m.| 6 A.M. —4°6 —5:0 —019 | —:017 || +°011 | +°027
7 20 a.m.) 8 a.m. —2:4 —18 —°005 | +:001 || +°008 | +-:023
9 20a.m.(10 am. || +14 | 41-9 || 4+°009 | +:011 || +005 | +-015
11 20 4.m.| Noon. +45 +4:5 +021 | +°:023 || —:008 | —-017
120rm.| 2pm. || +61 | +61 || +023 | +-026 || —-023 | —-040
3 20p.m.| 4 P.M. +5°4 +61 +:022 | +°021 —'031 | —-039
5 20p.m./' 6 P.M. -+3'2 +37 +:012 | +:010 || —:021 | —-022
7 20p.m.| 8 p.m. +0:2 —0:3 +:004 | —-002 —006 | —-001
9 20 p.m.| 10 p.m. —1:8 —2:3 —005 | —-009 |} +:001 | -+-009
11 20 e.m.|Midnight.|| —33 —3'6 —O1ll | —-016 |) +°015 | +:009
The mean monthly values of the vapour pressure, and of the gaseous press-
ure at Greenwich exhibit also the same correspondence with the variation of
the temperature in the different months of the year as at Toronto.
Synopsis of the Annual Variation of the Temperature, Vapour pressure, and
Gaseous pressure at Greenwich.
Vapour pressure + or|Gaseous pressure -+ or
Vapour Gaseous |—, i.e. s|—, a ee A
Month. | ‘Temperature. eae pressure. |than the ae side res hee ge
pressure. pressure.
° in. in. in. in,
January ...| 32-9 Min. | -186 Min. |29°715 Max. —'140 -+°209
| February...) 40°8 250 626 —076 +120
March...... 44:9 272 ‘475 —054 —‘031
April ...... 45-2 248 606 —078 +:160
| May «...... 53:2 334 448 +-008 —°058
June ......| 62°9 433 468 +:107 —:038
| July ...... 60:2 ‘416 404 +179 —-102
August ...| 65-4 Max. | ‘505 Max. | -364 +-095 —142
| September.| 56-4 421 294 Min. — ‘038 —212
October 45:4 288 561 — ‘058 +:055
| November .| 42-8 268 331 —-031 —'175
December .| 45-0 295 ea Aieaisls BiNiee. hehe +:206
62 REPORT— 1844.
It appears therefore that the annual and diurnal variations derived from —
the observations at Greenwich present a most satisfactory accordance with
those at Toronto in those points which were brought most prominently be-
fore the Association at York, and to which the attention of the Section was
especially called, viz.—
First, in regard to the diurnal variation : e
1. The vapour tension and the force of the wind have each a minimum,
and the gaseous pressure a maximum, at or near the coldest hour of the day.
2. The vapour tension and the force of the wind have each a maximum,
and the gaseous pressure a minimum, at or near the warmest hour of the day.
3. The diurnal march of each from the minimum to the maximum, and
from the maximum to the minimum again, is continuous, like that of the tem-
perature, without any interruption deserving of the name. :
4. At Greenwich as well as at Toronto the diurnal variations of the vapour
tension and of the gaseous pressure, produce by their combination the double
maxima and minima of the diurnal oscillation of the mercury in the barometer. ;
Secondly, in respect to the annual variation : ‘
The annual march is somewhat less regular at Greenwich than at Toronto,
being derived from the observations of a single year only; but we haye the
same general features: a minimum of temperature and vapour-pressure, and
a maximum of gaseous pressure in the midwinter ; and a maximum of tempe-
rature and vapour pressure, and a minimum of gaseous pressure in the mid-
summer. All the summer months are characterised by the + sign in the
vapour, and by the — in the gaseous pressure; and all the winter months by 2
the — sign in the vapour, and the + sign in the gaseous pressure. ;
I am unable at the present moment to pursue the comparison of the Green-
wich and Toronto results in many other points in which I can perceive that —
the interest would prove an ample repayment for the time so employed. But —
I may hope to enjoy some future occasion of resuming the subject under
more favourable circumstances in respect to leisure than I can at present
command.
Report on some recent Researches into the Structure, Functions and
Ciconomy of the Araneidea made in Great Britain. By Joun
Buackwat.., F.L.S.
In essaying to give an epitome of some investigations recently made in this ~
country relative to the organization, physiology and ceconomy of the Araneidea, —
I shall endeavour to accomplish the undertaking in as compendious a manner
as may be deemed compatible with a perspicuous statement of the various
facts to be detailed, distinguishing those already before the publie from such
as are not by references to the works in which they have appeared. i
Without further preface, I proceed to the consideration of those remarkable —
appendages termed scopule or brushes, with which the tarsi of numerous spe-
cies of spiders are provided. This apparatus, consisting of coarse, compound,
hair-like papille either distributed along the inferior surface of the tarsi or
situated immediately below the claws at their extremity, bears a close analogy
to the tarsal cushions of insects, enabling its possessor to ascend the per-
pendicular surfaces of highly polished bodies and even to adhere to smooth
objects in an inverted position by the emission of a viscous secretion*. The
different plans according to which the papillz are disposed upon the tarsi are
respectively represented by two common British spiders, Drassus sericeus and _
Salticus scenicus.
* Transactions of the Linnzan Society, vol. xvi. pp. 768, 769. Researches in Zoology, p. 289.
2
i
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND @CONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. 63
Some of the spiders belonging to the families Theridiide and Epéiride
have the sides and lower part of the tarsi, at their extremity, supplied with
several small, curved, dentated claws, in addition to the three larger ones
common to them all. Hpéira quadrata, Epéira apoclisa, and, indeed, most
of the larger species of Epéire indigenous to Great Britain, exhibit this
structure to advantage under the microscope ; they have, besides, a strong,
moveable spine, inserted near the termination of the tarsus of each posterior
leg, on the under side, which curves a little upwards at its extremity, and
presents a slight irregularity of outline at its superior surface. These spines,
which have been denominated sustentacula, subserve an important purpose.
By the contraction of their flexor muscles they are drawn towards the foot,
and are thus brought into direct opposition to the claws, by which means the
- animals are enabled to hold with a firm grasp such lines as they have occasion
_ to draw from the spinners with the feet of the hind-legs, and such also as
they design to attach themselves to*.
There are on the superior part of the metatarsus of the posterior legs of all
_ the Ciniflonide two parallel rows of moveable spines commencing just below
_ its articulation with the tibia and terminating near its lower extremity. In
_ astate of repose, the spines composing both rows are directed down the joint
and are somewhat inclined towards each other ; those of the upper row have
a considerable degree of curvature and taper gradually to a fine point, those
_ of the lower row being stronger, more closely set, and less curved. Employed
_ to transform, by the process of curling, certain lines proceeding from the
' spinners into the small flocculi characteristic of the snares of the Ciniflonide,
the double series of spines has received the name of calamistrum.
When a spider of this family purposes to form a flocculus, it presses its
“spinners against one of the glossy lines constituting the foundation of its snare,
and, emitting from them a small quantity of liquid gum, attaches to it several
pfiender filaments, drawn out by advancing the abdomen a little, and kept
distinct by extending the spinning mammule laterally. The posterior legs
are then raised above the plane of position, and the tarsal claws of one of
_ them are applied to the superior surface of the metatarsus of the other, near
“its articulation with the tarsus, and the calamistrum is brought immediately
_ beneath the spinners, at right angles with the line of the abdomen. By a
_ slight extension of the joints of the posterior legs the calamistrum is directed
_ backwards across the diverging extremities of the spinners, which it touches
in its transit, and is restored to its former position by a corresponding degree
of contraction in the joints. In proportion to the continuation of this process
_ the inflected lines of the flocculus are produced, the spider making room for
7
q : bdomen a little, which it effects by slightly extending the joints of the third
_ pair of legs and contracting those of the first and second pairs. When the
Yequisite quantity of inflected filaments is obtained, the spider again applies
its spinners to one of the glossy lines and attaches the flocculus to it. In this
Manner it proceeds with its labours, occasionally employing both calamistra,
the snare is completed. The modus operandi appears to be this. The
_ points of the lower row of spines in passing over the extremities of the spinners
draw from them lines which run into numerous flexures in consequence of
_ not being kept fully extended, and the purpose subserved by the spines of the
_ upper row is the detachment of these lines from the spines of the lower row
_ by a motion upwards +.
é$
_ Ifthe metatarsus of one of the posterior legs of Ciniflo ferox, a spider of
tu
|
tf
ae aoe
Ae,
: -. * Transactions of the Linnzan Society, vol. xvi. p. 476; vol. xviii. p. 224, note *.
| ag T Ibid. pp. 471-475; vol. xviii. pp. 224, 606,
64 REPORT—1844.
frequent occurrence in the interior of buildings, be examined under the
microscope with a moderately high magnifying power, the arrangement of the
spines composing the two rows which constitute the calamistrum will be ap-
parent.
Four, six, or eight mammulz, somewhat conical or cylindrical in figure, and
composed of one or more joints each, constitute the external spinning apparatus
of the Araneidea: they are usually closely grouped in pairs at the extremity
of the abdomen, and are readily distinguished from each other by their re-
lative positions. The pair situated nearest to the anus may be denominated
the superior spinners; that furthest removed from the anus, the inferior
spinners ; and the mammule placed between these extremes, the intermediate
spinners ; distinguishing them, when there are two pairs, by prefixing the terms
superior and inferior.. Exceedingly fine, moveable papillz or spinning tubes,
for the most part dilated at the base, occur at the extremity of the mammule,
or are disposed along the inferior surface of their terminal joint, whence issues
the viscous secretion of which all the silken lines produced by spiders are
formed. The papille connected with the mammule vary greatly in number
in different species of spiders, and also differ considerably in size, not only
in individuals of the same species, but often even on the same mammule.
Among our native spiders, the larger species of Epéire have the mammule
most amply provided with papille; it is probable, however, that the total
number does not greatly exceed a thousand even in adult females of Epéira
quadrata, whose weight is about twenty grains, and in many other species it
is much smaller. In Yegenaria civilis the total number of papilla does not
amount to four hundred; in Teaxtrix lycosina and Clubiona corticalis it is
below three hundred ; in Segestria senoculata it scarcely exceeds one hundred ;
and in many of the smaller spiders it is still further reduced.
A difference in the number and size of the papille connected with the
several pairs of mammule in the same species, and with similar pairs in dif-
ferent species, is also very apparent. In spiders of the genera Epéira,
Tetragnatha, Linyphia, Theridion and Segestria, they are generally much
more numerous and minute on the inferior spinners than on the superior and
intermediate ones; the last are the most sparingly supplied with them, and
in the case of Segestria senoculata each has only three large papille at its
extremity. An arrangement nearly the reverse of this takes place in some of
the Drassi, and is conspicuous in Drassus ater, which has the intermediate
spinners abundantly furnished with papille, those on the inferior spinners
being very few in number and chiefly of large dimensions, emitting the viscous
secretion copiously. The papillae connected with the short terminal joint of
each inferior spinner of this species vary in number with the age of the animal ;
the young, on quitting the cocoon, are provided with four only ; individuals
which have attained nearly a third of their growth have five or six ; those about
two-thirds grown, six or seven; and adults, which have acquired their full
complement, eight ; two of them, situated on the inferior surface of the spinner,
at a greater distance from its extremity than the rest, are minute and almost
contiguous. It is a fact deserving of notice, that the papille are not always
developed simultaneously on these spinners, six, seven, or eight being some- —
times observed on one, when five, six, or seven only are to be seen on the
other ; and this remark is applicable, not to the inferior spinners alone, but —
to the intermediate ones also, which, in mature individuals, are further modified
by having the extremities of the terminal joints directed downwards at right
angles to their bases. ‘The same law of development holds good as regards |
the papillee connected with the inferior spinners of Drassus cupreus and
Drassus sericeus, and though their number is not uniformly the same even —
=
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND G@CONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. 65
in adults of either of these or the preceding species, yet the two minute ones
belonging to each mammula are present invariably *.
The superior spinners of many spiders are triarticulate; and when the
terminal joint is considerably elongated, thickly clothed with hairs, and tapers
to a point, the papilla, in the form of hair-like tubes dilated at the base, are
commonly distributed along its inferior surface, as in the case of Agelena
labyrinthica, Tegenaria domestica, and Textrix lycosina. This deviation from
the prevailing structure has induced Lyonnet, Savigny, Treviranus, Audouin,
and other skilful zootomists, who have failed to detect the papillz, to regard
the superior mammule, thus modified, as anal palpi, and to deny that they
perform the office of spinners; but if these parts be carefully examined with
a powerful magnifier in living specimens during the exercise of their function,
the fine lines of silk proceeding from the papillz cannot fail to be discerned,
and a correct knowledge of their external organization may thus be obtained.
_ Not being aware, apparently, of the publication of this discovery in the ‘Re-
port of the Third Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, held at Cambridge in 1833,’ p. 445, Baron Walckenaer, in the
Supplement to the second volume of his ‘Histoire Naturelle des Insectes
Aptéres,’ p. 407, has ascribed it to M. Dugés, whose observations on the
“subject in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ seconde série, t. vi., Zoologie,
_ p- 166, were not published till 1836.
One of the most striking peculiarities in the structure of the Cinzflonide,
which serves to distinguish them from all other animals of the order Aranetdea
_ at present known, is the possession of a fourth pair of spinners. These spinners
_are shorter and further removed from the anus than the rest, being situated
the base of the inferior intermediate pair, by which they are almost concealed
when in a state of repose. Their figure is somewhat conical, but compressed
and truncated, so that the base and apex are elliptical with long transverse
axes. Consisting of a single joint only, each is connected with the other
throughout its entire length, the extremity alone being densely covered with
exceedingly minute papilla, which emit the viscous matter that is formed
by the calamistra into a delicate tortuous band constituting a portion of every
ulus in the snares of these spiders, and chiefly imparting to them their
owt important property, that of adhesion+.
_ Arachnologists have not bestowed that degree of attention on the palpi of
‘Spiders to which their diversified structure and importantfunctions undoubtedly
- entitle them.
_ Much difference is observable in the relative proportions of the several
of the palpi of female spiders, not only in species constituting the same
family, but even in those belonging to the same genus; while, on the other
hand, it frequently happens that females belonging to different genera bear
@ striking resemblance to each other in this particular. It is among male
Spiders, however, that these peculiarities are the most marked, and to them
may be added structural differences and resemblances both of the palpi and
appl organs still more conspicuous.
_ A great similarity in the form of the organs of reproduction, in the simplicity
their structure, and in the manner of their connexion with the digital joint
A the palpi, which has no cavity opening externally, may be seen in certain
| males of the family Dysderide ; in Dysdera erythrina, Dysdera hombergii,
| Segestria perfida, Segestria senoculata, and Oonops pulcher, for example;
| and this similitude is extended to the males of various species belonging to
the family Mygalide.
Between the males of Pachygnatha clerckii and Tetragnatha extensa there
* Transactions of the Linnzan Society, vol. xviii. p. 219-224, T Ibid. pp. 223, 224, 606.
1844. = F
66 REPORT—1844.
is a near approximation in the structure of the palpi and sexual organs, yet
these spiders are not included in the same family, the former belonging to the
Theridiide, and the latter to the Epéiride.
If the spiders constituting the genus Clubiona be compared with those of
the genus Drassus, and those of the genus Linyphia with the species comprised
in the genus Neriéne ; or, extending the investigation still further, if the genera
Walckenaéra, Theridion, Epéira, Eresus, Salticus, Thomisus, and Philodro-
mus be compared together, numerous instances of correspondence in the re-
lative proportions of the joints of the palpi will be perceived immediately ; at
the same time, striking contrasts will present themselves to the eye of the
observer, not as regards proportion alone, but organization also, even among
nearly allied species.
As the full development of the palpi and the organs of generation connected
with them indicates a state of maturity in male spiders, the skilful arachnologist
is enabled, by attending to this circumstance, not only to distinguish adult
males from females, but likewise from immature individuals of both sexes.
This knowledge is useful in preventing him from falling into the too common
error of mistaking young spiders for old ones, and of describing them, and
the sexes of spiders of the same kind, as distinct species. When any doubts
exist as to thespecific identity of adult spiders of differentsexes, they frequently
may be set at rest by placing the spiders together in captivity and noticing
whether they pair or not.
The great diversity of structure observable in the palpi and sexual organs
of male spiders supplies excellent specific characters, and, indeed, frequently —
presents the only available means of distinguishing species of similar colours
and dimensions from each other; but when it is borne in mind that this di-
versity of structure extends to spiders connected by the closest relations of
affinity, it is, perhaps, in vain to expect that it will ever be applied with much
success to the establishment of genera.
From remarks on the structure of the palpi to the consideration of the
functions they perform the transition is easy and natural.
Many spiders employ their palpi in assisting to collect the slack line which
results from their operations when engaged in ascending the silken filaments
by which they have lowered themselves from stations previously occupied,
or in drawing in such as have been emitted from the spinners for the purpose
of facilitating a change of situation in some other direction. The silk collected
on these occasions is formed into a small heap, which is either attached to
some fixed object, or is transferred to the maxille, and, after having been
mixed with saliva and reduced in volume by repeated acts of compression, is
ultimately allowed to fall to the ground.
In conjunction with the mandibles, the palpi are employed by females of
thespecies Dolomedes mirabilis and Dolomedes fimbriatus to retain their cocoons
under the sternum, in which situation those spiders usually carry them where-
ever they move. The Lycose also avail themselves of the same parts in re-
gaining possession of their cocoons when detached from the spinners.
Certain spiders belonging to the genus Mygale have the inferior part of
the tarsi furnished with a dense brush of hair-like papille for the emission of
a viscous secretion, which enables them to ascend bodies having smooth per-
pendicular surfaces. Now, as the females of these species usually have the
under side of the digital joint of their palpi, which are remarkably long and
powerful, supplied in like manner*with papillae, analogy would lead to the
conclusion that, in harmony with their organization and distribution, they also
constitute a climbing apparatus. .
Various species of Salticide, to which distinctness and accuracy of vision
&
Zz
|
a. ij
te
We
are of the utmost consequence, as they do not construct snares, but capture
their prey by springing suddenly upon it from a distance, have the terminal
joint of the palpi abundantly supplied with hairs, and constantly make use of
those organs as brushes to remove dust, or any other extraneous matter, from
the corneous coat of the anterior eyes.
The palpi appear to afford direct assistance likewise to spiders in general
in securing their prey, in changing its position while they are feeding upon
it, and in restraining the action of the wings of all their victims which happen
to be provided with them*.
With regard to the function exercised by the remarkable organs connected
with the digital joint of the palpi of male spiders there exists some difference
of opinion. Taking anatomy as his guide, Treviranus arrived at the conclu-
sion that the parts in question are used for the purpose of excitation merely,
preparatory to the actual union of the sexes by means of appropriate organs
_ situated near the anterior part of the inferior region of the abdomen. ‘This
view of the subject, which is very generally adopted, is opposed to that de-
rived from physiological facts by Dr Lister and the earlier systematic writers
on arachnology, who regarded the palpal organs as strictly sexual.
Rejecting the opinion of Treviranus, Baron Walckenaer has given his sup-
port to that entertained by Lister and the physiologists, having endeavoured
to establish its accuracy by pursuing the imperfect method of investigation
employed by the latter, which chiefly consists in examining the condition of
‘the palpal organs when applied by male spiders to the vulva of females and
‘carefully noticing the changes they undergo ; but as it is possible that such
females, should they prove to be prolific, may have been impregnated at a
former period, and as other organs than those connected with the digital joint
of the palpi may have been instrumental in producing the result, observations
of this description appear to be quite inadequate to effect the object proposed.
_ An attempt to relieve the inquiry from objections so weighty is recorded
‘in the ‘ Report of the Third Meeting of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, held at Cambridge in 1833,’ pp. 444-5, and the result
‘arrived at has a direct tendency to confirm the truth of the opinion promulgated
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND GCONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. 67
by Dr. Lister. Since that time, researches in connexion with this subject have
been greatly extended and varied, and it is satisfactory to add, that they sup-
By a body of evidence which appears to be conclusive as to the agency of
the palpal organs.
_ The following is a concise summary of the more important particulars
elicited by this investigation.
- It is an admitted fact, that female Aphides, when impregnated, are capable
of producing females which, without sexual intercourse, are prolific through
eral successive generations. In order to determine whether this is the
“tase with spiders or not, young females of the species Teyenaria domestica,
Tegenaria civilis, Agelena labyrinthica, Ciniflo atrox, Drassus sericeus, Theri-
dion quadripunctatum, Segestria senoculata, &e., were placed in phials of
‘transparent glass and fed with insects. Most of these individuals remained
‘Im captivity from one to three years after they had completed their moulting
and attained maturity ; yet three only, an Agelena labyrinthica, a Tegenaria
domestica, and a Tegenaria civilis, produced eggs, and they proved tobesterile,
though several of the others, to which adult males were subsequently intro-
“duced, laid prolific eggs after coition. It is worthy of remark, that the spiders
| which produced unfruitful eggs deposited them in cocoons and bestowed the
Same care upon them as if they had been fertile.
%y 3 Report of the Twelfth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
held at Manchester in 1842; Transactions of the Sections, pp. 67, 68.
FQ
68 REPORT—1844.
This preliminary point being settled, attention was directed in the next
place to spiders in a state of liberty, when it was perceived that the males of
various species do not bring any part of the abdomen near the vulva of the
females in the act of copulation, and that this is the case with the Lycose in
particular ; for example, the male of Lycosa lugubris, after having made the
customary advances, springs suddenly upon the back of the female with his
head directed towards her spinners and the anterior part of the inferior surface
of the abdomen resting upon her cephalothorax ; then placing the first pair
of legs immediately behind her posterior pair, the second pair between her
second and third pairs, the third pair between her first and second pairs, and
the posterior pair before her first pair, he thus embraces her, and applies the
palpal organs to the vulva by inclining to one side or the other as the occasion
may require. In this situation the male remains till the act of union is con-
summated and then quits it with precipitancy, so that his abdomen is not even
brought into contact with that part, much less with the vulva, of the female.
Precisely the same manner of proceeding is pursued by Lycosa agretyca,
Lycosa saccata, Lycosa pallida, and Lycosa obscura; and females of the last
species have been seen to receive the embraces of several males in immediate
succession, and to copulateeven at the time they had cocoons containing newly-
laid eggs attached to their spinners, which circumstances serve to support
the opinion that some spiders pair oftener than once in the course of their
lives.
When in captivity, the sexes of Lycosa lugubris sometimes continue paired
more than four hours, during which period the male applies the palpal organs
several hundred times to the vulva of the female.
Notwithstanding the important bearing of these observations upon the physio-
logical problem under consideration, something was still wanting to complete
its solution, and recourse was had to direct experiment to supply the desidera-
tum.
On the 4th of May 1842, an adult male Tegenaria civilis was procured, and,
being held by the legs in an inverted position, the inferior surface of the
abdomen was moistened by applying to it a camel’s hair pencil which had
been dipped in water. The entire interval between the plates of the spiracles,
supposed by Treviranus to be the seat of the sexual organs in male spiders,
and even a considerable space below that interval, was then covered with
strong, well-gummed writing-paper cut into a suitable form and closely applied,
and when the paper became thoroughly dry and firmly attached, the spider
was placed in a phial with a female of the same species, which had been in
solitary confinement from the 2nd of June 1841, and had cast its skin twice
during its captivity. With this female the male paired on the same day he
was introduced to her, applying the palpal organs to the vulva in the usual
manner, and immediately after the union was completed he was removed from
her. On the 23rd of May she deposited a set of eggs in a cocoon spun for
their reception, and on the 11th of June she constructed another cocoon in
which she laid a second set of eggs. All these eggs proved to be prolific, the
extrication of young spiders from the first set commencing on the 26th of June,
and from the second set on the 13th of July, in the same year. Without re-
newing her intercourse with the male, this female deposited a set of eggs in
a cocoon on the 2nd of April, the 9th of May, the 4th of June, the 22nd of
June, and the 9th of July 1843, and on the 22nd of April, the 30th of May,
the 29thof June, and the Ist of August 1844, respectively, nine sets in number,
all of which produced young. P
Another male Tegenaria civilis, after undergoing the same treatment exactly
as that in the preceding experiment, was introduced, on the 6th of May 1842,
«,
ed
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND @CONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. 69
to a female of its own species, which had been in solitary confinement from
the 25th of January 1840, and had cast its skin three times during its captivity.
This female received the embraces of the male as soon as he was admitted
into the phial to her, and laid a set of eggs on the 27th of the same month,
all of which were productive, the young beginning to be disengaged from them
on the 27th of the ensuing month.
In stating a further repetition of this experiment with spiders of the same
species, it is only necessary to premise that the female had cast her skin three
times in captivity, and that the male had but the right palpus, the other having
been removed by amputation. They were placed together on the 16th of May
1842, paired the same day, and were separated as soon as their union was ac-
complished. On the 19th of June the female deposited a set of eggs in a
cocoon, which began to be hatched on the 24th of the following July, and all
produced young. Without further sexual intercourse, in 1843 she enveloped
a set of eggs in a cocoon on the 7th of April, the 5th of May, the Ist of June,
the 18th of June, and the 3rd of July, respectively, from all which young were
disengaged.
Promptness in accommodating itself to the restraint of confinement, together
with the certainty of being able to procure specimens whenever they might be
required, led to the selection of Tegenaria civilis as a suitable subject for the
foregoing experiments, from which, conjointly with the preceding observations,
the following inferences may be deduced :—
Ist. That female spiders are incapable of producing prolific eggs without
sexual intercourse.
Qnd. That females which have not been impregnated occasionally produce ’
sterile eggs.
3rd. That the female of Tegenaria civilis, when impregnated, is capable of
producing several sets of prolific eggs in succession without renewing its in-
tercourse with the male*, two years or more occasionally elapsing before all
are deposited, and a period of ten months nearly intervening sometimes between
the deposition of two consecutive sets.
4th. That spiders of various species copulate without the abdomen of the
male being brought into contact with that of the female.
5th. That male spiders, in which the part stated by Treviranus to be the
‘seat of the sexual organs is entirely covered with strong, well-gummed writing
‘paper closely applied, nevertheless possess the power of exercising the function
of generation unimpaired.
6th. Lastly, that males so circumstanced invariably consummate the act by
applying the palpal organs to the vulva of females, plainly demonstrating
thereby the interesting truth, that those organs, however anomalous their
“situation may be, are the only efficient instruments employed by male spiders
in the propagation of their species.
_ Before they arrive at maturity spiders change their skin several times : the
manner in which these moults are effected may be illustrated by describing
‘the proceedings of an individual of the species Epéira calophylla. Pre-
‘paratory to casting its integument, this spider spins some strong lines in the
Vicinity of its snare, from which it suspends itself by the feet and a filament
“proceeding from the spinners. After remaining for a short time in this
“Situation, the coriaceous covering of the cephalothorax gives way laterally,
disuniting at the insertion of the legs and mandibles ; the line of separation
"pursues the same direction till it extends to the abdomen, which is next dis-
i * Tegenaria domestica (Aranea domestica, Linn.), Agelena labyrinthica, and Epéira cucurbi-
tna are endowed with similar powers of production, Vide the Report of the Third Meeting of
the British Association, p. 445.
70 ' REPORT—1844,
engaged, the extrication of the legs being the last and greatest difficulty the
spider has to evercome. As the suspensory filament connected with the
spinners of the exuvie is considerably shorter than the legs and does not un-
dergo any sensible alteration in length, the abdomen, during the process of
moulting, becomes gradually deflected from its original horizontal direction
till it assumes a vertical position nearly at right angles with the cephalothorax.
By this change of posture, attended with numerous contortions of the body,
and alternate contractions and extensions of the limbs, the spider is ultimately
enabled to accomplish its purpose. When it has completely disengaged itself
from the slough, it remains, for a short period, in a state of great exhaustion,
suspended solely by a thread from the spinners, connected with the interior
of the abdominal portion of the cast skin, which is much corrugated. After
reposing a little, the spider further attaches itself to the suspensory lines by
the claws of the feet, and when its strength is sufficiently restored, and its
limbs have required the requisite degree of firmness, it ascends its filaments
and seeks its retreat*.
Recent observations establish the fact that the number of times spiders
change their integument before they become adult is not uniformly the same
as regards every species. A young female Epéira calophylla, disengaged
from the egg on the 30th of March 1843, moulted on the 8th of the ensuing
month in the cocoon, which it quitted on the 1st of May; moulting again, in
the same year, on the 4th of June, the 22nd of June, the 12th of July, and
the 4th of August, respectively, when it arrived at maturity, having cast its
skin five times.
An egg of Epéira diadema, hatched on the 14th of April 1843, produced
a female spider, which moulted in the cocoon on the 24th of the same month ;
on the 3rd of May it quitted the cocoon, and moulted again on the 21st of
June, the 10th of July, the 3rd of August, and the 23rd of August, in the
same year. On the 28th of February 1844 it died in a state of immaturity
after having completed its fifth moult.
On the 27th of June 1842 an egg of Tegenaria civilis produced a female
spider, which underwent its first moult in the cocoon on the 10th of the ensuing
July ; quitting the cocoon on the 21st of the same month, it moulted again
on the 17th of August, the 4th of September, and the 26th of September,
in the same year; and on the 26th of January, the 9th of April, the 24th
of May, the 21st of June, and the 5th of August in 1843, when it arrived
at maturity, having changed its integument nine times.
A male Tegenaria civilis, extricated from the egg on the 27th of June
1842, also moulted nine times, casting its skin in the cocoon on the 10th of
the following July ; on the 21st of the same month it abandoned the cocoon,
moulting again on the 13th of August, the 10th of September, and the 13th
of October, in the same year; and on the Ist of February, the 25th of April,
the 17th of June, the 13th of July, and the 17th of October in 1843, when
its development was complete.
Modifications of food and temperature exercise a decided influence upon
the moulting of spiders. A young female Tegenaria civilis disengaged from
the egg on the 24th of July 1842, on the 2nd of the following August
moulted in the cocoon, which it quitted on the 12th of the same month, casting
its skin again on the 29th of August, and the 10th of October, in the same
year ; being scantily supplied with nutriment, it increased very little in size,
and died on the 4th of July 1843, having changed its integument three times
only. Another female of the same species, which was extricated from the -
egg on the same day as the foregoing individual, and was well-fed, on the 13th
* Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol xvi. p. 482-484,
7
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND @CONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. qt
of July 1843 had moulted seven times. It is apparent also from the particulars
already stated, that the intervals between consecutive moults are much shorter
when the temperature of the atmosphere is high than when it is low.
Immature spiders infested by the larva of Polysphincta carbonaria, an insect
belonging to the family Ichneumonidae, which feeds upon their fluids, never
change their integument*.
Like certain animals of the class Crustacea, spiders possess the property of
reproducing such limbs as have been detached or mutilated, and this curious
physiological phenomenon is intimately connected with the renovation of the
integument, as it is observed to take place at the time of moulting only. Ex-
periments illustrative of this interesting subject have been multiplied to a very
great extent; in introducing some of them to notice, such have been selected,
as from the novel and important conclusions deducible from them are best
deserving of attention.
1. A young male Textrix lycosina had half of the terminal joint of each
superior spinner amputated, and the posterior leg on the right side detached
at the coxa, on the 3rd of August 1838. It moulted on the 10th of September,
reproducing the detached parts, which were small but perfect in structure.
On the 23rd of February 1839 it moulted again and became adult; at the
same time a sensible increase took place in the bulk of the reproduced parts,
which, nevertheless, were still defective in point of size.
2. On the 23rd of August 1838 a young female Tegenaria civilis had the
anterior leg on the right side and the third leg on the left side detached at the
coxa, the terminal joint of the superior and inferior spinners on the right side
being amputated at the same time. This spider moulted on the 27th of Sep-
tember, when the detached parts, of a smaller size than the corresponding
parts on the opposite side, bet perfect in structure, were reproduced. On
the 6th of November it changed its integument a second time, and on the 16th
of June 1839 a third time, when it arrived at maturity. The reproduced parts
advanced perceptibly in growth at each successive moult, but did not ultimately
acquire their full dimensions.
8. A young male Tegenaria civilis had the digital joint of the left palpus,
which was very tumid, detached on the 6th of October 1838. It moulted on
the 17th of June 1839 and reproduced the left palpus, which, though small,
had the radial joint provided with the apophysis characteristic of a state of
maturity in this species. The sexual organs, however, were altogether wanting,
and the digital joint was slightly modified in size and form by this circumstance.
It is scarcely necessary to remark that the sexual organs connected with the
right palpus were fully developed.
4. ‘The digital joint of the left palpus of a young female Segestria senoculata
Was amputated on the 18th of May 1839. Thisspider cast its integument on
the 8th of July, the left palpus, of a small size, being reproduced. It moulted
ain on the 28th of June 1840, when the reproduced palpus had its dimen-
ons enlarged and the spider arrived at maturity. Onthe 12th of December
1842 it died, having existed nearly three years and a half in captivity.
8. On the 8th of June 1839 a young female Agelena labyrinthica had the
terminal joint of each superior spinner amputated. Bringing the extremities
of the tarsi of the posterior legs to the mouth, it moistened them with saliva,
‘and repeatedly applied them to the mutilated parts. On the 21st of the same
month it moulted, and the superior spinners, of a small size, were reproduced.
It moulted again on the 12th of the ensuing July, when the reproduced spin-
hers were increased in size, and it arrived at maturity.
6. A young male Testrix lycosina had the terminal joint of each superior
* Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol, xi. p. 1-4.
72 REPORT—1844,
spinner amputated, and the third leg on the right side detached at the coxa,
on the 25th of July 1839. This spider cast its integument on the 6th of the
ensuing August, when the stumps only of the mutilated parts were produced.
On the 2nd of December, in the same year, it moulted again ; the superior
spinners and third leg on the right side, of asmall size, were then reproduced,
and it arrived at maturity.
7. The left palpus of a young male Tegenaria civilis, the digital joint of which
was very tumid, was amputated at the axillary joint on the 15th of January
1840. On the 22nd of June, in the same year, it moulted, reproducing the left
palpus, which was of smalldimensions. The radial joint was provided with an
apophysis, indicating the mature state of the spider, but the digital joint was
somewhat modified in size and form, and the sexual organs were not reproduced.
8. A young male Zegenaria civilis had the right palpus amputated at the
axillary joint on the 15th of January 1840. It moulted on the 2nd of the
following June, when the detached part, of a small size, was reproduced and
the digital joint became very tumid. On the 12th of August, in the same
year, it moulted again; the right palpus was augmented in size, the radial
joint was furnished with an apophysis, and the sexual organs, complete in their
organization, were developed ; these several parts, however, were still decidedly
smaller than the corresponding parts of the left palpus.
9. On the 25th of January 1840 the left palpus of a young female Tegenaria
ewilis was amputated at the axillary joint. This spider moulted on the Ist
of the ensuing May, at which time the detached part, of a small size, was re-
produced. On the 20th of June and the 6th of August, in the same year, it
moulted again and arrived at maturity, the left palpus receiving an increase
in size at each successive moult.
10. A young male Ciniflo ferox had the cubital, radial and digital joints
of the left palpus amputated on the 26th of May 1840. It moulted on the
18th of the following June and reproduced the left palpus, which was small,
with the digital joint very tumid. On the 8th of August, in the same year, it
moulted again, when the left palpus was enlarged, the apophyses of the radial
joint were produced, and the sexual organs were developed. Though the
several parts of the left palpus were smaller than the corresponding parts of
the right palpus, yet they were perfect in their organization.
11. The left palpus of a young male Ciniflo atrox was amputated at the
axillary joint on the 28th ef May 1840. Thisspider changed its integumeut
on the 27th of the following June, and reproduced the left palpus, which had
the digital joint very tumid. On the 11th of August, in the same year, it
moulted again, when the apophyses of the radial joint and the sexual organs,
perfect in structure, were developed, but all the parts of the left palpus were
smaller than the corresponding parts of the right palpus.
12. A young male Linyphia cauta had the right palpus at the axillary
joint, the cubital, radial and digital joints of the left palpus, and the tibiz and
tarsi of the first, second and third legs on the left side amputated on the 30th
of May 1840. On the 25th of the ensuing June it moulted, when the stumps
only of the palpi were produced, but the mutilated legs, of small dimensions,
were reproduced. It moulted again on the 21st of July, in the same year,
and though the palpi still were not reproduced, yet the newly-formed legs
were augmented in size and the spider arrived at maturity.
13. The digital joint of the left palpus of a young male Linyphia cauta,
which was very tumid, was amputated on the 20th of July 1840. The spider
moulted on the 19th of the following August, reproduced the left palpus, of
a small size, with the digital joint considerably modified, and at the same ~
time arrived at maturity ; but the sexual organs were not reproduced.
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND GCONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. 73
14. A young male Tegenaria civilis had the right palpus amputated at the
axillary joint on the 9th of June 1841. On the 13th of the following July it
cast its integument and reproduced the right palpus, which, though small,
had the digital joint very tumid. It moulted again on the 20th of August,
in the same year, when the dimensions of the right palpus were augmented,
the radial joint was provided with an apophysis, and the sexual organs were
developed. ‘The organization of the right palpus was perfect in all its parts,
but they were smaller than the corresponding parts of the left palpus.
15. On the 25th of June 1841 a young male Drassus sericeus had the cubital,
radial and digital joints of the left palpus amputated, the digital joint being
very tumid. It moulted on the 16th of the ensuing August and reproduced
the left palpus, of a small size; the radial joint was provided with an apo-
physis, indicating the mature state of the spider, but the sexual organs were
not reproduced.
16. A young male Ciniflo ferox had the right palpus amputated at the
axillary joint on the 2nd of July 1841. On the 19th it moulted, but the
stump only of the mutilated part was produced. On the 28th of the same
month the left palpus was amputated at the axillary joint. The spider
moulted again on the 28th of the ensuing August, when both the palpi, of a
small size, were produced.
17. The anterior leg on the left side of a young female Tegenaria civilis
was amputated at the coxa on the Ist of September 1842. This spider was
dissected on the 14th of the following October, when on the point of moult-
ing, as was evident from the deepened hue of the integument and from the
perfect structure of the tarsal and palpal claws, visible through it. The an-
terior leg on the left side, which was reproduced, was complete in its organi-
zation, 7/;ths of an inch in length, and was curiously folded in the integument
_ of the old coxa, which measured only ;/;th of an inch in length.
_ 18. A young male Tegenaria civilis had the posterior leg on the left side
amputated near the middle of the tibia on the 24th of April 1843, when it
moistened the tarsus of the third leg on the same side with saliva and re-
peatedly applied it to the mutilated limb. Being about to moult, this spider
was dissected on the 5th of the ensuing June; the posterior leg on the left
side, which was reproduced, was found to have its tarsal and metatarsal joints
folded in the undetached half of the integument of the old tibia.
_A recapitulation of the more remarkable results obtained from the experi-
ments, elucidated in several instances by additional facts and observations,
will not, it is presumed, be deemed superfluous.
Physiologists, in conducting researches relative to the reproduction of the
limbs of spiders, seem to have limited their investigations to the legs of those
animals ; whereas, in the experiments detailed above, the palpi and spinners,
_as well as the legs, were operated upon; and all these parts are found to be
_ Tenewed, and afterwards to have their dimensions enlarged at the period of
moulting only ; it appears also that if a part of a limb be amputated, as the
tarsus of a leg or the digital joint of a palpus, the whole is reproduced, all the
Joints of the new limb, though small, being proportionate to those of the cor-
Tesponding limb on the opposite side, with the exception of the digital joint
of the palpi of male spiders when the sexual organs are not reproduced, which
is usually somewhat modified in size and form by that circumstance.
_ At the penultimate moult of male spiders the digital joints of the palpi be-
come very tumid, in much the greater number of species, by a sudden and
rapid advance towards development in the sexual organs, and should those
parts be detached during the interyal which elapses between that and the
Succeeding moult, though the palpi, indicating by their organization that the
74 REPORT—1844.
animal has arrived at maturity, may be reproduced, yet the sexual organs are
always absent. (See experiments 3,7,13,15.) Adult males of the species
Lycosa obscura, Dysdera hombergii,and Philodromus dispar have been found
in a state of liberty with the palpi unequal in size and the smaller one en-
tirely destitute of the sexual organs.
When the palpi of male spiders, which had been amputated before the
penultimate moult, are reproduced, the sexual organs, perfect in structure, are
reproduced also (see experiments 8,10, 11, 14); unexceptionable evidence
in support of this singular fact isto be found in their reduced dimensions and
integrity of form, but it will scarcely be denied that the original germs of —
those organs must have been removed with the detached palpi. That the
function of the sexual organs is not in the least affected by their reproduction
there exists the most satisfactory proof. In the last of those experiments,
having for their object the determination of the seat of the sexual organs in
male spiders, recorded in this report, the male Tegenaria civilis, stated to have
possessed the right palpus only when introduced to the female, is identical
with that which was the subject of experiment 8 in the foregoing series;
consequently, its sexual organs had been reproduced, yet the fertility of its
mate bore ample testimony to the unimpaired efficiency of their generative
agency.
If a uipaate 6 and 16 be referred to, it will be seen that the stumps only
of mutilated parts are occasionally produced at the following moult, and that
the entire parts, of a small size, are sometimes restored at a subsequent
moult.
Experiment 12 presents an extraordinary case of the stumps of the palpi
being produced at two consecutive moults after they had suffered mutilation,
though several legs of the same spider, mutilated at the same time, were re-
newed at the next moult after the infliction of the injury.
The fact, that reproduced legs, immediately antecedent to the process of
moulting, are folded in the integument of the undetached portion of the
mutilated limbs, is clearly established by experiments 17 and 18.
With some spiders the duration of life does not exceed the brief space of
twelve months, whereas it may be safely inferred from experiment 4 that
Segestria senoculata does not even complete its several changes of integument
and arrive at maturity in less than two years. The individual there stated
to have had the digital joint of the left palpus detached on the 18th of May
1839 was then about two-thirds grown, and must have been disengaged from
the egg in the summer of the preceding year, as this species breeds in the
months of May and June in North Wales. On the 28th of June 1840, the
third summer of its existence, it underwent its last moult and became adult.
Subsequent experiments made with both sexes of this spider tend to corro-
borate the accuracy of the above conclusion.
Variations in the colour and size of spiders of the same kind, resulting from
differences in age, sex, food, climate, and other conditions of a less obvious
character, as they conduce largely to the introduction of fictitious species, have
long engaged the attention of arachnologists, while those arising from extra-
ordinary organic modifications, in consequence, perhaps, of their less frequent
occurrence, have been almost entirely overlooked. The importance which cases
of the latter description possess in relation to physiology and systematic ar-
a ape will be best illustrated by a few examples.
1. A supernumerary ey e, situated between the two small ones constituting
the anterior intermediate pair, has been observed in an adult female Zheridion
Jilipes. The total number of eyes possessed by this individual was nine and
their arrangement symmetrical.
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND GCONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. 75
2. An immature female Thomisus cristatus had the two lateral pairs of
eyes only; the four small intermediate ones were altogether wanting, not the
slightest rudiment of them being perceptible even with the aid of a powerful
nifier.
$. A short but perfectly formed supernumerary tarsus, connected with the
base of the tarsal joint of the right posterior leg on its outer side, has been
noticed in an adult female Lycosa campestris.
4. Deficiency of the right intermediate eye of the anterior row has been
remarked in an adult male Lycosa cambrica.
5. The left intermediate eye of the posterior row was perceived to be want-
ing in an adult female Epéira inclinatu, and the right intermediate eye of the
same row was not half the usual size.
6. An adult female Ciniflo atrox was found to be without the left inter-
mediate eye of the posterior row.
7. The right intermediate eye of the posterior row in an adult female Apéira
inelinata had not one-eighth of the natural size, being merely rudimentary.
_ The particulars stated in the foregoing cases, which serve to establish the
fact, that spiders, in common with many other animals, occasionally exhibit
‘instances of anomalous structure, derive no small degree of interest from their
novelty ; but when it is borne in mind that all the examples except one have
‘reference to those important organs the eyes, important, not only as regards
the function they perform, but also on account of the extensive use made of
them in the classification of the Araneidea, that interest becomes greatly
augmented.
_ As spiders with four eyes have not yet been found, it is a matter of some
“consequence to caution observers against mistaking a mere defect in struc-
ture, like that recorded in case 2, for such a discovery. Whether there are
‘species provided with an odd number of eyes or not is at present conjectural ;
should such exist, symmetry in the arrangement of their visual organs cer-
Y may be expected to obtain; consequently, cases 4, 5 and 6, which pre-
‘Sent instances of an odd number of eyes disposed irregularly, would be re-
garded at all times with suspicion; as no such objection, however, can be
against case 1, a solution of the difficulty it presents must be sought
fo in a more accurate acquaintance with the species.
Interesting chiefly in a physiological point of view, cases 3 and’7 show that
a liability to irregularity in structure is not limited to the eyes, and that
ce organs are subject to preternatural variations in size as well as number.
The obscurity in which the cause of these remarkable organic modifications
‘involved, careful investigation, conducted upon sound philosophical prin-
ciples, can alone dispel*.
_ Argyroneta aquatica, Dolomedes fimbriatus, and Lycosa piratica are known
to descend spontaneously beneath the surface of water, the time during
‘ich they can respire when immersed depending-upon the quantity of air
ned by the circumambient liquid among the hairs with which they are
ied. There are, however, some spiders of small size, Hrigone atra and
gnia frontata, for example, which, though they do not enter water
arily, can support life in it for many days, and that without the external
ly of air so essential to the existence of Argyroneta aquatica under
ar circumstances. It is probable that this property may contribute to
preservation through the winter, when their hybernacula are liable to
Beandated +.
a.
td Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. xi. p. 165-168.
+ Report of the Third Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
held at Cambridge in 1833, p. 446.
76 REPORT—1844, 4
Spiders, though extremely voracious, are capable of enduring long absti-
nence from food. A young female Theridion quadripunctatum, captured in
August 1829, was placed in a phial and fed with flies till the 15th of October,
in the same year, during which period it accomplished its final moult and at-
tained maturity. It was then removed to a smaller phial, which was closely
corked and locked up in a book-case, its supply of food being at the same
time discontinued. In this situationit remained till the 30th of April 1831, on
which day it died, without receiving the slightest nourishment of any descrip-
tion. Throughout its captivity it never failed to produce a new snare when
an old one was removed, which was frequently the case ; and it is a fact par-
ticularly deserving of attention, that the alvine evacuations were continued,
in minute quantities and at very distant intervals, to the termination of its ex-
istence*.
When about to deposit their eggs, spiders usually spin for their reception
silken cecoons displaying much diversity of form, size, colour, and con-
sistency. Those of the Lycos have a lenticular, or spherical figure and
compact structure, with the exception of a narrow zone of a delicate texture
by which they are encircled. In constructing their cocoons, these spiders
slightly connect the margins of the two compact portions, beneath which the
thin fabric of the zone is folded. This simple contrivance affords an ad-
mirable provision for the development of the young in the feetal state by an
enlarged capacity in the cocoons consequent on the margins of the compact
parts becoming detached by the expansive force within, the eventual libera-
tion of the young being effected by the rupture of the zone.
Theridion callens fabricates a very remarkable balloon-shaped cocoon about
one-eighth of an inch in diameter. It is composed of soft silk of a loose
texture and pale brown colour, enclosed in an irregular network of coarse,
dark red-brown silk ; several of the lines composing this network unite near
the lower and smaller extremity of the cocoon, leaving intervals there through
which the young pass when they quit it, and, being cemented together
throughout the remainder of their extent, form a slender stem, varying from
one-tenth to half of an inch in length, by which the cocoon is attached to —
the surface of stones and fragments of rock, resembling in its figure and erect
position some of the minute plants belonging to the class Cryptogamia. The
eggs are large, considering the small size of the spider, five or six in number,
spherical, not agglutinated together, and of a brown colour +.
An elegant vase-shaped cocoon, composed of white silk of a fine compact
texture, and attached by a short foot-stalk to rushes, the stems of grass,
heath, and gorse, is constructed by Agelena brunnea; it measures about one-
fourth of an inch in diameter, and contains from forty to fifty yellowish-white, —
spherical eggs enveloped in white silk connected with the interior of the |
cocoon contiguous to the foot-stalk. Greatly to the disadvantage of its ap-
pearance, the entire cocoon is smeared with moist soil, which drying serves to
protect it from the weather, and as an additional security, the extremity is
closed and directed downwards.
Theridion riparium fabricates a slender, conical tube of silk of a very slight
texture, measuring from one and a half to two and a half inches in length, -
and about half an inch in diameter at its lower extremity. It is closed above,
open below, thickly covered externally with bits of indurated earth, small
stones, and withered leaves and flowers, which are incorporated with it, and
is suspended perpendicularly, by lines attached to its sides and apex, in the
irregular snare constructed by this species. In the upper part of this singular
* Researches in Zoology, pp. 302, 203.
+ Transactions of the Linnzan Society, vél. xviii. p. 629.
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND @CONOMY OF ARANEIDEA. 77
domicile the female spins several globular cocoons of yellowish-white silk of
a slight texture, whose mean diameter is about one-eighth of an inch, in each
of which she deposits from twenty to sixty small spherical eggs of a pale
yellowish-white colour, not agglutinated together. The young remain with
the mother for a long period after quitting the cocoons, and are provided by
her with food, which consists chiefly of ants*.
Oonops pulcher constructs several contiguous, subglobose cocoons of white
silk of a fine but compact texture in the crevices of rocks and walls, and
among lichens growing on the trunks of trees; each measures about one-
sixteenth of an inch in diameter and usually comprises two spherical, pink
eggs, not agglutinated together. It may be remarked, by way of contrast, that
Epéira quadrata frequently deposits between nine hundred and a thousand
spherical eggs of a yellow colour, in a globular cocoon of coarse yellow silk
of a loose texture, measuring seven-tenths of an inch in diameter, which is
attached to the stems of heath, gorse, and other vegetable productions in the
vicinity of its haunts.
Among the silken snares fabricated by spiders for the purpose of capturing
their prey, the most elegant are those constructed with the appearance of
geometrical precision in the form of circular nets. They are composed of an
elastic spiral line thickly studded with minute globules of liquid gum, whose
circumvolutions, falling within the same plane, are crossed by radii conver-
ging towards a common centre, which is immediately surrounded by several
‘circumvolutions of a short spiral line devoid of viscid globules, forming a
station from which the toils may be superintended by their owner without
the inconvenience of being entangled in them. As the radii are unadhesive
and possess only a moderate share of elasticity, they must consist of a different
‘material from that of the viscid spiral line, which is elastic in an extraordinary
_ degree. Now the viscidity of this line may be shown to depend entirely upon
the globules with which it is studded, for if they be removed by careful ap-
plications of the finger, a fine glossy filament remains, which is highly elastic,
but perfectly unadhesive. As the globules, therefore, and the line on which
they are disposed, differ so essentially from each other, and from the radii, it is
reasonable to infer that the physical constitution of these several portions of
the net must be dissimilar.
An estimate of the number of viscid globules distributed on the elastic
spiral line in a net of Epéira apoclisa of a medium size, will convey some
idea of the elaborate operations performed by the Epéire in the construction
_of their snares. The mean distance between two adjacent radii, in a net of
_this species, is about seven-tenths of an inch; if, therefore, the number 7 be
_ multiplied by 20, the mean number of viscid globules which occur on one-
_tenth of an inch of the elastic spiral line, at the ordinary degree of tension,
_ the product will be 140, the mean number of globules deposited on seven-
tenths of an inch of the elastic spiral line; this product multiplied by 24, the
Mean number of circumvolutions described by the elastic spiral line, gives
_ 3360, the mean number of globules contained between two radii; which
multiplied by 26, the mean number of radii, produces 87,360, the total
number of viscid globules in a finished net of average dimensions. A large
Ret, fourteen or sixteen inches in diameter, will be found, by a similar calcu-
lation, to contain upwards of 120,000 viscid globules, and yet Epéira
_@&ochsa will complete its snare in about forty minutes if it meet with no in-
_ terruption.
__ In the formation of their snares the Hpéire appear to be regulated solely
by the sense of touch, as various species when confined in spacious glass jars
* Researches in Zoology, p. 356.
78 REPORT—1844.
placed in situations absolutely impervious to light construct nets which do :
not exhibit the slightest irregularity of plan or defect of structure *.
Dr. Lister supposed that spiders are able to retract the lines they spin
within the abdomen, and whoever minutely observes the Hpéire, when fabri-
cating their snares, will almost be induced to entertain the same opinion.
The viscid line produced by these spiders in their transit from one radius to
another is sometimes drawn out to a much greater extent than is necessary
to connect the two, yet, on approaching the point at which it is to be attached,
it appears to re-enter the spinners, till it is reduced to the exact length re-
quired. This optical illusion, for such it is, is occasioned by the extreme
elasticity of the line, which may be extended greatly by the application of a
slight force, and on its removal will contract proportionally. By this pro-
perty the viscid spiral line is accommodated to the frequent and rapid changes
in distance which take place among the radii when agitated by winds or other
disturbing forces, and by it insects, which Ay against the snare, are more
completely entangled than they otherwise could be without doing extensive
injury to its frame-work +.
Complicated as the processes are by which these symmetrical nets are pro-
duced, nevertheless, young spiders, acting under the influence of instinctive
impulse, display, even in their first attempt to fabricate them, as consum-
mate skill as the most experienced individuals.
Although spiders are not provided with wings, and, consequently, are in-
capable of flying, in the strict sense of the word; yet, by the aid of their
silken filaments, numerous species, belonging to various genera, are enabled
to accomplish distant journeys through the atmosphere. These aérial excur-
sions, which appear to result from an instinctive desire to migrate, are under-
taken when the weather is bright and serene, particularly in the autumn,
both by adult and immature individuals, and are effected in the following
manner. After climbing to the summits of different objects, they raise
themselves still higher by straightening the limbs; then elevating the abdo-
men, by bringing it from the usual horizontal position into one almost perpen-
dicular, they emit from the spinners a small quantity of viscid fluid, which is
drawn out into fine lines by the ascending current occasioned by the rare-
faction of the air contiguous to the heated ground. Against these lines the
current of rarefied air impinges, till the animals, feeling themselves acted upon
with sufficient force, quit their hold of the objects on which they stand and
mount aloft.
Spiders do not always ascend into the atmosphere by a vertical movement,
but are observed to sail through it in various directions; and the fact admits
of an easy explanation when the disturbing causes by which that subtile
medium is liable to be affected are taken into consideration. A direction par-
allel to the horizon will be given by a current of air moving in that plane; —
a perpendicular one, by the ascent of air highly rarefied ; and directions in-
termediate between these two will, in general, depend upon the composition
of forces. When the horizontal and vertical currents are equal in force, the
line of direction will describe an angle of 45° nearly with the plane of the
horizon ; but when their forces are unequal, the angle formed with that plane
will be greater or less as one current or the other predominates.
The manner in which the lines of spiders are carried out from the spinners
by a current of air appears to be this. As a preparatory measure, the spin-
ning mammule are brought into close contact, and viscid matter is emitted
* Zoological Journal, vol. v. p. 181-188. Transactions of the Linnzan Society, vol. xvi. _
p- 477-479. Researches in Zoology, p. 253-270,
+ Researches in Zoology, pp. 267, 268.
4
P
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE REFLECTING TELESCOPES. 79
from the papilla ; they are then separated by a lateral motion, which ex-
tends the viscid matter into fine filaments connecting the papillee ; on these
filaments the current impinges, drawing them out to a length which is regu-
lated by the will of the animal; and on the mammulee being again brought
together the filaments coalesce and form a compound line. —
Many intelligent naturalists entertain the opinion that spiders can forcibly
propel or dart out lines from their spinners ; but when placed on twigs set
upright in glass vessels with perpendicular sides containing a quantity of
water sufficient to immerse their bases completely, all the efforts they make
to effect an escape uniformly prove unavailing in a still atmosphere. How-
ever, should the individuals thus insulated be exposed to a current of air
either naturally or artificially produced, they immediately turn the abdomen
in the direction of the breeze, and emit from the spinners a little of their
viscid secretion, which being carried out in a line by the current becomes
connected with some object in the vicinity, and affords them the means of
regaining their liberty. 1f due precaution be used in conducting this experi-
ment, it clearly demonstrates that spiders are utterly incapable of darting
lines from their spinners, as they cannot possibly escape from their confine-
ment on the twigs in situations where the air is undisturbed, but in the agi-
tated atmosphere of an inhabited room they accomplish their object without
difficulty. Similar means are frequently employed by spiders in their natural
haunts for the purposes of changing their situation and fixing the foundations
of their snares.
The webs named gossamer are composed of lines spun by spiders, which
on being brought into contact by the mechanical action of gentle airs adhere
together, till by continual additions they are accumulated into irregular white
flakes and masses of considerable magnitude. Occasionally spiders may be
found on gossamer-webs after an ascending current of rarefied air has sepa-
vated them from the objects to which they were attached, and has raised
them into the atmosphere ; but as they never make use of them intentionally
in the performance of their aéronautic expeditions, it must always be regarded
as a fortuitous circumstance *.
On the Construction of Large Reflecting Telescopes.
By the Haru or Rosse.
Tue Council having intimated their opinion that some account of the ex-
periments in which I have been engaged on the reflecting telescope would not
_ be altogether devoid of interest, I will endeavour to describe as briefly as pos-
Sible the manner in which I have attempted to accomplish the object in view,
and the principal results obtained.
__ Having concluded that upon the whole there was a better prospect of
obtaining by reflexion rather than by refraction the power which would be
Yequired for making any effectual progress in the re-examination of the
hebule, the first experiments were undertaken in the hope of obviating the
difficulties which had previously prevented the application of the brilliant
alloy, which may be formed of tin and copper in proper proportions, to the
‘Construction of large instruments. The manner in which the difficulty had
been met was by adding an excessive proportion of copper to the alloy, but
the mirror was no longer susceptible of a durable polish, and when used its
powers declined rapidly.
* Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xv.p. 449-459, Researches in Zoology, p. 229-252.
80 ' REPORT—1844, oat We
It appeared to me, therefore, to be an object so important to obtain a re-
flecting surface which would reflect the greatest quantity of light, and retain
that property little diminished for a length of time, that numerous experi-
ments were undertaken and perseveringly carried on. After a number of
failures, the difficulties appeared to be so great that I constructed three spe-
cula, where the basis of the mirror was an alloy of zine and copper in the
proportion of 1 zinc to 2°74 copper, which expands with changes of tempera-
ture in the same proportion as speculum metal. This was subsequently plated —
with speculum metal, in pieces of such size as we were enabled to cast sound.
These specula were very light and stiff, and their performance upon the
whole satisfactory ; but they were affected by diffraction at the joinings of the
plates, and although very brilliant and durable, defining all objects well
under high powers, except very large stars, still as the effect of diffraction
was then perceptible, they could not be considered as perfect instruments.
In the course of the experiments carried on while these three specula were in
progress, it was ascertained that the difficulty of casting large discs of brilliant
speculum metal arose from the unequal contraction of the material, which in
the first instance produced imperfections in the castings and often subsequently
their total destruction ; and it appeared evident that if the fluid mass could be
cooled throughout with perfect regularity, so that at every instant every
portion should be of the same temperature, there would be no unequal con-
traction in the progress towards solidification, nor subsequently in the trans-
ition from a red heat to the temperature of the atmosphere. Although it
was obvious that the process could not be managed so that the exact condi-
tion required should be fulfilled, still by abstracting heat uniformly from one
surface (the lower one), the temperature of the mass would be kept uniform in
one direction, that is, horizontally ; while in the vertical direction it would
vary in some degree as the distance from the cooling surface. These condi-
tions being satisfied, we should likewise have a mass which would be free
from flaws, and when cool would be free from sensible strain: nothing could be
easier than to accomplish this approximately in practice; it would be only
necessary to make one surface of the mould (the lower one) of iron, of a good
conducting material, while the remainder was of dry sand. On trial this plan
was perfectly successful ; there was however a new, though not a very serious
defect, which was immediately apparent; the speculum metal was cooled so
rapidly, that air-bubbles remained entangled between it and the iron surface,
but the remedy immediately suggested itself; by making the iron surface
porous, so as to suffer the air to escape, in fact by forming it of plates of iron
placed vertically side by side, the defect was altogether removed. It only
then remained to secure the speculum from cooling unequally, and for that
purpose it was sufficient to place it in an oven raised to a very low red heat,
and there to leave it till cold, from one to three or four weeks, or perhaps
longer, according to its size.
The alloy which I consider the best differs but little from that employed
by Mr. Edwards ; I omit the brass and arsenic, employing merely tin and
copper in the atomic proportions, namely, one atom of tin to four atoms of
copper, or by weight, 58°9 to 126:4. As it was obviously impossible to cast
large specula in earthen crucibles, the reverberatory furnace was tried, but the
tin oxidized so rapidly that the proportions in the alloy were uncertain, and
after some abortive trials with cast iron crucibles, it was found that when the
crucible is cast with the mouth up, it is free from the minute pores through
which the speculum metal would otherwise exude; and therefore such cru-
cibles fully answered the purpose.
It was very obvious that the published processes for grinding and polishing
.
<a
5
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE REFLECTING TELESCOPES. 81
specula, being in a great measure dependent on manual dexterity, were un-
certain and not well-suited to large specula ; accordingly, at an early period of
these experiments, in 1827, a machine was contrived for the purpose which
has subsequently been improved, and by means of it a close approximation
to the parabolic figure can be obtained with certainty: as it has been de-
seribed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1840, it is unnecessary to do
more than to point out the principle on which it acts; the speculum is made
to revolve very slowly, while the polishing tool is drawn backwards and for-
wards by one excentric or crank, and from side to side slowly by another.
The polishing tool is connected with the excentrics by a ring which fits it
loosely, so as to permit it to revolve, deriving its rotatory motion from the
speculum, but revolving much more slowly. It is counterpoised so that it
may be made sufficiently stiff, and yet press lightly on the speculum, the
pressure being about one pound for every circular superficial foot. The
motions of this machine are relatively so adjusted, that the focal length of the
speculum during the polishing process, or towards the latter end of it, shall
be gradually becoming slightly longer ; and the figure will depend in a great
Measure upon the rapidity with which this increase in the focal length takes
place. It will be evident that a surface spherical originally will cease to be
so if, while subjected to the action of the polisher, it is in a continual state of
transition ‘from a shorter to a longer focus; in fact during no instant of time
will it be actually spherical, but some curve differing a little from the sphere,
and which may be made to approach the parabola, provided it be possible in
practice to give effect to certain conditions.
An immense number of experiments, where the results were carefully re-
gistered, eventually established an empirical formula, which affords at pre-
sent very good practical results, and may hereafter perhaps be considerably
improved. In fact, when the stroke of the first excentric is one third the
diameter of the speculum, and that of the second excentric is such as to pro-
duce a lateral motion of the bar which moves the polisher, measured on the
edge of the tank, equal to 0°27, the diameter of the speculum, (or referred to
the centre of the polisher to 0°17,) the figure will be nearly parabolic. The
velocity and direction of the motions which produce the necessary friction
being adjusted in due proportion by the arrangements of the machine, and
the temperature of the speculum being kept uniform by the water in which
it is immersed, there remain still other conditions which are essential to
the production of the required result. The process of polishing differs very
essentially from that of grinding; in the latter, the powder employed runs
loose between two hard surfaces, and may produce scratches possibly equal
in depth to the size of the particles ; in the polishing process the case is very
different; there the particles of the powder lodge in the comparatively soft
material of which the surface of the polishing tool is formed, and as the por-
tions projecting may bear a very small proportion to the size of the particles
themselves, the scratches necessarily will be diminished in the same propor-
tion. The particles are forced thus to imbed themselves, in consequence of
the extreme accuracy of contact between the surface of the polisher and the
speculum. But as soon as this accurate contact ceases, the polishing process
becomes but fine grinding. It is absolutely necessary therefore to secure
this accuracy of contact during the whole process ; if the surface of a polisher
of considerable dimensions is covered with a thin coat of pitch of sufficient
hardness to polish a true surface, however accurately it may fit the speculum,
it will very soon cease to do so, and the operation will fail. The reason is
this, that particles of the polishing powder and abraded matter will collect
in one place more than another, and as the pitch is not elastic, close contact
1844. G
82 REPORT—1844.
throughout the surfaces will cease. By employing a coat of pitch, thicker
in proportion as the diameter of the speculum is greater, there will be room
for lateral expansion, and the prominence can therefore subside and accurate
contact still continue; however, accuracy of figure is thus to a considerable
extent sacrificed. By thoroughly grooving a surface of pitch, provision may
be made for lateral expansion contiguous to the spot where the undue col-
lection of polishing powder may have taken place. But in practice such
grooves are inconvenient, being constantly liable to fill up; this evil is entirely
obviated by grooving the polisher itself, and the smaller the portions of con-
tinuous surface, the thinner may be the stratum of pitch.
There is another condition which is also important, that the pitchy surface
should be so hard as not to yield and abrade the softer portions of the metal
faster than the harder ; when the pitchy surface is unduly soft, this defect is
carried so far that even the structure of the metal is made apparent. While
therefore it is essential that the surface in contact with the speculum should
be as hard as possible consistent with its retaining the polishing powder, it is
necessary that there should be a yielding where necessary, or contact would
not be preserved ; both conditions can be satisfied by forming the surface of
two layers of resinous matter of different degrees of hardness; the first may
be of common pitch adjusted to the proper consistence, by the addition of
spirits of turpentine or rosin, and the other I prefer making of rosin, spirits
of turpentine and wheat flour, as hard as possible consistent with its holding
the polishing powder. The thickness of each layer need not be more than
#oth of an inch, provided no portion of continuous surface exceeds half an
inch in diameter ; the hard resinous compound, after it has been thoroughly
fused, can be reduced to powder, and thus easily applied to the polisher, and
incorporated with the subjacent layer by instantaneous exposure to flame. A
speculum of three-feet diameter thus polished has resolved several of the
nebule, and in a considerable proportion of the others has shown new stars,
or some other new feature; and by the same processes a speculum of six feet
diameter has just been completed.
Report on a Gas Furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory.
By the Rey. Witu1am Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., &e.
HAVING commenced in 1834 some experiments on vitrifaction, the object of
which was to determine the conditions of transparency in glass, and to com-
pare the chemical constitution with the optical properties of different glasses,
I was encouraged by a recommendation which is printed in the 4th volume
of the Transactions of the British Association to pursue the subject further.
I am not, however, prepared at present to report the progress which I have
made in these researches, except so far as to give an account to the meeting
of the manner in which I have endeavoured to surmount the first great diffi-
culty attendant on such inquiries.
In Dr. Faraday’s account of the experiments made in the laboratory of the
Royal Institution for the improvement of glass for optical purposes (Phil.
Trans., 1830, part 1.), he has noticed the obstacles which he encountered from
the reducing property of the gases produced by carbonaceous fuel, and the
contrivance by which he overcame the difficulty for the particular object
which he had in view; this, however, and other inconveniences from the
smoke, the dust, and the cumbrousness of an ordinary furnace, together
with the impossibility of regulating the application of the heat and of watch-
ee ee
‘*
ON APPARATUS FOR VITRIFACTION. 83
ing the progress of the experiment, have combined to hinder chemists from
multiplying observations on fusion, or examining with accuracy the pheno-
mena of vitrifaction.
On considering what might be the best means of obtaining a great range
of heat for such purposes not subject to the disadvantages above mentioned,
and of ready application and ceconomical use, it occurred to me that hydro-
gen gas, self-condensed in a vessel sufficiently strong, and allowed to issue
with greater or less rapidity through very fine apertures, would furnish a fuel
and furnace to answer these requirements.
In 1836 I expended the sum granted by the Association in executing the
apparatus which I had thus conceived ; and the instrument which I have now
the honour of exhibiting to the Section, and of which I propose to show the
working, is constructed on the same principles, but somewhat reduced in size
and altered in arrangement, so as to render it more compact and portable.
These instruments were made at Bermondsey at the engine-factory of
Messrs. Bryan Donkin, to whom I am indebted for many valuable sugges-
tions, and whose name is a sufficient warrant for the excellence of the work-
manship, and for the care with which the strength of every part of the appa-
ratus has been ascertained. Strength is indispensable, since the principle on
which in this instrument I depend for obtaining perfect combustion and a
rapid accumulation of heat is the velocity of the jets, issuing under a high
degree of compression. When IJ stated to the late Dr. Dalton, in 1835, the
pressure at which I proposed to work, he expressed a doubt whether the cold
which would be produced by the great expansion of the gas might not be
found materially to detract from the heat; and it does happen, either from
this cause, or as Dr. Faraday suggests, from the effect of successive explo-
sions, that if a strong pressure is put on at first, the jets refuse to inflame, or
blow themselves out; but when the object on which they are directed is once
heated to a certain point, the intensity of the heat rises in proportion to the
velocity of the jets. The first instrument was tested by the hydraulic press
to a pressure of 160 atmospheres, and I have worked it when showing 80 in
the gauge: that which is now before the Section has been tested to 60 atmo-
spheres, and in the experiments which I shall show will not be subject to
more than from 25 to 30. I need seareely add that under such circumstances,
the maximum condensation of the gas being determined by the quantity of
materials used for its production, and the gas itself being hydrogen almost
unmixed and consequently wholly inexplosive, these experiments are free
from all suspicion of danger. The tightness of every part of the apparatus
may be safely tried by a lighted taper, and if through any accidental leakage
the gas takes fire, it is easily extinguished by shutting the stop-cock or screw-
ing up the loose joint. :
The vessel in which the gas is generated and accumulated is a tube (see
Plate XXIV.) of drawn iron, closed at the lower end by welding and lined with
an internal tube of lead, of convenient height for manipulation, and hung by
the middle on a swivel, so as to be readily reversed and emptied of its con-
tents. On the upper end of the tube-turned conical a flanged iron cap is
driven and screwed, and on the cap a strong brass plate is screwed and ren-
dered air-tight by a leaden washer between it and the iron cap, which leaden
washer is soldered to the top of the internal tube of lead, and thus prevents
the acid penetrating between the iron tube and lead lining. In the brass
plate is a central aperture, in the form of a deep hollow cone, inverted and
truncated, which receives a hollow conical stopper, also of brass, ground to
fit it, and furnished with a stop-cock and tubular head, connected by means
of an union-joint with the rest of the apparatus. Two wedge-shaped ears
stand out from the stopper above the conical part, and when the joint is to be
G2
84 REPORT—1844.
secured pass under the inclined planes of two corresponding wedges screwed
to the brass plate. By this contrivance, due to the ingenuity of Mr. Bryan
Donkin, jun., a quarter of a turn of the stopper suffices to secure the joint,
which is afterwards at leisure more tightly fastened down by two additional
screws.
The aperture in the brass plate gives admission to a colander of the same
length as the tube, made of copper, and designed to hold the charge of zine.
A conducting pipe of copper tubing connects, by means of union-joints,
the tubulated stopper with a brass stand, in which is a chamber where the gas
is cleansed after having been partially dried by sponge introduced into the
cavities of the stopper. In this chamber a glass vessel is placed which con-
tains absorbent materials, and to the bottom of which the gas is conveyed by
a tube.
With the chamber are connected by similar copper tubing two supports
for burners, the supply of gas to which is commanded by two stop-cocks
attached to the chamber, so that they may be employed either separately or
together.
I have contrived various forms of burners for different purposes : that which
is best adapted for concentrating heat is a truncated brass cone ground within
another cone, and inscribed on its face with lines converging to the axis. But
for the purpose of bringing a vessel to an uniform temperature, the jets of
flame must be directed in the manner best fitted to distribute the heat: a
fine jet of hydrogen issuing with such force as to create a strong current of
air, and thus blow, as it were, its own bellows, produces very intense heat, a
heat so intense that I have fused with it at high pressures hyacinths and jar-
goons: even at the lower pressure, which I am now going to use, vessels of
platina are liable to be melted at the extremities of the jets, whilst at the
intervals between them the metal is far below the point of fusion. I deter-
mined, therefore, to attempt to equalise the temperature by giving the vessels
a rotatory motion, so that the jets of flame might act on successive points at
successive moments; and I arranged the jets in spirals, flat or elevated, as
dishes and crucibles of different forms required, so that each jet. should de-
scribe a separate circle on the surface revolving before its point, and that
those circles should be equally distributed over the surface of the vessel : the
burners are copper tubes twisted into the required forms, and furnished with
nipples tipped with platina, finely bored, and screwed into the tube. By this
arrangement the currents of air pass uninterrupted, the tubes are not in
danger of being fused, and the number of jets may be regulated by plugging
more or fewer of the apertures within the screws. To effect the rotation, I
adapted a watch-movement to the wires from which the crucibles depend ;
and, at Mr. Donkin’s suggestion, I use for the same purpose a light fan, which
is moved by the heat of the burner: for low heats this does not answer so
well as the watch-movement, but at high temperatures it has the advantage of
increasing the velocity of the rotation in proportion to the intensity of the heat.
Another copper pipe, connecting by union-joints the chamber with a gauge,
completes the apparatus. The gauge consists of a double iron chamber con-
taining mercury; into the upper part of the inner chamber a strong glass
tube is secured by leaden washers and a perforated screw: the graduations
of the tube begin with eight atmospheres and are carried to 150.
On the present occasion I intend to employ a quantity of gas, which, if
liberated at once, would give a pressure of about 66 atmospheres, but at the
rate at which it is actually formed will in ten minutes give about one-third _
of that pressure. For this purpose I have poured into the generating tube
103 pints of water and 3 of a pint of oil of vitriol, and have allowed the mix-
ture to cool. IJ now introduce the colander, into which I have put 15 ounces
ON REGISTERING EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS IN SCOTLAND. 85
of strips of rolled zinc, and close the stop-cock. The capacity of the appa-
ratus is such, that after being thus charged, the whole space left for the gas
to accumulate in is nearly equal to four pints, and the volume of hydrogen
extricated in ten minutes is in round numbers 3000 cubic inches at the press-
ure of one atmosphere, which give in this case a pressure of 22 atmospheres
in the gauge.
The Section will now see, that by a greater or less opening of the stop-
cocks a very extensive range of heat is commanded, according to the quantity
of gas which I allow to pass, so that the platina vessels may be brought gra-
dually or instantly from a moderate temperature to the highest white heat
which they are capable of bearing ; and it will be observed that the whole
surface of the crucible is heated with great uniformity when revolving within
the helical burner. This very intense heat might be continued, with the
present charge and burner of six jets, for nearly twenty minutes, and may be
discontinued and resumed at pleasure ; for such is the accuracy of the fitting,
that no material loss of gas occurs in many hours when the stop-cocks are
closed.
Higher charges may be safely employed than I have here used, and the
accumulation of the gas may be retarded or accelerated by varying the
strength and volume of the charge; but this will suffice to show the use and
power of the instrument. The invention of new instruments is often the first
step to the discovery of new facts and laws, and therefore I have bestowed
both a good deal of attention, and also of expense beyond the liberal grant
made by the Association, on this instrument, in the hope of bringing within
the reach of chemists as full a command of high heats as of low, with such
ceconomy of time, trouble and cost as may make it practically available.
The actual cost of the apparatus here exhibited is enhanced by some sup-
plementary parts, serviceable in the first construction and regulation of it,
but not essential probably to its practical use ; and if the gauge and separate
drying-chamber, which are of this character, be deducted, the instrument may
be constructed at a moderate price.
The expense of the charge which I have now used is less than sixpence;
the trouble of charging and re-charging is less than that of lighting and re-
lighting a fire. The only part of these operations which requires time is the
cooling the mixture of the acid and water, a precaution advisable when a
strong charge is used, lest the heat thus generated, added to that produced by
the solution of the zine, should occasion an inconvenient evolution of steam.
_ With the aid of this instrument I have made various experiments on vitri-
faction, especially on that of phosphoric glasses, into the detail of which, as
they are still in progress, I will not at present enter. The Section will, how-
ever, see on the table various specimens of vitrified compounds, which tend to
illustrate some leading principles in the manufacture of glass, and with regard
to which I shall be happy to furnish the Section with any information that
may be desired.
Report of the Committee for registering Earthquake Shocks in Scotland.
Tue place where, as usual, these shocks have been most felt during the last.
twelve months, is Comrie in Perthshire; thirty-seven shocks have been felt
there during that time; but few were so violent as to produce any effects be-
yond the neighbourhood of that town.
The following is a list of the shocks registered at Comrie by Mr. Macfar-
lane, post-master there, who takes charge of the instruments belonging to the
Association :—
86 REPORT—1844.
REGISTER FOR
EXPLA-
A The hours of the day before noon to be indicated by A, the hours after noon to be
4 o’clock in the
B Marking the least perceptible as 1, and a shock equal to that on Oct. 23, 1839, as 10,
loud as shock re-
C If the concussion be single, to be marked C; if double, CC ; but if the second be smaller
would indicate two shocks, the
D To be entered C, H, or T, according as it has been a Crash, Heave, or Tremor, or two,
would indicate a shock beginning with a slight concussion, then a considerable heave,
the three qualities
E The first column here is merely for entering the direction the shock appeared to the
the Dip to be entered of course only where the
¥ In like manner, in these columns the height of Barometer and Thermometer to be en-
wind to be indicated by 1 for the gentlest current,
G Where there is no rain-gauge the quantity of rain to be marked in general by the letters
A B Cc D E F
2 ura- .
eee ae Vievnes tion in z Direction. Instant of Shock.
Year y- Seconds.)
cs
1843.4.|~ | faite &
2 Marked by the :
| 2 Seismometer, | Wind. 3
oI : / Pa |
5 _ a . a1 he
Day of | § wal Se | te 5 Selecta )
the a ee Nee ree ore , (sales | 88) 2 /81S/4| 4
; ;/e/%/s]}/aiais] 5 = = Sa \¢ =| t | 3
Month, | 3 x % 5 4 5 2 3 = g $5 & = 5 E 8 5 =}
Solu nD a sit | Es = = M >
BlSi4/4/8\/4/a| 8 a) [ee las) go) ee bee
Aug.25.| 10} 40; A} 5} 5| 3} 4/ Ce wo li w]e } | 29°5 8s | 2] D
mes 5} 11)..); A} Pi bj] ij 1 c ‘ het ane ot 5 Oe te ee
— te Slaw) Pi it Bp 2
Sept. 1.| 5)15}/ AJ] 2} 2) 2} 2) ¢ . oe oe . “ eve | oes |e
—— 2.| 12 AC |e S| Ses eS Bale i Z . = ae Se endl Rees
meet Hi Go pises dt Ad Lyf Ped pio Ay? ose . ees is . 30°15 | 60 |...) ]
10) 1 fis | A} Lt do) Dp 2 |e wee mae = : ‘ ses’ | wee loam |i ead i cay
Nove) @pafAl pa epay vy ac tis % vs | aah saat anleutt
see 4b mae | AL. 2 [ely Sul eed ae t aa & ” a fisas Potter eee ath
EREOO ave fee | AT 2 Leah Dt Sea one tG 1 deh. |. Sebe, f-auegll oneal Mean LO
Set SO.| aad wow | Ald): Dapeadipen ds a t és ; Bs ay en ge WMS
Eris yg ts Op IPP 38 APS TO a as a i | c t " uve ive ° ‘ sos | one | ose’ |) eee
i—— 3.) 3|..) A 1 1 1 1 c t As ‘ : . . 5 ose | aps Ay see
i—— §./ 5|..1 A 1 1 5 Ws hae | c t ‘ . ove rn eno | eae
——— 14.) Lj. | P| 89) #} 2) 3) ves r
511 WH 9 Va ee Hs UE et t | |
j—— 14.) 1/20) P} 1) 1) 1) 1) Cc t |
——. 14, 1137] P| 24 4] 2] 3] ses T
Sea ey Peay Ty 7) t 0 0 Bo] vse [oe | ove | one | one
ees FAG | Oi seul By p dof) sR i] a tas t
ome Ar UL) | Pk] Ped) Ld de t yi
re eh ano» te i es OU tm t
eee ENB] nce AN Mil] Dl eh) a ee t nee 5 5 Fre Wook Oy
Feb. 6.) 4]../ A 1 1 1 1 a t oa o 7 = ey) xy te
——16.| 0 |... | A} tT] 2] -a4 hy we t see A Be ys “
ene iG) SO) 1 AC Me SE) ial ce t Ke é eco) fers Wien
Mars) Si} 27) |)<-'}, an)” 1) dt 1 Get t “5 . eee act ose | ove |} eee
——~ 90.) Ppa) PPR Apoep Th a t " tee ose sab as wee
ee a do ek RT a Ra es t “8 ane . as . age |, ake etna it
MBG 21D faci) Be La ae ao t eee “ | Pr (i ey te
—i4.| 4)../ A 1 1 1 1 aan t she eee 7 ots w fete | os a | ove
—e | Flue | Al 2) 21 al} Bl ous t ek se 5 zoe) oes) [paeaed] bebee
—225.| 5)30/ A] 1] 1] 1] 1]... t ots . ats : re een ot en Wak Ss
July 9.; 3)..)/ A] 1 1 1 1 os t ose oa Pry os Ss © | wae | oe
Aug.25.| 3]..)/ Al] 1 1 1 1 «é t ase Pty A, . a | eee ace
Neneh IS | Py Sp od | ali eee ae aa ‘ . vow | aheid eonhll G5
— 4./ 6/15) P| 1] 2] 1] 1]. t Rie < ace ° . aco} ase aneih) man
ON REGISTERING EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS IN SCOTLAND. 87
EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS.
NATIONS.
indicated by P; thus, 4 o’clock in the morning would be marked in the Table 4 A ;
afternoon, 4 P.
and intermediate degrees of intensity by intermediate numbers ; thus, one half as violent or
ferred to, to be entered 5.
than first (which is almost always the case) the latter to be marked with a small c; thus Cc
second weaker than the first.
or all; using the small letters here too to mark the relative force of each; thus c Ht
and ending in a slight tremor; and C HT, one such as that of Oct. 23, 1839, where all
were intense.
observer to proceed from, most needed in slight shocks that do not affect the instruments ;
instrument enables the observer to ascertain it.
tered only by those observers who have such instruments at hand. The strength of the
and 10 for a hurricane; and a calm, 0.
M, much, and L, little.
F G
Five minutes after =
ock. ia
i“
5
| aie Other particulars not included in preceding list, that might be
Wind. | %/| 3
4, 3 2 considered as either directly or indirectly con-
Co] x
Po g a} 5) 3 nected with the shocks.
eS /Elsisltis
g E/S\ els|s
BI/S/sIiTIls
eae: EI 2|s \
OB i|HIA|a|n |
29°6 L |The direction and dip in this case (10. 40. A) given most distinctly by spiral
sss | vee | eee | eee | eee | *** | pendulum in steeple. The horizontal force one in Post-office attics ranged
fully half an inch. Day cloudy, cold and showery. Close rain from 2 to
| 44 P.; mostly fair afterwards. Next day (26) cloudy with occasional sun.
H shine ; much thunder at 2 P., and cloudy with light rain afterwards.
g
: n
S es
0
see | see | aoe | ace | +++ | 2+ |Other three slight shocks observed by some during the night between the Ist
iii | os. |. |---| “| and 2nd; rain in morning of 2nd; light, cloudy, mild, moist and warm day.
80°15 | GO|... | ... | ... | ++ |Fine harvest morning; splendid dry fine night.
“| wee | one | see | oe | e+e | *** |Morning cloudy; day also; with occasional blinks of sunshine.
see | eee | «+. | t+ |Day dark; drizzling rain occasionally. This shock observed only at Tomperran.
+» |Most dark and dull; rain at night.
F A +++ |Very dark morning ; much rain through the day.
see | eee | eee | *** | Very dark morning ; much rain through the day.
ses | aes | ees | *** | Frosty, clear and sunshine,
aes | ese | wee | eve | ee | *** |Dim and cloudy ; afall of about 1in.snow during the night ; a.m. sunshine ;
p.m. overcast.
see | see | eee | eee | ose | *** | Very dark and overcast ; after 103 sleet and snow.
In all 8 shocks to-day. During first 5 deys bright and sunny. Barometer at
3 o’clock at 30°2; ext. thermometer 35. Wind gentle aud S. W. allday. Spiral
in steeple indicated 3-8ths in perpendicular heaves ; no lateral mark. Hori-
TARE | ces | ese | cee zontal pendulum in Post-office attics indicated same amount of heaves as
spiral in steeple; sand in glass had fallen 2 in. since last noticed ; but part of
L this fall might have been owing to other causes, as it had not been marked
for a month before.
5 ; Fine morning ; fine day and night.
sss | ene | vee | eee | ave | oes [SeVEre frost; fine clear and dry day; night overcast.
.. | «. |... |Dull morning; showery day; clear night.
wee | soe | ove | woe | aoe | «-- (Clear sharp frost.
. |Dull and snowy morning ; fine clear night.
.. |Fine morning ; afternoon dull, inclined to rain.
. |Dull foggy morning; fine day and night.
Beautiful morning ; showery afternoon.
. |Clear, fine day; a little rain at night.
... |Clear morning; fine day ; rain at night.
. |Dull morning ; showery during day.
Cloudy morning ; cloudy and sun-shining day.
a eee eorae el alittle cold towards evening. Thisshock observed only at Tomperran.
wes | ese | eee | ace | ove | ove | Fine day.
see | eee | vee | vee | ose | «ee |Fine Gay. This shock observed only at Lawers.
88 REPORT—1844.
Mr. Macfarlane observes, regarding the shock of 25th August 1843, in a
letter accompanying his Register, that he had “an excellent opportunity of
witnessing the effects of it on many persons, being at the time in the front of
the gallery of our church, in the midst of a congregation engaged in public
worship. Some became pale, others flushed; some started, others trembled ;
and the momentary perfect silence that followed the awful concussion and
sound was really sublime. After witnessing this, I am more inclined than ever
to ascribe all the various sensations experienced by many on these occasions to
the effects of the sudden alarm rather than to those often alleged as the cause,
such as electricity, &c. On this occasion somehow I instinctively, as it were,
thought the concussion and peculiar sound arose to us from an immense depth
within the earth ; and that it actually did so was afterwards confirmed by the
fact, that this shock was felt simultaneously over an area of more than 100
square miles, and that with nearly equal intensity throughout.”
Mr. Macfarlane reports further in regard to this shock, that it moved the
instruments at the following places, and produced on them the effects now to
be stated :-—
Kingarth, two miles north of Comrie, inverted pendulum, had point thrown
to three-quarters of an inch to north-west.
Clathick, three miles east of Comrie, spiral pendulum and sand-glass; sand
fell two inches.
Crieff, six miles east of Comrie, inverted pendulum, had point thrown three-
quarters of an inch to west.
Invergeldie, six miles north of Comrie, inverted pendulum, had point thrown
three-quarters of an inch to south-west.
In regard to the shock of 14th January 1844, Sir David Dundas of Duneira,
whose house is situated about two miles W.N.W. of Comrie, writes,—‘* That
shock was attended with a louder noise and a longer-continued dying-away
rumble than many of them, and the quake was not so severe as I have expe-
rienced, though quite enough to be very disagreeable and make one feel un-
comfortable. Since then there has been nothing of any consequence, and I
wish I could persuade myself that we shall never have any more.” Sir David
adds, that “the instrument in his house, a spiral pendulum, was not affected
by this or any other shock during the year. It had not been erected at the
date of the shock in August 1843.”
Mr. Stewart of Ardvoirlich happened at the time of this same shock to be
at Balquhidder, which is about seventeen miles west of Comrie, and he writes
that there were “two pretty severe shocks at an interval of from half an hour
to three-quarters of an hour, accompanied by considerable rolling noise. I
was at the time in Balquhidder Church, and heard and felt them distinctly.
On my return home I examined the seismometer, but no perceptible motion
seemed to have taken place in any direction, nor was the column of sand in
the tube in any degree displaced. No earthquakes have been felt here since,
so far as I have heard.”
This shock of 14th January was distinctly perceived at Tyndrum, which is
about thirty miles W.N.W. of Comrie. On that day, at one o'clock, an ex-
traordinary subterranean noise was felt by the inhabitants of the village, and
which was generally recognized by them to be that caused by an earthquake.
The innkeeper happened to be in bed unwell, and felt it shake as well as heard
the rumbling sound.
It will be observed, from the effects produced on the instruments by the”
shock of 25th August 1843,—1, that it was only in the village of Comrie that
the ground had an upward movement, the movement in more distant places
ON REGISTERING EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS IN SCOTLAND. 89
, dee
|
¥
being horizontal; 2, that at all the places above-mentioned the movement
eame from the westward, these being all more or less to the east of the hill
from which, according to former observations, the shocks emanate.
Had the instruments now at Duneira and Ardvoirlich been at that date
erected, any effects on chem, it might be expected, would have been in an op-
posite direction.
The meteorological observations have been faithfully carried on at Comrie
under the superintendence of Mr. Macfarlane, to whose diligence and assi-
duity the Committee are much indebted. A complete register of these obser-
vations has been rendered to them, of which a copy is herewith sent.
When these meteorological observations have been carried on for a few
years, they will afford some data for ascertaining whether, as has been gene-
rally believed, any connexion prevails between the state of the weather or
time of the year with the number and violence of the shocks.
No earthquake shocks have occurred in other parts of the United Kingdom
during the last year, in so far as known to the Committee, except one on the
12th of June 1844. The following notices of it have been extracted from the
newspapers :—“ Earthquake.—A slight shock of an earthquake was felt at
Stamford on Wednesday evening, 12th June 1844, about seven. Many per-
sons were sensible of the tremulous motion of the earth for ten or fifteen
seconds. It was accompanied with a noise like distant thunder, and was by
some mistaken for that phenomenon; but there is no doubt that it was a con-
valsion of the earth. At Tinwell, Ketton, Tixover, Duddington, Cliffe, Ape-
thorp, Wansford, Collyweston, Easton, &c. &c., the shock was distinctly felt.
In some of the above named villages various articles were displaced; at a
gentleman’s house at Easton, the bell at the outer gate was rung in conse-
quence of the vibration produced by it.”— Stamford Mercury. “ Earthquake
in Huntingdonshire. Yaxley, June 14.—A most severe shock of earthquake
was felt here on Wednesday evening last, the 12th inst., at about half-past
seven o'clock, more particularly on the hill where my house is situate, appear-
ing like a park of artillery passing under it, shaking it to the very founda-
‘tion. Scarcely a shower of rain has fallen since the 26th of March.”
The Committee, in accordance with the suggestion in their last year’s Re-
port, and which they understood met with general approval, have placed a
seismometer at Tyndrum, and Lord Breadalbane has given directions to his
overseer there that it should be attended to. By means of instruments thus
placed on all sides of the earthquaking district, and at different distances from
if, additional data for inference will be obtained.
Stirling, 23rd Sept. 1844.
My bear S1r,—Since sending off the Earthquake Report I have obtained
some additional information, which I would have introduced into it had I
known of it before. I therefore sit down to communicate it by letter to you, in
order that you may, if you see fit, take notice of it in presenting the Report.
You will see from the register, that the two most severe shocks during the
last year occurred in August 1843 and January 1844. I met yesterday and
today a very intelligent person (Lady Moncrieff) who felt both of these
Shocks. The first she felt in Comrie House, situated within three-quarters of
a mile of the hill, from which all the shocks in Perthshire appear to emanate.
The noise and concussion produced by this shock alarmed her so much that
she fell from her seat on the floor, and it was a few seconds before she re-
covered. She was residing in Comrie House for some months last autumn,
and she states that scarcely a day passed without her hearing either the rum-
_ bling noise in the earth or the moaning in the air, produced by this mysterious
agent, the nature of which we are so anxious to discover. The second of these
90 REPORT—1844.
shocks Lady Moncrieff felt in Perth (about twenty-two miles east of Comrie) ;_
she was in church at the time, but it was not generally perceived by the con-
gregation. I learn that this shock was felt also at Callendar, about fifteen
miles south-west of Comrie.
I am happy to tell you that I felt one of these earthquake shocks last night
at 8" 50' p.m. I was in Lawers House at the time, which is (as you know)
about two miles east of Comrie. The noise was like that produced by the
rumbling of a cart over a pavement beneath the house ; it continued for about
four seconds ; it was loudest in the middle. Its progress was distinctly from
the westward, and at a great depth below the house. There was neither un- |
dulation nor concussion. I could form no opinion, from the nature of the
noise, what was the agent which caused it.
This morning I met a gentleman who was to the south of Comrie (about
two miles) when it occurred ; he perceived the course of the noise to be from
the north. At Ardvoirlich (about eight miles west of Comrie) the same noise
was perceived.
The barometer was falling all yesterday afternoon, after having been for
some days remarkably high, and before seven o'clock this morning it had
fallen three-fourths of a tenth more. Yours very truly,
To the Rev. Dr. Buckland. Davip Mitne.
Report of a Committee appointed at the Tenth Meeting of the Associa-
tion for Experiments on Steam-Engines. Members of the Com-
mittee:—The Rev. Professor Mosretey, M.A., F.R.S.; Eaton
Hovexinson, Esq., F.R.S.; J. 8. Enys, Esq., F.G.S.; Professor
Poe, F.G.S. (Reporter).
Your Committee, in reporting the progress of the experiments entrusted to
their care, have the pleasure of stating that they have succeeded in accom-
plishing the principal object which has engaged their attention during the
past year; namely, to ascertain by actual experiment the velocity of the —
piston of a single-acting Cornish pumping-engine, at all points of its stroke.
Unfortunately, however, from delays and accidents, arising from causes in-
herent in the delicate nature of the operations required and the machine used,
there has not been yet time to obtain the data and work out the calculations
necessary for comparing the results of experiment with those of theory, and
by that means eliciting the useful information which it is hoped this com-
parison will offer to practical science.
The velocity-measuring machine constructed by Breguet of Paris, under
the kindly proffered direction of M. Morin, was received a few months ago. —
It is on the same principle as those with which the beautiful experiments of —
M. Morin on friction were made, and which are described minutely in the
works of this writer (Nouvelles Expériences sur le Frottement, or Déscrip-
tion des Appareils Chronométriques). These may be referred to for a full
and complete explanation of the construction and action of the machine, but
the principle of it may be briefly explained as follows.
A circular disc, covered with card or paper, is made to revolve with a unz-
form motion by means of clockwork regulated by air-vanes. Plate XXV.
Upon this disc, a revolving pencil, whose motion is caused by and corresponds
with that of the body whose variable velocity is to be measured, describes a
curved line: and from this curve, which results from a combination of the_
variable with the uniform motion, the velocity may be easily ascertained by
processes and formule adapted to the purpose,
This beautiful and ingenious contrivance, by which spaces described in_
x
a a pile oe
ON THE EXPERIMENTS ON STEAM-ENGINES. 91
the 10,000dth part of a second may be easily discerned, is the invention of
M. Poncelet, carried into execution by M. Morin.
On examining the machine, it was found necessary to make some few re+
pairs of injuries it had received in carriage, and also some alterations to fit it
for the particular purpose it was proposed to apply it to. These were done
by Mr. Holtzapffel.
The instrument, when put in order, was first tried at King’s College, a
variable motion being given by a small carriage made to descend an inclined
plane. The correspondence of the velocity shown by the machine, with that
deduced by the known laws of dynamics, was such as to give great confi-
dence in its accuracy ; and after a few minor alterations suggested by fre-
quent trials, it was removed to the East London Water Works, Old Ford,
and, by the kind permission of Mr. Wicksteed, the engineer, was attached to
the Cornish engine at work there. This was considered a very favourable
engine to experiment upon, inasmuch as the constants involved in its work-
ing had been so accurately ascertained by Mr. Wicksteed in his previous ex-
periments, and so amply confirmed by the long trial of the constant indicator
upon it by your Committee during the years 1841 and 1842.
After several preparatory trials and adjustments, some diagrams were taken
on the 8th of August, and the velocities calculated from these have been ex-
pressed in the form of geometrical curves, whose abscisse represent the
spaces passed over by the piston of the engine, and whose ordinates indicate
the corresponding velocities at the different points of the stroke.
Plate X XVI. shows diagrams which represent the velocities of the piston
both in the descending and ascending strokes of the engine, or as they are tech-
nically termed, the in-door and out-door strokes. The velocity of the in-door,
or descending stroke of the piston, is taken from the mean of three experi-
ments, differing very little from each other. The velocity begins from zero,
accelerating as the piston descends, until at about four feet of the stroke it
attains a maximum of about 10:4 feet per second. This is the point where the
pressure of the steam in the cylinder has, by expanding, become exactly equal
to the resistance opposed to the motion of the piston; and from this point the
velocity gradually decreases as the steam becomes more attenuated, until the
piston is gradually brought to rest by the exhaustion or expenditure of the whole
of the work accumulated in the moving mass (in the shape of vis viva) during
the early part of the stroke, while the steam power exceeded the resistance.
‘The velocity of the owé-door, or pumping stroke, is much less than that of
the former, the greatest velocity being only about 3°8 ft. per sec.
Plate XX VII. contains diagrams of the spaces and ¢imes constructed in a
similar manner ; the abscisse of the curves representing, as in the former case,
the spaces passed over by the piston, and the corresponding ordinates indi-
cating the ¢imes in which those spaces are described.
It will be seen that the whole in-door stroke is performed in about 14 se-
cond, and the out-door stroke in about 4 seconds. As a check to these re-
sults, the time occupied in the strokes was observed directly with a stop-watch,
and was found perfectly to agree with the indications of the machine. The
observed times were, as nearly as could be ascertained,
Per erOKe eg er. eee) PS Pe SO) 5 Sebold:
Short pause between the in-door and out-door strokes* 5 ,,
BT SurO ce eee PEAY Fe pK Cu Sera 5
ETE Hig OR Tee toast Map oehie ks dup sul Sy yet g
Total . . . .« . 8seconds.
* This is not usual in the engines at work in the Cornish mines; in most of these the
92 REPORT—1844,
The engine made 8 strokes in 63 seconds.
The various elements of the motion of the piston of the engine are arranged _
below in a tabular form.
In column B. are stated certain periods of time from the commencement
of the stroke, after which periods of time the positions of the piston indicated
in column A. are respectively attained.
Column C. represents the approximate velocity of the piston in each cor-
responding position.
It will be evident that the numbers in column A. are equivalent to the
abscisse of the curves in Plates XX VI. and XXVII., while the column B. re-
presents the ordinates in Plate XXVII., and column C. those in Plate XXVI.
The times are given in these tables only as far as the hundredths of a se-
cond, and the velocities to the twentieth part of a foot per second; but the
delicacy of the machine enables them to be calculated, when necessary, to a
much greater nicety.
Tables of the Elements of the Motion of the Piston of the Cornish Pumping
Engine at the East London Water Works, Old Ford.
; Table I. Table II.
a a ee_—e———————————————
IN-DOOR STROKE. OUT-DOOR STROKE.
A. B. Cc. A. B. Cc.
Spaces Times in Spaces Times in
passed over) which the } Velocities passed over| which the | Velocities
by spaces are | acquired. by spaces are | acquired.
Piston. | described. Piston. | described.
Feet. Seconds. | Ft. per sec. Feet. Seconds. | Ft. per sec.
0:0 0:0 0:0 0:0 0:0 00
0°5 0°17 5°05 0°5 06 0°85
10 0:26 71 1:0 0°97 16
15 0°33 8:3 1°5 1-22 21
2°0 0°39 9°05 2:0 1-42 25
25 0°44 9°6 2°5 1°61 28
3°0 0°49 10°05 30 1°78 3°0
3°5 0°54 10°3 3°5 1°94: 3°2
| 40 0°58 10°4: 40 2-1 3°35
4s5 0°63 103 4°5 2°24: 3°45
50 0°68 10:2 | 50 2°38 3°55
55 0°73 9°9 55 2°52 3°6
6:0 0°78 9°55 | 6:0 2°66 3°65
6°5 0°84 9°15 6°5 2°38 s baF
7:0 0:9 8°7 70 2:94. 3°75
15 0:96 31 La 3°07 3°78
8:0 1:02 745 8:0 32 3°8
8°5 1:09 6°65 8°5 3°33 3°8
9°0 1°17 5°55 9°0 3°47 3°8
9°5 1:27 4-0 9°5 3°65 on
10°0 145 0:0 10:0 397 0-0
A slight oscillation of the calculated velocity is found to occur on either
equilibrium valve is opened by the plug-rod at the end of the in-door stroke, and the engine
immediately returns. But in the Old Ford engine this valve is worked by a second cataracts
and therefore a short pause is often allowed. ;
‘ ‘
ve
a
BL
ON THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 93
side of the mean valve, which is given in the diagrams, and this particularly
happens about the position of maximum velocity. This oscillation has its
origin in an irregularity of the instrument. The plate which carries the card
does not revolve with a perfectly uniform motion, the moving power being a
spring, and the regulating power the resistance of the air; it is demonstrable
that any variation, however slight, in the effort of the former, must result in
an oscillation of the plate about a certain mean velocity corresponding to
that resistance of the air which will exactly counteract the newly-acquired
effort of the spring.
It is desirable to take this opportunity of acknowledging that the thanks of
the Committee are particularly due to Mr. Wicksteed and his sub-engineer,
Mr. Price, for the accommodation rendered at Old Ford ; to Mr. Cowper, of
King’s College, for his kind and able assistance in the experiments ; to Mr.
Holtzapffel and Mr. Timme for the attention paid to the repairs and adjust-
ments of the machine; and to Mr. Penn, of Greenwich, for the loan of an
excellent indicator. H. MosEvey.
E. HopexInson.
J. S. Enys.
London, April 1844. Witt1AM Poze (Reporter).
Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race.
Tue Committee report that copies of the arranged queries have been for-
warded to the remotest parts of North America, in the neighbourhood of the
Rocky Mountains, to Mexico, Guiana, and to several of the States in South
America ; to the West Indies, to Western, Southern and Northern Africa, to
different localities in Asia, the Indian Archipelago, and several of the Islands
of the Pacific Ocean. They have, for the most part, been addressed to indi-
viduals, and accompanied with communications of greater or less extent,
urging the importance of the subject.
Sets of queries have likewise been forwarded to scientific gentlemen, who
: have either visited races but imperfectly known, or have made ethnological
research a part of their studies. In former years, answers have been furnished
: by travellers particularly acquainted with the sections of the human race to
which they related. The correspondence on the subject has produced com-
munications relating to it which have contained various points of information.
It is a gratifying fact that ethnology is now receiving systematic attention
in France, Germany, and the United States, and that in this country it is also
advancing.
The Ethnological Society of London, of which the commencement was
announced at the meeting of the Association last year, is now regularly con-
stituted, and it is greatly to be desired that mutual assistance may long con-
tinue to advance the study, and rescue from oblivion many interesting facts,
of which without prompt attention no record will remain.
With the exception of the sums required to defray the bills for printing
the queries, no demand has been made upon the grants awarded to the Com-
mittee in former years. Strict ceconomy has been employed in the distribu-
tion, advantage having been taken of private opportunities and other channels
requiring no expense on the part of the Association, aud numerous small sums
have been laid out of which no account has been charged.
Of the £15 granted last year, the sum of £7 6s. 3d. has been drawn upon
the Treasurer to cover the expense of postage, lithography and stationery.
| Tuomas HopeKkIn.
94 REPORT—1844,
Fourth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. EK. SrRicKLAND, Esq.,
Prof. DauBENY, Prof. HeEnstow and Prof. LinDLEY, appointed —
to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds.
THESE experiments have this year been conducted in the same manner as in
former years, one portion of the seeds having been sown in the Botanic Gar-
den at Oxford, a second at the Horticultural Society’s Garden, Chiswick, and
a third in Prof. Henslow’s garden at Hitcham, Suffolk, instead of the Botanie
Garden, Cambridge, as was at first: proposed.
The Committee have this year expended 11/. Os. 10d. in the purchase of
seeds, materials for their preservation, and incidental expenses, Seeds of 48
additional genera have been added to the Seminarium at the Botanic Garden,
Oxford. The Committee are indebted to Sir W. J. Hooker for a very inter-
esting collection, consisting of 303 packets of seeds, gathered at various dates
from 1800 to 1843. These have all been sown at Oxford, the quantity of ©
each having been in most cases too small to admit of distribution, The de-
structive effects of time upon the vitality of seeds is well exemplified by this
collection, and the following is the general result :—
Of 92 kinds gathered from 1800 to 1806, only 2 per cent. have vegetated. —
pen bee 05 be 1816 ... 1823, ... 21 Sas as ee
oe ae oes sin hy ant reece hoe ed “se a ea
The Committee beg to renew their request for similar contributions of an-
cient seeds from all persons who may be interested in the inquiry.
The seeds that were gathered in 1841 and sown in 1842 have also been
resown this year.
The following is a register of the results :-—
No. of Seeds of each
Species which vege- Time of yegetating
in days.
No. tated at
Name and Date when gathered. | sown. — a. — Remarks.
5 peaeeaoenl 4M as
1793.
1. Hordeum vulgare.....,... 100 | 0 0 At Oxford the
1841. seeds were sown
2. Vicia SATIVA .-.vce-rs..000e 50 | 48) 41 Si es 13 | 10 Jon the 17th of
3. Daucus Carota.......++.+- 100 | 30) 39 10} 11} 385 | 42 |May, on a bed
4, Cannabis sativa ......... 50 prepared _ for
5. Pastinaca sativa ......... 100 8 9 3; 18 40 | 35 |them in a cold}
6. Brassica Rapa ....+.++-++» 300 |163| 76 96) 5 8 4 | frame, with the
7. Linum usitatissimum ...| 150 | 87] 39 76| 6 8 8 |exception of
8. Lepidium sativum ...... 100 | 97| 37 61| 5 8 3 |those usually
9. Polygonum Fagopyrum..| 50 5 6 14| 14 34 7 |sown on a hot-
10. Phalaris canariensis...... 100 | 55 52 40) 7 53 8 | bed. These were
11, Brassica Napus..........+. 150 |143); 71 |109| 5 8 5 |sown in pots}
12. Carum Carn ....-.+5++0. 200} 0 and placed in|.
13. Petroselinum sativum...| 50] 7} 18 17} 25} 63 | 42 | gentle heat.
14. Trifolium ? repens ...... LES ED ite sha E: Ma ee 7| 33 At Chiswick
15. Lactuca sativa ........-... BOM a, Dege Pepin pose - 33 the seeds were}
16. Brassica oleracea ......... 50 5 3 3| 10 33 | 35 | not sown till
17. Pisum sativum ............ 50 | 42) 15 BE| 27 35 6 | late in the sea-
18, Faba vulgaris ..........-, 25 | 25| 22 24) Il 36 | 21 | son.
19. Phaseolus multifiorus .... 25 | 17] 17 13| 12 26 | 28
20. Triticum estivum ...... 100 | 44) 383 86) 7 33 5
21. Hordeum vulgare......... 100 | 86} 15 66) 6 13 3
22. Avena Sativa....osccsseeres 100 | 91} 57 89| 7 18 5
23. thusa cynapoides ...... 100 3
24, Antirrhinum majus ...... 300 |257| 116 |102) 11 43 | 35
25. Calendula pluvialis ...... 200 | 126) 135 140| 9 33 8
tee ge Ae
No.
sown.
, 1841 (continued). . ¥
}26. Collinsia heterophylla ...| 300
27. Datura Stramonium..,....| 100
28. Gilia achillzifolia......... 200
29. Lasthenia glabrata ...... 200
30. Ligusticum Levisticum, .| 100
31. Peonia mixt vars. ...... 100
182. Verbascum Thapsus..,... 500
4 1843.
'|33. Asphodelus luteus ...... 50
134, Arctium Lappa.. ......... 100
(85. Angelica Archangelica...
_ \36. Ageratum mexicanum...
187. Aster tenella..........00+++ 200
_ (88. Allium fragrans ......++- 100
139. Bidens diversifolia ...... 150
_ /40. Biscutella erigerifolia ...) 100
41. Borkhausia rubra......... 100
‘42. Bartonia aurea ...........- 200
(48. Callistemma hortensis ...| 200
/44. Campanula medium..,,.. 100
145. Centaurea depressa ...... 100
(6 Cladanthus arabicus......) 200
_ |47. Cleome spinosa............ 100
‘48. Cnicus arvensis ......... 50
_ 49. Convolvulus major ...... 50
50. Dianthus barbatus ...... 100
i. 1. Echium grandifiorum ...| 100
162. Eucharidium concinnum.| 200
_ |53. Euphorbia Lathyris......
7 Gypsophila elegans
. Helenium Douglasii
Hebenstretia tenuifolia. .
+ Heliophila araboides
. Hesperis matronalis,
Hypericum hirsutum ..
Kaulfussia amelloides ...
Leptosiphon androsacea .
. Lunaria biennis
Loasa lateritia ............
Plantago media .........
, Polemonium ceruleum..
Rumex obtusifolium
Silene inflata ............
Smyrnium Olusatrum ...
74. Schizanthus pinnatus ...
#75. Tallinum ciliatum......... 200
‘79. Xeranthemum annuum...
{80, Zinnia multiflora ,........
}
¥
No. of Seeds of each
ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS.
ie ich _ | Time of vegetating
Speci 3 eer. in days.
a IChis-| Ox. |43: eS
fai. ae lwick. He ‘ae gama ick.
fae | |
982| 296 |... 6| 34
21 19 69| 17 36 8
77 92 | 451 7 33 | 35
139; 169 55) 7 35
es [lbh Bove tea ge
|
eat DAD eracel Rane || pie
12 21 19| 26 49 35
ae coves | 1G], ,.065] -eeere | 42
16 7 Hah) AE 30 61
Sass Bios] OL aI ane a AB
26 48 |110}] 11 35 «| 28
63 SOM, inegze 84 56
12 10 | 17) 9 33 35
10} 5 6| 17 36 49
47 54 30; 5 33 za
7G NOU? sewers 7 33
13 52 5| 14 30 42
55 23 47| 17 49 | 35
100 5 | 7) 12 33 21
79 67 54) 4 35 35
40 55 31; 8 41 8
5 EAA es creeee ANP IY. sconesk yp Ae
12 8 9| 13 34 8
100 53 89} 9 43 8
100 44 57) 7 18 6
47 40 23 10 40 49
6 3 11} 19 43 35
77 eae GUE dining ass 42
76| 116 |...... 9 33
43 69 63) 5 33 5
110 96 69| 6 33 7
72 80 70} 11 33 28
ashy eel! .fegaene Bites Ail Sandee 49
85 54 42; 9 36 42
82 61 59)P ao 33 6
45 59 Ly RNY 30 49
64 66 13] 16 36 35
Sma des are PA eee leulenss ss] aot
59 84 60) 7 34 8
36 46 24| 5 30 8
80 86 76| 40 57 42
18 2 15 | 26 68 49
OB! yh. .s. G4) TO) vases 5
67 3 55| 12 44 56
47 69 |110; 30 46 49
37 14 Ane 40 | 56
12 45 45 | 27 50 49
122; 138 |138}) 7 50 8
70 65 61} 18 35 35
4 3 Balleacase 7 56
95; 40 67| 10 40 30
ARS son mo Bee a 25 |
95
Remarks,
96 REPORT—1844.
The following seeds, preserved in waxed cloth, were also resown:—
No. of Seeds of each : sore
Species which vege- Time - moa
No. tated at ae
Name and Date when gathered. | sown, |_——_-—————_ Remarks.
ae Hitcham. |chis- on Hitcham. oes
1841,
81. Hordeum vulgare......... 100 | 90} 63 | 83} 6 30 4
82. Avena sativa.....--seeesees 100 | 95 41 74 | 6 18 5
83. Triticum estivum ...... 100 | 65 26 | 48| 6 33 5
84. Vicia sativa ....ccceeceee-- 50 | 41 34 | 40 8 26 6
85. Brassica oleracea .......+- 50 | 20 15 5110 33 8
86. Triticum zstivum......... 100 | 58 40 | 42] 7 33 5 |) Preserved in
87. Lasthenia glabrata ...... 200 }100) 141 | 29] 7 33 8 open jars.
Of the 303 packets contributed by Sir W. J. Hooker,
32 kinds were gathered in 1800. None of which have yet vegetated.
Fi ee sits _. 1801. Of these 6 have failed.
21 se a .. 1802. One kind only has vegetated.
] eS aS .. 1803. This has not vegetated.
12 ae are .. 1804. ‘These have all failed.
3 Ae A a8 , OUDs oi a
16 ae 4E .. 1806. be be
1 oe SE .. 1816. This has also failed.
23 a es .. 1817. Of these 8 have vegetated.
25 Me sila 42, ELS. soe th cS
18 ne A -</. SEST9:
amit a
ih o -s .. 1820. None of these have vegetated.
48 ea 5 .. 1823. Of these 4 only have vegetated.
42 a 5 .. 1840. peel
AT ae = .. 1843. ta 22 a
303
The whole of these seeds were counted and sown on a moderate hot-bed,
devoted entirely tothem. They were, however, sown rather late in the sea-
son, so that in all probability many more of them will yet vegetate.
The following is a list of the seeds from Sir W. J. Hooker, and the results
of the experiments upon them :—
No. |_No | No. | No.
Name and Date. sown.| VERE | Name and Date. sown.| Vege-
fated. | tated.
1800. 14. Laserpitium ...........++ 100/ 0
1. Aconitum ......ceeceeeeeees 5O| O || 15. Lychmnis .........sceeeessenee 200] 0
2. Agrostemma .....+...ss0++ 200} O || 16. Lunaria ..........ceceeeeenes 16] 0
3. AlysSUM....cereceeensseeeees 50| O || 17. Ononis .......ceceeeeeeerees 35] 0
dye = MID TOAST aA taenemticndiana so. 150| O || 18. Papaver ......cccccecsccseees 200] 0
5. Anthericum .........0+00+ 100} O || 19. Prunella............:scscese 100} 0
6. Aquilegia .........seseeeees 200] O || 20. Reseda .......sssseseeere +..| 200] O
7. Clematis...........sseccesee 50} O |} Ql. Rumex .....cccccsssssesoees 150} 0
8. Cynoglossum.........+++0+. 50| O || 22. Saxifraga ...sse.cseccereees 200] 0
Q) Dianthus <:.-....2.0c-.c00- 150] O || 23. Scabiosa........cccccsereeeee 100] 0
10. Digitalis...... aCrbaeseenB ator 200} O || 24. Scandix ............ ase esae 50| 0
11. Gypsophila .............+ 150] O || 25. Scutellaria ............+:+0- 200} O
12. Heracleum.............+000+ 50} O 26. DORE eho scas apes neestes 200; 0
Wop ISALIS! vec.csssdesreravens cea 100| O || 27. Sisyrinchium............++ 150] 0
ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS.
Name and Date.
1800 (continued). .
. Sisyrinchium ............0+ 200
BSHACHYS \<ccvasecovess Ssastels 150
. Statice
. Teucrium
Trollius
Campanula
. Colutea
. Laserpitium ........ masa
. Ginanthe
. Scandix
. Alyssum
Centaurea .......- is ct ude
. Chelone
. Chenopodium
. Coronilla
. Cucubalus
. Gentiana
. Hyssopus
. Laserpitium
. Myosotis .
. Polemonium ......
Do.
Ranunculus
. Sophora
. Teucrium
. Thalictrum
Trifolium
. Veronica
Coronilla
. Dictamnus......... ied devas
. Digitalis
. Matricaria
. Papaver ...... acevusuvas outa
Polemonium
. Sisyrinchium
F 74. Dianthus
75. Echium
Sophora
| 72. Uvularia. F
PIV IGIE os vecucossvscceceseteter
1805.
eee eres ss eoessveee
_
ooocooooocoooocconooceono coocoreo
ococooce
socecoceoecoco i=}
ooo
Name and Date.
1806.
. Agrostemma
. Aquilegia
. Argemone
. Brownea
. Campanula
. Gentiana
Do.
. Globularia
. Melanthium
. Pentstemon
. Polemonium ...........06 re
. Sanicula
. Scrophularia
. Silene..
» COLEOPSIS. ...cscesseceeesees
1817.
. Aischynomene
- Bauhinia ...
Do.
. Cesalpinia
« Clitoria ...secceees
. Corchorus
. Crotalaria ...
. Dolichos
. Elephantopus
. Glycine ...... dascacusdunedde
. Hedysarum
Do.
. Hibiscus
. Poinciana
. Ruellia
. Sesamum
MW MESUATMAl can oan sateen oot sasiad
. Spermacoce
- Tallinum
. Tamarindus
. Triumfetta ........66 Pokies
1818.
. Aischynomene
. Banisteria
. Bauhinia
o coooooococoooocooco
—
lor)
CoD OoNC OOS coooocooocooocowrwmoonrwownoor
98 REPORT—1844.
No. | No. No. | No.
Name and Date. sown. Aik Name and Date. Sownl Mei
1818 (continued). 180. Casuarina. 2: ..sscseseseseee 100} 0
TSA ACLILOTIG | csdcaneceasesavass sedh 20)) QA LSS MOKGtoM 2 ...52<.cdcen eee “re 50} 30
PPO rICLOLAMATIA .<.cccco0s200cceses 43] O 1/182. Cryptandra ...... acevo 50} 9
MSOs GAlC PA ncsncccscecesscecere= 100 | :16:)\18S: Dadoned | ...cc..5.-<0ceeee 50! oO
131. Hedysarum ............06+ 50} 0 //184. DOs.) -sieteeapeeeateee 100} 0
132. Do. ete desasenns eo} 100) 3 |/185. D0... . <aaaveasaeveanceis 3/ 0
Ge RIUBLICIE seer acewea scence 100} 0 |/186. DO. cesentncsncetateees 20} O
134. OCyYMOM. ....redeceron.ceee 150} O |/187. Elichrysum ..,:........+6 50| O
135. Parkinsonia ............++- 11} © 1/188. Eucalyptus:.......2...00006 5| o| @
136. Do. Repcnencoeee a. 10} O }}189. DOs. .: iccceesosnss eee 25} O
137. Phytolacca .......-+ccsereees 100} 0 }|190. Do... %.s-seccaeuceeeee Tic O
PAG POCSDAMIA « anccanacessdenenaeee 100; O }/191. Dos: .scsccconeeteePeere 100} 0
Nee MEI Os., « dacscneader spaphecess 100; O }/192. DD5.+ (Gs. ccwecescomee 50} 0
140. Spondias ....... yaa weonsed 2} O ||193. DOS Ah ice secs ceeceeateee 20} 1
141. Volkameria .........+.4... 25| O ||194. Gompholobium ............ 3} 0
1819. 195. Hakea....... sedges see 16| 0
142. Adenanthera ..........0000- 6| 4 |1196. Hovea...........- Kanes case ---| 161.0
143. Bauhinia ............ eos-o-] 6] (OF197- Tsopogon. ..5...-..000s cooee| 50} 70
144. Bignonia......... casaversnats 25) O |}198. Leptospermum ......,..... 200} 0
TA5. Cytisus ..0-.0..cesecccesere 25| 0 |\199. WO. pas tera seee--| 100] 0
146. Dolichos............ stpesnaty 4} 0 |/200. Dos»... .csee ee 200} 0
147. Elephantopus............. --| 100] © |!201. Lessertia..........csessesoees 50; 0
148. IDL 6 ea-Bee as 100 [90 1202; Hebelia. .2...:ccsessssesauush 100|. oO
PAO \GIYCING <..s00.c0+-asguesnee= 20} O |/203. Logania .........-..00 seuss LB). 0
150. Lagerstremia......... aeennd 12)| 101/204. ‘Lomatia ......cs0ss.-scaseens 50} 0
Menem IVid Vals sacrecenasrh ate oaee «-e.| 100] 17 ||205. Metrosideros .......+...+.+. 150] 0
152. Melastoma.........++0+ -«.| 200} O |/206. Dow ul cccoaumeane «++e-| 200] O
153. Mimosa ..... Sanenessespangan 13] O |/207. D0... ... °.sSuceceeneaeeem 150} O
Depo. \sodesauocstasacnonees 25] O |/208. Mirbelia...... coecsseaeNenate 50} 0
155. Phaseolus ..... aveddakensees 25| 25 ||209. Ozothamnus ..............- 100! oO
P56; Sida .....-cc.ces gaceae= enter 150] 75 ||210. Polygonum ......,...000+ 150| 0
157. Tamarindus .........s.00.- 3) Pel20l. -Prostanthera.......ssssse<* 100; 0
158. Triumfetta, ....css0ccseeseene BO} TS.*||20. sPoitenza.. ...cseovsceesesesas 100} 2
DEOPMOION. ..), nadevenestscanactece Ad) gL Se SIO, vccp sa ccecay waseeasamis 50} O
1820. Bid SV erbena «cscoceas0eenoavenee 50| 0
160. Adenanthera ............068 8| 0 1840.
161. Aristolochia ......... aa SO) MORI2URs ASCLOLIS! ......0--.suremeeeee 100} 48
Hie PONCOINE 5, .necccceenscaccuers 150| O 1/216. Aspalathus...............00 25] 1
163. Dalbergia .........-.sse00. PO) GON21'7.. Athanacea ....s:+s-sesedsars 25| 16
164. Erythrina ......... davecbe ed 20)| 20 ||/2US A Brunia .....02 002 00.c0endeeens 150| 0
1655. Indigofera ......:..s:-cesaee 100} O |\219. Cheiranthus ......+........ 150| O
UGG.) Mentha /.c.sccsccencoesevaass 200) 01)1290; Clitoria ........scecccesanaeus 50} O
1823. 220 Pirythrina .....0..-s daeedees 3} 1
MGT ePACACIA © ccscasoceveccuacesecs 5 | SOR2e2 Muclea ¢....ceaveasevacateey 25| 0
PBA ania esacena seas scdesecen 18| O |\223. Glossostylis ......++0e+... 200}. O
BOSD One o .Sucasacdevecesoatedes 50| O |\224. Gnaphalium ............... 200; O
AAO UNG eras) vce <onsatesesenssuas ES) JOSU235S Guiding -sccsesssesce serene --.| 100; O
171. Anthocercis ...........000 D5 ORG. NO... iccssacdes Peer ccc 50| 0
Dee BElUS ,cacasn+o0ceccss.2-seseec 200 | 10712272 ckdallia..:......covesensswntees 25} 14
173. Callistachys ......-..00+... 20} O |/228. Hermannia.......0.....sc000 150] 1
174. Callistemon ......000...06- 200} O 1/1229. Indigofera .........sseseseee 25; 0
Pees ee CC AUIEVIS wsccst~saceecereocesa 50| O |\230. WG.) Sines sceweeoeteae 150| 28
NASR O aliave- dcdaccon bine ct cee 50} 9 1\231. Leucadendron ............ 25] 15
MWe PRIOn ucpovesenuusesscseneees 50| 0 |232. DOF 5i4-Livsassadceen 50} 4
eee Os ei lersnenusccasnsaste ss 4}. 0 1233. Linum c.cccccsceseees eeeess| LOO] - OF
79 CaBSia...s.veseveccessocesvwse 50} O.}1234. Liparia ...ccccccecescoresas 25) O
ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS.
No. | No.
Name and Date. Roma Ref
1840 (continued).
DTA UOUENA scccescccccccesecsose 200} O
236. Mesembryanthemum 100} O
Ao MIMOSA ..0ssccvecesceceecces yd ae)
jos gD OARS rea 17 3
239. Pelargonium ............... 50| 15
240. Qe Re Agee el 12 10)
2S) d\n eee eee 25} O
242, 1 DOs MEAP ARN OES py areas Ser 17 1
243. Podalyria ............s000+ 100] 80
244, WO¥ (cy as sb eed Sccbre enue 50} 33
SEE COGER i nips cin cick owveiag owas sd 25} O
BAG. PsOralea ...'...ccessceseesaees 100} 58
247. 10,2 ASSO ne eeeee aerate 100}; 49
248. Pharmaceum ..............- 100} 3
UC A eee ios 50| 7
250. Saururia............seceeeees 50| 2
251. Sebeea.......... KPa. hooey 200} O
BHD. SENECIO ..c..cercccssecccesee 100] O
253. Seriphium ............ Beka 200; O
254. Silene ............ weeanaenagen 150| O
255. Sutherlandia ......... eeees.| 100] 5
256. Trichocephalum...,........ 25| 2
1843.
(4257. Abroma ...cco..seee Sechasts. 18| 12
258. Anacardium ............005 1 al hae
259. Asclepias .......ssssseeees 25| O
260. Bermudas Cedar ......... 25| 20
PPD EXE “wecccccvscccccees ahicade 251 O
262. Brunsfelsia......... ea. ll} Oo
BGS. CASKIAs..ccsesccccecesecoasens 50| 5
EEO, | oscccesasssiascoceres tens 50] 5
a ee me 50| 24
266. Chrysobalanus cphevsharyec 6| 2
(\267. Convallaria.........scsceeee. 2) ?1
|268. Clitoria ....... Sorteeeatacees 21] O
Name and Date. ec Be
tated.
260. CHEOriai ..ceeeneenccate as 40} 0O
POL AAO tame seweabdet enacts 50 10)
DLs On. Meet ceescetauracemen ke 12 1
272. Do. aaalvecenicepuead waite 3 1)
O73. Crotalaria ss.cskscsccescrne: 50] 11
TAP TICOLZIA asesacsocescecctesces 25 (0)
275. Echites .........06 Mase 25 9
D7OUM DoF aA eae 50 0)
277. Erythrina ......cc.....0s00. 7| O
278. Eugenia .......sssscecscseese 1} 0
279. Eupatorium ............... 200| Oo
DSO: AEaIbISCUS sb cevewestecdudevalede 25 (0)
281s Gesnertarveaesesectcatovseecs 200} O
282. [pOmead) ..c.esescacenccocesws 18| 8
DS Sh ODIO ta a sak eniecinad scceeee | 25] 19
DEAR PIO Pl erat vstiac vece'seces aee| 2D 0
285.) Jatraphaees te cc .cescscssees het
P2865 TUStClA das edb akowaencas 150/118
BS 7s invimb use seve. esnbes 25] 17
288. Lisianthus ........c..eeseees 200! O
289. Do. Was eeahs<wadeweee 150 1)
290. Melastoma..........sseceeee 50/ O
291. Poinciana ..........cecsceee 15 7
292. Psychotria .......se++e00- «| 25] O
293. OG a eee ae esos 50 0
294. Ruellia .......... Ssascedstes 25 2
295. Sapindus ............06 «| 2) 2
296. Semecio .......sececeeeeseeee 100] 27
297. Sida. ........ eee TAS «| 25) 13
298. Thrinax .........eeee0 teed 9| 2
299. Xanthoxylon ............... 25} O
No Date.
300. Diosma ......++.06 aeecch cet lie DOW uO
301. Stachytarphetta............ 100| 46
302. No name .......cessseceeee 17 (0)
303. No name ......e.0... eese--| 100] O
Of the seeds sown at Oxford in 1843, the following have vegetated since
pte Report for that year was submitted :—
Juniperus communis.....
Tlex Aquifolia
ee ee ee eee
Liriodendron Tulipiferum. . ¢
Cotoneaster rotundifolia .
Cratzgus macracantha......
” punctata. .
W. H. Baxter, Curator.
eo veee
No. sown. No. vegetated.
100 onate 28
100 anetn g
50 1
20 31S 2
50 Ara 1
50 wei 9
H. E. SrrickLaAnp.
C. B. DAuBENy.
100 REPORT—1844,
On the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke.
By WitutaM FarrBairn, Esq.
THERE is perhaps no subject so difficult, and none so full of perplexities, as
that of the management of a furnace and the prevention of smoke. I have
approached this inquiry with considerable diffidence, and after repeated at-
tempts at definite conclusions, have more than once been forced to abandon
the investigation as inconclusive and unsatisfactory. These views do not
arise from any defect in our acquaintance with the laws which govern per-
fect combustion, the ceconomy of fuel and the consumption of smoke. They
chiefly arise from the constant change of temperature, the variable nature of
the volatile products, the want of system, and the irregularity which attends
the management of the furnace. Habits of ceconomy and attention to a few
simple and effective rules are either entirely neglected or not enforced.
It must appear obvious to every observer, that much has yet to be done,
and much may be accomplished, provided the necessary precautions are
taken, first to establish, and next to carry out a comprehensive and well-
organized system of operations. If this were accomplished, and the manage-
ment of the furnace consigned to men of intelligence properly trained to their
respective duties, all these difficulties would vanish, and the public might
not only look forward with confidence to a clear atmosphere in the manu-
facturing towns; but the proprietors of steam-engines would be more than
compensated by the saving of fuel, which an improved system of management
and a sounder principle of operation would ensure- Under the hope of the
attainment of these objects, I shall endeavour to show, from a series of ac-
curately-conducted experiments, that the prevention of smoke, and the per-
fect combustion of fuel, are synonymous, and completely within the reach of
all those who choose to adopt measures calculated for the suppression of
the one and the improvement of the other.
On a former occasion I had the honour of presenting to the British Asso-
ciation an inquiry into the merits of Mr. C. W. Williams’s Argand furnace
compared with those of the usual construction. On that occasion it was
found, from an average of a series of experiments, that the saving of fuel (in-
clusive of the absence of smoke) wasin the ratio of 292 to 300, or as 1:1-039,
being at the rate of 4 per cent. in favour of Mr. Williams’s plan. Since then
a considerable number of experiments have been made by Mr. Houldsworth,
Mr. Williams and others; and having occasion in the course of this inquiry
to refer to these researches, it will be unnecessary for the present to notice
them further than to observe, that they have been made with great care,
and present some curious and interesting phenomena in the further develop-
ment of this subject.
The complex nature of the investigation has rendered it necessary to divide
the subject into sections, for the purpose of observing, not only the relative
tendencies and connexion of each, but to determine. by a series of compara-
tive results, the law on which perfect combustion is founded, and its practical
application ensured.
Keeping these objects in view, the heads of inquiry will be—
I. The analysis or constituents of coal and other fuels.
II. The relative proportions of the furnace, and forms of boilers.
III. The temperature of the furnace and surrounding flues.
IV. The ceconomy of fuel, concentration of heat, and prevention of smoke.
Lastly. General summary of results.
I. The Constituents of Coal and other Fuels. :
The first practical inquiries into the nature and constituents of coal, are
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 101
probably those of Dr, Thomson and Mr. Mushet; several others have inves-
tigated their chemical composition, but the discrepancies which exist in the
varied forms of analysis render them of little value when applied to the useful
arts. Dr Thomson examined four distinct species of coal, of which the
following are the results :—
Quality. Specific Carbon.
gravity Hydrogen.| Azote. Oxygen.
Caking coal ...seescessseeeen: 1269 | 7528 | 418 | 15-96 | 458
Splint coal ....-.sscsessss-ssses 1290 | 75-00 | 625 | 625 | 1250
{Cherry coal ...........0.... 1:263 | 74-45 | 12-40 | 1022 | 293
Cannel coal .............0s00. 1:272 64:72 21:56 13-72
Dr. Ure also supplies an analysis of splint and cannel coal, which differ
from those experimented upon by Dr. Thomson, as follows :—
Quality. a a Carbon. |Hydrogen.| Azote. Oxygen.
Splint coal...........seereseeee 1-266 70°90 4:30 ieee 24:80
Cannel coal ...........-s0000. 1-228 72:22 3°93 2:8 21:05
‘The chief difference between the experiments seems tv consist in the in-
creased quantity of hydrogen in Dr, Thomson’s cannel coal, and the total
absence of oxygen, which in Dr. Ure’s specimens were found in excess.
The next authority is Mr. Mushet, who analysed nearly the whole of the
_ Welsh coals, and some others, of which the following are selected, viz.—
Quality. i Carbon. Ashes. bai
Welsh furnace coal ......... 1:337 | 88-068 3°432 | 8300
Welsh stone coal ............ 1:393 | 89-700 2:300 8-000
? Welsh slaty coal ......+0.... 1-409 | 82-175 6:°725 9-100
: Derbyshire furnace coal ...| 1:264 | 52-882 4:288 | 42-830
C Derbyshire cannel coal...... 1:278 | 48362 4:638 | 47-000
“a
Again, we have some of the American anthracites with upwards of 90 per
cent. of carbon and 3°6 of volatile matter, which correspond with nearly all
te)
the other descriptions of anthracites as given by Mr. Mushet, and more
recently by Dr. Kane in his excellent work ‘ On the Industrial Resources of
Ireland.’
___ Inaddition to the above, Dr. Fife has given some valuable experiments on
coal, wherein he does not materially differ in the bituminous qualities from
those of Mr. Mushet. The results of Dr. Fife’s experiments were found to
‘be in the bituminous and anthracite kinds.
| Bituminous. Anthracite.
Moisttine.cu.csries neste pence: 75 4°5
Volatile matter ..........s008. 34:5 13°3
Fixed carbon .........seccecees 50°5
=
D
71-4
IARTIOR!S cccesscndesacdstgenmanes
7 10°8
100-0 100-0
It will be observed from these experiments that considerable differences
exist as to the quantity of carbon contained in each sort, and provided it be
102 REPORT—1844.
correct that the heating power of any description of fuel be a proportional of
the quantity of carbon it contains ; it then follows that the anthracite must
be greatly superior to the bituminous qualities, which yield little more than
one-half the quantity. Considerable difficulty is however encountered in the
combustion of the anthracite coal, as intense heat is not only an element,
but time, and a large quantity of oxygen are absolutely necessary to volatilize
its products. It has been known to pass twice through an iron smelting
furnace, and subjected for upwards of forty hours to the temperature of
melting iron, without being affected beyond the exterior surface, having been
calcined to a depth of not more than three-fourths of an inch. Such however
is the obduracy of its character, that intense heat makes little or no impres-
sion upon it, “To burn anthracite coal effectually, and to extract the whole
of its volatile products, it must be broken into small pieces and thrown upon
a furnace having a large supply of oxygen passing continually through it.
In the combustion of bituminous coal the operation is totally different,
being partly friable, and splitting into fragments as the gases are evolved ;
hence arises the superior value of that description of fuel in almost every
branch of the industrial arts.
The Newcastle, and the best qualities of the Durham coal, are exceptions
to most others of the bituminous kind ; they contain a much greater quan-
tity of carbon, and are thus better fitted for the furnace. From some accu-
rate experiments by Mr. Richardson they are found to contain—
Carbon.......-....- 85°613
Hydrogen ........ sas Specific gravity
Azote and oxygen.. 7°226 1:278.
STEN ee on ae aie 1-956
100°
The Lancashire coals approach nearer to the Newcastle and Durham than
most others; and, taking the mean of some recent experiments, they con-
tain,—
Carbon vi), rcs ide eects cees. 82°95
Hiydroger </. 257. - + Se 5°86
Azote and oxygen ........ 7:93
Ashes: sige we vers Lape ae 3°26
100-
The specific gravity of the Lancashire coal is rather more than that of the
Newcastle coal, but in other respects their constituents are much alike, with
the exception of a greater proportion of ashes in the former than is found in
the finer qualities of the latter.
Dr. Kane, in his recent work on the ‘ Industrial Resources of Ireland’
(already alluded to), has given some valuable information on the properties
of the Irish anthracites and other coals found in different districts of the
country. He also ascertained the value of the different beds oflignite which
retained their original structure of wood, which burned with a brilliant light,
and left a black dense charcoal.
The constituents of two specimens analysed by Dr. Kane, gave,—
rT. II.
Volatile matter ...... so SEO 53°70
Pure charcoal ........ 33°66 30°09
oer oY 22. afi bbe. .. 8°64 _ 16-21
100° 100:
}
-
i ta
RAs
Ks
3 ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 103
two-thirds of an average quality of good coal; and comparing these with
other results obtained from similar lignites, two-thirds may fairly be taken
as the calorific value of this description of fuel. Dr. Kane further examined
a great variety of turf, and amongst others those prepared by Mr, C. W.
Williams from the bogs of Cappage, Kilbeggan, Kilbaken, &c.; the elemen-
tary products of which are, according to Dr. Kane, as follows :—
Cappage. Kilbeggan. Kilbaken.
Carbon ...... 51°05 61:04 5113
Hydrogen.... 6°85 6°67 6°33
Oxygen .... 39°55 30°46 34°48
Ashes .2/.... 2:55 1:83 8:06
100: 100° 100:
It will be unnecessary to exemplify a greater variety of fuels, such as the
different kinds of wood used in America, Russia, and different parts of the
continent. In this country timber is seldom if ever used ; and taking the
comparative merits of ‘the fuels already enumerated, it will be found (in as-
suming the quality of carbon contained in each as the measure of their re-
spective values) that the Welsh furnace coal and the Newcastle and Lanca-
shire coals stand pre-eminent in the order of their heating powers, either as
aed their application to the furnace or to the ordinary purposes of domestic
ife.
The American anthracites, which in some cases contain upwards of 90
per cent. of carbon, are extensively used in that country ; and assuming’ the
mean 91-4 of Professor Johnston’s experiments to be correct, and calling it at
1000, we then have an approximate value of the different fuels experimented
upon, and in general use in this country.
Table of Comparative Results, showing the calorific and ceconomic Value
of different kinds of Fuel.
No Quality. | Sey Value.
American anthracite coal ........sse0008| seeeee | 1000
1 | Welsh anthracite coal ..........ece0000: 1-393 981
2 | Welsh furnace coal..........csceesesceeees 1:337 963
3 | Newcastle coal .........cteescceceeseeeees 1-278 936
4 | Lancashire coal ..............cseceeseeeees 1-293 900
5 | Welsh slaty coal.... ..-.| 1-409 898
6 | Scotch caking coal... see) 1268 822
7 | Scotch cherry coal .......s..csccceeeseeses 1:263 | 813
ea Scotch splint, 75:00 ‘ i
BT scotch unt 200 \ Mean, 72°95 ...| 1-278 | 799
Scotch cannel, 64°72 ve or
ON aptehtcnner 73.99 t Mean, 68°47...| 1-250 | 749
10 | Derbyshire furnace coal.............+8 we.| 1:264 578
ein the above table the economic value is assumed to be a proportional of the
quantity of carbon contained respectively in each sort of coal, and provided
_ the lignites and turfs are excepted, the others may safely be taken as nearly
the correct value of the principal mineral fuels of the kingdom.
Il. The relative Proportions of the Furnaces, and the Forms of Boilers.
On this part of the subject there are several points worthy of attention ;
namely, the proportions of the furnaces of stationary boilers of different con-
structions, the dimensions and position of those with exterior and interior
104 REPORT—1844.
fires, and the principle of form which approaches the nearest to a maximum
calorific effect.
It is obvious that the hemispherical and waggon-shaped boilers are the
best calculated to ensure abundance of space ; and the furnace being detached
and entirely clear of the boilers, a discretionary power is thus vested in every
person choosing to experiment as to the length, breadth, or height of the
hearth plate and bars which contain the fuel. Hence arise the anomalies
which exist, and the innumerable theories which are advocated in every
direction for improved furnaces and perfect combustion.
These discrepancies create great perplexities; and as much depends upon
the management of the fire, and the will as well as skill of the engineer,
it is next to impossible from such a mass of conflicting evidence to deduce
anything like a correct proportional of the area of the grate-bar, and the re-
cipient surface.
From a careful examination of some of the best-constructed boilers and
furnaces in Manchester, the following results were obtained :—
Area of | Recipient | Recipient Total Ratio of
No. of | grate. | internal | external heated | grate-bars
Boilers.| barsin} surface | ‘surface surface | to heating Rens
feet. in feet, in feet. in feet. surface.
6 36-0 Ee al adele blk ers | bale In the first six boilers the external
1 30°5 167-2 1750 342-2 | 1:11:2 | flues could not be measured.
2 36°5 201°0 267°5 4685 | 1:12-7
2 28:3 1548 1805 353°3 | 1:12°0
2 28:7 1373 167-0 3043 | 1:10°8
2 40°6 150°4 207:3 357-77 | 1: 8-9
Mean | 33°4 162-1 199-4 365°2 | 1:11-1
The ratio of grate-bar to absorbing surface is therefore as 1 : 11:1, which
taken from fifteen different boilers of the best construction, and worked with
considerable skill, gives a fair average of the proportions of the furnace and
flue surface of each. Now, on comparing the above with the boilers at work
in Cornwall, it will be found that their relative proportions are as 1 to 25;
the Cornish boilers presenting from two and a half, and in some instances
three times the surface exposed to the action of the fire, in the ratio of the
furnace to the flue as a recipient of heat. Taking the disparities as thus
exhibited, it must appear evident that exceedingly defective proportions
must somewhere exist, otherwise the anomalous comparison of a small fire
and a large absorbent surface could not be maintained, unless the former
practice of large fires and limited flue surface had been found injurious and
expensive. That a great waste of valuable fuel is the consequence of these
defective proportions is abundantly manifest from the results obtained in the
quantity of water evaporated by a pound of coals in each. For example,
1 Ib. of good coal will evaporate in the Cornish boiler about 114 lbs. of water,
and the utmost that the best waggon-shaped boiler has been known to ac-
complish is 8-7 lbs. of water to the pound of coal. Hence the advantage of
a small furnace and large flue surface, united however to abundance of boiler
space, in order to attain a maximum effect by a slow and progressive rate of
combustion. From the facts thus recorded, and the returns regularly made
of the performances of the Cornish engines and boilers, it will no longer ad-
mit of doubt as to the superiority of the practice which exists in one country
as compared with that in the other. Persons unacquainted with the subject
have attributed the saving to the engine; but that doctrine, although in some
degree correct, is no longer tenable, as experiments, and the monthly re-
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 105
“turns, unite in proving that part of the ceconomy is due to the boiler ; and
the proportion of flue surface on the Cornish construction being so much
greater, we reasonably infer that the recipient surface of the hemispherical
and waggon-boilers is insufficient for the amount of fire-bar surface acting
upon it.
These observations have in a great measure been corroborated by the in-
troduction into the Lancashire districts of the cylindrical form with a large
circular flue, extending the whole length of the boiler. In this flue the fur-
nace is placed, and being confined within certain limits it no longer admits
of disproportionate enlargement, but from the very nature of its construction
forces old plans and old prejudices to yield to positive improvement.
The effect of the change is a progressive and improved economy in the
consumption of coal, with a larger extent of flue surface, and, what is pro-
bably of equal value, a stronger and much more perfect boiler.
Irrespective of the changes of form and management of boilers which are
in progress, it may be proper to notice a still further improvement in con-
struction which has recently taken place, and where a still greater ceconomy
is effected. This is a mean between the Cornish single flue boiler and the
tubular boiler; it is perfectly cylindrical, and contains two circular flues,
_ varying from 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet 9 inches diameter, extending through-
out its whole length, as represented and explained in another place in draw-
ings which are annexed. Towards the front end the flues are made slightly
elliptical, in order to receive the furnace grate-bars, hearth-plates, &c., to
give sufficient space over the fire, and to admit a free current of air under
the ash-pit. On this plan it will be observed that each furnace is surrounded
_ by water in every direction, with large intermediate spaces to allow a free
: circulation of the water, as the globules of heat rise from the radiant surface
meer the fires and the other intensely heated parts of the flues. Another ad-
_ vantage is the position of the receptacle for the sedimentary deposits, which
do not take place over the furnace, as in the old construction, but in the lower
region of the boiler, where the temperature is lowest, thus affording greater
_ security from incrustation and other causes of an injurious tendency.
_ On the evaporative powers of boilers, it has already been shown, that the
process to be conducted with economy depends upon one of two causes, or
_ both; first, on the due and perfect proportions of the furnace; secondly,
which is more probable, on the quantity of flue surface exposed to the action
of heat: no doubt they are both important agents in the procuration and
“generating of steam, but the recipient surface is so important, that the mea-
sure of all boilers as to their economy and efficiency in a great degree de-
‘pends upon the enlargement of those important parts. Taking, therefore,
the amount of the flue surface in a boiler exposed to the passing currents of
heat as a criterion of its economic value, we shall then have according to
putation a summary of comparison as follows :—
I iGubie Area of Ratio of the
Description of boiler. | contents beanie’. area of heating
ere surface in surface to
F feet. cubic contents.
“ag 1 | Old hemispherical boiler ...........0..-sseceseerees 420 128 1: 3:28
zo 2 | Common waggon-boiler, without middle flue....| 1044 320 1; 3°26
| 38 | Waggon boiler, with middle flue ...............6+- | 894 432 1: 2:06
BEL | Cylindrics? hoiler, without middle flue... | 789 | 935 1:3:50
| 5 | Cylindrical boiler. with middle flue............... |} 579 | 360 1: 1-65
ab 6 | Cylindrical boiler, with eight ten-inchirontubes, 605 567 1: 1-06
| 7 | Improved boiler, with two middle flues ......... 573 548 1:1-01
i U |
a a ey
~ 106 REPORT—1844,
On a comparison of the above table, it will be seen that the generative
powers of a boiler do not depend upon its cubic contents, nor yet upon the
quantity of water it contains, but upon the area of flue surface exposed to
the action of heat ; and that the nearer the area of the flue surface approaches
the cubic contents, the greater the ceconomy and more perfect the boiler.
This has been proved by experiment, and also by practice in the use of
No. 6 and 7 boilers, where the generative powers have been much increased,
and where they approach nearer to the maximum than any other, excepting
probably those with a number of small tubes, such as the locomotive, and
the present construction of marine-boilers. These latter are however not so
well adapted for stationary purposes, nor yet are they calculated for the at-
tainment of other objects contemplated in this report.
It has already been stated that the relative areas of fire-grate and flue
surface, taken from a series of observations, are as 1 to 11¥, and in the
average of Cornish boilers as 1 to 25. Now, if we take the mean of these
two, and fix the ratio at 1 to 18, we shall have a near approximation to a
maximum effect; and, for general practice, it will be found that such a pro-
portion will better serve the interests of the public, and of parties employing
steam-boilers, than the extreme of 1 to 25, or 1 to 30, where a great increase
of boiler power must be the result. In many situations, such as the large
manufacturing towns, this cannot be accomplished, and to enforce such a
regulation by legislative or municipal enactments would be, to say the least,
inexpedient and oppressive. Taking, therefore, the experiments, observa-
tions and other circumstances bearing upon these points into consideration,
it will appear that the circular boiler, with an enlarged and extended flue
surface, and accurately proportioned furnaces of about 1 to 18, is the best
calculated under all circumstances for the ceconomy of fuel, and those objects
which have yet to be considered.
Ill. The Temperature of the Furnace and the surrounding Flues.
It is a difficulty of no ordinary description to ascertain with sufficient ac-
curacy the temperature of a furnace. In fact every fire and every furnace is
continually changing its temperature, as well as the nature of the volatile pro-
ducts as they pass off during the process of combustion. When a furnace is
charged with a fresh supply of fuel, its temperature is lowered, and that from
two causes : first, by the absorption of heat which the cold fuel takes up when
thrown upon the fire; and, secondly, by a rush of cold air through the open
door of the furnace. Attempts have been made to remedy these evils by
the aid of machinery and continuous firing, but taking the whole of the exist-
ing schemes into account, and bestowing upon them the most favourable
consideration, it is questionable whether they are at all equal (either as re-
gards efficiency cr ceconomy) to the usual way of working the fires by hand.
I am persuaded the latter plan is the best ; and provided a class of careful
men were trained to certain fixed and determined regulations, and paid, not
in the ratio of the quantity of coals shoveled on the fire, but in proportion to
the saving effected, we should not then have occasion for the aid of machinery
as an apology for ignorance.
Operations of this kind require but a small portion of physical strength in
supplying a furnace with fuel (which a machine can do), but some measure of
intelligence is necessary to watch over and assist nature in the development
of those laws which regulate as well as govern the process of combustion.
* Since the above was written, I have received from my friend Mr. Andrew Murray of the
Royal Dockyard, Woolwich, a series of experimental researches, some of which will be found
at the close of the report.
Le
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 107
~~ Viewing the subject in this light, it will not be uninteresting if we attempt
to exhibit some of the important and exceedingly curious changes which take
place in the ordinary process of heating a steam-engine boiler.
For these experiments we are indebted to Mr. Henry Houldsworth of
“Manchester ; and, having been present at several of the experiments, I can
vouch for the accuracy with which they were conducted, and for the very
satisfactory and important results deduced therefrom.
In giving an account of Mr. Houldsworth's experiments, it will be neces-
sary to describe the instrument by which they were made, and also to show
the methods adopted for indicating the temperature, and the changes which
take place in the surrounding flues.
The apparatus consists of a simple pyrometer, with a smal] bar of copper
or iron (a in the following sketch) fixed at the extreme end of the boiler,
and projecting through the brick-work in front, where it is jointed to the arm
of an index lever 4, to which it gives motion when it expands or contracts
by the heat of the flue.
Pyrometer.
LOY
———
, ED EINE IE here are es
a
4
0
_ The instrument being thus prepared, and the bar supported by iron pegs
riven into the side walls of the flue, the lever (which is kept tight upon the
bar at the point e by means of a small weight over the pulley at d) is at-
tached and motion ensues. The long arm of the lever at d gives motion to
ae sliding rod and pencil f, and by thus pressing on the periphery of a slowly
Tevolving cylinder, a line is inscribed corresponding with the measurements
‘of the Jong arm of the lever, and indicating the variable degrees of tempera-
ture by the expansion and contraction of the bar. Upon the cylinder is fixed
a sheet of paper, on which a daily record of the temperature becomes in-
scribed, and on which are exhibited the change as well as the intensity of
heat in the flues at every moment of time. In using this instrument it has
been usual to fix it at the medium temperature of 1000°, which it will be
observed is an assumed degree of the intensity of heat, but a sufficiently near
approximation to the actual temperature for the purpose of ascertaining the
Variations which take place in all the different stages of combustion conse-
108 REPORT—1844.
quent upon the acts of charging, stirring and raking the fires. These are
exemplified by the annexed diagrams, No. XII. and No, XXX. (Plates
XXVIII. and XXIX.)
On a careful examination of the diagrams, it will be found that the first
was traced without any admixture of air, except that taken through the
grate-bars; the other was inscribed with an opening for the admission of air
through a diffusing plate behind the bridge, as recommended by Mr. C. W.
Williams, The latter, No. XXX., presents very different figures: the maxi-
mum and minimum points of temperature being much wider apart in the one —
than the other, as also in the fluctuations which indicate a much higher tem- —
perature, reaching as high as 1400°, and seldom descending lower than 1000°, —
giving the mean of 1160°. :
Now, on comparing No, XXX. with No, XII., where no air is admitted, —
it will be found that the whole of the tracings exhibit a descending tempe- —
rature, seldom rising above 1100°, and often descending below 900°, the —
mean of which is 975°. This depressien indicates a defective state in the —
process, and although a greater quantity of coal was consumed, (2000 lbs. —
in $96 minutes in the No. XXX. experiment, and 1840 lbs, in 406 minutes
in No. XII.,) yet the disparity is too great when the difference of tempera-
ture and loss of heat are taken into consideration. As a further proof of the —
imperfections of No. XII. diagram, it is only necessary to compare the quan-
tities of water evaporated in each, in order to ascertain the difference, where
in No. XII. experiment 5-05]bs. of water are evaporated to the pound of coal,
and in No. XXX. one-half more, or 7°7 lbs. is the result.
Taking the results thus indicated, it will appear evident that the admis-
sion of a-certain quantity of atmospheric air behind the bridge operates most
advantageously, inasmuch as it combines with its constituents in due propor-
tions, and by these means the gases are inflamed under circumstances favour-
able to the extraction of heat and consumption of smoke. The whole pro-
cess is therefore distinguishable by the fact of one diagram presenting a
decreasing temperature when air is not admitted, and the other an increasing
column when it is introduced. If no air is admitted, except through the
grate-bars, and there happens to be a compact charge in the furnace, the
consequence is that the gases pass through the flues unconsumed, and ac-
companied with a dark voiume of smoke which is invariably present on such
occasions.
It will not be necessary in this instance further to increase the number of
diagrams, as No. XIIJ., which exhibits the variations and results of the in-
tensity of heat when air is not admitted; and No. XXX, (with an aperture
of forty-five square inches constantly open) will be found encouraging
features for its admission in duly regulated proportions. These two diagrams
will therefore sufficiently explain the varied changes of temperature which
exist, and as all the other thirty are (with occasional deviations) nearly alike,
the following table of results will probably answer the same purpose as if
the whole were given in detail.
i
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 109
f TABLE oF RESULTS,
Selected from thirty Experiments obtained by Mr. Houldsworth’s Pyrometer,
indicating the mean temperature of the flues in a steam-engine boiler, and
the effects produced by the admission of air through regulated and perma-
_ nent apparatus behind the bridge.
i Aperture for Water | Mean tem-| Relative value
Hexperiments Description of the admission |Coals burnt| evaporated! perature in the
a a coal used. of air in per hour. | by 1 lb. of | _ in the ratio of water
Scheel square inches. coal in Ibs. | front flue. | evaporated.
Se og, | Gidtens } mean No air. | 243-00] 621 | 977° | 100:000
MWe | GHRGON. Sssissdicvesc}, 60) ssbses 278-40 | 541 | 973° | 100: 87-1
Zand 8. | Clifton ............ 45 280°8 6°85 1:165° | 100: 1103
15 to 22. | Clifton sss.ssessees) Tohend 2653 | 694 | 1-:122° | 100:110-7
Bet4, | Clifton ...sss..0. 45 2790 | 660 | 1-220° | 100: 106-2
30. Clifton ......eseeee Regulated. 279 0 6:80 1-160° | 100; 109-5
24, Oldham ............ 35 243-0 6°85 1:080° | 100: 110:3
26. | Oldham ............ 24 2292 7-40 1:050° | 100: 119-1
23. Oldham’ .s.ss<. ces. Regulated. | 230-4 7°70 1:070° | 100: 124-0
| 25 to 29. | Oldham ............ | Regulated. | 216-6 8-30 1:053° | 100: 133°6
27. i eger tee ieee 243-0 | 7-20 | 1-060° | 100: 115-7
.
_ By comparing the results as given above, it will be found that in taking
the quantity of water evaporated by 1 |b. of coal as the measure of ceconomic
value, the mean of nearly the whole experiments (excepting only Nos. 12,
13 and 28, where air is not admitted) is as 100 to 119-65, or about 123
r cent. in favour of a regulated and continuous supply of air. Taking,
however, the mean of experiments, 25 to 29, and comparing it with some of
‘the others, it will be observed that a much higher duty is obtained ; and
having accomplished a maximum, there appears no reason for doubting why
t should not be continued, and still further advantages secured by a judicious
arrangement of the furnace for the admission of oxygen to the uninflamed
_ gases, which under other circumstances would make their escape into the
mosphere unconsumed. In furnishing this supply it is not absolutely ne-
: peed to administer it immediately behind the bridge, as the same quantity
_ of air taken through the grate-bars, or in at the furnace-doors, would nearly
effect the same purpose, not only as regards the quantity of heat evolved,
jut also as respects the transparency of the gases and the consequent dis-
ypearance of smoke.
_ Mr. Houldsworth estimates the advantages gained by the admission of
‘air (when properly regulated) at 35 per cent., and when passed through a
fixed aperture of 43 square inches, at 34 per cent. This is a near approxi-
tation to the mean of five experiments, which, according to the preceding
table, gives 333 per cent., which probably approaches as near the maximum
as can be expected under all the changes and vicissitudes which take place
in general practice.
On a cursory view of the subject, it is obvious that the quantity of air ne-
cessary to be admitted will greatly depend upon the nature and quality of
the fuel used. In a light burning fuel, such as splint and cannel coal, less
air will be required, as the charge burns freely with clear spaces between the
gtate-bars, and attended by less risk of cementation than the caking coal,
which in some cases completely seals the openings, and thus deprives the
fuel of that quantity of air necessary for its combustion; under such circum-
stances a permanent opening will be found exceedingly efficacious, and that
110 REPORT—1844. 4.
more particularly when the heat vitrifies the earthy particles of the coal, and
forms clinkers on the top of the grate-bars. In the use of this description
of fuel the permanent apertures are of great value.
IV. The Giconomy of Fuel, Concentration of Heat, and Prevention of Smoke,
Irrespective of the intensity of heat, form of boilers, and quality of fuel,
there are other conditions connected with the phenomena of combustion
which require attentive consideration before that process can be called per-
fect, or before economy or the prevention of smoke can be attained. It is
perfectly clear, that although we may possess abundance of excellent fuel,
and a perfect knowledge of all the elements necessary for its combustion,
yet we are still far short of attaining our object, unless a regard to economy
is strictly kept in view. A manufacturer may have well-proportioned boilers,
excellent furnaces, and good fuel; but with all these advantages he will not
succeed, unless the whole of the elements at his command are properly and —
ceconomically combined, and that upon fixed laws already determined for his
guidance. Count Rumford, in his admirable Essays on the Economy of Heat,
truly observes, that “ no subject of philosophical inquiry within the limits of
human investigation is more calculated to excite admiration and to awaken
curiosity than fire, and there is certainly none more extensively useful to man-
kind. It is owing, no doubt, to our being acquainted with it from our in-
fancy that we are not more struck with its appearance, and more sensible of
the benefits we derive from it. Almost every comfort and convenience which —
man by his ingenuity procures for himself is obtained by its assistance, and
he is not more distinguished from the brute creation by the use of speech,
than by his power over that wonderful agent.”
Such was the opinion of one of the most eminent philosophers of his time,
and such were the pertinency of his remarks and the depth of his researches,
that had he lived in the present instead of the close of the last century, he
would not only have extended and enlarged our views on the management
and ceconomy of heat, but he would have expressed astonishment at the in-
crease, the immense extent of expenditure, and the lavish and culpable waste
of fuel by which we are surrounded on every side. It is true we have some
exceptions, such as those in Cornwall and some parts of the continent, where
fuel is expensive; but taking the aggregate, it might be said, without fear of
contradiction, that if one-half of the fuel now used were properly applied, it
would perform the same service, and afford the same comforts as we now
derive from the whole of our mineral products. ‘This is a great reflection
upon the philosophy as well as the ceconomy of the age, and J think it can
be shown that one-half the fuel now wasted might be saved with great ad-
vantage to individuals, and with increased benefit as well as comfort to the
public. The wasteful expenditure which exists does not arise so much from
ignorance as from prejudice and a close adherence to old and imperfect
customs. We all, more or less, venerate the works of antiquity, but unfor-
tunately we forget to draw the distinction between what is really ancient and
sound in principle and what is imperfect in practice. Hence follows a blind
adherence to established usage, and the consequent propagation of all the
defects as well as the perfections of the system. Now this state of things
should not exist, as we have the experiments of Watt, Rumford, Davy,
Parkes, and many others before us, and adding to these the excellent treatise
of Mr. C. W. Williams on the combustion of coal and prevention of smoke,
we are enabled by these means to establish a sound and much more perfect
as well as economical system of combustion. Keeping these objects in view,
we shall endeavour to determine some fixed principle on which may be
founded the prevention of smoke, concentration of heat, and economy of fuel.
a
‘Pers
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. lll
It is well known that in practical operations there is no combustion without
oxygen as its supporter, and as that important element cannot be procured
for general purposes without the other constituents of atmospheric air, it
follows, that in order to effect combustion, a regular supply of this compound
must be constantly at command. Now it is not the facility, but the control
and regulation of the supply of air which requires attention, and on this point
of the inquiry we must refer to the researches of Mr.C.W. Williams, where, in
speaking of “‘ gaseous combinations,” he shows that much depends upon the
conditions and proportions in which the gases evolved during the process of
combustion combine with the oxygen of the air. And in order to effect this,
it is necessary for those entrusted with the management: of furnaces to know
the “equivalents” or definite proportions under which these combinations
take place. On this head it will be sufficient to observe, that the principal
gases evolved from coal in a state of combustion are carburetted hydrogen,
bicarburetted hydrogen, and some others, such as carbonic acid gas, carbonic
oxide, &c., the properties of which it is not requisite on this occasion to in-
vestigate, but to confine the inquiry to the union of carburetted hydrogen,
bi-carburetted hydrogen, and atmospheric air. Following, therefore, the
Daltonian theory, it will be found that the constituents of one atom of car-
buretted hydrogen consist of the following symbols, each representing an
atom, and the figures the weight :—
Carburetted hydrogen.
—_———_.
ee
-—--—--
Hydrogen.
Wie 1 atom of
Carbon. \ __ carburetted
6. as hydrogen.
8.
Hydrogen.
1.
_ Carburetted hydrogen is therefore composed of 2 hydrogen and 1 carbon
=1 carburetted hydrogen. In weight 2 hydrogen + 6 carbon = 8 carbu-
tted hydrogen. The constituents of bi-carburetted hydrogen are 2 hy-
Bogen and 2 carbon = | bi-carburetted hydrogen. In weight, 2 hydrogen
and 12 carbon, or 2 + 12 = 14 bi-carburetted hydrogen.
_ These are the two principal gases which require attention, and as the
oxygen of the air is an element that cannot be dispensed with, the object of
our next inquiry will be into the quantity and constituents of atmospheric air.
_ According to the best authorities atmospheric air is found in the propor-
tion of 1 oxygen and 2 nitrogen, or according to Mr. Williams (adopting the
figures as representing the weights as before ),—
Atmospheric Air,
SS ee ee
in tae
Nitrogen.
14, 1 atom of
Oxygen. | _ atmospheric
8. air.
Nitrogen. 36.
14,
2 C- REPORT—1844.
Having thus ascertained the constituents and equivalents in which the
combustible and incombustible gases combine, it will easily be determined _
what quantity of atmospheric air will be necessary to support and effect —
perfect combustion of the fuel of which the above are constituents. For
this purpose it will be observed that a very considerable quantity of air must —
be brought in contact with the incandescent fuel before the process of com-
bustion can be effected, and having already determined the constituents of —
each, we must next determine the quantity of air required for the purpose of
supporting the entire combustion of the gases without producing a diminu-
tion of the temperature in the process.
On this part of the subject several able authorities may be quoted; but
taking that of Professor Brande (as given by Mr. Williams), the tollowing
diagram indicates the relative weights of the atoms both before and after
combustion :—
Before Elementary Products of
combustion. mixtures. combustion.
Weight. ; Atoms. Weight. Weight.
26 i Catbou.. a G 2 Carbonic acid.
8 3541 Hydrogen 9 Steam
gq Ll Hydrogen 9 Steam
» {1 Oxygen .
‘3 | 1 Oxygen .
144 34 1 Oxygen «
E | Oxygen... 73 ,
< (8 Nitrogen. 112 112 { Uncombined
hb + iP Pdi nitrogen.
152 152 152
Again, for the olefiant gas, or bi-carburetted hydrogen, we have—
pefore Elementary Products of
combustion. mixtures. combustion.
Weight. Atoms. Weight. Weight.
Ze 1 Carbon... 6____m______22 Carbonic acid.
is 2 &) 1Carbon.. 6 pa 22 Carbonic acid.
53) 1 Hydrogen 1 “7, 9 Steam.
S= | 1 Hydrogen ae 9 Steam,
1 Oxygen . 9 ve
3 1 Oxygen. 8 iy
2 1 Oxygen. 8
216 2< 1 Oxygen. &
2 1 Oxygen .
= 1 Oxygen. 8 ;
<
(12 Nitrogen , 168 168 { ee
230 230 230
From the above it must appear obvious that in every instance of combus-
tion the nitrogen or azotic gas (which forms so great a proportion of atmo-
spheric air) is double the volume and three and a half times the weight of
the oxygen, and being in itself incombustible, is absolutely of no use either
as a combustible or supporter of combustion; on the contrary, it is exceed-
ingly injurious, as not combining with the other gases; it reduces the tempe-
rature, and thus deprives the fuel of a great portion of its heat, which other=
wise would (as in the case of the Bude light) have given much greater in-
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 113
tensity of heat and greater brilliancy in its illuminating powers. Finding it
however impossible to separate the nitrogen from the oxygen of the air (for
general purposes), we must take the mixture as it is, and instead of using
1 atom of oxygen, we must take 2 of nitrogen along with it, and as 4 atoms of
oxygen and 8 of nitrogen are required for the saturation of 1 atom of car-
buretted hydrogen, it follows that four times the quantity of air in volume
and 144 of weight will be necessary for that purpose. Again, for the satu-
ration of 1 atom of bi-carburetted hydrogen, 6 atoms of oxygen and 12 of ni-
trogen, in weight 216, are wanted, which, added to the previous quantity in
combination with the carburetted hydrogen, the whole supply of air will there-
fore be 4 + 6 = 10 volumes of atmospheric air to one of coal-gas. Ten to one
is therefore the true proportion of atmospheric air required for attaining per-
fect combustion, and for reducing the gases to their ultimate products of car-
bonic acid and water.
Having determined the conditions and relative proportions of the gases
and their supporters in a state of perfect combustion, it will be seen that in
order to ensure ceconomy and effect in the combustion of fuel, a large
and copious supply of air must be admitted to the furnace, and that in the
ratio of 10 volumes of air to 1 of coal-gas, It is difficult to determine the
exact quantities evolved from every description of fuel, and probably equally
so to supply its equivalent of air; but in order to attain certainty in this
respect, let the openings be made sufficiently large, and by a little attention
to the quality of the fuel and quantity of air required for its combustion,
the apertures may be contracted till such time as a mean average and a close
approximation to the maximum effect are obtained.
The concentration of heat is a consideration of much importance in the
economy of the steam-engine and the industrial arts; and as much depends
upon its preservation, it may be useful in this place to direct attention to a
few self-evident facts, which if properly attended to will lead to considerable
saving in the use and application of heat.
It cannot be doubted, that after having applied the rules, conditions and
proportions requisite for the creation of heat, the whole of our knowledge
‘may become obsolete unless the heat thus generated be closely preserved,
and if I may use the expression, kept warm. It would be worse than useless
to study ceconomy in one department, so long as a lavish expenditure goes
“9n in another ; and having once acquired a given quantity of heat, the next
‘thing to be done is to retain and prevent its escape. Caloric is a body which
Yadiates in all directions, and unless surrounded with warm clothing, or non-
conducting substances, it is sure to disappear ; and although tightly bottled
up, it sets at defiance the closest and hardest metals, and frequently escapes
through the pores of the thickest iron and steel. Unlike gases and fluids,
‘such as air and water, it is only kept within bounds by an envelope of soft
wool or pounded charcoal, and the highest temperature of heat may some-
times be retained by a solid compact mass of lime and baked clay. This is
strongly exemplified in the construction of ovens and furnaces, which, taken
as a rule, will establish the principle on which heat can be preserved without
diminution till it is used. For this purpose we should recommend the flues
and furnaces of boilers, and other fires, to be closely encased with good
building material adapted for the retention of heat, and all steam-boilers to
be well-covered and clothed, so as to prevent (as much as possible) the
escape of heat in that direction; and for steam-engines, that all the steam
pipes, cylinders, &c. should be closely enveloped in a thick coating of felt,
canvas or wood, and afterwards well-painted. These precautions being taken,
the effects will soon become visible in a saving of 15 to 20 per cent. of fuel,
1844. I
114 REPORT—1844.
On the Prevention of Smoke.—The ultimatum of this inquiry is twofold;
first the combustion of fuel, and secondly the prevention of smoke. In the
preceding investigation we have endeavoured to establish the laws which
regulate and govern the combustion of fuel, and in that attempt we have also
endeavoured to show the difference between perfect and imperfect combustion.
Now perfect combustion is the prevention of smoke, and whenever smoke
makes its appearance we may reasonably infer that imperfect combustion,
and probably want of attention to a few simple rules is the cause. We have
already inculcated these rules, and shown from well-known chemical facts,
that 1 atom of coal-gas requires 10 atoms of atmospheric air for its complete
combustion ; when that quantity is at its maximum or in excess there is no smoke,
when it is different smoke is invariably present. It therefore follows, that in
order to render the residue of the products of combustion transparent, or
‘¢ smokeless,” a supply of air amounting to ten times that of the gases evolved
must be admitted. Should it exceed that quantity the effect will not be
smoke, but an additional expenditure of fuel to supply the loss of heat which
this excess of air would require for absorption, rarefaction, &c. Hence the
necessity which exists for power to regulate the admission, if not the exact,
at least an approximate quantity of air. On the other hand, should the supply
be deficient in quantity (which is often the case), a dense volume of smoke is
then visible, accompanied with all the defects and annoyances of imperfect
combustion.
The variable changes which accompany perfect and imperfect combustion
are not only visible, but may be proved by experiment. Let any person
apply his hand to the tube of an Argand gas-burner, and he will find that the
instant the aperture is partially closed the flame immediately becomes elon-
gated; and instead of a clear brilliant light, a dull red flame, with a dark
volume of smoke, is the result. This shows the effect of a diminished supply
of air ; and the same may be applied to a steam-engine furnace, when imper-
fectly supplied with oxygen, when the gases pass off in opake volumes un-
consumed, and where a considerable portion of heat is entirely lost from that
cause. It has been stated that we cannot have fire without smoke ; but this
is not the case in steam-boilers, as a well-constructed furnace properly ma-
naged furnishes many examples where bituminous coal is consumed in large
quantities and with little if any appearance of smoke. If coal were double
the price, it is more than probable that a great improvement would shortly
present itself, and that not exclusively in the suppression of the smoke nul-
sance, but in a further extension of those duties wherein ceconomy becomes
a leading feature in the attainment of these objects. It is therefore futile to
urge difficulties which have already been overcome, and where in many in-
stances “ the prevention of smoke” is accomplished with perfect ease, and
with great benefit to the parties concerned, In attempting the total sup-
pression of this nuisance, two important considerations require to be attended
to as essential; the first of which is abundance of boiler space, and the second
a sufficient supply of air. For the last of these we have already given suffi-
cient instructions for its admission; and for the first we could not furnish a
better rule for the capacity and power of boilers than that which applies to
the steam-engine, namely that of raising 33,000 lbs. one foot high in a minute.
For example, suppose a steam-engine of 50 horse nominal power to be
worked according to the indicator up to 80 horse, which taken at 33,000 Ibs. one
foot high in a minute, we have then to calculate, from data already given, the
size of boilers required, Using these precautions, and never loading the steam-
engine beyond its nominal power without enlarging the boilers in proportion,
the effects will be an almost total suppression of smoke and a saving of fuel.
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 115
To all those practically acquainted with the subject, it is well known that
a boiler of limited capacity, when overworked, must be forced, and this forcing
is the gangrene which corrupts and festers the whole system of operations.
Under such circumstances perfect combustion is out of the question, and
any attempt at ceconomy is, as heretofore, a complete failure. I have been
the more particular on these points from having witnessed innumerable
errors and mistakes in this respect, and it cannot be too forcibly impressed
upon the minds of the public, that a LARGE BoILER is one of the essentials
absolutely necessary for the acquirements already insisted upon.
IMPROVED STATIONARY BOILER.
Fig. 1.
———
SS
ST iia
SECTIONAL ELEVATION.
tf,
Selig
dL
SECTION AT AB. FRONT OF BOILER.
; Description.
Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and longitudinal section of the boiler with
double flues and double furnaces, and figs. 3 and 4 a transverse section and
12
116 REPORT—1844,
end view. In these representations it will be seen that the gases emitted
from the furnaces a, a x are conducted along the internal tubes into the re-
turn flue 4. From 4 they cross under the boiler below the ash-pit into the
flue c, and from thence along the opposite side of the boiler into the main
flue d, which communicates with the chimney. From this description it will
be observed that the gases do not unite until they have reached ee at the
end of the boiler, At this point a change immediately takes place in the
gaseous products, and that from one of two causes, as follows. Suppose the
furnace @ X to be newly fired, and the fuel in it in a perfectly incandes-
cent state ; it then follows that the gases passing from a will not only be
different in their constituents to those from a x, but they are at a much
higher temperature; and both furnaces having received air as a constant
quantity through the fixed apertures /f, it will be seen that in the event of
a surcharge of air on one side, and a diminished supply on the other, that
their extremes are neutralized by the excess of oxygen thus introduced and
the increased temperature which effects ignition at the point e, where combi-
nation takes place, All that is therefore necessary is to replenish the fires
alternately eyery 20 minutes in order to effect the combustion of the gases
without the least appearance of smoke. These and the increased recipient
surface are the leading properties of this boiler, which, compared with others
having single flues, is found to be greatly superior either as regards the com-
bustion or ceconomy of fuel.
General Summary of Results.
In briefly recapitulating the experiments, observations and results obtained,
it will be seen that in the procurement and employment of heat, a number of
important matters have to be considered.
First, the quality and properties of the fuel used.
Secondly, its treatment in the furnace, and the supply of air requisite for
its combustion,
Thirdly, the form of boilers, and the extent of their absorbent surfaces.
Fourthly, the concentration and ceconomy of heat. And
Lastly, the prevention of smoke,
These have been treated upon in their respective order, and all that now
remains is to collect them into form, and draw such conclusions as will
enable practical men to understand and apply the means necessary for their
fulfilment,
From what has been stated, and from the many facts collected and expe-
riments made, it will appear conclusive that a much better and more com-
prehensive system of combustion can be accomplished ; and by attention to
the following results, great and important advantages may be obtained.
Amongst the varied species of fuel enumerated in the foregoing experi-
ments, there will be found ten different sorts of coal, each exhibiting its
peculiar properties and compounds. For the sake of brevity and deduction,
these may be divided into three kinds, namely the anthracite, the bituminous
and splint qualities. Of the anthracite we have little experience beyond a
knowledge of its properties and the absence of smoke, It is a coal which
requires a Jarge supply of oxygen for its combustion, and instead of the
furnace usually employed for the consumption of the bituminous kind, it
would require one possessing the power of a reverberatory or a strong blast
acting upon it, and that under circumstances of a minute division of its parts.
The bituminous kind is however what we have most to do with, and on -
reference to its constituents, it will be seen that a specific quantity of atmo-
spheric air is absolutely necessary for its combustion, amounting, as already
—
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 117
stated, to 10 times the volume of gases it contains. Now, from a number of
well-conducted experiments on the waggon-shaped, and the improved boilers
with double flues, it was ascertained that the following proportions of per-
manent openings for the admission of air behind the fire-bridge were the
nearest approach to perfect combustion*.
Summary of Results obtained from 17 Experiments with fixed apertures for
the admission of air behind the bridge of two 40-horse power Boilers.
Number of
Description of Boilers and num- |Power of Boilers} Area of grate- rite ah setae piheverrnied na
ber of Experiments made. in horses. bars in feet. i inches, | every foot of
grate-bar.
Waggon-boiler, mean of y , 164
10 experiments......... a 28°0 400
Double furnace boiler, : ’ AG
mean of 7 experiments. aD 234 185
Mean. 40 25°7 32°4 1:05
It therefore appears that about 26 square feet, and 323 inches of perma-
nent aperture for the admission of air, is the mean of the old and improved
boilers.
This proportion must not however be taken as a criterion for every boiler,
as much depends upon the principle on which they are constructed, and it
will be safer to adopt the mean results of the experiments as shown in the
table, than to apply them without exception to every description of boiler
and furnace. Taking therefore the mean of the whole experiments, we may
safely administer the following supply of air behind the bridge.
For cylindrical waggon-shaped and every description of boiler of the usual
construction, give permanent opening for the admission of air of 14 square
inch to every square foot of grate-bar; and for every square foot of grate-bar
surface in the double furnace and double-flued boiler, give half a square inch,
or ‘5 for the same purpose.
Practically considered, this will be found a near approximation to the
correct quantity of air required for the support of effective combustion in
each, and provided necessary attention is paid to considerations involving
the consumption of bituminous coal, of different kinds, we may reasonably in-
fer a greatly improved process in the use and absorption of our mineral fuels.
In the combustion of splint and slaty coal, a different treatment will be
required as respects either the anthracite and the bituminous kinds ; the one
is obdurate and hard, the other is compact, and in some instances liquefies
like pitch. Now the splint and slaty specimens burn open and rapid, and
therefore require less air, exclusive of what is taken through the grate-bars.
* Tt is due to Mr. John Wakefield (formerly of Manchester, now of Farnworth near Bolton)
to state, that he was amongst the first who turned his attention to the admission of air at the
bridge, behind the furnace, for the purpose of consuming the smoke as it escaped into the
flues. His first furnace was constructed on a plan of his own, having a hollow bridge closed
at the top, and thus rendering it an air-chamber connected with openings on each side of the
furnace. On this plan the air was heated by the passing currents, and by a communication
from the air-chamber to an opening in the arch-plate over the furnace door, the air thus rare-
fied was forced downwards, by the form of the opening in the plate, direct upon the fire. A
variety of other schemes were tried by Mr. Wakefield, some of them successfully ; and it is only
justice to that gentleman to state, that a considerable portion of his life was devoted to im-
provements in steam-boiler furnaces, and the abatement of a nuisance which at that period
(nearly thirty years ago) was justly complained of.
118 REPORT—1844,
In some cases it may however be necessary to overtake and effect the ig-
nition of such gases as may escape over the bridge unconsumed, and for this
purpose, in some descriptions of light coal, it may be desirable to admit
about half the quantity of air used in the combustion of the bituminous kinds,
The ultimate results are, therefore, —
A perfect knowledge of the properties of the fuel used, and judicious
management in working the fires.
An increase in the area of recipient surface of the boiler in the ratio of
the furnace as 1 to 18, or what is the same thing, a reduction of the grate-
bar surface to that proportion.
A constant supply of air (through a fixed aperture) of 14 square inch to
every foot of grate-bar in common boilers, when burning bituminous coal ;
and half that area when using splint coal. These openings should however
be regulated in the first instance by hand, until the mean or maximum effect
in reference to the fuel is obtained.
A complete covering of felt, or some other non-conducting substance, to
be applied to the exterior parts of the boiler, and the flues to be well-pro-
tected on all sides from the external air.
On a strict observance of these rules will depend the question of smoke or
no smoke, and also whether an important ceconomy in the use of fuel shall
or shall not be effected. We are assured, from the experimental facts already
recorded, that both these objects can be accomplished, and it rests with the
community to determine how far they shall be carried into effect.
At the time of entering upon this investigation, it was my intention to
have confined it within exceedingly narrow limits: it was however found to in-
crease in interest as | advanced; and from the nature of the subject, and
the number of considerations connected therewith, I became involved in a
long and important inquiry; an inquiry progressively developing new fea-
tures, and admitting of no curtailment except only in such matters as did
not directly bear upon the subject. As it is, I fear I have but imperfectly
discharged the duty entrusted to my care: it is however done honestly ;
and trusting to future developments in the hands of superior writers, I close
the report under the impression that the preceding investigations may direct
public attention to the extension of our knowledge and improvement of our
practice in the combustion of fuel and the prevention of smoke.
Manchester, Nov. 30, 1844.
Note by Mr. Fairbairn, bezng an Appendix to the preceding Report.
During the progress or about the close of the above report, I found that
my friend and former pupil Mr, A. Murray had communicated a paper on
a similar subject to the Institution of Civil Engineers, entitled «‘ The Con-
struction and proper Proportion of Boilers for the Generation of Steam.”
Mr. Murray has had many opportunities of judging of the best forms and
proportions of marine boilers, and, from the facilities afforded in his profes-
sional avocations at the Royal Dockyard, Woolwich, I am induced to quote
a few of his observations relative to the area of the flue, bridge, chimney,
&c., which lave in some degree been omitted in the preceding report. In
treating of the quantity of air entering into combination with the volatile
products of pit coal, Mr. Murray states, that ‘ The quantity of air chemi-
cally required for the combustion of 1 Ib. of coal has been shown to be
150:35 cubic feet, of which 44-64 enter into combination with the gases,
and 105-71 with the solid portion of the coal. From the chemical changes
ON CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND PREVENTION OF SMOKE. 119
which take place in the combination of the hydrogen with oxygen, the bulk
of the products is found to be to the bulk of the atmospheric air required
to furnish the oxygen, as 10 isto11. The amount is therefore 49-104. ‘This
is without taking into account the augmentation of the bulk due to the
increase of the temperature. In the combination which takes place be-
tween the carbon and the oxygen, the resultant gases (carbonic acid gas and
nitrogen gas) are of exactly the same bulk as the amount of air, that is,
10571 cubic feet, exclusive, as before, of the augmentation of bulk from the
increase of temperature. The total amount of the products of combustion
in a cool state would therefore be 49-104 + 105°71 = 154814 cubic feet.
«‘ The general temperature of a furnace has not been very satisfactorily as-
certained, but it may be stated at about 1000° Fahrenheit, and at this tem-
perature the products of combustion would be increased, according to the
laws of the expansion of aériform bodies, to about three times their original
bulk, The bulk, therefore, of the products of combustion which must pass
off must be 154°S14 x 3 = 464442 cubic feet. Ata velocity of 36 feet per
second*, the area, to allow this quantity to pass off in an hour, is ‘516 square
inch, In a furnace in which 13 Ibs. of coal are burnt on a square foot of
grate per hour, the area to every foot of grate would be ‘516 x 13 =6°708
square inches ; and the proportion to each foot of grate, if the rate of com-
bustion be higher or lower than 13 lbs., may be found in the same way.
‘¢ This area having been obtained, on the supposition that no more air is
admitted than the quantity chemically required, and that the combustion is
complete and perfect in the furnace, it is evident that this area must be much
increased in practice where we know these conditions are not fulfilled, but
that a large surplus quantity of air is always admitted. A limit is thus found
for the area over the bridge, or the area of the flue immediately behind the
furnace, below which it must not be decreased, or the due quantity could
not pass off, and consequently the due quantity of air could not enter, and
the combustion would be proportionally imperfect. It will be found ad-
vantageous in practice to make the area 2 square inches instead of +516 square
inch. The imperfection of the combustion in any furnace, when it is less
than 1:6 square inch, will be rendered very apparent by the quantity of
carbon which will rise unconsumed along with the hydrogen gas, and show
itself in a dense black smoke on issuing from the chimney. This would give
26 square inches of area over the bridge to every square foot of grate, in a
furnace in which the rate of combustion is 13 lbs. of coal on each square foot
per hour, and so in proportion for any rate. ‘aking this area as the pro-
portion for the products of combustion immediately on their leaving the
furnace, it may be gradually reduced, as it approaches the chimney, on ac-
count of the reduction in the temperature, and consequently in the bulk of
the gases. Care must however be taken that the flues are nowhere so con-
tracted, nor so constructed, as to cause, by awkward bends, or in any other
way, any obstruction to the draught, otherwise similar bad consequences will
ensue.”
From this statement it would appear, that 26 square inches of area over
the bridge is about the correct proportion for the combustion of 13 lbs. of
coal per hour on each square foot of grate-bar. Now these proportions are
rather more than is given in stationary boilers; as the mean of a number of
experiments, taken where the combustion was most perfect, gave about 18
square inches over the bridge, and about 28 square inches as the area of the
flues to every square foot of grate-bar.
* See Dr. Ure’s experiments, read before the Royal Society, June 1836.
120 REPORT—1844.
These data may not at first sight appear important; they are however of
great value in practice, as the ceconomy of the fuel and the efficiency of the
furnace in a great measure depend upon the height of the bridge behind,
which operates as a retarder of the currents in the same way as the damper
is used for checking the draught of the chimney in the flues.
Mr. Murray further treats of the temperature of the furnace, flues, &c.,
but these points having already been experimented upon and fully discussed
in the report, it will not be necessary to notice them in this place.
WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN.
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association, at Kew,
Srom August the 1st, 1843, to July the 31st, 1844.
By Francis Ronautps, Esq., F.R.S.
In August of last year (1843) I drew up a short account of the electrical
observatory here, as fitted up and supplied with instruments under my direc-
tion, and principally in accordance with a plan which I had in November
1842 stated to Professor Wheatstone.
That account was annexed to a journal of about one month’s electrical ob-
servations made therewith, and the meteorological journal commencing in
October 1842.
From August 1843 to the present time a similar electrical journal has been
maintained with all the attention to accuracy which our ways and means have
permitted, and it has been presented to the Association in a condensed tabu-
lar form embodied with the other meteorological observations made here.
But as the above-mentioned statement may be deemed not quite sufficient
for a due appreciation of the circumstances under which our journal has been
kept, as I have since made a few variations in and additions to the collection
of instruments, given to the journal a different form*, and instituted a few
test and other experiments, it seems expedient to comprise in this report,
first, a short description of the building itself, and of the whole meteorological
apparatus employed; secondly, some necessary explanations, and a specimen
of the journal ; thirdly, a brief statement relative to all the experiments (of
any moment) which have been made.
I. Description of the Observatory and of Instruments used for the Observations.
Tue BuILpING.
The position, form, &c. of the structure (Plate XXX. fig. 1), are certainly
very favourable to electrical meteorology. It was erected for His Majesty
George III. by Sir William Chambers, in about the year 1768, in the old
Deer Park, Richmond, upon a promontory formed by a flexure of the river,
its least distance from which is 924 feet. The nearest trees (elms) are about
13 feet lower than the top of the conductor. Some elms more distant average
about 13 feet lower, and the trees of various kinds, as elm, beech. poplar, &c.,
on the bank of the river, about 8 feet lower. Innumerable high trees exist in
the royal pleasure-grounds, the nearest being about half a mile distant.
The height of the top of the conductor above the level of the sea is about
feet; above the river, at low water, about 83 feet, and above the top of
the dome 16 feet.
* As nearly like the Astronomer Royal’s as possible.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 121
The neighbourhood of the river and the rather marshy state of the land
near the building cause sometimes very dense and interesting fogs*.
The foundation is of an extremely solid and costly kind. The basement,
partly sunk in an artificial mound, is occupied by Mr. Galloway’s family and
that of Mr. Cripps f.
The principal entrance is by a flight of stone steps, on the north side, into
a fine hall equal to and corresponding with the apartment A. B is a room
which was built for the great mural quadrant, and has shutters, b' 4°, in the
roof, &c., and in the meridian of the two obelisks near the river. [The
northern window of this apartment is used for the exposure of thermometers
and hygrometers.] The other wing (C) consists of the (former) transit-in-
strument-room, with its sliding shutters, a small apartment for an azimuth
instrument, and part of a circular staircase. The north upper room, like and
equal to D, is to be used as a bed-room. D is appropriated as a sort of
laboratory, library, study, experimental room, &c. The central rooms (A, D,
&c.) are entirely lined with glass cases, which formerly contained philosophi-
cal instruments, objects of natural history, &c. (many of the cases now sub-
ject to dry rot, but still may prove very convenient), and all the rooms are
provided with stoves. The flat leaden roof of the front and back rooms (D) is
surrounded by a balustrade, &c. It is entered upon by convenient stairs and
a door, and serves admirably for viewing the sky, and for the reception of
some instruments, &c. The smoke of the chimneys is sometimes annoying,
and perhaps a little detrimental; but I think that the smoke and the hot air
scarcely ever rise so high as to interfere with the electrical indications of the
principal conductor; an almost imperceptible breath of wind carries them
away horizontally.
The small equatorial apartment (E) is composed chiefly of wood covered
externally by sheet copper; it is erected partly upon an extremely solid wall
extending from the foundation of the whole building. The dome (e) was
moveable round its axis by means of beautiful, but now scarcely efficient,
internal rack-work, &c. It had above, the usual opening with sliding shut-
ters, and below, a kind of door, corresponding with them and opening upon
the plinths (f){: this room is now our principal
Electrical observatory, which has been thus adapted and furnished. [The
parts of fig.2 in diagonal shading represent a sectional plane cutting the axis
of the dome; the other parts are in projection. |
Through the centre of the dome A A A has been cut a circular aperture,
and in that is fitted a smooth mahogany varnished cylinder, a'a'. BB isa
window, the frame of which formerly carried the sliding shutter ; and g (fig. 1)
* are steps by which the top of the dome may be reached.
GGG, fig. 2, is a strong cylindrical pedestal (the upper part of which be-
comes a warm and dry closet for little electrical articles). G'G! is a stage
surrounding G, upon which the observer mounts by the steps G®.
CCC (fig. 2) and h (fig. 1) is the safety conductor, composed of a leaden
strap soldered to the leaden roof of the lower apartments, which roof is con-
nected by various little straps and solderings with leaden pipes (h' h’, fig. 1),
in good conducting communication with the drains, pond, &c.
* Electric signs are usually higher upon bridges than elsewhere, all other things being
equal in serene weather, and fogs present remarkable electric phenomena.
t An apartment, of which X is the window, was frequently used by His Majesty as a
turning-room. We want the lathe very much.
$ It may be as convenient to other observers as to Mr. Galloway and myself to know, that
these sloping plinths or steps are in frosty weather very dangerous.
a.
122 REPORT—1844.
Tue Principat ConpucrTor, &e.
The principal conductor, D D (fig.2), and H (fig.1), is a conical tube of
thin copper 16 feet high. E E (fig. 2) is a strong brass tube into which D D
is firmly secured, and enters about 34 inches, but is removeable at pleasure.
F F is a well-annealed hollow glass pillar, whose lower end is trumpet-shaped
and ground flat; it rests upon the centre of the pedestal G GG, where it is
firmly secured by eight bolts, f', f’, &c., passing through a strong wooden
collar, f?, and the table of G. This pillar, with its high conductor, has re-
sisted gales which were strong enough to blow down large trees in the neigh-
bourhood ; a certain degree of flexibility in the conductor diminishes the
danger of the glass breaking considerably. A collar of thick leather is
planted between F and the table, and some strips of leather are interposed
between the excavated interior of the collar and the trumpet-shaped part of
F (as seen in the plan annexed).
H (fig. 2) is a spherical ring fitted on the brass cap of F, and carrying
III, which are three of four arms at right angles with each other. I (Plate
XXXII. fig. 3) is a section of one of them, and of the ring H, to which it is
firmly attached by means of a strong iron screw R, and the plug 8. K isa
ball fixed on the other end by means of a screw, L passing through its neck
and a plug M. Nis a cylindrical plug sliding accurately into K, and furnish-
ed with a screw n’, which passes through a stopper O into a clamping-ball P.
K and N are perforated to fit the sliding arm Q.
It is evident that by these means Q can be adjusted to any angle, with, and
its ends to any required height, from the table of GGG; also that it can be
very firmly secured without being galled.
K (fig. 2) is a little lamp for warming F F appropriately, ! its chimney of
copper, closed above, passing through the table of G and entering, but not
touching, F.
By this arrangement the lower part of F is generally warmed too much
and the upper too little ; but the pillar F being conical, &c., some zone always
exists between the two ends, which is in the best state of temperature for
electrical insulation *.
L is a pair of finely pointed platinum wires soldered to D.
M is Volta’s small lantern, fitted to a ring m', from which it can easily be
withdrawn when lowered by a person mounting the steps on the dome, m? its
lamp; m’® is a ring or tube sliding freely on D, and attached to M, &c.;
mis a silken line fastened to m’*, passing over a pulley (from which it cannot
escape) at m’, descending the interior of D and E, and winding upon a reel
contained in the ball m°, worked by a winch at m’, for the purpose of raising
and lowering M.
N is an inverted copper dish or parapluie, with a smooth ring on its edge,
fitted by a collar and stays on E, and (of course) insulated by F: its least
distance from a! is 3 inches.
One of the chief objects of this arrangement is to insulate the active parts
of all the electrometers and the conductor itself by a common insulator, viz.
the glass pillar F. The cord being contained in the tubular rod, cannot dis-
sipate electricity from its fibres, and everything is well-rounded.
* Mr. Read imagined (vide his ‘Summary View,’ &e. p. 105) “that if the insulation of
his rod could be constantly kept in due temperature, it would always be electrified; but that |
that could not be done without the aid of common fire, which in so large an apparatus would
be very difficult.”
I believe we may safely affirm, that with the exception of a few hours of drizzling weather
sometimes, and on occasions when our conductor has been touched, our rod has been every
day, and all day, sensibly electrified since the moment of its erection (in June 1843).
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 123
ELECTROMETERS, &c.
The voltaic electrometers, which we used at first for the observations, were
Volta’s No. 1, or standard, O, fig. 2, and his second P, so modified that the
straws suspended within square glass bottles with metallic bases, &c. were
not suspended from the bottles themselves ; but finding it difficult to avoid
parallax and distortion by uneven glass, &c., I have endeavoured to improve
these electrometers, and since the 16th of June we have used the following
form, having first taken special pains to render the new instruments as nearly
accordant with the old as possible (vide Experiments, post).
P (fig. 4) is a front view and O (fig. 5) a side view of a brass case (instead
of a bottle) exactly 2 English inches wide internally, and furnished with
plates of thin plate glass fixed by brass plates, &c. to its front and back: the
back plate is ground to semi-transparency. The radius of the ivory scale p
is equal to the length of the pair of straws Q (¢. e.) 2 Paris inches, and the
scale is graduated in half Paris lines. The scale of No.1 counts single de-
grees, and each degree of No. 2 corresponds with five of No. 1.
The straws are suspended by hooks of fine copper wire inserted into their
hollows and passing freely through holes in the flattened ends of the wire R,
at the distance of half a line from each other. R passes through a glass tube
S, covered with sealing-wax by heating the tube (not by spirit varnish). T is
a cover cemented upon S, and, when the instrument is not in use, closing P.
U is a ring to which R and S are attached, and V (fig. 5) is a knife-edged
piece of steel riveted into a slit in U*.
The base (W X Y) of the instrument consists of three parts. W is a cylinder
with a kind of flange, w', and is screwed firmly down upon a circular plate X.
Yis a stout ring turning with friction about the smaller part of W, and X is
secured firmly on the table of G by a bolt, serew-washer and nut Z, the bolt
passing through a hole in G much larger than itself. The lower part, or
plinth of P, has a shallow cavity beneath into which w’ fits easily.
A is a tubular arm attached to Y, and carrying a steel wire B, which sup-
ports an eye-piece C; this can be adjusted and fixed at the required height
from Y, in the same manner as Q (fig. 3). The distance of C from P, when
in use, is one English foot.
R R (fig. 6) is a horizontal tubular arm fixed upon one of the vertical arms
Q (fig.3), and SS (fig. 6) are two little tubes with stoppers which slide into
R and turn on their common axis; ss! are notches cut down to the diameter
of SS, and the horizontal parts of V (vide fig. 5) fit these notches.
Hence it is obvious, that when the adjustments have been made, an elec-
trometer-case can be properly placed upon its base W, &c., and the straws
Q, &c. suspended from S at exactly their proper height, without destroying
the insulation of the warmed glass pillar (for it is necessary to handle P only),
that U, &c. will then hang with sufficient freedom without liability to turn on
their axis, and that C can be brought to exactly its proper position for noting
the degrees on p', indicated by the divergence of Q. In like manner O can
be removed and closed (as shown in the side view, fig. 5) without destroying
the insulation, and finally, the whole of P X, &c. can be adjusted to make
the straws accord with the zero point of p' (when unelectrified) and firmly
fixed there +. I will not enter upon further particulars concerning the man-
ner of using the sight-piece C in estimating fractions of degrees.
* Cleverly suggested to me by Mr. Robert Murray.
+ The Astronomer Royal has improved the manner of placing and displacing these elec-
trometers at Greenwich.
124 REPORT—1844.
C'C!C! is a strap of copper pressed under the washers at Z Z, and in good
conducting contact with the strap of lead C (fig. 2)*.
The Henley electrometer (figs 7 and 8) is also constructed in conformity
with Volta’s improvements t.
The brass piece A is cylindrical below and flat above; on each of the
smaller sides of the upper part is affixed a semicircular plate of ivory BB;
through these the shanks of two little balls (CC) are screwed, which are drilled
to receive fine steel pivots, carrying a little ball, into which the index (or
pendulum) D is inserted: D terminates with a pith-ball E. The scale is
divided into degrees of the circle: each degree should correspond with
degrees of the Volta No.2, and consequently with degrees of the No. 1 (or
standard) ; every part is carefully rounded and smoothed.
It is supported by a piece of tube F passing through a clamping-ball and
plug G, and that ball is affixed to one of the cross arms Q (vide fig. 3); the zero
of the scale can be therefore accurately adjusted to coincide with the pen-
dulum when unelectrified, and this can be made to rise ina plane cutting the
axis of the conductor, &c. with the back of the instrument A turned towards
the conductor, &c.; these are two essential conditions.
This electrometer has seldom been observed until the Volta No. 2 had risen
beyond 90° (in terms of the first, ¢.e. 18 lines x 5); and since the uncertainty
and difficulty of measuring the higher tensions increase in a rapid ratio with
the increments of tension, owing to unavoidable and sometimes almost im-
perceptible “ spirtings,” and particularly to the falling of rain from the dish
or funnel N (fig. 2), proportionably less confidence must, of course, be placed
in our notations of such tensions by means of this instrument}.
It also requires, according to Volta, De Luc, &c., small corrections for all
degrees below the 15th and above the 35th, which have not been made in
our Journal §.
A galvanometer by M. Gourjon, § (fig. 2), which Professor Wheatstone
has placed on our table, will, I hope, prove the nucleus of a very valuable
assemblage of new facts. In low intensities we have not yet been able to
apply this instrument successfully, but in higher tensions the needles have been
strongly affected.
The galvanometer in some improved form should perhaps supply that great
desideratum in atmospheric electricity, a means of noting the dynamic effects
which are perhaps coincident, if not identical, with the property discovered
by Beccaria, and called by him “ frequency,” a property of great importance
possibly considered in relation with the various opinions and theories which
have been or still are entertained concerning the natural agency of atmo-
spheric electricity, in vegetation, animal life, the magnetism of the earth,
the aurora, &c.
Should we be enabled to prosecute these inquiries in the manner which
the Professor has most ingeniously contemplated, or by means of a much
more extensive collecting apparatus than the single lamp, &c., I hope that
we shall do some good in this way.
* The Cavalier’ Amici has (on visiting the observatory), in a very kind and flattering man-
ner, expressed his conviction that if Volta (his friend) could now see these improvements
upon his electrometers and their application, he would be much pleased.
+ Vide Opere del Volta, tom i. parte 2. p. 35 ef seq.
+ The oscillations of the index between the 30th and 35th degrees, sometimes during a
heavy shower, plainly show that the electricity of the conductor is washed off, as it were, as
fast as brought.
§ I have strong hopes that our principal use of all these electrometers will be that of com-
paring them with one torsion electrometer, alluded to in my former communication.
_
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 125
The discharger (fig. 9), also our “safety valve,”
ment upon Lane’s electrometer.
The length of the spark is measured by means of a long index R, which
exhibits the distance of two balls, S and S', from each other on a multiplying
scale T, S being attached to a rod V, which is raised and lowered by means
of a glass lever W, forked piece X, &c.; V slides accurately through the base Y
and the piece A. The bolt, &c. (Z), which is in intimate metallic connec-
tion with the safety conductor C, clamps the whole down to the table in
the same manner as that in which the voltaic electrometers are fixed.
Each division of the scale represents an exact twentieth of an inch in the
length of the spark. The actual cord of each division is about a tenth, The
divisions are, of course, not perfectly equal to each other: they serve very
well to estimate to fortieths, or less.
We observe a tolerably near approximation to coincidence between the
lengths of sparks as measured by this instrument and the degrees of tension
exhibited by the Henley.
A Bennet's gold-leaf electroscope, in form a, little differing from fig. 10,
has been sometimes used for discovering the length of time which has elapsed
between the alternations in kindof electricity during rain, &c., and very rarely
for ascertaining whether our conductor was charged or not on other occa-
sions*,
A wire A, terminating below in a pair of forceps, carrying the paper by
which the leaves are suspended (in Bennet’s manner nearly), passes through
a glass stopper B, which is ground into a long-necked bottle C, with a me-
tallic base D, and a strip of brass (E) is bent and screwed to the inside of D.
The neck of C is well-covered with sealing-wax by heating both inside and
outt.
If required, this instrument can be suspended from an arm, as R (fig. 6),
and a chain hooked on a ring in its base, but here we depart from the prin-
ciple of uniform insulation, and therefore seldom use a Bennet’s electroscope
in this manner, but merely touch the conductor with it.
is perhaps an improve-
DIsTINGUISHER.
The distinguisher, which we have found most eonvenient for ascertaining
the kind of electricity possessed by the conductor, &c. at any given time,
i in all tensions except the very lowest, is of the sort represented by
g. 11.
A is a wire connected with a brass tube which forms the interior coating of
a very thin glass tube C. B isan exterior coating of the same kind, and these
two coatings are at about three-fourths of an inch distant from each extremity
of this little Leyden jar. ‘The intervals D C and B C are coated with melted
sealing-wax inside and out. A thus prepared is inserted through a stopper,
* In measuring low intensities, and particularly small quantities of electricity, the mode of
insulation called ‘ Singer’s’ is sometimes very objectionable, for this reason ; the wire (as A)
carrying the gold leaves, or other pendulums, becomes partly the interior coating of a charged
glass cylinder, and part of the cap of the instrument becomes the exterior coating; the con-
tact of the electrometer with the body whose electric tension is to be ascertained, lowers
consequently, and sometimes materially, the tension of that body itself. The charge received
by such an instrument is retained well, principally by reason of these associated metallic
coatings, &c., and it seems to lose electricity more slowly than it does, because it has more
to lose than it seems to have.
+ The principal conductor, its appendages and instruments in the electrical observatory,
hitherto described, were chiefly executed hy Mr. Newman of Regent Street, and do him very
great credit.
126 REPORT—1844,
fitted to a bottle D with metallic base, and is provided with a pair of gold
leaves rather too short to reach the sides of the bottle, the neck of which,
both inside and out, is also coated with sealing-wax as usual.
This distinguisher is charged every morning negatively, and never fails to
retain a good charge for the twenty-four hours. It is conveniently placed
upon a bracket, a few feet distant from the conductor, &c., to which when
used it is approached by hand, to some distance proportionate to the height
of the charge. If the charge is positive, the leaves of course collapse more
or less, but open again when withdrawn ; and if it be negative, the divergence
increases, &c.
Perhaps this mode of distinguishing is preferable to Beccaria’s method of
the star and brush, or even to that of the dry electric column, &c., for the
operation can be performed without the least danger of lowering the tension
of the conductor or injuring the gold leaves, let the height of the charge
be what it may *.
ELECTROGRAPH.
An electrograph (fig. 12), of the kind proposed first I believe by Lan-
driani and afterward by Bennet and Gersdof (but of which no particulars
seem to have been published before 1823+), has also been used, but not ex-
tensively, for reasons which will be hereafter explained.
A is a plate of tin coated with a thin layer of shell-lac, &c., as carefully as
possible deprived of air-bubbles, flaws and inequalities. B is a case con-
taining a time-piece moved by the weight C. D is part of a triangular little
frame fitted to the hour arbour of the time-piece and supporting A. E F is
a bent lever whose fulcrum is at e’, below its centre of gravity: the part F is
of coated glass. G is a ball through a groove of which E F passes, and G
is supported by a cross arm of the conductor.
When this instrument was used, the end E was allowed to rest with very
little pressure upon A, which being carried round by the clock became elec-
trified in the line and neighbourhood of its contact with E to an intensity
proportional to the charge of the conductor. After having been allowed to
perform a full revolution, or any given part of one, under these cireum-
stances, A was removed from D and well-powdered with chalk, projected
upon it from a lump rubbed upon a hard brush. The powder, of course, as in
Lichtenbourg’s figures, adhered almost exclusively to the parts which had been
more or less electrified by and in the neighbourhood of E; and a figure was
produced, of which a calotypic image, kindly executed for me by Mr. Collen,
by means of his camera obscura, &c., is preserved asa specimen. Many such
images could be produced in a few fine hours from A, and thus a sort of
pictorial register of atmospheric electricity (of serene weather at least) be
circulated amongst meteorologists, care being taken of course to note the
time of putting on and taking off the resinous plate.
That figure was made contemporaneously with hourly observations of the
voltaic electrometers. The plate, after the powdering, was placed upon a
circular paper, divided as the hours of a dial, and the intensities (as 35°, 25°,
16°, &c.) were marked against the appropriate hour, by which it may be
seen that, excepting at the hour of six, the breadth of the line or figure cor-
responds pretty nearly with those intensities.
* Indeed I do not know whether some some such contrivance might not be applied to
measure as well as distinguish the charge of the rod; particularly if the insulation of the
gold leaves were preserved by means of chloride of calcium in a manner hereafter to be
spoken of, the distance from the rod being made the measure of tension.
+ Vide Descriptions of an Electric Telegraph, &c., p. 47.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 127
Mr. Collen’s photographic impression of a one-hour plate, which was fixed
upon the minute arbour of the clock, is also preserved *.
A LeypeEN Jar, of about 40 inches coating, has been sometimes used for
receiving the charges from the rod, and the number of discharges up to the
maximum tension of the rod in a given time has furnished a better estimate
(in very high tensions and quantities) of frequency, than we at present other-
wise arrive at perhaps.
A PAIR OF BELLs has been sometimes applied to the conductor in the usual
way, but they are too small to give us due notice below of high charges.
An ARGAND LAmpP is burned at about 3 feet from the conductor in the
evening, for lighting the electrometers, &c., and a little chimney placed above
it, and opening outside the dome to prevent hot air and vapour from ap-
proaching the conductor, or anything connected therewith.
A SMALL JoyYcE’s STOVE, containing a little burning charcoal at night, is
generally suspended in the dome for keeping everything dry.
Great care is requisite, and diligently observed by Mr. Galloway, to guard
as much as possible the whole apparatus from dust. He uses occasionally
soft camels’-hair brushes.
I believe that every article which has been used, more or less constantly,
for the electric observations of the tables, has now been shortly described.
I placed a CONDENSER in the room, but we have not used it. I think that
Volta’s objections to the employment of such instruments in comparative ex-
periments are founded in sound reason and experience.
BAROMETERS.
The mountain barometer, lent by Colonel Sabine until we can afford the
expense of a standard instrument, has been used since the commencement of
the observations here; it is by Newman; the graduated scale is divided to
0°05 of an inch; the vernier subdivides the scale divisions to 0°05, and is
moved by a slow screw.
The particulars given, for corrections, are as follows :—
Capacity’ ys)..\s 2 we oe 5S
Neutral point . . . . . . 29°764
Capillary action . . . . . +0°043
Temperature . . . . . . 55°
It is freely suspended by a ring in the mural quadrant-room B (fig. 1),
near the north window. It has been compared with the barometer of the
Royal Society, and the comparison is recorded there.
The observations are set down without corrections of any kind.
A centigrade barometer hangs freely in the dome, but we use it for casual
observations merely, and seldom.
THERMOMETERS.
The thermometer which we call our standard, by Newman, is mercurial,
and divided to 0°5; it has not been compared with others. It is fixed at the
Outside of the north window of the apartment B (fig. 1).
The maximum thermometer is mercurial; it is made by Newman, is
divided to 0-1, and the index is of blue steel. It is placed outside the north
window of the room B (fig. 1), near the standard thermometer.
minimum spirit thermometer, by Newman, is divided to 0-1, and the
index is of black glass ; its position is nearly the same as that of the maximum
thermometer, z.e. on the opposite side of the same window.
* This kind of graphic exhibition is perhaps more pleasing but less useful than other modes
of registration which we hope to accomplish. The tedium and difficulties of bringing the
pate coating to a uniformly fit state for receiving the electrical drawing are not incon-
siderable.
128 REPORT—1844,
HyGROMETERS.
The wet-bulb thermometer of Mason’s hygrometer is mercurial: its seale
is divided to 0'1. The difference between this wet thermometer and the dry,
as set down in our observations, is derived from a comparison of it with our
standard thermometer. This hygrometer has been placed outside of the
same window, near the standard thermometer, about an hour before every
observation.
The thermometer inclosed in one of the bulbs of the Daniell hygrometer
is also mercurial, and its scale divided into 0°1. The difference between the
dew-point and the dry thermometer, as set down in our tables, is also derived
from a comparison of this thermometer with our standard thermometer. We
found that the exterior thermometer varied from the standard sometimes 12°.
This excellent hygrometer is used at the same open window.
The Saussure hygrometer is of the six-haired kind, made by Richer of —
Paris. A system of levers is employed, by means of which the effect upon the |
index is the mean result of all the expansions and contractions of the hairs.
It has the advantage of great strength, at least, but is slow and is much less
to be depended upon than the Daniell. Before the observation it is exposed
for about an hour outside the same north window of the room B (fig. 1).
Rain AND Vapour GAUGE.
This is, I believe, a new instrument. It indicates a mean result arising
from the quantity of water which may have fallen between any two given
periods, minus the quantity of vapour which has risen in the same time (and,
of course, vice versd) on and from a circular plane of one foot diameter.
A A (fig. 16), Plate XXXI. is a cylindrical vessel of zinc whose internal
diameter is one foot.
_ B is another cylindrical vessel attached to A, and communicating by a
little pipe 6 with it. C (vide dotted lines) is a glass vessel standing in B, and
having a small perforation near its foot. DD is a circular plate of brass
firmly screwed to a cap C, and d'd' is a copper plate attached to the cap of
C also. Eand F are cocks fixed upon D at a distance of about three-quarters
of an inch from each other. G is a pulley upon an arbour, which runs in
centres opposite to each other in the supports E and F; the centres are
jewelled, and the carefully turned pivots of the arbour are of platinum. H is
an index carried by G, and I1] is the scale secured upon F. K is a silken
thread passing round a groove in G, descending through a hole in D, and
suspending a light copper covered dish L. M is another silken thread pass-
ing in the contrary direction round another groove in G, and suspending a
weight N, which is somewhat lighter. Lastly, P is a glass shade placed upon
DD.
This arrangement embraces a manifest application of the principle of the
wheel barometer. If a quantity of water is poured into A, exactly sufficient
to bring the index H to a given point, and if afterwards any addition to that
quantity of water should be made by rain, the index will point out the in-
crease upon the multiplying scale I; or if any diminution of that quantity
should be occasioned by evaporation, the loss will also be pointed out by
the motion of the index in the contrary direction.
We have always therefore brought the index to zero by addition to or
subtraction from the water in A at sz-sef, and have observed at that hour
the mean results of deposition and evaporation for the preceding twenty-four
hours. A little reservoir is placed near it with a pipe and cock for supply-
ing water conveniently. This instrument is fixed upon a stand at about two
feet above the leaden roof (fig. 1), but would be much more properly situated
—<.
a
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 129
if the cylinders A and B were sunk into the neighbouring earth, and I hope
that we may at some future time be allowed a very little space for this
purpose*.
The use of the plate d'd! and of the glass shade P, is to exclude rain from
B, and for protection.
The platinum pivots and jewelled holes effectually prevent the inconveni-
ences of oxidation, &c., and the instrument performs its office with great
delicacy and fidelity.
If it were required to be used occasionally as a rain-gauge only, a funnel
might be fitted upon A; if for a vapour-gauge only, the whole might be pro-
tected from rain by a sort of roof or covering placed at some feet above it.
VANE.
Our wind-vane, fig. 17, Plate XX XI., is rather more convenient and accurate
than a common weather-cock. A is a small brass tube at whose upper end is
fixed a hard steel cap with a conical cavity, which turns upon the hard steel
point of a little rod screwed into a brass cap B, and B is fixed upon a pole C;
S N is a very light tin hoop, having the points of the compass painted upon
it, and attached by arms to A, therefore it is carried round by A; D is an
index formed of a bent wire attached to B; E is the vane fixed to A and
counterpoised by F.
This instrument is so placed, that the point of D, and whatever letter
painted on S N stands above it, are always in the plane of the observer's eye
viewing it through the window B of fig. 2.
ANEMOMETERS.
Lind’s anemometer, as usually made by Watkins and Hill, has been con-
sulted, but is so very much less sensible than is necessary, (for the lightest
_ zephyr is as important, at least, as the stiffest breeze to electrical meteorology, )
that we were induced to try
M. Guyot’s, but with no better success; I was therefore driven to the ne-
cessity of inventing a somewhat rude but far more efficient expedient, which
we call our
Balance anemometer.—This turns with a weight of ten grains (or less), and
can be made to carry as many pounds (or more). A (fig.15) is a light feather-
edged deal board exactly 1 foot square; B is a cross formed by two pieces
of wood and carrying A at 6'; a leaden counterpvise C, at 0°; a little arm,
hook and scale-dish D, at 6°; and a counterpoise thereto at 6°. B is sup-
ported by nicely-turned brass pivots running in two little pieces of glass tube
attached to the supports E E, which are firmly secured upon a large base F; G
is a kind of sentry-box+, with a projecting roof for protecting D B, &c. from
‘the wind; H isa little vane, and I a pin thrust through E E and the arm 3?,
_ when the instrument is not in use. The whole has a coat of hard white
paint.
The application of this mechanism is obvious. When the flat front of A is
placed at right angles with the direction of the wind (Z), which can be done
with tolerable accuracy by the help of H, D rises with weights placed in the
dish proportional to the force of the wind acting upon the square foot A.
We measure by grains.
Great improvements as to making it self-adjustable to the direction of the
* It might then, perhaps, indicate more accurately a certain relation to the amount in
excess in evaporation, &c. from an aqueous surface on the earth. It should perhaps be
made to float upon such a surface in a little boat or buoy.
; Z invention of Sergeant Galloway, who made nearly the whole instrument.
. K
130 REPORT—1844.
wind observable out of doors, without going out, &c. will occur to every-
body *.
It has been placed upon any part of the balustrade (fig. 1), which may
have been freely exposed to the wind at the time of observation.
II. Explanation and Remarks concerning the Journal, &c.
In column A the letters “ S R” and “S S” designate sunrise and sunset.
In column B, “ P” means positive charge, and “ N” negative charge of the
conductor.
In column C, the four regular electrical observations of the day, viz. at
sunrise, at 9 A.M., at 3 p.M., and at sunset, are put down.
In columns D, E, F are contained the designations of the electrometers
by which each observation was made. V stands for Volta’s, H for Henley’s,
and D for the discharger. The figures preceding D are fractions, &c. of an
inch.
In column E is contained the minimum and maximum charges derived
from observations made, generally, every hour between sunrise and meridian.
N.B. The early morning charges before sunrise (usually low) are not taken
into account.
In column G is contained the minimum and maximum charges derived
from, generally, hourly observations between meridian and about 10 p.M., the
nightly charges after 10 not being taken into account.
In column I is contained, sometimes, a few very rough intimations of the
rate at which the charge of the conductor rises to a maximum after it has
been touched.
Column K was intended for the deviations of the electro-magnetic needle,
but the galvanometer is not yet fitted for such notations regularly.
Column L should contain notices of the side of the card to which the
needle moves.
In column M, a few indications of the number of storms occurring in the
course of a day are sometimes set down.
In column N is pointed out (by the letter S) such days as generally occur
when the positive charge rises after sunrise, falls early in the afternoon, and
rises again in the evening, accompanied by what is commonly understood by
the term “fine weather ;” but there are exceptions to this (rather vague)
definition which I believe require some habit and an acquaintance with the
observations of Monier, and others, particularly Beccaria, to appreciate.
Columns O, P, Q require no explanation. The dry thermometer is our
standard.
In column R the observations are not copied after the 31st Dec. 1843.
They were too anomalous to be of any possible use.
In columns S and T many anomalies are to be found.
In column U is contained (under E) the amount of evaporation in excess
of rain from sunset to sunset; the degrees measure hundredths of an inch in
the height of the water contained in A and B, fig. 16, Plate XXXI.
In column V is contained (under R) the excess of rain above evaporation
for the same period.
In the column W, the direction of the wind, as shown by the vane on the
dome, is marked.
In column X, the maximum pressure of the wind from sunrise to sunset is
noted from the 1st of August 1843 to the 9th of February 1844. After this
* Dr. Robinson of Armagh suggests the employment of a chain of links, &c; winding upon
a reel, for saving time and trouble in placing the weights in the dish.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 131
date the pressure is set down at the hours of 9 and 15. [The frequent re-
currence of the 0 proves the great insensibility of the Lind anemometer. ]
In column Y the forces of wind acting upon the balance-anemometer are in
grain weights.
In column Z the changes of the moon are placed opposite to the nearest
hours (which had been previously written for other purposes) to those at
which they occurred.
Under the title “General Remarks and Occasional Observations,” Mr.
Galloway’s nomenclature of atmospheric appearances is pretty closely adhered
to. It will not always be found strictly logical and consistent, but I could
not improve it without risk of damaging the general sense. When we came
to the 7th of Nov. 1843, it seemed better to copy his notes from the book,
in which they were originally set down, than to take his general accounts
compiled from that book and from memory the next morning.
A few words should be here devoted to the observer, &c.
The observations of all kinds were made almost exclusively by Mr. Gallo-
way, whose notes were first written, some on papers prepared for the pur-
pose, and kept in the quadrant-room below; others in the above-mentioned
book, kept in the electrical observatory, and more frequently inspected.
I am quite satisfied that he has executed his task better than could have
been expected; but must add emphatically, that had our habits and qualifi-
cations been always adequate to the attainment of extreme accuracy, our in-
struments and other means would have been far from being so,
In short, although the electrical part of the journal (even under these cir-
_ cumstances) is more complete and accurate than any such hitherto recorded,
yet this year’s work (i.e. from the Ist of August 1843 to the 3lst of July
1844) must, in spite of all our efforts, be considered upon the whole, and
principally, as educational and experimental.
The form of the Journal is copied as closely as circumstances of space, &c.
would permit, from the Astronomer Royal's admirable Tables of “ Ordinary
Meteorological Observations” at the Greenwich Royal Observatory.
KQ2
132
REPORT—1844,
Specimen of Electro-Meteorological Observations,
TIME. ELECTRICITY. ALON} TE
: se oo : ee
| ie a= | S 5 a : aes .
Day and Hour. || _, A az ae Bg > 83 aes g
Chronometer || .£| .33 £y Sef Mal ae ge oe 2
ra az = eS |#/a] 85 |S a] a
1844,4 h m Ls z ‘ | in > ee
July 28. SR. ||P.|17 |V..... TO a an ee has tie
» 9 O|P55 |v ip sf 30-306} {3 74-25
> WB OP) 12 [V.lescecolere] sarees [eeufessforelerefose|-aef] 302241... | 81-75
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as al a 17 IV.
Se ee) MPG. ol... 55 IV.
AGW IPI. Loeb: ipgbas tees 9 |v.
SSRs ae aes? 99-5 |Vleeslecsleeelese S.
July 29. SR. ||P] 7 [Veleessectees] sosses [eoefeee|ere | eS DSS. bs Pi te
» 9 ofp 7 fv... sdeccfecaeeeleonl sell 30-04 {5st 62:5
Beas OP.) a il iedecage: He veclescleeeleool{ 30-02 ||...” 169
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<a Sola a Wala 4 Vv.
ee OPA 17 WV.
EE OP ctl Gh eee te Ooo aed en | | eC
Bits OU TUN MP Be Silecs lees chaliae 47-5 \V.
July 30. SR. |} P.) 19 |V.).ecseelesa| coeees [eoslens|eeeieeeleceleveileceeeeeee se ulbeasnee
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July31. SR. | P| 5 |v... | ths eet oe am Pee
Bi TP. BB? Iclicasdet.solicomeen fest ad | Oh ae 29-628 {37 65:5
Foe Uy 0 WP, | OG Ve carseat capeetwalt ose l.cleeel| 29-74 |] 0.7 [68
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Bee Se Paes us 5 IV.
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Page RR (NI Dia i 95 |v.
EP SNNG AO ING. ocloeclcce heater 40. {H.
” 97 99 |] 7p [eeweeelen a|rseeeelace —y|D.
A BCD 2 F 1G ELEAMN Oo pP.) %
HUMIDITY.
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19°75) 63
30°75) 49:5}
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ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 133
at the Kew Observatory, in the Year 1844.
GENERAL REMARKS AND OCCASIONAL OBSERVATIONS.
July 28.
Banilece ~N.W.| ... |-.200+|],eeeeee0e/| AE SR. fine, but cloudy.—From 5 to 16 fine, cloudy, with sunshine.—At 17
and 18 fine, but cloudy.—-At 19 dull and cloudy.—At SS. light rain.—At
21 and 22 dull and cloudy.
July 29.
see [eoe|] W.S.W.] «++ |receee||ssseeeeee|| AE SR. dull and cloudy.—At 5 light rain.—At 6 and 7 dull and cloudy.—At
8 fine, but cloudy.—From 9 to 19 fine, but cloudy, with sunshine.—At SS.
nee leo N. 1 2500 fine, but cloudy.—At 21 and 21°45 clear and starlight.
sxe |eee|] N.W. |2 [4500
21)...|| N.N.W.
Full.
gee [tee|| eeeweeses | *** looses
July 30.
seececees|| From SR. to 8 fine, but cloudy.—At 9 fine, but cloudy, with sunshine.—At
10 heavy drops of rain.—At 11 and 12 dull and cloudy.—At 13 fine, but
cloudy.—At 14 dull and cloudy.—At 16 and 17 fine, but cloudy, with sun-
shine.—At 18 heavy rain.—At 19 fine, but cloudy.—At SS. and 21 dull
and cloudy.
Between the observations of 15 and 16 a storm occurred. (Vide Storm
papers, No. 4.)
July 31.
At SR. and 5 fine, but cloudy.—At 6 fine, but cloudy, with sunshine.—At 7
fine, but cloudy.—At 8 and 9 fine, but cloudy, with sunshine.—At 10 fine,
but cloudy.—At 11 light rain.—At 12, 13 and 14 fine, but cloudy.—At 15
light rain.—At 16 fine, but cloudy, with sunshine.—At 17 fine, but cloudy.—
a Da and 19 fine, but cloudy, with sunshine.—At SS, and 21 fine, but
cloudy.
Hetmebal the observations of 16 and 17 a storm occurred. (Vide Storm
papers, No. 5.)
wee lees eee jeccece
see |e! W.S.W.15 |8500
see lees W.N.W. 4:5 5000
134 REPORT—1844.
Specimens of Storm Papers.
\e No. 1. 1844. No. 3.
igaiiys eee Electricity. | Meidents and Re-| wind.
July19
h
.|Dull and cloudy. 15 20\N.|60 |H.|Flash, Thunder
.|Rain beginning - TEAL -eseeeeseeee N.W.
: 15 Q1P.|65 |H.JId.......... Id....|W.N.W
.|Rain increasing. 15 22'N.|40 |H.|Large hail stones|W.N.W.
.|Rain heavy ...+.. 15 23\N.|60 |H.|Hail heavy. ...... Id.
.| Id. 15 30\N.\50 |H.|Hail very heavy .| Id.
.|Storm, Squalls, 15 35\N.155 |H.|Flash, Hail still
Rain. heavy. ..-+ss00 Id.
.|Very heavy rain, 15 37\N.\40 |H.JFlash, id. id Id.
Oscillations. 15 40\N.|50 |H.|Rainnot soheavy| Id.
.\Sudden collapse. 15 45|N.|50 |H.\Id. heavier......) Id.
.|Heavy rain, Col- 15 49,P.\50 |LH.|Id. lighter.......) Id.
lapS€ ..-eeeeee 15 55|P.|45 |H.|Id. little......... Id.
H.|Id. Flash.......+++ 2 16 O\P.\45 |H.|Id. much lighter.| Id.
H.|Id. Sparks fre- 16 47\P.|10 |H.|Fine but cloudy
Quent «06... with sunshine.|W.S.W.
D.|Id. ...sesee aigaaave
H.|Id. woe. sceseveeese Sometimes du-
D.\Id. ring this storm
H.|Id. ..cccseeeeenees when flashes oc-
D.\Id. curred, streams 0
HI. ...cccceseasoes fire passed be-
D.{Id. tween the balls o
...(Id. Current of the discharger,
FITC ceececeeeees lastingasecond or
Id. 5 charges of two. The noise
jar in 40”...... resembled that o
18 16\N.40 /|H.|Heavy rain .....- the violent rend-
18 24/P.|50 |H.|Id. Flash, Col- ing of paper, but
lapse...seeseeree \ was much louder.
Heavy rain ...... = oS a
a 1s : No. 4.
18 B5IN.120 |H.|Ed. ..ceeeseeeeeeee July30.
18 37|N.140 |HL|Id. .....ceseeeeee 15 25|N.| .3,|D
18 A7IN.|45 |H.|Td. ...eee.seeeeees 15 35|N.|380 |H
18 55|N./40 /|H.|I[d. 8 charges per 15 36|N.| 6 |H
Minute....-+-++ 15 39|N.\90 |H
Dsl cdenedecweeoceuts tus 5 40\P.| 6 |H
H.|Rain lighter...... 15 41|N.10 |H
A) 0 eee EK. 15 46\P.| 4 |H
19 21\N.20 |H.\Rain heavier ...| S.E. || 15 47|N.\10 |H
H.|Rain lighter...... .E. || 15 49)N.20 |H
H.|Rain nearly 15 51/P.| 4 |H
ceased .....0+6 E. || 15 56\P.|10 |H.|Fine with sun-
H.|Rain ceased....... shine. k.ccerene } Id.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 135
III. Eaperiments made at the Kew Observatory in 1843 and 1844.
I sincerely hope that we have not wasted much of the sum granted for the
support of this establishment at the last meeting of the Association, in endea-
vouring to prosecute what we conceive to be one of its chief objects. Some
of the experiments (here selected from a large collection) were absolutely
necessary (to authenticity), others yet imperfect may possibly become com-
plete and useful, as they may be further pursued, and some are or may be-
come completely useless. None of them are comprised in the many trials
which were made previously and more or less subservient to the construction
of the principal conductor and its appendages, or to the several improve-
ments already described of other instruments employed in the observations.
They may perhaps, in conjunction with the Journal, &c., serve at least to
show that sufficient precautions have not hitherto been taken for conducting
electro-atmospheric observations to even approximative comparability, and
may possibly tend to induce far more able inquirers to favour us with whole-
some advice and assistance. In fact this result has already been in some
measure obtained in the instance of our zealous and able friend Dr. Robinson,
and several very eminent professors.
J]. CoMPARISON OF VOLTAIC ELECTROMETERS.
Two glass pillars (called a and 6), similar to F (fig. 2), were mounted,
with their collars, &c., upon a broad wooden shelf in the recess of the southern
window of the southern room D (fig. 1); each was provided with its warm-
ing-lamp, chimney, &c., and an arm projecting horizontally from the cap,
which arms supported the pairs of straws, &c. of the voltaic electrometers
to be compared (as in fig. 4), and the caps were placed in good conducting
communication by a wire. The electrometers, &c. were charged (by an elec-
trophorus) as highly as they could be without causing the straws to strike
the sides, and their divergences were not noted down until the straws had
somewhat collapsed. The electrometers A and C are of Volta’s first or stand-
ard kind; B and D of his second kind.
Insulator a. Insulator 5,
Time. Electrometer A. Electrometer C,
Feb. 1......... aaa (REE LU Gis tcbigdeqspvesbatss (sence cease tad Oe
BBL, ets stksth vedi dovedsd.dtecemba se 145
1 ee Mae ecibecee BP Err COREE CC HOE RSH 10
ORES MBTETeadechacccacces ‘ 5
Electrometer B. Electrometer D.
Feb. 3. ..csceeee PEP ETE Picea |e Luh RM ICE CCCP EET cee cee AP Hee
SO dees. 2.. cel iteetes Raveiescccesccews 80
PIOMEES irersbtarcesdehescancsesesacisces 70
AFD vevssess baebeees OWeassenecuctevetna 50
QED een eiaeerurcesa’ Ei sasetitc sey eeteaici's 30
Tf D vasiives Such oddhvaalveaagindebenases 20
Electrometer A. Electrometer C.
Feb. 6. 13h 48m,,.,,....... PADRE G vatapiectsnedsse ate tn sires tec 20
WG Http ds pacts akin ox8 tp oats No gs, cd tg uba'sd «0's 16
BOR aeisiasicedsuuge ducnarancs Deauenoas . 10
This experiment (or set of experiments) suffices to show, that our ordinary
voltaic electrometers possess a tolerable approximation to comparability. [It
is difficult to estimate a much smaller quantity than 2°5 of the electrometers
B and D, or half a degree of A and B.]
2. COMPARATIVE INSULATING POWERS OF TWO INSULATORS.
All things remaining as in experiment 1, the electrometers were charged,
and after time had been given them to fall a little, the caps of the insulators,
a and 6, were contemporaneously deprived of conducting communication by
136 REPORT—1844,
withdrawing the uniting wire by means of a glass handle attached to its cen-
tral part.
Insulator a. Insulator d.
Electrometer B, Electrometer D.
Tebisd:)cascanseee Behiiesge ple hese pdt Diets cedes sea onan oe ee meses caesent 0°
AG ik ce cpegeuexetecknan¥eens sasmas¥acae 50
Deere. sectarurrersereapgneece sec cieaes +. 30
New charge.
UGrO vies aeveonasudametesdeveccsce teuksee 80
Tdi « derheeeWs devoeesact ers vcs oeen dee 60
Tigi acenaeWe” ees ene nael ceases seasne 40
The window was now opened and a board was fitted into the frame (of the
sash), having two apertures of about 5 inches diameter, situated a little higher
than the caps.
Insulator a. Insulator 5,
Time. Electrometer A. Electrometer C.
Feb, 6. 14h 38M ......00006 gates it aeits eee ee ae P i
WAD5 ..dssesee Puneeae stent enetssccthpcnes 14 H
Or 5 carat setup sedoreVassauasuvescesseace 6
The apertures of the window-board were diminished to 24 inches diameter,
and the lamp of the insulator 6 raised a little. A double wick was used in it.
Insulator a. Insulator 3, .
Time, Electrometer A. Electrometer C, .
Feb.9. 14h15m,,,., soe Wthelpescecnestarqssstecccspauuessscesses 20°
ies coposprocecs Sdeorcéonsackecconc O08 14
RONVne edna dtee Usice side cvs tnacth ss sists 5
New charge.
DN nap eehvexnvenn<cke-tesstpo-csaeness 20
OU DRAESMReasai at nnet ashes 38cNe enue ina 55
The board was removed and the window closed. Both the lamps were
used with double wicks and their chimneys attached to a lower board or shelf
(as in fig. 3), in order to prevent more effectually any hot air with steam
(arising from the combustion) from reaching the caps, &c.
Insulator a. Insulator 3.
Time. Electrometer A. Electrometer C,
Feb; 14; T4b dm citeesnsss- Ore vee ceu eadeverceredeactees sbedesers i.
MO ieee sranecdsedess vole cep ssennescewe 11
GE fecacdstasereeteriess cee ceWewccavees 5
The window was again opened and the board with the smaller holes used.
Insulator a. Insulator 5.
Time, Electrometer A. Electrometer C.
Feb. 15. 10h 15m............ i cesnasene Se ieen en save ss suaccvesss ee 20°
APE eee ueenersdgate cies cass ce secoee 5
Here we have also a very fair approach to comparability.
3. CoMPARISON OF THREE INSULATORS.
The insulators a and 6 remaining as in experiment 2, and the window
being closed, a third insulator (c) was attached by its collar, &c. (as usual)
to a round table placed near to the others, with its chimney-lamp, &c., but
no lower shelf was used. The electrometer E used with C had been found to
accord very nearly with AandC. A fire burned in the stove of the room.
Insulator a. Insulator 5. Insulator c.
Time, Electrometer A. Electrometer C, Electrometer E.
Feb. 24. 9h 20m.,......ccccces DOP esedeax SAS NTErE DU cae tapeioeces 20°
DF avacauantoraes Broyceevsscayat cans 4
New charge.
DOU ce acnsededs dene ICOM W staeeabur certs n 20
i
>
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 137
- The insulator c, with its table, &c. removed into the north room, without
any fire in the stove.
Time Insul.a. | Insul.}. | Insul.c. | Daniell’s Hygrom.
. 7 Elect. A. | Elect. C. | Elect. E. |inS, Room.jin N.Room.
e ° ° ° o
20 20 20 14 8
3 15 0
20 20 20 13 12
4 25 2
20 20 20 14 12
65 4 4:5
20 20 20 30 22
65 7 4
20 20 20 26 21
4 2 4
20 20 20 16 9
6:5 45 35
20 20 20 19 12
5 3°5 5
It appears from these observations that very little difference arises in the
insulating powers of our warmed glass pillars, from the circumstance of their
being placed in an atmosphere a little more or less humid and cold.
4. CoMPARISON OF TWO UNITED WITH TWO SINGLE INSULATORS.
In the wnited state of the insulators a and 3, in these experiments every-
thing was disposed as in experiment 1.
In their single state the uniting wire was withdrawn in the manner stated
in experiment 2.
, Insul.a. | Insul. 3. | Daniell’ M
ime, | Hie | Berg |Besom| —xosttime, |
h m hm
Aug. 31. | 11 21 20 30 Bledel Lael
13 22 35 35 LE SRE ee united
165 2
13 35 ZOE tdece Sef seo eal Werner et
15 35 ROWAN BM PN 8. MDE single,
165 2 0
Sept. 11.) 14 5 20 20 Be eee eae
15 25 3°5 35 oe Rg ER united.
14 30 Pid | bia shtine 24 165 1 20
15 29 20 20 S| Re an eee
16 52 4 3:5 Sena pecsere Hel aetata single.
1 i a arcu baie 26 16°25 1 23
10 6 20 20 afi al ata lias raicades
ll 3 35 35 sctynl eoubac hail liable Sacer united.
LOP2S. «| kee Bee 18 165 1 24
11 34 20 20 <cen eeSe vir dines
13 25 4 35 Rete a ae cetyl rn oes a single.
UITRG 7/7 A itrcm Soisac 4 | eee ae 21 16:25 | 1 51
13 30 20 20 an Eevessl? |! Spevave
15 17 5'5 3:5 BeaNanWerccess dy alN Sages single.
1334 | ow. soit, 22 15-5 1 37
15 13 20 20
17 44 4 3d Soa Wewatiiaag sh Ibs vaeecis’s united.
WOR Sul: oc aeceesloele, eareds 24 16°25 2 31
138 REPORT—1844. 7
From this 4th set of experiments, it would seem that two warmed insula-
tors retained the charge as well as one; and that therefore in the same situ-
ation each insulated “ perfectly,” using this expression in Coulomb’s sense.
But circumstances may arise in applying this kind of test to render the con-
clusion defective. The éwo caps, &c. (having greater capacity and quantity )
should retain the charge better than one, &c.
It is evident that certain mysterious conditions of the ambient air interfere
sometimes with our operations of this nature, and (as Sir David Brewster
justly remarks) experiments should be undertaken to find them out*.
5. EXPERIMENTS ON INSULATION BY MEANS OF CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM.
The object of these experiments was to ascertain how far it might be prac-
ticable to construct electrometers which should lose the lower and more usual
charges, received from the principal conductor, at given periods, in some near
approximation to constant rates, yet not lower the tension of the conductor
materially, on contact with it. For it is necessary to a more exact prosecu-
tion of our inquiries, that the true electrical state of the conductor, as regards
both tension and kind, should be known at certain intervals of the night more
accurately than it can be-by means of the resinous electrograph described
at p. 126.
In order to procure the greatest possible constancy of loss, it was (ob-
viously) very desirable to obtain the greatest possible retention, and for this
purpose non-conducting or semi-conducting laminew, coated on both faces
with good (or better) conductors, naturally presented themselves as being
capable of retaining low charges for very great lengths of time. But these
require, proportionably, much larger doses of electricity to produce equal
effects on dension electrometers than simple conductors (not thus ‘ compen-
sated”), and would, consequently, lower the tension of the principal conductor
materially at the time of receiving their charge from it.
In endeavouring to discover the best means of retaining a small quantity
of tension (“frictional”) (¢) electricity a long time, I first employed receivers,
air-tight and of various dimensions, containing vertical rods of glass (cut from
the same piece) about 33 inches long and a + of an inch in diameter. They
carried horizontal brass wires from which were suspended pairs of natural
voltaic straws (as in fig. 4), and were coated with the best engraver’s hard
sealing-wax, applied by heating the glass sufficiently to melt the wax (not by
spirit varnish, which is far less effective). The receivers also contained
each 2 or 3 ounces of chloride of calcium (below). The electrometers were
charged (by an electrophorus) after lifting the receiver up from the flat
glass plate on which they were placed (with a little oil in the joint).
These experiments proved that an electrometer originally charged to about
one inch divergence of Volta’s No. 1, or standard pair, would retain for the
space of from 114 to 124 hours (by the above means), some remainder of its
charge +; also that small receivers were better than large, &c.
But it soon appeared that after the straws had been for two or three days
exposed to the action of the chloride, they became insulating in a very incon-
venient degree, for when the wires supporting them were touched (continu-
* Vide Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. viii. p. 589, seventh ed.
Ist. What relation has the actual quantity of “ dry steam,” in a given measure of air, to
the insulating power of that atmosphere ?
2nd. What relation has the ¢emperature of such an atmosphere with its insulating power ?
3rd. In what degree is insulation influenced by the density of the atmosphere ?
4th. Has oxygen gas and dry steam a different insulating power from nitrogen, &c. ?
The solution of his query would not serve our purposes perhaps.
+ An wneoated rod retained some remainder for 102 hours. Had the receivers been per-
fectly air-tight perhaps this would have insulated as well as the others.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 139
ously) they would not collapse for five or ten minutes; and after these
supporting wires had been charged, the straws continued slowly to increase
in divergence during an hour or more sometimes*. This was proved by
comparing them with natural undried straws.
I therefore tried many experiments upon straws gilded in various ways,
but even these did not appear to afford such complete freedom from the
above-mentioned defect as was required.
Passing over many details (tedious but not instructive perhaps), I will now
describe shortly the apparatus, &c. which I call my registering (or night)
electrometers, the results of many trials.
Three receivers, 54 inches high and 4 inches diameter, were fitted air-tight
to ground brass plates at their bases and necks. In these the electrometers,
supported as before, could be charged by means of moveable and insulated
wires, without interfering with the air-tightness of the receivers, and they
contained a rather larger quantity of the chloride.
In lieu of the straw electrometers recourse was had to a modification of my
old instruments of fine wires}, very accurately straightened, and in order to
prevent as much as possible dissipation, without materially increasing their
weight, minute globules of gum-arabic were applied at their extremities,
whilst they were electrified for the occasion.
A scale which could be read in terms of the standard voltaic electro-
meter was thus prepared: a slip of ivory was properly cut (to the radius of
the wires) and fixed at one extremity of a ruler one foot long; the other end
of the ruler carried a sight-piece, like C (fig. 5); this ruler was held in the
hand, and the scale-end made to touch the receivers when used. The gradu-
ation was easily effected (not in exactly equal divisions of course) by mark-
ing on the scale (before engraving) the degrees of divergence of the wires,
as seen through the sight, which corresponded with the divergences of the
ordinary standard electrometer, placed in good conducting contact with these
wire electrometers.
In order to compare these registers with each other and with the standard,
the moveable insulated wires and the standard were placed in contact with
an insulated horizontal wire, so that they might be all charged simultaneously ;
then their contact with the horizontal wire was suddenly broken, and at the
same moment the contact of the moveable wires with the electrometric wires.
The following Table on the next page exhibits a specimen of the perform-
ance of these registers, called C, D, and E.
If a quarter of a degree of this scale be added for every hour which may
elapse betwen the time at which any one of these registers was charged, and
the time at which it is read, up to the 45th degree, we may perhaps be tole-
rably sure of knowing what the charge was within something less than a
tenth of a degree (and this is a quantity which cannot be appreciated by any
observation of a voltaic electrometer).
After the 45th degree (upwards) the loss per hour begins to increase in a
much more rapid rate, and after the 90th uncertainty prevails, because spiré-
ings “spruzamenti” begin, as Volta found in his electrometers.
However, the nightly charges of our conductor (after 10 p.m.) in serene
weather seldom exceed 4.5 degrees.
New experiments must be made on this subject. In the mean time we
apply these instruments to the purpose intended, and hope to improve our
journal thereby. The particular mode of application and a more detailed
-
* We have observed the same kind of effect (in much’smaller degree) in the electrometers
(exposed to the open air) in the observatory in very dry weather.
+ Vide Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph, &c., 1823, p. 33.
140 REPORT—1844.,
account of them will perhaps be a subject for report when the observations
made with them are recorded.
A sort of minute Leyden jar, mounted in the chloride as above, retained a
remainder of a low charge 15 days, but it lowered the tension of the con-
ductor from 2 to 5 degrees, and more accordingly as the electricity of the air
was frequent or slow.
1844. (on D. E. || Mean
[|__| -- | Loss of
Day. || Hour. | "Roube"| Hou. ||! Roure || Hour | |"“Soure |) our
io} fe}
June 15.|| 4 20) 57:5 4 0\65 447/575
» | 6 50/55 11 45 | 62:5 10 7|55
»y | 12 41] 5255 16 30| 60 17 44/ 52:5
, | 16 29150
Ps RE Re OG ss AAS Peake. .oohely 0:38 || 0-47
16.|| 6 23| 45 5 0155 8 10) 47-5
» | 15 10| 425 13 55 | 525 18 40| 45
dey AeA we, 0-28 || 20 20/50 | 0:33 |/........./.000.. 0-24 || 0-28
17.|| 7 45|37°5 415/475 4 45 | 425
» | 16 57| 35 13 23] 45 17 0/40
OR 0°27 ||csaevssehasets lr at | eee re ee 0-2 || 0-25
18.|| 5 0\325 7 20|40 4 15/375
» | 15 17|30 17 0|37-5 15 20/35
el Reith nt: net is a | eR | a Tk ea i 0:23 || 0-24
19.|| 4 0|25 5 30|35 4 0/3255
» 17 0/225 13 0/325 13 45/30
1, Nee wie OD Ale ee OOS dleeesc. dv aed 0-26 || 0-26
20.|| 4 45 | 20 4 0|30 8 0\25
» 17 0117-5 11 45 | 27:5 17 0/225
Bg | actors sn 02 |/20 30/25 | 03 fw... 0-28 | 0-26
21.) 4 0115 5 0/225 4 0/20
» | 14. 17/125 13 30/20 16 0/175
Bite PR tk OS ee Ve PS a | nae Nene 0-2 || 025
6. ExpPERIMENTS ON INDUCTION, &c. BY ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.
Professor Wheatstone has several times repeated, in a very striking and
pleasing manner, the experiments of Herr Erman and M. Peltier, &c. rela-
tive to this subject, and such kinds of operations have never failed when
tried upon the flat roof, and in fine or appropriate weather.
The electroscope used was of Bennet’s kind but square, and the conductor
about 15 inches high, with a hollow copper ball on its summit of 3 inches dia-
meter.
I have also occasionally substituted a “ solfanello” (following Volta) for the
ball, in order to exhibit the difference between electrisation by induction and
absorption.
In the first case, after the electrometer has been touched in its high position,
the leaves do not (of course) diverge again until absorption takes place, after
the lapse of a considerable length of time, and when the insulation is ex-
tremely good. In the second case they instantly begin to diverge, and attain
to a greater divergence than by induction, all else being equal.
Small gold leaves being very liable to derangement, &c., and being less
applicable to a scale-measurement than straws, I have constructed a pair of
voltaic electrometers for these experiments (and others requiring portability),
similar to those of figs. 4 and 5, excepting that the cover T is screwed upon
the case, and a very light conical-jointed tube about 3 feet 3 inches long can
be screwed upon the wire, which supports the straws, and either a hollow light
ball or a solfanello can be fixed on the top of it. The glass tube S is longer
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 141
and stronger, and protected from rain, dust, &c. by a cap. This pair of elec-
trometers fits into a case and the conductor into a walking-stick. The con-
ductor might be jointed and its length increased with great advantage.
7. EXPERIMENTS ON FREQUENCY OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.
By these terms is understood the rate at which a new charge rises to its
maximum, after a former charge of an atmospheric insulated conductor has
been destroyed.
The old experiments of Beccaria on this property appear to me to have
been much less attended to than they should have been. It seems to form a
sort of link between natural high-tensioned (frictional) electricity, and gal-
vanic, or Voltaic or CErstedic electricity (electro-magnetism).
We have as yet merely instituted a few very rough observations of this
kind, not having obtained opportunities for prosecuting the inquiry in a
satisfactory manner.
The apparatus employed consists partly of that described at p. 135. The
two insulators (a and 6) were carefully compared as to insulating power.
An arm (of wood, which is not a proper material) projected from the cap of
each, outside of the window of the room D (fig. 1), and to these arms were
firmly lashed two exactly equal copper conical tube-conductors, carrying
small and equal lanterns on their summits.
After abundant time had been given for these conductors to attain their
maxima charges, one only was discharged, and the time which elapsed before
that one acquired a new charge equal to the charge of the other is my mea-
sure of “frequency.”
Time. |Tension.|/Frequency.
[|
v
y 21 32 | 42 13 35 } Fine clear evening succeeding a fine day.
? The evening fine and starlight, but some-
May 6. | 20 0 | 28°5 2 45 what cloudy. aid
May 8./1951| 5 13 25 The weather dull and overcast.
At 20% dull and cloudy; at 21" clear and
May 9.| 2045] 8 |16 0 { He ;
At 21" dull and overcast. The day had
May 16. 2055 | 7 aha { been fine but rather cloudy.
These few and imperfect observations serve to prove little more than that
at different times and under different circumstances (of weather, &c.) very
great differences in the relations of tension to frequency occur*. Fogs and
heavy dews have always great frequency.
8. PLuvio ELECTROMETER.
We are fully convinced that a hard shower of rain, &c. as frequently robs
our conductor of large doses of electricity as that it brings them.
* The first maximum charges, viz. 10° of these lower rods on the 8th of May at 18" 55™
‘was greater by one degree than the charge at the same moment of the high conductor on the
dome, but after the destruction of the first charge they never rose again to the same height
as that of the high conductor by 5 degrees. On the 16th of May, at about 18" 55™, the lower
rods at the time of their first charge exhibited a tension equal to that of the high rod, and
the maximum charges afterwards were at 205 55" 13 degrees lower. These singular facts
might possibly be accounted for on principles by which ! would explain the experiments of
Erman, but shall forbear from theorising here.
142 REPORT—1844.
A copper dish (vide fig. 1.) of 3 feet 6 inches diameter and about 6 inches
deep, quite smooth and with a well-rounded ring on its edge, has therefore
been very recently mounted upon one of our usual insulators, and we hope to
observe some circumstances worth notice with this apparatus when we have
time to pursue investigations of this kind.
9. Storm CLock.
It has been remarked in our MS. Journal that the difficulty of noting
down the various and transient phenomena of a storm is too great for any
single observer to overcome without assistance.
I have therefore projected a time-piece carrying an index down a long
page of paper in half-an-hour, by which means, in lieu of having first to read
the times by our chronometer and then to set them down, erroneously per-
haps (in the hurry of the moment), the observer will have only to record the
events as fast as they occur (nearly) opposite to the point of the index, #f he
can (for even this will be sometimes too much for one person to accomplish :
Beccaria employed several observers frequently on such occasions).
This instrument is in progress,
10. New CouLtoms ELECTROMETER.
In my “ plan,” &c. sent to Mr. Wheatstone in November 1842, is described
a proposed modification of Coulomb’s electrometer, which seemed to possess
great advantages for atmospheric electricity, and I constructed a rough kind
of model which clearly showed that the project was feasible.
The principle consists in suspending a conducting moveable needle in lieu
of the usual insulating needle, by a torsion wire, or by a pair of torsion wires
(instead of Mr. Snow Harris's silken threads) in such manner as to be always
in perfect conducting communication with a fixed conducting needle.
A drawing for a complete instrument of this kind was placed in the instru-
ment-maker’s hands in May. It is now nearly finished.
11. Sprinc ANEMOMETER.
In order to know something about. the force of the wind by simple inspec-
tion and without leaving the observatory, we have fitted a little slider to the
part (A) elongated of fig. 17, which slider is made to rise or fall by the action
of the wind on a set of flyers situated on the top of the wind vane, and by a
spiral (volute) spring, &c.; but this arrangement is not yet complete,
Kew Observatory, Sept. 25th, 1844.
- .
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 143
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herscuen, the
Master or Trinity Cotuece, Cambridge, the DEAN or Exy,
Dr. Lioyp and Colonel Sanine, appointed to conduct the co-
operation of the British Association in the system of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations.
In the arrangement of the subjects of this report, the plan of former reports
having been found convenient will be adhered to ;—and first respecting the
Antarctic Expedition.
The return of the Expedition, which took place very shortly after the
meeting of 1843, has closed this branch of our report in a manner the most
highly gratifying, whether we regard the magnitude and geographical interest
of its discoveries, the vast harvest of magnetic and meteorological obser-
vations it has secured, the extent of ocean traversed, and the consequent
importance of the data it has furnished towards the completion of the mag-
netic survey of the globe in its most difficult points; or, lastly, the triumph
of skill, conduct and perseverance on the part of the Commander of the Ex-
pedition, and every one concerned in it, which have under Providence been
the means of conducting so arduous and prolonged a struggle with every
material obstacle to a glorious and happy conclusion.
The results of the magnetic observations made during the second year of
the operations of this Expedition will shortly appear under the form of a
‘Sixth series of Contributions to Terrestrial Magnetism,’ by Colonel Sabine,
already printed for the Second Part of the Transactions of the Royal Society
for the current year. During this period, the ships, setting out from Hobart
Town and visiting Sydney and New Zealand in their progress, explored a
_ second time the great Icy Barrier in lat. '78° south, which had stopped them
in the former year, and which again resisted their efforts either to penetrate
it or to turn its eastern extremity. Quitting it at length and keeping nearly
_ on the 60th parallel of south latitude, they crossed the whole breadth of the
South Pacific to the Falkland Islands, where the observations of that season
terminate. ‘Those of the last year of the Expedition not having yet been
placed in his hands, Colonel Sabine has forborne to anticipate the principal
part of the conclusions suggested by the materials thus brought under dis-
cussion, until supported by a complete and general review of their whole
mass. There are, however, some points of prominent interest which have
emerged from the discussion of the first two years’ observations which ought
not to be passed over in silence.
In the first place, Colonel Sabine considers it to have been rendered almost
certain, that in the two ships employed in the Expedition, and probably there-
fore in all ordinary sailing vessels, there is little or no appreciable amount of
permanent magnetic polarity (though in steamers or iron ships the case may
be otherwise), but that the whole of the transient polarity induced in the iron
by the earth’s action at any given moment and locality is not instantaneously
destroyed and exchanged for a new magnetic state on a change of geogra-
phical place or angular position, though the greater part of it is so. A
residual polarity lingers as it were in the iron of the ship and fades out more
slowly, so that the vessel carries with it into every new point of its course
some trace and impress of the terrestrial magnetism of those which it has
left. This consideration, joined to the converse proposition, which it renders
exceedingly probable (viz. that the magnetism which thus requires time for
its destruction is also not instantaneously developed), would render the pro-
blem of deducing rigorous results from observations made during voyages a
7"
144 REPORT—1844,° a
very difficult one, were it not that the portion of magnetic power which thus
lingers in the iron is extremely small compared with that which obeys the
laws of soft iron in its instantaneous generation and destruction.
Another conclusion of a very general and positive character respects the
forms of the magnetic lines in the southern hemisphere, especially those of
declination. From the assemblage and projection of all the observations of
this element, Colonel Sabine is led to the conclusion that the system of mag-
netic ovals in the southern hemisphere is really a double one, completely
analogous to that which prevails in the northern; so that the two hemispheres
do actually possess, with respect to each other, a converse or complementary
character indicative of a certain symmetry in the disposal of the magnetic
forces or in the action of their causes.
The situation of the Isogonic lines of the South Pacific at the present epoch,
as deduced from these observations, and brought into comparison with the
best evidence we possess of the situation of corresponding parts of the same
lines, or which comes to the same thing, of lines cutting several of them con-
tinuously at right angles, fully corroborates and bears out another general —
proposition, viz. that the march of the magnetic phenomena in this region of
the globe is steady, rapid, and 72 a westerly direction.
In projecting the lines of equal intensity deduced from the Antarctic ob-
servations, Colonel Sabine has been Jed to compare them with those theore-
tically deduced by the numerical interpretation of Gauss’s formule. The
most important distinction between M. Gauss’s isodynamic and those result-
ing from observation is, that Gauss’s are nearly circular curves round a single
centre, whereas those of observation appear to be two distinct systems of
curves. In the northern hemisphere the two systems are separated; in the
southern, the progress of secular change appears to have brought them to
run into each other, producing, by the conjunction of two ovals, one very
lengthened oval, in which however the trace of the double curvature is still
recognizable. The two foci in the south appear to have nearly the same
values as those in the north.
British Colonial Magnetical and Meteorological Observatories,
The volume of the observations made at the observatory at Toronto in
Canada, from its commencement to the end of 1842, has been for some time _
in the press, and will be distributed at home and abroad in the course of the
winter. The volumes containing the observations at Van Diemen’s Island,
the Cape of Good Hope and St. Helena to the same period, are in a very
forward state of preparation, and will be printed and circulated with no other
delay than such as may arise in the printing and engraving such voluminous
works. The volume for Toronto will include the comparison of the simul-
taneous observations made in the group of stations on the North American
continent. The Van Diemen Island volume will compare the observations.
at Hobarton with those of the Antarctic Expedition at many points of the
southern hemisphere, the two together representing the magnetic phenomena
which occurred over a considerable portion of that hemisphere, on the pre-
scribed days and instants when the observers in Europe, Asia and America
were recording, each at his own station. With St. Helena and the Cape of
Good Hope will be grouped the observations made on the same system and
with the same instruments by the French observers at Algiers, which have
been supplied for that purpose by the kind intervention of M. Arago. Cadiz,
from whence observations are also expected, ranks also with this group, which
may be viewed as representing the portion of our western hemisphere inter-
mediate between the Falkland Islands and Cape Horn (where the Antarctic
vad
=
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 145
Expedition passed several months), and the North American group collected
in the Toronto volume, as well as the European group collected in the
‘ Resultate ’ of MM. Gauss and Weber.
So much is yet prospective in regard to publication, that comparatively
little can be at present ventured in regard to conclusions. The only portion
of the observations which is yet before the public, viz. observations on days
of unusual magnetic disturbance 1840, 1841, does however afford some con-
clusions which may be taken as an earnest of the fuller harvest. The most
important of these is the fact, shown in the preface of that volume, of the
universality of the disturbances of the higher order. The establishment of
so important a general law, on evidence which may be considered to have
placed it beyond a question, is a happy augury of what may be expected
from a combined system of observation, of which it is the first fruits.
Further, it was shown from the observations in that volume, that though
these great disturbances are universal in their occurrence, yet their magni-
tude is clearly modified by season and by other local causes; so that for
example, while the northern and southern hemisphere participate in every
great disturbance, the influence of summer in the one and winter in the other
is clearly traceable.
There are also facts stated in regard to the periodical march of the mag-
netic elements at Toronto and Hobarton, valuable in themselves, but yet more
so in the evidence they afford of the exact determinations which will be every-
where accomplished in this branch of the phenomena.
Another conclusion has also been drawn in regard to the great disturbances,
which will have a more full development in the Toronto volume. It has been
shown that the effects, as manifested by the movement of the magnetic instru-
ments at all places of observation, of a disturbance taking place in all parts of
the earth at the same time, were not the same,—thus limiting the distance
of the superimposed force which produces disturbances coinstant in respect to
time, but differing in respect to direction and intensity, at stations remote from
each other. The mode of computing the direction and amount of the super-
imposed disturbing force from the observations at a single station is also
stated.
In the Toronto volume, the term observations of the three American ob-
servatories for the three years ending in December 1842, all showing the
closest harmony with each other, are compared with those at Prague, taken
as a type of the European group: the comparison exhibits frequent unequi-
vocal evidence of connexion in many of the larger irregular movements. In
such case the simultaneous movements in Europe and America take place
sometimes in the same direction, as by a force operating upon both conti-
nents from the same quarter; and sometimes the European and American
movements are in opposite directions, as by a force operating intermediately
between the two continents. It is obvious that, if the observations were in-
stantaneous as well as simultaneous, the locality of the disturbing force might
be immediately deducible. Without, however, going further into anticipation
of what may hereafter be concluded from observations not yet before the pu-
blic, there is ground, in what is already known concerning them, for expressing
the hope that important conclusions will be drawn in respect to the locality
of the disturbing causes, especially when the observations made with the most
recent magnetometers, constructed to exhibit czstantaneous effects, shall come
to be considered. In our present ignorance of the nature of the causes of
these phenomena, we are surely advancing in the proper, legitimate and phi-
losophical mode of ascending to them by this careful study of their effects.
“a meteorology, a system of careful observation with compared instru-
; L
146 REPORT—1844.
ments steadily maintained at every hour of the day and night could not fail
to accomplish the solution of many problems in vain attempted by a large
expenditure of desultory labour. The mean quantities, the diurnal and an-
nual variations of the temperature, pressure of the gaseous atmosphere, and
tension of the aqueous vapour, with their many concurrent circumstances of
wind and weather, must be determined with no remaining uncertainty for
each station, if the system be continued in operation for a sufficient time.
The definite and conclusive character of the meteorological results obtained
by the system of observation which we have adopted, appears to be strongly
in favour of the extension of the system. By the comparison of such defi-
nite conclusions obtained in different parts of the world, by their points of
agreement and of difference, reasonable expectations may be cherished that we
shall speedily be enabled to advance the science of meteorology to a degree
unexpected at the commencement of these operations. That the spirit to ac-
complish this is alive, and that an organization has now been established and
is recognised, by which a proper direction and guidance may be supplied to
that which individual zeal is desirous to effect, will appear from a considera-
tion of what has passed with respect to the establishment of observatories in
Ceylon, Newfoundland and elsewhere.
New Series of Observations at Fixed Stations proposed or recently commenced,
As regards the first of the above-named stations (Ceylon), a proposal was
submitted in April of the current year to the Governor of that colony by
Captain Pickering of the Royal Artillery, and Dr. Templeton, Assistant-
surgeon R.A. (the former of whom had been instructed in the nature of the
observations and the use of the instruments at Woolwich), for the establish-
ment of a magnetic and meteorological observatory at Columbo in that
island, a station of obvious interest and importance. The proposal was most
favourably received by His Excellency, who recommended it to the favourable
consideration of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, with the additional
suggestion of an astronomical observatory, declaring his readiness, if approved,
to devote to it local funds adequate to its maintenance in activity, if once esta-
blished and furnished with instruments. The subject is at present under the
consideration of government, and a subject of official correspondence; and
in case of a favourable issue, the Royal Society have been applied to for the
loan of the magnetometers prepared at the cost of the Wollaston fund for the
Hammerfest Observatory, which have never been claimed by the Nor-
wegian government, and which station is for the present to be regarded as in
abeyance.
A similar arrangement is in progress for Newfoundland, and indeed more
advanced, the magnetical and meteorological instruments having been sent
there, with a company of artillery proceeding on their tour of service, one of
the officers of which, Lieut. Brittingham, has been instructed in their use, and
will remain at that very important station probably for some years. Some
small expenditure for instruments may possibly have to be defrayed from the
grant of the Association to this Committee at a future stage of the business.
During the printing of this report a prospect has been opened, through the
intervention of Sir William Colebrooke, Governor of New Brunswick, seconded
by the representations of Capt.Owen, R.N., of the establishment of an observa-
tory at Frederictown in that colony, a station remarkable for its brilliant aurora
borealis, of which we hope to have further mention to make in a future report.
Arrangements are also in progress, and with good prospect, for a meteoro-
logical and in part magnetical station at the Azores.
The German apparatus belonging to the British Association has been
t
y
—*.
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 147
altered in some respects to give it a degree of efficiency which it had not
before, and has been sent to Dr. Locke at Cincinnati, who has acknowledged
its receipt, which will in future be another station for the term observations.
Magnetic Surveys and Itinerant Observations in progress, or about to be
undertaken.
North American Survey.—The great interest which attaches to the survey
of the difficult and inhospitable country undertaken by Lieutenant Lefroy,
will render a sketch of his proceedings, so far as they are at present known,
especially acceptable. By letters written by him from York Fort in the
autumn, it appears that he had proceeded thence from the Lac de la Pluie, a
distance of about 500 miles, in the direct course towards the point of perpen-
dicular dip, during the whole of which journey he had found the total inten-
sity to diminish progressively. Later accounts have been very recently
received from him from Athabasca, where he was to pass the winter, and
whence he originally contemplated retracing his steps by a more inland route
to the lake above-mentioned on his way to Red River.
At the date of those accounts Mr. Lefroy is making hourly observations
throughout the twenty-four hours, with one assistant, observing the changes
of the declination, the horizontal force, and the inclination, 7. e. the declina-
tion and bifilar magnetometers, and the induction inclinometer. He will pro-
bably complete four or perhaps five months’ hourly observations before
leaving Athabasca. After leaving, he says,
** My plan is to go down to Mackenzie River in March on snow shoes ;
when there, there are two prospects, one is to return in May to Slave Lake,
and thence come here by the very first navigation, the other to Great Bear
Lake, and return with the Mackenzie River barges, which do not leave Fort
Simpson until near July. In either case the next step is to ascend Peace
River and cross by Lesser Slave .Lake, &c. to the Saskatchawan; but if I
take the latter course I cannot expect to reach Red River before the very
end of September, which will endanger my return to Canada by open water,
and wholly preclude the idea of returning by Moose Factory. The latter is
not of much consequence, as if I return to this country it will be perfectly
easy to go by Moose and yet reach Lake Winnipeg in time for everything.
A little therefore will depend upon the seasons; if the spring promises to be
a very early one and allows the Mackenzie River boats to come off before
their usual time, I shall perhaps venture on the latter; at present I am most
inclined to the former. In either case I shall get a few weeks’ transportable
_ observations in a more northern latitude, which is desirable.”
Arrived at Red River, he will find instructions to observe, if possible, the
decrement of magnetic intensity from its maximum in the Rainy Lake in a
westward direction, thus completing a system of lines radiating out from the
maximum in the northern, eastern and western directions (the eastern line
being already secured). Dr. Locke’s observations, which are now printing
at Philadelphia, will furnish the fourth line. The full development of these
important features, which will establish in a very approximate manner the
central point of the isodynamic ovals in this quarter, must await the assem-
blage and discussion of the whole mass of materials in process of collection*.
* While this report is passing through the press, a letter, dated 22nd Nov., addressed by
Lieut. Lefroy to Capt. Sabine, announces his safe return to Toronto, having completed his
survey from the Slave Lake by Assiniboin, Edmonton, down the Saskatchawan River to
Carlton and Cumberland, and thence by Norway House, Fort William, Sault Ste Marie and
Be menichene, to his entire satisfaction. A maximum of intensity occurs near the lake
e woods,
L2
148 REPORT—1844.
Completion of the Antarctic Survey.
The contributions of the officers of the Surveying Expeditions in the Hy-
drographical department of the Admiralty have already done the greater
portion, and promise to leave nothing to be desired in respect to that part of
the ocean comprised between the Equator and the 50th degree of south lati-
tude ; so that it might at all events have been confidently expected that in a
year or two from the present time the sole remaining desideratum of import-
ance unprovided for would be that part of the higher parallels not traversed
by the Antarctic Expedition, viz. the region comprised between the meridian
of Greenwich and the 130th degree of east longitude, and extending southward
to the edge of the ice. The survey of this portion of the Antarctic ocean,
however, has been undertaken by Lieutenant Clerk, R.A., of the Ordnance
Magnetic Observatory at the Cape, who has zealously volunteered his ser-
vices to that effect, and at the instance of the Royal Society has been liberally
furnished by the Admiralty with the nautical means of executing his de-
sign, a vessel having been taken up and placed at his disposal for that express
purpose*.
Proposed Survey of the Eastern Archipelago and China Seas.
Animated by a kindred spirit, Lieutenant Elliott, superintendent of the
East India Company’s magnetic and meteorological observatory at Singapore,
has volunteered a survey of the Malayan Archipelago, proposing to visit
Malacca, Penang, the Tenasserim Province and Sumatra, to undertake a
minute survey of Java, to procure determinations in Timor and Borneo, to
attempt the Philippines, and to observe at all the open ports in China. The
especial importance of such a series of observations need hardly be insisted
on; and although the East India Company have not felt themselves (in this
single instance) justified in complying with the suggestion, no doubt for
reasons of the most valid nature, and arising probably out of the peculiar
political relations of some of the countries proposed to be visited, your Com-
mittee have considered that they would not be doing justice to the energy
and devotion of Lieutenant Elliott, or to his discernment of what would be
scientifically desirable, in originating the proposition, were they to forbear
making mention of it in this report.
Continental Surveys—Austria, Sweden, &c.
During the last summer, M. Kreil, director of the magnetic observatory at
Prague, travelled over a considerable part of Bohemia, making geographical
and magnetical determinations at many points, an account of which will be
found in the sixth delivery (heft) of Lamont’s ‘ Annalen.’ The same distin-
guished observer has more recently applied to the Emperor of Austria for the
authority and means to travel over and execute a magnetic survey of the whole
empire of Austria, an application which His Majesty has liberally acceded to,
and granted the requisite funds, so that in a few years we may hope to be put
in possession of a survey of that great monarchy, equalling or excelling what
has been done for any other great portion of the European continent.
M. Angstrém, astronomer of Upsala in Sweden, leaving Munich in the
early part of the season, is understood to have undertaken a series of obser-
vations with a magnetic theodolite at all the principal stations on his return
to Upsala. And M. Lamont proposes to connect his own observatory at
* The Pagoda barque, 360 tons, has been chartered by government for this service,
manned with forty men, under Lieut. Marshall, to sail the first week in November. (Note
added during the printing.)
—
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 149
Munich with London by a similar chain of observations of the magnetic
constants at Stuttgard, Tubingen, Heideiberg, Manheim, Mayence, Cologne,
Aix la Chapelle, Brussels and other places.
Itinerant Observations not in the nature of Formal Surveys, Naval Observa-
tories, and other Local Determinations.
Portable magnetometers, accompanied with Lieutenant Riddell’s instruc-
tions for their use, have been sent not only to the fixed observatories, but also
to Sir E. Belcher in China, Captain Blackwood in Torres Straits, Captain
Graves at Malta, Captain Barnett at Bermuda, Captain Otter on the north
coast of Scotland, and Captain Bayfield in the St. Lawrence. Two sets have
also been ordered for the American Coast Survey, the one to be used by Prof.
Bache, the other by Prof. Renwick. The officers of the Royal Artillery at
Newfoundland are also similarly provided. In all these cases, the instruments,
previous to their despatch, have been carefully examined at Woolwich, and in
several instances the constants of temperature, &c. determined for each mag-
net, and a proper supply of blank forms for the entry and work of the obser-
vations adjoined. And we have reason to expect that term observations and
absolute determinations will be received from all the quarters above enu-
merated. Valuable contributions of this nature from Captains Blackwood,
Belcher and Otter have already come to hand.
Publications relating to Terrestrial Magnetism.
Among the more generally useful and practically important publications
relating to this science, must be considered the elaborate and admirably ar-
ranged and digested work of Lieutenant Riddell above alluded to, entitled
‘“¢ Magnetical Instructions for the use of Portable Instruments adapted for
Magnetic Surveys and Portable Observatories.” Full and complete instruc-
tions of this nature, adapted to the species of instruments now become of
universal or nearly universal employment, whether intended for differential
observations or absolute determinations at fixed stations, or for magnetic sur-
veys and other local operations, had long been greatly wanted ; and in fact
great inconvenience had been experienced, on all hands, owing to the want
of an authentic digest of the kind adapted to the present advanced state of
the subject. It was reasonable, to expect that, in a subject so new as mag-
netism, some of the instruments and methods by which the investigation was
in the first instance proposed to be carried on, should have proved inadequate
to their purposes. Such has been found to be the case, particularly in refer-
ence to that highly important branch of the inquiry, the secular changes.
The indisputable evidence of inadequacy, the contrivance of instruments or
methods to be substituted, the execution of those instruments, their trial and
proof, and their subsequent transmission to the stations with full directions
for their use, is all a work of time, and pro tanto has tended to diminish the
period for which the observatories can be considered to have been thoroughly
effective for their proposed objects ; all this has proved an anxious as well as
very laborious part of the occupation of the Ordnance establishment, of which
the strength was calculated solely for the duties of reduction and publica-
tion. There being no head-quarter observatory, where such questions would
be examined and deficiencies supplied, a large portion of the attention of that
establishment has been necessarily occupied in this work. The work in ques-
tion will show the labour that this has occasioned ; it occupied indeed, almost
exclusively, for more than a twelvemonth, the thoughts and time of Lieutenant
Riddell, Assistant Superintendent, whose previous employment as director of
4
150 REPORT—1844,
the Toronto observatory, for the first year of its establishment, gave him a
peculiar qualification for the task. It is satisfactory, however, to be assured,
by the results which are daily arriving from the observatories, that it has
been time well-bestowed, and we may pretty confidently say that assured secu-
lar determinations will date from the commencement of the present year at
all the observatories under the Ordnance superintendence. One consequence,
which may fairly be attributed to this work, and to the facilities thereby
afforded for the acquisition of a perfect knowledge of the processes, has been
the great increased demand for magnetic instruments since its publication,
which exceed the power of the opticians chiefly conversant with their con-
struction to meet.
The valuable ‘ Annalen fur Meteorologie Erdmagnetismus,’ &c., published
by Dr. Lamont, is continued, and the sixth and seventh numbers (for 1843)
have reached the Committee. They contain the magnetic term observations
for 1842, observed at Milan, Munich, Prague and Kremsmiinster; M.
Weise’s observations at Cracow for 1841 and 1842; the result of M. Kreil’s
magnetic determinations in Bohemia, already mentioned; the magnetic per-
turbations observed at Munich in 1842, and a vast collection of valuable
meteorological contributions from all parts of Europe, of which the great
length to which this report would thereby be extended alone prevents us
from presenting an analysis.
The publication of the Russian observations, whether magnetic or meteo-
rological, at the stations Petersburgh, Catherinenbourg, Bogoslawsk, Lougan,
Ziaouste, Barnaoul, Nertchinsk, Kasan and Pekin, is complete up to the
end of the year 1841, and forms indeed a magnificent contribution to the
sum of science, worthy in every way of the greatness of the empire which :
has produced it, and reflecting the highest credit on the indefatigable exer- :
tions of M. Kupffer, the superintendent of the Russian observatories. The
observations from Pekin are meteorological only, and are of course of great
interest, though affected in some points (especially in what relates to the
march of the hygrometer) by the social peculiarities of so vast a metropolis,
such as the practice of copiously watering its streets in the summer, &e.
The third and fourth volume of the magnetic and meteorological obser-
vations at the Prague observatory, under M. Kreil, has also appeared, and
has been received by your Committee. The meteorological observations in
these volumes, as well as those in Lamont’s ‘Annalen,’ and the records of the
Russian observatories for several years, are at present undergoing collation by
Mr. Birt, with a view to the tracing the progress of remarkable atmospheric
waves, in a mode presently to be more particularly referred to.
The ‘ Annals of the Royal Observatory of Brussels,’ vol.ii. recently published
under the direction of M. Quetelet, is a most valuable contribution to
meteorological science, containing the assemblage of such observations for
the years 1837 to 1840 inclusive, in detail for Brussels and in summary for
Alost and Ghent, together with determinations of the magnetic declination
and dip for the same period, those of the declination for 1840 being diurnal,
at four hours daily. The magnetic term observations for 1842, observed at
Brussels, are printed in the 15th and 16th volumes of the ‘Memoirs of the
Royal Academy of Brussels.’ These volumes contain also the meteorologi-
cal horary observations made at the summer solstice and both equinoxes of
1842, at no less than forty-two principal European stations, in continuation
of the series of equinoxial and solstitial observations, in which M. Quetelet
has taken an especial interest. These interesting and important observations
have subsequently, by the praiseworthy exertions of M. Quetelet, seconded
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 15]
by the zeal and interest of his numerous correspondents, been extended to
no fewer than eighty stations. Their publication has been continued or pro-
vided for up to the end of 1843, but owing to some difficulties which have
unfortunately since interfered and which are understood to have thrown a
serious obstacle in the way of their future publication by the Academy, it is
greatly to be feared that the course of this series of valuable records may be
suspended or abandoned, to the great regret of every meteorologist.
The magnetic and meteorological observations made at the Royal Obser-
vatory at Greenwich, under the direction of the Astronomer Royal, during
the years 1840 and 1841, have been printed by order of the Admiralty, in
full detail, uniformly with the astronomical observations made at that great
national establishment, but in a distinct volume, and it is understood that the
subsequent observations will be presented to the public in a like liberal form.
The volume is prefaced with a valuable introduction from the pen of the
Astronomer Royal, describing every part of the apparatus and the mode of
using it. One important characteristic of this station, as it now exists, is the
apparatus for observing the atmospheric electricity, a department of meteo-
rology of equal importance and difficulty, and which has hitherto been very
inadequately studied.
The diminution of magnetism in steel needles by time as well as by tempera-
ture, has been made the subject of a short but valuable treatise by Professor
Hansteen, ‘De Mutationibus quas subit Momentum Virgze Magnetic
partim ob Temporis partim ob Temperature Mutationes,’ which, although
printed in 1842, has only come to our knowledge since the date of our last
report. The inquiry into the temperature corrections, being matter of expe-
riment, is easy in comparison with that of the changes effected by time, which
are matter of pure observation, and partake therefore of all the disadvantages
which affect purely observational sciences. The conclusion which Professor
Hansteen draws relative to this part of the subject is, that the decrements of
intensity form a geometrical series when the time increases arithmetically, and
that the magnetic moment continually approaches to a fixed limit, to attain which
of course an infinite time is necessary, but which, practically speaking, would
appear to have been approached with a higher degree of approximation, at
least for the great majority of cases (seven out of nine) which have formed
the basis of Professor Hansteen’s conclusions within two or three years from
the epoch of their magnetization, and in some instances much more speedily,
according to the hardness of the steel and other causes.
Dr. Lamont, director of the observatory at Munich, has published a
summary of the results of the observations made at that station during the
years 1840, 1841, and 1842. Of these, the declinations previous to June
1841, and the intensities previous to November in that year, are regarded by
him as of inferior value to those subsequent to those respective epochs. The
daily fluctuations of the declination and of the horizontal intensity, deduced
from the assemblage of the monthly means obtained during the available
portions of these years, and of the mean declination from 10 to 10 days
during the whole period (which he considers to be unaffected by those causes
of uncertainty which affect the hourly observations during the earlier por-
tion of it), are tabulated and graphically projected. In the projection of the
daily fluctuations of the declination, the double diurnal maximum and mini-
mum as well as the periodically varying influence of temperature in summer
and winter are strikingly apparent. In that of the intensity the morning
minimum is the most conspicuous feature, and though the summer and winter
inequalities are also perfectly distinct, the daily course of the curves, as Dr.
152. REPORT—1844,
Lamont justly remarks, is affected with undulations which can hardly be re-.
ferred to the direct action of the solar heat. The course of the mean decli-
nations exhibits a continual and tolerably though not quite uniform decrease
of about 7! per annum, but without any indication of regular periodical flue-
tuation, either annual or otherwise.
The ‘Annales de Chemie’ (vol.x. 3rd series) also contains a similar summary,
not accompanied however by graphical projections, by M. Aimé, of the re-
sults of nineteen months’ consecutive magnetic observations made by him at
Algiers, from June 1841 to Dec. 1842 inclusive. ‘These exhibit, as respects
the declination, only one diurnal minimum, varying in epoch with the season
from 7" to 85 30™ a.M., and a single maximum varying also in epoch, but
contrarywise with the season, from 25 p.m. to noon. The fluctuation is
nearly double in summer as compared with its amount in winter. The cor-
respondence of the march of this element with the temperature has appeared
to M. Aimé so exact, that he suggests the observation of it continuously on
the occasion of solar eclipses as an object of especial interest.
The present change of declination at Algiers appears to be about 21’,
decreasing. By some observations reported by M. Aimé as having been
made in 1832 and 1833 by Captain Berard, the needle may be presumed to
have attained its maximum westerly declination about that epoch. The in-
clination diminishes at Algiers at the rate of about 6' annually.
Meteorological Department.—Discussion of Meteorological Observations.
At the last meeting of the British Association, Sir J. Herschel, acting as a
committee for the reduction and discussion of the meteorological term obser-
vations for 1835-38, reported among other matter, that by the aid of these
observations it had proved practicable, in specified instances, to trace the
progress and to assign the magnitude, direction and velocity of atmospheric
movements in the nature of waves over nearly the whole of Europe, and that
in a manner which, if pursued further, could hardly fail to afford real and
valuable additions to meteorological science. Being obliged however, from
the pressure of other occupations, to leave the inquiry at this point, Mr. Birt
volunteered to continue it under the auspices of the Association, and was
accordingly added to this committee for that purpose. The progress made
by him in it will be appended in his own words, as part of this report, accom-
panied with a letter explanatory of his views on the subject, and with models
of certain atmospheric waves in several successive states of their progress
over Europe, which will be submitted to the Physical Section for their in-
spection. [See Mr. Birt’s Report in this Volume. ]
In the discussion of meteorological observations, the most serious obstacle,
and that of the most formidable and repulsive character, is the enormous mass
of calculation (necessitating transcriptions, &c.) required for their adequate
reduction and preparation for the uses of the theorist; while, on the other
hand, the method of inductive inquiry, which seems most applicable to the
subject in its present state (the “ Method of Curves,” as it has been termed
by an eminent writer on inductive science), requires the observations, when
reduced, to be in a great variety of cases projected on paper in the form of
diurnal, monthly or annual curves. On the other hand, such is now the per-
fection of every description of mechanical workmanship, and such the profu-
sion in which the talent of mechanical contrivance is actually found to be
disseminated among practical and theoretical persons in every class of life
and in every line of human research or business, that the time is clearly ar-
rived when arrangements of mechanism may be safely relied on to supersede
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 153
the necessity of an immense mass of laborious and exhausting penmanship
and computation. Self-registering instruments henceforward will prove
yearly more and more the main dependence of meteorological inquiry, and
indeed of inquiry in every department of science in the same phase of its
progress: and their improvement, simplification and adaptation to the pur-
poses of affording mean results on the one hand, and on the other the tracing
out of curvilinear projections (the true “collective instances” of the Baco-
nian philosophy) in a state ready for immediate use, ought to be regarded as
one of the most important, perhaps ¢he most important point to which mecha-
nical ingenuity, guided by scientific knowledge, can be directed. The great
object which ought to be kept steadily in view, is so to dispose the apparatus
that corrected results shall be registered, if possible, and if not, that the cor-
rections to be applied shall be registered at the same instant, and on the same
scale with the observed elements, so that they can be readily applied to the
projected curves by mere mechanical or geometrical superposition.
In this point of view a barometer which shall register its readings corrected
for temperature would be of the utmost value. This does not appear be-
yond the reach of a moderate expenditure of thought*, and your Committee
would earnestly recommend it to the consideration of artists.
-Meanwhile it is with satisfaction that we refer to two constructions of self-
registering barometers which have recently come to our knowledge :—one
by Mr. Bryson, recently published in vol. xv. of the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh (to which apparatus he has since added a self-
registering thermometer for the corrections, and a self-calculating disc at-
tached to the reader, which exhibits the monthly means without calculation) :
the other instrument of the kind in question is the invention of M. Kreil,
director of the observatory at Prague, who terms it a baro-thermometragraph,
and who has also constructed a similar instrument (the thermo-hygrometra-
graph) for registering hygrometric indications. An instrument of this kind
is now on its way to this country, having been constructed under the imme-
diate superintendence of its inventor.
Finally, your Committee beg to recall to the recollection of the Association,
that the duration of the magnetic and meteorological observations now in
progress will cease with the year 1845, and that therefore it will be highly
necessary that before that time—and in fact, if possible, at or before the
next meeting of the Association,—the important question should be seriously
taken into consideration, whether any endeavour ought or ought not to be made
to obtain from the several governments which have supported the existing ob-
servatories further support—a very grave question, which has been already
distinctly brought under the notice of your Committee by one of their most
active coadjutors, M. Kupffer, director of the Russian magnetic observatories,
and which it is highly proper should be considered in every point of view
* An approximate compensation by the counteracting pyrometric expansion of an inva-
riable length of mercury or lead is easily accomplished, but this would be subject to occasional
error, amounting to nearly one-fifteenth of the total amount of the temperature correction.
The pyrometric compensating column must be variable in its length in the ratio of the un-
corrected length of the mercurial column, measuring the pressure. If however the instru-
ment be mounted in a situation of which the variations of temperature are very slight, as in
a cellar, or at the bottom of a mine, shaft, or even a well (which, as there is no occasion to
approach it, except for the purpose of renewing the cylinders, would be liable to little objec-
tion), the error thus entailed would be so reduced in effect, as to disappear, for any but the
very nicest purposes. Indeed the barometric part of the apparatus might be buried in the
earth (allowing only enough access of air to propagate the pressure), the registering apparatus
only being above ground.
154 REPORT—1844.
with an earnestness commensurate both to its scientific importance and to the
large and liberal manner in which that support has been already granted.
As respects the expeuditure of the Committee, the annexed statement will
show the amount of their grant expended and the purposes for which the
outlay has been incurred.
Signed on the part of the Committee,
J. F. W. Herscuet.
APPENDIX.
Letter from Professor Boguslawshi to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine.
“ Breslau, 1844, September 18, 139.
« My pear Sir,—With reference to your letter of the 20th of February,
and to the verbal communications lately made to you by Sir Bernhard Hebe-
ler, Knt., Consul-General to His Prussian Majesty, I have now the honour to
inform you that I shall forward in a few days to Mr. Oswald, our Consul-
General at Hamburg, the first part of the magnetic observations made at this
place. They will be sent by the mail, being exempt from postage (until twenty
pounds Pruss.) as faras Hamburg. I expect you will have arranged with Sir
Bernhard the way how to receive the present, as well as the following parts,
in the least costly manner; and you will also please to give your instructions
to Mr. Oswald, or communicate them through Sir Bernhard.
« As the first two books of the year 1840 contain only the two terms of
August and November, (the monthly terms only having been observed with-
out interruption from January 1841 until pow,) I should have liked to send
you at least the observations of the year 1841, particularly as not only these,
but likewise those of 1842 and even part of 1843, are completely entered,
but the drawing of the curves is not yet finished. I have some objection to
forward the entered observations without undertaking the projection of the
curves, which latter serve as a test and assist in discovering some little errors
made in the entries. The two terms of the year 1840 may then be considered
as precursors, and may serve to discover whether all is sufficient for reduc-
tion and comparison.
“In general the observations may be divided in two periods—the first
until April term 1841 inclusive, and the second beginning from the May term
1841. Until April 1841 inclusive, the old four-pound declination-bar was
alone in the magnetic cabinet; the other two instruments received by your
kindness were in the great room of the observatory exposed to many per-
manent influences of iron masses in the vicinity, where the observations
were made with them on the terms 1840, August and November; and 1841,
January, February, March and April.
«On the May term 1841, all three instruments were united in the magnetic
room, the declination magnetometer being then provided with the second bar
which belongs to the bifilarium. However, on this term the mutual action of
the bars could not yet be done away with, because the declination bar could
not at that time have been definitively suspended. But at the June term
1841, the same had received a proper regulation, whereupon the mutual ac-
tion was neutralised by a fixed bar which was placed immoveably, according
to its force, at calculated distances from the other bars. Whether this com-
pensation has remained correct 1 wish to examine again at the conclusion of
the daily and monthly variation-observations, in order to begin then a series
of absolute declination and intensity. The two active bars scarcely change
the time of their vibration, and the compensation bar, which is an old bar,
seems likewise to be of constant force.
METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 155
“ Since the 1st of January 1843, there have been made observations four
times a day, without interruption, and with all three instruments. Perhaps
I may succeed, in the last year of the co-operation, to continue the observa-
tions every two hours.
“ The perturbations of the magnetic declination and intensity in the year
1844, viz.:
“ February 1. I.; 2.D.1.; 17.1.; 28 (trace).
“ March2. D.I.; 4. D.1.; 5.D.1.; 7. D.I.; 30 a.m. and p.m. D. I.
“ July 7. I. August 9. I.
have been so trifling that it is not worth while to mention them for the pre-
sent, but they will be communicated hereafter.
“You shall not have to wait long for the observation books of the year
1841, and those of the year 1842 will be forwarded in a few months. I hope
the entries of the observations of the year 1843 will also be finished in the
spring of 184.5.
“ Sir Bernhard will have conveyed to you already my sincere thanks, as
also those of the Silesian Society, for the Reports of the British Association
till the year 1842 inclusive, which you had the kindness to remit me.
“T regret much that I am also this year prevented, for want of a substitute,
to express to you personally my obligations and to follow your kind invitation
in order to enjoy days of instruction at the Meeting of the British Association.
I beg you will please to convey to them my best thanks and my apology.
“ T remain, with sincere regard, dear Sir, your obedient Servant,
“ Tieut.-Col. Sabine.” “ Henry von BoGusLAwsKI.”
On the Influence of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth,
on Metamorphism in general, and particularly the Metamorphosis
of the Scandinavian Alum Slate. By Prof. G. ForcHHAMMER,
Professor of Geology and Chemistry, Copenhagen. (Printed among
the Reports by direction of the General Committee).
It is for geology to explain, how the enormous quantities of matter, soluble
and insoluble, which the numerous rivers carry to the sea, are-re-deposited,
and employed to form new beds on the crust of the earth. With the insoluble
portion, comprehending by far the greater part of the substances which are
thus carried into the ocean, geologists have indeed much occupied themselves,
and have given satisfactory explanations by showing, that enormous beds of
sand and clay owe their origin to this action; but hardly any natural philo-
sopher has tried to explain, what becomes of the vast quantities of soluble sub-
stances which the rain dissolves from the solid earth, and ultimately carries
into the sea. Among these substances, sulphuric acid, arising from the solution
of gypsum, and silicate of potash dissolved during the decomposition of fel-
spar, are the most important, though by no means the only ones that occur,
If we consider that clay is produced by the decomposition of felspar, and
that a quantity of alkali (principally potash) proportional to the clay must
have been dissolved in the water, the question that must strike every observer
is, where has this enormous quantity of alkaline substances gone, and into what
combinations has it entered, since we find so very trifling a quantity of it in
‘ sea-water? =,
It is evident that there must be some great accumulating power, which
156 REPORT—1844.
again separates these substances from the water of the ocean, and deposits it in
an insoluble state in the beds, which are precipitated on the shores, and at
the bottom of the deep seas. In fact, similar instances of solution and preci-
pitation have long been known and studied by geologists, and have become
extensive means of explaining geological changes. Innumerable springs carry
vast quantities of carbonate of lime to the sea, while all rivers contain more
or less sulphate of lime; yet the analysis of sea-water shows only small traces
of lime, but then we observe that the animals of shells and corals everywhere
are busily employed in extracting this lime from the water, and that they
ultimately deposit it in the form of solid beds of limestone. The reason
why so little lime is found dissolved in sea-water, is exactly the same as that
which explains why so small a quantity of carbonic acid occurs in the atmo-
sphere ; although causes which are constantly operating are always supplying
it with this substance, which is absolutely necessary tor vegetable life. Plants
deprive the atmosphere as fast of its carbonic acid, as subterranean heat, com-
bustion and animal life produce it. In like manner, the lower animals extract
the lime as quickly from sea-water, as rivers and submarine springs provide
it, and there must necessarily be a similar cause constantly depriving sea-water
of its potash and sulphuric acid, which so many and constantly acting decom-
positions ultimately convey to the ocean.
Marine vegetation has, in a geological point of view, but little attracted
the attention of philosophers, and while land plants play a necessary part in
every geological system, the whole vegetation of the ocean has been left a
blank, except as far as fucoidal forms have been an object of contemplation
for those geologists who principally occupy themselves with fossil plants. Not-
withstanding this neglect, the quantity of vegetable substances annually formed
by fucoidal plants is enormously great ; and what is very material, the quantity
of mineral substances, in the form of ashes, exceeds very much that which
land plants contain, and thus sea-weeds, on account of such mineral contents,
must necessarily have a decided influence upon the formation and changes
of beds. For this reason I deemed it necessary to analyse the ashes of fuco-
idal plants, chosen among the different families of that class, and from very
different parts of the globe; which plants I owe to the kindness of my friends
Professor Schouw, Dr. Vahl and M. Liebmann. The analysis was carried on
in the following way.
The dried sea-weed was weighed, calcined, and the ashes weighed; though
the quantity of ashes thus obtained is not very correct, owing partly to a quantity
of carbonaceous matter which inclosed by the salts had escaped combustion,
and thus showed the quantity of ashes to be greater than it was in reality. In
other instances, the quantity appeared a little less than it ought to be on account
of some carbonic acid, which had been expelled from the carbonate of lime and
of magnesia ; now and thena small quantity of the sulphates had been reduced
to sulphurets, and thus likewise occasioned a loss. All these causes of trifling
errors do not, however, affect the general result of the analyses. For to ascer-
tain the constituent parts of the ashes, they were extracted by water as long
as anything was dissolvable; and from this solution, after it had been made
acid by nitric acid, or in some cases by muriatic acid, the sulphuric acid was
separated by a salt of barytes, and when the sulphate of barytes had been
separated, the excess of barytes was again thrown down by sulphuric acid.
The lime was then precipitated by ammonia and oxalate of ammonia, and
the magnesia (if any was present) precipitated by a solution of pure barytes.
The precipitate, which consisted of sulphate and carbonate of barytes and of
magnesia, was treated with sulphuric acid, and the solution which contained
METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 157
the magnesia precipitated by phosphate of soda and an excess of ammonia
From the alkaline solution, which besides potash and soda contained an excess
of barytes, the barytes was precipitated by carbonate of ammonia; there was
afterwards added muriate of ammonia until the potash and soda were changed
into chlorides, upon which the whole was evaporated and heated, for the pur-
pose of expelling the excess of muriate of ammonia, and then the whole was
weighed. In order to ascertain the quantity of potash, the salt was dissolved
and evaporated with an excess of chloride of platinum, the dried mass dissolved
in alcohol of about 40 per cent., and from the weight of the chloride of potas-
sium and platinum, the weight of the chloride of potassium, and thus that of
the potash, was calculated.
In most cases the weight of the soda was found by calculation from the
weight of the chloride of sodium, which again was ascertained, by deducting
the weight of the chloride of potassium from the total weight of the alkaline
chlorides. In some instances, the quantity of chloride of sodium was deter-
mined, by mixing the alcoholic solution of chloride of sodium and chloride of
platinum with sulphuret of ammonia ; in order to precipitate all the platinum,
evaporating the liquid to dryness, dissolving the salt in water, passing the
solution through a filter, and after having evaporated it to dryness, heating
it to expel the muriate of ammonia, upon which the pure chloride of sodium
remained. In some cases the quantity of chlorium in the ashes was ascertained
by nitrate of silver.
The portion of the ashes which was insoluble in water was dissolved in
muriatic acid, which left the sand undissolved upon which the solution was
diluted, and precipitated by ammonia. This precipitate is mentioned in the
tabular view as phosphate of lime, which composed the greater part of it;
though it contained, in many instances, some alumina and the oxides of iron
and manganese. The presence of phosphoric acid was ascertained by dissolving
the precipitate in muriatic acid, adding alcohol and sulphuric acid, by which
sulphate of lime was precipitated ; the remaining alcoholic solution was mixed
with an excess of ammonia, upon which an alkaline solution of chloride of
magnesia and muriate of ammonia precipitated ammonio-phosphate of mag-
nesium.
The ashes of all the plants of the Fucus tribe which I have analysed con-
tain phosphate of lime. The lime and magnesia which had been in the in-
soluble part of the ashes was separated in the usual way. The following
tabular view gives the constituent parts of the ashes of the different fucoidal
plants which I have analysed. The carbonic acid of the ashes combined with
lime is not stated. With regard to the silica, it is mentioned in some in-
stances as sand, which of course had been mechanically adhering to the
plant, in other instances it was in a state which made it probable, that it be-
longed to the constitution of the plant, which however is not quite proved.
The great quantity of oxide of manganese, I may observe, in the ashes of
Padina pavonia, is curious and doubtful; because I have not yet had an op-
portunity of repeating my analysis satisfactorily to determine this point.
REPORT—1844,
158
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METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 159
It appears from these analyses, that the fucoidal plants principally separate
sulphuric acid from the sea-water ; the quantity of it is always very large, and
never less than 1°28 per cent. of the weight of the whole dried plant. In one
plant it amounted to 8°50 per cent., a quantity which is quite enormous con-
sidering the vast masses of fucoidal plants which grow in the sea; and I think
that on an average we may take four per cent. of sulphuric acid in the dry
sea-weed ; for the mean of nineteen analyses gave 3°82 per cent. This acid
is combined with potash, soda and lime, and would, after the decay of the
plant, again be dissolved in the water of the ocean, were it not for an action
which I shall afterwards describe.
Next to sulphuric acid the potash is the most interesting of the constituent
parts of the ashes of Fucus. It occurs in.a very small quantity in sea-water,
and certainly constitutes a great portion of the Fucus tribe, which on an ave-
rage contains two and a half per cent. of the dried plant, the mean quantity
found in fourteen analyses being 2°52 per cent.
Next to the potash, the magnesia deserves the attention of the reader. On
an average there is about one per cent. of the weight of the dried plant pre-
sent in the ashes, a quantity which exceeds that of the lime, and may still
exceed it more than appears from the tabular view, because no inconsiderable
quantity of lime depends upon the numerous small shells and corals which
adhere to the sea-weeds. In fact it might be doubted, whether any lime at all,
in form of carbonate of lime, or such salts of lime whose acid by combustion
forms carbonates, exists in the plants of the Fucus tribe, and whether all the
lime belonging to the constitution of these plants is not combined with sul-
phuric or phosphoric acid. Magnesia occurs in great quantities in sea-water ;
the animals of shells and corals seem to have no attraction whatever for this
substance, while the causes that bring it into the ocean are constantly acting,
and thus its quantity might go on increasing. The fucoidal plants, however,
absorb some portion of this vast quantity of magnesia and deposit it in the
beds, which contain the solid substances of the sea-weeds, as far as they are
insoluble in water.
Phosphoric acid always occurs in the ashes of sea-weeds and is probably
always combined with lime.
I must still mention chlorium among the substances that occur in the Fucus,
but its quantity is very variable, and there is no doubt that some of these
plants (at least at certain seasons) contain no chlorium; and where only small
traces of this substance have been found, as in the Ecklonia buccinalis, Iridea
edulis, and Delesseria sanguinea, they derive it from the salts of sea-water stili
adhering to the dried plants. On the other hand, it is highly probable, that
the quantities of chlorium which are found in some instances are not acci-
dentally present, and that chlorium probably combined with sodium plays (at
certain seasons) a considerable part in the life of the fucoidal plants, while it
“may disappear at others; for potash occurs in considerable quantities in the
_ potatoe while it is flowering, but diminishes afterwards.
A specimen of Fucus vesiculosus, taken in August 1844 in the Sound, washed
and dried, left when heated in a close vessel 28°88 per cent. charcoal, which
again left 13°33 per cent. ashes; the quantity of real charcoal thus being
15°55 per cent.
This chemical constitution of the ashes of the Fucus tribe explains several
great phenomena in the general life of nature. It is now very little doubted
that the original fertility of the soil, and even partially that which has been
occasioned by manure, depend upon the mineral substances which play either
a permanent or a transitory part in the life of the plants, and among such,
sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid and potash, are those which, occurring in the
hes
160 REPORT—1844.
least quantity in the soil, are notwithstanding absolutely necessary for the
growth of most of our cultivated plants. All these substances are constantly
washed out of the soil, and at last carried into the ocean, whose plants again
attract them; and if the farmer that lives near the sea-shore transports the
sea-weeds as a manure for his fields, he thereby gives back to the land those
substances which rain has washed out of them.
It is well known that innumerable small crustacea, principally of the family
of the Amphipoda, live upon the Fuci of our shores, and hide themselves in
millions in the half-rotten heaps of those plants which the sea has thrown up.
They derive from this food phosphoric and sulphuric acid, lime and magnesia ;
and the ashes of the shell of the shrimp consist, according to my analysis, of
sulphate of lime, phosphate of lime, and phosphate of magnesia, with so little
carbonate of lime, that it seems merely to belong to small shells adhering to
the shrimps. It is well known that, directly or indirectly, the smaller crustacea
constitute the principal food of fishes and cetaceous animals, and thus the
phosphate of lime in the bones of the larger marine animals is originally de-
rived from the sea-weeds; and also in the ocean the phosphoric acid of in-
organic nature is, by means of plants, carried over to animals.
The spontaneous decomposition of the fucoidal plants, and principally of
Fucus vesiculosus, is the following: after having during some days been ex-
posed to the action of heat and water, a fermentation begins, in which a great
quantity of carbonic acid is produced, and also a volatile substance which
seems not to differ from the common spirit of wine; thus a complete vinous
fermentation takes place. When that has ceased, the whole mass begins to
rot, and a very complicated action commences, by which the sulphates are
changed into sulphurets. M. Bischof of Bonn showed, many years ago, that
this effect takes place whenever the soluble sulphates come into contact with
organic substances exposed to putrid fermentation ; and whoever has observed
the masses of sea-weed left on the shore, will likewise have observed the smell!
of sulphuretted hydrogen disengaged from the alkaline sulphurets by the
carbonic acid of the decomposing sea-weed and the atmospheric air. In the
neighbourhood of Copenhagen, the disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen
from sea-weed is sometimes so strong, that the silver at the country places near
the shore is constantly blackened by the effect of that gas.
If the sea-weeds in this state of decomposition come into contact with
oxide of iron, another change takes place, and the sulphur combines by
double decomposition with the iron and forms pyrites, while the oxygen com-
bines with the potassium, sodium and calcium. This decomposition is beau-
tifully shown on the western shore of the island of Bornholm in the Baltic,
where a ferruginous spring from the lower oolite flows into the sea in a small
beach, where a great quantity of /weus vesiculosus is always thrown on shore.
All the rolled stones at the bottom of the sea are covered with a beautiful
yellow metallic coating of iron pyrites, which keeps unaltered so Jong as it is
covered by the sea, but which on being exposed to the air weathers to sul-
phate of iron. It is evident that this effect is produced in the present period,
since rolled pieces of bricks have even the same coating, where a ferruginous
spring which flows out of a borehole has hardly existed more than fifty years.
The same effect takes place if a solution of sulphuret of potash is mixed with
ferruginous clay and left for some time in a close vessel ; the clay assumes a
black colour, and after it has been washed with water, diluted muriatic acid
disengages sulphuretted hydrogen and dissolves protoxide of iron. Thus it
follows, that wherever putrifying sea-weeds come in contact with ferruginous
clay, iron pyrites must be formed, which penetrates the clay, and on weather-
ing first forms sulphate of iron, and if no lime be present, will ultimately, by a
METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 161
new decomposition, change into sulphate of alumina. If, on the contrary, car-
bonate of lime acts upon the sulphate of iron, gypsum will of course be
produced.
The potash which has been formed by the decomposition of the sulphuret
of potassium acts upon the clay (silicate of alumina) and forms with it an in-
soluble combination, which probably also contains water. To ascertain this
fact, which appears to me of high importance in the explanation of geological
phenomena, I have several times exposed ferruginous clay to the action of
a solution of sulphuret of potash with the following result :—
39043 grains, English weight, of ferruginous clay from the tertiary for-
mation of Stowerhoved in the island of Fyen, were analysed by means of
fluoric acid, and gave 0°184 grain chloride of potassium = 0°47 per cent.
chloride of potassium = 0°30 per cent. of potash.
41°957 grains of the same clay, which for some days had been exposed to
the action of a solution of sulphuret of potassium, gave, by being treated with
fluoric acid, &c., 0°930 grain = 2°22 per cent. of chloride of potassium = 1°42
per cent. of potash.
61°653 grains of the same clay, which likewise had heen exposed to the
action of a solution of sulphuret of potassium, gave 1°719 grain = 2°79 per
cent. of chloride of potassium = 1°76 per cent. of potash.
The objection might be made that this potash was part of the solution
which had not been properly washed out of the clay. This however is not the
case, because when the clay had been washed on the filter until hardly any
trace of soluble substance was left after the washing, water was evaporated,
was taken from the filter, mixed up with a great quantity of water, and again
collected on a new filter. It could not be avoided that the sulphuret of iron
was oxidized during this long process of washing, and that the black colour
of the clay slowly changed into yellowish-red. But afterwards, when the clay
was tested, it contained a very small quantity only of sulphuric acid, and an
action seems to have taken place between the sulphate of iron and the potash
combined with the clay, by which sulphate of potash was formed, which being
soluble in water of course must diminish the quantity of potash combined
with clay. In one instance I succeeded in washing the clay so quickly, that no
observable oxidation took place, but unfortunately it had not been weighed
beforehand, and thus although the quantity of potash seemed to be consider-
ably greater than in the other experiments, it cannot be used as an argument.
Is is highly probable that by alonger action between the ferruginous clay
and the sulphuret of potash, a larger quantity of potash will be combined with
the clay ; but at all events these experiments show, that whenever sea-weeds
in the last state of decomposition act upon ferruginous clay, iron pyrites is
formed and a quantity of potash is combined with the clay into a compound
which is insoluble in water.
Since all the analysed species of the Fucus tribe, belonging to the most
different countries, from Greenland to the Equator and the Cape of Good
Hope, and to the different families, contained considerable quantities of sul-
phuric acid and potash, they all must have the effect described, whenever
the other circumstances occur ; and we may fairly infer, that even the fucoidal
plants of the earlier periods of the world would produce similar changes in
the clay of the sea.
The Silurian strata of the Scandinavian peninsula and the island of Bornholm
contain in their oldest parts large beds of aluminous slate, which is used in a
great number of manufactories for making alum, and this alumnious slate
has the great advantage over those slates of the carboniferous system of
Germany and a part of France, that it contains the sufficient quantity of potash
1844. M
which is required to make alum. According to my analysis this alum slate
from Bornholm and from the church of Opsloe near Christiania, contains the
following constituent parts :—
162 REPORT—1844.,
Bornholm. Opsloe.
BIMGE os Vs ke St, OE, es ee Oe
Adon SS Seg oke ee Sse RST
Bienen ee) are eerie ek = 3 ee
NIRA ais a ates ses se
Potash with a small quan-
Tiky OP nOuar en sts) te. e's) 3 8 a”) ES
Soda. . . 048
SHlHWe i ese kus Mere aa sts ss |S ED
fron si agiel ch ey ee oe 1:05
Oarbony eee. er OOD Gaia of iui 0°75
Water fet se OU —=
ao 89°92
99°01
Carbon
Oxygen . . . , Water
Azote. . . - y wepanas na Oxygen . . . undetermined.
Phosphoric acid ete sey
Phosphoric acid
In comparing these two analyses, the close resemblance to each other is
certainly very interesting, in showing that during this formation the same causes
have been acting at the same time all over those parts of Scandinavia where
this formation is now found. ‘The only real difference consists in the quantity
of silica, of which about 6 per cent. more are found in the Opsloe slate than in
that of Bornholm: all the other constituent parts come as close to each other
as they do, even in simple crystallized minerals from different parts of the
world. Those slates which I have analysed did not contain any pyrites in
particles that are visible to the naked eye. But in all places where alum slate
occurs, there also occur peculiar beds, which contain a much greater quantity
of pyrites connected with fossils that have not yet been determined, but which
seem to belong to the vegetable kingdom and may belong to some species of
fucoidal plants. The slate of one of these beds of the island of Bornholm
from the same quarry where the other slate had been taken, contained the
following quantities of sulphur, iron and silica, the only substances that
were determined :—
SUPPER 4g 8 ek OLS
SUR gale abies 8 + « BOOS
Oxide Ofirag ws. SC. 680
In Bornholm and in Scania (the southernmost part of Sweden) this slate
contains a great number of impressions of a fucoidal plant, of which Liebmann,
at my request, has been so kind to give the following description :—
Ceramites Hisingeri. Alga cespitosa filamentosa ramosissima. Fila e
basi communi (radice) radiantia ad setam equinam crassa, fastigiato-ramosa
dichotoma ; substantia interna venis duabus (siphoniis) creberrime genuflexis
et invicem spiraliter tortis (in modum generum Polysiphoniz, Callithamnii,
Griffithsie, Ceramii) percursa.
According to Prof. Keilhau, Prof Boek and M. Esmark, the same Ceramites
occurs frequently inthealuminous Silurian slate of southern Norway. Recently
M. Hisinger has figured an imperfect specimen of it from Berg in the pro-
vince of Ostergothland in Sweden; thus this Fucus appears to be characteristic
METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 163
of the alum slate of Scandinavia; and I can scarcely doubt that the most cha-
racteristic properties of the alum slate as depending upon its carbon, its sul-
phur and its potash, are derived from the great quantity of sea-weed which
has been mixed up with the clay, and whose carbonaceous matter so affects
the whole rock, that the slate is used as fuel for boiling the aluminous liquor,
and burning lime, and in some parts of the province of Westergothland in
Sweden even small courses of true coal occur. There can hardly remain any
doubt that this coal is derived from sea-weeds of which the fossil parts have
been found, for not the slightest trace of land plants has ever been dis-
covered *.
In most parts of Sweden, principally in Westergothland, the aluminousslate,
which rests upon a quartzose sandstone, is separated from the upper slates,
which are not aluminous, by a large bed of limestone, which contains Asaphus
expansus, Illenus crassicauda, and numerous Orthoceratites. The aluminous
slate contains a vast number of small Trilobites, which are peculiar to it, and
might appear at first to prove it a peculiar formation deposited at a time when
other animals lived in the sea than those which occur in the overlying lime-
stone. In Scania and in Bornholm the aluminous slate and the bed of
limestone with Asaphus expansus are merely subordinate beds in the large
formation of lower Silurian slates, and of course contemporaneous with them.
Notwithstanding, the aluminous slate contains a vast number of the same small
Trilobites, and the limestone the same Asaphus expansus which is found in
the peculiar beds of Westergothland, thus proving that all these animals have
lived at the same time. If we compare the great number of small crustacea
which now live in the sea-weed thrown upon our shores, it appears to me
highly probable, that the:great number of small Trilobites and Agnosti which
are found in the aluminous slate are the representatives of those of our crus-
taceans which live upon sea-weed, and that the difference in the fossils of the
aluminou’s slate, the limestone bed and some of the beds of the clay slate, does
not depend upon the difference of time in their formation, but arises from a
difference of food in various localities for these animals.
There is still another difference between the alum slate and the surrounding
clay slate; while the last contains more or less carbonate of lime dispersed
through it, the alum slate contains a very small quantity of it. In fact, if alum
slate contained lime in any considerable quantity, it would be quite useless
in the manufactory of alum, because all the sulphuric acid would combine
with lime instead of alumina, and form gypsum instead of alum. If however
we consider the whole mass of alum slate, lime is not wanting ; the difference
consists only in the circumstance, that the carbonate of lime of the alum slate is
collected into large balls or concretions penetrated by bituminous substances,
and on that account black and fetid on being rubbed, while it is not so if col-
lected in the common clay slate of these regions. It is evident that there must
have been some cause or other by which the carbonate of lime was first dis-
*® An objection might be made, that this cause would not be sufficient to account for the
enormous mass of iron pyrites deposited in the alum slate, but a calculation will show that this
is not the case. At the point of Kronborg near Elsingor, about 30,000 two-horse loads of sea-
weed are annually thrown on shore in the months of November and December, which, calculated
at 500 lbs. dry plants each, are equal to 15 millions of pounds, which at 3 per cent. sulphuric
acid, would make 450,000 Ibs. of sulphuric acid and 332,000 Ibs. of iron pyrites ; and if we
then calculate every solid cubic foot of alum slate at 15 Ibs. and the alum slate on an average
at 2 per cent pyrites, the quantity of sea-weed annually thrown upon the shore at Kronborg
would thus be sufficient to impregnate 111,000 cubic feet of alum slate with pyrites. Besides,
I may mention the enermous extent of floating sea-weed in the gulph-stream between Europe
and America, as more than sufficient to account for any known salman of pyrites in sedi-
mentary deposits,
M2
164 REPORT—1844.
solved and afterwards deposited again by way of crystallization ; and the ap-
pearance of carbonaceous matter and of iron pyrites in the slate being, in
Scandinavia at least, always connected with the collection and crystallization
of carbonate of lime in large nodular masses, it appears that there must be
some causal connection between all these phenomena. It is well known that
carbonic acid dissolved in water has the power of dissolving carbonate of
lime, and of depositing it again in a crystalline state whenever the carbonic
acid gas can escape; and although geologists generally suppose the carbonic
acid to be derived from the interior of the earth, yet any free carbonic acid,
from whatever source it may originate, will have the same effect. I have
already shown before, that the first process in the spontaneous decomposition
of fucvidal plants of the present time, is the formation of a great deal of car-
bonic acid, and I therefore think it highly probable that the carbonic acid
which accompanied the decomposition of sea-weeds, has dissolved the lime of
the slightly marly clay, and collected it into large nodular masses. It appears
to me that both the detailed coincidence of the phenomena observed at the
present time, with the facts observed in this large and important Silurian for-
mation, are a strong proof of the correctness of my views.
As to newer formations of beds, where fucoidal plants have had a consider-
able influence on the chemical composition, I name with great hesitation the
lias slate of the coast of Yorkshire near Whitby. In fact 1 am not aware that
any impressions of fucoids have been found in this extensive formation ; but
then it is well known, that sea-weeds retain their form under very favourable
circumstances only, and that geologists generally pay very little attention to
those undefined plants which are considered to be of little use in determining
the age of the formation. Besides the want of fossil fucoids, the want of potash
in the lias slate of Whitby seems to be a serious objection to the influence of
sea-weeds on this formation; but then, although the shale does not contain a
sufficient quantity of potash to make alum, yet it may contain a small quantity
of it, and I am not aware of any analysis of this shale. On the other hand, the
pyrites disseminated through the shale, the carbonaceous substances which it
contains, and the nodular concretions of carbonate of lime similar to those of
the alumslate in Scandinavia, offer no smallpoints of analogy. We find, besides,
that the sulphuric acid in the ashes of the fucoids is frequently combined
with lime, as for instance in the Fucus vesiculosus of our shores ; and the
spontaneous decomposition of this plant, when acting upon ferruginous clay,
would form a great deal of pyrites and a small quantity of potash, while the
lime would assist in forming the nodules of impure limestone.
In the island of Bornholm the older greensand contains numerous beds of
coal, and in some beds an enormous number of Fucus intricatus. The de-
posit contains no clay, and thus no potash could be retained*, but all the iron
of the formation is combined with sulphur in pyrites, which seems to be owing
to the same action. :
Lastly, a tertiary deposit contemporaneous with the subapennine forma-
tion, contains (all over the Danish peninsula) very large beds of alum earth.
This alum earth is black, contains much pyrites, and at the same time potash ;
the carbonate of lime in this formation is also collected in nodular masses ; it
is full of marine shells, but no fossil fucoids have yet been found in it.
The Silurian alum slate seems particularly well-disposed to form gneissose
racks by metamorphosis ; but before 1 show that this really has been the case
in the neighbourhood of Christiania, I must as a chemist beg leave to offer a
word upon metamorphosis in general.
* By this expression the author refers to the insoluble combination of potash with clay de-
scribed in preceding paragraphs.—ED.
METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 165
Metamorphosis of rocks may be of two very different kinds.
1. It may depend upon another arrangement of the constituent parts ; thus
the whole mass after metamorphosis may contain the same elements in the same
quantity as before; but the state of semi-fluidity has allowed the particles to
combine into other minerals and to assume a crystalline form. This is the case
for instance with a Pentamerus limestone near Jellebeck, near Drammen in
Norway. This impure limestone contains besides carbonate of lime, some
carbonate of magnesia, alumina, oxide of iron and silica. The compact car-
bonate of lime has assumed a granular form and has become white marble;
the magnesia has lost its carbonic acid, and combined with lime and silica to
form the mineral Tremolite; and the oxide of iron has combined with alu-
mina, lime and silica, to form greenish and beautifully crystallized garnets.
The small per-centage of water, some carbonic acid which was combined
with magnesia and lime, and the carbonaceous substance which communi-
eates its black colour to the original limestone, have disappeared; but the
quantity of the substances thus expelled is so small, that it has very little
effect upon the whole, and is merely accidental ; for if the limestone had been
very pure it would have passed into granular marble without loss. If any
doubt still remained that any such effect could take place, the changes which
some simple minerals of the highly interesting iron mines of Arendal have
undergone, seem to leave no doubt concerning this action. The mineral
collection of the University of Copenhagen possesses a large crystal which
has completely the form of paranthine (scapolite) ; it is a right square prism
with all the lateral angles slightly truncated. There cannot be any doubt
of this crystal having once been paranthine, but not the least trace of that
mineral is left. It consists of a coating of albite, and in the interior it is
filled up with imperfect crystals of epidote, while pretty large holes remain
between the crystals of epidote in the interior, which were probably formerly
filled up with carbonate of lime which has been abstracted by the mineral
dealer by means of muriatic acid. Now the green paranthine from Arendal
consists, according to John, of
Alumina . . . 30:00 Oxide of manganese 1°45
Lime .. . . 10°45 Ode sey et a mis Re
Oxide of iron - 3:00 Silica. . . . . 50°25
The soda, some alumina and silica would form albite ; while the lime, oxide
of iron, alumina and silica would form epidote. The specific gravity of the
paranthine is 2°5 to 2°8, while the specific gravity of the albite is 2°68, and
that of the epidote is 3-2 to 3-5. Thus it was necessary that, the new minerals
having a greater specific gravity than the paranthine, a contraction must have
taken place, and holes must have been left in the interior of this curious
pseudomorphice crystal.
Some years ago Prof. Rose at Berlin published a paper on certain curious
crystals, which, with the external form of pyroxene, combined the internal
structure of hornblende, and these crystals, having been found in the Ural
Mountains, were called Uralite. Crystals occur at Arendal in Norway which
also have been called Uralite, but whether they are identical with those from
the Ural or not, I am unable to say, since I have not seen the true Uralite
from Russia. This Uralite from Arendal occurs always in the external form
of pyroxene, but the solid angles are very often rounded, as if it had been in
a state which very nearly approached to fusion, and the surface shows the
curious appearance which is often observed in clays, as if a coating already
solidified had been drawn in by a floating interior mass, and thus formed
small folds on the surface. In the interior these crystals have very often the
166 REPORT—1844.,
structure of hornblende, but together with the hornblende there always ap-
pears another mineral, which is generally brown garnet, and the crystals of
this mineral frequently appear on the surface of the metamorphous crystals
of pyroxene, but never protrude beyond it. Also in this case there exists a
space between these different crystals filled up with carbonate of lime, which
in all the Arendal minerals is the last-formed substance that fills up all the
space left by the other minerals. Although hornblende and garnet are the
most frequent minerals resulting from the change of the pyroxene, yet they
are not the only ones that appear. In fact hornblende seems in most cases
to be one of the new minerals; but garnet is now and then wanting, and in-
stead of it magnetical iron ore, epidote, and perhaps even other minerals
occur. The specimen in which the pyroxene is changed into hornblende
and magnetical iron ore, is a very curious one, one half of it being covered
with unaltered pyroxene having a smooth shining surface, the other halt
of it is equally covered with crystals of the same size and appearance; but
they are uneven and dull on the surface, and on closer examination it is
easily discovered that the internal structure of hornblende may be seen in
every one of the altered crystals, while at the same time a number of small
grains of magnetical iron ore have spread themselves through the whole
mass. The great variety in the minerals produced from the metamorphosis of
the black pyroxene depends evidently upon its very variable composition and
its numerous constituent parts, which, according to the laws of isomorphism,
may replace each other. ;
It is evident that these altered crystals have not been completely melted,
since the whole external form, depending upon the former state of combina-
tion, is still left. On the other hand, it is likewise evident that there must
have been a kind of fluidity in the interior of these crystals, else the new-
formed minerals could not have assumed their peculiar form. Considering
the rounded edges and the clay-like appearance in the exterior of the altered
crystals, very little doubt can remain, that the agent which produced these
changes was heat, and that the whole phenomenon belongs to that class of
chemical changes which philosophers call cementation, and by which, with-
out a change in the external form, changes take place in the interior which
depend upon another arrangement of the particles; as for instance in the
alteration which glass undergoes by being changed into the porcelain of
Reaumur.
I shall presently show, that the alum slate of Scandinavia, by a completely
similar alteration of the different stages which easily may be traced, has been
changed into gneiss, and that, if we except the carbonaceous matter, no sub-
stance has been carried away and none has been joined with the slate; so
that the whole change merely consists in a different arrangement of the par-
ticles, which by way of cementation have formed new minerals that did not
exist before.
2. Much more frequent are those metamorphoses where new substances
have entered into combination with those that were present in the beds of
sedimentary origin, and where at least other substances have sometimes been
expelled or have disappeared. The metamorphosis belonging to this kind,
whichis most clear and evident, is the alteration of common limestone, car-
bonate of lime, into anhydrate or anhydrous sulphate of lime, where the car-
bonic acid has been expelled by sulphuric acid, which in most instances pro-
ceeded from the interior of the earth. The greater part of the ancient Scan-
dinavian gneiss has evidently been formed by such an action where the granite
as an eruptive mass has carried vapours of potash with it, which have pene-
trated the surrounding and heated slates. At the first instance it may appear
METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 167
inconceivable that granite being overloaded with an acid (silica, which ap-
pears in form of quartz) could give out vapours of potash, which is a base ;
but this depends upon the peculiar nature of silica, which at high tempera-
tures require less base to be dissolved than at a lower heat. I am disposed
to think that granite when melted is one single compound, which on cooling
is alone separated into the different minerals which compose it. In the
melted state it may give out much of its volatile bases, potash and soda, until
a compound remains, which for that temperature will not allow any more pot-
ash to be volatilized.
If it thus is the case, that granite at a high heat may give out vapours of
potash and soda, these vapours will penetrate the surrounding slates, and will
form alkaline silicates, which at a sufficient heat will crystallize and combine
according to the degree of temperature either to form granite or gneiss,
Further off from the source of the alkaline vapours, where less potash and
soda penetrate, very little felspar will be formed, the whole potash being
converted into mica, which frequently is white, the iron entering into com-
bination with alumina and silica to form garnet, which in mica slate is the
representative of the felspar of the gneiss. Still further off from the granite,
not even mica slate will be formed, a sufficient quantity being wanting; and
the last stage of these metamorphoses will be a micaceous, hardened clay slate.
Although granite generally carries vapours of potash with it, yet this is not
always the case ; and there exist not a few instances of protrusions of granite
where the clay slate has not been converted into gneiss, but changed into
other rocks with no portion or a trifling quantity only of alkaline substanees.
The whole mass of intrusive rocks of the trap family which are overloaded
with iron does not seem ever to have carried alkaline vapours with it, but
its peculiar produce is not unfrequently boracic acid. Chemical affinities
will not allow vapours of potash or soda to escape from a compound con-
taining great, quantities of the silicates of the oxides of iron, because potash
and soda would combine with silica and alumina from felspar, and separate a
combination of the oxides of iron in the form of magnetical iron ore. In fact,
this seems to be the history of some of the most interesting layers of magne-
tical iron ore. It appears therefore to me of importance to distinguish in
geological descriptions between euritic intruding rocks, which principally com-
prehend granite and euritic porphyry, from ¢érappean intruding rocks, com-
prehending the large family of greenstones, basalts, &c. ; their chemical effect
upon the surrounding rocks being often very different.
Having given these general views of the chemical part of metamorphusis,
I will go back again to the changes which portions of the Scandinavian alum
slate has undergone, where it comes into contact with certain intrusive rocks.
I had the great pleasure to make these observations in company, with Mr.
Murchison, to whose genius and zeal we owe such very important geological
works, and I shall therefore not dwell much upon the geological phenomena,
but principally comment upon the chemical nature of the altered rocks.
Along the foot of Egeberg to the east of Christiania, the alum slate is not
separated from the older gneiss by a bed of sandstone which generally sepa-
rates the older gneiss from alum slate ( Viggersund in Norway, Westergothland
in Sweden, and Bornholm)*.
The first state of change which this black shining alum slate undergoes
does not occur in the neighbourhood of Christiania, but is very frequent in
Hadeland and some parts of Ringerige ; it is black, very anthracitical, and
* Near the church of Opsloe the alum slate has been quarried in former times for an alum
manufactory, and it is there unchanged; its composition has been mentioned before.
‘168 REPORT—1844.
has lost almost the whole quantity of water which it contained. It seems
evident that this change has been brought about by the very numerous trap-
pean and euritic dykes which traverse these shales.
The second state in the change of the alum slate is into Lydian stone; this
occurs at Bugten, near the sea-shore at the foot of the Egeberg, about a couple
of English miles to the south of Christiania ; it is black, hard, and traversed
by numerous small veins of quartz, which seem to depend upon the protrusion
of large irregular masses of greenstone.
The third stage is into a gneissose rock with a quantity of dark mica and
black scales of a carbonaceous substance, which seems to be graphite. This
variety Mr. Murchison also observed at Agersberg Castle, in the town of
Christiania itself. It being a matter of great importance to ascertain whether
this completely gneissose rock still contained carbon, I have made two experi-
ments to convince me of this fact. I made an analysis like those for organic
substances, and ascertained the quantity of carbonic acid, which gave the
quantity of carbon as 1:28 per cent. Since there might, however, remain
some doubt, whether a minute portion of the carbonic acid might not depend
upon a small quantity of carbonate of lime that occurred in this rock, I dis-
solved a portion of it in a mixture of fluoric and muriatic acid, whereby a
quantity of finely-divided carbon remained, which, after being dried, burnt
on a red-hot piece of platina with the phenomena of burning carbon. It is
thus completely proved that the black gneissose rock of Agersberg still con-
tains a quantity of carbon. This carbonaceous:gneiss is wanting at Bugten,
where the series is generally more perfectly displayed.
Next to the layers of Lydian stone of Bugten a gneiss makes its appear-
ance, consisting of dark green mica, white felspar, quartz, and a number of
small cubes of iron pyrites disseminated throughout the mass. Of this most
perfect gneiss (which on the place itself, however, is very closely connected
with Lydian stone, and whose pyrites still show its origin from the pyritiferous
alum slate) I made a complete analysis, the result of which, compared to the
analysis of the alum slate of Bornholin and Opsloe, is the following ; the water
and carbon of the alum slate having been deducted before the per-centage
was calculated :—
a D5 3. 4.
Alum slate from
Gneissfrom Opsloe, afterde- Alum slate from Alum slate from
Bugten. duction of the Bornholm. Bornholm,
volatile parts.
Silica 2) 6505. EOE RAEI 240 6! TTD OR SOR
mbenina vos 1S GS ee. © 19°04
Peroxide of iron . 7°77 . . 2:26 Pyrites 1°58 Oxide of iron 9:06
ene so. A. Oe ET eae. LTO
Magnesia) (65 6s (DER TRIAN S TAS 202
ROR es hOB ER es 4°46
Soda sie. 2h eo O46 TH OS... traces
RSPEUENETY She ie Sy OBO 1 Es Sulphur 415
OS
100°68 99°62 99°87
In analyses !, 2 and 4, the quantity of oxygen corresponding to the quantity
of sulphur which was found must be deducted, because a portion of iron is
present as pyrites. In No. 4 only the quantity of silica, oxide of iron, and
sulphur was determined, and their quantity given proportionally to the silica
in No. 3.
If we compare these analyses, the close connexion of the rocks analysed
METAMORPHOSED FUCOID SCHISTS IN SCANDINAVIA. 169
cannot escape observation ;—the same quantity of silica, magnesia, lime,
potash and soda, and only a difference in the quantity of alumina, iron and
sulphur, the alumina occurring in a less quantity in the gneiss, while iron and
sulphur occur in a much greater quantity than in the common alum slate.
But then the sulphur and iron in the alum slate are very irregularly distri-
buted, and beds occur which are very rich in iron pyrites; the bed No. 4,
which has been analysed in No. 4, containing even more sulphur than the
eneiss from Bugten. The quantity of sulphur must in part depend upon the
quantity of iron in the clay which had acted upon the sulphuret of potassium.
The great quantity of dark green mica in the gneiss depends upon the presence
of oxide of iron, besides the pyrites; and on looking at No. 4, it is the same
case in this alum slate.
I could not trace any distinct boundary between this gneiss of Bugten and
the large mass of gneiss which forms the principal range of the Egeberg ; and
near the church of Opsloe one may pursue a similar change in the nature of
the rock, although the passage from the alum slate to the gneiss is not as
clearly to be traced as at Bugten.
At both places these changes of the alum slate are connected with large
intruding masses of greenstone which irregularly rise from below. Numerous
small veins of quartz likewise pass through all the different varieties of the
altered rock, from the complete gneiss to the black Lydian stone.
At the Egeberg near Opsloe, euritic dykes traverse the altered rocks, and
these dykes afford a new proof of the peculiar nature of the gneiss which they
pass. They have the general chemical character of the intruding euritic rocks
of Scandinavia, their alkalies consisting for a great part of soda; while the
newer metamorphic gneiss of Egeberg, like its parent the alum slate, contains
a trace of soda only in its composition.
The older gneiss*, like that of Bornholm, which lies uwnconformably below
the lowest Silurian sandstone and alum slate, contains likewise a considerable
quantity of soda in its composition.
* Note by Mr. Murchison.—My friend Professor Forchhammer having entrusted this most
important paper to my care, I was highly gratified to find, that on being read at York it eli-
cited a warm encomium from Professor Liebig, so eminently qualified to form a correct judg-
ment of its chemical value. In its very remarkable application to geology I beg to caution
the reader against the adoption of the idea, that Professor Forchhammer does not make a
. clear geological distinction between the newer gneiss and the older. He is indeed entirely of
my own opinion, which will be developed in a memoir laid before the Geological Society of
London, that the old granitic gneiss of Scandinavia was formed, crystallized and penetrated
_ by granite before the lower Silurian strata were accumulated.—R. I. M.
os
Report on the recent Progress and present State of Ornithology.
By H. E. Srricxuanp, M.A., F.G.S., &c.
Introduction.
Tur object of this report is to give a sketch of the recent progress, present
state, and future prospects of that branch of zoology which treats of the class
of Birds. As the chief, indeed the only method by which this study can be
developed into a science, consists either in describing and depicting the cha-
racter and habits of this class of animals in books, or in preserving and
arranging the objects themselves in musewms, I shall review in succession the
progress which has been made in these two departments of the subject, and
shall conclude with a few remarks on the desiderata of ornithology.
In treating of the bibliography of ornithology, however, it is not necessary
to go into much detail respecting the works of older date than about fifteen
years ago. The ornithological works of the last and the earlier part of the
present century are well known to most naturalists, and the reader will find
ample and for the most part just criticisms respecting them in Cuvier’s
‘Régne Animal,’ vol. iv., Temminck’s ‘Manuel d’Ornithologie,’ Swainson’s
‘Classification of Birds,’ and his ‘Taxidermy and Bibliography,’ Wood’s
‘ Ornithologist’s Text Book,’ Wilson’s article Ornithology in the ‘ Encyclo-
pedia Britannica,’ Rev. L. Jenyns’s ‘Report on Zoology,’ 1834, Burmeister’s
article Ornithologie in Ersch and Gruber’s ‘ Encyclopadie der Wissenschaften,’
and other sources. I shall therefore only give such a cursory notice of some
of the earlier writers on ornithology as will serve to introduce the more le-
gitimate subject of this report.
It may perhaps surprise those who are not very conversant with the subject
to be told that ornithology is in a less advanced state than many other de-
partments of zoology. Persons who are accustomed to regard “stuffed
birds” as constituting the most usual and most attractive objects of a public
museum, will not readily admit that the various species of Mammalia, Fish,
Insects, Mollusca, and even Infusoria, are more accurately determined and
more perfectly methodized than the class of Birds. Such is however the
case, and although in the last few years ornithology has certainly made a
very marked progress, yet it is still considerably in the rear of its sister sci-
ences,
This backward condition of ornithology must be attributed in great mea- —
sure to the pertinacity with which its followers during many years adhered
to the letter instead of to the spirit of Linnzus’s writings. In this country
the venerable Latham, who for half a century was regarded as the great
oracle of ornithology, persisted so late as 1824 in classifying his 5000 species
of birds in the same number of genera (with very few additions) as were em-
ployed by Linnzus for a fifth part of those species. The consequence was
that many of the genera in Latham’s last work contain each several hundred
species, frequently presenting the most heterogeneous characters, and massed
together without any, or with only very rude, attempts at further subdivision.
Shaw’s ‘General Zoology’ was, in a great measure, a servile copy of Latham’s
‘Ornithology,’ and these two works formed for many years almost the only
text-books on the subject. On the continent meanwhile, those who were not
disciples of Linnzeus, transferred their allegiance to Buffon, and often exceeded
that author in their contempt for systematic arrangement and uniform no-
menclature.
Cuvier, indeed, as early as 1798, had sketched out an improved classification
of birds in his ‘ Tableau Elémentaire de l’Histoire Naturelle,’ repeated with
170 REPORT—1844,
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 171
amendments in his ‘ Anatomie Comparée’ in 1800. The main features-of
his arrangement correspond with that which he afterwards adopted in his
‘Régne Animal.’ About the same period also, Lacépéde published a system,
arranged on a new plan and containing the definitions of several new genera.
Another outline of an improved ornithological system was published in 1806
by M. Duméril in his ‘ Zoologie Analytique.’ But these attempts at progress
seem to have been made before the scientific world was able to appreciate
them, and several years elapsed before their influence was generally felt.
The logical and accurate Illiger was the next who endeavoured to intro-
duce sounder principles into ornithology ; his admirable ‘ Prodromus Syste-
matis Mammalium et Avium,’ published in 1811, after long years of neglect,
has now become an almost indispensable handbook to the studier of Mam-
mals and Birds. But this young reformer died at an early age, and ornitho-
logy again relapsed under the drowsy sway of the Linnean and Buffonian
schools.
The next effort in advance was made in 1817, when Cuvier, having pre-
viously arranged the Paris Museum according to his own views of the natural
system, embodied the results in the ‘Régne Animal.’ In the ornithological
portion Cuvier was anticipated by Vieillot, who having access to the galleries
of the museum, is charged with having appropriated the labours of Cuvier
by attaching names of his own to the groups there pointed out. Be this as
it may, the ‘ Analyse d’une nouvelle Ornithologie Elémentaire’ of Vieillot,
and the ornithological portion of the ‘Régne Animal’ of Cuvier, contain
many new generalizations based upon highly important but previously neglected
structural characters, and their publication indicated a vigorous effort at
transferring the subject from the domain of authority to that of observation.
Temminck, who in his ‘ Histoire des Pigeons et des Gallinacés,’ 1813-15,
had introduced several new generic groups into the Rasorial order, published
in the second edition of his ‘ Manuel d’Ornithologie,’ 1820, the outline of a
general system of ornithology, containing many important additions to the
arrangements of Cuvier and Vieillot.
The method of De Blainville, completed in 1822, deserves notice, from his
having introduced as a new element of classification the structure of the
sternum and of the bones connected with it. The distinctive characters thus
deduced are now generally admitted as forming valuable auxiliaries in the
_ search after a natural arrangement.
The improved methods of classification, thus originated on the continent,
made a gradual but slow progress into this country. Dr. Leach seems to
have been the first British naturalist who duly appreciated the labours of
Cuvier, and in the concluding volumes of Shaw’s ‘ Zoology,’ published under
his superintendence, the new generic groups of the continental authors were
successively introduced, and engrafted upon the stock of Linnzus and La-
tham. Dr. Horsfield also entered thoroughly into the spirit of the reformers
of zoology, and in his valuable memoir on the Birds of Java in the Linnean
Transactions, vol. xiii., he adopted the arrangements of Cuvier and of Leach,
with many excellent additions of his own. Dr. Fleming’s ‘ Philosophy of
Zoology,’ 1822, also contributed to render the naturalists of Britain familiar
with the improved systems of the Cuvierian school.
The late Mr. N. A. Vigors gave, in 1823, a great impulse to the study of
ornithology by his elaborate memoir in the Linnzan Transactions, vol. xiv.,
on ‘The Natural Affinities that connect the Orders and Families of Birds.’
This treatise abounds with original observations and philosophical inferences,
but unfortunately they are applied in support of a theory which the most
172 REPORT—1844,
careful inductions and the most unprejudiced reasonings of subsequent na-
turalists have shown to have no claim to our adoption as a general law.
Without entering further upon the vexata questio of the “ Quinary System”
than as regards its application to ornithology, I may remark that if we can
show that this supposed universal principle fails in its application to any one
department of the animal kingdom, it loses its character of universality, and
a presumption is raised against its truth even as a special or local law. The
quinary system in fact includes several distinct propositions, the truth of any
one of which does not imply that of the remainder. First, it is laid down that
all natural groups, if placed in the order of their affinities, assume a circular
figure ; secondly, that these circles are each subdivided into five smaller circles;
thirdly, that two of these are normal, and the remaining three aberrant; and
fourthly, that the members of any one circle represent analogically the cor-
responding members of all other circles. I shall have occasion to recur to
these points in speaking of Mr. Swainson’s writings, and at present will merely
remark, that the application by Mr. Vigors of these novel and singular doc-
trines to the class of birds contributed in no small degree to the advancement
of ornithological science; for however erroneous a theory may be, yet the
researches which are entered upon with a view to its support or refutation
invariably advance the cause of truth. Alchemy was the parent of chemistry,
astrology of astronomy, and quinarianism has at least been one of the foster-
parents of philosophical zoology. Another debt of gratitude which we owe
to the quinarians is the broad and marked distinction which they were the
first to draw between Arrinity and ANALoGy—between agreements in
essence, and agreements in function only and not in essence, the one consti-
tuting a natural, and the other an artificial system. And although their
foregone conclusions sometimes led them to mistake the one for the other,
yet by their clear definitions on the subject they enabled others to detect the
errors which in such cases they could not see themselves*.
In 1824 Vieillot presented a new edition of his system, with but slight
alterations, in his ‘Galerie des Oiseaux,’ and in the following year Latreille
proposed another arrangement, which however differs very little from that of
Cuvier as finally left by him in the second edition of his ‘Régne Animal,’
1829. The celebrity of its author caused the latter work to he speedily
* The distinction between affinity and analogy is as yet but imperfectly established on the
continent, or at least the terminology employed is very vague. French writers continually
use the term analogie to express what we call affinity, a defect in their scientific language
which they might easily remedy by making use of the word “ affinité,’ and by restricting
analogie to its true meaning. The same inaccuracy also exists in the language of geologists,
British as well as foreign, when they speak of the recent analogue of a fossil, meaning thereby
that recent species which has the strongest affinity to the extinct one. They might term it
with more propriety the recent affine. A similar alteration would also introduce greater pre-
cision into the terminology of comparative anatomy. The parts which in different groups
of animals are essentially equivalent, though often differing in function, are commonly termed
analogous members, but it would be more correct to call them affine members, and to restrict
the term analogous to those organs which resemble in function without being essentially equi-
valent. Thus the tooth of Monodon, the nose-horn of Rhinoceros, the intermazillaries of
Xiphias, and even the rostrum of a Roman galley, all perform a similar function, and are
therefore analogous organs, but the relation between the weapon of offence in Monodon and
the masticatory teeth of other Mammalia is an agreement in essence but not in function, and
is therefore not an analogy but a real afinity. There is yet a third kind of relation between
organic beings which does not deserve the name of analogy, but which may be simply called
resemblance, consisting of a mere correspondence in form, but not in function or essence,
such as the resemblance between Murex haustellum and a Woodcock’s head, between Ophrys
apifera and a Bee, &c., a relation which is in every sense accidental, though the advocates
of the quinary theory have often regarded it as a true analogy.
4
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 173
translated into other languages, and it soon became the text-book for classifi-
cation in most of the museums of Europe. The ‘Régne Animal’ will ever
remain a monument of the industry of Cuvier and of his extraordinary powers
of generalization, but it would be vain to expect that all parts of so vast an
undertaking should be equally perfect, and it is therefore no matter for sur-
prise that the class of birds, which do not seem to have been a favourite
branch of Cuvier’s studies, should present many defects in their arrangement.
Certain it is that, not to mention many proofs of haste in the citation of spe-
cies and of authors, the series of affinities is in this work often rudely broken
or arbitrarily united. In his arrangement of birds Cuvier seems to have too
closely followed the old authors, in adopting an isolated character as the
basis of his classification, a practice which inevitably leads to arbitrary and
artificial arrangements. He places, for example, the Tanagers, Philedons,
and Gracule in the midst of the Dentirostres, Dacnis, Coracias and Para-
disea among the Conirostres, Sitta and Tichodroma among the Tenuirostres,
Furnarius in Nectarinia, &c. Many of these defects were pointed out by
Prince C. L. Bonaparte in an admirable critique published at Bologna in
1830, entitled ‘ Osservazioni sulla seconda edizione del Regno Animale,’ and
which is an indispensable appendage to Cuvier’s work. Another valuable
accompaniment to the ‘Régne Animal’ is the series of plates published by
Guérin under the title of ‘Iconographie du Régne Animal de Cuvier.’
This slight preliminary sketch of the progress of ornithological classifica-
tion has now conducted us to a period when it becomes necessary to enter
into greater detail.
I propose, as far as I am able, to notice all the more important ornitholo-
gical works which have been published since 1830, and which have contri-
_ buted to bring the subject to its present state, not indeed of perfection, but
what is more interesting to those engaged in it, of progress. I must however
regret, that from the difficulties of obtaining access to many rare conti-
nental publications, especially to the almost innumerable annals of scientific
societies, this attempt at a general survey of the subject will unavoidably be
somewhat incomplete. I shall of course pass over such works as are devoid
of scientific merit, as well as those mere compilations, which from their want of
any new or original matter tend only to diffuse and not to advance the science.
In entering on so large a field it becomes necessary to subdivide the sub-
ject, which may be treated of under seven heads, viz.—1. General systematic
works. 2. Works descriptive of the Ornithology of particular regions.
8. Monographs of particular groups. 4. Miscellaneous descriptions of spe-
cies. 5. Pictorial Art as applied to Ornithology. 6. The Anatomy and
Physiology of Birds, and 7. Fossil Ornithology.
1. General Systematic Works.
Lesson, who in 1828 had published a useful little ‘ Manuel d’Ornithologie,’
based chiefly upon Cuvier’s classification, brought out in 1831 a more extended
work, entitled ‘ Traité d’Ornithologie. This book, which professes to enu-
merate all the species of birds in the Paris Museum, is upon the whole a very
unsatisfactory performance, presenting all the marks of great haste and con-
sequent inattention. Many professed new species are named without being
described, others are described without being scientifically named ; no mea-
surements are given, and the descriptions are often so brief and obscure, that
it is impossible to determine a species by their means. The work, neverthe-
less, contains the definitions of many new generic groups which are now
adopted into our systems, and M. Lesson is therefore entitled to the credit of
174 REPORT—1844.
these original generalizations. The classification followed in this work is
very complex, and in some of its portions very artificial, the genera being
arrived at through a numerous and irregular series of successive subdivisions,
founded in many cases upon arbitrary and isolated characters. Perhaps the
most valuable portions of the work are the generic definitions, which are
worked out with greater care than the specific descriptions.
Professor Eichwald gave a synopsis of the class of birds with brief de-
scriptions of the Russian species in his ‘ Zoologia Specialis, Wilna, 1831.
Prefixed to it is a good general resumé of the characters, external and inter-
nal, of the ornithic class.
The arrangement of birds proposed by Wagler (Systema Amphibiorum)
and by Nitzsch (Pterylographia) have not yet fallen under my inspection.
In 1831 the Prince C. L. Bonaparte published his ‘ Saggio di una Distri-
buzione Metodica degli Animali Vertebrati,’ exhibiting a system of ornitho-
logy, of which he had previously given a sketch in the ‘ Annals of the Lyceum
of New York,’ vol. ii. 1828. As this arrangement seems in its main features
to approach more nearly to the system of nature than any contemporary me-
thod, it will be worth while to enter into some detail respecting it. The au-
thor divides the class of birds in the first instance into two great groups or
subclasses, Jnsessores or perchers, and Grallatores or walkers, the first in-
cluding the orders Accipitres and Passeres, and the second the Gallina,
Gralle, and Anseres. Most other zoologists, from the time of Linnzeus to
the present day, unconsciously prejudiced by the size, rapacious habits and
celebrity of the birds of prey, have attached too much importance to their
characters, and have made them into one of the primary divisions of the class
Aves. But on an unbiassed estimate of their characters it will appear that
the Accipitres form merely a division of the great group of Perchers, agree-
ing with them in all essential points of organization, and not differing more
than some of the subdivisions of the perchers do from each other. It was
therefore a justifiable act to lower the Accipitres from the lofty place which
they had long occupied, and to subordinate them to the Jnsessores. I even
think that the learned author might have gone a step further, by making his
subclass Jnsessores to consist of one order, Passeres only, while the Accipi-
tres would stand on a level with his Scansores and Ambulatores, as a tribe or
subdivision of Passeres.
The primary division of all birds into perchers and walkers, though pro-
fessedly based on the position and development of so unimportant an organ
as the hind-toe, and therefore liable at first sight to be termed arbitrary and
artificial, is yet confirmed by so many other important and coextensive cha-
racters to which the structure of the hind-toe serves as an external indication,
that we cannot doubt of this arrangement being conformable to nature. No
person acquainted with the difficulty of defining the larger groups of zoology,
will, of course, expect logical exactness in the application of these or of any
other set of characters to the orders of ornithology. But allowing for such
exceptions as occur in all zoological generalizations, it is certain that by this
arrangement two great groups of birds are pointed out, the one arboreal,
with perching feet, monogamous, constructing elaborate nests, and rearing a
blind, naked, and helpless offspring ; while the others are terrestrial, with am-
bulatory feet, frequently polygamous, displaying no skill in the form of their
nests, and producing young which are clothed and able to see and to run as
soon as hatched.
The classification of Vertebrata, which Prince C. L. Bonaparte sketched out
in the above work, is further developed in a paper which he communicated to
ON THE PROGRESS AND. PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 175
the Linnzan Society (Transactions, vol. xviii.). The diagnostic characters
of all the families and subfamilies are here worked out with elaborate exact-
ness, as they are also in his ‘Systema Ornithologie,’ published in the ‘ An-
nali delle Scienze Naturali di Bologna,’ vols. iii. and viii. In these latter
esays the author introduces several modifications, the most important of
which is, that he removes the Psittacide from the other Scansores, and places
them asa separate order at the commencement of the system, before the
Aceipitres. This arrangement, which was first proposed by Blainville, is
grounded on the curvature of the beak, the presence of a cere, and the reti-
culation of the tarsi, which are supposed to connect the Psittacide and Acci-
pitres. I must be allowed however to differ from this opinion, as the Parrots
appear to me to be much more closely allied to the other Scansores, with
which they are usually classed. In the nature of their food, the prevailing
red and green colours of the plumage, the structure of the tongue in some
genera ( Trichoglossus), and of the beak in others (Nestor, &c.), they seem
really allied (though somewhat remotely) to the Rhamphastide, and through
them to the Bucconide and Picide.
An arrangement of the chief families and genera of birds, with definitions
of their distinctive characters, will be found in the ‘ Elémens de Zoologie,’ by
M. Milne Edwards, 1834 (2nd ed. 1837), and in similar introductory works
by Oken and Goldfuss.
Professor Sundevall published a new classification of birds in the ‘ Kongl.
Vetensk. Acad. Handlingar,’ Stockholm, 1836. He divides them into two
large groups, nearly corresponding with the Jnsessores and Grallatores of the
Prince of Canino. He agrees with Mr. Swainson in attaching a real import-
ance to the analogical representation of groups, but appears not to insist on
their numerical uniformity.
Mr. Swainson had, in 1831, given a sketch of his ornithological system in
Dr. Richardson's ‘ Fauna Boreali-Americana,’ but as his plan is more fully
developed in the ‘ Classification of Birds,’ forming part of Lardner’s ‘ Cyclo-
pedia,’ published in 1836-37, we will confine our attention to the latter work.
Of all the authors who have followed the quinary arrangement, Mr. Swainson
has carried it to the greatest extent, having in various volumes of Lardner’s
*Cyclopzdia’ endeavoured to apply it not only to the whole of the Verte-
brata, but also to the Mollusca and Insecta. In speaking of Swainson as a
quinarian author, it should be explained that he divides his groups in the
first instance into ¢hree, but as one of these is again divided into three, these
last, with the two undivided groups, make up the number jive (see ‘ Geog.
and Classif. of Animals,’ p.227). His method is therefore only a modifica-
tion of the quinary theory, originally propounded by MacLeay and further
developed by Vigors. In following Mr. Swainson into the details of his me-
thod, we miss the philosophical spirit and logical though not always well-
founded reasoning of the two last-named authors. Firmly wedded to a theory,
he is driven, in applying it to facts,to the most forced and fanciful conclu-
sions. Compelled to show that the component parts of every group assume
a circular figure, that they amount in the aggregate to a definite number,
into which each of them is again subdivisible, and that there is a system of
analogical representation between the corresponding members of every circle,
which forms the sole test of its conformity to the natural arrangement, we
need not wonder at the difficulties with which our author is beset; and we
may certainly admire the ingenuity with which he has grappled with the
Protean forms of nature, and forced them into an apparent coincidence with
a predetermined system. I need not follow out the details of this Procrus-
176 REPORT—1844.
tean process, having already treated of it elsewhere (‘ Anu. Nat. Hist.’ vol. vi.
p-192). With all its faults the ‘Classification of Birds’ is a very useful
elementary work, containing numerous details of structural characters, and
many just observations on the affinities of particular groups. A large num-
ber of new genera are here defined, although many which Mr. Swainson
considered to be new had been anticipated by continental authors, with
whose writings he was unacquainted.
Although the quinary theory, properly so called, has made but little pro-
gress beyond the British Islands, yet there is a school of zoologists in Germany
whose doctrines are of a very similar character. The most eminent of these
authors is Oken, who has explained his ideas on classification in several of his
detached works, as well as in that valuable periodical the ‘Isis,’ and who
communicated an outline of his theory to the Scientific Meeting at Pisa in
1839. We find in his system the same arbitrary assumption of premises, the
same far-fetched and visionary notions of analogy, and the same Procrustean
mode of applying them to facts, which distinguish the writings of Swainson.
He professes to deduce as a conclusion, what is in fact the @ priort assump-
tion on which his whole theory is based,—that the animal kingdom is analo-
gous to the anatomy of man, that is to say, that each of the organs which, when
combined in due proportion, constitute the human body, are developed in a
predominant degree in the several classes of animals, which represent those
organs respectively. This doctrine is far too fanciful to stand the test of
common sense, but it is certainly very ingenious, and we may admit that se
non é vero é ben trovato. The subkingdom Radiata he considers to represent
the egg, Mollusca the sexual organs, Articulata the viscera, and Vertebrata
the essentially animal, or motive organs. The subdivisions of these groups
represent not only individual anatomical organs, but also each other, in a
mode somewhat like that asserted by Mr. Swainson, but even more complex
and ingenious, and which I have not space to develope*.
The work which most nearly represents, in Germany, the quinarian school,
is the ‘ Classification der Séiugthiere und Vogel’ of Kaup, 1844. This au-
thor, like Oken, compares the Animal Kingdom to the human anatomy, but
he extends the analogy of the “five senses” over every part of the system,
(except his sub-kingdoms, which are three) so as to form a uniformly quinary
arrangement. Thus though Kaup agrees with Swainson in adopting the
number jive, these authors are guided by different principles of analogy, the
former looking to the development of the organs of sense, and the latter to
points of external structure connected with habits. Hence these two quinary
arrangements are very far from being coincident ; Swainson for instance
makes the Raptores one of his primary orders, while Kaup makes them a sub-
division of his Water-birds! Again, Swainson makes Corvus the essential
type of all birds, while Kaup gives the same dignified position to Hirundo. I
need only add that Kaup’s arrangement, like all a priori systems, is replete
with conjectures and fallacies.
The fundamental error which appears to pervade these and many similar
modes of classification, is the assumption of a regularity and, as it were,
* The author having assumed not only that the class Mammalia represents the organs of
sense, but that the genera of each family represent the individual senses, and these latter
being commonly (though not correctly) enumerated as five, it results that, as far as the
Mammalia are concerned, Oken’s system is, like Swainson’s, a guinary one. This coinci-
dence of number is, however, proved to be arbitrary, and not real, by the fact that these two
authors, who seem to have been wholly unacquainted with each other’s writings, have in no
one instance adopted the same subdivisions for their corresponding groups.
a
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 177
organization in that which is a mere abstraction, the System of Nature.
The point at issue is this,—whether or not it formed a part of the plan of
Creative Wisdom, when engaged in peopling this earth with living beings,
so to organize those beings that when arranged into abstract groups conform-
ably with their characters, they should follow any regular geometrical or
numerical law. Now such a proposition appears, when tested by reason, to
be improbable, and when by observation, to be untrue. The researches of
the comparative anatomist universally lead to this result, that all organized
beings are examples of certain general types of structure, modified solely
with reference to external circumstances, and consequently that the final
purpose of each modification is to be sought for in the conditions under
which each being is destined to exist. But these conditions result from the
infinitely varied arrangements of unorganized matter, they are consequently
devoid of any symmetry themselves, and the wild irregularity of the inorganic
is thus transmitted to the organic creation. Geology has revealed to us that
in all ages of the world new organic beings have been from time to time
called into existence whenever the changes of the earth’s surface presented a
new field for the development of life, and, judging from analogy, we cannot
doubt that if a new continent were hereafter raised by volcanic agency in the
Southern Ocean, a new fauna and flora would be created to inhabit it,
adapted to the new set of influences thus brought into action. Such a sup-
position appears, as far as man can presume to reason on a subject so far
above him, to be more consistent with the benevolence of an all-wise Creator,
than the theory which would consider the final purpose for which certain
groups of organic beings were created, to be the fulfilment of a fixed geo-
metrical or numerical law. The supporters of the latter view appear to con-
sider that in many cases whole tribes of animals have been made, not because
they were wanted to perform certain functions in the external world, but
merely in order to complete the circularity of a group, to fill a gap in a nu-
merical. arrangement, or to represent (in other words, imitate) some other
group in a distant part of the system. But, from what is above advanced,
irregularity, and not symmetry, may be expected to characterize the natural
system, and to form, like the features of a luxuriant landscape, not a defect,
_ but an element of beauty.
If this be true, it follows that the natural system cannot be arrived at in
any part of its details by prediction, but only by the process of induction.
The quinarian authors have themselves suggested a method by which the
affinities of organic beings may be worked out inductively, and exhibited to
the mind through the medium of the eye. Having observed that the true
series of affinities cannot be expressed by a straight line, and. having assumed
from a few instances of groups returning into themselves, that the circular
arrangement was universal, they proceeded to draw these circles on paper,
and thus gave the first idea of zoological maps. For this idea we may be
grateful to them, as it indicates a process, which, if pursued inductively and
hot syllogistically, seems likely to be of great use in arriving at the natural
classification. This process consists in taking a series of allied groups of equal
‘rank, and placing them at various distances and positions according to a fair
estimate of the amount of their respective affinities. If this be done with
care and impartiality, the traces of a symmetrical arrangement, if any such
existed, would soon begin to show themselves; but I am not aware that any.
indications of such a law are apparent in the cases in which this method has
yet been used.
In 1840 I endeavoured to apply this process to the natural arrangement of
birds, and exhibited to the Glasgow meeting of the Association a map of the
1844. N
178 REPORT—1844,
family Alcedinide arranged upon this principle (Annals of Nat. Hist. vol, vi.
p- 184). Last year I extended it to the Jnsessores, and I have brought to
the present meeting a sketch of the whole class of birds exhibited by the
same method. I do not of course guarantee the accuracy of any part of the
arrangement in its present state, as the subject is too vast to be perfected by
a single individual; but the specimen now shown may nevertheless serve to
illustrate a method which I believe to be sound in principle, and which I
would gladly see tested in other departments of organic creation *.
M. de Selys Longchamps, in the Appendix to his ‘ Faune Belge,’ 1842,
has given a sketch of an ornithological system, in which the order of succes-
sion differs little from that generally adopted. He divides the class into
eleven orders, some of which, as the Jnertes, Chelidones, Alectorides, and
Struthiones, can hardly be said to be of equal rank with the rest. He adopts
the plan proposed by Nitzsch, and followed by Keyserling and Blasius, of
including with the zygodactyle Scansores several other groups allied to them
in many points of structure, and differing from the remaining Jnsessores in
having the paratarsus scutate instead of entire. It is doubtful how far this
last character affords a good ground for the diagnosis of orders, and it may
be objected that by adhering to this distinction we separate the Trochilide
from the Nectariniide, Phytotoma from the Tanagride, and Menura from
Turdide. On the other hand, this arrangement has the advantage of bring-
ing into juxtaposition the unquestionably allied groups of Alcedinide and
Galbulide, as well as the Bucerotide and Rhamphastide. The scutation of
the paratarsus, therefore, may form a useful auxiliary to natural classifica-
tion, although, if too rigidly adhered to, it would produce in some cases an
artificial arrangement.
Few more valuable contributions have been made of late years to general
ornithology than Mr. G. R. Gray’s ‘ Genera of Birds,’ which passed through
two editions in 1840 and 1841. It is a list of all the generic groups which
had been proposed by various authors, exemplified by reference to a type-
species in each case, and classed according to Mr. Gray’s ideas of the natural
system. ‘This work is deserving of praise on several distinct grounds. The
author has exercised a rare degree of industry in collecting his materials
from numerous sources difficult of access; he has applied the “ law of prio-
rity” in nomenclature with great fairness and impartiality, and he has sought
after a natural arrangement without any theoretical bias, and with very con-
siderable success. Although professedly including in his list every genus
proposed by others, yet he does not pledge himself to adopt them all, indeed
he distinctly asserts that many so-called genera are too trivial for practical
utility. With this limitation, the ‘Genera of Birds’ is by far the best manual
extant for the purpose of arranging collections scientifically, and of guiding
the student to more hidden and scattered sources of information,
In a compilation of such a nature as Mr. Gray's many errors of detail are
unavoidable, and being sensible of the general value of the work, I ventured
to point out some of them in a series of commentaries upon the two editions
of the ‘Genera of Birds,’ which will be found in the ‘ Annals of Natural
* Mr. Waterhouse communicated to the Cork meeting of the Association an arrangement
of Mammalia which is on very nearly the same principle as that above referred to. His
groups are all drawn as circular, of equal size, and placed in contact, whereas in my map
of birds the groups of the same rank are of irregular form and dimensions, and are placed
at greater or less distances according to the amount of their affinities. I believe, however,
that Mr, Waterhouse does not lay any stress on these points of difference, and that his
method is in fact reducible almost to an identity with mine. A somewhat similar mode of
exhibiting affinities by diagrams has also been recently adopted by Milne Edwards (Ann.
Sc. Nat. 1844), De Selys Longchamps, and others.
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 179
History,’ vols. vi. vii. viii, ‘Some critiques on the second edition were also
made in the ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ 1842, by Dr. Hartlaub, a skilful ornitholo-
gist of Bremen, who is understood to be preparing a general work on orni-
thology, including the distinctive characters of the species.
Mr. G. R. Gray is now engaged in issuing the ‘Genera of Birds’ ina
much more complete and ea form, including the essential characters
of the various groups, and full lists of the species and their synonyms. In
this work he endeavours to reduce the various genera to an equality of rank,
and is consequently compelled to reunite such genera as appear to have been
separated by other authors on insufficient grounds. This task requires much:
judgement as well as industry, but with the resources which the galleries of
the British Museum supply to Mr. Gray, he has been enabled to execute it
with great success. The lithographic plates which accompany the work
exhibit the essential characters of every genus, and of a large number of new
or rare species, and the admirable mode in which they are executed by Mr.
D. W. Mitchell confers a high degree of excellence upon this publication.
I may here be allowed to mention an undertaking of my own which has
occupied the leisure of several years, but which is not yet sufficiently matured
for publication,—a complete Synonymy of all known species of birds, with
full references to all the works where they are figured or described. This
undertaking requires considerable labour and much careful comparison of
specific character, as exhibited both in nature and in books, but there is
probably no department of natural history in which, from the multiplication
of nominal species, and the wide dispersion of the materials, such an analysis
of the whole subject is more wanted than in ornithology.
Works of reference connected with ornithology, though not strictly syste-
matic, may be briefly mentioned here. The ‘ Dictionnaire des Sciences Na-
turelles,’ the ‘ Dictionnaire Nouveau d’ Histoire Naturelle,’ the ‘ Encyclopédie
Méthodique,’ and the ‘ Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle,’ were all
useful works, though now more or less superseded by the progress of science. —
The best and most recent work 'of the kind is the ‘Dictionnaire Universel
d@ Histoire Naturelle,’ now publishing at Paris, and edited by M. C. D’Orbigny.
The ornithological articles have been, till recently, written by M. de La-
fresnaye, whose name is a sufficient guarantee for their accuracy. The illus-
trative plates are engraved with care, but in a stiff and mechanical style, and
the colouring is frequently too vivid. Our own country has been less pro-
_ lifie in dictionaries of natural history than France, but zoological subjects
_ are adequately treated of in more comprehensive works of reference, such as
_ the ‘ Encyclopzedia Britannica,’ and ‘ Metropolitana,’ and the excellent ‘Penny
_ Cyclopedia,’ in which the ornithological articles are very carefully compiled.
The same remark applies to the ‘Allgemeine Encyclopadie,’ published at
‘Leipzig by Ersch and Gruber.
An indispensable index to ornithology, as indeed to every other branch of
natural history, is the ‘ Nomenclator Zoologicus’ of Professor Agassiz,
which is a list of all the names of groups, with references to the works where
they were first proposed. The portion relating to birds has undergone care-
ful revision, and is believed to present a near approach to accuracy.
While speaking of general methods of classification I may refer to a new
_and unlooked-for source, from which a reflected light may in some cases be
thrown upon doubtful points of ornithie affinity. The parasitic insects of
the order Anoplura which abound on almost every species of bird, have been
till recently most unduly neglected, but that able entomologist Mr. Denny
has lately taken up this branch of zoology, and after publishing, with the aid
of the British Association, a beautiful work on British Anoplura, is now oc-
nN2
180 REPORT—1844.
cupied with the exotic species. He finds that these parasites constitute
numerous species, and exhibit many well-marked generic forms. The re-
markable fact is further deduced, that several genera of Anoplura frequent
certain groups of birds exclusively, so that there is a sort of parallelism be-
tween the affinities of birds and those of their insect parasites. Hence we
are able to infer the probable position in the natural series of an anomalous
bird by investigating the structure of the almost microscopical parasites
which infest its plumage, and this apparently paradoxical method has been
successfully applied by Mr. Denny, who has shown that the Anoplura in-
habiting the genus Talegalla are allied to those of the Rasores, and the para-
sites of Menura to those of the Jnsessores, an arrangement entirely confirming
the views recently obtained as to the affinities of these singular birds (Ann.
Nat. Hist. vol. xiii. p. 313).
2. Ornithology of particular regions. .
Europe.—The most important work ever published on the ornithology of
our own quarter of the globe is unquestionably the ‘ Birds of Europe’ of
Mr. Gould. This gigantic undertaking, consisting of more than 400 beauti-
fully coloured plates, would have sufficed, independently of his other elabo-
rate works, to stamp the author as a man of genius and of enterprise. Nor
should it be forgotten that the talents of Mr. Gould were most ably seconded
by his amiable partner, who, up to the time of her decease, executed the
lithographic department of his various works. The extensive patronage
which the ‘ Birds of Europe’ received on the continent as well as in Britain,
is a proof both of the excellence of the work itself and of the scientific taste
of the present age. ;
The long-expected supplements to Temminck’s ‘ Manuel d’Ornithologie’
made their appearance in 1835-40, and bring down our knowledge of Euro-
pean birds to the latter date. Although the author hesitates too much in
adopting the generic groups of modern science, and does not sufficiently
value the law of priority in nomenclature, yet the exactness of his descrip-
tions and the general soundness of his criticisms will long render his work
a valuable hand-book ‘of European ornithology. The series of illustrative
plates, published at Paris by Werner, are a useful accompaniment to Tem-
minck’s work. The ‘ Hist. Nat. des Oiseaux d’Europe’, now publishing by
Schlegel, aided by several zoologists, and superintended by Temminck, may
be regarded as an improved and enlarged edition of the ‘ Manuel d’Ornitho-
logie’. The plates, by Susemihl, are of a superior order. Delarue’s ‘ Galerie
Ornithologique’ forms another set of illustrations to the birds of Europe.
The ‘ Wirbelthiere Europa’s’ of Count Keyserling and Professor Blasius
is a well-digested synopsis of European vertebrate zoology. ‘The first part,
with which alone I am acquainted, and which is devoted to Mammals and
Birds, contains an exact catalogue of the species, with their synonyms and
localities, and a statement of the diagnostic characters of the several groups
from the class down to the species. ‘These characters are stated in an anti-
thetical mode verv similar to the dichotomous method used in Fleming’s
‘ British Animals,’ a method which, when viewed in its true light, as an arti-
ficial index to specific characters, and as a means of calling attention to the
presence or absence of certain structures, is probably superior to any other.
Indeed when the characters employed for the subdivisions are really essential,
and are placed in suecessive subordination according to a just estimate of
their functional importance, as seems to be generally the case in the work
before us, this method is quite compatible with a natural classification. The
authors have avoided the error of adopting indiscriminately every genus
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 181
which other authors have proposed, and by carefully estimating the value of
their groups, reducing the less important ones to the rank of sub-genera,
they have endeavoured to bring the standard of their generic groups to an
approximate state of equality.
As a mere catalogue of the birds of Europe, the most full and the most
accurate is that by the Prince of Canino, published in the ‘Annali delle
Scienze Naturali di Bologna,’ 1842. It is an improved edition of that con-
tained in the ‘Geographical and Comparative List of the Birds of Europe
and North America,’ London, 1838, containing all the additional results at
which the labours of its author have arrived. The names, synonyms, and
localities of the species are given with the greatest accuracy, and by rigidly
adhering to sound principles of nomenclature, the author has introduced a
series of scientific names which there is reason to hope will be permanently
adopted.
There remain some recent works on the ornithology of Europe, which I
have not had an opportunity of consulting, such as Gloger’s ‘ Naturgeschichte
der Vogel Europas,’ and others.
Britain.—Prior to 1828 the only complete hand-books of British ornitho-
logy were the valuable but somewhat obsolete ‘ Ornithological Dictionary’ of
Montagu, and the fascinating, though not always accurate, ‘ British Birds’ of
Bewick. In the above year appeared the ‘ British Animals’ of Dr. Fleming,
a work which had no small share in introducing into this country the im-
proved systems of modern zoology. The genera adopted are for the most
part those of Cuvier’s ‘ Régne Animal,’ and the specific descriptions and re-
marks, though brief, are in general accurate.
A somewhat similar work, the ‘ Manual of British Vertebrata’ of the Rev.
L. Jenyns, is one of the best examples of a hand-book that I am acquainted
with, containing every fact of importance connected with each species, and
being totally free from superfluous verbiage.
Of the magnificent plates to Mr. Selby’s ‘ Illustrations of British Ornitho-
logy,’ I shall speak elsewhere. The letter-press, in two volumes, 8vo, 1833,
is very complete in its details, which are founded in great measure on the
personal observations of the author, and the synonymy has been worked out
with very great attention.
In 1836 Mr. T. C. Eyton published a ‘ History of the rarer British Birds.’
It is intended as a supplement to the work of Bewick, containing the species
which had been added to the British fauna since his time, and it is illustrated
with wood-cuts, into which the artist has infused much of the spirit of that
celebrated engraver.
Meyer's ‘Illustrations of British Birds’ are a series of coloured plates very
neatly executed. .
It remains to notice three other works on British ornithology, the nearly
‘simultaneous appearance of which is an evidence of the popularity of the
subject.
Professor M‘Gillivray, in 1836, published an account of the ‘ Rapacious
Birds of Great Britain,’ which was followed in 1837 by his ‘ History of British
Birds,’ in 3 vols. The author, who is an active field naturalist, as well as an
expert anatomist, gives very full descriptions of the external and internal
structure, as well as of the habits, of the several species and groups. These
are interspersed with matter of a more miscellaneous nature in the style of
Audubon’s ‘ Ornithological Biographies’, which render the work an entertain-
ing though voluminous production. The classification is novel, but cannot
be regarded as successful, the terrestrial birds being classed in two large sec-
tions, one of which consists of the Fisstrostral and Raptorial birds, and the
182 REPORT—1844, 4q
other includes the remaining Jnsessores, together with the Rasores. The
remarks on Classification and Nomenclature in the Introduction are, for the
most part, sound and judicious, though the author has not always adhered to
his own rules.
Professor M‘Gillivray has given a condensed abstract of his larger work in
two small volumes, entitled ‘A Manual of British Ornithology,’ 1840-42.
Sir W. Jardine’s ‘ History of British Birds,’ forming three volumes of the
‘ Naturalist’s Library,’ is a well-illustrated work, and embodies a great mass
of original observations, forming a cheap and excellent manual for the student
of British ornithology.
The most elegant work on British Birds recently published, is that of Mr.
Yarrell. From the beauty of the engravings and of the typography, it may
rank as an “ ouvrage de luxe,” while the correctness of the descriptions, and
the many details of habits, geographical distribution and anatomy, render it
strictly a work of science. A second edition of this work is in preparation.
The birds of Ireland are treated of by Mr. W. Thompson in an elaborate
series of papers, commenced in the ‘ Magazine of Zoology and Botany,’ and
continued in the ‘ Annals of Natural History. The author has collected
from his own observations and from external sources, much valuable infor-
mation on habits, migrations, and other subjects connected with Irish orni-
thology. Being the most western portion of temperate Europe, Ireland
presents some interesting peculiarities in its fauna, among which may be
mentioned the occasional occurrence of American terrestrial birds in that
country, though the nearest point. of America is 1500 miles distant. The
results of Mr. Thompson’s labours are incorporated in his excellent ‘ Report
on the Fauna of Ireland,’ read to the British Association in 1840, in which
careful comparisons are made between the species of Ireland and of Great
Britain.
The subject of British ornithology is now so nearly complete, that the
works above enumerated will probably long remain unsuperseded, and we
may hope that students and collectors will now extend their attention to the
far more neglected department of exotic ornithology.
North and Central Continental Europe—Many useful works on the orni-
thology of Northern and Central Europe were published between 1820 and
1830, by Brehm, Nilsson, Faber, Boié, Naumann, Walter and others, but as
these are prior in date to the period to which I have more particularly limited
this report, and as their various merits are reviewed with candour by M.
Temminck, in the Introduction to his ‘ Manuel d’Ornithologie,’ part 3, I need
not enlarge upon them here.
Of the voluminous works of M. Brehm, his last, the ‘ Handbuch der Na-
turgeschichte aller Vogel Deutschlands,’ 1831, is perhaps the least valuable,
on account of the immense number of so-called new species which he has
introduced, based upon the most trivial and inappreciable variations of size,
form, or colour. This view of the subject, if carried out, would upset the
whole fabric of systematic zoology, the very foundation of which is a belief
in the reality, the permanence, and the distinguishableness of species. This
author still continues his predilection for imaginary diagnoses in the memoirs
which he publishes in the ‘ Isis.’
Nilsson’s ‘Skandinavisk Fauna,’ Lund, 1835, contains a very complete,
and apparently very accurate summary of the ornithology of Scandinavia, but
unfortunately the Swedish language renders it a sealed book to the majority
of British naturalists. The ornithology of Scandinavia has received some
recent additions and corrections from a memoir by Professor Sundeyall in
the ‘ Kongl. Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar,’ 1842.
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 183
M. de Selys Longchamps, well known by several valuable monographs of
European Mammals and Insects, has published the first part of his ‘ Faune
Belge,’ Liege, 1842, containing a systematic arrangement of the Vertebrata
of Belgium. The specific descriptions are postponed to the sequel of the
work, which is nevertheless valuable for its critical remarks on structure,
habits and distribution. In the preface are some very judicious observations
on the subject of systematic nomenclature, the law of priority, the limitations
of species, and the still more difficult, because more arbitrary question, of the
due limitation of genera. It is very satisfactory to find that the majority of
European zoologists are now making considerable approaches to unanimity
upon these general principles, which form the groundwork of philosophical
zoology.
Dre Gloger's ‘Schlesiens Wirbelthier-Fauna,’ Breslau, 1833, contains a list
of the birds of Silesia, with remarks on their habits and migrations.
M. Brandt of Petersburg, has published a work entitled ‘ Descriptiones et
Ieones Animalium Rossicorum novorum,’ in which several of the natatorial
birds of Russia are illustrated by full descriptions and accurate figures.
France—The ornithological portion of the ‘Faune Frangaise,’ by M.
Vieillot, is a useful manual, though the author has made many unnecessary
changes of nomenclature. The descriptions are accompanied with figures on
copper, stiffly designed, but delicately engraved.
The ‘ Ornithologie Provencale’ of M. Roux is a respectable work on the
birds of Southern France, the text being carefully drawn up, though we may
regret that the author has adopted the objectionable nomenclature of Vieillot.
Ltaly.—The ornithological researches of Savi, Bonelli, Ranzani, Costa, and
many others, prepared the way for the magnificent ‘Iconografia della Fauna
Italica’ of the Prince of Canino, a work which, after ten years’ labour, has
recently been completed. It consists of elaborate descriptions and beautiful
coloured plates of all the new or imperfectly elucidated Vertebrata of Italy.
The birds of that country, having been previously more fully investigated than
the other classes, occupy in this work the least prominent place, yet several
new species are there figured, and our knowledge of others is enriched with
much interesting information. The Introduction to the work contains an ex-
cellent summary of the whole subject of Italian Vertebrata. The noble and
philosophical author, who pursues with steady devotion the paths of science,
unallured by the manifold attractions of rank and fortune, has devoted the
best part of his life to the advancement of zoological knowledge. His
elaborate researches on North American ornithology, his classification of
vertebrate animals, his critique on the ‘Régne Animal’ of Cuvier, his
comparisons of the European and American faune, are all works of the
highest value, and we may now congratulate him on the completion of this
admirable digest of the vertebrate zoology of Italy. Nor let it be forgotten
that he was the first to establish beyond the Alps, that great mental, no less
than physical barrier, a peripatetic congress of scientific men, similar to that
at which we are now assembled. This Jtalian Association for the Advance-
ment of Science has met in the plains of Piedmont and of Lombardy ; it has
crossed the Appenines into the happy region of Tuscany, and it will next
year pass over the Papal dominions, to diffuse the light of knowledge in the
distant kingdom of Naples.
An unpretending little volume by Sig’ L. Benoit, entitled ‘Ornitologia
Siciliana,’ published at Messina in 1840, contains many interesting details on
the habits and migrations of the birds of Sicily. A work of greater value is
the ‘Faune Ornithologique de la Sicile’ of M. Malherbe, Metz, 1843, in
which about fifty species are added to the list of Benoit, making a total of
ae
184 . REPORT—1844. ’
318. The work abounds with important observations on the geographical
distribution of species, not only in Sicily, but in other parts of South Europe
and North Africa. As the island of Sicily serves as a sort of stepping-stone
between these two continents, it affords an interesting station for observing
the habits of migratory species.
A similar catalogue raisonnée of the birds of Liguria was published at
Genoa in 1840, by the Marquis Durazzo, and is entitled ‘ Notizie degli
Ucceelli Liguri.’ Catalogues of the birds of the Venetian provinces have been
published by Catullo, Basseggio, and Contarini, the latter of whom enume-
rates no less than 339 species.
A brief notice of the birds of Sardinia will be found in the ‘ Voyage en Sar-
daigne,’ 2nd ed. 1839, by Count de la Marmora, in which it is announced that
Professor Géné is about to publish a complete fauna of that island.
The island of Malta possesses an able ornithologist in Sigt Schembri, who
has published a ‘ Catalogo Ornitologico del Gruppo di Malta,’ 1843. His
other work, the ‘ Quadro Geografico Ornitologico,’ is a highly useful volume,
showing in parallel columns the ornithology of Malta, Sicily, Rome, Tuscany,
Liguria, Nice, and the department of Gard. These form almost the first
works on zoology ever printed in the island of Malta, and they show that,
even in the most insulated localities, an active naturalist will always find
abundant occupation. The author enumerates about 230 species of birds in
Malta, nearly the whole of which are migratory.
Several new species of birds have been added to the fauna of the South of
Europe by Dr. Ruppell, in the ‘Museum Senkenbergianum,’ 1837.
-Greece.—But little has been done in Greece to illustrate ornithological
science. The ‘ Expédition Scientifique de la Morée’ contains a summary of
sixty-six species there observed, but without adding much to our knowledge.
A few new species (which however require further examination ) are described
by M. Lindermayer in the ‘Isis,’ and ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ 1843. The most
complete work on the subject is the ‘ Beitrage zur Ornithologie Griechen-
lands,’ by H. von der Miihle, Leipzig, 1844, in which no less than 32] species
are noticed, and are accompanied with many original observations of great
value. The researches of this author have added several species to the
European fauna.
The birds of the Ionian Islands and of Crete are enumerated and accom-
panied with some valuable remarks on their migrations and habits by Captain
H. M. Drummond, 42nd R.H. in the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ vol. xii.
p- 412.
Spain.—The ornithology of the Spanish peninsula is as yet but imperfectly
known. A list of some of the birds is given in Captain Cooke’s (now Wid-
drington) ‘Tour in Spain.’ (See also his ‘ Spain in 1843.’) That gentleman
was, I believe, the first discoverer of the Pica cyanea in Spain, a species
which, if it be really identical with the Garrulus cyaneus of Pallas, found in
Siberia and Japan, presents a most unusual instance of the existence of the
same species in two remote regions, without occurring in the intervening
space. M. Temminck has described several new species brought from the
South of Spain by Parisian collectors, and from the proximity of that region
to Africa, it is probable that further additions to the European fauna may
be there made.
Of the birds of Madeira there is a brief notice by Dr. Heineken in the
‘ Zoological Journal,’ vol. v.; and several species are described by Sir W.
Jardine in Ainsworth’s ‘Edinburgh Journal of Natural and Geographical
Science.’
The Canary Islands presenta fauna more allied to that of Europe than the
pay
Ow
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 185
southern position of these islands and their proximity to the African con-
tinent would have led us to expect. The ‘Histoire Naturelle des Isles
Canariennes,’ a splendid work lately published at Paris by MM. Webb and
Berthelot, contains a list of birds, the whole of which, with the exception of
a very few terrestrial species peculiar to the islands, are included in the orni-
thology of Europe.
Asia Minor.—The ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ contain lists of
the birds of Trebizond and Erzroum, by Messrs. Abbot, Dickson, and Ross,
and of those of Smyrna by myself. ‘There is also a short list of those obtained
by Mr. C. Fellows in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ vol. iv. The greater part
of the birds hitherto found in this country are also common to Europe, which
may in part be attributed to their having been chiefly collected in the northern
districts, or in my own case at Smyrna, during the winter season. An orni-
thologist who would visit the regions south of the Taurus during the spring,
would doubtless meet with many interesting species, a foretaste of which we
have in the beautiful Haleyon smyrnensis, discovered more than a century
ago by the learned Sherard, and restored to science in 1842 by Mr. E. Forbes*.
I may here allude to the ‘Catalogue of the Birds of the Caucasus’ by M.
Ménétries, in the ‘ Mémoires del’ Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg.’
Although several of the supposed new species have been reduced to the rank
of synonyms, yet this list supplies some valuable information on the geogra-
phical distribution of species. For the ornithology of Southern Russia, the
student may also consult M. Eichwald’s summary of the Caucasian and Cas-
pian birds in the ‘Nouveaux Mémoires de la Soc. Imp. des Naturalistes de
Moscou,’ 1842, and Demidoff’s ‘ Voyage dans la Russie Méridionale,’ the
zoology of which is edited by Professor Nordmann.
Siberia.—The zoology of Northern Asia was long retarded by the delays
which attended the publication of the ‘ Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica’ of that -
Humboldt of the 18th century, the celebrated Pallas. This posthumous
work, though printed in 1811, was not published till 1831, when it at once
added to our knowledge a large number of new species. Many commentaries
upon Pallas’s work, and additions to his species, have been made by various
authors, especially by M. Brandt, the learned and indefatigable curator of the
Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg, in the ‘ Bulletin’ of the Academy of that
city, and by Nordmann in Erman’s ‘Reise um die Erde.’ There are also
some valuable ‘ Addenda’ to the work of Pallas from the pen of Dr. Evers-
mann, in the ‘ Annals’ of the distant University of Casan, and further addi-
tions have been recently contributed by that author to the Petersburg Aca-
demy. We may hope that the labours of these and other equally active
Russian zoologists will soon make us fully acquainted with the natural history
of Asiatic Russia.
A few of the birds of Behring’s Straits are elaborately described, though
indifferently figured, in Eschscholtz’s ‘ Zoologischer Atlas,’ to Kotzebue’s se-
cond Voyage, Berlin, 1829.
Japan.—Drs. Von Siebold and Burger, who were attached for several
years to the Dutch mission in Japan, devoted their leisure to the zoology of
that little-known country, and the results have now been published by the
Dutch government in a handsome work, entitled ‘ Fauna Japonica. A
remarkable fact established by their researches, is the great amount of coin-
cidence between the ornithological faunz of Japan and of Europe. In Tem-
minck’s *‘ Manuel d’Ornithologie,’ (Introd. to part 3.), is a list of the species
common to these two regions, amounting to no less than 114.
* See Annals of Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 441.
186 REPORT—1844.
British India.—It is only within a very recent period that any really ori-
ginal and trustworthy researches have been made into Indian ornithology.
Twenty years ago the utmost that was done by the numerous British officers
in that country to illustrate this science, was to collect drawings of the species
which attracted their notice. These drawings were in most cases made by
native artists, who, being utterly ignorant of any scientific principles, executed
them in a stiff mechanical style, and neglected the more minute but often
highly important characters. Such designs are useful as aids to scientific
research, but ought not to usurp its place; yet from these materials the too
undiscriminating Latham described and named a great number of so-called
species, many of which have not yet been identified in nature. The largest
collection of these drawings was made by the late General Hardwicke, a selec-
tion of which were engraved and published in 1830; but though carefully
edited by Mr. J. E. Gray, the number of nominal species there introduced
shows the danger of founding specific characters on the sole authority of
drawings.
A better day dawned about 1830, when several British officers in India
became interested in the study of scientific ornithology ; and we may hope
that natural history in this and all its other branches will now become a ge-
neral pursuit with our countrymen in that region. The first original contri-
bution to the ornithology of India in recent times was made by Major Franklin,
and was speedily followed by a valuable paper from Colonel Sykes, both of
which are inserted in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ 1831-32.
About the same period appeared the first effort of Mrs. Gould’s pencil, the
‘Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains,’ a work the plates of which
at once established the fame of this admirable artist, while the scientifie cha-
racters were carefully prepared by Mr. Vigors. In 1832 was also commenced
that most valuable repertory of oriental knowledge, the ‘ Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal,’ which is still published with regularity at Calcutta. In
this journal and in others of a similar nature, as the ‘ Asiatic Researches,’ the
‘ Gleanings in Science,’ Corbyn’s ‘ Indian Review,’ the ‘ Quarterly Journal of
the Caleutta Medical and Physical Society,’ the ‘ Calcutta Journal of Natural
History,’ are contained the valuable but unfortunately too scattered and in-
accessible zoological researches of Hodgson, Hutton, Pearson, Tickell, M’Clel-
land, W. Jameson and others. Mr. Hodgson, who by his residence in Nepal
has been so favourably circumstanced for zoological pursuits, has long since
promised to include in an entire work his scientific researches in that country,
but various delays have hitherto impeded the undertaking. He has recently,
with the utmost liberality, presented the whole of his precious materials to
the British Museum and other public collections, and we may hope that the
facilities of comparison thus afforded will enable him shortly to commence
this very desirable publication.
The Indian species of Coturniz and Turnix have been described with mi-
nute exactness by Colonel Sykes in the ‘ ‘Transactions of the Zoological So-
ciety,’ vol. ii. This paper is of great service in clearing up the characters of
these obscure and ambiguous birds, which however are still far from being
thoroughly investigated.
Professor Sundevall, in his valuable Report on recent Zoological Researches,
Stockholm, 1841, refers to a paper on the Birds of Calcutta in the ‘ Physio-
graphisk Tidskrift, Lund, 1837, a work which has not yet fallen into my
hands.
A great impulse has recently been given to Indian zoology by the appoint-
ment of Mr. Blyth to the care of the Asiatic Society’s museum at Calcutta.
Most of the previous workers in that field were civil or military officers, who
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 187
took up zoology as an afterthought, and as a relief from more important duties.
But Mr. Blyth went to India a ready-made zoologist, who had long devoted
himself to the study as a science, and was well acquainted with its literature
and its principles. Of the zeal and success with which he is now bringing
into order the heterogeneous materials of Indian zoology, the pages of the
‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal’ bear ample testimony. Besides
many detached memoirs, the monthly reports which Mr. Blyth presents to
the Asiatic Society contain a mass of interesting observations, and present
an example which the curators of European museums would do well to imi-
tate. By preparing complete lists of the species comprised in each successive
accession to the museum, accompanied by critical remarks on the more novel
or interesting specimens, previous to their being incorporated into the general
collection, a number of important observations on structure, habits and geo-
graphical distribution are preserved from oblivion. In the midst of these
active and useful labours Mr. Blyth retains his interest in European science,
and occasionally sends communications of great value to the ‘ Annals of Na-
tural History.’
While treating of Northern India I may mention the Catalogue of the
Birds of Assam, by Mr. M’Clelland, in the ‘Zoological Proceedings,’ 1839.
The author avoided the too common error of describing as new every species
which was unknown to him, by the judicious plan of attaching provisional
names and descriptions to such species, and then sending them to a highly
competent naturalist in England, Dr. Horsfield, to be revised prior to publi-
cation.
The presidency of Madras can boast of a ‘ Journal of Literature and Sci-
ence,’ and of zoologists, Messrs. Jerdon and Elliott, equal in activity and
scientific attainments to those of Bengal. The various memoirs of these gen-
tlemen on the characters and habits of the birds of Southern India are of high
value. Mr. Jerdon has commenced the publication of a series of ‘ Litho-
graphed Drawings of Indian Birds,’ illustrating many rare species in a style
which does credit to the artists of India.
A few species of Indian birds have been described by Professor Jameson
in the ‘ Memoirs of the Wernerian Society,’ vol. vii., and several others are
figured in Royle’s ‘ Botany of the Himalaya Mountains,’ and in the zoological
part of Jacquemont’s ‘ Voyage dans I’Inde,’ Paris, 1843, the plates of which
are beautifully executed. Mr. Blyth has drawn up a notice of the species
received from the British officers in Tenasserim, and of the desiderata which
remain to be sought for in that province. The zoological portion of M. Be-
langer’s ‘ Voyage aux Indes Orientales,’ 1834, contains descriptions and figures
of many of the birds of Pegu and Java, among which are several novelties.
Some of the species of continental India are also described in the same work.
Ornithological information will also be found in Delessert’s ‘ Souvenirs d’un
Voyage dans I’Inde.
Malasia.—Under this name may be included the peninsula of Malacca
and the islands of the Indian archipelago, which taken collectively form a
well-marked zoological region, whose fauna, though for the most part agreeing
generically with that of continental India, presents an almost wholly distinct
series of species. ‘The first contributor to the ornithology of this region was
Brisson, who described, with an exactness that may serve as a model even at
the present day, many new species of birds from the Philippine Islands. Son-
nerat described some more species in 1776, but scarcely anything has since
been added to our knowledge of the vertebrate zoology of that particular
group of islands; and it is to be regretted that a considerable collection of
birds recently brought thence by Mr. Cuming, were dispersed before any
188 REPORT—1844.
scientific examination of them had been made. The zoology of western Ma-
lasia was first investigated by Dr. Horsfield and Sir Stamford Raffles, the first
of whom described the birds of Java and the second those of Sumatra, in the
‘Linnean Transactions,’ vol. xiii. These are very valuable memoirs, though
it is to be regretted that from the brevity of the specific characters some of
the species are rendered difficult to recognise. A selection of Dr. Horsfield’s
species is however more fully described and illustrated by figures in his
‘ Zoological Researches in Java,’ and the original specimens collected by him
are preserved in the museum of the East India Company. The species of
Horsfield and of Raffles were arranged into one series by Mr. Vigors in the
Appendix to the ‘ Life of Sir Stamford Raffles.’
Between 1820 and 1830 several Dutch and German naturalists visited the
Malasian Islands, and enriched the continental museums with their collections.
A considerable number of the species thus obtained are figured in the
‘ Planches Coloriées’ of M. Temminck, who however too frequently described
as new the species which had been long before characterized by Horsfield
and Raffles.
For two centuries past the Dutch have been famed for their love of col-
lecting rarities, and the numerous settlements of that people in all parts of
the world have tended to the gratification of this taste. It is therefore not
to be wondered at that the national museum of Holland at Leyden should
have become one of the richest collections of natural objects in the world; and
it is gratifying to find that the information which its treasures convey is in
the course of being diffused abroad. The Dutch government are now pub-
lishing a complete zoology of their foreign colonies, under the title of ‘ Ver-
handelingen over de Natuurlijke Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche
Bezittingen.’ This superb work contains figures and descriptions of many
new species from the remoter islands of the Malay archipelago; and it is
only to be regretted that so valuable a publication should be compiled in a
language with which few men of science out of Holland are acquainted.
A considerable number of ornithological specimens have recently been sent
to Europe from the peninsula of Malacca, and indicate a fauna closely allied
to, though often specifically distinct from, that of the adjacent islands of Java
and Sumatra. Mr. Eyton has described sevéral of these Malacca birds in the
‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ 1839, and Mr. Blyth has characte-
rized others which had been sent to the Calcutta Museum.
The great island of New Guinea presents features in its zoology which
entitle it to be considered a distinct region from the Malasian archipelago,
and connected rather with the Australian fauna. We here first meet with
that extraordinary group of birds the Paradiseide, whose affinities it is im-
possible to assign with certainty until their anatomy and habits are better
known. In this group will probably be ultimately included (as they were
originally by the earlier writers) the genera Seleucides, Ptilorhis, Epimachus,
Phonygama and Astrapia, which are at present arranged, from conjecture
rather than induction, in many widely-separated families. These genera all
agree with the Paradiseide in the very peculiar structure of their plumage,
and what is of no less importance as an indication of zoological affinity, they
all (with the exception of Péilorhis, which is found in the adjacent Australian
continent) inhabit the same island of New Guinea; and I think it not im-
probable that the anomalous Australian genera Ptilonorhynchus, Calodera
and Sericulus, may be also referable to the Paradiseide. These questions
however must be resolved by the anatomist and not by the studier of dried
skins; and we may therefore regret that New Guinea has hitherto been so
inaccessible to naturalists. The specimens from thence are mostly obtained
pc nie
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 189
in a mutilated state from the savage inhabitants, and I believe the only zoolo-
gists who have seen the Birds of Paradise in a state of nature are M. Lesson,
who made some interesting observations upon them during the few days
which he spent in the forests of New Guinea, (‘ Voyage autour du Monde de
Duperrey,’ and Lesson’s ‘ Manuel d’Ornithologie,’) and MM. Quoy and Gai-
mard, whose observations, recorded in the ‘ Voyage de I’ Astrolabe,’ 1830-33,
were still more limited.
Polynesia.—The ornithology of the innumerable islands of the Pacific
Ocean is as yet very imperfectly investigated. From the small size of most
of these islands they cannot individually be expected to abound in terrestrial
species, though in the aggregate they would doubtless furnish a considerable
number, while of aquatic species an interesting harvest might be collected.
At present much of our information is derived from no better source than the
incomplete descriptions made by Latham of species collected during Captain
Cook’s voyage. Some of the birds collected by the Rev. A. Bloxam in the
Sandwich Islands are described in Lord Byron’s ‘ Voyage ;’ others were made
known by Lichtenstein in the ‘Berlin Transactions,’ 1838, and the ‘Zoology of
the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ now in course of publication, contains seme fur-
ther materials which have been examined and described by Mr. Gould. A
few Polynesian birds are described by MM. Hombron and Jacquinot among
the scientific results of the Voyage of the Astrolabe and Zelée (Ann. Sc. Nat.,
1841), and several new species from the Philippine, Carolina and Marian Is-
lands, are characterized by M. Kittlitz in the ‘ Mémoires de l’Acad. Imp. de
St. Pétersbourg,’ 1838. The recent American voyage of discovery will ex-
tend our knowledge of Polynesian zoology, and its researches will be made
known by Mr. Titian Peale, who is said to have discovered among other rari-
ties a new bird allied to the Dodo, which he proposes to name Didunculus.
Australia.—Shaw’s ‘Zoology of New Holland,’ 1794, was the first work
devoted to the natural history of the Australian continent, but its publication
was soon discontinued. It was followed by the ‘ Voyages’ of Phillips and
White, in which many of the birds of that country were figured and described.
The next additions were made by Latham, who in the second ‘ Supplement
to his Synopsis,’ 1802, described and named many species on the authority of
a collection of drawings belonging to the late Mr. A. B. Lambert. These
drawings however were very rude performances, and being unaccompanied
by descriptions, it is no wonder that Latham was led by them into many
errors of classification and synonymy. Fortunately, however, they passed at
Mr. Lambert’s death into the possession of the Earl of Derby, who liberally
entrusted them for examination to Mr, Gould, Mr. G. R. Gray, and myself.
By carefully studying these designs and comparing them with Australian spe-
cimens, we have been able to identify almost the whole of the species which
Latham founded upon them, and by this process many corrections have been
introduced into the svnonymy of the Australian birds. (See Ann. Nat. Hist.,
vol. xi.
It s be regretted that Messrs. Vigors and Horsfield had not access to
this collection of drawings when they prepared their valuable paper on Au-
stralian birds in the ‘ Linnean Transactions,’ vol. xv. They would there have
recognised several of the species which, from having failed to identify them
in the brief descriptions of Latham, they described as new. Their memoir
is notwithstanding a very important contribution to Australian ornithology,
especially on account of the many generic forms peculiar to that region which
they defined with logical precision.
| The above, together with the brief but original work of Lewin (Birds of
New South Wales) and a few species described by Quoy and Gaimard in the
1
190 REPORT—1844.
‘ Voyage de I’Uranie,’ 1824, and in the ‘ Voyage de l’Astrolabe,’ 1830, and by
Lesson in the ‘ Voyage de la Coquille’ and the ‘Journal de la Navigation de
la frégate Thetis,’ 1837, formed the chief materials for Australian ornithology
until the expedition of Mr. Gould to that country made a vast accession to
our knowledge, which is embodied in his great work, the ‘ Birds of Australia.’
Among those splendid publications of science and art which the liberality of
governments have given to the world, there are few which in point of beauty
or completeness are superior to this unassisted enterprise of a single indivi-
dual. Regardless of expense and risk, Mr. Gould proceeded to Australia for
the sole purpose of studying Nature in her native wilds, and after spending
two years in traversing the forests and plains of that continent, he returned
home with a valuable collection of specimens, and a still more precious one
of facts. These he is now engaged in bringing before the public, and the
many new and interesting details of natural history which his work contains
indicate powers of observation and of description which will place the name
of Gould in the same rank with those of Levaillant, Azara, Bewick, Wilson,
and Audubon.
Of the artistic merits of this publication I shall hereafter speak, and shall
refer to it at present merely as a work of science.
Among the new generic groups proposed by Mr. Gould, some, as Pedio-
nomus, Sphenostoma, &c., possess sufficiently well-marked characters; but
others, as Donacola, Erythrodryas, Erythrogonys, Synecus, Geophaps, ap-
pear hardly to deserve generic separation. These so-called genera seem to
be founded upon slight peculiarities of form, habit, or colouring, to which,
however interesting in themselves, we ought not, I think, to attach a generic
value, unless we are prepared to reduce all our other genera to the same low
standard, a step which would increase the number of genera and diminish
their importance to an extent that would be highly inconvenient. I may also
remark that some of the birds which Mr. Gould regards as distinet species,
appear to possess insufficient diagnostic characters. Peculiarities of climate
and food will always exert a certain influence on the stature and on the in-
tensity of colour in the same species, and so long as the proportions and the
distribution of the colours remain unaltered, we should hesitate in raising the
local varieties thus produced to the rank of species, unless we are ready to
go the same length as M. Brehm, who by this means has trebled the number
of European species. As instances of Australian birds the real specific di-
stinctness of which appears to me doubtful, I may mention Mr.Gould’s Malurus
cyaneus and longicaudus, Amytis textilis and striatus, Astur approximans and
cruentus, Hylacola pyrrhopygia and cauta.
Passing over these slight defects, it is certain that the facts brought for the
first time to our knowledge by Mr. Gould have cleared up many doubtful
questions respecting the true affinities of the anomalous forms so prevalent in
Australia. Being now informed as to their habits and, in many cases, their
anatomy, we are enabled to classify with certainty the once ambiguous groups
Talegalla, Psophodes, Menura, Faleunculus, Artamus and others. In other
cases, as in the genera Ptilonorhynchus and Calodera, the observed habits of
the birds are even more anomalous than their structure, and rather increase
than diminish the difficulty of classifying them.
Mr. Gould's work is also valuable for its critical examinations of the labours
of other authors, the synonyms being for the most part carefully elaborated,
and a due regard paid to the principle of priority in nomenclature. It is to be
hoped that this delightful and truly original work will be hereafter republished
in a more portable form, as its present costly style of illustration necessarily
restricts it to a small number of readers.
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 191
This publication has tended to create a taste for natural history in the
Australian colonies, which will advance the cause of morality and civiliza-
tion. Among recent proofs of an improved tone of mental cultivation, I
may mention the ‘Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science,’ commenced at
Hobart Town in 1842, and which is a publication highly creditable to the
southern hemisphere. One of its chief contributors is the Rev. T. J. Ewing,
who is ardently devoted to science, and who has already increased our know-
ledge of Australian ornithology.
The tropical parts of the Australian continent exhibit, as might be ex-
pected, many new and beautiful forms. A few of these were made known
in Capt. King’s ‘ Survey of Intertropical Australia, 1827; and the labours
of Mr. Gould’s collector, Mr. Gilbert, will now render the zoology of North-
ern and Western Australia as familiar to us as that of New South Wales.
New Zealand.—The earliest information on the ornithology of New Zea-
land was obtained by Forster during the voyage of Capt. Cook, of which we
shall learn more particulars in Prof. Lichtenstein’s forthcoming edition of
Forster’s MSS. A few additional species are described in the Voyage of the
Coquille, 1826, and of the Astrolabe, 1830; but little was subsequently added
until 1842, when Dr. Dieffenbach submitted his collection to the examination
of Mr. G. R. Gray, and the result will be found in the interesting ‘ Travels
in New Zealand’ of the former gentleman. As in most oceanic islands remote
from a continent, the terrestrial ornithology of New Zealand is somewhat
limited ; but some interesting representatives of the Australian fauna are there
found, and the extraordinary structures of those anomalous birds, the Apterya
and Dinornis, atone in point of interest for the general paucity of species.
The aquatic ornithology of the Southern Ocean and its isles has been
hitherto in a state of the greatest neglect and confusion ; but some valuable
materials for its elucidation will be supplied by the‘ Voyages of the Erebus
and Terror,’ now in course of publication, as well as by many details intro-
duced in Gould’s ‘ Birds of Australia.’
Africa.—The zoology of Lower Egypt has received but few accessions
since the French expedition to Egypt; but that of Nubia and Abyssinia, the
foundations of which were laid by Bruce and by the present Earl of Derby,
who added a valuable appendix to Salt’s ‘ Voyage,’ has been since greatly ex-
tended by the labours of Rippell and Ehrenberg. The ‘ Atlas zu der Reise
in Nordlichen Afrika,’ and the ‘ Neue Wirbelthiere’ of the former author, are
especially valuable for the fulness and accuracy of the descriptions, and for
the critical remarks with which they are accompanied. ‘The lithographic
plates, though rather coarsely executed, are sufficiently characteristic. The
author has made further additions to this subject in his ‘ Museum Sencken-
bergianum.’ The ‘Symbol Physice’ of Messrs. Hemprich and Ehrenberg,
_ contain some accurate information on the ornithology of Abyssinia, Egypt
and Syria, and we may regret that this excellent work was never completed.
Besides much original matter, the authors have added many careful criti-
cisms on the works of other authors who have written on the zoology of
_ those countries. Some additions to Abyssinian ornithology have also been
made by M. Guerin-Meneville, ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ 1843.
No special work has been produced on the ornithology of Western Africa,
except the useful little book by Swainson, which forms two volumes of Sir
_ W. Jardine’s ‘ Naturalist’s Library.’ Many new species are there defined and
figured with care.
* The birds procured during the late unfortunate expedition to the Niger
are described in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ by Mr. Fraser,
who accompanied the party as naturalist.
192 REPORT—1844.
The ornithology of South Africa is now far advanced towards complete-
ness. The ‘Oiseaux d'Afrique’ of Levaillant formed an admirable ground-
work for the study, and through the labours of subsequent naturalists, there
is probably little more to be added to our knowledge of the subject.
The enterprising Burchell characterized several new species in his ‘ Travels
in South Africa,’ and others collected by Sir J. Alexander were described by
Mr. Waterhouse in the Appendix to that traveller’s ‘ Expedition of Discovery
into the Interior of Africa,’ 1838. But we owe the largest additions to
South African ornithology to the energy of Dr. Andrew Smith, who, in 1832,
planned and executed an expedition of discovery into the remote interior,
northwards of the Cape colony. The zoological results of this expedition
were first published by Dr. Smith in the ‘South African Quarterly Journal,’
a scientific periodical printed at Cape Town, and less known in Europe than
it deserves to be. They will also be found in a pamphlet entitled, ‘ Report
of an Expedition for Exploring Central Africa,’ Cape Town, 1836. By the
liberality of Her Majesty’s government Dr. Smith has since been enabled to
publish these new and precious materials, under the title of the ‘ Zoology of
South Africa,’ in a style and form corresponding to the ‘ Zoology of the
Voyage of the Beagle’ andof the ‘Sulphur,’ and forming a standard work for
the library of the naturalist.
Of the birds of Madagascar but few have been described since the days of
Brisson. M. I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire has made known some remarkable forms
from that island in Guerin’s ‘Magazin de Zoologie, ‘Comptes Rendus,’
1834, and ‘Ann. des Sciences Naturelles,’ ser. 2, vol. ix.
North America.—The ornithology of North America (exclusive of Mexico)
is now more thoroughly investigated than that of any other quarter of the
globe, except Europe. The fascinating volumes of Wilson, and the invalua-
ble continuation of his work by Prince C. L. Bonaparte, contributed to pro-
duce in the United States a great taste for natural history, and for ornitho-
logy in particular. The works of Wilson and Bonaparte have been made
more accessible in this country by means of smaller editions, one of which
was edited by Sir W. Jardine, and another by Prof. Jameson. A small
edition has also been published in America by T. M. Brewer, Boston, 1840.
Foremost among the successors of Wilson is the indefatigable Audubon,
whose life has been spent in studying nature in the forest, and in depicting
with pen and pencil her manifold beauties. The plates of his ‘ Birds of
America,’ more than 400 in number, are the work of an enthusiastic na-
turalist and a skilful artist, though the designs are sometimes rather outré,
and their size is inconveniently gigantic. ‘The latter evil is however reme-
died in a smaller edition with lithographic plates, which the author has re-
cently published in America. The text to these plates, entitled ‘ Ornitholo-
gical Biography,’ is an amusing as well as instructive work, though written in
a too inflated style. Mr. Audubon has since published a ‘Synopsis of the
Birds of North America,’ Edinburgh, 1839, containing condensed descrip-
tions of the genera and species, and forming a very useful manual of reference.
Several of the species of Sylwicoline had been unduly multiplied by Audu-
bon, and their synonymy has been rectified by Dr. T. M. Brewer in Silliman’s
‘ Journal of Science,’ vol. xlii.
Mr. Nuttall’s ‘ Manual of the Ornithology of the United States,’ published
at Cambridge, U.S., 1832-34, is a very convenient hand-book, containing a
compendium of the labours of Wilson, Bonaparte and Audubon, accompa-
nied with many original observations on the habits of the species. The work
is illustrated with woodcuts, which, though not equal to the works of Bewick,
are executed in a similar style and with considerable success.
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 193
Several of the States of the American Union have adopted the truly en-
lightened policy of making regular scientific surveys of their respective ter-
ritories. Of these the state of New York has already published several
handsome volumes on other branches of natural history ; but the ornitholo-
gical portion is not yet issued. A list of the birds of Massachusets will be
found in Prof. Hitchcock's Report on the Geology of that State. This list
has been further extended by Dr. Brewer and by the Rey. W. Peabody in
the ‘ Boston Journal of Natural History,’ 1837 and 1841. The latter gen-
tleman has given much valuable information on the manners and migrations
of the species. Some popular notices of the birds of Vermont are given by
Mr. Z. Thompson in his ‘ History of Vermont,’ Burlington, 1842.
A mass of interesting observations on the zoology of the arctic portion of
North America is contained in the appendices to the narratives of Ross,
Parry, Franklin and Back, and in the ‘ Memoir on the Birds of Greenland,’
by our respected Secretary Col. Sabine (Linn. Trans. vol. xii.). These en-
terprising explorers found the means, during their arduous and protracted
expeditions, to add greatly to our knowledge of Arctic zoology, and the re-
sults of their labours were brought together and reduced to system in the
volumes of the ‘ Fauna Boreali-Americana,’ of which the volume on birds is
the production of Dr. Richardson, assisted by Mr. Swainson. The specific
descriptions by the former gentleman are a model of accuracy and precision,
and the lithographic plates are executed with Mr. Swainson’s usual skill.
In his able ‘ Report on North American Zoology,’ read to the British As-
sociation in 1836, Dr. Richardson has presented us with a full catalogue of
the birds of North America, including Mexico. He enters at some length
into the subject of migration, and has incorporated with his own observa-
_ tions those of the Rev. J. Bachman in Silliman’s ‘ American Journal of Sci-
ence,’ 1836.
; His Highness the Prince of Canino continues to take a lively interest in
. the zoology of North America, where so many years of his life were spent.
_ In 1838 he published a very elaborate ‘Comparative List of the Birds of
_ Europe and North America,’ exhibiting in parallel columns the species which,
_ whether by identity or by close affinity, represent each other in the two coun-
tries. This work exhibits some interesting results connected with the geogra-
phical distribution of species and of forms. The region between Mexico and
the Polar sea approaches in its fauna much more to the European, and less
to the tropical American type, than might have been expected. Of 471
North American species of birds, no less than 100 are identical with Euro-
pean kinds. This is due not merely to similarity of climate, but to the com-
paratively short interval between western Europe and eastern America, which
enables nearly all the marine and some of the terrestrial species to pass from
the one continent to the other. Another cause is the proximity of north-
western America to Siberia, which has extended the migrations of certain
essentially arctic species, and caused them to spread completely round the
world to the north of about lat. 50°.
The Prince is at present engaged on an improved edition of the ‘ List of
_ North American Birds,’ in which he now proposes to include the birds of
Mexico. This addition will materially modify the numerical results of the
i former work, as it will introduce a large number of species of a more tropical
_ character than most of those of the United States. It will form a valuable
_ addition to our knowledge, the birds of Mexico being as yet but imperfectly
_ determined and their descriptions scattered through many remote sources.
_ Some of them have been described by Mr. Swainson (Philosophical Maga-
azine, ser. 2, vol. i. and Animals in Menageries), others by Wagler and Kaup,
1844. fo)
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194 REPORT—1844.
(Oken’s ‘Isis,’ 1832,) and Lesson (Ann. Se. Nat. ser. 2, vol. ix.). Not a
few of the nominal species in Latham’s ‘ Index Ornithologicus’ are said to
be from Mexico, some of which, taken from the original work of Hernandez,
might doubtless be regained to science; others, described from the worthless
‘Thesaurus’ of Seba, are probably altogether apocryphal.
The voyage of Capt. Cook supplied the earliest materials for the zoology
of north-western America. A few Rasorial birds were brought from that
country by the botanist Douglas, and others are described by Mr. Vigors in
the ‘ Zoology of Capt. Beechey’s Voyage, 1839. We may regret that no
note was taken of the localities of many species brought home by that expe-
dition, and which are described and figured with exactness in the above work.
M. Lichtenstein’s memoir in the ‘ Berlin Transactions,’ 1838, and the recently
published ‘ Zoology of the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ have also furnished some
additions to the ornithology of that remote part of the American continent,
and twelve species from the Columbia river are described by Mr. Townsend
in the ‘Journ. Acad. Se.,’ Philadelphia, 1837.
Mr. J. P. Giraud has described several new species of birds from Texas in
the ‘Annals of the Lyceum of New York,’ of which he has given coloured
figures in a folio form, under the title of ‘ Description of Sixteen New Species
of North American Birds,’ New York, 1841.
Central America.—Of this region of tropical forests (in which Honduras
and Yucatan may be geographically included) the zoology is almost unknown.
Two or three beautiful birds from that country have found their way into
Temminck’s ‘ Planches Coloriées,’ a few more are described by M. Lesson in
the ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ 1842, and Dr. Cabot, an American naturalist who
accompanied Mr. Stephens in his interesting expedition in Yucatan, has enu-
merated some of the birds which he collected, in the work of the latter gen-
tleman (Incidents of Travel in Yucatan). He cousiders many of them to
be identical with species of the United States, but it is not stated how far this
identification rests on a rigorous comparison of specimens from the two coun-
tries. Dr. Cabot has given an interesting account of the habits of that beau-
ful bird the Meleagris ocellata in the ‘ Boston Journal of Natural History,’
and the habits of Trogon pavoninus, another splendid bird of that country,
are recorded by M. Delattre in the ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ 1843.
Galapagos Islands——This small group of islands illustrates that remark-
able law which establishes a general coincidence between geographical dis-
tribution and zoological affinity. These islands of the Pacific, though several
hundred miles distant from the American coast, are yet much nearer to it
than to the numerous islands of the Polynesian archipelago, and in confor-
mity with this position we find that the birds of the Galapagos, though be-
longing to species exclusively confined to these isles. are altogether refer-
able to an American and not to a Polynesian type of organization. This
result is derived from the researches of Mr. Darwin, who, in the ‘ Zoology of
the Voyage of the Beagle,’ has described several new species from these re-
mote islands.
West Indies.—The ornithology, and I may say the natural history of the
West Indies, is far less known than from the long connection of those islands
with Europe might have been expected. Of the birds of Cuba a few were
described by Mr. Vigors in the ‘ Zoological Journal,’ vol. iii. This island has
since been scientifically surveyed by Ramon de la Sagra in his ‘ Histoire
Physique, Politique et Naturelle de |’Isle de Cuba,’ in which a considerable
number of new species of birds are accurately characterized. Many of the
birds of St. Domingo were long since described by Brisson, Buffon and
Vieillot, and few if any additions to our knowledge of its productions have
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ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 195
been made of late years. The natural history of our own island of Jamaica
has experienced a degree of neglect which reflects but little credit upon the
energy of individuals or of the government. Almost the whole of our know-
ledge of its ornithology is derived from the obscure descriptions and wretched
figures in Sir Hans Sloane’s ‘ Natural History of Jamaica,’ published in the
beginning of the last century. A few stray species have since been described
by various authors, but nothing like a regular scientific survey of that beau-
tiful and interesting island has yet been, or, judging from appearances, is
likely to be, undertaken. The smaller West Indian islands have been equally
neglected by naturalists; but few of their natural productions ever reach our
museums, and these are too often consigned to the cabinet without being
scientifically described or published.
South America.—The birds of Columbia were till a recent period wholly
unknown (with the exception of a few brief notices by Humboldt in his
‘Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie,’ 1811), but a considerable supply of
specimens has been lately sent to Europe from the province of Bogota, which
have added greatly to our knowledge. Many new species thus obtained have
been described by MM, De Lafresnaye, Boissonneau, Bourcier and De Lon-
guemare in the ‘Magazin de Zoologie’ and ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ and by
Mr. Fraser in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society. Many of the
birds of that country are beautiful and interesting representatives of the
better-known species of Brazil, and the family of Tanagers in particular has
lately received large additions from that quarter.
The ornithology of British Guiana is not yet so fully worked out as it de-
seryes to be. Mr. Schomburgk has collected many species during his vari-
ous journeys in the interior, some of which have been characterized in mis-
cellaneous works ; but there is no collective publication of the natural history
of that colony.
The ornithology of Brazil, on the other hand, is now very fully known,
many species having been described by the older authors, and many more
in recent times by Prince Maximilian of Neuwied, Spix, Swainson, and
others.
The costly work of Spix, ‘Avium species nove in itinere per Braziliam
collectz,’ is valuable rather for the amount of new materials which the travels
of that author supplied, than for the skill or diligence with which those
materials were digested. A sounder criticism was applied by Prince Maxi-
milian of Wied, who has done much to illustrate the ornithology of Brazil,
not only in his travels in that country, and his ‘ Recueil de Planches Co-
loriées d’Animaux du Brésil,’ but in his ‘ Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte von
_ Brazilien,’ Weimar, 1832. A great number of species are there described
in detail, and the work is especially valuable as a supplement and commen-
tary to the writings of Azara and Spix. About 1833 Mr. Swainson com-
_ meneed an illustrated work on the birds of Brazil, entitled, ‘ Ornithological
Drawings,’ but it only attained to about seventy plates. The figures are well
_ drawn and carefully coloured; but they labour under the defect of being un-
_ accompanied by descriptions, without which even the best designs are often
insufficient for specific identification. M. Schreiber of Vienna commenced,
in 1833, the ‘ Collectanea ad Faunam Braziliz,’ but only one number of the
work was ever published. Several Brazilian birds are also described by
Nordmann in the Atlas to Erman’s ‘ Reise um die Erde,’ 1835.
Since the publication of the invaluable work of Azara, nothing has been
added to the ornithology of Paraguay ; but as that country is intermediate to
Brazil, Chili and Patagonia, most of Azara’s species have been procured by
naturalists who have visited the three last-named countries. Many of the
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196 REPORT—1844.
birds of Patagonia, Terra del Fuego and the Falkland Isles, are described by
Mr. Darwin in the ‘ Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle,’ and by Capt.
King (Zool. Journal, vol. iii. and Zool. Proceedings, 1831).
After the publication of Molina’s not very accurate ‘ Saggio sulla storia
naturale del Chili,’ fifty years elapsed without any addition being made to the
zoology of western South America. About 1831 M. Kittlitz published a
short paper on the birds of Chili in the ‘Mémoires de |’ Académie Impériale
de St. Pétersbourg,’ in which several new and curious generic forms are for
the first time indicated. Descriptions of a few Chilian birds will also be found
in the ‘Journal de la Navigation de la Frégate Thetis,’ 1839, and in papers
by M. Meyen in the ‘ Nova Acta Ac. Leop. Car.,’ vol. xvi., and by M. Lesson
in the ‘ Revue Zoologique,’ 1842. Subsequently the ‘ Voyage dans l’Ame-
rique Méridionale,’ by M. D’Orbigny, and the ‘ Zoology of the Beagle,’ by
Mr. Darwin, have greatly extended our knowledge of this region. Nor ought
I to omit the brief but very interesting notes on the birds of Chili by Mr.
Bridges, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zool. Soc.,’ 1843, or the full list of Peru-
vian birds lately published at Berlin by M. Tschudi, in which many new
species are described. Most of the species originally described by Molina
are now identified with accuracy, and the long and narrow tract extending
the whole length of South America, between the Andes and the Pacific, is
shown to possess a peculiar and a highly interesting fauna.
M. A. D’Orbigny, who prosecuted his scientific researches for several years
in South America, traversing the interior from Buenos Ayres to Columbia,
has reaped a rich harvest of zoology, which is embodied in his ‘ Voyage dans
YAmerique Méridionale. Besides discovering many new species of birds, he
has identified most of those described by Azara. The plates of his work are
however not so perfect as the text, the colouring being too vivid, and the
figures unnecessarily reduced in size, when the natural dimensions might have
been more frequently retained. He has drawn some interesting conclusions
respecting the distribution of species through various zones of southern lati-
tude, and through zones, in some degree corresponding to these, of elevation.
Such generalizations, when carefully made, never fail to throw light on philo-
sophical zoology.
3. Ornithological Monographs.
No method is so effective in advancing zoological science as that by which
an author gives his whole attention to some special group or genus, examines
critically all the works of previous writers that relate to it, adds his own ori-
ginal observations, and publishes the result in the shape of a Monograph. I
will briefly notice the works of this kind which have appeared of late years.
The different species of Vultur known up to 1830 were critically analysed
by M. Riippell in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ for that year, and his
remarks must be studied by all who attempt to define the species of that in-
tricate group.
The characters of the family Strigide and of its subdivisions are treated of
by M. I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire in ‘Ann. Se. Nat.,’ 1830.
Mr. Swainson published a monograph of the genera Tachyphonus and Ty-
rannus in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ London, 1826. Although several
species have been discovered since, and new genera proposed, yet these papers
still possess considerable value. An essay on the Cuculide by the same
author is inserted in the ‘Mag. of Zool. and Botany,’ vol. i.
M. Ménétries has published in the ‘Mém.del’Acad.Imp.de St. Pétersbourg,’
1835, a monograph of the Myiotherine, preceded by an historical account of
the authors who have treated of this complicated group. This memoir is a
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 197
valuable contribution to our knowledge, though the series of natural affinities
would perhaps have been better exhibited if the Thamnophili had been in-
cluded among the Myiotherine (passing, as they do, almost imperceptibly into ~
Formicarius), and if the so-called Myiotherine of the East Indies had been
formed into a separate section.
We owe to M. L’Herminier some interesting particulars respecting that
anomalous and little-known bird, the Steatornis of Humboldt (Ann. Sc. Nat.,
vol. vi. p. 60, and Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat., vol. iii.). It appears that this
nocturnal bird, which inhabits the caverns of Venezuela and Bogota, can only
be classed among the Caprimulgide, though it differs from all its congeners
in its frugivorous habits, while it approaches the Sérigide in many points of
structure (as has been well insisted on by M. Des Murs, ‘ Rev. Zool.,’ 1843).
The same indefatigable naturalist has thrown much light on the structure
of the genera Sasa, Palamedea, Turnix and Rupicola, in the ‘ Ann. Se. Nat.,”
vol. viii. p. 96, and ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 1837. ‘The first of these he shows to
be a connecting link between the Jnsessores and Rasores; the second he
places between the Rallide and Ardeide; the third he considers to have more
affinity to the Grallatores than to the Rasores; and the last he retains among
the Ampelide.
M. Lesson’s monographs of the Tvrochilide, entitled ‘ Histoire Naturelle
des Oiseaux Mouches,’ and ‘Histoire Naturelle des Colibris,’ are valuable
works for the illustration of species, but the generic subdivisions are not car-
ried into sufficient detail. M.Lesson has elsewhere proposed several generic
groups of Trochilide, and M. Boié has added others; but many of these ap-
pear difficult to define satisfactorily. In fact there is no family of birds whose
classification is more imperfect and more in want of careful elucidation than
the beautiful but bewildering group of Humming Birds. The two volumes
of ‘Humming Birds’ in Sir W. Jardine’s ‘ Naturalist’s Library ’ contain a syn-
opsis of most of the species, but without professing to form a complete mo-
nograph.
Other volumes of the ‘ Naturalist’s Library’ are devoted to particular
groups, but as they only contain selections, and not entire lists of the species,
they do not strictly constitute monographs. Such are the useful volumes by
Mr. Selby on the ‘ Pigeons and Gallinaceous Birds,’ and by Mr. Swainson on
_ Muscicapide. A more complete work is the volume by Sir W. Jardine on
the Nectariniide, or rather on the genus Nectarinia, containing a very full
_ synopsis of the species of that extensive and beautiful group.
—
The ‘Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux de Paradis’ by M. Lesson, is a useful
monograph of an obscure and difficult group of birds, and is worked out with
_ more care and just criticism than is to be found in many others of M. Les-
son’s publications.
M. Malherbe of Metz is at present engaged on a general history of the
_ Picide, a work much wanted on account of the many genera and species in-
_ troduced into this family since Wagler’s monograph of Picus was published.
Several attempts have been made to compile monographs of the numerous
family of Psittacide, but the subject is yet far from being exhausted. Le-
vaillant in 1801 had figured and described all the species then known, and
Kuhl in 1820 published a valuable monograph in the ‘Nova Acta Acad.
Leop. Car.’ Another and a more complete monograph of the Psittacide, by
the industrious Wagler, will be found in the ‘ Abhandlungen der Baierischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften,’ 1832. Although some of the author’s generic
divisions have been criticised as being artificial, yet this paper has a great
value for its discrimination of species. Lear's ‘ Illustrations of the Pstttacide,’
1832, is intended as supplementary to Levaillant’s great work ‘Les Pero-
198 REPORT—1844.
quets.’ The lithographic plates are beautifully executed, but as they are uni-
accompanied by letter-press they hardly belong to the class of monographs.
Another continuation to the work of Levaillant is the ‘ Histoire Naturelle
des Peroquets,’ by M. Bourjot St. Hilaire, Paris, 1835-38, folio. Many of the
plates are original, others are copied from Spix, Temminck, or Lear; they
are executed on stone, and though inferior to the works of Gould and Lear,
they are perhaps the best ornithological lithographs which have issued from
the French press. The text of this work is prepared with considerable care,
but the nomenclature wants precision, the Latin names being often wrong-
spelled, and the principle of binomial appellations departed from. Thus the
genus Palgornis is in one instance designated Psittacus, in another Psittacus
sagittifer, and in a third Conurus sagittifer, with the addition in each case of
a specific name. What can we say of an author who designates a species as
“Psittacus platycercus viridis unicolor,” but that he is deserting that admirably
concise and effective method of nomenclature introduced eighty years ago by
the great Linnzus, and is resuming the vague and unscientific generalizations
of the ancient naturalists ?
I only know by name the ‘ Monographie der Papageien,’ published in Ger-
many by C. L. Brehm.
Some interesting details on the genera Crotophaga and Prionites were pub-
lished by Sir W. Jardine in the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ vols. iv. and vi.,
and I last year communicated to the same work a paper on the structure and
affinities of the genera Upupa and Irrisor (Promerops of some authors),
showing that these genera are really allied, though M. Lafresnaye had main-
tained that they are widely separated (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1840).
Mr. Vigors communicated to the earlier volumes of the ‘ Zoological Jour-
nal’ several papers of a monographic character, entitled ‘ Sketches in Orni-
thology,” which are distinguished by close research and careful induction.
Among the ornithological works of this class which have appeared of late
years, Mr. Gould’s ‘ Monographs of the Trogonide and of the Rhamphastide’
occupy 4 conspicuous place. Of these I need only say that they are executed
in the same form and with the same excellence as his other superb publica-
tions. Mr. Gould has also published a short monograph of Dendrocitta in
the ‘ Zoological Transactions. He is now collecting materials for mono-
graphs of other families, including the Odontophorine, the Caprimulgide,
and the Alcedinine. Of the Odontophorine, or American Partridges, the
first number has already appeared ; and though they are a less gaudy tribe of
birds than many others, yet the admirable taste with which Mr. Gould has
depicted them renders the work peculiarly attractive. A translation with re-
duced plates of Gould’s ‘ Monograph of Rhamphastide’ has been published
in Germany by Sturm.
Prof. C. J. Sundevall has described some species of Huphonia in the ‘ Kongl.
Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar, Stockholm, 1834. This paper is sup-
plementary to the monograph ‘ De genere Euphones,’ by Dr. Lund, published
at Copenhagen in 1829.
Dr. Riippell’s work, entitled ‘Museum Senckenbergianum,’ Frankfort, 1836,
contairs some admirable monographs of the genera Otis, Campephaga, Colius,
Cygnus, &c. They combine laborious bibliographical research with close
observation of structure, and are accompanied by excellent illustrative figures,
Mr. Swainson published in the ‘Journal of the Royal Institution,’ 1831,
an essay on the Anatide, which though founded on peculiar theoretical views
deserves to be consulted even by those who do not agree in the author's con-
clusions. This memoir prepared the way for Mr. Eyton’s ‘ Monograph of the
Anatide; 1838, which is in many respects a valuable and accurate work, and
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 199
is especially useful for its details of anatomical structure. The Latin specific
characters might however have been drawn up with more care; and an ap-
pendix should have been added, containing the numerous species described
by Latham and the old authors, which had not come under Mr. Eyton’s ob-
servation. No monograph can be considered complete which does not, in
addition to the ascertained species, enumerate also the unascertained, that is
to say, those nominal species which for the present exist only in books and
not in museums, many of which however will no doubt be again restored to
science as real species, while others will be recognised as peculiar conditions
of the species we now possess. In this respect, the collection of monographs
published by Wagler under the title of ‘Systema Avium,’ and continued af-
terwards in Oken’s ‘ Isis,’ affords a useful model. It was his custom, after de-
scribing those species of a genus with which he was himself acquainted, to
append two lists, one of “species a me non vise,” and the other of “ species ad
genera diversa pertinentes.”
MM. Hombron and Jacquinot have communicated to the Académie des
Sciences a memoir on the habits and classification of the Procellariide, of
which an abstract is given in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ March, 1844, and in
which several new subgenera are proposed. Mr. Gould has also extended
our knowledge of this obscure group in the ‘Annals of Nat. Hist.,’ May, 1844.
M. Brandt, of Petersburg, who has made the WVatatores his peculiar study,
has monographed the family Alcide, aud the genera Phaéton and Phalacro-
corax, in memoirs contributed to the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Pe-
tersburg.
Professor Sundevall states that there isa monograph of the genus Dysporus
( Sula) in the ‘ Physiographisk Tidskrift,’ Lund., 1837.
Many monographic summaries of different genera will be found in Tem-
minck’s ‘ Planches Coloriées,’ Riippell’s works on Abyssinia, and Smith's
‘ Zoology of South Africa.’
Besides monographs of the larger groups, there are many valuable me-
moirs on individual species, such as that by M. Botta on Saurothera califor-
niana (originally described by Hernandez as a Pheasant, and now properly
termed Geococcyx mexicanus, Gm. (sp.)) in the ‘ Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat.,’
vol. iv.; that by Dubus on Leptorhynchus pectoralis and other new generic
types, in ‘ Bullet. Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles ;’ by De Blainville on Chionis (Ann.
Se. Nat., 1836); by Lesson on Huryceros (Ann. Sc. Nat., 1831); by Mr.
Yarrell on Apteryzx (Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. i.), &c.
4. Miscellaneous Descriptions of Species.
Among recent works of this class, Guerin’s ‘ Magazin de Zoologie,’ com-
menced in 1831, dematids notice. This publication, which for the excellence
of its scientific matter and its moderate price deserves every encouragement,
is rendered the more convenient to the working naturalist by being sold in
separate sections. The ornithological portion of this periodical contains va-
luable papers by Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Lafresnaye, D’Orbigny, Ey-
doux, Gervais, L’Herminier, Delessert and others. Many new and important
forms are there described and figured with great exactness, and although the
authors are not in all cases sufficiently conversant with the writings of British
ornithologists, yet they duly estimate the claims of the latter when brought
before them.
Upon the whole, the ‘ Magazin de Zoologie’ must be regarded as a work
highly creditable to French science, and it is much to be regretted that since
the discontinuance of our own ‘Zoological Journal’ no similar periodical has
been set on foot in this country. Such a work might however be easily re-
200 REPORT—1844.
produced if our Zoological Society would attach illustrative plates to their
very valuable ‘ Proceedings,’ and give them the form of a Journal, as has
lately been done by the Geological Society.
A work closely connected with the ‘ Magazin de Zoologie’ is the ‘ Revue
Zoologique de la Société Cuvierienne,’ the object of which is to assert with-
out loss of time the claims of any zoological discovery, by publishing brief
but adequate descriptions of new species. The multitude of labourers now
at work in the same field, and the importance of adhering to the rule of pri-
ority as the basis of systematic zoological nomenclature, render it necessary
to publish rapidly and diffuse widely the first announcements of new disco-
veries. The delays incident to the engraving of plates and the printing of
memoirs in scientific Transactions have often robbed original discoverers
of their due credit, and introduced confusion and controversy into science:
and it is to remedy this evil that the valuable though unpretending ‘ Revue
Zoologique’ was established.
Original descriptions of new species are scattered so widely that it is im-
possible to notice all the recent works in which they occur, and I must there-
fore confine myself to simply enumerating the more important. Of regular
periodical works devoted to natural history in general, and including original
contributions to ornithology, I may mention (in addition to those above no-
ticed) the ‘ Zoological Journal ;’ Ainsworth’s ‘ Edinburgh Journal of Natural
and Geographical Science,’ 1829 ; Loudon’s and Charlesworth’s ‘ Magazine of
Natural History ;’ Sir W. Jardine’s ‘Magazine of Zoology and Botany ;’
Taylor’s ‘ Annals of Natural History ;’ and the popular rather than scientific
‘Field Naturalist’s Magazine’ of Prof. Rennie; the ‘ Naturalist’ of Mr. Ne-
ville Wood; and the ‘Zoologist’ of Mr. E. Newman. Among foreign pe-
riodicals are Oken’s ‘Isis ;’ Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv ;’ Kroyer’s ‘ Naturhistorisk
Tidskrift ;> Wan der Hoeven’s ‘ Tijdschrift fur Natuurlijke Geschiedenis ;’
Wiedemann’s ‘ Zoologisches Magazin;’ ‘ Physiographisk 'Tidskrift,’ Lund;
Rohatzsch’s ‘Munich Journal ;’ the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles ;’
Muller’s ‘ Archiv fiir Anatomie ;’ Silliman’s ‘ American Journal of Science,’
‘Boston Journal of Natural History,’ and the scientific journals of India,
Tasmania and South Africa, which I mentioned when speaking of the orni-
thology of those regions. Among the authorized publications of scientific
societies, ornithological details of greater or less amount will be found in the
«Philosophical Transactions ;’ the ‘Proceedings and Transactions of the
Zoological Society ;’ the Transactions of the Linnean, the Cambridge
Philosophical, the Newcastle and the Wernerian Societies; the ‘ Bulletin
de la Société Philomathique des Pyrénées orientales ;’ ‘ Actes de la Soc. Lin-
néenne de Bordeaux ;’ ‘ Mémoires de la Soc. Linnéenne de Calvados ;’ ¢ Bul-
letin de Académie Royale des Sciences de Bruxelles;’ ‘ Mémoires’ and
‘Comptes Rendus de l’'Académie Royale de France ;’ ‘ Annales du Musée
d’Histoire Naturelle ;’ ‘ Annales de la Soc. Linnéenne de Paris ;’ ‘ Mémoires
de la Soc. d’Emulation d’Abbeville ;’ ‘ Mémoires de la Soc. Académique de
Falaise ;’ ‘ Mémoires de la Soc. Royale de Lille ;’ ‘ Mémoires de l’ Académie
de Metz;’ ‘Mémoires de Ja Soc. des Sciences Naturelles de Neufchatel ;’
‘Mémoires de la Soc. de Physique de Genéve ;’ ‘ Jahrbuch der Naturfor-
schenden Gesellschaft zu Halle ;’ ‘Nova Acta Academie Cesareze Nature
Curiosorum;’ ‘ Abhandlungen der Baierischen Akademie der Wissenschaften;’
‘ Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin;’ ‘ Kongl. Ve-
tenskaps Akademiens Handlingar,’ Stockholm; ‘ Mémoires’ and ‘ Bulletins de
l’ Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg ;’ ‘ Annales Universi-
tatis Casanensis ;’ ‘ Mémoires’ and ‘ Bulletins de la Soc. des Naturalistes de
Moscou ;’ ‘ Annale delle Scienze Naturali di Bologna ;’ ‘ Nuovo Giornale
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 201
de’ Litterati di Pisa ;’ ‘Memorie della Academia delle Scienze di Torino;’ ‘ Atti
dell’ Academia Gioenia de Catania ;’ ‘Journal of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia;’ ‘ Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of
New York ;’ ‘ Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,’ and many
others.
Of recent works specially devoted to the description and illustration of new
objects of zoology in general or of ornithology in particular, the following
British ones may be mentioned :—Swainson’s ‘ Zoological Illustrations,’ 1st
and 2nd series, 1820-33; Donovan’s ‘ Naturalist’s Repository ;’ Jardine and
Selby’s ‘ Illustrations of Ornithology,’ an excellent work, which I regret to
say is now discontinued ; Wilson’s ‘ Illustrations of Zoology,’ fol. Edinburgh,
1827, an accurate and well-illustrated volume; J. E. Gray’s ‘ Zoological
Miscellany,’ 1831, containing concise descriptions of new species ; Swainson’s
‘ Animals in Menageries,’ 1838, (in Lardner’s Cyclopzedia,) comprising de-
scriptions of 225 species, many of which however had before been published;
Bennett's ‘ Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society,’ 1831, valuable
for its observations on the habits of living individuals; and Gould’s ‘ Icones
Avium,’ equal in merit and beauty to his other works.
Among foreign works of the same kind are Temminck’s ‘ Planches Colo-
riées, whose merits are too well known to be here dwelt. on, and the text of
which, if carefully translated and edited, would form an acceptable volume
to the British naturalist; Lesson’s ‘Centurie Zoologique,’ containing eighty
miscellaneous plates ; those relating to ornithology respectably executed, and
exhibiting several new forms, especially of Chilian Birds; the < Illustrations
de Zoologie’ form a second volume of the same character as the ‘ Centurie ;’
Kuester’s ‘Ornithologische Atlas der auseuropaischen Vogel,’ Nuremberg; Du-
bois’ ‘ Ornithologische Galerie,’ Aix-la-Chapelle ; (the last two works I know
only by name;) Lemaire, ‘ Hist. Nat. des Oiseaux exotiques,’ Paris, 1836, a
_ collection of brief descriptions and very gaudy figures ; and Riippell’s ‘ Mu-
_ seum Senckenbergianum,’ a work of first-rate excellence.
i
i
A
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5. Progress of the Pictorial Art as applied to Ornithology.
The preceding criticisms have chiefly referred to the claims of the descrip-
_ tive or classificatory portion of the several works noticed, but it may be useful
to make a few special observations on the success which has attended the
various methods of representing the forms and colours of birds to the eye.
In this branch of zoology as in all others the pencil is an indispensable adjunct
_ tothe pen. The minute modifications of form which constitute the distinc-
tive characters of genera, and the delicate shades of colour by which alone
the specific differences are in many cases indicated, are of such a nature as
_ to be frequently beyond the power of language to define without the aid of
Wy
:
_ art, and it is consequently indispensable that the zoological artist should com-
_ bine a scientific knowledge of the subject with a perfect command of his
pencil. In no branch of zoology are these peculiar talents more requisite
_ than in ornithology, where the varieties of habit and of attitude, the unequalled
¥ grace and elegance of form, the remarkable modifications of structure in the
_ plumage, and the endless diversities of colouring demand the highest resources
_ of the painter’s skill.
__ The three principal modes of engraving, namely, wood-engraving, metallic
plate-engraving and lithography, have all been applied in turn to the illus-
tration of ornithology.
1. Wood-engraving.—For such illustrations: of; birds as are not intended
for colouring, this method is not only the cheapest, but for works of small size
it is the best. The works of the immortal Bewick' have shown us with what
AS ae |
Pr...
202 REPORT—1 844.
complete success the structure and arrangement of the feathers, the relative
intensities of the colours, and the characteristic expression of the living bird
may be transferred to a block of wood by the hand of original genius. Many
recent wood-engravers have approached Bewick, but none have yet equalled
him. Among the most successful of these the Messrs. Thompscn of London
must be especially mentioned. Their woodcuts in Yarrell’s ‘ British Birds’
are beautiful works of art; in delicacy of execution they often exceed the
engravings of Bewick ; but the occasional stiffness of attitude in the birds,
and a conventional sketchiness in the accompaniments, indicate the profes-
sional artist and not the self-taught child of Nature.
The beauty of Yarrell's ‘ British Birds’ is much enhanced by improvements
in the preparation of paper and ink, and in the mode of taking off the impres-
sions which have been introduced since Bewick’s time. It is probable that
if the wood-blocks of Bewick, now in the possession of the great engraver’s
family, were entrusted to one of our first-rate London printers, an edition of
Bewick’s ‘ Birds’ could be now produced, far superior in execution to any
which was issued in the lifetime of the author.
2. Metallic plate-engraving—Line engravings or etchings on copper or
steel have been at all times extensively applied to the illustration of ornitho-
logical works. Such engravings, if uncoloured, are certainly inferior in effec-
tiveness to good woodcuts, as an exemple of which I may mention the nume-
rous plates of birds in Shaw’s ‘ Zoology’ and Griffith's ‘ Cuvier,’ which though
often respectably executed, are almost useless for the purpose of specific
diagnosis ; and even when carefully coloured, engraved plates rarely approach
in excellence, and in my opinion never equal the best examples of lithography.
The greater stubbornness of the material involves almost of necessity a certain
constraint in the attitudes represented: just as the statues of ancient Egypt
which were carved out of hard basalt, never attained the grace and animation
which has been conferred upon the tractable marbles of Greece, and the still
softer alabaster of Italy. In proof of this I may refer to Temminck’s ‘ Planches
Coloriées,’ and to the recent works of Lesson, Quoy, D’Orbigny and other
French ornithologists. The figures of birds in these plates, though delicately
and even beautifully engraved, are often exceedingly stiff and unnatural, a
defect owing partly no doubt to too great a familiarity with stuffed specimens,
but in part also to the unyielding material on which they are engraved. Ifthe
Parisian ornithological artists have not the means of studying living nature,
they might at least take for their models the designs of Nature’s best copyist
— Gould.
The defects shown to be incident to line-engraving attach indeed in a less
degree to etching. The resistance to the tool being diminished in the latter
process the lines are drawn with greater ease and freedom. Here the main
difficulty is to avoid hardness and coarseness in the delineation of the plumage.
Many etchings which are otherwise meritorious, have failed in this point,
and the lines which were intended to represent the smooth soft plumage of
birds, resemble rather the scales of a fish or the wiry hair of the Sloth or
Platypus.
The plates of Mr. Selby’s ‘Illustrations of British Ornithology ’ are cer-
tainly the finest examples extant of ornithological etchings, though they are
nearly equalled by some of the plates etched by Sir W. Jardine, Mr. Selby
and Captain Mitford in the ‘ Illustrations of Ornithology.’
In the plates of Audubon’s ‘ Birds of America’ line-engraving is combined
with aqua-tint, a method which, when well-executed, may be used with ad-
vantage to increase the depth and softness of line-engravings or etchings.
3. Lithography.—We have next to consider that style of illustration which
4
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 203
is beyond all question the best adapted to ornithology. Lithography possesses
all the freedom and facility of drawing as contrasted with the laborious me-
chanical process of engraving, and is hence peculiarly fitted to express the
graceful and animated actions of birds. Another merit is the expression of
softness which it communicates to the plumage, and the power of showing the
roundness of the forms by a homogeneous shading, instead of tke parallel
lines and cross hatchings employed in engraving. The lines introduced to
represent the individual feathers possess just that amount of indistinctness
which we see in the living object, and which adds sv much to its beauty.
It is a matter of some pride to us, that while in certain other departments
of natural history (especially in fossil conchology) the British lithographeis
must yield the palm to foreigners, yet in ornithology our own artists have
hever been equalled. Lithography was, I believe, first applied to the deli-
neation of birds by Mr. Swainson, who soon attained great excellence in the
art. His ‘ Zoological Illustrations,’ his plates to the ‘ Fauna Boreali-Ameri-
eana,’ and his ‘ Ornithological Drawings of the Birds of Brazil,’ possess great
merits both of design and execution, as does also Mr. Lear’s great work on
the Psittacide. But all these productions are eclipsed by the pencil of Gould,
whose magnificent and voluminous works exhibit a gradual progress from
excellence to perfection. Temminck, who in 1835 said of Gould’s ‘ Birds of
Europe,’ “Ils sont d’un fini si parfait, tant pour le dessin, la pose, et l’exacte
verité de l’enluminure, qu’on pourrait, avec de si beaux portraits, se passér
des originaux montés,” would, I am stire, pass even higher encomiums on the
‘Birds of Australia, which Mr. Gould is now publishing. One little fault,
and one only can I find in these beautiful drawings, and that is, that the hal-
lux, which in all the Jnsessores is essential to the steady support of the bird,
is too often represented as projecting backwards instead of firmly clasping,
as it ought, the perch. Mr. Richter and Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, both of
whom have been employed in executing on stone the designs of Mr. Gould,
have attained great excellence in the art, as has also Mr. D. W. Mitchell, the
able coadjutor of Mr. G. R. Gray in the ‘ Genera of Birds.” The latter has
successfully applied the new art of “lithotinting” to the representation of
smooth and hard surfaces, such as those of the beak and legs of birds. He
has also in some cases executed the whole plumage in lithotint, producing a
beautiful and delicate finish, the effect of which is intermediate between litho-
graphy and engraving.
Lithography has never been applied extensively to ornithology upon the
continent. The plates in Vieillot’s ‘Galerie des Oiseaux,’ and in the Atlas
to Erman’s ‘ Reise um die Erde’ are very indifferent, those in Werner's
* Atlas des Oiseaux d’Europe’ a shade better, and in the ‘ Petersburg Traiis-
actions’ they are tolerably good. The Prince of Canino’s ‘ Fauna Italica,’
Nilsson’s ‘ Illuminade Figurer till Skandinaviens Fauna,’ ard Riippell’s * Mu-
_ seum Senckenbergianum,’ are the only continental works which I have seéh,
_ in which the lithographs at all approach to the excellence of the British
artists.
The lithographic plates in Spix’s ‘Avium species nove in itinere per Bras
ziliam collectz,’ are tolerably executed; but in rather a peculiar style, the
legs and beaks of the birds, and in some instances the whole body, being first
covered with black, and the lighter parts afterwards scraped off with a sharp
point. Examples of this style also occur in some of Mr. Mitchell's plates.
In particular cases, especially in representing the scuta of the legs and feet,
and the details of black plumage, this method may be adopted with great
advantage.
There is a real though somewhat paradoxical cause of the superior excel-
204 REPORT—1844.
lence of the drawings of Gould and of Swainson, which should not be over-
looked. It is, that these artists have in almost every case (when the living
bird was not accessible) made their designs from dried skins, and not from
mounted specimens. In the skin of a bird, dried in the usual mode for con-
venience of carriage, the natural outlines and attitudes are nearly obliterated,
and the artist is consequently compelled to study living examples, to retain
the images thus acquired in his memory, and to transfer them to his design.
By the constant habit of thus re-animating as it were these lifeless and shape-
less corpses, he acquires a freedom of outline and a variety of attitude unat-
tainable by any other means. But when an artist attempts to draw from a
stuffed specimen, he beholds only a fabric of wire and tow, too often a mere
caricature of nature, exhibiting only the caprices and mannerisms of an igno-
rant bird-stuffer. Knowing that the object before him is zzéended to represent
nature, he is unconsciously and irresistibly led to copy it with all its deformi-
ties. Such is no doubt one cause of the stiff and lifeless designs which we
see in the French works, drawn as they mostly are from mounted specimens
in the Paris Museums.
6. Anatomy and Physiology of Birds.
The most complete general treatise on the anatomy of birds that I am ac-
quainted with is the article Aves by Prof. Owen, in Todd's ‘ Cyclopedia of
Anatomy and Physiology.’ The author’s original investigations on this sub-
ject are here combined with those of others, and the whole forms an excellent
monograph of the structural peculiarities of the class, as well as of many dif-
ferential modifications which mark particular groups. Much indeed remains
to be added to our knowledge of individual organizations, but those anatomi-
cal arrangements which distinguish Birds from the other classes of Vertebrata
can hardly be described with greater precision or reasoned upon more philoso-
phically than in the work in question. We may indeed regret that this treatise
of Prof. Owen is not published in a separate and more accessible form, espe-
cially if we consider how essential a knowledge of comparative anatomy is to
the scientific zoologist, and what peculiar interest attaches to the anatomy of
Birds, as indicating their affinities to Reptiles and to Mammals, and as ex-
hibiting the wonderful arrangements by which their muscular bodies are sus-
tained in a medium at least one thousand times lighter than themselves. We
shall however be soon put in possession of Prof. Owen’s most recent re-
searches on the anatomy of birds, by the publication of that portion of his
¢ Hunterian Lectures’ which relates to the Vertebrata, and -which will
doubtless be of equal value with the excellent volume already issued on the
Invertebrata.
Another carefully-prepared summary of ornithic anatomy is that by Prof.
MGillivray, in the Introduction to his ‘History of British Birds.’ The au-
thor has evidently bestowed much labour, both mental and manual, upon this
subject, and has successfully vindicated the claims of comparative anatomy
to be considered not an adjunct to, but a part of, scientific zoology. The
above work is particularly valuable for its details respecting the organs of
digestion, a part of the system to which the author justly attributes great im-
portance, and which he has treated of in a special article in the ‘Magazine
of Zoology and Botany,’ vol.i. Réswmés of the anatomical peculiarities of
birds will also be found in the ‘ Elémens de Zoologie,’ by Milne Edwards,
1837, and in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica’ and ‘ Penny Cyclopedia.’ The
article Zoology in the ‘Encyclopedia Metropolitana’ also contains a useful
treatise on the subject, though it is damaged by the affectation of using new
English terms in place of the received Latin terminology of anatomy.
_
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 205
In Dr. Grant’s ‘ Outlines of Comparative Anatomy,’ the structure of birds
is described with the same accuracy as that of the other classes of animals;
but as the work is arranged anatomically and not zoologically, the details of
ornithic anatomy are necessarily intermixed with those of the other classes of
animals.
Prof. Rymer Jones has given, in his ‘General Outline of the Animal King-
dom,’ a careful abstract of the anatomy of Birds, including more especially
the structure of the eye and the important subject of the development of the
ovum. The excellent mode in which the generalities of the subject are
treated of, makes us regret that the limits of Prof. Jones’s work prevent him
from giving a fuller statement of the anatomical characters of the several
orders and families.
An excellent synopsis of this subject is contained in Wagner's ‘Compara-
tive Anatomy,’ of which Mr. Tulk has just published an English translation.
Of special treatises, either on the anatomy of particular organs throughout
the whole class, or on the general anatomy of particular groups, many are to
be found scattered over the field of scientific literature, and I shall notice
some of the more important.
The general subject of the preumaticity or circulation of air through the
bodies of birds is ably treated of by M. E. Jacquemin in the ‘Nova Acta
Acad. Czxs. Leop. Car.’ 1842. See also ‘ L’Iustitut’ and ‘Comptes Rendus,’
1836. After minutely describing the modifications of the aérating system in
different forms of birds, the author deduces a series of conclusions, and shows
that this structure, peculiar to the class of birds, performs the fourfold office
of oxidizing the blood,—of enlarging the surface of the body, and conse-
quently the points of muscular attachment,—of diminishing the specific gra-
vity, and of producing a general elasticity which favours the act of flight.
The structure of the ear in birds is treated of in great detail in a memoir
by M. Breschet, in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ for 1836, and in a
_ detached treatise on the same subject. After giving an historical sketch of
_ the researches of previous authors, he enters upon an elaborate description of
_ the characters of this organ in various groups of birds. He shows that of
_ the three bones of the tympanum, the stapes alone is osseous in birds, while
_ the malleus and the incus, which in Mammalia are composed of bone, are
_ here represented by cartilaginous processes, and he points out many other
i minute but important characters which appear to distinguish the ears of birds
_ from those of other Vertebrata.
é
4
Dr. Krohn has treated on the organization of the iris, and Dr. Bergman on
( the movements of the radius and ulna in Muller's ‘ Archiv fir Anatomie,’
_ 1837-9.
The structure of the os hyoides in birds, and the affinities of its several
i parts to the corresponding organs of the other Vertebrata, are explained in a
_ memoir by M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in the ‘ Nouvelles Annales du Mus. d’Hist.
Nat.’ 1832.
_ M. Miller has described the modifications of the male organs of birds in
_ the ‘ Abhandlungen der Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,’ 1836.
__ M.Cornay, in ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1844, p. 94, has announced that he finds
an important character to exist in the anterior palatine bone, the modifica-
_ tions of which in the various orders he considers to form a more correct
basis of classification than any one hitherto employed. Until more attention
_ be paid to this organ than it has yet received, it would be premature to pro-
nounce as to the value of it.
The gradual development of ossification in the sternum of young birds,
and the relations of its several parts to the skeletons of other Vertebrata, were
206 REPORT—1844.
treated of by M. Cuvier (Ann. Se. Nat. 1832) and by M. L’Herminier (Ann.
Se. Nat. and Comptes Rendus, 1836-37). These essays involved theoretical
views which gave rise to controversies in which MM. Serres and Geoffroy
St. Hilaire also took part. The structure of the pelvis and hinder extremities
was described by M. Bourjot St. Hilaire in a memoir read to the Académie
des Sciences, 1834.
The osteology of the feet of birds is treated of by M. Kessler in the ‘ Bul-
letin de la Soc. de Naturalistes de Moscou,’ 1541.
The internal temperature of various species and groups of birds is treated
of in a general memoir on the subject of Animal Heat, by M. Berger, in the
‘ Mémoires de la Société de Physique de Genéve,’ 1836. Dr. Richard King
has also published some observations on this subject.
Mr. Eyton has contributed some interesting information on the anatomy
of Menura, Biziura, Merops, Psophodes and Cracticus, which throw much
light on the affinities and classification of those genera (Annals of Natural
History, vol. vii. ef seq.).
Amidst the numerous profound researches of Prof, Owen on the compara-
tive anatomy of various portions of the animal kingdom are many original
investigations into the structure of such rare birds as have fallen under his
sealpel. Inthe ‘Transactions of the Zoological Society’ he has described the
anatomy of Buceros cavatus, showing the points of affinity which the Buce-
rotide bear towards the Rhamphastide on the one hand, and the Corvide on
the other. He has also suggested that the probable design of the gigantic
beak in the Hornbills and Toucans is to protect the eyes and head while
penetrating dense thickets in quest of the nestling birds on which they feed.
Another memoir, of still greater importance, is the elaborate description of
the anatomy of the Apteryx (Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. ii-), for which our sue-
cessors even more than ourselves will be grateful to Prof. Owen, seeing that
but few years will probably elapse before that rare and extraordinary species
will be erased from the list of animated beings. He has also contributed to
the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ excellent anatomical monographs
of the genera Sula, Phanicopterus, Corythaix, Pelecanus, Cathartes,and Tale-
galla. The invaluable deseriptive catalogues of the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons, which are in great measure the work of Prof. Owen,
contain a mine of information on the anatomy of every class, and not least
on that of birds. The volume which relates to the Fossil Mammalia and Birds
is now in the press.
We are indebted to Mr. Yarrell for several accurate notices on the more
remarkable structures of certain birds, among which are papers on the ana-
tomy of the Ataptores, on the xiphoid bone and its muscles in Phalacroeoraz,
and on the muscles of the beak in Lowia, published in the ‘ Zoological Jour-
nal;’ memoirs on the convolutions and structure of the trachea in Numida,
the Gruide, and the Anatide, which will be found in the ‘ Linnean Trans-
actions ;’ and notices on the anatomy of Cereopsis, Crax, Ourax, Penelope,
Anthropoides and Plectropterus, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological So-
ciety.’
vi very elaborate account of the anatomy of Aptenodytes patachonica, by
Mr. Reid, is published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ 1834,
and we may regret that this gentleman has not made more such contributions
to anatomical science.
There are some very interesting remarks by Mr. Blyth on the osteology of
Alca impennis, in the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ 1837, showing
that in this bird (which is wholly unable to fly) the bones of the extremities
are nearly solid and filled with marrow, while in the volatile species of Alcide
hs a
}
<
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 207
the air-cavities of the bones are highly developed, in order to compensate for
the shortness of the wings. He adds the important remark, that *“* when once
the object of aérial flight is abandoned, the wings are reduced to exactly that
size which is most efficient of all for subaquatic progression; species of an
intermediate character of course never occurring.” ‘This principle of the ne-
cessity of hiatuses in the natural system (of which numerous other examples
might be adduced), is one which I have long regarded as conclusive against
that continuity of affinities and symmetry of arrangement which some writers
have endeavoured to demonstrate.
Mr. T. Allis of York (whose beautifully prepared ornithic skeletons now
in the York Museum are so highly creditable to his skill as an anatomist) has
made some observations on the connexion between the furculum and sternum,
showing that in certain birds possessing powers of long-continued flight these
bones are connected by an intimate symphysis, which in Pelecanus and Grus
amounts to an actual anchylosis. (Zool. Proc., 1835).
The anatomies of Pelecanus, Dicholophus and Corythaix, are described in
detail by Mr. W. Martin in the work last quoted.
A paper on the anatomy of Corvus corone by M. Jacquemin, will be found
in the ‘Isis,’ 1837, and the osteology of the Trochilide is described by M. J.
Geoffroy St. Hilaire in ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1838 *.
Several points of ornithic anatomy are treated of by Prof. Wagner in the
‘Abhandl. der Baierischen Akad., 1837, and the osteology of the genera
Crypturus, Dicholophus, Psophia and Mycteria, is tully described. The struc-
ture of the Struthionide is beautifully portrayed by D’Alton in his ‘Skelete
der Straussartigen Vogel,’ 1827.
There is a paper by M. Schlegel on the supposed absence of nostrils in the
genus Sw/a, in the ‘ Tijdschrift voor natuurlijke Geschiedenis,’ 1839, of which,
from being unacquainted with the Dutch language, I regret my inability to
_ give a summary.
The osteology of several groups of Natatores is treated of by M. Brandt in
an elaborate and highly important paper in the ‘ Mémoires de I Acad. Imp. de
St. Pétersbourg,’ 1839. The researches of this author throw great light upon
_ the classification of many obscure groups, and nothing can be more exact than
=u
his figures and descriptions of ornithic osteology.
Mr. Yarrell has paid considerable attention to the subject of hybridity
(Zool. Proc., 1832, 1836, &c.). The result of his observation seems to be
that hybrid birds will occasionally propagate with the pure race on either
side, but rarely, if ever, with each other, thus indicating a special provision of
_ mature to preserve the distinctness and permanency of species. Mr, Eyton
and Mr. Fuller have also made notes on the same subject (Zool. Proc., 1835).
_ See also a paper by Mr. W. Thompson in the ‘Mag. of Zool.and Bot.,’ vol. i.
Mr. G. Gulliver, who has made a series of microscupic researches into
the blood-corpuscles of the Vertebrata, taking exact measurements of these
_thinute bodies in different genera and species, has in the course of this in-
quiry given a fair share of attention to the corpuscles of birds, and his la-
_bours are recorded in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zool. Soc.,’ 1842, &c.
The difficult question of the influence of climate in producing permanent
varieties of species is discussed by Dr. C. L. Gloger in a treatise published at
Breslau, 1833, and which deserves translation for the use of British naturalists,
although the author carries his theory to too great an extent.
The arrangement of the feathers on birds, to which attention was first
* The ‘ Disquisitiones Anatomicz Psittacorum,’ by M. Thuet, Turin, 1838, and Kuhlman’s
dissertation, ‘ De Absentia Furcule in Psittaco Pullario,’ Kie], 1842, are works which I have
not seen.
208 REPORT—1844,
called by Nitzsch in his ‘ Pterylologie,’ is briefly treated of in a memoir read
to the Académie des Sciences by M. Jacquemin (Ann. Se. Nat., 1836, p. 227),
who points out several facts which have not been sufficiently attended to by
previous ornithologists.
The various modes by which the changes of plumage in birds at different
seasons are effected, whether by actual moulting, by the shedding of a de-
ciduous margin to the feather, or by a change of colour in the feather itself,
have been investigated by Cuvier, Temminck, Yarrell (Trans. Zool. Soc.,
vol. i.), and others. Dr. Bachman of Charleston has made some very in-
teresting observations on this subject in the case of many of the North Ame-
rican birds, which will be found in the ‘ Transactions of the American Philo-
sophical Society,’ 1839.
The subject of moulting, and especially of that remarkable tendency in old
female birds to assume the male plumage, is treated of by M. I. Geoffroy St.
Hilaire (Ann. Se. Nat., and Essais de Zoologie Générale, 1841). See also
papers by Dr. Butler in the ‘ Memoirs of the Wernerian Society,’ and by Mr.
Yarrell in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions.’
M. de la Fresnaye published in the ‘Mémoires de la Soc. Acad. de Falaise,’
1835 (L’Institut, 1837), a paper on melanism, or a supposed abnormal tendency
in the Raptores to acquire a dark plumage, analogous to albinoism in other
birds. The examples cited are few in number, and not very conclusive, but
the subject is deserving of investigation.
Many writers have written descriptive works on the eggs of birds, especially
of the European species. Of the older authors on this subject, as Klein, Wir-
sing, Sepp, Naumann, Schintz, Donovan, Roux, and Thienemann, I need not
here speak. In the ‘British Oology’ of Hewitson the eggs of our native
birds are accurately described and figured, and the second edition now pub-
lishing attests the popularity of the subject. An ‘ Atlas of Eggs of the Birds
of Europe’ is just commenced by A. Lefevre at Paris, the figures of which
are well-executed. Of the eggs and nidification of exotic birds our informa-
tion is very incomplete, and almost the only contributor to this branch of
ornithology is M. D’Orbigny, who in his ‘ Voyage dans l Amerique Méridio-
nale’ gives many figures of eggs and details of nidification, which may aid in
clearing up the affinities of certain doubtful forms of the South American
continent. .
Mr. Gould brought home from Australia a large and interesting collection
of eggs and nests, of which we may regret that he has not introduced the
figures into the plates of his ‘Birds of Australia. We may hope, however,
that when he has completed that great work he will publish an ‘ Australian
Oology,’ and perpetuate the knowledge which his unique collection of eggs
supplies.
De: Carlo Passerini has given an account of the nidification and incubation
of Paroaria cucullata in a domestic state, in a memoir published at Florence
in 1841.
The subject of ornithic oology has been treated of in a philosophical man-
ner by M. Des Murs (Revue Zoologique, and Mag. de Zool., 1842-43). By
carefully studying the peculiarities of form, nature of shell and colour in the
eggs of various birds, he finds a correspondence between these peculiarities
and the structural characters of the several groups, and thus obtains an ad-
ditional element in the process of classification.
The number of eggs laid by birds of different groups and species is the sub-
ject of a paper by M. Marcel de Serres (Ann. Sc. Nat., ser. 2. vol. xiii. p. 164),
and the author deduces some interesting generalizations upon this subject.
There is a learned treatise on the structure of the egg prior to incubation
y
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 209
by Prof. Purkinje, under the title of ‘Symbol ad Ovi Avium Historiam,’
Leipzig, 1830. The structure of the vitellus has been investigated by M.
Pouché (Comptes Rendus, 1839), and that of the umbilical cord by M. Flou-
rens (Institut, 1835, p. 324), while M. Serres has described the branchial re-
spiration of the embryo of mammifers and birds in the ‘ Ann. Sc. Nat.,’ ser. 2.
vol. xiii. p. 141.
Closely connected with oology is the subject of nidification, one of the
most interesting branches of ornithological observation, and one which often
throws important light on questions of natural affinities. I am not aware of
any special work on this subject-except the ‘Darstellung der Fortpflanzung
der Végel Europa’s,’ by Thienemann, and the popular ‘ Architecture of Birds’
by the late Prof. Rennie, but the details of the nidification of European birds
are contained in most of the works which treat upon them. The nests of the
majority of exotic species are still unknown, though Wilson, Audubon, Gould
and others have in some measure supplied this deficiency in our knowledge.
The songs and call-notes of birds are very important in their relation to
habits and affinities, though from the imperfect mode of indicating these
sounds by alphabetical or musical characters, there is much difficulty attend-
ing their study. In some cases, such as the relation of Phyllopneuste rufa to
P. trochilus, or of Corvus corone to C. americanus, the notes of the living
birds present clearer specific distinctions than are shown. by their physical
structure, and the melody of the woods thus becomes no less interesting to
the scientific zoologist than it is fascinating to the unlearned lover of nature.
External Terminology.—The series of terms employed by Brisson, Lin-
neeus and Latham, in describing the external parts of birds, were greatly im-
proved in precision and accuracy by the ‘ Prodromus Systematis Mammalium
et Avium’ of Illiger. His series of descriptive terms are still generally cur-
rent, and have undergone comparatively little change. Definitions and figures
illustrative of the terms employed in ornithology will be found in most general
treatises on the subject, among which Lichtenstein’s ‘ Verzeichniss der Dou-
bletten,’ Berlin, 1823, Stephens’s ‘General Zoology,’ Swainson’s ‘ Classifi-
cation of Birds,’ Wilson’s article Ornithology in ‘Encyclopedia Britannica,’
the article Birds in the ‘Penny Cyclopedia,’ and M’Gillivray’s ‘ History of
British Birds,’ may be mentioned as being useful guides to the language of
descriptive ornithology.
There is an excellent summary of the different characters used for orni-
thological classification, and of the due value to be attached to them, by M.
I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, in the ‘Nouv. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hist.’ 1832, and in the
_ ‘Essais de Zoologie Générale’ of the same author, 1841. He shows that the
value of the emarginated upper mandible, of the feathers and of the caruncles
has been much overrated, and points out that the structure of the tongue, the
wing and the toes, furnishes characters which have not been duly appreciated.
The importance of the feet, as indicating natural affinities by their structural
details, is further insisted on by M. de Lafresnaye in the ‘ Magazin de
Zoologie.’
7. Fossil Ornithology.
Our knowledge of Birds has received a less amount of extension from the
discoveries of Palzontology than perhaps that of any other class of the animal
kingdom. Not only are the fossil remains of birds of considerable rarity, and
confined principally to the most recent deposits, but when found, they seldom
present characters of such a nature as would enable us to predicate generic,
much less specific, differences. The generic characters of birds being mostly
— from the structure of the corneous appendages of the skin, such as
44. P
210 REPORT—1844. 4
the beak, tarsal scuta, claws, remiges and rectrices, are of course effaced ina
fossil state, and the study of the bony skeleton has not yet been carried into
sufficient detail (except i in the case of some very isolated groups) to serve as
the basis of generic definitions. The fossil skeletons of birds will neverthe-
less often guide us to the family or even the subfamily to which the speci-
mens belong, and as the science progresses a greater amount of precision will
no doubt be attained.
Birds, like Mammalia, appear not to have generally “multiplied and re-
plenished the earth” until the commencement of the Tertiary epoch. Ex-
amples of their existence at an earlier period do indeed occur, but though
the evidence of this fact is indisputable, yet the information it conveys is
vague and obscure, and we look in vain for such grand paleontological dis-
coveries as those which in the classes Feeptilia, Pisces, Mollusea and Crusta-
cea, have added whole families and even orders to the zoological system.
Many geologists have supposed that the rarity of fossil Mammals and Birds
in the Secondary rocks is owing to the improbability of their becoming im-
bedded in marine deposits, and not to their non-existence altogether. So far
however as it is possible to draw a conclusion from negative evidence, there
seem very strong reasons for believing that, in the European hemisphere at
least, neither Birds nor Mammals were called into existence prior to the middle
of the oolitic period. Let us take the case of the Coal-Measures, a formation
of vast extent, and which is proved to have been in some cases a terrestrial
deposit, and in others to have been formed in the immediate vicinity of dry
land. Yet this vast series of beds, which has been quarried by man to a
greater extent than any other, and which contains the remains of Plants and
even of Insects in the most perfect state of preservation, has never yet
afforded the slightest indication of a Mammal or a Bird. When we contrast
this fact with the frequent occurrence of bones of these animals in recent
peat-bogs, and in deposits, both marine and lacustrine, of the tertiary epoch,
we can hardly attribute the absence of such remains in the Coal-Measures to
any other cause than to the non-existence at that period of the two highest
classes of Vertebrata, The Triassic or New Red Sandstone series leads in
the European quarter of the globe to the same conclusion. We there find,
in Germany and in Britain, evidences of ancient shores and sandbanks, ex-
posed (probably during the recess of the tide) to the sun and the rain, and
presenting the footprints of numerous reptiles which walked upon their sur-
faces. Now these are the localities to which aquatic birds, as well as certain
mammals, love to resort, yet no traces of such animals have yet been met
with in any ascertained triassic rock of the eastern hemisphere. The Lias
and Lower Oolite again, though strictly marine deposits, contain in many
places the remains of plants or of insects which have floated from adjacent
shores, but invariably unaccompanied by any fragments of birds or of mam-
mals. In the Stonesfield slate we find the Jirst and the only indication of
Mammalian remains in the whole secondary series; but the bones from that
formation, which were once referred to birds, have ‘been proved to belong to
Pterodactyles, and no unequivocal examples of birds occur till we reach the
horizon of the Wealden beds, where they are exceedingly rare, and appa-
rently unaccompanied by Mammalia.
In the American continent however a remarkable case occurs, which seems
to prove the existence of birds at a period long anterior to their first appear-
ance in our hemisphere. I allude to the now well-known instance of Ornith-
ichnites, or birds’ footmarks, in the sandstone of the Connecticut valley,
first discovered by Dr. J. Deane, and described by Prof. Hitchcock in the
‘American Journal of Science,’ 1836-37. (See also Buckland’s ‘ Bridgewater
ae
—*
‘i
a
oy
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 211
Treatise,’ pl. 26 a and 4, and ‘Ann. Sc. Nat.’ ser. 2. vol. v. p.154.) Two ques-
tions arise in connexion with these impressions ; first, whether they are really
produced by birds; and secondly, what is the age of the rock in which they
are found. The first question seems to be now finally settled in the affirma-
tive, some of the impressions being so nearly identical with those of certain
existing Grallatores and Rasores as to convince the most incredulous. The
footmarks are evidently due to Birds of several distinct genera, some of which
present structures as anomalous as those found in the Reptiles and Fish of the
same remote epoch. The greater part, however, appear clearly referable to
Wading Birds allied in structure to the Charadriide or Scolopacide. Some
are of such a gigantic size that we can only seek their affinities among the
Struthionide, and others appear to have had the tarsi clothed with feathers
or bristles, a character which would exclude them from the G'rallatores as at
present defined, though, judging from the impressions made by living birds
in snow, I think this appearance may possibly be due to the trazling action of
the foot before it takes its hold of the ground. One very remarkable form
(if really belonging to a bird) has the outer and middle toe united as in the
so-called Syndactyles of Cuvier, and is further distinguished by all the four toes
pointing forwards (neither of which characters are in the existing fauna ever
found in ambulatory birds). Such anomalous structures however (reasoning
from the analogy of the fish and reptiles of the older rocks) appear rather to
confirm than to disprove the genuineness and antiquity of these Ornithich-
nites ; and as there is no other known class of animals to which they can by
possibility be referred, it would be very unphilosophical to deny them to be
the footmarks of birds, to which they bear so strong a resemblance.
In his ‘ Report on the Geology of Massachusets,’ Dr. Hitchcock has de-
seribed no less than twenty-seven species of these footmarks, and in the ‘ Re-
ports of the American Association of Geologists and Naturalists, 1843,’ he
has added five more. (See also Silliman’s Journal of Science, Jan. 1844.)
One of these much resembles the footprint of a Fringilla, others are similar
to those of Fulica. In all these impressions, the phalanges of the toes obey
the same numerical law which prevails, with hardly an exception, in the feet
of existing birds*. They are accompanied in some cases by reptilian foot-
marks resembling those of Chirotherium, which are at once distinguished
from the ornithic impressions by being guadruped, and by the forward posi-
tion of the thumb.
Granting then that we have here the genuine indications of an ancient
ornithological fauna, of which no other traces than these footmarks have been
found, we have next to consider the geological age at which they were formed.
Now it appears that the phenomena of superposition merely show that this
deposit is intermediate between the Carboniferous and Cretaceous series.
Could we have availed ourselves of such a latitude for speculation, the ana-
logy of the oldest fossil birds found in the eastern hemisphere, would lead us
to adopt the /atest period within the above limits for fixing the age of these
impressions. It has been announced however, both by Dr. Hitchcock and
by Mr. Lyell (Proc. Geol. Soe. vol. iii. p.'796), that the only recognizable
organic remains discovered in this deposit are Fish belonging to the genera
Paleoniscus and Catopterus, and as these genera have never been found
above the Triassic series, we are compelled to follow Dr. Hitchcock in refer-
* The remarkably simple law referred to is this: that if we consider the metatarsal spine
of certain Rasores (and which is wanting in all other birds) as the first toe, the hind toe as the
second, and the inner, middle, and outer toes as the third, fourth, and fifth, the number of
phalanges is found to progress regularly from one to five. The only exceptions are in the
Caprimulgide, Cypselus, and one or two others.
pQ-
212 REPORT— 1844.
ring the sandstone of Connecticut to the New Red system. These Ornithich-
nites therefore, abounding in this ancient formation, and separated by so vast
an interval of time from the oldest traces of fossil birds in our own hemi-
sphere, remain as one of those anomalies which serve to curb the eager spirit
of generalization, and to teach us that Nature fulfils her own designs without
regard to human theories. Let us hope that the American geologists will
never rest till they have discovered some osseous remains of the rare aves
whose foot-prints have given rise to such perplexing questions.
The rest of the subject of Fossil Birds may be briefly noticed. The oldest
example which I can meet with of their actual occurrence is mentioned in
Thurmann’s ‘ Soulévemens Jurassiques,’ (as quoted by Von Meyer, ‘ Palzo-
logica,’) who remarks however that the statement seems to require confirma-
tion. It is there stated that the fossil remains of Birds occur, in company
with those of Saurians and Tortoises, in the limestone of Soleure, which is
considered equivalent to the Portland beds.
A better authenticated instance is recorded by Dr. Mantell (Fossils of
Tilgate Forest, p. 8i ; Geol. Trans., vol. v.; Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. ii. p. 203),
who describes certain bones from the Wealden beds of Sussex, which he
shows (and his opinion is backed by that of Cuvier and of Owen) to belong
to Waders and probably to Ardetde. Other bones from the same locality
apparently belong to birds, yet present a nearer approach to the reptilian
type than any known existing genus.
Another example of a fossil bird from the secondary series is mentioned by
Dr. Morton (Synopsis of Cretaceous Rocks of United States), who procured
a specimen which he refers to the genus Scolopax, in the ferruginous sand of
New Jersey. This formation he considers to represent the Greensand of
Europe, and though its precise equivalent may be somewhat doubtful, there
is no doubt of its belonging to the Cretaceous series.
In the “ Glaris slate” of Switzerland, a member of the lower portion of the
Cretaceous system, a nearly entire skeleton of a bird resembling a Swallow,
has been found by Professor Agassiz.
The Chalk of Maidstone has supplied Lord Enniskillen with some fragments
of the skeleton of a large natatorial bird, considered by Professor Owen to be
most nearly allied to the Albatros (Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 298 ; Geol.
Trans., vol. vi.).
Proceeding to the Tertiary series, we find that ornitholites begin to appear
in greater abundance. Here, as in every other department of the animal
kingdom, we perceive a rapid approximation to the fauna which ‘is charac-
teristic of the period in which we now live.
The Eocene clays of the Isle of Sheppey have produced the bones of a bird
affording almost the only example of a decidedly new ornithological form
which has been rescued from the ruins of past geological ages. The sternum
of this bird is fortunately preserved, and Professor Owen having worked out
its affinities to all known genera with his usual sagacity and success, has ar-
rived at the conclusion that it forms a new genus among the Vulturide, which
he has denominated Lithornis (Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 163). This inter-
esting specimen will soon be described in Prof. Owen’s work on ‘ British Fossil
Mammalia and Birds,’ now in course of publication.
In Keenig’s ‘ Icones fossilium sectiles,’ fig. 91, some fragments of bones from
the Isle of Sheppey are delineated, which the author considers to belong to
a natatorial bird, and which he designates Bucklandium diluvit. If the
original specimens are in existence they would well deserve further examina-
tion.
The remaining instances of fossil birds from the Tertiary formations call for
wets.”
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 213
but little remark. The fragments which have been found are either undistin-
guishable, or at any rate have not yet been distinguished, from the genera and
species of the existing creation, though it is highly probable that new forms
might in some cases be detected if they were subjected to rigid examination.
In the Tertiary and for the most part Eocene strata of the continent, birds’
bones have been found in Auvergne, at Pont du Chateau and Gergovia, over-
laid by beds of basalt, and in one instance accompanied by fossil eggs ; in the
Cantal, at Perpignan, Montpellier, Wiluwe, St. Gilles, Sansan (where eggs
have also been found), Montmartre, Monte Bolca, GEningen, Kaltennordheim,
Ottmuth in Upper Silesia, Westeregeln near Magdeburg, and Neustadt in the
Hardt, and are recorded in the writings of Dufrénoy, Bravard, Croizet, Jo-
bert, Marcel de Serres, Karg, Cuvier, Mosler, Germar, Von Meyer, &e.
Birds’ feathers have been found fossil at Monte Bolca, Aix and Kanstatt.
Proceeding to the newer Tertiary beds, we meet with remains of birds in
the Crag of Suffolk and in the Plistocene fluvio-lacustrine beds at Lawford
(Buckland). M. Lund, whose researches into the bone-caverns of Brazil have
already very greatly extended our knowledge of fossil Mammalia, has an-
nounced that he has also obtained a considerable variety of fossil birds, in-
cluding a Struthious species larger than the existing Rhea of America; but
these remains have not as yet I believe been fully investigated. The same
remark also applies to the ornithic remains found by Dr. Falconer in that
mine of paleontology the Siwalik Hills of India. Amidst the extraordinary
remains of Mammals and of Reptiles obtained by that gentleman, the bones of
several species of Birds were found mostly referable to the Grallatorial order,
and exhibiting in some cases very gigantic proportions. As Dr. Falconer’s
collections are now in course of arrangement at the British Museum, we may
hope soon to learn more particulars of these interesting ornithic fossils.
The Gryphus antiquitatis of Schubert, a supposed colossal ornitholite from
Siberia, appears to be either altogether apocryphal, or to be founded on the
cranium of a Rhinoceros, mistaken for that of a bird.
In bone-caverns fossil birds have been found in company with extinct
Mammalia at Kirkdale (Buckland), Bize in the south of France (Marcel de
Serres), Avison, Salléles, Poudres near Sommiéres, and Chokier near Liége
(Von Meyer).
The bones of birds are of frequent occurrence in the osseous breccize which
fill the fissures of limestone on the coasts of the Mediterranean, but these are
probably referable in many cases to the recent epoch. They are recorded as
occurring at Gibraltar (Buckland), Cette, St. Antoin and Perpignan (Cuvier),
Nice (Risso), and Sardinia (Wagner, Nitzsch and Marmora).
I may here mention the remarkable instances of birds which belong to the
existing epoch of the world, but have become extinct in recent times. The
first is the well-known case of the Dodo, a bird insulated alike in structure
and in locality, and which being unable to fly, and .confined to one or two
small islands, was speedily exterminated by the thoughtless pioneers of civili-
zation. Most fortunately a head and foot of this bird still exist in the Ash-
molean, and another foot in the British Museum; and with these data, aided
by the descriptions of the old navigators, we are in some degree informed as
to the structure and natural history of this anomalous creature. The memoirs
on the Dodo by Mr. Duncan in the ‘ Zoological Journal,’ vol. iii., and by M.
De Blainville in the ‘ Nouvelles Annales du Muséum d’Hist. Nat.,’ vol. iv., are
highly interesting, and there is an admirable synopsis of the whole subject
from the pen of Mr. Broderip in the ‘ Penny Cyclopedia,’ article Dodo.
The bird described by Leguat (Voyage to the East Indies, 1'708,) as in-
habiting the island of Rodriguez so recently as 1691, and termed by him Le
214 REPORT—1844.
Solitaire, appears evidently to have been another lost species of terrestrial
bird distinct from the Dodo, and more allied in its characters to existing
species of Struthionide. It is therefore probable that the supposed bones of
the Dodo, described by Cuvier as found beneath a bed of lava in the Mauritius,
but which M. Quoy states to have been in fact brought from Rodriguez, as
well as the bones from the latter island presented by Mr. Telfair to the Zoolo-
gical Society (Proc. Zool. Soe., part i. p-31), but which have been unfortunately
mislaid, belonged, not to the Dodo, as Cuvier supposed, but to the Solitaire.
On this supposition we can the better account for a fact which threw doubt
at the time upon Cuvier’s identification of the bones at Paris, namely, that the
sternum in this collection presented a mesial ridge, indicating strong pectoral
muscles. Now Leguat tells us that the Solitaire, though unable to fly, had
its wings enlarged at the end into a knob, with which it attacked its enemies,
a structure which would require large pectoral muscles and a sternal crest.
These bones and others, said to be from the Mauritius, in the Andersonian
Museum at Glasgow and at Copenhagen, require further investigation, and
every additional fragment that can be recovered from the caverns or alluvial
beds of Mauritius, Rodriguez, or Bourbon, ought to be most carefully pre-
served.
The island of Bourbon appears to have been inhabited at a recent date by
two species of birds allied to, but distinct from, the Dodo of Mauritius and
the Solitaire of Rodriguez. I lately found in a MS. journal given by the late
Mr. Telfair to the Zoological Society, an exact and circumstantial account of
two species of Struthious birds which inhabited Bourbon in 1670 (Zool. Pro-
ceedings, April 23, 1844, Ann. Nat. Hist., and Phil. Mag., Nov. 1844). It ap-
pears then that this small oceanic group of islands possessed several distinct
species of this anomalous family, the whole of which were exterminated soon
after the islands became tenanted by man.
Evidence of the recent existence and probable extinction of another Stru-
thious bird has very lately come to light in New Zealand, where its bones are
occasionally met with in the alluvium of rivers. The first portion that was
brought to this country was a very imperfect fragment of a femur, which
Professor Owen did not hesitate to assign to an extinct gigantic bird allied to
the Emeu (Trans. of Zool. Soc., vol. iii. p. 29). This bold conclusion, which
from the imperfection of the data seemed prophetic rather than inductive, was
speedily confirmed by the arrival of fresh consignments of bones, and we are
now in possession of a considerable portion of the skeleton of this ornithic
monster, which has been appropriately named by Professor Owen Dinornis.
That skilful anatomist has even been enabled, from the materials already re-
ceived, to point out no less than five species of this genus, differing in stature
and the proportions of their parts (Proc. Zool. Soc., Oct. 1843). These birds,
if extinct, must have become so in very recent times, and probably through
human agency ; but it is as yet by no means certain that they do not still in-
habit the unexplored interior of the middle island of the New Zealand group.
See notices by Rev. W. Cotton in ‘ Zool. Proe.,’ 1843, and by the Rev. W.
Colenso in the ‘ Tasmanian Journal,’ reprinted in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.,’
vol. xiv.
Another very interesting bird of the same region, the Apterya, is now
threatened with the fate which has befallen the Dodo and (as presumed) the
Dinornis. Civilized man has already upset the balance of animal life in New
Zealand. It is stated by Dieffenbach that Cats, originally introduced by the
colonists, have multiplied greatly in the woods and are rapidly reducing the
numbers of the Apteryx, as well as of other birds, so that unless some Anti-
podean Waterton will disinterestedly enclose a park for their preservation,
gaa
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 215
these extraordinary productions of the Creator’s hand will soon perish from
the face of the earth.
8. Ornithological Museums.
The conservation of specimens for the purpose of reference is no less essen-
tial to the progress of zoology than the description of species in books, and
in the case of ornithology there certainly is no scarcity of collections, both
public and private, of illustrative specimens. Unfortunately, indeed, classi/i-
cation, which is no less important, though far less easy, than accumulation, is
too often wanting or imperfect in such repositories, and their scientific utility
is thus very greatly diminished. I may congratulate the zoological world,
however, that this is no longer the condition of our great national collection,
the British Museum. Without adverting to the immense improvements intro-
duced in the last few years into all its other departments, I need only remark
that the ornithological gallery, from the beauty of its arrangements and the
extent of its collections, rivals, if not exceeds, the first museums of the conti-
nent. ‘The scientific classification of the specimens is making great progress,
under the able superintendence of the two Messrs. Gray, and ornithologists
will soon possess in this collection a standard model which may be applied
with advantage to other museums. This latter object will be greatly aided
by the recent publication of catalogues, scientifically arranged by Mr. Gray,
of all the species contained in the museum.
These catalogues, which are brought out in an accessible form, are calcu-
lated to be of great service to science. The classification and the scientific
nomenclature are based on sound principles, and are corrected by the latest
observations of zoologists, and every specimen is separately enumerated, with
its locality and the name of its donor, which is especially important in a col-
lection containing the type-specimens, from which original descriptions have
been made. ‘The zoological catalogues of the British Museum will now be-
come standard works of reference, exhibiting both the riches and the deside-
rata of our national collection, and setting an example which we may hope to
see followed by the great public museums abroad. The catalogue of the
Mammalia was published last year; of the Birds, the Accipitres, Galline,
Gralle and Anseres are already issued, and the other portions will speedily
follow. Dr. Hartlaub has been the first to profit by this spirited example, and
has published an excellent catalogue of birds in the Bremen Museum.
Another collection, of almost equal value, is that of the Zoological Society,
how in progress of arrangement in a new building at the Society’s Gardens.
Among private cabinets I may mention Mr. Gould’s Australian collection
as one which possesses a peculiar scientific value. It consists of selected
specimens of the entire ornithology of Australia, the sexes, dates and locali-
ties of each being indicated, and as these specimens form the standard author-
ities for the accuracy of Mr. Gould’s figures and descriptions, we may hope
that this unique collection may be preserved for reference in some permanent
repository. But I must abstain from further details, as it would be impossible
to give anything like a fair report on the individual merits of the numerous
ornithological museums now extant without a far more extended personal in-
spection of them than I have had opportunity to make. It may however
assist the student to be furnished with a list of all the more important col-
lections of birds which have come to my knowledge (though many others
doubtless exist); and I shall venture on no other criticism of them than
merely to distinguish those general collections which are of first-rate im-
portance by CapiTa.s, and those which are confined to British ornithology
by Italics.
216 REPORT—1844.
ENGLAND :—Public Museums.—London (1. British Musrum; 2. ZooxoGi-
cAL Socirty; 3. East Inp1a Company; 4. Linnzan Society; 5. United Service
Institution; 6. College of Surgeons; 7. London Missionary Society) ; Newcastle-
on-Tyne; Carlisle; Kendal; Durham; Scarborough; Leeds; York; Lancaster ;
Manchester ; Liverpool (Royal Institution) ; Nottingham ; Derby ; Chester ; Shrews-
bury; Ludlow; Hereford; Burton-on-Trent; Birmingham (School of Medicine) ;
Warwick; Cambridge; Norwich; Bury St. Edmunds; Saffron Walden; Oxford;
Worcester ; Cheltenham; Bristol; Plymouth; Bridport; Gosport (Haslar Hos-
pital) ; Chichester; Rochester; Chatham (Fort Pitt) ; Canterbury; Margate.
Private Museums.—Earu or Drrsy, Knowsley; Lord Say and Sele, Erith; Earl
of Malmesbury, Christchurch, Hants; Messrs. Hancock and Dr. Charlton, New-
castle; P. J. Selby, Twizell; Dr. Heysham, Carlisle; — Crossthwaite, Keswick ;
J.R. Wallace, Distington, Cumberland ; — Newell, Littleborough, Lancashire; A.
Strickland, Bridlington Quay; J. Hall, Scarborough; C. Waterton, Walton Hall ;
W. H. R. Read, York; G. S. Foljambe, Osberton ; Rev. A. Padley, Nottingham ;
H. Sandbach, Liverpool; Rev. T. Gisborne, Yoxall, Staffordshire; T.C. Eyton, Don-
nerville, Shropshire; J. Walcot, Worcester; H. E. Strickland, Oxford; Rev. Dr.
Thackeray, Cambridge; J. H. Gurney, Earlham Hill, Norfolk; R. Hammond, Swaff-
ham; Rev. G. Steward, Caistor; EH. Lombe, Melton Hall, Norfolk; Rev. C. Penrice,
Plumstead; J. R. Wheeler, Wokingham; — Dunning, Maidstone; C. Tomkins,
M.D., Abingdon ; W. V. Guise, Rendcomb; T. B. L. Baker, Hardwicke, Gloucester ;
Rev. A. Mathew, Kilve, Somerset ; Dr. Roberts, Bridport; Dr. E. Moore, Plymouth ;
J. H. Rodd, Trebartha, Cornwall; H. Doubleday, Epping; W. Yarrell, J. Gould,
J. Leadbeater, and G. Loddiges, London.
WALES :—Private.—L. L. Dillwyn, Swansea.
SCOTLAND :—Public.—Edinburgh ; Glasgow (1. Hunterian Museum; 2. An-
dersonian Museum ; 3. King’s College) ; Aberdeen ; St. Andrew’s ; Kelso; Dumfries.
Private—Sir W. Jardine, Jardine Hall; Capt. H. M. Drummond, Meggineh
Castle, Errol; E. Sinclair, Wick; Duke of Roxburgh, Fleurs; Dr. Parnell, Edin-
burgh.
IRELAND :—Public.—Dublin (1. Royal Dublin Society; 2. Natural History
Society ; 3. Ordnance Collection; 4. Trinity College) ; Belfast Museum.
Private.—Dr. Farran and T. W. Warren, Dublin; Dr. Burkitt, Waterford; Dr.
Harvey, Cork; J. V. Stewart, Rockhill, Donegal; R. Davis, Clonmel; Rev. T. Knoz,
Toomavara; W. Thompson, Belfast.
FRANCE :—Public.—Paris; Straspure; Bordeaux; Clermont; Lyons; Bou-
logne ; Caen ; Rouen; Metz; Epinal; Marseilles; Avignon; Arles; Nismes ; Mont-
ellier.
: Private.—Prince Massena, Paris; MM. Baillon and De Lamotte, Abbeville; Les-
son, Rochefort ; Allard, Montbrisson ; Baron de Lafresnaye, Falaise ; Fleuret, Bifferi,
Boursier, and Jourdan, Lyons ; Crespon, Nismes ; Degland, Lille ; Bequillet, Toulouse.
BELGIUM :—Public.—Brussets; Ghent; Louvain; Liége ; Cologne (Jesuits’
College) ; Tournay.
Private.—M. Kets, Antwerp; L. F. Paret, Ostend; M. Dubus, Brussels.
HOLLAND :—Public.—LryprEn ; Haarlem.
DENMARK :—Public.—Copenhagen.
NORWAY :—Public.—Christiania ; Bergen; Drontheim.
Private.—Prof. Esmark, Christiania.
SWEDEN :—Public.—Stockholm ; Lund; Upsal; Gottenburg.
Private.—Mr. R. Dann, Sioloholm, Gottenburg.
RUSSIA :—Public.—Sr. Peterspure ; Moscow ; Casan; Odessa.
PRUSSIA :—Public.—Ber.in.
AUSTRIA :—Public.—Vienna ; Trieste ; Laibach.
WESTERN GERMANY :—Public.—Bonn; Mannheim; Mayence; Franx-
Frort-on-Marin; Darmstadt ; Heidelberg; Karlsruhe; Freiburg; Municu ; Stut-
gart; Dresden; Gottingen ; Greifswald; Bremen.
Private.—Prince Maximilian, Neuwied; C. L. Brehm; J. A. Naumann, Dessau ;
Dr. Hartlaub, Bremen.
SWITZERLAND :—Public.—Basle ; Neufchatel; Berne; Soleure; Geneva;
Fribourg (Jesuits’ College) ; Sion (Jesuits’ College).
pia:
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 217
ITALY :—Public.—Turin; Pavia; Parma; Bologna; FLorENcE; Rome (Aca-
demia della Sapienza); Genoa; Nice; Pisa; Naples.
Private.—Prince of Canino, Rome; Prince Aldobrandini, Frascati; Marchese
Costa, Chambery; Marchese Breme, Turin; Signor Passerini, Florence; C. Du-
razzo, Genoa; Count Contarini, Venice; Contessa Borgia, Velletri; Signor Ante-
nori, Perugia ; Signor Costa, Naples.
SPAIN :—Public.—Madrid ; Gibraltar.
IONIAN ISLANDS :—Public.—Corfu.
GREECE :—Public.—Athens.
MALTA :—Private.—Signor Schembri.
NORTH AMERICA :—Public.—Montreal; Cambridge; Salem; Philadelphia
(1. Academy of Sciences; 2. Peale’s Museum); Charleston; New York; Mexico,
Private.—Signor Constancia, Guatemala.
AFRICA :—Public.—Cape Town.
_ INDIA :—Public.—Calcutta.
Private.—T. C. Jerdon, Nellore.
AUSTRALIA :—Public.—Sydney; Hobart Town.
In connexion with Museums, the subject of Taxidermy may be briefly
noticed. Although in acquiring the somewhat difficult art of preparing the
_ skins of birds for collections, practice is far more important than precept,
yet useful hints may often be obtained from the treatises which have been
published on the subject. Among the best of these may be mentioned Mrs.
Lee’s ‘ Taxidermy,’ Swainson’s ‘ Taxidermy’ in ‘ Lardner’s Cyclopedia,’
Waterton’s ‘ Wanderings, and his ‘ Essays in Natural History,’ Boitard’s
‘Manuel du Naturaliste Préparateur,’ Brehm’s ‘ Kunst Vogel als Balge zu-
bereiten,’ &c., Weimar, and Kaup’s < Classification der Saugthiere und Végel,’
Darmstadt, 1844.
Ornithological Libraries —lIt is needless to enumerate all the scientific li-
braries in which the subject of ornithology is adequately represented, espe-
cially as the museums above-mentioned are in most cases accompanied with
appropriate collections of books. Of libraries unconnected with museums I
may notice, as especially useful to the ornithological student, the Radcliffe
at Oxford, the Royal Societies of London and of Edinburgh, and the fine
ecllection of zoological works formed by Mr. Grut of Edinburgh, to whom I
am indebted for access to several rare works.
9. Desiderata of Ornithology.
Having now given an account of the recent progress and present state of
Ornithology, I will conclude with pointing out the desiderata of the science,
showing the deficiencies which require to be supplied in order to refine the
erude mass of knowledge already extracted from the mine, and to make fur-
ther researches into the storehouses of Nature.
1. There is a great want of increased precision and uniformity in the value
of the genera, and of the superior groups which various authors liave intro-
duced into ornithoiogy. All groups of the same rank are supposed in theory
to possess characters of the same value or amount of importance, and the
object of the naturalist should be to bring them as nearly as possible to this
state of equality. It must indeed be admitted, that no certain test seems to
have been yet discovered for weighing the value of zoological characters.
The importance of the same character manifestly varies in different depart-
ments of nature, and must therefore be estimated by moral rather than by
demonstrative evidence. The real test of the value of a structural character
ought to be its influence on the economy of the living animal, but here we
too often have to lament our ignorance or our false inductions, and in many
cases we are wholly unable to detect the relations between structure and
a
218 REPORT—1844.
function. More definite principles of classification may hereafter be dis-
covered, and meantime all that we can do is to arrange our systems accord-
ing to sound reason and without theoretical prepossession. By care and
judgement much may be done to give greater regularity and exactness to our
methods of classification, either by introducing new groups where the im-
portance of certain characters requires it, or by rejecting such as have been
proposed by others on insufficient grounds. At the present day many authors
are in the habit of founding what they term “ new genera” upon the most
trifling characters, and thus drowning knowledge beneath a deluge of names.
As this isa point of great importance to the welfare of zoology in general,
I may be excused for dwelling on it for a few moments.
In the subdividing of larger groups into genera, even in the strictest con-
formity with the natural method, there is evidently no other rule but conve-
nience to determine how far this process shall be carried. However closely
the species of a group may be allied, yet as long as any one or more of them
possess a character which is wanting to the remainder, it will always be in
the power of any person to partition off such species and to give them a ge-
neric name. Take the very natural group Parus for instance, as restricted
by most modern authors (i. e. Parus of Linneus, deducting Agithalus
and Panurus). First we may separate the long-tailed species, and follow
Leach in calling it generically Mecistura. Of the remaining Pari, we may
make a genus of the crested species (P. cristatus), then another of the blue
species with short beaks (P. ceruleus, &c.), a third of the black and yellow
group (P. major, &c.), and a fourth of the gray species (P. palustris, &c.).
[ N.B. Generic names have actually been given to these groups by Kaup in
his ‘ Skizzirte Entwickelungsgeschichte der Europaischen Thierwelt.’] But
another author may go still further, and may again subdivide the groups
above enumerated, a process which would lead to the absurd result of making
as many genera as there are species, or in other words, of giving to each
species two specific names and no generic one. ‘Therefore genera should not
be subdivided further than is practically convenient for the purpose of fixing
really important characters in the memory ; and seeing that there are already
more than 1000 genera provided for the 5000 species of birds (which are
probably all that can be said to be accurately known) it seems evidently in-
expedient to increase the number of genera, except in the comparatively rare
cases where new forms are discovered, or really important and peculiar struc-
tures have been overlooked.
The precise rank in the scale of successive generalizations which shall be oc-
cupied by those groups which we term genera is then a matter of convenience,
and consequently of opinion. Nature affords us no other test of the just limits
of a genus (or indeed of any other group), than the estimate of its value
which a competent and judicious naturalist may form. The boundaries of
genera will therefore always be liable in some degree to fluctuate, but this is
unavoidable, and it is a less evil than to give an unlimited license to the sub-
division of groups and the manufacture of names. The only remedy for
this excessive multiplication of genera, is for subsequent authors who think
such genera too trivial, not to adopt them, but to retain the old genus in
which they were formerly included*. :
* It is usual where this is done to retain the groups, which are thus deprived of a generic
rank, under the title of subgenera. There appear to me however to be great objections to the
adoption of subgeneric names in zoology. First, it would introduce into a science already
overloaded by the weight of its terminology, an additional set of names whose rank is not
(like that of families, subfamilies and genera) indicated by the form of the word, but which are
undistinguishable to the eye from real generic names, and would therefore be perpetually con-
foundedwith them. Secondly,subgenera would greatly interfere with the harmonious working
a)
7
ON THE PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 219
We may obtain a great amount of fixity, in the position at least, if not
in the extent of our groups, by invariably selecting a type, to be permanently
referred to as a standard of comparison. Every family, for instance, should
have its type-subfamily, every subfamily its type-genus, and every genus its
type-species. But it must not be supposed, with some theorists, that these
types really exist as such in nature; they are merely examples or illustrations
selected for convenience to serve as permanent fixed points in our groups,
whatever be the extent which we may give to their boundaries. By adhering
to this notion of types we may often indicate these groups with greater pre-
cision than it is possible to do by means of definition alone.
2. Another desideratum in ornithology is to discover some sure mode of
distinguishing real species from local varieties. The naturalists of one school
are disposed to attribute nearly all specific distinction to the accidental in-
fluence of external agents, while others regard the most trivial characters
which the eye can detect as indicating real and permanent species. Between
these two extremes, the judicious and practised naturalist has seldom much
‘difficulty in keeping a middle course, and perhaps in ornithology the cases
of ambiguity are less frequent than in many other departments of nature ;
still the student will be sometimes at a loss to distinguish between those cha-
racters which were impressed on a species at its creation, and those which
may be reasonably attributed to external agents, and we must look for fur-
ther research to solve these difficulties.
__ 3. We are greatly in want of more information as to the habits, anatomy,
oology, and geographical distribution of the majority of exotic species.
With no other data than are furnished by dried skins, we are too often com-
— to guess at, rather than to demonstrate, the true affinities of species.
However essential may be the arrangement of specimens in museums, they
aupply only a portion of the requisite evidence, and a vast and fascinating
field of research awaits the naturalist who shall devote himself to observing,
as well as collecting, the ornithology of foreign regions*. The anatomy
of many genera and even families of birds is wholly unknown, and it would
_ be well if some student would devote himself especially to this department,
and endeavour to make a classification of birds by their anatomical characters
alone. If such a system were found to coincide with the arrangements which
have been based on external characters, the strongest proof would be fur-
nished of its reality and truth.
__ 4, There yet remain many extensive regions of the world, of whose orni-
thology we know little or nothing. Great as have been the zoological col-
lections made of late years by individuals and governments, there is still
much virgin soil for the naturalist to cultivate. The birds of the vast Chi-
nese empire are only known by the rude paintings of the natives, though
of the “ binomial method,” that mainspring of modern systematic nomenclature; for one author
would habitually indicate species by their generic and another by their subgeneric names, and
the same word would be sometimes used in a generic, sometimes ina subgeneric sense, so that
instead of a uniformity of language being adopted by zoologists, nothing but a vague and
| Capricious uncertainty would result. If it were possible to establish a uniform system of
trinomial nomenclature, so as always to indicate every species by its generic and subgeneric
as Well as by its specific name, the use of subgenera might indeed be tolerated, but such a me-
thod would be far too cumbrous and oppressive for practice, and I must therefore enter my
| humble protest against subgeneric names altogether. Not that I object to the subdividing
| large genera for convenience of reference into defined though anonymous groups; but let not
these groups be designated by proper names, unless their characters be sufficiently prominent
to warrant generic distinction.
* Collectors would double the value of their specimens if they would invariably attach to
them a small label, stating at least the sex, date, and locality, and adding any other observa-
| Hons which they may be able to make.
220 REPORT—1844.
nothing would be easier than to instruct those ingenious people in the art of
collecting specimens. We obtain, too often indeed in a mutilated state, the
gaudy Paradisiide of New Guinea, but the less attractive birds of that
country, as well as of the whole Polynesian archipelago, are almost unknown.
From Madagascar a few remarkable species have been occasionally sent to
Europe, but the peculiarly insulated fauna of that island, partaking neither
of an African nor an Asiatic character, is still very imperfectly explored.
Even our own colonies of the West Indies and Honduras have been regarded
only with a commercial, and not with a scientific eye, and their ornithology
affords to this day—with shame be it spoken—an almost untrodden field of
inquiry. Morocco, Eastern Africa, Arabia, Persia, Ceylon, the Azores, and
the rocks and billows of the southern ocean, present ample materials for the
future researches of the ornithologist, and will doubtless furnish many new
generic and specific forms.
5. Besides the collecting of new species, the correct determination of those
already described is no less important. ‘The names and characters of species
are scattered through such an infinity of works, and are often so vaguely
defined, that the apparent number of known species far exceeds the real one,
and much critical labour is required to reduce the nominal species to their
actual limits. Having myself devoted much time to this department of or-
nithology, I have found that the number of synonyms is nearly threefold
that of the species to which they refer, and it is important that the further
growth of this evil should be checked by the publication of exact lists of
species and their synonyms.
6. This vast multiplication of nominal species mainly results from the great
number of scientific periodical works now issuing in all parts of the civilized
world, and which it is almost impossible for any one person to consult. This
is an unavoidable consequence of the great diffusion of knowledge at the
present day, but the inconvenience which results from it might be much di-
minished if some method were adopted of centralizing the mass of scientific
information which is daily poured forth. It is much to be wished that some
publication like the excellent but extinct ‘Bulletin des Sciences’ were again
established, containing abstracts of all the important matter in other scien-
tific works; or if this were found too great an undertaking, a periodical
which should merely announce the titles of the articles contained in all other
scientific Journals and Transactions as they are published, would be a most
useful indicator to the working naturalist. Perhaps the nearest approach to-
wards supplying this desideratum at present, is made by the French scientifie
newspaper ‘L’Institut,’ and in Germany by Oken’s ‘ Isis,’ and Wiegmann’s
‘ Archiv. We shall shortly too possess an alphabetical index to all works and
memoirs on zoology, through the praiseworthy efforts of Prof. Agassiz, whose
gigantic undertaking, the ‘ Bibliographia Zoologica,’ is now ready for the press.
7. The science of ornithology would be much advanced if a greater number
of persons would devote themselves to the general subject. ‘The majority of
those who now study it, or form collections, confine themselves to the birds
of their own country, under an impression that general ornithology is too
wide a field for them to enter upon. They often are not aware at how small
an expenditure of money or space a very large general collection may be
formed. By adopting the plan first recommended by Mr. Swainson, of
keeping the skins of birds in drawers, instead of mounting them in glazed
cabinets, the collector may arrange many thousand specimens in a room of
ordinary size, and have them at all times ready for reference and study. Or
if the ornithologist considers a general collection too cumbrous, he may de-
vote himself to the study and arrangement of particular groups, and supply
4 OBSERVATIONS ON SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURE. 221
g
the science with valuable monographs. Such a course would be of far
_ greater service to zoology, as well as more interesting to the student, than if
he were to confine himself to the almost exhausted subject of European or
British ornithology.
8. The last point which I shall notice is the prevailing want of scientific
arrangement in our ornithological museums, both public and private. Ihave
seen few collections in this country in which anything more is attempted than
a general sorting of the specimens into their orders. and families, and fewer
still in which the generic and specific distinctions are indicated by systematic
arrangement and uniformity of labelling. It is needless to remark how
essential classification is to the scientific utility of a museum, but some excuse
_ for the general want of it may be found in the scarcity of suitable works to
serve as guides in arrangement. Now, however, by following the code of
_ zoological nomenclature adopted by this Association (Report for 1842), and
_ by taking as models the excellent ‘Catalogues of the British Museum,’ and
y Mr. G. R. Gray’s ‘ Genera of Birds,’ the scientific curators of museums can be
no longer at a loss, and we may hope soon to see a great reform effected in the
arrangement of our ornithological collections.
In concluding this sketch of the progress and prospects of Ornithology, I
_ must apologize for many imperfections and omissions which are unavoidable
_ in treating of so extensive a subject. A person with more time at command
_ and more favourably circumstanced for consulting authorities, would doubt-
less have rendered this Report more complete, but I trust that it may be of
_ some use in guiding the student to the sources of his information, and in
pointing out the best methods of advancing this fascinating department of
_ scientific zoology.
y
Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean
a Temperature in Ireland. By Tuomas Oupuam, Esq.
In pursuance of this object thermometers were placed, in August 1843, in
_ the deepest part of the Knockmahon Copper Mines in the County of Water-
_ ford; one being sunk three feet into the rock, and another into the lode at a
depth of 774 feet from the surface. A thermometer of ordinary construc-
_ tion was hung in the gallery or level where these were placed, and another
fixed four feet from the level of the ground at surface in shade, all protected
from radiation, &c. By the zealous assistance of Mr. J. Petherick, the agent
_ of the Mining Company of Ireland, arrangements were made that all these
should be regularly read by the underground captains. It was intended to
have completed an entire year’s observations, but the necessity for extending
_ the working of the mine in that part obliged the instruments to be removed
in July 1844.
_ The readings are given in full in the tables, the necessary corrections
having been made to reduce them all to the same standard.
__ These mines are in lat. 52° 8! north, and the mean annual temperature at
the surface calculated by the usual formula would, therefore, be 50°-026.
_ The general average of the thermometers at the depth of 774 feet, and the
‘Maxima and minima, were as follows :—
Average. Maximum. Minimum.
eT ae dactaiigss: a 57176 58°5 56°25
In rock or country .. 57:369 58°5 56°25
Bahalees 55 scans aes 57-915 58°5 57°25
9292 “REPORT—1844,
being a difference in excess of the rock over the air of 193, or nearly *2 of
a degree, and of the lode over the rock of °546.
Taking the temperature of the rock thus determined as the general average,
it shows an increase of 7°343 Fahr. for a depth of 774 feet, or deducting
100 feet for the line of no variation, we have 7°343 for 674 feet, or 1° for
91°82 feet.
This is a much lower rate of increase than has been noticed in general
hitherto. It was found necessary in the present case to fix the instruments
not far from being perpendicularly under the sea, the shaft of the mine being
nearly on the edge of the cliff, which is here 70 to 75 feet high. If there-~
fore we should allow-for this difference, and consider the sea level as the
surface, we shall have a depth of 600 feet corresponding to 79343 Fahr., or
1°=81°74 feet, still, after making every allowance, a slower rate of increase
than usually observed.
Another important circumstance which seems to be fully established by
these observations, is the fact that there was a gradual though slight dimi-
nution of the temperature as the observations proceeded. Thus, if we take
the average of the first half of the observations for the thermometer in air
at the bottom, and compare it with the average of the last half, we find the
result thus:
First half, from August to January . . . 57613
Last half, from January to July . . . - 56697
ierenees i. ars. 3 tee ‘916
the diminution being nearly one degree.
Similarly, the thermometer in the rock gives as an average for the first
half 57°718 ; for the last half 57°044 ; the difference being °674.
The thermometer in the lode gives,—
Perct hall 2. :s-,. 58000
Lasthalt civscsc ec STS
Difference . . . *325
a smaller difference than in the last cases; but this instrument, it skould be
remembered, was not fixed for four months after the others.
That this diminution was a gradually increasing one would become evident
from comparing the results more in detail ; but the general fact seems abun-
dantly established, that so far from the operations of mining, the men em-
ployed, the lights, blasting, &c., having the result of increasing the tempera-
ture below, this temperature constantly and gradually decreased as these opera-
tions became more extensive.
It may be mentioned, in connection with the observations here given, that
it is also the impression of the miners employed in these mines, many of
whom have also worked in Cornwall, America, &c., that it is the coolest copper-
mine they ever wrought in.
In addition to these observations, arrangements have been made for a
similar series in other mines, where the rocks are of a different character,
but as yet no results have been obtained sufficient to report to the Associa--
tion.
Of the £10 granted at the last meeting of the Association for these expe-
riments, £5 has been expended for the repairs of instruments, carriage, &c.
T. OLpHAM.
[To this Report was appended a register of all observations from August
7, 1843, to July 13, 1844. ]
2
j 223
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA.
Report on the extinct Mammals of Australia, with Descriptions of cer-
tain Fossils indicative of the former Existence in that Continent of
large Marsupial Representatives of the Order PACHYDERMATA.
By Prof. Owen, F.R.S.
Tue fossil bones discovered by Major (now Colonel Sir T. L.) Mitchell, in
the ossiferous caves of Wellington Valley, and described in the Appendix to
his ‘ Expeditions into the Interior of Australia,’ established the former exist-
ence in that continent, during the period apparently corresponding with that
of the deposition of our post-pliocene unstratified drift, of species of Wombat
(Phascolomys), Potoroo (Hypsiprymnus), Phalanger (Phalangista), Kanga-
roo (Macropus), and Dasyure (Dasyurus); but not any of the remains were
referrible to the known existing species of those genera, whilst some of the
extinct species, as the Macropus Titan and Maeropus Atlas, greatly exceeded
in size the largest known Kangaroos*. The fossil Dasyure (Das. laniarius)
also far surpassed in bulk any of the known Dasyures now living in Australia,
and more than equalled the largest existing species (Dasyurus ursinus),
which is confined to Van Diemen’s Land. The fossil lower jaw, which, from
the width of the dental interspaces, I was led to doubt, in 1838, whether to
refer to the Dasyurus laniarius or to “some extinct marsupial carnivore of
an allied but distinct speciest,” I have subsequently been able to identify,
generically, with the Thylacinus, by comparison with the skull of that species,
—the Hyzna of the Tasmanian colonists,—which I have lately received through
the kindness of Sir John Franklin}. In addition to the fossils thus generically
allied to the peculiar marsupial Mammalia of the Australian continent and
adjacent islands, I likewise detected in one specimen§ an indication of a
species surpassing in size any of the others, and with characters so peculiar
as to justify me in regarding it as generically distinct from all known recent
or fossil Mammalia, and for which I proposed the name Diprotodon ||, subse-
quently referring it to the same marsupial family as the Wombat].
Since the period of the examination of the fossils above alluded to, Sir
Thomas Mitchell has at different times transmitted other mammalian fossils
to Dr. Buckland and myself, from the plains of Darling Downs; tne College
of Surgeons has received from Dr. Hobson, of Melbourne, South Australia,
remains of large extinct Mammalia discovered by Mr. Mayne in recent ter-
tiary or post-pliocene deposits of the district of Melbourne; and I have been
favoured by Count Strzelecki with the opportunity of examining the collee-
tion of fossils obtained by that enterprising and accomplished traveller whilst
exploring the cave district of Wellington Valley in 1842.
Tn the notices of some of these fossils which I have communicated to the
‘Annals of Natural History,’ the former existence of a large Mastodontoid
quadruped was first indicated** by a fossil femur; the gigantic Proboscidian
being subsequently determined, by a molar tooth obtained by Count Strze-
lecki from a bone-cave in the interior of Australia, to have been very nearly
allied to the Mastodon angustidens++.
: lager ‘ Three Expeditions into the Interior of Australia,’ 8vo, 1838, vol. ii. p. 359.
. p- P ‘
{ Entire and well-preserved bodies of the Thylacine have since been transmitted by
Ronald Gunn, Esq. to the Royal College of Surgeons.
§ Mitchell, Joc. cit., pl. 31, figs. 1 and 2.
|| Ib. p.362. The name has reference to the two large incisive tusks in the lower jaw, a
type of dentition common to several existing marsupial genera, but displayed on a compara-
tively gigantic scale by the extinct quadruped in question.
{| ‘ Phascolomyide,’ Classification of Marsupialia, Zoological Transactions, vol. ii. p. 332.
** Annals of Natural History, vol. xiii., May 1843, p. 329. Tf Ib., vol. xiv. p. 268.
paealy
2294 REPORT—1844.
This is the only Australian fossil of the Mammiferous class which I have
hitherto been able to refer with certainty to an extra-Australian genus.
A portion of a molar tooth presenting characters very like those of the
molars of both the Mastodon giganteus and the Dinothertum, described and
figured in my first memoir on the Mastodontoid femur*, I was subsequently
enabled to refer, in a notice of the true Mastodon’s molar, to the genus Di-
protodon.
The present Report is designed to give additional information of the na-
ture and affinities of the Diprotodon, as well as of two species of an allied
but distinct genus of large Pachydermoid marsupials; such information ha-
ving been derived from an examination and comparison of the series of fossils
from the three distinct and remote localities in the continent of Australia
above-mentioned.
Genus Diproropon.
Species D. australis.
The most decisive specimen of this species consists of the anterior extre-
mity of the right ramus of the lower jaw, exhibiting the rough articular sur-
face of the broad and deep symphysis, the base of the large incisive tusk, the
second and third molars, and the socket of the first. The third molar is
the most entire; its grinding surface is produced into two high subcompressed
transverse ridges, placed one before the other ; there is also a ridge along both
the anterior and the posterior parts of the base of the crown. ‘The exposed
commencement of the fangs is invested with a thick coating of cement; a
portion of this substance also remains in the interspace between the posterior
eminence and its basal ridge; the enamel is thick and presents a rugose or
finely-reticulate and punctate exterior, the perforations being seen at the
fractured margins to lead to smooth pits extending a little way into the
enamel. The antero-posterior diameter of this tooth is two inches, the trans-
verse diameter is one inch three lines ; the extent of the three sockets of the
molars is four inches five lines; they progressively diminish in size from the
third to the first. The second molar is much narrower than the third, but
its crown seems also, by the form of the broken surface, to have supported
two principal transverse eminences and an anterior and posterior basal ridge ;
its antero-posterior extent is one inch and a half, its transverse diameter at
the posterior division, where it is thickest, is nine lines; the coronal ridges
are broken off. The first or anterior molar is lost, but its socket shows that
it was implanted, like the other molars, by two fangs. The anterior part of
the symphysis and crown of the large incisor are broken off; the extent from
the first molar to the fractured end measures six inches three lines; the upper
border of this tract manifests no trace of tooth or socket. The incisive tusk
extends forwards and slightly upwards ; it is subcompressed, measuring one
inch and a half in the vertical diameter and nearly one inch in transverse
diameter ; it has a partial coating of enamel, which extends over the inferior
part of the internal and the lower two-thirds of the external surface of the
tusk; the enamel has the same rugose punctate outer surface as that of
the molar teeth. The large size of the dental canal exposed by the posterior
fracture of the ramus indicates the ample supply of vessels and nerves which
ministered to the growth and nutrition of the incisive tusk; the great depth
of the symphysis of the jaw gave the required strength for the operations of
the tusk, and space for its support and for the lodgement of its large per-
sistent matrix. The vertical diameter of the symphysis of the jaw anterior to
the molar series is four inches. The symphysial surface, contrasted with the
* Annals of Natural History, vol. xiii. p. 329.
> A:
St ae Oe eee ee.
A Se
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 225
molar teeth, seems enormous, much exceeding that of any Rhinoceros, and
almost equalling the same part in the deep-jawed Hippopotamus; its antero-
‘posterior extent to the fractured end of the jaw is six inches, its vertical dia-
meter three inches, its direction is obliquely from below upwards and forwards,
‘itsipper or posterior margin nearly straight, its lower or anterior one convex ;
it stands out a very little way from the vertical plane of the inner surface of
the ramus. The thickest part of the symphysis of the jaw does not exceed
three inches, that is, at its lower part, which is convex in every direction.
The surface of the bone seems to have been naturally roughened by minute
vascular grooves and ridges ; it has been crushed and cracked. The ridge,
which doubtless formed the anterior part of the base of the coronoid process,
begins to stand out below the socket of the third grinder; the smooth abraded
surface at the back of the posterior talon of that tooth indicates the pressure
against a contiguous tooth in the portion of jaw which has been broken away.
The symphysial portion of jaw differs in a striking degree from the corre-
sponding part in the known existing or extinct Pachyderms, which have, like
the Australian extinct Mammal, a single incisor tusk in each ramus of the
lower jaw. In the young Mastodon the tusk is situated in a less deep, more
suddenly contracted, and more produced symphysis ; the symphysis of the jaw
in the existing Sumatran Rhinoceros, and in the extinct Ehin. incisivus, is
much less deep and is broader in proportion; the peculiar deflection of the
symphysis in the Dinotherium makes it differ still more strikingly from the
Diprotodon, in which the incisive tusks of the lower jaw extended obliquely
upwards. The sudden slope of the toothless margin of the jaw anterior to
the molares distinguishes the existing Proboscidians, which have, besides, a
smaller anchylosed symphysis and no lower tusks.
In the proportion of the symphysial articulation to the molar teeth, 1 know
of no quadruped that so nearly resembles the present large Australian fossil
as the Wombat; but in this Marsupial that part of the ramus of the jaw is
broader in proportion to its depth; in this dimension, viz. the proportion of
breadth to depth of the jaw supporting the anterior molares, the Kangaroo
more resembles the Diprotodon ; and the molars of the Kangaroo in their
double-ridged crowns are those amongst the Marsupials which most closely
correspond with the molars in the present gigantic fossil.
In the general size of the tusk and jaw, in the extent of the symphysis, in
the subquadrate form of the incisive tusk, and the partial disposition of ena-
mel, the agreement between the present fossil, which was obtained from the
bed of the Condamine river, west of Moreton Bay, and the corresponding
fragment of jaw and tooth above-cited*, from the Wellington Valley cavern,
is so close as to leave no doubt as to their generic identity. The tusk in the
cavern specimen appears to be a trifle broader in proportion to its depth or
vertical diameter, and a difference is indicated in the shape of the symphysial
articulation ; but these may be individual or sexual varieties, and at all events
they do not afford decisive ground for specific separation. The original con-
dition of the fossil from the stratum forming the bed of the Condamine river
is much altered and it is heavily impregnated with mineral matter.
The next specimen, obtained by Sir T. Mitchell from the same locality and
deposit as the fore-part of the jaw above described, yields an interesting indi-
cation of the affinity of the Diprotodon to the peculiar Order which almost
exclusively represents the Mammalian class in Australia. It is a portion of
the left ramus of the lower jaw of apparently the same individual Diprotodon
australis ; it includes the two fangs of the last molar teeth and the angle of
* Mitchell, loc. cit., pl. 31, figs. 1 and 2.
1844.
226 REPORT—1844,
the jaw. This part more decidedly manifests the marsupial character by its
inward inflection and by the broad flattened surface which the under part of the
jaw there presents ; this surface forms a right angle with the outer surface of
the ramus, the lines of union being rounded off; the outer surface, which is
entire to the base of the coronoid process, is slightly concave. The Elephants,
Mastodons, and Tapiroid Pachyderms present the opposite or convex form of
the outward surface of the jaw; the Dinotherium comes nearest, amongst the
Pachyderms, to the character of the angle and base of the ascending ramus
of the jaw manifested in the present fossil; which however, in the greater
degree of inflection and flattening of the angle, more closely adheres to the
marsupial type. The alveolar ridge is continued backwards, for the extent of
two inches, in the form of a flattened platform of bone, forming an angle at
its inner and posterior extremity. The thin base of the coronoid process
extends along the outer border of this platform, and the entry of the dental
canal is situated near the posterior end of the base of the coronoid. The
condyloid process and the back part of the jaw are broken away; a great part
of the thick ridge formed by the inwardly inflected angle of the jaw has also
suffered fracture ; but about one inch of the middle part of this characteristic
structure is entire. The preserved fangs of the last molar show it to have
been as large as would comport with the proportions of the molars in the pre-
ceding specimen.
The following fossils not only extend our knowledge of the dentition of
the under jaw of the Diprotodon, but also of the range of the species over
the continent of Australia; they were discovered by Mr. Patrick Mayne
a few feet below the surface, during the operations of sinking a well, near
Mount Macedon, in the district of Melbourne, and are noticed by Mr. Augus-
tus F. A. Greeve, in the ‘ Port Phillip Patriot’ of February 5th, 1844. He
specifies the incisor as that “of a large animal, most probably a gigantic
Wombat,” and after an account of the molar teeth, thus concludes ;—“ But I
feel assured that it is a new and most interesting genus; the discovery, in fact,
of the gliriform type of the Pachydermata, the connecting link between the
family which comprehends the Beaver and Rabbit with that of the Elephant,
the Horse and the Hippopotamus !”
Mr. Greeve appears to have been unacquainted with my descriptions of the
Australian fossils in Major Mitchell’s work, or he would probably have recog-
nised the similarity between his specimens and those which had led me to
establish a new genus and to indicate its affinities, as manifesting the gliri-
form type of the marsupial order on a gigantie scale, A series of the speci-
mens discovered by Mr. Mayne having been transmitted to me by my friend
Dr. Hobson, I was enabled to identify them with the Diprotodon of the caves |
of Wellington Valley and of the plains near Moreton Bay, and it was with
peculiar satisfaction that I afterwards perused the concurrent testimony of
Mr. Greeve as to their indications of a distinet genus, and of the resemblance
of the incisor to that of the Wombat, which had struck me so forcibly at
the commencement of my inyestigation in 1837 of the fossil remains of the
Diprotodon, The fossils from Mount Macedon are in a very different con-
dition from those discovered in the bed of the Condamine river; they are
not impregnated with mineral matter, but are extremely light and fragile,
having lost all their animal matter, and consequently adhering strongly to the
tongue ; they are in almost the same state as the remains of the Megatherioid
quadrupeds from the recent deposits forming the Pampas of Buenos Ayres.
The teeth are principally from the same under jaw, of which an outline
was transmitted to me by Dr. Hobson, the original having crumbled to dust
on exposure to the air. The first specimen consists of the under part of the
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 227
base of the left incisive tusk of the Diprotodon australis; showing the line
where the rugose punctate, as if worm-eaten, enamel ceases at the angle be-
tween the under and inner surfaces of the tusk, and the coat of cement cover-
ing the unenameled dentine, the smooth pulp-cavity gradually widening to
the base of the tusk, is exposed to the extent of three inches. This portion of
the great incisor is identical in form and structure with the specimen from
the bone-cave of Wellington Valley, figured and described in Sir T. L. Mit-
chell’s ‘ Expeditions into Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 362, pl. 31, figs. 1 and 2, and
with that from the Condamine river above described.
The next specimen is the crown and beginning of the fangs of the antepe-
nultimate molar, right side, lower jaw, of the same Diprotodon australis. The
form of the two transverse eminences, the summits of which had just begun
to be abraded by mastication before the animal perished, is well displayed :
_ they are more compressed than in the Tapir and Dinothere, and their lamelli-
form summits rise higher beyond their basal connexions than in the Kan-
garoo. The median connecting ridge which extends between the two trans-
verse eminences longitudinally or in the axis of the jaw, in the molars of the
_ Kangaroo, is very feebly indicated in the Diprotodon ; the anteriorly concave
__ curve of the summits of the transverse ridges is more regular and equable
and greater than in the Tapiroid Pachyderms, the Dinothere or the Kangaroo.
The cement, though thin upon the crown, is most conspicuous at the bottom
of the valley between the two transverse eminences; as in the molar tooth
of Diprotodon described in the ‘Annals of Nat. Hist.’ May 1843. The two
fangs, the contiguous surfaces of which present the deep and wide longitu-
dinal groove, as inthe Tapiroid Pachyderms and the Kangaroo, are connected
together at their base by a ridge, coated thickly with cement, and extending
longitudinally between the beginnings of the opposite grooves.
The third specimen is the second molar tooth, left side, lower jaw, of the
Diprotodon australis, from an older individual than the preceding. The an-
terior fang is broken off, the posterior one is preserved to the extent of one
inch and a half; the crown of the tooth is entire, except where the summits of
the two transverse ridges have been abraded by mastication : it demonstrates
what is obscurely indicated in the corresponding molar tooth in the fragment
of jaw from the Condamine river, that, besides the two principal eminences,
there is a small anterior basal ridge, and a thick obtuse posterior ridge, ascend-
ing a little obliquely from the outer to the inner side of the tooth; from the
anterior and posterior extremities of each basal ridge, a lower ridge extends
upwards to the summit of the principal eminence; these eminences are also
connected together by a short ridge at the outer and at the inner part of their
basal interspace, and each of the principal eminences swells out near the
middle of their interspace, indicating as it were the median longitudinal ridge
which connects the two chief transverse eminences in the crown of the molar
of the Kangaroo. The enamel presents the same rugose-reticulate and punc-
tate surface as in the molars of the specimen from the Condamine, that super-
ficial character being more conspicuous in the fore and back part of the
coronal eminences than upon their outer and inner’sides. The outer border
of the transverse eminences is more convex than the inner one.
‘ The fourth specimen is the third or antepenultimate molar, left side, lower
jaw, of the same individual Diprotodon australis. Like the preceding tooth,
this gives evidence of an older, and likewise a rather larger individual than
the second specimen: the crown has been more worn, and shows better the
depth of the interspace between the two principal ridges, the slight production
of the middle of the posterior surface of the anterior ridge, and the depres -
sion on the opposite surface of the posterior.ridge. The antero-posterior ex-
QZ
Spe
228 REPORT—1844.
tent of the base of the crown of this tooth is one inch nine lines; the breadth
of the crown is one inch three lines; the height of the crown one inch two
lines; the length of the posterior fang was two inches when entire.
The fifth specimen is the crown of the penultimate molar, left side, lower
jaw, of apparently the same individual Diprotodon australis. The anterior
transverse ridge had just begun to be worn: the summit of the posterior
ridge is entire. This is not divided into small mammilloid tubercies as in the
Dinotherium, but is irregularly and minutely wrinkled as in the Tapir. In
the depth of the cleft between the two transverse ridges, the teeth of the Di-
protodon resemble those of the Tapir more than those of the Kangaroo ;
but the eminences are higher and more compressed than in either of those
existing genera. In the largest existing species of Kangaroo, as the Maero-
pus major and Macropus laniger, the lower molars have no posterior talon
or basal ridge, but this is present in the still larger extinct species of Kan-
garoo, called Macropus Atlas, in which, however, it is much smaller than the
anterior talon. In the Tapir the anterior talon is also larger than the posterior
one, but in the Diprotodon the proportions of the two basal ridges are reversed.
The reticulo-punctate markings are present at the anterior surfaces of the
enamel of the transverse ridges of the molars in the Tapir, whilst in the
Kangaroo and Dinothere the enamel is smooth and polished: the molars of
the Diprotodon are characteristically distinguished by the rugose punctate
markings in both the anterior and posterior surfaces of the transverse ridges.
The breadth of the crown of the present tooth is one inch and a half, and the
height of the entire posterior division is the same.
The sixth dental fossil is the anterior part of the anterior transverse emi-
nence of the last molar tooth, left side, lower jaw, of the same Diprotodon
australis; it measures one inch nine lines across the base, and diminishes in
breadth more gradually towards the summit than in the preceding tooth.
The summit of this eminence had just begun to be worn by mastication ; the
pulp cavity is continued into the basal third of the crown.
These specimens which show the termination of the molar series, with the
anterior part of the jaw from the Condamine river containing the commence-
ment of the molar series, demonstrate the entire number of teeth in the lower
jaw which characterizes the genus Diprotodon, viz. one incisor and five molars
on each side. In this formula the great Pachydermoid marsupial resembled
the Wombat, the Koala, the Potoroo, and the Kangaroo, although it is rare to
see the total number of true molar teeth at one time in the larger species of
Macropus. ‘The lower incisors of the Koala in the subcompressed subqua-
drate form of their implanted base most resemble in form those of the Dipro-
todon, but the exserted crowns, like those of the Kangaroos, have an entire
covering of enamel which does not extend upon the inserted fang. In the
partial covering of the whole extent of the inserted base of the tusk of the
Diprotodon, we perceive a greater resemblance to the scalpriform incisor of
the Wombat ; and every analogy teaches that the exposed part of the tusk of
the Diprotodon must have had the same extent of enamel-coating as the in-
serted base. The Diprotodon, however, departs widely from the genus Phas-
colomys in the divided base and in the shape of the crown of its molar teeth :
in these more essential parts of the dental system it approximates Macropus
more closely than any other known Marsupial genus; yet the double trans-
verse-ridged type of molar teeth is manifested by so many genera of recent
and extinct Mammalia* of very different forms and organization that little
could be inferred as to the coexistence of the proportions of the Kangaroo
* Tapirus, Lophiodon, Dinotherium, Manatus.
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 929
with such molar teeth in the case of the great Australian Pachydermoid. I
proceed, therefore, to notice two of the most complete bones which were dis-
covered in the same stratum and locality as the portions of the lower jaw of
the Diprotodon from the bed of the Condamine river, and which, from their
agreement in size with those mandibular fragments, belong very probably to
the same species ; they have undergone precisely the same mineral change.
The first of these is the body of a dorsal vertebra of unquestionably a
mammalian quadruped of the size of the Diprotodon australis. It measures
two inches three lines in antero-posterior diameter, three inches in vertical
diameter, and four inches nine lines in transverse diameter. Both articular
extremities are flat, the epiphysial plates are anchylosed ; but where they are
broken away, the radiating rough lines, characteristic of the epiphysial sur-
face, indicate that the union was tardy, and had been recently effected before
the animal perished. This vertebra differs by its compressed form and the
flattening of the articular ends from the dorsal vertebre of the ordinary pla-
cental Pachyderms, but resembles in these characters the dorsal vertebra of
the Proboscidians (lephas, Mastodon). In these, however, the breadth of
the vertebral body is not so great as in the fossil. From the Cetacean verte-
bre the present fossil is distinguished by the large concave articular surface
at the upper and anterior part of the side of the body for the reception of
part of the head of a rib: this costal surface, which is not quite entire, ap-
pears to have been about an inch and a half in diameter. The neurapophyses
are anchylosed to the centrum, but the internal margins of their expanded
bases are definable, and have been separated by a tract, rather less than an
inch in breadth, of the upper surface of the centrum. At the middle of this
surface there is a deep transversely oblong depression: a similar depression
is present in some of the dorsal vertebrae, and in the anchylosed lumbar ver-
tebra of the Mylodon ; but the bodies of the dorsal vertebre, in all the great
extinct Bruta, are longer and narrower in proportion to their breadth than in
the present fossil. The upper and posterior margin is here indented on each
side by the dorsal nerve, which, in the monotrematous Echidna, perforates
the base of the neurapophyses; otherwise the body of the dorsal vertebra in
that Implacental corresponds in its proportions, and in the depression on the
upper part of the body, with the present fossil. In the Kangaroo the upper
surface of the body of the dorsal and lumbar vertebra is perforated by two
vascular canals, which pass down vertically and open below by a single or
double outlet. In the Wombat the middle of the upper surface of the bodies
of the dorsal and lumbar vertebra exhibits a single large and deep depression,
which, in the dorsal vertebra, has no inferior outlet, and in this character they
closely resemble the present fossil. The dorsal vertebrae of the Wombat are
however longer in proportion to their breadth. Thus the present mutilated
vertebra alone would support the conclusion, that there had formerly existed
in Australia a mammiferous quadruped, superior to the Rhinoceros in bulk,
and distinct from any known species of corresponding size ; and it is interesting
to find one well-marked character in it, viz. the median excavation on the
upper part of the body, repeated by one of the larger of the existing Mar-
supialia.
The second fossil speaks more decisively both for the Marsupial nature of
the species to which it belonged and as to its more immediate affinities in that
Order. It is the right os calcis, which measures six inches in length and five
inches and a half in breadth, presents two large articular surfaces at right
angles to each other upon its upper and anterior part, has a short calcaneal or
posterior process, which is broad, depressed and bent upwards, and a short
thick obtuse process directed downwards from the internal and under part of
230 REPORT—1844.
the bone. The inner and upper articular surface is semicircular, very slightly
concave, with a small part continued down or sinking from the middle of its
outer margin at a rather open angle, towards the outer or cuboidal facet : this
is a larger and more deeply concave surface than the preceding, with a well-
defined margin ; it is situated on the outer side, not anterior to the astragalar
surface. The astragalar surface is separated from the calcaneal and inferior
tuberosity by a wide and moderately deep tendinal groove, analogous to that
along which the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis glides in Man. The base
of the calcaneal process, which is united to the posterior part of the cuboidal
concavity, is perforated by a short canal, half an inch wide, continued down-
wards and forwards, and leading to a wider tendinal groove, which impresses
the inferior surface of the part of the bone supporting the cuboidal facet.
The plane of the posterior part of the caleaneal projection is at right angles
with the inferior rough surface of the bone.
The characters of the present fossil caleaneum, as above briefly defined,
are unique. ‘The size of the bone leads us first to compare it with the cal-
caneum of the Elephant or Mastodon; but here we find two broad and flat
astragalar surfaces on the upper part of the bone, and a small and very
slightly concave surface anteriorly ; there is moreover no perforation for a
peroneal tendon. The same absence of such a perforation, and the different
proportion and relative position of the cuboidal facet, distinguish at a glance
the calcaneum in all the ordinary Pachyderms from the present fossil. The
calcaneum of the Mylodon robustus is perforated at its outer part for the tendon
of the peroneus longus as it is in the present fossil; it likewise has a stout
tuberosity projecting from its under surface, but the calcaneal process is much
larger, and is continued more directly backwards. The cuboidal facet in the
Mylodon is much smaller and shallower than in the present fossil, and is not
only placed anterior to the astragalar surface, but is continuous with it. Not
to dwell on the differences which the Comparative Anatomist must have im-
mediately perceived from the description of the present most remarkable bone
in the corresponding one of the Ruminantia, the Quadrumana, the Carni-
vora and Rodentia, I proceed at once to state that it is only in the equipedal
Marsupialia, and more especially in the Koala and Wombat, that we find the
articular surfaces of the caleaneum two in number and of the same general
form, proportions and relative position as in the fossil under consideration :
the nearly flat internal and superior astragalar surface is, however, propor-
tionally narrower in the Wombat; its outer depressed angle is shallower; the
calcaneal projection is directed downwards and inwards; the strong peroneal
tendon indents the outer side of the caleaneum with a groove, but does not
perforate the bone. The caleaneum of the Kangaroo and Potoroo has a
totally different form from the fossil: in these leaping Marsupialia the heel is
subcompressed and much elongated; the astragalar surface is divided into
two small distinct parts; the cuboidal facet is anterior, and convex vertically,
&c. In conclusion, it may be stated that the large fossil caleaneum here de-
scribed combines the essential characters of that of the Wombat with some
features of that of the Mylodon and Mastodon, and others which are peculiar
to itself: the single broad astragalar surface with its external depressed por-
tion coincides with the characters of the large fossil astragalus subsequently
to be described ; though the different form of the astragalar surface appears
to show the present caleaneum to have belonged to a distinct species of pachy-
dermoid Marsupial.
That a large quadruped, whose nature and affinities are expressed by the
above epithet, formerly inhabited Australia, the characters of the present os
ealcis would alone have rendered highly probable; and since the same con-
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 231
clusions are deducible from the portions of jaw above described, which cor-
respond in proportional size, mineralized condition, locality and stratum, with
the present caleaneum, it is highly probable that they all belong to the Di-
protodon australis, a species whose affinities to the Wombat were perceived
by the characters of the single tusk and fragment of jaw first transmitted
from the caves of Wellington Valley.
Genus NoToTHERIUM.
Species 1, JV. inerme.
I next proceed to notice a second small but instructive series of fossils, in-
cluding portions of lower jaws, which, by the total absence of incisors, indi-
cate a distinct genus of pachydermoid Mammals, with the same kind and
amount of evidence of its marsupial affinities: the principal fossil is the
almost entire right ramus of the lower jaw.
The dentition in this jaw consists of molar teeth exclusively, four in num-
ber, which increase in size as they approach the posterior part of the series:
a small portion of the anterior end of the symphysis is broken away, but
there is no trace there of the socket of any tooth, and it is too contracted to
have supported any tusk or defensive incisor. The length of the jaw is eleven
inches: the molar series, which commences one inch in advance of the pos-
terior border of the symphysis, is six inches in extent: each tooth is im-
one by two strong and long conical fangs, the hindermost being the
argest, and both being longitudinally grooved upon the side turned to each
other. The first tooth is wanting, and the crowns of the rest are broken
away: the base of the third remains, and gives an indication of a middle
transverse valley, which most probably separated two transverse eminences.
_ This jaw resembles that of the proboscidian Pachyderms in the shortness of
the horizontal ramus; and of the Elephant more particularly, in the rounding
off of the angle, and in the convex curvature of the lower border of the jaw
from the condyle to the symphysis, and also in the smaller vertical diameter
of the symphysis, and the more pointed form of that part. It resembles the
jaw of the Elephant in the form, extent and position of the base of the coro-
noid process, but it differs from the Elephant in the concavity on the inner
side of the posterior half of the ramus of the jaw, which is formed by an in-
ward inflection of the angle: this concavity extends forwards beneath the
sockets of the two last molar teeth. It differs from the lower jaw of the Ele-
phant in the greater flatness of the outer part of the angle of the jaw, in
which respect it more resembles the Mastodon. In the extent of the angle
of the jaw it is intermediate between the Mastodon and Elephant. It differs
from both in the inward bending of that angle, which is remarkable for the
great longitudinal extent along which the inflection takes place: most of the
inflected angle has been broken away, but enough remains to demonstrate a
most instructive and interesting correspondence between the present fossil
atid the characteristically modified lower jaw in the marsupial animals. In
pursuing the comparison of the Australian pachydermal fossil with the Mas-
todon and Elephant, we may next observe that the alveolar process on the
inner side of the base of the coronoid, behind the last molar, is as well deve-
loped as in the Mastodon: a similar angular production of this part exists,
however, in the Wombat and Kangaroo. The vertical extent of the outer
concavity of the coronoid process is greater in the Australian fossil than in
the jaw of the Mastodon, and is less clearly defined below. The dental canal
commences by a foramen penetrating the ridge which leads from the condyle
to the post-molar process, and apparently just below the condyle, as in the
Elephant, but it is relatively much smaller: it does not communicate with
932 REPORT—] 844.
any canal leading to the outer surface of the ascending ramus, as in the
Wombat and Kangaroo; but this external opening is not present in all Mar-
supials. The anterior outlet of the dental canal is smaller than in the Mas-
todon, and being placed more forwards, resembles that in the Elephant. The
number, and apparently the form of the teeth, approximate the Australian
Pachyderm more closely to the Mastodon than to the Elephant, but the equal
size of the last and penultimate teeth, which had the same number of divi-
sions of the crown, are points in which the extinct species represented by the
present jaw still more nearly resembled the Diprotodon, the Tapir and the
Kangaroo.
In its general shape the fossil jaw in question differs widely from all existing
Marsupials and all known ordinary Pachyderms, and in the chief of these
differences it resembles the lower jaw of the Proboscidians. It resembles
these however, in common with the Wombat, in the forward slope and cur-
vature of the posterior margin of the ascending ramus extending from the
condyle to the angle of the jaw, in the inward production of the post-molar
process, in the position of the base of the coronoid process exterior to the
hinder molar, in the thickness of the horizontal ramus, as compared with its
length, and the convexity of its outer surface; and it also resembles the Pro-
boscidians, in common with the Kangaroo, in the small number of the grinding
teeth. From the lower jaw of the Kangaroo and Wombat the present fossil
differs in the absence of the deep excavation on the outer side of the ascending
ramus, which, in those Marsupials, leads to a perforation in the base of that
part of the jaw; and it also differs in the inferior depth of the inner conca-
vity, and the inferior extent of the inward production of the angle of the jaw,
besides the more important difference in the absence of the large incisor tooth.
From the jaw of the Diprotodon, the present fossil differs in the much smaller
vertical extent of the symphysis, and in the convexity of the jaw at its outer
and anterior part, and more essentially in the absence of the incisive tusk and
its socket; but it must have closely resembled the Diprotodon in the general
form and proportions of the molar teeth. On these grounds I propose to in-
dicate the genus of the fossil Mammal to which the above-described lower
jaw belonged by the name of Nototheriwm, and the species as inerme, from
the absence of the incisive tusks.
Species 2, NV. Mitchelli.
The posterior half of the ramus of the lower jaw of a second species of
Nototherium, wanting the condyloid and the upper part of the coronoid pro-
cesses, and containing the last two molar teeth ; the crowns of these teeth are
much fractured, but demonstrate that they were divided into two principal
transverse ridges. The antero-posterior extent of both teeth together is three
inches three lines, the last molar being two lines longer in this dimension than
the penultimate one: its transverse breadth is one inch two lines. The den-
tine of the crown is encased ina sheath of enamel of nearly one line in thick-
ness, with a smooth and polished surface, impressed at the outer part and near
the base of the tooth, where the enamel is principally preserved, with fine
parallel and nearly horizontal transverse lines.
Part of the abraded surface of both transverse ridges is preserved in the
penultimate grinder, showing that they had been more than half worn away
by mastication at the period when the animal perished. The smooth and
polished exterior of the enamel covering the anterior part of the posterior
eminence presents a striking contrast to the reticulo-punctate character of the
enamel, at the corresponding part of the molar in the Diprotodon, which in
the general form and proportion of this part of the jaw so closely agrees with
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 233
the present fossil. The Diprotodon australis exceeded, however, both spe-
cies of Nototherium in size, so far as can be judged by the lower jaw and
teeth.
The penultimate and last molar teeth very little exceed in any comparable
dimension those of the last described half-jaw, which from the length of the
fangs were as completely developed, and belonged therefore to an equally
mature animal; but the depth of the jaw below the middle of the penultimate
molar in the present fossil is three inches three lines, and in the entire half-
jaw it is only two inches nine lines; the thickest part of the Jaw beneath the
same molar in that jaw is two inches three lines, but in the present fragment
it is only one inch eleven lines. In the entire half-jaw the external wall of
the alveolar process immediately swells out to form this thick part of the
ramus, but in the present fragment it maintains its thinness for an inch below
the margin of the socket, and the outer part of the jaw is slightly concave
here, before it begins to swell into and form the bold convexity which is con-
tinued to the thick inferior border of the jaw. This difference in the shape,
as well as the size of the jaw, bespeaks at least a specific distinction from the
jaw referred to Notothertum inerme. But a more marked distinctive character
in the present fossil is afforded by the relative position of the last molar tooth,
which is in advance of the origin or base of the coronoid process instead of
being internal to and hidden by that part when the jaw is viewed from the
outer side, as in the half-jaw. The outer surface of the anterior part.of the
base of the coronoid appears, by a fracture there, to have projected outwards
further in the present specimen than in the half-jaw.
The important marsupial character afforded by the inward bending of the
angle of the jaw is well-manifested by the present specimen, in which the angle
is entire ; it is thick and obtuse, and though slightly inflected in comparison
with the same part in the Wombat or Kangaroo, it bounds a well-marked
concavity which extends forwards to run parallel with the interspace between
the last and penultimate molars; the regularity of the convex line extending
from the posterior part of the ascending ramus to the lower border of the
jaw is interrupted by a slightly produced obtuse prominence at the middle of
the inflected angle. The post-molar part of the alveolar process forms a
broad platform on the inner side of the base of the coronoid, and is defined
by a well-marked angle at its inner and posterior part, in which it resembles
both the lower jaw of the proboscidian Pachyderms and that of the Wombat.
The entry of the dental canal is situated as in the Diprotodon australis and
the Nototherium inerme. The coronoid process has the same extensive
antero-posterior origin, and the same thinness as in the half-jaw, but it is
rather more concave externally. Both the half-jaw and the present specimen
are from the alluvial or newer tertiary deposits in the bed of a tributary of
the Condamine river, west of Moreton Bay, Australia; they are mineralized,
but of a deeper ferruginous colour than the fossils of the Diprotodon.
An astragalus of the same colour and mineral condition, and from the same
locality as the preceding specimens, belongs also more probably to the Noto-
therium than to the Diprotodon, on account of its somewhat smaller size than
the calcaneum above described. The peculiarities of this astragalus will
be obvious to the Comparative Anatomist from the following description :—
It is a broad, subdepressed and subtriangular bone, the angles being rounded
off, especially the anterior one; the upper or tibial surface is quadrate, con-
cave from side to side, in a less degree convex from before backward ; a ridge
extending in this direction divides the tibial from the fibular surface, which
slopes outwards at a very open angle and maintains a nearly horizontal aspect,
presenting an oblong trochlea for the support of the fibula, shallower, and
234 REPORT—1844, |
one-third smaller than that for the tibia. The tibial articular surface is not
continued upon the inner side of the astragalus, but its anterior and internal
angle, which becomes convex in every direction, is immediately continued
into the anterior scaphoidal convexity, which sweeps round a deep and rough
depression, dividing the outer and anterior part of the tibial trochlea from
the corresponding half of the scaphoidal convexity; this has the greatest
vertical extent at its inner part, where it is separated by a narrow, rough
transverse channel from the part which rested upon the os calcis. The cal-
caneal surface is single, and covers almost the whole of the under part of the
astragalus; the greatest proportion of it is flat and reniform, an angular tube-
rosity or process being continued from the concave margin, where the pelvis
of the kidney, to pursue the comparison, would be situated. This process
must have been received into a corresponding depression at the outer part of
the articular surface upon the caleaneum. On the inner margin of the flat
calcaneal surface, opposite the tuberosity, a small triangular flattened surface
is continued upwards upon the inner and posterior side of the astragalus, and
nearly touches the inner and posterior angle of the tibial trochlea.
The length of this fossil astragalus is four inches eight lines, its breadth is
three inches five lines, its depth (at the base of the scaphoidal convexity) is
two inches and a half.
We look in vain amongst the Pachyderms, with astragali of corresponding
dimensions, for the uniform and prominent convexity of the anterior articu-
lation, for its continuation with the tibial trochlea, and for the single and un-
interrupted calcaneal tract on the Jower surface of the bone. The Probosci-
dians, which approach nearest the present fossil in the depressed form of the
astragalus and the flattening of the calcaneal articulation, have that. articula-
tion divided into two surfaces by a deep and rough groove; the scaphoidal
surface is likewise similarly divided from the tibial trochlea; and no Pachy-
derm has the upper articular surface of the astragalus traversed by an antero-
posterior or longitudinal ridge, dividing it from an almost horizontal facet for
the support of the end of the fibula.
The peculiar form of the astragalus in the Ruminants, and especially the
trochlear character of the anterior scapho-cuboidal surface, place it beyond
the pale of comparison. In all the placental Carnivora the scaphoidal con-
vexity is pretty uniform, and occupies the anterior extremity of the astragalus,
as in Man and Quadrumana; but it is more produced in the Carnivora and
supported on a longer neck, which is also more oblique than in the Quadru-
mana, where the astragalus already begins to recede in this character from the
Human type. In the Seals the upper surface of the astragalus somewhat resem-
bles the present fossil in the meeting of the tibial and fibular facets at an obtuse
angle formed by a longitudinal rising, but the fibular surface is rather the wider
of the two, and the tibial one is divided by a broad rough tract from the sca-
phoidal prominence; but in addition to this anterior production of the bone
there is also another process from its posterior part, which, as Cuvier remarks,
gives the astragalus of the Seal the aspect of a calcaneum. In some of the
remarkable peculiarities which the astragalus presents in the order Brita it
approaches the Australian fossil under consideration: in the Mylodon, for
example, where the surface for the calcaneum is single and undivided. But
in this great extinct leaf-eating quadruped the calcaneal facet is continued
into the navicular facet, which, on the other hand, is separated by a rough
tract from the tibial articulation, as in all the Edentata, recent and fossil. The
latter character likewise distinguishes the astragalus of the Rodentia from the
fossil astragalus under consideration.
In the Ornithorhynchus the astragalus has a deep depression on its inner
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 935
side for the reception of the incurved malleolus of the tibia, and in both the
Ornithorhynchus and Echidna the tibial surface is more convex than in the
present fossil.
Amongst the existing Marsupialia, the astragalus in the largest herbivorous
species, viz. the Kangaroo, offers very great differences from the present Au-
stralian fossil; the broad and shallow trochlea for the tibia is continued upon
the inner side of the bone into a cavity which receives the internal malleolus,
whilst the fibular facet is long and narrow, and situated almost vertically
upon the outer side of the bone. The scaphoidal surface is unusually small,
convex only in the vertical direction, and divided by a vertical ridge into two
surfaces, the outer one being applied to the os calcis. The inferior and proper
ealcaneal articulation is divided into two small distinct surfaces, the outer one
concave the inner one concavo-convex.
Amongst the pedimanous and gradatorial marsupials, and more especially
in the Wombat, we at length find a form of astragalus which repeats most
closely the characters of the extraordinary fossil under consideration; in the
_astragalus of the Wombat the fibular facet, of a subtriangular form, almost
as broad as it is long, slightly slopes at a very open angle from the ridge
which divides it from the tibial surface; this surface, gently concave from
side to side, and more gently convex from behind forwards, repeats the more
striking character of being directly continued by its inner and anterior angle
with the large and transversely extended convexity for the os scaphoides.
The calcaneal surface below is single and continued uninterruptedly from the
back to the fore-part of the outer half of the under surface, and its outermost
part is produced into an angle, which is received into a depression at the
outer side of the upper articular surface of the calcaneum. ‘Thus all the
‘
essential characters of the fossil are repeated in the astragalus of the Wombat.
The differences are of minor import, but are sufficiently recognizable; in the
Wombat, for instance, the single calcaneal surface is directly continued into
the cuboido-scaphoidal convexity instead of being separated from it, by a
narrow rough tract, as in the fossil; the calcaneal surface is also narrower
than in the fossil, and the outer angle is less produced: the division of the
tibial trochlea for the inner malleolus is better defined in the Wombat, and
the depression, round which sweeps the continuous smooth surface between
the tibial and scaphoid surfaces, is less deep in the Wombat; the scaphoidal
convexity is also less developed in the vertical direction in the Wombat.
We thus find that the great fossil astragalus from Australia, viewed in
reference to the general characters of that bone in the Mammalian class, offers
remarkable peculiarities; and we further find that these are exclusively and
very closely repeated in certain Australian genera of Marsupialia, and espe-
cially in the bulkiest of the existing vegetable feeders which are not saltatorial.
The inference can hardly be resisted, that the rest of the essential peculiari-
ties of the marsupial organization were likewise present in that still more
bulky quadruped of which the fossil under consideration once formed part.
In the Kangaroo and the smaller leaping Marsupials the fibula is dispro-
portionately slender and immoveably attached or anchylosed to the tibia,
reminding one of the Ruminant type of organization ; it sustains little of the
superincumbent weight, and has no resting-place upon the astragalus, the
outer malleolus being simply applied to the vertical outer surface of that
bone. The broad and nearly horizontal surface in the present fossil clearly
bespeaks the existence in the same animal of a fibula which must have almost
equalled the tibia in size at its distal end, and have taken as large a share in
the formation of the ankle-joint as it does in the Wombat. We may in like
manner infer that the tibia and fibula were similarly connected together, and,
236 REPORT—1844.
coupling this with the ball and socket joint between the seaphoid and astra-
galus, we may conclude that the foot of the great extinct Marsupial possessed
that degree of rotatory movement, which, as enjoyed by the Wombat, is so
closely analogous to the pronation and supination of the hand. We finally
derive from the well-marked marsupial modifications of the present fossil
astragalus a corroboration of the inferences, as to the former existence in
Australia of a marsupial vegetable feeder as large as the Rhinoceros, which
have been deduced from the inflected angle and other characters of the jaw of
the Diprotodon and the Nototherium, and from the fossil caleaneum which
has been referred to the Diprotodon. ‘The present bone closely agrees in all
its marsupial modifications with that caleaneum, but the single flat surface
which articulated with the caleaneum is Jonger in proportion to its breadth.
From this circumstance, and the close agreement in colour and general con-
dition which the present astragalus has with the jaw of the Nototherium, as
well as its somewhat smaller size in proportion to the caleaneum, I have
referred it provisionally, as before observed, to the .Vototherium; but, for
demonstration, further discoveries will be required of parts of the skeleton so
associated as to justify the inference that they had belonged to one indi-
vidual.
Sir Thomas Mitchell has transmitted, from the pliocene or post-pliocene
deposits near Moreton Bay, in addition to the remains of the large and very
remarkable quadrupeds above-described, several fossils referable to the large
extinct Kangaroos called Macropus Atlas and Macropus Titan, which species
were originally recognised by the fossils from the ossiferous caves of Wel-
lington Valley. The posterior molars in the upper jaw-bone of the Macropus
Titan show the more distinct and stronger posterior basal ridge and the more
complex form of the median longitudinal buttress connecting the two chief
transverse eminences, which in like manner distinguished the cave fossils of
the same extinct species from the Macropus major and Macropus laniger, the
largest existing species of Kangaroo.
The posterior molar teeth in a fossil lower jaw of the Macropus Titan,
from the same deposits near Moreton Bay, manifest, with the cave specimens,
the same difference from both the Macropus Atlas and the largest existing
species of Kangaroo, in the greater antero-posterior extent of the anterior
basal ridge, and from the Macropus Atlas also, in the greater antero-posterior
extent of the base of the two principal transverse eminences of the crown,
and in the absence in these molar teeth of the posterior talon. The maxillary
fossils of the Macropus Atlas, from the same pliocene or post-pliocene deposit
near Moreton Bay, in like manner agreed in size and distinctive characters
with the spelzan fossils. Remains of the same extinct species of gigantic
Kangaroos were also associated with the Diprotodon in the deposits of the
district of Melbourne.
Since therefore the Mammalian fossils of the pliocene, post-pliocene, or
diluvial period are already shown to be widely distributed over Australia, and
appear, from the numerous specimens obtained by three or four collectors
within a few years, to be as abundant in the superficial deposits and caves
of Australia as are the analogous fossil remains in the corresponding forma-
tions and caves of Europe, Asia and both Americas, we may hope soon to be
in possession of a body of evidence which will establish the law of geographi-
cal distribution of extinct Mammalia, as satisfactorily i in regard to Australasia
as it seems now capable of being determined in regard to the larger continents
of the globe.
When the comparison of the extinct Mammalia of the pliocene and post-
pliocene epochs with the existing species in the same locality is restricted to”
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 237
the Fauna of a limited space, especially an insular one like Great Britain, the
discrepancy between such extinct and existing groups of Mammalia appears
to be extreme. Of the smaller quadrupeds, it is true, we still retain the Bat,
the Shrew, the Mole, the Badger, the Fox, the Wild Cat, the Otter, the
Weasel, the Pole-cat, the Voles, the Hare and Rabbit, the Roe and Red-
deer: the Beaver, the Bear and the Wolf have also existed here within the
historic period: but only in menageries can we see, in our island, the living re-
presentatives of those extinct Elephants, Rhinoceroses, Tigers, Bears, Hyzenas,
or diminutive tailless Hares (Zagomys), which formerly roamed at large over
the land. But if we regard Great Britain in connection with the rest of Eu-
rope, and extend our view of the geographical distribution of extinct Mam-
mals beyond the limits of the continents of geography,—and it needs but a
glance at the map to detect the artificial character of the line which divides
Europe from Asia,—we shall then find a close and interesting correspondence
between the extinct Mammalian Fauna of the latest geological periods and
that of the present day. The very fact of the newer pliocene Mammalian
Fauna of England being almost as rich in generic and specific forms as that
of Europe, leads us to infer that the intersecting branch of the ocean which
now divides this island from the continent did not then exist as a bar-
rier to the migration of the Mastodons, Mammoths, Rhinoceroses, Hippopo-
tamuses, Bisons, Horses, Tigers, Hyzenas, Bears, &c., which have left such
abundant traces of their former existence in the superficial unstratified de-
posits and caves of Great Britain*. Now, in the Europzo-Asiatic expanse
of dry land, species continue to exist of nearly all those genera which are re-
presented by pliocene and post-pliocene Mammalian fossils of the same natural
continent and of the immediately adjacent island of Great Britain. The Bear
has its haunts in both Europe and Asia; the Beaver of the Rhone and Da-
nube represents the great Trogontherium ; the Lagomys and the Tiger exist
on both sides of the Himalayan mountain chain ; the Hyzena ranges through
Syria and Hindostan; the Bactrian Camel typifies the huge Merycotherium
of the Siberian drift ; the Elephant and Rhinoceros are still represented in
Asia, though now confined to the south of the Himalayas. The more extra-
ordinary extinct forms of Mammalia called Elasmotherium and Sivatherium,
have their nearest pachydermal and ruminant analogues now existing in the
same continent to which those fossils are peculiar. Cuvier places the Elas-
mothere between the Horse and Rhinoceros: the existing four-horned Ante-
lopes, like their gigantic extinct analogue, are peculiar to India.
The Mediterranean and Red Seas constitute a less artificial boundary be-
tween Africa and the Europeo-Asiatic continent, than that which, on our
- maps, divides Europe from Asia; yet those narrow seas form a slight demar-
cation as compared with the vast oceans which divide the old from the new
worlds of the geographer, or these from the Australian continents. The
continuity of Africa with Asia is still, indeed, preserved by a narrow isthmus,
hear to which, within the historical period, the Hippopotamus descended,
venturing down the Nile, according to Herodotus, almost to its mouth. May
it not be regarded as part of the same general concordance of geographical
distribution, that the genus Hippopotamus, extinct in England, in Europe
and in Asia+, should continue to be represented in Africa and in none of the
* See Report of British Fossil Mammalia, Trans. British Association, 1842 and 1843. In
the present comparison, I purposely limit myself to the most recent of the tertiary epochs.
+ Marsden, in his ‘ History of Sumatra,’ mentions a species of Hippopotamus as still ex-
isting in the Sunda Isles ; but this has much need of confirmation : the fossil sub-genus of Hip-
popotamus (Heaapr otodon of Cautley and Falconer) gives a new stimulus, however, to the
inquiry after the Hippopotamus or Succatyro of the Indian Archipelago.
238 REPORT—1844.
remoter continents of the earth ?—Africa also having its Hyena, its Elephant,
its Rhinoceroses, and its great feline Carnivores. The discovery of extinct
species of Camelopardalis in both Europe and Asia, of which genus the sole
existing representative is now, like the Hippopotamus, confined to Africa, adds
to the propriety of regarding the three continuous continental divisions of
the Old World as forming, in respect to the geographical distribution of plio-
cene, post-pliocene and recent Mammalia, one great natural province. The
only large Edentate animal (Pangolin gigantesque, Cuvier, Macrotherium,
Lartet) hitherto found in the tertiary deposits of Europe, but in those of an
earlier period (older pliocene or miocene) than the deposits to whose mam-
malian fossils the present comparison more immediately refers, manifests its
nearest affinities to the genus Manis, which is exclusively Asiatic and African.
Extending our comparison between the existing and the latest of the ex-
tinct series of Mammalia to the continent of South America, it may be first
remarked, that with the exception of some of the carnivorous and Cervine
species, no representatives of the above-cited mammalian genera of the Old
World of the geographer have yet been found in South America. Buffon* long
since enunciated this generalization with regard to the existing species and
genera of Mammalia; it is almost equally true in respect of the fossil. Nota
relic of an Elephant, a Rhinoceros, a Hippopotamus, a Bison, a Hynat, or
a Lagomys, has yet been detected in the caves or the more recent tertiary de-
posits of South America. On the contrary, most of the fossil Mammalia from
those formations are as distinct from the Europzo-Asiatic forms, as they are
closely allied to the peculiarly South American existing genera of Mammalia.
The genera Equus, Tapirus, and the still more ubiquitous Mastodon, form
the chief, if not sole exceptions. The representation of Hquus, during the plio-
cene period by distinct species in Asia (2. primigenius) and in South Ame-
rica (Z. curvidens), is analogous to the geographical distribution of the
species of Tapirus at the present day. Fossil Tapirs have been found both
in Europe and in South America.
Pangolins still exist in Asia and in Africa, and, as we have seen, a gigantic
extinct species of Manis has been found in the middle tertiary beds of Europe,
but not a trace of a scaly Anteater, recent or extinct, has been discovered in
South America, where the Edentate order is so richly represented by other
generic and specific forms.
South America alone is now inhabited by species of Sloth, of Armadillo, of
Cavy, Aguti, Ctenomys, and platyrrhine Monkey, and no fossil remains of a
quadruped referable to any of these genera have yet been discovered in
Europe, Asia or Africa. ‘The types of Bradypus and Dasypus were, how-
ever, richly represented by diversified and gigantic specific forms in South
America, during the geological periods immediately preceding the present ;
and fossil remains of extinct species of Cavia, Calogenys, Ctenomys, and
Cebus, have hitherto been detected exclusively in the continent where these
genera still as exclusively exist. Auchenia more remotely typifies Macrau-
chenia, Mr. Waterhouse informs me that the murine fossils in the rich col-
lection of remains from Brazilian caverns, lately received at the British Mu-
seum, all belong to the genus Hesperomys, the aboriginal living representative
* Cited by Lyell in the Principles of Geology, 1837, vol. iii. p. 27.
+ Dr. Lund (Danish Transactions, Ersted, Kidbenh, 1842, p. 16.) discovered the remains of
an extinct Carnivore in a Brazilian cavern, which he at first announced as a species of Hyena,
but he has since recognised very distinctive dental characters, and refers it to a new genus,
which he calls Smilodon: from the figures which he has given of the canine and incisor teeth
it seems to belong to the same genus (Machairadus) as the so-called Ursus cultridens of Eu-
rope, and this is certainly the case with portions of the skull, lower jaw and teeth, since dis-
covered in the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, and now in the British Museum.
ON THE EXTINCT MAMMALS OF AUSTRALIA. 239
of the Muride in South America; and that not one fossil is referable to a
true Old World Mus, though numbers of the common Rat and Mouse have
been imported into South America since its discovery by Europeans. With
regard to the Sloths and Armadillos, they now seem, after the rich haryest of
bulky Glyptodons, Mylodons, Pachytheriums, and the more gigantic Mega-
therioid species, to be the last remnants of a Mammalian Fauna which once
almost equalled in the size and number of its species that of the Enuropzo-
Asiatic expanse, and was as peculiarly characteristic of the remote continent
in which almost all its representatives have been entombed.
In North America the most abundant Mammalian fossils of the correspond-
ing recent geological epoch belong to a species of Mastodon (M, giganteus)
peculiar te that continent. Since, however, North America borders closely
upon Asia at its northern basis, and is connected by its opposite apex with
South America, it perfectly accords with the analogies of the geographical
relations of the last-extirpated series of Mammals of the Old World that the
Asiatic Mammoth and the South American Megatherium should have mi-
grated from opposite extremes, and have met in the temperate latitudes of
North America, where, however, their remains are much more scanty than
in their own proper provinces,
Australia at length begins to yield evidence of an analogous correspondence
between its latest extinct and its present aboriginal Mammalian Fauna, which
is the more interesting on account of the very peculiar organization of most
of the native quadrupeds of that division of the globe. That the Marsupialia
form one great natural group is now generally admitted by zoologists; the
representatives in that group of many of the orders of the more extensive
placental sub-class of the Mammalia of the larger continents have also been
recognised in the existing genera and species:—the Dasyures, for example,
play the parts of the Carnivora, the Bandicoot of the IJnsectivora, the Pha-
langers of the Quadrumana, the Wombat of the Rodentia, and the Kanga-
roos, in a remoter degree, that of the Ruminantia. The first collection of
Mammalian fossils from the ossiferous caves of Australia brought to light the
former existence on that continent of larger species of the same peculiar mar-
supial genera ;—some, as the Zhylacine, and the Dasyurine sub-genus repre-
sented by the Das. ursinus, are now extinct on the Australian continent, but
still exist on the adjacent island of Tasmania; the rest being Wombats, Pha-
langers, Potoroos and Kangaroos, the latter of portentous stature. Subse-
quently, and after a brief interval, we obtain a knowledge of the former
existence of a type of the marsupial group which represented the Pachyderms
of the larger continents, and which seems now to have disappeared from the
face of the Australasian earth.
I cannot conclude without adverting to the singular exception which the
Mastodon forms to that continental localization, not only of existing, but of
pliocene and post-pliocene extinct genera of Mammalia above briefly dwelt
upon. The solitary character of the exception helps rather to establish the
generalizations, at least I know of no other extinct genus of Mammal which
was so cosmopolitan as the Mastodon: it was represented by species, for the
most part very closely allied, if actually distinct, in Europe, in Asia, in North
and South America, and in Australia; it is the only aboriginal genus of qua-
druped in that continent which was represented by other species in other parts
of the world.
The most remarkable local existing Fauria, in regard to terrestrial verte-
brated animals, is that of the islands of New Zealand, with which geologists
have been made familiar by Mr. Lyell’s indication of its close analogy
240 REPORT—1844.
with the state of animal life during the period of the Wealden formation *.
The only indigeraus terrestrial Mammalian quadruped hitherto discovered
in New Zealand*is a small rat. The most peculiar representative of the
warm-blooded classes is the Apteryx. It is the smallest known species of the
Struthious or wingless order of Birds, has the feeblest rudiments of the an-
terior members, and not any of its bones were permeated by air-cells. This
bird forms the most striking and characteristic type of the Fauna of New
Zealand.
The organic remains of the most recent deposits of the North Island, which
are most probably contemporary with the post-pliocene formations of Au-
stralia and Europe, are referable to an apparently extinct genus of Struthious
birds, having the nearest affinities in the dense structure and medullary cavi-
ties of the bones to the Apteryx. The remains of this genus (Dinornis)
appear to be very abundant, notwithstanding the stupendous stature of some
of the species; since I communicated my notice of it to the Zoological So-
ciety in 1839, six extinct species have been well-established +, on the evidence
of abundant remains collected by the Rev. Mr. Williams, Mr. Colensot, and
Mr. Cotton, at Poverty Bay, Wanganui and Wairoa. It is reported that a
species of Dinornis still exists in the South Island of New Zealand ; and it
is not improbable that some of the species may have been living when the
aborigines first set foot on the North Island. But the bones which have
reached me from the North Island, although retaining much of their animal
matter, are more or less impregnated with ferruginous salts, and may have
lain in an argillaceous soil for as long a period as some of the latest extinct
Mammals of Australia, South America and Europe. At all events, so far as
our knowledge of the living and the last-exterminated Fauna of the warm-
blooded animals of New Zealand extends, it shows that the same close ana-
logy existed between them, as it is the object of this Report to exemplify
in the larger natural divisions of the dry land on the present surface of this
lanet.
i I am far however from assuming that our present observations are suffi-
ciently extensive to have established the law of the geographical distribution
of the Mammalia of the pliocene and post-pliocene periods; to speak of the
sum of such observations under the term ‘law’ may, perhaps, be deemed pre-
mature. But the generalizations enunciated in the present Report appear to
be sufficiently extensive and unexceptionable to render them of importance in
a scientific consideration of the present distribution of the highest organized
and last-created class of animals; and to show that, with extinct as with
existing Mammalia, particular forms were assigned to particular provinces,
and, what is still more interesting and suggestive, that the same forms were re-
stricted to the same provinces at a former geological period as they are at the
present day.
I have purposely refrained from pursuing the comparison of recent and
extinct Mammalia, in reference to their local distribution, to the eocene
epoch: too little is known, or can reasonably be conjectured, as to the relative
distribution of sea and land on the surface of the globe at that remote ter-
tiary period, to elucidate the relations of geographical sites of continents to
particular groups of animals.
* Elements of Geology, 8vo, 1838, p. 366, and Principles of Geology, 1837, vol.i. p. 204.
+ Transactions of the Zoological Society, vol. iii. pp. 32 and 235.
+ An interesting account has been published by this gentleman in the Tasmanian Journal
of Natural History, vol. ii. No. vii. 1843.
—)
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 241
Report on the Working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers at Ply-
mouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 184%.
By W. Snow Harnis, Esq., F.B.S., &c.
THERE is no department of meteorology in so unsatisfactory a state as that
relating to the general course and velocity of the wind, especially in high
latitudes ; for although many talented persons have given their attention oc-
casionally to this subject, and a variety of jnstruments for measuring the
force and velocity of the wind have been suggested, yet no series of observa-
tions conducted upon any definite or correct view of the great periodical and
other movements of the air, and embracing the question in all its generality,
has, so far as I can learn, been ever fairly carried out, so that we yet require
careful investigations by means of simultaneous observation, and with instru-
ments well-adapted to the purpose, in order to appreciate with anything like
accuracy the phenomena of winds and the laws of atmospheric circulation.
Meteorology, as a predictive science, is certainly very defective ; almost
every change in the state and condition of the air is generally considered
quite an affair of chance, yet such is not really the case ; the philosopher
knows nothing of chance, and is well assured that every atmospheric varia-
tion is the result of unerring laws.
The laws of the periodical movements, and general circulation of the air
about our globe, demand very special attention, as being intimately as-
sociated with future atmospheric changes. It is not improbable, from the
great regularity of the winds in latitudes but little subject to capricious va-
riations, that even in higher latitudes a similar regularity may upon the whole
become apparent, in eliminating by a sufficient number of observations the
forces which disturb the general course of the winds in these latitudes.
The great defect of the partial methods hitherto pursued in observing and
recording the winds, has been a want of due attention to their force and ve-
locity; the direction, together with the time which any particular wind
blows, being the only elements usually considered. We have it is true one
or two useful tables by Rous, Hutton and others, expressing the common
designation of certain winds and the velocity due to certain pressures, but
these do not appear to have been employed in obtaining any general meteo-
rological deduction, such as the mean direction and rate of motion of the air
in a particular place for any given period, and which it is most important to
determine. To arrive at this, however, we require a correct register of the
direction and velocity or some other element from which the velocity may
be determined. Professor Whewell has well explained this in his valuable
paper in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, vol. iv. Indeed it is
quite evident, that more air may be transferred over a given place in one day
by a wind blowing with great force in a certain direction, than would move
over the same place in a week by the gentle breezes of a wind blowing in
an opposite one, and hence any inquiry which does not embrace this essen-
tial principle in anemometry, cannot be productive of correct results,
Kemptz, with a view to the generalization of the winds of different latitudes,
has, in the absence of all record of their velocity, supposed them all equal in
force, and takes their duration as the measure of their value, considered as
80 many distinct forces.
It was with the intention of obtaining a more perfect investigation of
this question, that the British Association confided to my care the anemo-
meters designed by the Rev. Professor Whewell and Mr. Osler of Birming-
ham, both of which were so theoretically constructed as either to give at
once the integral force of the wind, that is to say, the velocity conjointly
1844. R
242 REPORT—1844.
with the time, or otherwise the elements from which this integral force may
be determined; and it will be my endeavour in this report to show how far
these instruments are calculated for such a purpose.
Whewell’s Anemometer.—It does not seem requisite to enter here upon
any lengthened description of this instrument, inasmuch as a very full ac-
count of it has already appeared in vol. ix. and x. of the Reports of the As-
sociation. It may however be desirable for the sake of perspicuity to revert
briefly to its general character as shown in the annexed cut.
By means of a vane
Va windmill fly F is
constantly presented
to the wind, and it re-
volves more or less ra-
pidly according to the
velocity of the cur-
rent. Anintermediate
train of wheels, &c.
operated on by the fly
¥,, causes a pencil P
to descend vertically
over a fixed cylinder
C, leaving a trace
thereon of variable
length, according as
the wind is more or
less strong. The di-
rection is shown by
vertical lines on the
cylinder, correspond-
ing in position to six-
teen points of the
compass, and upon
some one of which the
pencil P is brought to
act by means of the
vane V. Supposing
the fly F to revolve in
the simple proportion
of the velocity of the
wind, we obtain in the
length of the trace or
line described by the pencil, a space proportional to that which a parti-
cle of air would describe in a given direction in a given time, say one day,
taking into the account the strength of the wind and the time for which it blows.
Finally, by collecting these integral results and laying them off successively
by the graphical method of delineation, we obtain as in Plate XX XU. figs
1, 2,3, what may be considered the path of the wind for a given period of
time. The mean annual path thus obtained in any given place is called the
type of the wind for that place. As an abstract philosophical principle nothing
can be more perfect or better adapted to the end proposed to be attained,
and although the mechanical arrangements which have been resorted to in
order to carry it out effectually in practice may not be the best possible,
yet I shall endeavour to show that we have by means of this instrument
still arrived at extremely valuable examples of its general application.
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. ~ 243
In Plate XXXIII. figs. 1, 2, 3, will be found graphical delineations of the
’ path of the wind at Plymouth for the years 1841, 1842, and 1843, as laid off
from daily observations with this instrument: the scale is sufficiently large
to indicate the successive changes which have occurred in these years.
On examining these annual types, we find, as in the former observations
published in vol. vii. of the Reports of the Association, that the general
course of the air is towards the land, and varies between N.E. and N.W.
The current appears to be interrupted in its general course by certain dis-
turbances or tourbillons which tie as it were so many knots in its path and
which are almost periodical. Thus in the type of 1841, fig. 1, there are four
of these disturbances, viz. about January, April, July, and Novemher. The
general course of this type is nearly N.N.E.
The type of 1842 presents also four marked disturbances, viz, about Ja-
nuary, March, August, and October. The general course here is N.N.W.
The type of 1843 has again four tourbillons or knots, viz. January, April,
July, and October. The course here is a little to the east of north.
These disturbances evidently approach a periodical form. ‘Thus we have
a complete disturbance about the commencement of each year, which is
further shown in Plate XXXIII. fig. 4, in which are laid off the two months’
observations of the year 1844. About the months of March and April we
have a second disturbance ; a third about the middle of summer, and a fourth
about the period of autumn. These disturbances, although not perfectly co-
incident, still show so great an approximation, as to render their dependence
on a similar cause highly probable; and since they are found about the periods
of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes and of the solstices, it is not unrea-
sonable to conclude that they result from the peculiar position of the sun at
those periods.
The complicated path or type of the wind at the time of these disturb-
ances is not unworthy of attention. In Plate XXXIV. fig. 5, will be found laid
off, on a large scale, the disturbance observed in the autumn of 1842. In this
example the wind is at the point a p, twice coincident in its general mean di-
rection, and has been twice thrown out of it, and there is a general resem-
blance in the course it has taken on both these occasions; in both cases it
has been traced southerly and westerly, as ata and l. The wind did not
recover its general mean course in this case until after October.
These effects point out the necessity of observing the instrument for a long
period of time, and not merely for the space of a month or two; for should
the observations happen to be made at the time of these periodical disturb-
ances, and the results laid off on a large scale, very indefinite views would
arise relative to the general movement of the air.
This method, adopted by Professor Whewell, of figuring the path of the
wind, although extremely ingenious and even indispensable where we wish
to present to the eye the successive changes which have occurred, is still
not the only form under which the observations may be discussed. There
is yet another method of dealing with the register, which should be also
noticed.
If we consider the different winds, when reduced to any given number of
points of the compass, as so many forces whose directions are given, and take
their relative intensities for the time during which each wind is recorded, then
it is evident that we may proceed to deal with these forces in intensity and
direction in the same way as we should deal with any other number of mecha-
nical forces under similar circumstances, and hence obtain the resultant of
these forces representing the different winds for any given time ; and if we take
‘the intensity in terms of velocity, we may arrive at the mean annual move-
RQ
944 REPORT—1844,
ment of the air both in velocity and direction, together with other periodical
movements of no less importance to the present state of meteorology.
With this view I have laid down in the annexed tables the general results
of this anemometer for certain great periods of time. In Tables I. II. III.
will be found the respective quantities of wind to sixteen points of the compass
for the successive months of the years 1841, 1842, and 1843, together with
the total amount for each year.
In Table IV. will be found the mean quantity of each wind for the three
years, as deduced from the sums of Tables I. II. III.
In Table V.are given the effective winds reduced to eight points of the com-
pass, by subtracting the lesser amount of wind from the greater for opposite
directions, so that by the prevalence of certain winds over others, eight
points of the compass vanish.
In Table VI. will be found the mean results of the three years, also re-
duced to eight points of the compass in a similar way.
Table VII. contains the mean quantity of wind for each of the four sea-
sons, as deduced from the mean results of Tables I. II, and III. March,
April and May are here considered as months of spring; June, July and
August summer months; September, October, November, months of Au-
tumn ; and December, January, February, winter months.
Table VIII. shows the reduction to eight points as before.
Table IX. comprises the two months’ observations for the year 1844, at
which time they were discontinued.
- These Tables enable us to deduce, by the method just explained, the mean
direction and velocity of the wind for certain periods of time, as shown by
this instrument, and which is effected in Plates XXXV. and XXXVI.
In Plate XXXV. figs.6, 7, 8, will be found the eight effective winds of the
years 1841, 1842, and 1843, laid off for each year as a polygon of forces, and
in fig. 9 the mean results of these years are laid off in a similar way.
In constructing these figures the winds have been taken in the order of
following points of the compass, the forces being deduced from Table V.
The effective winds in this order for the three years, together with the mean,
are given in Table X.
It will be seen by these figures that comparative values of the wind in ve-
locity and direction have been arrived at ; and that an instrument, ifsufficiently
perfect in its mechanical details on this principle, would be of great import-
ance to metecrology.
The result of 1841 (fig. 6) gives a mean direction N. 15° east, the relative
magnitude of the resultant on the scale of measure being 4180.
The result of 1842 (fig. 7) gives a mean direction N. 12° west, the relative
magnitude of the resultant being 3800.
The result of 1843 (fig. 8) has a mean direction N. 2° east, the magnitude
of the resultant being 2810.
The mean result (fig. 8) has a mean direction N. 1° east, the magnitude of
the resultant being 3500.
Although these different resultants represent the relative spaces which a
particle of air would have passed over in each of these years in the given
directions, if acted on by a single force equivalent to all the others, yet they
do not give us any information of the actual velocity of the wind in these
different years. Now it is most desirable, if possible, to discover this, since
for the future progress of anemometry it is not only relative but absolute
values we require.
The method by which I proposed to arrive at this has been already
pointed out in the Reports of the Association for 1842, and although to a
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 245
certain extent empirical is still not without claims to consideration, and it is
moreover the only one apparently within our reach. This method consists
in determining experimentally, the actual space passed over by the pencil in
a given time corresponding to certain velocities of the wind, and finding from
this how these spaces vary with the velocities.
To this effect I examined the best tables of the relative force and velocity
of the wind laid down by Rous, Lind, Hutton and others, and by some fur-
ther experiments enlarged and extended them. I found that observations
with a gauge on Lind’s principle were sufficiently accurate for my purpose,
and accordingly noted the indications of this instrument simultaneously with
the anemometer now under consideration.
In a former but rather limited series of experiments, the spaces passed over
by the pencil came in several instances near the proportion of the square of
velocity of the wind. In very strong and steady breezes, however, the spaces
passed over by the pencil came nearer the simple ratio of the wind’s velocity.
When the obstacles arising from the friction and resistance of the machine
bear a high proportion to the force which sets it in motion, then, as may
be readily conceived, the space passed over by the pencil is less than it would
be if no such retarding force existed, As the velocity of the wind increases
the resistance is comparatively less, until it may be at last so small as not to
interfere considerably with the revolutions of the fly; accordingly we find
that in strong winds the ratio between the revolutions of the fly and the ve-
locity of the wind give a constant quantity, the spaces described by the pen-
cil being taken as proportionate to the revolutions of the fly.
If we consider attentively the nature of the mechanism in this machine, it
will be seen that the friction is very considerable. We have for example
(see figure in page 242) perpetual screws working in toothed wheels, so as to
convert the rapid motion of the fly into a slow descending vertical motion,
again carried out by a thread turning within a moveable nut. We have fur-
ther the friction of a pencil attached to this nut, against a fixed cylinder so
as to leave atrace on it. This instrument therefore involves the greatest
amount of friction incidental to any mechanical machine. We may there-
fore conceive that with gentle winds and light breezes the motion of the fly
would experience a greater amount of comparative retardation than with
strong gales; hence in the construction of instruments on this principle we
should employ a fly of considerable power as compared with the work the
machine has to perform.
In Table XI. will be found the mean results of a series of experiments on
the indications of this instrument, as compared with the velocity of the wind
deduced by Lind’s gauge.
We may observe in this table, that when the breeze is strong the velocity
of the wind (taken in feet per second ) divided by the space passed over by the
pencil gives in several consecutive experiments a constant quantity, or nearly
so. This is seen in observations 4, 5, 6, and 6, 7, 8, and 9, 10, 11,12. In
these instances therefore, as compared with each other, the velocity of the fly
is nearly in proportion to the velocity of the wind. This however is not the
case in comparing more distant observations. Thus in observations ] and 7,
the velocity of the wind is as 1 : 2, whilst the space passed over by the pen-
cilisas 1:3. In the first and tenth series of observations it approaches
the square of the velocity of the wind. In fact it is evident by column 7
that the ratio of the velocity of the wind to the velocity of the fly is con-
tinually decreasing by a variable quantity. In looking over some of Cou-
Jomb’s experiments on the working of windmills, we find a similar result.
Thus when velocity of wind was 7 feet per second, the sails made 3 revolu-
246 REPORT—1844.
tions per minute; and these quantities increased in the following propor-
tions :—
Feet per second. Revolutions of sails.
12°5 gave Co
AU arte 13
Here the ratios are 2°3, 1°7, 1'6, 1:2. Hence the ratio of the velocity of
the wind to the revolutions of the sails is continually decreasing. But there
are other forces interfering with the ratios of the velocity of the wird to the
velocity of the fly which render deductions from this machine somewhat dif-
ficult, such as the resistance of theair to the motion of the fly and such like,
all of which require considerable attention in the construction of anemome-
ters on this principle.
Taking however the observations we have recorded with this machine as
fair examples of the nature and operation of its working, and of the kind of
information it would put us in possession of, were it so constructed as to
meet all these questions, they are upon the whole very valuable, and we
shall see how they may be further applied and received in the way of ap-
proximation to a correct result.
If we suppose in Table XI. that the ratios had continued to increase in
column fas the spaces described by the pencil diminished, and in the pro-
ortion of the preceding numbers, we should have for a descent of the pen-
cil at the rate of one division of the scale of measure per hour, a corre-
sponding velocity of wind equal to about ten feet and a half per second ; and
for a rate of °5 of a division of the scale of measure per hour, a corre-
sponding velocity of wind equal to about seven feet per second. Taking
then 10°6 feet per second as the velocity of the wind corresponding to the
descent of the pencil at the rate of one division of the scale per hour, which
was about the proportion found by a mean of observations, we may take
the velocity of the wind corresponding to half a division of the scale per
hour as 7 feet per second. If then we apply this result to the resultants in
Plate XXXV. we have in dividing these resultants by 8760, the total number
of hours in the year, the mean rate of the pencil per hour expressed in terms
of the scale of measure, and hence the general results will be as follows: —
eS ae a
ea: 1841. | 1842. | 1843,. | Mem by ti
Mean direction of wind..........+.++. w. 15° g.| nN. 12° w.| n.2° g. | N.14°8.| nv 1° R.
Integral result .....+..ccesneeeeereeees 4210 3800 2810 3607 3500
Rate in divisions of scale per hour..| | 0:48 0-433 0:32 0-412 0-4
Feet per SCCOnd ..ssesssseseseeseerenees 67 6° 4-48 5°76 5-6
Miles per hour .....sscessseeeeeeeeees: AS 4 3 39 38
The great annual movement of the air therefore would by observations with
this instrument be N. 1° east, at the mean rate of 3-9 miles per hour.
In Table XII. will be found the effective amounts of wind for each month,
as deduced from the mean of the three years by Tables I. II. IfI., and from
these we may determine the mean monthly direction and velocity of the cur-
rent, at least so far as these observations are to be relied on. The winds in
quantity and direction in this Table, when laid off as already shown in Plate
XXXV,, will be found to give the following results :—
i *
4 .
om
. ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 247
Direetion of ; Veloci ind.
Direction of Wind ae staan pee Ver Sonuas wieder
Months. Resultant. | as commonly | -potal Wind. |sions of Scale.| Feet Miles
expressed. per second. | per hour.
January: ...|N. 67° 30’ 5.|-w.s.w. 75 0-1 14 | O95 |
February...| N.56° w. | s.E. by E. 300 0-44 6°16 4:2
March...... n. 4°30’ E.| s. 4 Ww. 610 0:8 11-2 76
April ...... n.81°30’w.! 5. 3S. 302 0-41 Lyi 3384 |
May «..... n.7°30'E.| s.3-w 475 0-6 8:4 5-75 ~ |
June ws... N.3° W. 8.5 E. 270 0°37 52 3°5
July .....- n. 56° £. | S.w. by w. 140 0:19 2-6 1:75
August ...|N. 29° 30’ 5.) s.s.w. | W. 298 0-4 56 3:8
‘September. n. 4° w. 8.35. 250 0:34 4:76 3:25
October ...|s.30°45’ 5.) N.w. by n. 100 0:13 1-82 1-2
November..| n. 4°20’. | s.3w. 780 1:00 10°6 7-0
December..| n.17°5. |s.byw.3w.| 440 0-6 8:4 5-75
The relative directions and magnitudes of these resultants for each month
are shown in the an-
nexed cut, the months
being numbered 1, 2,
3,4, &c.
The greatest mean
monthly velocity in the
resulting directions is
by these results in
March and November ;
and the leastin January
and October; the mean
direction of the current
in March and Novem-
ber being nearly the
same. Southerly winds
prevail in March, and
northerly in October,
and easterly winds in
April, that is, upon the
mean of these three
years: for the remaining
months the wind gene-
rally blows upon the
land from some point
between W.S.W. and
E-S.E.
The effective winds
in the order of follow-
ing points for each of
the seasons of spring,
summer, autumn, and
winter, are givenin Ta- W
ble XIII., as deduced
from the mean results
in Tables VII. and VIII.
These are laid off in figs.
10, 11, 12, 13, Plate
XXXVI., and give the
following results :—
uf
\ 10
LD gen en ee SS a
248 REPORT—1844.
Seasons. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter.
Direction of resultant .....-....0.+6 n.10°w. | w. 20° =. n. 6° E. n. 6° w.
Wind as commonly expressed ......|s.byz.nearly|s.s.w.nearly|s.4 w. nearly|s.7 E. nearly
Integral amount........-.0seserseeeeees 1143 645 1154 634
Rate in divisions of scale per hour.. 05 0-294 0:527 0-289
F Feet per second ......... 70 4-1 7:38 | 40
Velocity { ;
Miles per hour ......... 4:75 2°8 5:00 | 27
By these results it appears that the greatest amount of wind is in the
spring and autumn, the least in summer and winter. By the types in Plate
XXXIII. the current advances more steadily and rapidly in its course in the
spring and autumn than in the summer and winter. It must be remembered,
however, that in all these deductions we are speaking of the integral or total
effects ; the mean daily velocity of the wind, taken without regard to direc-
tion, may be of itself very considerable, and yet by the neutralization of op-
posite forces the great mass of the air may have made but comparatively little
progress in a given direction.
By generalizing the mean results in Table IV. we obtain the comparative
amount of wind from opposite points of the compass. Thus calling the
winds between N.N.E. and N.N.W. exclusive, north winds; those between
S.S.E. and S.S.W. exclusive, south winds; and so on, and then taking the
mean integral amount, we have for eight opposite points thus reduced the
following comparative numbers :—
North 386 West 295 South-east 150 North-east 417
South 1793 East 308 North-west 312 South-west 929,
by which it appears that the mean amount of north winds including 45 de-
grees, is less than that of south winds, in the ratio of | : 4 at least.
The mean amount of west wind is less than that of east, in the ratio of
1:1°7 nearly.
The mean amount of south-east is less than that of north-west, in the ratio
of 1:2 nearly.
The mean amount of north-east is less than mean amount of south-west
also, in the ratio of 1:2 nearly.
It must be borne in mind, that in generalizing the results of this instru-
ment we are not considering the prevalence or frequency of any particular
wind ina given place, but its particular or integral effect, that is to say,
the comparative distance over which a particle of air would pass during the
time a certain wind blows; and this may with a strong east wind of only one
day, far exceed in effect the breezes of a gentle west wind of a week. If
we take in Table IV. the total mean amount of wind in the north semicircle,
and also that in the south semicircle, from east to west exclusive, calling those
on the north side, north winds, and those on the south, south winds, we ob-
tain the following results :—
North 2672, south 5806, being in the ratio of 1 : 2.
‘Treating the east and west semicircles in a similar way from north to south
exclusive, we have, east 2697, west 4120, being a ratio of | : 1-5 nearly.
Reducing these numbers to two effective forces by subtracting the north
from south and east from west, we have for a final result, south 3134, west
1423, that is to say, two rectangular forces, whose intensity and directions
are given and whose resultant may therefore be easily found.
‘The direction of this resultant will be N.N.E., the wind being 8.8. W., as in
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 249
the annexed figure, and its magni- N
tude= 4/(3134)*+ (1423)? = 3442
nearly ; this divided by 8760, the
number of hours in the year, gives
a rate of -4 per hour in divisions of
the scale of measure for the descent
of pencil, which by previous de-
ductions from Table XI. would in
taking 1 a division of the*scale of
measure = to 7 feet per second,
give a velocity of 5°6 feet per se-
cond, or 3°8 miles per hour, a simi-
lar result to that already arrived at,
with the exception of a little devia-
tion in the direction.
Such are the principal results of
the working of this instrument du-
ring the years 1841, 1842, 1843;
and could we feel assured that it
had worked with perfect accuracy,
we should doubtless have arrived
at very important results. This is
howeyer unfortunately not the case,
and therefore these results can only 8
be taken in the way of rough approximations.
The integral effects, in fact, have been deduced on the supposition
that the revolutions of the fly are proportional to the velocity of the wind,
whereas we see by Table XI. that they only approach this ratio in certain
cases, and differ from it considerably in others. The relative effects also of
the wind on the fly and vane are unfavourable to a very correct direction, in
consequence of a tendency in the top to be thrown occasionally a little ob-
lique to the course of the current, so that it is possible that the direction is
not always to be depended on. Professor Airy, in his experience of this ane-
mometer at Greenwich, thinks it cannot be depended on for direction ; he
_ Says it turns very heavily in azimuth, an objection however to which the in-
strument at Plymouth is not liable since it was last set up.
With all these difficulties, however, I am encouraged to hope that the ex-
amples just given of its operation for three years, together with the deduc-
tions we have made by a careful analysis of the register, may not be alto-
gether without claims to attention; beside that they hold out inducements
‘to ingenious mechanics and meteorologists to improve its construction, and
extend the principle to more perfect machines, from which certainly the
‘most important consequences would result. To render an anemometer of
this kind perfect, experience has taught us, that it should be a permanently
fixed machine, and set up in a commodious and convenient form ; it should
consist of several separate parts, all of them independent of each other, viz.
a vane for registering direction only, unembarrassed by any other mechani-
cal detail ; the most simple and effective form of vane is that of a flying-fish
with extended fins, balanced at about one-third from the head. Secondly, a
powerful fly or horizontal windmill, so contrived as to revolve in one direc-
tion only and register the integral of the wind. The power of this fly should
be in such a ratio to the friction of the machine as will admit of the latter
being thrown out of the calculation, so that it could always revolve with ara-
‘pidity proportional to thewinds'’ velocity, and with which it should beadsolutely
.———
250 REPORT—1844,
compared, Thirdly, there should be some means of registering the actual
pressure of the current on a given area, either by a pressure-plate or a column
of fluid on Lind’s principle; the former is perhaps to be preferred, as ad-
mitting of a greater degree of precision. There should also be a rain-gauge
connected with the instrument, and the whole should be regulated by a good
time-keeper, so as to give a constant register of these elements for known
periods of time.
I'am not exactly prepared to say at present how the mechanical detail of
such an anemometer could be best carried out, so as to get the machine
within a small and convenient compass ; but from some considerations which
I have been led to, I do not think it would be difficult to accomplish. In
support of this opinion, I venture to submit to the Association the follow-
ing most ingenious arrangement, kindly communicated to me by the Rev.
W. Foster of Sturbington, near Portsmouth in Hampshire, and which com-
pletely embraces some of these views. The general nature of this machine
will be easily apprehended by reference to the annexed cut.
R
1
Sa
Ais across horizontal fly of three feet in diameter, having four vanes, a, 4,
c,d ; these vanes are six inches square, and are so contrived as to cause the
fly to revolve in one direction only. By the revolution of this fly motion is
communicated to an endless screw B at the termination of the vertical shaft
A B attached to the fly, and passing through the roof of the house at D the
fly is supported on the hollow tube AD. By means of the endless screw at
B atrain of mechanism is put in motion, which motion is finally communi-
cated to the axis g h, and by this through another endless screw, not shown
inthe figure, to the disc P, so that this disc, which is twenty-two inches in dia-
meter, is caused to revolve slowly in a horizontal plane, hence the motion of
P registers the revolutions of the fly A, the revolutions of which may be in
any convenient proportion to those of the disc 1 : 10-000 or 1 : 20-000.
R is avane, and R S a vane rod, working also through the roof at F, by
which a similar horizontal disc S is turned about a centre; this disc is nine
inches in diameter. M is a rain receiver, and M N a pipe by which the rain
descends into a gauge N; this gauge consists of two compartments in the
i ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 251
usual form of balance-gauges, so that when one compartment is full the ba-
lance oversets and allows the other compartment to go on filling; a recipro-
cating motion is thus produced, by which an axis is caused to work in a
toothed wheel (not seen in the figure) under the disc ¢, causing it to re-
volye through a space proportionate to the quantity of rain delivered at each
tip of the gauge N.
Iu wv is a rod set on friction-rollers at « and 2; it is furnished with a rack,
Iu, to receive the single tooth of a horizontal rod, y, projecting horizontally
_ from the centre of the clock y. There are twenty-four teeth in the rack, and
thus the rod is moved hourly one division; by this motion three pencils,
numbered in the figure 1, 2, 3, are hourly moved upon the respective discs
I¢s, so that traces are obtained of the direction and velocity of the wind
and of the rain for every hour as the discs move under the pencils.
This instrument is reported to have stood severe gales without having sus-
tained any damage, and to have answered very perfectly.. The following
_ are some results of its operation from November 1843 to November 1844.
TABLE A.
Showing Hourly Velocity of Wind by Foster’s Anemometer, from
November 1843 to November 1844.
Hours A.M. Nien in |/Hours p.m. vee in
1 2434 1 4161
2 2364 2 3992
3 2318 3 3806
4 2062 4 3698
5 2193 5 3263
6 2437 6 2978
7 2687 7 2625
8 2894 | 8 2426
9 3374 9 2317
10 3608 | 10 2306
1] 3881 ll 2428
12 4079 12 2433
*
TABLE B.
Showing the Total and Mean Hourly Velocity of each Wind in
miles, by Foster’s Anemometer.
Gly: Total Velocity) Number of | Mean Hourl . Total Velocity} Number of |Mean Hourl
ee in miles per" henry of be beats, a, | comes f in alt ieee poe = ot Nie sae ae |
Po N: 432 42 10°3 her Ss 1811 136 13:3
N.NLE. 3828 354 106 S.S.W. 2787 149 18-7
N.E. 4468 317 14:2 S.w. 5773 265 21:8
E.N.E. 2491 147 17: w.s.w.| 10227 609 17:0
Ptr, 948 75 12°6 w. 6836 383 17:0
E.S.E. 854 68 12-5 | w.n-w.| 16301 877 18°5
S.E. 699 81 8:6 N.W. 6695 412 16:2
S.S.E. 1125 7 146 N.N.W. 3011 298 10-1
Mr. Foster has estimated the general direction and magnitude of the re-
sultant in the following way :—One-half the velocities of north-west and
north-east winds are taken and added to the velocities of the intermediate
points, calling the total north.
1 ieee
952 REPORT—1844,
In a similar way one-half the velocities of south-west and south-east winds
are taken and added to the velocities of the intermediate points, calling the
whole south, and so on, according to the following formula :—
NW: +NNW,.+NANNEFSESN,
SW: 4 §,5,W.+8.48.8.E.4 258.
NE+ENE-E+ESE. +53 = :
N.W.
2
Substituting the arithmetical quantities in Table A in these formule, we
have N. = 12852, S. = 8959, E. = 6276, W. = 39598. Subtracting S,
from N. and E. from W., we have the two rectangular forces, N = 3893,
and W. = 33321, the resultant and direction of which will be as in the an-
nexed figure, Magnitude of resultant = 333212+38932 = 33547. Di-
WN
4W.N.W.+W.-+ W.S.W.+ ae
viding by 8760, the total number of hours in the years, gives about 3°8 miles
per hour. The direction of the wind therefore in the locality of this instru-
ment, from November 1843 to November 1844, would be about W.N.W. to
E,S.E. with a velocity of 3:8 miles per hour, being a velocity the same as
that obtained by Professor Whewell’s instrument.
The Right Honourable the Earl of Burlington, one of the late Presidents
of the British Association, has been so good as to place in my hands some
manuscripts found amongst the papers of the late Mr. Cavendish, and con-
taining no doubt the results of valuable experiments on revolving vanes,
which would be likely to throw some further light on the working of such
instruments as this; but from the absence of all information relative to these
experiments, it is impossible to come to any satisfactory conclusions relative
to them. Mr. Cavendish, who left few inquiries in experimental science un-
touched by his powerful hand, had evidently considered the subject of re-
volving vanes as a means of determining the velocity of the wind. His ex-
periments were made on machines of considerable magnitude, the arms on
which the vanes were fixed being nearly ten feet long, the total diameter of
the fly therefore was twenty feet ; the motion of this fly appears to have been
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 953
estimated by the motion communicated to some other secondary machinery,
termed the gauge, as we find on Mr. Cavendish’s manuscript the following
remarks :—“ Rad. circle which it revolves in = 10 feet and circumf, = 62°83
feet, and by mean gauge makes 3-73 rev. for ] rev, arm, and therefore makes
1 rev. for 16°85 feet, or 31, of a mile, therefore, as in former trials, it seemed
to make 360 rev. per mile.” He also says, ‘* Diameter of vanes is 142 inches,
therefore vanes make one revolution whilst wind moves over 44 times the
circumference, and consequently if wind is 43 slower at leading edge of vanes
than at the other, they should stand still.”
This instrument worked very freely with light breezes, and when the wind
did not exceed 1 mile per hour, or 1°43 feet in a second, the fly appears to have
made ‘2-62 rev.in3 min.” Sucha wind as this, according to Rous, is scarcely
perceptible, and would not exert more than ‘005 1b. pressure on a square foot ;
it is not measurable by any anemometer at present employed in meteorology.
One revolution of this instrument per second = 9:955 miles per hour.
I have thought it desirable to notice these remarks in Mr. Cavendish’s
papers with a view of showing how possible it is to measure the velocity of
very slow currents, and furnish some hints at least relative to the method
which this profound and accomplished scholar and philosopher resorted to
for the purpose.
_ Osler’s Anemometer.—A full description of this instrument has been given
by the inventor in a quarto pamphlet printed at Birmingham about five years
since ; no particular notice or figured description of it however has yet
appeared in the Reports of the British Association, notwithstanding that
several sums of money and much labour has been devoted to it. I have
thought it therefore desirable to preface what I have at present to state re-
lative to this anemometer, with a very brief notice and drawing of its prin-
cipal parts, in order the more effectually to carry out the object of this Re-
port, viz. a full account of the results of the experiments undertaken by the
Physical Section of the Association for the purpose of advancing that depart-
ment of meteorology relating to the phenomena of wind.
Osler’s anemometer traces the direction and pressure of the wind on a
given area, together with the amount of rain, on a longitudinal register di-
vided into twenty-four portions, corresponding to the twenty-four hours of the
day, as shown by fig. 1, Plate XXXVII. The central portion of this paper is
devoted to the register of the direction, and has a series of longitudinal lines
on it corresponding to the cardinal points. The lower portion, 6d, is devoted
to the register of pressure, and is graduated also by a series of longitudinal
lines corresponding to Ibs. pressure on the square foot. The upper portion,
a c, is devoted to the register of rain, and is graduated in asimilar way by a
series of lines corresponding to given quantities. Finally, the whole length
is divided by verticals or lines perpendicular to the former, as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.,
Corresponding to the twenty-four hours of the day. This register-paper
being placed on a board M, fig. 2, and accurately set every day, is carried
along by means of aclock, C, under three pencils, 1', 2’, 3', which may be con-
sidered as the fingers or indexes of the machine. The board M moves on
friction rollers, and is hence easily drawn along as the clock, and conse-
quently the time, advances.
The pencil 1' is the index of direction; this pencil is operated on by a vane
V, turning a vertical hollow shaft, W p. There isa pinion at p which, as the
vane turns in the direction of the wind, acts on the rack-work of a transverse
bar ef, and so causes it to move either to one side or the other. Now the
pencil 1’ is attached to this bar, and hence is caused to leave a trace on one
of the longitudinal lines of the register corresponding to the cardinal points,
’
954 REPORT—1844.
or some line parallel to those corresponding to intermediate points, such as
N.N.W., N.W., &c.
The force of the wind is recorded by the action of a pressure-plate T,
which by the vane V is presented to the direction of the current ; this plate
is sustained by two bars moving on friction rollers, and working through the
hollow vane staff, as shown in the figure, the pressure of the wind on this
plate is by these bars communicated to a spring inclosed in a tube ¢, the
whole of which is sheltered by an outer case ; as the spring becomes com-
pressed it pulls on a wire-line not seen in the figure, which line, by means of
small pullies, is led through the hollow vane staff, and finally brought to pull
upon the spring lever v, and thus draw the pencil 2’ towards the rod: the
height to which the pencil becomes raised on the graduated scale 6 d, fig. 1,
represents the pressure of the wind in Ibs, on an area of one square foot.
The kind of trace left on the register is indicated in fig. 1.
The amount of rain is recorded in a somewhat similar way by the pencil 3/
attached to the spring lever v'.. The rain, when it descends into the receiver
R, is conducted into one of the compartments of a gauge g, balanced on an
axis and sustained by a second balance, g ” ; asthe water collects, this second
balance, g n, begins to move and so raises the bob h. Now the spring lever v'
carrying the pencil 3! is acted on by this bob, and hence the pencil is pushed
forward upon the graduated scale ac, fig. 1, according to the quantity
of water collected in the gauge; when the quantity becomes equal to } of
an inch in rain, or to a certain number of cubic inches on a foot square,
then the little gauge g oversets, the water is discharged, and an opposite
compartment of the gauge is brought under the pipe at g; the pencil of
course now returns to its first position, and begins again to rise on the scale
as the rain collects; a trace of this is shown in fig. 1; and it may be easily
imagined that the more rapid the fall of rain the sharper will be the angles
caused by the trace of the pencil ; on the contrary, if the fall of rain be gra-
dual and slow, the elevating or diagonal lines will be drawn out into a con-
siderable length, as shown in the figure.
It is therefore evident that as the register M, fig. 1, becomes constantly and
hourly drawn along under the three pencils 1', 2', 3’, a continued record or
trace of the direction and pressure of the wind, together with the amount of
rain, is left on the paper, an illustration of which is given in fig. 1.
The table on which the register-frame is supported is five feet long and
about three feet six inches wide, with a strip cut out of the centre fifteen
inches wide to admit the board M, and allow of its being gradually drawn
along under the pencils.
The register-papers are about twenty-two inches long and a foot wide, and
are placed daily on the board M.
Such are the principal features of the instrument which has been set up
by the British Association at Plymouth, and also in Scotland and Ireland, for
recording observations onthe winds. I have not thought it requisite to enter
upon any lengthened explanation of the several mechanical adaptations, or
to complicate the figured description of it by lines representative of all the
subordinate parts, as this would have only embarrassed the general account
of it without any adequate return.
The use of this anemometer, such as just described, has been much im-
peded by the following circumstances :—First, the action of the pressure-
plate is liable to frequent derangement from the violence of the wind, by
which the wire-line communicating motion to the pencil below is broken;
it is likewise from other defects in construction frequently uncertain, so that
the register of the force is deficient ; the tendency of the vane also to oseil-
Ps
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 955
late and change the position of the plate is another source of error, and there
is also from this cause a considerable oscillation in the traces of direction.
In violent storms, the vane often whirls round altogether and throws the
pinion out of the range of the rack-work of the bar e f, and unless consider-
able attention be given in replacing it the direction is in error. From these
and other contingencies, the registers which have come into my hands are far
from perfect; nevertheless I have thought it desirable to go patiently over
them with a view of obtaining such general deductions as the number of the
clearly recorded observations are competent to furnish.
As this machine does not register integral results, but merely the pressure
of the wind on a given area, it is requisite to find the mean velocities due to
the several mean pressures, and multiply these into the time during which
each wind blew.
The recorded observations being entered under prepared forms containing
the directions of the wind to sixteen points of the compass for every twenty-
four hours, together with the corresponding pressures at each hour; a mean
force was obtained from several heights of the pencil on each side of the
hour-line, not exceeding half an hour on either side, and the mean force
thus determined was taken as the mean force of that hour. From these
forces the mean pressure and total number of hours which each of the se-
veral winds blew were deduced. In order to turn these mean pressures into
corresponding velocities, extensive tables of pressure and velocity were cal-
culated from the labours of Rous, Smeaton, Hutton and others, as well as
by reference to experiment, and from these the velocity of the wind in feet
per second, or miles per hour, to any given pressure, could be readily found.
The registers however of Osler’s anemometer which have come into my
_ hands, inclusive of some lately received, are all very defective in continuous
and perfect observation, and are beside occasionally interrupted by the
damage done to the machinery of the pressure-plate during very violent
gales. It became requisite therefore to resort to some approximate method
of discussing such observations as the registers contain, so as to make them
available for scientific deduction. The general method pursued in this case
‘is as follows.
First. The forces clearly marked for the different directions of the wind
were taken out and tabulated for a given period, together with the number
of corresponding observations. From the numbers thus deduced, a mean
pressure was deduced for each direction in dividing the sums of the recorded
pressures by the number of observations.
Secondly. The mean pressures thus obtained were taken as an approxi-
‘mative value of the mean force of each wind, supposing the record had been
‘complete in all its detail.
Thirdly. The total number of hours of each wind, in respect of direction
‘only, were taken out and tabulated ; the direction being pretty generally re-
corded when the pressure-plate was not acted on.
Lastly. The velocities in miles per hour due to the mean pressures were
multiplied into the total number of hours of each wind, and the product taken
as the integral effect, or the distance in miles a particle of air would have
passed over in either of the given directions to sixteen points of the compass.
From these integrals the mean direction and velocity of the wind were
deduced as before by geometrical construction.
In Table XIV. will be found the results of the registers of Osler’s anemo-
meter at Devonport for the years 1841 and 1842, as thus deduced, and from
the last line of which we obtain the following effective forces in velocity and
direction for these years.
7 se i,
256 REPORT—1844.
Years. S.S.E. Ss. S.S.W.| S.W. w.s.w, W. |W.N.W.| N.W. |N.N.W.
——— | |
1841, ou 8981} 5665 | 13333 | 5246 | 5063 | 6096 | 19417 | 1267
1842. | 4123 |} 10171) 3148 | 9104} 3708 | 1172 | S644 | 16912
Mean ...| 1428 | 9576 ! 4407 | 11218 4477 | 3118
7370 | 18164
N.B. The mean of 8.S.E. is the mean difference of §.S.E. and N.N.W.
These values being laid off geometrically as a system of mechanical forces,
and as shown in figs. 13 and 14, Plate XXXVIIL., we arrive at the following
deductions, showing the general results of Osler’s anemometer at Devonport.
Years. | Direction of Wind.| Integral in Miles. | Miles per hour.
[a RES [ag SOU eT a ee Tee |
1841, | 5. 11°, 42100 48
1842. B. 17° N. 32000 3°65
Mean...| =. 14° Nn. 37000 4:22
The direction of the current, as thus obtained, is, it must be admitted,
rather different from that given by the observations with Professor Whewell’s
instrument, yet the mean velocity is not far different. This disagreement in
respect of direction, although to a certain extent unsatisfactory, is perhaps
not more than we might expect would happen in the present imperfect state
of such instruments. It must, I think, be admitted that the direction given
by Whewell’s anemometer is tov far north ; and this error would probably
arise from the circumstance that the machine does not do really what it pro-
fesses to do, viz. trace a line always proportional to the space passed over
by a particle of air in a giverrtime. The revolutions of the fly, in fact, are
not always proportional to the velocity of the wind, except in very strong
breezes, as we have already shown in Table XI.; hence the weak westerly
and northerly winds, so very prevalent in this place, and of which the vane
of Osler’s instrument has left traces, have not produced their full effect on
Mr. Whewell’s instrument, especially as compared with the generally strong
southerly and easterly winds, which keep the fly in rapid motion ; hence an
undue prevalence in the records of these winds. On the other hand, the
mean force of the north and west currents, so frequent in the records of
Osler’s anemometer, has probably been taken too high, it having been deter-
mined without reference to the frequency of the light winds which prevail
from these quarters; and this, together with the failure of the instruments in
registering all the strong southerly gales, has thrown the direction too far
south. The mean direction of the wind at Devonport, as determined by the
spaces which a particle of air would have passed over at the end of one year
in each of the given directions, will probably be found eventually from south-
west to north-east; at all events the limits of their direction is between north
and east.
The Astronomer Royal, with his usual kind consideration for those en-
gaged in scientific pursuits, has been so good as to place in my hands the
very interesting volumes of the Greenwich Meteorological Observations for
the years 1841 and 1842, by which I have been enabled to institute a com-
parison of the Plymouth with the Greenwich observations.
By the results given in pages 47 and 53 of the vol. for 1841, and in pages
78 and 85 for 1842, we are enabled to treat the results of Osler’s instrument
at Greenwich in a way similar to that just shown for Plymouth. Deducing
the mean forces for the recorded observations, and the total hours of each
wind from the two-hourly observations, we have similar elements to those
i
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 957
before obtained; these are given in Table XV. From these we deduce the
eight effective forces in velocity and direction, for each of the years 1841
and 1842, as follows.
Greenwich Observations.
Years,
1841. | 2043 | 13080 | 12521 | 11170
1842, | 359 | 5491| 13458] 13663
12100] 3312 | 3564 | 916
4952 | 2309 | 1181 | 1843
These values, when laid off as before, figs. 15 and 16, Plate XXXVIILI.,
give the following results.
Results of Osler’s Anemometer at Greenwich.
Years. | Direction of Wind. | Integral in Miles. | Rate in Miles per hour.
1841. | 228° 30'w. | 47900 ea Mai
1842. | £.27°n. 36750 4-2
Mean...| £.27° 36/n. 42200 4-8
There is evidently a general agreement in the results of the Devonport
and Greenwich observations, the mean direction of the wind being nearly the
same, and the rate of motion of the air not very different; for it is to be
considered that the Greenwich observations for 1841 only include a period
of eleven months, whilst the approximative mean force has been deduced
from a register of pressures not under a quarter of a pound; still the results
are so far satisfactory as tending to show the same general course of the air
in the annual movement in these latitudes, and which is evidently between
the north and east, and at a mean rate of from four to five miles per hour,
being about the same rate of motion as that deduced by the anemometers at
_ Plymouth for the same years, a coincidence not unworthy of remark. There
is likewise a very general agreement in the characters of the diagrams of the
winds for these years, Plate XXXVIII. In both instances the year 1842
_ presents a less result than 1841, and the figures representing these winds at
Devonport and Greenwich have a very similar relation. I cannot therefore
but believe, that with perfect instruments of this kind, most valuable infor-
mation would be obtained in this department of meteorology.
__ The registers of Osler’s anemometer are still under investigation, and will
_be further reported on. I am enabled however to give in this report the
relative velocity and amount of wind to eight points of the compass, in con-
_ hexion with the atmospheric temperature and pressure and amount of rain for
the two years just given, and which appears to be as in the following Table.
Points of Direction. N. N.E. E. S.E. Ss. S.W. w. N.W.
a |Mean pressure...........2.4 165 | 1:68 | 2°37 | 2°02 | 2:77 | 3:09 | 2-06 33
\Velocity in miles per hour} 18:3 | 18:47} 21-7 | 20-28/ 23-75| 25 | 20-46] 25-9
¢ |Total hours ........sseesseeee 727 | 501 | 707 | 995 | 1112 | 1040 | 1004 | 164)
d\Integral effect.........s0006 138304 | 9253 | 15342 | 20178 | 26410 | 26000 | 20541 | 42501
e |Barometer to 32° ......... 29:875| 29-880) 29-816} 29-798) 29-642) 29-717] 29-751) 29-891
Ff \Temperature ............00 47:92 | 46:97 | 50°66 | 51-68} 54-39) 52-68 | 51:5 | 51
g \Rain in inches.............. 1-303 | 0:294) 1-404] 4-647 | 7:987 | 6-218 | 2-950| 1-544
ee
1844. s
258 REPORT—1844.
In Plate XX XIX. these numbers are arranged upon the circumference of
eight concentric circles, divided into eight points of the compass, so as to
exhibit the routine of these elements under a circular form and in the
order of the letters denoting them. Now by reference to this scheme, it may
be perceived, that the integral amount of wind increases from a minimum at
north-east, in passing round the circle by the south, to a maximum at north-
west, after which it again decreases. The mean pressure in pounds on the
square foot, and the mean velocity in miles per hour, do not vary for each
direction more than might have been anticipated, the limits of the mean
pressure being from *5 of a pound to 2:5 pounds, and the velocity from 18 to
26 miles per hour.
The temperature of the air with these different directions of wind decreases
from a maximum at south to a minimum at north-east in going round the
circle by the west, after which it again increases,
The atmospheric pressure, on the contrary, proceeds in an opposite order.
It increases from a minimum at south to a maximum at north-east in passing
round the circle in the same direction, after which it again decreases. ‘Thus
when the temperature is greatest the barometric pressure is least.
The amount of rain increases from a minimum at north-east, in passing
round the circle by east, to a maximum at south, after which it again de-
creases, being a course similar to that of the temperature.
Such are some of the results of the discussion of the observations made at
Plymouth and Devonport with Whewell’s and Osler’s anemometers, and al-
though we cannot consider them perfect, yet they are still most useful ap-
proximations, and fully show, that whatever may be the imperfections of these
instruments, they comprise the elements of a valuable method of investigating
the phenomena of winds by experimental means; and there can be, I think,
but little doubt, that if a very perfect instrument involving these elements,
were observed for a long series of years, most important information relative
to the great periodical and other movements of the air would necessarily
result.
It is not without much satisfaction I have to state that Mr, Osler has lately
so much improved his anemometer that all the great imperfections are quite
remedied, so that we now really possess a machine calculated to furnish a
constant register of the direction and pressure of the wind. One of these
instruments is now at work on that splendid building, the Royal Exchange,
in London. The vane is no longer subject to the violent and irregular oscil-
lating motion so common to vanes of the ordinary kind. In this new arrange-
ment the pressure-plate is kept to its work by means of a small windmill-fly
acting on a cog-wheel, similar to that on which common windmills are turned
to the wind. The pressure-plate is of increased dimensions delicately hung
on radius rods, and brought to act on a series of spiral springs, by which the
least and greatest forces are registered, and that without any disturbing os-
cillation. These, with sundry other improvements in the mechanism and the
method of registering the results, have certainly rendered the use of this in-
strument most important to meteorology.
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260
261
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH.
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TIA FTEVL
ON THE ANEMOMETERS OF PLYMOUTH. 263
TABLE X.
Showing the Effective Winds in the Order of following Points of the
Compass.
1841. 1842. 1843. Mean. ‘|
2447°0 s.s.w. | 1593°5 s.s.w. | 2451°5 s.s.w. | 2164:0 s.s.w.
224655 ss. 2962°8 ss. 10490 s. 2086°1 ss.
1135 E.N.E. 5:0 s.s.E. 50°5 s.s.5. 599'8 xz.
187:0 N.z. 1081:0 x. 7275 382°9 E.N.E.
143°5 N.N.w. 7443 E.N.E. 291-0 =.N.E. 2448 NUE.
143°5 n.w. 2735 N.E. 274:0 NE. 29°3 N.N.W.
212-0 w.n.w. 83:0 N.w. 121-5 nw. 116:0 nw.
90 w. 491-0 w.n.w. | 3225 w.n.w. | 341°8 w.n.w.
TABLE XI.
Showing the Comparative Indications of Lind’s Gauge and Whewell’s
Anemometer.
Pressure and Velocity of Wind by Lind’s Whewell’s Aulemometer
Gauge.
Experi- ,
ments. | Altitude of | pounds on Feet Space de- | Velocity of Diglerengen,
or Foot Square. | per Second. gigs Dee gris pe ry
1 0:05 0:260 10°68 10 106
2 0:06 0312 11:68 1:5 78 28
3 0:08 0:417 13°5 2:0 67 1:0
4 0:10 0:541 15:3 25 66 06
5 013 0:70 17°5 30 58 0-3
6 0-16 0°83 19-1 35 55 0:3
7 0-19 1:00 21 40 5:2 0:3
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REPORT—1844.
266
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ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 267
Report on Atmospheric Waves. By W. R. Brrr.
Tue British Association, at its last meeting, having entrusted me, under the
superintendence of Sir John Herschel, with the further investigation of at-
mospheric waves, I immediately entered on the inquiry, and now present the
following report of the progress I have made during the past year. It con-
sists, first, of the copy of a letter addressed by me to Sir John Herschel, in
which is detailed the plan on which I have proposed to examine these in-
teresting atmospheric movements, a list of the stations from which I have
obtained observations, and the conclusions which I have drawn from a dis-
cussion of them ; second, of remarks on the waves and their phases as they
passed the several stations ; third, an examination of barometric curves having
the spaces between them coloured to exhibit the slope or dip of the atmo-
sphere between the stations; fourth, an explanation of sections of waves in
various directions; and fifth, of additional remarks drawn up after the pre-
ceding were finished.
Cambridge House Academy, Cambridge Road, Bethnal Green,
London, August 10th, 1844.
Dear Srir,—Since the last meeting of the British Association, I have
endeavoured to collect materials for the purpose of determining the extent,
direction of motion, and velocity of the atmospheric waves. Several heads of
inquiry have suggested themselves to me, such as the progress of large waves
similar to that observed by myself in November 1842, an examination of
nodal points at Brussels, lines of contemporaneous elevation, or those lines that
at any particular period may possess a similarity of pressure, and other sub-
jects of a more restricted interest. In order to assist in this inquiry, you
most kindly lent me observations made in Russia, Prague, and other parts of
Europe. Mr. Airy has most obligingly furnished me with the volume of
‘Observations made at Greenwich during 1840, 1841,’ and I have obtained
observations from other localities. Some of the Russian observations I have
_ projected in curves, from which I obtain the same evidence of the progression
_ of the wave as from the discussion of the quarterly observations. I have also
projected and compared a few curves at Greenwich and Prague. These at
present are too few and the stations too far apart to admit of scarcely any re-
_ sults beyond the motions of the waves ; there are however two periods which
promise some very interesting results,—the Equinoctial observations of Sep-
_ tember 1841, from about sixty stations, and the great November wave of 1842.
The latter I have paid the greatest attention to, as from its symmetry and the
conclusive evidence we have of its motion from Dublin to Munich, it appeared
to promise a rich harvest of results. The stations I have obtained observa-
tions from during November 1842, are as per accompanying list ;—
ENGLAND. IRELAND.
Longstone. Dublin.
York.
Haishoro. ScoTLAND.
Liindén: Makerstoun.
Greenwich. Glasgow.
‘ Canterbury. CONTINENTAL.
Hastings. Heligoland.
St. Catherine’s Point. Brussels.
Scilly. Gratz.
South Bishop. Carlsruhe.
Bardsey. Munich.
Birmingham. Prague.
268 REPORT—1844.
CoNTINENTAL. CoLoNnIAL.
Milan. Toronto.
Naples. St. Helena.
Great St. Bernard. Cape of Good Hope.
Geneva. Van Diemen’s Land.
Paris.
In the spring of the present year, the Honourable the Corporation of the
Trinity House allowed me most obligingly free access to the barometrical
records kept at certain lighthouses, and I obtained observations made at the
following stations :—Longstone, coast of Northumberland ; Heligoland ; Hais-
boro, coast of Norfolk; St. Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight ; Scilly ; South
Bishop; and Bardsey Island, coast of Wales. The plan I propose for tho-
roughly examining the wave is this :—
I. To reduce all the observations to the level of the sea; this I apprehend
is the only efficient test that can be brought to bear on the theory that the
non-periodic oscillations of the barometer are due to waves; for if we con-
template a single wave, a barometer at the station over which the apex passes
at any given time, will exhibit a greater pressure than any of those at other
stations, and the slope to the other stations will be greater or less according
as they are situated on, or at any angle to, the transverse or longitudinal sec-
tions of the waves.
II. To ascertain the difference of such reduced pressures between all the
stations, and to exhibit such differences on a diagram of the area over which
the stations extend. By this means I apprehend a more accurate idea can be
formed of the disposition of the atmosphere than the curves will afford, and
the highest and lowest points may be readily seen. As the lighthouse observa-
tions are taken every six hours, I propose constructing four such diagrams
for each day from the 8th to the end of November, and, as I find it neces-
sary; to colour certain portions of the areas indicating the progress of the
waves *,
III. When necessary, to construct models with a view to approximate to
the slopes of the waves, and particularly to mark the directions of the crests
and troughs, the maxima and minima.
IV. With the assistance of the above-named diagrams and models, to pro-
ject sections of the waves taken in various directions, from which, should the
area be sufficiently extensive, the spans and altitudes may be approximately
deduced.
V. To select the most advantageous lines from the area, and to project the
curves obtained at stations situated on or near such lines on the same sheet,
and referred to the same normal altitude, 29°500 for instance. The spaces
between each curve to be coloured, the same colour to be continually wander
the same curve. These coloured projections will indicate three things as con-
nected with the disposition of the atmosphere ;—lst, the depth or extent of
colour will show the depression of the lower station below the upper; 2nd,
the intersections of the curves will indicate that at the time of intersection
the stations had an equality of pressure; and 3rd, the change of the position
of the same colour will point out that the station which exhibited or expe-
rienced the higher or lower pressure, afterwards experienced the lower or
higher, with its amount.
In this manner I have commenced the discussion of the observations now
in hand, and as the depression of the | 1th November appears to be the com-
mencement of the large wave, I have thought it best to study the disposition
of the atmosphere over the area a few days previous, in order to obtain the
* See Plate XLII. T See Plate XLIII.
ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 269
true character of the depression. The result of this portion of my investiga-
tion is, that during the 8th and 9th of November é¢wo systems of waves were
traversing the British Isles and the neighbouring parts of Europe, the largest
from the N.W. and the smallest from the S.S.W. A trough belonging to the
largest system extended from Scilly to Longstone, or, as shown by the model,
in a line to the S.E. of this. A well-marked wave of the second system
passed over on the 9th from Scilly to Longstone ; the altitude varied accord-
ing to the disposition of the atmosphere arising from the first wave from
29-537 at Bardsey to 29°590 at Longstone*. From a very careful examina-
tion of the passage of this wave over the area, it appears that its transverse
section extended over 341 miles with an altitude of ‘090 inch. This wave
progressed at the rate of twenty-five miles per hour. The great depression
from Geneva to Longstone appears to be connected with, or result from, a
permanent depression in the north-west of England, or a gradual diminution
of pressure from the central part of Europe ; and it is probable that the nodal
eharacter of Brussels may depend on its enjoying permanently a greater
pressure than the stations to the north-west of it, and that it is only very high
waves, such as that of the 18th November, that are capable of depressing
Brussels below stations situated in the atmospheric valley, as Dublin. It is
remarkable, that in all large storms the barometer is more depressed in the
central part of England. It appears that the maximum, or the apex of the
wave succeeding the trough of the first system, was comparatively small, ap-
pearing only as a bulge on the posterior slope of a large wave. This however
will be better determined by the further examination of the curves.
I apprehend I have thus obtained a starting-point from which the true
character of the wave or waves from the 11th to the 25th November may be
_ determined, and the agreement or anomalies of the curves explained. I have
accompanied this communication with specimers of the tables I intend to
construct, the diagrams of the areas (these are at present imperfect, owing to
_ all the stations not having been inserted), models to assist in obtaining an idea
of the disposition of the atmosphere, sections of the waves projected from
observations reduced to the level of the sea, and the projected curves with
the spaces between them coloured as before mentioned. I shall endeavour to
_ execute, by the meeting of the Association, the continuation of these and
other curves past the depression of the 11th, with their appropriate colours;
but I fear I shall not be able to obtain any further results by that time than
those already mentioned in this communication. I have also inclosed copies
of remarks I have made with a view to explain the drawings and models, and
to illustrate the manner in which I pursue the inquiry.
These remarks and explanations I do not by any means consider in the
present state of the inquiry as final; I have used them merely to assist in ob-
taining an idea of the nature of the barometric fluctuations within the area
and at the times named, with the view of clearly understanding the nature of
the great depression of the 11th. You will perceive I have scarcely touched
on any of the continental stations; and as I more fully investigate their curves
and sections, many of the views recorded in the remarks, &c. will doubtless
require modification. Iam inclined however to consider the two systems as
clearly made out, and that the form, direction, and velocity of wave B 1 has
been tolerably well apprehended. I have left blank leaves in writing the re-
marks and explanations, for any notes or suggestions you may feel desirous of
inserting.
You will probably notice the progress I have made, or rather the plan I
* At Scilly the altitude of the maximum was 29°645.
270 REPORT—1844.
intend to pursue, in the report of the Committee for Magnetical and Meteoro-
logical Co-operation. When you allude to it, may I respectfully solicit your
kindness to inquire if the Association will favour me with extracts from Mr.
Snow Harris’s ‘ Hourly Observations of the Barometer at Plymouth for No-
vember 1842,’ and from Sir David Brewster’s ‘ Observations,’ I believe at
Inverness and Kingussie, for the same month? ‘The first station will be ex-
ceedingly important in the south-western part of the area, and Sir David's
will furnish some valuable information relative to the progress of the waves
further north than Longstone. I am exceedingly anxious to obtain barometric
records for this month, November 1842, from Ireland and Scotland.
I have inclosed the copy of Lamont’s ‘ Annalen,’ No. 4, which you kindly
lent me, and for which 1 beg you will accept my best thanks. If you can
favour me with a few copies of the ‘ Report on the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations,’ I shall feel obliged. Col. Sabine advised me to have
some printed, but I found the type had been broken up.
I have the honour to be, dear Sir,
Yours very respectfully,
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. W. R. Birr.
REMARKS ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES.
Stations of Observation.
Heligoland. Brussels. Birmingham. South Bishop.
Longstone. Geneva. Bardsey Island. Scilly.
Haisboro. St. Catherine’s Point. Dublin.
(1.) From a careful study of the altitudes of the barometer observed at
the stations above-enumerated when reduced to the level of the sea, I am in-
clined to believe that the area included by the extreme stations was traversed
at the commencement of the observations by two systems of waves. The
axes of translation of these systems formed a considerable angle; one ap-
peared to have a N.W.—S.E. direction, the other $.S.W.—N.N.E. Iam also
inclined to consider that a permanent depression of the atmosphere from
Geneva to the centre of England exists; or should this be found not to be
the case, the phenomena observed most probably result from the passage of
a normal wave or waves of very extensive magnitude, The projection of the
barometric altitudes in curves (the abscissze representing the times) clearly
indicates the passage of vast waves, but the only efficient test of this indica-
tion consists in obtaining sections of such waves, or projecting curves, in which
the distances of the stations are considered as abscissee. Now as it is difficult
to obtain stations (especially when the observations have not been made with a
view to this particular inquiry), situated in a right line and sufficiently nume-
rous for the purpose, but by constructing models from the curves obtained by
a combination of all the stations, a tolerable idea may be formed of the dis-
position of the atmosphere over the whole area; and from a succession of
such models, illustrated by curves in particular directions and carefully studied
with reference to the curves obtained from the times as abscisse, the passage
of these waves can be clearly made out, and, I apprehend, their magnitudes
tolerably well ascertained. In the following inquiry I shall term the system
of waves flowing from the N.W. A, and that flowing from the S.S.W. B;
each particular wave will be designated A i, A 2, &c., B 1, B 2, &e.
(2.) Wave A 1.—A line cutting the crest of the wave A 1 transversely
e
¥
ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 271
appears to have passed through Geneva and Brussels, and a continuation of
this line would pass to the north-east of Longstone ; the highest blue curve a
in fig. 2, Plate XLIV., will give the approximate form of the slope of this part
of the wave, Nov. 8.21 hours. At 8.15, six hours earlier, a line joining Scilly
and St. Catherine’s Point appeared to be somewhat parallel to the crest of
the wave; the slope could not have extended much further than Dublin,
the slope from Dublin to Longstone being only -093.
(3.) Wave B 1 appears to have flowed from Scilly towards Longstone; the
highest blue curve a, in fig. 1, Plate XLIV., will give an approximate form of
the slope of this part of the wave (or rather the form of the atmosphere on this
line, arising from a combination of the two waves, A 1 and B 1), for at 8.15
the remarkable bulge in the neighbourhood of South Bishop appears to have
been a portion of wave Al, which at that time was passing South Bishop
from the N.W.*
(4.) Nov. 8.21—Wave Al. The highest blue curve a, in fig.2, Plate
XLIYV., gives the approximate form of the slope of this wave from Geneva, to
Brussels. The highest blue curve a, in fig. 3, gives an approximate section of
this wave from Brussels to Dublin, crossing the section of wave B 1, in fig. 1, at
01 in fig. 3. Dublin is now at a minimum}. The bulge which characterized
the line from Scilly to Longstone in fig. 1, curve a, appears very conspicuously
in this curve between Birmingham and Dublin. The three curves in fig. 3
exhibit the variations in the pressure at the stations Brussels, Birmingham
and Dublin; during the twelve hours from Nov. 8.21 to 9.9, the bulge appears
to be peculiar to Birmingham; and the minimum, as it advances, appears to
run up the slope, and not to pass onwards at the same level.
(5.) Wave B1.—The progression of the bulge towards the S.E. left the
gradual and gentle slope as exhibited in fig. 1, curve 6, Plate XLIV., and this
either formed a portion of the slope of wave A 1, or of a normal wave, or
resulted from the permanent depression before alluded to. It is worthy of
remark, that the fall of the slope accompanies the progression of wave A 1 f.
(6.) Model for this term gives a general idea of the slope of wave A 1,
from a line joining Brussels and Heligoland to a line joining Dublin and
_Longstone.
(6*.) Nov. 9.2.—Dublin and Bardsey at the same level, the atmosphere
‘rising to South Bishop and Scilly, and dipping to Longstone; this equality
of level is occasioned by the passage of the trough of Al. See coloured
‘diagrams, fig. 2, Plate XLIII., intersection of Dublin and Bardsey curves,
:
near m.
(7.) Nov. 9.3.—The minimum has now passed Dublin, and a trough exists
between Dublin and St. Catherine’s Point; minima now exist at Longstone,
Bardsey Island, South Bishop, and Scilly, so that the trough of the advancing
wave Al extends in the line from Scilly to Longstone, with a dip of *369 to
Longstone. The minima at Longstone, Bardsey, and South Bishop, appear
to be produced by the posterior trough of A 1, and the minima at Scilly and
Geneva by the anterior trough of B 1, see Plate XLII.; if so, the curve e,
fig. 1, Plate XLIV., must exhibit, not the anterior slope of B 1, but a slope
_ * From the consideration that the minimum at Scilly at 9.3 was occasioned by the
anterior trough of B 1, the curve a, fig. 1, could not have represented any portion of the an-
| terior slope of this wave. It is most probable that the curve resulted from a combination
of the slope of A 1 with the bulge, and the slope arising from the permanent depression,
See (5) and (7).
+ The observed minimum occurred at Dublin Nov. 9.1.0.
} At this time wave B 1 had not entered on the area.
272 REPORT—1844,
arising from the permanent depression before noticed, a normal wave, or from
Al. See (5.) A slight rounding of this curve is seen very near Longstone,
and the depression between it and Scilly is developed as the wave B 1 ad-
vances. The curve at 9.15 e exhibits the crest of wave B1 passing South
Bishop, and indicates the wave to be very small. The blue curves on all the
lines are descending ; this would result from the passage of the posterior slope
of Al. The curves ascend as the anterior slope of B1 approaches: this is
found to be the case Nov. 9.9, Scilly to Longstone and Geneva to Brussels.
Brussels does not exhibit this rise, as neither the trough of A 1 nor the apex
of B 1 has arrived at this station.
(8.) Wave A1.—The trough of this wave is now passing Longstone,
Bardsey, and South Bishop; the bulge at or near Birmingham is lessened,
and it begins to appear eastward of Haisboro (see curves 6 4, figs. 3 and 2,
Plate XLIV.). We have thus satisfactorily traced the progression of this bulge
from the north-west, past South Bishop, and also in the neighbourhood of
Haisboro ; there can be no question that its longitudinal direction was con-
siderable, but we have not at present sufficient data for determining it.
(9.) Wave B 1.—The anterior trough of this wave now enters on the area
and passes Geneva and Scilly ; the wave also enters, producing a rise of the
barometer, at both stations.
(10.) Wave A 2 (or shoulder).—This wave has now entered on the area
72 miles (from Dublin to Bardsey) ; the extremity of the curve 8, fig. 3, Plate
XLIV., tinted red, shows the barometric rise due to this wave.
(11.) Nov. 9.3.—Model exhibits the general slope of A 1 (or normal) in
the same direction as before; the trough between Dublin and Birmingham is
brought fully into view.
(12.) Nov. 9.5.—Dublin attains the altitude of South Bishop, and the two
curves continue nearly identical for the next nine hours; Dublin rising from
the anterior slope of A 2, combined with that of B 1 and South Bishop, prin-
cipally from the latter wave (see coloured diagrams, fig. 2, Plate XLIII.).
(13.) Nov. 9.9.—Wave A 1, fig. 3, curvec, Plate XLIV. As wave B | ad-
vances, the anterior slope will occasion a rise, while the barometer is falling
from the passage of the posterior slope of the wave Al. This is particularly
observable at Birmingham, and a secondary trough is occasioned in con-
sequence between this station and Brussels. The normal slope is however
clearly seen, for the minimum, which now is situated a little north-west of
Birmingham, is considerably above the level of the minimum of the last term.
(14.) The bulge, which towards the north-east assumes a more gentle and
flowing character, passes beyond Brussels towards Geneva at this term ; this
is exhibited in curve c (red) of fig. 2, Plate XLIV.
(15.) Wave B1.—The crest of this wave passes over Scilly, and at the
same moment its anterior trough passes St. Catherine’s Point ; the half-breadth
cannot therefore extend much beyond South Bishop, or about 150 miles. From
the red curve d, in fig. 1, Plate XLIV., it would appear to form a part of the
slope of the depression before-mentioned. Since the passage of the posterior
trough of A 1 at Longstone, Nov. 9.3., the barometer has risen at this station
from the anterior slope of A 2 alone, amount ‘099. As this slope passes
over Longstone, the anterior trough of B 1 becomes more conspicuous on the
slope of the depression, and is fully developed next term.
(16.) Nov. 9.9.—Model. The approach of the trough of A 1 is clearly
seen on the model for this term, also its direction as it cuts a line joining St.
Catherine’s Point, Bardsey and Dublin obliquely, and is at right angles to a)
line joining Geneva and Brussels. According to this view, it would appear
&
ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 973
that the trough had made no progress since Nov. 9.3%. I am however in-
clined to consider that, as it passed Bardsey at this epoch (Nov. 9.3.), it
would have passed the intersection of the line from Birmingham to South
Bishop at 9. It is probable that the altitude at the point of intersection should
be less than given in the model; if so, the two troughs, posterior A and
anterior B 1, would nearly coincide, and Bardsey being the nearest station of
observation, would give the lowest reading. Upon this view we shall have the
flowing on of the two waves; the rise at Scilly from 3 to 9, being produced
by the joint action of waves A 2 and B }, and that at South Bishop also, while
at Bardsey the rise from 3 to 9 is due only to the anterior slope of A 2, and
B 1 does not occasion any rise at this station until after 9 hours. The supe-
riority of the Dublin to the Bardsey curve, Plate XLIII., fig. 2, indicates that
the two stations are situated under the anterior slope of A2. Upon com-
paring this model with the two former, the approach of the area to a level is
very apparent, although the slope is generally in the same direction as in
_ the former models.
(17.) Nov. 9.9.—St. Catherine’s Point and Scilly approach nearly to a
level, as the trough of B 1 passes St. Catherine’s while the maximum is pass-
ing Scilly. See(15.) The curve at St. Catherine's Point, fig. 2, Plate XLIIL.,
_ exhibits a very small rise ; probably the trough of A 1 has tended to depress
the maximum of B 1.
(18.) Nov. 9.13.30 (about ).—Scilly, South Bishop and Dublin at the same
level with South Bishop near its maximum.
(19.) Nov. 9.15.—Wave A 1. The trough of this wave appears to be still
between St. Catherine’s Point and Dublin.
_ (20.) Wave B 1.—The apex of this wave now passes over St. Catherine’s
Point and Bardsey. Curvee (red+), fig. 1, Plate XLIV. exhibits this apex, also
_ the anterior trough between Bardsey and Longstone noticed in (15.).
__ The annexed figure represents an approximate transverse section of wave
_B 1 as it passed South Bishop and Bardsey.
Bardsey. South Bishop. Scilly.
Altitude of wave ‘090 measured from the slope from Scilly to Longstone.
_ (21.) Nov. 9.15.30.—Scilly and Bardsey on a level, with South Bishop
‘rising between them. Dublin is still rising, most probably from the anterior
‘slope of wave A 2.
* The progression of the anterior trough of wave A 2 is clearly seen in the annexed
‘section from Dublin to St. Catherine’s Point at 9.15.
‘ Wave A 1}.
eee anne eae
29°500 ~ 72 miles. r 214 miles. -99°500
Dublin. Bardsey. St. Catherine’s Point.
Section of anterior trough of A 2 at 9.15. The transverse section of B 1 for the same epoch
cuts this line, and indicates that that wave was moving along this trough. See (20.)
+ Figs. 2 and 3, Plate XLIII., have not been coloured, the ¢inting of the spaces under each
eurve answering the same purpose. The term “coloured” is retained in the Report as indi-
Cating that the original diagrams which accompanied it were coloured, and also for the pur-
pose of more readily referring the reader to these particular diagrams.
In the explanation of Plate XLIV. the colours of the curves have been retained for the
Same reasons. In the original of this plate Jlue curves represent the barometer descending,
and red curves the barometer ascending.
1844. z
274 REPORT—1844.
(22.) Nov. 9.17.0.—A maximum passes Dublin. This is most probably
the apex of wave A2.* The posterior minimum of A 1, or anterior minimum
of A 2, passed this station Noy.9.1.0, and the anterior minimum of B 1 did
not pass Scilly until Nov. 9.3. The rise at Dublin, South Bishop, Bardsey
and Longstone must have been occasioned by the anterior slopes of A 2 and
B 1 combined ; but more light will be obtained on these points by a discussion
of the curves of the remaining stations.
(23.) Nov. 9.18 and 19.—Scilly, South Bishop, Bardsey and Longstone
nearly on a level. The barometer descending at the three first-named stations
and rising at Longstone, indicates that the apex of the wave was passing be-
tween Longstone and Bardsey. The coloured diagram exhibits a considerable
depth of atmosphere from St. Catherine’s Point to Bardsey, and a rise from
Bardsey to Dublin, showing that the trough of A 1 is still between the ex-
treme stations, or that it has not been sufficiently deep to depress St. Cathe-
rine’s Point below Bardsey, This, however, with several other interesting
points, will be fully elucidated in the further discussion.
(24.) The characters of the two waves A | and B 1 (or rather three, in-
cluding A 2), as developed in the foregoing inquiry, support, I apprehend,
the idea of a permanent slope from Scilly to Longstone. The waves B1 and
A 2 appear to have been nearly of the same altitude, or to have exerted
nearly the same pressure in their passage. The curves due to their combined
action in the south of England are small: these curves increase towards the
north. Longstone, which exhibits the least pressure during the period of
these observations, developes the largest curve ; and at this station a consi-
derable rise is due to the passage of A2. This must necessarily take place
at a station situated as Longstone appears to be,—in a vallée atmosphériquet.
.
* The superiority of the Dublin to the Bardsey curve, for some hours subsequent to this
epoch, indicates that this maximum was due to the apex of B 1.
+ Since this paragraph was written, I have inserted in Plate XLIV., fig, 1, the curves exhibit-
ing the distribution of pressure on the line from Scilly to Longstone for the epochs Noy. 10.3
and 10.9 (see curves g and #). These curves very clearly indicate the precise characters of
the waves A 1 and B 1, and when we combine them with the synchronous curves at these
stations, we at once see that both A 1 and B 1 were small waves riding on others of a much
greater magnitude. The curves é and e, fig. 1, Plate XLIV., exhibit a slope on which B 1 rolled.
(See 5 and 7.) The coloured diagram at the epochs Nov. 8.21 and 9.3 also shows a very
considerable fall from Scilly to Longstone. Now as Scilly exhibited the greatest and Long-
stone the least pressure, it is clear that these stations were situated under thé anterior slope
of the larger wave during the continuance of these conditions, provided such wave was
moying in the same direction as B 1. When the apex passed between Scilly and Longstone
their synchronous curves intersected (see fig. 2, Plate XLIII., about 18h. 30m. of Nov. 9). Im-
mediately after the intersection Longstone became the superior curve, and upon the apex passing
Longstone the previous conditions were changed, and both these stations were then situated
under the posterior slope of the larger wave. The curves 4 and ¢, fig. 1, Plate XLIV., exhibit
that portion of the slope in advance of B 1. The curve e of the same figure exhibits B 1 riding
on the apex of this wave, and the curves g and / show its posterior slope, which succeeded
B1. By selecting two curves, 4 and g for instance, the change in the distribution of pressure
on this line resulting from the passage of the larger waye is clearly apparent. The group of
curves affords an illustration of a nodal point on a small scale,—the great extent of oscilla-
tion at Scilly, its gradual diminution towards and past Bardsey, its small amount at the point
n between Bardsey and Longstone, and its augmentation (compared with this point) at
Longstone, are interesting illustrations of the increase of oscillation noticed in Sir John
Herschel’s ‘ Report on Meteorological Reductions’ (Report, 1843, p. 85), which are here
clearly seen to result from the passages of the anterior and posterior slopes of a large wave
between the transits of its anterior and posterior troughs, n being the nodal point in which
the curves representing the anterior and posterior slopes intersect.
The following table exhibits the depression of Longstone below Scilly during a portion of
the transit of the anterior slope of the larger wave, and the depression of Scilly below Long-
stone during the transit of its posterior slope :—
ee ‘ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 275
Barometric Observations reduced to the Level of the Sea, November 1842.
TT
: St. Ca- :
dipochs. therine’s. Seilly,
South
Bishop.
Bardsey. | Dublin. |Longstone.
Noy. h
8, 15|29°901 |29°849 |29°810 |29°627 |29°563 | 29°470
21 °798 °702 "511 "4.58 391m, °*296
9, 3 723 *594m.) °428m,| °385m.) °395 295m.
9 ‘651m.} °645m.| °529 “468 *530 324,
15 ‘678M.| °553 *870M.| °537M,| °576M.| °426
21 "656 491 477 “506 *555 “570
M maximum, m minimum.
Examination of Coloured Diagrams.
Fig. 2, Plate XLITI.—Diagram exhibiting the variations of the barometer at
thestations named in the above table, the altitudes reduced tothe level of the sea.
The depth of each colour indicates the depression of the atmosphere between
the terminating stations ; and the intersections of the curves show that at the
times of intersection the pressure at each station was the same, and that the
relative pressure at these stations became altered, diminishing at one and aug-
menting at the other. The progression of the minimum in a line from Dublin
to St. Catherine’s Point* is very apparent, also the direction of the trough from
Scilly to Longstone. The progression of the maximum from Seilly towards
_ Longstone is also exhibited; namely, Scilly, South Bishop, St. Catherine's
Point, Bardsey, Dublin. The general tendency to a level, with the intersec-
_ tion of the curves in the western portion of the area during the last eight
hours, is very apparent.
_ Fig. 3, Plate XLIII.—Projection of the St. Catherine’s, Bardsey and Dublin
_ curves, showing the depth of atmosphere from St. Catherine’s to Dublin, and
_ the interchange of level between Dublin and Bardsey.
These diagrams are intended to exhibit, not only the variations of atmo-
_ spheric pressure at the stations selected, but also those over the area included
by them. This area is shown in fig.1, Plate XLIII. The observations com-
_mence with a considerable dip from Scilly to Longstone ; the depth of each
colour indicates the slope between the two stations bounding it. The form
of the atmosphere, Nov. 8.15 hours, between the two extreme stations, Scilly
and Longstone, is given by the highest blue curve (a) in fig. 1, Plate XLIV.
The trough of the wave A 1 (see remarks on atmospheric waves) passed
Dublin about two hours earlier than the recorded minima at the other
4 | Epochs. Longstone. | Scilly. Diff, Scilly +. |
4 ‘ 1842, |
Nov. 8, 15h 29°470 29°849 +°379
21 1296 +702 +:406
| 9, 3 225 594 +°369
4) \ 9 °324 *645 +°321
A 15 “426 553 +°127
x . 21 570 "491 —:079
4 10, 3 “590 286 —°304
ifn u) “oll 162 —*349
15 *286 "081 —’205
a ic F 21 164 061 —'103
11, 3 28°990 081 +°091
Bho
* It is probable from other considerations that the minimum at St. Catherine's Point was
occasioned by the passage of the anterior trough of waye B 1.
rg
276 REPORT—1844,
stations; but upon a careful consideration, the curve (Dublin) appears to in-
dicate that the trough of this wave passed Dublin about six in the morning
of the 9th Nov. About 2 p.m. Dublin and Bardsey were at the same level,
the disposition of the atmosphere remaining the same at the other stations,
and at 3 P.M. the trough of the wave A 1 extended from Scilly to Longstone.
Other considerations imply that the minimum at Scilly, although coincident
with the minima at South Bishop, Bardsey and Longstone, did not form a
part of the posterior trough of Al. The model of Nov. 9.9 indicates that
the trough ran in a direction at right angles to a line joining Geneva and
Brussels; and as a minimum passed Geneva at the same time, Nov. 9.3, it is
probable that these minima, Scilly and Geneva, were occasioned by the ante-
rior trough of B1. At 5 p.m. Dublin.attained the elevation of South Bishop,
and the two curves run together until 2 a.m. of the 10th. The rise at all the
stations is occasioned by the anterior slope of the wave B 1 combined with
the anterior slope of A. The parallelism of Dublin and Bardsey is very
apparent. The passages of the maximum are well-marked, Scilly occurring
at 9 p.m. with the greatest elevation except St. Catherine’s Point. At this
moment St. Catherine’s Point passes a minimum. The diagram suggests that
this minimum is the posterior trough of A 1, but the model shows that the
trough of A 1 is now in the neighbourhood of Bardsey, and has not yet pro-
_ gressed as far as St. Catherine’s Point; it must therefore be the anterior
trough of B 1 which occasions this depression at St. Catherine’s Point. The
transverse section of this wave (B 1) east of Scilly appears to be but small;
it is, however, considerably enlarged towards Longstone. It appears probable
that the small rise at Scilly and the smaller at St. Catherine’s Point* were
occasioned by a step or shoulder on the posterior slope of A 1, similar to
that which appears between Bardsey and Scilly at 8.15, and in the neighbour-
hood of Birmingham at all the terms (see Sections and Models); and that the
apex of B 1 was but slightly raised above it, so that after the passage of the
step the posterior slopes of both waves coincided. South Bishop, St. Cathe-
rine’s Point, Bardsey and Dublin next pass their maxima in this order. The
three red curves de f, fig.1, Plate XLIV., exhibit the passage of the wave (B 1)
in the direction from Scilly to Longstone. The occurrence of the maximum —
at St. Catherine’s Point and Bardsey about the same time indicates the direc-
tion of the crest of B | to pass through these stations: this direction is rather
different from the direction of the anterior trough, for Geneva does not pass
its maximum until 9.21. At 2 a.m. of the 10th a decided change of level
takes place in three localities, Scilly, Dublin and South Bishop: this is evi-
dently occasioned by the passage of the posterior slope of B 1 over Scilly at —
the time the apex is approaching South Bishop and Dublin. At 3 a.m. the
apex passes South Bishop, and shortly after Scilly and Bardsey are on the ~
same level with South Bishop rising between them. The next intersections —
of the curves occur betwen 6 and 7 a.m. of the 10th; the highest level —
is Bardsey and South Bishop, and the lowest Longstone and Scilly. The
apex is now rapidly rolling on towards Longstone, depressing South Bishop.
Shortly before 7 Longstone and Bardsey are on the same level, the wave
rising between them. About 8 the curves of Scilly and South Bishop again
intersect, and immediately after Longstone and Dublin are at the same level.
General Conclusion.
That while the posterior slope of a very large wave, with a shoulder pro-—
ducing a small trough (A 1), passed over the area, a small wave passed over
at a considerable angle to the first. The passage of the apex of this wave
* The maximum occurring earlier at St. Catherine’s Point than at Dublin, clearly indicates
that the St. Catherine’s maximum was due only to the apex of B 1. tT = ,
' 2m
a
ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 277
(B 1) has been most satisfactorily traced, but the distance from Scilly to
Longstone was not long enough to exhibit the span and altitude*.
Explanation of the Sections of Waves, Figs. 1, 2 and 4, Plate XLIV.
Fig. 1.—The curves in this figure are intended to exhibit the variations of
pressure from Scilly to Longstone ; the extent and form of the line selected
is shown below. The three blue curves, abe, give the approximate atmo-
spheric form, the barometer descending. The three red curves, de J, the varia-
tions of form during the passage of wave B 1, and the curves gh the form of
the posterior slope of the larger wave on which B1 was superposed. See
note to (24.), Remarks on Atmospheric Waves.
Fig. 2.—The curves in this figure represent the form of the atmosphere be-
tween Geneva and Brussels. They are projected from the reduced altitudes at
Geneva and Brussels, and altitudes taken from the models at two points, 01 and
02; 01 between Geneva and Brussels, and 02 in the same line beyond Brussels.
Fig. 3.—The curves in this figure represent the Jorm of the atmosphere
in a line from Brussels by Birmingham to Dublin, with two intermediate sta-
tions, as in fig. 2.
v.61 miles. Ey 248 miles,
. ° a
148 miles. 5 8
e 5
> )
= a
Additional Remarks.
(1.) The object of the discussion of the barometric observations of the 9th
and 10th of November 1842, has been to obtain, as nearly as possible, a clear
apprehension of the distribution of atmospheric pressure with its variations
over the area included by the stations furnishing observations, previous to
undertaking an examination of the great symmetrical wave which traversed
Europe from the 11th to the 25th of the month. In the course of the exa-
mination, the sections for the epoch November 9.3 are the most complete ;
and as but few of them have been given, it may be interesting to subjoin the
results obtained from an examination of the remaining sections, especially
as they are particularly illustrative of the wave A 1, which has already been
alluded to as traversing Europe on those days.
Epoch, Nov.9.3.0, 1842; area, Longstone, Dublin, Scilly, Paris, Heligoland,
3 Munich, Geneva.
_ (2.) In this area, Longstone, Scilly and Brussels form a triangle inclosing
England. Longstone to Brussels will give a section of the distribution of
_ Ptessure on the eastern coasts of England ; Longstone to Scilly, the distribution
/ on the western, and Scilly to Brussels on the southern; Longstone, Birming-
ham and St. Catherine’s Point, the distribution nearly from north to southt.
ney (3:) An inspection of these sections, as given in the first sheet of sections,
» Plate XLV., will show that the most precipitous slope occurred on the eastern
»shores of our island, and that this is characterized by a bulge (or most probably
/asuperposed wave) in the neighbourhood of Haisboro on a normal wave or a
permanent slope. The same result is obtained across the island from obser-
_Yations entirely distinct, as at Birmingham and St. Catherine’s Point, and the
_ two sections are essentially similar, especially in the precipitous manner in
ave * A more attentive consideration of the circumstances of the passages of these waves has
induced me to come to the conclusion, that the span of B 1 was 341 miles and its altitude
090 inch. See (20.), Remarks on Atmospheric Waves.
t. The coast line of England has been inserted in Plate XLIL., in order to illustrate the
‘sections in Plate XLV.
ae)
*on0}sSu0'T
278 REPORT—1844,
which the line 29°500 is crossed. They appear in fact to be converging sec:
tions of a wave having its posterior trough near and to the north of Longstone.
(4.) The western section from Scilly to Longstone presents a nearly un-
broken descent, and it is probable that the wave which is so apparent on the
central and eastern sections did not extend to this; there is a slight rise a little
to the north-east of Bardsey, which may probably result from the extremity of
the wave. The section from Brussels to Scilly is also of an unbroken character.
(5.) The central and southern sections are crossed by two others, which ex-
hibit the distribution of pressure over the area included by Dublin, Munich and
Geneva; thesesections (Plate XLVI. )are extremely interesting, they supply defi-
ciencies in the sections already given, and are both characterized by two bulges
or superposed waves. The lowest of these waves (A 1) stretches from the coast
of Wales to the coast of Holland on the Munich line; and from Bardsey to the
coast of France on the Geneva line. From a careful consideration of the sections
drawn in other directions, there can be no question that the bulge on the eastern
and central of the English sections and this wave is the same. It covered nearly
the whole of England at this time (Nov. 9.3.0), its apex or crest stretched from
Cornwall to the shores of Suffolk, taking a somewhat circular direction about
midway between London and Birmingham, and it is probable that it extended
considerably towards the east over the German Ocean, and on the continent.
(6.) Of the wave preceding this we obtain but a small portion; the two
sections from Dublin to Munich and Geneva indicate that the direction of
the crest was nearly parallel to that of the wave we have just examined. A
section exhibiting the distribution of pressure from Longstone to Geneva,
constructed from interpolated ordinates, also gives this wave.
(7.) The curves exhibiting the distribution of pressure are constructed
from observed and interpolated ordinates. The latter are measured on those
points of the curves where they ititersect others, and where the pressure must
necessarily be the same in both. The sections are consequently mere approxi-
mations to those that would be given were the stations of observation suffi-
ciently fear to each other to project from them the true curves of pressure
on a line, as from Dublin to Munich ; in fact we require a much longer line
than this, which probably does not give the half breadth of the normal wave.
The same principle of short intervals, which Sir John Herschel has so effi-
ciently applied to time in the solstitial and equinoctial observations, pte to
space in arranging series of observations on certain lines, would make us ac-
quainted with the true distribution of pressure over a tract of country, and
the two combined would give us the march as well as the distribution.
(8.) The waves deduced from the observations are affected by two cireum-
stances, hamely, the diurnal oscillation, which must to a certain extent inter-
fere with the form of the wave, and the influence of the aqueous vapour dif-
fused in the atmosphere. The pressure of the aqueous vapoiit varies in a
different manner to that of the gaseous atmosphere, and will materially modify
the forms of the waves, &c. On the occasion we have been examining the
pressure of the vapour increases, while that of the whole atmosphere decreases.
It appears quite as important to examine the distribution of the vapour over
a tract of country as that of the whole pressure ; and in pursuing the investi-
gation, it is necessary either to get rid of the effects of the vapour, or to exa-
mine how far it influences the forms, directions, amplitudes and progress of
the waves deduced from the whole pressure. In order to render barometric
observations as efficient as possible, it will be absolutely necessary to observe
at the same time the wet and dry bulb thermometer, and it would be still better
to accompany them with readings of Daniell’s hygrometer. The determina-
tion of the co-efficients of the diurnal oscillation will also become of para-
mount importance, that the forms of the waves may be corrected.
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’?ARGILE DE LONDRES. 279
- Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de ? Argile de Londres.
Par L. AGASSiz.
Les fossiles de l’argile de Londres ont attiré depuis longtemps l’attention des
géologues par le nombre considérable et la variété de leurs espéces qui ap-
partiennent 4 toutes les classes du régne animal et végétal, ainsi que par le bel
état de conservation dans lequel se trouve un grand nombre d’entre eux. De-
puis les Recherches de Sowerby sur les coquilles de ce terrain, nous avons vu
paraitre plusieurs mémoires d’un mérite éminent sur les fossiles de différentes
classes. Mr. Owen a décrit avec sa supériorité habituelle les reptiles, les
oiseaux et les mammiféres qu’on trouve épars ¢a et la dans les couches de ce
terrain, et ses savantes investigations ont jeté un jour tout nouveau sur les
rapports qui lient les étres fossiles de cette formation aux espéces de la créa-
tion actuelle. Tout le monde connait le beau travail de Mr. Bowerbank sur
les fruits de ce méme terrain. L’ichthyologie seule avait été 4 peu prés com-
plétement négligée. Ce n’est pas quil y ait pénurie de poissons fossiles dans
ce dépét; car il n’est pas de gite 4 poisson connu qui en compte autant
d’espéces, et aucune collection de fossiles tertiaires d’ Angleterre qui n’en ren-
ferme au moins quelques exemplaires. L’ignorance dans laquelle nous avons
été jusqu’ici 4 I’ égard des poissons de Sheppy n’a d’autre cause que les diffi-
cultés toutes particuliéres qu’ offre l’étude de leurs débris. Ailleurs, et no-
tamment dans les couches des terrains primaires et secondaires, dans les
schistes, les calcaires, les grés, les ichthyolithes sont plus ou moins entiers, et il
est rare qu'un fragment n’offre plusieurs parties du corps, différentes parties des
nageoires, de la cuirasse écailleuse, de l'appareil operculaire, &c.; ou bien si
les piéces elles-mémes ne sont pas conservées, leur empreinte indique au moins
la forme générale et les contours du corps, ensorte qu’ avec une connaissance
Report on the Fossil Fishes of the London Clay. By L. Acassiz.
_ Tue fossils of the London clay have long since attracted the attention of
geologists, from the considerable number and variety of their species be-
_ longing to all classes of the animal and vegetable kingdom, as well as from the
beautiful state of preservation in which a large number of them occur. Since
_ the researches of Sowerby on the shells of this deposit several memoirs of
at merit have appeared on the fossils of different classes. Professor Owen
? described with his usual acuteness the reptiles, birds and Mammalia
_ which are met with scattered here and there in the layers of this deposit, and
his erudite investigations have thrown quite a new light on the relations
_ which connect the fossil creatures of this formation with the species of the
present epoch. The beautiful work of Mr. Bowerbank on the fruits of this
deposit is well known to every one. The Ichthyology alone had been
almost entirely neglected ; not that there is any scarcity of fossil fish, for
there is no known fish-bed which counts so many species, and no collection
of tertiary fossils of England which does not at least contain some specimens.
The want of knowledge which has hitherto prevailed with respect to the fish
of Sheppey is solely owing to the very peculiar difficulties which the study
of their fragments present. Elsewhere, and especially in the strata of
‘primary and secondary rocks, in the schists, limestones and sandstones, the
ichthyolites are more or less entite; and it is seldom that a fragment does not
present several parts of the body, different portions of the fins, of the scaly
‘coating, of the opercular apparatus; or, if indeed the pieces themselves are
not preserved, their impression indicates at least the general form and the
outlines of the body ; so that with a sufficient knowledge of living fish, of
280 | REPORT—1844,
suffisante des poissons vivans, de leur forme et de leurs caractéres extérieurs,
on peut arriver a des déterminations exactes et rigoureuses. En outre la
plupart des pvissons anciens ont des écailles osseuses plus dures méme que les
os et leur enchevétrement contribue a conserver la forme générale du poisson,
quand méme les os ont disparu et que les autres parties sont détruites.
Ce sont ces caractéres extérieurs, entre autres la forme, le nombre et la
position des nageoires, la structure des écailles, les rapports des différentes
parties du corps entre elles, la dentition, l’arrangement des piéces operculaires,
&e., sur lesquels on a basé jusqu’a présent les classifications en ichthyologie.
Que l'on parcoure les ouvrages les plus estimés de notre temps sur histoire
naturelle des poissons, on ne rencontrera dans les diagnoses des familles, des
genres et des espéces, que des caractéres extérieurs, faciles a saisir et suffisants
aussi pour le but qu’on se propose. Si je parle de lacunes, que présente
encore cette branche de la science, 4 laquelle je me suis voué depuis tant
d’années, ce n’est pas que je veuille amoindrir le moins du monde le mérite
de tant d’ouvrages que la postérité la plus reculée regardera encore comme
des chefs d’ceuvres de sagacité, d’application et d’étude; mais c’est qu’ayant
choisi une branche toute spéciale de l’ichthyologie, j'ai peut étre été plus a
méme qu'un autre, d’entrevoir tout ce qu'il reste a faire dans ce vaste do-
maine. Cela est surtout vrai a l’égard des poissons de Sheppy, qui n’ont plus
rien de ces formes et de ces caractéres bizarres propres a la plupart des pois-
sons des anciennes formations. Tout en eux rappelle au contraire les poissons
de nos mers actuelles, en sorte qu’avant d’en avoir fait une étude détaillée, on
croirait avoir a faire a des espéces récentes. Leurs débris sont enfouis dans
un limon plus ou moins durci, qui quelquefois prend la dureté des roches
caleaires, tandis qu’en d’autres endroits il est resté parfaitement mou. La
their form and external characters, it is possible to arrive at accurate and
strict determinations. Moreover, the majority of older fish have osseous
scales harder even than the bones; and the mode of their arrangement (enche-
vetrement) contributes to preserve the general form of the fish even when the
bones have disappeared and the other parts have become destroyed.
Classifications in ichthyology have hitherto been based on external cha-
racters; among others, on the form, number and position of the fins, the
structure of the scales, the relations of the different parts of the body to each
other, the dentition, the arrangement of the opercular pieces, &c. If we
glance over the most esteemed works of our time on the natural history of
fish, none but external characters will be met with in the diagnoses of the
families, genera and species, easily conceived, and sufficient indeed for the
proposed object. If I speak of the voids which this branch of science, to
which I haye devoted myself for so many years, presents, it is not that
I wish to detract the least in the world from the merit of so many works
which the most distant posterity will still regard as master-works of sagacity,
application and research; but it is that having selected a special branch of
ichthyology, I have perhaps been enabled more than others to perceive
what remains to be done in this vast domain. This is especially true with
respect to the Sheppey fish, which have none of those forms and of those
fantastic characters peculiar to the majority of the fish of the older forma-
tions; all in them, on the contrary, recall to mind the fish of our present
oceans, so that before having made a minute study of them, we should be
inclined to think that we had to do with recent species. Their fragments
are buried in a more or less hardened clay, which sometimes presents the
hardness of calcareous rocks, while in other localities it has remained per-
aa re
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 281
plupart des poissons se sont pourris dans ce fin limon, leurs os se sont dé-
tachés, et les parties molles ont été remplacées par du limon. Or comme ce
ne sont plus des Ganoides a corps cuirassée recouverts d’écailles osseuses en-
chevetrés, mais des Cycloides, des Cténoides 4 écailles minces, fragiles, leur
enveloppe n’a pas été assez solide pour maintenir l’intégrité de leur forme et
de leurs contours. Leur corps s'est décomposé, leurs nageoires se sont dé-
faites, leurs écailles désagrégées, et il n’est resté du plus grand nombre que
les boites craniennes qui se sont conservées en entier, grace 4 la soudure de
leurs piéces osseuses. Si au lieu d’appartenir 4 des poissons, ces cranes pro-
- venaient de mammiféres ou de reptiles, il est 4 présumer qu’on en tirerait tout
le parti possible, et que le paléontologiste n’aurait pas de peine a les déter-
miner, car pour ces classes les matériaux de comparaison ne manquent pas,
les points de départ sont fixés; on connait les traits caractéristiques des
cranes des mammiféres et des reptiles, on sait quelles sont les variations que
tel os, telle créte, telle fosse” part subir dans telle ou telle famille, et du pre-
mier coup d’ceil déja on peut s’assurer, si l’animal qu'on a devant les yeux, est
un carnivore, un ruminant, ou un solipéde.
Mais rien n'est variable comme les formes du crane et de la téte des pois-
sons. Ces multitudes d’arétes et d’épines qui servent d’attache aux muscles,
cette infinie variété de formes dans les familles elles-mémes, donne aux cranes
des poissons une telle diversité que l’ichthyologiste désespére souvent de pou-
voir les ramener a leurs types respectifs, et en effet une craniologie comparée
des poissons n’existe pas, et il n’est personne que je sache qui puisse dire
demblée si tel ou tel crane appartient 4 un Percoide, a un Sparoide, ou & un
Chétodonte, &e.
_ La grande majorité des fossiles de Sheppy avons nous dit, consiste en ver-
fectly soft. The greater number of the fish have rotted in this fine clay,
their bones have separated, and the soft parts have been replaced by clay.
Now, since it is no longer Ganoids with cuirassed body covered with in-
terlocked bony scales, but Cycloids and Ctenoids with thin fragile scales,
their coating has not been sufficiently solid to preserve the integrity of their
form and outline. Their body has become decomposed, their fins have be-
come detached, their scales disaggregated, and of the greater number only
the cranium has remained preserved entire, owing to the soldering of the
osseous pieces composing it. If, instead of belonging to fish, these skulls were
derived from Mammalia or reptiles, it is to be presumed that all possible ad-
vantage would be taken of them, and that the paleontologist would have no
trouble in determining their relations, since for these classes the materials for
comparison are not wanting, the points of departure are fixed. The charac-
teristic features of the skulls of the Mammalia and Reptilia are known;
the variations which such a bone, such a crest, such a groove may undergo
in such and such a family are understood, and already at the first glance it is
possible to ascertain whether the animal under consideration is carnivorous,
ruminant, or solipedal.
But nothing is more variable than the forms of the cranium and of the
heads of fish. The multitude of bones and of spines which serve for the at-
tachment of the muscles, the infinite var iety of forms in the families them-
selves, imparts such a diversity to the crania of fish, that the ichthyologist
frequently despairs of being able to reduce them to their respective types,
and in fact a comparative craniology of fish does not exist. There is no
one that I know who can tell at first sight whether such and such a cranium
belongs to a Percoid, to a Sparoid, or to a Chetodontal type.
The great majority of the fossils of Sheppey consists, we have said, of de-
282 REPORT—1844.
tébres détachées ou en cranes isolés. Ces derniers sont en outre ordinaire-
ment dépourvus des os de la face; les machoires, les appareils operculaires et
_branchiaux manquent, et il n’est resté le plus souvent que la boite cranienne
proprement dite, et trés-souvent méme il lui manque toute la partie antérieure,
le museau, formé par la réunion des naseaux et du vomer, de sorte qu’on n’a
d’autre point de départ que la boite cérébrale dégagée de tous ses appendices.
Pour déterminer ces débris, j’ai suivi le méme procédé que la nature a em-
ployé pour mettre ces fossiles dans l’état dans lequel nous les trouvons. Des
squelettes ordinaires, tels qu’on les a dans les musées d’histoire naturelle et
d’anatomie comparée, n’auraient pu suffire 4 mon but. J’ai donc commencé
pat préparer un certain nombre d’ossemens détachés de différens poissons
marins, et je posséde maintenant une centaine de cranes isolés, avec les autres
os détachés, collection que j’augmente journellement. Cotime il importe que
les différens os du crane ne soient pas isolés, mais que la boite cranienne con-
serve sa forme naturelle, tous ces cranes ont di étre préparés avec le plus
grand soin ; et ici s’est présenté une grande difficulté, qui résulte de la ma-
niére dont les os du crane sont joints chez les poissons. Chez les autres ver-
tébrés cette jonction se'fait par sutures, les bords crenelés et dentelés se cor-
respondent, et il est facile de-reconstruire un crane démembré. Chez les
poissons il n’en est point ainsi. Le plus souvent les os sont appliqués sur une
boite cartilagineuse interne, souvent trés épaisse, d'autres fois plus mince, et
leurs bords, si toutefois ils se touchent; sont appliqués les uns sur les autres
par leurs faces, ou bien séparés par de larges bandes de cartilage. La forme
générale du crane est done souvent tout a fait différente de ce qu'elle serait si
Yon essayait de reconstruire le crane avec des cssemens isolés, en rapprochant
ces derniers par leurs bords. Dans les poissons de Sheppy les cartilages ont
tached vertebrz, or of isolated crania. The latter, moreover, are generally
deprived of the bones of the face; the jaws, the opercular and branchial ap-
paratus are wanting, and most frequently only the cranial envelope, properly so
called, remains; and very often indeed even this has lost the whole of the
anterior portion, the snout formed by the union of the nostrils and of the
vomer, so that there is no other point to start from than the cranium, de-
prived of all its appendages. To determine these fragments, I have followed
the same process that nature employed to place these fossils in the state in
which we meet them. Ordinary skeletons, such as are contained in the
museums of natural history and comparative anatomy, would not have sufficed
for my purpose. I began therefore by preparing a certain number of de-
tached bones of different marine fish, and I possess at present a hundred
detached crania with the other bones separated, a collection which I am daily
increasing. As it is of importance that the different bones of the cranium be
not isolated, but that the envelope which they form should preserve its natural
form, all these crania have required the greatest care in their preparation ; and
in this a great difficulty occurred, arising from the manner in which the bones
of the cranium are joined in fish. In the other Vertebrata this junction is
effected by sutures; the crenulate and dentate margins correspond, and it is
easy to reconstruct a dismembered cranium. In fishes such is not the case.
Most frequently the bones are applied on to an internal cartilage form, fre-
quently very thick, sometimes thinner, and their margins, if indeed they
touch, are applied the one on the other by their faces, or separated by broad
bands of cartilage. The general form of the cranium is therefore frequently
entirely different from what it would be if we were to attempt to reconstruct
the cranium with isolated bones, approximating these latter by their margins.
In the fish from Sheppey the cartilages have disappeared, the clay has taken
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 283
disparti, le limon les a remplacés, mais pas entiérement, de maniére que les
cranes ont la forme que prennent des cranes a demi-sechés de poissons vivants.
C’est ce point de désiccation que j’ai cherché a atteindre dans mes cranes de
poissons vivants.
Ces moyens de comparaison pourraient paraitre suffisants, si l’on ne ren-
contrait une autre difficulté, qui s’oppose a l’application directe de ces maté-
riaux au but que l’on se propose. Les poissons de Sheppy appartiennent aux
dépéts tertiaires ; ils se rapprochent par conséquent des types qui viveut main-
tenant. Mais on sait, et l'étude des poissons de Monte-Bolea !’a suffisamment
prouvé que, plus les familles et les genres remontent a des terrains anciens,
moins ils comptent de représentans dans la création actuelle, et encore ces re-
présentans se trouvent ils en général dans des parages trés éloignés. Ainsi, de
toute la puissante famille de Sauroides qui anciennenient petplait les mers, il
n’est resté que deux représentans dans les eaux douces de la création actuelle,
tandis que les familles les plus nombreuses de notre époque, les Siluroides, les
Cyprins, les Gades, et plusieurs autres ne comptent que peu ou point de repré-
sentans parmi les fossiles. Ce n’est done pas parmi les poissons les plus comi-
muns de nos Gétes, qu'il faut chercher les analogues des poissons fossiles ter-
tiaires. En passant en revue les ichthyolithes de Monte Bolea, on rencontre une
quantité de poissons, faisant partie de familles peu nombreuses dans nos pa-
rages, dont les représentans ne vivent pour la plupart que dans les mers des
Indes 6u de l Ocean austral, tels que les Squammipenties, les Atilostomes, les
Gymnodontes, les Sclérodermes; &c. &c.
Pour déterminer rigoureusement les poissons de Monte Bolca ou des atitres
dépéts tertiaires j’ai pu appeler 4 mon secours les matériaux rasseimblés dans
les musées, et surtout les squelettes du musée de Paris. Les comparaisons
devaient surtout porter sur le corps, les nageoires, tous points qui sont assez
their place, but not entirely, so that the crania have the form which the skulls
of half-dried recent fish acquire. It is this point of desiccation which I have
endeavoured to attain in my crania of recent fish.
These means of comparison might appear sufficient, did we not meet with
another difficulty which is opposed to the direct application of these materials
to the object in view.. The fish of Sheppey belong to the tertiary deposits,
they consequently approach types at present existing. But it is known, and
the investigation of the fish of Monte Bolca has sufficiently proved, that the
More the families and genera ascend to the older deposits, the less number
of representatives do they possess in the present creation, and these represen-
tatives are moreover in general met with in distant regions. Thus of all the
large family of the Sauroids which formerly peopled the sea, but two repre-
sentatives remain in the freshwaters of the present creation, while thé most
numerous families of our epoch, the Siluri, the Cyprini, the Gadi, aid seve-
ral others, have few or no representatives among fossils. It is therefore not
among the most common fish of our coasts that we must search for the ana+
logues of the fossil tertiary fish. On passing in review the ichthyolites of
onte Bolea, we meet with a quantity of fish belonging to families contain-
ing few members in our seas, the representatives of which live for the greater
part only in the Indian sea, or the southern ocean, such as the Squamipenne,
the Aulostomaia, the Gymnodonts, the Sclerodermata.
. To determine accurately the fish of Monte Bolca, or of the other tertiary
deposits, I have been able to call to my aid the materials collected in the
Museums, and especially the skeletons in the Museum of Paris. The com-
parisons had principally to be made with the body and the fins, which are
284 -REPORT—1844. . AUS
bien conservés dans ces fossiles et que les squelettes mettent en évidence.
Pour déterminer les poissons de Sheppy je devrais avoir 4 ma disposition une
collection non moins riche de squelettes démembrés, de cranes détachés, d’os-
semens isolés. Or, une telle collection ne peut se faire que lentement et a
grands frais, surtout lorsque celui qui la forme vit éloigné de la mer et n’a a
sa disposition qu’un petit musée destiné plutét a acquérir des exemplaires
typiques de genres, que des séries d’exemplaires de la méme espéce.
Si malgré ces difficultés je puis présenter aujourd’hui un aper¢u assez
complet sur les poissons fossiles de Sheppy, je le dois 4 l’obligeance des géo-
logues anglais, en particulier de Lord Enniskillen, de Sir Ph. Egerton, du
Dr. Buckland, du Rev. M. Hope, de MM. Bowerbank, Cumberland, des
Directeurs du Musée Britannique, du Collége des Chirurgiens, &e., qui tous
mont communiqué a l’envi les piéces originales de leurs collections, que j'ai
pu de cette maniére comparer directement avec des cranes de poissons vivans.
Ce travail a ainsi été fait sur des bases toutes neuves. Les travaux des ich-
thyologistes antérieurs n’ont pu méme m’étre que d'un faible secours, et meme
les grands ouvrages d’anatomie comparée de Cuvier, de Meckel, et de tant
d’autres m’ont rarement fourni des renseignemens suffisants, car ils ont pour
but de faire connaitre les os du crane et de la téte en général, d’indi-
quer la part que ces os prennent a la formation du squelette osseux de la
téte, de décrire les variations qu’ils peuvent subir en composant les types les
plus extravagants, et enfin de faire ressortir l’analogie des os avec ceux des
autres classes des vertébrés plutdt que d’indiquer la forme précise de chaque
os dans tous les genres. Il en est de méme des grandes discussions ana-
tomiques du commencement de notre siécle qui ont porté sur l’analogie de la
tolerably well-preserved in those fossils, and which are exhibited by the ske-
leton. To determine the fish of Sheppey, I was obliged to have at my disposal
a collection not less rich of dismembered skeletons, detached crania, and of
isolated bones ; but it is only possible to form such a collection slowly and at
great expense, especially when the person who forms it lives at a distance
from the sea, and has at his disposal but a small museum, destined rather to
receive typical specimens of genera than series of specimens of the same
species.
If, notwithstanding these difficulties, I am able to offer at present a tolerably
complete sketch of the fossil fish of Sheppey, I owe it to the kindness of En-
glish geologists, in particular of Lord Enniskillen, of Sir Philip Egerton, of
Dr. Buckland, of the Rev. Mr. Hope, of Messrs. Bowerbank, Cumberland,
the Directors of the British Museum, of the College of Surgeons, &¢., who
have all eagerly communicated to me the original fragments from their col-
lections, which I have thus been able to compare directly with the ecrania of
recent fish. This investigation has thus been made on entirely new bases.
The labours of former ichthyologists have scarcely afforded the least assistance ;
and even the great works on Comparative Anatomy of Cuvier, Meckel and so
many others have rarely furnished sufficient information ; for their object is
to make known the bones of the cranium and of the head in general, to indi-
cate the part which these bones take in the formation of the osseous skeleton
of the head, to describe the variations they may undergo in composing the
most extravagant types, and lastly, to point out the analogy of the bones with
those of other classes of Vertebrata, rather than to indicate the precise form
of each bone in all the genera. The same is the case with respeet to
the great anatomical discussions at the commencement of the present cen-
tury, which related to the analogy of the head of fish with that of the other
as fi
é
aoe
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 285
téte des poissons avec les autres vertébrés plutdt que sur les détails néces-
saires 4 la détermination des os fossiles.
Le but que j'ai di me proposer dans ces nouvelles études sur l’ostéologie
des poissons est avant tout de connaitre les formes de la téte et du crane, d’en
déterminer les arétes, les fosses, le relief dans tous leurs détails, et de retrou-
ver dans ces différentes formes des types généraux de la famille, du genre, de
Yespéce. Si mes prédécesseurs se sont attachés a un type régulier, la carpe
ou la perche, en décrivant leur ostéologie, et en indiquant combien ces types
peuvent varier dans les genres irréguliers, j’ai dG au contraire m’attacher prin-
cipalement aux types peu differenciés, rechercher les petites déviations, qui
peuvent accompagner les différences spécifiques, étudier le caractére général
du genre, indiquer les variations que peut subir le type encore plus général de
la famille, et arriver ainsi 4 pouvoir distinguer les familles, les genres, les
espéces d'aprés l’ostéologie du crane. Cette étude, on le sent bien, est presque
sans fin; car,—et c’est la une nouvelle manifestation de l’infinie variété de la
nature—chaque genre, chaque famille a ses traits caractéristiques, et ses va-
-riations spécifiques ont lieu dans des limites déterminées. Chez telle famille
Yabsence d’une créte mitoyenne du crane, peut-étre un trait caractéristique,
commun 4 toute la famille, tandisque chez telle autre cette créte ne formera
qu'un earactére de genre ou d’espéce, et ainsi de suite. Pour arriver 4 la con-
naissance exacte et détaillée des lois qui président a toutes les variations qui
peuvent survenir dans les espéces, les genres, les familles, il faudrait posséder
les cranes de toutes les espéces de poissons connus jusqu’a présent. Espérons
qu’on y arrivera quelque jour. Pour le moment nous en sommes encore fort
loin.
Pour donner un apercu de la maniére dont il faut traiter l’ostéologie des
Vertebrata, rather than to the details necessary for the determination of fossil
bones.
The object which I proposed to attain in these new researches on the osteo-
logy of fish, was above all to become acquainted with the forms of the head
and of the cranium, to determine their ridges, the hollows, and the relief in
all their details, and to find in these different forms general types of the
family, of the genus, and of the species. If my predecessors have fixed on
a regular type, the Carp or Perch, in describing their osteology, and in
pointing out how these types may vary in the irregular genera, I on the con-
trary have had to direct my attention principally to closely-allied types, to
search for the minute deviations which might accompany specific differences,
to study the general character of the genus, to indicate the variations which
the still more general type of the family might be subject to, and thus to
arrive at the possibility of distinguishing families, genera and species by
the osteology of the cranium. It will be conceived that this study is almost
interminable ; for,—and this is a new manifestation of the infinite variety of
nature—each genus, each family has its characteristic features, and its spe-
cific variations occur within fixed limits. In one family the absence of a ¢en-
tral crest of the cranium may constitute a characteristic feature common to
the whole family, while in another this crest will form but a generic or spe-
cific character, and soon. ‘To arrive at an exact and minute knowledge of
the laws which determine all the variations that may occur in the species,
genera and families, it will be necessary to possess the crania of all fish
hitherto known. Let us hope that some day we shall arrive at this point; at
present. we are still far distant from it.
. To give a sketch of the manner in which the osteology of fish must. be
286 - REPORT—1844.
poissons, dans le but d’éclairer l'étude des poissons fossiles et de ceux de
Sheppy en particulier, je vais indiquer en peu de mots les traits caractéristiques
des principales familles dont on a rencontré jusqu’ici des représentans dans
Yargile de Londres. Si je ne dis rien des autres familles, ce n'est pas que
je les aie négligées, mais ne voulant pas allonger ce rapport, je m’en tien-
drai exclusivement 4 celles qui ont des représentans parmi les fossiles de
Sheppy.
La famille des Percoides se distingue par le développement considérable de
Yocciput, tandis que les parties antérieures du crane sont trés-étroites et peu
développées. La eréte mitoyenne du crane ne s‘éléve presque jamais au
dessus du plan incliné du front. Les frontaux eux-mémes ne présentent ja-
mais de créte bien marquée et dans aucun cas la eréte mitoyenne ne se con-
tinue sur les frontaux. II y a méme toujours une partie plus ou moins con-
sidérable de l’occipital supérieur qui s’intercale entre les petits parietaux et
lextrémité des frontaux, et qui est aplatie comme le front, Les erétes parié-
tales ou intermédiaires sont toujours bien prononcées et aplaties a leur extré-
mité postérieure. Les erétes temporales sont fortes et séparées des précédentes
par une fosse temporale profonde, au fond de laquelle on apercoit une lacune
plus ou moins grande entre Voccipital externe et le temporal, Cette lacune
est bouchée par du cartilage. Jamais aucune de ces fosses ne s’ayance au
dela du burd postérieur de l’orbite, ou, en d’autres termes, jamais les fosses
temporale et occipitale ne se continuent sur les frontaux principaux. La partie
inférieure du crane n’offre presque jamais de traits caractéristiques, J’ai trouvé
jusqu'ici parmi les poissons de Sheppy sept genres de Percoides, dont l'un le
Ceeloperca, se rapproche beaucoup du genre Perea proprement dit, tandis que
les 4 autres, Podocephalus, Brachygnathus, Percostoma et Synophrys ressem-
treated for the purpose of throwing light on the inyestigation of fossil fish,
and in particular on those of Sheppey, I shall indicate in a few words the
characteristic features of the principal families, representatives of which have
been met with in the London clay. If I pass over in silence the other fami-
lies, it is not that I have neglected them; but not wishing to extend this re-
port to too great a length, I shall confine myself exclusively to those which
have representatives among the fossils of Sheppey.
The family of the Percoide is distinguished by the considerable develop-
ment of the occiput, while the anterior portions of the cranium are very nar-
row and only little developed ; the central crest of the cranium rarely rises
above the inclined plane of the front. The frontals themselves never pre-
sent a very marked crest, and in no case does the central crest continue on
the frontals. There is indeed always a more or less considerable portion of
the upper occipital which is inserted between the small parietals and the
extremity of the frontals, and which is flattened like the front. The parietal
or intermediary crests are always very marked and flattened at their pos-
terior extremity, The temporal erests are strong and separated from the
preceding by a deep temporal groove, at the bottom of which is perceived
a more or less large space between the external occipital and the temporal.
This space is filled up by cartilage. Never do any of these grooves advance
beyond the posterior margin of the orbit, or in other words, the temporal
and occipital grooves never continue over the principal frontals. The lower
portion of the cranium scarcely ever presents characteristic features. I have
found up to the present time among the fish of Sheppey seven genera of
Percoide, one of which, Celoperca, approaches considerably to the genus
Perea itself, whilst the four others, Podocephalus, Brachygnathus, Percostoma
—
~
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 287
blent d’avantage aux Serrans, et le genre Hurygnathus aux Centropomes. Le
‘septiéme genre est le seul qui existe aussi dans la création actuelle, c’est un
veritable Myripristis, appartenant 4 ce curieux groupe de Percoides a plus de
sept rayons a la membrane branchiostégue et aux ventrales, et qui probable-
ment devra former a l'avenir une famille a part, a cause de la structure tout a
fait différente de ses écailles et de sa vessie natatoire,
Je n’ai pas encore pu trouver des restes de Sczénoides. On sait que la téte
de ces poissons se reconnait facilement 4 ses boursoufflures caverneuses, qui
sont dies 4 un développement énorme des canaux muciféres de la téte. Les
Joues euirassées ne figurent pas non plus dans les couches de Sheppy.
_ La famille des Sparoides compte plusieurs représentans dans l’argile de
Londres. Ce qui distingue cette famille c’est la forme de la créte occipitale
qui s’avance jusqu’au milieu de l’orbite, mais ne la dépasse jamais. Dans les
Sparoides ordinaires, tels que les Dentés, les Spares, les Pagres, la face supé-
rieure du crane forme une ligne brisée sur deux points, en sorte que le nasal
et le vomer avec la eréte supérieure tranchante représentent un plan incliné,
tandis que la partie moyenne des frontaux est presque horizontale, et l’oeciput
descend de nouveau en arriére. Les crétes intermédiaires sont assez hautes,
mais trés minces et tranchantes comme la eréte occipitale ; elles s'avancent au
dela du bord supérieur de l’orbite et forment en général un angle aigu, dont
la pointe se réunit au milieu du front avec la créte occipitale mitoyenne. Les
erétes temporales sont en général plus épaisses, et offrent de nombreuses ou-
vertures pour les canaux muciféres, d’o résulte parfois une assez grande
ressemblanee avec des Sciénoides. La créte temporale est séparée du bord
postérieur de l’orbite par une fosse assez profonde qui conflue avec la fosse
mastoidienne. J’ai pu m’assurer au moyen de ces caractéres que le genre
and Synophrys, more resemble the Serrani, and the genus Hurygnathus the
Centropomi. The seventh genus is the only one which exists in the present
creation ; it is a true Myripristis belonging to that curious group of Percoide
which has more than seven rays to the brauchiostegous membrane and to the
ventrals, and which will probably form in future a separate family, on account
of the entirely different structure of the scales and of the swimming-bladder.
Hitherto I have not met with remains of Seienoide. The head of these
fish is easily recognised by the hollow protuberances arising from an enor-
mous development of the muciferous canals of the head. Neither do the
‘Joues euirassées’ ( Cottoide) occur in the Sheppey strata.
The family of the Sparoide has several representatives in the London clay.
What distinguishes this family is the form of the occipital ridge, which ad-
vances to the middle of the orbit, but never extends beyond it. In the ordi-
nary Sparoide, such as the Dentices, the Spari and the Pagri, the upper sur-
face of the cranium forms a line interrupted at the two points, so that the
nasal and the vomer with the sharp-edged upper crest represent an inclined
plane, while the central portion of the frontals is nearly horizontal, and the
oceiput again descends posteriorly, The intermediary crests are tolerably
high, but very thin and sharp-edged, like the occipital crest; they advance
beyond the upper margin of the orbit and form in general an acute angle, the
apex of which unites at the middle of the front with the median occipital
erest. The temporal crests are in general thicker and present numerous aper-
tures for the muciferous canals, whence sometimes results a great resem-
blance with the Scienoide. The temporal crest is separated from the pos-
terior margin of the orbit by a tolerably deep groove, which is confluent with
the mastoid groove. I have been able to convince myself by means of these
288 REPORT—1844.
Scienurus, que j’avais placé provisoirement parmi les Sciénoides appartient
effectivement aux Sparoides, et doit étre placé dans le voisinage des Dentés.
La famille des Teuthies est caractérisée par une séparation assez tranchée
entre l’occiput et la partie antérieure de la téte comprenant les frontaux et les
autres os contigus. Les formes générales de la téte varient beaucoup; cepen-
dant il y a toujours une petite créte occipitale assez mince et fragile, ainsi que
des crétes pariétales et temporales. Les intervalles qui séparent ces crétes ne
sont pas de véritables fosses, ou du moins elles ne sont pas plus profondes que
la surface du crane en général, et les crétes ressemblent plutdt 4 de petites
lames tranchantes posées sur cette surface uniformément bombée. Les fron-
taux sont en général grands et vigoureux ; ils sont plus épais que dans aucune
autre famille, et montrent des dessins variés dans l’arrangement de leurs fibres
osseuses. , Le plus souvent ils présentent de fines mailles ou des pores trés-
serrés. La surface inférieure du crane forme une quille tranchante tout le
long du sphénoide.
Je connais jusqu ici trois genres appartenant a cette famille, qui se trouvent
dans l’argile de Londres. L’un, le Ptychocephalus radiatus se rapproche assez
des Amphacantes. Lautre, le Pomophactus Egertoni parait former un type
a part par ses grands sous-orbitaires qui recouvrent les joues. Les exemplaires
de Calopomus que j'ai di placer provisoirement dans cette famille sont trop
incomplets pour que je puisse me prononcer définitivement sur la place que
ce poisson doit occuper. Les écailles assez grandes qui distinguent ce genre
et qui ne se retrouvent pas dans la famille des Teuthies devront étre soumises
a un examen approfondi, lorsqu’on possédera un plus grand nombre d’échan-
tillons mieux conservés. ?
characters that the genus Scienurus, which I had placed provisionally among
the Scienoide, effectively belongs to the Sparoide, and ought to be placed in
the vicinity of the Dentices.
The family of the Zeuthie is characterized by a tolerably marked separa-
tion between the occiput and the anterior portion of the head comprising the
frontals and the other contiguous bones. The general forms of the head
vary considerably ; however, there is always a small occipital crest, rather thin
and fragile, as well as parietal and temporal crests. The intervals which
separate these crests are not true grooves, or at least they are not deeper
than the surface of the cranium in general, and the crests rather resemble
small sharp-edged plates placed on this uniformly vaulted surface. The
frontals are in general large and strong, they are thicker than in any other
family, and exhibit various patterns in the arrangement of their osseous fibres.
Most frequently they present fine meshes or closely-pressed pores ; the under
surface of the cranium forms a sharp-edged keel throughout the whole length
of the sphenoid.
Up to the present time I am acquainted with three genera belonging to
this family, which are found in the London clay: one, the Ptyehocephalus
radiatus, approaches closely to Amphacanthus; another, the Pomophactus
Egertoni, appears to form a distinct type from its large suborbitals which
cover the cheeks. The specimens of Calopomus which I have been com-
pelled to place provisionally in this family, are too imperfect to enable me to
decide definitively on the place which this fish should occupy. The tolerably
large scales which distinguish this genus, and which are not met with in any
other of the family of the Tewthie, must be submitted to minute investiga-
tion when we are in possession of a larger number of better-preserved frag-
ments.
:
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 289
Les autres families de Cténoides n’ont pas encore de représentans dans
Yargile de Londres.
Parmi les Cycloides acanthoptérygiens \a famille des Xiphioides est large-
ment représentée par quatre genres dont l’un le Tetrapterus compte aussi un
ressortissant vivant, tandis que les autres, les genres Acestrus, Phasganus et
Colorhynchus n’ont existé que pendant l’époque tertiaire. Les caractéres des
Xiphioides sont tellement tranchés qu'il est presque inutile d’y revenir.
L’absence totale de créte quelconque sur toute la face supérieure du crane qui
est uniformément incliné et rectiligne feront toujours facilement distinguer
cette famille de toutes les autres, et surtout des Scombéroides avec lesquels on
les ‘a confondus jusqu ici.
La famille des Scombéroides restreinte aux limites que je lui ai assignées
dans les ‘ Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles,’ v. i. p. 16° et suiv., présente
deux types de cranes assez différents, en rapport avec la forme générale du
corps. Dans les vrais Scombéroides, la face supérieure du crane est presque
tout d’une venue. La créte occipitale mitoyenne est haute; elle avance tou-
jours sur les frontaux, ot elle est double, et trés souvent les frontaux eux-
mémes sont relevés au milieu jusque vers le nasal. Les crétes pariétales sont
minees et considérablement relevées ; elles sont paralléles 4 la créte mitoyenne
et viennent se perdre le plus souvent au milieu du bord supérieur de l’orbite.
Les frontaux sont trés-souvent squammeux dans leur partie antérieure, et ce
caractére est développé d’une maniére extraordinaire dans le genre Ceelopoma
de l’argile de Londres. Les crétes temporales sont trés-fortes; elles se ré-
unissent au haut de l’orbite avec les crétes pariétales, et sont presque aussi
minces et tranchantes que ces derniéres. Une fosse latérale externe est encore
formée par le bord externe du frontal postérieur, qui descend séparément de
_ la eréte temporale.
The other families of Ctenoide have as yet no representatives in the Lon-
_ don clay.
_ Among the Acanthopterygian Cycloids the family of the Xiphioide is
_ abundantly represented by four genera, one of which, Tetrapterus, likewise
_ counts a living representative, while the other genera, Acestrus, Phasganus
_ and Celorhynchus, existed only during the tertiary epoch. The characters of
_ Xiphioide are so marked that it is almost useless to return to them. The
"total absence of any crest whatsoever over the whole upper surface of the
_ cranium, which is uniformly inclined and rectilinear, will always allow of this
_ family being readily distinguished from all others, and especially from the
_ Scomberoide, with which they have hitherto been confounded.
_ The family of the Scomberoide, confined within the limits I have assigned
_ to it (in the ‘Récherches sur les Poissons Fossiles,’ vol. i. p. 16, et seq.,)
5 presents two very different types of crania in relation to the general form of
_ the body. In the true Scomberoide the upper surface of the cranium is nearly
_ allof apiece. The central occipital crest is high, it always encroaches on
the frontals where it is double, and very frequently the frontals themselves
are raised in the middle as far as the nasal. The parietal crests are thin and
considerably raised ; they are parallel tp the central crest, and most frequently
disappéar towards the centre of the upper margin of the orbit. The frontals
are very often squamose in their front portion, and this character is developed
in an extraordinary manner in the genus Celopoma of the London clay.
The temporal crests are very strong, they unite above the orbit with the
parietal crests, and are almost as thin and sharp-edged as the latter. An ex-
ternal lateral groove is moreover formed by the external margin of the pos-
el frontal, which descends separately from the temporal crest.
4. U
Pk
290 REPORT—1844.
Il est assez difficile de distinguer de prime abord les Sparoides des Scom-
béroides qui ont les uns et les autres les mémes crétes 4 l’occiput, cependant
dans la plupart des Scombéroides, la créte mitoyenne se. prolonge sur les
frontaux, ce qui n’est pas le cas dans les Sparoides. D’un autre cété, les
erétes pariétales convergent en avant chez les Sparoides, tandis que dans les
Scombéroides, elles sont paralléles 4 la créte mitoyenne ou bien méme diver-
genies en avant. Enfin ce qui distingue encore les Sparoides c’est le museau
prolongé en quille et la ligne brisée de la surface du crane, tandis que dans les_
Scombéroides cette surface est tout d’une venue et le museau beaucoup plus
court. Le second type des Scombéroides n’est représenté que par la Dorée
(Zeus Faber) et quelques poissons peu nombreux qui sen rapprochent.
Malgré la forme comprimée et élevée de la téte, la créte occipitale manque
complétement ace poisson. Les pariétaux qui, dans les autres Scombéroides,
sont séparés par l’occipital supérieur, se touchent ici sur la ligne médiane.
J’ai déja indiqué dans les Recherches sur les Poissons fossiles qu'il serait pos-
sible que le Zeus Faber devant le type d’un groupe a part, et cette prévision
parait confirmée par I’ostéologie de la téte.
Les Scombéroides sont représentés par plusieurs genres, dont l’un, le
Cybium, compte aussi des représentans dans l’époque actuelle, tandis que les
Celopoma, les Bothrosteus et les Colocephalus wont encore été trouvés
jusqu ici que dans les terrains tertiaires.
Les Sphyrénoides sont représentés dans l’argile de Londres par le genre
Sphyreenodus, dont les dents formidables rappellent les véritables Sphyrénes,
mais dont je ne connais jusquici que des machoires. Quoique je n’aie pas
encore eu l'occasion de comparer de nouveau le crane des Sphyrénes vivantes
avec celui des Sphyrénoides tertiaires et crétacés n’ayant pas les fossiles sous
It is somewhat difficult to distinguish at first sight the Sparoide from the
Scomberoide, both of which have the same crests on the occiput ; however,
in the majority of the Scomberotde the central crest is prolonged over the
frontals, which is not the case in the Sparoide. On the other hand, the
parietal crests converge anteriorly in the Sparoide, while in the Scomberoide
they are parallel to the central crest, or even divergent anteriorly. What,
moreover, distinguishes the Sparoide is the snout prolonged in the form of
a keel, and the interrupted line on the surface of the cranium, while in the
Scomberoide this surface is continuous, and the snout much shorter. The
second type of the Scomberoide is only represented by the Doreys (Zeus
Faber), and some fish, few in number, which are allied to it. Notwithstand-
ing the compressed and elevated form of the head, the occipital crest is
totally wanting in this fish, The parietals, which in the other Scomberoide
are separated by the upper occipital, here touch on the median line. I have
already indicated, in the ‘ Récherches sur les Poissons Fossiles,’ that it was
probable that the Zeus Faber would become the type of a separate group,
and this supposition appears to be confirmed by the osteology of the head.
The Scomberoide are represented by several genera, one of which, Cy-
bium, has likewise representatives in the present period, while Celopoma,
Bothrosteus and Celocephalus have hitherto only been found in the tertiary
beds.
The Sphyrenoide are represented in the London clay by the genus
Sphyrenodus, whose formidable teeth call to mind the true Sphyrene,
of which, however, Iam as yet only acquainted with the jaws. Although
I have not yet had occasion to make a fresh comparison between the
cranium of the recent Sphyrene and that of the tertiary and cretaceous
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 291
la main, je crois cependant devoir en éliminer dés a présent le genre Hypso-
don qui, par son crane aplati et depourvu de fosses, me parait plutét appartenir
4 la famille des Scomberésoces. Le genre Sphyrzna au contraire a des fosses
occipitales distinctes sépareés par une créte mince, et des fosses temporales trés
profondes de forme triangulaire, qui s'avancent jusqu’au dessus de l’orbite. Il
n/a point cette dépression frontale qui distingue le genre Hypsodon.
Les Labroides ont occiput conformé a peu prés de la méme maniére que
les Scombéroides. Ony trouve les mémes crétes, mais beaucoup plus raccour-
cies. La créte mitoyenne ne s’avance jamais sur les frontaux; elle est limitée
a Voccipital supérieur. Les crétes pariétales n’atteignent jamais le bord su-
périeur de l’orbite, mais s’arrétent vis 4 vis de son bord postérieur. Les
fosses pariétales sont beaucoup moins profondes. Une fosse assez profonde
se trouve aussi sur la partie antérieure des frontaux, et s’étend jusque vers
Vendroit ot le nasal se joint a ces derniers. Il y a en outre une articulation
particuliére des pharyngiens au dessous du grand trou occipital.
Les Blennioides se reconnaissent au premier coup d’ceil a la singuliére con-
formation de leur crane. L’occiput est applati en arriére et forme un triangle
presque équilatéral, dont le sommet est tourné en avant, et se continue en
une créte mitoyenne qui s'avance jusqu’au dessus de l’orbite. Ici, en arriére
de lorbite, le crane est tellement comprimé latéralement qu'il y a a peine un
espace entre ces parvis osseuses pour la partie antérieure du cerveau. Les
bords postérieurs de l’orbite s’étendent latéralement sous forme de deux ailes
triangulaires. L’espace compris entre les orbites est allongé et assez étroit.
Les bords de l’orbite sont relevés, de sorte qu’il y a un sillon quelquefois
assez profond au milieu du front. Cette absence de créte mitoyenne sur
Sphyrenoide, not having the fossils at my disposal, I am however induced
to remove from it, even at present, the genus Hypsodon, which appears to
me, from its flattened cranium, which is deprived of grooves, rather to
belong to the family of the Scomberesocide. The genus Sphyrena, on the
contrary, has distinct occipital grooves separated by a thin crest and very
deep temporal grooves, of a triangular form, which advance beyond the
orbit. There is not that frontal depression which distinguishes the genus
Hypsodon.
The Labroide have the occiput shaped nearly in the same manner as the
Scomberoide ; we find the same crests, only much more shortened. The
central crest never advances over the frontals, it is restricted to the upper
occipital. The parietal crests never attain the upper margin of the orbit,
_ but stop opposite its posterior margin. ‘The parietal grooves are far more
_ Shallow. A tolerably deep groove is likewise met with on the anterior por-
tion of the frontals, and extends to the place where the nasal joins these
latter. ‘There is besides a peculiar articulation of the pharyngians below the
_ large occipital aperture.
The Blennioide are recognised at first sight from the singular conformation
of their cranium. The occiput is flattened posteriorly, and forms nearly an
equilateral triangle, whose summit is directed anteriorly, and is continued in
a central crest, which advances to just above the orbit. Here, behind the
orbit, the cranium is compressed to such a degree laterally that there is
scarcely space between the osseous walls for the anterior portion of the brain.
The hinder margins of the orbit extend laterally in form of two triangular
wings. The space comprised between the orbits is elongated and somewhat
narrow. The margins of the orbit are raised, so that there is sometimes a
tolerably profound furrow in the middle of the front. This absence of a
u2
992 REPORT—1844.
Yocciput, tandis qu'il en existe une au dessus des fosses mastoidiennes est un
caractére tout particulier qui n’existe que dans cette famille. La séparation
des Blennoides d’avec les Gobioides ne pourrait étre mieux justifiée que par
les types si entiérement différens de leurs cranes. La face intérieure du crane
forme une quille tranchante qui est surtout relevée entre les yeux. Le seul
représentant de cette famille que j'ai trouvé dans l'argile de Londres, le La-
parus alticeps, se rapproche par la forme de son crane du Loup de Mer,
Anarrhichas Lupus. Je ne connais pas encore sa dentition.
La famille des Scomber-Esoces établie derniérement par M. Miller pour
plusieurs poissons Malacoptérygiens dont les os pharyngiens inférieurs sont
réunis en une seule piéce; a pour représentans principaux les Exocetus, les
Hemiramphus, et les Orphies (Belone). Quoique les formes extérieures de
ces genres soient trés-différentes, je n’en trouve pas moins une grande ana-
logie dans l'ostéologie de leur téte. La face supérieure du crane est entieré-
ment aplatie, sans créte saillante ni fosse distincte. L/’occipital supérieur est
extrémement petit, prolongé en arriére, non point en une créte, mais en une
pointe assez gréle et courte. Le milieu du front est un peu déprimé. Le
bord de l’orbite, au lieu d’étre relevé comme dans les Joues cuirassées, avec
lesquelles les Scomberésoces ont le plus d’analogie, est abaissé vers les cétés.
Le genre Hypsodon parait appartenir a cette curieuse famille, et la preuve
en sera fournie irrévocablement dés que l’on trouvera un exemplaire dont la
face inférieure du crane offrira cette articulation propre sur laquelle les pha-
ryngiens sont fixés dans tout ce curieux groupe que M. Miller a désigné
sous le nom de Pharyngognathes.
Les Clupéides se distinguent par un caractére tout particulier de leur
crane, la prolongation de deux crétes pariétales en arriére sous forme d’é-
central crest on the occiput, while one exists above the mastoidian grooves,
is quite a peculiar character, which exists only in this family.
The separation of the Blennioide from the Gobioide could not be better
justified than by the entirely different types of their crania. The lower sur-
face of the cranium forms a sharp-edged keel, which is especially raised be-
tween the eyes. The only representative of this family which 1 have found
in the London clay, Laparus alticeps, is allied, by the form of its cranium,
to the Sea-wolf Anarrhichas Lupus. I am not acquainted with its dentition.
The family of the Scomberesocide, recently established by M. Miller, for
several Malacopterygian fish, the lower pharyngeal bones of which are united
into a single piece, is principally represented by the Exocetus, Hemiramphus
and Belone. Although the external forms of these genera are very different,
I nevertheless find a great analogy in the osteology of their head. The upper
face of the cranium is entirely flattened without any prominent crest or di-
stinct groove. The upper occipital is extremely small, prolonged back-
wards, not into a crest, but into a somewhat thin and short point. The
centre of the front is slightly depressed ; the margin of the orbit, instead of
being raised as in the Cottoide with which the Scomberesocide have most
analogy, is lowered towards the sides. The genus Hypsodon appears to belong
to this curious family, and the proof will be irrevocably furnished as soon as
a specimen shall have been found with the lower surface of the cranium pre-
senting that peculiar articulation, on which the pharyngeals are attached
throughout this curious group, which M. Muller has designated by the name
of ‘ Pharyngognathes.’
The Clupeide are distinguished by a very peculiar character of their
cranium, the prolongation of two parietal crests hindwards in the form of
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 293
pines émoussées ce qui fait que la petite créte occipitale se trouve placée
dans le sinus antérieur d’une profonde entaille triangulaire. De ce sinus
partent en méme temps deux saillies divergentes qui viennent mourir au mi-
lieu du bord supérieur de lorbite, et entre lesquelles se trouve placé un en-
forcement assez considérable de forme triangulaire qui occupe le milieu du
front. Les fosses temporales sont assez considérables; leur extrémité anté-
rieure s’efface au bord postérieur de l’orbite. Les frontaux antérieurs et pos-
térieurs forment de grandes éminences latérales. Ce qui caractérise surtout la
face inférieure ce sont deux prolongemens en forme d’aile qui partent de
Yextremité postérieure du sphénoide et s’adaptent latéralement sur les cétés
de la colonne vertébrale.
Je nai trouvé que deux genres dans l’argile de Londres dont l'un le genre
Megalops a des représentans vivays ; tandis que l'autre le genre Halecopsis est
complétement éteint.
J'ai rangé provisoirement dans la famille des Characins, sous le nom de
Brychetus Mulleri, une énorme téte fossile, dont les machoires sont armeés
dune série de dents trés allongées. Cette téte se distingue en outre par un
caractére trés tranché, c’est que le pourtour de la bouche est formé en avant
par les intermaxillaires supérieurs qui portent également des dents. C’était
le caractére qui distinguait mon ancienne famille des Halécoides que le prince
de Canino a le premier demembrée, et que M. Miller a plus tard si heu-
reusement subdivisée en plusieurs familles trés-bien caractérisées. Le Bry-
chetus ne peut appartenir qu’aux Characins ou aux Célacanthes; mais
n’ayant pas encore pu me procurer des squelettes d’un Characin vivant ni des
écailles de ce fossile, je dois attendre pour le classer définitivement de plus
amples renseignemens, qui ne manqueront point, je l’espére, puisque la gran-
deur de cette espéce doit nécessairement attirer l’attention des collecteurs.
_ two blunt spines, so that the small occipital crest is situated in the anterior
sinus of a deep triangular notch. From this sinus part together two di-
verging crests, which disappear in the centre of the upper margin of the
_ orbit, and between which occurs a very considerable depression of triangular
form occupying the middle of the front. The temporal grooves are some-
_ what considerable ; their anterior extremity becomes obliterated at the pos-
terior margin of the orbit. The anterior and posterior frontals form large
' lateral eminences. What especially characterizes the lower surface, are two
_ Wing-shaped prolongations which proceed from the posterior extremity of the
_ sphenoid, and adapt themselves laterally to the sides of the vertebral column.
__ Ihave only found two genera in the London clay, one of which, Megalops, has
living representatives, while the other, the genus Halecopsis, is entirely extinct.
_ I have arranged provisionally in the family of the Characide, under the
name of Brychetus Mulleri, an enormous fossil head, the jaws of which are
provided with a series of very long teeth. This head is moreover distinguished
by a very marked character, the circumference of the mouth being formed
in front by the upper intermaxillaries, which likewise are furnished with
teeth. ‘This was the character which distinguished my old family the Hale-
coide, which the Prince of Canino was the first to dismember, and which M.
Miller subsequently subdivided with so much judgement into several well-
characterized families. The Brychetus can belong only to the Characes or to
the Celacanthi, but having hitherto been unable to obtain skeletons of a
recent Characes or scales of this fossil, I must wait for ample information in
order to classify it definitively, which I hope will not be wanting, as the size
of this species will necessarily attract the attention of collectors.
294 REPORT—1844,
La famille des Gadoides présente des variations assez notables al’égard de
la eréte occipitale, dans des genres qui, sous d’autres rapports, sont assez
rapprochés. C’est ainsi que chez les Motelles, les Merluches, les Lottes et
les Phycis, la créte s’étend en arriére, sans s’élever au dessus du plan général
de l’occiput, tandis que dans les Merlans et les Gades proprement dits, la eréte
s'avance jusqu’au dessus des orbites en s’élevant sensiblement au dessus de
Yocciput. L’occiput in général est large, de forme triangulaire et a, comme
tout le crane, un aspect foliacré. Les os en général sont tres minces, retenus
dans leur position par le développement considérable des cartilages craniens.
Les crétes sont des lames trés minces, mais les fosses de l’occiput sont en
général trés peu accusées ; le front est rétréci entre les orbites et des pro-
longemens particuliers du frontal forment, chez le plupart des genres, des
doubles bords autour des orbites. Les frontaux antérieurs s étendent laté-
ralement sous forme d’aile. La partie inférieure de l’oeciput est large et
trés bombée, sans aucune quille médiane, et c’est la boursoufllure générale
de cette partie qui fait qu’on distingue facilement les Gadoides des autres
familles, et surtout des Gobioides, dont ils se rapprochent le plus par le con-
formation des os du crane.
Je connais jusqu’ici quatre genres de cette intéressante famille dont j'ai
trouvé les premiers fossiles dans l’argile de Londres: Ce sont le Rhinoce-
phalus planiceps, qui par la formation de son crane tient le milieu entre les
Merluches et les Phycis; les genres Merlinus et Goniognathus, qui se rap-
prochent d'avantage des Merlans; et Je genre si curieux que Mr. Konig a
appelé Ampheristus, et qui parait constituer un nouveau type dans la famille
des Gadoides.
Les Anguilliformes forment un type tout a fait 4 part qui se distingue au
The family of the Gadoide presents considerable variations with respect
to the occipital crest in genera which in other respects are nearly allied.
Thus, for instance, in the Motelle, the Merlucci, the: Lote, and the Phyeis,
the crest extends posteriorly without rising above the general level of the
occiput, while in the Whitings and the Cods, properly so called, the crest
advances to just above the orbits, rising gradually above the occiput. The
occiput is in general broad, of triangular form, and, like the whole of the
cranium, has a foliaceous appearance. The bones are in general very thin,
held in their position by the considerable development of the cranial carti-
lages. The crests consist of very thin laminz, but the grooves of the occiput
are in general extremely faint; the front is contracted within the orbits, and
the peculiar prolongation of the frontal, forming in most of the genera double
margins around the orbits; the anterior frontals extend laterally in the form
of a wing, the lower portion of the occiput is broad and much-vaulted, with-
out any median keel; and it is the general protuberance of this part which
renders the Gadoide easy to distinguish from the other families, and especially
from the Gobioide, to which they most approach by the conformation of the
bones of the cranium.
I am at present acquainted with four genera of this interesting family, of
which I found the first fossils in the London clay. They are the Rhinoce-
phalus planiceps, which, from the formation of its skull, is intermediate be-
tween Merluccius and Phycis ; the genera Merlinus and G'oniognathus, which
are more nearly related to the Whitings; and the curious genus which M.
Konig has called Ampheristus, and which appears to constitute a new type in
the family of the Gadoide.
The Anguilliformes constitute quite a separate type, which is distinguished
+
Fa ORC ee
cel
.
a
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SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L°ARGILE DE LONDRES. 295
premier coup d’ceil des Ophidioides, dont ils doivent étre séparés comme
famille 4 part. Toute la face supérieure de la téte est unie et lisse, sans
crétes saillantes. La surface postérieure de l’occiput se détache a angle
droit de la face supérieure et présente souvent des fosses latérales, au dessus
des quelles le bord supérieur de l’occiput s’avance en forme de toit. Le
temporal s’avance en forme de pointe entre les frontaux principaux et posté-
tieurs qu'il sépare completement, et le frontal postérieur est relégué derriére
Yorbite, ot il forme une saillie trés considérable en forme de crochet. Le
nasal se prolonge en arriére jusqu’au dessus du milieu de l’orbite. Le crane
en géneral est trés solide, et présente le forme d’une pyramide a base trian-
gulaire et a faces trés allongées.
Le genre Rhynchorhinus qui est le seul veprésentant de cette famille dans
Vargile de Londres tient 4 peu prés le milieu entre les Murénes proprement
dites et les Congres.
Pour donner une ideé de l’exactitude a laquelle on peut arriver en étudiant
comparativement les poissons de Sheppy je vais donner ici une déscription
de lune des espéces les plus répandues dans cette formation, le Scienurus
Bowerbankii. Je joins a cette déscription une réstauration au trait de l’ani-
malentier. (Voir la planche ci contre.) Ce poisson a le corps court, haut et
trés comprimé, a Ja maniére des Sargues ou méme des Dorées (Zeus). Sa
hauteur, prise au bord antérieur de la nageoire anale, est contenue deux fois
et demi dans sa longueur; son épaisseur, méme en tenant compte de la
pression habituelle aux fossiles de Sheppy, est comprise quatre fois dans sa
hauteur. Sa téte participe des mémes caractéres que le tronc ; elle est haute,
comprimée et tronquée en avant. Elle est aussi longue que haute, et sa
longueur est 4 la longueur totale du corps comme 227. Le front forme
at first sight from the Ophidioide, from which they should be separated as a
distinct family. The whole of the upper surface of the head is continuous and
smooth without projecting crests. The hinder surface of the occiput sepa-
rates at a right angle from the upper surface, and frequently presents lateral
grooves, above which the upper margin of the occiput projects in the form
of a roof. The temporal advances in form of a point between the principal
and posterior frontals, which it separates entirely, and the posterior frontal is
removed to behind the orbit, where it forms a considerable hooked projection.
The nasal is prolonged posteriorly to just above the middle of the orbit. In
general the cranium is very solid, and presents the form of a pyramid, with
triangular base and very lengthened sides.
The genus Rhynchorhinus, which is the only representative of this family
in the London clay, holds about the middle between the Murene, properly
so called, and the Congers.
To give an idea of the accuracy to which it is possible to attain in making
a comparative study of the Sheppey fish, I will give in this place a description
of one of the most common species in this formation, the Scienurus Bower-
bankit. I add to this description an outline restoration of the entire animal.
(See Plate XL.) This fish has the body short, high, and much-compressed,
resembling in this respect the Sargi, or even the Doreys (Zeus). Its height,
taken at the front margin of the anal fin, is contained twice and a half in
its length; its thickness, even taking into consideration the pressure com-
mon to the Sheppey fossils, is comprised four times in its height; its. head
participates in the same characters as the trunk ; it is high, compressed, and
anteriorly truncated. It is as long as high, and its length is to the total
length of the body as two to seven. The front forms a straight line, de-
a
oF
296 REPORT— 1844.
une ligne droite déscendant obliquement depuis une saillie au dessus des yeux.
Le nuque est presque horizontale, s’élevant insensiblement vers la nageoire
dorsale. Le museau est tronqué presque verticalement et forme une caréne
tranchante.
L’ceil est trés-grand et comprend plus du tiers de la hauteur totale de la
téte. Il est placé trés-haut, presque a fleur de front, au milieu entre le
bout du museau et le bord postérieur du préopercule. La capsule sclé-
rotique qui l’entoure est assez forte et conservée dans la plupart des exem-
plaires.
La constitution du crane offre quelques particularités frappantes ; sa face
supérieure présente une ligne brisée en trois parties presque égales. La
partie postérieure ou la nuque est oblongue, insensiblement rétrécie d’arriére
en avant et divisée en deux parties par la créte mitoyenne du crane qui, a ce
qu'il parait, était trés mince et trés haute. Cette créte mitoyenne s’étend
en arriére, jusque vers le premier rayon de la dorsale. Les deux erétes pa-
riétales qui circonscrivent cette partie oblongue supérieure de la nuque sont
trés marquées, mais assez minces; elles s’étendent considérablement en arriére,
ou elles forment l’articulation du supra-scapulaire ; elles se prolongent égale-
ment dans l’angle saillant au dessus des yeux. I] en est deméme de la créte
mitoyenne. Les deux fosses pariétales s’étendaient ainsi jusqu’au dessus des
yeux en se rétrécissant insensiblement et en s’élevant au niveau du front.
La surface de la nuque formait par conséquent une espéce de toit allonge,
relevé sur la ligne médiane et bordé des deux cétés par les crétes pariétales.
L’os occipital supérieur s’avance en biseau aussi loin que la créte mitoyenne,
entre les deux frontaux qui s’étendent en arriére jusqu’a la moitié de la lon-
gueur de la nuque. ‘Trois os participent 4 la formation des crétes pariétales :
Yoccipital externe en arriére, l’os pariétal au milieu et l’os frontal dans la
scending obliquely from a prominence above the eyes; the nape is nearly
horizontal, rising gradually towards the dorsal fin. The snout is almost
vertically truncated, and forms a sharp-edged keel.
The eye is very large and occupies more than a third of the total height of
the head; it is placed very high, nearly on a level with the forehead, in the
centre between the end of the snout and the posterior margin of the preoper-
culum. The sclerotic capsule which surrounds it is strong and well-preserved
in the majority of the specimens.
The construction of the cranium presents several striking peculiarities ; its
upper surface exhibits a line broken into three nearly equal portions; the
hinder portion, or the nape, is oblong, gradually contracted from behind
anteriorly, and divided into two portions by the central crest of the cranium,
which appears to have been very thin and very high. This central crest ex~
tends hindwards as far as the first dorsal ray. The two parietal crests which
circumscribe this upper oblong portion of the nape, are very prominent but
somewhat slender; they extend for a long way hindwards, where they form
the articulation of the suprascapulary ; they likewise extend into the projecting
angle above the eyes. ‘The same is the case with the central crest; the two
parietal grooves extended therefore to above the eyes, becoming gradually
smaller, and rising to the level of the front. The surface of the nape conse-
quently formed a sort of elongated roof raised on the median line, and bounded
on the two sides by the parietal crests. The superior occipital bone advances,
en biseau, as far as the central crest, between the two frontals, which extend
hindwards half the length of the nape. Three bones concur in the formation
of the parietal crests ; the external occipital behind, the parietal bone in the
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 297
partie antérieure. Les faces latérales de la nuque déscendent presque per-
pendiculairement pour se relever ensuite de nouveau et former les puissantes
erétes temporales, sur lesquelles sont articulés les opercules. Les fosses tem-
porales qui sont formées par ces crétes s élévent insensiblement vers la saillie
du front; mais elles n’atteignent pas la longueur des fosses pariétales. Enfin,
au dessous dle ces fosses se trouvent encore deux petites fosses mastoidiennes
comprises entre le frontal postérieur et la créte temporale qui se continue
derriére le préopercule, sur l’opercule. Le front est entiérement formé par
les deux frontaux; il forme une surface tout a fait plane, qui est méme un
peu déprimée sur la ligne médiane, au lieu d’étre relevée comme dans beau-
coup d’autres poissons. Les frontaux sont plus larges en arriére qu’en avant
et leurs parties orbitaires déscendent en arc des deux cétés. Cet arc est com-
plété en avant par le frontal antérieur, au dessus duquel les frontaux princi-
paux finissent brusquement comme tronqués.
Le nasal s‘enchasse entre les deux frontaux principaux par un bouton
aplati, dont la face supérieure continue la surface du front; mais plus loin
il déscend presque verticalement, formant une créte tranchante et trés
étroite; entre cette créte et le frontal antérieur se trouve une fosse trés
profonde qui est limitée en avant par les sous-orbitaires et la mAchoire supé-
rieure.
Le premier sous-orbitaire est €norme, en forme de trapézoide a bords ar-
rondis. Sa partie antérieure est poreuse, sa partie postérieure squammeuse
et plisseé en rides rayonnant de haut en bas.
Le préopercule est long, étroit, surtout en haut, ot il forme une aréte qui
déscend verticalement. Sa partie horizontale est trés-courte, le limbe qui
Z
borde le coin de Véquerre est plissé grossiérement en rides rayonnantes.
centre, and the frontal bone in the anterior portion. The lateral portions of
the nape descend almost perpendicularly, to rise again subsequently and form
the strong temporal crests on to which are articulated the opercula. The
temporal grooves which are formed by these crests, rise gradually towards
the projection of the front, but they never reach the length of the parietal
grooves. Lastly, below these grooves are situated two smaller mastoidian
grooves, comprised between the posterior frontal and the temporal crest,
which continues behind the preoperculum over the operculum. The front
is made up entirely of the two frontals; it forms a perfectly level surface,
which is even slightly depressed on the median line instead of being raised
as in many other fish, The frontals are wider behind than in front, and their
_ orbital portions descend in the form of an arc along the two sides. This are
—"
hen
is completed in front by the anterior frontal, above which the principal fron-
tals terminate suddenly as if truncated.
The nasal is encased between. the two principal frontals by a flattened pro-
tuberance, the upper surface of which is a continuation of the surface of the
front, but subsequently it descends almost vertically, forming a sharp-edged
and very narrow crest; between this crest and the anterior frontal there is a
very deep groove, which is limited anteriorly by the suborbitals and the
upper jaw.
The first suborbital is of immense size, trapezoidal, with rounded margins.
Its anterior portion is porous, its posterior portion squamose and folded in
plaits, radiating from above downwards. ’
The preoperculum is long, narrow, especially above, where it forms a crest
which descends vertically. The horizontal part is very short, the margin
(4mbe) by which the corner of the ‘ equerre’ is bordered is coarsely folded in
298 REPORT—1844,
Toute la fosse orbitaire entre le préopercule et le sous-orbitaire est recou-
verte d’écailles semblables a celles du corps.
Les maxillaires supérieurs sont presque entiérement cachés sous les sous-
orbitaires; ils sont élargis en arriére et engrenés en avant avec la branche
montante de l’intermaxillaire. Celui-ci est court, courbé en are et garni sur
son bord inférieur d’une rangée de fortes dents crochues, dont la longueur
diminue d’avant en arriére.
Les maxillaires inférieurs sont courts et hauts; ils sont garnis, comme les
intermaxillaires, de dents crochues qui en arriére sont en simple rangée, tan-
dis qu’a la symphyse il y en a piusieurs placées les unes derriére les autres.
Les dents diminuent en arriére de la méme maniére que celles de I'inter-
maxillaire ; on ne remarque pas de caniues plus saillantes que ies autres. Je
ne saurais dire si le palais et la langue étaient aussi garnis de dents; mais la
position générique de notre poisson me fait présumer qu’ils étaient lisses.
Les piéces operculaires sont couvertes de plusieurs rangées d’écailles tout
a fait semblables a celles du corps. L’opercule lui-méme était beaucoup
plus haut que long, et formait un trapézoide a angles postérieurs arrondis.
Son bord libre est mince mais entiérement lisse, aussi bien que celui du pré-
opercule. La ceinture thoracique est extremement forte, elle forme en arriére
vers la gorge, un coin arrondi, au devant duquel se trouve dans un creux, l’ar-
ticulation de la nagevire pectorale qui était assez petite, 4 ce qui parait, mais
dont je ne saurais rien dire de plus, ne l'ayant jamais vue conservée en entier.
Les nageoires ventrales étaient placées au dessous de la gorge, peut-étre
méme un peu plus en avant que les pectorales.
La dorsale commence immédiatement derriére la nuque par des épines
radiating plaits. The whole of the orbital fossa between the preoperculum
and the suborbital is coated with scales resembling those of the body.
The upper maxillaries are almost entirely hidden under the suborbitals ;
they are widened behind, and in connection anteriorly with the ascending
branch of the intermaxillary, which is short, curved like a bow, and furnished
on its lower margin with a series of strong, crooked teeth, whose length di-
minishes from the front hindwards. :
The inferior maxillaries are short and high; they are provided like the
intermaxillaries with crooked teeth, which hindwards are in simple rows,
while at the symphysis there are several placed one behind the other. The
teeth diminish hindwards in the same manner as those of the intermaxillary ;
the canines are not observed to be more projecting than the others. I am
not able to say whether the palate and the tongue were likewise provided with
teeth, but the generic position of our fish leads me to presume that they were
smooth.
The opercular pieces are covered with several rows of scales perfectly
similar to those of the body. ‘The operculum itself was much higher than
long, and formed a trapezoid with rounded posterior angles. Its free margin
is thin but entirely smooth, which is also the case with that of the preoper-
culum. The thoracic girdle is extremely strong ; it forms hindwards towards
the throat a rounded angle, in front of which, situated in a hollow, is the ar-
ticulation of the pectoral fin, which was rather small, at least so it appears,
but of which I am able to say nothing further, never having seen it preserved
entire.
The ventral fins were placed beneath the throat, perhaps even a little more
in front than the pectorals.
The dorsal fin begins directly behind the nape with very strong and long
a
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 299
trés fortes et longues; elle parait finir au commencement du dernier tiers
de la longueur totale. Je présume que ses derniers rayons étaient mous,
et qu'il n'y avait pas de séparation dans la nageoire entre les deux espéces
de rayons.
L’anale commence presque au milieu du corps; elle est étroite mais longue,
et pouvait avoir une quinzaine derayons, dont les trois premiers sont épineux.
La caudale n’est pas encore connue en détail; ses rayons sont couverts a
la base par de petites écailles trés serrés, La ligne latérale décrit une
courbe paralléle 4 celle du dos, occupant en haut le premier tiers de la
hauteur totale du corps. Les écailles qui recouvrent tout le corps sont assez
grandes et trés minces, de sorte que le bord postérieur est rarement con-
sérvé, Examinées 4 la loupe, ces écailles présentent de nombreuses lignes
concentriqués, trés serrées les unes contre les autres, et munies dans leur
partie antérieure d'une douzaine de sillons en éventail qui sont visibles 4
Yceil nu. Les lignes concentriques se perdent sur le champ postérieur de
Vécaille, o0 l’on voit de petites granulations qui deviennent des dentelures ex-
trémement exigues sur le bord libre del’écaille, et qui devaient tomber facile-
ment méme pendant la vie, car je ne les ai trouvées conservées que sur
quelques écailles peu nombreuses.
En résumé, le Scienurus Bowerbankii est un Cténoide acanthoptérygien
thoracique ayant les joues écaillées et le bord postérieur des piéces opercu-
laires lisse ; les machoires armés de dents crochues et égales ; les os du crane
assez solides, 4 crétes minces. Un caractére particulier réside dans les sous-
orbitaires énormes, et dans la présence d’une seule dorsale et d’une seule anale.
Si maintenant nous cherchons a déterminer la place de ce-poisson dans la
classification actuelle, nous ne trouverons qu'une seule famille d’ Acanthopté-
rygiens cténoides a laquelle il puisse étre associé, celle des Sparoides, qui
spines ; it appears to terminate at the commencement of the last third of the
total length. I presume that its last rays were soft, and that there was no
separation between the two kinds of rays in the fin.
The anal commences near the middle of the body; it is narrow but long,
and may have possessed about fifteen rays, the first three of which were spinous.
The caudal is not yet known in detail ; its rays are covered at the base by
very close, minute scales. The lateral line describes a curve parallel to that
at the back, occupying at top the first third of the total height of the body.
The scales which cover the entire of the body are somewhat large and very
thin, so that the posterior margin is rarely preserved. Examined under the
microscope, these scales present numerous concentric lines, very close upon
each other, and furnished in their anterior portion by a dozen grooves arranged
like a fan, which are visible to the naked eye. The concentric lines disappear
on the hinder portion of the scale, where we see small granulations which
become excessively minute denticulations on the free margin of the scale, and
which fell off easily during life, for I have never found them preserved except
on some few scales.
In fact, Scienurus Bowerbankii is an Acanthopterygian thoracic Ctenoid,
having scaly cheeks, the hinder margin of the opercular pieces smooth, and
the jaws furnished with crooked and equal teeth; the bones of the cranium
rather solid with thin crests. A peculiar character is found in the enormous
suborbital, and in the presence of a single dorsal and of a single anal.
Now if we endeavour to determine the place of this fish in the present system
of classification, we find but a single family of Acanthopterygian Ctenoids
with which it can be associated, that of the Sparoide, which, while they have
300 REPORT—1844.
tout en ayant les bords operculaires lisses, participe des autres caractéres
des Percoides. En effet, voici quels sont les caractéres assignés par Cuvier
ases Sparoides. ‘Les piéces operculaires sont dénuées de dentelures et
d’épines ; les os de la téte sont solides, mais non point caverneux comme chez
les Sciénoides. Le palais est dénué de dents; les rayons épineux et les
rayons mous réunis en une seule dorsale. Les joues et le corps sont couverts
d’écailles, qui d’aprés mes recherches ont pour caractére d’avoir peu de den-
telures au bord postérieur, encore ces dentelures sont elles trés faibles et
tombent facilement. Les Sparoides se distinguent des Sciénoides par l’ab-
sence de creux caverneux dans les os dela téte; par le manque d écailles sur
les nageoires, l’absence d’épines ou de dentelures sur les piéces operculaires.
Ce dernier caractére les distingue aussi des Percoides.” C’est done parmi
les Sparoides qu'il faut placer le genre Scizenurus. Cuvier a déja divisé cette
famille en plusieurs tribus d’aprés leur dentition, il n’y ena qu'une seule, celle
des Dentés (Dentex) qui soit entiérement dépourvue de molaires arrondies,
et chez laquelle on ne trouve que des dents crochues et coniques ordinaire-
ment sur un seul rang. J'ai comparé le squelette du Dentex vulgaris avec
celui du Sciznurus. On y retrouve les mémes caractéres, mais la division
de la surface supérieure du crane en trois parties n’est pas aussi bien mar-
quée, et surtout le front n’est pas aussi développé que chez le Sciznurus.
En revanche on y retrouve la méme quille du nasal; les fosses pariétales
forment un oblong allongé et bordé par deux crétes pariétales, relevées et
minces, les mémes fosses temporales profondes et séparées des fosses mas-
toidiennes particuliéres. On rencontre en outre chez les Dentés la méme
forme du préopercule avec son aréte verticale et son limbe étroit, et dans
toute la famille des Sparoides cet énorme sous-orbitaire qui cache pres-
que la totalité du maxillaire supérieur. Cuvier a distingué des véritables
smooth opercular margins, possess in other respects the characters of the Per-
coide. The following in fact are the characters assigned by Cuvier to his
Sparoide :—“ The opercular pieces are not furnished with denticulations or
spines; the bones of the head are solid, but not hollow, as in the Scienoide.
The palate is not furnished with teeth ; the spiny and the soft rays are united
into a single dorsal. The cheeks and the body are covered with scales, which,
according to my researches, are characterized by their having few denticulations
on the posterior margin; moreover this toothed structure is very weak, and
easily falls off. The Sparoide are distinguished from the Scienoide by the
absence of cavities in the bones of the head, by a want of scales on the fins,
by the absence of spines or of denticulations on the opercular pieces. This
latter character distinguishes them likewise from the Percoide.” The genus
Scienurus must therefore be placed among the Sparvide. Cuvier has divided
this family into several tribes according to their dentition; there is only one,
that of Dentex, which is entirely deprived of rounded molars, and in which
none but hooked and conical teeth, generally arranged in a single row, are
found. I have compared the skeleton of Dentex vulgaris with that of Scie-
nurus. The same characters are met with, but the division of the upper
surface of the cranium into three parts is not so marked, and the front is
likewise not so developed as in Scitenurus. However, the same keeled nasal
is found; the parietal fosse form an elongated oblong, bordered by
two raised and thin parietal crests, the temporal grooves are similar and
separated from the peculiar mastoidian grooves. We moreover find in the
Dentices the same form of the preoperculum, with its vertical crest and its
straight border, and in the whole family of the Sparotde the enormous subor-
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 301
Dentés le genre des Pentapodes qui comprend des espéces a bouche moins
fendue, 4 téte trés écailleuse, et 4 caudale écailleuse jusqu’au bout. C’est
& cété de ce genre qu'il faut placer notre Sciznurus. Ce qui le distingue
c'est son corps comprimé et élevé, tandis que les Pentapodes ont le corps
fusiforme et allongé. II se distingue en outre par sa dentition; les Dentés
ont comme les Pentapodes des dents inégales; les Pentapodes ont deux
fortes canines qui surgissent entre plusieurs autres dents crochues plus
petites placées en arriére entre des dents en velour ras. Le genre Sciez-
nurus n’a point de canines, ses dents diminuent d’une maniére égale d’a-
vant en arriére; elles sont toutes crochues. Mais tout en se rapprochant
des Pentapodes par la caudale écaillée a la base, il se place d'un autre
céoté prés des Dentés par son corps comprimé. Mon genre Sparnodus
dont jai décrit plusieurs espéces de Monte Bolea, se rapproche aussi du
genre Scieenurus par l'uniformité de ses dents, mais il en différe en ce que
ses dents sont courtes et trés-obtuses.
Je connais maintenant deux espéces du genre Sciznurus, provenant toutes
deux de l’argile de Londres, de Sheppy.
Il faut étre sur ses gardes pour ne pas confondre avec les Sciznurus les
fragmens d’une espéce de Myripristis qui s’en rapproche beaucoup par sa
forme générale, mais qui en différe par les rides saillantes de l’opercule et
par la structure des écailles. Ce n'est que par un examen trés-approfondi de
tous les exemplaires que j'ai eus a ma disposition que j'ai réussi 4 déterminer
exactement ce genre; mais il se pourrait bien qu’entre les échantillons que
jai étiquetés dans les collections d’Angleterre il se trouvat quelque fragment
de Myripristis sous le nom de Scizenurus.
Aprés ces détails venons-en 4 examiner les caractéres d’ensemble des
bital which nearly hides the whole of the superior maxillary. Cuvier distin-
guished from the true Dentices the genus Pentapodes, which comprises the
species, having the mouth less divided, with very scaly head and caudal scaly
tothe end. Itis by the side of this genus that Scienurus should be arranged ;
its compressed and raised body distinguishes it, while in the Pentapodes the
body is fusiform and elongated. It is moreover characterized by its dentition;
the Dentices, like the Pentapodi, have the teeth unequal ; the Pentapodi have
two strong canines, which are situated between several other smaller hooked
teeth, placed behind the teeth en velour ras. The genus Scienurus has no
canines; its teeth diminish equally from the front hindwards; they are all
hooked ; but while approaching the Pentapodi by the caudal which has scales
at the base, it is, on the other hand, related to the Dentices by its compressed
body. My genus Sparnodus, of which I have described several species from
_ Monte Bolca, likewise approaches to the genus Scienurus, by the uniformity
_ of its teeth, but it differs from it in the teeth being short and very obtuse.
I am at present acquainted with two species of the genus Scienurus, both
derived from the London clay of Sheppey.
It is necessary to guard against confounding the fragments of a species of
Myripristis with the Scienuri, to which they approach considerably in their
general form, but differ from them by the prominent strie of the operculum,
and by the structure of the scales. It is only by a very minute examination
of all the specimens which I have had at my disposal, that I have succeeded
in accurately determining this genus; it is however possible that among the
specimens which I labelled in the English collections, some fragment of Myri-
pristis may occur under the name of Scienurus.
After these details we will now examine the collective characters of the
302 REPORT—1844,
poissons fossiles de Sheppy. J'ai fait d’aprés l’excellente monographie des
poissons Anglais de Mr. Yarrell, le relevé de tous les poissons de mer des
cétes d’Angleterre. La comparaison de ce relevé avec celui des poissons de
Sheppy donne des résultats assez curieux. Voici les chiffres auxquels je
suis arrivé.
Les cétes de |’ Angleterre sont habités par 155 espéces qui se répartissent
dans 81 genres. Les différentes familles sont représentées de la maniére
sulvante : Cténoides.
Percoides* 7 espécesdans 5 genres.
Sparoides 7 aa '
Scienoides 2 ‘
Cottoides 16 ove
Gobioidest 6 ext
Aulostomes 1 ;
Mugiloides 3
Pleuronectes 18 me
60 2
Cycloides Acanthoptérygiens.
Scombéroides + 11 espéces dans 9 genres.
Xiphioides 1 =
Tenioides 5 5
Athérines 1 1
Labroides 13 ae debby
Blennioides§ 10 “pe bathe
Lophioides 1 aa
Trachinides|| 2 ]
Discoboles 5 a
, Echénéides 1 ay 1
42 28
Cycloides Malacoptérygiens.
Scomberésoces 4 espéces dans 3 genres.
Clupéides 8 ie Shee
Salmonides 2 BER seb
Gadoides 20 2 eee
Anguilliformes 8 oad 6
42 22
* Je range dans cette famille le genre Capros et j’en sépare le genre Trachinus.
+ J’en ai séparé les Blennioides.
+ Le genre Brama me parait devoir étre reporté dans la famille des Scombéroides.
§ Famille distincte des Gobioides. || Famille séparée des Percoides.
fossil fish of Sheppey. I have drawn up, according to Mr. Yurrell’s excellent
monograph of the British fish, a summary of all the sea-fish of the coast of
England. The comparison of this number with that of the Sheppey fish
affords some rather curious results. The following are the figures to which
I have arrived.
The English coasts are inhabited by 155 (163) species, which are divided
among $1 genera. The different families are represented in the following
manner. [See table supra. }
* [arrange under this family the genus Capros, and have removed from it the genus 7'ra-
chinus. + I have separated the Blennioide.
+ The genus Brama should, in my opinion, be referred to the family of the Seomberoide.
§ A distinct family from the Godioide. \| A family separated from the Percoide.
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 303
Ganoides (types récents).
Lophobranches 7 espéces dans 2 genres.
Gymnodontes 3 2
Sclérodermes 1 oh 1
1] 5
Les Cténoides sur 8 familles et 26 genres comptent 60 espéces. Les Cy-
cloides acanthoptérygiens en comptent 50 sur 33 genres et 10 familles, les Ma-
lacoptérygiens 42 sur 22 genres et 5 familles, tandis que les Ganoides ne comp-
tent que 3 familles, 5 genres et 11 espéces. Les familles les plus nombreuses
sont les Gadoides, les Pleuronectes, les Cottoides, les Labroides, les Scom-
béroides et les Blennioides, tandis que les Scizenoides, les Xiphioides et plu-
sieurs autres ne comptent qu’un fort petit nombre de représentans.
Comparons maintenant ce tableau avec celui que m’a fourni jusqu’ici
l'étude des poissons osseux de Sheppy. Comme le dépdét de Sheppy appar-
tient 4 des couches relativement trés-récentes, l’on pouvait s’'attendre A trouver
dans la répartition des espéces une certaine conformité avec la maniére dont
les poissons vivans sont répartis de nos jours sur les cétes d’Angleterre.
C’est en effet ce qui a lieu dans certaines limites; car si l'ensemble de la
faune a un caractére un peu différent, il n’en est pas moins vrai que la
localisation et l’association des types étaient soumises durant l’époque tertiaire
a peu prés aux mémes lois que de nos jours. Je dois cependant rappeler ici
ce que j'ai déja dit au commencement de ce rapport, c’est que les études que
ja pu faire jusqu’ici portent essentiellement sur les tétes fossiles. II reste
uni autre travail que je n’ai pas encore pu entreprendre, et qui sera tout aussi
indispensable que ce premier, la comparaison des écailles avec celles des
poissons vivans ; travail encore plus difficile, puisque ces recherches ne pour-
ront étre faites qu’a l’aide du microscope. Ayant réuni depuis longtemps
The Ctenoide consist of 60 species, distributed among 8 families and 26
genera; the Acanthopterygian Cycloide, 50 in 33 genera and 10 families ;
the Malacopterygians, 42 in 22 genera and 5 families, while the Ganoide
consist of but 3 families, 5 genera, and 11 species. The most numerous
families are the Gadoide, the Pleuronecti, the Cottoide, Labroide, Scombe-
rotide, and the Blennioide, while the Scienoide, the Xiphioide, and several
others have but a very small number of representatives.
Let us now compare this list with that furnished up to the present time by
my investigation of the osseous fish of Sheppey. Since the Sheppey deposit
belongs to comparatively very recent strata, it was natural to expect to find,
in the distribution of the species, a certain coincidence with the manner ac-
_ cording to which living fish are distributed at the present time on the coasts
of England. ‘This indeed obtains within certain limits; for if the collective
_ fauna has asomewhat different character, it is not the less true that the loca-
lization and association of types were subject during the tertiary epoch to
nearly the same laws as in our days. I must, however, call to mind what I
have already stated at the commencement of this report, that the investiga-
_ tions which I have hitherto been able to make relate essentially to the fossil
erania. I have still another investigation on hand, which I have as yet not
been able to undertake, and which will be quite as indispensable as this first,—
_ comparison of the scales with those of living fish, a work which is still more
difficult, since these researches can only be made with the assistance of the
microscope. Having for some years collected for my ichthyological in-
304 REPORT—1844, Aue
pour mes études ichthyologiques un grand nombre d’écailles, les ‘moyens de
comparaison ne me feront pas défaut. Il est un autre inconvénient plus
grave, c ‘est que dans la plupart des échantillons qui me sont confiés, les bords
postérieurs libres des écailles sont usés et brisés. Or ce sont précisement
ces bords qui fournissent les caractéres les plus saillans pour la détermina-
tion rigoureuse des espéces. Quoiqu’il en soit, voici le relevé des espéces
que j'ai pu déterminer jusqu’ici.
Les poissons osseux de Sheppy, que je connais maintenant, se rapportent
a 37 genres, représentés par 44 espéces, et peuvent étre répartis dans les
familles suivantes.
Cténoides.
Percoides 7 espéces dans 7 genres.
Sparoides 2 ee 1
Teuthies 3 a 3
12 11
Cycloides Acanthoptérygiens.
Scomberoides 12 espéces dans 9 geures.
Xiphioides 5 4
Sphyreenoides 2 1
Labroides 1 1
Blennioides 1
Athérines 1
16
1
]
2
Cycloides Malacoptérygiens.
Scomberésoces 3 espéces dans 2 genres.
Clupéides 2 2
Scopélines 1 a 1
Gadoides 4. sa 4,
ll 10
Il est A remarquer que dans ce tableau les Cténoides ne comptent que trois
familles représenteés par 11 genres et 12 espéces. II se trouve que la famille
des Percoides est de beaucoup la plus nombreuse, tandis que les familles les
vestigations a large number of scales, the means of comparison will not be
wanting.
There is another more serious inconvenience ; it is, that in the majority of
the fragments which have been entrusted to me, the free hinder margins of
the scales are worn or broken. Now it is precisely these margins which fur-
nish the most prominent characters for the accurate determination of the
species. However, the following is the list of species which I have hitherto
been able to determine.
The bony fish of Sheppey with which I am at present acquainted, belonged
to 37 genera, represented by 44 species, and may be distributed among the
following families. [See table supra. ]
It should be observed that in this list the Ctenotde have but 3 families,
represented by 11 genera and 12 species. It happens that the family of the
Percoide is by far the most numerous, while the largest families of recent
j
ss SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 305
plus nombreuses des poissons actuels, savoir les Pleuronectes, les Cottoides
et les Gobioides manquent complétement dans les argiles de Sheppy. Les
Teuthies par contre, cette famille essentiellement méridionale, qui ne se
trouve que dans les mers du Sud, et qui n’a aucun représentant dans la
faune actuelle de |’Angleterre, ne compte pas moins de trois genres dans
la faune de Sheppy, d’ou il faut conclure que cette faune doit avoir vécu
dans des conditions climactériques différentes de celles des cétes actuelles
de Angleterre. Ce fait, qui est d’une haute importance pour toute la géolo-
gie, se confirme aussi par |’étude des autres groupes de la classe des poissons.
Les Cycloides acanthoptérygiens comptent 10 familles dans la faune vivante
de l’Angleterre. La faune de Sheppy en compte six, en y comprenant un
poisson encore quelque peu douteux voisin des Athérines. Il n’y a que les
Lophioides et les Tzenioides, les Trachinides, les Discoboles et les Echénéides,
toutes familles peu nombreuses de nos jours, qui n’auraient pas existé dans
lépoque tertiaire en Angleterre. Les Sphyrénes, qui appartiennent surtout
aux mers tropicales, et qui ne se trouvent pas maintenant sur les cétes de
l’Angleterre, sont représentés par un genre trés voisin de la Sphyréne com-
mune, et les Xiphioides qui habitent de préférence les parages des pays
chauds ne comptent pas moins de 4 genres 4 Sheppy. La seule espéce qui se
_ péche quelquefois sur les cétes de I’ Angleterre, savoir l’espadon commun (Xi-
phias gladius), n’y est qu’en passage ; sa véritable patrie est la Méditerranée.
_ Les Xiphioides de Sheppy ont tous le bec arrondi comme le Tetrapture et les
Histiophores; or ces derniers ne quittent jamais les mers du Sud. On ne
peut rien conclure des Labroides, qui sont 4 peu prés dans la méme propor-
tion dans la faune d’Angleterre que dans celles des mers du Sud; il est
pourtant digne de remarque que le seul Labroide que j’aie trouvé jusqu’ici
a Sheppy, se rapproche d’avantage des vrais Labres, qui habitent encore
_ fish, for instance the Plewronectide, the Cottoide and Gobioide, are altogether
absent from the Sheppey clays. The Teuthie, on the contrary, a family es-
sentially meridional, which only occurs in the Southern seas, and which has
| no representative in the present fauna of England, is represented by no less
_ than 3 genera in the Sheppey fduna, whence it must be concluded that this
fauna existed under conditions of climate very different from those of the
present coasts of England. This fact, which is of considerable importance
_ for geology, is likewise confirmed by the study of other groups of fish.
_ The Acanthopterygian Cycloide count 10 families in the present fauna of
_ England, that of Sheppey comprises 6, including a fish still somewhat doubtful,
_ but which comes near to the Atherine. Only the Lophioide and Tenioide,
_ the Trachinoide, the Discoboli, and the Hceheneide, all small families, at the
_ present day appear not to have existed in the tertiary epoch of England. The
_ Sphyrene, which belong especially to tropical seas, and which do not occur
| at present on the coasts of England, are represented by a genus nearly related
_ to the common Sphyrena, and the Xiphioide, which inhabit, by preference,
the coasts of hot countries, have not less than 4 genera at Sheppey. The
_ only species which is sometimes taken on the coast of England, namely the
common Espadon, Xiphias gladius, is merely on its passage, its true habitat
being the Mediterranean. The Xiphioides of Sheppey have all a rounded
beak like Tetrapturus and the Histiophori ; now these latter never quit the
Southern seas. No conclusion can be drawn from the Labroide, which are
_hearly in the same proportion in the English faunaas in those of the Southern
Seas; it is however worthy of remark, that the only Labroid which I have
hitherto found at Sheppey, more nearly approaches to the true Labri which
1844. x
306 340404 Jd FSO ARpPeRTALIe4ANe 2.022105 eat Aue
maintenant ces parages, que des formes que l'on trouve dans les mers du
Sud. HB
Les Cycloides malacoptérygiens enfin comptent 5 familles dans largile d
Sheppy, et le méme nombre dans les mers d’Angleterre, mais ce ne sont pas
exactement les mémes. La famille qui fait défaut dans le terrain tertiaire
est celle des Salmonides. En revanche une famille essentiellement méri-
dionale, celle des Characins, qui n’existe pas dans les parages Anglais, est
représentée dans l’argile de Londres par une, et peut étre par deux espéces,
de taille trés considérable. C’est 4 Sheppy que j'ai découvert les premiers
Gadoides fossiles connus, et ce fait est d’autant plus curieux que la famille
des Gadoides appartient presque exclusivement aux mers froides, et ne compte
que fort peu de représentans dans les mers chaudes et tempérées de l’époque
actuelle. Ila fort-bien pu en étre autrement aux époques tertiaires ; car les
argiles de Sheppy sont le premier dép6t septentrional marin de formation
récente dont on ait examiné les poissons. Les dépéts d’Giningen sont des
terrains d’eau douce et ne contiennent aucun Gadoides; les schistes de
Monte-Bolea n’en récélent pas non plus, et en ceci ils se montrent d’accord
avec le caractére essentiellement tropical de leur faune. Les Gadoides avee
leurs nombreuses espéces si utiles 4 homme sont encore maintenant les ha-
bitans des mers du Nord ; la faune d’ Angleterre en posséde un grand nombre,
et il n’est pas sans intérét de retrouver dans ces mémes lieux les premiers
représentans d'une famille, que je croyais jusqu’ici exclusivement récente.
Ce fait joint 4 celui de la nature du Labre fossile que je viens de mentionner,
prouve que, nonobstant la physionomie plus méridionale du dépét de Sheppy
dans son ensemble, il y a pourtant déja dans les poissons de cette intéressante
localité un acheminement vers le caractére actuel de la faune ichthyologique
d’ Angleterre.
still inhabit those coasts than the forms which are met with in the Southern
seas.
The Malacopterygian Cycloide comprehend 5 families in the Sheppey
clay, and the same number in the British seas, but they are not exactly the
same. The family which is wanting in the tertiary deposit is that of the
Salmonide. On the other hand, a family totally meridional, that of the ©
Characide, which does not exist on the English shores, is represented in the
London clay by one or perhaps two species of very considerable size. It was
at Sheppey that I discovered the first known fossil Gadoid, and this fact is
the more curious as the family belongs almost exclusively to the Northern
seas, and has very few representatives in the hot and temperate seas of the
present period. It was probably different during the tertiary epochs, for the
Sheppey clays are the first septentrional marine deposit of recent formation
of which the fish have been examined. The deposits of Oeningen consist of
freshwater beds, and do not contain any of the Gadotde, nor do any oceur
in the schists of Monte Bolca, and in this they agree with the essentially tro-
pical character of their fauna. The Gadoide, with their numerous species
so useful to man, are at present still inhabitants of the Northern seas; the
fauna of England possesses a large number, and it is not without interest to
find in these same localities the first representatives of a family which I-
hitherto believed to be exclusively recent. This fact, added to that relating
to the nature of the fossil Zabrus above-mentioned, proves that notwithstand-
ing the more meridional physiognomy of the Sheppey deposit as a whole, there
is nevertheless already an approximation in the fish of this interesting locality
towards the actual character of the ichthyological fauna of England. |
. ei
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L’ARGILE DE LONDRES. 307
- Quant a la détermination générique de ces fossiles, je n’ai pu faire rentrer
que fort peu d’espéces de Sheppy dans les genres vivans. II n’y a que &
genres, les Megalops, Cybium, Tetrapterus et Myripristis, dont on connait
encore des représentans dans la création actuelle. Mais on chercherait en
vain des espéces de ces genres dans la faune actuelle des mers d’ Angleterre ;
c'est dans les mers plus méridionales, que se trouvent les espéces qui se rap-
prochent de celles qui ont vécu en Angleterre pendant l’époque tertiaire.
En me voyant ainsi contraint d’éloigner des genres de notre époque un
grand nombre de poissons des temps tertiaires, j'ai cong¢u quelques doutes sur
la détermination générique de plusieurs poissons de Monte-Bolea que j'ai
rapportés 4 des genres vivans. II importera de les reveir, en tenant compte
des moindres différences qu’ils présentent, pour s’assurer si, comme la faune
ichthyologique de Sheppy, celle de Monte-Bolca ne renferme pas un nombre
de types génériques éteints plus considérable qu’on ne I’a cru jusqu’ici.
Pour completer cet apercu je joins ici la liste des poissons fossiles de
Sheppy que je suis parvenu a déterminer jusqu'ici.
Les espéces déja mentionnées dans mes Recherches sont marquées d’un
astérisque, méme celles qui ne sont que simplement indiquées, sans étre
décrites.
CreNnoiDEs. Teuthies.
Pesneaden: Ptychocephalus radiatus.
Pomaphractus Egertoni.
Eesti tohaiaeas,
yripristis toliapicus Calopomus porosus ?
Ceeloperca latifrons.
Eurygnathus cavifrons. . CycLoipres ACANTHOPTERYGIENS.
*Podocephalus nitidus.
Synophrys Hopei.
*Brachygnathus tenuiceps.
Scombéroides.
*Cybium macropomum.
*Ccelopoma Colei.
Percostoma angustum. *Coelopoma leve.
Sparoides. *Bothrosteus latus.
*Sciznurus Bowerbanki. *Bothrosteus brevifrons.
*Scizenurus crassior. Bothrosteus minor.
_ With respect to the generic determination of these fossils, I have been
able to reduce but very few species from Sheppey to living genera. There
are but 4 genera, Megalops, Cybium, Tetrapterus and Myripristis, represen-
tatives of which are still known in the present creation. But we should look
_ in vain for species of those genera in the present fauna of the English seas ;
it is only in the more southern seas that species occur approaching to those
which lived in England during the tertiary epoch. Finding myself obliged
‘to remove a vast number of fish of the tertiary period from genera now exist-
ing, I have some doubts as to the generic determination of several fish from
Monte Bolca which I had referred to recent genera. It will be important to
re-examine them, taking into account the smallest differences they present, in
order to ascertain whether, like the ichthyological fauna of Sheppey, that of
Monte Bolea does not contain a number of extinet generic types far more
Considerable than hitherto supposed. To render this sketch complete, I here
add the list of the fossil fish of Sheppey which I have hitherto succeeded in
determining.
_ The species already mentioned in my ‘Recherches’ are marked with an
asterisk, even those which have been simply indicated without being de-
scribed. [See table supra. ]
x2
REPORT—1844,
Phalacrus cybioides. |
Rhonchus carangoides. |
Echenus politus. |
Scombrinus nuchalis.
*Coelocephalus salmoneusf.
Naupygus Bucklandit.
Xiphioides.
*Tetrapterus priscus.
*Ccelorhynchus rectus,
*Ccelorhynchus sinuatus.
Phasganus declivis.
Acestrus ornatus.
Sphyrenoides.
*Sphyrenodus priscus.
*Sphyreenodus crassidens.
Labroides.
Auchenilabrus frontalis.
Blennioides.
Laparus alticeps.
CycLoipes MALACOPTERYGIENS.
Scomberésoces.
*Hypsodon toliapicus.
*Hypsodon oblongus.
Labrophagus esocinus.
Clupéides.
*Halecopsis levis.
*Megalops priscus.
Characins.
Brychetus Miilleri.
Gadoides.
*Rhinocephalus planiceps.
Merlinus cristatus.
* Ampheristus toliapicus.
*Goniognathus coryphenoides.
Anguilliformes.
Rhynchorhinus branchialis.
Famille douteuse.
*Pachycephalus cristatus.
Rhipidolepis elegans.
*Glyptocephalus radiatus.
Gadopsis breviceps.
' Loxostomus maneus.
Ganoipest (Types anciens).
Pycnodontes.
*Pycnodus toliapicus.
|
|
|
|
|
|
i
)
*Periodus Keenigii.
*Gyrodus leevior.
*Phyllodus toliapicus.
*Phyllodus planus.
*Phyllodus polyodus.
*Phyllodus marginalis.
*Phyllodus irregularis.
*Phyllodus medius.
*Pisudus Owenii.
Acipenserides.
* Acipenser toliapicus.
PLACOIDES.
Rayes.
*Myliobates Owenii.
*Myliobates acutus.
*Myliobates canaliculatus.
*Myliobates lateralis.
*Myliobates marginalis.
*Myliobates toliapicus.
*Myliobates goniopleurus.
*Myliobates Dixoni.
*Myliobates striatus.
*Myliobates punctatus.
*Myliobates gyratus.
*Myliobates jugalis.
*Myliobates nitidus.
*Myliobates Colei.
*Myliobates heteropleurus.
* Aetobatis irregularis.
* Aetobatis subarcuatus.
*Pristis bisulcatus.
*Pristis Hastingsiee.
Squalides.
*Notidanus serratissimus.
*Glyphis hastalis.
*Carcharodon toliapicus.
*Carcharodon subserratus.
*Otodus obliquus.
*Otodus macrotus.
*Lamna elegans.
*Lamna compressa.
*Lamna (Odontaspis) Hopei.
*Lamna (Odontaspis) verticalis.
Chimérides.
*Elasmodus Hunterii.
*Psaliodus compressus.
*Edaphodon eurygnathus.
+ Jai quelque doutes sur la position systématique de ces deux poissons. ;
t Si je nv’ ai rien dit des familles suivantes dans ce rapport, c’est que je n’ai, pour le mo-
ment, rien & ajouter de nouveau a ce que j’ai publié a leur sujet, dans mes Recherches.
t I have some doubts as to the systematic position of these two fish. -_
+ If I have made no mention of the following families in this report, it is that I have no-
thing new at the present moment to add to what I have already published on them in my
‘Recherches.’
<
x
Py
F
SUR LES POISSONS FOSSILES DE L?ARGILE DE LONDRES. 309
On voit par 14 que le nombre des poissons fossiles de Vargile de Londres
s’éléve 4 92, dans la seule localité de Sheppy, sans compter une dixaine
d’espéces auxquelles je n’ai pas encore donné de noms, n’ayant, pas encore pu
les caractériser d’une maniére suffisante.
Il ne sera peut-étre pas inutile d’ajouter 4 ce rapport le liste des cranes et
des squelettes de poissons vivans que j'ai réunis pour l’étude des poissons
fossiles de Sheppy. Les géologues et les anatomistes jugeront par la du
degré de confiance que mérite ce travail, et ils verront en méme temps ce
quil y a encore 4 faire dans ce domaine aussi vaste que neuf. J’espére du
reste augmenter de jour en jour cette collection dans la mesure de mes forces,
de méme que j’ai la confiance que les géologues Anglais voudront bien con-
tinuer 4 me faire part des nouvelles acquisitions qu’ils feront dans la faune
ichthyologique de l'argile de Londres. Je ne serais pas moins reconnaissant
envers les zoologistes qui voudraient contribuer 4 lavancement de mon tra-
vail, en m’envoyant des squelettes ou des tétes de poissons préparées, ou méme
_ simplement des poissons conservés dans l’esprit de vin propres a augmenter
ma collection de squelettes et de cranes.
| Pagellus erythrinus.
CTENOIDES. |
y / Pagellus mormyrus.
Percoides. Pagellus centrodontus.
Labrax Lupus. Boops Salpa.
Centropomus undecimalis. Boops vulgaris.
Apogon Rex Mullorum, Dentex vulgaris,
Capros aper. Mena vulgaris,
4, Priacanthus macrophthalmus. Mena Osbecki,
4 Anthias sacer. Smaris insidiator.
3 Serranus Scriba. nok OD
7 Serranus Cabrilla. Scienoides.
5 Mullus barbatus. Hemulon lanna.
5 E Ancylodon jaculidens.
a Sparoides, Otolithus turu.
4 Sargus annularis. Corvina nigra.
i Sargus Salviani, ;
b Charax Puntazza. Chromides,
: Chrysophrys microdon. Cychla labrina,
From this it will he seen that the number of fossil fish from the London
‘clay amounts to 92 in the one single locality of Sheppey, without counting
10 species to which I have not vet assigned names, not having hitherto been
“able to characterize them in a satisfactory manner.
_ It will perhaps not be useless to add to this report the list of the crania
and skeletons of recent fish which I have collected for the study of the fossil
fish of Sheppey. It will enable geologists and anatomists to judge of the de-
gree of confidence which this investigation merits; and they will see at the
same time what still remains to be accomplished in this vast and new field
of research. ! hope to increase this collection daily in proportion to my
means, and [ am confident that English geologists will still kindly continue to
communicate to me the new acquisitions they may make in the ichthyological
fauna of the London clay. I shall not be less grateful towards those zoologists
who would contribute to the advancement of my researches by forwarding
me skeletons or heads of prepared fish, or simply fish preserved in spirits
adapted to increase my collection of skeletons and crania.
W
310
REPORT—1844.,
Pomacentrides.
Heliases Chromis.
Amphiprion tunicatus.
Cottoides.
Dactylopterus volitans.
Trigla adriatica.
Trigla Lyra.
Trigla Hirundo,
Platycephalus insidiator.
Scorpena Scrofa.
Synauceya Brachio.
Mugiloides.
Mugil cephalus.
Gobioides.
Gobius niger.
Gobius auratus.
Gobius jozzo.
Teuthies.
Acanthurus Chirurgus.
Naseus Beselii.
Amphacanthus Bahal.
Aulostomes.
Centriscus Scolopax.
Chétodontes.
Chetodon vagabundus.
Pomacanthus 5-cinctus.
Ephippus faber.
Pleuronectes.
Rhombus levis.
CyCLOiDEs.
a. ACANTHOPTERYGIENS.
Scombéroides.
Scomber Scomber.
Centrolophus pompilius.
Lepidopus Peroni.
Caranx trachurus.
Zeus Faber.
Zeus pungia.
Xiphioides.
Xiphias Gladius.
Tetrapterus Belone.
Sphyrenoides.
Sphyreena Spet.
Tenioides.
Cepola Tzenia.
Gymnetrus Iris.
Trachinides.
Trachinus lineatus.
Trachinus Draco.
Uranoscopus scaber.
Athérinoides.
Atherina Hepsetus.
Atherina Humboldtii. :
Labroides. b
Labrus viridis.
Labrus carneus.
Crenilabrus Norwegicus.
Crenilabrus melops.
Crenilabrus Pavo.
Coricus Lamarckii.
lulis Giofredi.
Xyrichthys Novacula.
Blennioides.
Blennius oceHaris.
Blennius Gattorugine.
Anarrhichas Lupus.
Lophioides.
Lophius piscatorius.
Batrachus Surinamensis.
b. MALACOPTERYGIENS.
Scomberésoces.
Belone longirostris.
Hemiramphus Brasiliensis.
Exoccetus evolans.
Clupéides.
Alosa vulgaris.
Alosa Finta.
Clupea sprattus.
Engraulis encrasicholus.
Scopélines.
Saurus fcetens.
Salmones.
Osmerus Eperlanus.
Anguilliformes.
Conger vulgaris.
Murena Helena.
Ophisurus Serpens.
Ophidioides.
Ophidium barbatum.
Gadoides.
Merlangus vulgaris.
Gadus minutus,
Motella fusea.
Merlucius vulgaris.
Phycis Tinea.
Echénéides.
Echeneis nemora.
-
») ON WAVES. 311
Report on Waves. ByJ.Scorr Russz11, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Edin.,
made to the Meetings in 1842 and 1843.
Sir Joun Rosrson*, Sec. RS. Edin.
J. Scorr Russet1, F.R.S. Edin.
A Provisionat Report on this subject was presented to the Meeting held at
Liverpool in 1838, and is printed in the Sixth Volume of the Transactions.
That report was a partial one. It states that “the extent and multifarious
nature of the subjects of inquiry have rendered it impossible to terminate the
examination of all of them in so short a time; but it is their duty to report
the progress which they have made, and the partial results they have already
obtained, leaving to the reports of future years such portions of the inquiries
as they have not yet undertaken.”
The first of these subjects of inquiry is stated to have been “to determine
the varieties, phenomena and laws of waves, and the conditions which affect
their genesis and propagation.”
It is this branch of the duty of the Committee which forms the subject of
the present report. Ever since the date of that report, it has happened that
the author of this has been so fully pre-occupied by inevitable duty, that it
was not in his power to indulge much in the pleasures of scientific inquiry ;
and as the active part of the investigation necessarily devolved upon him,
it was not practicable to continue the series of researches on the ample and
systematic scale originally designed, so soon as he had anticipated, so that
the former report has necessarily been left in a fragmentary state till now.
But I have never ceased to avail myself of such opportunities as I could
contrive to apply to the furtherance of this interesting investigation. I have
now fully discussed the experiments which the former report only registered.
I have repeated the former experiments where their value seemed doubtful, I
have supplemented them in those places where examples were wanting. I
have extended them to higher ranges, and where necessary to a much larger
scale. In so far as the experiments have been repeated and more fully dis-
cussed, they have tended to confirm the conclusions given in the former re-
port, as well as to extend their application.
The results here alluded to are those which concern especially the velocity
and characteristic properties of the solitary wave, that class of wave which
the writer has called the great wave of translation, and which he regards
as the primary wave of the first order. The former experiments related
chiefly to the mode of genesis, and velocity of propagation of this wave.
They led to this expression for the velocity in all circumstances,
v= WVg(h+h),
k being the height of the crest of the wave above the plane of repose of the
fluid, # the depth throughout the fluid in repose, and g the measure of gra-
vity. Later discussions of the experiments not only confirm this result, but
are themselves established by such further experiments as have been recently
instituted, so that this formerly obtained velocity may now be regarded as the
phzenomenon characteristic of the wave of the first order.
The former series of experiments also contained several points of research
‘not published in the former report, because not sufficiently extended to be of
Members of Committee
es | eS te
* T cannot allow these pages to leave my hands without expressing my deep regret that
the death of Sir John Robison has suddenly deprived the Association of a zealous and di-
stinguished office-bearer, and myself of a kind friend. In all these researches the responsible
duties were mine, and Lalone am accountable for them; but in forwarding the objects of the
investigation I always found. him a valuable counsellor and a respected and cordial cooperator.
312 REPORT—1844,
the desired value. Among these were a series of observations on the actual
motion of translation of particles of the fluid during wave transmission ; these
have since been completed and extended, and the results of the whole are now
given. a
The former report was inevitably a fragment. I have endeavoured to give
to the present report a somewhat greater degree of completeness. For this
purpose I have now incorporated under one general form all those results of
the present as well as of all my former researches, which could contribute to
the unity and completeness of the view of a subject so interesting and im-
portant. I have re-discussed my former experiments, combined them with the
more recent observations, and thus, from a wider basis of induction, obtained
results of greater generality. Until the date of these observations, there had
been confounded together in an indefinite notion of waves and wave motion,
phzenomena essentially different,—different in their genesis, laws of propagation,
and other characteristics. I have endeavoured, by a rigid course of examina-
tion, to distinguish these different classes of phenomena from each other. I
have determined certain tests, by which these confused phenomena have
been made to divide themselves into certain classes, distinguished by certain
great characteristics. Contradictions and anomalies have in this process gra-
dually disappeared; and I now find that all the waves which I have observed
may be distinguished into four great orders, and that the waves of each order
differ essentially from each other in the circumstances of their origin, are
transmitted by different forces, exist in different conditions, and are governed
by different laws. It is now therefore easy to understand how much has been
hitherto added to the difficulty of this difficult subject, by confounding together
phenomena so different, The characteristics, phenomena, and laws of these
great orders I have attempted in the present report to determine and define.
The knowledge I have thus endeavoured to obtain and herein to set forth
concerning these beautiful and interesting wave phenomena, is designed to
form a contribution to the advancement of hydrodynamics, a branch of physical
seience hitherto much in arrear. But besides this their immediate design,
these investigations of wave motion are fertile in important applications, not
only to illustrate and extend other departments of science, but to subserve
the purposes and uses of the practical arts. I have ascertained that what I
have called the great wave of translation, my wave of the first order, furnishes
a type of that great oceanic wave which twice a day brings to our shores
the waters of the tide, This type enabled us to understand and explain by
analogy many of the phenomena of fluvial and littoral tides, formerly ano-
malous (see Proceedings R.S, Ed., 1838) ; and thus do these wave researches
contribute to the advancement of the theory of the tides, a branch of physical
astronomy long stationary, but which has recently made rapid strides towards
the same high perfection which other branches of predictive astronomy have
long enjoyed, a perfection which we owe chiefly to Sir John W. Lubbock,
to Mr. Whewell, and the co-operation of the British Association. It is the
wave of the first order enumerated in this report which furnishes to us the
model of a terrestrial mechanism, by means of which the forces primarily
imparted by the sun and moon are taken up and employed in the transport
of tidal waters to distant shores (see previous Reports of Brit. Ass.), and
their distribution in remote seas and rivers, which they continue in succession
to agitate long after the forces employed in the genesis of the wave have
ceased to exist (see Report on Tides). This application of the phenomena
of waves to explain the tides is not their only application to the advancement
of other branches of science. The phenomena of resistance of fluids I have
found to be intimately connected with those waves (see Phil. Trans. Edin.
oe
ee, ‘
a5
ec?
‘of 4
ae
ON WAVES. > 313
1837). The resistance which the water in a channel opposes to the passage
of a floating body along that channel depends materially on the nature of the
great wave of the first order, which the floating body generates by the force
which propels it, and its motion is materially affected by the genesis of waves
also, of the second order, arising from the same cause. These waves are
therefore important elements in the resistance of fluids, and acquaintance
with their phenomena is essential to the sound determination and explanation
of the motion of floating bodies. If to these two branches of science we add
the useful arts, in which an accurate acquaintance with wave phenomena
may be of practical value to the purposes of human life, we shall find that
the improvement of ¢idal rivers, the construction of publie works exposed to
the action of waves and of tides, and the formation of ships (see Reports of
Brit. Ass. passim), are among the most direct and necessary applications of
this knowledge, which is indeed essential to the just understanding of the
best methods of opposing the violence of waves, and converting their motion
to our own uses. By a careful study of the laws and phenomena of waves,
we are enabled to convert these dangerous enemies into powerful slaves, By
such applications of our wave researches, we therefore extend our knowledge
in conformity with the maxims of the illustrious founder of our inductive phi-
losophy, who enjoins that we always study to combine with our ewperimenta
lucifera such experimenta fructifera, that while science is advanced society
may be advantaged.
The Nature of Waves and their Variety.
When the surface of water is agitated by a storm, it is difficult to recog-
nize in its tumultuous tossings, any semblance of ordey, law, or definite form,
which the mind can embrace so as adequately to conceive and understand.
Yet in all the madness of the wildest sea the careful observer may find some
traces of method ; amid the chaos of water he will observe some moving forms
which he can group or individualize; he may distinguish some which are
round and long, others that are high and sharp; he may observe those that
are high gradually becoming acuminate and breaking with a foaming crest,
_ and may notice that the motion of those which are small is short and quick,
while the rising and falling of large elevations is long andslow. Some of the
crests will advance with a great, others with a less velocity ; and in all he will
recognize a general form familiar to his mind as the form of the sea in agita-
_ tion, and which at once distinguishes it from all other phenomena.
Just as the waters of a reservoir or lake when in perfect repose are cha-
_Yacterized by a smooth and horizontal surface, sc also does a condition of dis-
turbance and agitation give to the surface of the fluid this form characteristic
of that condition and which we may term the wave form. When any limited
portion of the wave surface presents a defined figure or boundary, which
appears to distinguish that portion of fluid visibly from the surrounding mass,
our mind gives it individuality,—-we call it a wave.
It is not easy to give a pertect definition of a wave, nor clearly to explain
its nature so as to convey an accurate or sufficiently general conception of it.
Persons who are placed for the first time on a stormy sea, have expressed to
me their surprise to find that their ship, at one moment in the trough between
two waves, with every appearance of instant destruction from the huge heap of
waters rolling over it, was in the next moment riding in safety on the top of
the billow. They discover with wonder that the large waves which they see rush-
ing along with a velocity of many miles an hour, do not carry the floating
body along with them, but seem to pass under the bottom of the ship without
injuring it, and indeed with scarcely a perceptible effect in carrying the vessel
314 REPORT—1844.
out of its course. In like manner the observer near the shore perceives that
pieces of wood, or any floating bodies immersed in the water near its surface,
and the water in their vicinity, are not carried towards the shore with the ra-
pidity of the wave, but are left nearly in the same place after the wave has
passed them, as before. Nay, if the tide be ebbing, the waves may even be ob-
served coming with considerable velocity towards the shore, while the body of
water is actually receding, and any object floating in it is carried in the opposite
direction to the waves, out to sea. Thus it is that we are impressed with the
idea, that ‘he motion of a wave may be different from the motion of the water
in which it moves; that the water may move in one direction and the wave
in another; that water may transmit a wave while itself may remain in the
same place.
If then we have learned that a water wave is not what it seems, a heap of
water moving along the surface of the sea with a velocity visible to the eye,
it is natural to inquire what a wave really is; what is wave-motion as distinct
from water-motion ?
For the purpose of this inquiry let us take a simple example. I have a
long narrow trough or channel of water, filled to the depth of my finger
length. I place my hand in the water, and for a second of time push forward
along the channel the water which my hand touches, and instantly cease from
further motion. The immediate result is easily conceived ; I have simply
pushed forward the particles of water which I touched, out of their former
place to another place further on in the channel, and they repose in their new
place at rest as at first. Here is a final effect, and here my agency has ceased
—not so the motion of the water; I pushed forward a given mass out of its
place into another, but that other place was formerly occupied by a mass of
water equal to that which I have forcibly intruded into its place; what then
has become of the displaced occupant? it has been forced into the place of
that immediately before it, and the occupant which it has dislodged is again
pushed forward on the occupant of the next place, and thus in succession
volume after volume continues to carry on a process of displacement which
only ends with the termination of the channel, or with the exhaustion of the
displacing force originally impressed by my hand, and communicated from
one to another successive mass of the water. This process continues without
the continuance of the original disturbing agency, and is prolonged often to
great distances and through long periods of time. The continuation of this
motion is therefore independent of the volition which caused it. It is a pro-
cess carried on by the particles of water themselves obeying two forces, the
original force of disturbance and the force of gravity. It is therefore a hy-
drodynamical phenomenon conformable to fixed law. I have now ceased
to exercise any control over the phenomenon, but as I attentively watch
the processes I have set a-going, I observe each successive portion of water in
the act of being displaced by one moving mass of water, and in the act of
displacing its successor. As the water particles crowd upon one another in
the act of going out of their old places into the new, the crowd forms a tem-
porary heap visible on the surface of the fluid, and as each successive mass is _
displacing its successor, there is always one such heap, and this heap travels
apparently along the channel at that point where the process of displacement
is going on, and although there may be only one crowd, yet it consists suc-
cessively of always another and another set of migrating particles.
This visible moving heap of crowding particles is a true wave, the rapidity
with which the displacement of one outgoing mass by that which takes its
place, goes forward, determines the velocity with which the heap appears to
move, and is called the velocity of transmission of the wave. The shape which
r
ON WAVES. 315
the crowding of the particles gives to the surface of the water constitutes the
form of the wave. The distance (in the direction of the transmission) along
which the crowd extends, is called the length or amplitude of the wave. The
number of particles which at any one time are out of their place, constitute
the volume of the wave; the time which must elapse before particles can effect
their translation from their old places to the new, may be termed the period
of the wave. The height of the waveis to be reckoned from the highest point
or crest to the surface of the fluid when in repose.
Such is the wave motion—very different is the water motion. Let us
select from the crowd of water particles an individual and watch its behaviour
during the migration. The progressive agitation first reaches it while still in
perfect repose ; the crowd behind it push it forward and new particles take
its place. One particle is urged forward on that before it, and being still
urged on from behind by the crowd still swelling and increasing, it is raised
out of its place and carried forward with the velocity of the surrounding par-
ticles; it is urged still on until the particles which displaced it have made
room for themselves behind it, and then the power diminishes. Having now
in its turn pushed the particles before it along out of their place, and crowded -
them together on their antecedents, it is gradully left behind and finally settles
quietly down in its new place. Thus then the motion of migration of an in-
dividual particle of water is very different from the motion of transmission of
the wave.
The wave goes still forward along through the channel, but each individual
water particle remains behind. The wave passes on with a continuous un-
interrupted motion. The water particle is at rest, starts, rises, is accelerated,
is slowly retarded, and finally stops still. The range of the particle's motion
is short ; its ¢rans/ation is interrupted and final. Its vertical range and hori-
zontal range are finite. It describes an orbit or path during the transit of the
wave over it, and remains for ever after at rest, unless when a second wave
happens immediately to follow the first, when it will describe a second time
its path of translation, passing through a series of new positions or phases
during the period of the wave. The motion of the particle is not therefore
like the apparent motion of the wave, either uniform or continuous. The
motion of the water particles is a true motion of translation of matter from
one place to another, with the velocity and range which the senses observe.
But the wave motion is an ideal individuality attributed by the mind of the
observer to a process of changes of relative position or of absolute place, which
at no two instants belongs to the same particles in the same place. The
water does not travel, the visible heap at no two successive instants is the
same. It is the motion of particles which goes on, now at this place, now at
that, having passed all the intermediate points. J¢ is the crowding motion
_ alone which is transmitted. This crowding motion transmitted along the
water idealised and individualised is a true wave.
Wave propagaticn therefore consists in the transmission from oneclass of par-
_ ticles to another, ofa motion differing in kind from the motion of transmission.
- Wave motion is therefore ivanseendental motion ; motion in the second degree ;
the motion of motion—the transference of motion without the idneferenibe
4 of the matter, of form without the substance, of force without the agent.
It is essential to the accurate conception and examination of waves, that
this distinction between the wave motion and the water motion be clearly cou-
_ ceived. It has been well illustrated by the agitations of a crowd of people,
and of a field of standing corn waving with the wind. If we stand on an
Bedicn we notice that each gust as it passes along the field bending and
owding the stalks, marks its course by the motion it gives to the grain, and
vr
316 REPORT—1844.
the visible effect is like that of an agitated sea, The waving motion visibly
travels across the whole length of the field, but the corn remains rooted to
the ground; this illustration is as apt as old, being given to us in the Iliad,
at the conclusion of the speech of Agamemnon, beginning °Q ¢éido, ipwes
Aavaoi.
“Qs gare. .
Kivi Oy & dyopn, Os Kupara paxpa Aadaaens
[lovrov “Ikapiou, ra ev 7 Epds re Noros re
"QOpop’, éxaikas marpos Atos éx vedediwr.
‘Os @ dre Kevyjoer Zépupos Baby Arjiov, May
Adfpos, émaryifwy, éri 7’ ypver doraxveca’
“Qs tov waa’ dyopn kwOy.—ll. II. 144-149.
In the examination of the phenomena of waves, we have therefore two
classes of elements for consideration, the elements of the wave motion and the
elements of the water particle motion. We may first examine the phenomena
of a given wave-motion, its range of transmission over the surface of the fluid,
the velocity of that transmission, the form of the elevation, its amplitude,
breadth, height, volume, period. We may next consider the path which each
water particle describes during the wave transit; the form of that path, the
horizontal or vertical range of the motion, the variation of the path with the
depth, the relation of each phase of the particle's orbit to each portion of the
corresponding wave length. By this examination I have found that there
exist among waves groups of phznomena so different as to suggest their di-
vision into distinct classes. I find that the general form of waves is manifestly
different, one kind of wave making its appearance in a form always wholly
raised above the general surface of the fluid, and which we may call a pos?-
tive wave, and so distinguish it from another form of wave which is wholly
negative, or depressed below the plane of repose, while a third class are
found to consist of both a negative and a positive portion. I find them
propagated with extremely different velocities, and obeying different laws
according as they belong to one or the other of these classes, the positive
wave having im a given depth of water a constant and invariable velocity,
“while another class has a velocity varying according to other peculiarities,
and independent of the depth. Some of them again are distinguished by always
appearing alone as individual waves, and others as companion phenomena or
gregarious, never appearing except in groups. In examining the paths of the
water particles corresponding differences are observed. In some the water
particles perform a motion of translation from one place to another, and effect
a permanent and final change of place, while others merely change their place
for an instant to resume it again; thus performing osezllations round their
place of final repose, These waves may also be distinguished by the sources
from which they arise, and the forces by which they are transmitted. One
class of wave is a motion of successive transference of the whole fluid mass ; a
second, the partial oscillation of one part of it without affecting the remainder ;
a third, the propagation of an impulse by the corpuscular forces which deter-
mine the elasticity of the fluid mass; and a fourth, by the capillary forces
uniting its molecules at the surface.
These classes, so various both in their origin, cause and pheenomena, have
not hitherto been sufficiently distinguished, but have either been unknown,
or have been confounded with each other under the vague conception and
general designation of wave motions. The following table is given as a first
approximation towards a classification of the phenomena of wave motion. It
comprehends all the waves which I have investigated, and sufficiently di-
4
i
~
>,
c
x
ON WAVES. 317
stinguishes them from each other. I find that water waves may be distributed
into fous orders. The wave of translation is the wave of the FIRST ORDER,
and consists in a motion of translation of the whole mass of the fluid from one
place to another, to another in which it finally reposes; its aspect is, a solitary
elevation or a solitary hollow or cavity, moving along the surface with a uniform
velocity ; and hence it presents two species, positive and negative, and each
of these may be found in a condition of free motion, or affected in form and
velocity by the continual interference of a force of the same nature with that
from which its genesis was derived. The wave of the sECcOND ORDER is partly
positive and partly negative, each height having a companion hollow, and this
is the commonest order of visible water wave, being similar to the usual wind
waves, in which the surface of the water visibly osedllates above and below
the level of repose ; these waves appear in groups ; in some cases, as in run-
ning water, they may be standing elevations and depressions, and in others
progressive along the surface, and like the waves of the first order, may be
altered in form and velocity by the presence of a disturbing force, so as to
differ from their phenomena when in a state of perfect freedom. The THIRD
CLASS are met with under such conditions as agitate the fluid only to a very
minute depth, and are determined by the same forces which in hydrostatics
produce the phenomena of capillary attraction; and the FOURTH ORDER is
that wave insensible to sight, which conveys the disturbance produced by a
sonorous body through a mass of the fluid, and which is at once an index and
a result of the molecular forces which determine the elasticity of the fluid.
This classification has been adopted throughout the following paper.
‘ Taste I.
System of Water Waves.
ORDERS. First. SECOND. THIRD. | Fourrs.
Designation./Wave of translation. {Oscillating waves.|Capillary waves.|\Corpuscular wave.
Characters...|/Solitary. (Gregarious. Gregarious. Solitary.
. |Positive. 'Stationary. Free.
RPErAS :-- { (Negative. ‘Progressive. Forced.
kt ‘Free. \Free.
Mitietics 1 ore. ae
‘The wave of resistance. Stream ripple. |Dentate waves. |Water-sound wave.
Instances + The tide wave. |Wind waves. Zephyral waves. |
|The aérial sound wave. Ocean swell. |
An observer of natural phenomena who will study the surface of a sea
or large lake during the successive stages of an increasing wind, from a calm
to a storm, will find in the whole motions of the surface of the fluid, appear-
ances which illustrate the nature of the various classes of waves contained in
Table 1., and which exhibit the laws to which these waves are subject. Let
him begin his observations in a perfect calm, when the surface of the water is
smooth and reflects like a mirror the images of surrounding objects. This
appearance will not be affected by even a slight motion of the air, and a ve-
locity of less than half a mile an hour (83 in. per sec.) does not sensibly
disturb the smoothness of the reflecting surface. A gentle zephyr flitting
along the surface from point to point, may be observed to destroy the perfec-
tion of the mirror for a moment,and on departing, the surface remains polished
as before ; if the air have a velocity of about a mile an hour, the surface of the
water becomes less capable of distinct reflexion, and on observing it in such a
condition, it is to be noticed that the diminution of this reflecting power is
«SI
318: REPORT—1844.
owing to the presence of those minute corrugations of the superficial film which
form waves of the third order. These corrugations produce on the surface
of the water an effect very similar to the effect of those panes of glass which
we see corrugated for the purpose of destroying their transparency, and these
corrugations at once prevent the eye from distinguishing forms at a consider-
able depth, and diminish the perfection of forms reflected in the water... To
fly-fishers this appearance is well known as diminishing the facility with which
the fish see their captors. This first stage of disturbance has this distinguishing
circumstance, that the phenomena on the surface cease almost simultaneously
with the intermission of the disturbing cause, so that aspot which is sheltered
from the direct action of the wind remains smooth, the waves of the third
order being incapable of travelling spontaneously to any considerable distance,
except when under the continued action of the original disturbing force.
This condition is the indication of present force, not of that which is past.
While it remains it gives that deep blackness to the water which the sailor
is accustomed to regard as an index of the presence of wind, and often as the
forerunner of more.
The second condition of wave motion is to be observed when the velocity
of the wind acting on the smooth water has increased to two miles an hour.
Small waves then begin to rise uniformly over the whole surface of the water;
these are waves of the second order, and cover the water with considerable
regularity. Capillary waves disappear from the ridges of these waves, but are
to be found sheltered in the hollows between them, and on the anterior slopes
of these waves. The regularity of the distribution of these secondary waves
over the surface is remarkable; they begin with about an inch of amplitude, and
a couple of inches long; they enlarge as the velocity or duration of the wave
increases ; by and by conterminal waves unite; the ridges increase, and if the
wind increase the waves become cusped, and are regular waves of the second
order. ‘They continue enlarging their dimensions, and the depth to which
they produce the agitation increasing simultaneously with their magnitude,
the surface becomes extensively covered with waves of nearly uniform mag-
nitude.
How it is that waves of unequal magnitude should ever be produced may
not seem at first sight very obvious, if all parts of the original surface continue
equally exposed to an equal wind. But it is to be observed that it rarely
occurs that the water is all equally exposed to equal winds. The configura-
tion of the land is alone sufficient to cause local inequalities in the strength
of the wind and partial variations of direction. By another cause are local
inequalities rapidly produced and exaggerated. The configuration of the shores
reflects the waves, some in one direction, some in another, and so deranges
their uniformity. The transmission of reflected waves over such as are
directly generated by the wind, produces new forms and inequalities, which,
exposed to the wind, generate new modifications of its force, and of course,
in their turn, give rise to further deviations from the primitive condition of
the fluid. There are on the sea frequently three or four series of coexisting
waves, each series having a different direction from the other, and the indivi-
dual waves of each series remaining parallel to one another. Thus do the
condition, origin, and relations of the waves which cover the surface of the
sea after a considerable time, become more complex than at their first genesis.
It is not until the waves of the sea encounter a shallow shelving coast, that
they present any of the phenomena of the wave of the first order (Report of
1838). After breaking on the margin of the shoal, they continue to rollalong
in the shallow water towards the beach, and becoming transformed into waves
of the first order, finally break on the shore.
i
‘i
}
a
ON WAVES. © 319
But the great example of a wave of the jirs¢ order, is that enormous wave
of water which rolls along our shores, bringing the elevation of high tide
twice a day to our coasts, our harbours, and inland rivers. This great com-
pound wave of the first order is not the less real that its length is so great,
that while one end touches Aberdeen, the other reaches to the mouth of the
Thames and the coast of Holland. Though the magnitude of this wave renders
it impossible for the human eye to take in its form and dimensions at one
view, we are able, by stationing numerous observers along different parts of
the coasts, to compare its dimensions and to trace its progress at different
points, and so to represent its phenomena to the eye and the mind ona small
seale, as to comprehend its form and nature as clearly as we do those of a
mountain range, or extensive country which has been mapped on a sheet of
paper by the combination together of trigonometrical processes, performed
at different places by various observers, and finally brought together and pro-
tracted on one sheet of paper. :
As this great wave of the first order is not comprehended by the eye on
account of its magnitude, so there is a wave of the fourth order which equally
escapes detection from that organ, on account of its minuteness. By an un-
dulation propagated among the particles of water, so minute as to be altoge-
ther insensible to the eye, and only recognised by an organ appropriate to
that purpose, there is conveyed from one place to another the wave of sound.
This wave, though invisible from its minuteness, is nevertheless of a nature
almost identical with the wave of the first order. In air the sound wave is
indeed the wave of the first order. It is only in liquids, when the measure of
pressure of the fluid mass is diiferent from the measure of the intercorpuscular
force, that the phzenomena of the wave of the first order is different from
those of the fourth, and that we have one measure for the velocity of the
water wave, and another for that of the sound wave. In a gaseous fluid, on
the contrary, the measure of the pressure of the mass is also the measure of the
intercorpuscular force, and the sound wave becomes identical with the air
wave, the fourth order with the first.
Section I.—WAVE OF THE First OrpDER.
The Wave of Translation.
MATACLER assis nis, wet <iply .... Solitary.
Species Positive.
eeveeeee @eeeeeee Negative.
rite Free.
Varieties ............ oe 2 Sead:
Satanecs Wave of Resistance.
Pa eA ay Fr Tidal Wave—Sound Wave.
‘I believe I shall best introduce this pheenomenon by describing the cireum-
stances of my own first acquaintance with it. I was observing the motion
of a boat which was rapidly drawn along a narrow channel by a pair of horses,
when the boat suddenly stopped—not so the mass of water in the channel
which it had put in motion ; it accumulated round the prow of the vessel in a
state of violent agitation, then suddenly leaving it behind, rolled forward with
great velocity, assuming the form of a large solitary elevation, a rounded,
smooth and well-defined heap of water, which continued its course along the
channel apparently without change of form or diminution of speed. I fol-
lowed it on horseback, and overtook it still rolling on at a rate of some eight
or nine miles an hour, preserving its original figure some thirty feet long and
wore .
320 REPORT—1844,
a foot to a foot and a half in height: Its height gradually diminished, and
after a chase of one or two miles I lost it in the windings of the channel.’
Such, in the month of August 1834, was my first chance interview with that’
singular and beautiful pheenomenon which I have called the Wave of Trans-
lation, a name which it now very generally bears; which I have since found
to be an important element in almost every case of fluid resistanee, and as-
certained to be the type of that great moving elevation of the sea, which, with
the regularity of a planet, ascends our rivers and rolls along our shores.
To study minutely this phenomenon with a view to determine accurately
its nature and laws, I have adopted other more convenient modes of produ-
cing it than that which I have just described, and have employed various
methods of observation. A description of these will probably assist me in
conveying just conceptions of the nature of this wave.
Genesis of the Wave of the First Order—For producing waves of the
first order on a small scale, I have found the following method sufficiently
convenient. A longnarrow channel or box a foot wide, eight or nine inches
deep, and twenty or thirty feet long (Plate I. fig. 1.), is filled with water to
the height of say four inches. A flat board P (or plate of glass) is provided,
which fits the inside of the channel so as to form a division across the channel
where it is inserted.
Genesis by Impulsion or Force horizontally applied —Let this plate be in-
serted vertically in the water close to the end A, and being held in the verti-
cal position, be pressed forward slowly in the direction of X, care being taken
that it is kept vertical and parallel to the end. The water now displaced by
the plate P in its new position accumulates on the front of the plane forming
a heap, which is kept there, being inclosed between the sides of the channel
and the impelling plate. The amount thus heaped up is plainly the volume
of water which has been removed by the advancing plane from the space left
vacant behind it, and if the impulse increase, the elevation of displaced
water will increase in the same quantity. When the water has reached the
height P,, let the velocity of impulsion be now gradually diminished as at P,,
until the plate is finally brought to rest as at P;; the height of the water
heaped on the front will diminish with the diminution of velocity as at P,,
and when brought to rest at P, it will be on the original level. The total height
of the water does not however subside with the diminution of the impulsion,
the crest W, retains the maximum height to which it had risen under the
pressure of the plane at P;, and moves horizontally forward ; and the smaller
elevation produced by the smaller pressure at P, down to P, moves forward
after W,. This elevation of the liquid, having a crest, or summit, or ridge in
the centre of its length transverse to the side of the channel, continues to
move along the channel in the direction of the original impulsion; from the
crest there extends forward a curved surface, Wa, forming the face of the
wave, and a similar surface, Ww, behind the crest is distinguished as its back.
It is convenient to designate @ as the origin, w as the end of the wave; and
to designate the interval between a and w, the length of the wave in the di-
rection of its transmission, its amplitude. t
The kind of motion required for generating this wave in the most perfect |
way, that is, for producing a wave of given magnitude without at the same time:
creating any disturbance of a different kind in the water—this kind of motion
may be given by various mechanical contrivances, but I have found that thé
dexterity of manipulation which experience bestows is perfectly sufficient for
ordinary experimental purposes. '
Genesis by a Column of Fluid. —This is a method of genesis, of considerable
value for various experimental purposes, especially useful when waves of no
i
i
321
great magnitude are required, and also when it is desirable to measure accu-
rately volumes or forces employed in wave genesis. The same glass plate
may be conveniently employed in this case as in the last, only it will now be
used in the capacity merely of a sluice, and be supported by two small verti-
cal slips fixed to the sides of the channel so as to keep it in the vertical posi-
tion but to admit of its being raised vertically upwards as at G, Pl. XLVII. fig.2.
There is thus formed between the end of the channel G and the moveable
plate P,, a small generating reservoir GP,. This is to be filled to any desired
height with water, as from w to P,, and the plate being drawn up, as at P,, the
water of the reservoir descends to w, the level of the water of the channel, and
pushing forward and heaping up the adjacent fluid, raises a heap equal to the
added volume on the surface of the water; and this elevation is in no respect
sensibly different either in form or other phenomenon from that generated
in the former method, provided the quantity of water added in the latter case
be identical with the quantity of water displaced in the former case.
_ This method of genesis by fluid column affords a simple means of proving
an elementary fact in this kind of wave motion. The fact is this, that while
the volume of water in the wave is exactly equal to the volume of water
added from the reservoir, it is by no means identical with it. I filled the re-
“servoir with water tinged with a pink dye, which did not sensibly alter the
specific gravity of the water. The column of water having descended as at
_K, and the wave having gone forward to W,, the generating column remained
stationary at K, thus indicating that the column of water had merely acted
asa mechanical prime mover, to put in action the wave-propagating forces
among the fluid, in the same way as had been formerly done by the power
acting by the solid plate in the former case of genesis by impulsion. Thus
is obtained a first indication that this wave exhibits a transmission of force,
not of fluid, along the channel.
_ Genesis by Protrusion of a Solid—The quantity of moving force required
r the wave-genesis may be directly obtained by the descent of a solid weight,
he solid at L (fig. 3.) may bea box of wood or iron, containing such weights
are desired, and suspended in such a manner as to be readily detached from
3support. Its under surface should be somewhat immerged. On touching
e detaching spring, the weight descends, and the water it displaces pro-
lees a wave of equal volume. If the weight and volume of solid thus im-
ersed be equal to those of the water in the reservoir in the former case, it
found that the waves generated by the two methods are alike. It is expe-
ent that the breadth and shape of this solid generator should be such as to
it the channel, as this removes some sources of disturbance. The results
ich are produced by this application of moving power are also convenient
giving measures of the mechanical forces employed in wave-genesis.
his method is especially convenient for the genesis of waves of consider-
le magnitude. With this view I erected a pyramidal structure of wood,
able of raising weights of several hundred pounds, over a pulley by means
crane, and contrived to allow them to descend at will. This apparatus
adequate for the generation of waves in a channel three feet wide and
feet deep; and the same construction may be extended to greater
ons.
ansmission of Mechanical Power by the Wave.—By the last two me-
of genesis there is to be obtained a just notion of the nature of the
fe of the first order as a vehicle for the transfer of mechanical power. By
agency of this wave the mechanical power which is employed in wave-
is at one end of the channel, passes along the channel in the wave itself,
py civen out at the other end with only such loss as results from the
* Y
eae Sal Je
322 REPORT—1844.
friction of the fluid. At one end, as of the channel G, fig. 4, there is placed
the water, which, falling through a given height, is to generate the wave. At
the other end, X, is a similar reservoir and sluice, open to the channel.
When the wave has been generated as at K, and has traversed the length of
the channel, it enters the receptacle X, and assuming the form marked at L, the
sluice being suddenly permitted to descend, the column of water will be in-
closed in the receptacle, and its whole volume raised above the level of repose
nearly as at the first. The power expended in wave-genesis, having been
transferred along the whole channel, is thus once more stored up in the re-
servoir at the other extremity. A part of this power is, however, expended
in transitu by friction of the particles and imperfect fluidity, &c. When the
channel is large, the sides and bottom smooth, the transmission of force may
be accomplished with high velocity, at the rate of many miles an hour, toa
distance of several miles.
Re-genesis of Wave.—In the channel AX, we have found the wave trans-
mitted from A to X, and there the power of genesis transferred to the fluid
column now stored up in the reservoir X. If we now repeat from the re-
ceptacle X the same process of genesis originally performed at G, elevating
the sluice and allowing the fluid column to descend, it will again generate
a wave similar to the first, only transmitted back in the opposite direction.
This re-generated and re-transmitted wave may be again found in the pri-
mary reservoir of genesis as at G, and the same power, after having been
transmitted twice through the length of the channel, be restored as at first
in that channel, with only the small diminution of power lost in transitu.
The process of re-genesis may now be repeated, as at first, and so on during
any number of successive transmissions and re-transmissions.
Reflexion of the Wave.—This process of restoring the foree employed in
wave-genesis, and of re-genesis of the wave, may take place without the inter-
vention of the sluices. The wave, on reaching the end of the channel G at
X,, becomes accumulated in the form of the curve wa. We have there-
fore the power of genesis now stored up in this water column, w La, above
the level L, and in a state of rest. By means of a sluice we may detain
it at that height for as long time as we please. But let us suppose we do not
wish to detain it, but allow the water column to descend by gravity as at first,
it generates the wave by again descending, and transmits it back towards G, as
effectually as if the reservoir had been used, or as the genesis when first ac-
complished. By the same process of /aissez faire, the power of genesis will
be restored at G, a water column elevated, the fluid brought to rest and al-
lowed again to descend, again to effect genesis of the wave, and again trans-
mit the force along the channel through the particles of the wave. The wave
is said to be reflected, and it is thus shown in reference to the wave of the
first order, that the process called reflexion consists in a process of restoration
of the power of genesis, and of re-genesis of the wave in an opposite direction.
In this manner there is to be obtained an accurate view of the mechanical
nature of the reflexion of the wave.
Measure of the Power of Wave-Genesis—If we examine the process of
wave-genesis as at K, fig. 2, we find that the change which has taken place
after the wave-genesis and before, consists virtually in a different arrangement
of the particles of a given volume of water. The given rectangular column
of water A P,, oecupies after genesis the equal space AK. This, without
regard to the paths in which the particles have proceeded to their new places,
this descent is the final result and integral effect of the development of the
power of the generating column. Take away from these two equal volumes
of fluid the volume g p common to both, and the remaining volumes w P and
- ON WAVES. 323
, wy i o
AG
Yare equal, and a given volume of water has effectively descended from
PGw into K kp, and g, and g, being the centres of gravity; the quantity
of power developed is measured by the descent of the weight of water through
a height g, g,, or through half the depth of the generating reservoir, and is
of course capable of generating in any equal mass of fluid a velocity equal
to that which is acquired by falling through a space equal to one-half the
depth, reckoned from the top of the generating column to the bottom of the
channel.
Imperfect Genesis of the Wave—The wave may be said to have imperfect
genesis, as far as the purposes of accurate experiment are concerned, when it
is accompanied by other wave phenomena which interfere with it. The pre-
cautions necessary to perfect genesis appear to be these, that the volume of
water should not widely differ from the volume of the wave it is proposed to
generate, and that the height of the water should not greatly differ from that
of the wave; and even these precautions are scarcely sufficient for the gene-
ration of a perfect solitary wave in a case where it is extremely high. The
reason is obvious.
Residuary Positive Wave.—In a case of genesis where the precautions
mentioned above are not observed, the following phenomenon is exhibited.
If, as in the case fig. 6, the volume of the generating fluid considerably exceed
(in consequence of the length of the generating reservoir) the length of the
wave of a height equal to that of the fluid, the wave will assume its usual
form W notwithstanding, and will pass forward with its usual volume and
height ; it will free itself from the redundant matter w by which it is accom-
panied, leaving it behind, and this residuary wave, w,, will follow after it, only
with a less velocity, so that although the two waves were at first united in the
_ compound wave, they afterwards separate, as at W, w, and are more and more
apart the further they travel.
Disintegration of large Wave Masses.—Thus also by increasing the length
_ of the generating column, there may be generated any number of residuary
Waves, and it is a result of no little importance, to just conceptions of the
nature of the wave of the first order, that it be not regarded as an arbitrary
_ phzenomenon deriving all its characters from the conditions in which it was
at first generated, but that it is a phenomenon sui generis, assuming to itself
that form and those dimensions under which alone it continues to exist as a
wave. The existence of a moving heap of water of any arbitrary shape or
magnitude is not sufficient to entitle it to the designation of a wave of the first
order. If such a heap be by any means forced into existence, it will rapidly
fall to pieces and become disintegrated and resolved into a series of different
Waves, which do not move forward in company with each other, but move on
Separately, each with a velocity of its own, and each of course continuing to
depart from the other. Thus a large compound heap or wave becomes re-
Sete into the principal and residuary waves by a species of spontaneous
analysis.
; Boahinary Negative Waves.—There is a method of genesis the reverse of
the last, which also produces residuary waves, but they are thus far the reverse
of the last in form, as they have the appearance of cavities propagated along
the surface of the still water in the channel, and they move more slowly than
the positive wave: we may give them the appellation of residuary negative
waves. When the elevation of the fluid in the reservoir is great in proportion
to its breadth (reckoned as amplitude), the descending column of genesis com-
municates motion to a greater number of particles of water than its own, but
with a less velocity ; these go to form a wave which is larger in volume than
the column of genesis, and therefore contribute to the volume of the wave
y2
324 REPORT—1844,
some of the water which originally served to maintain the level of the fluid
or surface of repose ; this hollow is transferred like a hollow waye along the
fluid, and there may exist several such waves, which I have called residuary
negative waves. But these waves do not accompany the primary wave, nor |
have they the same velocity. See O, fig. 16.
It is of some importance to note, that these residuary phenomena of wave-
genesis are not companion phenomena to the primary wave or positive wave
of the first order. They will be separately considered at another time; mean-
while it is to be noted that these residuary phenomena accompany only the
genesis of the wave, but do not attend the transmission, as they are rapidly
left behind by the great primary solitary wave of the first order. Certain
philosophers have fallen into error in their conceptions of these experiments
by not sufficiently noting this distinction.
It is worth notice also, that besides these, many other modes of genesis
have been employed ; solids elevated from the bottom of the channel, vessels
drawn along the channel, &c.; wherever a considerable addition is made to the
height and volume of the liquid at any given point in the channel, a wave of
the first order is generated, differing in no way from the former, except in such
particulars as are hereinafter noticed.
Motion of Transmission—The crest of the wave is observed to move
along a channel which does not vary in dimension, with a velocity sensibly
uniform, so that the velocity with which it is transmitted may be determined
by simply measuring a given distance along the channel, and observing the
number of seconds which may elapse during the transit from one end of the
line to the other. This interval of time is sensibly equal for any equal space
measured along the path, and hence we determine that the velocity of the
wave transmission is sensibly uniform.
Range of Wave Transmission.—The distance through which a wave of the
first order will continue to propagate itself, is so great as to afford considerable
facility for accurate observation of its velocity. For accurate observations it is
convenient to allow the early part of the range to escape without observation;
for this purpose, that the primary wave, which is to be the subject cf observa-
tion, may disembarrass itself of such secondary phenomena as frequently ac-
company its genesis, when that genesis cannot be accurately accomplished.
A small part of the range is sufficient for this purpose, and the remainder is
perfectly adapted for purposes of accurate observation, as it continues to
travel along its path long after the secondary waves have ceased to exist.
The longevity of the wave of the first order, and the facility of observing it,
may be judged of from the following experiments, made in 1835-1837.
Ex. 1. A wave of the first order, only 6 inches high at the crest, had tra-
versed a distance of 500 feet, when it was first made the subject of observa- —
tion. After being transmitted along a further distance of 700 feet, another
observation was noted, and it was observed still to have a height of 5 inches,
and to have travelled with a velocity of 7-55 miles an hour.
Ex. 2. A wave of the first order, originally 6 inches high, was transmitted
through a distance of 3200 feet, with a mean velocity of 7-4 miles an hour,
and at the end of this path still maintained a height of 2 inches.
Ex. 3. A wave 18 inches high, moving at the rate of 15 miles an hour, in
a channel 15 feet deep, had still a height of 6 inches, having traversed the
same space in 12 minutes.
Ex. 4. Among small experimental waves of the first order, in small chan-
nels, I have selected one, which, whose crest being 1°34 inch high, in a
channel 5°10 inches deep, was transmitted through a range of 1360 feet, and
still admitted of accurate observation.
bhal-——rsogns
On proc.
ON WAVES. 325
Dire exaraples serve to convey an accurate idea of the longevity of a
Pe ial of the first order. And this longevity appears to increase with the
depth and the breadth of the channel, and with the height of the wave crest.
Degradation of the Wave of the First Order—In the progress of a wave
_of the first order, it is observed that its height diminishes with the length of
its path ; the velocity also diminishes with the diminution of height, though
very slowly. This degradation of height is observed to go on more rapidly in
proportion as the channel is narrow, shallow or irregular, and rough on the
sides, and is diminished according as the channel is made smooth and regular
in its form, or deep and wide. It is to be attributed to the imperfect fluidity
of the water in some degree, but also to the adhesion of water to the sides.
The particles of fluid near the sides and bottom are retarded in their motions,
and the transmission takes place more slowly among them. The wave passes
on, leaving in these particles a small quantity of the motion it had communi-
eated, and of its force and volume, and in consequence of this there exists
_along the whole channel, over which the wave has passed, a residual motion
or continuous residual wave, very small in amount, but still appreciable by ac-
curate means of observation. The volume of the wave is thus diffused over
a large extent along its path, where finally it has deposited the whole of its
yolume, and so disappears. This degradation is therefore the means by which
_the motion of a wave in an indefinite channel is gradually and slowly termi-
nated, In the history of a solitary wave of the first order, the progress of this
degradation is to be observed from the examination of Table II. column By
_which gives the height of the wave as observed at every 40 feet along its path.
Lin the first 200 feet this diminution amounts to about + of the height at the
commencement. At the end of the second 200 feet, the height is diminished
_ by $ of the height at the commencement of that space. During the third
_ Space of 200 feet the degradation produced is nearly } of the height of the
__ Wave; this appears to be the most rapid degradation, and in the next space
_ of 200 feet it is little more than 2; in the next, less than a third of the height
_ at the beginning of that space. These successive heights are given graphi-
cally in Plate XLVIII. fig. 7.
The Velocity of Transmission of the Wave of the First Order —The history
_ of a single wave has sufficed to show us that the velocity with which its crest
_1s transmitted along the channel is nearly that which a heavy body will
acquire falling freely through a height equal to half the depth of the fluid.
_ This is a very simple and important character in the phenomena of this wave,
_ by which, when the depth of the channel is known, we may at once predict
_ approximately the velocity of the wave of translation. The following are
_ approximate numbers deduced from this conclusion, and which I find it con-
_ Yenient to recollect.
__, Ina channel whose depth is 2} inches, the velocity of the wave is 2} feet
_ per second.
», Ina channel whose depth is 15 feet, the velocity of the wave is 15 miles an
_ hour,
Ina channel whose depth is 90 fathoms, the velocity of the wave is 90 miles
an hour.
__ These numbers are, however, only first approximations, for it is to be ob-
served in reference to wave, Table II., that the wave, when its height is con-
_ siderable, moves with greater velocity than when it is small. These numbers
_ become acenrate, if in the depth, the height of the wave be included.
ais, The Height of the Wave of the First Order, an element in its velocity. The
height of the wave appears to enter as an element in its velocity, and to cause
it to deviate from the simple formula A. Thus the velocity of the wave only
ane
326 REPORT—-1844.
coincides with the velocity assigned in Table II. when the height of the wave
is inconsiderable.
1 have found that this deviation is to be reconciled, without at all destroying
the simplicity of the formula, by a very simple means. In order to obtain
perfect accuracy, we have only to reckon the effective depth for calculation,
from the ridge or crest of the wave instead of from the level of the water at
rest ; and having thus added to the depth of the water in repose, the height
of the wave crest above the plane of repose, if we take the velocity which a
heavy body would acquire in falling through a space equal to half the depth
of the fluid (reckoning from the ridge of the wave to the bottom of the chan-
nel), that number accurately represents the velocity of transmission of the
wave of the first order.
We have, therefore, for the velocity of the wave of the first order,
approximately p= Woh, 1. |. a
accurately = q (HER), -- OU Pe Rane
where v is the velocity of transmission,
g is the force of gravity as measured by the velocity which it will com-
municate in a second to a body falling freely =32,
h is the depth of the fluid in repose,
k is the height of the crest of the wave above the plane of repose.
The velocities of waves of the first order in channels of different depths are,
therefore, as the square roots of the depth of these channels.
Nevertheless, when the height of one of the waves is considerable compared
with the depth of the channel, a high wave in the shallower channel may move
faster than a lower wave in a deeper channel; provided only the excess in
height of the higher wave be greater than the difference of depth of the
channels ; in short, that wave will move fastest in a given channel whose
crest is highest above the bottom of the channel, and in channels of different
depths waves may be propagated with equal velocities, provided only the sum
of the height of wave and standing depth of channel amount to the same
quantity.
Tase II.
History of a Solitary Wave of the First Order, from observation.
Depth of fluid in repose in the channel 5*1 inches.
Breadth of the channel 12 inches; the form rectangular.
Volume of generating column 445 cubic inches.
Column A is the observed height of the crest of the wave in inches above
the bottom of the channel.
Column B is the observed height of the crest of the wave in inches above
the surface of the water in repose.
Column C is the time in seconds occupied in traversing the distances in
column D.
Column D is the spaces traversed by the wave in feet previous to each
observation of time.
Column E is the velocity of the wave through each length of 40 feet de-
duced from observation,
Column F is the velocity deduced from the formula Vg(h+h)=v-
ON WAVES. 327
Cc | D E F G
0-0 0 | 00
95 | 40 | 421 | 415 06
190 | 80 | 421 | 4:13 -08
5°32 0:22 173°5 680 3°81 3°78
|
531 0-21 184-0 720 3°81 377 04
5°29 0-19 195°0 760 3°63 377 14
5:27 017 205°5 800 38] 3°76 05
5-26 0-16 216°5 840 3°63 375 “12
5°25 0-15 227°5 880 3°63 3°75 12
524 0-14 237°5 920 40 3°75 25
5°23 0-13 2485 960 3°63 3°74 “ll
5:22 0-12 259°5 1000 3°63 374 ‘ll
0-10 2700 1040 3°81 3:73 08
5°18 0:08 302°5 1160 3°61 3°72
1
41:36
—0-84
0:52
Mean...| +0:018
History of a solitary Wave of the First Order—In the accompanying table
is given a history of the progress of a wave from its genesis through a range
of 1160 feet, and during a period of 302 seconds. This wave was generated
in the manner already described, by the addition of a volume of 445 cubic
inches to the fluid at one extremity of the channel. The fluid in repose
had a depth of 5:1 inches, and the wave generated had a height of 1:34
inch above the plane of repose, thus making the whole depth reckoned from
the crest of the wave to the bottom of the channel =5+1 + 1°34=6°44 inches
as the depth total. This, as successively observed, forms column A, and
the simple height of the wave above the plane of repose forms column B.
The height of the wave is recorded at successive distances of 40 feet, as re-
corded in column D, reckoning from the first observation, and the correspond-
‘ing time of transit past the station of observation is given in column C. The
column E gives the velocity between two successive stations as resulting from
the observations C and D. In order to compare these observations with the
formula v= / gh+k), g is taken at the value 32°1908 feet, being the velo-
city required in one second by a body falling freely ix vacuo in the latitude
of Greenwich at the level of the sea, and (h+4) is the number of inches in
column A, reduced to decimals of a foot. The number resulting from these
$28. REPORT—1844,
as the velocity per second which a heavy body will acquire in falling freely
by gravity through a space equal to half the depth (reckoned from the crest
of the wave), is that given in column F ; with which the numbers in column
E. resulting from observation are compared, their excess or defect being set
down with the signs + or — in column G. .
We are thus enabled to compare the numbers given by observation E
with the numbers given by formula F, and the result G shows that the
coincidence is as close as the means of observation would admit. It was not
possible with the chronometer then applied (although observations to fifths
of a second have since been obtained) to depend upon accuracy to more mi-
nute intervals than half-seconds, and the differences in column G are precisely
what we should have expected, being nearly alternately + and —, and being
of nearly the same magnitude at both ends, and along the whole line of ob-
servation. The sum of the errors affected by the positive sign is +1°36,
the sum of those affected with the negative sign —0°84, so that the whole
of 29 observations give only an excess of +°52, or a mean excess of 0-018,
showing a mean excess of velocity of the observation over the velocity assigned
by the formula, of 0:018 of a foot per second, being less than g},th of the
whole. Hence we are warranted in assuming, that as far as the history of
this wave is concerned, the velocity is accurately represented to within pjpth
part by the formula “g(h+h)=v. :
Experiments on the Velocity.—In order to determine the velocity of the
wave of the first order with accuracy, a series of experiments have been made
upon rectangular chaunels, extending from 1 inch in depth and a foot wide,
to 12 feet wide and 6 feet deep. These experiments, forming a series of thirty
different depths, are given in Table III. Column A contains the depth of the
water, reckoned from the crest of the wave. Column B is the height of the
crest of the wave above the level of the water in repose. Column C is the
velocity of the wave as observed, and in column D is given the velocity due
to half the depth in column A calculated by the formula v= V gtk).
Columns D and C are compared, and their difference given in E, from which
it results that the formula represents the experiments to within a mean error
of 0:007. The results of this table leave no room to doubt that, as far as
observation can settle this point, the velocity is conclusively settled, and de-
termined to be that due by gravity through half the depth of the fluid, reckoned
Srom the ridge of the wave.
ae
oN WAVES.” | 329
— amish, su 91 i Taste Ill. :
Determination of the Velocity of the Wave of the First Order, from observation.
_ (See Seventh Report of the British Association, and Researches on Hy-
drodynamics in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, 1836.)
The form of the channels was rectangular.
The breadth of the channels varied from 12 inches to 12 feet.
Column A gives the depth of the channel in inches reckoned from the top
of the wave. | ¢
Column B gives the height of the wave above the surface of the fluid in
repose.
TGolama C is the velocity of the wave in feet per second, from observation.
Column D is the velocity of the wave calculated by formula B.
Column E is the difference between columns D and C,.
A | B | UP a aa aes A | B c. | D | = |
1:0 | 1°63 6-9 0:7 429 | 4:30 |+-01
1:05 | 0-05 | 1-64 | 167 | 4:03 70 4°33
130 | 0-15 | 1°84 | 186 | 4°02 7:33} 0:29 | 439 | 4-43 |+-04
162 | 0:32 | 2°06 | 2:08 | +-02 || 7:44| 0-40 | 4:44 | 4:46 +02
20 ‘| 231 7°82} 078 | 453 | 457 |4-04
2:19 | 0-29 | 2:30 | 2-42 | +12 8-0 078 | 453 | 4-63 |+-10
30 2°83 9-0 4°91
310 | 0-16 | 2°87 | 2:88 |+:01 | 10:0 5:18
3°23 | 0-15 | 2°99 | 2:94 |—-05 | 11:0 5°43
3:84 | 0-92 | 3-24 | 3-21 | —-03 | 15:0 6°34
39 0:96 | 333 | 3:23 | —-10 | 19:0 714
3:97 | 0-81 | 3:26 | 3:26 00 | 20:0 7°32
40 0-19 | 3:33 | 3:27 | —-06 || 21:0 7°50
4°08 | 0-13 | 3:24 | 3:30 |-+-06 || 26:0 8°35
4:20 | 013 | 3:33 | 3:35 |+-02 || 27-0 8-51
431 | 0:24 | 3-40 | 3-40 00 || 28:0 8:66
4-49 | 0:42 | 3:46 | 3:47 |+-01 || 29:0 8:82
461 | 0:74 | 3°52 | 3:51 |—-Ol || 30:0 8:97
475 | 08 352 | 356 |+°04 | 35:0 9-68
50 3°66 || 42-0 3:0 | 10-59 | 10-61 |+-02
5:20 | 0:10 | 3°73 | 3-73 00 || 45:0 10:98
525 | O15 | 3:72 | 3:75 | +-03 || 50-0 11°58
561 | 057 | 405 | 3:88 | —-17 || 55:0 12:14
582 | 0-72 | 3:90 | 3:95 |+-05 || 60:0 12°68
6:0 4:01 65:0 13°20
6-47 | 0-27 | 414 | 416 | +-02 || 70:0 13°70
674 | 054 | 432 | 4:25 | —:07 | 75°0 90 |14:23 | 14:18 |—-05
+°66
— 54
4-12
Mean..|-+-004
It appeared to me at one time matter of doubt, whether waves very low in
height were not somewhat slower than the velocity of the formula, and those
of a large size somewhat more rapid. To determine this point, Tables IV.
and V. were prepared, the former consisting of larger waves, the latter of
smaller. It can scarcely be said that these tables, which are arranged exactly
as the previous one, establish any distinction in this respect.
| des
330 REPORT—1844.
To render the results of all these experiments still more appreciable, they
are graphically laid down in Plate XLVIIL., the stars representing the indi-
vidual experiments, and the line the formula. The coincidence is satisfactory.
Taste IV. TABLE V.
Velocity of larger Waves. Velocity of smaller Waves.
A. | B. C. | D. | £. A. B. | ¢, p. | 5.
10 1:63
105 | 0:5 1:64 | 167 |+-03
162 | 0:32 | 2:06 | 2:08 |+-02 1:30 | O15 | 1-84 | 186 |+-02
2:0 2°31
| 2:19 | 9:29 | 2:30 | 2-42 |+-12
3°84 | 0°92 | 3:24 | 3:21 |—-03 30 2°83
39 0:96 | 3:33 | 3:23 |—-10 3:10 | 0-16 | 2:87 | 288 |+-01
3°97 | 0:81 | 3:26 | 3:26) -00 3:23 | 015 | 2:99 | 2:94 |—-05
4:49 | 0:42) 346 | 3:47 |+-01 4:00 | 0-19 | 3:33 | 3:27 |—-06
452 | 0°56 | 3:47 | 3:48 4-01 408 | 0-13 | 3:24 | 3:30 |+:-06
4°61 0:74 | 352 | 351 |—-01 420 | O13 | 3:33 | 3:35 |+-02
475 | 08 3°52 | 3:56 |+-04 4-31 | 0:24 | 3-40 | 3:40 “00
5°61 | 0°57 | 4:05 | 3:88 |—-17 50 3°66
5:80 | 07 4:0 3:94 |—-06 5:20 | 0:10 | 3:73 | 3:73 00
5°82 | 0:72 | 3:90 | 3:95 |+-05 5:25 | 0-15 | 3-72 ane +:03
6-0 4:
675 | O5 413 | 4:25 |+-12 640 | 015 | 404 | 4:14 |+4:10
686 | O61 | 421 | 4:28 |'07 6°47 | 027 | 414 | 416 |+°02
6:9 07 4:29 | 4:30 +-01 674 | 054 | 4382 | 425 |—-07
7°82 | 078 | 4538 | 457 |+-04 70 4:33
784 | 0:8 443 | 458 |4°-15 7:33 | 029 | 439 | 4:43 |4°04
787 | 0°83 | 453 | 4:59 |+-06 7:44 | 0:40 | 4:44 | 446 |+-02
8:0 0:78 | 453 | 4:63 |+°10 8-0 4-63
4:68" +47
— 37 —'18
|+-31 4:29
Mean..|+°017 Mean..|+°018
Wave of the First Order not formerly described. Although many distin-
guished philosophers from the time of Sir Isaac Newton have devoted
themselves to the study of the theory of waves, I have not been able to
discover in their works anything like the prediction of a phenomenon such
as the wave of translation or the solitary wave of the first order. The waves
of the second order, or gregarious oscillations, which make their appearance
in successive groups, or long and recurring series, such oscillations of the
surface of the water as we notice on the sea, or are excited when the quies-
cent surface of a lake is disturbed by dropping a stone, and which diffuse
themselves in concentric circles around the centre of derangement; these
have long been familiar to naturalists, and have been studied, though with
comparatively little success, by philosophers. But I have not found the phe-
nomenon, which I have called the wave of the first order, or the great solitary
wave of translation, described in any observations, nor predicted in any theory
of hydrodynamics.
Unquestionably the means of making such a prediction must have existed
in any sound theory. It is, I think, pretty generally admitted that Lagrange
was quite successful in stating the general equations of fluid motion; so that
it was only necessary to obtain complete solutions of these equations to ex-
hibit the formule of all motion consistent with the maintenance of continuity
of the fluid and obedience to the laws of motion and pressure. After find-
q
ss
—_ ON WAVES. 331
° ema
_ ing the general equations for the motion of incompressible fluids in the ‘Mé-
- eanique Analytique, part 2. sect. ix., Lagrange says, “ Voila les formules
les plus générales et les plus simples pour la détermination rigoureuse du
mouvement des fluides. La difficulté ne consiste plus que dans leur intégra-
tion ;” and then he adds elsewhere, ‘“‘ malheureusement elles sont si rebelles,
qu’on n’a pu jusqu’a présent en venir 4 bout que dans des cas trés-limités.”
Indeed, ever since the publication of Euler's general formula for the motion
of fluids in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, 1755, the
whole phenomena of fluids in all conditions may be considered as having
been represented. But.the phenomena have remained there till now, locked
up without any one to open, and amongst the rest I presume the wave of the
first order.
There is one point, however, in which the analysis of M. Lagrange has
appeared to make an approach to the representation of one of the phenomena
peculiar to the wave of translation. In section xii. of part 2. of the ‘ Mé-
canique Analytique,’ he investigates the propagation of vibrations in elastic
fluids (like those of sound through the atmosphere), and obtains an equation
dy? dx®*
from which he afterwards deduces the well-known law that sound is propa-
gated with a velocity (nearly) equal to that which is due to gravity, acting
freely through a height equal to half the depth of the atmosphere (supposed
homogeneous and of uniform density). And again, elsewhere he finds for the
propagation of wave motion in a liquid in a channel with a level bottom, and
_ a depth a, the equation
ao _ (F179).
de ga( e+e
_ and from the similarity of this to the former equation, he argues as follows:
« Ainsi comme la vitesse de la propagation du son se trouve égale a celle qu'un
_ corps grave acquerrait en tombant de la moitié de la hauteur de l’atmosphére
supposée homogéne, la vitesse de la propagation des ondes sera la méme que
celle qu'un corps grave acquerrait en déscendant d'une hauteur égale a la
_ moitié de la profondeur de l'eau dans le canal.”
Had this result been of the same general nature with the original equations
from which it is deduced, we should have been able to assign to the analysis
of M. Lagrange the honour of having predicted in 1815 the wave of the first
order, never distinctly recognised by observation till 1834. Unhappily the
nature of his investigation precludes us from doing so, and he goes on himself
to admit that this conclusion will only apply to such waves as are infinitely
small, and agitate the water to a very small depth below the surface. “On
pourra toujours employer la théorie précédente, si on suppose que dans la
formation des ondes l'eau n’est ébranlée et remuée qu’a une profondeur trés-
petite.” The wave of the first order bears as its characteristics, the observed
phenomena, that the agitation does extend below the surface to the very
bottom of the channel, where it is quite as great as at the surface, and that
its oscillations are large. The essential conditions of Lagrange’s analysis be-
ing that the oscillation is minute, and that the agitation of the fiuid is con-
fined to the surface, we are precluded from the application of his formula to
the wave of the first order.
‘Ihave been led to speak thus fully of M. Lagrange’s solution, because his
result is the only one that offers a tolerable approximation to the represen-
tation of the velocity of the wave of the first order. I do not find in the re-
As
es
332 REPORT—1844,
ae ; . 2 agiveH
sults obtained by M. Poisson in his ‘ Theory of Waves,’ any result that repre-
sents the phenomena of this wave, although he shows that the solution of
Lagrange cannot either mathematically or physically be applied to consider-
able depths. Nearly all of them seem to apply only to the phenomena of the
fluid in the vicinity of the initial disturbance. The supposed method of
genesis is one also which precludes the existence of the wave of the first order.
The greater part of the investigations of M. Poisson and of M. Cauchy
under the name of wave theory, are rather to be regarded as mathematical
exercises than as physical investigations; but an account of what has been
accomplished in this way by them, and by M. Laplace, may be found in the
excellent Reports of Mr. Challis in the Transactions of the British Association,
and in the treatise of MM. Weber*.
* J think it right in this place to mention, with such distinction as I am able to bestow, a very
valuable treatise on waves, which was published nearly twenty years ago in Leipsic, by the
brothers Ernest H. Weber and William Weber, entitled ‘ Wellenlehre auf Experimente ge-
griindet, oder iiber die Wellen tropfbarer Fliissigkeiten mit Anwendung auf die Schall- und
Licht-Wellen, von den Briidern Ernst Heinrich Weber, Professor in Leipzig und Wilhelm
Weber in Halle. Mit 18 Kupfertafeln. Leipzig, bei Gerhard Fleischer, 1825.’ The work is
distinguished by more than the usual characteristics of German industry in the collection of
materials, and contains nearly all that has ever been written on waves since the time of
Newton, and as a book of reference alone is a valuable history of wave research. To this
synopsis of the labours of others is appended a valuable series of experiments by the Messrs.
Webers themselves, contrived with much ingenuity, and conducted with apparently a high
degree of accuracy, designed to illustrate, extend, contradict or confirm the various theories
that have been advanced. | have been disposed to regret that this excellent book did not reach
me till long after my own researches had advanced far towards completion. But if it had done
so, it might have diverted me from my own trains of research. As the subject now stands, it
so happens that their labours and mine do not in the least degree supersede or interfere with
each other. Our respective works may be rather reckoned as supplementary the one to the
other, inasmuch as a great part of what they have done | have not attempted, and the most
part of what I have done will not be found in any part of their work. Of the existence of my
great solitary wave of the first order they were not aware, and although I am now able to re-
cognise its influence on their results, yet owing to the nature of their experiments, it was not
likely they should recognise its existence, much less could they examine its phenomena.
The following passages serve to show that the Messrs. Weber had never recognised the ex-
istence of my solitary wave of the first order. They sayin Abschnitt 1V. Art. 87,—
“Waves make their appearance as heights and hollows upon the surface of the liquid, one
part being raised above the level surface, and another part sunk below it; hence the height
may be called the wave-ridge, and the depression the wave-hollow. These wave-ridges and
wave-hollows never come singly, but always connected with one another. This is the reason
why we do not call the wave-ridge by itself alone @ wave, nor the wave-hollow by itself alone
a wave, but simply the two conjoined.” Art. 89. ‘‘ The sum of the breadths of one wave-
ridge and of its companion wave-hollow, is called the breadth of a wave.” Art. 101. “ But
never in nature appears a wave-ridge unconnected with a wave-hollow, nor in like manner
any wave-hollow without its companion wave-ridge. Also from this reason it follows that we
can never have, during wave-motion, a particle of the fluid moved forward in its path without
immediately before or after having a contrary motion also; nor backwards, without also its
path being reversed.”
Their observations on the larger class of waves are ingeniously contrived, carefully observed,
and faithfully recorded, but lose much of the value as the basis of calculation and of general
laws from the following circumstances:—lIst, the narrowness of the channel ; that in which the
greater number of observations was made, being only 6°7 lines wide; from this cause so great
an influence was produced by the adhesion of the sides as seriously to interfere with the phe-
nomena, which ought not therefore to be considered as the phenomena of perfectly free fluids;
2, the shortness of the channels; the longest having a depth of 2 feet and only 6 feet of length;
in this case an observation of the wave of the first order was impossible; and when we add that
the wave genesis was in general produced by the descent of a water column of great height, it was
impossible that in the short period of wave transit the phenomena could attain a condition of
uniformity favourable to accurate observation, one second and a fraction of a second being the
whole period of an observation, and it being necessary to observe accurately to at least one-
twentieth of a second, the results possess little value as measures of the phenomena. In my
experiments we found that the first observations immediately after the wave genesis were the
.
7
A
_ON WAVES. 333
Having ascertained that no one had succeeded in predicting the phenome-
non which I have ventured to call the wave of translation, or wave of the
rst order, to distinguish it from the waves of oscillation of the second order,
it was not to be supposed that after its existence had been discovered and its
phenomena determined, endeavours would not be made to reconcile it with
previously existing theory, or in other words, to show how it ought to have
been predicted from the known general equations of fluid motion. In other
words, it now remained to the mathematician to predict the discovery after
it had happened, i. e. to give an @ priori demonstration @ posteriori.
Theoretical Results subsequent to the publication of the Author's Investiga-
tions.—Since the publication of my former observations on the wave of the
first order, two attempts have been made to elicit from the wave theory, as
developed by Poisson, &c., results capable of such physical interpretations as
should represent the phenomena of that order.
The first of these investigations is that of Mr. KeLLanp in the Edinburgh
Philosophical Transactions. This valuable and elegant investigation deduces
theoretically, from the general equations of fluid motion, on the hypothesis
of parallel sections, and of oscillations of the general form of the curve of
sines, the following value for the velocity of a wave,
euh —e—ah eth —e—ah
eal x cat eo} 5.42. feat) Lene [C.]
€ being the semi-elevation, 2 the depth in repose, A the length of the wave,
¢ the velocity of transmission.
This expression gives values for the velocity of the wave which Mr. Kel-
land has himself compared with my experiments as follows :—
Theoretical value when h=3'97 and Ze=0°53, is e=2°8693
Observed value c=3'38,
showing the error in defect = ~% or -= of the whole theoretical velocity.
92
Teast accurate and the least valuable, and these are the only observations employed by MM.
Weber in their larger wave observations. Further, as they did not recognise at all the possi-
bility of the existence of the solitary wave of the first order, nor the difference of its pheno-
mena from the negative waves, nor the distinction of waves into separate first and second orders,
they have mingled together the observations and phenomena of both. Thus have they failed
to recognise the existence of the law of the velocity which I have elicited.
~ Nevertheless, their observations are very valuable, and furnish interesting information to,one
“already master of my observations. In their very deviations from the laws exhibited by my
‘observations, they become instructive as manifesting and enabling us to measure the amount of
those interfering influences which diminished the value of their experiments when taken by
themselves. {or this purpose I have taken some of their experiments and placed them beside
the results of mine; the effects of adhesion to the sides, and of more or less perfect. fluidity,
are well manifested in the difference of the results. It is however to be remembered that in
point of accuracy and precision, and also of weight, the shortness of period and path in their
“observations diminish their value.
These remarks, which I make with perfect deference, are designed to apply only to the large
‘class of waves to which chiefly I have directed my attention; the observations on dropping
‘waves, and all those made with reference to the phenomena of light and sound, are to be
‘exempted from these remarks. I desire that my experiments should enhance rather than
‘derogate from the value of those of my estimable predecessors, and I wish rather by these
Statements to make an apology to them for having arrived at different conclusions, by showing
‘that the methods I chanced to light upon, and the circumstances in which I observed, were
“more favourable than those which they happened to employ. I only aspire to having brought
toa more favourable conclusion what they had most meritoriously begun under circumstances
Tess propitious; my having arrived at different conclusions is probably more owing to the
chance of my being ignorant of their methods when I began, and alighting by chance upon
‘better; for had I known of their elegant apparatus at first, it is not improbable that I should
‘have been satisfied to adopt what so much ingenuity had contrived, and so failed to extend the
‘subject beyond the conclusions they had attained.
FS
334 REPORT—1844. q
Another example: hag
Theoretical value (when h=1 and 2e=0'3) e=1°547
Observed value c=1°8,
showing the error in defect = —+ of the whole theoretical velocity.
Again,
~Theoretical value (when h=7-04 and 2e=0'89) e=4°0
Observed value c=4'6,
showing the error in defect = —+ of the whole theoretical velocity.
I think it due to Mr. Kelland to say, that notwithstanding all the anxiety
for success which naturally exists in the mind of one who has bestowed much
time and talent on perfecting, as he has done, an elegant theory ; he has not
yielded to the temptation of twisting his theory to exhibit some apparent ap-
proximation to the facts, nor distorted the facts to make them appear to serve
the theory, a proceeding not without precedent; but he has candidly stated
the discrepancy, and says, ‘my solution can only be regarded as an approx-
imation, nor does it very accurately agree with observation.” This is a can-
dour which cannot be too highly valued, and can only be justly appreciated
by those who have, as I have, after working at a favourite theory, it may be
for months and years, found it necessary to abandon it, and make the sacri-
fice for the sake of truth with readiness and candour.
Mr. Arry has followed Mr. Kelland over the same ground, in an elaborate
paper on waves inthe ‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana,’ published since the greater
part of this Report was ready for the press. This paper I have long expected
with much anxiety, in the hope that it would furnish a final solution of this
difficult problem, or at least tend to reduce the number and extent of the un-
happy discrepancies between the wave-prediction and the wave-phznomena,
a hope justified by the reputation and position of the author, as well as by
the clear views and elegant processes which characterize some of his former
papers.
Mr. Airy has obtained for the velocity of a wave, an expression of a form
closely resembling that which Mr. Kelland had previously obtained, viz.
a emk__—¢—mk
i ee Ce a his ee ee
m 5 emk 4. e—mk y
From the resemblance of this form of expression to the form previously
given by Mr. Kelland, we are prepared for the conclusion that Mr. Airy has
advanced in this direction little beyond his predecessor. And we accordingly
find that a theory of the wave of the first order, accurately representing this
characteristic pheenomenon, is still wanting, a worthy object for the enterprise
of a future wave-mathematician.
I have already stated that I have found, that by introducing the element of
the wave’s height into Lagrange’s formula, I get the expression
v= VG(h+k),
and that I find it represent with great accuracy the characteristic velocity of
the wave of the first order. As however Mr. Airy appears to intimate to
his readers that his own formula is as close an approximation to my experi-
ments as the nature of these experiments will warrant, I have thought it ne-
cessary to make a complete re-examination of my experiments, and to make a
laborious comparison of the phenomena discussed after the best modern me-
thods employed in inductive philosophy ; the results of these discussions I have
presented in a series of graphic representations, which will enable the reader
at once to attain a sound conclusion on the question, whether the formula
ON WAVES. ' 335
Mr. Airy has adopted, or that which I have always used, more truly repre-
sents the phenomena.
In the following table, E represents the velocity of the wave of the first
order as taken from my observations by Mr. Airy himself. I have placed
beside these results of experiments, the number given in column F, by the
formula which I use to represent them. In the next four columns are Mr.
Airy’s numbers, calculated by himself, according to four different formule,
which he appears here to have applied as a sort of tentative process for the
purpose of selecting the one which should prove on trial least defective. I
haye next given five columns, which exhibit the results of comparing the phe-
nomena of experiment with the results of the formule. The first of these
columns represents the defects of my formula, the others those of Mr. Airy’s.
The results of the first table are as follows :—
The errors of Mr. Airy’s first column amount to.......... 2635
The errors of Mr. Airy’s second column amount to........ 1994
The errors of Mr. Airy’s third column amount to ........ 1674
The errors of Mr. Airy’s fourth column amount to........ 1680
he jerrors, of, MiheamOUNt-to iw. 90s ow Ee wren 406
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s first column is.... S09
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s second column is.. 690
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s third column is .. 463
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s fourth column is.. 575
The greatest error of mine is ...............4.. 87
The results of the second table are as follows :—
The errors of Mr. Airy’s first column amount to.......... 6157
The errors of Mr. Airy’s second column amount to........ 3350
The errors of Mr. Airy’s third column amount to ........ 3296
” The errors of Mr. Airy’s fourth column amount to........ 2274
aie errors Of Mine AMOUR tO. . 6. 6.eseess cues ea eieees 447
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s first column is.... 911
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s second column is.. 689
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s third column is .. 473
The greatest error of Mr. Airy’s fourth column is.. 480
Mie greatest error of mine is .................. 122
Taste VI.
Small Waves.
Column A is a mean height of wave crest. Ast ee
A
» 5 the selected examples from which A is taken. fr
C the depth of the fluid in repose. Ded +t vad
D the height of the wave. vg hy DY
E the velocity of the wave observed. are &
F the velocity of the wave as given by my formula.
» G the velocity of the wave as given by Mr. Airy’s first formula.
H the velocity of the wave as given by Mr. Airy's second formula.
K the velocity of the wave as given by Mr. Airy’s third formula.
» LL the velocity of the wave as given by Mr. Airy’s fourth formula.
» F" the difference between observation and my formula.
» G! the difference between observation and Mr. Airy’s first formula.
» H' the difference between observation and Mr. Airy’ssecond formula.
» K’ the difference between observation and Mr. Airy’s third formula.
» L’ the difference between observationand Mr, Airy’sfourthformula.
* Excluding 5:21.
REPORT—1844.
B. of! fp. peas, a Pie Sa ae oa
Fal {
1:075 | 1:05 and 1-10 | 1-000 | 0-075 | 1-670 | 1:697 | 1-629 | 1-689 | 1°803 | 1-747
13 13 1-150 | 0-150 | 1-810 | 1-867 || 1-744 | 1°854 | 2-057 | 1-958
3:17 |3:09—3:23 {2-963 | °207 | 2-860 | 2-915 || 2:702 | 2-795 | 2-972 | 2-885
rm 3 3°32 and 3°40 | 3-080 | +280 | 2-960 3-002 || 2-747 | 2:869 | 3-099 | 2-986
4: 40 —431 3-903 | -256 | 3310 3:340 || 3-016 | 3:114 | 3:300 | 3-208
§°34 | 5:20—5-5* 5-088 | -252 | 3-758 | 3-784 | 3-303 | 3°384 | 3-540 | 3-463
6:52 |64 —6°65 6-220 | -304 | 4-094 | 4-181 || 3-495 | 3-579 | 3-742 | 3-662
751 | 7-42—7:7 7-040 A474 | 4-406 4-488 || 3:597 | 3°716 | 3-943 | 3°831
Differences.
PF’. G. H’. K’. Ll.
4+:027| — -041 | + -019 | 4+ +133 | + -077
4-057, — -066 | + -044 | + -247 | 4 -148
+055) — -158 | — 065 | + ‘112 | + -025
+°042) — -213 |— 091 |+ °139 |+ ‘026
+030) — -294 | — -196 | — -010 | — -102
+026) — 455 | — 374 | — -218 | — -295
“087; — -599 | — -515 | — -352 | — -432
+082) — -809 | — ‘690 | — -463 | — ‘575
4406, —2°635 | —1-981 | —1-043 | —1-404
+ -063 | +--631 | + 276
“406, —2'635 | 1-994 | 1-674 | 1-680
Taste VII.
Large Waves.
Columns A, B, C, &c. correspond to those in Table VI.
A. gal hy D. E. F. eo ee K. ‘
1:20 | 1:20 1:000 | 0-200 | 1-760 | 1-794 || 1-629 | 1-785 | 2-061 | 1-928
1:62 | 1-62 1:300 | -320 | 2-060 | 2-083 || 1-858 2-072 | 2-446 | 2-267
2:19 |2:19 1-900 | -290 | 2-300 | 2-422 || 2-217 | 2380 | 2-677 | 2-533
3°38 | 3°35—3'41 2960 | -420 | 3-010 | 3-010 || 2°701 | 2-887 | 3-225 | 3-061
3:55 135 —3-61 3-020 | -532 | 3-080 | 3°085 || 2-724 | 2-954 | 3°368 | 3-168
3°83 |3:69—3:°97 |3:007 | -830 | 3-252 | 3-204 || 2-719 | 3:072 | 3-677 | 3-388
4:53 | 4:4 —4°75 3°910 | -625 | 3-505 | 3-485 || 3-018 | 3-250 | 3°671 | 3-467
| 521 5-21 3:870 | 1:340 | 3-820 | 3°738 || 3-007 | 3°488 | 4:293 | 3-911
5:76 |5:61—5'82 | 5-070 | 0-692 | 3:970 | 3-930 | 3:300 | 3-518 | 3-917 | 3723
6:24 |6:15—6-40 | 5-080 | 1-160 | 4-170 | 4-090 || 3:302 | 3°659 | 4-286 | 3-985
6:69 |6:69—7:20 | 6-034 | 0-823 | 4-262 | 4-234 || 3-468 |3°697 | 4117 | 3-912
7:33 | 7:74—8-0 6°946 | 0°884 | 4497 | 4-582 || 3-586 | 3°808 | 4-216 | 4-017
4 a “ON WAVES. 337
Differences.
F G! H!. K! L
4-034) — -131 | + -025 |+ -301 | + -168
4-023) — -202 | + -012 | 4+ -386 | 4 -207 4
4-193] — -083 | + -080 | 4+ -377 | +4 -233
+-00 | — -309 | — -123 | 4 -215 |+ -051
+:005| — -356 | — -126 |+ -288 |+ -088
—-048| — -533 |— -180 | 4+ -425 |4 -136
—-020| — -487 | — -255 |-+ -166 | — -038
—:082| — -813 | — -332 |+ -473 | + °091
—-040| — -670 | — -452 | — -053 | — -247
—-080| — ‘868 | — ‘511 | + -116 | — -185
—-028} — -794 | — °565 | — °145 | — -350
+-085) — -911 | — -689 | — -281 | — -480
—-298| —6-157 | —3-233 | +2-747 | + -974
4-269 + 117 |— -479 | —1:300
567| 6-157 3°350 3°226 2-274
The conclusion which Mr. Airy deduces from this comparison is somewhat
surprising, “we think ourselves fully entitled to conclude from these experi-
ments that the theory (Mr. Airy’s) is entirely supported”! This conclusion
being so completely the opposite of that to which we should be led on the
same grounds, it has appeared necessary to make a still more complete re-
_ examination and discussion of all the experiments in our possession, to see
_whether from any or the whole of them there should appear to be any ground
for a conclusion so contrary to the apparent phenomena.
Ihave, therefore, directed the whole of the experiments to be re-discussed *.
They are graphically represented in the diagrams on Plates XLVIII. and
-XLIX., which, and the description, the reader is requested to examine care-
fully. The result of the whole is, that there is an irresistible body of evidence
in favour of the conclusion that: Mr. Airy’s formule do not present anything
like even a plausible representation of the velocity of the wave of the first
order, and that the formula I have adopted does as accurately represent them
as the inevitable imperfections of all observations will admit. It is deeply
to be deplored that the methods of investigation employed with so much
knowledge, and applied with so much tact and dexterity, should not have led
him to a better result.
Taste VIII.
Re-discussion of the Observations by the Method of Curves.
The observations of height and time were laid down on paper, as shown in
Plate XLIX. (see description), each star representing an individual obser-
vation of height or time. The curves being drawn through among the ob-
servations, were taken to represent the corrected observations, and the velocity
was then deduced from the corrected observation of dime and height. The
table consists of results of this process.
Column A gives the corrected depth in inches (4+) of my formula.
hte B gives the corrected time in seconds employed in describing
eet.
: * For the accuracy and good faith with which these discussions were all conducted, I am
indebted to my valued assistant Mr. I. Currie.
1844. P
338
REPORT—1844.
Column C gives the derived velocity of the wave.
Column D gives the characteristic number of the individual wave as ob-
served (see former Report).
These results are compared with my formula in Plate XLIX,
t —
oe
12-7} 3-15|
12-6] 3°17)
3-84! 12-5] 3-20!
3:97| 12-4] 3-22
3°97| 12°5| 3-20
4-00) 12-3) 3:25
4-03) 12-1} 3-30
3°41
4-49) 11°6) 3-44
4-04| 12-2] 3:27,
4-06) 12:1] 3:30,
4-08) 12°0| 3:33
4-11) 11-9] 3:36, ©
4-15) 11-8] 3:39)
4-20) 11-8] 3:39
Column A gives the depth in inches reckoned from the wave crest.
Column B gives the observed time of describing 40 feet, * the observations
D.
| A.
| 8
| 4-24
| 430
| 4°36
\\ 4°43
| 405
. 4:06
4-08
| 4:10
412
12:3) 8°25
12-2) 3:27
12:2) 3-27
12°1/ 3:30
12:0) 3:33
4:14) 12:0/ 3:33
4:17) 11:9) 3°36
4-20) 11-9] 3°36
| 4-23] 11-9 3°36
3°39
3°39
3°41
3°41
344
3°27
3°30
3°33
3°36
11:8 3°39
3°41
3°44
3°47
3°47
3°50
3°54
3°54
3°57
3°57
3°60
4:95) 11-1
ie)
/
10-2
10°15
10-1
10:0
10:0
6-2 | 10-0
6°29) 9-95 | 4:02
6°37| 9:9 |4:04
6:43) 9:8 | 4:08
6°38) 9-95 | 4-02
6:39} 99 |4-04
6:40) 9°8 4-06)
50
A. B Cc D.
& ft.
6:41) 9:8 | 4:08
42) 9-8 | 4-08
6°44) 9-7 | 4-12
6:46 9-7 | 4:12
6°48] 9-7 | 4:12
651) 9-7 | 4:12
6:54) 9-6 | 4:16
6:57| 9-6 | 4:16
6°60) 9:5 | 4:21
6°63] 9-5 | 4:21)
6°68 4-21
6.73 4-21
6:78 4:25
6°83) 9-4 | 4:25
6°89] 9-4 | 4:25
6°95| 94 | 4:25
7:02| 9-4 | 4:25
7:19) 9°3 | 4:80
6°70) 9°16) 4:16
6°81/ 9:5 | 4:21
6°95] 9-4 | 4:25
7:10 4:30) &
7:30 4°34
7'52. 4°39
7°66 4-44
671 4-25
6:79 4°30
6:92 4:34
7-20| 9-1 | 4-39}
754 4-44
775 4:49
7:82 4-54
TABLE IX.
thus marked being over half that space.
Column C gives the observed velocity.
Column D is a reference to the ordinal number of the wave observed.
The close approximation of these velocities of observation with the num-
bers of the formula, proves at once the accuracy of the one and the truth o
the other.
Velocity due to a Wave of the First Order,
Obtained from the re-discussion of the experiments as described above.
Nii ON WAVES. | 339
A. | meer.) | Ae ee eo. De eae | Be ee D. A. | B. | G)') D.
Ss. ft. ) Ss, ft. | s. | ft. Ss. ft
15 /10-1* | 1:98] 35 || 4-0 | 12:5 |3-20) 3 || 4:5/11:5'3°47) 15 || 5:5 |10-5| 3-80) 46
2:0| 8-7* | 2:30) 36 || 4:0 | 11:8 | 3:39} 25 |) 4:5] 12-0/ 3°33) 17 || 6:0) 9-9 4:04) 43
25 | 7-2*|2'77| 86 || 4:0 | 6-0*| 3°33) 37 || 4:5) 11:7) 3:42) 19 6-0 |10-:0| 4:0 | 45
2-5 | 8'4* | 2-38] 35 || 4:0 | 6-1*| 3-27) 88 || 4:5] 12°3/3:25) 23 || 6:0/10:0)4-0 | 46
3:0 | 7:5* | 2-66] 40 || 4:0 | 6-0*| 3:33) 39 || 5:0) 11-1) 3:60 8 | 65 | 9-5 | 4°21) 46
3-0 | 7-4*| 2-70) 41 | 4:0 | 6-2*| 3-22) 40 || 5-0} 11:4) 3:50)9 and 10) 6:5) 9-8 | 4:08) 49
35 113-7 | 2:92) 25 |/4-5 | 11:5 |3-47) 1 5:0} 10:9} 3°67; 15 6-5 | 9-7 |'4-12| 50
8:5 128 | 3°12) 26 || 4:5 |11°6 |3-45) 2 || 5-0) 10-7/3:738) 17 || 7-0| 9:3) 4:3 | 46
35! 64*| 3-12) 37 ||4:5 |12:0 |3:33) 4 || 5-0} 10-9)3°67| 19 || 7:5) 9:2) 4-35) 53
35 | 62*| 3-22) 38 ||4-5 | 11-8 | 3°39) 5 5:0|11:2}3:57| 22 || 75) 9:0| 4-44) 55
3:5 | 6:5*|3-07| 40 [14-5 |11-4 |3°50) 6 || 5-0} 11:1)3:60) 23 8:0} 8-9 | 4:49) 51
| 85! 65*| 3:07) 41 || 4:5 | 11:5 |3:47) 7 || 5-5| 11-0) 3-63)9 and 10)| 8-0} 8-7/4°6 | 52
| 85 12°8 |3°12) 42 1145 |11-5 | 3-47) 8 55 10°6| 3°77 43 || 8:0} 8:6) 4:65) 54
pao 123 |3°25| 2 ||4°5 | 11-5 | 3-47) 13 | 5-5) 103/3°88) 45 || 8-0) 89] 4:49) 55
The Magnitude and Form of the Wave of the First Order.—This is one of
the subjects to which, since the date of the former Report, I have devoted a
good deal of attention. The exact determination of the dimensions and
form of the wave, although at first sight it may seem simple enough, is not
without peculiar difficulties. When it is observed that the two extremities
of the wave are vertices of curves of very small curvature tangent to the
plane of repose, it will be understood how difficult it is to detect the place of
contact with precision. A variety of methods have been tried: reflexion of
an image from the surface, tarigent points applied to the surface so as to be
observed simultaneously at both ends of the wave, and the self-registration
_ of a float moved by the wave have all been tried with various success. On
the whole, however, the most perfect observations have been obtained by a
very simple autographic method, in which it was contrived that the wave
‘should leave its own outline delineated on the surface without the interven-
‘tion of any mechanism*. The method was simply this: a dry smooth surface
was placed over the surface of the water in the channel, with such arrange-
ments that it could be moved along with the velocity of transmission of the
wave, and at the instant of observation it was pushed vertically down on the
wave, and raised out again without sensibly disturbing the water; the sur-
as when brought out, brought with it a moist outline of the wave, which
‘was immediately traced by pencil, and afterwards transferred to paper. IL
lhave given a few of these autographic types of the wave in Plates L. and LL,
the engravings being precise copies of the lines as drawn by the wave itself.
Another method of obtaining an autographic representation of waves of -
the first order was this. Two waves were generated at opposite ends of the
same channel at given instants of time, so that by calculating their velocities
they should both reach a given spot at the same instant; here a prepared sur-
face was placed, and as one passed over the other it left a beautiful outline
of the excess in height of each point of one wave above the summit height
of the other. These forms are not identical with those of the same wave
_ Moving along a plane surface, but as true registers of actual phenomena they
are interesting.
The results of all my observations on this subject are as follows :—
__ That the wave of the first order has a definite form and magnitude as
much characteristic of it as the uniform velocity with which it moves, and
* T find that Iam not the first person who employed an apparatus of this sort. MM.
Webers employed a powdered surface to register the form of agitated mercury, the fluid
rubbing off the powder.
ZQ2
340 REPORT—1844.
depending like that velocity only on the depth of the fluid and the height of
the wave crest.
That this wave-form has its surface wholly raised above the level of repose
of the fluid. This is what I mean to express by calling this wave wholly po-
sitive. I apply the word negative to another kind of wave whose surface ex-
hibits a depression below the surface of repose. The wave-proper of the first
order is wholly positive.
The simple elementary wave of the first order assumes a definite length
equal to about six times the depth of the fluid below the plane of repose.
When the height of the wave is small the length does not sensibly differ from
that of the circumference of a circle whose radius is the depth of the fluid;
or / being the depth of the fluid in repose, the length of the wave is repre-
sented by the quantity 27h, r being the number 3°14159, we may use this
notation,
Neseehteiinneiie Ad ov oi Ee
The length, therefore, increases with the depth of the fluid directly, being
equal to about 6°28 times the depth. The length does not, like the velocity
of the wave, increase with the height of the wave in a given depth of fluid.
On the contrary, the length appears to diminish as the height of the wave is
increased, and the length of the wave when thus corrected is
NOT 4s a ey P's
the value of a will be afterwards examined. ;
The form of the wave surface when not large is a surface of single curva-
ture, the curvature being in the longitudinal and vertical planes alone, and
the curve is the curve of sines, or rather of versed sines, the horizontal ordi-
nates of which vary as the arc and the vertical ordinates, as the versines of a
circle whose radius is the depth of the fluid in repose, 27h being the length
of the wave, and 2m an are of that circle =0. We have for the equation of
m
the wave curve, eli aa
Y= shave OG «so «Ge
the height of the wave being denoted by 2, reckoned above the plane of re-
pose of the surface of the fluid.
The height of the wave above the surface of the water in repose may in-
crease till it be equal to the depth of the fluid in repose. When it approaches
this height.it becomes acuminate, finally cusped, and falls over breaking and
foaming with a white crest. The limits of the wave height are, therefore,
k=Osand kh YK.
that is to say, the height of the wave may increase from 0 to &, but can never
exceed a height above the level of repose equal to the depth of the fluid in
repose; that is, the height total reckoned from the bottom is never greater than —
twice the depth of the fluid in repose.
The absolute Motions of each Water-Particle during Wave- Transmission.
—This is one of the subjects on which, prior to last Report, I had not made
a sufficient number of observations to enable me to make a full report. The
methods I had employed for such observations as I had then already made,
were the observation of the motions of smail particles visible in the water of
the same, or nearly the same specific gravity with water, or small globules of
wax connected to very slender stems, so as to float at required depths. The
motions of these were observed from above, on a minutely divided surface on
the bottom of the channel, and from the side through glass windows, them-
"ON WAVES. 341
selves accurately graduated, the'side of the channel opposite to the window
being covered with lines at distances precisely equal to those on the window
and similarly situated. These methods are the only methods of observation
I have found it useful to employ, but I have now increased the number and
variety of the observations sufficiently to enable me to adduce the conclusions
hereinafter following, as representing the phenomena as far as their nature
will admit of accurate observation.
It is characteristic of waves that the apparent motion visible on the surface
of the water is of one species, while the absolute motion of the individual par-
ticles of the water is very different. In reference to all the species of waves
this is true, both as regards the velocity and nature of the motion; nevertheless
the one is the immediate cause or consequence of the other. In the case of
the wave of the first order, the visible motion of the wave form along the sur-
face of the water may be called the motion of transmission, the actual motion
of the particles themselves is to be distinguished as the motion of translation.
_ We infer the motions of the individual wave particles from those of visible
‘small bodies floating in the water; any minute particle floating on the surface
will sufficiently indicate the motion of the water particles about it, and the
motion of deeper particles may be conveniently observed in the case of waves
of the first order, by using the little globules of wax already mentioned ;
these small globules may be so made as to float permanently at any given
depth, yet they will be visibly affected by very minute forces.
In this way the following observations were made:
~ Absolute Motion of Translation—The phenomenon of translation charac-
teristic of the wave of the first order, and which we have used as its distin-
guishing appellation, is to be observed as follows. Floating globules, as
already described, being placed in the fluid, and their positions being noted
with reference to the sides and bottom of the channel, let a wave of the first
order be transmitted along the fluid; it is found that the effect of this trans-
mission is to lift each of the floating particles, and similarly, therefore, the
water particles themselves, out of their positions, and to transfer them perma-
nently forward to new positions in the channel, and in these new positions
the particles are left perfectly at rest, as in their original places in the channel.
The measure or range of translation is just equal to that which would re-
sult from increasing the column of water in the channel behind the wave by
a given quantity, and diminishing the column anterior to the particles by the
same quantity, that quantity being equal to the volume of the wave. That
is to say, the range of translation is simply equal to the space in length of the
channel which the volume of the wave would occupy on the level of the water
in repose.
__ The total effect of having transmitted a wave of the first order along a
channel, is to have moved successively every particle in the whole channel
forward, through a space equal to the volume of the wave divided by the
water-way of the channel.
Parallelism of Translation.—If the floating spherules before mentioned be
arranged in repose in one vertical plane at right angles to the direction of
transmission, and carefully observed during transmission, it will be noticed
tha the particles remain in the same plane during transmission and repose
in the same place after transmission.
Tt is further found, as might be anticipated from the foregoing observa-
tions, that 2 thin solid plane transverse to the direction of transmission, and
SO poised as to float: in that position, does not sensibly interfere with the
motion of translation or of transmission.
“The Range of Horizontal Translation is equal at all Depths—Vertical ex-
342 REPORT—1844.
cursions are performed by each particle of fluid simultaneously with the hori-
zontal translation. These diminish in extent with the distance from the
bottom when they become zero.
The Path of each Water Particle during Translation lies wholly in a Ver-
tical Plane-—It may be observed by means of the glass windows already
mentioned, its surface being graduated for purposes of measurement. The
path is so rapidly described that I do not think any measurements of time
which I have made, nor even of paths is minutely correct. The following
observations are such as a practised eye with long experience and much pains
has made out.
When a wave of the first order in transmission makes a transit over float-
ing particles in a given transverse plane, the observations are as follows.
All the particles begin to rise, scarcely advancing; they next advance as
well as rise; they cease to rise but continue advancing; they are retarded
and come to rest, descending to their original level. The path appears to be
an ellipse whose major axis is horizontal and equal to the range of translation ;
the semi-minor axis of the elliptic path is equal to the height of the waye near
the surface, and diminishes directly with the depth.
The results of these observations are, therefore, as follows :—representing
by 6 the breadth of the channel, by 4 the depth of the fluid, by @ the range
of translation, and by v the volume of water employed in forming the waves;
we have for every particle throughout the breadth and depth of the fluid
v
= a ny 6 oF
bh (1)
which everywhere measures the horizontal range of translation.
The range of vertical motion of each particle at the surface during trans-
lation being everywhere
ites vis coniwe wha)
we have for the vertical range y' of any other particle at a depth A’ below
the surface,
a
a, yen (aR
being directly as the height of the particle in repose above the bottom of the
channel.
Also throughout the whole period of translation we have the height of a
particle of the surface above its place of repose represented by
1 SOM ag wine sna ~ Dg)
and the height of any other particle in the same vertical plane at the same
place represented by
/
y'=4 versin 6 «)) »humnieonglee
The whole of these results are united in the following Table of wave phzno-
mena,
TABLE X.
Phenomena of Wave of the First Order.
Let ¢ be the velocity of wave transmission ;
A the depth of fluid in repose ;
k the height of wave-crest above surface of repose ;
b breadth of channel ;
Siri
ON VIAVES, 343
»-w the volume of fluid constituting the wave ;
© g the measure of gravity ;
a the horizontal range of translation ;
A the wave length or amplitude ;
Qe é 3
@ an arc —, m being an arbitrary number ;
m
w the arc whose sine = 3 versed sine of 0;
m the number 3°1416;
m' the circumference of an ellipse whose axes are given ;
x and y horizontal and vertical ordinates of wave-curve ;
zx' and y’! horizontal and vertical ordinates of translation-path ;
h' the height of a particle in repose, above the bottom of the channel.
Then we have
(1.) For velocity of wave transmission,
eV g(hthk) + 2 + se tt te ee ew eB.
= gh nearly, whenhissmall . . . . . .. A.
(2.) For the wave length,
A=2rh—«a Phar hi peelc Won Mt
=2rh nearly, when & is small
(3.) For the range of translation,
v
sai | always,
= wk when & is small, = 2 & nearly when & is large L.
(4.) For the wave form,
a=ho—x'=hd, when & is small
Sie ROTM (oa. 0) at b5'68 itn" otw ected Ata ieee
(5.) For the path of translation,
x'=«@ versin ol
y' =k versin 6 SOAs i, a c
ba
'
and below the surface at M!,y/=7 . versin TaD RS Olan eines ARE =
(6.) The limits of the value of & are as follows :—
Inferior limit k=0, and A=A superior limit . . ... .. K.
_ (7.) The range of vertical motion of a particle during translation being
y=k at the surface; the range of vertical motion of any other particle at the
height h above the bottom is
Mapes iie inion. dion Visnigion adie
Geometrical Representation of the Wave of the First Order-—These data
enable to approximate to the exact conception of the motions of the wave
particles, and the relations which the wave form and the particle path bear to
each other. We may thus construct a geometrical representation of the wave
motion, which, however, is to be carefutly distinguished from a physical de-
termination of its phenomena.
Let us then endeavour to follow the motion of a given particle on the sur-
face of the fluid during the wave form transmission.
Let us take D E for the depth of the fluid. (Plate LII. fig. 3.)
Let us take C D for the height of the wave.
Let us mark off d D d' = the circumference of the circle of which D Eis
the radius = 6°2832x D E.. Let also semicircles be described on ed and on
e'd' each equal toC D. Let the semicircles ed and c'd! and the distances
344 REPORT—1844.,
dD and D d' be divided into the same number of equal parts. Let there be
drawn through each division of the circles horizontal lines, and through each
division of the wave lengths let there be drawn perpendiculars, meeting suc-
cessively the horizontal lines in 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1.—these will be points
in the curve of versed sines, that is of the (approximate) form of the wave. If,
therefore, we conceive the wave-form to move horizontally and uniformly
along the line d Dd’, and at the same time a particle of water on the surface
to rise successively to the heights 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and fall vertically to 6, 7, 8, 9,
on the diameters ed and e¢' d', then the place of the particle will always coin-
cide with the wave curve.
This is the same form (only wholly positive) which Laplace assigns to the
tide wave in the ‘ Mécanique Céleste,’ tom. iii. liv. iv. chap. iii. Art. 17. ‘ Con-
cevons un cercle vertical, dont la cireonférence en partant du point le plus bas,
expriment les temps €écoulés depuis la basse; les sinus verses de ces arcs,
seront les hauteurs de la mer, qui correspondent a ces temps.” Or as he says
elsewhere, “ Ainsi, la mer en s’élevant, baigne en temps égal, des ares égaux
de cette circonférence.” Soif we imagine a circular disc placed vertically so
as to touch the surface of the water in repose, the passing wave will in suc-
cessive equal times cover equal successive ares of the circumference.
The wave is of this form when its height is small, and the deviation in-
creases with the increase of height.
Vertical Motion of each Particle—No more then is necessary to the exhibi-
tion of the wave curve than that every particle of the surface of the water
should be made to rise and fall successively, according to the increase and
decrease of the versed sines of the circle of height. Let us follow the mo-
tion of a single particle. Draw c'd' a vertical diameter of the wave circle,
suppose Ce fg hc! the successive places of the wave crest in successive equal
intervals of time, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, successive versed sines on ed and
c'd' of equal ares of the wave circle. When the wave centre is at C, the
particle is at d'. When the wave centre is at e, the particle has risen to 1.
When the wave centre has reached f, the water particle has risen to2. When
the wave has advanced to gh c', &c., the water particle has risen to 3, 4, 5,
&c.; and if every successive particle along the surface be conceived to per-
form successively a similar series of vertical motions, the surface of the water
will present to the eye the visible moving wave form. Such is the simplest
geometrical mode of exhibiting to the eye and of conceiving wave motion of
the first order; it approximately represents the forin of a wave of the first
order whose height is small.
Horizontal Motion of each Particle—This mode of representing the wave
motion is inaccurate, in so far as it does not take account of the horizontal
motion, which must of necessity accompany the vertical elevation of the water.
Water being an inelastic fluid, any vertical column of the liquid ean only
have its length increased by a diminution of its horizontal dimension. It is
necessary, therefore, to represent or conceive this horizontal motion as well
as the vertical motion.
The horizontal range of motion of the wave is necessarily determined by
the volume of the wave. The water which forms the wave is added to the
given volume in which the wave is formed, at its posterior extremity, and
thence displaces a new volume of water which goes to displace the volume
of the wave in the next portion of the channel. Thus the volume of water
which occupied the space A’ B'd d before the transit of the wave (see Plate
LIL. fig. 4:), occupies only the length A B éd during the wave transit, and it
now consists of the rectangle A B dd, together with the volume of the wave
A Cd, which volume is equal to the volume A B B' A’ by which it is re-
eee
ON WAVES.» . 345
placed; and this happens successively in every point of the fluid. The hori-
zontal range of motion is thus equal to the volume of water employed to form
the wave.
- While, therefore, the front of the wave is transmitted from A’ to d, the
water particle A’ is transferred to A. ‘The same particle is also raised and de-
pressed through the height of the wave. These motions in the vertical and
horizontal plane are simultaneous. It is required to represent accurately
these motions: take ce d= the height of the wave, A A’ = the range of trans-
lation: describe an ellipse whose major axis is the range of translation, and
whose semi-minor axis is the height of the wave: describe the wave circle
d 1, 2, 3, 4, c, and having divided as formerly its circumference into equal
parts, draw the horizontal ordinates 11, 22, 33, 44, &c., as in fig. 3, and let
the curve of versed sines A’ C'd be drawn as in fig. 3, then will the curve
A’ 8, 7. 6, C' 4, 3, 2, 1, d, represent the wave curve, the vertical motion only
being considered. But at the same time that the particle rises and falls through
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 on the diameter c d, and in the curve of versed
sines, the particle A’ will advance to A, through A’ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A.
Thus every point in the curve will have to be advanced forward in the direc-
tion of translation in order to represent the actual form of the wave. This is
done in fig. 4, and also for a larger wave in fig. 5. While the wave rises to
1, 2, 3, 4, C’, &c., it also advances simultaneously at each point by the quan-
tity A’1, A'2, A’3, A'4, A'5, A'6, A’7, &c., and thus the wave A'C’ d be-
comes transformed in both figures into A Cd. This curve represents the
form of the wave as corrected for the horizontal translation. Thus are re-
conciled to each other the apparently diverse motions of the particle, by one
of which it describes the observed sinuous wave surface, and by the other
the semiellipse of its path of translation.
Finally, as the motions of translation are equal and simultaneous through-
‘out all particles situated in the same vertical line, the path of translation of
each particle is an ellipse having the same major axis with that of the particle
on the surface, but having its minor axis Jess in proportion to its distance
from the surface of the liquid in repose. (See Plate XLVII. fig. 5.)
- Hence, when the wave is not large, the amplitude of the particle path or
range of translation is 3°1416 times the height of the wave; this quantity
gradually diminishes as the height increases, and becomes nearly 2° when the
height approaches the limit of equality with the height of the wave. But
near this limit it is not capable of accurate observation.
Mechanism of the Wave.—The study of the phenomena of the translation
of water particles during the transit of a wave is peculiarly valuable, as
affording us the means of correctly conceiving the real nature of wave trans-
mission of the first order; it therefore deserves great attention.
We perceive, in the first place, that the vertical arrangement of the water
particles is not deranged by wave transmission; that is, if we conceive the
whole fluid in repose to be intersected by transverse vertical planes, thin, and
of the specific gravity of water, these planes will retain their parallelism
during transmission and will not affect that transmission.
‘We may therefore accurately conceive the whole volume of water as re-
posing in rectangular vessels, each of them formed between two successive
vertical thin moveable planes, and bounded by the two sides and bottom of
the channel, and above by the plane of repose. The water in each of these
elementary vessels undergoes in successive instances the same change as each
of the others preceding it, and therefore we may direct our attention to one
individual among them.
346 REPORT—1844.
Let us study the manner in which wave motion is originally communicated
to and through each of these elementary columns of fluid.
For this purpose it may be well to recur to the original mode of wave ge-
nesis (Plate XLVII. fig. 5.). A vertical generating plane P is inserted in the
fluid, and forms one of the vertical boundaries of one of the elementary water
b be cd de h ° : :
columns. ap By yd de Sy 4 g &c. A moving force is applied
to P, and the plane communicates to the water column by: that pressure ; now
this water column is bounded on its anterior surface by a similar vertical plane
(of water particles) 3 in a state of rest, and the effect of this pressure is two-
fold, to raise the water column above the level to the height due to the velo-
city of P, and to diminish the breadth of the column in proportion to the in-
crease of length. Such is the immediate effect of pressure on the plane P.
Let us now consider the second (water) plane b ; it has now behind it a co-
lumn of water pressing it forward with a velocity due to its height above the
level of repose; it is therefore pressed forward, d@ ¢ergo, just as the plane
P originally was pressed forward, only its moving force is measured by the
pressure of the column . with a given height above the plane of repose. In
all respects the water column hs is now in the condition which in the pre-
P ab ab PERT
vious moment we found the column a8" Let us now return to = which is
pressed by the plane P with a pressure not only equal to that which raised it
to its former height, but with an accelerating force which raises it still higher,
and communicates to it a velocity due to that greater height, and also dimi-
nishes its breadth in proportion to the increment in height. This new height
: ab. ‘ :
in the column ", is a new increment of pressure on the vertical water plane
aa
ie which in its turn presses the water column in the same manner, with a
pressure due to the new height of the water column bi raises its height to that
due to this pressure, and gives it a corresponding velocity. The third water
column e is now in similar circumstances to those of its predecessor - at
the preceding instant of time, and is pressed by the plane 4 with a force due
to the height of ay and the plane C now moves forward, raises the height of
am and diminishes proportionally its breadth. The same process continues
during the acceleration of the original plane P until it ceases to be further
accelerated, and now the whole anterior half of the wave has been generated,
and the column sf is moving with the velocity due to its elevation above the
level, or the height due to the crest of the wave, having passed successively
through each of the successive conditions of the columns before it. The
force acting on P, a ergo, is now to be diminished ; the pressure back. upon
4
oh sas Mea
~
ON WAVES. 347
its surface, arising from the height of cy tends to retard the motion of P,
and as the accelerating force is diminished the retardation increases, the
whole action of the column ef being continually to retard the plane P; and
if the diminution of force take place in the same succession as the original
increments, the diminution of the velocity of P will take place in a manner
similar to that of its original increase, and it will finally be brought to rest
when the column “ has regained its level.
The same succession of conditions takes place in the plane which separates
any two successive elementary columns ; first of all the posterior surface of the
plane is pressed by a higher column than itself, tending to increase its height
and increased volocity, and having reached the maximum, the anterior surface
is thereafter pressed by a water column of greater height than the posterior
surface, retarding its velocity, and finally bringing it into a state of rest.
Thus the forces and motion of each elementary plane are repetitions of the
forces and motions of the original disturbing plane by which the wave was
generated.
The power employed in wave genesis is therefore expended in raising to
a height equal to the crest of the wave, each successive water column; each
water column, again descending, gives out that measure of power to the next
in succession, which it thus raises to its own height. The time employed in
raising a given column to this height, and in its descent and communication
of its own motion to the next in succession, constitutes the period of a wave,
and the number of such columns undergoing different stages of the process at
the same time measures the length of a wave.
During the anterior half of the wave the following processes take place.
The generating force communicates to the adjacent column through its pos-
terior bounding plane, a pressure; this pressure moves the posterior plane
forward, the water in the column is thereby raised to the height due to the
velocity, and the pressure of this water column communicates to the anterior
bounding plane also a velocity and a pressure in the same direction ; there-
fore the accelerating force produces a given motion of translation in the
whole column a height of column due to that velocity, and an approximation
_ of the anterior forces of the column to each other; these are all the forces
and the motions concerned in the matter. The motive power thus stored
during the anterior half of the wave is restored in the latter half wave length
_thus; the column raised to its greatest height presses on both its posterior
and anterior surface, on the anterior surface it presses forward the anterior
column, tending to sustain its velocity and maintain its height; on the poste-
rior column its pressure tends to. oppose the progress and retard the velocity
of the fluid in motion, and thus retarding the posterior and accelerating the
anterior surface, widens the space between its own bounding planes until it
repose once more on the original level.
The Wave a Vehicle of Power.—The wave is thus a receptacle of moving
power, of the power required to raise a given volume of water from its place
in the channel to its place in the wave, and is ready to transmit that power
through any distance along that channel with great velocity, and to replace it
at the end of its path. In doing this the motion of the water is simple and
easily understood, each column is diminished in horizontal dimension and
‘increased proportionally in vertical dimension, and again suffered to regain its
“original shape by the action of gravity. There is no transference of indivi-
dual particles through, between and amongst one another, so as to produce
348 REPORT—1844.
collisions, or any other motions which impair moving force; the particles
simply glide for the moment over each other into a new arrangement, and
retire back to their places. Thus the wave resembles that which we may
conceive to pass along an elastic column, each slice of which is squeezed into
a thinner slice, and restored by its elastic force to its original bulk, only in
the water wave the force which restores the force of each water column is
gravity, not elasticity.
To conceive accurately of the forces which operate in wave transmission,
and of the modus operandi, to understand how the primary moving force
acts on the column of fluid in repose, how this force is distributed among
the particles, to distinguish the relative and absolute motions of the particles
and the nature of the transmission of the form, and to understand how the
force operates in at once propagating itself and restoring completely to rest
those particles which form the vehicle of its transmission, is a study of much
interest to the philosopher. To show how under a given form and outline of
wave, in a given time, all and each of the individual particles of water obey-
ing every one its own impulse and that of those around it, and subject to
the laws of gravity and of the original impulse, shall describe its own path
without interfering with another's, and shall unite in the production of an ag-
gregate motion consistent with the continuity of the mass and with the laws of
fluid pressure,—this is a problem which belongs to the mathematician, which
has hitherto proved too arduous for the human intellect, and which we have
thus endeavoured to facilitate and promote by the study of the absolute forms
and phenomena of the waves themselves, and by the determination of the
actual paths and motions of the individual particles of water.
The Negative Wave of the First Order —The negative wave is a pheno-
menon whose place among waves it is somewhat difficult to assign. Its phe-
nomena partake of those of the first order. But in its genesis and propagation
it is always attended by a train of following phenomena of the second order.
The genesis of the negative wave of the first order is effected under condi-
tions precisely the reverse of those of the positive wave. A solid body, Q, Q,
(Plate LII. figs. 7,8), is withdrawn from the water of the reservoir at one ex-
tremity, a cavity is created, and this cavity, W,, is propagated along the sur-
face of the water under a defined figure.
The velocity of the negative wave in a shallow channel is nearly that which
is due to the depth calculated from the lowest part of the wave (as in the
positive from the highest), but in longer waves it is sensibly less than that
velocity. In Plate XLVIII. fig. 5 the observations are compared with this
formula, from which they exhibit considerable deviations. Table XI. is a
collection of negative waves observed in a small rectangular channel, and
Table XII. contains others made in a triangular channel, both being made
under the same conditions as the positive waves already given.
TABLE Xl.
Observations on the Velocity of Negatiwe Waves of the First Order.—In a
rectangular channel 12 inches wide.
Col. A is the depth of the fluid reckoned in inches from the lowest point
of the wave.
Col. B is the depth of the wave reckoned below the surface of repose.
Col. C is the number of seconds observed while the wave described the
space given in column D in feet.
Col. E is the resulting velocity.
ON WAVES. 349
Col. F gives the velocities due to the depth, calculated by the formula
e= Vg(h—h). (h—k).
Col. G are the differences between observation and the formula.
A B c D. E F G
915 |—-085| 9:0 | 14-62 | 1:62 | 156 |— -06
925 |+-075| 9-5 | 14-62 | 1:53 | 157 |4 -04
93. |—-07 |16:5 | 21:08 | 1:27 | 1-58 |+ -31
935 |—-065|12-0 |20:0 | 1:66’ | 158 |— -08
96 |—-04 |145 {20:0 | 1:38 | 1-60 |4 -22
965 |—-035| 15-0 | 21:08 | 1-40 | 160 |4 -20
97 |—-03 {14:0 |205 | 146 | 1-61 |+4 -15
10 1:63
2-0 2°31
3:0 2°83
33 = |—'8 55 =| 14-62 | 2°65 | 297 |+ 32
34° |—7 60 | 14-62 | 2-43 | 3-02 |+ -59
3°495 |—-605| 8:0 | 21:08 | 2°63 | 3:08 |+ -45
3°603 |—:497 | 135 | 41:08 | 3:04 | 3:10 |+ -06
371 |—39 | 65 |200 | 307 | 3:15 |+ -08
3°745 |—355| 7-0 1200 | 2°85 | 3:16 |+ -31
3:77 |—'33 | 10:83’ | 33-3’ | 3:07 | 3:18 |+ -1]
4:0 3°27
4:365 |—-735| 425 | 14:62 | 3:44 | 4-42 |— -02
4:575 |—-525| 60 |20:0 | 3:33’ | 350 |+ -17
46 |—5 6:25 | 21-08 | 3:37 | 3:51 |+ -14
4-625 |—-475| 75 |20:0 | 2°66 | 352 |+ -86
475 |—-35 | 5°25 /200 | 381 | 357 |— -24
5:0 3°66
6:0 4-01
70 4:33
+401
—0:40
+3°61
Mean +0'19
\ TABLE XII.
Observation on the Velocity of Negative Waves of the First Order—In a
triangular channel with sides sloping at 45°.
“Cols. A, B, C, D, E, F and G, as in the preceding table.
Col. H is the ratio of defective velocity on the whole.
Col. F” is taken, not from the formula like F, but from observed positive
waves in the same channel of the same height.
Col. G" contains the differences between F” and E.
350 REPORT—1844,
>
a
a
87 | —0-7 | 29:8
88 | —06 | 92-4
89 | —0°5 | 62:8
9-0
116 | —09 | 29:2
—_
> z
i)
16-8 | —1-7 | 22-2 -
| —15 | 22-0
17-4 | —1-1 | 21-6
18:0 | —05 | 21-6
_
7y
S
—15 | 19:0 | 100° | 5:26 | 5:73
24:7 | —1:3 | 18:9 | 100° | 5-29 | 5°75
—12
0
4+ 47 |-0893 | 5-55 | +
+ -46 |-0869 | 5-60 |4 -31
186 | 100: | 538 | 576 |+ -38 |-0706 | 5-62 | +
+ -
186 | 100° | 5-38 | 5:78 ‘40 | -0743 | 5-67
| +3°31 |:7180 +178
Mean! +0°275 | -0598 | Mean} — -26
+152
eas + +126 )
/
i | / |
The horizontal translation of water particles in the negative wave presents
considerable resemblance to the corresponding phenomenon in the positive
wave. All the particles of water in a given vertical plane move simultane-
ously with equal velocities backwards in the opposite direction to the trans-
mission, and repose in their new planes, at the end of the translation ; with
this modification, however, that this state of repose is much disturbed near
the surface by those secondary waves which follow the negative wave, but
which do not sensibly agitate the particles considerably removed from the
surface. (See Plate LII. fig. 9.) The path is the ellipse of the positive wave
inverted.
The following measures may be useful. In a rectangular channel 4 inches
deep in repose and 8 inches wide, a volume of 72 cubic inches is withdrawn ;
the depth of the negative wave below the plane of le is 3ths of an inch deep,
the translation throughout the lower half-depth is 24 inches, and diminishes
from the half-depths upwards, settling finally at the wap hae at 17 inch from
the original position of the superficial ‘particle.
The form of surface of the anterior half of the negative wave resembles
closely the posterior half of a positive wave of equal depth, but the posterior
half of the negative wave passes off into the anterior form of a secondary
wave which follows it.
After translation the superficial particles continue to oscillate, as shown in
Plate LU. figs. 9, 10, in the manner hereafter to be described, as a phenomenon
of the train of secondary waves.
The characteristics of this species of wave of the first order are,—
(1.) That it is negative or wholly below the level of repose.
ON WAVES... 3561
(2.) That it is a wave of translation, the direction of which is opposite to
the direction of transmission.
(3.) That its anterior form is that of the positive wave reversed.
4.) That the path of translation is nearly that of the positive wave reversed.
83 That its velocity is, in considerable depths, sensibly less than that due
by gravity to half the depth reckoned from the lowest point, or the velocity
of a positive wave being the same total height.
(6.) That it is not solitary, but always carries a train of secondary waves.
It is important to notice that the positive and negative waves do not stand
to each other in the relation of companion phenomena. They cannot be con-
sidered in any case as the positive and negative portions of the same phe-
nomena, for the following reasons :—
(1.) If an attempt be made to generate or propagate them in such manner
that the one shall be companion to the other, they will not continue together,
but immediately and spontaneously separate.
(2.) If a positive wave be generated in a given channel and a negative
wave behind it, the positive wave moving with the greater velocity, rapidly
separates itself from the other, leaving it far behind,
(3.) If a positive wave be generated and transmitted behind a negative
wave, it will overtake and pass it.
(4.) Waves of the secondary class which consist of companion halves, one
part positive and the other negative, have this peculiarity, that the positive
and negative parts may be transmitted across and over each other without
preventing in any way their permanence or their continued propagation. It is
not so with the positive and negative waves of the first order.
(5.) If a positive and negative wave of equal volume meet in opposite
directions, they neutralize each other and both cease to exist.
(6.) If a positive wave overtake a negative wave of equal volume, they also
neutralize each other and cease to exist.
! (7.) If either be larger, the remainder is propagated as a wave of the larger
class.
_(8.) Thus it is nowhere to be observed that the positive and negative wave
coexist as companion phenomena.
_ These observations are of importance for this reason, that it has been sup-
posed by a distinguished philosopher that the positive and the negative wave
might be corresponding halves of some given or supposed wave.
On some Conditions which affect the Phenomena of the Wave of the First Order.
—It has not appeared in any observations I have been able to make on the
subject, that the wave of the first order retains the stamp of the many pe-
culiarities that may be conceived to affect its origin. In this respect it is
apparently different from the waves of sound or of colour, which bear to the
ear and the eye distinct indications of many peculiarities of their original ex-
citing cause, and thus enable us to judge of the character of the distant cause
which emitted the sound or sent forth the coloured ray. It is not possible
lways to form an accurate judgement from the phenomena of the wave of the
rst order, of the nature of the disturbing cause, except in peculiar and small
number of cases.
_,L have not found that waves generated by impulse by a fluid column of
given and very various dimension, by immersion of a solid body of given
figure, by motion in given velocity or in different directions; I have not
found in the wave obtained by any of the many means any peculiarity,
any variation either of form or velocity, indicating the peculiarity of the
original. In one respect therefore the wave of translation resembles the sound
wave; that all waves travel with the velocity due to half the depth, whatever
be the nature of their source.
352 REPORT—1844.
In one respect alone does the origin of the wave affect its history. Its
volume depends on the quantity of power employed in its genesis, and on
the distance through which it has travelled. A great and a little wave at
equal distances from the source of disturbance, arise from great or little
causes, but it is impossible to distinguish between a small wave which has
travelled a short distance, and one which, originally high, has traversed a
long space.
This however does not apply to compound waves of the first order, here-
after to be examined.
Form of Channel.—Its Effect on the Wave of Translation.—The conditions
which affect the pheenomena of the wave of translation are therefore to be
looked for in its actual circumstances at the time of observation rather than
in its history. The form and magnitude of the channel are among the most
important of these circumstances. Thus a change in depth of channel imme-
diately becomes indicated to the eye of the observer by the retardation of the
wave, which begins to move with the same velocity as if the channel were
everywhere of the diminished depth, that is, with the velocity due to the depth.
Thus in a rectangular channel 44 feet deep, the wave moves with a velocity
of 12 feet per second, and if the channel become shallower, so as to have only
2 feet depth, the change of depth is indicated by the velocity of the wave,
which is observed now to move only with the velocity of 8 feet per second ;
but if the chaunel again change and become 8 feet deep, the wave indicates
the change by suddenly changing to a velocity of 16 feet per second.
Length of Wave an Index of Depth.—In like manner, a wave which in water
4 feet deep is about 8 yards long, shortens on coming to a depth of 2 feet to
a length of 4 yards, and extends itself to 16 yards long on getting into a depth
of 8 feet. This extension of length is attended with a diminution of height,
and the diminution of length with an increase of height of the wave, so that
the change of length and height attend and indicate changes of depth.
In a rectangular channel whose depth gradually slopes until it becomes
nothing, like the beach of a sea, these pheenomena are very distinctly visible ;
the wave is first retarded by the diminution of depth, shortens and increases
in height, and finally breaks when its height approaches to equality with the
depth of the water. The limit of height of a wave of the first order is there-
fore a height above the bottom of the channel equal to double the depth of
the water in repose. If we reckon the velocity of transmission as that due to
half the total depth, and the velocity of translation as that due to the height
of the wave, it is manifest that when the height is equal to the depth these
two are equal, but that if the height were greater than this, the velocity of
individual particles at the crest of the wave would exceed the velocity of the
wave form; here accordingly the wave ceases, the particles in the ridge of
the wave pass forward out of the wave, fall over, and the wave becomes a
surge or broken foam, a disintegrated heap of water particles, having lost
all continuity.
In like manner does the gradual narrowing of the channel affect the form
and velocity of the wave, but its effects are by no means so striking as where
the depth is diminished. The narrowing of the channel increases the height
of the wave, and the effect of this is most apparent when the height is consi-
derable in proportion to the depth ; the velocity of the wave increases in pro-
portion as the increase of height of the wave increases the total depth; but
with this increase of depth, the length of the wave also increases rapidly, and.
it does not break so early as in the case of the shallowing of the water. Its
phenomena are only visibly affected to the extent in which a change of
depth is produced in the channel, by the volume of water added to the channel
taking the velocity and form peculiar to that increased depth.
j
On WAVES!” 363°
; ‘eh —Sygaeig a TOPTB: SINE OP IB STP soph sui cbadul“Spieg a
Observed Heights of a Wave in Channel of variable Breadth.— Depth 4 inches.
fait meet B. be
oy Breadth 12 in. Breadth 6 in. Breadth 3in.
Height of wave. Height of wave. Height of wave.
im. in. in.
I. 2:0 D4. 33
II. 2:0 D4 36
III. 2:0 2°55 3:3
IV. 15 25 295
V. 1°5 9°35 3°25
VI. 1-25 20 25
VII. 1-0 1-3 2-0
VIII. 0°25 : 03 O04:
These numbers appear to indicate that the increase of height does not widely
_ differ from the hypothesis, that the height of a given wave in a channel of
variable width is inversely as the square root of the breadth.
‘Thus, the inverse square roots of the breadths are as 1°73, 2°45 and 3°47,
and the mean heights of the first five experiments are 1:8 2°45 3°39.
In the first five experiments the velocity observed was 4°25 feet per second.
The velocity due by gravity to half the total depth 4+ 2°45 inches is 4-15 feet
per second ; and as the range of the wave was only 17 feet, and the time was
only observed to half-seconds, these numbers coincide well enough to bear
the conclusion that the velocity does not considerably differ from that due to
_ the wave of the same mean height in a parallel channel of the same depth.
* i ts
Tape XIV.
- Observations in a Channel of variable Depth—Diminution of depth from
4. inches to 0: in a length of 17 feet.
A. B. C. D. E.
AY Height of wave Height of wave Depth of water where Time of tra- Velocity in
burrs inadepth of4in, breaking in depth (C). wave (B) broke. versing 17 ft. feet per sec,
in. in. in. s.
ee tT 4r0* 4°0* 4°O0 5°5 3:09
pe tepy, 3°7* 3°7* 3°7 5:5 3°09
OTM. 3-4 34 "3-4 55 3-09
Bey? 025 #7 a7 55 3-09
my, 2:0 D4, 24 5°5 3:09
mT | 1°8 2-2 2:2 55 3:09
VI 1-5 2-0 21
‘VII. 13 1:9 “19
IX) 1-95 1-9 1:9
ge: 1:2 1°7 1°7
ORL 1-1 14 14 6:0 2°83
XI. 10 1-2 1-2
‘XU. 0°8 0's ll 6°5 26
‘XIV. 05 0-7 0-9 7-0 4
EVE! OQ* 0:2* 02 75 2:0
“Hence we find that the numbers representing depths in column C may be
regarded as the limits of those in column B, that the depth of the fluid below
| the level of repose is equal to the greatest height which a wave can attain at
| that point, and at that height the wave breaks.
Mid These numbers are interpolated ; the numbers in column D are waves not observed on
the mean waves in the first three columns, but are others of nearly equal heights, in iden-
‘conditions.
1844. 2A
354 REPORT—1844, . 1
The time occupied by the largest class of wave is 5°5 seconds, and the cor-
responding mean velocity is 3:09 feet per second; this is the velocity due to
a depth of 3°6 inches, but the depth total at the one end of the channel is nearly
double this quantity, diminishing to 0 at the end. The time in which the wave
in a shelving channel passes along the whole length, is therefore nearly equal
to the time in which a wave would travel the same distance if the channel
were uniformly of a depth equal to the mean depth of the channel, reckoning
in both cases from the top of the wave. In these cases the height of the wave
is large. Let us take a small height of wave as Ex. XIV.; there we have
also in this case the mean depth reckoned from the top of the wave =2°2, the
velocity in a channel of that uniform depth =2°4, and the time 75:08. These
experiments are sufficiently accurately represented if we take for the velocity
of the wave in the sloping channel that of a wave in a channel having a uni-
form depth equal to the mean depth of the channel, reckoned as usual from
the top of the wave.
If therefore we are to calculate the time in which a wave will traverse a
given distance gq, to the limit of the standing water-line, after it has begun to
break on a sloping beach, we have, the height at breaking being 4 =the
standing depth of the water at the breaking-point,
fan and v= olh +h).
Vqh+h) VG(h+hk).
Ex. A wave 3 feet high breaking in water 3 feet deep, on a sloping shore
at a distance of 60 feet from the edge of the water, would traverse that space
in about 6 seconds, for
Pi) _ 60 _ US
8237 982
By repeated observations I have ascertained that waves break whenever
their height above the level of repose becomes equal very nearly to the depth
of the water.
The gradual retardation of the velocity of waves breaking on a sloping
beach, as they come into shallower water, is rendered manifest in the closer
approximation of the waves to each other as they come near the margin of
the water. Vide et seq.
It may be observed also that the height of the wave does inerease, but very
slowly (before breaking), as the depth diminishes ; thus in VII., a height of
1°8 in a depth of 4 inches becomes 2°2 in 2 inches depth, and in XII.a height
of 1 inch in a depth of 4 inches becomes a depth of 1-2 inch only 1*2 inch
high. The increase of height is therefore very much slower than the inverse
ratio of the depth, or than the inverse ratio of the square of the depth.
Form of Transverse Section of Channel—We have seen that in a given
rectangular channel, the volume of the wave, its height and the depth being
given, no peculiarity of origin or other condition sensibly affects its actual
phenomena. But it becomes of importance to know whether the form of a
given channel, its volume being given, will affect the phenomena of the wave
of the first order; for example, whether in a channel which is semicircular
on the bottom, or triangular, but holding a given quantity of water, the wave
would be affected by the form of the channel, the volume or cross section
remaining unchanged.
Considering this question @ priori, we might form various anticipations.
We might expect in a channel in which the depth of transverse section varies,
that as its depth is greatest at one point, suppose the middle, and less at the
sides, the wave might move with the velocity due to the middle or greatest —
=6 seconds nearly.
depth ; or we might expect that it would move with the velocity simply due —
ON WAVES, ~ 355
. to the mean depth, that is, with the same velocity as in a rectangular channel
_ of a depth equal to the mean depth of the channel; or we might expect that
each portion of the wave would move with a velocity due to the depth of that
part of the channel immediately below each part of the wave, and so each
part passing forward with a velocity of its own, have a series of waves, each
propagating itself with an independent velocity, and speedily becoming dif-
fused, and so a continued propagation of a wave in such circumstances would
become impossible from disintegration ; and instead of a single large wave
we should have a great many little ones. Or, finally, we might have a perfect
wave moving with a velocity, the mean of the velocities which each of these
elementary waves might be supposed to possess.
I soon found that the propagation of a single wave, @. e. one of which all
the parts should have a given common velocity, was possible in a channel
whose depth at different breadths is variable ; that the wave does not neces-
sarily become disintegrated ; that its parts do not move with the different
velocities due to the different depths of the different parts of the channel, but
that the entire wave does (with certain limits) move with such velocity as if
propagated in a channel of a rectangular form, but of a less depth than the
greatest depth of the channel of variable channel.
It became necessary therefore to determine the depth of a rectangular
channel equivalent to the depth of a channel of variable transverse section ;
to determine, for example, in a channel of triangular section y, the depth of
rectangular channel in which a wave would be propagated with equal velocity.
Tn this case the simple arithmetical mean depth of the channel is half of the
depth in the middle. But on the other hand, if we calculate the velocity due
to each point of variable depth, and take the mean of these velocities, we shall
_ find a mean velocity such as would be due to a wave in a rectangular channel
_ two-thirds of the greatest depth.
_ In the first series of experiments I made on this subject, I conceived that the
_ results coincided sufficiently well with the latter supposition; but they were on
5
so small a scale, that the errors of observation exceeded in amount the diffe-
rences between the quantities to be determined, and the results did not esta-
blish either. Mr. Kelland arrived at the opposite conclusion, his theoretical
investigations indicating the former result. I examined the matter afresh, and
after an extensive series of experiments, have established beyond all question
the fact, that the velocity in a triangular channel is that due by gravity to
one-fourth of the maximum depth. Although therefore the absolute velocity
assigned by Mr. Kelland’s investigations deviates widely from the true velocity,
yet he has assigned the true relation between the velocities in the triangular
and the rectangular channel ; and if therefore we take the absolute velocity
which I have determined for the rectangular channel, and deduce from it the
relative velocity which Mr. Kelland has assigned to the triangular form, we
obtain a number which is the true velocity of the wave in a y” channel.
MM TaBLe XV.
__ Observations on the Wave of the First Order in triangular Channels.
The sides of the channels are planes, and slope at an angle with the ho-
rizon = 45°,
Col. A is the observed depth of the channel in the middle, reckoned from
the crest of the wave.
_ Col. B is the height of the wave taken as the mean between the observa-
‘tions at the beginning and end of the experiment.
+ Col. C is the observed time in seconds occupied by the wave in describing
the distance in column D.
ZAQ
i
356 RENE Vee.
Col. D is the space in feet described by the wave during each observation.
Col. E is the velocity resulting from these observations.
eS a is the velocity due by gravity to } of the depth of the fluid,
2g(h+h).
rst G : the andes due by gravity to 2 of the depth of the fluid,
v= Veg(h+h).
Cols. H and K show the difference between Cols. F and G and the obser-
vations, and the result in favour of F.
A B | c 1 OS ee Gc | # K
in. in | |
415 | O15 36-5 80-0 2:19 2:35 272 | 4-16 |+4+ -53
423 | 0-22 33-0 80-0 | 2-42 2:38 275 |— 04/4 -33
432 | 031 31-0 75°5 2-43 2-40 278 | — 03 |+ 35
438 | 0:37 47-0 | 115-5 2-46 2-42 279 | — 04 |+ -33
471 | 0-70 135 35-5 2-62 2-51 290 | ~—-ll |+4+ -28
481 | 0-80 29:5 755 2°57 2°54 2:93 | — -03 |+ -36
436 | 0-85 14:0 35-5 2-53 2-55 295 |+4+ 02/4 -42
5-29 | 0-18 31:0 80-0 2-58 2°66 3-07 | + 08 |4+ -49
5-44 | 0:33 45-5 | 120-0 2-63 2-70 311 | + 07 |4+ -48
555 | 0-44 58:0 | 1600 2°75 2-72 315 | — -03 |+ -40
5:59 | 0-48 300 80-0 | 266 2°73 316 | + -07 |+ 50
5:99 | 0:88 120 35-5 2-95 2:83 327 |—-12|4 32
6-01 | 0-90 24-5 71:0 2-89 2°84 329 | — -05 |4+ +40
618 | 0-14 28-0 80-0 2-85 2-87 332 | + -02 |+ +47
626 | 0-21 555 | 160-0 2°88 2:89 334 | + 01 |4 -46
638 | 034 14-0 40-0 2°85 2-92 3:37 | + -07 |+ 52
6-44 | 1:33 12-0 35:5 2-95 2-93 339 | — 02 |4. -44
652 | 0-48 26°5 80-0 3-02 2-95 341 | — -07 |4+ 39
678 | 0-74 35:0 | 111-0 3:17 3-01 348 | —-16 |4 31
710 | 0-60 265 80-0 3-02 3-08 356 | + -06 |4+ -54
7-12 | 0-08 395 | 120-0 | 3-03 3-09 356 | + 06 |+4 -53
715 | O11 785 | 240-0 | 3-05 3-09 357 | + -04 |+ 52
716 | 0-12 525 | 1600 | 3-04 3:10 358 | + -06 |+ -54
721 | 0-17 26°5 80-0 3-02 3-11 359 | + 09 |+ 57
7:36 | 0-32 26°5 80-0 | 3-02 314 362 | +-12 |+ -60
7-51 | 0-47 25-0 80-0 | 3-20 3-18 366 | — 02 |+ -46
753 | 0-47 24-0 80-0 | 333 3-17 367 | —-16 |+4+ -34
10-0 0-75 55-4 | 2155 3°89 3-66 423 | — 23 |+ 34
105 11 41-94 | 166-0 3:95 3-75 433 | — 20 |+ -38
11-0 1-44 31-2 | 123-1 3-94 3-84 443 | — -10 |+ +49
145 2-0 48:36 | 215-5 4-45 4-4] 509 | — -04|+ -64
15-0 2-58 26-46 | 119-25 | 4:50 4-48 518 | — -02 |+ -68
15-5 3-1 22-2 | 100-0 4-50 4-56 526 |+ 06 |+ -76
19:0 0-35 19-8 | 100-0 5-06 5-04 583 | — 02 |+ 77
19°5 0-87 19:5 | 1000 5:13 511 5:90 | — 02 |+ °77
20-0 1:35 25-66 | 138-5 5-40 5-18 598 | — 22 |4+ -58
20°5 1-85 28-8 | 157-75 | 5-48 5-24 605 | — 24 |+ 57
21:0 2-36 24-93 | 138-5 5°55 5°30 613 | — 25 |4+ -58
21:5 2-8 17-3 | 100-0 5-61 5°36 620 | — 25 |4+ -59
26-0 15 35°83 | 215-5 6-02 5-90 682 | — -12 |4+ -80
265 1-95 22-46 | 138-5 6-16 5-96 688 | — 20 |+ -72
27-0 2°12 20-7. | 12887 | 6-22 6-01 695 | — 21 /+ -73
27°5 2-4 21-73 | 138°5 6:37 6-07 701 | — 30 |+ -64
28-0 3-12 20-45 | 128-75 | 6-29 6-13 707 | —-16 |+ -78
28:5 3-03 15:93 | 1000 6-27 6-18 714 |.— 09 |+ -87
29-0 3-02 15°38 | 100-0 6°33 6-23 7:20 jah psd og) BF
29:5 25 15-68 | 100-0 6:37 6-29 726 | — 08 |4 -89
30-0 2-77 15-6 | 100-0 6-41 6-34 732°) 07 4-51
30:5 2-25 156 | 1000 6:41 6:39 738 | — 02 | o>
31-0 25 158 | 1000 633 | 6-44 744. | +-ll
315 3-0 15-26 | 100-0 6°55 6:50 750 | — 05
| | —2:77
‘ON WAVES. . 357
No great number of experiments has been made on channels of other forms
of variable depth, such as have been made coinciding with those in the tri-
angular chamnel, so far as to show that we may take the simple arithmetical
mean depth as the depth of the rectangular channel of a wave of equal velo-
city, and so in general reckon the mean depth as
1
L—— dx,
i=— fydz
: Lael 3
or v (2 fvaz) ‘
The form of transverse section does not therefore affect the velocity of the
wave otherwise than as it becomes necessary to use the mean depth as the
argument in calculating it, and not the maximum depth.
The Form of Channel affects the Form of the Wave as well as its Velocity.—
When the channel is very broad the wave ceases to have a velocity, it
loses unity of character, and each part of it moves along the channel
independent of the velocity of the other, and with the velocity due to the
local depth of the channel. Where the water is shallow the wave becomes
sensibly higher and shorter, and when the difference of depth is not consi-
derable, the wave is found to increase in height so as to give in the shallow
part a velocity equal to that in the narrow part. When the channel is narrow
in proportion to its depth, this unity of propagation exists without sensible
difference of velocity towards the side, and without very great difference in
height at the sides. In a channel of the form of a right-angled and isosceles
triangle, with the hypothenuse upwards and horizontal, it is visible to the
eye that the wave is somewhat longer and lower in the middle, but higher
and shorter at the sides, but that it retains most perfect unity of form and
velocity, and moves along unbroken with the velocity due to the mean depth.
The same figure with the angle at the bottom increased so that each side has
_a slope of one in four, still contains a single wave propagated with a single
velocity, being that due to half the depth, but breaks at the shallow side, be-
coming disentegrated in form though not in velocity.
In a channel 12 inches wide, 5 inches deep on one side, and 1 inch deep
on the other, the following observations were made :-—
Height of the Wave.
Deep side. Shallow side.
in. in.
2°00 2°50
1°50 2°50
1:20 2:00
0°75 1:20
0°75 1:20
0°75 1:00
0°50 1:00
0:25 0°50
0:25 0°40
0°25 0°40
On the Incidence and Reflexion of the Wave of the First Order—When
a wave of the first order encounters a solid plane at right angles to the direc-
tion of its propagation, it is wholly reflected and is thrown back in the oppo- '
site direction with a velocity equal to that in which it was moving before
impact, remaining in every respect unchanged, excepting in direction of
a0
Mae
Cai
358 REPORT—1844,
motion. This process may be repeated any number of times without affect-
ing any of the wave phenomena excepting the direction of motion.
When the angle which the ridge of the incident wave makes with the solid
plane is small, that is, when the direction of propagation does not deviate
much from the perpendicular to the plane, the wave undergoes total re-
flextion, and the angles of reflexion and of incidence are equal, as in the case
of light.
When the deviation of the direction of propagation from the perpendicular
is considerable, the reflexion ceases to be total. At 45° the reflected wave
is sensibly less than the incident wave.
When the ridge of the wave is incident at about 60° from the plane sur-
face, and the direction of the ridge only diverges about 30° from a perpendi-
cular to the plane, reflexion ceases to be possible. A remarkable phenomenon
is exhibited which I may be allowed to designate the Lateral Accumulation
and Non-Reflexion of the wave. It is to be understood by considering the
effect of supposed reflexion; this would be to double over upon itself a part
of the wave moving in nearly the same direction ; the motions of translation
of the particles being compounded will give a resultant at right angles to the
plane, and will also give a wave of greater magnitude and a translation of
greater velocity. By these means accumulation of volume and advancement
of the ridge in the vicinity of the obstacle take place; as represented in the
diagram.
These phenomena are accurately represented in Plate LILI., as observed
in a large shallow reservoir of water.
On the Lateral Diffusion and the Lateral Accumulation of the Wave of
the First Order —When a wave of the first order has been generated in a
narrow channel, and is propagated into a wider one, it becomes of some im-
portance to know whether and how this wave will affect the surface of the
larger basin into which it is admitted. It is known that common surface
waves of the second order diffuse themselves equably in concentric circles
round the point of disturbance. How is the great primary wave diffused ?
Taste XVI.
Observations on the Lateral Diffusion of the Wave of the First Order, generated
in a narrow Channel and transmitted into a wide Reservoir.
The apparatus employed for this purpose is exhibited in Plate LIV.
figs. and2. T was a tank 20 feet square, filled to the depth of 4 inches; the
chamber C, fig. 2, was 12 inches square, in which the wave was generated by
impulse for the first five experiments, in all subsequent to which C was en-
larged in width to 2 feet, as shown in fig. 1. The line marked A, figs. 1 and
2, was a wooden bar, in which were inserted at intervals of 6 inches, sharp
pieces of pencil, projecting downwards to the surface of the water; the num-
bers of which, reckoning from the side of the tank outwards, are contained in
the first vertical column of numerals, the Roman numerals in this table de-
noting the number of the experiment. The bar being placed parallel to the
side of the tank at C, and distant from it 12 feet, consequently distant 9 feet
from the mouth of the channel, whose length is 3 feet; the distance from its
under edge to the surface of the still water was carefully measured, and when
the wave had passed, and before its reflexion, the bar was removed, the
distances from its under edge to the highest marks on the pencils were put
down in column A of the table, and the absolute height of the wave itself,
obtained by subtracting these figures from the statical level, was put down in
column B.
ON WAVES. 359°
In the diagrams, Plate LIV., the waves are laid down from the line A A, and
at horizontal intervals of one-tenth of an inch, corresponding to the relative
positions of the points at which they were observed. In figs. 1 and 2, an ap-
proximate mean is given of the waves generated in the large and small chan-
nels, each line at the bar A indicating a height of one-tenth part of an inch.
vV VI.
A B A. B
8 7 ‘3 1:2
85 |-65 | °4 1-1
95 | -575 | °5 1:0
8 |-725 |°4 1-225
85 | ‘675 | -4 1:225
925) 612 |-45 | 1:075
925) °625 | °5 1:035
1:25 |°5 625 | ‘925
1:05 |°5 625 | °925
10 |:55 | °65 9
Vl |45 | +7 “85
1:05 |°512 | 825 | *75
1:075| °487 | °8 775
1:1 | 487 | °8 775
1-1 |°475 | °9 675
V1 | °475 | -85 ‘735
“85 75
- This table shows in column B, how the height of the wave diminishes as
it spreads out from the line of original direction in which it was generated. -
Lateral diffusion therefore takes place, but with a great diminution of height
of the wave.
This phenomenon is of importance in reference especially to the law of
diffusion of the tides, in such situations as where they enter the German Sea
through the English Channel, and the Irish Sea through St. George’s Chan-
nel. It enables us to account for the great inequality of tides in the same
locality. It likewise furnishes an analogy by which we may explain some of
the hitherto anomalous phenomena of sound.
Axis of Maximum Displacement of the Wave of the First Order.—That
a wave of the first order, on entering a large sheet of water, does not diffuse
itself equally in all directions around the place of disturbance (as do the waves
of the second order produced by a stone dropped in a placid lake), but that
there is in one direction an aais along which it maintains the greatest height,
has the widest range of translation, and travels with greatest velocity, viz.
in the direction of the original propagation as it emerged from the generating
reservoir, is a phenomenon which I have further confirmed by a number of
experiments. This phenomenon is of importance, especially if we take the
wave of the first order, the same (as I think I have established) as type of the
tide wave of the sea and of the sound wave of the atmosphere. I determined
this in the simplest way. I filled a reservoir which has a smooth flat bottom
and perpendicular sides some 20 feet square, to a depth of 4 inches with water.
In a small generating reservoir only a foot. wide, I generated a wave of the
first order. A circle was drawn on the bottom of the large basin, and of
course visible through the water, having its centre at the place of disturbance,
and divided into arcs of 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°, on which observers were
placed, and the heights of the same wave, as observed at the points, is given
in the accompanying table.
| alae
360 REPORT—1844,
Tasie XVII. ;
Observations on the Diffusion of the Wave of the First Order round an Axis
of original Transmission.
- The observations were made upon the wave at various points in circles of
9 and 15 feet radius, described from the outer extremity of the side of the
channel C, as shown in Plate LIV. fig. 3. The depth of the water when at
rest was taken at the various points, and these being subtracted from the
absolute height to which the wave attained in its transit, gave the amounts
which are contained in the lower part of the table, the absolute heights from
which these are deduced being given immediately above in columns marked
thus, A, B, C, D, E, while the deducted heights are distinguished thus, A’, B’,
C', D’, E’.. Experiments VII. to XV. were made in the 9 feet circle, and the
remainder in that of 15 feet radius. It will be observed that in the latter set
there are two columns which are headed zero, but it must be remembered
that the one in brackets contains observations which were made at the 9 feet
distance along the axis and the remainder on the outer circle.
Fig. 3 contains the approximate ratio of the height of the wave at different
points in the circumference of the circles expressed by lines concentric to the
circles, each of which denotes the tenth part of an inch.
The observations are laid down accurately in the diagrams, where the
lines A B and C D represent the circumference of the quadrants of the ob-
served circles. Upon these lines the true heights of the wave are measured
upwards at their respective points of observation, and a curve drawn through
these, representing the mean of the wave’s height. From these and from a
numerical discussion of the observations, it appears that the height of the
wave at 0° being 1, its height at the remaining points will be 3, 2, 4, and 54,
or taking integral numbers to express the ratio, it will stand thus, 30, 15, 12,
10, 3. And from a discussion of the whole of the experiments it is found
that the height of the wave is inversely as the distance from the centre.
Fig. 4 shows the appearance of the wave upon which these observations
were made.
A, & | | K |%. M
0° 0°. | 30°. | 60°. | 90?
|
VIL. | 4:5 25 | 43 44
VIIL. | 4-625 4135 45 |
IX. | 4875 (425 | 45
X. | 45 14:25 | 4-4
XI. | 4-325 14:95 | 43
XII. | 4°5 . 43
XII. | 45 43 |
XIV. | 4:75 43 |
XV. | 455 4:25
Al. Kl. V M’.
VII. | 1-0 3 1
VIL. | 1-125 5
IX. | 1-375 5
X. | 1-0 “4
PE 82 3
XII. | 1-0 25
XIII. | 1:0 25
XIV. | 1-25 25
XV. | 1-0 | 2] |
nA?
ON WAVES. 361
Thus it was determined that along the axis of maximum intensity, the
height of the wave there being the greatest, there was a corresponding acce-
leration of the wave motion. On each side of this axis the magnitude of the
wave diminishes rapidly, being at 30° diminished to 3, and at 60° to 4 of its
height along the axis, and as this diminution was attended with a corre-
sponding retardation of propagation, so the ridge of the wave became some-
what elliptical, having for its major axis the axis of maximum intensity of
the wave. At right angles to the principal axis of propagation the wave is
searcely sensible, a height of one-tenth part of that in the axis being the
greatest that was observed ; and that indeed was, in the circumstances of
observation, scarcely sensible.
Concluding Remarks and Application.—There are several great applica-
tions of our knowledge of waves of the first order, which give value to that
knowledge beyond that which belongs to truth for its own sake. The phe-
nemena of the wave of translation are so beautiful and regular, that as a
_ study of nature it possesses a high interest. The velocity of the wave is one
of the great constants of nature, and is to the phenomena of fluids what the
pendulum is to solids, a connecting link between time and force; as a phe-
nomenon of hydrodynamics, it furnishes one of the most elegant and inter-
esting exercises in the calculus of the wave mathematics.
But besides its importance in these aspects, there are others in which it is
capable of being regarded, each of which gives it value both in art and in
science :—
1. The wave of the first order is to be regarded as a vehicle for the trans-
mission of mechanical force (geological application).
2. The wave of ‘the first order is an important element in the calculation
and phenomena of resistance of fluids (form of ships, canals, &c.).
3. The wave of the first order is identical with the great oceanic wave of
the tide (improvement of tidal rivers).
4, The water-wave of the first order presents some analogy to the sound
wave of the atmosphere (phenomena of acoustics).
TABLE XVIII.
The Velocity of the Wave of the First Order, calculated for various depths
of the fluid in a channel of uniform depth, extending a depth from 0:1 of
an inch to 100 feet.
Column A contains the depths of the fluid in decimal parts of an inch.
Column B the corresponding velocities in feet per second.
Column C gives the depth in inches.
Column D the corresponding velocities in feet per second.
Column F gives the depths in feet.
Column G the corresponding velocities in feet per second.
Columns of Differences, E and H, will assist in extending the table.
REPORT—1844.
A. B. Cc. D. E. F. G. H.
Value of Value of Value of Value of First /Valueof| Value of First
h+e A/ 2(e+h) h+e ‘ /z(e+h) hte WV g(e+h) differ-
in inches. |in feet per sec.| 12 inches. jin feet per sec. in feet. lin feet per sec,| €nce.
——
0-0 0:0000 0-0; 0-000 0-0 0-000
‘1 05179 1-0) 1-637 1:0 5°674
2 0°7325 20) 2-316 2-0 8-024
3 0°8971 3:0) 2-836 30 9°827
“4 1:0359 4:0! 3-275 40} 11347
i) 11581 50) 3662 5-0 | 12687
6 1:2687 * 60) 4-011 60 | 13-898
7 13703 7:0| 4-333 70 | 15-031
8 1:4649 8:0) 4-632 8-0 | 16-047
1] 15538 9:0| 4-913 9:0 | 17-021
1:0 1:6378 10:0; 5-179 10:0 | 17-942
di 17178 11:0; 5-432 253 11:0 | 18817 875
2 1:7942 I. 12:0} 5-673 241 12:0 | 19-654 837
3 18674 130, 5-905 231 13-0 | 20-457 803
4 19379 14:0) 6-128 222 140 | 21-229 772
oi) 2:0060 15°0| 6-343 215 15:0 | 21-974 745
6 20717 16:0) 6-551 207 16:0 | 22-695 721
7 2°1355 17-0, 6-758 201 17:0 | 23-393 698
8 21974 18:0) 6-948 195 18-0 | 24-071 678
1) 2°2576 19:0, 7-139 190 19-0 | 24-731 660
2:0 23163 20:0| 7324 185 20:0 | 25-374 643
ll 23735 21:0) 7-505 180 21:0 | 26-000 626
2 2°4293 22:0} 7-682 176 22-0 | 26°612 612
3 24839 23:0) 7-854 172 23-0 | 27-210 598
“4 2°5373 II. 240) 8-023 168 240 | 27-796 586
i) 2°5896 25:0) 8-189 165 25:0 | 28368 | 572
6 2°6409 26:0, 8-351 162 26-0 | 28-930 562
rf 26913 27:0) 8-510 159 27:0 | 29-481 551
8 2°7405 28:0| 8-666 | 156 28-0 | 30-023 542
9 2°7891 29:0; 8-820 153 29:0 | 30-554 531
3:0 2°8368 30:0) 8-970 150 | 30:0} 31-076 522
rl 2°8834 31:0) 9-118 149 31:0 | 31-589 513
2 29299 32:0) 9-265 147 32:0 | 32-095 505
3 2:9753 33:0) 9-408 143 33:0 | 32-593 497
“4 3°0200 34:0 9550 | 141 34:0 | 33-083 490
i) 3°0641 35°0| 9-689 139 35-0 | 33-566 480
6 31076 | III. 36:0 9-827 137 36:0 | 34-042 476
ai 31505 37:0} 9-962 135 37:0 | 34-512 470
8 31928 38:0) 10-096 133 38:0 | 34-976 464
“9 3:2337 39:0) 10-228 131 39:0 | 35-434 458
4-0 32756 40-0} 10-358 130 40-0 | 35-883 449
‘1 33164 41:0} 10-487 128 41:0 | 36-329 446
“2 33566 42:°0| 10-614 127 42:0 | 36-771 442
3 33963 43°0| 10-740 125 43:0 | 37-205 434
“4 3°4356 44:0) 10°864 124 44-0 | 37-635 430
i) 34744 45:0) 10-987 122 45:0 | 38-060 425
6 3°5128 46:0} 11-108 121 46:0 | 38-481 421
fs 35508 47-0} 11-229 120 | 47:0 | 38-897 416
8 35884 IV. 48:0} 11:347 118 48-0 | 39-308 411
=) 3°6225 49-0} 11-464 117 49:0 | 39-716 408
5-0 36623 50:0) 11-581 116 50:0 | 40-119 403
‘1 3°6988 51:0} 11-696 115 51:0 | 40-518 399
2 3°7348 52:0| 11-810 114 52:0 | 40-913 395
3 37704 53-0) 11-923 113 530 | 41-304 391
“4 3°8056 54:0} 12-035 112 54:0 | 41-693 389
3 3°8405 55:0) 12-146 111 55:0 | 42-079 386
6 3°8758 560) 12-256 110 56:0 | 42-458 379
7 39101 57-0| | 12°365 109 57:0 | 42-834 376
8 3°9441 58:0) 12-475 108 58:0 | 43-209 375 /
9 39778 59-0} 12-580 107 59°0 | 43-580 371
~
fo)
v=)
i
>
SSRNAAHA SOAS SHAAGCK SHIH SSHYAAEBNOASSHYVAGCK AGNES
B.
Value of
V g(e+h)
in inches. |in feet per sec.
4:0120
4:0451
40779
41105
41434
4°1755
42074
4:2390
4:2710
43021
43333
43640
43958
44251
44551
44850
45152
4:5447
45740
46031
46325
46612
4-6898
4°7182
4:7470
47761
48040
48318
48586
4:8860
49134
49404
4:9678
49946
50213
5:0479
5:0746
51011
5:1275
51538
5:1792
ON WAVES.
Table XVIII. continued.
6,
Value of
h+e
in inches. jin feet per sec.
V. 60:0
61:0
62:0
63:0
64:0
65:0)
66:0
67:0!
68:0
69-0
70:0
71:0
VI. 72:0)
73:0
74:0)
75:0)
76:0
770
78:0
79:0
80:0
81-0
- 82:0
83:0
VII. 84:0
85°0
86:0
87:0
88:0
89-0
90-0
91-0
D.
Value of
Vg(e+h)
12°686
12-791
12895
12/998
13:101
13-203
13°305
13°406
13°506
13°605
13:704
13801
13:897
13:993
14:088
14183
14:277
14371
14-464
14:556
14648
14-739
14830
14:921
15:011
15:100
15189
15:277
15:364
15:451
15:537
15°623
15-709
15°794
15°879
15963
16:047
16:130
16-212
16°293
16:373
60-0
61:0
62:0
63:0
64-0
Vg(e+h)
in feet. jin feet per sec.| ence.
43°948
44315
44:678
45:037
45-392
45°745
46:095
46-442
46°786
47-127
47-467
47°805
48-142
48°477
48°809
49-137
49-462
49°786
50-108
50°429
50°748
51-061
51:376
51:689
52-000
52-309
52-616
52-921
53°224
53526
53°827
54126
54-423
54-719
55-014
55-307
55°597
55:886
56°172
56:455
56°737
Section I].— WAVES OF THE SECOND ORDER.
Character
Species ..
PMATICUICON!. 4.6 fila p tube ado
ie cco
Instances
Oscillating Waves.
ee
Gregarious.
Stationary.
Progressive.
Free.
Forced.
Stream ripple.
Wind waves.
Ocean swell.
H.
First
differ-
368
367
363
359
355
353
350
347
344
34]
340
338
337
335
332
328
325
324
322
321
319
363
ie
we as ¥ -,
al
364 REPORT—1844. .
The Standing Wave of Running Water—Among oscillating waves of the
second order, I know none more common or more curious than the standing
wave of running water. I begin the account of my examination of waves
of the second order, because it is that species which appears to me to be the
most easy to be conceived, because it presents the closest analogy to the ordi-
nary known phenomena of wave motion, and because, although most fre-
quently exhibited to the eye of the common gazer, it has not, as far as I
know, ever been made the subject of accurate observation.
If the surface of a running stream be examined as it runs with an equal
velocity along a smooth and even channel, its surface will present no remark-
able feature to the eye, although it is known by accurate observation that
the surface of the water is higher above the level in the middle or deep part
than at the sides of the channel. On the bottom of the channel let there be
found a single large stone; this interruption, although considerably below
the surface of the water, will give indication of its presence by a change of
form visible on the surface of the water. An elevation of surface will be
visible, not immediately above it, but in its vicinity. Simultaneous with the
appearance of this protuberance, there will appear a series of others lower
down the stream. These form a group of companion phenomena, are waves
of the second order, oscillatory, and of the standing species, their place re-
maining fixed in the water, while the water particles themselves continue to
flow down with the stream. For examples see Pl. LV.
This species of wave is especially deserving of the notice both of the ma-
thematician and of the natural philosopher, for this cause especially, that the
apparent motions of the water are in this case identical with the actual paths
of individual particles ; each particle on the surface actually describes the
path apparent on the surface; the outline of the surface of the water is the
true path of a particle during its progress down the stream. It does not ex-
hibit like other waves the form merely, a form very different from the true
motion of the water particles, nor does it exhibit the motion of a motion, nor
do the particles themselves remain behind while they transmit forward the
wave. The particles are themselves translated along the fluid in the paths
which form the apparent outline of the fluid.
In this respect, therefore, this wave appears to me important as presenting
a case of transition from ordinary fluid motion to wave motion.
I found by observation on a mountain stream that waves 33 feet long rise
in water moving at the rate of 33 feet per second.
Also, that waves 2 feet long rose in water moving at 23 feet per second.
These numbers coincide with those given in Table XXI. from which the
following approximate numbers are deduced. These numbers will enable an
observer to judge of the velocity of a stream by inspection of the waves on
the surface.
The length of wave being 1 inch, the velocity of the stream per second is 3 foot.
rf a5 *3 inches, 3 + sy *] foot.
6) +s 1 foot, if + 7% 13 feet.
” » 1} feet, » » » 2 feet.
” »” 2 feet, » » ” 25 feet.
” ” #32 feet, ” » ” *32 feet.
» ” 6 feet, ” » ” 43 feet.
” ” 7 feet, ” ” 2 5 feet.
43 5 10 feet, i 43 45 6 feet.
i S *30 feet, i 4) 9 *10 feet.
This Table is given for convenience of reference to observers, and it is
useful and easy to recollect the velocities corresponding to 3 inehes, 34 feet,
ON WAVES. 365
and 30 feet. By these means it will be easy for observers to verify or correct
_ these numbers.
__ These waves are very peculiar in this respect, that they exhibit little or no
tendency to lateral diffusion ; the breadth of a wave does not apparently ex-
ceed the length of a wave, and is often much smaller. When a stream enters
a large pool, its path across the pool is marked by these waves very distinctly,
and the diminishing length of the waves accompanies the diminishing velocity
of the stream, and at the same time indicates the extreme slowness with which
diffusion takes place.
The motion of the particles of water, as observed by a body floating on the
surface, is this, the motion is retarded at the top of each wave and accelerated
in the bottom, thus oscillating about the mean motion of the stream. The
motion, as far as it can be observed by bodies floating near the surface, is a
simple combination of a circular with a rectilineal motion. The disturbing
body, the stone at the bottom, gives to the particles which pass over it the
_ motion of eddy as indicated, Plate LV. fig.2, and this being continued down-
wards, and combined with the rectilineal motion of the particles, presents
_ the cycloidal form of the wave.
If we conceive a uniform revolving motion in a vertical plane communi-
cated to a particle of water, the centre of the circle of revolution being at
_the same time carried uniformly along the horizontal line, Plate LVI, then the
path of the particle having these two motions is marked out by the cycloidal
line 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 joining these points, and if every suc-
_ eessive particle of the fluid have the same motions communicated to it, the
simultaneous places of successive particles will give the line 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, &c. as the form of the surface of the fluid. It is to be observed that at
_A and C the direction of the motion of revolution is opposite to the motion
_ of transference, and .>. the absolute velocity of the particle is diminished by
The oscillating motion, while at B and D it is increased by an equal amount,
and in the intermediate positions 3 and 9 it is neither increased nor dimi-
nished. It is also to be observed, that when the motion of the water in the
‘direction of transference is slowest (i. e. when the motion of oscillation is
opposite to the motion of transference), the transverse section of moving
fluid is greatest, and when the motion of transference and of oscillation
_ €oincide, and the motion is quickest in the direction of transference, the trans-
‘Verse section of the fluid is greatest. ‘Thus we see how during a change of
form the dynamical equilibrium of the fluid may be unchanged.
The fluid may thus be conceived as moving with varying velocity along
a channel of variable section, its upper surface being conformable to the
Outline of the wave.’ Hence we might infer that a rigid channel of varying
area, of the form of this standing wave, would not interfere with the free
‘motion of the fluid.
_ And hence it may follow, that when the area of a pipe conveying fluid is
to undergo a change, the best form of pipe or channel is indicated by the
form of this wave. Thus the velocity has undergone a change between 0 and
4 which the form of a close pipe might render permanent.
_ In the examples already given, a solid impediment has generated the waves
on the surface of the fluid. At the confluence of streams I have observed
the same waves generated by the oblique action of one current on another
meeting it in a different direction.
The height and hollow of the fluid and the change of velocity are to be
regarded as reciprocally the cause and effect each of the other. The obstacle
first retards the velocity of the fluid, so as to accumulate it above the obstacle,
the water rises to a height due to this diminished velocity, and as all the
a)
366 REPORT—1844.
particles of the stream pass through this area of the stream with a diminished
velocity, the area of transverse section must be increased at this point; thus
the elevation of surface, enlargement of section, diminution of velocity above
the obstacle are its necessary consequences of that obstacle. Again, below
the obstacle the accumulation above generates an additional velocity due to
that height in addition to the mean motion of the stream; the same volume
of water which passed through the large area, with its increased section and
diminished velocity, being now a higher velocity, is transferred through the
smaller area which allows its transmission. ‘Thus the constant volume pass-
ing down the stream varies its velocity with the conservation of its forces
by means of a varying area of transference ; and thus we are enabled to con-
ceive how the observed form of the surface becomes at once possible and
necessary to the transmission of the fluid under the action of the disturbing
force.
I am not aware that this species of standing wave in moving water has
ever before been made the subject of philosophical examination. But I con-
ceive that its study is highly important, especially in a theoretical view, as
the means of conveying sound elementary conceptions of wave motion, as
exhibiting the transition from the phenomena of water currents to those of
water waves, as the intermediate link between motions of the first degree
and motions of the second degree, and as affording a basis from which we
may commence, with some prospect of success, the application of the known
principles and laws of motion to the investigation of the difficult theory of waves.
Moving Waves of the Second Order—Sea Waves.—It is not difficult to pass
from the conception of standing waves in running water to the conception of
running waves in standing water. Let us first conceive the waves in Plate LV.
to be formed in water running in the direction there indicated from right to
left, with a given mean motion, and a given motion of uniform circular oscil-
lation: and next let us conceive the whole water channel and waves to be
transferred uniformly in the opposite direction with a velocity equal to the
mean velocity of transference; then the absolute motion of transference of
the water will become nothing: the waves formerly standing are now moved
in the opposite direction with a velocity equal to the former mean velocity
of the running stream, and the motion of oscillation remains. Thus, the
running water becoming still, the waves become moving waves, and if we
reverse the hypothesis once more, and conceive the waves which move with
a given velocity to exist in water which has a motion of transference with
equal velocity in the opposite direction, it is manifest that these waves run-
ning up the stream as fast as the waters run down, the wave-crests remain
fixed in place. Thus then the same oscillating phenomenon which in stand-
ing water gives moving waves, will give in moving water standing waves;
taking for granted always that the motions of oscillation are such as to be
possible, cousistent with the nature of the fluid, and independent of the com-
mon mean motion of the fluid ; a condition equally essential to the possibility
of the wave motion and of our conceptions of it.
I have been able accurately to observe the phenomena of wave motion in
still water, the waves being of the second order and gregarious, under the
following circumstances :—
1. I have drawn a body through the water with a uniform motion, and
have observed the group of waves which follow in its wake.
2. I have propagated the negative wave of the first order, and observed
the group of waves which follow in its wake.
I have not observed in the results of these two methods any distinction of
form, velocity, or other character.
. ON WAVES. 367
The form under which these waves appear has already been exhibited in
Plate LII. figs.9 and 10, and equally in Plate LV. figs.1,2,3, and in Plate LVI.
fig. 1.
“3 I have made a series of observations by dragging a body through the water,
the results of which are given in the following Table. I first made pre-
paratory observations to find whether the form of body or depth of channel
made any change on the phenomenon. I found that larger bodies and higher
velocities made higher waves, but that the length and velocity of the wave:
were unchanged by either the form of body, or the depth of the channel, or
the height of the wave. I observed that when the waves became high and
broke, the elevation above the mean level was 6 inches, and the depression
below it 2 inches, making a height total of 8 inches ; this was at a velocity
of 6°25 feet per second. Immediately behind the body dragged through the
water, the mean level appears to be considerably lowered.
I examined the motion of oscillation of these waves by means of small
floating spherules. Waves of the second order having a total height of half
an inch, in water 4 inches deep made by a negative wave, were accom-
panied by motion in a circle of half an inch diameter at the surface, and the
particles below described also circles which rapidly decreased in diameter
and at 3 inches deep ceased to be sensible; the waves were about one foot
long.
TasBiLe XIX.
Observations on the Length and Velocity of Waves of the Second Order.
Column A the order and number of the experiments.
Column B the number of seconds in which the waves were transmitted
along 100 feet.
Column C the aggregate length in feet of the number of waves in Column
Column D the number of waves extending to the length in Column C.
~ Column E the length in feet of one wave ‘from crest to crest.
~ Column F the velocity in feet per second given by experiment.
These results are the means of many experiments, differing from each
other not more than the examples preceding them, which have been given in
detail as a fair specimen.
a A. B. C. 19 by bao F. A.
I. 33°2 | 265 | 10 265 | 3:01 I.
II. 332 | 26°5 | 10 2°65 | 3:01 Il.
Ill. 31:6 | 25: x | 294 | 316 Ill
IV. 31°8 | 25: % | 2:94 | 314 IV
V. 31°8 | 25: e | 294 | 314 Vv
VI. ~ | 804 | 25: 8 3°125 | 3:29 VI
Vil. 29°6 | 25° 72 | 3:26 | 3:37 VII
VIII. 29°6 | 25° 7% «| 3:26 | 3:37 VI
IX. 28:0 | 25° 7 357 | 3:57 IX
X. 28:4 | 25- 7 3°57 | 3°51 X
XI. 28:0 | 25- 7 3°57 | 3:57 XI
XII. 28:0 | 25: 7 =| 3857 | 357 XII
XII. 28:0 | 25° 7 =| 857 | 3:57 XIII
XIV. 28:0 | 25- 7 3°57 | 3°57 XIV.
TXV.-XVII. | 268 | 25° GE | 384 | 3°72 XV.-XVIL.
+XVIII-XXII. | 26:0 | 25- 6 | 4:18 | 3-84 XVITL-XXII.
TXXIIT-XXVI. | 24:0 | 25- 5 5:00 | 4:16 XXITI.-XXVI.
+ XXVIL-XXXIV,| 21°6 | 25° 4 6-25 | 4:62 | XXVIL-XXXIV.
—
a.
368 REPORT—1844.
As these waves appear in groups, their velocity and lengths are easily ob-
served and measured. I have reckoned as many as a dozen such waves in a
group all about the same magnitude, so that the aggregate length of the first
six was sensibly equal to the length of the second group of six. The method
of observation was this: a given distance was marked off along one side of
the channel; an observer marked the instant at which the first of a group of
secondary waves arrived at a given point, while another observer at the fur-
ther end of the given distance counted the number of waves as they passed,
and marked the point at which the last had arrived when the signal was
given that the first wave had reached the other station ; thus it was observed
that in a group of waves moving over 100 feet in 28 seconds, there were
seven comprehended in a distance of 25 feet, whence
28
100 =3'57 feet per second for the velocity of the wave, and
2 =3°57 feet as the length of the wave.
Also, since the wave passes along 3°57 feet its own length in one second,
its length divided by the velocity gives 1 second as the period of one com-
plete oscillation.
The velocity of the wave of the second order, the /ength from the crest of
one wave to the crest of the next, or from hollow to hollow, and the time of
passing from one crest to another, called the period of the wave; these are
the principal elements for observation.
These elements are calculated for the convenience of observers in the
Table XXI. It will also be observed that the circles which represent the
oscillatory motion of the water particles (Plate LVI.), showing the Wave
Motion of the Second Order, diminish very rapidly with the increasing depth
of the particles below the surface of the water at the lowest part of the wave.
By my observations I found that in high waves at a depth = 3rd of a wave
length, the range of oscillation of the particles is only about z/gth of that of
particles on the surface *.
* T have here to express the favourable opinion which I have formed of a wave theory given
to the world by M. Franz Gerstner, so early as 1804*, and reprinted in the work of the MM.
Weber, to whom I am indebted for my acquaintance with this theory. Gerstner’s theory is
characterized by simplicity of hypothesis, precision of application, its conformity with the
phznomena, and the elegance of its results. It is not without faults, yet I cannot agree with
the Messrs. Weber, nor with MM, Professors Mollweide and Mobius, in the precise opinion at
which they arrive, although I confess I could wish that he had assumed as an hypothesis the
doctrine which in (14.) he deduces as a conclusion from hypotheses less firmly established than
this conclusion, unless indeed we should esteem it an argument in favour of his hypothesis,
that it conducts him directly to a conclusion of well-known truth. Neither do I find that his
hypotheses are so much at variance with the actual conditions of the waves I have observed,
as they appear to be in MM. Weber's view of their own experiments. The calculations of
M. Gerstner are applied primarily to a kind of standing oscillation. But it does not appear to
me that his calculations ought to be applied in any way to the standing oscillations which M.
Weber reckons to be their closest representation. In M. Gerstner’s first part of the work the
wave form is standing, wave oscillation is circular, the fluid is in motion, and the particle paths
are identical with the lines which indicate the form of the wave. I conceive, therefore, that
the wave which he has examined, and the conditions of its genesis, find a perfect representative
in my standing waves of the second order, in running water, which I have represented in Plates
LV. and LVI. From this hypothesis it is not difficult to arrive at the moving wave of standing
water, for if we conceive the whole channel moved horizontally along in an opposite direction
with a velocity equal to the horizontal velocity of transference, the particles will then be re-
latively at rest, the cycloidal waves become moving forms, the particle paths stationary circles,
and the motion of transmission of the wave equal and opposite to the former mean horizontal
* Theorie der Wellen. Prague, 1804.
ON WAVES. 369
One observation which I have made is curious. It is, that in the case of
oscillating waves of the second order, I have found that the motion of pro-
pagation of the whole group is different from the apparent motion of wave
transmission along the surface ; that in the group whose velocity of oscilla-
tion is as observed 3°57 feet per second, each wave having a seeming velocity
of 3°57, the whole group moves forward in the direction of transmission with
a much slower velocity. The consequence of this is a difficulty in observing
these waves (especially such as are raised by the wind at sea), namely, that
as the eye follows the crest of the wave, this crest appears to run out of
_ sight, and is lost in the small waves in which the group terminates. The
termination of these groups in a series of waves becoming gradually smaller
and smaller, yet all continuous with the large wave, is curious and leads to a
curious conclusion. It is plain that if these large waves are moving with the
same velocity as the small ones, this, result would be inconsistent with the
other experiments. But if we conceive each to be transmitted with the
velocity due to its breadth, we shall have the velocity of oscillation varying
from point to’point in the same group of waves, but it will be impossible
always to measure this velocity directiy as it may be continually changing.
There is to be observed, therefore, this distinction in a group of waves of the
second order, between the velocity of individual wave transmission and the
velocity of aggregate wave propagation.
I have not found it possible to measure this velocity of aggregate propa-
gation of a group of waves, from want of a point to observe. If I fix my eye
upon a single wave, | follow it along the group, and it gradually diminishes
and then disappears; I take another and follow it, and it also disappears.
My eye, in following a wave crest, follows the visible velocity of transmission
merely. After one or two such observations, I find that the whole group of
motion of transference of the particles. In short, they become moving waves of the third order,
__ the common waves of the sea.
___ From M. Gerstner’s investigations we obtain the following results, for oscillating waves which
_ correspond to our second order :—
_ __1. Waves of the same amplitude are described in equal times independently of their height.
_ (This corresponds with the results of our experiments.)
2. Waves are transmitted with velocities which vary as the square roots of their amplitudes.
3. The waves on the surface are of the cycloidal form, always elongated, never compressed ;
the common cycloid being the limit between the possible and impossible, the continuous and
the broken wave. ye
__ 4, The particle paths in the standing waves of running water are cycloids, which on the sur-
face are identical with the wave form, and below the surface have the same character with the
_ wave lines of the surface, the height of the waves only diminishing with the increase of depth.
_ 5. The particle paths of moving waves in standing water are circles corresponding to the
circles of height of the cycloidal paths; the diameters of these circles of vertical oscillation di-
Minish in depth as follows. Let 0, u? wu, 3 u, &c. be depths increasing in arithmetical pro~
ey 4 24 _3e
gression, then b,b¢ @%,be %»bt %, which decrease in geometrical proportion, are the
ratio of the diminishing diameters of vertical oscillation. Thus, if 0, 4 a, 2 a, 2 a, &c. be depths,
a, 0°6065 a, 0°3679 a, 0°2231 a, 0°1353 a, are the ranges.
6. The forms of these paths and the circles of oscillation are shown in Plate X. fig. 1, which
has been drawn with geometrical accuracy from the data of M. Gerstner’s theory, and it is at
the same time the most accurate representative I am able to give of my observations on the
wave of the second order.
7. The period of wave oscillation is cataink: 2a.
Oo
5
8. The velocity of wave propagation is v= n/ 2 ag, a being the radius of the wave cycloid
generating circle.
9. It follows that the length of a pendulum isochronous with the wave is less than the wave
length in the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its semi-circumference. Newton made these
equal. These last three results are inconsistent with my observations on transmissior:,
1844. ae
370 REPORT—1844.
oscillations has been transferred along in the direction of transmission with a
velocity comparatively slower; but I have not been able to measure this
velocity of propagation of the wave motion from one place to another.
We have already seen that the velocity assigned by Mr. Kelland and Mr.
Airy falls much short of that of the wave of the first order, to which they
have thought their results were to be applied. Their results are much nearer
to that of the secondary wave, so that it may be questioned whether they
should not have applied their results to that rather than the other. Thus
by comparing Table XXI. with Table XVIIL., it will be found that while the
velocity of a wave of the first order, about 6 feet long, is from 5°5 to 8 feet per
second, according to the height, that of a wave of the second order is only
4°62 feet, which is much nearer to their results. There remains however
this difficulty, that high and low waves of the second order of equal length
have equal velocities.
On Observations of the Waves of the Sea.—The chief difficulty in obtain-
ing accurate measures of sea waves consists in this fact, that the surface is
seldom covered with a uniform series of equidistant equal waves, but with
several simultaneous groups of different magnitude or in different directions.
If there exist more groups than one, the resulting apparent motion of the
surface will be extremely different from the motion of either, and may be
apparently in an opposite direction from that of the actual motion of the in-
dividual series themselves.
Besides the coexistence of different series of waves, we have the difficulty
arising from the fact already mentioned, that a difference exists between the
velocity of transmission and the velocity of propagation. From this it results,
that after the eye has followed the apparent ridge of a wave, moving with a
given velocity of transmission, it will outrun the velocity of propagation,
and the wave will appear to cease. This I have continually observed at sea.
The eye follows a large wave and suddenly it ceases to pass on, but on look-
ing back we find it making once more an appearance on the same ground
along which we formerly traced its ridge; this arises from the cause just
mentioned.
But there are still many occasions on which tolerable observations may be
made, and the best will be such as are least complicated by separate systems.
The best observations of this kind I have been able to obtain were made for
the Committee of the British Association, by the Queen’s Harbour-master at
Plymouth, William Walker, Esq., who has paid much attention to this sub-
ject. He observed the waves as they traversed a space of about half a mile,
between two buoys, noting the time of passing, and also the number of waves
in the distance between the buoys, whose distance was accurately known.
He remarks that in counting the number of waves, great difficulty was found
in following a single wave along this space. In fact, as we have already
shown, a wave will be often found to fall behind its expected place.
The resulting velocities got from Mr. Walker's experiments are very
various. But on taking out of the. others all those which are mentioned by
Mr. Walker as having causes of uncertainty, I found those which remained
very close to those given in Table XXI.
The following is the Table of observations on sea waves.
Distance traversed about half a mile; depth 40 to 50 feet.
“ON WAVES. 371
ldo TaBLe XX.
Observations on the Length and Velocity of Waves of the Second Order.—In
the Sea.
Height of wave
Wave eet Map sec, Vel. perhour. infeetabove Remarks at the time of Observations.
eet. eet. i
miles. mean level.
I.110°5 202 11°9 2% _A fresh breeze blowing.
IL. 175°0 343 20°3 2% Waves not easily traced.
Til. 302: 37°0 21:9 4. * High seas overtake smaller ones.
IV. 345° 37:0 21°9 41+ These waves came down channel.
V. 306° 37°0 21°9 42, Long low swell.
VI. 408: 41:2 2402 Small waves merged in large ones.
Height of wave correctly measured, they
42.
VII. 442: 41°8 24°7 27 { break in 5 and 6 fathoms water.
VIII. 450° 4407 26°5 ? Strong S.W. wind.
IX. 460° 46:0 27:2 ? Waves running high and breaking.
X. 345° 46°0 27°2 5 Long low swell.
XI. 394: 38°3 22°7 5 Waves generated by wind of yesterday.
XII. 345° 41°5 24°5 4 Waves crowd near the beach.
XIII. 306: 36'8 21°6 irregular. Shifting wind.
XIV. 460° 42°5 25°2 regular. Easterly winds.
Of these there are five which coincide with my observations and with my
tables, Nos. XIX. and XXI.; and it is curious that these five are those which
are made in the most unexceptionable circumstances. No. II. has the remark
_ that the waves are not easily traced. No. III. has a mixture of waves, which
always causes great confusion and difficulty of observation. No. V. and
No. X. are long and low, and therefore not easily traced, and so on; but
Nos. I., IV., VIL, XI., XIV., are unexceptionable, and are compared with my
formula in the following Table :-—
Length of wave Velocity of wave Velocity of wave
observed. observed. calculated,
feet. feet per sec.
ii 110°5 20°2 19°5
IV. 345° 37-0 35°
VII. 449° 41°8 40°
XII. 394° 38°3 37°
XIV. 460° 42- 40°*
We may therefore continue to use Table XXI. for the velocity of sea waves,
unless we obtain further and decisive experiments to the contrary. It does
not appear that sea waves present any characteristic to distinguish them from
other oscillating waves of the second order which I have experimentally ex-
amined.
It also follows that these waves coincide with my observations, that the
depth of water is the limit of the height of waves; see No. VII., where waves
27 feet high, break in water of 5 to 6 fathoms.
How it happens that individual large waves should ever arise in the sur-
face of a large sea, uniformly exposed to the action of the wind, is not very
obvious. Thus much is plain—that if a wave, greater than those around it,
be generated by a local inequality of the wind, or by one of the moving whirl-
pools which we know to be so common, ¢hat wave will be increased con-
tinually by the presence of other waves coexisting with it, for when these
other waves are crossing the top of this larger wave, they are suddenly ex-
posed to increased force by the obstruction they present to the wind, and
2B2
372 REPORT—1844,
being cusped in form by the coincidence of the crests, they are in a position
of delicate equilibrium easily deranged; and the derangement producing a
breaking of the wave, the disintegrated fragments of the smaller wave de-
tached from it, leave it smaller, and increase by an equal quantity the mag-
nitude of the larger.
This exaggeration of an individual wave or group is increased by the
phenomenon already noticed, that the velocity of wave transmission may
be very different from the velocity of wave propagation. A large wave of
the sea remaining in a state of much slower motion than the motion of wave
transmission, being traversed by another series of different velocity, exposes
them successively on its summit to the increased action of the wind to disin-
tegration, thus making them tributary to its own further accumulation ; such
phznomena I have often noticed at sea; the wave appears to over-run itself;
and the wave behind seems to take its place and acquire the magnitude and
form it has appeared to lose ; but it is the same wave which remains behind it,
and its motion is merely a deception, or rather it is as explained in a pre-
ceding paragraph.
The final destruction of the waves of the sea, as they expend their strength
and conclude their existence on the rocks and sands of the shore, is a subject
of interesting study and observation. The sea-shore after a storm is a scene
of great grandeur ; it presents an instance of the expenditure of gigantic
forces, which impress the mind with the presence of elemental power as sub-
lime as the water-fall or the thunder. It is peculiarly instructive to watch
these waves as they near the shore: long before they reach the shore they
may be said to feel the bottom as the water becomes gradually more shallow,
for they become sensibly increased in height; this increase goes on with the
diminution of depth and a diminution of length likewise as the wave becomes
sensible ; finally, the wave passes through the successive phases of cycloidal
form, as in Plate LVI., and becoming higher and more pointed, reaching the
limit of the cycloid, assumes a form of unstable equilibrium, totters, becomes
crested with foam, breaks with great violence, and continuing to break, is
gradually lessened in bulk until it ends in a fringed margin on the sea-shore.
But there are a variety of questions to be determined concerning this shore
wave or breaking surf. Why and how does it break? What happens after
it begins to break? What are the relative levels of the waves and of the
water? What is the mean level of the sea, and what sort of waves are
breakers ?
It is not at first obvious what form the mean level of the sea will assume
on a sloping beach sea-ward on which heavy breakers are rolling. It is
plainly not level; the action of the wind is known to heap the water up on it.
The impetus of the waves also must raise it to some height due te their ve-
locity and force. Hence the mean surface of the sea will form a slope
upwards towards the sea-shore; and this slope will form a continual and
uniform current of water outwards towards the sea, except when it is directly
opposed by the action of the wave in the opposite direction.
There is a phenomenon of some importance in breaking waves, to which
T have directed attention ; it is this, that the wave of the second order dis-
appears, and that a wave of the first order takes its place. It is to be observed
as follows :—In waves breaking on a shore, I have observed a phenomenon
which is curious and not without importance. The wave of the second order
may disappear, and a wave of the first order take its place. The conditions
in which I have noticed this phenomenon are as follows. One of the com-
mon sea waves, being of the second order, approaches the shore, consisting
as usual of a negative or hollow part, and of a positive part elevated above
ON WAVES. ; 373
the level ; and as formerly noticed, this positive portion gradually increases
in height, and at length the wave breaks, and the positive part of the wave
falls forward into the negative part, filling up the hollow. Now we readily
enough conceive that if the positive and the negative part of a wave were
precisely equal in height, volume, and velocity, they would, by uniting, exactly
neutralize each other's motion, and the volume of the one filling the hollow
of the other, give rise tosmooth water; but in approaching the shore the positive
part increases in height, and the result of this is, to leave the positive portion
of the wave much in excess above the negative. After a wave has first been
made to break on the shore, it does not cease to travel, but if the slope be gentle,
the beach shallow and very extended (as it sometimes is for a mile inwards
from the breaking-point, if the waves be large), the whole inner portion of
the beach is covered with positive waves of the first order, from among which
all waves of the second order have disappeared. This accounts for the phe-
nomenon of breakers transporting shingle and wreck, and other substances
shorewards after a certain point; at a great distance from shore, or where
the shores are deep and abrupt, the wave is of the second order, and a body
floating near the surface is alternately carried forward and backward by the
waves, neither is the water affected to a great depth; whereas nearer the
shore, the whole action of the wave is inwards, and the force extends to the
bottom of the water and stirs the shingle shorewards ; hence the abruptness
also of the shingle and sand near the margin of the shore where the breakers
generally run.
I have observed this most strikingly exemplified in Dublin Bay after a
_ storm: there is a locality peculiarly favourable to the study of breaking
waves above Kingston, where over an extent of several miles there is a broad,
_ flat, sandy beach, varying in level very slightly and slowly. Waves coming
in from the deep sea are first broken when they approach the shallow beach
in the usual way ; they give off residuary waves, which are positive ; these
are wide asunder from each other, are wholly positive, and the space between
them, several times greater than the amplitude of the wave, are perfectly flat,
and in this condition they extend over wide areas and travel to great dis-
tances. These residuary positive waves evidently prove the existence, and
_ represent the amount of the excess of the positive above the negative forces
_ in the wind wave of the second order. See Plate XLIX. fig. 7.
it
374 REPORT—1844.
TABLE XXI.
Length, Period and Velocity of Transmission of Waves of the Second Order.
A the length of the waves (observed) in feet.
B the period of the waves in seconds.
C the velocity of the waves in feet per second (by observation).
D the velocity of the waves in feet per second, calculated by formula.
A B Cc D A. A B Cc D A
0-01) :053 1889] 0-01 8 1:496 5344 8
0:05 | :118 4224) 0-05 9 1:587 5°667 9
0-1 | -167 5975) O-1 10 1-670 5:975 10
0:25 1:00 20 2-366 8°45 20
03 | :290 1:034 | 0:3 30 2-90 10°34 30
05 | 374 1-336 | 0°5 40 3°34 11:95 40
0-7 | 443 1580 | 0:7 50 3°74 13°36 50
10 | °529 1:889 | 1:0 100 5:29 18:89 100
1:2 | 579 2:070 | 1:2 110 20°| 19°5
1:5 | -648 2314 | 15 200 7:48 26°72 200
1-7 | -690 2-463 | 1-7 300 9°16 32°73 300
2:0 | +748 2°672 | 2-0 345 37°| 35°
22 | 781 2°802 | 2:2 394 38°| 37°
24 | *820 2:927 | 2-4 400 | 10°58 37°78 400
2:65| 862 | 3:01) 3:075 | 2-65 442 42-| 40:
2:94] :907 | 3:15) 3:240 | 2-94 460 42-| 40°
3:00} -916 3'273 | 3:00 500 | 11:83 42:25 500
3:12| -934 | 3:29} 3°338 | 3:12 1,000 | 16°70 59°75 1,000
3:26| -955 | 3°37 |3°411 | 3:26 2,000 | 23°66 84:5 2,000
3:57 | 1-000 | 3°57 | 3°57 | 3:57 3,000 | 29-0 103-4 3,000
3°84 | 1-038 | 3°72) 3°702 | 3°84 4,000 | 33-4 119°5 4,000
4:00 | 1:058 3:778 | 4:00 5,000 | 37:4 133°6 5,000
4:18| 1-095 | 3°84] 3-909 | 4:18 10,000 | 52:9 188-9 10,000
4-50 | 1-122 4:008 | 4:50|| 20,000 | 74:8 267:2 20,000
4-70 | 1-147 4:096 | 4:70|| 30,000 | 91:6 3273 30,000
5:00 | 1-188 | 4:16} 4-225 | 5:00} 40,000 | 105-8 3778 40,000
6:00 | 1-296 4628 | 6:00|} 50,000 | 1183 422°5 50,000
6°25 | 1:323 | 4-62 | 4-724 | 6-25 |} 100,000 | 167-0 597°5 100,000
65 |1:349 4817 | 65 || 500,000 | 374-0 1336-0 500,000
7 1-400 4999 | 7 1,000,000 | 529-0 1889:0 —|1,000,000
Ce eee ee ee eS
ON WAVES. 375
Section IJ].—WaAveEs oF THE THIRD ORDER.
Capillary Waves.
Character 2.032: Gregarious.
eit Forced.
Warieties”: ccs... obs ne
Free.
Dentate waves.
Instaneesies. <" -vsis ses
Zephyral waves.
Capillary Waves.—If the point of a slender rod or wire, being wet. be
inserted in a reservoir of water perfectly still, to a minute depth, say one-
tenth part of an inch below the surface of repose, it is known that the surface
of the water will visibly rise in the vicinity of this wire, being highest in the
immediate vicinity of the wire, and gradually diminishing until it cease to be
sensible. I have examined this elevation by reflected rays from the surface,
and I find that this elevated mass does not sensibly rise from the surface at
more than an inch distance from the centre of the rod, the rod itself being
one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter.
This statical phenomenon belongs to a well-known class of phenomena,
which have been experimentally examined by many philosophers, and success-
fully explained by Dr. Thomas Young and Laplace, and recently investigated
very fully and completely by M. Poisson, in his profound work entitled, ‘ Nou-
velle Théorie de l’ Action Capillaire,’ Paris, 1831. An admirable Report on the
present state of our knowledge of the phenomena of capillary attraction will
be found in the Transactions of the British Association, vol. ii. All that it is
necessary for my present purpose to advert to on this subject is, that the phe-
_. nomena of elevation of fluids by capillary attraction, are chiefly due to the
condition of tension of the superficial particles of the water under the influence
of a force acting on these superficial particles at insensible distances only, or
by physical contact or adhesion. These superficial particles form a chain, or
catenary, or lintearian curve, one end supported by the immediate adhesion
of one extremity to the solid body at a given height above the water, the
other end lying on the surface of the water, the underlying particles being
suspended immediately by their mutual adhesion to this superficial film.
M. Poisson especially has shown that “ capillary phenomena are due to mole-
cular action, modified by a particular state of compression of the fluid at its
superficies.” I have been thus particular for the purpose not only of ex-
plaining my meaning in a future article, but also to justify a term which I
am desirous of introducing here as an expression not only convenient, but
also philosophically sound. I have called the phenomena noticed in this
section Capillary Waves, because they appear to me to present themselves
exclusively in the thin superficial film which forms the bounding surface of
the free liquid, and which is already recognised in the known hydrostatical
phenomena of capillary attraction, and which if I may be allowed, I will call
the capillary film.
By capillary waves 1 therefore designate a class of hydrodynamical phe-
nomena, which exhibit themselves when particles of water are put in motion
under the action of such forces as when at rest produce the usual hydrosta-
tical capillary phenomena. Let the slender rod already alluded to, as sup-
porting a capillary column, bounded by a concave surface of revolution, be
moved horizontally along the surface of the fluid with a velocity of ore foot
per second, ana we shall have exhibited to us all the beautiful phenomena re-
presented in Plate LVII. In order to produce these phenomena, it is only
necessary that the slender rod touch the surface without descending to any
376 “REPORT—1844.
sensible depth; and the depth to which it descends in no sensible manner
affects the phenomenon. JI have called these phenomena capillary waves.
Free Capillary Waves.—If the point of a rod sustaining a capillary column
be suddenly raised, so as to allow the capillary film to remain without support,
it descends and propagates through the capillary film an undulation which dif-
fuses itself in every direction circular-wise, in a small group of about half a
dozen visible waves which soon become insensible. Or if avery slender silk
fibre, stretched horizontally along the surface of the water, be first wetted, and
made to sustain a long strip of the capillary film, and then suddenly with-
drawn, leaving a ridge of unsupported fluid, waves parallel to this are gene-
rated, which remain longer visible, are short and narrow at first, and becoming
longer and flatter, at first about a quarter of an inch in amplitude from ridge
to ridge, and about half a dozen in number, they become an inch in amplitude
about the time when they are last visible; their /ongevity does not exceed
twelve or fifteen seconds, and their visible range eight or ten feet.
These latter are what I designate the free capillary waves; the former class,
shown in Plate LVII., existing under the continued influence of the disturb-
ing force, may be called the forced species of this order of wave. As forced
waves, and while under the influence of the exciting body, they may appa-
rently attain great velocity ; but if the disturbing body be suddenly removed,
they immediately expand backwards from the place where they were crowded
by the solid point, and becoming all of nearly equal breadth, move forward
together as free waves for twelve or fifteen seconds, at a rate of 83 inches
per second.
Forced Capillary Waves.—I have aiready stated that if a slender rod
or wire, one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, be inserted, after having been
wetted, into water in repose, there will be raised all round this rod a column of
fluid by the action of the capillary forces, as indicated at figure 2, Plate LVI.
I have stated that this surface may be observed by reflexion to extend on every
side about an inch, forming a circular elevation, bounded by a surface of re-
volution round the axis of the rod asa centre; the line which divides the
elevated from the level surface being a circle of two inches in diameter.
When this rod is moved horizontally along the surface of the fluid, the form
of the elevated mass changes; before the disturbing point the extent of
elevation diminishes, and the outline of the capillary volume of fluid sustained
by the cylinder ceases to be a figure of revolution, becoming distorted as
at fig. 3. At a velocity of about eight inches per second, the capillary
volume has taken the bifurcate form, fig. 6, and a small wave, 6b, about an
inch broad, is visible before the disturbing point, and a ridge, aa, begins to
manifest itself, diverging from the disturbing body ; at about ten inches per
second there become visible distinctly three waves, the disturbing body being
in the middle of the first a, and the sum of the length of waves 6 and e,
being about an inch. At higher velocities than this, the waves increase
rapidly in number, diminish in amplitude, and extend out in length, spreading
into the form indicated in Plate LVII., which is formed at a velocity of 60 feet
per minute, or of 12 inches per second.
As the velocity increases, the following changes are to be observed :—
1. The waves diminish in amplitude from ridge to ridge; that is to say, de-
nominating the wave in which is the disturbing body ridge a, and the others
in succession before the point 6 ¢ d, &c. the first space of an inch forward, in
the direction of motion contains at a velocity of 12 inches per second, or 60
feet per minute, besides a, 3 ridges bed; at 65 feet per second, 4 ridges
b cde; at 72 feet per second there are in the first inch formed five ridges
bcdef,andso on. This crowding of the ridges with the velocity is given
in the following Table :-—
ON WAVES. _ 377
Tasie XXII.
"Observations on the Velocity, Distance, and Divergence of Waves of the
Third Order.
i Column A contains the time in which the disturbing body, a wire of one-
_ sixteenth of an inch in diameter, was drawn with a uniform motion along
, distances of 12 feet each ; each experiment being frequently repeated.
B and C are the corresponding velocities of the disturbing body.
4 D, E, F are the number of complete waves, reckoning from hollow to hol-
__ low, ‘contained in each successive inch from the centre of the disturbing
‘ wire, formed in the direction of the motion of the wire.
__ G. The numbers in this column are measures of the divergence of the first
_ wave from the path of the exciting wire, measured at 25 inches behind that
_ wire, and of course these numbers are tangents to the radius 25 for the angle
_ of divergence.
H contains the angles deduced from the numbers in G.
Observations on the Capillary Waves.
See Plate LVII.
A. B. Cc. D. | E. | F, G. H.
No. of waves observed before Tang. of Angle of crest
Time of | Velocity | Velocity the disturbing body, angle to | of first wave aa,
describing| in feet | in feet | —_______________ | "7... | with direction
12 feet. | per sec. |permin-| i, grst lin second| in third| 25. of disturbing
inch. inch. inch. bodies.
—$$— | | | | |
J |
Ty 12 1 60 3 4 ap 25 | 45
II. 11 14+ 65 4 5 6? 21 40
III. 10 14 72 5 6 7? 17 34
IV. 9 13 80 6 7 14 29
V. 8 14 90 7 8 LE 24
VI. 7 13 103 8 9 20
VII. 6 2 120 9 8 18
VIII. 5 24 132 Vf
IX. 4 3 180 6
_ The crowding of the ridges is not the only phenomenon that accompanies
_ the increase of velocity of the moving point ; the first wave, that whose ridge
‘is in the focus, scarcely differs from a straight line, and the angle which it
makes with the path of the disturbing point, diminishes with the increase of
_ Yelocity ; the divergence of the first wave from the path of the exciting body
_ is given in another column by an observation of the distance of the wave
; vas om that path at a given distance behind the body. These numbers show
"that the velocity of the wave, taken at right angles to the ridge, is nearly that
‘of the free wave. This angle therefore becomes an index of the relation of
% the velocity of disturbance to the velocity of wave propagation.
__ The form of the wave ridges appears to be nearly that of a group of confocal
ee yperoolas, the exciting body being in the focus.
& T have found the numbers given in columns C, D and E, to be determined
_ by the velocity of the disturbing body, and quite independent of its size
and form. But while I have found the number of ridges in an inch at a
. _ velocity to be thus invariable, I have not found the number of inches
5¥e.
‘-
378 REPORT—1844,
over which these vibrations range to be equally invariable. At a velocity ot
100 feet per minute, they may sometimes be observed advancing only over
the first two inches before the point ; then suddenly the vibrations will spread
out, not increasing in magnitude but in number to thirty or forty, extending
along many inches in advance of the disturbing point, and covering ten or
twelve square feet with an extension of the representation in Plate LVII. Then
suddenly without apparent cause, they will subside and become visible only
as a thin narrow belt, comprising the two or three waves nearest the disturb-
ing body, and as suddenly will again spread out over the surface of the water.
The play of this beautiful symmetrical system of confocal hyperbolas is a
phenomenon not inferior in beauty to some of the exquisite figures exhibited
by polarising crystals. I have found that the purity of the water had much
to do with the éxtent and range of this phenomenon; that any small particles
loading at a few points the capillary film was sufficient to derange the propa-
gation of these waves, and prevent their distribution over a wide range ; but
I have not found that the agitation of the water at all affected the formation
of these waves.
It is perhaps of importance to state that when these forced waves were
being generated, I have suddenly stopped or withdrawn the disturbing point,
that the first wave immediately sprang back from the others, showing that it
had been in a state of compression—that the ridges became parallel, and
moving on at the rate of 85 inches per second, disappeared in about 12
seconds.
The manner in which the divergence of the ridge passes through the
point of disturbance is shown in the annexed diagram. A B is the path of
disturbance, the disturbing point being in B; a rod B A is 25 inches long;
BC is the diverging wave ridge ; a graduated rod A C projects from A B at
the point A, 25 inches behind B, on which are observed the distance of the
wave from A along A C, registered in Col, 6, Table XXIII.
A ie. B
If a body move with a given velocity along a
known line A B, the side A C being measured at
right angles to the line of direction A B, and
cutting, in C, the line B C which represents the 4
ridge of the wave proceeding from the moving
body B; it is required to find the velocity of the
wave in the line A D perpendicular to its ridge.
c
As the triangle A B C is right-angled, sin Bo
and since the triangle A B Dis right-angled, x= Ls ;
hence, the time being the same as that in which A B is described, the ve-
locity is at once obtained.
Table I. contains some observations which were made with a view to the
investigation of the ratio subsisting between these velocities. The sides and
angles are indicated by the same letters which are used in the diagram.
¢, its velocity, and & being given; 2, its velocity, and B were calculated by
means of the preceding formule.
ON WAVES. 379
TABLE XXIII.
Comparison of Experiments on the Divergence due to given Velocities of
Genesis.
Column c is the constant measure in inches taken along the path of gene-
sis A B in the figure ; the adjacent column is the velocity of genesis along
A B in inches per second.
Column d is the length A C, measured by observation in a direction at
right angles to A B.
Column z is the length of « deduced from the measure 6, and the adjacent
column shows the corresponding deduced velocity of the wave at right angles
to its ridge.
Column B shows the angles of divergence given by these observations.
Column 6! and B! are numbers corresponding to 6 and B obtained from
the supposition that the velocity of the wave in a direction at right angles to
its own ridge is constant and precisely equal to the velocity of the free wave,
viz. 81 inches per second. The deviations of 6! and B' from 6 and B were
chiefly due to disturbance of the fluid produced by the apparatus employed
in genesis.
Velocity Velocity
c. f|ininches|) 3. x. |ininches B. uw. B’.
per sec. per sec.
Oly vip th o 4 4
25 12 25 17:67; 849 | 45 0 0; 25:0 | 45 O O
25 13 21 16:07| 8:37 | 40 0 1 | 21-60} 40 49 48
25 14:4 17 14:05; 810 | 34.13 7 | 1827| 36 10 26
25 16.0 14 12:16| 7:79 | 29 7 46 | 15-67| 32 5 23
25 18-0 11 10:05 | 7:28 | 23 42 55 | 13:38| 28 9 32
25 20°6 9 8-44] 6:98 | 19 44 43 | 11:31) 24 21 24
25 24-0 8 7-61| 7-31 | 17 43 22 9:46 | 20 44 27
25 7 | 674 15 38 35
25 6 5°83 13 29 44
Various considerations induced the acceptance of a constant velocity along
x of 85 inches per second. The deviations from it in the increasing veloci-
- ties are due principally to the disturbance of the fluid by the peculiar method
of genesis in that instance employed as most convenient. On this assump-
tion the values of 4 were calculated by the following formula and placed in
the column 0’, and the values of the angle B found in this manner are written
under B’.
In the triangle A BD, sin —— ;
sinD xz
sinC *
From what has been said, it follows that there can be no difficulty in cal-
culating the velocity of a body or current from the divergence of the capillary
wave.
Let 6 represent the amount of divergence per foot, the time in which a
_ foot will be described, and consequently the velocity per second, can be ob-
tained by the formule which were first given; thus, finding the length of z,
and its velocity being known, the absolute time occupied can at once be
found, which time is that in which the moving body traverses one foot. In
Table II., columns A, B, contain the divergence of the wave expressed in
inches per foot, and the corresponding velocity in inches per second.
whence in the triangle A C D, 6=
380 REPORT—1844.
TABLE*XXIV.
For determining the Velocity of Currents or Moving Bodies by Observations
of Divergence.
Column A gives the divergence from the path of disturbance measured at
right angles to the path, in inches per foot of distance from the disturbing
point.
Column B gives the corresponding velocity in inches per second, measured
along the direction of the stream or the path of the disturbing point.
Column C contains the angle, which may be observed, at which the wave
passes off from the disturbing point, and gives in degrees its divergence from
the direction of the stream or the path of the disturbing point.
Column D gives the velocity in inches per second corresponding to the
angles in C.
A. B. Cc. D.
°
12 12-0 60 9°81
ll 12°62 55 10°37
10 13-49 50 11-09
9 14°16 45 12-02
8 15°38 40 13-22
17-0 35 14-82
6 19-08 30 17:0
5 22-10 25 20°12
4 27:0 20 24°85
3
2
1
35-13 | 15 | 3284
51-77 | 10 | 48-94
10233 | 5 | 97-51
1 | 487-10 |
When the angle of divergence is given, the process is facilitated, as one of
the equations used in the previous case has for its sole object the finding of
that angle; in Table II., columns C, D, contain the velocities in inches per
second corresponding to the given angle of divergence.
Waves of a similar description with those I have here examined, appear
first to have been noticed by M. Poncelet, in the course of the valuable
experiments made by him and M. Lesbros, which are published in their
‘ Mémoire sur la dépense des orifices rectangulaires verticaux 4 grandes di-
mensions présenté a l’ Académie Royale des Sciences,’ 16th November, 1829.
In a notice in the ‘ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,’ vol. xlvi. 1831,
“ Sur quelques phénoménes produits a la surface libre des fluides, en repos
ou en mouvement, par la présence des corps solides qui y sont plus ou moins
plongés, et spécialement sur les ondulations et les rides permanentes qui en
résultant,” M. Poncelet gives the following description of the phanometa.
“Lorsqu’on approche légérement l’extrémité d'une tige fine, formée par
une substance solide queleonque, de la surface supérieure d’un courant d’eau
bien réglé ou constant, il se forme aussitét 4 cette surface une quantité de
rides proéminentes, enveloppant de toutes parts le point de contact de la tige
et du fluide, et présentant l’aspect d’une série de courbes paraboliques qui
s’envelopperaient les uns les autres, et auraient pour axe de symmétrie, ou pour
grand axe commun, un droit passant par le point dont il s'agit, et dirigée
dans le sens méme du courant en ce point. L’extrémité inférieure de la tige
occupe le sommet de la premiére parabole intérieure, qui sert comme de
limite commun 4 toutes les autres ; le nombre des rides parait d’ailleurs étre
infini, et elles sont disposées entre elles 4 des intervalles distincts qui croissent
ON WAVES. 381
avec leur distance au point du contact ..... . les rides sont parfaitement
immobiles et invariables de forme tant que l'état de repos de la tige et de
mouvement du courant n’est pas changé; de plus, au lieu de persister plus ou
moins aprés que cette tige a été enlevée, le phénoméne disparait brusque-
ment, et a l'instant ot le liquide abandonne I’extrémité inférieure de la tige,
& laquelle il n’est plus retenue vers la fin qu’en vertu de l’'adhérence......
le phénoméne s’opere essentiellement a la surface supérieure du fluide.
“,.....quand Je courant se trouve limité per des parois plus ou moins
voisines de la tige, et paralléles 4 la direction générale des filets fluides, le
phénoméne des rides se reproduit de la méme maniére et avec des circon-
stances sensiblement identiques 4 celles qui auraient lieu si ces parois n’exist-
aient pas, ou si la masse du fluide était indéfinie ; c’est-d-dire que la disposi-
tion, la forme et les dimensions des rides sont sensiblement les mémes, a cela
prés qu’elles se trouvent brusquement coupées ou interrompues par les parois
solides qui limitent le courant comme on le voit représenté, sans éprouver
dailleurs aucune sorte d'inflexion, de déviation ou de réflexion; l’action de
la paroi n’ayant d’autre effet ici que de soulever, al’ordinaire la surface géné-
rale du niveau du fluide ....!!.... le phénoméne des rides se manifeste
également 4 l’entour des corps de dimensions plus ou moins grandes, si ce n’est
que ces rides s’étendent plus au loin, sont plus larges, plus saillantes, et forment
par conséquent des courbes moins déliées et moins distinctes ..... . soit que
Yon considére les ondulations dans un méme profil, soit que l’on considére
les ondulations qui se correspond dans des profils différens ou qui appartien-
nent aux mémes rides l’amplitude de ces ondulations, c’est-a-dire leur hauteur
verticale sera autant moindre, et l’intervalle qui les sépare d’autant plus grand,
que les points auxquels elles appartiennent se trouveront plus éloignés.....
ces différens systémes se superposent exactement aux points de leur rencontres
_ mutuelles sans que leur forme soit aucunement altérée .... . l’examen attentif
de ces changemens de forme et de position des rides produites 4 la surface
_ @un courant quelconque par la presence d’un point fine, serait donc trés-propre
a faire juger, au simple coup d’ceil, de l'état méme du mouvement en chacun
des points de cette surface, et pour chacun des instants successifs o0 I’on
viendrait l’observer . . . . mais cela suppose qu’on a fait a l’avance ; une étude
beaucoup trop compliquée et trop délicate pour que nous ayons pu jusqu’ ici
nous en occuper. .... on trouve, 1°, que les rides sont imperceptibles quand
8a vitesse est moyennement au dessous de 25 c. per seconde; 2°, qu’elles sont
dautant plus déliées d’autant plus distinctes que la vitesse est plus grande;
_ 3°; que le nombre des rides se multiplie aussi 4 mesure que la vitesse du cou-
rant augmente, surtout aux environs du point du contact de la tige; 4°, que
les longues branches des rides se réservent de plus en plus.... quand la vitesse
surpasse 5 ou 6 métres les differens rides paraissent se réduire a une seule... .
ce phénoméne est telle (in standing water) qu’on croirait volontiers que le
déplacement de la tige n’a d’autre effet que de pousser les rides en avant
delle et d'un mouvement commun sur la surface immobile.”
These are mere points of difference between these observations and my
own, which I am disposed to attribute to the peculiarities of condition in
which the observations of M. Poncelet were made. His observations appear
chiefly to have been made in currents, where it was of course impossible to
secure uniformity of motion over the whole surface.
382 REPORT—1844.
Section [V.—Waves or THE FourTH ORDER.
The Corpuscular Wave.
The Sound Wave of Water.
This order of wave I have denominated the corpuscular wave, because the
motions by which it is propagated are so minute as to escape altogether direct
observation, and it is only by mathematical @ priori investigation and indi-
rect deductions from phznomena, that we come to recognise its existence as
a true physical wave. The motions by which it is propagated are so minute,
that it is only by supposing a change in the form of the molecules of the liquid,
or of their density, if conceived to be in contact, or an instantaneous and
infinitesimal change in the minute distances of the molecules from each other,
that the existence of such a wave can be conceived to be possible.
I have not examined this wave by any experiments of my own, and indeed
I find that labour to be perfectly unnecessary, for there has been kindly
transmitted to me by M. Colladon, a communication of his to the Academy
of Sciences, which has been printed in the fifth volume of the ‘ Mémoires des
Savans Etrangéres,’ in which there is given in great detail, an account of a
complete and most satisfactory determination of the elements of this question.
Newton's approximate determination of the velocity of sound in the at-
mosphere was followed by that of Dr. Young and M. Laplace, who effected
a similar approximation for water and other liquids, and finally the complete
solution was satisfactorily given by M. Poisson, the velocity being determined
both for solids and liquids by the formula
where D is the density of the substance, & the length of a given column, and
¢ the small diminution of length caused by a given pressure P.
For the determination of the velocity of the sound wave in water, MM.
Colladon and Sturm undertook a series of experiments on the compression
of liquids, conducted with very ingenious apparatus, and observed and dis-
cussed with much accuracy; by this means they obtained values for the
quantities P, # and ¢, from which the velocity of sound should be theoretically
determined.
They obtained for the water of the lake of Geneva the following quan-
tities :—
Assuming D=1, k=1,000,000,
they found ==48'66,
and P=(0™76).g.m=(0™76).(9°8088 ).(13,544),
whence c=1437°8 métres,
being the theoretical velocity per second of the sound wave in water.
A very elegant apparatus was next employed for the direct determination
by experiment of the truth of this result. Two stations were taken on the
lake of Geneva, the mean depth of water lying between them being about se-
venty fathoms, and the distance between the stations was carefully determined
to be 13,487 métres, or 14,833 yards, about eight miles and a half, lying be-
tween the towns Rolle and Thonon. At one end of this station a large bell
was suspended at a depth of five or six fathoms below the surface of the
water, and struck by mechanism so contrived, as at the instant of striking to
explode a small quantity of gunpowder, and so indicate (during a dark night)
ae
ON WAVES. 383
to the observer, eight miles off, the instant at which the bell was struck.
This sound was distinctly heard by a sort of ear-trumpet lowered in the
water at the other end, and so the observations, made.
The mean time occupied in propagating the sound from one station to
the other as thus determined, was nine seconds and a half, or more precisely
9:4. seconds, giving for the velocity of sound by direct experiment
c= BATS 1435 métres,
the actual velocity of the sound wave thus being found to differ from the
theoretical by not three métres per second.
The velocity of transmission of the wave of the fourth order in water is
therefore in English measure about 1580 yards per second, being about one-
half more rapid than the velocity of sound through the atmosphere.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
PiatEe XLVII.
Genesis and Mechanism of the Wave of Translation —Order I.
Fig. 1. Genesis by impulsion.—A X is the bottom of a long rectangular chan-
nel filled with water to a uniform depth; P a thin plate inserted vertically
in the fluid and fitting the internal surface of the channel. It is moved
forward from A towards X through the successive positions P,, P., Ps, P.,
P,, and heaping up the water before it generates a wave of the first
order W,, W,, which is transmitted along the channel as at W,, W, to
W,, &c., being transmitted with uniform velocity as a great solitary wave,
_ _and leaving the water behind it in repose at the original level.
Fig. 2. Genesis by a column of fluid.—In the same channel the moveable
_ plate P, is fixed so as with the end and sides of the channel to form reser-
voir A G P,, containing a column of water G W, raised above the surface
_ of repose of the water in the channel. P, is suddenly raised as at P, and
_ P,; the column descends, presses forward the column anterior to P, and
raises the surface, generating a wave of translation, which is transmitted
along the channel as before. After genesis the volume g, reposes on the
level g., the water in the channel having been translated forwards from P
to kk; every particle of water in the channel has during the transmission
of the wave been translated towards X through a horizontal distance equal
my to Pk.
Fig. 3. Genesis by protrusion of a solid.—L, is a solid suspended at the end
of the channel, its inferior surface slightly immersed in the fluid. It is
suddenly detached, descends, displaces the adjacent fluid, and generates a
wave of translation as in the foregoing methods.
Fig. 4 exhibits the phenomena of genesis, transmission and regenesis, or
reflexion of the wave of translation.
Fig. 5 exhibits in four diagrams the motions of individual wave particles
during wave transmission. The first diagram represents by arrows the
simultaneous motions of the particles in different portions of the same wave
at successive points in its length. At the front of the wave the particles
a, ¢, €, g, taken at equal depths below the surface, are at rest. The wave-
length is divided into ten equal parts: at the first the motion is chiefly up-
wards, and yery slightly forwards; at the second, less upwards and more
384 REPORT—1844.
forwards; at the third, still less upwards and still more forwards, and so on;
the inclination of the path diminishing to the middle of the wave, where the
velocity is greatest and the direction quite horizontal. Behind this part of
the wave the particles are to be seen descending more and more with a
motion gradually retarded, and at the hinder extremity of the wave they
are in repose, as at the front. These motions of the particles of water are
rendered visible by minute particles of any kind mixed with the water and
nearly of the same specific gravity. Such are the simultaneous motions of
the successive particles at different stations along the same wave, as ob-
served in a channel by glass windows placed in the sides and carefully gra-
duated in small squares for the purpose of observation, the side of the chan-
nel opposite to the window being similarly graduated. The second diagram
represents the paths of four particles described during the whole period of
transmission of a wave. The wave is transmitted from A towards X. The
anterior extremity of the wave finds one particle at @ and carries it for-
ward through an ellipse to 6, where it is left by the end of the wave: the
same wave translates the particle ¢ vertically below @ through its elliptical
path and leaves it at d vertically below 6, and in like manner e and g are
transferred to fand h. All these paths are semi-ellipses (as nearly as it is
possible to observe them), and are of the same major axis; but the semi-
minor axis is at the surface equal to the height of the wave-crest, and di-
minishes with the distance from the bottom of the channel, where it is nil.
The ¢hird diagram exhibits the pheenomena of vertical sections during wave
transmission: small globules of greater specific gravity than water are sus-
pended at different depths by means of long slender stalks of less specific
gravity. These globules are arranged while the water is in repose, in ver-
tical planes at equal distances along the fluid. These vertical planes are,
by transmitting the wave, made to approach each other, but still retaining
their verticality without sensible disturbance. At the middle of the wave-
length they are brought closest, and at the hinder extremity they recede and
settle down at their original depth. The fourth diagram shows the change
of the position of points in the same horizontal planes during wave transmis-
sion, particles vertically equidistant in repose remaining equidistant during
wave transmission.
Fig. 6. Genesis of compound waves.—The first diagram represents the gene-
sis by a large low column of fluid of a compound or double wave of the
first order, which immediately breaks down by spontaneous analysis into
two, the greater moving faster and altogether leaving the smaller. The
second diagram represents the genesis by a high small column of fluid of a
positive and negative wave, which soon separate, the positive wave travel-
ling more rapidly, leaving altogether the residuary negative wave. The
negative wave is further noticed in another Plate. W, is the positive and
wl the residuary positive or negative wave as generated. W, and w,
represent them separated by propagation.
Piare XLVIII.
Discussion of Observations on the Velocity of Waves—Order I. :
Fig. 1. Comparison of the observations marked by stars with the formula B, —
indicated by the parabola A B, of which A X is the axis, parallel to which’
are measured abscisse I., II., II., &c., representing the depth of the’
fluid in inches, the corresponding velocities being represented by ordinates
Al, A2, A3, AY, &c.at right angles to AX. The manner in which the
curve passes through among the stars, shows the close oppeomaee
¥
ON WAVES. 385
| the results of individual experiments to the formula B adopted to represent
_. them. These are taken from the Table V.
Fig. 2 exhibits a similar comparison for waves of a larger size than the former.
See Table IV.
Figs. $3 and 4 show a comparison with the observations, marked by stars as
before, with formule proposed by Mr. Airy, shown as dots connected by
dotted lines, and with the formule employed by the author, shown by a
continuous black line AB. The eye at once decides whether the black
line or the dots and dotted line most nearly coincides with the stars. See
Tables VI. and VII.
Fig. 5 exhibits a similar comparison of the velocity of negative waves, as ob-
served in a rectangular channel along A B, and in a triangular channel as
shown along AB’. The stars show that the velocity falls below that which
the formule would assign as due to the depth, especially in the triangular
_ channel. See Tables XI. and XII.
_ Fig. 6 exhibits the general results of experiments on velocity ; the horizontal
spaces indicate depths of five inches to each, and the velocities in per
__ second are represented by the vertical spaces which represent each the ve-
locity of one foot per second in transmission of the wave. <A B is the line
of the formula for a rectangular channel, see Table III.; and A B’ for a
triangular channel, see Table XV.
Fig. 7. A X is the surface of water four inches deep; B X represents the suc-
cessive heights of a wave as referred to in Table II.
Pirate XLIX.
Rediscussion of the Experiments on Velocity— By the Method of Curves.
Fig. 1. BC, DE, FG, &c. are lines drawn by the eye through the observa-
_ tions of heights of waves shown by the stars; similar lines were drawn
__ through the corresponding observations of velocity. These waves were
_ taken as representing the experiments cleared of errors of observation ;
they were then collected and laid down in fig. 2.
_ Fig. 2. AB is the line given by the formule employed by the author to re-
present the velocity of the wave of the first order; the stars are the ob-
servations freed in some measure from errors of observation as described
above.
A
Pirate XLIX.(continued.)
Effects of Form of Channel\on the Wave.—Order I.
Note.—In a rectangular channel on a level plane the crest of the wave is
a horizontal line, parallel to the bottom.
Fig: 3. The section across a channel; a w the surface of the water in repose;
ad=4 inches; we=1 inch; Aa the height of the wave-crest = 14
_ inch; B w the height on the shallow side = 23 inches.
Fig. 4. A Bd the cross section of a triangular channel, A B the crest of the
wave, aw the level of the water in repose; the angle Ad B= 90°.
_ Fig. 5. Bed a slope of | in 3, being the cross section of a channel cdf;
AB the crest of the wave breaking on the sides, where the height of the
wave becomes equal to the depth of the water.
Fig. 6. Cross section of another form of channel.
Fig. 7. The sea-beach near Kingstown and Dublin. Common sea waves,
W,, W., Ws, W,, W;, W,, break on the ridge d, where their height is
equal to the depth of the still water. They generate small waves of the
first order, my Wo, Ws, Wy, W;, &e., which are propagated through the still,
A 2¢
386 REPORT—1844,
shallow water to great distances, and the intervals between them are left
level and in repose.
Prate L.
Waves of the First Order—Drawn by themselves.
These eight waves are of the natural size, being mere transcripts of the out-
line of a wave left on a dry surface. The four lower outlines in the Plate
were obtained by inserting a dry surface, moved horizontally with a uni-
form velocity equal to that of the wave, and instantly removing it. The
moist outline left by the wave was copied on tracing paper, and transferred
without change to the copper-plate. Another method produced the four
upper outlines, which were obtained by passing under the wave to be ob-
served another wave transmitted in the opposite direction. These outlines
are not therefore to be regarded as copies of a wave, but as transcripts of
the outline left by the passage of one wave oyer another; the crests of both
describe horizontal straight lines on the side of the channel, but as every
point of one may be regarded as passing over the crest of the other, there
is a moist outline left on the side of the channel at the crossing, which
outline is simply transferred to the copper, as in the four upper waves.
Where a dotted line occurs a blank was left in the outline, which is filled
up by, the eye. The depth of the water was 2 inches, and the parallel
lines in the figure are at 1 inch apart and serve as a scale,
Pirate LI.
These waves are taken in the same manner, but have been reduced from the
original outlines to a smaller scale—smaller than the original in the ratio
of 2 to 3. The horizontal lines are 2rds of an inch apart, which represents
an inch on the full size. The four lowest are taken from waves in water
2 inches deep on a sloping beach, parallel to g X, kX, 7X and m X, with
an inclination of 1 in 12. The four next are imperfect or compound waves,
taken from the outline left by passing another in the opposite direction.
The two highest are taken in the same way, one of them in the act of
breaking.
Prate LII.
The Wave of the First Order.
Fig. 1 represents the genesis of a compound wave by impulsion of the plate
with a variable force and velocity, which variations have produced corre-
sponding variations on the wave form. After propagation the wave breaks
down by spontaneous analysis ; the higher part moves forward, as shown
by the dotted line, and ultimately leaves the rest behind, so that after the
lapse of a considerable period the compound wave is resolved into siigle
separate waves, each moving with the velocity due to the depth.
Fig. 2 represents the phenomena resulting from genesis by a long, low co-
lumn of water. Instead of genesis of a compound wave, as in the former
case of impulsion, the added mass sends off a series of single waves, the first
being the greatest: these however do not remain together, but speedily
separate, as shown in the dotted lines, and become the further apart the
longer they travel.
Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6 give geometrical approximations to the representation of
the wave form and phenomena. In fig. 3, d Dd is the length of a small
wave divided into ten equal parts; ed is equal to the height of the wave,
on which a circle is described, and of which the circumference is also di-
vided into ten equal parts. Through these equal divisions of the circle are
,
a
4
ON WAVES. 387
drawn horizontal lines, which are intersected by vertical lines from each of
F the divisions of the straight line dd, as shown in the figure. A continuous
line, passing through these points of intersection, has for its vertical ordi-
nates the versed sines of the arcs of the circle, while its abscissee are pro-
portional to the ares themselves. Such a line is the curve of versed sines,
and gives a first approximation to the form of the wave of the first order.
Fig. 4 gives a second approximation to the form and the representation of
the phenomena of the wave of the first order, A Dd is taken equal to
the length of the wave in the first approximation = 6°28 times the depth
of the fluid in repose; on de =the height of the wave, a circle is de-
scribed and divided into equal ares as formerly, and thus a dottéd line,
AC d, is formed as before, being the first approximation to the wave form.
These equal ares being taken to represent equal times, the versed sines
also represent the rise and fall of the surface of the wave during equal
successive intervals of time. But hitherto we have neglected the motion
of translation, the horizontal transference of each yertical column of fluid
in the direction of wave transmission simultaneous with the vertical motion.
Take the length A to A’, such that A A' x AB shall = ¥ =the volume
of water generating the wave divided by the breadth of the fluid. This
length, A B, in a small waye will be about three times the height of the
wave. Take A A’ as the major axis of an ellipse, of which the minor axis
is C D or ed, the height of the wave. Let the horizontal lines through
the equal arcs of the small circle ed be extended to pass through the el-
lipse A A’, and from the points of division let fall perpendiculars on A A!
on the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, then the lines on the axis A A’, viz.
' Al, A2,43, A4,A5, A6, A7,A8, AQ9, A A’ represent the amount
of horizontal transference effected during the same time, in which a given
particle on the surface is rising and falling through the versed sines of the
; equal arcs, viz. d1,d2,d3,d4,d5,d6,d7,d8,d9,dd. Let us now
_ effect this horizontal transference on each point of the surface on the first
wave ACd, by advancing the point | horizontally through a distance
equal to Al; 2 through a distance A 2; 3 through a distance a 3, and so
on, and we shall get a curve A! C'd, which closely represents the form of
the wave, and also its phenomena of horizontal translation = throughout
» the whole depth to Al, A2, A3, A4, A 5, &e.
_ Fig. 5 is obtained in the same way as fig. 4, only for a larger wave ; where
the height is nearly equal to the depth of the fluid, the ellipse is nearly a
_ semicircle. The same ellipse represents also the absolute path of a particle
on the surface during wave transmission. Ellipses of the same major axes,
~ but having their minor axes diminishing with their distance from the bot-
’ tom of the channel, will represent the simultaneous motions of particles
below the surface.
Fig. 6 shows a single particle path, and three successive positions of the
’ wave outline in regard to it. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &e., give the si-
multaneous positions of the particle referred to the wave surface, and the
"same particle referred to the path of the particle. When at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
' &e, in the orbit, the particle is also at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. in the wave sur-
_ face, Thus the points which succeed each other towards the right on the
~ path, sueceed towards the left on the wave form.
‘Figs. 7 and 8 represent the genesis of the negative wave of the first or-
~ der. A solid Q 2 reposes suspended in the fluid, and is suddenly raised
out of it. A negative wave is generated and propagated along the chan-
~ nel, as W 1 in figs. 8,9 and 10. This negative wave of the first order,
2c2
388 REPORT—1844.
Fi
if it encounter a positive wave of the first order, of equal volume, does
not pass over it, but they neutralize each other and are annihilated. If
unequal, their difference, positive or negative, alone remains, and is pro-
pagated as a wave of the first order.
gs. 9 and 10 record observations, showing that although the negative
wave is in its own order solitary, yet that its existence is the cause of ge-
nesis of a group of gregarious waves, or waves of oscillation of the second
order; W1 is a negative wave of the first order: W 1, W 2, W 3, &c.,
are all waves of the second order. The curved arrows in fig. 9 show the
semi-elliptical path of the particles during the transmission of the negative
wave. After which, during the transmission of the waves of the second
order, the particles describe circles, continually diminishing in diameter as
the waves gradually subside.
Prate LILI.
Waves of the First Order.—Reflexion, Non-reflexion and Lateral
Accumulation.
In this Plate a wave of the first order, W, R, is represented as incident upon
a vertical plane surface immovable at Rt ; 7. e. the ridge of the wave forms
a given angle R, W A. After impact at R the wave is reflected, so that
the angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of incidence; and when the
angle of direction of transmission is great (z.e. when the angle of the ridge
with the surface is small, not greater than 30°), the reflexion is complete
in angle and in quantity. When the angle of direction of transmission
diminishes (7.e. when the ridge of the wave makes an angle greater than
30°), the angle of reflexion is still equal to the angle of incidence, but the
reflected wave is less in quantity than the incident wave. The magnitude
of the reflected wave diminishes as the angle of incidence diminishes, until
at length, when the angle of the ridge of the wave is within 15° or 20° of
being perpendicular to the plane, reflexion ceases, the size of the wave near
the point of incidence and its velocity rapidly increases, and it moves for-
ward rapidly with a high crest at right angles to the resisting surface.
Thus at different angles we have the phenomena of total reflexion, partial
reflexion, and non-reflexion and lateral accumulation; phenomena analo-
gous in name, but dissimilar in condition from the reflexion of heights, &c.
Puate LIV.
Lateral Diffusion of the Wave of Translation round an Axis.
Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent a large rectangular reservoir of water filled to
an uniform depth with water. It is 20 feet square. From a chamber C
in one corner a wave of the first order was transmitted in the direction
W 1, W2;; and the observations made which appear in the figures.
In fig. 4 the aspect of the phenomenon is represented. The wave is propa-
gated in the direction of original propagation, which we shall call its axis,
with a gradual diminution of its height according to the length of its path
along the axis. The observations are probably not yet sufficiently nume-
rous to determine accurately the law of diminution. From this axis the
wave spreads on every side. At right angles to the axis of propagation the
height of the wave is scarcely sensible, and the diminution of magnitude is
very rapid as the line of direction diverges from the axis, The wave is
also propagated faster in the direction of the primary axis than in any other
direction, so that the wave-crest is elliptic and elongated in that direction.
In fig. 3 the heights of a wave are marked by lines. Each line along W w
~ ON WAVES. | 389
~and W 2 w represents one-tenth of an inch in height of the wave; so that
the height of the wave is indicated to the eye by the number of lines.
- These observations are made on concentric circles.
In figs. 1 and 2 the same kind of observations is represented, only along
straight lines.
Pirate LV.
Waves of the Second Order.—Standing Waves in Running Water.
The forms of the waves in these figures are the same as those in figs. 9, 10
of Plate LII., being all cycloidal; with this difference only, that the waves
in Plate LII. were moving along the standing water with a uniform velo-
city, while those in Plate LV.are standing in the running water. The ge-
nerating course in this case is a large obstacle or large stone in the running
stream. On this the water impinges; it is heaped up behind it; it acquires
a circular motion which is alternately coincident with and opposed to the
stream ; the water having once acquired this circular oscillating motion in
a vertical direction retains it, the water is alternately accumulated and ac-
celerated, and thus standing waves are formed, as shown in figs. 1 and 2.
Figs. 3 and 4 exhibit a remarkable case of the coexistence in one stream of
two sets of waves moving with velocities differing in about the proportion
of two to three. On one side of a stream there projected a ledge of rock
M, over which fell a thin sheet of water into a large pool, nearly still,
without generating any sensible wave. On the opposite side a deep violent
current was running round the obstacle with great rapidity. The middle
part of the channel was occupied by a large boulder, over which also a
stream flowed, generating standing waves with a smaller velocity. These
waves are also remarkable for non-diffusion, as they will preserve their
visible identity to a great distance without being dissipated.
PLaTE LVI.
Waves of the Second Order.— Their Mechanism.
All the waves of the second order, whether standing waves in running
water or travelling waves in standing water, exhibit the forms of the curves
BABCD in fig. 1. These are cycloids, having for their base the rec-
tilineal distance A C, and for their height the corresponding circles. In
the case of standing waves in running water these cycloids represent the
actual paths of individual particles of water in the running stream, as shown
in Plate LV. In the case of travelling waves in standing water, the circles
represent the paths described by the individual particles of water, and the
eycloids the visible moving surface presented to the eye. The motion of
oscillation in the wpper half of the circle is in running water, opposite to
the motion of the stream, and in standing water is in the same direction as
the visible motion of transmission of the waves. The figure shows the rapid
_ diminution of the motion of oscillation with the depth. I am indebted for
_ this figure to M. Gerstner, whose theory it illustrates, and I have given it
__ because I find it represent my own observations as correctly as any figure
_ of my own could do. I have only found it necessary in reconstructing his
_ figure to clear it of some slight inaccuracies. The shaded parts on the left
show the different forms which given portions of water successively assume
during wave motion. The circular orbits are divided into equal portions,
a _ numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., to show that the particles of water are in those
__ Points of the circles at the same instants the corresponding particles are at
the points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. of the eycloidal paths.
ay y
yi
390 REPORT—1844.
PLATE LVI. (continued.)
Waves of the Third Order —Capillary Waves.
Fig. 2 represents a slender rod inserted in standing water, raising around it
by capillary attraction a circular portion of the surface of the fluid. A slow
motion gives it the form represented in fig. 3, and more rapid motions, but
all of less than a foot per second, give it the forms in figs. 4, 5 and 6;
at the velocity of one foot per second the phenomena become those re-
presented in Plate LLVII.
PLATE LVII.
Waves of the Third Order.—Capillary Waves.
This Plate gives a plan and section on one-half of the natural size of the
group of capillary waves generated by a disturbing rod one-sixteenth of an
inch in diameter, moving along the surface with a uniform velocity. The
section is taken in the direction of the motion of disturbance from A to X,
and the same letters refer to the ridges of the same waves in both plan
and section. The velocity is one foot per second.
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES OF PROGRESS IN
SPECIAL RESEARCHES ENTRUSTED TO COMMITTEES
AND INDIVIDUALS.
On the Marine Zoology of Corfu and the Ionian Islands.
By Capt. Porriock, R.E., F.R.S.
Tue author presented a Report of the progress which he had made in the
above research by dredging the sea-bed and registering the results of this
operation. The spaces at present investigated are of small extent, but the
author is preparing to enter on wider areas, in the expectation of presenting
hereafter an arranged summary of his observations. [A Committee has been
appointed to cooperate with Capt. Portlock. ]
On Captive Balloons.
Dr. Rosinson stated that he must still report progress, for in a course of
experiments so new to him and his coadjutors, they had found it necessary
occasionally to vary arrangements which at first seemed satisfactory. In par-
ticular, the plan of having the telegraphic wires separate from the moorings
of the balloon has been changed, and a single cord, wormed as sailors call it
with copper wire, is substituted. This, besides being more manageable, will
permit a greater elevation to be attained. In one of the trials the balloon
received a trifling injury, which however was easily repaired. Dr. Robinson
thinks that no serious difficulties are now likely to occur.
Report of the Dredging Committee for 1844.
Turis Report consisted of two parts; first, of the records of a series of dred-
ging operations conducted round the coasts of Anglesea in September 1844,
by Mr. M‘Andrew and Prof. E. Forbes, exhibiting the distribution of the
marine animals procured in various depths down to thirty fathoms, and the
state of the sea-bed in the localities explored. Among the more interesting
PROVISIONAL REPORTS AND NOTICES. 391
_ facts recorded in these papers were the following :—Rolled specimens of Pur-
_ pura lapillus, a shell which lives only above low-water mark, were found in
twenty-eight to thirty fathoms water on the gravelly bed of a line of current
at the distance of eight miles from the nearest shore. In the same line of
current it was found that the few mollusca which lived there, such as Modiole
and Zime, had constructed nests or protecting cases of pebbles bound to-
gether by threads of byssus; and one species, the Modiola discrepans, had
made its nest of the leaf-like expansions of F'lustra foliacea cemented together.
The attention of the dredgers was directed among other subjects to the
distribution of Serpule, and the results of their researches were confirmatory
of the statements recently advanced by Dr. Philippi of Cassel, namely, that
no dependence could be placed even as to the genus on the shell of a Ser-
pula, perfectly similar shells being constructed by animals of different genera.
Thus they found all the Serpule of a particular form in twelve fathoms water
to be a species of Hupomatus, whilst exactly similar shells in twenty fathoms
proved to be the habitation of a species of the genus, wanting opercula, of
which Serpula tubularia is the type. All the triangular Serpule they met
with were Pomatoceros tricuspis. In twelve fathoms, at the entrance of the
Menai Straits, they dredged the shell of Helix aspersa, the common snail,
covered with barnacles and Serpule, and inhabited by a hermit crab.
The second part consisted of a series of dredging observations on the Irish
coast, drawn up by Mr. Hyndman.
On the Hourly Meteorological Observations carried on at Inverness, at
the Expense of the British Association, by Mr. Thomas Mackenzie, a
Provisional Report was presented by Sir D. Brewster.
On the Forms of Ships.
Mr. Scorr Russert reported that the Committee on the form of ships
had now completed their labours; that the whole of the tables of the experi-
meuts and all the drawings of the forms of the ships were now ready for pub-
lication. ‘These tables were so voluminous, and the plates required for illus-
tration were so numerous and expensive, that the question of publication was
likely to be attended with some difficulty ; but a committee, consisting of the
President of the Royal Society, the Dean of Ely, Colonel Sabine and Mr.
Taylor, had been appointed for the purpose of making the necessary arrange-
ments. He had now to communicate to the meeting an important addition
which had been made to these experiments during the past year. The mem-
bers of this Section were aware that the former experiments made by the
Committee comprehended vessels of many forms and various sizes, from the
length of a few inches to ships of 2000 tons displacement; but in all these
experiments direct mechanical means of propulsion had been employed and
not the force of the wind, and they were therefore regarded as applicable to
steam-vessels rather than to sailing ships. During last year, however, most
satisfactory experiments had been made in which the propelling force was the
wind acting on the sails of the vessel of the open sea. The circumstances in
which this experiment originated displayed in a striking manner the advan-
tages conferred by an Association like this on the districts which it visited.
The two gentlemen who had conducted this experiment were both Irishmen,—
one, Dr. Corrigan of Dublin, having become acquainted through the last meet-
ing in Cork with the experiments of this Association, determined, in building
a pleasure-boat, to carry out the principles which had been established by
those experiments, and to have his vessel built on that form which was pointed
out by these experiments as the form of least resistance ; he accordingly built
eh
392 REPORT—1844.,
a small vessel of about four tons measurement on the wave-form, for the pur-
pose of making experiments with it as a sailing vessel; the other gentleman
to whom we were indebted for this experiment was Dr. Phipps of Cork, now
of London, who had formerly distinguished himself as a naval constructor, and
had invented a form of his own which had been attended with great success.
At the last meeting in Cork he had become acquainted with the wave-form,
and it was under his superintendence that an experimental vessel had been
built on the Thames during last summer. The vessel] had been tried on the
Thames by Dr. Phipps, and subsequently in the bay of Dublin, and the re-
sults of the experiments were laid before the meeting in the letters which had
been received from Dr. Phipps and Dr. Corrigan. From these letters it ap-
peared that the performances of this small vessel had been surprising. In
speed she had already beaten every vessel with which she had been tried, and
these included pleasure-boats and yachts, some of them of high reputation for
speed and of four times her size. It was of course difficult to conduct expe-
riments of this kind with mathematical precision, but the reports stated that
the experimental vessel was not only fast before the wind, but weatherly, dry,
stiff and easily worked. The experiments on this vessel were still in progress,
and unless she should in future be beaten by some vessel of her own size and of
a different form, it would appear from these reports that the wave-form might
be adopted with as great advantage in the construction of sailing-vessels as
it already had been in the construction of the fastest class of steam-vessels.
Report of the Progress of the Investigation of the Exotic Anoplura.
By Henry Dewny, A.L.S.
Upon receiving a notification from Sir William Jardine and Dr. Lankester,
that the Natural History Section of the British Association had voted the
sum of £45 towards an investigation and illustration of the exotic species of
Anoplura, which they were desirous should be commenced, and that I was
requested to undertake the same upon a similar plan to my Monograph on
the British Anoplura, I immediately proceeded to take such measures as ap-
peared best calculated to enable me to carry out the object of the Section
with the greatest benefit to science. With this view, in addition to searching
personally for specimens from all the skins of quadrupeds and birds within my
reach, I applied, by letter, to various individuals for assistance, several of whom
immediately afforded it, and from many others I have the promise of their hearty
cooperation as often as the distance at which they are located will allow.
The necessity for depending in a great measure upon foreign aid was soon
apparent; first, from the paucity of specimens to be obtained in public or
private collections ; and secondly, to ensure the exact location of each species
as near as possible,—a point of great importance, but which cannot be in all
cases depended upon when the parasites are procured from quadrupeds or
birds in public collections. The zeal with which my applications were re-
sponded to in two instances deserves especial notice,—I allude to the collec-
tion of Anoplura belonging to the National Museum at the Jardin du Roi
having been transmitted for my examination by Professor Milne-Edwards of
Paris, and also that belonging to M. P. Gervais of Paris, who was himself
engaged on the third volume of Baron Walckenaer’s ‘ Apterous Insects,’ con-
taining the Anoplura.
From the specimens already received I have made drawings of ninety
species; sixty-one of these are engraved on eight plates, leaving twenty-nine
still to transfer to copper, besides several specimens which I have yet to
examine, and the daily expectation of fresh arrivals from some of my corre-
spondents abroad.
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CONTENTS.
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
‘Professor Youneé on Diverging Infinite Series......:...cscssssssecsesnseeseneesvecnees
—_—_——+—— on a Principle in the Theory of Probabilities .....:......60.s..005 ;
Mr. Rawson on the Summation of Infinite Series ............cssssesseeseseneseenuees
Mr. J. J. Syuvesrmr on the Double Square Representation of Prime and Com
MMMMGRIbe Numbers 5.5 csccessescccenesesecocusessscsecescessccnsstbastonssbecscitesscsesboaned
‘Sir Wintram R. Hamizton on a Theory of Quaternions «.:......:.:60+.ss008 ebesde
The Astronomer Royau’s Account of the State of the Reductions of the
_ Planetary and Lunar Observations made at Greenwich .......0:.ssssseseeseeeeeee
Lieut.-Col. Everzst on the Geodetical Operations of India ..............ssseeeiees
The Astronomer Royat’s Account of the Results of the Tide Observations on
Professor MacCu.iacu on an attempt lately made by M. Laurent, to explain
on mechanical principles the Phenomenon of Circular Polarization of Liquids.
Rev. tial Pow. on certain points connected with Elliptic Polarization
MOE hecho re tenet Reet tide rads wehatediaahiwakearacseicatosseattiantnss esis samme He
Rey. Me O’Brien on the Propagation of Waves in a Resisted Medium, with a
’ new Explanation of the Dispersion and Absorption of Light, and other Opti-
RPGMECHOMENA .25...cccccsecenesccsecesceosens UPaspasand (tok vetnatstcelshepesn AT
Mr. Otiver Byryne’s Account of a new Proportional Compass ...........-....4.
Mr. E. J. Dent on the Shape of the Teeth of the Wheels of the Clock in the
MUMNPTROV AL BMCHANGO 0.40, scdis.ncnacesdcccscevacsnssntecstesccsaagnced Ribasesth cl baoxems
Sir Davip Brewsrer’s Notice explaining the Cause of an Optical Phenomenon
observed by the Rev. W. Selwyn ....-....csecssecesceeeesseeeceesnencessenseneteeseees
—_——— Account of the Cause of the Colours in precious Opal...
———— Notice respecting the Cause of the beautiful White Rings
_ which are seen round a luminotis body when looked at through certain speci-
_ mens of Calcareous Spar............ RastacGarsaces sistas Wiles eccadeatatareahss sesh chase
———-—-_—_—— on Crystals in the Cavities of Topaz, which are dissolved
my Heat and re-crystallized Of Cobling..\.....1....cccseessscccnedcccsocessesesoeaees
rofessor WHEATSTONE on a singular Effect of the Juxtaposition of certain
_ Colours under particular circumstances,........ssesseeseeeeee MecaWae secu ete seacaeede
Sir Davin Brewster on the same MUPjeCtasssaridkctaconceesscssttoasees ops sums eGrcnny
—— —— on the Accommodation of the Eye to Various Distances .
————_——’s Account of a series of Experiments on the Polarization of
__ Light by rough surfaces, and white dispersing surfaces ...........2...04 qessentee
Mr. J. Scorr Russexx on the Nature of the Sound Wave....s.ec..sseccesseeseeneee
Mr. Joun Goopman on the Analogy of the Existences or Forces, Light, Heat,
_ Voltaic and ordinary Electricities ............ssseseeeees icceer YAS Bi eae vate besaucth
Rey. Wixi11am Scorzssy on a new Process of Magnetic Manipulation, and its
Seeeeron on Cast iro dnd Steel Bars ............00......sccrsecccsnsceceenee Saas me
Mr. E. J. Dent on a new Steering and Azimuth Compass ......-.ssssessesceeees
Sir Joun F. W. Herscuex’s Contributions to Actino-Chemistry. On the
Amphitype, a new Photographic Process ........scscessesecccevevssecnsesesseneacese
iv CONTENTS.
Mr. W. Tuompson’s Comparison of the Rain which fell at Florence Court, the
seat of the Earl of Enniskillen, from July 6th, 1843, to July 6th, 1844, with
that which fell at Belfast during the-same period ............ssceeeseseeveeeeenees
On the Orthochronograph, invented by the late Mr. Lowman ..... race Baowwesansees
Mr. Luxe Howarp on the Mean Year, or Solar Variation through the Seasons
of the Barometer in the Climate of London...........+..sceseesscesescsesereneeeeeee
Professor PHituips on the Quantities of Rain received in wae at unequal
Elevations upon the Ground ............ RE b Onis 2 ssid s. ssa san cemeceeeeseemecnerateacas
on Simultaneous Barometrical Registration in ‘the North of
Bngland ......dacdaddadeensis eet. duet BRERGbtc se tac vedeees a. sdunveuusraretenieees ay peace ees
on the Curves of Annual Temperature at York ....,..........
Mr. T. Hopxins on the Irregular Movements of the Barometer ..............0++8
——— on the Diurnal Variations of the Barometer ............ Sieaae
Sergeant Mayer’s Year’s Meteorological Observations made at Aden............
Rev. T. Ranxrn on the Temperature of the Air at various Soundings of Huggate
Well, upon the Wolds of the East Riding, Yorkshire .............sceeecseeeeseeees
on a singular Appearance of a Thunder Storm on Yorkshire
WWroldseduly’ 5, eatuemcetestantsetr oscars <a cav.ssscysrocngnaeer tence
Mr. James Taomas Gopparv’s Description of an improved Anemometer ......
Lieut.-Col. Everest on an Instrument called a Barometer Pump, for filling
Barometer Tapes AM WACUD esnsaressacas tne scen-+-esca0s-assne pars qcssacccuemeaneteteeedae
Professor J. D. Forszs’s Account of an Attempt to establish the Plastic Nature
of Glacier Tce by direct, Experiment s.5....+-++-s>c0seces2sec0-consenseansspamcuaeedel
Mr. Eaton Hopexinson’s Experimental Inquiries into the Falling-off from
perfect Plasticity im SONG Odes ie .g tenes. soncees. cos ncn on ccnacseas soseucceeassreenads
Communications from Norway, presented by Mr. John Lee.........s.seser0es teense
CHEMISTRY.
Mr. W. Wesr on the Mineral Springs and other Waters of Yorkshire............
Professor DauBENyY’s Account of the Phosphorite Rock in Spanish Estremadura
Mr. J. C. Bowrine on the Theory and Practice of Amalgamation of Silver Ores
in: Mexico) and «Perris egecceatcceti ec gelia aise tels'sele's''«se's''r dengs sae aaemenmeeaerame spe
Mr. Josrra Bateman on Mr. Phillips’s Method of discovering Adulteration in
FE ODACCOrstocwbu deve duagasec pst maeemes meen taona dans dean $*s «26450 are eneamen een
Mr. W. Lucas on the Limestones of Yorkshire .........cees.sceececseceeescecseteeers
Mr. Epwarp Scuuncx on some Products of the Decomposition of Erythrin .,.
Mr. Joun Mercer’s Note on the Solvent Power of Solutions of Acetates ......
Mr. RoBERT WARINGTON ON Guan0 ........ccceresscscesesscscsceccsccceseeecesecncors
Drs. Smits and Leren on the Action of Nitric Acid on Naphtha...............
Dr. J. 8. Musprartt on the supposed Formation of Valerianic Acid from Indigo,
and on the Acid which is formed by the Action of Hydrate of Potash upon
WVEOPOGIUAMA ee ker ona sec eke oud seen aeecaaeatese smn case cass: ass cevepse se cpaanaeee meena
Mr. Rosert Riee’s Experiments on the Formation or Secretion of Carbon by
Animals, the Disappearance of Hydrogen and Oxygen, and the Generation of
Animal Heat during the processasadiecsss-ccscsdst2ccqsscescsesecrcesatgectaenssage
Mr. C. J. Jornpan on increasing the Intensity of the Oxyhydrogen Flame ......
Mr J.P. J OUR ON MS peciiciHeatisecsstatendsnsacssescsaccee cas acc gengs cuanuer amen emebense
Mr. W. Wesv’s Account of Experiments on Heating by Steam..........-.ssecee00e
Dr. Tuomas Tittey on a peculiar Condition of Zinc, produced by a long-con-
tittued EUsh Perm peragewre yo. esses essen ascends sss deoscesseccuseneee gus spesetenaseeaaeha
Mr. T. M. GREENHOW’s Description of an Air-Duct to be used in Glass Furnaces
for the Prevention of Smoke, with Models ..............sceseeeecceccceceseess ropa:
Mr. Rosert Hunt on the Influence of Light on Chemical Compounds, and
Hleetro-OhermicaltAchiones oes sresecesetacedesas secs occns -creccvagssnessasmataseeebe
——_—_—_————— on the Ferrotype, and the Property of Sulphate of Iron in
developing Photographic Images .........ccsecsesesseeeceeesencnceeeeeses Ht set sh
Mr. Tuomas Woops on the Electrolysotype; a new Photographic Process ...
Professor Grove on Photography ........ anpanan aes Peausapsanereenine Kesccapinnne ais
CONTENTS.
“Mr. L. L. B. Inperson on a Method of Electrotype, by which the Deposition
on Minute Objects is easily accomplished...... deeratmsererevesheress one UB cake heeds .
ir. THomas Extey on the Alternate Spheres of Attraction and Repulsion,
_ noticed by Newton, Boscovich and others; and on Chemical Affinity .........
Sir G. Grsszs on the Constitution of Matter .........ce:cccsseeneceeneeneeeeeeeseenens
Mr. W. Lucas on the Alteration that takes place in Iron by being exposed to
long-continued Vibration .......secesseeeeecensernecsseenceeereeeees wach ide one psee
I
i GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Mr. G. A. Manrett on a newly-discovered Species of Unio, from the Wealden
Strata of the Isle of Wight...... Arab safe Han AB Ee ae ba ce Gr aoe ti ener Hak Aa
Professor ANSTED on Mining Records, and the Means by aniel their Preserya-
HOW, May be best ensured... ss. ..s.csacenecsspotcccnreraresensenssenchwenesososneneedsecdee
Professor E. Forses and Mr. L. L. Boscawen Issertson on the Tertiary and
Cretaceous Formations of the Isle of Wight.......-....sssesssecceescessrececsseances
The Very Rev. the Dean oF York’s Critical Remarks on certain Passages in
' Dr. Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise......cccsscsssccssseesseestcenes ssateecseseneesaee
“Mr. G. W. FeatHerstonHAueH on the Excavation of the Rocky Channels of
__ Rivers by the Recession of their Cataracts .......--.+2.-sseesecseceeeeceneneee conees
Mr. Exras Hatz on the Midland Coal Formations of England...............e0e0+
‘Sir H. T. Dz 1a Bucue’s Account of that Portion of the Ordnance Geological
Map of England now completely coloured, and Notes concerning a Section
Pome the one Rocks in the vicinity of Builth
PoURUeEEPeeeerrr errr re reer rere)
On the “Lbieal by Mr. Searles Wood, of an Ae in the Freshwater Cliff
at Hordwell, associated with extinct Mammalia ............scsccssesecsesceeeeenes
Professor Loven on the Bathymetrical Distribution of Submarine Life on the
Northern Shores of Scandinavia .......ccccscccsecscsccscvaeescceceresncecsseeeestecsees
* H. E. SrrickLanp on an Anomalous Structure in the Paddle of : a Species
1 Of Uchthyosaurus...-........ssescseeeeesnssceeeeneeececceseeeerscecensenenetsesecesewesens
‘Queries and Statements concerning a Nail found imbedded in a Block of Sand-
_, stone obtained from Kingoodie (Mylnfield) Quarry, North Britain........ aon
pet. J. Rooke on the Relative Age and True Position of the Millstone Grit and
_ Shale, in reference to the Carboniferous System of Stratified Rocks in the
Ge _ British Pennine Chain of Hills .......s.ccccsececveseceeesscveceeee Suid poh oe ads cates als
Mr. Joun Atsop on the Toadstones of Derbyshire......... sev bepbRb aceon <u sbpeveds
i A r. S. Eppy’s Account of the Grassington Lead Mines, illustrating a Model of
PEIN i 04 cin 2p wg hasnto ay yee de yea epemeasens ah deans sare bis on plea ents swaeh sige oe ody
Mr. R. 1. Murcuison on the Baleaeanc, Rocks of Scandinavia and Russia, par-
ticularly as to the Lower Silurian Rocks which form their true Base .........
a Pee gece Map of the British Isles and part of France was exhibited by Mr.
BREE ae esate te bie. « Gels oad paeenn prielten brie de dia <a esesemamintdicsldel « epah santana ae
Rev. ame Wituiams on the Exeter Amygdaloid............cscssesseeeeeeeececeness
Mr. Anruur Dean’s Notice respecting the Discovery of Gold Ores in Merioneth-
te BEE IVOCEN WWAleS dorsi ees cevecccorsddecdussedecsussdsguRlcmabwoanedadswes Aiea Boathoths
Observations on the Stratification of Igneous and Sedimen-
tary Rocks of the Lower Silurian Formation in North Wales.......s.esessseseees
Mr. Epmunp Barren on the Explanation of certain Geological Phenomena by
the Agency of Glaciers ........ paid iasep pe caay des Weve s Fpapien clean vaplidays obmaa tee fll se
Mr. ose Oxpuam on the Occurrence of Marine Shells in the Gravels of
etter re tVN: Fn. Ghh PWNS wasop opelion d+ Ve amgeeappes T= cpidde seep ounce Fae opener ensh
Captain Maconocurz on the Physical Character and Geology of Norfolk Island
a Gaetano Moro on the Communication between the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec .......:-s-ecseeceesesessseeneees eueess
r. Ricuarp Kine on the Fish River of the North Polar Sea...ssseccessesseereee
ve
42
42
Vi CONTENTS.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
Mr. Joun Hoae’s Catalogue of Birds observed in South-Eastern Durham and
in North-Western Cleveland ,.........secgeesseserrsesesceres weit? aseb <dek as abeidesba
Mr. T. Atis’s Report on the Birds of Yorkshire, prepared at the request of the
Yorkshire Philosophical Societysesressssssssseseessesreterecceasens sees f easeanaal
Mr. Jonn Brackwa zt on Periodical Birds observed in Ns Years 1843 it 1344
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire, North Wales ..........ssscscccecssessscsssceesesecesce
Mr. J. GouLp’s Monograph of the Sub-family Odontophorine, or Peer of
PXIMELIGA. ci) < ccs canbeneereattbner ee arritccskaneresssecips pees > cantanenae gee ccsemutncon tious
Mr. T. Meynett on the Fishes of Yorkshire ..........cccccscsccccscsscsccctccsccccees
Report of the Dredging Committee for 1844,........:sccsecseseeescesersseteenccr neces
Professor E. Forspes on some Animals new to the British Seas, discovered by
irs i Amateure erase peice acs fed odes che pelt ese tdale Pe ee ay mrs
Mr. Cuarites WiLLiam Pracu on Marine ZLOGIOLY’. +. -cdeesstatesearetaeea areas! te
Professor ALLMAN on a New Genus of Nudibranchiate Mollusca waters eee tedesers
on a New Genus of Parasitic Arachnideans ..........++- ibe
ee on the Anatomy of Acteon viridis,........++se000 Me catae oat oh
— on a New Genus of Helianthoid Zoophytes...,.,...cssssees+0++
—— on the Structure of the Lucernarice ...ocssscocescesecseccccsceses
Mr. Harry D. 8. Goopsrr on the Structure and Development of the Cystic
Entozoa ...... Soroka A Ne Sth Oe gestae tera EEE OPP Oe O RP eh eoraar,
on the Reproduction of Lost Parts i in the Crustacea
Professor E. Fores on the Morphology of the Reproductive System of Sertula-
rian Zoophytes, and its Analogy with that of Flowering Plants...,..-.-.+....+« .
Mr. Harry D. 8. Goopsir on the Organs of Generation in the Decapodous
Crustacea .....-. Gas noe aiae cactgcete sae RSG sees hey ey ou'ax'es ean. ease ge auebd cette i eee ps aia a
Mr. A. Goapsy on the Conservation of Substances ...,..s+ssesreeseperreepenteeess
Dr. Tuomas Laycock’s Suggestions for the Observation of Periodic Changes
ROWS cedea cn cease he puertscans Bamcearraarecsastis<ciyiecrene ouean spsterarscapesensp ree
Mr. O. A. Moore on the Flora of Yorkshire .....,,..,2:0erseseeeees secgepsmeegt Uaioe
Chevalier ScHOMBURGK’S Pesenpnon of Alexandria Imperatricis, a new Genus
Of PApWIOnARE \sapcqenpseuesranscrrseee? => Ranarnaredseaze sede vets cee re reaseuke ree
——_——_-——_——_ on a new Species of Barbacenia .....+..serreererseerees
on the Ophiocaryon Paradoxa, the Snake-nut Tree..
——~—— on the Calycophyllum Stanleyanum...... Seaerass¥inne cas
Description of Lightia lemniscata, a new Genus of
the Wamgily Buttneriaepesssspeenparnerescanpeserast-ncres os epitscnnseenens saan ae ppb ete
on two New Species of the Family Laurinee, from
the Forests of Guiana .......... soiree Samana sale -dnczebla eneha s<-A seh tgeerMtancane tinea -
Mr. THomas ALLIS on some Peculiarities in the Flight of Birds, especially as
that is influenced in some Species by the power wey possess of decreasing and
—.
~~
adjusting their Own Specific Bravity ,.,...+0.sssccseesrecserecevapnerensees ee ee Pr
Mrs. Wurrsy on the Cultivation of the Silk Barta occ oes cose aaa saheaay
Mr. T. Auuis on the Cultivation of Ferns..,.......ssesesserereres ssotes Mads eeaenain Sebee
Madame Jeanette Power’s Further Experiments and Observations on the
PAL GONGULA ATGO -.asscncssnt<t adem urpeppninast?sereeyed® so2 9+ se: Uelense pece¥ereoetsat -
Rey. Francis Orpen Morris on | Zoological } Nomenclature Pyrite,
Dr. R. G. Laruam on the Southern Limits of the Esquimaux Race in America
——___-——_ —— on the Ethnography of Africa as determined by its Languages
on the Eastern Limits of the Australian Race and Language
on the Ethnographical Position of certain Tribes of the Gar-
—
TOW: HUIS wens sascenspesisceacseeya® Seven tay aene tice sd aecacia-+eveeeienens sen-Vdaresteees
Dr. Hopexry on the Dog as the Associate of Man,.,........sceseeeeeeeeceeepeeesnees
on the Stature of the Guanches, the extinct Trhahiteeis of the
Canary [sla ndssd-apecnencvasines sera svecs daenge spsiebda be <> dnd 3+ rekopec Ree raat eaeeD EM
Mr. W. B. Brent on the Stature and relative Proportions of Man at different
_. Epochs and in different CountrieS..,..0..,:cpreeserecsessereesecsseeesene p¥iiaiddovepbon's
Rey. W. Ricuarps on the Natives of the Hawaiian Islands cree bck F dette ¥00
General MiLxer on the Sandwich Islanders ..........ceeeeeeeees acoaul due ceaheh of Shs
CONTENTS.
Mr. H. R. Scuoorcrart on the Languages of America.........++ gith sivas gicseaee
Chevalier Scoompures on the Natives of Guiana ..........., A dapgeu del gaseteatenoass
Dr. Kye on the supposed extinct Inhabitants of Newfoundland ,,............++ .
“Mr. Krncarp on the Shyens and Karens of India .,5..-.....,seeeseeeeees patents only
Rev. T, Myers on Ethno-epo-graphy .,......, parses oa ote vece Ra phdep Aang Stpcovesees
‘Dr. Komsst on the Mode of Constructing Ethnographical Maps . Waaaepua cbaieay A
}
MEDICAL SCIENCE,
Dr. Hemine on a Disease of the Tongue,......:yreseressonrseensesvecs hoadiigeauesss oes
Professor Peretti on the Bitter Principles of some Vegetables........ petietia sds
Dr. S, W. J, Mzzeiman on the Comparative Frequency of Uterine Conception
Dr. Hopexin on the Tape-Worm as prevalent in Abyssinia........s+esesers eastate
Dr. Laycocx on the Reflex Function of the Brain ........... Ree seg ds Ss
Dr. Kemp on the Functions of the Bile..,,..... POA S rey ee a sao cavecceesdaneay
‘Dr. THurwam on the Scientific Cranioscopy of Professor Carus... creenpes
Dr. A. T. Toomson on the Influence of the Endermic Application of the Salts
_ of Morphia in painful permanent Swelling of the Joints, causing contractions
STATISTICS.
Mr. G, R. Porter on the Mining Industry of France...,........+.0+5 App nngner ane B
On Agricultural Schools near East Bourne ............:01seseeeees piso aon mawaenss
Lieut.-Col. Syxzs on the Mortality of Calcutta ...... Baas Neiuaitia upiia ekieleger wasinsschite
—_—_——— on the Statistics of Frankfort on the Maine.........s00:000
on the Statistics of Hospitals for the Insane in Bengal ......
Mr. W. CuARLES CoPpPpERTHWAITE on the Statistics of Old and New Malton.,.
ey. THEODORE Drury’s Hints on the Improvement of Agricultural Labourers
Dr Laycocx on the Sanatory Condition of York during the years 1839-1843..
on the Addition to Vital Statistics contained in the First Report
+ of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the Circumstances affecting the Health
MMMMPRCHISH 3 Chto con ceder cenertivatesep eases: cacccan snes sa: opuasaacdnassa+sssnguaadangatatadp
r. JOSEPH FLETCHER’S Statistical Notices of the State of Education i in York..
r. WILLIAM FELKIN on the Statistics of the Machine-wrought Hosiery Trade
Dr. Jonn Tuurnam on the relative Liability of the two Sexes to Insanity ..
Mr. J. W. Woottear on the Financial Giconomy of Savings’ Banks ......+.
Mr. C. H. BracesripceE on Rural Statistics, illustrated by those of the Ather-
MMNEMU) AHO cgcan si, 2c voces phcraatestuscs fae scd}edneacaccssaesasse sss scasssanwaeGas copannseeon
Captain Maconocutz on the Statistics of the Criminal Population of Norfolk
MCs fee cia ech Oh osm ckictnssites tence cede sasice sc yloe cen sn aed acta tememelsias vie gpl rise
Mr. W. P. Artson’s Notes on the Reports of the Poor Law Commissioners on
emetnterof the Poor in Scotland \io)i.c0c)eccereosccsccancenannenonasnenernomnceano tina
D . CLENDINNING on the Statistics of Health, elucidated by the Records of the
on TATE AT ies ces cc unenamann anerepiss selmasteat Sach pase mnambenan lanai anddiivel Ane
- ee
?
on MECHANICAL SCIENCE. -
Mr. J. Scorr Russext on the Resistance of Railway Trains.......... Papcinclesistiniges
Mr. W. Bripces on Wooden Railways ............scssceeseeseecuceceeeeeceseeeeseces
Mr. T. Birminenam on the Advantages to be obtained by turning Canals, in
certain situations and of certain forms, into Railways, especially as applicable
‘to the circumstances of the Royal Canal lying between the City of Dublin and
IPMEMIVEHE SHIAUINIOIS. ecllsaue. casa cctsteveveesscesssevtovcdscncctecsctescvencarspenssnee
Mr. J. Gray on the Causes of the great Versailles Railway Accident
Rey. Dr. Scoresspy on Steam Navigation in America............cececsececcececeeeers
Mr. J. G. Boomer on the New Double Piston Steam-Engine, with a Model..
ae W. Farrsairn on the Cconomy of the Expansive Action of Steam in
“Steam-Engines......seseceee reacdqgsudese shioNe Mean cerhct stuetes tee ae Mee “enue
eee eeeenese
98
vu CONTENTS. ’
Mr. Smiru on Propelling Boats..........000.00 Peal Tes 0s. cusses eke >
Mr. E. Bowness on a Plan for drawing Coals from Pits without Ropes orChains 98 |
Mr. J. G. Bopmer on a New Apparatus for Starting Heavy Machinery ......... 98 —
Dr. Grezn on Nasmyth’s Steam Pile Driver ............000008 voccbvcsdUvbaeeeenvemaet 98
Mr. J. G. Bopmer on a New Furnace Grate ...........4. vo bevbstuvecetemveeebwabet ee §=6©98
Mr. James WyLSon on the Scantlometer............cssccscessecscceecseecscteseasenes 99
Rev. W. Taytor’s Explanation of an Apparatus, invented by Mr. Littledale of
York, by which the Blind can write and read .........esscssceseeereecesecaeceeeees 99
Mr. O. Byrne on the Improved Compasses of M. De Sire Lebrun, and the Cold.
drawn Pipes Ofc Sie Dirtieeccivsnceweecsabsoeecssoaccssssessnecestermeuereseeneeee ne eae 99
’s Explanations of the Barege Mobile, or Canalization of Rivers,
and of the Grenier Mobile, or moveable Granary for preserving Corn ......... 99
Sir T. Dean on the Construction of Buildings for the Accommodation of
Audiences.........++: Bast yenaddentevenarcavasrecats cases cievecece ss sa¢aenteuuenateeenanaaaeeae 99 |
Mr. Joun Bareman on the Collection of Water for the Supply of Towns . eee 100
Mr. I. Hawxrns on the Giconomy of Artificial Light for Preserving Sight... penne 100 |
Dr. W. ScorEsBy on a new Process of Magnetic Manipulation, with its Effects
fom Eland Steel ‘AMG SAStelPOM ercataeswcscecss++s-ceecesesia seecoscachenssdectnpetennios - 100
_ Mr. Paxton on the Great Fountain at Chatsworth, erected by the Duke of
Mevonshire) 5 .c.cececccscevensessondecanscs sass cas cead'ecesscieaccceaamereesames ccsscseeee 102
Mr. B. G. Storer on the Filtration of Water for the Supply of Towns .......... 102
Rev. F. O. Morris on a Plan for Preventing the Stealing of Letters by Letter
CWAITICTS? cde. n ansivoaVenstncscacdoewabe tectum ubiyoesh snk sedeen cave ehUbtean ata aeeese dine ee 103
Mr, Henry Perteat on the probable Mode of Constructing the Pyramids...... 103
ADDENDUM.
Bie HN. PALEGT ON NOLO TAp Nc sctic. s+. ac -c0sc0ssenessecessacensvenphtyantenens soos 105
Mr. Wiiiiam West on Mineral Springs and other Waters of Yorkshire ...... 105
Mr. Henry Brees on Industrial Education............se0sc0e0 i tdeSn cations eee mee aa 112
WWGCKH cs cstascccsskscacssusssers doeccceceecesercccseces pasombans dans oseesees Sacmatenalenente maa 113
List of Members. :
eT“ATvoo
-
$ :
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
~ MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
>
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
On Diverging Infinite Series. By Professor Younc.
Tue doctrine of diverging infinite series is a subject upon which very conflicting
_ views are at present entertained. Cauchy, Poisson, andthe modern French analysts
‘generally, characterize such series as false developments, and reject them accordingly ;
_ whilst some of the most distinguished writers of our own country not only advocate
_ the claims of these series to a place in analysis, but even attribute to them, after the
example of Euler, finite numerical values. ©
For instance, it is affirmed that
i 1—3+5—7+9—11+ &c. =0,
that
1—1.2+41.2.3—1.2.3.44 &c. =°4036....
and still more strange that
14+24+4+8+16432+4 &. =—1.
_ Ina paper about to be submitted to the Royal Irish Academy, and of which the
_ present communication is a brief abstract, I have examined all the reasonings by
which these singular conclusions seem to be established; and I have, I think, shown
that such conclusions are in fact at variance with the analytical principles which
have hitherto been appealed to in justification of them, viz. common algebraic deve-
“lopment, the differential theorem, definite integrals, &c. The following are two of
_ the general principles established in the paper of which this is an abstract :—
1. Whenever an infinite series becomes divergent for particular arithmetical values,
what has generally been called the generating function of the series requires a cor-
rection, which cannot be disregarded without committing an error infinite in amount.
2. And that so far from such series being, as usually affirmed, always algebrai-
cally true, though sometimes arithmetically false—considered in reference to the
generating function—on the contrary, they are always algebraically false, though
sometimes arithmetically true; true, namely, in those cases, and those only, for
which the algebraic function omitted becomes evanescent.
Ona Principle in the Theory of Probahiliies By Professor Younc.
Let p,, po, P3--- Pn be the respective probabilities of happening of n independent
events; then the following general principle will have place, viz.—
PitPotps+ ...-+pn= the prob. of one of the events at least happening.
+ the prob. of two at least happening in conjunction.
+ the prob. of three at least.
+. the prob. of all happening together.
This general principle, Mr. Young observed, has not hitherto been noticed. It
affords an intelligible interpretation of the sum of the probabilities of any number of
independent events, and it is, moreover, useful in enabling us very readily to deter-
mine certain compound probabilities, when others are already known; thus, let there
be but two events ; then by the above principle
Pi+-p2= prob. of one at least happening, + prob. of both happening. But the pro-
bability of both happening is known to be py, po,
-". Pit+Pe—pi po= prob. of one at least happening.
1844. B
2 -REPORT—1844.
Again, let there be three events; then replacing p,, p., p3, by the combinations
P) Ps» P; P3» Po Ps, We have, by the same principle,
Pi Po+P1P3t+PoP3= prob. of one of these compound events at least.
+ prob. of two at least.
+ prob. of all three.
But the combination of two of the compound events, at least, is obviously the same
as the combination of all the simple events ; so is the combination of all the com-
pound events, and the probability of all the simple events happening is known to be
Pi Pz P33 hence
P; Po +P P3 +P2Ps= prob. of two of the events at least happening together,
+ 2p) Po Ps;
Py Pot Pi Pst Po P3—2P1 P2P3= prob. of two of the events, at least, happening
together.
Moreover, the probability of one of the events, at least, happening is, by the prin-
ciple, equal to the sum of the individual probabilities diminished by the expression
just deduced, and by p; py p3; that is,
Pit P2tP3—P1 P2—Pi P3—P2 PstPi P2 Ps= prob. of one, at least, of the three events
happening. And so on.
On the Summation of Infinite Series. By Mr. Rawson.
This was a mode of combining the theorems of Laplace and Taylor in such a
manner as to render series very rapidly convergent, so as greatly to facilitate the cal-
culation of tables, and to render other arithmetical processes more convenient than
at present. Mr. Hodgkinson, who communicated the paper, pointed out its impor-
tant relations to some of the more general processes of integration.
On the Double Square Representation of Prime and Composite Numbers.
By J. J. Syivester, M.A.
He first alluded to what had been done by the French mathematicians ; and then
pointed out the manner in which he thought numbers might be conceived to be com-
posed of squares; and concluded by mentioning some of the advantages which might
be expected from this mode of considering them.
On a Theory of Quaternions. By Sir Witi1aM R. Haminton, MRA.
It has been shown, by Mr. Warren and others, that the results obtained by the
ordinary processes of algebra, involving the imaginary symbol /—1, admit of real
interpretations, such as those which relate to compositions of linear motions and ro-
tations in one plane. Sir W. Hamilton has adopted a system of three such imagi-
nary symbols, 7, 7, k, and assumes or defines that they satisfy the nine equations
f= fpar=—1, 27 S=h—— 7. Ghat — ky, ki = j =
which however are not purely arbitrary, and for the adoption of which the paper
assigns reasons. He then combines these symbols in a quaternion, or imaginary
quadrinomial, of the form
Q=w +ia+jyt+ kz,
in which w, x, y, 2 are four real quantities ; and states that he has established rules
for algebraical operations on such expressions, and has assigned geometrical inter-
pretations corresponding; so as to form a sort of Calculus of Quaternions, which
serves as an instrument to prove old theorems, and to discover new ones, in the geo-
metry of three dimensions, and especially respecting the composition of motions of
translation and rotation in space.
An Account of the State of the Reductions of the Planetary and Lunar Ob-
servations made at Greenwich. By the ASTRONOMER RoyAL.
He announced that the planetary observations from 1750 to 1830 had been reduced
by the aid of Bessel’s tables, and their places deduced and compared with those
given by the best tables for each planet; andthis portion wascomplete. The print-
ing also was nearly finished, The reduction and comparison of the lunar observa-
=
*
ae
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3
al!
i tions, the superintendence of which had also fallen on himself, had been commenced
more lately: and this he characterized as by far the most important astronomical
work which had been for many years undertaken. The observations were reduced
by means of Bessel’s tables. The places of the moon deduced from the observa-
tions were compared with places computed from Plana’s theory, modified by
certain corrections introduced by Sir J. W. Lubbock and M. de Pontécoulant. For
this theoretical computation, Damoiseau’s tables had been used as basis, and small
supplementary tables had been computed for the difference between Damoiseau’s
theory and Plana’s corrected theory. ‘Thus the observations, reduced by a uniform
system of sidereal tables, would be compared with the best lunar theory in existence.
In Damoiseau’s tables (edition 1824) the centesimal division of the circle is intro-
duced, which affords much facility in the calculations. A few months would now
complete the calculations; but the printing had not yet commenced. Fourteen com-
puters were usually engaged upon them; and by certain improvements which he had
introduced into the methods of computing, such as discarding the use of the negative
sign altogether, by increasing the quantities from which they could result by a con-
stant number, he had been able, in many instances, to avail himself of the assistance
of boys as computers, and thus saved the heavy expense of the more experienced
persons. The lunar observations reduced amounted to about 9000; and the compu-
tations were made in duplicate, for the purpose of detecting errors.
On the Geodetical Operations of India.
By Lieut.-Col. Everest, /.R.S., §e., late Surveyor- General of India.
A series of triangulations on the most magnificent scale has for many years been
conducted in India, by Colonel Lambton up to the year 1823, and after his death by
Colonel Everest (who had for some years previous been his chief assistant) up to the
close of 1843, when this officer resigned the charge to Captain Waugh of the Bengal
Engineers, who had been trained by him in the habits of exact observation. As the
Court of Directors of the East India Company have, with their characteristic libera-
lity, directed the publication of Colonel Everest’s labours, it is unnecessary to enter
into the details of the account of them which he laid before the Section, further than
to notice a few fac hich may give some notion of their probable accuracy, and
the immense exertion required to obtain it in such a climate.
Colonel Everest published in.1830 an account of his work from Damargida, the
northern extremity of Lambton’s»arc, lat. 18° 3’ 16”, to Kalianpur, lat. 24° 7’ 12";
but as he then was furnished with new instruments by Troughton and Simms, supe-
rior to those which he previously possessed, he repeated all this, and extended it as
far as Kaliana, lat. 29° 30’ 49”, where his celestial arc terminates. The terrestrial is
carried further to Banog, lat. 30° 28’ 30") but as this station is in the Himalaya, the
attraction of this mighty mountain chain requires to have the zenith distances of stars
observed there.
The lengths of these arcs depend on three bases, which were measured with com-
pensation bars similar to those used by Colonel Colby in the triangulation of Ireland ;
but, on account of the extreme heat of India, applied with even more minute atten-
tion than in that instance. The whole operation was conducted under tents, and every
thermometer used in the survey was verified by comparison with two standards.
The scales employed, two iron of ten feet, and two brass of six inches, have been com-
pared by 101 comparisons, and one of gach has been left in India, while the others
are deposited in the military store of the Hon. East India Company in Leadenhall
Street. The most northern of these bases is near
i) feet.
Dehra Din, in lat. ..../s++.0s... 30 18 18 of 39183°873
The next at Serony ...}..... sath 24 6 50 of 38413°367
The third near Beder },.......... .17 54 32 of 41578°536
This last replaces Lambton’s base of 1815, the marks of which have been irrecover-
ably lost. Remeasuring the Dehra base there was found a difference of 2°40 inches,
or 0°3 per mile, an extraordinary eis considering the wide range of tempe-
rature during the process; but it is ¢onfirmed by the agreement between the mea-
sured and triangulated lengths of two parts of it deduced from the third, When
\B2
\
4 REPORT—1844.
deduced from the second base, the difference is only 7'2 inches. The difference for
the third is still less, being only 4°3. The instruments used in the triangulation
were a three-feet theodolite, considered Troughton’s Capo d’opera, and two three-feet
vertical and azimuth circles, which also served for the celestial observations. These
were divided on both sides, and had four microscopes, of which two were moveable to
any angle. The theodolite and azimuth circles had five microscopes. The referring
marks for azimuthal observations and alinements of bases were heliotropes seen
through apertures of a quarter of an inch. Eachangie of the primary triangles is observed
twenty-four times, changing the zero four times, and reversing alternately. What-
ever error may remain is distributed among the system according to a theorem of
simple application. Azimuthal observations for determining the position of the tri-
angles with respect to meridian, were made at fifteen different stations with the three-
feet circles. By careful levelling, reversing between observations and taking both
extreme azimuths of circumpolar stars on the same days, an unusual harmony of the
results has been obtained. To obtain the amplitudes of the celestial arcs, thirty-six
stars were selected for the northern portion of the arc; thirty-two for the southern,
in each instance half being north, the rest south of the zenith. Collimated observa-
tions were always taken by reversing for each star, and besides, the error of collima-
tion was determined by acollimating telescope. Forty-eight observations were taken
of each star, and the moveable pairs of microscopes were shifted into three different
positions. The resuit is that the arc
it
From Damargida to Kalianpur is ...... 6 (3 55°97
From Kalianpur to Kalianais ......... 5 23 37:06
The length of these arcs in feet .........1961157°117.
It is, however, to be regretted that this series of triangles, and several others
which are described in Colonel Everest’s paper, have not been filled up by any secondary
triangulation, or made available to any of those social purposes for which accurate
district maps are so important. The fault is certainly not with the Court of Direc-
tors, who appear from this statement to have been actuated by the most liberal and
enlightened views; but wherever it may lie, in Colonel Everest’s concluding words,
“Tt is to be hoped that the powers who govern India will see the necessity of taking
early measures to cause all these series to be filled up with topographical details in
keeping as to accuracy with the material now on record. At present the principal
triangles are in many places mere skeletons, instruments of mighty power lying
useless. But it seems very clear that without accurate and specific detail, whether
as relates to topographical or statistical knowledge, no state can be well governed ;
and the maps in the possession of the governing power ought for this purpose to be
within certain and decided limits of error.”
An Account of the Results of the Tide Observations on the Coast of Ireland.
By the ASTRONOMER RoyAt.
He introduced the subject by stating, that during the Ordnance Survey it had been
desired to fix upon a plane of reference for elevation, and that Colonel Colby had
been desirous of ascertaining whether one invariable plane could be obtained from
the observation of tides. For the determination of this, Ireland seemed to present
peculiar facilities ; for, during the Ordnance Survey, it had been levelled from shore
to shore, not only longitudinally, but also across ; the result of which was, that round
the entire coast many points were marked where the levels relative to one common
point, the sill of one of the dock gates in Dublin, were known certainly, to within a
very few inches. It was therefore resolved to observe, simultaneously, and for a con-
siderable period, the tides round the entire coast, in order to ascertain whether, from
their phenomena, such a certain and readily determined plane could be deduced.
In these observations, besides having all the measures of height reduced to this
one common standard, it was also determined that all the observers should be fur-
nished with chronometers set to one common time, viz. mean time at the Greenwich
Observatory. The first peculiarity observable in the form of the coast was, that
while the south-western and western coast was quite open and exposed to the Atlantic,
the north-eastern and eastern coasts were, on the contrary, quite embayed, and in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5
particular the channel became very narrow between Donaghadee and Portpatrick,
and indeed the entire Scotch coast to the Mull of Kintyre, and the island of Ilay.
Stations were carefully selected on all these different seas. Besides this, stations
were selected at different points of some of the estuaries, for investigation of the
change in the nature of the tide as it proceeds up the estuaries: thus four stations
were selected on the estuary of the Shannon. He did not then particularize all
the motives which swayed them, but stated generally that twenty-two stations round
the coast were fixed upon. On the 22nd of June 1842, they had all their observers
at the several stations, and the observations were continued for full two months, viz.
until the 26th of August. He need scarcely say, that there were four critical phe-
nomena or periods, in each twenty-four hours, to be noted carefully, viz. the instants
of each of the two high waters, and the instants of each of the intervening low
waters, and although the season was chosen so that the nights should be short, yet
one at least of these four critical phenomena must occur in the night: as it would
therefore be too laborious to record at sufficiently close intervals during the entire
twenty-four hours, the orders given to the observers were to be at their posts at least
half an hour before by any possibility each of these four states of the tide could
occur, and then to record every five minutes the actual height. In the night, the
registrations were continued only till the tide had taken a decided turn; but in the
day, the observations were continued incessantly from the time of beginring before
the first critical phenomenon till the tide had taken a decided turn after the third
critical phenomenon. Atsome ofthe stations, however, the observations were made
continuously during the twenty-four hours ; to one of them, Courtown, he should have
to direct particular attention. The researches of Professor Whewell and of Sir John
Lubbock had rendered a close attention to the diurnal and semi-diurnal inequalities
of the tides a matter of interest. One of the earliest and most immediate results of
these systematized observations was, that the high tide was found to be simultaneous
along the entire western and south-western coasts, apparently coming from the west.
It was also simultaneous along the eastern coast, but strange to say, with a jump of
no less than six hours between these two clearly defined times of high water: so
that they were met in the first stage of their speculations by the fact, that there was
a difference of no less than six hours between the time of high water at Dunmore
(mouth of the Waterford harbour) and at Dublin. This was for atime apuzzle; but
from it might be inferred what they afterwards found verified by the observations at
Courtown, that a node, or place of no tide, must occur at some intervening place.
Another result was, that the diurnal tide came apparently not from the west, but
from the south-west. The observations have been grouped and discussed by the new
mode pointed out by him in the Philosophical Transactions for 1842, im which the
heights were expressed as a function of the times by the following formula:
L=A+B.sing+C.sin (26+c)+D. sin (34+d)+ &c.
By this method, about 1400 individual tides, observed at all the stations, had been
discussed. From this discussion, it appeared that the great tide wave was two days
old when it reached Ireland, and that the solar effect exerted in raising the water was
about one-third of that of the moon, if the deductions were made from the tides of
the more open western and south-western parts of the coast; while the inferences
deduced from those of the north-eastern coast, would make it in some places only
one-sixth, and inother places about one-half. At some of the stations of the north-
eastern coast, an enormous amount of semi-diurnal inequality manifested itself:
the semi-menstrual inequality was also found to be considerable there. Another
remarkable and unexpected irregularity also resulted from these discussions ; which
was a difference of no less than one foot between the mean heights of the tides of the
western and southern, and the north-eastern coasts; the mean heights of the tides,
or values of A, in the preceding formula, being one foot greater for the north-eastern
than for the south-western stations. It was also found that the irregularities in the
values of A, from day to day, agreed very closely on a long line of coast: and this
fact afforded the most demonstrative proof of the accuracy of the observers, for while
it manifested itself most distinctly at each of the stations in going round the coast,
its amount and its variations were so consistent, as to render it absolutely impossible
that it could have resulted from careless observations. He then directed attention
to the Courtown station, stating that at the commencement of their labours here the
6 REPORT—1844,
observers had found it impossible to comply with the instructions which had been
furnished to them, for it was found impossible to fix upon any of the apparently
lawless elevations and depressions of the water as representing the usual semi-diurnal
high water or low water. The result was, that of themselves they adopted the
prudent course of giving up any attempt at such selection, and observed the height
of the tide every five minutes throughout the twenty-four hours. This was a fortu-
nate circumstance, for in conseqnence of being in possession of these almost con-
tinuous observations for such a period, he had been able to make out thelaw; which
under other circumstances might have long continued to perplex. It was found that
semi-diurnal tides very small in their actual amount, sometimes not more than a few
inches, succeeded each other at irregular intervals; and this was very clearly traced to
the influence of the relatively large amount of the solar tide, which, upon examination,
was found to be distinctly larger than the lunar tide. With this was mingled a di-
urnal tide, as large as the diurnal tide at the neighbouring parts of the coast; and also
a quarto-diurnal tide, which is found to exist on nearly every part of the coast, and
which has its largest value at or near Courtown. The Astronomer Royal said that
he was preparing a detailed account of these observations ; and he closed by saying,
that in reference to the object for which they had been chiefly undertaken, it was
now obvious that no fixed plane sufficiently determinate for engineering purposes could
be deduced from the phenomena of the tides; at least those observed on the coast
of our island or of continental seas.
—_—
On the Tides of the Hast Coast of Scotland. By J. Scott Russet, F.RS.E.
The discussion of the* observations was now complete, and they were ready for
publication. The chief part of the results had been reported last year, but there re-
mained a few interesting points which had been brought out by the recent discus-
sions. The chief of these was the determination of the diurnal inequality in the time
of high water, a phenomenon which, as stated by Sir J. Lubbock, has not been dis-
covered onour coasts. This inequality had been manifested in a very prominent form
in these observations on the east coast of Scotland; and diagrams were exhibited, in
which not only its existence was marked, but its magnitude was measured, and was
so great, that the time of high water of successive tides varied, with 25° of declina-
tion, as much as from 30 to 80 minutes from this cause. Tables were also given,
showing its amount in various ports along the coast. He attributed the detection of
this inequality, which had hitherto escaped notice, to the methods of observation
which had been employed. His system was to employ, instead of the mere obser-
vation of the height and time of still water, or the cessation of rise and the commence-
ment of fall, a continuous series of observations every five minutes on time and
height. This series was registered continuously night and day, and the observations
were all laid down on ruled paper in a wave curve, from which the observations of
time and height were deduced. It was the accuracy of the system of discussing in-
dividual wave curves, instead of mere observations of height and time, which had
enabled him to detect phenomena that had formerly escaped observation; and he
was glad to find that Professor Airy had recommended and adopted that method in
his recent observations on the tides of Ireland. Another advantage which the method
of observation and discussion of individual wave curves produced, was that tolerably
correct tables, for the prediction of tides, might be formed from a very short series
of observations. He had found Sir J. Lubbock’s tables of the tides of Leith, deduced
from many thousand observations, to be very accurate; and from them the tides of
Leith were predicted so as to coincide exactly with the phenomena. But, by the
method of observation now mentioned, he had formed tables from a few weeks’ ob-
servation, which coincided quite as accurately with Sir J. Lubbock’s tables as those with
observation. He concluded by noticing an ingenious Self-Registering Tide-Gauge,
invented by Mr. Wood of Port Glasgow, which was so simple as to be constructed
to register heights at a cost of two or three pounds, and to register time at a cost of
ten pounds. He was happy to add, that tide-gauges of this kind were now being
erected at Cork,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7
On an attempt lately made by M. Laurent, to explain on mechanical principles
the Phenomenon of Circular Polarization in Liquids.
By Professor MacCuLLaGcu.
The author showed that this attempt had not succeeded. M. Laurent supposes
the particles of the luminiferous ther not to be simply material points, but to have
dimensions which are not insensible when compared with their distances ; and on this
hypothesis he deduces a system of differential equations, the integrals of which he
conceives to represent the phenomenon in question. The integrals given by M. Lau-
rent are, however, altogether erroneous, though this circumstance was not noticed
by M. Cauchy in the remarks and comments which he made on M. Laurent’s me-
moir. The true integrals of these equations (supposing the equations to be correctly
deduced) were shown by Professor MacCullagh to indicate motions of the ether
which do not correspond to the observed phenomena. The account of M. Laurent’s
theory, with M. Cauchy’s remarks upon it, will be found in the eighteenth volume
of the ‘Comptes Rendus’ of the Academy of Sciences of Paris.
On certain points connected with Elliptic Polarization of Light.
By the Rev. Professor Powe, M.A., F.RS.
The peculiar property impressed upon light reflected from metal, and previously
polarized at 45° to the plane of reflexion, discovered by Sir David Brewster in 1830,
and named by him elliptic polarization, was examined by him chiefly with regard to
the effects produced by a second reflexion from the same metal,—when the plane
polarization is restored, but with its plane changed by a certain angle, which at the
maximum characterizes each metal. From this, however, we cannot infer what pre-
cise effect is produced by the first reflexion alone. It also appears that the ellipticity
is small or insensible at small incidences,—arrives at a maximum for most metals at
between 70° and 80°, and then decreases again, up to 90°.
The author of this communication has examined some properties of light of this
kind by means of the changes in the polarized rings, after one reflexion at different
incidences.
In all degrees of ellipticity the rings have branches more or less faint correspond-
ing to the degree of dislocation, in all relative positions of the planes of polarization
and analysation. At small incidences they are dark and bright in the rectangular
positions.
The position of the darkest branches, with respect to the plane of reflexion, changes
at different incidences, in a manner somewhat analogous to what takes place in the
reflexion from glass, though it is not at all expressed by Fresnel’s law.
At the smallest incidences the position is always different from 45°; being deter-
mined by an arc considerably greater than 45°, as measured from the plane of
reflexion.
At greater incidences the arc diminishes ; and at the maximum the position coin-
cides with the plane of reflexion. The first-named arc varies with different metals ;
but the last result is common to all. The intermediate change is more or less gra-
dual in different cases.
The author is engaged in measuring these arcs for a series of metals, but he is not
able at present to trace any relation between them and those determined by Sir David
Brewster after éwo reflexions.
In the author’s paper in the Phil. Trans., 1842, a formula is given for elliptically
polarized rings with different retardations : this formula being somewhat generalized,
includes an expression for a change of plane; and explains some portion of the phz-
nomena which has not been precisely discussed, especially the peculiar appearance of
the rings when the plane of analysation is at 45° to that of polarization.
It does not appear that any theoretical connexion has been yet made out between
this virtual change of plane and the retardation which changes with the incidence.
The author is anxious to call attention to this subject in the hope of eliciting from
those members who have examined it some results which may enable us to compare
theory and observation.
8 REPORT—1844,
On the Propagation of Waves in a Resisted Medium, with a new Explana-
tion of the Dispersion and Absorption of Light, and other Optical Pheno-
mena. By the Rev. M. O’Brien.
The author notices two different hypotheses which may be made respecting the
mode of action of the particles of a transparent medium on the vibrations of the
ethereal fluid within it:—the first, ‘‘ that the transparent substance exerts upon each
element of the ethereal fluid forces which depend simply upon the displacements of
that element relatively to the contiguous particles of matter :”’ this will be so, when
the amplitudes of the vibrations or maximum excursions of the elements from their
positions of equilibrium are extremely small relative to the intervals between the
particles of the transparent substance:—the second, “that the forces exerted by the
transparent substance upon any element of the ethereal fluid are of the same nature
as the resistances experienced by a set of particles moving through a resisting medium,
depending not upon the relative displacements, but upon the state of motion of the
element ;’’ this will be the case when the amplitudes of the vibrations are large, com-
pared with the intervals between the particles of the transparent substance. The
author then proceeds to show that M. Cauchy’s equations are founded upon assump-
tions equivalent to the first of these hypotheses ; and gives reasons for not admitting
it, stating that though the explanation that author derives of dispersion is satis-
factory, the explanation of absorption is really fallacious. He then proceeds to exa-
mine, mathematically, the consequences of the second hypothesis, which he conceives
has not yet been taken up by any writer upon physical optics, and proceeds to show
the probability that it may be of much service in advancing the undulatory theory of
light.
Account of a new Proportional Compass. By Ovtver Byrne.
By a vernier at the centre, and a means of adjusting a series of points, this instru-
ment enables an observer, by the aid of tables, to multiply, divide, and compare lines,
surfaces, solids and angles, with considerable precision.
On the Shape of the Teeth of the Wheels of the Clock in the New Royal Ex-
change. By E. J. Dent, F.RAS.
A Notice explaining the Cause of an Optical Phenomenon observed by the
Rev. W. Selwyn. By Sir Davin Brewsten, F.R.S. L.§ £., Hon. MRA.
When a number of parallel black lines are intersected at right angles by other
black lines, so as to inclose a number of squares or rectangles, a white spot appears
at the intersections of all the lines. In order to discover the cause of this pheno-
menon, Sir David Brewster made the experiment with the broad opake bars of an
old-fashioned window opposed to the light of the sky. Along all the bars he saw a
whitish nebulous light, which was the complementary or accidental colour of the
black bars seen simultaneously with the bars. The same luminosity was of course
seen of equal intensity along all the bars, but at the crossings the intensity of its
light was greatest, so as to produce the white spot already mentioned. Now this
spot did not arise from any increased effect at the intersections, but from a diminu-
tion of the complementary luminosity at all other parts of the intersecting lines.
This diminution of intensity arises from the action of the white squares or rectangles
upon the retina tending to diminish the sensibility of that membrane along the parts
corresponding to the black lines, and is always greatest by oblique vision. Itis an
action analogous to that which takes place when a strip of paper laid upon a green
or any other coloured glass disappears when the eye is fixed upon a point an inch
or two distant from the paper. Hence the luminous spots are brightest when not
seen directly. [The phenomenon thus explained was communicated to Sir David
Brewster by the Rev. W. Selwyn.]
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9
An Account of the Cause of the Colours in precious Opal.
By Sir Davip Brewster, F.R.S. L.§ E., Hon. MRA.
This gem is intersected in all directions with colorific planes, exhibiting the most
brilliant colours of all kinds. The cause of these colours has never, we believe, been
carefully studied. Mineralogists, indeed, have said that they are the colours of thin
plates of air occupying fissures or cracks in the stone; but this is a mere assump-
tion, disproved by the fact that no such fissures have ever been found during the
processes of cutting, grinding and polishing, which the opal undergoes in the hands
of the lapidary. In submitting to a powerful microscope specimens of precious
opal, and comparing the phenomena with those of hydrophanous opal, Sir David
Brewster found that the colorific planes or patches consist of minute pores or vacui-
ties arranged in parallel lines, and that various such planes are placed close to each
other, so as to occupy a space with three dimensions. These pores sometimes
exhibit a crystalline arrangement, like the lines in sapphire, calcareous spar, and
other bodies, and have doubtless been produced during the conversion of the quartz
into opal by heat under the peculiar circumstances of its formation. In some speci-
mens of common opal the structure is such as would be produced by kneading cry-
stallized quartz when in a state of paste. The different colours produced by these
pores arise from their different magnitudes or thicknesses, and the colours are gene-
rally arranged in parallel bands, and vary with the varying obliquities at which they
are seen.
A notice respecting the Cause of the beautiful White Rings which are seen
round a luminous body when looked at through certain specimens of Cal-
careous Spar. By Sir Davin Brewster, F.R.S. L.3 E., Hon. MRA.
By varying the inclination of the spar, the rings increase and diminish, each of
them in succession contracting into a luminous spot and disappearing, and then ex-
panding into rings as before. The two rings are produced from the two images
formed by double refraction, and hence the light of one ring is oppositely polarized
to that of the other. When the ordinary and the extraordinary ray are refracted in
lines parallel to the edge of the rhomb, which they are at different incidences, their
respective rings disappear. At oblique incidences the rings are highly coloured,
and when the dispersive action is small they have a bright silvery whiteness. Sir
David Brewster stated that they were produced by minute tubes in the mineral, of
which there were many thousands in an inch, and that these tubes were parallel to
one of the edges of the rhomb, viz. to that edge to which the refracted ray was
parallel when each ring became a luminous spot.
On Crystals in the Cavities of Topaz, which are dissolved by Heat and
re-erystallize on Cooling.
By Sir Davin Brewster, F.R.S. L. & £., Hon. MRLA,
Sir David gave a brief notice of the discovery which he had made, about twenty
years ago, of two new fluids in the crystallized cavities of topaz and other minerals.
One of these fluids is very volatile, and so expansible, that it expands twenty times
as much as water with the same increase of temperature. When the vacuities in
the cavity which it occupies are large, it passes into vapour, and in these different
states he had succeeded in determining its refractive power, by measuring the angles
at which total reflexion takes place at the common surface of the fluid of the topaz.
The other fluid is of a denser kind, and occupies the angles and narrow necks of cavities.
The cavities, however, in which the soluble crystals were contained are of a different
kind. They (viz. the cavities) were imperfectly crystallized, and thus they exist in
specimens cf topaz which contain the cavities with the two new fluids ; they sometimes
contain none of the volatile and expansible fluid, which is doubtless a condensed gas.
The crystals which occupy them are flat and finely crystallized rhomboids. When
heat is applied, they become rounded at their angles and edges, and soon disappear.
After the topaz has cooled, they again appear, at first like a speck, and then recry-
stallize gradually, sometimes in their original place, but often in other parts of the
cavity, their place being determined by the mode in which the cooling is applied.
10 REPORT—1844,
We understand that Professor Liebig, who regards these fluids and crystals as pecu-
liarly interesting, has made arrangements to investigate their nature, when taken out
of their cavities by Sir David Brewster,—an operation of extreme difficulty, owing to °
the small size of the cavities which contain them, and the rapid disappearance of the
volatile fluid, which rises into a drop and contracts into a flat disc, as if it were
endued with vitality, finally vanishing and leaving a sediment behind it, which, when
breathed upon, again becomes fluid.
On a singular Effect of the Juxtaposition of certain Colours under particular
circumstances. By Professor WHEATSTONE, F.R.S.
Having had his attention drawn to the fact, that a carpet worked with a small
pattern in green and red, when illuminated with gas-light, if viewed carelessly, pro-
duced an effect upon the eye as if all the parts of the pattern were in motion, he was
led to have several patterns worked in various contrasted pairs of colours; and he
found that in many of them the motion was perceptible, but in none so remarkably
as those in red and green; it appeared also to be necessary that the illumination
should be gas-light, as the effect did not appear to manifest itself in daylight, at least
in diffused daylight. He accounted for it by the eye retaining its sensibility for
various colours during various lengths of time.
On the same Subject.
By Sir Davip Brewster, F.R.S. L.§ £., Hon. MRA. '
Sir David Brewster stated that he and Prof. Wheatstone had brought to York
separate communications on this experiment, with specimens of the rug-work in
which it is best exhibited. Having seen Prof. Wheatstone’s specimens, he had been
induced to limit his communication to a few observations on Prof. Wheatstone’s
paper. When Sir D. Brewster came to York, he was not aware of the phenomena
taking place with any other colour but red and green. Prof. Wheatstone had, how-
ever, Shown him that red and blue answered equally well ; and he had received letters
from two ladies in Scotland, who had not only found that red and blue exhibited the
phenomenon, but had both given the probable explanation of their doing so, by
ascribing it to the blue becoming green in the yellow light of the candle.
In order to give an explanation of what has been called by some the fluttering
hearts, from one of the colours having the shape of hearts, Sir David Brewster men-
tioned an experiment for the purpose of showing that any fixed object will appear to
move on the ground upon which it is fixed, when the light which illuminates it is
constantly changing its position and intensity. This experiment consists in moving
a candle rapidly in all directions, in front of a statue. The varying lights and sha-
dows produce varying expressions, which give the appearance of life and motion to
the features of the statue. Now, in the case of the vibrating hearts, the mixture of
the red and green, whether seen as direct or as accidental impressions, produces suc-
cessions of light and shadow which give the appearance of motion to the figure upon
the red or green ground. ‘This effect is greatly increased by that remarkable pro-
perty of oblique vision, in which the retina increases in sensibility as the point im-
pressed is removed from the foramen centrale. Hence when we look fixedly at one
of the vibrating hearts, it nearly ceases to vibrate, while the others, which are seen
obliquely, vibrate with greater distinctness. The phenomenon has been stated to
be invisible in daylight ; but Sir David Brewster mentioned that he had, that morn-
ing, found that it took place in daylight, provided the coloured surface was illumi-
nated from a small hole in the shutter of a dark room. The experiment, indeed, he
found to fail even in candlelight, if the illumination proceeded from a great number
of lights, or from a mass of light producing a guaquaversus illumination like that of
the sky. He referred also to the effects produced by coloured glasses, and mentioned
some facts regarding the unequal absorption of the two colours, which, in drawing
conclusions from such experiments, required to be attended to.
On the Accommodation of the Eye to Various Distances.
By Sir Davin Brewster, F.R.S. L. § E., Hon. MRA.
He commenced by giving a sketch of the opinions of several philosophers as to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 11
the mode in which the eye acquires its well-known power of accommodating itself to
distinct vision at various distances, and the experiments of Troughton and others
with a view to determine the question. He then stated that he had ascertained a
fact, which he considered to be one distinct step towards the desired explanation,
although he must admit that he could not as yet satisfy his own mind with any of
the explanations which he had given, nor as yet fully point out how the fact he was
about to mention would aid in that explanation. This fact is, that if an object be
so placed relatively to the eye as that it is not seen distinctly, distinct vision will be
instantly acquired by directing attention to some intermediate object.
Account of a Series of Experiments on the Polarization of Light by rough
surfaces, and white dispersing surfaces.
By Sir Daviv Brewster, F.RS. L. § E., Hon. MRA.
These experiments were made with one or more surfaces of ground glass having
different degrees of roughness, and upon paper, snow, and white painted bodies.
The state of polarization was ascertained by the polariscope with parallel bands, and
its amount measured with the polarimeter which he had invented for this purpose.
In polarizing light, the atmosphere acts like a rough surface, and hence these experi-
ments had an application to that new branch of optical meteorology. The degree
of roughness in transparent bodies was ascertained by observing the angle of re-
flexion at which a small circular luminous disc of a given intensity either disappeared
or began to lose its distinctness of outline. The general effect of roughness of sur-
face is to diminish the degree of polarization which would have been produced at the
same angle by the surface whensmooth. In the case of white dispersing bodies, the
intromitted pencil, polarized by refraction, is again reflected, and more or less neu-
tralizes the pencil oppositely polarized by reflection.
On the Nature of the Sound Wave. By J. Scort Russet, F.R.S.E.
He had determined the existence of certain’orders of water-waves governed by dif-
ferent laws, and it was necessary, for the explanation of the phenomena of sound,
to determine to which of these orders it was analogous. It was generally supposed
that the sound wave was analogous to the waves formed by dropping a stone into
the waters of a quiet pool. These were waves of the second order. But his experi-
ments had led him to suppose that the sound wave was a wave of the first order,
analogous to the wave of translation in water. This determination would effect a
considerable change in our conception and explanation of the phenomena of sound,
at present ill understood. For example, the theory of the speaking-trumpet had
been given in many forms by different mathematicians; but it was found that
the forms assigned by them were nearly opposite, while their effects were nearly
identical. This was just what would result from the theory of the wave of the first
order. But the whispering gallery was still more inexplicable on the old theory ;
the dome of St. Pauls was an instance—quite inexplicable on the old hypothesis,
but his experiments upon it had proved that the wave of sound did in that case
obey implicitly the laws of a wave of the first order, and on that theory its pheno-
mena were completely explained. By considering the sound wave as a wave of the
first order, it was now easy to determine the principles on which buildings for
speaking and hearing should be formed.
On the Analogy of the Existences or Forces, Light, Heat, Voltaic and ordinary
Electricities. By Joun Goopman, Esq. 2
The author enumerates many general properties in which these ewistences (which
term is employed in contradistinction to the opinion frequently received, that caloric,
light, &c. are only effects resulting from the motion of material bodies) agree. In
reference to the “‘ expansion of metals,” in which caloric and the voltaic fluid agree,
Mr. Goodman describes apparatus by which he has succeeded in showing expansion
of acolumn of mercury, by the passage of an electric current through it, while an
ordinary thermometer, whose bulb was plunged in the same mercury for an hour,
m_
re REPORT—1844.
showed no expansion, and consequently received no accession of caloric. By in-
creasing the force of the battery beyond a certain point, the thermometer does acquire
heat and show expansion of its included mercury, but still the expansion of the
mercury in which it is plunged proceeds in a greater degree, and remains five or six
degrees in advance. Various other considerations are presented, from which the
author concludes, that the existences already named are but varied forms of one fluid,
and that caloric in a state of repose is the universal, latent, and primitive fluid of
all undisturbed matter.
On a new Process of Magnetic Manipulation, and its Action on Cast Iron and
Steel Bars. By the Rev. William Scoressy, D.D., F.RS. L.3 E.
Dr. Scoresby found that it was impossible, by the ordinary process, to communicate
the full charge of magnetic influence to hard thin bars of steel of the horse-shoe
form. Nor was it practicable to magnetize fully thin plates or bars of a straight or
ruler form, with a horse-shoe magnet, by the usual processes of manipulation, pro-
vided the bars were very hard, or such as were best suited for retaining the magnetic
energy, and therefore best for the manufacture of magnets. But he was led, by the
theoretic views he holds, to try the effect of interposing thin bars of soft iron between
the charging poles of the magnet and the steel bar to be magnetized; this answered
effectually, and Dr. Scoresby exhibited to the Section several experiments, whereby,
with the old process, the magnetism imparted to the steel bars was very trivial, but
by the adoption of the new process, a remarkably strong charge was communicated
by one single stroke of the poles of the magnet over the bar, whether of steel or cast
iron. And it was stated that such was the efficacy of the process on bars of cast
iron, either with an interposed malleable or cast iron bar, that one such cast iron bar
received a power of sustaining about twelve pounds.
On a new Steering and Azimuth Compass. By E. J. Dent, F.R.A.S.
Contributions to Actino- Chemistry. On the Amphitype, anew Photographic
Process.
By Sir John F. W. Herscuet, Bart. F.RS. L.§ E., Hon. MRA.
At the end of my paper ‘On the Action of the Solar Spectrum on Vegetable
Colours,’ communicated to the Royal Society in 1842, a process is alluded to (in
Art. 230), by which positive pictures are obtained, having a perfect resemblance to
impressions of engravings taken with common printers’ ink. I had hoped speedily
to have perfected this process so far as to have reduced it to a definite statement of
manipulations which would ensure success. But, capricious as photographic pro-
cesses notoriously are, this has proved so beyond even the ordinary measure of such
caprice ; and, having of late been able to give little or no time to this pursuit, I have
thought it preferable to describe the process in a general way, and ina form in which
I have found it frequently, and sometimes eminently successful; not so much for
the sake of its results, which yet are not wanting in interest or beauty, as for the
curious and very complicated photographic habitudes of iron, mercury, and lead
which are concerned in their production,—rather, in short, as a contribution to the
newly-created science of actino-chemistry, than to the photographic art. Paper
proper for producing an amphitype picture may be prepared either with the ferro-
tartrate or the ferro-citrate of the protoxide or the peroxide of mercury, or of the
protoxide of lead, by using creams of these salts, or by successive applications of
the nitrates of the respective oxides, singly or in mixture, to the paper, alternating
with solutions of the ammonio-tartrate or ammonio-citrate of iron*, the latter solu-
tions being last applied, and in more or less excess. I purposely avoid stating pro-
portions, as I have not yet been able to fix upon any which certainly succeed.
Paper so prepared and dried takes a negative picture, in a time varying from half an
hour to five or six hours, according to the intensity of the light; and the impression
produced varies in apparent force from a faint and hardly perceptible picture, to one
* So commonly called, and sold as such; but as I am disposed to regard their composition,
their chemical names would be ferro-tartrate and ferro-citrate of ammonia.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13
- of the highest conceivable fullness and richness both of tint and detail, the colour in
this case being a superb velvety brown. This extreme richness of effect is not pro-
duced except lead be present, either in the ingredients used, or in the paper itself.
It is not, as I originally supposed, due to the presence of free tartaric acid. The
pictures in this state are not permanent. They fade in the dark, though with very
different degrees of rapidity, some (especially if free tartaric or citric acid be present)
in a few days, while others remain for weeks unimpaired, and require whole years
for their total obliteration. But though entirely faded out in appearance, the pic-
ture is only rendered dormant, and may be restored, changing its character from
negative to positive, and its colour from brown to black (in the shadows) by the fol-
lowing process :—A bath being prepared by pouringa small quantity of solution of
pernitrate of mercury into a large quantity of water, and letting the sub-nitrated
precipitate subside, the picture must be immersed in it (carefully and repeatedly
clearing off all air bubbles), and allowed to remain till the picture (if anywhere visi-
ble) is entirely destroyed, or if faded, till it is judged sufficient from previous expe-
rience ; a term which is often marked by the appearance of a feeble positive picture,
of a bright yellow hue, on the pale yellow ground of the paper. A long time (seve-
ral weeks) is often required for this, but heat accelerates the action, and it is often
complete in afew hours. In this state the picture is to be very thoroughly rinsed and
soaked in pure warm water, and then dried. It is then to be well-ironed with a
smooth iron, heated so as barely not to injure the paper, placing it, for better security
against scorching, between smooth clean papers. If then the process have been suc-
cessful, a perfectly black, positive picture is at once developed. At first it most
commonly happens that the whole picture is sooty or dingy to such a degree that it
is condemned as spoiled, but on keeping it between the leaves of a book, especially
in a moist atmosphere, by extremely slow degrees this dinginess disappears, and the
picture disengages itself with continually increasing sharpness and clearness, and ac-
quires the exact effect of a copper-plate engraving on a paper more or less tinted
with pale yellow. I ought to observe, that the best and most uniform specimens
which I have procured have been on paper previously washed with certain prepara-
tions of uric acid, which is a very remarkable and powerful photographic element.
The intensity of the original negative picture is no criterion of what may be ex-
pected in the positive. It is from the production, by one and the same action of the
light, of either a positive or a negative picture according to the subsequent manipu-
lations, that I have designated the process, thus generally sketched out, by the term
amphitype,—a name suggested by Mr. Talbot, to whom I communicated this singu-
lar result; and to this process or class of processes (which I cannot doubt when
pursued will lead to some very beautiful results) I propose to restrict the name in
question, though it applies even more appropriately to the following exceedingly
curious and remarkable one, in which silver is concerned. At the last meeting I
announced a mode of producing, by means of a solution of silver, in conjunction
With ferro-tartaric acid, a dormant picture brought out into a forcible negative im-
pression by the breath or moist air. The solution then described, and which had,
at that time, been prepared some weeks, I may here incidentally remark, has re-
tained its limpidity and photographic properties quite unimpaired during the whole
year since elapsed, and is now as sensitive as ever,—a property of no small value.
Now, when a picture (for example an impression from an engraving) is taken on
paper washed with this solution, it shows no sign of a picture on its back, whether
that on its face be developed or not; but if, while the actinic influence is still fresh
upon the face (7. e. as soon as it is removed from the light), the back be exposed for
avery few seconds to the sunshine, and then removed to a gloomy place, a positive
picture, the exact complement of the negative one on the other side, though wanting of
course in sharpness if the paper be thick, slowly and gradually makes its appearance
there, and in half an hour or an hour acquires a considerable intensity. I ought to
mention that the “ferro-tartaric acid” in question is prepared by precipitating the
ferro-tartrate of ammonia (ammonio-tartrate of iron) by acetate of lead and decom-
posing the precipitate by dilute sulphuric acid.
P.S. When lead is used in the preparation of amphitype paper, the parts on which
the light has acted are found to be ia a very high degree rendered water-proof.
14 REPORT—1844.
A Comparison of the Rain which fell at Florence Court, the seat of the Earl
of Enniskillen, from July 6th, 1843, to July 6th, 1844, with that which fell
at Belfast during the same period. By W.Tuomeson, Esq.
Belfast and Enniskillen are seventy-two miles apart; one towards the east, the
other towards the west, of the north of Ireland.
;
The total depth of rain which fell, was inches.
DESH OVEN GeO OUR Gy aaappaeascnG tc dae care dace5\s esa a55 00 cones sean «- 40°6
IC MB GLABE ss ectaatens ee eeneccr ener cacencrescscacectesscoscesesacee 30°34
Monthly average at Florence Court ...........seesesseseeees 3°38
Monthly average aG elfast: <0. ....ccsscsevccssescecenadcuncuse 2°53
The greatest monthly fall, was
At Florence Court, in November ......... ig slic v o's pees eames 6°051
At Belfast, in October ©....0.f..0c00cs0e eeiicecadeseaiaa acesnaes 5'046
The fall at Florence Court during October .........sseeseeeseeeeeeees 5°943
The fall at Belfast during November .........cccsssseseceeceeescasees 3°943
The least fall happened in May 1844, at both places,
At Plorence | COnt ys stnvnsessccceaeccavs-sadnccsascesssesccscncasas 0°041
tS Gy GUTS [aig oe, sober er dete aca y s aaaeasars'-asesiacosncnhaadeGa 0°273
The only singular discrepancy which occurred was, that in the month of September
1843, only 0°51 inch fell at Belfast, while at Florence Court, in the same month, 2°759
fell. This, when explained by Lord Enniskillen’s steward, who keeps the register,
was found to arise from a very heavy fall which took place in one day. The month
was generally very dry at both places.
On the Orthochronograph, invented by the late Mr. Lowman.
This is a portable instrument for ascertaining the time at any place, by one or
more observations, previous and subsequent to the sun’s passing the meridian; the
circle or circles on the silvered plane being correspondent with the are described by
the sun in its apparent diurnal passage through the heavens. In taking an observa-
tion, the upper plate is adjusted so that the reflexion of the sun’s rays through the
circular aperture cuts at its edge one of the circles on the silvered plate; the time
indicated by the watch or clock is then noted, and the instrument left stationary,
until the sun’s image, after traversing the plate, has returned to the same circle, and
again the time marked as accurately as possible.
The interval between the two observations will depend on the time when the first
is made, and should not be less than three hours: the results thus obtained are
added together, and divided by two, a correction made for the alteration of the sun’s
declination during the interval, and the difference between this result and twelve
hours will show the clock’s error as compared with solar time ; lastly, the equation
of time will give the error from mean time.
The Mean Year, or Solar Variation through the Seasons of the Barometer in
the Climate of London. By Luxe Howarp, F.R.S. [Plate XLI.]
The variation of the barometer through successive months in any given year has
been sufficiently shown to be connected with the lunar influence, by which the tides
of the ocean are governed; and this influence, until more fully investigated, will
continue to present difficulties in the use of the barometer as a weather-glass—the
atmospheric tides requiring for this purpose to be set aside while we attempt to pro-
gnosticate results from currents of anothernature. It may be useful for this purpose
to have tables of the variation of the barometer (in connexion with the prevailing
winds) in which the lunar influence is set aside by proper averages.
Such a set of tables are here presented; the calculations being made upon data
to be found in the author’s long-published work, ‘The Climate of London,’ and the
years chosen, as most convenient for the purpose, extending from 1813 to 1830. A
near approach is thus made to the cycle of 183 years, in the course of which it is
presumed that the effect on our atmosphere of the various positions of the earth and
AM ; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15
_ its attendant planet, in relation to each other and to the sun, may balance and neu-
tralize each other. The barometer is thus placed in immediate connexion with the
winds proper to our climate; and with the swn’s place, by which these are mainly
governed. The artificial year, computed thus, is divided into four seasons, on the
principle of the daily mean temperature, and its balance between summer and winter,
spring and autumn, as shown in the before-mentioned work. The mean line for the
year is placed at 29°831 in., the average of the whole of the observations. Winter, as
here set out (from Dec. 7 to March 5), has a mean of 29°828 in.; spring (March 6
to June 6), a mean of 29°833 in. ; summer (June 7 to Sept. 7), a mean of 29°879 in. ;
autumn (Sept. 8 to Dec. 6), a mean of 29°782 in. ; the whole progressive increase of
weight in the previous seasons being now lost by the prevalence of southerly winds,
_ and the decomposition of a portion of the aqueous atmosphere.
The months are treated in the paper in succession :—1l, as to the barometrical
mean of the month; 2, as to the range; 3, as to the average rain; 4, as to the
prevailing winds in connexion with these; nearly the whole of the results cited
being to be found in the Tables. There are six of these; two presenting the daily
observations of the direction of the wind during eighteen years, divided into classes
and assigned to the several months and years of the cycle, &c.; and four com-
prising the daily mean of pressure, and notations of the wind for each day of the
artificial year in detail.
This paper is accompanied (beside the Tables) with two diagrams; one formed of
the monthly mean results of the pressure and rain, the mean range of the baro-
meter in each being added; the other from the daily results above-mentioned. The
former presents a remarkable symmetry in the mean pressure and mean rain, pro-
ceeding in opposite directions through their respective curves; of the latter the
author considers that the elevations and depressions of the daily mean of the baro-
meter are here exhibited (on an enlarged scale), independently of the effect of lunar in=
fluence, in a curve which runs through the year by a regular movement of daily in-
crease or decrease upon the climatic mean; the elevations, coloured red, being found
where we commonly experience our fair weather, and the depressions, coloured
gray, in those parts of the year most subject, in our latitudes, to rain and storms of
-wind*. The equinoxes, it may be observed, are here both marked by the passing of
the curve below the mean; the solstices, in winfer by large depression, going off
gradually into the elevation connected with our fair-weather frost; in summer by
continued elevation, though checked at this precise time by an approach to the mean
connected with tropical electrical disturbance and rain. The whole chart may be
_ perused in connexion with the Tables of the Winds (in which are found many beau-
tiful gradations indicative of system), to the improvement of our knowledge of this
important and hitherto little-explored branch of the subject.
Table of Results to accompany the Monthly Diagram.
Proportions of the four classes
Maximum | Minimum | Range} Me: i
1813 to 1830, |, Mean of | ofthe | ofthe | of the depth of LOPS 6. kee ON
curve, curve. |curve.| rain. |p. E-8.|s—w.|w—n. Wal
ae 7 do bing) tae. ov |taipa.”|-daye..| days: ae
January ...... 29855 | 29-933 |" -800 | 133) 1:84 | 109 | 102 | 130 | 180 |°35°
February...... 29-882 “990 772 | -218|} 1:51 | 77} 90} 142 | 172 | 99
March ....... 29°832 |[30]:037 “636 | -401| 1:59 | 106 | 89 | 152 | 191 | 90
BEDEI oc aiss'va. 29-788 | ‘911 597 | -314| 2°04 | 118 | 119 | 116 | 168 | 39
UY ee 29-843 933 740 | -193| 2:24 | 144 | 124 | 123 | 145 | 93
BENG. -ccac ss. 29-910 “990 *828 | -162| 2°15 | 132 | 78 | 122 | 190 | 18
PRD as03 ois 29°853 ‘981 752 | -229| 244 | 79 | 66 | 160 | 230 | 93
August ...... 29872 | -978| +762 | -216| 2:17| 95| 63 | 156 | 237 | 7
September ...| 29-860 “991 731 | -260| 2-40 | 114 | 100 | 161 | 151 | 14
October ...... 29°774 867 607 | -260| 2-49 | $9 | 120 | 153 | 172 | 14
November ...| 29-767 924 550 | 374) 2:38 | 82 | 79 | 170] 194 | 15
December ...| 29°741 “916 “600 | -316| 2°39 | 98 | 100 | 173 | 169 | 18
For the year..| 29°831 | 30-037 | 29-550 | -487 | 25-64 |1252 |1130 |1758 |2199 237
* These are distinguished in the Plate by the shadings,
in
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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21
_ On the Quantities of Rain received in Gauges at unequal Elevations upon the
Ground. By Professor Pu1tities, F.R.S.
The author, referring to three reports which he had already presented, observed
that the results arrived at, on York Minster, on the Yorkshire Museum, and on the
ground at York, for three years, appeared to require no repetition, and that the rea-
soning on the results having been generally accepted, he should have thought it un-
necessary to recal attention to the subject, unless he had some new facts to com-
municate. On duly estimating the force of the objections which had been, or might
have been, urged against the former experiments, such as the influence of local eddies
and currents of wind about the Minster and Museum, and such buildings generally,
Professor Phillips resolved to establish a registration of gauges raised into the open
air, to various heights, independent of buildings. He had carried on trials of this
kind at intervals for more than five years, and after using globular gauges, and
various modes of measuring the rain collected, he had finally employed for the last
two years, funnel gauges, emptying themselves into reservoirs placed in the ground.
Thus some particular difficulties were obviated, and a consistent tally of results ob-
tained. In 1843, from January 9 to October 14, he had obtained registrations of
the gauges almost continuously, and in 1844, a similar series from January 1 to
September 2, was recorded for him by Mr. Cooke. The gauges are five in number,
at 14, 3, 6, 12, and 24 French feet above the ground. The registrations for the
two periods are as under :-— ‘
1843. 1844. Sum.
Inches. Inches. Inches.
24 14°618 9°540 24°158
12 15°419 10°620 26'039
6 15°549 10°640 26°189
3 15°608 10°690 26°298
li 15°619 10°940 26°559
4
On these facts the author forbore to comment, having the intention to vary the
experiments.
On Simultaneous Barometrical Registration in the North of England.
By Professor Puiruies, F.R.S.
Following out in a limited district the plans of contemporaneous hourly registra-
tion, which had been prosecuted by Sir J. Herschel and M. Quetelet for larger
areas, the author found the means to combine observations on the barometer, at-
tached thermometer and direction of wind, for twenty-four hours in each month, at
nine stations in the north of England, viz. Kendal, Shields, Whitby, Scarborough,
Hull, York, Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester. The observations of five of these
stations for six months had been approximately discussed, viz. those of Shields,
Hull, York, Sheffield and Birmingham, and the results projected in diagrams. They
showed,—1, the remarkable general accordance in the forms of the contempora-
neous curves at all the stations; 2, the various limits of the deviations from uni-
formity, never amounting at any two stations to above one-twentieth of an inch ;
3, the passage of waves of greater or less pressure in directions nearly correspond-
ing to the path of the wind at the time, and with velocities which appear propor-
tioned to the general movement of the atmosphere at the time, viz. twenty to forty
miles an hour.
On the Curves of Annual Temperature at York. By Prof. Puruiirs, F.R.S.
The author stated that the data which he had collected extended over long periods,
one series including twenty-five years’ registration of the barometer, thermometer,
and ancient hygrometer, and that they had been so far discussed as to give interesting
results, and that on a future occasion he hoped to present the complete analysis and
inferences.
On the Irregular Movements of the Barometer. By T. Hopxins.
Mr. Hopkins maintained that the irregular movements of the barometer arise, not
22 REPORT—1844,
from alterations of surface temperature, but from the condensation of aqueous vapour,
and the consequent formation of rain. This, he said, caused local heatings of the
atmosphere and considerable reductions of its pressure in the locality, particularly in
the colder latitudes. Within the tropics, the barometer does not ordinarily fall as
much as in colder latitudes, notwithstanding the abundant rains which take place
there, because the condensation occurs, and the temperature is increased at a greater
height in the atmosphere, and the reduction of the incumbent pressure in the part is
spread over a wider area. The condensation takes place too at an elevation, where
the air, from being subjected to inferior pressure, is more attenuated, and the heating
is consequently more diffused. Rain is formed in certain latitudes, say at an average
height of 3000 feet, where the air has a density proportioned to that height, and
where the whole effects of the local heating are confined to an area of moderate ex-
tent, thus reducing the pressure of the atmosphere on the barometer in every part of
that area in a considerable degree ; whilst, in other parts nearer the equator, the
condensation which produces rain takes place at an average height of, say 6000 or
9000 feet, where the air is rare in proportion to the height ; the heating effects are,
therefore, diffused to a corresponding extent, whilst the reduction of pressure at the
surface is spread over a wider area. It follows, that with equal amounts of rain the
fall of the barometer will be the greatest, and confined to the smallest area in the
coldest climates.
On the Diurnal Variations of the Barometer. By T. Horxtns.
Mr. Hopkins represented that the diurnal oscillations of the barometer arise from,
first, the condensation of aqueous vapour into cloud, and then from the evaporation
of the particles of water that constitute that cloud. He stated, that the morning sun
warmed the lower air, and caused it to rise until condensation formed cloud, and
liberated heat sufficient to warm a mass of the atmosphere, and thus to cause the
barometer in the locality to begin to fall at, say about ten o’clock in the morning,
which fall continued until about four o’clock in the afternoon, when condensation
ceased. From this time, evaporation of the cloud commenced which cooled the air
in the part—made it heavier—and caused the barometer to rise until about ten o’clock
p.M., by which time the cloud was evaporated. The cooled and heavier air now de-
scended to the surface, from which it absorbed a portion of heat, and became some-
what warmer. From this second warming of the air, and from a reduction of the
quantity of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, as is evidenced by the fall of the dew-
point, the barometer again fell, and from the operation of these two causes, continued
to fall until four in the morning ; from which time, those general cooling influences
_ that operate in the absence of the sun, caused the barometer again to rise till ten in
the morning, thus completing the two risings and two fallings in the twenty-four
hours. This was shown to be in general accordance with the tables of the Plymouth
observations for three years, and with those made at Madras and Poona. The fact,
also found in the Plymouth observations, that the dew-point rose with the tempera-
ture until eleven o’clock a.m., when, although the temperature continued rising, the
dew-point did not rise higher, showed that the vapour formed during the hottest part
of the day was expended in supplying that which was condensed in forming the daily
cloud. According to these tables, also, the dew-point at the surface continued sta-
tionary until four o’clock p.m., when it began to fall, and continued falling with the
declining temperature until the great cold resulting from evaporation ceased. The
diurnal fluctuations were also shown to he the least, when the irregular were the
greatest (as observed by Mr. Birt), because rain was then produced, and evaporation
prevented from cooling the air at the regular diurnal period, and in that way rain pre-
yented the rise of the barometer at that recurring period.
A Year's Meteorological Observations made at Aden. By Sergeant Maver.
On the Temperature of the Air at various Soundings of Huggate Well, upon
the Wolds of the East Riding, Yorkshire. By the Rev. 'T. RANKIN.
This well is 116 yards, or 348 feet deep. On Saturday, September 21, 1844, at
probs
te a
’
7
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23
a
five o’clock p.m., wind N.E.; barometer, 29°750; Fahr. thermometer at the mouth
of the well, 51°. Sounded the well with a cord, to which was suspended a self-
registering thermometer. At 100 feet deep, 57°; at 200, the same.
On Tuesday, September 24, five o’clock p.m., wind N.E. ; barometer, 29°550; Fahr.
thermometer at the mouth of the well, 56° in the shade; at 100 feet deep, 57°; at 200
feet, the same. The water at the bottom of the well, about 3281 feet from the top,
50°.
On Wednesday, September 25, at half-past two p.m., wind N.E., but very gentle ;
barometer, 29°710; Fahr. thermometer at the mouth of the well, 58°; at 150 feet
deep, S. R. therm., 56°; at 200 feet, the same ; just above the surface of the water,
about 327 feet, 50°; water, 49°.
Atthe same time the water in a wide shallow pond near the well, 57°; in a pump
drawn from a cistern filled with rain-water, fourteen feet deep, 51°.
It appears from the last sounding, that the temperature in the shaft of the well
is regulated by that of the water. Shaft, 57°; water, 50°; shaft, 56°; water, 49°;
being 1° minus in both; difference, 7°.
If the reported depth of the well be 348 feet deep, the water must be 19} feet. By
the cord it was found to be 329+ feet from the top; and from the wet end of the
cord, which was supposed to have been at the bottom, having measured 19 feet
+ 3281 = 348 feet.
Singular Appearance of a Thunder Storm on Yorkshire Wolds, July 5, 1843.
By the Rev. T. Rankin.
On July 5, 1843, about two o’clock p.m., the barometer fell from 29°270 to 29°240.
Thermometer Fahr. stood at 71°, the highest point for that month. Between four
and five o’clock the horizon in the S.W. began to darken ; about six distant thunder
was heard; betwen six and seven the dark clouds approached the Wolds, the thun-
der was heard in a continued rolling and growling noise, and the sportive lightning
variegated the scene. About eight o’clock the spectacle was sublime and terrific.
Volumes of gaseous matter, like the smoke from a park of artillery, rolled along the
higher grounds to the N.E. Behind this was a lengthened black cloud rising in an
inclined manner, forming an angle of above 45° with the horizon. As the thunder
became louder the lightning became more vivid. About nine it reached the summit
of the Wolds, preceded by a violent rush of wind; then the broad sheet lightning,
followed by loud peals of thunder. Torrents of rain descended in consequence, which
terminated in hail and large pieces of ice. About ten o’clock the lightning struck a
cottage chimney at North Dalton, and descending, shivered a large splinter from the
beam upon which it rests, about a quarter of an hour after the family had retired.
Description of an improved Anemometer. By James Tuomas GopDaARD.
Having after the labour and study of several months succeeded in the construction
of a meteorological instrument, designed for keeping an accurate register of the total
force of the wind which passes over any station in a given time, such as twenty-four
hours, as well as noting the direction, the author offers a slight description of its
object and nature. The object sought in the valuable and ingenious anemometer of
Mr. Osler of Birmingham, as is well known, is a complete picture of the force and
direction of the wind for each day, noting the time to a minute or two of every
change in the force and direction of the aérial currents; and for this purpose it is
the most perfect and elegant instrument ever placed in the hands of the meteoro-
logist.
The instrument of mine is however intended to show the collective velocity of the
wind, or rather the number of miles of air which pass the vane during the twenty-
four hours, as well as the respective directions. By this means, by simply reading
off the daily results (without calculation) and laying them down on a map of the
country, we are informed of the distance and extent to which a wind penetrates into
the interior of a large country, thereby giving strictly predictive results; at the same
time giving every facility to the investigation of the causes which stop the progress
of a wind, or change its direction in the interior of the country, as well as finding
24 REPORT—1844.
numerically the effect of a given surface of air expanded by the rays of the sun. It
is easy to perceive, that to procure similar data from the daily sheets of Mr. Osler’s
anemometer would require a very laborious as well as approximative calculation.
The vane is double, similar to that of Mr. Osler. It is fixed to, and therefore
turns with, the perpendicular rod which pierces the ceiling, reaching within a few
feet of the ground, resting on the top of a cylinder of wood, round the circumference
of which are placed, level with the top, a series of thirty-two glass cylindrical tubes
of equal bore, the interstices being neatly filled up with putty or cement.
Each tube represents a point of the compass, and they are intended to hold a co-
Joured fluid, and are therefore sealed over at bottom, similar in fact to test tubes,
only considerably larger; they are graduated so as to indicate the height of the liquid
within them, which height depends directly on the number of miles of wind which
has passed the vane in the twenty-four hours. Above the circle of tubes is an appa-
ratus which deposits the liquid into them ; there is also a contrivance, which is affixed
to the pressure plate, by means of which the fluid is deposited at a variable rate, but
always depending on the’ force on the pressure plate at the time. Thus, if for in-
stance a drop per minute answered to a wind of one mile per hour, two drops per
minute would show a velocity of two miles per hour, fifty drops a minute a velocity
of fifty miles an hour, and so on; and as the tubes collect the daily deposit, by
simply reading off the daily deposit or elevation of the fluid, and noting the respec-
tive tube or tubes in which it is found, we have at once the number of miles of air
which has passed the station as well as the direction.
To describe the apparatus by which the quantity of fluid is regulated, so as to flow
in proportion to the wind’s velocity, would require a diagram; but the general cha-
racter is sufficiently obvious to give the meteorologist a good idea of it. Mr. Osler’s
clock is superseded by clepsydral arrangements, and the spiral spring for the pressure
plate is replaced by the natural spring of water, which is far superior to any artificial
spring. In concluding, the author urges on the Members of the Association the im-
portance of instituting experiments, to be made with a view of correcting our constants
relating to the velocity of wind appertaining to a given force, as the errors of the tables
will much interfere with extensive computations.
On an Instrument called a Barometer Pump, for filling Barometer Tubes in
vacuo. By Lieut.-Col. Everest, F.R.S.
This was a single acting air-pump, so arranged as to exhaust the air from the tube
to be filled, while a capillary tube, dipping into a reservoir of mercury, and curved at
the end next the tube, dropped the mercury into the tube as it rose above the bend
(after the exhaustion had been carried as far as possible), by dipping a glass rod into
the reservoir. The mercury as it comes into the tube is heated to a temperature
sufficient to boil it, and it is desiccated by a bottle of strong sulphuric acid, which is
made to communicate with the canal into which the tube to be filled and the capillary
filling tube are luted. Col. Everest mentioned, that the best material for the valves
of an air-pump was the swimming bladder of a fish.
Account of an Attempt to establish the Plastic Nature of Glacier Ice by direct
Experiment. By Professor J. D. Forses, F.R.S. L.§ E.
These experiments were made in the month of August last upon the Mer de Glace
of Chamouni, with the view of establishing that the increasing velocity of a glacier,
from the side towards the centre, takes place (when the declivity is not very great)
by the insensible yielding of one portion of the ice past another, without great rents
at measurable distances producing discontinuity in the motion. The only permanent
marks left by such differential motion are the veins, or blue-bands, to which the
author has, in his published writings, attributed such an origin.
A transverse line was drawn partly across the glacier in the most compact part
which could be found, which was quite devoid of open crevices for a considerable
space. The theodolite was planted over a fixed mark in the ice at the extremity of this
line nearest to the lateral moraine of the glacier; and the relative, or differential
velocities of the parts towards the centre were determined at short intervals, and have
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25
been projected ina curve. This curve was shown to the meeting. It is evidently a
continuous curve, convex towards the valley, and not.a zigzag motion, such as must
have resulted from distinct rents parallel to the length of the glacier. The length of
the line, originally straight, whose deformation was observed, was 90 feet, and the
ordinates of the curve were determined by accurate measurements at forty-five
stations two feet apart. The experiments on the continuous flexure of the transverse
line were extended over a longer period, at points 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 feet from
the theodolite, with similar results. ;
The author concludes,—1st, that the sliding of the mass of the glacier over itself by
insensible gradations cannot be denied, and that it is sufficient to account for the
observed excess of progress of the centre above the sides of the glacier; 2nd, that this
differential motion takes place in the direction in which the veined structure exists,
and that it is impossible not to consider the one phenomenon as dependent on the
other.
Experimental Inquiries into the Falling-off from perfect Elasticity in Solid
Bodies. By Eaton Hopexinsoyn, £.R.S.
At the Cork Meeting of the British Association, Mr. Hodgkinson laid before the Sec-
tion the results of some experiments, the object of which was to show that no rigid
body is perfectly elastic ; the slightest change of form in a body producing a perma-
nent alteration in it, however small. He endeavoured to show, too, that in experi-
ments on the deflexion of rectangular bars of cast iron, and some other materials, the
defect of elasticity, denominated the set, varied as the square of the weight laid on,
nearly. It might, he stated, be inferred, too, that the set varies as the square of the
deflexion, since the deflexion is as the weight nearly, though it varies in a ratio
somewhat higher than that.
Tn rectangular bars bent so as to strain them in a small degree only, the particles
are equally extended and compressed on the opposite sides of the bar; but in bars
whose section is of the form A-—-B, the deflexion arising from the flexure of the plate
AB and the extension or compression of the part C, varies in a higher degree than as
the square of the weight, and in these the set varies nearly as the square of the de-
flexion.
Mr. Hodgkinson stated that, soon after the Cork Meeting, he had received, from
avery intelligent writer, a letter on the subject of the communication here described.
In this letter considerable doubt as to the correctness of his conclusions was expressed,
and it was suggested that the facts might probably be accounted for by attributing
them to friction between the ends of the beam and the supports on which it rested,
a matter which had been investigated by the Rev. Professor Moseley, in his able work
on the Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture (Art. 389).
Mr. Hodgkinson felt convinced that the causes mentioned in the letter were not
the right ones, but thought it incumbent on him to obviate, as far as possible, all
objections, and to show that friction was not the cause of the results observed.
In his former experiments the weight of the bar was neglected, as it was very small
compared with the weight laid upon it; and the deflexions and sets were measured
from that position which the middle of the bar had taken in consequence of its own
weight. The friction upon the ends of the bar, from the supports on which they
rested, had likewise been neglected ; and the quantities of the sets, usually very small,
had been measured by an instrument (a long wedge graduated along the side) ; and
although this was good comparatively with some previously used, it did not admit of
all the accuracy which was required.
He had, therefore, an apparatus constructed. to remove these defects. In this ap-
paratus, the bar or body bent is laid upon its edge or smallest side, and the force to
bend it acts horizontally. The ends of the bar are supported horizontally and ver-
tically by friction rollers, and the deflexions and sets are measured from the centre of
the “‘ straight edge,” in which screws resting on the ends of the bars opposite the
rollers are inserted. The sets, and the smaller deflexions, are measured by a micro-
meter screw, in the centre of the straight edge, capable of measuring distances as
smallaszg3o5thof aninch. In this apparatus the flexure of the bar, being horizontal,
26 REPORT—1844.
arises wholly from the weight laid on, and the friction must be almost insensible.
The admeasurements of the sets, Mr. Hodgkinson stated, were as accurate as the light
of a candle, in addition to bright day-light, would enable the observer, using the ut-
most care, to judge. Great care was taken to have the ends of the bars well-supported
during the experiments, and when a bar in its natural state was not perfectly uniform,
but in some degree twisted, iron wedges filed to the exact form were made and fast-
ened to the ends of the bar, that it might rest firmly against the rollers. The length
of the bar between the rollers supporting the ends was six feet six inches; and its
depth in different materials varied from ;%ths of an inch to one inch, ora little more,
in the direction in which the bar was bent. The utmost attention was paid to en=
sure accuracy, and the time taken up by an experiment was usually from three to five
hours, but in some cases a whole day.
The principal source of error arose, apparently, from the difficulty and almost im-
possibility of keeping the long flexible bars operated upon perfectly free from vibra-
tion, in the neighbourhood of a large manufactory. Another source of small error
might arise from the pressure of the screws at the ends of the straight edge against
the ends of the bar, these being held by light springs to keep them always in contact ;
but this was avoided by removing them in the experiments on some of the most
flexible bars, as those of steel and wrought iron.
With this apparatus many experiments on bars of different materials have been
made, and the deflexion and set from different weights obtained, the leading results
from which are below.
In ribs of soft stone, each sawn seven feet long, four inches broad, and about one
inch thick, bent in the direction of their least dimension, the mean deflexion was ob-
tained from the same weight laid gently on about four times, for three minutes each
time; and after the bar had been unloaded each time for five minutes, the set was
observed. The mean results in different experiments are as follow :—
Weights laid on. Sets produced.
Ibs. inch.
1, ABBA ee RoR “006
: DO eRe PaRe enna chap esy sce esse °170
Ee penimeDh ay aay PN. 00.2, 026
Oe eetaemaaeevemabnrcecsicsea cess “170
‘ Ue GPC UNE RIne eas adinseieceteess% “0099
Experiment 2. { SR en eee, “149
5 NP einteiarwanseiwnanecsneccccee ‘0369
Experiment as { 98 ee: pune oth ns = +1298
; Misepebunearassveurarienecsseses ‘0099
Experiment 4.{ GREER Pen NRE 1971
SE .cccece ee oreavucded Paes ecnbls *0087
. Lac ietpeccsoredVecsbecnesseenes ‘0879
Experiment 509 7 oo cisssessesscseessesees 0280
La cevettoxeeareccernee cess s. (0879
Seeking from above for the power , of the number expressing the weights to which
the sets are proportional, we have (in Experiment 1), 7” : 42” ;: 006: "1703
whence we obtain n=1°866 ; and from the other experiments we have n successively
equal to 1°957, 1°810, 1°840, 1°709, 1°668, 1°650; the mean from the whole giving
m=1°786. Whence it appears, Mr. Hodgkinson observes, that stone differs in this
respect but little from cast iron, the sets varying nearly as the squares of the weights
laid on.
In wrought iron and steel the sets seem to follow a different law, but the exami-
nation of these metals has not been completed. In these, as in materials of every
description tried, the weights, however small, seemed to produce a permanent set ;
no body recovering of itself its original form after a change of figure had been produced
in it.
If a small weight was laid, without any acceleration, upon a bar of any material a
number of times successively, the set was found to be increased each time. Mr.
Hodgkinson read to the Association results of this kind from stone, cast iron, hard
and softened steel. He had sought for the longitudinal extension and set in long
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. o7
bars of cast iron, as well as of wrought iron; but he was not prepared to give the
final results.
Tt was found that in all cases where a strain had been applied to a body, it showed
for some time afterwards a tendency to return towards its original form, though it
never would be able to arrive at it. This was particularly evident for a few minutes
at first, and on that account the sets were usually taken twice or more, as at the ex-
piration of one minute and five minutes, and sometimes half an hour after unloading ;
but after five minutes they seldom altered much.
Tn all materials, the sets produced by the smallest weights tried, seemed to be
nearly in the ratio of the weights; but as the small friction of the apparatus would
make a sensible addition to the set due to the material from such small strains, he
drew no conclusions from the fact.
Mr. Whitworth exhibited an instrument for measuring bodies to a very minute de-
gree of accuracy. It consisted of a strong frame of cast iron, at the opposite extre-
mities of which were two highly finished steel cylinders, which traversed longitudi-
nally by the action of screws one-twentieth of an inch in the thread; these screws
were worked by two wheels, placed at opposite extremities of the frame, the larger
of which had its circumference divided into five hundred equal parts; the ends of
the cylinders, at the places were they approached each other, were reduced to abouta
quarter of an inch, and their hemispherical ends were highly polished. To measure
with this instrument, the large circle was brought to its zero, and the body to be
measured, being placed between the cylinders, the small circle was turned until the
two cylinders touched the opposite sides of the body, which being removed, and the
large circle turned until the ends of the two cylinders were brought to touch the
turns and parts of a turn required for this, it gave the breadth of the body which had
been interposed to the ten-thousandth part of an inch, and since the one-tenth of
one of the divisions could be readily estimated, the size of the body could be thus
estimated easily to the aaasth part of an inch. Mr. Whitworth stated, that in the
accuracy required in modern workshops, in fitting the parts of tools and machines,
_ the two-foot rule heretofore in use is not by any means accurate enough; his object
was to furnish ordinary mechanics with an instrument which, while it afforded very
accurate indications, was yet not very liable to be deranged by the rough handling
of the workshop ; and he conceived this instrument secured those advantages. It
_ surprised himself to find how very minute a portion of space could be by it, as it
_ were, felt. By it the difference of the diameters of two hairs could be rendered quite
palpable.
Communications from Norway, presented by Joun Let, LL.D., F.R.A.S.
A paper by J. R. Crowe, Esq., Consul-General of Her Britannic Majesty for Nor-
way, dated Christiana, 29th May 1844, entitled, ‘General Observations on the Cli-
“mate of N orway and Finmark, with some remarks on the Geography, Geology and
Agriculture.’
Also, a table of meteorological observations, taken at Christiana, north Jatitude
59° 54’ 1”, east longitude 10° 45’, during the year 1843, and the barometrical and
thermometrical means for each month.
A letter, dated Alten Observatory, 20th April 1844, from J. H. Grewe, Esq., de-
tailing the difficulties which he had to encounter on ascending the mountain called
Storvandofjeld, on the 1st December 1843, to fix a minimum thermometer on its
apex, and of his second expedition on the 17th of April 1844 to examine it, and
bring it down to Alten; the lowest degree of cold on the top of the mountain
during the winter having been 35° longitude, and the lowest degree at Alten 27°, a
difference of 8° between the two places.
_ Also an account of a fine parhelion which he beheld at 55 50™ a.m. at a height of
about 1500 feet, with a drawing.
A paper by John Francis Cole, Esq., Member of the Literary and Astronomical
Society of Alten, on the Aurora Borealis, as seen at that place, and which has been
drawn up from a series of observations.
28 REPORT—1844, :
A paper by John Francis Cole, Esq., of Alten, on a remarkable and sudden fall of
rain which took place with a clear sky on the 6th of May 1844, and which, in his
opinion, has much analogy with a fall of rain from aclear sky observed by Professor
Wartmann at Geneva, on the 31st of May 1838. Also an observation on the evapo-
ration of the ice on the 3rd of May 1844, at Alten.
Meteorological tables :—
1. Results of the meteorological observations made at Alten observatory, by
Messrs. J. H. Grewe and J. F. Cole, during the year 1843.
2. A table showing the approximate forces of the winds for each month and for
the year, with the means of each month and the year, the latter including calms.
3. A table showing the number of days in each month and in the year on which
it was calm, windy, and from what quarter.
4. A table showing the number of days the different clouds were visible in each
month and in the year.
5. A table showing the approximate forces of the driving of the clouds for each
month and for the year, with the means of each month and the year, the latter in-
cluding imperceptibles.
6. A table showing the number of days in each month and in the year on which
the clouds were not observed to drive, as well as on which they were observed to
drive, and from what quarter, and the number of times the aurora was visible (61).
CHEMISTRY.
On the Mineral Springs and other Waters of Yorkshire. By W. West.
Tue results of analysis of the waters of Harrogate and many other places were de-
tailed with great minuteness, and the districts from which the waters were collected
described.
Account of the Phosphorite Rock in Spanish Estremadura.
By Professor Dauseny, F'.R.S.
In conjunction with Captain Widdrington, R.N., he had last summer undertaken
to explore this rock. He stated its occurrence in one solitary mass, penetrating clay-
slate, the dimensions being at most sixteen feet in width, its length along the surface
of the ground extending to about two miles, whilst its depth is unexplored, but cer-
tainly considerable. He stated its composition to be, about 80 per cent. triphosphate
of lime, and about 14 fluoride of calcium, and pointed out the final cause of the se-
cretion of so large a mass of both these substances in the older rocks, as being intended
to supply two necessary ingredients for bones and other animal matters. He stated
his having detected fluorine in all the bones and teeth of recent as well as of older date
which he had examined, and suggested, that as a rock of such a composition could
hardly fail to be useful as a manure, if it were found in an easily accessible locality,
it would be worth the while of geologists to search for veins of this mineral in the
older formations of this and other countries, where there might be a greater facility
of transport.
On the Theory and Practice of Amalgamation of Silver Ores in Mexico and
Peru. By J.C. Bownine.
After noticing and refuting the hypotheses by which the operations for the amalga-
mation of silver ores in the countries mentioned have been conducted, the author pro-
poses the following explanation. }
The presence of mercury being necessary, not merely as a means of collecting the
particles of silver disseminated through the ore, but also as a chemical agent, the ac-
tion of bichloride of copper upon it must be considered.
By this action, which takes place instantaneously, a protochloride of both metals is
formed, and that of the copper, by absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere, becomes
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29
‘converted into an oxychloride, which by giving up its oxygen to the sulphur combined
with the silver, leaves this in a metallic state and free to amalgamate with the mercury.
This is proved by boiling native sulphuret of silver with oxychloride of copper* in a
solution of common salt, when metallic silver will be obtained; or as a more practical
experiment, by mixing some rich ore with these materials and mercury at the ordinary
temperature ; in about an hour the whole of the silver will have become amalgamated,
when on separating all the soluble salts by filtration, and the addition of chloride of
barium, sulphate of barytes will be precipitated, equivalent in quantity to that of the
sulphur which has been acidified; it will thus be made evident that the sulphuric acid
ean only have been formed by the decomposition of the sulphuret of silver, and could
not have existed if this metal had become combined with chlorine, according to the
theory hitherto received.
The action of oxychloride of copper in the reduction of silver ores seems to be con-
tinuous, and its theory thus offers some analogy to that of the manufacture of sulphuric
acid: by giving up its oxygen to the sulphur previously combined with the silver, the
oxychloride of copper is converted into a protochloride; and this into a bichloride, by
the action of the chlorine, which is evolved by the decomposition of the salt when at-
tacked by the sulphuric acid that has been formed. This bichloride is again decom-
posed by the mercury, and first a proto- and then an oxychloride of copper are formed:
the sulphur of the silver becomes acidified, and the action is continued in the same
manner until the whole of the metal is amalgamated.
By the direct use of oxychloride of copper, instead of forming it in the “tortas” by
means of the sulphate, as in the usual method, the author has obtained very advanta-
geous results, not only as far as regards a great saving of time, labour and materials,
but also by the extraction of a much larger quantity of silver than could possibly be
got out by the old process.
The loss of mercury, although greatly diminished by its means, cannot indeed be
entirely avoided, as is evident from the theory of the operation; but the principal ad-
vantage derived from this method consists in the larger amount of silver produced; and
this is a very important point to be considered, when on a moderate calculation at
least the value of half a million sterling per annum is left in the ore, and thus irretrie-
vably lost, in Mexico alone, through the imperfections of the usual process of amaigama-
tion. In order to protect entirely the mercury from being attacked, it would be ne-
cessary to have in contact with it some metal more readily oxidizable, as zinc, tin, or
lead; but any of these bodies would decompose the oxychloride of copper, and thus
destroy its action on sulphuret of silver; perhaps a very weak solution of carbonate
of soda or potash would not have this effect, and would serve to neutralize the acid
that is disengaged.
The author then treats of the proper mode of forming the oxychloride of copper to
be employed in the reduction of silver ores; points out the practical good effects which
have resulted by application of his theoretical views, and shows the importance of a
full consideration of the subject by statements of the great loss of silver which is ex-
perienced by following the old routine, unaided by science.
At Guenaxato this loss is estimated at 10 per cent.; Fresmetto, 28; Zacatecas,
35 to 40; nor is this the extreme case.
On Mr. Phillips’s Method of discovering Adulteration in Tobacco.
By Josrrvu Bateman, LL.D., F.R.AS.
The basis of this plan is the ascertainment and comparison of the relative propor-
tions of soluble and insoluble matter in tobacco; water being the solvent. Numerous
experiments have proved that every kind of vegetable matter has a determinate por-~
tion, which is soluble in water; thus rhubarb-leaves range from 18 to 26 per cent.,
and horse-radish, lettuce, oak, elm, and many others, have their definite limits. This
amount, with reference to tobacco, in no case exceeds 55 per cent. of the tobacco : and
thus if tobacco be adulterated with matter soluble in water, the extractive or soluble
part is increased, whilst the ligneous and insoluble matter are correspondingly de-
i *This oxychloride of copper must be partially soluble in a solution of salt, as that prepared
in the common way would haye no effect.
30 REPORT—1844.
creased. A sample of genuine tobacco, by careful manipulation, affords 50 per cent.
of soluble matter, and when another portion of the same tobacco has been mixed with —
15 per cent. of soluble matter, the sophisticated article can contain only 85 per cent,
of tobacco; and it would be found by experiment to afford to water 57:5 of soluble,
and 42:5 of insoluble matter, thus affording proportions for calculating the actual
amount of adulteration introduced.
On the Limestones of Yorkshire. By W. Lucas.
The limestones may be comprised under the four following classes, viz.—
1. The Mountain Limestone.
2. The Magnesian Limestone, including both the upper and lower beds.
3. The Oolitic Limestone.
4, The Chalk.
1. The Mountain Limestone is developed to a great extent in the district of Craven
and in other parts of the north and north-west portions of the county. It is of a dark
gray colour, and hard, breaking with a species of conchoidal fracture. Its specific
gravity is about 1°70. According to analysis, the following are its principal consti-
tuents, viz.—
Lime.......... Regehainy Eopacweapenctp aisha’ ails dab wa baited roe a)!
WOrelgM MMA thetigs ac vennsava-cuabaavaebessav coevancesosdoctsansepeaset Meal
100-00
It thus appears to contain about 98°50 per cent. of carbonate of lime, and conse-
quently would appear to be an excellent limestone for the purposes of agriculture.
2. The Magnesian Limestone,—The lower portion of this formation is found in im-
mediate succession to the coal measures. It is of a yellowish-white colour, and breaks
with a dull earthy fracture. Its specific gravity is about 2°64.
A specimen from Conisbrough, near Doncaster, gave the following as its chief con-
stituent ingredients, viz.—
Carbonic acid ............ OT EOT TCT ED cates svi vwes s7eecngqan ee MED
Lime........ existe anise are Praudationays weaieawadeed ecaas dévepmabee 35°00
Magnieniansg Gxspessivaaees Bae Monies ceghs's eer ee saves koansee 17°75
Kled Oxide Of IroMaccensderaeknasmeceans cures bastse*aeanzee oitap owas eon
Insoluble: matter sin espcencwarseastecaussencs<sovexde cass ey Seer
100-00
Another specimen from the village of Weldon, adjoining the York and North Mid-
land Railway, near Castleford, gave the following as its principal ingredients, viz.—
Carbonic acid Oe eee ee Pisces ecteses Sete ace 46-00
Lames oie eee ee Bea cane okerievereee sipeenene 35-04
Magnesia’ siivecssseest stots Pacem aeeetecsncsecss Seat aaeees sare e 17°50
Red oxide of iron............000. Ort aucevueccsecrestaccsterees 0:90
Insoluble matter ............ Se eeiaaearats Socatcess Siders PAS 0°50
L638 j9enk. tee eee Ree ee eccl swe xeeees Rietarctuse: ae 0:06
100°00
This limestone appears then to consist of 62°32 per cent. carbonate of lime, and
36°75 carbonate of magnesia, or approaching nearly to the constitution of dolomite,
containing one atom carbonate of lime and one carbonate of magnesia.
From the above statement, it would appear that this species of limestone is not well
calculated for agricultural purposes, except perhaps under peculiar circumstances, and
applied in small quantities.
The upper magnesian limestone is in almost immediate succession to the lower one,
and directly beneath the new red sandstone. It is found in considerable abundance at
Knottingley and Brotherton, and in other localities in this county. Its specific gra-
vity is about 264. It is of a grayish-brown colour, and much harder than the pre-
ceding variety.
Z
ey
.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31
According to analysis, the following are its principal ingredients, viz.—
CHrbonic Acid iii ceive le lieceeccssessecccdscedsepecceveeseccssues 4200
MTS Sedat caroatias ets sdecekeaescodcdsegecsccuseens a Paces et ais 51°61
DMIQENESIA cei icetieee cvceccaviacsveckbccssecedanscusect es tidseceaers trace
Red oxide of iron.........c.0.ee00. steet did Tee aoe 1:42
PHBOLDIE NPAREET aid sie Sok ce oetees evaceeweeesdcucaceetcdeads cesses 4°50
PGBS Ros ect headet Gas teste ricek daetbee ee dae lun caabe cecdodcsetereete >! MOSIZ
100°00
As this limestone appears to contain about 93°96 per cent. carbonate of lime, it
would seem to be tolerably well adapted for the purposes of agriculture, as the very
small proportion of magnesia that it appears to contain can scarcely be supposed to
exert much deleterious influence.
3. The Oolitic Limestone is the next in order to the magnesian, and is found in
considerable abundance in the neighbourhood of Malton. it is of a yellowish-white
colour, and appears to be composed of innumerable small round particles. The spe-
cific gravity is about 2°59.
According to analysis, its principal constituents are—
Warbonic 'ACiOl sisscacveceansssleas save cteucveaseckouse seepartnce® seveee 44°35
Lime ..... Delete lance sikewas ian thse saee ta as ae wants aie oa tale scaoied err erY Mets 1s to 34
Red oxide of iron..........eeeeee0e Seacvowseeeenate Bech e eanraae cocase ¢ y O69
Insoluble matter ...,.........00006 a ernie Oe sd San cosatae
GOSS) ss ahinc ue crcastarie. tals < goss wae dea: iceacealaaca' vaprewewaeeecs gueitc 0°17
100-00
From the large proportion of carbonate of lime contained in this limestone, it appears
to be well calculated for agricultural purposes, and is used to a considerable extent.
4, The Chalk formation occupies a considerable extent in the eastern part of the
county, forming that peculiar feature in it known as the Wolds.
This substance scarcely requires any description. It is, as is well known, of a
white colour, and easily scraped with a knife, and readily soils the fingers. Its specific
gravity is about 2°55.
According to analysis, its chief ingredients are—
Carbonic acid’ iii .tccctescecseecedes SS EERE: Diapeareesoh «.. 483°:00
WGENC Ss os cial Sues Reinidclganecie save sccent Tate cdhscdeckucmene a eres 55:42
Insoluble matter ......... ab eneas Pedteacceteteoneass Uheeiashenson eee.
MAGHS shee cbetas des weae Hamatces descend sebecsaseacedaaedeecciotstuanes >), 048
100°00
This, like the preceding variety, appears to contain a large proportion of carbonate
of lime, and consequently affords, by burning, a similarly large proportion of lime,
and hence is particularly adapted for agricultural purposes, although it is said not to
produce so strong a lime as the oolitic limestone.
On some Products of the Decomposition of Erythrin. By Epwarp Scuuncx.
Erythrin is a white substance which forms the basis of the colouring matters produced
from the Roccella tinctoria. It was discovered by Heeron, and afterwards examined
by Kane. I have obtained very different results from the latter. The composition
of erythrin is expressed by the formula Cog yy Oyo, or Cyy Hog Ono. By treating
with caustic alkalies it is decomposed into carbonic acid, which unites with the al-
kali and orcin, which remains dissolved. Now, if we subtract from Cy Hog Ong
two atoms of anhydrous orcin Cs. Hy: O4, two atoms of carbonic acid C4 Os, and
seven atoms of water H, O,, there remains C, H; O, which is the composition of
one atom of wether. It was therefore probable that during this decomposition alcohol
would be given off, but no decided manifestations of alcohol could be discovered on de»
composing with caustic potash, It is therefore probable that the elements of C, H; O
arrange themselves in a different way. On being boiled with water erythrin is con-
32 REPORT—1844.
verted into a soluble viscid substance, which after some time crystallizes; ithasa —
very bitter taste. On being boiled with alcohol erythrin is converted partly into this —
bitter substance and partly into pseuderythrin. Now pseuderythrin, Cy. H,3 Og, is
the zther compound of lecanorin Cs Hg Og, so that it is probable that erythrin either
contains lecavorin, as such, or that it easily gives rise to the formation of that sub-
stance; the bitter substance before mentioned is also decomposed by alkalies into
carbonic acid and orcin. According to its constitution it ought also to give off alcohol
or ether during this decomposition, but nothing of the kind could be discovered.
Note on the Solvent Power of Solutions of Acetates. By Joun Mercer, Jun.
In the course of some experiments on the crude acetate (pyrolignite) of lime, in
which the author had occasion to bring the solution of this substance into contact with
sulphate of lead (applied in the dry state), he was surprised to observe the solution
experience a considerable increase in density, which proved to be owing to the solu-
tion of a large quantity of sulphate of lead. A portion of the liquid gave an abundant
precipitate of chrome yellow, with a few drops of a solution of the bichromate of
potash ; but the original solution did not contain a trace of lead, nor did the sulphate
employed in these experiments contain any soluble salt of lead.
The solution of the sulphate of lead is not affected by the impurities present in the
crude acetate, as pure acetate of lime was found to possess an equal solvent power on
the sulphate of lead.
As might have been expected after such a result, unequivocal evidences were ob-
tained of the presence of lead in acetates prepared by double decomposition of the
acetate of lead and a soluble sulphate, as acetates of soda, alumina and potash. The
acetate of soda of commerce prepared in this manner, contained a notable quantity of
lead, evidenced by’ bichromate of potash, sulphuric acid, and other reagents, though
the acetate was in the state of large and perfectly transparent crystals.
A solution of acetate of soda prepared in the same way by the author, also con-
tained lead, although the acetate of lead was not present in excess, for the addition of
sulphate of soda to the liquid caused no precipitate. Moreover a solution of pure
acetate of soda, prepared by carefully neutralizing acetic acid with caustic soda (both
free from lead), was found to be capable of dissolving a large quantity of sulphate of
lead, especially with the application of heat. All the acetates the author has had an
opportunity of examining, namely, those of lime, soda, alumina, potash, ammonia,
and magnesia, possess this solvent power.
The sulphate of lead is not the only lead compound insoluble in water which is ca-
pable of being dissolved by solutions of acetates, for tlie oxide, carbonate and subsul-
phate also partake of the property. The author has not yet been enabled to determine
with certainty the exact state in which the lead exists in solution; the compound
formed, however, would seem to be very stable, as the liquid may be boiled, diluted and
evaporated until transparent crystals are obtained (where the acetate used is capable
of crystallizing) without the separation of the lead.
It is perhaps worthy of observation, that the solutions of lead in acetates afford a
precipitate of sulphate of lead with sulphuric acid, but not with sulphate of soda.
Caustic soda also produces a precipitate.
The solvent power of acetates extends to many bodies insoluble in water besides the
lead compounds above mentioned: for instance, a solution of neutral acetate of soda
dissolves hydrated oxide of copper and lime in very large proportion; and alumina,
protoxide of iron, and protoxide of tin, in small quantity ; but hitherto the author has
net had an opportunity of pursuing the investigation of this subject to the extent it
eserves.
On Guano. By Rozert Warincton.
This was a notice intended particularly to draw attention to the importance of the
estimation of the nitrogen in the analysis of guano as given to the agriculturist, as
on the quantity of this element depended, in a great degree, the value of a given
sample, whereas in general the per-centage of ammoniacal salts was only given. It
appears, from Mr. Warington’s experiments, and the use of guano in the production of
the prussiate of potash, that the proportion of this element is very considerable.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33
. On the Action of Nitric Acid on Naphtha. By Drs. Smrtu and Lricn.
This was an account of experiments which are still in progress, showing that by
the action of nitric acid on naphtha, a variety of bodies isomeric with turpentine might
be produced.
On the supposed Formation of Valerianic Acid from Indigo, and on the Acid
which is formed by the Action of Hydrate of Potash upon Lycopodium.
By J. 8. Musprart, Ph.D.
The author presented an examination of the very remarkable series of metamor-
phoses to which indigo is subjected in the processes described by Gerhardt. It is con-
tended that the valerianic acid produced in these experiments is nct due to the indigo,
but to foreign matters mixed up with it. A peculiar oleaginous matter had been ob-
tained from lycopodium having a peculiarly acid character.
Experiments on the Formation or Secretion of Carbon by Animals, the Disap-
pearance of Hydrogen and Oxygen, and the Generation of Animal Heat
during the process. By Rozerr Rice, F.R.S.
The experiments described in this paper were made with two young mice, confined
in a wire trap; the one weighed 210 and the other 218 grains. They were fed with
bread and water only; and at periods of half an hour, an hour, and sometimes for
two hours, the animals when in the trap were placed several times in the day under a
glass jar, atmospheric communication being cut off by mercury. Portions of the air
within this jar were removed and examined for carbonic acid over mercury. One of
the mice was under experiment nearly eight and the other nine weeks; during which
time they were sometimes supplied with an abundant quantity, at other times a mode-
rate, and at other times a very sparing quantity of food. With whatever quantity they
were supplied, the carbon in the respired air exceeded that in the food; the former
_ comprising during the whole period 2016, and the latter 1491 grains of carbon. One
of the animals was killed when in its fattest condition, and when its weight was 276
"grains, and the other when its weight was reduced, by being fed for several days with
a very sparing quantity of food, to 169 grains. ‘The animals weve dried in their
whole state, and average samples analysed with oxide of copper; the weight of carbon
_ comprised in the former was 45:91 grains, and that in the latter 22°5 grains.
_ From these and similar results obtained by experiments made with other animals
and birds, the author is led to conclude that animals secrete carbon ; and on a recapi-
_ tulation of the elements comprised in the animals, in the bread, and in the water, he is
led to infer that hydrogen and oxygen undergo some process of natural chemistry,
_ having this secreted carbon as a result : and by calculating for the specific heats of these
- bodies, he finds that these animals generate from three to six times the heat by the for-
mation of the carbon they secrete, as by the formation of the carbonic acid they re-
Spire; and that this secretion of carbon, and consequently generation of heat, is influ-
_ enced by the quality and quantity of food, exertion, and quiet or active habits of the
animal.
Li
On increasing the Intensity of the Oxyhydrogen Flame. By C. J. Jonpan.
The author in this paper examines various processes of gaseous combustion, as the
ordinary flame where heat is generated only at the coincident surfaces of oxygen and the
combustible, and the flame of oxygen and hydrogen previously mixed, where at every
point of the jet heat is generated. In this last case enlarged bulk of flame is advan-
tageous, but not generally practicable with ceconomy and convenience. Instead of
augmenting the bulk, the author suggests concentration of the mixed gases by pressure,
so as to accumulate more burning points within a given area, and thus raise the in-
tensity of the flame, and supports this view by various facts and reasonings, chiefly
derived from the effects which accompany gaseous combustion under reduced pressure
or diluting aériform admixtures.
To accomplish the production of the mixed oxyhydrogen flame, under pressure, the
author proposes a strong vessel charged with compressed air, or some appropriate gas,
1844, D
34 REPORT— 1844.
and furnished with glass sight-holes (or composed of glass). Into this vessel the gases
are to be forced under a somewhat greater pressure than that sustained by the vessel
(ignited previously, or by an electric spark).
On Specific Heat. By J. P. Jour.
After examining the law of Dulong and Petit, that the specific heat of simple bodies
is inversely proportional to their atomic weights, the author proceeded to detail the
attempts made by Haycraft, De la Rive, and Marcet, to discover the specific heats of
gases and liquids. ‘The observations of Neumann and Regnault on the specific heats
of simple and compound bodies were next examined. Mr. Joule then exhibited to the
Section a table, in which the theoretical specific heats of a variety of bodies impartially
selected were calculated on the hypothesis that the capacity for heat of a simple
atom remains the same into whatever chemical combination it enters. On the whole,
the coincidence between the theoretical and experimental results was such as would
induce a belief that the law of Dulong and Petit, with regard to simple atoms, is ca-
pable of a greater degree of generalization than chemists have hitherto been inclined
to admit.
TABLE.
Bei] 3s] _s
Name of substance. Formula adopted. oae 2 E EB a Experimenter.
WVATOT sa saccascueeeadas H,O 3 |1000 |1000
Hydrogen ...........0+08 He = 6000 3294 | Delaroche and Berard.
ORV ZEN. soces ceceeesere O 2 | 875 | 236 do.
MGGING® j.c200asrcaseeaene I, tie | 48 | 54 | V. Regnault.
Garbon..kscssemaseecwas. C zz | 250 | 241 do.
SG phurhsscsaccadevevete cs S zs | 188 | 188 | Dulong and Petit.
Wied (hash ee sane Pb et) 29) | 29 do.
IRGC. ipsa edsnoat ctdeaatan Zn ey jab ee: do.
oppery siccasssceseeeens Cu gz | 94] 95 do.
Metcury iiscwstccecs Riese Hg aiz | 38 33 do.
Oxide of lead............ PbO tix | 54] 51] V. Regnault.
Oxide of copper......... CuO #, | 150 | 142 do
Magnesia ........2ce0e0s MgO sr | 286 | 244 do
Peroxide of iron ...... Fe, O3 as | 192 | 167 do
Sulphuret of copper ... Cu,S ete | 2) do
Sulphuret of lead ...... PbS ziz | 50] 50 do
Sulphuret of iron ...... FeS #; | 140 | 136 do,
Chloride of lead ...... PbCl, +35 | 65 | 66 do
Chloride of copper ... Cu, Cl, rao | 120 | 138 do
Todide of lead ......... PbI, Se este a fet 3 do
Iodide of silver......... Ag, [, rer ol} (62 do
Sulphate of potash ... KOSO; gs | 204 | 190 do.
Carbonate of potash...| 2KOCO, | 73,5 | 194 | 216 do.
Chlorate of potash...... KO Cl,O, | +35 | 220 | 210 do
Nitrate of potash ...... KON,O, | +25 | 265 | 238 do.
Sulphuric acid ......... SO; H,O gs | 429 | 350 | Dalton.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35
Account of Experiments on Heating by Steam. By W. West.
These experiments were instituted for the purpose of ascertaining if water heated
by steam reached the true boiling temperature. In several experiments it was found
that although the water was violently agitated, and steam escaped in abundance, that
the thermometer indicated 190°, 205°, and 207°, and could not be raised to the true
boiling-point. A false bottom being added to the receiving vessel pierced with nu-
merous small holes, it was found easy, with even a smaller quantity of steam, to main-
tain the temperature at 2129.
On a peculiar Condition of Zinc, produced by a long-continued High
Temperature. By Tuomas Trtrey, Ph.D.
Dr. Tilley presented a specimen of zinc, which had undergone a remarkable change
in its arrangement, from being kept at a heat above that of fusion for a considerable
time. This change was thought to bear some analogy to the alierations which sulphur
and some other bodies are known to undergo at different temperatures. The condi-
tion of the zine was singularly crystalline. The zinc in this state was found to have the
same chemical condition as the ordinary zinc of commerce, and, although its oxides
and salts have not been examined, it was found that, when distilled, the zinc was re-
stored to its original texture. It was suggested, that many interesting examples of
similar molecular changes in other metals might be detected by subjecting them to
similar conditions to those in which this sample of zine was placed.
Description of an Air-Duct to be used in Glass Furnaces for the Prevention of
Smoke, with Models. By 'T. M. Greennow.
The nuisance of smoke it is assumed must be prevented by the supply, under proper
conditions, of additional quantities of oxygen gas to the burning matter, so as to ren-
der its combustion complete. Though this intention has been successfully carried
out in steam-engine and other furnaces, no attempt has been successful to prevent the
annoyance occasioned by glass furnaces. One of Mr. Greenhow’s models represented
the reverberatory furnace used in the manufacture of crown glass, In this kind of fur-
nace the smoke and products of combustion escape through the openings in the sides
which give the workmen access to the pots of glass, and are unprovided with flues. To
provide the necessary supply of fresh air, Mr. Greenhow proposes a perpendicular air-
duct (made of the same refractory clay of which the glass pots are constructed) rising
through the middle of the fire, and supported by the stone arch on which the bars rest.
This air-duct rises to the height of five feet within the furnace, is one foot in diameter,
and distributes, through numerous apertures, any quantity of air that may be required
for the completion of the combustion of the fuel ; and from its situation in the centre
of the furnace it must soon acquire and communicate a high degree of temperature to
the air it transmits. Mr. Greenhow showed a second model of a steam-engine fur-
nace with a horizontal air-duct placed anterior to the bridge, which it crowns and
overlaps. At this situation heated air is distributed through small apertures, so as to
mingle with the burning gases and ensure their more complete combustion.
On the Influence of Light on Chemical Compounds, and Electro-Chemical
Action. By Rosert Hunt.
After alluding to Sir John Herschel’s experiments on the chloride of platinum, neu-
tralized by lime water, from which a platinate of lime was precipitated by the influence
of the solar rays, and to Dr. Draper’s observations on the power which the solar beams
had of imparting a property to chlorine of uniting with hydrogen under circumstances
in which the same clements kept in the dark would not unite, Mr. Hunt called atten-
tion to some experiments in which still more remarkable results had been obtained. If
a solution of mineral chameleon be made in the dark it does not undergo any change
for many hours, whilst a similar solution will, if exposed to sunshine, precipitate
heavily almost immediately. Sulphate of iron dissolved in common water, will, even
in the dark, after some hours, give a precipitate of carbonate of iron; but if exposed
D2
36 REPORT—1844.
to sunshine, this takes place instantly, and the weight of the precipitate, up to a cer-
tain point, is in both these cases a measure of the quantity of light to which the solu-
tions have been exposed. A coutrary effect to this has also been observed: if a solu-
tion of the bichromate of potash be mixed with one of sulphate of copper, and the
mixture be set aside in the dark for twelve hours, the glass will become thickly coated
with a chromate of copper, but a similar mixture exposed to the sunshine 1 seat no
such effect. Several solutions of the salts of silver were exposed to sunshine, whilst
portions of the same solutions were kept in the dark. When small quantities of the
sulphate of iron were added to these solutions, it was found that those which had been
exposed to sunshine gave a precipitate immediately, whereas those which had been
preserved in the dark did not precipitate for some time. It has also been noticed,
that bichromate of potash, exposed to bright sunshine, precipitated chromate of silver
of a much more beautiful colour than a similar solution which had been kept in
darkness. A similar effect was seen in precipitating prussian blue by a solution of
the ferro-prussiate of potash which had been exposed to the sun, the colour being in-
finitely more beautiful than that thrown down by a solution which had not been so
exposed. A solution of the iodide of potassium was put into a glass tube, the lower
end being closed by a diaphragm ; this was put into another vessel containing a solu-
tion of nitrate of silver, and a platina wire passed from one solution into the other.
Such an arrangement being placed in the dark, a beautiful crystallization of metallic
silver took place about the wire, but if placed in the sunshine this crystallization was
entirely prevented. The attention of chemists was called to these results, which cer-
tainly show that the agency of the chemical rays must in future form an important
subject of investigation, particularly when any delicate analysis is desirable. These,
and similar experiments, belong to an important branch of chemical science, for which
the epithet of Actino-Chemistry has been proposed by Sir John Herschel.
On the Ferrotype, and the Property of Sulphate of Iron in developing
Photographic Images. By Rosert Hunt.
The new photographic process, to which the above name is given, consists essentially
in the development of a dormant photographic image, formed on a paper prepared
with succinic acid and nitrate of silver, by the deoxidizing power of sulphate of iron.
Numerous failures have been communicated to the author, which appeared to arise
from the varying rates of solubility possessed by succinic acid obtained from different
manufacturers. It was now recommended, that five grains of succinic acid should be
put into a fluid ounce of distilled water, and allowed entirely to dissolve ; the salt and
gum is then to be added to this solution, and the author believes that, with care, the
effects will be certain. Recent researches have, however, proved that this property of
the sulphate of iron may be made available on any photographic paper. On paper
merely washed with the nitrate of silver, good camera pictures have been thus ob-
tained in a few minutes, and on papers prepared with the chloride of sodium, bromide
of potassium, and particularly the iodide of potassium, camera views are procured in
less than a minute. Mr. Hunt exhibited a great number of specimens procured on
the above and many other salts of silver—the most beautiful being on papers covered
with the acetate, the benzoate, the citrate, and other organic salts of silver. ‘These
drawings were all fixed by washing with moderately strong ammonia.
On the Electrolysotype ; a nem Photographic Process.
By Tuomas Woops, M.D.
[The following are extracts from this paper].—While investigating the property
that sugar possesses in some cases of preventing precipitation, | noticed, that when
syrup of ioduret of iron was mixed with solution of nitrate of silver in certain pro-
portions, the precipitate was very quickly darkened when exposed to the light, and I
thought that if properly used it might be employed with advantage as a photographic
agent.
ae well-glazed paper be steeped in water to which hydrochloric acid has been
added, in the proportion of two drops to three ounces; when well-soaked, let it be
washed over with the following mixture ;—take of syrup of ioduret of iron half a
ey a
; TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37
drachm, of water two and a half drachms, and of iodine one or two drops; mix. When
it has remained wet for a little time let it be dried lightly with bibulous paper, and
brushed over again with the same mixture; let it be again dried with the bibulous
paper, and being removed to a dark room, let it be washed evenly over with a solution
of nitrate of silver—twelve grains to the ounce of water. The iodide of silver which
is formed should be disturbed as little as possible by the camel’s hair pencil with which
the nitrate of silver is laid on. The paper is now ready for use; the sooner it is used the
better, as when the ingredients are not rightly proportioned it is liable to be spoiled
by keeping. I have obtained pictures with it when prepared for twelve hours, but I
have not tried it after having kept it for a longer period. The time I generally allow the
paper to be exposed, when used in the camera, varies from one second to half a minute
in clear weather. With a bright light the picture obtained is of a rich brown colour ;
with a faint light, or a bright light for a short time continued, it is black. Ifthe
paper be left exposed for too long a time the minute parts of the picture are confused.
For taking portraits in the shade out of doors on a clear day, fifteen seconds will be
the time for sitting. When the paper is removed from the camera, no picture is
visible; however, when left in the dark for some time, the duration of which will vary
with the time it was exposed to light, it gradually developes itself, until it arrives at a
state of perfection, which is not, I think, attained by photographs produced by any
other process. The action set up by the light is continued in the dark, an electro-
lysis taking place by which the picture is brought out; and for this reason I have
ventured to name the process, for want of a better word, the Electrolysotype. Sir J.
Herschel observed long ago this fact of the action of light continuing after its influence
is apparently removed, especially in the salts of iron; but I do not know of any pro-
cess being employed for photographic purposes which depends on this action for its
development except my own. The pictures are fixed by first steeping them well in
water, then in a solution of bromide of potassium, twenty grains to the ounce; and
then again in water, to remove the bromide from the paper.
If the acid solution is too strong, it impairs the sensibility of the paper. If the ni-
trate of silver solution is too strong, the paper blackens in the dark after having been
for some time kept; if too weak, it remains yellow, even though exposed to the light.
If the ioduret of iron is in too great quantity, the picture becomes dotted over with
black spots in the dark, which are rapidly bleached by the light.
Of the specimens exhibited, No. 1 was a paper darkened by the moonlight in fifteen
minutes. Ri
On Photography. By Professor Grove.
Mr. Grove communicated experiments he had made with some success in obtaining a
paper capable of giving positive photographs by one process, and avoiding the necessity
of transfer, by which the imperfections of the paper are shown. As light favours many
chemical actions, Mr. Grove thought that a paper darkened by the sun (which dark-
ening is supposed to result from the precipitation of silver), might be bleached by using
a solvent which would not attack the silver in the dark, but would do so in the light.
Among other acids tried, nitric acid succeeded best. Thus a darkened calotype paper
is re-iodized by iodide of potassium, and then drawn over dilute nitric acid, one part
acid to two and a half water; when so prepared it is rapidly bleached by exposure to
light, and perfectly fixed by washing in water and dipping in hyposulphite of soda, or
bromide of potassium. If the acid be strong, say one-half water, the paper will be
bleached in ten seconds by the sun, but then it partially bleaches in the dark.
Mr. Grove showed some lithographs copied by this process; but stated, that in the
very few trials he had made with the camera the images had not been clear; that
he had then tried the following method :—Let an ordinary calotype image or portrait
be taken in a camera and developed by gallic acid, then drawn over iodide of potas-
sium and nitric acid, and exposed to full sunshine ; while bleaching the dark parts,
the light is re-darkening the newly precipitated iodide in the lighter portions, and thus
the negative picture is converted into a positive one. It is, however, faint, and gallic
acid will not develope it; possibly some other solutions, such as those of iron, may;
but Mr. Grove had not had time to try them. He believed from what he had ob-
served, that a great many cases would be found in which a negative picture might be
changed to a positive one, and that in some of these very good positive effects would
probably be obtained.
f= ae
38) REPORT—1844.
Some impressions, sent by Dr. Hamel, from Daguerréotype plates, which had been
etched in Paris by the agency of an acid, were exhibited.
Mr. Matteucci communicated to the Section the results of some experiments made
by him with the view of establishing the relation which the amount of mechanical work
realized by the consumption of a given quantity of zinc acting as a voltaic combina-
tion upon the limbs of a frog, bears to the amount of work realized by the same quantity
of zinc employed as a generator of mechanical force in other inorganic applications.
A given weight is attached to the feet of a recently-prepared frog, this and the weight
are suspended from a platina wire by the portion of the spine, and another platina
wire passes through the lower part of the sciatic nerves; these wires are connected
with the terminals uf a voltaic battery, a voltameter being interposed in the circuit.
By making and breaking voltaic contact, the muscles contract, the weight is raised.
By connecting a contact breaker with the moving limbs, these are enabled to inter-
rupt and complete the voltaic circuit by their own contractions, and a register attached
shows the number of interruptions in a given time.
An index is also attached to the weight, which bearing upon a revolving sooted disc
registers the distance and velocity of the motion of the weight. Thus we get the elements
of time, space, and weight. From experiments performed in this manner M. Mat-
teucci finds that 3 milligrams of zinc consumed in twenty-four hours give 5*-5419 of
weight raised through a given space, while the same quantity of zinc, or its equivalent
of carbon, employed to generate motion by combination in a steam-engine gives 0¥'834;
or employed to work an electro-magnetic machine, gives 0*96.
Several reductions must be made to eliminate extraneous actions which do not con-
tribute to the resulting effect; thus a voltaic battery of sufficient intensity to decom-
pose water must be much more powerful than is requisite to convulse the limbs of the
frog. The conducting power of the pelvic muscles, which if cutoff weaken toomuchthe
general effect, must also be deducted, as well as the antagonist force of the extensor
muscles. ‘The necessity for all these reductions makes the problem a very complex one.
M. Matteucci believes, however, that he has done sufficient to establish the general re-
sult that a far greater amount of work can be realized from the consumption of a given
quantity of zinc acting on the limbs of a recently-killed animal, than when the same
quantity is employed to work an inorganic machine*.
* On the 30th September, M. Matteucci showed at his lodgings to several Members
of the Association, some of the most important of the experiments detailed in his re-
cently published work on Electro-Physiology.
Ist. Zhe Muscular Current.—lIf the sciatic nerve of the limb of a prepared frog be
made to touch at the same time the external and internal muscle of a living or re-
cently-killed animal, the limb is convulsed. By forming a series of external and in-
ternal muscles, for instance, severing the lower halves of the thighs of a certain number
of frogs, and inserting the knee of the one into the central muscle of the second, and
so on, a voltaic pile will be formed, six or eight elements of which M. Matteucci
showed were capable of deflecting a galvanometer, or producing convulsions in an
electroscopic frog.
The direction of the voltaic current is from the interior to the exterior of the muscle,
and the current is more feeble in proportion as the animal is higher in the scale of
creation.
2nd. M. Matteucci explained the specific voltaic current (courant propre) of the
frog as being a current which is detected only in the frog, and which is directed from
the feet to the head of the animal.
3rd. M. Matteucci showed an experiment by which it appeared that a muscle whilst
undergoing contraction is capable of exciting the nerve of another recently-killed
animal, so as to produce muscular contraction in the latter. He laid the sciatic nerve
of one leg of a prepared frog on the thigh of another, and by touching the nerve of
the latter with an are of zine and copper this was convulsed, and at the same time
the first leg, the nerve of which formed no part of the voltaic circuit, was simultane-
ously eonvulsed, the legs all moving as though they formed part of the same animal.
4th. M. Matteucci explained some joint researehes of himself and M. Longet, by
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39
i> °° . .
Prof. Grove communicated a notice by M. Gassiot, of a repetition of his experiment
on the production of electricity without contact.
On a Method of Electrotype, by which the Deposition on Minute Objects is
easily accomplished. By L. L. B. Issetson, F.G.S.
From the difficulties which arose from the application of plumbago, in the ordinary
manner, a portion of the plumbago was united with a solution of phosphorus in naph-
tha, and the article to be electrotyped immersed in it. It thus became covered with a
coating, on which the metal was deposited in a beautiful and uniform manner. Some
specimens of cactuses thus covered with metal were exhibited.
On the Alternate Spheres of Attraction and Repulsion, noticed by Newton,
Boscovich and others ; and on Chemical Affinity. By Tuomas Exrey, 4.M.
These phenomena have not been explained by means of fixed general principles,
but may be explained by the two principles of a new theory, which are these :—
Ist. That every atom of matter consists of an indefinitely great sphere of force,
varying inversely as the square of the distance from the centre: in a very small concen-
tric sphere the direction is from the centre, and is called repulsion; at all other dis-
tances it acts towards the centre, and is called attraction.
2nd. Atoms are of different sorts when their absolute forces, or their spheres of re-
pulsion, are unequal.
These simple principles, duly carried out and rightly applied, are sufficient to ex-
plain all the phenomena of the universe, a proper number of sorts and quantity of
each sort being admitted.
From phenomena it appears that there are four distinct classes of atoms. Class Ist
are denominated tenacious atoms, because they adhere with great force or tena-
city: there are fifty-six sorts of tenacious atoms, as oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, &c.
Class 2nd embraces the electric atoms, having a much less force, but greater sphere of
repulsion than tenacious atoms; of these there seems to be but one sort. Class 3rd
are zthereal atoms, constituting ethereal fluids; of these there appear to be several
sorts; their absolute forces are very much less than even those of electric atoms, and
their spheres of repulsion much greater. Class 4th, not concerned in this paper, com-
prises atoms which have an exceedingly small absolute force, and also an exceedingly
small sphere of repulsion ; its atoms may be called microgenal atoms.
; Newton, Boscovich and others, conclude from observation, that near the centres of
_ atoms there are several alternations of attraction and repulsion; Dr. Priestley says
that the phenomena of nature cannot be explained without them; hence the true theory
of physics ought to show that such alternations exist. The author proceeds to prove
that they result from his principles.
In the earth’s atmosphere we recognize very distinctly the tenacious, the electric,
and the zethereal atoms; the tenacious atoms extend to about the altitude of forty-five
iniles, as is known by the refraction and reflexion of light; the electric atoms must
extend much higher, and the ztherea] class to a very great altitude, perhaps some
hundreds of miles. The upper parts pressing on the lower give a considerable density
to the three classes near the earth’s surface. The space occupied by a given portion of
tenacious atoms is diminished by pressure, and increased by an elevated temperature,
that is, by an accession of ethereal matter.
oy eee
which it was proved that a different galvanic result is produced upon the nerves of an
animal at a certain period after death, if the current acts upon the nerve of motion, or
centrifugal nerve only, from that which ensues if the mixed nerve, centrifugal and cen-
tripetal, be subjected to the current ; in the former case the muscular contraction takes
place at the interruption of the direct current, or that which passes from the nervous
centre to the extremities, and the commencement of the inverse current, or that which
passes in the opposite direction ; while in the latter case the reverse effect obtains, the
contraction taking place at the commencement of the direct and at the interruption of
the inverse current.
40 REPORT—1844.
Mr. Exley showed by reasoning and the aid of diagrams, that there are several
distinct collections of zethereal atoms, and one of electric atoms in concentric spheres
about every tenacious atom: these he named and stated as follows :—Ist, the sphere
of repulsion of the tenacious atom ; 2nd, the attached atmosphere ; 3rd, the neutral
shell; 4th, the electric surface; 5th, the electric shell; 6th, the diametrical shell;
and 7th, the secondary attached atmosphere; and these produce the following alterna-
tions of force, viz.—
Ist. The sphere of repulsion of the tenacious atom unaltered.
2nd. The concave side of the attached atmosphere accelerating the motion of atoms
which have just passed, and thus having the effect of attraction.
3rd. The convex side of that surface resisting the passage of atoms, and thus having
the effect of repulsion.
4th. The neutral shell.
5th. The concave side of the electric surface attracting.
6th. The convex side of the same repelling.
7th. The electric shell attractive. .
8th. The diametrical shell attractive with increasing force from its concave to its
convex side.
9th. The concave side of the secondary attached atmosphere attracting.
10th. The convex side of the same repelling.
It is to be understood that these are distinct from the ethereal matter present in
consequence of pressure, which is everywhere uniform. Also there will be a different
set of the last three for each sort of ethereal atoms which have a different sphere of
repulsion: the others will remain the same.
These deductions prove, independently of experiment, that many alternations of
attraction and repulsion exist as a legitimate inference from the principles above
stated, and they correspond with what Newton, Boscovich and others have stated
concerning them, which establishes this part of the subject. Hence the new theory
possesses all the advantages, both of that of Newton and that of Boscovich, with in-
numerable other advantages.
For explaining chemical affinity the author deduces from his theory the following
laws :-—
Law I. Two tenacious atoms unite without the mediation of a third, and the volume
is the same as that of the two constituents when the electric fluid collects between
them, but the volume is reduced exactly one-half when the electric fluid collects on
the outside.
Law II. Two atoms combine by the mediation of a third, and the volume is the
same as that of the two extremes when the electric fluid collects along with the inter-
mediate atom between them; but when it collects on the exterior, the volume is re-
duced to exactly one volume, that is, one-half the extremes.
Law III. In all cases where chemical union is effected, it is one atom with one, or
two with one.
‘These laws he illustrated by selected examples.
In the original paper, the above statements, with other particulars, were illustrated
by diagrams, and the following symbols represent the arrangements of combined
atoms. ‘The three dots in the parenthesis are to denote the interposition of electric
fluid.
Law I.—TZwo volumes.
Muriatic acid ......... 5 jana AAO ony LC.) EL
Carbonic oxide............ Sern aoea AEE - O(:.)C
Nitric OX1de)..se.c.:saeseemeaes Nraewei « ae UE Mh
Hydrobromic acid ......sssscseeeeseeeeeee Br(.’.)H.
&e.
One volume.
Cyanogen ..sssscenssesesneeeerecerenevgseeeee (CN)
E. Davy’s carburetted hydrogen ...... (CH)
Chloruret of sulphur ....ssssseeeeeeereeee (C1,S)
Chloride of mercury ssssssaeererseerveee (Cl, Hg). :
&e.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41
Law II.—Two volumes, viz. that of the extremes.
Carbonic acid .....ccsceceseeeesseeeesensess O(C)O
Water vapour .......0-..0.0 datheeweane seach eal (O)) kd
Methylene or methyle......... satveddtees tel (O)EL
Deutoxide of chlorine ............0000268. O(CHO
PMICONGI. Fo: sseeaotpa nindnedeceenenac sacs eres = H,C(H,0)CH,
FELDEL oe. scorcncsaccectvsceavecesansceseseses, f140,(H,0)CH ,
CEnanthic ether ...cccceccesecseeeseeeeeers H4Co(HogC,402H20)C,H,.
&e.
One volume.
Nitrous acid ......c.scsccsesssescesseressosee (NOQ)
Olefiant gas ....00....csccccsesnecesersares .» (CHe)
Benzin ......e00s..00. Minwsasdevesvedase ese... (CH),CH=(C,H;)
lei ccs hadssonscasaddeckvaseroeacceecescasen) CO LTa 4 cibtg==( Calle).
&ec.
On the Constitution of Matter. By Sir G. Giszes, M.D.
The principal point in the paper was the attempt to establish the formation of heat
by the union of the two fluids of electricity.
On the Alteration that takes place in Iron by being exposed to long-continued
Vibration. By W. Lucas.
At the last meeting of the British Association, held at Cork, this subject was again
brought forward, and certain specimens of iron exhibited, in order to show the effects
produced upon the iron by being exposed to a certain degree of concussion or vibra-
tion during the process of swaging, and again restored to its original state by being
annealed, in accordance with the results detailed by Mr. Nasmyth, at Manchester, in
1842; in addition to these were also exhibited specimens of portions of the same iron
that had been exposed to the concussion of a large tilt hammer, working at the rate of
about 350 strokes per minute, which occasioned the bars of iron to break short off at
the point of bearing in the course of twenty-four hours; there was also shown a por-
tion of one of the hammer shafts, the texture of which had evidently been altered,
_ probably by the long-continued and repeated concussions to which it had been exposed ;
for instead of breaking with the splintery fracture common to wood, it broke with a
peculiar short fracture, and this, Mr. Lucas is informed, is a very common occurrence.
In continuance of these experiments upon the effects of concussion or vibration, Mr.
Lucas laid before the Section the results of some further experiments.
The specimens now exhibited were portions of the iron already alluded to which
had been fastened upon the top of a tilt hammer working at the speed previously
mentioned, and allowed to remain in that position for a period of from six to seven
months; it may be proper here to remark, that they were so placed that no tensile
force was exerted, but only a vibratory action, and that was communicated to them
through the body of the hammer itself; and a mere inspection of these specimens will ~
convince almost any individual that an alteration has been produced in the mole-
cular constitution of the metal in comparison with the original specimens, as in the
specimens Nos. 1 and 3 the original fibrous texture has in a great measure disap-
peared and been replaced by a crystalline one, whilst in No. 2 (which has been pre-
viously swaged) it has entirely disappeared, and the iron has become perfectly crystal-
line; and it is probable that by further exposure to this action the crystals may increase
in size, and assume a more definite form.
* These elements also unite in two volumes, as in Dr. Faraday’s oil-gas.
42 REPORT—1844,
GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
On a newly-discovered Species of Unio, from the Wealden Strata of the Isle
of Wight. By G. A. Mantett, LL.D, F.RS.
Tuts species, believed by the author to be newly discovered, and named by him U,
valdensis, was obtained from the Wealden strata near Brook, associated with bones of
the Iguanodon and other reptiles, on the southern coast of the Isle of Wight; several
specimens were found, all of them more nearly resembling the massive and pearly
shells of the same genus occurring in the Ohio and Mississippi rivers than any hitherto
observed in a fossil state; and this resemblance is so close that it is considered an ad-
ditional corroboration of an opinion formerly expressed by the author, namely, that a
large proportion of the Wealden deposits must be considered as entirely of fluviatile
origin, and not as the accumulated debris of an estuary.
Dr. Mantell states that the shells of the genus Unio, hitherto known as Wealden,
are few and of small size, the largest not being more than two inches in length, and
delicate, while the species now described is from five to six inches long, and so thick
and massive, that a pair of valves cleared from all extraneous matter weighs above
eleven ounces. These shells are in a fine state of preservation, the ligament, and even
a portion of the original colour remaining. ‘Ihe author added a full description, refer-
ring to finished drawings of the shells.
On Mining Records, and the Means by which their Preservation may be best
ensured. By Professor Anstep, M.A., P.R.S.
The author first alluded to a previous communication on this subject made by Mr.
Sopwith in 1838, and the subsequent establishment of the Mining Records Office,
but stated that such means were insufficient, and that regulations required to be made
and enforced by the authority of parliament. The object of the paper was, first, to
direct attention to the extent to which the mining interests of England would be pro-
moted by the establishment of a system of mining records; secondly, to show that
parliamentary interference is imperatively called for, if any satisfactory result is to be
attained; and thirdly, that the efforts of the British Association would probably be
successful if proper means are taken, whether by suggestions to government, or by
pressing on public attention the importance of the subject, and inducing the govern-
ment to set on foot the necessary inquiries.
In reference to the first object, the author adverted to the benefits to be expected
from the possession of a system of mining records, both with reference to the miner
directly, enabling him to avoid danger and certain disappointment, and still more in
the application of pure geology to mining. ‘This latter is indeed chiefly difficult and
doubttul, because the observations recorded are, compared with what they should be,
so few, imperfect and unsatisfactory, since the phenomena relative to the appearance,
direction and condition of mineral veins have been till lately almost entirely neglected
in England.
With regard to the extent to which these records are required, they are simply the
accounts of observations which everyone entrusted with the management of mining
property ought to be familiar with, in order that the proprietor may know how much
mineral produce is abstracted from the bowels of the earth, and the position of that
which is left. They are therefore necessarily made, and only require to be recorded.
The author then mentioned the different ways in which such records would be
useful; among which he particularized the drainage of mines, and the being able
to avoid occasional dishonesty, effected by wilfully causing the drainage of the mines
of one proprietor to flow into those of another at a greater depth. Other kinds of dis-
honesty, more direct than this, are also sometimes perpetrated, owing to the impos-
sibility of watching the under-ground progress of a miner suspected of dishonesty, at
least without the expenditure of so much time and money as to render it unadvisable.
But besides these acts of dishonesty, many serious encroachments of property have —
been made, and expensive litigation has arisen, from the ignorance of the persons —
employed in under-ground works; and with respect to these, and also to future
ie) ed
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43
Pvorkings, we may form an idea of the use of records by the extent to which they
are now needed. Numerous accidents have happened from the want of accurate
plans of extinct workings; and yet not less than thirteen mines have been relinquished
within the last half-century, all of them in the immediate neighbourhood of Newcastle,
and of none of these are such records remaining as to render it possible to discover
the exact direction of the old workings. It was urged that there is not only this danger
arising from the old workings, but that very often vaiuable property is lost, when by
an improvement in mining processes it might be desirable to re-open some of these
deserted mines. ‘The registration of all circumstances attending the relinquishment of
mines, will, however, never be undertaken by the owners of the property, who can
hardly be expected to put themselves to expense for what they of course suppose to
be valueless ; and it is only by some legislative enactment that the result, so desirable
and so necessary, can be attained.
The author then described the regulations enforced in Saxony with regard to this
subject, and proceeded to show that the indifference and mutual jealousy, as well as
the ignorance, of small mining proprietors, rendered it certain that in most cases
nothing short of an act of parliament would be effectual, and that any system that
might be devised, must be as a whole imperfect and unsatisfactory, unless compulsory
upon all. In conclusion, Professor Ansted dwelt upon the advantage possessed by
the British Association, and the weight of the recommendations made at its instance ;
and stated, that as in this way scientific men in England can most powerfully assist
the government, it was a duty incumbent on them to make some effort with regard to
this subject, which was of greater practical importance than any that had come before
the notice of the Geological Section.
On the Tertiary and Cretaceous Formations of the Isle of Wight.
By Prof. E. Forzes, F.L.S., and L. L. Boscawen Ipsetson, F.G.S. Ac-
companied by Models of part of the Coast of the Back of the Isle of Wight.
The models to which this paper related were constructed by Capt. Ibbetson, from
trigonometrical survey, in order to illustrate the sections of the cretaceous and tertiary
systems on the S.E. coast of the Isle of Wight. ‘hey are three; the first exhibiting
the section of the lower greensand between Blackgang chine and Atherfield point, in
which that formation is grouped into three divisions, depending on mineral character
and the consequent modifications of the distribution of their organic contents. The
details of these had been previously Jaid before the Geological Society, in a paper
written with a view to inquire into the Neocomian question, the result of which was
_ to bear testimony to the correctness and prior claim of the important researches of
Dr. Fitton. On the first of the models are also displayed the sections of the gault
__and of the upper greensand at St. Catherine’s Down. The second model exhibited
the corresponding section of the lower greensand, gault, and upper greensand between
_ Luccomb and Sandown. In this section the beds correspond throughout the lower
and middle divisions of the lower greensand, but the uppermost exhibits towards its
base zones of Gryphe and Terebratule, which are absent at the former locality.
_ Generally speaking, the upper portion of the lower greensand in this section is much
more fossiliferous. The third of the models displays the whole of the strata of the
cretaceous system, as seen in the Isle of Wight, between Sandown and Whitecliff bay,
and the whole of the eocene tertiary at the last-named locality. The strata of the
lower greensand in this section correspond to those at Atherfield, but are much thinner,
especially the clays of the lower part, and with the exception of the Perna mulleti
bed, much less fossiliferous. The gault is free from fossils. The upper greensand
corresponds nearly with the section at St. Catherine’s Down, presenting successively
sands and clays, under the names of chloritic marl, siliceous bands, firestone and free-
stone, malm and rag, the malm in a 3-feet bed, highly fossiliferous, surmounted by
26 feet of malm and rag passing into chalk marl. The thickness of the gault in this
section is about 50 feet, of the upper greensand 100 feet, of the chalk marl and hard
chalk 200 feet, and of the chalk with flints, the uppermost portion of which is absent,
200 feet. Resting on the denuded surface of the chalk, and heaved up almost per-
_ pendicularly, at Whitecliff bay are seen the strata of the London clay, consisting, at
first, of a succession of marine clays and sands, succeeded by clays and sands appa-
rently deposited in brackish water, which are divided from the marine by a bed of
i
»,
44 REPORT—1844,
freshwater origin, and which are succeeded by a series of freshwater beds of various —
mineral characters, in the midst of which a thin stratum of marine or brackish origin
suddenly appears. The measurements of all the strata, both tertiary and cretaceous,
and tables of their fossil contents, were laid before the meeting.
Reviewing the strata deposited from the cessation of the Wealden to the prevalence
of a freshwater eocene formation in this locality, the authors laid stress on the follow-
ing facts in the local history of organised nature during that long period :—1. That
the seas in which the lower greensand was deposited, and which occupied the area
described, in consequence of the sudden subsidence of the great Wealden lakes, pre-
sented from the very commencement a fauna truly marine, and most of the members of
which began their existence with the commencement of the cretaceous zra in England.
Almost all the animals which appeared were such as were new to the oceanic fauna ;
and among them were many forms representative of other species which had existed
in the oolitic ocean. 2. That this fauna continued, though apparently diminishing in
consequence of extinction of species from physical causes, until the commencement of
the deposition of the gault, when a new series of animals commenced, among which a
few species which had previously existed lived on, but the greater part of which were
either representative or peculiar forms. The same system of animal life appears to
have continued throughout the remainder of the cretaceous zra in this locality, al-
though great differences in the distribution of species and many species local in time
occur, depending on the very great change in the mineral conditions of the sea-bottom
during this epoch. The chalks proper present especially many peculiar species, but
these appear rather to owe their presence to the zone of depth in which they lived,
than to being members of a new zoological representation in time. The authors called
attention to the assemblage of minute corals, sea-urchins, Terebratule, and Spondylus
spinosus, in that part of the Culver section at which is seen the junction of the chalk
with flints and the hard chalk, as especially indicative of a very deep sea, and as
corresponding to the characters which mark a very deep sea fauna at the present
period. 3. That in the tertiary formations which succeed there is an entirely new
fauna, distinct as to every species in this locality, though elsewhere linked with the
cretaceous strata last alluded to by the presence of that remarkable mollusk, the Tere-
bratula caput-serpentis, which lives even at the present day. Of this fauna, which
did not appear until after a considerable bed of mottled clays, without traces of animal
life, had been deposited, the commencement is similar to the commencement of the
faunas of the two cretaceous periods already described; viz. by a series of clays con-
taining numerous peculiar Mya-form shells, Pectunculi, Ostree, and their associates.
The earliest fossiliferous bed at Whitecliff bay is a most remarkable one, consisting of
a thin stratum almost entirely composed of a species of shell-bearing annelid, the
Ditrupa (Dentalium planum of Min. Conch.), which appears to have lived but a short
specific life in time, and to have suddenly disappeared. In the midst of these beds,
strata charged with myriads of foraminifera, probably indicating some change in the
sea’s depth, appear and cease. The sudden conversion of the sea into a freshwater
lake, indicated by a stratum of paludina clay, its return into a brackish state, and the
consequent re-appearance of certain marine animals, its re-conversion into a fresh-
water lake thronged with myriads of fluviatile mollusca, and the almost momentary
influx of salt water during that period, which lasted only long enough for a race of
oysters to live and die away,—all render the tertiary strata in this locality highly
interesting.
From the great zoological break between the eocene and the chalk, the authors
conclude that a third or uppermost cretaceous formation, characterised by a fauna
which would link the middle term of the system with the lowest term of the tertiary,
has disappeared in this locality; whilst they regard the portion of the cretaceous
system there present as composed of two divisions, equivalent in time; the older con-
sisting of the lower greensand, and the upper, or later, forming one system, composed
of the gault, upper greensand, and chalks.
The zoological epochs exhibited in the section, commented on and modelled, are there~
fore three, viz.—1, the lower cretaceous system ; 2, the middle cretaceous system; and,
8, the lower or eocene tertiary system.
Critical Remarks on certain Passages in Dr. Buckland’s Bridgewater
Treatise. By the Very Rev. the Dean oF York.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45
_ On the Excavation of the Rocky Channels of Rivers by the Recession of their
® Cataracts. By G. W. Fearuerstonuauen, F.RS., BGS.
_ The author of this communication (now Her Majesty’s Consul at Havre de Grace),
in travelling through North America, had noticed that at some points of the course of
all the great rivers there was either a cataract, or evidence of the former existence of
one, in rapids now obstructing navigation; and on comparing the quantity of water in
the rivers now, with certain marks which appeared to indicate the quantity which
formerly flowed in their channels, he came to the conclusion that the volume of water
was formerly much greater than at present, and that such a state of things was neces-
sary for the excavation of their rocky channels, which he considers to have been
effected by the recession of their cataracts.
In the case of the St. Lawrence and its tributaries, evidence to this effect is said by
Mr. Featherstonhaugh to be very complete. The isthmus separating lakes Huron and
Erie is a lacustrine deposit, containing everywhere decayed freshwater shells, and the
land which separates the Wisconsin (a tributary of the Mississippi) from Upper Fox
River, a tributary of Green Bay, which is an elbow of Lake Huron, is so little above the
general level of the country, that itis now passed over in boats in the flood season. It is
therefore inferred that when these alluvial plains and lacustrine deposits were under
water, there was free freshwater communication between the St. Lawrence and the
_ Mississippi.
The author then proceeded to quote the Mississippi as another example illustrating
his views; and stated that that river for several hnndred miles of its course south of
the Falls of St. Anthony, runs through a valley, from one to two and a half miles in
breadth, bounded by escarpments from 200 to 450 feet high. On looking down upon
this valley from the heights, it appears as if the whole had been originally the bed of
the river.
It is however evident that the river channel could nut have been eroded to its pre-
sent extent by the water that now runs through it; and Mr. Featherstonhaugh there-
fore suggests, that the volume of the Mississippi, which accomplished the work, was
_ much greater formerly than at present.
The author then illustrates two methods by which he considers that the rocky chan-
nels of rivers may have been excavated by the recession of their cataracts; one he
_ denominates the molar, or grinding, and the other the subtracting, or undermining
process. In describing the effects produced by the first, he referred to a cataract near
600 feet in height, called Oonaykay-amah, or the white-water, situated in the Che-
_ rokee country, on the east flank of the Alleghanies, and not hitherto described by
travellers. ‘The rock here is compact gneiss, and it appears that the rush of water
eddying in the accidental hollows of the surface excavates cavities or pot-holes, some
_ of them of very large size, one of which measured four feet in diameter and six feet deep.
_ In many instances the rock was observed to be almost filled with these hollows, which
at last coalesce, and become larger, several uniting in one, until at the season of floods
considerable masses are detached, and precipitated below by the cataract. Immense
masses of rock perforated and detached in this way were found at the bottom,
It appeared to the author, that the gorge into which this cataract fell (a gorge se-
veral miles long, and near 600 feet deep) had been ground out of the solid rock in
this way; and it was considered to add to the interest of the case that at one spot
there were indications ia a circular ledge of gneiss adjacent to the cataract, and worn
_ bare for a great distance from the top, that it had at one time plunged over this semi-
cirenlar ledge, at a period when the volume of the water was immensely greater than
it is at present.
OF the other process, that of undermining, the cataract of Niagara was adduced as
an instance. The Niagara river flows upon a bed of compact limestone, overlying a
friable shale upwards of seventy feet thick, and the sheet of water having fallen over
the edge of limestone, forms a sort of screen before the shale; while behind this
screen, the constant moisture, the violent concussion, and the strong current of air
loosen and disintegrate the shale, which falls down and is washed away, leaving the
limestone without support. ‘This process continues incessantly ; and the author, in a
paper published in 1831, showed that the gorge beyond the fall had been cut from
the heights of Queenstown to the point where it now is (a distance of seven miles), by
a recession, depending upon this alternation of hard and soft strata, The excavation,
i
tn
46 REPORT—1844,
however, goes on more slowly now, partly from the much wider extent of the falls —
weakening the force of the water at any one point, and partly, the author imagines,
from the volume of water having diminished.
In conclusion, the author thinks it possible that even in our own island we are not
precluded from supposing that the same causes may have excavated river channels,
since it may be considered that England was at one time a portion of a great con-
tinent.
On the Midland Coal Formations of England. By Exvias Hatt.
An Account of that Portion of the Ordnance Geological Map of England now
completely coloured, and Notes concerning a Section through the Silurian
Rocks in the vicinity of Builth. By Sir H. T. De va Becue, F.R.S., Se.
The author gave an account of the method adopted in pursuing the geological
survey of England, and the nature and degree of accuracy of the maps and accom-
panying sections. He then stated that the vicinity of Builth is one of much geological
interest, as showing the connexion between the Silurian rocks at Ludlow, Wenlock,
and other localities on the N.E., with the same deposits in Brecon, Carmarthen, &c.,
and as affording considerable instruction relative to the intermixture of sedimentary
and igneous rock at this early period. The section described was part of one now
making by the Geological Survey between the old red sandstone of the Black Moun-
tains in Brecon and the sea north of Aberystwith. Sir H. De la Beche then com-
ared this development of the Silurian rocks with that in Siluria, and observed, that
although there is but a trace of the Wenlock and Aymestry limestones near Builth,
still there is a general resemblance to the sequence described by Mr. Murchison at
Malvern, Woolhope, &c. It is at the base of the Wenlock shales that the greatest
modification is found ; instead of the Caradoc limestone and sandstone are the shales
and slates with Asaphus Buchii, and beneath these a mixture of conglomerates, sand-
stones, &c., with similar fossils ; so that either the sandstones representing the Caradoc
are included in the Llandeilo flags, and one appellation must be applied to both, or the
Caradoc sandstone must be supposed to have thinned off, so as not to occur in the
Builth and western sections.
On certain Silurian Districts of Ireland. By Ricuarp Grirritru, £.G.S.
In this communication, Mr. Griffith first noticed the occurrence of Silurian fossils in
two extensive districts in Ireland, which have been examined by him during the
period which has intervened since the Meeting at Cork. One of those districts is
situated on the west, and the other on the east coast. That on the west was stated to
occupy a considerable portion of the counties of Mayo and Galway, to the north and
south of the remarkable estuary called Killery Harbour.
This district is bounded on the north by the mountain range of Croagh Patrick in
Mayo (which is chiefly composed of mica slate), and on the south by the primary
mountain group, called the Twelve Pins of Connemara, in the county of Galway.
Mr. Griffith exhibited a detailed section of the strata extending from south to north
from Galway Bay, across the western portion of the group of the Twelve Pins, and
thence by Killery Harbour towards Croagh Patrick. The district immediately to the
north of Galway Bay consists of sienitic granite, and occupies a tract of country ten
miles in breadth. It is succeeded on the north by a metamorphic district, (consisting
of imperfectly stratified rocks, presenting the characters of imperfect gneiss, horn-
blende slate, and semi-porphyry, having sometimes a siliceous, and sometimes a horn-
blendic base,) which occupies a stripe of country varying from two to six miles in
breadth. Beyond is the central group of the Twelve Pins, which is composed of alter-
nations of mica-slate, white quartzite, and primary limestone, the mica-slate predomi-
nating. On the summit of Benbawn, quartzite reaches an elevation of 2395 feet.
The limestone beds which alternate with the mica-slate, frequently present a cry-
stalline structure, and pass into granular marble; and in several localities, but parti-
cularly in the valley of Barnanoraun, north of Ballinahinch, there are thick beds of
yellowish-green steatitic marble, alternating irregularly with bands of limestone of
various shades of colour (Connemara marble).
:
ie
4
y
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47
The mica-slate district extends northward for a distance of eight miles to Black-
water bridge, where it terminates, and is succeeded, in an unconformable position, by a
remarkable suite of Silurian rocks.
- The first member of this series consists of a breccia composed of angular fragments
of reddish-brown mica-slate, enveloped in a paste consisting of very small fragments
of mica-slate. This breccia is stratified, and its thickness is unequal, varying from 50
to 150 feet. It is usually succeeded by brownish-red compact quartzose sandstone,
which is stratified conformably with the micaceous breccia; its average thickness may
be about 250 feet; this sandstone is followed by strata composed of gray compact
quartzite about 300 feet in thickness, which, when slightly disintegrated, presents the
character of quartzose sandstone. These strata are arranged in rather thick beds, some
of which are very fossiliferous. In the line of section the characteristic fossils con-
sist of—
Amphion brongniarti, n. s. Atrypa lacunosa.
Asaphus latifrons. », hemispherica.
Bellerophon trilobatus? (cast Orthis canalis.
Orthoceras gregarium. », orbicularis.
. tenuicinctum. Modiola semisuleata.
= virgatum. Favosites polymorpha.
Turritella gregaria. ? Turbinolopsis bina.
», obsoleta.? Tentaculites ornatus.
But in other localities near the eastern boundary of the Silurian district at Thon-
legee, on the northern declivity of Benleva mountain, and at Bohaun, south of Cor-
reen mountain, the characteristic fossils-are,—
Amphion brongniarti, n. s. Orthis orbicularis.
Agnostus tuberculatus. Turritella gregaria.
Bellerophon trilobatus. Trochus lenticularis.
Orthoceras gregarium. Atrypa affinis.
Atrypa hemispherica. Leptzena depressa.
»» lacunosa, var. ? Modiola semisulcata.
» pulchra. Tentaculites ornatus.
and several others, with many new species.
In the line of section the fossiliferous quartzite is succeeded by thick beds of coarse
conglomerate, having a base of gray compact quartz, with pebbles varying in size from
one inch to one foot or more in diameter, the pebbles being composed of compact
quartz, varying in colour from white to dark reddish gray. This conglomerate, which
is not fossiliferous, alternates with a compact quartzose slate; the whole may be about
150 feet thickness near Blackwater bridge ; but in other localities it is very thin, and
towards the eastern extremity of the district it is altogether wanting. The conglome-
rate beds are succeeded by a series of strata of about 2000 feet in thickness, consisting
of greenish-gray compact quartzite, and greenish-gray flaggy slate. At Tullyconnor
bridge they are followed by a series of beds composed of dark gray clay-slate, alter-
nating with gray quartzite, the slate predominating. ‘This series may be about 700
feet thick ; it contains numerous fossils, the most important of which are—
Calymene pulchella. Orthis lunata. ?
Amphion brongniarti, n. s. », orbicularis.
Orthoceras filosum. » Pplicata.?
5 tenuicinctum. 9» SeYicea,
ty virgatum. Leptzena depressa.
Euomphalus Iloydi, n. s. i euglypha.
re perturbatus. Psammobia rigida.
i sculptus. Favosites fibrosa.
Atrypa navicula. ? Tentaculites scalaris.
Orthis canalis.
In the eastern part of the district at Benleva mountain already mentioned, at Kil-
bride on Lough Mask, and at Ardaun, north of Lough Corrib, numerous fossils have
been discovered in the schistose rock, and nearly in the same position as those which
occur in the dark gray slate near Tullyconnor bridge, the most characteristic of which
are—
48 REPORT—1844.
Amphion brongniarti, n. s. Leptzena depressa.
Turritella gregaria. yunedata:
Euomphalus lloydi, n. s. » tenuistriata.
Lingula attenuata (var. ?) Catenipora escharoides,
» lata (var. ?) Favosites alveolaris.
Atrypa affinis. », fibrosa.
» aspera. ? » gothlandica,
», hemispheerica. » multipora.
Orthis canalis. », polymorpha.
»» costata. Porites pyriformis.
», flabellulum. », tubulata.
», orbicularis. Cyathophyllum turbinatum.
» Plicata, ? Turbinolopsis bina.
» pecten? (var.). Tentaculites ornatus.
») sericea. 5 scalaris.
In the line of section the fossiliferous slates are followed by a series of beds, con-
sisting of alternations of red clay-slate, greenish-gray clay-slate, and quartzite, alto-
gether about 1600 feet in thickness without fossils. ‘They are followed by a series of
beds about 1000 feet:in thickness, consisting of alternations of compact gray quartzite,
alternating with a greenish-gray brecciated rock; near the top are two bands of gray
subcrystalline limestone, one of which is 12 feet in thickness. This limestone is rarely
fossiliferous, but in some localities it contains stems of encrinites, imperfect zoophytes,
and rarely casts of Orthis sericea. The limestone bands are succeeded by a very re-
markable coarse-grained conglomerate, composed of a base of rounded particles of
quartz, very closely aggregated together, enclosing rolled masses of granite and com-
pact quartz, varying in colour from light gray to reddish brown: some of the rolled
masses exceed one foot in diameter, but the average range from four to ten inches in
diameter. The granite is composed of red felspar, white quartz, and some hornblende,
and is similar in composition and external character to the granite of Connemara,
north of Galway Bay. Ascending in the series, the pebbles become smaller, and then
the rock alternates with greenish gray, and occasionally purple slaty flags.
The granitic conglomerate series is of great thickness, probably upwards of 2000
feet ; it occurs both on the south and north sides of Killery Harbour. The general dip
is to the north, but at Tonatlew, north of the harbour, there is a synclinal axis, which
axis forms the highest part of the Silurian series of the district; as, to the north of it,
the conglomerate strata which occur to the south on the borders of Killery Harbour,
appear at the surface forming the steep acclivity of Tievaree mountain. Hence it
would appear that the entire thickness of the Silurian series in the Killery district
amounts to about 9000 feet. But from the fossils discovered, it would appear to be
doubtful whether it should be classed with the upper or lower Silurian group, as the
Orthis flabellulum and Orthis sericea of the lower occur abundantly among fossils
which are usually considered to be characteristic of the upper Silurian series.
Mr. Griffith next directed the attention of the Section io the Silurian district on the
east coast lately examined, extending through the counties of Waterford, Wexford,
and Wicklow, the greater part of which had previously been considered by him to
belong to the older slate series. He observed, that Mr. Weaver in his paper on the
east coast of Ireland, published in the Geological Transactions, mentioned that certain
fossils had been discovered at Knockmahon on the-coast of Waterford; subsequently
fossils had been discovered by Mr. Griffith, and also by Captain James, R.E., at
Tramore Bay, Knockmahon and other localities on the same coast. But the positions
in which fossils had been discovered being confined to the coast, Mr. Griffith had, on
his Geological Map of [reland, limited the extent of the Silurian series of Waterford
to the sea coast. At the meeting of the Association at Cork, Mr. Oldham mentioned
that he thought the Silurian series occurred on the coast of Waterford Harbour, both
in Waterford and Wexford; in consequence Mr. Griffith was induced to commence an
examination of the slate series, not only on the shores of Waterford Harbour, but
extended the investigation throughout the schistose strata of the counties of Wexford
and Wicklow; and in consequence Silurian fossils were discovered in several localities
in both of those counties. In illustration of the succession of the strata, Mr. Griffith
exhibited a section extending in a north-western direction from the sienitic granite at
re
Lee Aes
Serene «
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
Carnsore point on the coast of Wexford, crossing the quartz rock mountain of Forth,
_and afterwards the entire suite of the fossiliferous clay-slate which terminates on the
eastern boundary of the great granite district of Wicklow and Wexford. ‘The strata
which form the lowest part of the series, and which rest on the granite of Carnsore
point, consist of gray micaceous, or shining slate (probably metamorphic), alternating
with beds of gray slaty quartzite. These strata are succeeded by the quartz rock of
Forth mountain, situated close to the town of Wexford. This quartz rock is arranged
in thick beds, alternating occasionally with shining slate ; it is followed in an ascending
order by alternations of red and greenish-gray clay-slate, with occasional beds of gray
quartzite, and also with beds of greenish-gray brecciated quartzite, above which are
strata consisting of dark gray clay-slate, with occasional beds of gray quartzose flags.
These dark gray slates may be considered as the commencement of the fossiliferous
strata; for, ascending in the series, the dark gray slate is found to contain in abun-
dance Graptolites, apparently a new variety of the Graptolites foliaceus, which fossil
has been discovered in several localities in the counties of Wexford, Wicklow, and
also in Meath and Tyrone. Still proceeding north-westward in the line of the section,
and apparently ascending in the series, the same.dark gray slate continues, and in
several localities in the same strike it was found to contain fossils belonging to the
lower Silurian series, particularly the following :—
Trinucleus caractaci. Orthis canalis.
os fimbriatus. 3) protensa.
3 radiatus. » Yadians.
5 seticornis. » rugifera,
Calymene blumenbachii. »» sericea.
Asaphus corndensis. » testudinaria.
» latifrons. », triangularis.
» Marginatus. Fenestella milleri.
Isotelus powisii. Favosites fibrosa.
Orthis actoniz. Tentaculites annulatus.
The dark gray slate continues above these fossiliferous beds, when it is succeeded by
a series of strata consisting of greenish-gray and red slates, with occasional beds of
quartzite ; these strata are frequently calcareous, and in such localities encrinite stems
are abundant, and occasionally we find obscure casts of Orthides and Trilobites, with
traces of Zoophyta, the specific characters of none of which were sufficiently perfect
to be recognized. On the north shore of Waterford Harbour, these greenish-gray and
red slates form a trough nearly in the centre of the district, to the west of which the
dark gray clay-slates rise up from beneath, and extend to the eastern boundary of the
great granite district of Wicklow already mentioned.
The strata throughout the whole of the slate district of Waterford, Wexford, and
Wicklow, are very much disturbed and contorted; consequently it will be difficult to
trace with certainty the same beds by following the strike; but judging from the
similarity of the fossils found in Wicklow, Mr. Griffith was inclined to think that the
same system of fossils occurs there.
Mr. Griffith further observed, that there was still a very extensive schistose district
extending through the counties of Down, Armagh, Monaghan, Cavan, Louth, and
Meath, in which no fossils had been hitherto discovered, excepting on the southern
border, near Slane in the county of Meath, where Graptolites, similar to those of
Wicklow and Wexford, had been discovered by him, and also Orthides. He thought
it probable that the whole district was fossiliferous, and probably belonged to the same
portion of the lower Silurian series to which we must attach the schistose district of
Wicklow, Wexford, &c. RsidPd Gil oy
Notice of the Discovery of a large Specimen of Plesiosaurus found at Kettle-
ness, on the Yorkshire Coast. By Epwarp CHARLESWORTH, F.G.S.
The subject of this notice had been found a short time previously in the lias shale,
quarried for the manufacture of alum, in the Kettleness Cliff, a few miles north of
Whitby ; and the lessees of the works, Messrs. Liddell and Gordon, had permitted the
author to remove it, for the purpose of examination, to the museum of the Yorkshire
Philosophical Society. Its total length was fifteen feet; that of the head above two
ae . t neck, double that of the head; length of the humerus, thirteen inches ; length
e E
50 _ REPORT—1844,
of femur, fourteen inches. The author observes, that the only published species ex-
hibiting the above relative proportions of head and neck, is the Plesiosaurus macroce-
phalus of Conybeare, to which he supposes the present fossil must be referred. To
agree however fully with the characters assigned to this species by Prof. Owen, the
respective lengths of the femur and humerus should have been twelve and fourteen
inches, He also finds the tail more depressed than it appears to have been in the
celebrated specimen of P. macrocephalus belonging to the Earl of Enniskillen. The
author in conclusion, regretted not having had time to make a more rigid examination
of the Kettleness fossil, and stated his intention to publish a detailed account on some
future occasion.
On the Discovery, by Mr. Searles Wood, of an Alligator in the Freshwater
Cliff at Hordwell, associated with extinct Mammalia. Communicated by
Mr. CHARLESWORTH.
A considerable portion of the skeleton of an alligator, to which Mr, Wood gives the
specific name Hantoniensis, was discovered by this gentleman at Hordwell, in the
summer of 1843. He found at the same time the teeth and jaws of a Pachyderma-
tous Mammal, closely related to Hyracotherium, but not Jarger than a Hedgehog.
Regarding these remains as indicating a new genus, Mr. Wood proposes the name
Microcherus, with the specific term erinaceus. Associated with the above fossils
there were also discovered some portions of the jaws of a very small insectivorous ani-
ap aud two very remarkable teeth, referred by Mr. Charlesworth to an extinct genus
of Seals.
Remains of various other extinct vertebrata were discovered on this occasion by
Mr. Wood at Hordwell, including Palgotherium (teeth and bones), Lepidosteus (scales,
jaws and vertebra), the bone of a bird, with vertebre referable probably to Ophi-
dians and small Saurians, and incisor teeth of Rodents.
Mr. Charlesworth suggested the generic name Spalacodon for a small insectivorous
animal, indicated by a portion of a jaw which Mr. Flower of Croydon obtained from
Hordwell, and entrusted to Mr. Charlesworth for publication with Mr. Wood's fossils.
On the Bathymetrical Distribution of Submarine Life on the Northern Shores
of Scandinavia. By Professor Loven of Stockholm. Communicated by
Mr. Murcuison, P.R.Geogr.S.
By an examination of the sea-bottoms along the coasts of Norway, the author had
arrived at the same conclusions as those established by Professor Forbes from researches
in the Aigean Sea. After remarking on this, he says, ‘‘ As to the regions, the littoral
and laminarian are very well defined everywhere, and their characteristic species do
not spread very far out of them. The same is the case with the region of florideous
Algze, which is most developed nearer to the open sea. But it isnot so with the regions
from fifteen to one hundred fathoms. Here there is at the same time the greatest num-
ber of species and the greatest variety of their local assemblages; and it appears to me
that their distribution is regulated, not only by depths, currents, &c., but by the nature
of the bottom itself, the mixture of clay, mud, pebbles, &c. Thus, for instance, the
same species of Amphidesma, Nucula, Natica, Eulima, Dentalinm, &c., which are cha-
racteristic of a certain muddy ground at fifteen to twenty fathoms, are found together
at eighty to one hundred fathoms. Hence it appears, that the species in this region
have generally a wider vertical range than the littoral, Jaminarian, and perhaps as
great as the deep-sea coral. The last-named region is with us characterized, in the
south by Oculina ramea and Terebratula, and in the north by Astrophyton, Cidaris,
Spatangus purpureus of an immense size, all living, besides Gorgonie and the gigantic
Alcyonium arboreum, which continues as far down as any fisherman’s line can be sunk.
As to the point where animal life ceases, it must be somewhere, but with us it is un-
known. As the vegetation ceases at a line far above the deepest regions of animal life,
of course the zoophagous mollusca are altogether predominant in these parts, while the
phytophagous are more peculiar to the upper regions. The observation of Professor
E. Forbes, that British species are found in the Mediterranean, but only at greater
depths, corresponds exactly with what has occurred to me. In Bogoslan (between
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51
_ Gottenburg and Norway), we find at eighty fathoms, species which, in Finmark (on
the north), may be readily collected at twenty, and on the last-named coast, some spe~
cies even ascend into the littoral region, which, with us here in the south, keep within
ten to eleven fathoms.”
_ These researches were undertaken simultaneously with those of Professor Forbes,
and these authors arrived at similar results quite independent of each other,
On an Anomalous Structure in the Paddle of a Species of Ichthyosaurus.
By H. E. Srricxianp, M.A., F.G.S.
The anomaly of structure described in this communication, consisted of an additional
bone between the radius and ulna of the anterior extremity of an Ichthyosaurus. Two
specimens had been found having this peculiarity, and it was suggested that it might
indicate a specific peculiarity. In both the specimens the humerus was succeeded by
three nearly equal-sized bones, and these by the usual irregular paddle-bones repre-
senting the metacarpals, the carpals, and the phalanges.
Queries and Statements concerning a Nail found imbedded in a Block of Sand-
stone obtained from Kingoodie (Mylnfield) Quarry, North Britain. Com-
municated by Sir DAvip BREewsTER.
This communication, drawn up by Mr. Buist, consisted of a series of queries, with
the answers that had been returned by different persons connected with the quarry,
the inquiry being set on foot by persons present on the discovery of the nail or imme-
diately afterwards. The following is the substance of the investigation.
1. The circumstance of the discovery of the nail in the block of stone.
The stone in Kingoodie quarry consists of alternate layers of hard stone and a soft
clayey substance called “ éi//;” the courses of stone varying from six inches to upwards
of six feet in thickness. The particular block in which the nail was found, was nine
inches thick, and in proceeding to clear the rough block for dressing, the point of the
nail was found projecting about half an inch (quite eaten with rust)-into the “ ¢2/l,”
the rest of the nail laying along the surface of the stone to within an inch of the head,
which went right down into the body of the stone. The nail was not discovered while
the stone remained in the quarry, but when the rough block (measuring two feet in
length, one in breadth, and nine inches in thickness) was being cleared of the super-
ficial “ti//,” There is no evidence beyond the condition of the stone to prove what
part of the quarry this block may have come from.
2. The condition of the quarry from which the block of stone was obtained.
The quarry itself (called the east quarry) has only been worked for about twenty
years, but an adjoining one (the west quarry) has been formerly very much worked,
_ and has given employment at one time to as many as 500 men. Very large blocks of
stone have at intervals been obtained from both. It is observed that the rough block
in which the nail was found must have been turned over and handled at least four
_ or five times in its journey to Inchyra, at which place it was put before masons for
_ working, and where the nail was discovered.
On the Relative Age and True Position of the Millstone Grit and Shale, in
reference to the Carboniferous System of Stratified Rocks in the British
Pennine Chain of Hills. By J. Rooxe.
The object of this communication was to point out a supposed error in the order of
the strata as laid down by geologists, and to show that the error originated in the neg-
lect of a due consideration of what are called by the author the laws of a drifting
process.
—
On the Toadsiones of Derbyshire. By Joun Ausop.
In this communication, which was intended to illustrate and explain certain sections
prepared by the author, allusion was made to recent mining speculations in Derbyshire,
in which the object has been to find a continuation of the mineral veins underneath
EQ
52 REPORT—1844.,
the toadstone beds, and it is mentioned as not surprising that beds so uncertain not
only in thickness, but in locality, should daunt the enterprise of the miner, since a
mere bed of clay varying from a few inches to a foot in thickness in one mine, becomes
in the next mine twelve or fourteen fathoms thick, and in another a hard compact rock.
The object of the paper was to prove this uncertainty, and to show that there are at least
two if not three distinct beds of the singular rock called toadstone.
The author, alluding to the opinion of Mr. Hopkins, that when two beds of toad-
stone have been thought to exist, a fault has re-introduced the one, and thereby occa-
sioned the mistake (an opinion since somewhat modified), states that in a section of
Crick Cliff, what is at one shaft a thin bed of clay a foot thick, becomes within a
short distance fourteen feet thick, and contains large nodules of compact toadstone,
while the thick bed of toadstone actually sunk through at one shaft diminishes to a
thin bed at the other mine, and this is clearly discernible, since the workings are con-
nected and the trace of each bed is never lost sight of.
The author then proceeds to allude to different clayey beds uncertain in thickness, and
when thickest, containing blocks of hard toadstone. One of these, the ‘ great clay” of
the Wirksworth district, is identified with another at Crick, by the situation of three beds
of clay beneath. These clays are said to be well-known to the working miner and
to be easily recognizable when they have been once seen. They are called (1) the
“twenty-fathom clay,” (2) the ‘bearing clay,” occurring about seventeen fathoms
below the former, and (3) the ‘‘ tumbling clay,” about five fathoms below the bearing
clay, and remarkable for its undulating character.
It is stated that at Smitterton a thick bed of toadstone of twelve fathoms replaces
a thin bed of clay at Crick and Wirksworth, there being at this place (Smitterton)
a second toadstone similar to those at Crick and Wirksworth with a limestone resting
upon it, also similar in character and containing similar fossils. There is also another
bed, to all appearance another toadstone, but this was not made out distinctly ; it is at
the same distance from the toadstone as the twenty-fathom clay at the other places.
Account of the Grassington Lead Mines, illustrating a Model of the Mine.
By S. Evpy.
The model which this communication was intended to illustrate represented a portion
of the Grassington Lead Mines near Skipton in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the
property of the Duke of Devonshire, at whose request the model was exhibited. The
mines are in the carboniferous series of strata, from which two-thirds of the whole
quantity of lead raised annually in England is obtained.
It is well known that most of the lead veins in this formation in England are prin-
cipally valuable when passing through the limestone bed, but to this general rule the
Grassington mines form an exception, nearly the whole produce being obtained in the
gritty beds, alternating with the limestone and shale. It is to be observed, however,
that the veins, although numerous and extending over a large tract of moorland, are for
the most part small and not very productive. It was considered that as a thick bed of
limestone (thirty-six fathoms) succeeds the shale and gritstone in which the veins are
worked, and is succeeded by a bed of shale, the produce would increase on reaching
the limestone, but this has not proved to be the case. A trial is now going on for the
purpose of exploring some of the principal veins below the shale.
Nearly all the veins in the Grassington district are what are termed “ Fault veins,”
that is, a vertical displacement of the strata has taken place, so that the same beds are
found at different levels on the two sides of the vein, and the subsidence of the strata
is generally on that side to which the veins incline, the amount of inclination or under-
lay of the vein being invariably much greater in the argillaceous beds than in the grit
or limestone.
A depression of a few feet or two or three fathoms is considered most favourable
for lead ore, but the displacement is sometimes much greater, causing grit or limestone
on one side of the vein to be opposite to argillaceous beds on the other. In such cases
the veins are rarely productive, although the principal vein shown in the model is an
exception to this rule.
The general matrix of the ore (the veinstone) is calcareous spar, fluor spar, barytes,
and occasionally calamine, and when the amount of the fault is so considerable as to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53
_ ‘bring beds of different mineral character in contact, fragments of the containing rocks
form a great portion of the contents of the vein.
The portion of the mine modelled represents the richest piece of ground as yet
opened in these mines, and includes two extensive fault veins, together with a piece of
ground from which some very rich slickensides have been obtained. All the ore found
near the slickensides is much more refractory in the furnace, and of less produce than
that raised at a distance from it. The gritstone between the two veins from the points
where the slickensides commenced is also quite altered in its character and appearance.
The model was on a scale of one inch to five fathoms, but the veins and a bed of
coal represented were on a larger scale. There was exhibited a transverse section
of the mining ground for 138 fathoms, a longitudinal section of eighty fathoms, and a
depth of seventy fathoms.
‘On the Paleozoic Rocks of Scandinavia and Russia, particularly as to the
Lower Silurian Rocks which form their true Base. By R. 1. Murcuison,
F.RS., P.R.Geog.S., 5c.
The author commenced by giving a general sketch of the Paleozoic succession in
Russia, showing that however perfect in exhibiting a series of Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous and Permian rocks, it was defective at its base, since between the Silu-
rian rocks of the governments of St. Petersburg and Reval, and the crystalline rocks
of Finland, there occurs a wide and deep bay of the sea; and in tracing the lower
edge of the Silurian rocks from St. Petersburg to Archangel on the N.E., their junc-
tion with the underlying series is equally hidden by large accumulations of detritus.
‘There is also another reason why this passage cannot be made out, arising from the
condition of the Silurian rocks, which soft, unaltered, and, in truth, unfathomed along
the northern edge of the Baltic provinces, come in contact towards the N.E. with erup-
tive trap rocks, and have thereby undergone metamorphosis over an extensive tract of
country, so that on the whole the exact manner in which these ancient deposits repose
on the pre-existing rocks cannot there be distinctly observed.
Scandinavia, on the other hand, presents a very clearly defined base-line, which is ex-
posed in different sections, both in Sweden and Norway. In illustration, the author
first mentioned several instances in Sweden, where the very lowest Silurian beds con-
taining no other fossils than fucoids, repose horizontally upon the crystalline rocks of a
more ancient period; and he also cited localities where the lowest Silurian rocks are to
a great extent formed out of the detritus of those more ancient rocks.
__ In the first-formed or gneissose slates of Scandinavia no organic remains have been
discovered. Taking into account this fact, and adopting the prevailing theory, that
the first solid envelope of the globe was formed under a heat so intense as to preclude
the possibility of the existence of animal life, Mr. Murchison proposes the term ““Azoic*”
for this group of deposits, as expressing the fact that no organic remains have yet been
discovered in them. The Azoic group is immediately followed by the great palzozoic
series, commencing with the lower Silurian, and terminated in the ascending order with
the rocks of the Permian system.
Believing however, that metamorphism has frequently imparted a crystalline character
to sedimentary strata, containing organic remains, in illustration of which view he re-
ferred to observations he made in company with Dr. Forchhammer (see memoir in this
volume), Mr. Murchison alluded next to the importance of drawing a marked distinc-
tion between this more modern class of crystalline rocks and that which he terms Azoic.
He mentioned as an instance, that in Norway there are extensive transition districts
replete with granite, porphyry, and greenstone, all erupted subsequent to the deposi-
tion of the Silurian strata, which they have altered, and which are always distinguish-
able from the ancient gneiss and granitic gneiss, upon which they repose.
Referring for the further illustration of his views to a section across Sweden and
the Baltic Sea, to the tract of Russia east and south of St. Petersburg, Mr. Mur~
chison proceeded to state, that the lower Silurian rocks of both countries contain a
similar group of organic remains, including many species occurring in deposits of the
same age in the British Isles. He also mentioned that in Sweden, at least throughout
the central and southern provinces, as well as in the Baltic provinces of Russia, no
* Hypozoic of Phillips.
54 REPORT—1844,
true upper Silurian rocks are found; so that the whole of these highly fossiliferous
regions belong to that period of animal life at which vertebrated animals did not exist.
This absence of even the lowest of the vertebrata in the inferior Silurian rocks, an
absence which is total, so far as can be inferred from the researches of geologists in all
parts of the world, gives them a true “ Protoxoic” character; and this condition of things
was mentioned by the author as a strong reason for concluding, that the epoch in ques-
tion was the earliest in which animal life was developed. It was also shown that the
Swedish and Norwegian sections afford ample illustration of the fact, that if fucoids or
marine vegetables did not precede the first-formed animals, they were certainly con-
temporaneous with them ; thus confirming the view, that the animals found in a fossil
state in these protozoic rocks must have been provided with vegetable sustenance.
The almost total absence of upper Silurian rocks in Southern and Central Sweden,
and in the mainland of the Baltic governments of Russia, was explained by Mr. Mur-
chison on the hypothesis of such tracts having undergone extensive elevatory move-
ments, which placed them beyond the influence of depository action during the suc-
ceeding period ; and he mentioned that this view is rendered highly probable by the
discovery of true upper Silurian rocks in the Baltic islands of Gothland, Osel, and
Dago, which are made up of corals and molluscous remains, similar to those of the
Wenlock and Ludlow rocks of the British Islands; the whole reposing on a band of
limestone, which occupies exactly the same place in the geological sequence, and con-
tains the same fossils (Pentamerus oblongus), as the Woolhope and Horderly limestone
of Siluria. This calcareous band appears therefore to be the connecting link between
the lower and upper Silurian rocks in Scandinavia, just asin the typical districts of our
own country. Beneath it appear black flags, limestones, schists and sandstones, with
such fossils as Zrinucleus Caractaci, Asaphus Buchii, A. tyrannus, Agnostus, Sphzro-
nites, Orthis, and certain chambered shells, greatly resembling as a group, and often
specifically identical with the fossils of the same age in the British Isles; while above
are many concretionary coralline limestones and calcareous flagstones and shales,
charged with the common upper Silurian species.
In the district around Christiania and in the islands of its bay or fiord, these two divi-
sions of the Silurian system are beautifully exposed in numerous undulations and dislo-
cations of the strata, and they are there so bound together by zoological and mineral
transitions, that they constitute a very distinct natural group, in which the coralline
masses of the upper division are singularly analogous to the best-developed types in
England (the Dudley and Wenlock), and like them, are overlaid by flag-like strata.
The author next alluded to his discovery at Christiania of an ascending succession,
in which the upper Silurian strata are seen to pass under great escarpments of red flag-
stone, sandstone, and conglomerate, which, covered by porphyry, occupy a consider-
able breadth of high land, and repose, as in a great basin, upon the upper Silurian
rocks; and this group of rocks in Scandinavia has exactly the appearance of the old
red sandstone of the North of England and Scotland. ‘The details of this succession
of Norwegian palozoic rocks will be subsequently presented to the Geological Society
of London, and a brief abstract of the principal facts, as explained by Mr. Murchison
to the last meeting of the Society of Scandinavian Naturalists, will be published in the
volume of the Transactions of that body.
Mr. Murchison then proceeded to give a rapid sketch of some of the leading features
of Russian Palzeozoic Geology, showing in the first place, that the Devonian rocks
there occupied a space larger than the whole area of Great Britain, and exhibit at
the same time the most instructive development of the system yet discovered. Re-
posing upon Silurian rocks, and overlaid by true carboniferous limestones, they contain
the same fossil fishes as are found in Scotland, and the same molluscous remains and
corals as the contemporaneous strata of Devonshire, the Boulonnais, and the Rhenish
provinces. The Devonian system Mr. Murchison considers as the earliest great store-
house of fishes, a few species only having been discovered in the uppermost Silurian
rocks.
The surprising coincidences between the organic remains of the carboniferous lime-
stone of Russia and of the British Islands, and the perfect agreement between nume-
rous species of shells found in the Westmoreland and Yorkshire dales on the one hand,
and the tracts of Siberia on the other, was next adverted to as a strong proof, in addi-
tion to that derived from the wide spread of the species of coal-plants, that the earlier
epochs of the earth’s history were marked by much more equable and widely diffuse 1
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. f 55
climatal conditions than now obtain. Mr. Murchison then concluded by summing up the
views arrived at by his coadjutors (M. de Verneuil and Count Keyserling) and himself
concerning the newer paleozoic rocks, explaining that the Permian strata* (so named
from their great development in the ancient kingdom of Permia) were connected with
the lower palzozoic deposits (the Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian), not only by the
generic facies of the fauna, but also by species of Producti, Terebratule, &c., which
lived in earlier periods. ‘The land plants found in these strata approach also very
nearly to those of the carboniferous rocks, and according to M. Adolphe Brongniart,
are in some instances identical with them.
The termination of the Permian system, on the contrary, is marked by an entire
change in animal life, and so far as we yet know, in vegetable life also, the fossils of
the red marls, the muschelkalk, and the keuper (the trias of foreigners and the upper
new red sandstone of English geologists) being wholly distinct from those of the pa-
leozoic series
Copies of a tabular list of the organic remains of the Permian system, as prepared
by Mr. Murchison and M. de Verneuil, and intended to form part of a work to be
published on the geology of Russia, were then laid before the Section.
New Swedish and Norwegian Maps.—Mr. Murchison next called attention to a
lithological map of Sweden, now in preparation, in which a great number of the ancient
crystalline rocks are distinguished from each other by different colours, and their
flexures marked. A portion of this map had been shown to Mr. Murchison by the
Baron Berzelius, under whose superintendence it will be published. Allusion was
made also to a geological map of the Christiania district, by Professor Keilhau, and
to a new geological map of the northern part of Norway by the same author.
A Geological Map of the British Isles and part of France was exhibited by
My. J. Knipe.
This map, the author states, was intended to supply a want that existed at the
time he undertook the work, when the separately published Geological Maps of
England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland were imperfect and not constructed to any
uniform scale, or according to any uniform method of colouring.
On the Exeter Amygdaloid. By the Rev. Davip WiLLiams.
The author remarked that so long as twenty-five years ago, Mr. Greenough had
pointed out the difficulty of distinguishing between the red marl and the toadstone of
Heavitree, and stated, that judging from the specimens he exhibited to the meeting,
and from the sections represented by his diagrams, the trappean matter did not appear
to him to have been injected into the variegated marl and sandstone. Mr. Williams con-
sidered that these specimens and sections exhibited every gradation, from a perfectly
fused sandstone, to a partially freckled surface caused by the incipient process of con-
version, and that in this respect they presented the appearances seen at the boundary
walls of granite veins, indicating the process of reduction always in advance of the lava
sea within, while its efforts at reducing the bounding rocks contained in itself the ele-
ments of compensation and correction in thus working out safety valves and channels
of communication with the surface of the globe over the several volcanic areas.
The author remarked with reference to these changes, that the greater or less
amount of alteration and the presence or absence of granite vein-like processes or cavities
eroded in the adjacent rocks, would enable an observer to distinguish whether any
igneous rock had been generated and crystallized in situ, or was a contemporaneous
and erupted product, and in illustration quoted the section of the Raddon quarry,
where the presence of three thin seams of unfused grit, ten and twelve feet long, give
the trap to that extent only the appearance of bedding. He argued that the presence
of these lines of sandstone perfectly insulated in the amygdaloid was inexplicable on
the hypothesis of injection, but was a natural result of fusion, certain portions of
* The Permian system comprehends the formation of the lower new red sandstone (Rothe-
todte-liegende), Magnesian limestone (kupfer-schiefer and zechstein), and also a portion of
the overlying red sandstone, which has been hitherto inaccurately grouped with the trias.
56 REPORT—1844.
the rock escaping conversion on the diminution of the temperature. On three sides
of the quarry the variegated sandstone was observed resting on the trap without having
been dislocated or deranged by it, and this also appeared to Mr. Williams only to be
explained by supposing tranquil fusion and conversion. ‘Ifthe amygdaloid,” he said,
‘‘had in either case been forcibly protruded, it must have displaced very many inillions
of cubie yards of sandstone and caused great derangement; yet there was not a particle
of evidence of anything of the kind having taken place.” ‘The author concluded by
stating that he had discovered instances of the process of fusion and conversion in all
the slates, sandstones and limestones of South Devon and Cornwall, in the mountain
limestone of the Mendips, and the variegated sandstones about Exeter, all of them ex-
plicitly and emphatically negativing the hypothesis of injection.
‘
Notice respecting the Discovery of Gold Ores in Merionethshire, North Wales.
By Artuur Deay, C.£.
The author stated, that in 1843 he discovered some rich gold ores at the Cwmhei-
sian mines near Dolgelly. Further researches proved that a complete system of
auriferous veins exists throughout the whole of the Snowdonian or lower Silurian
formations of North Wales.
The structure of this district is very singular, consisting of an immense number of
alternate and parallel beds of igneous and sedimentary rocks, traversed by vast num-
bers of mineral veins and trap dykes.
These mineral veins are of three periods of formation ; those of the first period have
an average bearing from $.E. to N.W., with a dip to the north ; they contain quartz
impregnated with ores of argentiferous galena, copper, iron, and blende, &c. The
veins of the second period have a general bearing N.E. and S.W., with a northern
dip, and contain carbonates and sulphates of barytes and lime, galena, blende, &c.
The third set, comprising the auriferous veins, traverse both the other two, and have
an average bearing of N.N.E. and S.S.W.., and like the others, with a north dip. These
veins are very numerous, and are filled with argillaceous substances, iron pyrites, and
iron and blende ores. In width they vary from ith of an inch to 6 or 8 inches, but
sometimes expand to 2 or 3 yards. In many cases they split into a great number of
minute branches. Where the auriferous veins traverse quartzose veins of the first
series they are generally very productive of gold, the quartzose veins, if metalliferous,
becoming enriched on the south side of the intersection. The sides of the auriferous
veins, where they pass through quartzose veins, are generally ce!lular, and in these
cells the gold, in a fibrous form, is for the most part deposited, accompanied by various
ores of iron, blende, galena, &c.
In almost all cases in this district, where the mineral veins intersect each other, the
intersected vein, if enriched at the junction, is productive only on the south side of
the intersection, while it dips towards the north; and the intersecting vein, if also en-
riched, carries its ore from the point of intersection towards the north. Veins dipping
south are almost always poor.
If a vein runs east and west, and the strike of the strata be north and south, the
courses of ore follow the dip of the strata most favourable to their production.
Some of the gold ores discovered produce from 3 dwts. to 60 ounces of gold per ton
of ore as broken ; and some of the washed sulphurets of lead contain lead, 75 per cent;
silver, 40 ounces; gold, from 2 to 20 ounces per ton.
‘Observations on the Stratification of Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks of the
Lower Silurian Formation in North Wales. By Arntuur Dean, C.B.
In this communication the author stated his opinion that the igneous and sedimen-
tary rocks of North Wales were for the most part of contemporaneous origin, the ig-
neous rocks being regularly interstratified with the others, and not presenting any
appearance of having been subsequently injected between the strata. Sometimes at
least fifty alternations of parallel beds of igneous and sedimentary rocks may be found
within the distance of a mile, varying respectively from one foot to sixty yards in
thickness. In many cases also several beds of igneous rocks rest upon one another
without the intervention of sedimentary rocks, such beds occasionally thinning out
and disappearing.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57
_ These masses of igneous and sedimentary rock are traversed by numerous trap
_ dykes or veins, often accompanied (always on the north side) by mineral veins, to
_ which they serve as the under walls. The trap dykes generally dip northward.
_ Channels of slate several yards wide inclosing mineral veins are also frequently
- found ; the slate is highly laminated, and the laminz are parallel to the dip of the
vein.
On the Explanation of certain Geological Phenomena by the Agency of
Glaciers. By Epmunp Batten, M.A.
The object of the author in this communication was chiefly to excite discussion
concerning the transport of large boulders and erratic blocks observed in different
parts of Europe. His account was restricted to the gigantic boulders of Switzerland
and the shores of the Baltic, and the erratic blocks traceable to the Grampian chain of
Scotland. The former have been frequently described, and are considered by the
Swiss geologists to have been conveyed by immense glaciers extending across the
* great valley of Switzerland; and near Edinburgh, appearances are observable which
seem to indicate something like a similar cause having acted. It is a question, how-
ever, whether any theory of glacier motion will account for the passage of glaciers
over these districts, and the improbability of a great extent of glaciers moving like a
_Tiver across a country was pointed out. Allusion was then made to the iceberg
_ theory, and its greater probability as a means of transporting heavy blocks; and the
author concluded by enforcing the necessity of numerous observations, with a view to
the solution of the problem.
On the Occurrence of Marine Shelis in the Gravels of Ireland.
By Tuomas Otpuan, MRA. F.G.S.
The author commenced by noticing the prevalence of gravel and diluvial deposits
in Ireland, where they occur in long, Jow rounded ridges called Eskars, which stretch
for many miles in nearly a right line ; or in detached rounded hills, or forming undu-
lating grassy plains. These gravels have hitherto been considered not to contain any
"organic remains, and have been carefully distinguished from some deposits of clay
‘containing marine shells which have been noticed in several places along the coasts, at
elevations varying from 50 to 300 feet above the present level of the sea. Mr. Oldham
_ did not consider this distinction well-founded, There were with the gravel deposits,
_ patches of clay identical, in general mineral character and in the pebbles of the trans-
_ ported blocks which they contained, with those known to contain marine shells; and
_ similarly, with the clay deposits, were layers of gravel, consisting of the same ingre-
_ dients, and similarly arranged with the gravels of the undoubted eskars. Tracing
further, he had extended the range of these fossiliferous clays, finding them in very
“Many places, and in the centre of the island as well as along the coast; and at eleva-
_ tions above the present sea level of 200 to 600 feet ; in several cases also in distinct
eskars. Taking these facts as proof of a general alteration of level, he showed two
_ maps, on which were represented the amount of land which would be visible were this
_ alteration to have taken place to the extent of 1000 feet and 500 feet. In the former
_ ease what is now Ireland would only have existed as a few small scattered islands in
the north and south ; and the same would have been, in a general view, the case, if the
alteration were only to the extent of 5U0 feet elevation or depression.
__ These deposits the author referred to the era of the Newer Pliocene or Pleistocene, from
the occurrence of the characteristic shell, the Nucula oblonga (Brown) ; with this was
found the Astarte gairensis, and about twenty species now existing in the adjoining seas.
_, Under these so-called diluvial deposits the rocks were almost invariably found polished,
furrowed and scratched; the edges of the projecting beds rounded off and smoothed,
and the whole ploughed up in parallel lines. These scratches were to be found nearly
at the present level of the sea, and also at very considerable elevations above it.
—_—~-—
On the Physical Character and Geology of Norfolk Island.
By Capt. Maconocuir, R.N., K.H.
_ The group of which Norfolk Island is the principal is situate in lat. 29° 2! S. and
168° 2' east long., 900 miles E.N.E. of Sydney, and 1350 N.E. from Cape Pillar in
58 REPORT—1844.
Van Diemen’s Land. Norfolk and Philip Islands, the largest of the group, are about six
miles distant from each other, and about a dozen others, the Nepean and Bird Islands,
are little more than dry rocks distributed among them. Norfolk Island is not quite —
5 miles long with a medium breadth of about 23 miles, and its superficies is said to be
8960 acres; its greatest elevation is the double summit of Mount Pitt, 1050 feet high;
its sea front is high and precipitous, presenting cliffs of 200 and 250 feet in height,
and the small streams which occupy the ravines in winter fall in cascades 30 or 50 feet —
high into the sea. Philip Island is about 1} mile long, with an average breadth of 3; —
its most elevated point is probably 200 or 300 feet less than that of Norfolk Island. —
It is everywhere precipitous, furrowed by deep channels and densely wooded, though
the timber is small and of little value. Both these islands are masses of porphyry —
much decomposed on the surface ; and boulders of compact greenstone are abundant —
in both, especially in the fields and water-courses of Norfolk Island, where they are
employed as building materials; they are also found imbedded in the porphyry at the
greatest depths to which the rock has been penetrated by wells or exposed in ravines.
Near the south-east extremity of Norfolk Island are extensive beds of sand and lime-
stone resting on the porphyry; the limestone, which is the lowest formation, is from
12 to 20 feet thick, and occupies about 20 acres of comparatively flat land; in two
places it has been fractured and upheaved from an angle of 10° to an absolute verti-
cality. It is thin-bedded, the laminz being usually 1 to 3 inches thick, of fine quality,
slightly mixed with sand, but yielding 90 per cent. of lime; the sandstone appears to
be entirely a modern formation, lying upon and against the dislocated limestone; the
bar and projecting rocks along the whole of the south-east front are composed of it,
but it is nowhere above 6 feet thick; below it is found an unctuous black clay full of
vegetable remains, especially the leaves and seeds of pines and other island trees.
The sandstone is only compact on the coasts where it is still forming; it contains marine
shells and incrusts the boulders of greenstone on the coast. Being porous and filled
with saline particles, it forms a bad building stone, the houses built of it requiring to be
rough cast with lime. Opposite the settlement which is placed on these beds, and
about 600 yards from the beach, Nepean Island rises to the height of 50 feet; it is
about a quarter of a mile long, and of a horse-shoe shape open to the east. The limestone
of which this island is composed is used for the shafts of chimneys, its east and south-
east beach is formed of sandstone. No water has been found in it, and its vegetation
has within the last few years almost disappeared, owing to a colony of rabbits, which
having destroyed everything edible, have now themselves perished. It is reported
that in 1793 this island was only a boat’s length from Norfolk Island, but that in 1797
two severe earthquake shocks were experienced, by the second of which the nearer point
of Nepean was submerged, and the channel altered to its present form. The rocks which
pave the channel between these two islands are almost all limestones, whilst elsewhere
they are porphyritic. The Bird Islands are rocks of porphyry distributed along the
north shore of Norfolk Island ; they are of no ceconomic value, and are tenanted only by
sea birds.
On the Communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, through the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. By Signor GAETANO Moro. Communicated by
Mr. Murcuison, P.R. Geogr.S.
It is considered by Signor Moro, who has carefully surveyed the district, that the
communication between ‘the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans might be accomplished
in severa) ways, by taking advantage of the rivers on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
which flow on one side into the Pacific, and on the other into the Gulf of Mexico,
and in a manner far more advantageous than by either of the proposed routes by Ni-
caragua or Panama. This new line is considerably to the north of the others, and the
country is said to be rich in the most valuable kinds of wood.
This work being published, can be consulted by all geographers.
On the Fish River of the North Polar Sea. By Ricuarp Kine, M.D.
The author stated that the source of the Fish River was discovered by Hearn,
during his memorable journey to the Polar Sea, and that Captain Sir John Franklin,
having learnt from an Indian named Blackmeat that the outlet of this river was im
i
M
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59
Regent's Inlet, it was selected in 1833 as the route to be followed in seeking Captain
Sir John Ross and his party. Ultimately, however, another river, now known as the
“ Great Fish ” River, was preferred, so that the “Fish” River was not explored. In
1836, the anthor proposed to Government that a small expedition should be sent out
to survey the portion of North-eastern America yet unknown, and that the Fish River
should be the line of route, but Captain Sir John Franklin, then, for the first time,
expressed a doubt with regard to the outlet of the river, which he thought to be in the
Atlantic Ocean, and not the Polar Sea, He also suggested that the features of the
river at its source were by no means the same as had been mentioned by the Indian
above alluded to.
The author endeavoured to show, by adducing the evidence of the Chippewyan and
Copper Indians and the Fur Traders in support of Blackmeat, that sooner or later
this river will form a prominent feature in the survey of the unexplored Polar lands, as
affording the means of connecting the discoveries of Messrs. Dease and Simpson on
the one side, with those of Captain Sir E. Parry on the other. He considered that the
sea of Regent's Inlet could thus be traced upwards, and its boundaries on either side
explored, while a knowledge of Melville Peninsula, and the actual character of North
Somerset (whether insular or peninsular) would also be determined. The author
urged in conclusion, that being thus so near the crowning-work of the labour of three
centuries, it would be unreasonable to stop, since one short summer would complete
the survey.
ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
A Catalogue of Birds observed in South-Eastern Durham and in North-
Western Cleveland. By Joun Hoee, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., §e.
Mr. Joun Hoee, in this catalogue, made some physiological observations on the
organization, and many remarks on the habits and geographical range of the birds
which have been noticed in the parts of Durham and of Yorkshire, to which he
limited himself. This district, comprising about 320 square miles, is so varied in the
ature of the soil and water, that no less than 210 species (namely, 109 land-birds
and 101 water-birds) are recorded as frequenting it,—a number indeed which is
found to amount to only seven species fewer than two-thirds of the entire number of
the British birds.
_ The author has been induced to make a few changes in the nomenclature of cer-
tain birds where the names have either been erroneously given or misapplied. And
im respect to the arrangement adopted, he stated, that ‘‘it appeared to him to be
More advisable to incorporate Cuvier’s system in his present memoir, with that clas-
Sification subsequently instituted by some of our English ornithologists, making at
- the same time certain modifications in both, than to use the latter alone as Mr.
‘Yarrell has done.” Also the author introduced ¢hree families, viz. Upupide, Re-
curvirostride and Procellariade, from the Prince of Musignano’s “‘ New Systematic
Arrangement of Vertebrated Animals,”’ in the Linnzan Transactions, vol. xviii. And
the new tribes, Planicerirostres, Tecticerirostres, Cutinarirostres, Spathulirostres, Di-
versirostres, Cuspidirostres, Sulcirostres, Tubinarirostres, Medionarirostres, Subuli-
rostres, &c. that he himself has added, are characterized, according to the views of
Linneus, from variations in the bill; and thus they tend to complete a Rostral clas-
sification.
_ The following is a sketch of the classification which is necessarily here abstracted,
for the purpose of showing the modifications in the author’s arrangement.
Division I—AVES TERRESTRES.
Order I. Raprorezs.
Tribe 1. Planicerirostres.
Subtribe 1. Diurni.
Families.—1, Falconide ; 2, Buteonide?
Tribe 2. Tecticerirostres.
Subtribe 2. Nocturni.
Family Strigide.
60 REPORT—1844.
Order II. InsEssorgEs.
Tribe 1. Dentirostres. : ;
Families.—1, Laniade; 2, Muscicapide ; 3, Merulide ; 4, Ampelide ; 5, Aedonide ;
6, Paride; 7, Motacillide; 8, Anthide.
Tribe 2. Conirostres. ,
Families.—1, Alaudide ; 2, Emberizide ; 3, Fringillide ; 4, Loxiade ; 5, Sturnide ;
6, Corvide. it
Tribe 3. Cuneirostres. “4
Subtribe 1. Scansores.
Families.—1, Picide ; 2, Sittide.
Tribe 4. Curvirostres.
Family Cuculide.
Tribe 5. Tenuirostres.
Subtribe 2. Anisodactyli.
Families.—1, Certhiade ; 2, Upupide.
Tribe 6. Fissirostres.
Families.—1, Halcyonide ; 2, Hirundinide ; 3, Caprimulgide.
Order III. Rasonrzs.
Tribe 1. Cutinarirostres.
Family Columbide.
Tribe 2. Convewirostres.
Families.—1, Phasianide ; 2, Tetraonide.
Division II.—AVES AQUATICA.
Order IV. GRALLATORES.
Tribe 1. Pressirostres.
Families.—1, Charadriade ; 2, Hematopodide.
Tribe 2. Cultrirostres.
Family Ardeide.
Tribe 3. Spathulirostres.
Family Plataleide.
Tribe 4. Longirostres.
Families.—1, Recurvirostride ; 2, Scolopacide.
Tribe.5. Diversirostres.
Subtribe Macrodactyli.
Families.—1, Rallide ; 2, Lobipedide.
Order V. NataTorREs.
Tribe 1, Lamellirostres.
Families.—1, Anseride ; 2, Anatide; 3, Fuligulide.
Tribe 2. Serrirostres.
Families.—1, Mergide ; 2, Carbonide.
Tribe 3. Cuspidirostres.
Subtribe Brachyptera.
Family Colymbide.
Tribe 4. Sulcirostres.
Family Alcide.
Tribe 5. Tubinarirostres.
Family Procellariade.
Tribe 6. Medionarirostres.
Family Laride.
Tribe 7. Subulirostres.
Subtribe Longipennes.
Family Sternide.
Report on the Birds of Yorkshire, prepared at the request of the Yorkshire
Philosophical Society. By T. Autts.
This communication added the following to the before-recorded birds of Yorkshire.
The Golden Oriole, a fine female specimen, shot near the Spurn Lighthouse in 1834;
Fire-crested Wren, shot at Wood End, near Thirsk ; Bearded Titmouse, from the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61
Biibourhood of Huddersfield ; Reed Warbler, Black Redstart, several specimens of
which were taken by a bird-catcher near Leeds; the Stock Dove, killed near York,
and occurring not unfrequently near Sheffield; it has also been seen In Feversham
Park; Little Bittern, shot at Birdsall, near Malton; Polish Swan, killed near Brid-
lington; Gullbilled Tern, taken alive near Leeds; and the Ivory Gull, shot some
years ago off Scarborough by a gentleman resident in York. The report was remark-
able for the number and variety of marine birds reported to occur about Huddersfield
and Barnsley, apparently in a state of transition from the east to the west seas; as
also for recording the last instances of the occurrence of that noble bird the Great
Bustard, which has now been extinct about twenty years in the county of York; it
also notices the great diminution in number, of many species formerly plentiful, and
which, in the course of a few more years, will also probably be numbered with the
extinct ; and has added numerous individuals to those already recorded of many of
the rarer species; also a notice of the time of arrival of many of our summer visitants,
from the pen of John Heppenstall of Sheffield, and a register of the arrival and depar-
ture of the swallow tribe, from the pen of W. Gott, Esq. of Leeds: the number of
Yorkshire species appears to be 252.
Periodical Birds observed in the Years 1843 and 1844 near Llanrwst,
Denbighshire, North Wales. By Joun Buackwatt, F.L.S.
Birds. Appeared. Disappeared.
1843. 1843.
Sand Martin, Hirundo riparia .......... Pitaducsae tes Meal Steer ha eer Sept. 25
House Martin, Hirundo urbica ......cscccsccseceeccces | ceevenvscevenss Oct. 12
Swallow, Hirundo rustica ..........s000+ Siaaeeatis inks ssscccasonse | ise 16
1844.
Woodcock, Scolopar rusticola .........0+00+ pecans tee Oct. 6 | April 5
Redwing, Turdus iliacus......cccccsssesees Bear Ra in 12 March 27
Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris.........ccssscccoeesscoeesccones a 30 | April 1
Siskin, Fringilla spimus .1o.s.scscccscseceeenseceesesees Nov. 3
q 1844.
Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba........cs.cscccecesssreeee March 14
Tree Pipit, Anthus arboreus ... ..scecesscsesececceeecs April 7
Yellow Wren, Sylvia trochilus ..........cseeeseeees te ni 8
Black-cap, Sylvia atricapilla...... cbeinetboo cnc secahee = 1b
Sand Martin, Hirwndo riparia ..... SRE ESR eEe 3 16 | Sept. 10
Wheat-ear, Saxicola enanthe....... Aélabee OEE aones 5 17
Swallow, Hirundo rustica ......cccceccecscceceese Soo op 17
Common Sandpiper, Totanus hypoleucos ............ ” 20
Wood Wren, Sylvia sibilatriz ......... eae a 20
| Redstart, Sylvia pheenicurus ,....0...00 Naeccorscnsccs + 22
House Martin, Hirundo urbica ...cccccsocescesseeees : oe 23
Cuckoo,-Cuculus Canorus .....cccccccceeccecceccecceccs os 23 | July 1
Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa luctwosd...........+..0006 + 25
White-throat, Sylvia cinerea ......sccssecscseseeeeeeens He 27
Winchat, Sazicola rubetra ......... pa or I a cae rr) 29
- Land Rail, Gallinula crew ...... NP citeemeeee cask seewones nh 30
Pettychaps, Sylvia hortensis ......... odo kcothneciiods May 1
Swift, Cypselus murarius .......csseeeeseees Seceesecene if 10 | August 25
Sedge Warbler, Sylvia phragmitis...........se0e0s-+++ of 12
Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio ............ eh iS 12
Goatsucker, Caprimulgus ewropa@us .......0.00 sfidemeinl be eS ud
Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa grisola........ ABS Py 18 | Sept. 17
A Monograph of the Sub-family Odontophorine, or Partridges of America.
By J. Gourn, F.R.S., Se.
' The subjects of the present monograph are interesting from their probable utility
to man whenever the countries of which they are denizens shall come under the do-
62 REPORT—1844.
minion of civilization, as well as from their being expressly adapted for naturalization
in Europe; many of the species are sufficiently hardy to brave the severity of our
winters, and are, therefore, likely to thrive in situations suitable to the partridge and
quail. All the members of the group are strictly American, and by far the greater
number of the species natives of that portion of the country lying between the 30th
degree of north latitude and the equator. Four species are included in the Fauna of
North America, and it is these in particular that Mr. Gould considers most likely to
thrive in Europe. Thirty species of this group are now known to Mr. Gould, two
only of which were included in the works of Linnzus, and nine in the ‘ General Hi-
story of Birds,’ published by Latham in 1823. And even in the late revision of the
subject by Messrs. Jardine and Selby in their ‘Illustrations of Ornithology,’ the
number of species was only increased to eleven. Vieillot was the first who conceived
the propriety of separating one of the members of the present group from the old
genera Yetrao and Perdix, proposing the term Odontophorus for the Tetrao Guian-
ensis of Gmelin; subsequently Stephens and Wagler proposed a further subdivision
of the group, the former proposing the term Ortyx for the well-known Virginian par-
tridge, Perdix Virginianus, and the latter that of Callipepla, the type of which is the
Ortyx squamata of Vigors. If it be admitted that the American partridges constitute
more than one genus, the genera must not be confined to three or four, but must
extend at least to six. Mr. Gould further remarks that the partridges of America
form a well-defined family, distinguishable from the grouse and partridges of the Old
World in many particulars, among which may be intimated the total absence of any
spur or spur-like appendage on the tarsi, and by the possession of teeth-like pro-
cesses on the edges of the under mandible. The subject was fully illustrated with
drawings of most of the species.
On the Fishes of Yorkshire. By T. Mrynett, F.L.S.
The total number of species which have been detected as inhabiting the shores, or
frequenting the freshwaters of Great Britain, is stated by Mr. Yarrel]l to be about
250, of which number Mr. Meynell mentioned 140 species as frequenting the waters
of Yorkshire. Amongst these 140 species, the following appear to be most worthy
of note:—The Greater Weever (Zrachinus Draco), the Sapphirine Gurnard (Trigla
hirundo), the Piper (Trigla Lyra), the Norway Haddock (Sebastes Norvegicus), the
Sea Bream (Pagellus centrodontus), and the four-toothed Sparus (Denter vulgaris),
are all rare upon our coast.
Ray’s Bream (Brama Raii) is found plentifully in some years at Redcar, generally
left upon the shore by the receding tide, as many as twelve having been found in a
morning: it only, however, occurs between October and December. One specimen
only was found last year, and none the year before. A specimen of the Sword Fish
(Xtphias gladius) was caught in Filey Bay in 1808, measuring eleven feet in length
and weighing twenty-three stones. It pierced the bottom of the boat before it was
secured. It has likewise occurred I believe at Scarborough and Whitby. A speci-
men of the Tunny (Zhynnus vulgaris), seven or eight feet long, was stranded at Bur-
lington a few years ago. Two examples of the Dory (Zeus Faber) were found on the
beach at Redcar in 1839. The Opah (Lampris guttatus) is occasionally taken on the
coast. One taken at Burlington two years since weighed four stones one pound, and
was two feet ten inches long and one foot seven inches broad. ‘The beautiful red
scales of this species are extremely delicate and easily rubbed off, leaving the surface
of a dull bluish slate colour.
The two species of gray Mullet (Mugil Capito and Chelo) are occasionally taken,
as are most of the Gobioide. Of these, the One-spotted Goby (G. wnipunctatus of
Yarrell’s Supplement) is abundant in the salt marshes at Redcar. The Ballan Wrasse
(Labrus maculatus) appears occasionally in immense shoals off Filey, the largest
weighing about five pounds. Four specimens only of Jago’s Goldsinny (Crenilabrus
rupestris) have been taken at Redcar. The Crucian Carp (Cyprinus gibelio) and the
Gold Carp (C. auratus) are both plentiful in the reservoirs of some of our manufac-
tories, the water being slightly heated by the admission of the waste steam from the
engines. The former species is likewise common in some other ponds in the county.
The Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) is taken in various rivers, and was so abundant at
Cawood on the Ouse in December 1834 as to be sold in the Leeds market at two
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63
‘pence the pound. The Atherine (Atherina presbyter) is taken at Burlington quay by
_ persons when fishing with a worm ; and the Argentine (Scopelus Humboldtii) was met
with at Redcar in 1841, 1843 and 1844, from the 23rd of January to May, but never
later. When first taken they have the smell of cucumbers. One specimen of Leach’s
Herring (Clupea Leachii) was found on the beach at Redcar in April 1843. The
Common and Speckled Cod (Morrhua vulgaris and punctata) are common, and appear
to be the same species, varying only according to the ground on which they feed. The
Hake (Merlucius vulgaris) is a rare species with us. The Five-bearded Rockling
(Motella quinque-cirrata) and the Lesser forked-beard (Raniceps trifurcatus) are both
taken at Redcar. Several specimens of Muller’s Top-knot (Rhombus hirtus) were
found on the beach at Redcar in 1836, but none have occurred there since. The
Smooth Sole (R. arnoglossus) and the Lemon Sole (Solea pegusa) are both taken, but
rare. Several specimens of the Short Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus Mola) have been taken,
one at Redcar, and two or three at Burlington. Thé Sharp-nosed Sturgeon (Aci-
penser Sturio) is occasionally taken off Redcar and in the Tees ; and the Broad-nosed
Sturgeon (4. latirostris) appears to be the species peculiar to the Ouse, the former
not being taken in that river.
. Of the Squalide: or Shark family, the following appear the most remarkable species :
the small and the large-spotted Dog (Scylliwm canicula and catulus), the Blue Shark
(Carcharias glaucus), taken off Scarborough ; the Porbeagle (Lamna Cornubica), and
the Beaumaris Shark (L. Monensis) ; the Common Tope (Galeus vulgaris) ; Smooth
Hound (Mustelus levis) ; the Basking Shark (Selachus maximus), and the Angel Fish
(Squatina Angelus). A specimen of the Spinous Shark (Echinorhinus spinosus) was
taken off Burlington in 1838, and an account of it was read at the Newcastle Meeting
of the British Association by Arthur Strickland, Esq.
- Of the Raiide, the most uncommon are the Shagreen Ray (Raia chagrinea), the
Starry Ray (Raia radiata), the Sting Ray (Trygon pastinaca), and the Eagle Ray
(Mylhiobatis aquila).
Of the Petromyzide, the Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) 1s taken at Redcar and in
the Tees ; the Lampern (Pet. fluviatilis) in the Ure; the Fringed Lipped Lampern
(Pet. Planeri) twice taken in twenty fathoms water off Redcar, and the Pride (Ammo-
cetes branchialis) in a small brook near Richmond. The extreme abundance of the
Myxine or Hag (Gastrobranchus cecus) may be imagined from the fact, that 123
specimens were taken out of one codfish at Redcar last winter.
Mr. T. West read a paper on the occurrence of Sclerotic Plates in Fishes. These
plates had been noticed in birds, but not, that the author was aware, in fishes. They
did not occur in all fishes, but the author suggested that they might be a provision to
enable fishes to swim in rapid water.
Prof. Owen exhibited a human skull from South Australia, which had been used
for the purpose of carrying water, in fact, as a widow’s cruise. The absence of the
art of pottery was the inducement for thus using this part of the human skeleton.)
The ancients, at their feasts, were said to quaff their wine from the skulls of their
enemies, but he believed this was the first case in which it had been ascertained that
any part of the human skeleton had been used as a domestic utensil.
" Mr. Ball noticed the peculiar structure of the hoof of the Giraffe, which pre-emi-
nently fits it for passing along mountain ravines with velocity. This structure con-
sists in a brush-like structure of the sole of the foot.
Report of the Dredging Committee for 1844.
This report consisted of two parts: first, of the records of a series of dredging
operations conducted round the coasts of Anglesea, in September 1844, by Mr.
M‘Andrew and Prof. E. Forbes, exhibiting the distribution of the marine animals
procured in various depths down to thirty fathoms, and the state of the sea-bed
—" ;
Per’
a .
>
64 REPORT—1844.,
in the localities explored. Among the more interesting facts recorded in these
papers were the following :—rolled specimens of Purpura lapillus, a shell which lives ‘
only above low-water mark, were found in twenty-eight to thirty fathoms water on
the gravelly bed of a line of current, at the distance of eight miles from the nearest
shore. In the same line of current it was found that the few mollusca which lived
there, such as Modiole and Limz, had constructed nests, or protecting cases of
pebbles, bound together by threads of byssus ; and one species, the Modiola discre-
pans, had made its nest of the leaf-like expansions of Flustra foliacea cemented to-
gether. The attention of the dredgers was directed, among other subjects, to the
distribution of Serpulz, and the results of their researches were confirmatory of the ©
statements recently advanced by Dr. Phillippi of Cassel, namely, that no dependence
could be placed, even as to the genus, on the shell of a Serpula, perféctly similar
shells being constructed by animals of different genera. Thus they found all the Ser-
pule of a particular form in twelve fathoms water to be a species of Eupomatus, ~
whilst exactly similar shells in twenty fathoms proved to be the habitations of a
species of the genus wanting opercula, of which S. tubularia is the type. All the
triangular Serpule they met with were Pomatoceros tricuspis. In twelve fathoms, at
the entrance of the Menai Straits, they dredged the shell of Helix aspersa, the com-
mon snail, covered with barnacles and Serpule, and inhabited by a hermit crab.
Second, of a series of records of dredging operations conducted by Mr. Hyndman
on the north coast of Ireland.
On some Animals nem to the British Seas, discovered by Mr. M‘Andrew.
By Prof. E. Forsss.
The additions to the British Fauna now brought forward were taken by Mr.
M‘Andrew on the western coast of Scotland. They are,—ist, a remarkable new
zoophyte allied to Virgularia. This sea-pen is no less than two feet six inches in ©
length, thus far exceeding in dimensions any British zoophytes of that genus, and
differs also from all in having a perfectly quadrangular skeleton ; it is the Funicu-
laria quadrangularis. It was taken near Kerrera, in twenty fathoms water, on
muddy ground, and is probably abundant there. 2nd. Pleurotoma teres, a shell of
which only two specimens have hitherto been found, and those on the coast of
Asia Minor. The British specimen is much larger than either of those taken in
the Aigean by Prof. E. Forbes, and was dredged in forty fathoms water on mud.
3rd. Eulima Macandrei, a small but beautiful new species, differing from its
British allies in the narrowness, flatness, and number (11) of the whorls, and in the
angularity of its aperture. 4th. The Emarginula crassa of Sowerby, hitherto only
known as a fossil, in which state it is found in the various crag deposits, and by Mr.
Lyell in the Pleistocene of Norway. It is a most beautiful species, and the largest
European member of the genus. Mr. M‘Andrew dredged it alive in twenty-five
fathoms in Loch Fine. It appears to have been also taken within the last year
by Mr. Jeffreys and Mr. Alder. 5th. The singular radiate animal, which Miller
figured in the ‘ Zoologia Danica’ under the name of Holothuria squamata. Several
other Mollusca and Radiata, probably new to the British Fauna, but as yet not suffi-
ciently investigated, were also laid before the meeting by Mr. M‘Andrew.
On Marine Zoology. By Cuartes WittiaM Peacu.
The interesting annelid, the Nereis tubicola of Miiller, was minutely described
from specimens he had obtained alive from off the Cornish coast. He also noticed
an annelid which is invariably found in the same shell with the Pagurus bernhardus,
or Hermit Crab. This annelid varies in length from one inch to ten in length.
The nidus of a Doris had been met with in great numbers, and also the animal, in
the spring of the present year; some he kept in sea-water in his house, which de-
posited their ova, and from which he succeeded in rearing the young. He minutely
described them, showing that although in the adult state they are naked, they are
clothed when young with a nautiloidal shelly covering. He also noticed that the
young of the Buccinum reticulatum is found in a similar nautiloidal shell, with simi-
lar appendages and habits.
‘pair Le
— Me Po
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65
~ Heintroduced to notice a Holothuria with twenty tentacula, a link which had been
long wanted in the history of this singular race. He described it as being not un-
common in deep water and rocky ground, and is sometimes a foot in length; it is
called by the fishermen a “‘ Nigger,” and ‘‘ Cotton Spinner,” the former from its
dark appearance, the latter from its thread-like bunches, which it ejects, and which
become elongated into long and very fine tenacious threads, no doubt intended to
annoy any enemy which might attack them, as they adhere firmly to anything they
come into contact with. It is furnished with four rows of suckers, and covered with
spine-like processes, and when the tentacula are withdrawn it has very much the ap-
pearance of a small cucumber. He minutely described the habits and peculiarities,
proving satisfactorily that it is new to the British fauna.
He mentioned that Mr. Couch, Surgeon of Penzance, had found the Boar Fish in
abundance, and the Plain Bonito not uncommon off the Land’s End; also that a fine
specimen of the Muaigre had been lately captured off the Cornish coast, making the
second within a short time.
He produced two new calcareous corallines, Lepralia catenata and Lepralia pecti-
nata, which Dr. Johnston of Berwick-on-Tweed and Mr. Couch of Penzance have
pronounced new and good species.
He exhibited a specimen of the Cypre@a moneta, or Money Cowry, which had been
trawled up off the Land’s End with the animal in it.
Mr, Peach made a short communication on the Natural History of Goran in Corn-
wall,
On a New Genus of Nudibranchiate Mollusca.
By Professor Ariman, M.R.1.4.
Professor Allman noticed a new genus of Nudibranchiate Mollusca. The little
animal upon which the new genus was founded, was obtained by Professor Allman
in a salt-marsh on the south coast of Ireland, where it presented a singularly am-
phibious habit, several specimens being discovered creeping upon the leaves of Ente-
“romorpha intestinalis and other plants quite beyond the reach of the water. The
peculiarities of its structure are such as to approximate it to the genus Venillia of
Messrs Alder and Hancock, with which it agrees in the median and dorsal termina-
tion of the intestine. The dorsal surface is furnished at each side with oval, rather
irregularly disposed branchial papilla. An examination of the mollusk in its living
‘state was unfortunately neglected, and in the specimens preserved in spirits, Professor
Allman, as well as Messrs Alder and Hancock,-by whom they were examined, failed
to detect any trace of tentacula. To the new genus the name ALDERIA was assigned,
in honour of the distinguished naturalist to whom we are already so deeply indebted
for our knowledge of the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca.
Ona New Genus of Parasitic Arachnideans. By Professor ALLMAN,
On the Anatomy of Acteon viridis. By Professor ALLMAN.
The author controverted the assertions of M. de Quatrefages relative to numerous
points in the anatomy of this little mollusk, and to the position assigned to it by the
French naturalist in his new order Phlebenterata. Professor Allman described a di-
stinct heart and vascular system, and a lateral termination of the intestine, points at
direct variance with the statements of M. de Quatrefages. The philebenteric sy-
stem of this naturalist he maintained to be nothing more than a liver, to which organ
it is in every respect analogous, and affords not the slightest grounds for considering
it a distinct system peculiar to the Gasteropods included by M. de Quatrefages in his
order Phiebenterata.
The nervous system was described in detail, and shown to be of a highly developed
type. Seven ganglia, of which six are in pairs and one azygous, surround the ceso-
phagus. The organs of vision and the bodies to which Siebold attributes an auditory
ioe. were described. The embryology of Acteon was traced, and it was shown
° F
66 REPORT—1844.
that this mollusk underwent a metamorphosis quite similar to what has been observed
in the Dorides and Aplysiz, the larva being furnished with locomotive ciliated discs,
and enclosed in a delicate nautiloid shell, where an operculum protects it from all ex-
ternal intrusion.
On a New Genus of Helianthoid Zoophytes. By Professor Autman.
Professor Allman brought before the Section a Helianthoid zoophyte which he had
just discovered at Cruick Haven, upon the southern coast of the county of Cork, and
which, as far as he had as yet been able to determine, must probably constitute a new
genus; he refrained, however, from naming it, in consequence of the limited number
of works which he had had an opportunity of consulting since its discovery. The
zoophyte is one of extreme beauty, and constitutes a connecting link between Actinia
and Lucernaria, being distinguished from the former by its capitate tentacula, and
from the latter by their arrangement in two uninterrupted series, Its anatomy closely
corresponds with Actinia, but in the capitula with which the tentacula terminate, are
to be found certain most singular organs. These consist of transparent oval capsules,
having coiled up within them a very long fibre, which, under a high power of the
microscope, is itself seen to be furnished with a spiral groove, with closely approxi-
mated coils, and traceable along its entire length. When the capsules are liberated
from the tentacula, a most curious phenomenon is presented. The spiral fibre which
they contain is forcibly ejected through one end of the capsule, and, uncoiling itself
as it escapes, is rapidly shot across the stage of the microscope. Professor Allman
insisted on the analogy between these bodies and the darts described by Corda in the
tentacula of Hydra fusca, and was of opinion that they are organs gifted with the
property of inflicting envenomed wounds upon the animals which constitute the
food of the zoophyte. They are accompanied by other bodies whose structure ap-
pears to be that of a fibre rolled into a close spiral, but not furnished with a capsule.
On the Structure of the Lucernarie. By Professor ALLMAN.
In this communication certain undescribed peculiarities in the anatomy of these zoo-
phytes were laid before the Section, and the existence in the tentacula and other super-
ficial parts of the animal, of organs analogous to the darts of Hydra, and to the spiral
bodies of the Helianthoid zoophyte already described, was demonstrated. The posi-
tion of the Lucernarie in the animal kingdom is in close relation with the Acalephe
—a group with which they would appear to be more nearly allied than with the
proper zoophytes, though they constitute a remarkable and beautiful transition be-
tween the Pulmonigrade Acalephz on the one hand, and the Helianthoid zoophytes
on the other.
Mr. Thompson read a paper entitled ‘ Additions to the Fauna of Ireland,’ com-
prising a number of new species of Invertebrata, specimens of which were exhibited
to the meeting. He called attention to the desirableness of the additions to the fauna
and flora of Ireland and of Great Britain being brought forward regularly at the
meetings of the Association, together with an exhibition of specimens of the respective
species whenever practicable.
Mr. Thompson read ‘ Descriptions of Pzerochilus, a new genus of Nudibranchiate
Mollusca, and two new species of Doris,’ by Joshua Alder and Albany Hancock,
This communication was illustrated with splendid coloured drawings of the species
executed by the authors, who likewise sent for exhibition drawings of the following
four species described by them since the last meeting of the British Association, viz.
Proctonotus mucroniferus, Eolis alba, E. Farrani, and E. violacea.
Dr. Carpenter communicated to the Section some observations on the position
which he deemed ought to be given to the compound Ascidians in the zoological scale.
In opposition to Milne Edwards, he considered that the compound Ascidians should
be placed with the Mollusca, and the Ascidian Polyps with the Radiata.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67
On the Structure and Development of the Cystic Entozoa.
By Harry D. S. Goonsir, M.W.S., and Conservator Mus. R.C.S. Edinburgh.
In this very natural order of Entozoa the author places the Acephalocysts, which
were looked upon by Rudolphi and other helminthologists as being merely adven-
titious.
Three very distinct forms of the genus Acephalocystis were described ; the specific
characters being derived from the structure of the germinal membrane (the membrane
from which the young originate), also from the mode of growth and structure of the
young Hydatids.
In Acephalocystis simplex the membranes appear to be more or less inseparable,
transparent, and the young vesicles are very few in number.
A, Monroi.—The germinal membrane of this speciesis divided, by means of a fibrous
tissue, into numerous compartments, each of which are occupied by a delicate trans-
parent vesicle filled with cellular substance, of which the cells or divisions are very
large. Hach of these vesicles contains one or more small dark bodies—-the young
Hydatids,
A. armatus.—The young arise from the germinal membrane of the parent as very
distinct small separate vesicles, which at first are quite transparent, but soon become
opake from the addition of young within them.
A small transparent vesicle jutting out from the surface of the germinal membrane
is the first vestige of a young Hydatid, which speedily becomes opake in consequence
of young cells growing within it. This very soon separates, and then becomes what
the author terms a secondary Hydatid. The young cells which were seen growing
within it before its separation now also increase in size, and soon become parent cells,
but do not separate from the germinal membrane of their parent until she escapes
from the primitive Hydatid. Thus there are four generations, the primitive Hydatid
still containing the three generations to which she had given birth.
If the primitive Hydatid is buried so deeply in the tissues of the infested being as
1o prevent the escape of the secondary Hydatids with their two inclosed series of
young, decomposition ensues, upon which they speedily disappear.
__ The author, after describing the very peculiar process of decomposition which takes
place in these animals under such circumstances, proceeded to describe two very
peculiar animals hitherto unobserved by naturalists, Astoma acephalocystis and Dis-
kostoma acephalocystis. They were considered to be connecting links between the
Acephalic and Cephalic Entozoa, and were the means of enabling the author to point
out many beautiful analogies which existed between the Entozoa and the other classes
of the animal kingdom.
The structure and habits of the genera Cenurus and Cysticereus were then de-
scribed along with several new species, after which the author mentioned those
Entozoa of the higher orders, such as the Nematoid, Cestoid, &c., which inhabit cysts.
These species were not considered to belong to the Cystoid order of the class, but
were merely brought forward by the author as illustrative of several views which he
held relative to some points in the physiology of the Hydatids. He looked upon all
these Entozoa, as Trichina, Gymnorhynchus, &c., as still inclosed within one or more
of the membranes of the ovum, and that the inclosed animal received its nourishment
by means of a peculiar structure in the inclosing membrane. If a small portion of
the inclosing cyst of Gymnorhynchus horridus be placed under the microscope it will
be found to consist of two membranes. The external consists of condensed cellular
texture, and is derived from the tissues of the infested being ; the internal membrane
consists entirely of absorbing cells, through which the contained animal procures its
nourishment. This is the general structure of all the cystoid Entozoa. Owing to the
presence of a foreign body, the tissues of the infested being in the neighbourhood of
the Entozoon throw out a quantity of lymph, which is always adding to the thickness
of the external membrane of the cyst, until at length it becomes so thickened and
hardened as to prevent the internal or absorbing membrane from procuring the re-
quisite means of nourishment for the support of the inclosed animal, which, if sta-
tionary, very shortly dies, as in Acephalocystis. Gymnorhynchus, however, which has
the power of motion, escapes this mode of extirpation, and when the cyst is examined,
it presents the following appearances :—The cyst all around the head of the animal
FQ
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68 REPORT—1844. q
consists apparently of one, the absorbing membrane only, further back the external
membrane becomes visible, and as portions are examined under the microscope, it is
found to become thicker and thicker as it nears the posterior part of the cyst. The
remains of this cyst can be traced for many feet in length in the tissues of the in-
fested being, in the form of a delicate cord.
SS
On the Reproduction of Lost Parts in the Crustacea.
By Harry D.S. Goonsir, M.W.S.
That all the species of Crustacea are endowed with the power of regenerating parts
of their body which have been accidentally lost, is a fact which has been long known.
The manner, however, in which these are developed, and the organ also from which
the germ of the future leg is derived, has never yet been either properly explained or
examined. If one or more of the distal phalanges of the leg of a common crab be
torn forcibly off, the animal instantly throws off the remaining parts of the limb.
This is effected with little apparent exertion, and always takes place at one spot, which
is marked externally by a delicate line covered with an annulus of thinly-scattered
hairs. The phalanx on either side of this ring is considerably contracted, and when
the shell is taken carefully off so as to expose the interior, it is found to consist of a
fibrous, gelatinous, glandular-looking mass—the organ which supplies the germs for
future limbs.
The microscopic structure of this organ is extremely beautiful. Whena thin trans-
verse section is made and placed under the microscope, it is found to present the fol-
lowing appearance :—Ist, a foramen near to one edge for the transmission of the ves-
sels and nerves; then a semiliquid mass containing small nucleated cells, which is
surrounded by a fibrous-looking band ; beyond this band lies a mass of blastema of
large nucleated cells ; and lastly, the shell membrane covered by the shell incloses the
whole.
The fibrous-looking band here mentioned is found from further observations to
belong to a very peculiar system of vessels very generally distributed throughout the
body, and which all terminate by means of shut sacs, on each of which a dark cir-
cular spot is observed, having all the appearance of a germinal disc. The author,
from want of time, has not been yet able to make out the relations of these vessels.
Some hours after the limb is thrown off, the small foramen becomes gradually
filled by a small rounded body (the germ of the future leg), which gradually increases
in size so as to push out before it the cicatrix which had been formed on the raw sur-
face after the injury, and now forms the external covering of the young limb. As the
germ increases in size, the inclosing membranes become thinner and thinner until
they burst, when the young limb, which has hitherto been bent upon itself, becomes
extended, and has all the appearance of a perfect limb except in size. As far as the
observations of the author had gone, it appeared that the germ was derived from one
of the cells nearest the foramen. This cell follows the ordinary course of develop-
ment, by the nucleus breaking up into nucleoli which in time become parent cells
also, each of which undergoes the same process. This goes on for several stages, all
the less important cells dissolving and serving as nourishment to the central or more
important ones, until the number of centres are reduced to five—the number of joints
required, which, by a regular process of a similar nature, assume the form of the
future leg.
On the Morphology of the Reproductive System of Sertularian Zoophytes, and
its Analogy nith that of Flowering Plants. By Prof. E. Forszs.
At certain periods in the life of the sertularian zoophytes, which are composite
beings of plant-like forms, constituted of numerous nutritive individuals which, be-
sides the life of each share in the common life of the whole, there appear on the
axis or branches variously formed bodies, in some species urn-shaped, in others pod-
shaped, very dissimilar from the other parts of the whole, in which, after a time, the
ova are formed. These are the ovigerous vesicles of naturalists, the true nature of
which has been often discussed, but hitherto unexplained. These bodies, Prof. E.
Forbes maintains, are branches of many individuals which have undergone an ideal
k
a Pets
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69
metamorphosis, exactly comparable to that which Linnzus first, and Goethe after-
wards, demonstrated in the flowers of vegetables. He states his theory of their
nature thus :—The vesicle is formed from a branch or pinna, through an arrest of
_ individual development, by a shortening of the spiral axis, and by a transformation
of the stomachs (individuals) into egg-producing membranes, the dermato-skeletons
(or cells) uniting to form the protecting capsule or germen; which metamorphosis is
exactly comparable to that which we find in the reproductive organs of flowering
plants in which the floral bud (normally a branch clothed with spirally arranged
leaves, an assemblage of respiratory individuals) is constituted through the contrac-
tion of the axis and the whorling of the individuals borne on that axis, and by their
transformation into the several parts of the flower. In order to prove this theory,
the author submits the several forms of ovigerous vesicle in the family of Sertulariade
to a searching analysis, taking the pod-like vesicle of most Plumularie, usually re-
garded as the most complex, but in reality the simplest, as a type. He shows that
all the classes of forms, six in number, may be explained by means of his proposed
view of their nature, which is further borne out by certain monstrosities which have
occasionally occurred among the zoophytes. Having, as he conceives, proved his
position, he proceeds to show its application to systematic zoophytology, urging the
dismemberment of the genera Sertularia and Plumularia, the separation of the Sertula-
_ rade from the Hydraide and Tubulariadz, as an order equal in value to these families
united, and the arrangement of the zoophytes under four orders, of which the above-
named families form two, and the Helianthoid and Asteroid polypes the other two,
the Bryozoa being transferred to the Mollusca, where they should form a family par-
allel and equal to the compound Tunicata.
On the Organs of Generation in the Decapodous Crustacea.
By Harry D. S. Goonsir, M.W.S.
The internal organs are more highly developed in the Brachyura than in any other
section of the class, and the genus Hyas was selected from it by the author as most
fitted for illustrating the general anatomy of these organs.
On the Conservation of Substances. By A. Goavsy.
_ Mr. Goadby exhibited a series of preparations of animal bodies preserved in glass
cases, according to a method of his own suggestion. Many gentlemen having com-
plained that they had not succeeded in preparing animal substances in the way which
he had recommended, he was desirous of stating fully the plans which he pursued.
The following were the formule for all the solutions he used :-—
Al. Corrosive sublimate......... 2 grains.
Bay salt ...scscscsecseeevecs 4 07. Water) rcraedssseeacecemetce 1 quart.
BIRT a chan cas eviciéssiddewssece Dies BB.
Corrosive sublimate......... Sieraanse) Day Balt’). isndevaeteveas sven 2 Ib.
DWV AGED succeceseees shothatinaeae 1 quart. Arsenious acid (or white
A2. oxide of arsenic) ......... 20 grains.
HAN HALG) ne v0n sent daeasincsens 4 02. Boiling water «...........06 1 quart.
PUPIL sdsinsis isco ces carsatsesens iss C.
Corrosive sublimate......... Berets | Bayi colt. -mcsisenivedvetsices 2 Ib.
DOMED eilole cols oo\sn nce ninas taken 2 quarts. | Arsenious acid ..........+.. .- 20 grains.
B. Corrosive sublimate.......... 2 grains.
Bay salt ....... Meio cana cacics 2 |b. Boiling water ....... gedseiee? 1 quart.
The first, A 1, was the ordinary solution he used: A 2, where there was a ten-
dency to mouldiness, and the animal texture was tender, as, although salt preserved
animal matters, it sometimes destroyed the tissue. B. was used in cases where ani-
mals contained carbonate of lime, as, in these cases, alum produced decomposition.
For old preparations, arsenic was substituted for corrosive sublimate, as in BB., but
where there was a tendency to too much softening, the corrosive sublimate should be
added, as in C.
70 REPORT—1844.
Suggestions for the Observation of Periodic Changes in Animals.
By Tuomas Laycock, M.D.
At aprevious Meeting of the Association the author communicated to the Medical
Section a paper on a general law governing the recurrence of vital phenomena. In
illustration of the subject he traced the connexion between the periods of development
in various races of the animal kingdom, and those of man as seen in the paroxysms
of nervous affection, and particularly of fevers. In the present paper he directs the
special attention of naturalists to those changes in animals the periods of which can
be best measured, and concerning which a large amount of important and accurate
observations can be obtained. The epochs of development and metamorphosis, and
the periods passed in incubation, are specially cited as meriting accurate and exten-
sive observation, and the author concludes by quoting the system of registration
already established in Belgium as deserving imitation and cooperation.
On the Flora of Yorkshire. By O. A. Moors.
He commenced by expressing his regret, that owing to the shortness of the time
allowed for its completion, the memoirs might appear not quite so perfect in some
respects as it otherwise might have been, especially as regards species peculiar to the
sea-coast ; all plants, too, were excluded from the list not strictly found on the York-
shire side of the Tees in Teesdale. In this list were included 1119 species and 157
varieties (many of which latter are considered species by some botanists), exclusive of
a few whose claims to be regarded as Yorkshire plants rest on insufficient grounds.
The list might be regarded as an appendix to the work of Mr. Baines which appeared
four years previously, and which contains an accurate and extensive list of habitats for
all the principal flowering plants and ferns of Yorkshire, as well as the Mosses and Cha-
racer. In the present report the subsequent labours of botanists had been noticed,
and about 87 species and 81 varieties were mentioned, which had not previously ap-
peared in any general list. Additional localities were given for some of the rarer species,
when only two or three had been previously recorded; and the names of those botanists
were mentioned through whose assistance much valuable information on the flowering
plants and ferns of Yorkshire was obtained, to which two families the list was con-
fined. They were distributed into the following classes: Eaogens—species 808, va-
rieties 101; Lndogens—species 262, varieties 35; Acrogens—species 49, varieties 21.
To this was appended an analysis of the species and varieties in natural orders.
The list, which was of considerable length, was then gone through in a cursory
manner, the time only permitting the leading points to be alluded to; and remarks
were made on such species as were either very rare or had some peculiarity in their
habit or mode of growth. The following were a few of the principal additions men-
tioned in the list: —Anemone apennina, Barbarea stricta; this species was shown to
be common in many parts of the county, especially on the banks of the Don at Don-
caster, at York, Smeaton, &c. &c.; its claims to be regarded as a distinct species
were also pointed out. Camelina dentata, Alyssum calycinum, Lepidium Smithit, Di-
anthus plumarius, D. deltoides, var. glaucus, Silene anglica, Hypericum perforatum B,
H. maculaium, Vicia orobus, Alchemilla alpina, Rosa involuta, Epilobium virgatum,
Callitriche platycarpa, OC. pedunculata B, Sedum rupestre, Saxifraga geum, Asperula
arvensis, Valerianella auricula, Solidago virgaurea 8, Artemisia campestris, Crepis suc-
cisefolia, Hieracium diaphanum «, H. Lapeyrousii, H. prenanthoides, H. rigidum « B,
H., boreale, Cuscuta trifolii, Orobanché rubra. This plant was found at Leyburn Shaw
by the Rev. — Pulleine, and is another instance of the species not being confined
to the basalt. * Serophularia Ehrharti, Melampyrum pratense 8, Veronica triphyllos,
V. Buxbaumii, Mimulus luteus, Mentha aquatica 8, citrata, M. pulegium, Stachys
palustris, var. 8 ambigua, Primula farinosa, var. pumila. This curious dwarf variety
from Hanxwell Moor was exhibited. Chenopodium olidum, C. ficifolium, C. murale,
Atriplex littoralis, A. erecta, A. deltoidea, Halimus portulacoides, Rumew palustris, R.
pratensis, R. aquaticus. This plant was shown to be the common roadside dock at
Hawes, Wensleydale, and grew on dry stone quarries, &c. Polygonum mite, Salix
rugosa, tenuifolia, Weigelliana, Aceras anthropophora, Habenaria chlorantha, Juncus
maritimus, cenosus, obfusifolius, Potamogeton oblongus, plantagineus, Carex paradoxa,
t
%
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71
_ rigida, Eleocharis aticularis, var. elongata, Calamagrostis pyramidalis, Bromus patulus,
commutatus, Cynosurus echinatus, Avena pratensis 6 alpina, Lolium multiflorum, Equi-
setum Drummondii, Isoetes lacustris, Onoclea sensibilis.
Description of Alexandria Imperatricis, a new Genus of Papilionacee.
By the Chevalier ScuomBurex.
This tree, in appearance, is one of the most beautiful and gorgeous of the family of
Leguminosz, and was discovered by the author at the foot of the northern ridge of
sandstone mountains in the pluvial basin of the River Cuyuni, in Guiana, and reaches
a height of from 100 to 120 feet. The flowers are developed directly from the trunk
and woody branches, in large clusters, and the racemes, pedicles, and calyces are of
a rich crimson, the petals bright orange, striped with crimson, the vexillum of a deep
purple, and ascending. The pod is from eighteen to twenty inches long, and con-
tains several seeds.
On a new Species of Barbacenia. By the Chevalier ScoomBurck.
This plant grows on the table land from which Mount Roraima rises. It reaches
frequently a height of ten or twelve feet, branching in a dichotomous manner, and
bears a number of flowers, which in their appearance are liliaceous, and five to six
inches long. They are, outside, of a delicately purplish hue, and deliciously fragrant.
It differs from the species of hitherto described Barbaceniz, in possessing eighteen
fertile stamens. The difference in the number of stamens is not, however, allowed
to be generic in allied species of Vellozie, and, therefore, the author has placed this
plant with the Barbaceniz.
On the Ophiocaryon Paradoxa, the Snake-nut Tree.
By the Chevalier ScoomBurck.
In aformer communication Mr. Schomburgk had called the attention of naturalists
to the peculiar seed of this tree. The seed is covered over with a membrane, which,
on being removed, presents the embryo elongated and twisted in a spiral manner, so
as to give it the form of asnake. From a recent examination of the flowers of this
tree, the author had found that it belonged to the natural order Sapindacee. The em-
bryo is twisted in other members of this order.
On the Calycophyllum Stanleyanum. By the Chevalier ScoomBurcK.
_ There are several genera of the natural family of Rubiacee, as Calycophyllum,
Musszehda, Pinkneya, &c., where one of the teeth of the calyx expands into ‘a coloured
pétioled leaf, of a membranaceous texture. In this tree it is very remarkable; and
as these bractlike organs are of a rose colour, they give a very beautiful aspect to the
forest where they grow. This appendage only grows after the flower has dropped
off, and developes itself with astonishing rapidity. The tree grows on the banks of
the rivers Rupununi and Takutu, in the third parallel of north latitude.
Description of Lightia lemniscata, a new Genus of the Family Butineriacea.
By the Chevalier Sctompurck.
The Buttneriacee are very common in Guiana, and in some districts the author
met with whole forests of the chocolate nut tree, a plant belonging to this family.
The Lightia belongs to this family. The great peculiarity of the plant is, that the
petais have an elongated appendage, which hangs down from the cluster of flowers
like ribbons, and hence its specific name. ‘This tree attains a height of twenty or
twenty-four feet, and produces its flowers directly from the stem, below the axis of
fallen leaves. Only three specimens of this tree were discovered in Guiana by Mr.
Schomburgk.
72 REPORT—1844.,
On two New Species of the Family Laurinee, from the Forests of Guiana.
By the Chevalier Scoompurck.
The first is a tree which affords timber which is brought to England, and known
by the name of Greenheart. This tree was found, by Dr. Bodie, to possess febrifugal
properties, and Dr. Maclagan has published an account of two new alkaloids which
he had obtained from it by chemical processes. These alkaloids may be used instead
of quinine. The second tree has long been known, and yields an aromatic fruit, known
by the name of the Accawai nutmeg, and is extensively used in Guiana as a remedy
in diarrhcea, dysentery, and other intestinal diseases. The author succeeded in ob-
taining flowers and seeds, and had found this tree to be a species of Acrodiclidium,
to which he has given the specific name Camara. It appears to be restricted to the
sandstone mountains of Roraima, between the fifth and sixth parallel of north
latitude.
Mr. Schomburgk exhibited dried specimens and drawings of most of the plants he
described, as also of the Strychnos toxifera, a plant which produces the true Wouraii
poison of Guiana.
‘
.
;
j
The Chevalier Schomburgk read a paper on the Forest Trees of British Guiana, and
their use in civil and naval architecture. This paper was illustrated by a great number
of polished specimens, and some of them possessed extraordinary beauty of marking.
The author also exhibited a specimen of the trunk of the Aspidosperma eacelsum,
which grows in the form of a fluted column; and drew attention to the nest of the
Rock Manakin, or Cock of the Rock (Rupicola elegans); and to the head of the largest
freshwater fish known, the Sudis gigas of Cuvier, both of which he had brought
from Guiana.
On some Peculiarities in the Flight of Birds, especially as that is influenced in
some Species by the power they possess of decreasing and adjusting their
own specific gravity. By Tuomas Aus.
Birds require the centre of gravity to be placed immediately over the axis of motion
for walking, and beneath it when flying ; when suspended in the air their bodies natu-
rally fall into that position which throws the centre of gravity beneath the wings.
The axis of motion being situated in a different place in the line of the body when
walking from that which is used when flying, the discrepancy requires to be com-
pensated by some means in all birds, in order to enable them to perform flight with
ease. Raptorial birds take a horizontal position when suspended in the air, and the
compensating power consists in their taking a more or less erect position when at
rest. Another class, including the woodpeckers, wagtails, &c., take an oblique posi-
tion in the air; with these the compensating power consists in their cleaving and
passing through the air at an angle coincident with the position of the body, and per-
forming flight by a series of curves or saltations.
Natatorial birds sometimes need very extended flight; they take a very oblique
position in the air; they have the ribs greatly lengthened, the integuments of the
abdomen are long and flexible, which enables them greatly to enlarge the abdominal
portion of their bodies by inflating it with air; this causes a decrease in the specific
gravity of that part and raises it to a horizontal position ; the compensating power
consists in the posterior half of the body becoming specifically lighter, while the spe-
cific gravity of the anterior half remains unaltered.
Mr. Babington exhibited to the Section specimens of three plants which had been
added to the list of British plants during the summer of 1844.
1. Alsine stricta, discovered on Widdy-bank Fell in Teesdale, Durham, by Mr. James
Backhouse of York and a small party of botanists. It occurred in small quantity,
but from the nature of the locality and the plant inhabiting the northern parts of
Europe, it must be considered as an aboriginal native of England.
2. Carduus setosus, growing near the shore of the Frith of Forth in the neighbour-
hood of Culross. As it is a native of the countries to the north-west of the Black
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73
_ Sea, there is every reason to believe that it has been introduced from that region to
‘Scotland by accident. It has now taken firm hold at Culross, where it was detected
by Dr. Dewar of Dunfermline.
3. Galium Vaillantii. This plant has often, and perhaps justly, been considered
as a variety of the common G. Aparine, with which it connects the Linnean G. spu-
yium. It has occurred to Mr. G. S. Gibson of Saffron Walden, Essex, in cultivated
fields near to that town.
On the Cultivation of the Silk Worm. By Mrs. Wurrsy.
Extract of a Letter to the Assistant General Secretary.
Newlands, Lymington, Hants,
August 8, 1844.
S1r,—Having observed in those parts of Italy where the finest silk is grown, viz.
in Lombardy and Piedmont, that the winter is equally rigorous with that of En-
gland (nay, the frosts are more severe and of longer continuance), and having ascer-
- tained that the silk worm is ‘‘ educated” in rooms where ventilators are even more
requisite than stoves, thus proving to me that climate was no bar, I determined to
make the experiment whether the culture of silk could not be made the means of
' giving bread to some of our unemployed poor women and children. 1 was not de-
terred by learning that a similar experiment had already been made by a Company
conjointly in England and Ireland, because there is a vast difference between a com-
pany and the efforts of an individual determined to ascertain by actual personal su- _
perintendence the probability of success. ‘
I have cultivated with great success the white mulberry of the Philippine Isles, or
Morus multicaulis, and have a flourishing field which has fed thousands of silk-worms
this year and several preceding ones; and I have in proof several pounds weight of
well-wound silk, equal to any that can be imported from France or Italy.
On the Cultwation of Ferns. By T. Auus.
In the cultivation of Ferns I find many that are of constant character; they may
_ be more or less vigorous, but the characters remain unaltered, and the eye at once
recognises them; others, again, are subject to considerable alteration, as in some of
the Adiante. A. affine has usually only three digits, but I have plants in a vigorous
state of growth with the number of digits increased, and quite undistinguishable from
the allied species 4. pubescens : in Newman’s ‘ British Ferns’ Polypodium Dryopteris
and P.calcareum are considered as one; with me they retain their distinct characters
under all circumstances of growth: I have grown them in peat beds within a few feet
of each other : there P. calcareum retains its peculiar hue from the first appearance of
the frond above ground, its greener and more chaffy stem, and its more rigid ap-
_ pearance ; and I always find that it sends up fewer fronds than P. Dryopteris, which
are almost always fertile: these distinctions have been retained growing in a peat-
bed, in common garden soil, in pots in the house, and when raised from seed. Asa
general rule, though liable to exceptions, I find that plants which have other means
of propagation than from seed, fructify less freely than those which grow by an ex-
tension of the rhizoma, or which propagate themselves by sending out young plants
' at the extremity of the frond, as is the case with Asplenium flabellifolium, Danaez and
Asplenium Rhizophyllum, which generate a young plant near the under extremity of
the frond, as Woodwardia radicans, or which have young plants sprouting from the
upper surface of the frond, as is the case with Asplenium viviparum; on the other
hand, Aspidium bulbiferum is an exception to this rule: this plant bears an ample
crop of little bulbs, which fall off and germinate freely like the little black tubers from
the tiger lily, while at the same time the frond is covered on the under side with spo-
tules. Asplenium viviparum and Woodwardia radicans have never fructified in my
possession. Another instance occurs in Aspidium Thelypteris. We have one locality
in this neighbourhood where it grows under wood in an open peaty soil, and where
we may find it scattered over acres and scarcely find a single fertile frond ; in another
locality, where the rhizoma has not so free a range, it fructifies freely, and in my own
74 REPORT—1844. j
garden, in a stiff soil, almost every frond is fertile, while in a peat-bed about three —
yards off almost every frond is sterile: I know not whether botanists (a name —
to which I have no pretension, though offering a paper in the Botanical Section)
would expect to find crosses or new varieties spring up from seed in a class of plants
which have no recognisable organs of generation ; but we find it so in practice. I
possess a species of Gymnogramma which was obtained from seed by J.S. Henderson,
gardener to Earl Fitzwilliam at Milton : itis different from any previously cultivated
species. I also have a plant of my own which appears to be (and I have no doubt
is) a Pteris, unlike any plant I before possessed, or that I recollect to have seen; from
its appearance [ should take it to be a cross between Pieris —— and P. flexuosa, but
unfortunately the latter beautiful plant has never fructified with me. I find a great dif-
ference in the frequency with which the ferns propagate themselves spontaneously
from seed: the genus Pteris is among the most frequent, and springs up of various
species in all directions : Blechnum, Doodia and Gymnogramma also spring up freely,
as do some species of Diplazium ; Cheilanthes and Dicksonia frequently occur: of
Polypodiums I have had very few seedlings; the same may be said of exotic Aspi- |
diums, and only a few Aspleniums. I have this year adopted what I believe to be a
new method in raising ferns from seed, and, as far as I can at present judge, with
complete success: the plan I have adopted is to obtain a block of peat turf, such as
is sold in York for the purpose of lighting fires; that I thoroughly soak in water, and
then place in a cucumber frame ; then I sow theseed, and keeping them shaded from
the sun, I have a good crop of plants; but I am yet unable to determine whether
they will prove to be the species sown, three of which have not before been, as I be-
lieve, cultivated in England; the species are Polypodium membranifolium, Asplenium
variifolium and Alsophila , all from Norfolk Island.
The seed of ferns is so volatile and so fills the air, that though I have used a good
deal of care to prevent seed from finding its way to my seed-beds, I am as yet unable
to assure myself of possessing the new species. In the work on Australia from the
pen of my friend and relative James Backhouse, there is a notice of the occurrence
of many species of Ferns; and from his observations on the native habits and habitats
of several species I have derived great advantage, especially so by planting a consi-
derable number on decayed trunks of trees, where they grow with a vigour such as
I never before experienced : a particular instance is the beautiful dsplenium Nidus, a
plant I have had for years, but which was always in so feeble a state that it was
scarcely able to maintain existence ; and I had sent it out to nurse, under the care of
our experienced curator, in the orchideous stove in the Museum Gardens; still it
never put on a healthy appearance till planted in part of the stump of our old willow,
where it now flourishes inthe greatest vigour, and is putting forth its fertile fronds.
Further Experiments and Observations on the Argonauta Argo. By Madame
JEANETTE Powrer. Communicated by Professor Owen, F.R.S.
Prof. Owen communicated two memoirs which he had received from Madame
Jeanette Power on the Paper Nautilus (Argonauta Argo). He premised some brief
observations on the uncertainty which had prevailed from the time of Aristotle to
that of Cuvier, as to the real nature of the molluscous fabricator of the Argonaut
shell, and alluded to the opinion entertained by many conchologists to within the
last six or eight years, that the Cephalopod usually found in the Argonaut shell was
a parasitic occupant. The thin expanded membranes which characterize one pair of
the arms of this Cephalopod, had usually been described, up to the same period, as
the sails by which the Argonaut was wafted along the surface of the sea, whilst the
six long and slender arms were supposed to serve as oars, extending from the sides
of the boat; and the little navigator, thus fancifully depicted, had been a favourite
subject of imagery in the song of the poet, from Callimachus to Byron.
Madame Power, during a residence in Sicily in 1833 and 1834, had made obser-
vations on the numerous specimens of the Argonauta Argo, confined in submarine
cages at Messina, tending to prove that the Cephalopod inhabiting that shell was its
true constructor, and that the supposed sails were the organs concerned in the forma-
tion and repair of the shell. These observations were communicated by Madame
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75
er to the Gizenian Academy of Catania, and are published, with Reports on them
by Profs. di Giacomo, Gemellaro and Maravigna; in the Transactions of the Academy,
yol. ix., and in the Journal of the Giznian Literary Society for December 1834; in
the journal entitled ‘ Passe temps pour les Dames,’ fifth year, No.1; and in the ‘ Effe-
merido Scientifico e Letterario per la Sicilia,” No. lxv. The principal results of these
observations, with a series of specimens of the young Argonauta, were submitted by
Madame Power to the Zoological Society of London in 1837, and gave rise to dis-
cussions which are detailed in the Proceedings of the Society for 1837, and are more
briefly summed up in the second volume of the Zoological Transactions, pp. 114,115.
(See Atheneum, No. 590.) But as the evidence adduced by Madame Power was
deemed by some naturalists to be inconclusive against the parasitism of the Cepha-
lopod inhabiting the Argonaut, Prof. Owen had suggested to Madame Power the
experiment of cutting off one of the membranous arms in a living Argonaut, and pre-
‘serving the mutilated Cephalopod alive as long as possible, to observe the effect of
the operation on the growth or repair of the shell.
Madame Power revisited Sicily in 1838, and transmitted to Prof. Owen, in 1840,
a letter descriptive of her ‘ Experiments and Observations upon the Argonauta Argo,
made during the months of October, November and December, 1839 ;’ and Prof. Owen,
having recently received from Madame Power the specimens of the Argonaut experi-
‘mented on, which satisfactorily confirm the accuracy of the account of the experi-
ments and conclusions in that letter, proceeded to communicate the following trans-
- lation of it to the Zoological Section of the Association :—
*‘ Honoured Friznp.—In fulfilment of the gratifying charge you imposed upon
me, I present you with my slight work. It contains exactly the result of the obser-
vations which you, with so much judgement, proposed to me. I am aware that I
ought to have withdrawn from the task, not possessing sufficient scientific knowledge
for the undertaking, but the hope of kind indulgence encouraged me to proceed.
“October 15th.—I placed my cages in the port of Messina, putting into them seve-
ral Argonauts, which had plenty of eggs suspended under the apex of the spire of the
shell, of which I measured the respective sizes. In ordef to ascertain what was
_ their favourite food, I gave them, in small pieces, Venuses, Crustacea, fish, flesh, and
‘a whole calamajo (Loligo sagittata, Lamarck), which is very common in the Messina
channel. They no sooner saw this last eatable, than they threw themselves upon it,
‘and it was curious to behold with what avidity they dragged it, now to the right, now
to the left, putting all their powers in action, and disputing among themselves for
victory and possession.
_ October 16th.—Having procured two more Argonaute, I cut from one of them the
right membranous arm, and from the other the left; breaking off a piece from the
_ side of the shell of each corresponding with the cut arm. I then placed the Argonauts
“inacage*. The first died the day after, and the other five days after, and, in this, I
observed that the right portion of the shell exceeded, by about a line and a half, that
of the left, where the arm had been cut off. [This is shown in specimen No. 1.—R. O.]
This convinced me that the animal, not having the left arm entire, could not in
“consequence increase the shell on that side, while it proceeded in doing so on the
tight side. I made several other trials, but without success, as all the animals died,
_ if not immediately, within a few hours after their being cut.
_ “In order to succeed in my undertaking, I thought of breaking a piece off the ex-
_tremity of the great whorl” (giro), ‘‘and performed this on six shells of the Argonaut,
to see whether the Cephalopod, after having repaired them, would proceed in aug-
menting them. In four, six and ten days the Cephalopods not only repaired them,
but proceeded to enlarge therm, as the specimens Nos. 2to3 show. This is one of
the reasons which go to prove that the Cephalopod is the real fabricator of its own
shell, and confirms the statement made in my first memoirs.
*« October 28th.—I cut from four Cephalopods of the Argonaut about the half of
Re membranous arms; in two of them, cutting that on the right side, in the others,
hat on the left, and I broke pieces, corresponding with the middle of the arm, out of
the shells. Two days afterwards I found them dead ; two only of them had repaired,
and but imperfectly, their shell; one on the left side (No. 5) and the other on the
* “Tt is necessary to perform this operation in sea water of the same temperature as its
ordinary warmth, for if it be cold it kills the Argonauts.”
76 REPORT—1844.
right (No. 6). This clearly shows they must have been much hurt. In the inside ~
of the shell No. 5, it may be observed, that the poulp repaired its shell with two —
little morsels of the same, which, in cutting it, I left within. The poulp is very
clever, but with all its ingenuity could not succeed in properly placing the bits, as
this specimen shows.
«October 29th.—I broke from a shell a piece of the length of eleven lines, exactly
where the dark spots are situated on the keel of the Argonaut, to ascertain whether
in repairing it the spots would be reproduced. The shell was no sooner broken than
the poulp spread its membranes over it, and in this manner swam about, ate, and did
not uncover its shell till the reparation was completed. Three hours after the break-
ing I took up the Argonaut with my net, and the keel was mended with a fine skin,
on which the rudiments of the spots were visible. (See specimen, No.7.) This
experiment proves clearly that the reparation is effected by transudation from the
membranous arms of the Cephalopod.”
The letter then proceeds to detail observations on the different rate of growth of
the young Argonauts which are excluded from the egg whilst within the cavity of the
spire of the parent shell, where they are protected for a time, as in a marsupial pouch,
and the escape of the young at successive intervals from that nursery. ‘‘ To ascer-
tain whether the young Argonauts after exclusion from the egg could live without
the aid of the parent, I made the following experiments :—I took a number of them
which had been born two days before and put them into a large glass vessel filled
with sea-water and covered with muslin, through which the water could have ingress
and egress without allowing the young Argonauts to escape; I put the vase into a
basket, to which I suspended a piece of iron to make it fall tothe bottom of the cage.
The next day they were all dead. I repeated the experiment, detailed in my first
memoir*, to ascertain whether the ova could be developed without the aid of the
parent ; it was on the same plan as the preceding with regard to the small polypes.
In twenty-four hours after removal from the spire of the parent shell the eggs had
enlarged to double the size they were when put into the vase, and in eight days no
vestige of them remained ; they had evidently decayed and been dissolved. I doubt
not, therefore, that the parent Argonaut attends to the preservation and development
of the eggs within the spire, and preserves them with some gelatinous or mucilagi-
nous matter from the contact of the sea-water.’”” Madame Power then states that
having examined at least 600 specimens of the Argonaut in the course of her inquiries,
she had not once discovered a male specimen, but that all had eggs adhering in greater
or less quantity to the involuted spire of the shell: the accomplished naturalist con-
cludes by observing, “‘ From this great quantity of Argonauts, from very young spe-
cimens to those of full size, you may see that I have endeavoured to omit nothing
that could elucidate those interesting points noted by you. I am sorry that this
year, in consequence of the bad weather, I am not able to put before you the young
Argonauts developed as far as the beginning of the fabrication of their shells : I hope
in future to be more fortunate. I must also add, that having several times wished to
repeat my observations on the fate of the Cephalopod of the Argonaut, when taken
out of its shell, the result has been that they sometimes, with difficulty, replace them-
selves in the shell, but that, if the shell be removed, they do not form another, but die
in consequence. And I assure you that the Cephalopod of the Argonaut is the most
difficult of marine animals to study from its extreme delicacy, and that out of 100 ex-
perimented on, not more than fifteen survived. It now only remains to me to render
you most sincere thanks, and to profess myself most grateful for your instructions
and for the pleasure you have given me in satisfying in any degree your wishes.
(Signed) «‘ JEANETTE Power.”
«* Messina, 30th January, 1840.”
The second Memoir, entitled ‘ Continuation of Observations on the Polypus of the
Argonauta Argo, in 1839,’ contains a more detailed account of the experiments re-
counted in the foregoing letter, with additional observations. The relative position
of the animal to its shell is always the same: when retracted the visceral sac is
lodged in the spire, the membranous arms to the right and left, the other six arms
placed beneath the body in the middle ; the mouth in the centre of the large aperture
* Trans. Acad. Gienian, vol. ix. 1824,
. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 'e |
of the shell, the eyes being visible on the right and left through the sub-transparent
shell; the siphon resting upon the open part of the keel about two lines from its ex-
_tremity. Wishing to ascertain whether the animal thus situated could see, Madame
Power gently pushed towards it a small stick, and although at a distance of four feet
from the eye, it at once ceased swimming, and sank to the bottom, The animal
swims by the reaction of the respiratory currents forcibly ejected from the siphon,
which, by its various movements, guides the progress of the Argonaut, When the
animal is in the act of enlarging its shell, it spreads the two membranous arms or
mantles over the sides of the shell, fixing the suckers at the margin of the arm upon
the points at the sides of the keel. ‘‘ At first the mantle appears like silver; then
gently moving in its shell the animal produces a change of scene, and there appears
upon the silvery ground beautiful marks like golden rings with black points in the
centre of them. When the animal is irritated, the colour changes to a deep red, and
then to dark violet, and when in this state it dies.
_ “The body of the young Argonaut fills the shell completely, and when swimming,
it shows the siphon: as the period of reproduction approaches it enlarges the shell
very much, the aperture exceeding the body by one or two inches ; and thus, when
swimming, the siphon is not visible: when the cavity of the spire is filled with eggs
or young Argonauts, the parent places its body more forward, and its siphon reappears
when swimming.” With regard to the locomotion of the Argonaut, Madame Power
observes, that ‘‘ It would be difficult to describe the immense variety of the move-
ments of the Argonauta Argo in swimming, dragging and floating, and it would re-
quire a series of drawings to represent them: these movements vary according to the
fancy or caprice of the animal, or to circumstances ; for instance, when at the bot-
tom of the water, and wishing to rise or go in any other direction, the only move-
ment it makes is to agitate its siphon, and thus it swims with its body and eight
arms hidden in the shell; or it swims with its mantles totally or in part extended
over the shell; or holding a portion of the body more or less above the shell; or
holding its prey with its arms. The Argonaut also drags itself along the sand, gravel
or mud at the bottom, or climbs millepores and madrepores in search of molluscs or
other nutriment, or when it seeks concealment; it sometimes anchors by its lower
arms, hanging from the shell and attached by their suckers.’’ The various movements
of the Argonaut are then described as observed during its partial protrusion from and
retraction into the shell, whilst putting out or retiring its mantles within the shell ;
whilst turning over, or turning to the right or the left; when floating on the water ;
when attacking its foes, or defending itself from them; and when throwing water
and ink into the faces of any persons who try to take them, or when otherwise irri-
tated.
Madame Power alludes to her having transmitted, through the Chevalier Alban de
Gasquet, Lieutenant de Vaisseau, who was at Messina at the commencement of 1835,
and by his request, to his friend M. Sander Rang, Officier Supérieur au Corps Royale
de la Marine, an account of her observations and experiments on the Argonuuta Argo,
“made in the years 1833 and 1834, and which are noticed by M. Rang in his Memoir
‘on the Argonauta, published in 1837 ; and the memoir concludes by a letter addressed
by Mr. G. B. Sowerby to Madame Power, acquainting her that he possessed a speci-
“men of the shell of the Argonauta tuberculosa which had been broken and repaired
in a manner which proved the correctness of her observations.
_ The second memoir was illustrated with three beautiful drawings of the 4rgonauta
Argo in different positions, and with the membranous arms expanded upon the
shell, in different states of retraction, and wholly retracted.
—
The skull of an Aboriginal of South Australia, transmitted by Governor Grey as
an example of the habit of the tribe to convert that part of the human body into a
vessel for holding and carrying water, was exhibited by Professor Owen. He ex-
plained the mode in which it had been made applicable to this purpose. After re-
moval of the soft parts of the head and the lower jaw, the bones of the face had been
broken away, with the partition and roof of the orbits, and the cranial box was then
suspended by a neatly plaited net-rope of threads, made of twisted vegetable fibres,
passed through the hole made in the roof of the orbits and through the foramen mag-
num, this suspender being terminated by an ornamental tassel. Leakage by the
K
i *%
‘
78 REPORT—1844.
sutures of the cranium, especially the squamous suture, had been prevented by pitch-
ing them over with a native bitumen and cementing pieces of the nacreous lining of
shells along the course of the sutures.
The exterior of this specimen of barbarous art was polished, and the processes and —
other protuberances worn smooth by habitual use: the effects of this were most ob- —
vious on the external angular processes of the orbits, which seemed to have servedas —
the spouts of the vessel. 4
__ The aborigines of the tribe appear to have practised this art from time immemorial: —
each Gin or wife possesses and usually fabricates her cranial calabash, with which
she fetches the domestic supply of water from the pond or river, and suspends it in ©
the hut or on the branch of an adjoining tree. They have no arts of pottery, and —
nature has not supplied them with vessels from the vegetable kingdom, like those ©
which the cujete or cocoa-nut furnish to more favoured tribes. {
The Scandinavian legends tell of the ancient warriors who quaffed their wine from —
the skulls of their enemies, but Professor Owen believed the present to be the first
instance of the habitual conversion of part of the human skeleton into a drinking
vessel.
On Zoological Nomenclature. By the Rev. Francis Orpen Morris, B.A.
The author, while approving of the general principles laid down in the Report of
a Committee appointed by this Association to consider the above subject (1842),
recommends that the Association should carry into effect its own rules, by appointing
committees and subcommittees to revise the whole Animal Kingdom, and to deter-
mine the names by which each species should finally be denominated. The author
further recommends that no two species (even of different genera) should have the
same specific name, and that generic names should be inyariably taken from the —
Greek, specific from the Latin languages. He also considers that the second portion
of the Report, which contains recommendations for the guidance of zoologists, in
future should be made retrospective as well as prospective in its operation.
On the Southern Limits of the Esquimaux Race in America,
By R. G. Laruam, M.D.
It is considered that the line of demarcation drawn between the Esquimaux and
Indian races of America is far too broad and trenchant. According to the evidence —
of language two tribes at least may be added to the former races.
1. The Chipewyan of Mackenzie.—This language is not to be confounded with the
Chippeway (Ojibbeway), or with any of the numerous Algonkin tongues. Such affi-
nities as it has with these are distant and indirect. Its true affinities are with the
Esquimaux languages of Cadiack, Oonalashka, the bay of Kenay, and the Sitca or
Norfolk Sound. It is known to us by three vocabularies, yiz. the Chipewyan of
Mackenzie, the Nagail of Mackenzie, and the Hudson’s Bay vocabulary of Dobbs.
It is spoken across the whole continent.
2. The Ugalyachmuchtsi of Resanoff.—The locality for this language is the neigh-
bourhood of Mount St. Elias in Russian America. On a statement of Resanoff’s it
has been separated from the neighbouring Esquimaux tongues, so as to cause an
appearance of discontinuity in the Esquimaux area. By dealing, however, with the
Cadiack, Oonalashka, Kenay and Sitca vocabularies as the representatives of a single
language, it may be shown to be Esquimaux.
Affinities of a more general kind are to be found even further southward. The
vocabularies collected by Mr. Tolmie and published by Dr. Scouler in the ‘Transac~
tions of the Royal Geographical Society,’ as far south as the river Columbia, are akin
to each other and to the languages north of them. To these might he added two vo-
eabularies furnished by Mackenzie, hitherto unplaced, of the Atnah and the Friendly
Village languages. The first of these is closely akin to the Noosdalum, the second
to the Billechoola vocabularies of Mr. Tolmie.
‘
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79
a On the Ethnography of Africa as determined by its Languages.
, By R. G. Laruam, M.D.
In the present state of our information all classifications of the African nations are
necessarily provisional. The classes of languages equivalent to the divisions called,
in general ethnography, Indo-European and Semitic, are, for the native tongues of
continental Africa, five in number.
[. The Coptic, containing the extinct dialects of Egypt.
Il. The Berber, containing the non-arabic languages of Fezzan, Tripoli, Tunis, Al-
giers, Morocco, and the Tuarick of the Western Sahara, along with the extinct Guanche
language of the Canary islands.
III. The Hottentot division.
IV. The Caffrarian division, extended as far northward as Melinda and Loango,
east and west.
None of these divisions, with the probable exception of the Caffrarian, fall into any
intermediate or subordinate groups.
V. The fifth and last division of the African languages falls into eleven subordi-
nate groups, each equivalent to the divisions called Gothic, Classical, Celtic, Slavo-
nic, &c. in general ethnography.
A. The Nubian group, containing the languages known through the following
vocabularies :—
1, The Kensy of Burckhardt ; 13. The Darfour of the Mithridates ;
2. The Noub of Burckhardt ; 14. The Darfour of Salt;
3. The Dungola of the Mithridates; 15. The Darfour of Konig ;
4, The Barabbra of the Mithridates; 16. The Darfour of Riippell ;
5. The Dongolawy of Caillauc ; 17. The Darrunga of the Mithridates ;
6. The Routana of Eusebe de Salle; 18. The Takeli of Riippell ;
7. The Noby of Eusebe de Salle ; 19. The Denka of Riippell ;
8. The Nubian of Costaz ; 20. The Schabun of Rippell;
9. The Koldagi of Riippell ; 21. The Fertit of Riippell;
10. The Jebel-Nuha of Holroyd ; 22. The Darmitchegan-Shangalla of Salt ;
11. The Shilluck of the Mithridates; 23. The Tacazze-Shangalla of Salt ;
12. The Shilluck of Rippell ; 24. The Qamamy] of Caillaud.
B. The Galla or Danakil group, containing the Danakil, Shiho, Arkeeko, Hurrur,
Adaiel and Somauli languages, as known from the vocabularies of Salt; the Danakil
and Galla of Krapf and Isenberg, and the Saho of Abaddie.
C. The Borgho languages, containing the Mobba of the Mithridates and the Borgho
of Burckhardt.
D. The Begharmi vocabularies of the Mithridates and of Denham.
EK. The Bornou languages, containing the Affadeh of the Mithridates, the Bornou
of Denham, and the Maiha numerals of Bowdich. The Affadeh of the Mithridates
is probably the Bedeh of Clapperton.
F. The Mandara of Denham.
G. The Howssa group, containing, over and above the vocabularies current under
the name Howssa, the Afnu and Kashne of the Mithridates, the Quolla-Liffa, Mal-
lowa and Kallaghi, numerals of Bowdich; besides the Timbuctoo vocabularies of
Adams, Denham, Lyon and Caillié.
H. The Mandingo group, containing the Bambarra, Jallonka, Soosoo, Sokke,
Bullom, and Timmani languages; these last being related to each other and to the
Soosoo. Also the Garangi, Kong, Callana, Fobee and Garman, numerals of Bowdich.
I. The Woloff languages.
J. The Foulah languages.
K. The Ibo-Ashantee group. This large and complex group falls into subdi-
visions: these, however, are even more provisional than the previous arrangements,
since the vocabularies are in the present case pre-eminently fragmentary.
a. The Fantee languages of the kingdom of Ashantee and of Booroom. The Fetu
of Muller, the Afootoo of Bowdich, the Inta, the Aowin, the Amanahea and Ahanta
numerals of Bowdich are Fantee or Ashantee.
8. The Acra language of Protten and Schonning, Danish missionaries.
y- The Dahomey or Foy languages = the Judah of Labat, and the Watje (Whi-
dah) Atje, and Popo vocabularies of the Mithridates.
80 REPORT—1844.
6. The Ibo languages.
¢. The Nufee languages.
¢. The Yorruba languages. To some parts of this group belong almost all the
fragmentary vocabularies for the coast between the Sherbro and Gaboon rivers, under —
the various and often-confused names of
Adampi, Tambi, Tembu,
Akkim, Akripon,
The Gold-coast vocabulary of Artus,
The Asianten of the Mithridates (Ashantee),
The Crepee of the Mithridates,
The Adah of the Mithridates,
The Ockwa and Wawu,
The Kassenti,
The Kanga, Mangree, and Gien,
The Dagwhumba, Kumsalahoo, Mosee, Hio, Yngwa, Badagry, Kerrapay, Em-
poongwa (Gaboon), Oonjobai, Oongormo, Kaylee and Shekan, numerals of
Bowdich,
The few Malemba words of Bowdich,
The Kakundy or Shabbe of Laird and Oldfield,
The Mokko and Karabari,
The Calbra and Camancons of the Mithridates.
The following languages, along with a few others known through fragmentary voca-
bularies, it is considered advisable, for different reasons, to leave at present unplaced :—
. The Agow.
. The Tibboo (probably Nubian).
. The Bisharye, Adareb and Suaken.
- The Serawoolli.
. The Sereres.
- The Akwambu.
- The Croo. —_——
On the Eastern Limits of the Australian Race and Language.
By R. G. Latuam, M.D.
We are in possession of three vocabularies from the neighbourhood of the island
of Timor, which differ materially from the Malay tongues around them: upon this
account they have hitherto remained unplaced. It is believed that they are Austra-
lian, a fact which breaks down the accredited isolation of that race.
1. Ombay.—In Freycinet’s ‘Voyage’ the natives of Ombay are described as having
olive-black complexions, flattened noses, thick lips, and long black hair. In Arago
we find about fifty words of their language; of these four are more or less Malay,
whilst another group coincides with the languages of Australia and Van Diemen’s
Land, dealt with as ethnographically one.
2. Tembora.—From the Tembora district in the island Sumbawa we have a short
vocabulary by Sir Stamford Rafiles, together with a statement, in a subsequent letter
to Marsden, that in the island in question the woolly-haired race was numerous.
Without being wholly different from the Malay, it is so distinct that even its nume-
rals are peculiar to itself. Out of thirty-four words three or four seem to be Austra-
lian.
3. Mangarei.—In a savage part of the island of Ende or Floris we have a short
vocabulary of thirty-two words by Marsden. It is more Malay and less Australian
than either of the above tongues.
On the Ethnographical Position of certain Tribes of the Garrow Hills.
By R. G. Latuam, M.D.
In the ‘ Asiatic Researches’ an account is given of a tribe inhabiting the Garrow
hills to the north of Hindostan, whose colour and physical conformation approach
the type of the negro. In the ‘ Asia Polyglotta’ of Klaproth their language stands
unplaced. The affinities of the lauguage in question are not with the Negrito tribes
of the islands, but with the continental language of Bootan, akin to the Tibetian.
Hence, according to the evidence of language, the place of the Garrow tribes is with
the Tibetian race. 4
STOOP & toe
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81
: On the Dog as the Associate of Man. By Dr. Hopexn.
, It was the object of this paper to illustrate the principle that the inferior animals,
which by accident or design have accompanied man in his diffusion over the globe,
may be advantageously studied with the object of obtaining some light on the obscure
‘subject of the affinities of the several families of mankind.
The dog was naturally selected, not merely on account of his almost universal pre-
sence wherever man is to be found, but also from his tolerance of almost every cli-
mate, whilst he is susceptible of many modifications which attest the influences to
which he has been exposed, and which are worthy of observation in relation to the
‘changes which man himself may also undergo from various influences.
To avoid unnecessary complication, the author excluded from consideration the
Dingo and its varieties, as found in Australia and the islands of the Pacific, and also
the wild dogs of Mexico, although they appear to have furnished the Indians with
‘some domestic animals. He likewise passed over many artificial varieties and the
darge group of mongrels, and proceeded to notice three principal types.
The first and most strongly marked, so extensively spread that it may be traced
with such modifications of colour and size as do not conceal the family resemblance,
from China to Kamtschatka, Siberia, the north of Europe, where it is familiarly known
as the Spitz or Pomeranian dog, to Iceland and the regions inhabited or visited. by
the Esquimaux.
The second, comprising all the true hunting dogs highly endowed with the sense
of smell, having the strongest marks of human cultivation, and being to a great de-
gree dependent on man. These dogs are the blood-hound, stag, fox and hare-hounds,
pointers, and perhaps some of the terriers. They seem to belong to the south-west
of Asia, the south of Europe, and to ancient Egypt. _
The third are the strong but active dogs, of which the earliest type is seen in the
ancient sculptures of hunts, in which the game was the wild boar, the bull, the stag,
&c. Of the correctness of making but one group of these dogs the author is not
confident, but some animals, apparently very distinct at first sight, are found to be-
long to it and to be very nearly related; such are the greyhound, the bull dog, the
Kangaroo dog, the mastiff, Dane, Dalmatian, &c. The clashing of the family tokens
of affinity and the technical characteristics of artificial classification was briefly no-
ticed, and some generalities regarding the probable production of a few well-known
and established varieties were suggested. The particular kind of Newfoundland dog,
so justly admired both for its appearance and its qualities, was referred to the union
of the Esquimaux dog with the chien dogue of the French, which, if the conjecture be
‘true, is not without interest and plausibility with regard to the ethnology of that
island. The origin of the spaniels and sky terriers was pointed out by analogous
characteristics.
On the Stature of the Guanches, the extinct Inhabitants of the Canary
Islands. By Dr. Hopcxin.
It is well known that prior to the discovery of the Canary Islands by the Spaniards
and their subsequent occupation by the Portuguese, these islands were inhabited by
‘race of men of which not only many curious particulars are recorded, but indi-
‘Vidual remains of the people themselves are preserved in their mummies, which at
One period were very numerous.
By many of the historians who have written of these people, either from personal
Observation, or so soon after the conquest that authentic information must have been
readily accessible to them, the Guanches are described as remarkable for their sta-
ture, their extraordinary agility and their great strength. Dr. Prichard, in his labo-
rious and admirable work, has, in speaking of the Guanches, adopted this description,
and Sabin Berthelot, who has written an interesting article on this people, which is
published in the ‘Transactions of the Ethnological Society of Paris,’ has mentioned
authorities and quoted remarkable passages which describe the ancient inhabitants of
the Canaries as possessing the qualities just mentioned.
_ The casual observation of Guanche mummies had previously given Dr. Hodgkin so
very different an impression regarding the stature of this lost race, that his interest
and = were excited by these relations, and he was in consequence induced to
. G
82 REPORT—1844.
make inquiries by correspondence with his friends in the Canary Islands, and by more
accurate investigation of the remains preserved in European collections.
The measurements of eight or nine individuals, males and females, of whom the
skeletons are wholly or in part preserved, range from 4 feet 6} inches to 4 feet 103
inches for the whole height, which exhibits a diminutive stature even for the tallest.
Dr. Hodgkin does not presume to infer from the facts which he has adduced that the
statements of the authors alluded to are erroneous, but he conjectures that the Ca-
nary Islands, like many other parts of the globe, may at different periods have been
inhabited by people of different races, even before the arrival of the Spaniards. The
people found by the first Europeans appear to have been of the same family with the
Birbirs of Africa, as indicated by language, physical character, &c. They possessed
however some characters which distinguished them from the Birbirs, such as the
making of mummies and some other customs. The author of the paper suggested
the careful investigation of all accessible relics of the ancient inhabitants, the com-
parison of the Guanche and Birbir languages, in order to detect in the former words
distinct from the latter, and a minute reference to original writers, as affording the
possible clews by which this ethnological difficulty may be overcome.
On the Stature and relative Proportions of Man at different Epochs and in
different Countries. By W. B. Brent.
This paper embodied in numerous and elaborate tables the results of the measure-
ment of some thousands of individuals, obtained from a great variety of sources, though
chiefly by the personal labour and expense of the author. It is rather surprising that
human anatomists should hitherto have furnished so few data or conclusions on this
subject, and left a void which this paper has contributed much to fill. The author
suggests that valuable statistical returns might readily be obtained in connection with
the census and on other public occasions.
The author rejects the idea that tall men are deficient in mind, as hinted by Lord
Bacon, and adduces historical instances of the contrary, and notices the fact that the
average of stature of the inmates of hospitals, workhouses and prisons is below the
ordinary average.
The average height of Englishmen is placed at 5 feet 7} inches: the army returns,
which are likely to give a good idea of the peasantry, range from 5 feet 6 inches to
5 feet 7 inches: the yeomanry, including a higher class, range from 5 feet 1 inch to
6 feet 3 inches. The French conscripts, officially stated, give an average of 5 feet 43
inches, but Mr. Brent, from his own observation, would place the French average
considerably higher. The observations made by Prof. Forbes amongst the pupils of
his own class in Edinburgh, placed the Irish as the tallest, the Scotch next, and then
the English. The Belgians appear to be of still lower stature.
A fact was noticed in the paper as having been recently brought to light by the
researches made by Dr. Hutchinson, in which Mr. Brent had taken a part. It was
discovered that the amount of air which can be expelled from a healthy chest, after
full inspiration, bore a certain ratio to the height of the individual, a certain number
of cubic inches of air corresponding to every additional inch of stature. It will be
obvious that the application of this principle must be of very great importance in the
granting of policies of assurance on life, and in the selection of men for various kinds
of public service.
A curious and interesting portion of the paper related to the relative proportions
of the most remarkable antique statues; these the author has reduced to a common
measure, and not content with various measurements, he has ascertained what would
be their absolute weight, as men, at different statures. These results he has com-
pared with the actual measurements and weights of a large number of the most re-
markable athletz of the present age, boxers, wrestlers, &c., as well as with those of
picked men in the army and aristocracy.
On the Natives of the Hawaiian Islands. By the Rev. W. Ricuarps.
They have no clear tradition of their origin, but they sometimes speak of their an-
cestors having come from Tahiti. The similarity of the Hawaiian language with that
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83
of all the islands in the Pacific east of the Friendly Islands, including New Zealand
on the south and several islands on the west, proves that their inhabitants must have
had a common origin. The question therefore presents itself,—In what direction did
the tide of population move? If the Sandwich Islands were first settled, then they
must have been settled from America on the east, or from Japan on the west. The
distance from either quarter offers no insuperable objections ; for several Japanese
junks have drifted on the Sandwich Islands, and the same winds which bring drift
wood from America might also have brought boats. But the dissimilarity between
the language, habits and religion of the Hawaiians and the Japanese or Americans,
amounts to almost positive evidence that the inhabitants of Hawaii could not have
derived their origin from them ; while, on the other hand, the author knew of no facts
whatever which favour the idea of such an origin: there are however many facts
which favour the idea of their having come from the south and west.
On the Sandwich Islanders. By Gen. MitiER.
On the Languages of America. By H. R. ScHoorcrart.
It is admitted by philologists, that there are at least three generic languages, differ-
ing in their essential character, in that part of North America which lies between the
Atlantic coast, the original seat of settlement, and the Mississippi river, extending
into British America. Mr. Schoolcraft confined himself to that generic branch of its
aboriginal Atlantides to whom the term Algic has been applied. This term em-
braces a number of languages, sub-languages and dialects, comprehending the native
population of the principal part of the Atlantic coast of the United States, the Ohio
and Mississippi valleys, the Valley of the St. Lawrence, the great chain of interior
lakes, and extending far into the Canadas and Hudson’s Bay. The Algic language
is transpositive, eccretive, and highly compound, the constant tendency on the mind
of the speaker being to express, along with the original idea, all its adjuncts and qua-
lifications. Hence properties as well as things—the object acted on as well as the
actor, position as well as number—are constantly associated in the sentences and
words, which are uttered with a sententious formality. The tribes do not under-
stand each other after a few removes of dialect. The Algic language is regarded as
the most copious and harmonious tongue spoken by the North American tribes.
On the Natives of Guiana. By Chevalier ScHomBurckK.
This paper was illustrated by a Macusi youth in his native dress, by several casts
of natives met with on his late journey, as well as by several skulls, and by a series
of drawings by Mr. Goodall. In 1840 Chevalier Schomburgk estimated the tribes
who inhabit the British territory at 7000, but they have since been reduced by small-
pox to 6000, but a small population for an area of 100,000 square miles. ‘It is
scarcely necessary to observe,” said Chevalier Schomburgk, ‘that a subject so re-
plete with interest as the present state of the aboriginal inhabitants of Guiana de-
serves more attention than Great Britain has hitherto afforded it. The history of this
people appears to be the end of a tragical drama, for a whole race of men is fast
wasting away.”
On the supposed extinct Inhabitants of Newfoundland. By Dr. Kine.
Instead of being red men, as has been supposed, Dr. King produced the evidence
of Thorsin, the Icelander of the tenth century, Whitbourne, who wrote in 1612, the
Abbé Raynal, Lieut. Roger Curtis, and O’Reilly, in support of their being Esqui-
maux, and expressed his opinion that Newfoundland was never permanently occu-
pied, but merely formed one of their fishing stations. Dr. King observed, that while
we have sought for the living inhabitants we have neglected that which remains of
the dead; and that future research would, in all probability, disclose that the New-
foundlanders were Esquimaux, which was the result, as far as is known, of the
opening of the tumuli at the falls of Niagara.
GQ
84 REPORT—1844,
On the Shyens and Karens of India, By Mr. Kixcatp.
There are about eight millions of Shyens; they all speak the same language, and
have the same written character. It is monosyllabic, and partakes largely of nasal
sounds. Their alphabet is an improvement on the Burman, as it adopts only the
useful consonants. They have twelve vowels which are rarely used; certain points
or marks are attached to the consonants to make the vowel sounds. Their alphabet,
in form, hardly varies from the Burman. The Kakhyens, Thing-bau Kakhyens, Ka-
rens and Karen-nees, are only so many different names. They are scattered over a
vast extent of country and number about five millions. The account given by Marco
Polo agrees with that furnished to Mr, Kincaid by the Shyens.
On Ethno-epo-graphy. By the Rev. T. Myers.
The author’s object was to furnish travellers among hitherto unknown tribes with
a correct method of expressing the sounds which they hear, and forming vocabularies
on the intelligible principle of using a distinct character for every sound. He used a
modification of the common Roman characters, and showed how his system applied
to the Arabic and Hindoo families of languages. He referred to the schemes of other
orthoépists.
On the Mode of Constructing Ethnographical Maps. By Dr. Komsst.
MEDICAL SCIENCE.
On a Disease of the Tongue. By Dr. Hemine.
Tue author described the disease, the appearances of which, although varied in
degree, were uniform in character. In the early symptoms the tongue is cedematous,
sulcated, and prone to become ulcerated on the borders of the sulci, or in parts which
may be irritated by the contact of a decayed or ragged tooth ; the surface then be-
comes morbidly smooth in longitudinal streaks, the papillae being apparently oblite-
rated ; the whole organ assumes the same character, becoming dry and hard in its
texture, the ulceration becomes more marked, is sometimes superficial, and in some
cases forming deep ragged ulcers ; in one case the ulcers had pierced entirely through
the organ. The author detailed five well-marked cases; they all occurred in fe-
males, and the general constitutional health was much impaired, the patients suffering
from sick head-aches, deranged digestion, cedematous ancles, &c.; in some cases the
disease was of many years’ continuance. In the treatment, the author deems the
restoration of the general health of primary importance : after the ordinary aperients,
he gave soda and cicuta, and continued these remedies many weeks. The loeal ap-
plication found most useful was nitrate of silver; by perseverance in the treatment
every case got well.
On the Bitter Principles of some Vegetables. By Prof. Pererti of Rome.
The greater part of those vegetables, he observed, which contain a bitter principle
not depending on an alkaloid, owe it to an alkaline resin ; they are decomposed by
large quantities of water, by acids, and by earthy salts. By the processes he adopted
(which he described in detail), the Professor obtained the bitter principle of worm-
wood, quassia, coffee, gentian, &c., and also the pure bitter of bile. The bitter
principle which attracted his chief attention was that of the Absinthium Romanum,
which he stated to have much power in allaying severe irritation of the stomach, and
he had successfully used it as a remedy in sea-sickness, half an ounce of the solution
being enough to prevent it, or stop it if it had commenced. The Professor detailed
several of the chemical properties of these resinates. The so-called resins he stated
to be bi-resinated alkalies ; such are the resins of jalap, guaiacum, &c. The gum-resins
he stated to be combinations of resinate and bi-resinate of potash with resinates of
lime and magnesia. The paper concluded by observations on some other points of
—
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 85
vegetable chemistry, and the announcement of the discovery of 1 new alkaloid de-
rived from a new species of Pereira, the Cryptocaria pretiosa, different from the bark
of the true Pereira, examined by M. Pelletier.
On the Comparative Frequency of Uterine Conception.
By Dr. S. W. J. Merriman.
On the Tape-Worm as prevalent in Abyssinia. By Dr. HopvexIn.
In addition to observations on this subject, he also gave some particulars of the
plant called Kosso in Abyssinia, but known by different names in other regions of
‘Africa, the flowers of which are powerfully purgative, and are used as a specific re-
medy for the endemic prevalence of worms.
Dr. Williams presented two specimens of Tznia, one of which had been removed
by the use of spirit of turpentine, after the male fern root (Aspidium filix mas) had
failed, and the other by the latter remedy, after the turpentine had failed.
On the Reflex Function of the Brain. By Dr. Laycock.
The object was to show that the reflex function, as possessed by the spinal nerves
and ganglia, is also manifested by the cerebral ganglia, and the cerebral nerves of
sensation, the optic, acoustic, olfactory, &c. ; that, in fact, as the cerebral masses and
the cerebral nerves are properly to be considered as a continuation of the spinal, they
are furnished with the same endowments and subject to the same laws. He reviewed
the doctrine of the reflex function, and the facts on which it was founded, as taught
by Dr. Marshall Hall. The excito-motory irritation may be applied either to the
periphery or to the central axis in the spinal system, and may produce its effect inde-
pendently of sensation or perception or volition. Yet consciousness and perception
may, in some cases, be superadded to the organic effects of the irritation ; examples
of both those peculiarities of nervous action were alluded to ; and Dr. Laycock con-
tended, that if similar phenomena arose from mere cerebral excitement, they must be
considered as reflex excited acts, accompanied by sensation and consciousness, these
central cerebral irritations producing a series of changes, commencing in the posterior
gray matter, and exciting what Dr. Laycock terms ideagenous changes; from thence
the series of changes extends to the anterior gray matter, and kinetic changes (x:véo,
moveo) result, whence the harmonious muscular movements are produced. The
points insisted on by the author were, that the cerebral nerves are incident excitor,
and the brain an excitor of movements in all respects analogous to the reflex ; the
proof of this he thinks must be sought in pathological observations, as those nerves
are not irritable by the ordinary stimuli of heat, mechanical violence, &c., as are the
nerves of the spinal axis. The phzenomena of hydrophobia and chorea, he contended,
furnished those proofs: in the former, the sound, or sight, or mere idea of water ex-
cited the convulsive paroxysm, and certain odours are known to excite convulsions.
To show that the brain is the excitor of reflex acts, he referred to the case of chorea
in the Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, and analysed its phenomena, which’ were
complicated with spasmodic muscular movements of the face, trunk and extremities,
and neuralgia of the fifth pair of nerves. Cases of lingual chorea, and partial loss of
memory from disease of the brain, confirmed this view of central excito-motory
power ; examples were adduced. The reason why mechanical violence to the central
ganglia did not exhibit these phenomena (as in the experiments of Flourens) was,
because such an irritation was foreign from the true exciting influence of this part of
the nervous system. The phenomena of hemiplegia were adduced as proofs of the
author’s position ; and the instinctive actions of animals were represented as true re-
flex acts, induced by irritable stimuli received through the cerebral nerves.
Dr. Bacchetti communicated the particulars of a case of extra-uterine pregnancy.
Dr. Fowler communicated some additional facts relative to the case of the blind
and deaf mute, which he detailed at former. meetings of the Association. She had
86 REPORT—1844,
been visited by Dr. Home of Boston, the instructor of Laura Bridgeman, who found
in her intellectual and moral manifestations a strong confirmation of the susceptibility
of education possessed by those cases, which some doubted even after the instance of
Laura Bridgeman.
Several particulars relative to the instruction of the blind were given by the Rev.
W. Taylor, and some details of the instruction of a blind and deaf mute, at Bourges,
by the Abbé Carton.
On the Functions of the Bile. By Dr. Kemp.
The author, after alluding to the experiments of Berzelius, by which it was proved
that the bile was only in a slight degree excrementitious, concluded that it was not
absorbed with the chyle without undergoing change from the nature of the fluid found
in the thoracic duct ; the object of the paper was to suggest a theoretical solution of
the question of the action of the bile (chemically) on the chyme,in order to produce
the chyle suitable for absorption.
On the Scientific Cranioscopy of Prof. Carus. By Dr. Tuurnam.
On the Influence of the Endermic Application of the Salts of Morphia in
painful permanent Smelling of the Joints, causing contractions.
By A. T. Tuomson, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.C.Phys.
STATISTICS.
On the Mining Industry of France. By G. R. Porter, F.R.S.
HE observed that at the present time, when the most strenuous exertions were being
made for the advancement of the material interests of this country in all their leading
branches, and while those exertions were attended by the measure of success which
usually accompanies industry directed by intelligence, it must be interesting to know
whether other nations are engaged in the same pursuits, and in what degree success
may have crowned their efforts. Our mining industry, if not the greatest, was undoubt-
edly one of the greatest sources of our wealth. Other countries had attempted to rival
us so far as the means of such rivalry had been within their reach, and their govern-
ments have shown a disposition to foster and encourage pursuits from which they have
expected to draw results commensurate with those which have thus excited their emu-
lation. Inno country had greater efforts to this end been made thanin France. Whe-
ther the means by which success had been sought had been tne most judicious on the
part of the legislature of that country was, however, questionable. The latest returns
having reference to mining operations in France relate to the year 1841, being five
years in advance of the returns brought forward at the meeting of this Section of the
British Association in Newcastle. The system of government inspection of mines was
begun in 1832, during which year, as well as in 1836 and 1841, the value of the
principal mineral productions were ascertained to be as follows :—In 1832, the value
in sterling money was £4,230,040 ; in 1836, it was £6,169,138 ; and in 184] it reached
£7,134,243. The per-centage increase in 1836 over 1832 was 45°84, or 11-46 per
annum ; in 1841 over 1836, 15°64, or 3:12 per annum ; and for the whole nine years,
1841 over 1832, was 68-65, or 7°63 perannum. The number of coal fields which were
open in 1836 was 46; in 1841 they were increased to 62. These coal fields are situ-
ated in 4] of the French departments ; two departments, which produced a small
quantity of coal in 1836, have ceased to do so ; but, on the other hand, thirteen depart-
ments which did not produce coal in 1836 yielded that mineral in 184] to the amount
of 160,769 tons. The total quantity of coal raised in 184] in France was 3,410,200
tons; in 1814 the produce of all the coal mines in France was only 665,610 tons.
This quantity was aboutdouble in 1826, the produce of that year having been 1,301,045
tons. In the following ten years this increased quantity was nearly doubled, the
quantity raised in 1836 having been 2,544,835 tons. The increase during the last
five years, to which the statements reach, has, therefore, been 34 per cent.; but, if com-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87
pure upon the produce of 1814, the difference between 1836 and 184] amounts to
130 per cent. The increase during the whole period of twenty-seven years has been
412 per cent. The number of coal mines in work during 1841 was 256, showing an
average production of 13,321 tons per mine. The average production in 1836 was
only 9863 tons. The number of workmen employed in raising various kinds of coal
in France in 1841 was 29,320, of whom 22,595 worked in the mines. The average
quantity raised to each person employed was 116 tons, being the same quantity as in
1836, when the number of persons employed was 21,913. The value assigned to the
produce makes the cost of each ton in 1836 to be I1s. 34d. per ton, and in 1841 to
only 7s. 93d. The average value raised by eaeh workman, which in 1836 amounted
to 65/7, 9s. 10d., had therefore fallenin 1841 to 45/7. 1s. 5d., or nearly one-third. Whe-
ther this reduction arose from ceconomy in the working, or from diminished wages or
profits, did not appear. It is, however, singular that a reduction of 30 per cent. should
take place in five years without preventing the continued extension of this branch of
employment. The quantity of coal raised in this country is believed to be ten times
the amount raised in France. The quantity shipped coastwise in Great Britain and
Ireland in 1841 was 7,649,899 tons; and the quantity exported to the British colonies
and coastwise was 1,848,294tons. The quantity used in our iron works, potteries,
glass works, factories, &c., is not included in the above numbers, being produced on
the spot. The quantity of coal sent by canals and other modes of inland communica-
tion from the coal-fields of Yorkshire, Durham, Notts, Leicestershire, Warwickshire,
and Staffordshire, amounted in 1816 to 10,808,046 tons. These quantities amount to
more than thirty-four millions of tons, and as the number of persons employed in coal
mines in Great Britain in 1841 was 118,233, it follows that the average quantity raised
by each person is 253 tons, or about 120 per cent. more than the average quantity
raised by the miners of France. After some further comments on the subjectof coal, Mr.
Porter proceeded to detail the statistical facts relative to iron, The increase which
had taken place in this branch of mining since }836 was not nearly so great as the in-
crease that had attended the production of mineral fuel, for which result he accounted
by the fact that the iron trade in France had not been subjected to any diminution of
fiscal protection, but continues hedged round by high prohibitory duties. In 1836
there were 894 distinct establishments engaged in the manufacture of iron; in 1841
the number of distinct establishments was increased to 1023. The value of the iron
and steel made in France amounted in 1836 to £4,975,424, and in 1841 to £5,671,582,
showing an increase in 5 years of barely 14 per cent. The number of workmen em-
loyed in 1836 was 43,775, and in 1841 there were 47,830. The prices of iron in
tance are exorbitantly high—arising partly from theless efficient application of labour,
and partly from the high price of fuel. Great Britain makes 4 tons of pig iron to 1
ton made in France, whilst the number of persons employed for the purpose is less
in England than in France, Each person employed produces in France 8 tons, in this
country more than 35 tons. The cost of fuel is very great in France, being 41 per
cent. on the value of the metal made in 1836, and 38} per cent. in 1841. Charcoal,
which is very extensively used, costs 57s. 5d. per ton. The expense of conveying
coals from the pits to the smelting-houses is also very great, amounting on the average
to about 7s. per ton. The quantity of pig iron made in 1836 was 331,679 tons, and
in 1841 it was 377,142 tons. Of malleable iron in 1830 the quantity was 224,613
tons, and in 1841 it was 263,747tons. The native production was consequently greatly
inadequate to supply the wants of that country ; yet every obstacle was thrown in the
way of importation from other countries, by the imposition of high duties. The pro-
duction of metals other than iron is inconsiderable, and of no national importance, and
does not at all interest us except as it points out that country as qualified to be a good
customer for a portion of our superabundance. Of lead, the quantity produced in 1841
was 638 tons; silver, 73,680 0z.; antimony, 112 tons; copper, 100 tons ; manganese,
1978 tons. France imports these articles to supply her wants, her lead being princi-
pally drawn from Spain, and her copper from England. The declared value of British
metals exported to France in 1842 was £1,048,950, and of coals £173,278.
On Agricultural Schools near East Bourne.
Self-supporting reading, writing, and agricultural schools succeed beyond the most
sanguine expectations, and afford a ready plan for teaching the poor the use of spade
88 REPORT—1844.
husbandry and engrafting in them a knowledge of the best mode of employing their
hands as well as their minds. The principle adopted in these schools is to unite the
present national education with agricultural instruction, by making the labours of the
little scholars, while under tuition in the art of husbandry in the afternoon, to compen-
sate the master, in the way of salary, for the instruction they receive from him in the
usual course of our national education in the morning. As established at East Dean
and at Pevensey, they are attended by the happiest results. The usual quantity of
land required for the purpose does not exceed five acres, and for this the master pays
arent. The scholars pay each one penny per week, which, with their services, are
found to be adequate remuneration to the master. He has used liquid manure, from
which the best results were derived. The produce of his land in one year real-
ised £40 after everything was paid. Some of his pupils had been eagerly engaged
by the farmers in his district, and there were many other pleasing results from this
new system of education. Captain Kennedy had established industrial schools in
the north of Ireland ; at Hardwick, near Gloucester, a similar school was established,
the Willingdon school being the model which they followed. Several other in-
stances were mentioned of the success of such schools. At one place the master
maintained himself and a family of six persons on three acres of land; in another
place nine persons were maintained on five acres, both of which families were pre-
viously burthens on the poor rates. Instead of being burthens on their neighbours,
they are now helping to support the owner of the land by their rent, the church by
their tithes, the state by their taxes, and teaching all the boys who go to them at only
one penny a week to earn their livings in that state of life unto which it has pleased
God to call them; they feed their native land with the surplus they raise from it, and
with nerves braced by healthy toil are ready to defend it should it be attacked, and
are interested in so doing, having hearths of their own to defend. Wherever fairly
tried Mrs. Gilbert was of opinion that the occupation of small portions of land for ma-
nual labour has been found to improve the moral character of the occupiers. No fears
of over-population ought to exist when land can be shown thus to be able to support
such a number of persons. The paper gave instances of the beneficial results of the
allotment system.
A specimen of wheat, bearing above 100 full ears from a single grain, was sent for
the inspection of the meeting by Mrs. Gilbert.
On the Mortality of Calcutta. By Lieut.-Col. Syxzs, F.R.S.
The paper afforded some interesting facts, showing the rate of mortality of the
different classes inthat place. It appeared that the rate of mortality was much greater
among the Hindoos than the Mahomedans, and that the Roman Catholics in Calcutta
were patticularly subject to disease and death. In one return for a specified period,
the number of deaths among the Roman Catholics was 12-44 per cent., of the Hindoos
5:71 percent., and of the Mahomedans 3:47 percent. The average of all classes was
3°98 per cent. Fora period of twenty years the average deaths were 3; per cent.
on the population generally. One table read exhibited the proportionate difference,
which the deaths in the several classes bear to each other. Thus 1 Mahomedan
dies to 23 Hindoos; 1 Protestant to 16 Hindoo; 13 Catholic to 1 Hindoo; and |
Armenian to 11 Hindoo. In the military ranks it appeared that the deaths among
the single officers were 3°77 per cent., and among married officers only 2°74 per cent.
The paper also included tables with regard to the operation of disease upon different
classes of the community.
On the Statistics of Frankfort on the Maine. By Lieut.-Col. Syxes, F.R.S,
The principal object of this elaborate document was to develope the vital statistics
of that city ; presenting copious details of the situation, origin and history of Frankfort;
the plagues, fires and other disasters to which it had been subject ; the persecution
of the Jews resident within its walls; the nature and extent of its buildings ; its de-
fective paving, lighting and sewerage ; its ramparts, which have been pulled down and
the sites converted into promenades planted with trees; the constitution and govern-
ment of the city, political and municipal; the administration of justice ; its various
ee a a
q
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89
public offices, its police regulations, its revenue; population, which is about 66,000 ;
- its houses, about 4000 in number ; education, &c. The inhabitants and sojourners of
i‘
;
this “‘ free city ” appear to be subject to harsh restrictions. A butcher is not allowed
to sell above a certain quantity of meat; persons in service have to register them-
selves as such to the police, and give notice on leaving their employ ; a stranger seek-
ing work must quit the city in three days if unsuccessful; no person can marry until
he satisfies the authorities that he possesses sufficient capital. The consequence of
this impolitic restriction is that one in every six children born is illegitimate. — State
lotteries prevail, some of them displaying more ingenuity than honesty ; but this does
not apply to Frankfort. The indigent poor are looked after in their own dwellings,
but poor-houses are provided for the houseless operative citizen or the sojourner.
On the Statistics of Hospitals for the Insane in Bengal.
By Lieut.-Col. Syxes, F.R.S.
It appeared from the report that there are four asylums in Bengal which are under
the charge of the government authority ; the rate of mortality in them is lower than
that of the lunatics in the English asylums, and they appeared to be managed in a
very ceconomical manner. The cures and discharges in all the hospitals in 1839 was
31-7 per cent. and the deaths 16:2 per cent. In 1840 the cures and discharges were
31-1 per cent. and the deaths 12:2 per cent. Little restraint is imposed upon the
patients, who for the most part are engaged in horticultural and agricultural pursuits.
On the Statistics of Old and New Malton.
By Witu1am Cuarzes Coprrrtuwaire, F’.S.S.,the Borough Bailiff of Malton.
The paper commences with a history of the parish, and then directly proceeds to the
local and geographical situation of Malton, its extent, boundary, river, &c., the statis-
tics of its streets, number of houses in each, the number of gas-lights, the value of its
houses, &c. The second section, division and tenure of property. The third section
describes the population and vital statistics, with its increase and decrease at relative
periods. The population in 1831 was 5377, whilst in 1841 it had declined to 5317.
The registers of births, marriages, and burials were referred to, and a number of tables
were produced to show the progress of mortality. It appeared that in 1810 the ille-
gitimate children averaged 5:3 per cent. ; in 1820 they were 6:7 per cent.; in 1830
they were 87 per cent. ; and in 1840 they reached 9:4 per cent. The paper proceeded
to give details of the occupations of the inhabitants in 1831 and 1841; the rate of
wages paid to those employed in agriculture and handicraft ; a full description of the
agriculture in the parishes of Old and New Malton; the quantity of acres under the
several descriptions of culture; produce of the farms; the rents paid, which were
stated tc average J. 15s. an acre including tithe, and, including taxes, &c., 21. Os. 6d.;
the rotation of crops ; the produce per acre ; the working power ; live stock ; produce
of butter, wool, &c. ; drainage ; description of soil, &c. It was stated that the tenants
under Earl Fitzwilliam, the principal landowner, hold at will, but that some farms have
been in the occupatiou of the same family for above a century. The average of the
holdings is 70 acres. Mr. Copperthwaite’s paper stated that the allotment system had
been amply tried in Malton. There were 4] who occupied each a quarter of an acre ;
54 who rented half an acre, and 26 who held an acre. There are 23 public-houses
in New Malton and | in Old Malton, also a Temperance Hotel and some beer-shops.
The paper then noticed the Temperance Society, which was stated to have had a bene-
ficial effect ; the several benefit societies, the secret orders, the savings’ bank, the cha-
ritable institutions of the town, the extent of pauperism, the cost of relief under the
old and new systems, the income and expenditure of the working classes, entering
minutely into their domestic ceconomy, the extent of markets, and the state of educa-
tion. It appeared that there were 1407 children between the ages of 3 and 15 years
resident in Malton; of this number 1096 were in course of education. The paper
next noticed the Mechanics’ Institute, the public libraries, news-room, the religious
persuasions of the inhabitants, and their places of worship.
90 REPORT—1844.
Hints on the Improvement of Agricultural Labourers.
By the Rev. Tazovore Drury, M.A.
He lamented that in too many parts the agricultural labourer was depressed by
poverty and degraded by ignorance ; his wages were kept down by rivalry and his
education was neglected. Thisled to despondency, wretchedness, pilfering, and daring
robbery. Religion was the most energetic of all influences, and he thought it highly
important that an increased attention to it should be promoted by every practicable
means. The plans which he suggested for ameliorating the condition of the agricul-
tural poor were, that a clothing club should be established in connexion with each
village school; there should be a weekly sale of coals in the winter months from a
store provided by the more wealthy inhabitants ; small allotments, not exceeding a
rood, should be let to each family ; village and farm libraries and savings’ banks should
be promoted ; and farm labourers should have their personal comforts attended to.
On the Sanatory Condition of York during the years 1839—1843.
By Dr. Laycocx.
The author observed that he had instituted an inquiry into the sanatory condition
of York in connexion with the commissioners for examining the state of large towns.
His inquiries at that time were not brought beyond 1841, but he had since prosecuted
his labours, and rendered the investigation more complete, by taking in the years 1842
—1843. He showed from the tables adduced that York was not comparatively an un-
healthy town; but that its drains were made on a bad principle, and that the state of
health had a marked relation to the altitude of the several parishes within the walls.
The parishes above the mean altitude were far more healthy thanthose belowit. The
writer illustrated his statements by reference to an excellent map of the city which
had been prepared by the Ordnance Office. ‘
On the Addition to Vital Statistics contained in the First Report of the Com-
missioners of Inquiry into the Circumstances affecting the Health of Tomns.
By Dr. Laycock.
The first topic to which he would allude related to the influence of employments
upon healths. Dr. Guy, of King’s College, found that the proportion of consumptive
cases in the several classes was as follows :—gentry and professional men 16, trades-
men 28, and artisans and labouring men 30 percent. This great mortality from con-
sumption among tradesmen and working men in London, he attributed mainly to their
long confinement in ill-ventilated shops. Dr. Southwood Smith, of the London Fever
Hospital, gave some valuable evidence with reference to the mortality occasioned by
fever, showing that the comparative risk from that disease was greatest to adults,
and that therefore heads of families are most liable to be cut off by it.
Dr. Laycock, in his further comments on the report, showed that investigations at
Preston, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Sheffield, York and Nottingham, all led to the same
result, viz. that the health of the inhabitants of various streets varied with the con-
dition of those streets, and that children are particularly subject to the influence of
noxious physical agencies.
Dr. Laycock next proceeded to notice the important evidence of Mr. Hawksley,
C.E., on the supply of water to the town of Nottingham. In that town every house
is supplied day and night with a constant supply of water. This advantage dispenses
with the necessity of tanks and other expenses. The water-works’ company supply
houses at an annual average charge of about 7s. 6d. at any level required, even in the
attics of four or five story houses. For a two or three story house of three rooms the
charge is one penny per week, and for this sum the tenants take any quantity of water
they choose; there are 5000 houses supplied at that rate. The effect produced on
the habits of the people by the introduction of water into the houses of the labouring
classes has been very marked. There has been a great increase of personal cleanli-
ness and much less disease. The public drains have become cleaner, and there is
less noisome stench, the refuse being washed down them by the flow of water. Not-
tingham is still an unhealthy town, the mean duration of life throughout England
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91
being 41 years, and in Nottingham only 30 years. This arises almost entirely from
_ deficient public and private ventilation, from the ill-construction of the houses of the
" poor, many of which have privies under them and warehouses above them, in which
_ a heat of 85 degrees is kept up.
Statistical Notices of the State of Education in York.
By Joseru Fiercuer, Sec. Stat. Soc. of London.
On the Statistics of the Machine-wrought Hosiery Trade.
By Witt1aM Fetxin, F.L.S.
He observed that the stocking trade had from a series of circumstances become
almost exclusively located in the three Midland Counties of this kingdom—Leicester-
shire, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. Before the reign of Elizabeth stockings were
made of coarse woollen thread, or if they were desired to be cool and elegant, they
were cut out of cloth or silk tissue, The stocking-frame was invented by a clergyman,
the Rev. William Lee. Finding the lady to whom he was attached pay more atten-
tion to her knitting than to his addresses, he determined to supersede her avocation
__ by the invention of a machine for weaving stockings. He was long baffled and almost
- in despair, but at length succeeded in constructing the stocking-frame. Queen Eliza-
beth accepted a pair of stockings manufactured in his frame, and declared them most
agreeable in consequence of their elasticity, and it is said she never afterwards wore
any other description. After Her Majesty’s death the court of James neglected the
invention, and Lee retired from this country, taking with him his invention, and lo-
cated himself in France, where he established amanufactory. He was flattered by the
patronage of the French king, who being however subsequently murdered, Lee’s
prospects were blighted, and he died twenty-two years after an alien and almost broken-
hearted. Lee’s brother returned to England and brought his frames to London, where he
carried on business for many years. For the protection of the hosiers’ trade a hosiers’
company was subsequently formed in London,—the arms being a frame supported by
a clergyman, and a female presenting her useless knitting-skewer. The trade soon
extended itself beyond the control of the company. Mr. Felkin traced the progress
of the trade in the Midland Counties. In 1641 there were only two frames in Notting-
ham and not 100 in the whole country. In ]753, whilst the number of frames in
London had decreased, those in Nottinghamshire had increased to 1500, and there
were 1000 in Leicestershire. He noticed various improvements, especially one in
1759 by Mr. Strutt of Derby, who obtained a patent for his invention, and was the
founder of the wealth which that family now possessed. In ]782 there were about
20,000 frames in the whole kingdom, of which 13,000 were in the Midland Counties.
The trade had undergone great reverses, and at the present time the frame-work knit-
ters were earning a lower rate of wages than nearly any other department of skilled
or unskilled labourers. When they considered that the interests of 42,650 of these
people were at stake, besides a like number of persons employed in winding the
woollen yarn, seaming the stockings, &c., also the members of families who were de-
pendent upon those individuals for maintenance, the statistics of this trade must be
considered of grave importance. -He described the labour of the frame-work knitters
as very severe—requiring vigorous exertion of the hands and feet, and at the same
time the greatest vigilance in watching the progress of the work. At the present
time in Nottinghamshire there are 14,879 frames in employ, and 1503 which are out
of employ or under repair; total, 16,382. In Leicestershire there are 18,558 at work
and 2303 unemployed ; total, 20,861. In Derbyshire there are 6005 at work and 792
unemployed ; total, 6797. The gross number of frames in the three Midland Counties
is 44,040, elsewhere in England 1572; in Ireland 275, and in Scotland 2595, making
a total of 48,482. About 10 per cent. only of this number is now unemployed, being
the smallest proportion ever known. Notwithstanding this apparent prosperity the
wages of the operatives are miserably low, and they appear to be charged a most
exorbitant rent for their frames, a rent which in some instances which were cited,
pay for the frame in 46 weeks, although they are capable of being worked for a num-
ber of years. In many instances the wages of these men for a full week’s work are as
low as 4s. 6d. or 5s., and the average appeared to be from 5s. to 6s. per week for ordi-
4
92 REPORT—1844,
nary hands. The consequence is that after they have paid their rent and other ne-
cessary outgoings, they have little left for the purchase of victuals: one family was
mentioned, consisting of a man, his wife and seven children, who had to subsist for
three days on a half-quarternloaf. They arein great want of clothing, and are rarely.
able to buy new apparel.
On the relative Liability of the two Sexes to Insanity.
By Joun Tuurnam, M.D.
The author thought that the opinion which appears to have recently been formed,
that insanity is more prevalent amongst women than amongst men, ,had originated in
an erroneous method of statistical analysis. Dr. Esquirol, who was inclined to this view,
was at great pains in collecting information as to the proportion of ewisting cases of
insanity in the two sexes, and it was found that taking the average of different coun-
tries the proportion was 37 males to 38 females. It should however be borne in
mind, that in all European countries the proportion of adult females in the general
population exceeds that of males. According to the census of 1841, in England and
Wales there was an excess at all ages of 4 per cent., and at all ages above 15 or
20 years the excess was about 8 per cent. From 20 to 30 years of age the excess
is as much as 12 per cent. Assuming only a like liability of the two sexes to in-
sanity, it would be expected that there was a much greater number of cases of insanity
among women than men. With some exceptions, however, which were accounted
for by local circumstances, the author did not find that to be the case. He pointed
out another fallacy in the method of investigating this subject, in consequence of the
existing cases being made the basis of the calculation instead of the occurring cases.
He showed that the mortality amongst insane males in public asylums exceeded that
amongst insane females. At the York Asylum the mortality of the males was nearly
double that of the females. The consequence is, that out of equal numbers attacked
the existing cases of insanity in women accumulate much faster than those in men,
and that they necessarily are much more numerous as compared with the occurring
cases. In order that the comparison of the occurring cases should be a strictly accu-
rate one, the proportions of the two sexes attacked with insanity for the first time at
the several ages should be compared with the proportions in which the two sexes at
the same ages exist in the community in which those cases occur. On this principle
the writer had prepared a table, showing the numbers and proportion of each sex cut
of 71,800 cases. It appeared that out of 48,143 cases admitted into thirty-one various
asylums, there were 25,601 males and 22,502 females, consequently there was an
excess on the part of the males of 13'5 per cent. In nine of the English county
asylums the numbers admitted were 7641 males and 6803 females, there being con-
sequently an excess of males of 12 per cent.
The proportion of men admitted into asylums being thus shown to be higher than
that of females, whilst the proportion of men in the general population, particularly
at those ages when insanity most usually occurs, is decidedly less than that of women,
Dr. Thurnam inferred that men are actually more liable to disorders of the mind than
women. From a just consideration of the differences in the physical and moral con-
stitution, as well as in the general prevailing external circumstances of the two sexes
in civilized communities at the present day, it was, he thought, @ priori, highly pro-
bable that men should possess a somewhat greater liability to mental disorders than
women. He observed that not only are women less liable to these disorders than
men, but when afflicted with them the probability of their recovery is greater, and that
of their death yery considerably less. After recovery, however, the probability of a
relapse or of a second attack is perhaps somewhat greater in women than in men,
The writer introduced a number of statistical facts with reference to the patients in
the York Retreat, in illustration of his subject.
On the Financial CE conomy of Savings’ Banks. ByJ.W.Woottcar, F.R.A.S.
The author observed that this subject had acquired a sudden interest by reason of
the scope which the new act gives to the directors of these establishments, to cecono-
mise the management for the benefit of depositors. The question now for managers
|
|
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93
to decide was, what rate of interest is in future to be allowed to depositors? which in
another form is this : by how small a proportion of the interest to be received from
_ government can the expenses of management be defrayed? As it is desirable that
the rate should be permanent, the question must be answered, not merely with refer-
ence to the present moment, but prospectively. The author pointed out the data
necessary to be used in determining this question, and then put the solution in an
algebraical form*, for the purpose of exhibiting the influence which the data severally
have upon the result. He concluded by urging upon all managers who desired to give
steadiness to the financial condition of their respective banks, two main points of re-
gulation :—1st, that the expenses of management be limited to an amount compounded
of a fixed sum, and a per-centage upon the invested capital; and as a necessary con-
‘Sequence of such a rule, that the actuary’s salary be regulated by the same principle ;
2nd, that no sum be allowed to remain in the treasurer’s hands beyond the ma-
nagement fund, together with a very small per-centage on the invested capital. These
two rules, heconsidered, would accommodate themselves to any variation in the amount
of business, and would enable the managers to fix a rate of interest satisfactory to
themselves, with justice both to the officers and depositors.
On Rural Statistics, illustrated by those of the Atherstone Union.
By C. H. Bracesrinee.
The author commented upon the absence of statistical facts referring to the agricul-
tural districts, and the anti-statistical feeling which existed therein. He thought that
the modern establishment of poor-law unions might be rendered highly serviceable
in the collection of statistical facts of a certain description. The points on which in-
formation might be obtained were,—1, local taxation; 2, highway rates and distances;
3, enumeration of public-houses and beer-houses; 4, population, acreage and value
of land; 5, wages and cultivation; 6, sanatory, frem an estimate of deaths ; 7, cot-
tages, their average rent and size of gardens; 8, education and schools; 9, notices
of the geology, historical remains and families of the district. On all these points
he had collected information in the Atherstone union, of which he had been for many
years chairman. He had also formed a tabulated statement of the earnings and weekly
expenditure of fifty families at Hinckley.
On the Statistics of the Criminal Population of Norfolk Island.
By Capt. M’Conocuts.
Alluding to the nature and produce of the island, the author states that its cultiva-
tion is very laborious and its returns from crops uncertain. Nothing can exceed the
vigour of vegetation on it, but the returns from its sown crops are uncertain. The
average produce per acre in 1842 was, of maize, 12} bushels; wheat, 8 bushels;
rye, 262 bushels; barley, 103 bushels ; oats, 40 bushels. The surface soil is described
to be very rich, but not sufficiently heavy to carry the vegetation it produces to ma-
turity. Stock of all kinds thrive well ontheisland. Nothing can surpass the mutton,
pork and poultry reared on it. The island is periodically visited with long droughts,
when some difficulty is experienced in providing for the sustenance of the stock. No
private person is allowed to keep cows or sheep, and only two persons have horses—
one each. The following was the quantity of stock belonging to the government at
the end of the year 1843 :—22 horses, 677 horned cattle, 5352 sheep, and 405 swine.
The shores of Norfolk Island abound with fish, many of considerable size and good
quality. One of the greatest defects of Norfolk Island is the want of a harbour, and
the consequent delay and difficulty in maintaining its sea communications, The winds
are always high, and there is a remarkable equality of temperature and atmospheric
pressure in all seasons of the year. The prevailing winds are from the 8.E. and 8.W.
Norfolk Island was first occupied as a dependency on New South Wales in 1787, and
was not then meant as a station for the doubly convicted, or in any way as a place of
increased punishment, but merely as affording the means of distributing the prisoners.
Free settlers were allowed to go with them, and gradually the population amounted
* This formula, which in fact contains the Theory of Savings’ Banks, is printed in Mecha-
nics’ Magazine, xli. p. 213.
94 ; REPORT—1844.
to about 120 souls, besides about 250 convicts. In 1810 it was deemed inexpedient
to retain the settlement on these terms; the returns from it were few and uncertain ;
it did not feed even its own population; the communication was uncertain and ex-
RonF 3 its morals became depraved ; and Van Diemen’s Land just then began to
e settled, and not labouring under the same defects, the free settlers were offered
land there, which they were compelled to accept. The convicts were removed, and
the island was for fifteen years abandoned. It was re-occupied in 1825 as a penal
settlement, without free settlers, and with increased severity of discipline and other
management. The establishment was at first small, but rapidly increased. The con-
vict population in 1825 was 84, in 1838 it had increased to 1447: but a large number
was in the subsequent years sent to Sydney on indulgence, which reduced them to
1220: in 1840 they were augmented by fresh arrivals to 1872, but a diminution again
took place, and on the 31st of December last the numbers were 1295. Tables had
been carefully provided showing the country, religion and original sentences of all
the prisoners who had arrived at Norfolk Island from 1825 to 1843 inclusive, The
number of English were 2142; Irish, 1287; Scotch, 147; foreign, 10: total, 3592.
Of those transported for life 815 were Protestants, 276 Roman Catholics, and 7 Jews.
Yorkshire appears to have contributed to this penal settlement 124 convicts. An act
of the New South Wales Council in 1839 facilitated the removal of nearly all the well-
conducted, who had served over the periods required by it, to Sydney, That act fixed
certain periods, (one, three and five years, for men under sentence for seven years,
fourteen years and life respectively,) when application might be made to obtain for
them the commutations prescribed by it. It in fact altogether changed the prospects of
the whole body and greatly improved their condition. The real horrors of Norfolk
Island terminated with the passing of this act. Before it men sent there had little
or no prospect before them, except what was contingent on a capricious recommen-
dation, which they too frequently sought to obtain by treachery, hypocrisy or other
unworthy service, or despairing of attaining it they became reckless, violent, muti-
nous and insubordinate. This has been much changed. With good conduct on
the island every one has been certain of recommendation at the allotted period of his
service. Up to September 1843 there had been 120() men thus forwarded to Sydney
from the beginning of 1859, Of this number 530 have become free by the expiration
of their sentence or by pardons; 670 are prisoners in New South Wales ; and 36 have
been reconvicted of crime. The number of reconvictions appears remarkably small,
considering the description of the men, their going penniless from this island, the suspi-
cion with which they are regarded in Sydney, and the associates to whom they return.
The author then proceeded to show that in the years in which he had charge of this
convict station, having introduced a more lenient system of treatment to the convicts,
the number of reconvictions was far below the average, being only ]2 per cent. in four
years, or per cent. per annum. Previously, in 1839, the convicts underwent the great-
est severity ; the number of lashes inflicted, by sentence, for offences was 11,420. Ifthe
example of severity could deter from crime at all, these men had themselves both
witnessed and experienced it in this extreme. Yet in this instance, as in so many
others, it signally failed. His (Capt. M’Conochie’s) object was to effect the reformation
of the men under his charge. This idea had scarcely ever before been suggested to
them, but they all sympathized with it, and carried it as a rule of conduct with them.
The paper next treated of those prisoners who had been sent from Norfolk Island to
Sydney for trial, charged with serious offences ; the next section treated of men who
had absconded, with interesting details regarding each of these successful enterprises,
which were attended with great daring, hazard, recklessness, suffering and peril. The
author then gave statistical notices of men who have died on the island from natural
causes. Those prisoners who had been sent from Sydney, where they had become sea-
soned to the climate, and had enjoyed full rations of food, appeared to have been less
subject to disease than those who were sent to Norfolk Island direct from England, Of
the former, in a population of 8059, there had been 2429 cases of sickness since 1837,
or | in 33, with 109 deaths, or 1 in 74; of the latter there were 1622 cases among 2417
arrivals, or | in 11, with 80 deaths, or 1 in 303. The author attributes this excess
of sickness and death among those sent direct from England, to their rations of salt
meat and maize not being adequate to support the constitution under the change of
climate, with labour, after along sea-voyage. The diseases with which they are most
i i
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95
affected are fevers, inflammation of the bowels, dysentery and consumption. In ge-
neral the men die very quietly and composedly, resigning themselves with little ap-
parent reluctance to their fate, and receiving and applying, even the worst of them,
to their own case the consolations of religion with little apparent doubt or hesitation.
Thirty men have been killed on the island accidentally ; seven have been murdered ;
nineteen have been executed, of whom thirteen were in the mutiny in 1834; seven-
teen were killed in resisting lawful authority ; and two committed suicide, On the
Ist of September 1843 there were 796 prisoners on the island, of which 447 were
Protestants, 344 Roman Catholics, and 5 were Jews: almost two-thirds of these
prisoners had been above ten years on the island. The proportion of married men,
and conseqnently of suffering families, was above a fifth. The number who could
read was 546; could not read, 250; could write, 403; could not write, 393. Capt.
M Conochie observed that prisoners are not generally ignorant of the first elements of
education, but the degree in which they possess them is low. Among the men who
cculd read and write not above a dozen were competent to act as clerks. He remarks,
that the young English prisoners who are distinguished on the island for any degree
of superior education to their fellows, are not less remarkable for their indifference to
their religious duties and careless reception of religious instruction.
Notes on the Reports of the Poor Law Commissioners on the State of the Poor
in Scotland. By W. P. Atitson, M.D.
He had at a previous meeting of the Association laid before the Section a variety
of facts relative to the state of the poor in Scotland, and he proposed now to show
that the evidence taken before the Poor Law Commissioners fully supported his former
statements. In one point he differed from the commissioners. He asserted that one
of the results of the present system was that large towns were burthened beyond their
fair share with the indigent poor; in general only one-third of those on the poor-roll
are natives of the towns in which they are relieved, and two-thirds are immigrants.
The commissioners in their report stated that this evil had been exaggerated. He
differed from the commissioners in that opinion, and asserted that the number of able-
bodied persons who flock into the towns in search of work, and other classes, which
he enumerated, of destitute poor not.admitted as paupers, do produce an excessive
burden, which under a better system of poor-law management would not prevail.
He then proceeded to cite extracts from the evidence taken before the commissioners,
which exhibited the great extent of misery consequent on the difficulty of obtaining
parish aid in Scotland. Those for whom legal relief is extended are only the aged and
the infirm ; to them the amount of relief is inadequate to maintain life, and they have
to resort in part,as a means of subsistence, to begging, which leads to lying and stealing.
An aged disabled person is allowed only from 9d. to 1s. a week ; widows left with fami-
lies are allowed 6d. each child, with nothing for herself,—in one parish in Edinburgh
which was mentioned, the usual allowance is only 4d. for each child and nothing for the
mother, Consequently the indigent poor are in the greatest misery, and are to a large
extent dependent upon the sympathy of their poor neighbours. In some parts of Scot-
land the poor are probably in a worse condition than in Ireland. Mendicancy is
allowed in many parts, especially on Saturdays. Many families in Edinburgh are
existing in rooms without furniture, and instances were given of numbers who were
kept from church on the sabbath for want of clothing in which to appear. It was also
in evidence that numbers of persons who are suffering these privations are of good
character. Scotland has long been afflicted by an epidemic fever, which has been spread
through the country by contagion from vagrants and stranger beggars; and of late a
new epidemic has appeared, distinct from any other similar malady; its peculiarities
are that it reaches the crisis on the seventh day, and those who survive it are subject
to a relapse on the fifteenth day; in the worst cases the complexion becomes yellow,
and it was first mistaken by the medical profession for jaundice. Dr. Alison has caused
inquiry to be made into 1700 cases of this fever, two-thirds of which were found to
be among the destitute and unemployed poor. Fifty per cent. of the poor buried
at the public expense in Glasgow in 1843 were of fever. Under the present system
of poor law the orphan children are deemed capable of maintaining themselves at
fourteen years, and are then thrown on the world. Previously they are boarded
96 REPORT—1844.
out, in some parishes, with individuals who sometimes send them out to beg and per-
haps steal. Such is the extent of poverty, that in one year seventy-nine persons were
voluntary inmates of the Glasgow prison, and after remaining there for some time
they were turned out, when one half of them returned, having qualified themselves
by the commission of some crime. In 1842 there were in the jail at Glasgow 134
males and ]24 females, whose crimes it was well ascertained arose from their inability
to findemployment. Dr. Alison drew a comparison between this frightful state of the
Scotch poor generally and their state in Berwickshire, where more adequate poor-
assessments are regularly levied, and the poor are temperate and industrious ; mendi-
cancy does not exist among them, and the evils of which he complained were nearly
unknown.
On the Statistics of Health, elucidated by the Records of the Marylebone In-
jirmory. By Dr. Crenpinnine.
This infirmary is for the relief of the sick poor of Marylebone parish. During a
period of 63 years 220 patients had been admitted monthly, of which 140 were from
the workhouse and 80 from their own homes ; of this number the average was 144
cures, 26 deaths, and the remainder were incurable, discharged themselves, or were
dismissed for irregularity. The females admitted were 122 to 98 males.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, on closing the Section, remarked that he considered its labours had
not been either useless or unsuccessful. They had been obliged to drop some papers
in order to get through the work before them. They had now run a circle of twelve
years, and this session equalled, if it had not excelled, its predecessors.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
On the Resistance of Railway Trains. By J. Scott Russet.
Tue author detailed a number of experiments on the Sheffield and Manchester
Railway. For the purpose of these experiments it was necessary that the railway
should present long and very steep gradients. The experiments were as follows :—
1. Trains of carriages, empty, were put in motion at the summit of an inclined plane,
at about 30 miles an hour, and were allowed to descend freely. 2. Trains of car-
riages, loaded, were tried in the same way. 3. The engine:and tender were treated
in the same way, being put to a velocity of between 30 and 40 miles per hour, and
allowed to descend freely the whole length of the inclined plane without any train
attached. 4. The engine and tender, with a train attached, were propelled to the
top of the inclined plane, and then allowed to descend freely by gravity. By these
means the following resuits were obtained:—1. The resistance to railway carriages
at slow velocities does not exceed 8 lbs. per ton. 2. The resisjance to a light railway
train of six carriages, at 23°6 miles an hour, was 19 lbs. per ton, 3. The resistance to
a loaded train of six carriages, at 30 miles an hour, was 19 lbs. per ton. 4. The resist-
ance to a light train of six carriages, at 28 miles an hour, was 22 lbs. per ton. 5. The
resistance to a loaded train of six carriages, at 36 miles an hour, was 22 lbs. per ton.
6. The resistance to a six-wheeled engine and tender, at 23°6 miles an hour, was 191bs.
per ton. 7. The resistance to a six-wheeled engine and tender, at 28-3 miles an
hour, was 22 lbs. per ton. 8. The resistance to a train composed of six light carriages,
with engine and tender, at 32 miles an hous |) 9% lbs. per ton. 9. The resistance
to a train composed of nine loaded carriag “ngine and tender, at 36 miles an
hour, was 22 lbs. per ton. Mr. Russell observed, cirat the subject wa" considerable
importance, inasmuch as the system adopted for laying down tli ‘nts of new
lines was of necessity regulated chiefly by the opinion of the engineer Ue question
of resistance. How much mechanical force is required to move a given weight of
train along a given gradient, at a given speed, was a question of which the solution
was essential to sound engineering, but the profession had long felt that they were
not in possession of sufficient data to determine this question,
B TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97
oes! On Wooden Railways. By W. Bripces.
This was an account of Mr. Prosser’s system, now about to be tried on a branch
line from Woking to Guildford. The author explained that Mr. Prosser’s railway
differs from the old wooden railway, in having the wood indurated by the injection
of an alkaline and metallic salt, and the employment of guide-wheels, fixed at an
oblique angle before and behind each carriage.
On the Advantages to be obtained by turning Canals, in certain situations and
of certain forms, into Railways, especially as applicable to the circumstances
of the Royal Canal lying between the City of Dublin and the River Shan-
non. By 'T. BiRMINGHAM.
Mr. Birmingham suggested, that a cheap, expeditious, safe and easy mode of con-
veyance could be formed along these great lines of canals. At the present moment,
subsoil draining was fortunately occupying the attention of agriculturists. He, there-
fore, proposed so to construct the railways as at the same time to make what was
formerly a canal into a drain for the waters of the country, instead of as now, in many
places, especially in the case of the canal under consideration, acting as back-water
upon the land: the bottom of the canal, he said, should be levelled to a reasonable
incline at the various locks; that one of the present proposed systems of railways
should be adopted ; and that the waters which found their way into the canal should
be made use of as the power, or in aid of the power, by which it should be determined
that the trains should be propelled upon the railway.
On the Causes of the great Versailles Railway Accident. By J. GRAY.
From various facts and circumstances connected with the accident of the 8th of
May, 1842, on the Left Bank Paris and Versailles Railway, Mr. Gray became convinced
_ that nothing but a failure in the front axle of the Matthew Murray engine could have
been the first cause of her right-hand front wheel first slipping within the rail; and having
the inquiry thus far concentrated, he proceeded with an examination of that axle,
and of the facts and incidents connected with its failure; and he came to the conclu-
sion, that with good materials and proportions, and the axles in a state of repose as
received from the forge, or, in other words, perfectly free from the effects of cold
swaging or hammer-hardening, an axle in such a state, and of ample dimensions for
its intended work, will effectually resist fracture for any period the wear of the journals
may enable it to run; but if the dimensions be deficient, the iron will be taxed be-
yond its permanent cohesive power and elasticity ; and, however slight the excess of
exertion and fatigue may be, a gradual and inevitable dissolution of particles must
result ; but beyond this he had not met with anything, either in print, in observation,
or in the course of experience, that would at all warrant a belief in iron necessarily.
changing its quality, or becoming crystallized by forces within the range of its perma-
nent cohesive force anc elasticity.
Ee ae aa ee
On Steam Navigation in America. By the Rev. Dr. Scoressy.
Dr. Scoresby observed, that the extent of navigable waters in North America, in-
_ cluding the coast lines and the waters of the British possessions, might be roughly esti-
mated at 25,000 to 30,000 miles. He then alluded to the introduction of the steam-
boat by Mr. Fulton, in 1807, and the rapid progress that had been made, and directed
attention to the peculiarities of sc © the boats, the construction of the cabins on
_ deck, and the application cf the F vessel entirely to cargo, the working of the
rudder at the fn~2part of the vgssel _y ueans of communicating rods, the use of adistinct
boiler and n y to each paddle, &c. With regard to speed, he observed that it
was much L . °.d that of our steam-boats, from the circumstance of the Americans
adopting the high-pressure principle, whereby, the weight of machinery being greatly
reduced, the boats could run at a very light draught of water, and because also of
the great length of their fast-boats in comparison of the breadth. Whilst our boats
were worked at a pressure of perhaps 5 lbs. to the square inch, they thought nothing
of yee or 150 lbs. pressure. The most extraordinary performance of American
44. H
98 REPORT—1844,
steamers was effected by the J. M. White, in the summer of this year. She made her
way against an average current of from 3 to 4 miles an hour, from New Orleans to
St. Louis, a distance of 1200 miles, in 3 days and 23 hours, remaining a day and a half
at St. Louis, unloading and loading, and reached New Orleans again, having performed
a distance of from 2300 to 2400 miles in little more than 9 days. The average speed,
taking advantages and disadvantages into consideration, would be 16 miles, or perhaps
near 14 knots per hour.
On the New Double Piston Steam-Engine, with a Model.
By J. G. BopmeEr.
The advantages claimed are velocity, ceconomy, peculiar expansion, diminution of
strain upon the axle, &c.
On the Gconomy of the Expansive Action of Steam in Steam-Engines.
By W. FarrBairn.
On Propelling Boats. By Mr. Smitu.
In this communication the jet plan was advocated.
Mr. Gray enumerated a variety of experiments on iron bars, with a view to show
that the want of due proportions in the several parts is productive of more or less
danger.
Mr. J. Buchanan offered some observations on a new locking apparatus for car-
riages, which he illustrated by models. The suggested improvement arises from the
introduction of the double pivot, which requires less room to turn the front wheels,
and consequently gives increased space to the body of the carriage. He also exhibited
some carriage springs, the improvement in which was effected by the introduction of
leather packing.
On a Plan for drawing Coals from Pits without Ropes or Chains.
By E. Bownsss.
The advantages claimed are ceconomy, durability, expedition, and compactness.
The plan has some resemblance to a method which has been adopted in Cornwall for
the purpose of raising and lowering the miners. The corves, holding each 10 ewt. of
coal, slide in grooved rods fixed on the sides of the shaft, and are alternately seized
and released by lifters attached to a rod which moves up and down in the centre of
the pit by engine power ; when released from the rod on its downward motion, the
corves are supported by a self-adjusting pulley. :
On a New Apparatus for Starting Heavy Machinery. By J. G. Bopmer.
Upon the driving-shaft a bevel wheel is fixed at one end, and another is put on
loose opposite to it, with a pinion between. To the latter is fixed another bevel
wheel, and this gears into a pinion which is connected with the shaft driving the ma-
chine to be started. By applying the break to the drum to which the centre of the
intermediate pinion is fixed, the machine attached will be set in motion.
On Nasmyth’s Steam Pile Driver. By Dr. GREEN.
Mr. Whitworth exhibited a new machine for ascertaining the diameter of metallic
cylinders,
On a New Furnace Grate. By J. G. BopmMeEr.
The peculiarity of the fire grates is, that the fire bars are made to travel from the
fireplace or hopper towards the bridge, and return again to the place whence they
4
4
ry
Nt ae
ie ts tee tie
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99
"started in the opposite direction. The object is to admit of the supply and combus-
tion of the fuel being perfectly regulated according to circumstances, and to prevent
the emission of smoke, by causing the gas generated from the fresh coal, at the time
when the heat commences to act upon it, to pass over the whole surface of the ignited
fuel before reaching the chimney.
Mr. Bodmer exhibited a variety of improved Cutting Tools.
Dr. Bevan explained a new Life Boat which he has invented.
On the Scantlometer. By JAMES WYLSON.
The instrument, thus named, the invention of Mr. Wylson, determines the scantlings
of joists and rafters, the former level, the latter sloped to any pitch not exceeding
sixty degrees, and both to any bearing not exceeding twenty-five feet. It is calculated
for joists of dwelling-house floors, and rafters carrying medium-sized slating; the
material fir; the distance asunder twelve inches; the rate of weight sustained sup-
posed to be similar in all cases, and diffused uniformly throughout. The principle is
stated in the accompanying explanation to be capable of application to the other tim-
bers occurring in buildings.
Explanation of an Apparatus, invented by Mr. Littledale of York, by which
the Blind can write and read. By the Rev. W. Taytor, F.R.S.
The following is a description of the instrument :— Into a case, probably a yard
long, and three or four inches square, is fitted a slide, something like one section of a
letter-rack used in printing-offices for depositing the type when not in use. This
Slide is adapted to any alphabet or to arbitrary characters. At one end of the case
there is a hammer, under which the paper is placed, and as the letters are brought up
successively, by the application of an ingenious contrivance at the opposite end of the
case, the hammer is raised, and by its fall they are impressed or rather embossed upon
the paper, so that blind persons may distinguish them by the touch. When the first
letter of a word is printed the hammer is raised, and that causes the letter to move
away, and at the same time a space on the paper for the next letter is produced. The
blank between each letter or word may be increased by raising the hammer twice ot
thrice instead of once. The successive letters are brought up to the hammer, by the
means before alluded to. There is also a prepared paper (black), which may be put
over the white paper at discretion, the object of which is to enable persons who have
their sight to read the printing better, the force of the hammer causing the black
paper to ‘set off.’ At the hammer end of the case a piece of cloth is attached, to
place between the hammer and the type, so that the letter may not be bruised. The
type in the slide was made of wood, but to metallic letters the instrument would be
equally applicable.”
On the Improved Compasses of M. De Sire Lebrun, and the Cold-drawn
Pipes of M. Le Dru. By O. Byrne.
Explanations of the Barege Mobile, or Canalization of Rivers, and of the
Grenier Mobile, or moveable Granary for preserving Corn. By O. BYRNE.
The latter machine consists of a cylinder, divided into compartments, which will hold
800 quarters of corn. It is made of zinc and galvanized iron, and turns round like a
barrel, so that the grain is thus turned over by one man daily. The advantages are,
that the corn gets gradually dried, may be preserved for a longer period, bad corn is
impreved, grain generally comes out heavier than when it went in, and is not bruised
and wasted by being turned over with the shovel. With regard to the increase it was
stated at 63 Ibs. in 110 cwt. The cost of the machine is about 1/. a quarter.
On the Construction of Buildings for the Accommodation of Audiences.
By Sir T. Dean.
In this communication the author gave an account of alterations, which in conse-
H2
100 REPORT—1844.
quence of Mr. Scott Russell’s paper on the subject, he had been enabled to make in
the defective arrangement of the Court House at Cork. By adapting Mr. Russell’s
general principle to this particular case, he had succeeded in rendering the feeblest
voice effectively heard.
On the Collection of Water for the Supply of Towns. By Jounx Bateman, CLE.
Mr. Bateman isof opinion that one-half or three-fourths of the rain is allowed to waste
away, and often to do great damage, and suggests that it should be collected in large
reservoirs and conveyed thence to towns in the locality*.
On the Gconomy of Artificial Light for Preserving Sight.
By I. Hawkins, C.B.
Few were aware, he said, of the injury inflicted on the sight by too much or too little
light, and by a sudden transition from gloom to light. He had tried several experiments
with a view to procure a light of a medium description. He commenced with two
common candles of eight to the pound, alternately snuffing and leaving them unsnuffed,
and measuring the intensity of the light by the shadows cn the walls. The result of
this experiment was, that he found that the candle well-snuffed gave eight times the
light of that which was unsnuffed. He then proceeded to a process of weighing, and
found that one pound of the snuffed candles gave as much light as nine pounds of the
unsnuffed candles. With regard to Palmer’s and the common dip, he found that a
pound and a quarter of the latter, costing 5}d., when well-snuffed, was equal to one
pound of Palmer’s, costing 63d.; but when the same candle was not snuffed oftener
than about every ten minutes, it took four to be equal to Palmer’s; and, when un-
snuffed altogether, it required eleven pounds to be equal to one pound. After
alluding to further experiments with candles, and also with oils, he concluded by re-
commending the self-snuffing candle in preference to oil-lamps.
On a new Process of Magnetic Manipulation, with its Effects on Hard Steel
and Cast Iron. By W. Scoressy, D.D., F.RS., Lond. § Edin., Member
of the Institute of France.
During two or three sessions I have had the honour of bringing before the Section,
the progressive results obtained in the course of a long series of investigations on the
magnetic phznomena exhibited by steel plates and bars of various qualities and
degrees of hardness. In a work recently published, entitled ‘ Magnetical Investiga-
tions,’ comprising a detailed account of the researches referred to, it has been shown
that no general rule could be given for the construction of magnets, as to the best
denomination of steel or degree of hardness ; but that the variations in the masses and
proportions, as well as in the forms in magnets, require, beyond certain extents of
difference, a different rule. A similar difficulty, in practical magnetics, is found in
the determination of a rule or process for the magnetising of bars or plates, under
varieties of condition as to mass, proportions and hardness. Two processes, indeed,
described in Part I. of the ‘ Magnetical Investigations,’ are most extensively applicable
(if the developing or induction magnets be sufficiently powerful) for straight-bar
magnets of almost all varieties of mass and temper, or hardness. These processes,
modified as required by the peculiarity of figure in horse-shoe magnets, are likewise
very effective for this description of magnets of the qualities ordinarily constructed.
Neither of the processes, however, nor any process that I have seen described, is
foung to be constantly effective in the case of thin hard bars of the horses-shoe form.
Where the thinness and hardness are extreme, the effectiveness of the usual pro-
cesses are most liable to fail.
The uncertainty of the result, with these most usual methods, induced me to try
other processes, suggested by the principles previously investigated. But none of the
known processes, as appeared from the irregular application of the magnetical forces
in the course of the manipulations with a horse-shoe magnet, were satisfactory,
* On this subject, Mr. Bateman has undertaken to present a Report to the next Meeting.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101
_ nor, in all cases, successful. The cause of the failure of the general processes, where
a horse-shoe magnet was employed, seemed to he the production of consecutive
poles. The action of a powerful magnet applied to a hard thin bar'seemed #00 local ;
so that in the passage of its two nearly contiguous poles, a kind of magnetic wave is
raised, highest under the magnet, which leaves behind it, probably, like the passage
of a ship or boat, a series of other waves of diminishing altitude.
To remedy this supposed defect in the ordinary processes, I placed two pairs of
thin horse-shoe shaped magnets upon each other, each pair arranged in the form,
nearly, of the figure of QO, with converse poles in contact. The arrangement was such,
that whilst the two bars of each series or stratum, as laid on the table, had their
converse, or mutually attracting poles in contact, the two series had correspondent
polarities laid on each other. The an-
nexed figure represents the arrange-
ment and the position of the operating
magnet nearly at the commencement of
the process. The compound or operating
magnet is placed on the upper surface
_ of the upper pair of bars at the curve
_ with its N. pole towards the S. and the
S. towards the N. of the bars to be mag-
netized. It is then slid gradually for-
ward, S. pole in advance, towards the
end designed for the N. pole of the bar
beneath, and continued across the junc-
tion of the bars, in the course of the
dotted line, keeping the axis of the
two poles in the central line of the bar, until the magnet comes round to the point at
which the process commenced4; it is then slid off in the direction of the small arrow-
shaped mark. The upper pair of bars is then removed and the lower pair turned
over: the upper pair being also turned over is replaced on the top, and the process
of manipulation, changing also the poles of the operating magnet, is repeated. Two
complete circuits being thus made on the two surfaces of the upper pair of bars,
developes in the highest possible degree (if the operating magnet be sufficiently ener-
getic) the magnetic power of the lower pair of bars, whilst the upper pair is found to
be comparatively weak. Before separating either pair of bars, those above must be
removed ; and then, if the highest capacity be wished to be determined, a separate
conductor should be laid across the two poles of each magnet to sustain the power
when they are separated..
The effect of this process may be advantageously illustrated by giving the powers
of the bars of a small five-bar magnet, weighing altogether 2-86 lbs. as magnetized in
a single series in the form above figured, and when magnetized (taking the powers of
the lower pair) by the process now described. These bars, it should be noted, were
of best shear-steel, annealed in oil (after being made quite hard) at a temperature of
about 490°; so that the process in the single series was much more effective than in the
case of harder bars of similar thickness. The powers of the bars were determined by a
spring balance, and those registered are the powers after the removal, at least once,
of the iron conductor, so that these may be considered as the permanent powers. In
the employment of the double series process of magnetizing, it will be observed, that
there must be two bars left, after the magnetizing of three others, whose highest
magnetic energy could not be developed, if no additional or subsidiary bars were used.
But in this case I employed two bars of a corresponding kind belonging to another
magnet for completing the process, If no additional bars are in possession of the
maenetizer, then similar bars of iron can be substituted, or, without a spare bar of
any kind, one of the two bars employed as the upper series in the previous manipu-
lations can be magnetized by placing the other upon it, and an iron conductor across
the poles of each bar whilst the manipulations are in progress. There will then
remain only a single bar to be magnetized by another process. The following com-
parative experiments show the advantage gained by the new double-series process
over that of the single series, or of any other method previously in use, for all the
medes heretofore described were tried.
v
4
.
A.
b
102 REPORT—1844,
Powers of bars by the single series process, We 7; 7-4; 7-4; 3. Total 37-1.
in figure of QO combination ...............
Powers obtained by the double series pro-| g.-. 9. q. 19. 1% :
ESSA Cagibdcivecls slices baile gitdaceutaemerm aaasaes « }o 5; 9; 9; 10; 10-7. Total 48:2.
These powers, it will be noted, are very unusual. The last bar of the series was
found to weigh 4050 grains. Its lifting power, therefore, was not less than eighteen
times its own weight—a degree of energy, in a magnet of such a weight, as I had
never before witnessed. The average power of the set of bars was 9°6 lbs., or nearly
seventeen times the average weight. The load sustained when the five bars were
ut together as a compcund magnet was of course much reduced proportionally.
efore the removal of the conductors, indeed, the small magnet supported a weight
of 44:5 lbs. ; after the breaking of the contact, it sustained a Icad, rapidly but progres-
sively attached, of 27 lbs., or above nine times the weight of the instrument.
The same process of magnetic manipulation, in which the magnetic energy is deve-
loped through the medium of an interposed bar or bars, is found to be exceedingly
effective in its application to cast iron bars of the horse-shoe form. Through the
kindness of my friend Henry W. Wickham, Esq. of the Lowmoor Iron Works at
Bradford, I obtained bars of cast iron of the best quality, and made very hard by being
cast on a cast iron plate, for a large compound magnet of the horse-shoe form of this
species of iron. The bars measured twelve inches from the curved extremity to the
poles, and weighed on an average about 5:8 lbs. Their capacities for magnetism, as
developed by the new process, proved to be very considerable,
Magnetized in the single series form, by a very powerful horse-shoe magnet, is the
best mode hitherto described ; the lifting powers of four of these bars were,—
First trial, before the separation of
the conductor.
14; 95; 7; 12. Mean 10°5 lbs, 12:5; 7; 7; 8. Mean 85 lbs.
Magnetized by the new, or double series process, the powers were,—
23°53 17°5; 18°5; 18. Mean 19'5 lbs. 150; 10°5 ; 10°5; 11. Mean 11°8 lbs,
Straight bars of thin hard steel were next subjected to trial by the same process, and
its efficiency in developing the utmost power of the bars, by the agency of 2 horse-shoe
magnet, was again proved. In this case three hard steel plates were placed ina
straight line at the end of each other (according to a well-known arrangement), these
being magnetized by a single strike of a horse-shoe magnet from end to end, with a
similar series of hard plates interposed. Each of the three plates of the ower series
was found to be magnetized to saturation. A result, apparently similar, but not yet
strictly tested, was obtained by one stroke of the horse-shoe magnet over a single
hard cast steel plate, with a plate of iron interposed. Here the iron acted as a con-
ductor along the whole magnet, so as to render the formation of a parallelogram of
two steel bars with iron conductors across the ends unnecessary.
Thus by means of this new process, the principle of which simply consists in the
developing of the magnetic energies of a magnetizable substance, not by the direct
action of a magnet, but through the medium of a magnetizable substance of like
dimensions interposed, the horse-shoe magnet, an instrument so compact and con-
venient for practice, becomes available for the magnetizing of almost all kinds of
bars or plates capable of being constructed into permanent magnets,
Subsequent or permanent power.
On the Great Fountain at Chatsworth, erected by the Duke of Devonshire.
By Mr. Paxton.
This fountain is supplied with water from a reservoir which covers eight acres.
The fall is 381 feet, and the height which the water attains from the fountain, (or
which it is expected to attain when brought into full operation,) is 280 feet*.
On the Filtration of Water for the Supply of Towns. By B. G. Storer.
The high-pressure plan, through sand, was recommended.
* A report on this subject has been undertaken.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103
Ona Plan for Preventing the Stealing of Letters by Letter Carriers.
By the Rev. F. O. Morris.
__ Mr. Morris proposes that a stamp (similar to the one at present in use) be im-
_ printed on a slip of paper about half an inch wide and twice the length of a folded
letter; the price a penny, as at present. Let this stamped slip be put through the
letter, which may be done either before or after itis folded, and then be doubled in-
wards, so as for the ends to meet. It will keep in by the mere doubling down, but
if additional security be thought desirable, these ends may be fastened together with
a wafer, &c. Let this stamped slip be directed, as well as the letter itself, by the
writer, and let it be stamped at the office where it is put in, as well as where it
arrives, as also the letter itself, as is done with the latter at present. When such
letters arrive at their destination, let the slips be pulled out, and filed, or those of
each day put by themselves, for any fixed time, for reference if necessary. Detection
would thus, on inquiry, immediately follow the detention of any letter.
— —_——-
On the probable Mode of Constructing the Pyramids.
By Henry Pericat, Jun.
The author, after quoting from Herodotus the description of the building of the
great Pyramid, and commenting on the magnitude of some of the stones employed
in it, and of others found in the ruins at Baalbec, gives the following explanation of
his views. :
There appears to be no evidence to prove that the architects of the Pyramids
were acquainted with any contrivances or combinations equivalent to what would be
called machines or engines, according to the modern acceptation of the words; on
the contrary, it seems much more probable that their gigantic undertakings were
accomplished by some very simple means; which simplicity (leading to the notion
that the means were self-evident) was perhaps the very reason that no record was
kept, or transmitted to posterity, of their mode of operation. With this conviction,
on the assumption that the statement of Herodotus might be founded on fact, I en-
_ deavoured to discover in what manner such prodigious blocks could have been elevated,
_ from step to step, merely by the aid of short pieces of wood, when the idea occurred to
me that they might have been so raised by some such system as the following
rocess : —
, Each block of stone, shaped and prepared for use before it left the quarry, was
_ conveyed across the Nile (advantage being taken of the periodical inundations) on
_ rafts, or other appropriate vessels, to the causeway described by Herodotus; along
_ which it was dragged on rollers, or on sledges if the stone was smoothed or pclished,
_ by the labour of men (or of cattle), to a convenient locality adjoining the Pyramid,
where it remained till wanted; thence it was conducted to the first step of the Pyra-
mid onrollers, To get the rollers underneath wedges were used, if it lay on the hard
rock; otherwise the earth was removed from beneath one-half of the stone, the
director or superintendent having placed himself upon the further end to prevent it
from tilting over too soon,
Next, the director having walked on the top to the other end, the stone (over-
balanced by the leverage of his weight) tilted into the hollow in the ground, when
rollers were placed under the other half of it,
The director having walked back again the stone was tilted on to the rollers, and
conveyed to its destination at the foot of the Pyramid ; where, perhaps, it was trans-
ferred in a similar way to larger rollers.
Then commenced the lifting process. All but one roller being removed, that one
being as nearly as possible under the centre of gravity, the stone was tilted as before,
while flat boards cr planks were placed beneath; and upon these boards another
very much narrower to act as a fulcrum: all being about the same length, proportioned
to the width of the stone.
The director having walked to the other end the stone was tilted on to the boards,
and similar planks were piled beneath by the side or parallel to the others, but a
degree higher or more in number; and upon them also a narrow fulcrum-slip, upon
which the stone was then tilted.
a‘
104 REPORT—1844,
The director having repeatedly walked backwards and forwards, tilting each end of
the stone alternately, and additional boards having been introduced every time, the
stone gradually rose to the required height, rather exceeding that of the next step,
when rollers were placed on the boards and the stone was transferred to similar planks
placed in readiness on the next step of the Pyramid.
The same process was then renewed, and continued from step to step till the stone
arrived at its destined locality.
Should any of the stones have been short, and consequently have afforded insuffi-
cient leverage for one man’s weight to tilt them, he might have carried a load; or
planks might have been made fast at the top so as to project beyond the ends of the
stone for him to walk along; or two or more men might have been employed in
traversing the stone; or various other expedients might, obviously, have been adopted
to tilt the stone. The wood probably underwent some preparatory process by which
it was condensed and its elasticity destroyed, perhaps by being subjected to very
heavy pressure when sodden with boiling water.
Thus “ the properties of the lever and of the centre of gravity were brought into
co-operation, so that the weight to be lifted was itself the principal element of the lifting
power.” Figuratively speaking, THE STONE WAS MADE TO RAISE ITSELF BY MEANS OF
ITS OWN WEIGHT.
In this manner, with the aid of a few dozen planks, a couple of men (one traversing
the stone while the other arranged the planks) might have conducted to the top of
the great Pyramid the largest stone used in its construction; thus corroborating the
assertion of the Egyptian priests, as stated by Herodotus, that the “‘ stones were raised
from step to step by the aid of short pieces of wood; which, being portable and easily
managed, might be removed or transferred as often as they deposited a stone ; or different
sets might have been employed for every range of steps.’ By this simple process, also,
afew men might have raised Stonehenge in a single night, if the requisite stones
were provided and placed in readiness near the spot, without any previous or subse-
quent indication of the means by which it was effected; affording the Druids a
favourable opportunity of practising upon the ignorance and credulity of the multi-
tude by ascribing its erection to supernatural agency.
oa eS
RAISING THE STONES FROM STEP TO STEP IN CONSTRUCTING THE PYRAMID.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105
ADDENDUM.
On Photography. By H. ¥. Tausor, Esq., FBS.
[Article omitted in its proper place, p. 37.)
Mr, Fox Talbot said that he had made many experiments on sulphate of iron as a
photographic agent; attention having been called to the subject by Mr. Hunt. He
could not recommend the use of succinic acid. The same iodized paper as was used
in the calotype process, gave the best results, With this and sulphate of iron he had
obtained portraits in one or two seconds.
This process, then, only differed from the calotype process in using sulphate of iron
instead of gallic acid to bring out the picture. He therefore objected to the introduc-
tion of a new name; for since other substances (such as tea, tannin, &c.) possess this
bringing out property, and probably many more will be discovered in future, each of
these would require, upon the same principle, to have a separate name, which would
be productive of inconvenience rather than advantage.
2. The spontaneous development of pictures in the dark, was a thing of constant
occurrence in the calotype process (which indeed was first discovered in that man-
ner). Moreover, when the io-gallic paper, formerly described by Mr. Talbot, is em-
ployed for calotyping instead of iodized paper, no second wash is required to bring
out the pictures, which develope themselves spontaneously after removal from the
camera; and therefore the process which Dr. Woods recommended was not new in
this respect. ‘The time necessary for the complete development of the pictures varied
considerably, according to circumstances, from a few seconds to one or two hours.
8. In reference to Prof. Grove’s communication, Mr. Talbot reminded the Section
of the account he had formerly published of the positive variety of the calotype process,
in which an iodized paper not really but virtually darkened by light, is again virtually
whitened by exposure to light in the camera, the final result being brought out by
gallic acid in the usual way. By operating with these virtual papers, the time re-
quired for a positive camera picture was greatly shortened. Still however it was ten
times longer than for the negative process, and therefore there was room for improve-
ment in this branch of photography. The positive camera pictures are very beautiful,
having of course all the delicacy of first impression, which is lost in transferring the
image to a second sheet of paper.
On Mineral Springs and other Waters of Yorkshire. By Witi1am WEsT.
Entering the county from the south, we have at Birley Spa, Hackenthorp, four miles
from Sheffield, a slightly saline spring, and a saline chalybeate; the former contains
per imperial gallon—
Sulphate of soda ..... Dee adaniasemee = 7:44
Chloride of calcium .........seeeeee 1-01
Carbonate of lime .............. BEN sac 55 Total... 9 grains.
This supplies hot baths, and a remarkably commodious plunge bath. The chalybeate
contains—
Sulphate of soda ....., ap neaehpieeas 40
Sulphate of lime ...........000 wwe 225
Carbonate of lime .........« “ote 7)
Protoxide of iron ....cceesesecseees 4: Total... 67 grains; including
The two are within a very few yards of each other. a minute trace of magnesia.
On the gritstone moors, to the west of Sheffield, I found springs and streams of the
purest natural waters I have ever examined ; the proportion of solid matter was less
than two grains per gallon, and some of the substances present required for their de-
tection that the water should be much concentrated ; when this was done their nature
was found to be as complicated as in ordinary waters, sulphates, muriates, and car-
bonates, with lime, soda, magnesia and iron, for bases.
The waters of Askern near Doncaster, have long enjoyed some celebrity, and se-
a
oe.
106 REPORT—1844.
veral sets of baths exist there. I analysed several of the springs about five years
since. I found in the Old Manor Baths,—
Sulphate of magnesia ............0.. 153°18
Sulphate of soda .........64. corners sae 58-06
Chloride of calcium ..... Jpkcnesade 82:83
Carbonate of lime ..........-.0+000 12°05
Carbonate of soda ............sc0e0s 30°19——Total... 236°31
With Sulphuretted Hydrogen ............ 8
Carhonic ACidyy wn iengssascestt.cecbene 52
INUIPOP CT 8 Genes andenaaces eh gets ns deste 8 Total... 214 cubic inches.
Three other springs, supplying the baths of various proprietors, were so nearly alike
in their results that one statement may be sufficient.
Sulphate of magnesia ............ 17°75
Chloride of calcium ............... 3"9
Sulphate of lime ............200068 1038
Carbonate of lime ...... segseeeas 12:2
Carbonate of soda ......s..s..00 26°35 ——Total... 164.
With Sulphuretted Hydrogen ........... - 62
Carboni¢ acid: J.gseecsdeconsarensaae ee Es
IUCOS OD os ceekeM ec iatnes sates smesiaes 11 ——Total... 261 cubic inches.
I satisfied myself by passing the electric spark through portions of the residual ni-
trogen, mixed with various proportions of oxygen alone, and of oxygen and hydrogen,
that no appreciable quantity of carburetted hydrogen or of oxygen was previously
contained in the water.
No other Yorkshire water, except Harrowgate, contains nearly so large a quantity
of magnesian salts, and there the chloride, not the sulphate, is present. The wells
at Askern, however, were at that time so badly secured, and the strata in which they
occur are so porous, that the water varied to an unusual degree. I found neither
iodine nor bromine by careful search in these waters.
At Stanley, two miles north of Wakefield, there was, some years ago, an Artesian
or overflowing well, which supplied one of the strongest solutions of carbonate of soda,
almost without earthy salts, which I have met with; it contained
Carbonate Of SOda cccccccccescecesees. 40°8
Sulphate jofjsodawiecserseeserccesnssas> 5'8
Chloride of sodium .........c02csee0e 8:9
Chloride of calcium ....ce.seseeseeess rl. | otal ames sete
At Field Head, in Mirfield, is a strong run of water, powerfully chalybeate, with
4 grains of oxide of iron, 25 of sulphate of lime, and 61 of sulphate of soda. It
well illustrates the observation that such a proportion of iron may accompany a large
or a very small quantity of alkaline and earthy salts.
The water distributed from the present Leeds water-works is supplied by several
springs and streams in the neighbourhood of Eccup. I found these to contain
from 2°35 to 3°63 Sulphate of lime.
1:33 to 4:27 Carbonate of lime.
1:38 to 5:97 Carbonate of soda.
Traces of magnesia, and in some cases of iron.
7:7 to 11-65 total solid contents.
At Leeds we have a water of considerable local repute and some scientific interest.
It has long been obtained in abundance in the township of Holbeck, and hence such
water, wherever met with, cbtains among Leeds people the name of Holbeck Water.
The best springs yield
Carbonate of S004 <i. ccs<ssseccee Recienaveces 38°4
Chloride of soditrin’ "Stesesistnest.cccecaces 4-2
Chloride’ of caletnm's (ii ecpeccsecs:csess00>-. 6 Total... 43:2.
It might serve as a subject for chemical speculation, and as yet we have little be-
yond speculation in such matters, that in these waters, where the principal salt is car-
bonate of soda, we always find sulphuretted and often carburetted hydrogen. But
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107
arbonate of soda often forms a secondary impregnation without being accompanied
y either of these gases.
“It is a little singular, this variety of water being so extensively met with in this
county, that it should either be rare, or have excited little attention in other parts of
the country. Itis scarcely mentioned in chemical treatises.
This water is deservedly in high repute for some domestic purposes; but I think
‘sufficient attention is not paid to the medicinal effects, whether beneficial or other-
wise, of a long continuance of even small doses of carbonate of soda, when these
effects are increased, like those of other substances, by the state of dilution and the
bulk of fluid. Lastly, such is the inaptitude of some persons for judging of the qualities
of a water without analysis, that I have met with some who considered every water
‘obtained by boring as “ Holbeck water,” and expected it to answer all the purposes
"of that really valuable kind. One spring of this description, passing under the name
_ of Holbeck water, yielded
Sulphate of lime ..,......ssseeeseneee 35°27
Carbonate of lime ......seseseeeeere ‘1
Carbonate of soda ..scesssseeeeee ... 18°63——Total... 60, including traces
_ of chloride of magnesium.
Or supposing the interchange between the carbonate of soda and its equivalent of
lime, on concentration in the boiler to be complete there would remain
Sulphate of lime .........sssseseseseeees 3°16
Carbonate of lime .........seeseeeeeeee 32:00
Sulphate of soda .......sceceseecsseneees 24°84 Total... 60.
In fact, instead of the boiler remaining clean, as with carbonate of soda alone, the
“fur” was taken from it, in frequent cleansings, by barrow loads.
At Calverley near Bradford, is a powerful chalybeate, in which the iron is in the
_ state of sulphate, with much sulphate of lime, but I have no account of the exact
proportions.
Among the flag-stones to the north and west of Bradford are many excellent
springs, which I have had occasion to analyse; the following are among them :—
Sulphate of lime ......... 2°35 Sulphate of lime ... 2°7 2°35
Sulphate of soda ..,...... 1:37 Carbonate of lime... 2 1°67
Carbonate of soda ...... “28 Carbonate of soda... 2°5 2°48
Total... 4° 54 65
Occasional traces of chlorides in some specimens.
The water at Ilkley, lately ushered into fresh notice by the establishment of baths
_ and the other adjuncts of the cold water cure of Preissnitz, under the new appellation
_ of Ben Rhydding, I have not had occasion to analyse. It has been stated to owe its
chemical distinction to extreme purity, but the analysis does not bear out this account.
Chloride of sodium .........sseeee0+ Se arikss GOA
Sulphate of soda ...... Spaiieisssteieeee-* "366
Sulphate of lime ....0....esseseeeeneeees 2
Carbonate of lime ....... ew baa eh Ae 2°353
Carbonate of magnesia ...........06. ayo sade
Silicate of soda ...... e000 slit stains his 1:066
Peroxide of iron (?)..s..sseeesesesseenes -060-———Total... 5742.
The proportion of solid matter is small, but greater than in the Sheffield or the Brad-
ford waters.
At Skipton there are hot and cold baths, supplied by a spring, slightly saline and
sulphureous.
At Crickhill, between Skipton and Gisburn, is a sulphureous spring; the saline
contents are—
Chloride of calcium............ Wabvapaae 25°76
Chloride of sodium ........ FEeE UT ope 15°94
Sulphate of soda .........csseeesssseeee 48-4
Carbonate of soda ...... Witieativeds 154
Oxide of Lope eases .cckccasacdce. oles ‘5 ——Total... 106.
108 REPORT—1844,
And the gases,—Sulphuretted hydrogen ...,..... 2E
CarbOnic'acid. wcscarcsseocesseescee 4
INIHOG EN Ys. Jy. ceavecessees cess veces 42
Carburetted hydrogen.,......... “whi: Total... 15 cubic inches.
At Bolton by Bolland, on the extreme western verge of the county, in the grounds
of Mrs. Littledale, is a weak sulphureous spring: though unprovided with baths, and
indeed too small at present to supply them, it has credit in the neighbourhood as a
medicinal water, for both internal and external use.
The water of the Aire and the Wharfe, at their sources near Malham, is strongly
petrifying ; large masses of calcareous deposit abound among the cliffs of Gordale
Scarr; Josh. Spence found 12} grains of solid matter per gallon, of which 12 grains
was carbonate of lime.
Huddersfield has in its neighbourhood two sets of baths; at Lockwood, one mile .
south, the water is sulphureous, containing
Sulphuretted hydrogen .............4. 1-836
Carbonic acid ......... Baedtecahececectes 756
Carburetted hydrogen...........s0000.. 3:78
Nitrogen ...... Saeepaeens Raciicbaasbense 4:425 Total... 10°8 cubic inches.
The only solid contents are carbonate of lime, 7:8; sulphate of magnesia, ‘8; and a
trace of chloride of calcium.
Here we have the compounds of hydrogen with carbon and sulphur, without their
usual accompaniments of chlorides or carbonate of soda.
At Slaithwaite baths the characteristic ingredient is carbonate of soda; the analysis
of two springs gave me—
Chloride of calcium ......... Pct hewapwen ces oad 75 of /
Chloride of magnesium..............:seeeeeee. “4 “4
Chloride of Sodtunti tiers cescessiccesecesccceee 2°65 2:5
Carbonate OP sod deccestedes.cescscecdsicscccves 17°8 20-4
Total... 21:6 24°
From the construction of the pumping apparatus, large bubbles of gases continually
escape and may be inflamed by a candle; these, from their burning with a blue flame
and sulphureous smell, are believed in the neighbourhood to be hydrosulphuric acid,
“sulphur” as they term it; they consist, however, of a small quantity of that gas, with
much carburetted hydrogen and some nitrogen and carbonic acid. The waters yielded
Sulphuretted hydrogen ..........s0+0000 “75
Carbonic iacidsser.,ccssosseeest worcccees se 1:25
Carburetted hydrogen ..........cseeeees 4:75
Nitrogen: is. Nace asteeceebeacesscet: seseee 6°25———Total.., 13 cubic inches.
The excellence of a pure sodaic water for steam-engines is well illustrated here; I
was assured that the bottom of the boiler which supplies the pumping-engine and hot
water for baths remains “bright like silver;” this I suppose an exaggeration, but
that it never requires cleaning is a circumstance more credible and sufficiently de-
sirable.
At this spot I found, in greater abundance than anywhere else in my experience,
that remarkable substance, the organic composition and equivocal nature of which
has exercised the ingenuity of chemists.
Not far from the baths is a chalybeate spring, yielding—
Sulphate of soda ...... Rodseteeeeesnave= >= 1-7
Carbonate of lime ...........esee0 Loestad 3
Carbonate of magnesia .........00. penees ek
Protoxide of iron......ss+.s000 SoSaduconked 1-8——Total... 8:6.
I had an opportunity of examining the ordinary waters of the neighbourhood of
Huddersfield on the north side, from analysing many springs about Honley; they gave
from 2 to 12 grains of solid matter, generally about 8, of which about half consisted
of salts of lime.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109
Horley Green, one mile and a quarter north-east of Halifax, is the site of a power-
ful chalybeate spring ; I found—
x Sulphate of iron ...... Siuatcceteasteccs 40°77
4 Sulphate of lime ........ msreet edeceeese 15:26
é Sulphate of magnesia ...... meneeechcaan) Phas
Chloride of calcium.,......sseeseresseeee 32
SHCA eusinciesin dnesc asiscalesenanp'saneackesais 93
PATOUNING) ocacecsasecsascecccvvesttqcthe=re 1-22 Total... 63:5.
_ On the south bank of the river Wharfe, at Boston, or Thorp Arch, a strong saline
_ spring supplies hot and cold baths; its composition I found to be—
Chloride of sodium............2+++ seen O22"
Chloride of calcium ..........2....00 59°
} Chloride of magnesium..........-.00. 11°5
BYeCAnS a= den deeecece ene ech AReerEoee DS 1:25
Carbonate of iron ..........se.eeeeeeee 1°75 Total... 895°5 grains.
It was natural to expect iodine and bromine in water containing so large a propor-
tion of chlorides, but J could not in any state of concentration detect either. This
_ water has been said to contain hydrosulphuric acid, which, as may be supposed from
the composition, is a misrepresentation, arising from the wish to bring the baths into
closer competition with those of Harrowgate.
The celebrated Harrowgate springs might of themselves furnish along dissertation ;
I shall make it as short as their number and importance will permit, analyses by
others as well as by myself having been published repeatedly within the last few years.
The Old Well, which forms the type and standard of all the sulphureous waters of the
place, yielded on the last occasion on which I analysed it,—
Chloride of sodium ......... 872°4 Sulphuretted hydrogen ... 15°6
/ Chloride of calcium ......... 94:1 Carbonic acid .........s0008+ 2°72
Chloride of magnesium...,.. 45°7 Carburetted hydrogen...... 6°86
Carbonate of soda .........0+ 34:8 Nitrogen toe< sec s2 c+ costes <n 8°82
Total number of grains,..... 1047: Total number of cubic inches 34°
As on former trials, I found no sulphates in the water ; when these have been met
with, I have no doubt sulphuric acid has been formed in the water, from keeping, or
from the action of heat during evaporation. [ found iodine and bromine distinctly on
evaporation, as well as a minute trace of potash.
__ Dr. Watson, in his well-known essay, speaks of three other springs as situated close
_ to the Old Well; these have been long covered in, but the spot was opened in 1836 ;
: No. 2 was not, I think, found, but Nos. 3 and 4 then contained—
c 5 No. 3. No. 4.
; Chloride of sodium........... AS 852 737
Chloride of calcium ............... 83 69
Chloride of magnesium ............ 43 40
Carbonate of soda ..............20+8 10 9
Sulphate of soda .........-.2..2008 2 16
Total number of grains... 990 871
And of gases,—
Sulphuretted hydrogen ............ 7 3
Carbonic acid............ Buss sceaeed 6 6
Other gases, chiefly nitrogen..... 12 14
Total number of cubic inches...... 25 23
These springs appear, like No. 1, or the Old Wells, to have increased in strength
since the time of the earlier published analysis. I found in
Dec. 1823... 1025 grains of salts. | May 1836... 1066 grains of salts.
May 1830... 1016. ada May 1844... 1047. .. hae
110 REPORT—1844.
The spring which approximates most closely in composition to the Old Well is
Thackwray’s, containing
Chloride of sodium ......... 802° Sulphuretted hydrogen ... 21°6
Chloride of calcium ......... 77°5 Carbonic acid. ......+++0+. ee «= 4°32,
Chloride of magnesium..... — 38°5 Carburetted hydrogen...... 5°76
Carbonate of soda ..........+. 32° Nitrogen .....0.00.. Mecoane eae ioe
Total number of grains...... 950° Total number of cubic inches 36-
Repeated trials at intervals of several years, sometimes in the way of complete
analyses, sometimes directed to those points alone, confirm the general facts of this
water remaining almost uniform in composition, but with less salt and more sulphu-
retted hydrogen than the Old Well. Several springs in the same grounds approach
to, but none reach this, the earliest of Thackwray’s springs.
The wells on the Common, near the Bog, are too shallow, too unprotected, and even
too shifting in their situation to preserve similar uniformity, but I think enough may
be discovered from their analysis to disprove the popular opinion that ‘the moss is the
mother of the waters ;”’ the strongest of these springs yielded—
Chloride of sodium ...... fae ODO" hace om
Sulphate of soda .........44- 60 hits dlioksn
Chloride of calcium ...... weet) ¢20"8 Sulphuretted hydrogen ...... 4°5
Chloride of magnesium...... 176 Carbonic acid’ t.ic.0.2s.aseecste 5:4
Carbonate of soda .....+...++. 372 Nitrogen .....+...... Resaevene race |
Total number of grains...... 384: Total number of cubic inches 18:
Several of the minor sulphuretted springs are similar in composition to this, in-
cluding Starbeck and Bilton Park.
Though the sulphuretted springs form the great attraction of Harrowgate, the chaly-
beates are numerous, and would of themselves supply a watering place ; the Old Spa
contains 10 grains of solid matter, of which 2°5 is oxide of iron, held in solution by
carbonic acid, the remainder various earthy salts. Other springs yield 1°8, 2, 1, and*75
oxide of iron, with similar quantities of earthy or saline matter.
Oddy’s saline chalybeate, if it remains constant, may well form a distinct class; I
found it in 1830 to contain—
Oxide Of 370M ccccasnsrsstees 5°3
Chloride of sodium ...... 577°2
Chloride of calcium ...... et BAS
Chloride of magnesium... 10: Total... 636 grains.
In the water of a celebrated spring, the Dropping Well at Knaresborough, I found—
Carbonate of lime.......+++.- 23
Sulphate of lime ....... soos 132
Sulphate of magnesia ...... 11
Carbonate of soda............ 6——Total... 172 grains.
A trace of iron.
If we suppose, contrary to Dr. Murray’s hypothesis, all the lime, or a proportionate
part of the magnesia, to exist as carbonate, the carbonate of soda will be replaced by
sulphate, and this takes place on the deposit of the tufa or petrifactions ; but it is
worthy of notice, that, independent of the oxide of iron, to which these owe their
colour, the concretions are not pure carbonate of lime, but contains both sulphuric
acid and magnesia.
About two miles to the westward of Harrowgate we again meet with the sodiac
water to which I have had so frequent cccasion to refer, but less pure than in some
other situations; three wells at Harlow Carr yielded—
Chloride of calcium........ ss+00. Boon oatice 8°85 seeceene 4°77
Sulphate of magnesia .......++0++ 5 ip) is Ler BO 1. eee 1:56
Carbonate of magnesia ...... eR OD J css ce 8°48 OS cacue 8:23
Carbonate of lime ...... Yavteatec D8. Pestene. 2 LZ’. eeteee 5°84
Carbonate of soda ......... Pes lAVdL Gesees WiG4 See 12°9
—
Total... 32'S ....0% 38° seseee OOO
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. lll
And of gases,—Sulphuretted hydrogen .......... 2 to 3 cubic inches.
Gar HOH ACI cer aves: vetsscescucd 6 ts at
INEDEDT TR Novae cwee,* qertete ees 8
oe There are also several chalybeate springs, of which the strongest contains—
Oxide of irom ...scceseseeees 2°16
Other substances ......... 8:24 Total... 10°4.
All the springs and streams yet mentioned are in the West Riding. In Harrowgate
_ alone I think I have examined nearly fifty springs.
In the North and East Ridings of the county my own analyses have been less nu-
merous, and of a considerable part I do not know the localities with sufficient exact-
ness to give the same interest, and the waters are less marked in character; a few
only need be particularized.
; In the North Riding, at Hovingham, the sodaic water occurred in a strong and
_ strikingly pure condition, yielding 38 grains of carbonate of soda and 3 grains of com-
- mon salt, without a trace of sulphates or any earthy salt. It is accompanied by sul-
_ phuretted hydrogen, but I had not an opportunity of analysing the gases on the spot,
_ the only mode in which exact results can be obtained.
___ The Scarborough water has I believe been found to vary by different chemists; I
give Prof. Richard Phillips’s analysis, 1840 :—
North Well. (Dry salts.) South Well. (Dry salts.)
Chloride of sodium ......... 26°64 2... ZO'G2 eases +) 6S ES 29°63
t Cryst. sulph. magnesia...... 142°68) |) w..04 G99G TO eaue 225°33 wee 109°91
Cryst. sulphate of lime...... 104 wae, 82:2) 1 eh DIOS 258 87°6
¥ Bicarbonate of lime ......... 48°26 | ...04. ZED) )\ sens HET BWiwR ak 26°
__ Bicarbonate of protox. iron 1°84 ...... Hay ec Bid cues 86
4
% Total ... 323°42) ...... 205°54 ..... 415°35 254:
Salts by direct evaporation .......:+......000 EAT NEO! wen aunens atckeya te eaNa 260: gr.
¥ Gas,—nitrogen...... cates ends 6°3 cubic inches ..........4. 7:5 cubic inches.
_ At Filey, a few miles south of Scarborough, a spa exists, rather strongly impregnated,
and with salts of considerable medicinal power, viz.—
Sulphate of magnesia ............++. 48:96
Chloride of magnesium ............ 36°4
Chloride of calcium...............08- 41-2
Chloride of sodium .............sc00e 210°8
Carbonate of soda ......... weseeee. 58°08——Total... 395°44 crains.
I have notes of several analyses of waters for railway use from the East Riding; a
very few shall suffice.
Gallow Creek. Heple.
Carbonate of lime ..........- Seca 15:
Sulphate of lime............++ (rete 3°
Sulphate of soda .......2+4.- Ee Were oe
Chloride of sodium ......... LG Waeeesy, 2053
Total... 479i cemes 39:
The waters of York have received more attention in the way of analysis than almost
any other; in a pamphlet published by my friend Joseph Spence, and in Dr. Laycock’s
Sanitary Report, ample details will be found, which I scarcely need copy; the points
most remarkable in the whole of those made by Joseph Spence are a proportion, com-
paratively large, of nitrates and of potash, both believed, justly I think, to be derived
from rubbish on the surface. W. White of York, also found nitrates in two waters,
and I can confirm the fact of their occurrence from a slight examination recently
made by myself.
To those who would trace a connection between the geology of a spot and the che-
mical character of a spring issuing from it, a matter which I have only touched inci-
dentally, I would observe that they must descend from those comprehensive views of
geological formations which embrace provinces, kingdoms and continents, to the most
112 REPORT—1844.
minute kinds of examination. We find within a few yards or a few feet of each other,
springs largely impregnated with certain constituents, and springs entirely free from
these, but abounding in others of a different description, and all of these springs well-
marked, distinct, perennial in flow, varying within very narrow limits in composition,
and within those limits remaining the same for centuries. Simply to refer the strata in
the localities where these springs break forth to one or other series of rocks, or even toa
single formation, will do very little to aid the attempt to determine where and how the
water which originally descended in a pure state as rain, has received its saline or
gaseous impregnations. The part which pure chemistry has commenced is to make
exact analyses of many waters, and to collect accounts of such, scattered as they gene-
rally are, in scientific journals, or in the hands of the proprietors of springs.
Hereafter we may have to examine more extensively and more strictly the sources
of their ingredients, but it is the first of these tasks which, so far as Yorkshire is con-
cerned, the present report attempts in some degree, and to the extent of present ex-
isting materials, to accomplish. Much, it will be seen, remains to be done in the way
of exact analyses ; but there is sufficient to show that for those engaged in such investi-
eid this county, especially in the West Riding, offers a very copious field for
research.
Omitted in the Report for 1843.
On Industrial Education. By Henry Biacs.
After alluding to the historical facts connected with this subject, the author argued
that the alternation of physical with mental exercise is not only beneficial in respect
of health to youth, but especially valuable in inducing habits of early industry and
order among the children of the poor. He gave minute statistics of the following
schools from personal observation :-—
Upper Norwood, a contractor’s establishment, 1100; Lower Norwood, a school for
the pauper children of Lambeth, 300; Tooting, a contractor’s establishment, 300;
Limehouse, a district school for the children of the Stepney union, 400; Ealing, a
school founded and endowed by Lady Noel Byron, for the sons of peasantry, 110.
i OBJECTS and rules of the Association, v.
Officers and Council, vii.
_ Places of meeting and officers from com-
__‘-‘mencement, viii.
_ Council from commencement, ix.
_ Officers of sectional committees and corre-
_ _ sponding members, xi.
_ Treasurer’s account, xii.
_ Report on the progress and desiderata of
| science drawn up and printed in the Trans-
actions, xiv.
_ Reports of researches undertaken and printed
__ in the Transactions, xvi.
‘Recommendations adopted by the general
committee at the York meeting, in Sept.
and Oct. 1844, xxi.
_ Recommendations for reports and researches
_ _ not involving grants of money, xxi.
¥ Recommendations of special researches in
___ Science involving grants of money, xxii.
_ Synopsis of grarits of money appropriated to
scientific objects at the York Meeting, in
Oct. 1844, xxv.
General statement of sums which have been
_ paid on account of grants for scientific
purposes, Xxvi.
Extracts from resolutions of the general com-
mittee, xxix.
Axrangement of general evening meetings, xxx.
Address by the very Rev. George Peacock,
_ D.D., Dean of Ely, xxxi.
Report of the council to the general com-
mittee, xlvi.
mm).
_ Africa, on the ornithology of, 189.
i Agassiz (L.), rapport sur les poissons fossiles
« ag ee de Londres (with translation),
mm 279.
4, Air, atmospheric, constituents of one atom
of, 111.
Alder (Joshua) on the British nudibranchiate
mollusca, 24.
Alum slate, metamorphosis of the Scandina-
vian, 155.
—— from Bornholm and Opsloe,
162, 168.
America, on the ornithology of North, 192.
——,, of Central, 194. .
1844.
a
analysis of,
TO
[ 13s j
INDEX I.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
America, on the ornithology of South, 195.
American survey, North, 147.
Anemometer, balance, 129.
, Spring, 142.
——, on the working of Whewell and Osler’s,
at Plymouth, 241.
——,, velocity of wind by, 251.
, Foster’s, velocity of wind by, 261.
——, Osler’s, description of, 253.
——, results of Osler’s, at Greenwich, 257.
,'Whewell’s, comparative indication of
Lind’s gauge and, 263.
, Osler’s, mean vesults of, at Devonport
for 1841 and 1842, 265.
, at Greenwich, 265.
Anemometers used at the Kew observatory,
on the, 129.
Anglesea, on dredging operations round the
coast of, 390.
Anoplura, on the progress of the investiga-
tion of the exotic, 392.
Antarctic expedition, on the, 143.
—— survey, completion of the, 148.
Aqueous vapour contained in the atmosphere
of Toronto, on the, 47.
Araneidea, on the structure, functions, and
ceconomy of, 62.
Archipelago, eastern, proposed survey of the,
148.
Arendal, analysis of green paranthine from,
165.
Argile de Londres, sur les poissons fossiles
de I’, 279.
Art, pictorial, progress of, as applied to orni-
thology, 201. ;
Asia Minor, on the ornithology of, 185.
Atmosphere, pressure of the, at Toronto, 50,
, mean monthly pressure of the, at To-
ronto and Prague, 52.
, pressure of the dry, at Toronto and
Prague, 56.
Atmospheric waves, on, 267, 270.
Australia, on the ornithology of, 189.
, on the extinct mammals of, 223.
Austria, magnetic survey of, 148.
Baily (F.,) on the nomenclature of the stars,
32,
I
114
Balloons, on captive, 390.
Barometer, extreme range of, at Toronto and
Prague, in 1840, 1841, 54.
— used at the Kew observatory, onthe, 127.
Barometric observations reduced to the level
of the sea, 275.
Birds, anatomy and physiology of, 204.
Birt (W. R.) on atmospheric waves, 267.
Blackwall (John) on some recent researches
into the structure, functions and ceconomy
of the Araneidea made in Great Britain, 62. .
Boguslawski (Prof.), letter from, to Col. Sa-
bine, on magnetic observations made at
Breslau, 154.
Boilers, on the forms of, for the prevention
of smoke, 103.
on an improved stationary, 115.
Bornholm, analysis of alum slate from, 162,
168.
Brachiopoda, on the shells of the, 16.
Breslau, magnetic observations made at, 154.
Brewster (Sir David) on the hourly meteor-
ological observations carried on at Inver-
ness, 391.
Britain, on the ornithology of, 181.
Bugten, analysis of gneiss from, 168.
Calcium, chloride of, on insulation by means
of, 138.
Carpenter (Dr. W.) on the microscopic struc-
ture of shells, 1.
Cellular structure of shells, prismatic, 4.
Ceramites Hisingeri, 162.
China seas, proposed survey of the, 148.
Clay, on the fossil fishes of the London, 279.
Clock, on a storm, 142.
Coal, constituents of, and other fuel, 100.
, analysis of various species of, 101.
Constellations, revision of the, 34.
Continental surveys, on, 148.
Corfu, marine geology of, 390.
Coulomb electrometer, on a new, 142.
Cténoides, 302, 304, 307, 309.
Curves, rediscussion of the observations on
waves, by the method of, 337.
Cycloides Acanthoptérygiens, 302, 304, 307,
310.
—— Malacoptérygiens, 302, 304, 307, 310.
Daubeny (Prof.) on the growth and vitality
of seeds, 94.
Denny (Henry) on the progress of the inves-
tigation of the exotic Anoplura, 392.
Devonport, mean results of Osler’s anemo-
meter at, for 1841 and 1842, 265.
Diprotodon, 224.
— Australis, 224.
Discharger used at the Kew observatory, on
the, 125.
Distinguisher used at the Kew observatory,
on the, 125,
Doride, 25, 26.
Dredging committee for 1844, report of, 390.
Earth, on the influence of fucoidal plants
upon the formations of the, 155.
INDEX I.
Earthquake shocks, on registering in Scot-
land, 85.
, register for, 86.
Electrical observatory at Kew, on the, 121.
Electricity, atmospheric, on induction by,
140.
——,, on frequency of, 141.
Electrograph used at the Kew observatory,
on the, 126.
Electrometers used at the Kew observatory,
on the, 123.
, comparison of voltaic, 135.
——,, pluvio, 141.
, on new Coulomb, 142.
Electro-meteorological observations, speci-
men of, at the Kew observatory, 132.
Electroscope, Bennet’s gold-leaf, used at the
Kew observatory, 125.
Ely (The Dean of) on simultaneous magneti-
cal and meteorological observations, 143.
England, summary of sea-fish inhabiting the
coasts of, 302.
Enys (J. S.) experiments on steam-engines,
91.
Europe, on the ornithology of, 180.
, of north and central continental, 182.
Fairbairn (William) on the consumption of
fuel and the prevention of smoke, 100,
118.
Fishes, fossil, of the London clay, 279.
—, list of species of the bony, of Sheppey,
304.
Forbes (Prof. E.), dredging operations round
the coasts of Anglesea by, 390.
Forchhammer (Prof.} on the influence of
fucoidal plants upon the formations of the
earth, on metamorphism in general, and
particularly the metamorphosis of the
Scandinavian alum slate, 155.
Fossil fishes of the London clay, 279.
ornithology, 209.
Foster’s anemometer, velocity of wind by,
251.
France, on the ornithology of, 183.
Fuel, on the consumption of, 100, 118.
——,, calorific and ceconomic value of differ-
ent kinds of, 103, 110.
Furnaces, relative proportions of the, for the
prevention of smoke, 103.
Galapagos islands, progress and present state
of ornithology in the, 194.
Galvanometer used at the Kew observatory,
on the, 124.
Ganoides (types récents), 303.
—— (types anciens), 308.
Gaseous pressure, variations of the, at To-
ronto, 58, 59.
, differences of, at Greenwich and To-
ronto, 61.
Gas furnace for experiments on vitrifaction
and other applications of high heat in the
laboratory, 82.
Gneiss from Bugten, analysis of, 168.
Greece, on the ornithology of, 184.
et Giieen ich, variations of the temperature,
vapour pressure, gaseous pressure, and
force of wind at, 60, 61.
_ —~, observations with Osler’s anemometer
at, 257.
——, mean results of, for 1841 and 1842,
266.
Hancock (Albany) on the British nudibran-
- chiate mollusca, 24.
Harcourt (Rev. W. V.) on a gas furnace for
Soe CT
:
SR, ER
experiments on vitrifaction and other ap-
plications of high heat in the laboratory, 82.
Harris (W. Snow) on the working of Whewell
and Osler’s anemometers at Plymouth, for
the years 1841, 1842 and 1843, 241.
Heat, on applications of, in the laboratory, 82.
, concentration of, 110.
Henley electrometer used at the Kew ob-
servatory, 123.
Henslow (Prof.) on the growth and vitality
of seeds, 94.
Herschel (Sir J. F. W., Bart.) on the nomen-
clature of the stars, 32.
——,, on simultaneous magnetical and me-
teorological observations, 143.
Hodgkin (Thomas) on the varieties of the
human race, 93.
Hodgkinson (Eaton), experiments on steam-
engines, 91.
Houldsworth’s pyrometer, 107.
—, experiments with, 109.
_ Human race, on the varieties of the, 93.
Hunt (Robert) on the influence of light on
_ the germination of seeds and the growth
of plants, 29.
Hydrogen, carburetted, constituents of one
atom of, 111.
Hygrometers used at the Kew observatory,
on the, 128.
Hyndman (Mr.), series of dredging observa-
tions on the Irish coast by, 391.
India, British, on the ornithology of, 186.
Induction, experiments on, hy atmospheric
electricity, 140.
Instruments used in the Kew Observatory, on
the, 120.
Insulation, experiments on, by means of
chloride of calcium, 138.
_ Insulators, comparative insulating powers of,
* 135, 136, 137.
¥ Inverness, hourly meteorological aia ong
carried on at, 391.
; Sonian Islands, marine zoology of the, 390.
Ireland, on subterranean temperature in, 221.
Irish coast, series of dredging observations
on the, 390.
Italy, on the ornithology of, 183.
Japan, on the ornithology of, 185.
Kew observatory, description of the, and the
instruments used in the, 120,
——, explanation and remarks concerning
the Journal, 130.
INDEX I.
115
Kew Observatory, experiments made at the,
in 1843 and 1844, 135.
Kreil (M.) on the meteorology of Prague, 43.
Laboratory, on applications of high heat in
the, 82.
Libraries, Ornithological, 217.
Light, influence of, on the germination of
seeds and growth of plants, 29.
Lindley (Prof.) on the growth and vitality of
seeds, 94.
Lind’s gauge, comparative indications of, and
Whewell’s anemometer, 263.
Lithography, progress of, as applied to orni-
thology, 202.
Lloyd (Dr.) on simultaneous magnetical and
meteorological observations, 143.
London clay, on the fossil fishes of the, 279.
Londres, sur les poissons fossiles de l’argile
de, 279.
M‘Andrew (Mr.), dredging operations round
the coasts of Anglesea by, 390.
Macfarlane (Mr.), earthquake shocks regis-
tered at Comrie by, 85.
Mackenzie (Thomas), hourly meteorological
observations carried on at Inverness by,
at the expense of the British Association,
391.
Magnetical observations, 143.
, made at Breslau, 154.
Magnetic observatories, British colonial, 144.
surveys and itinerant observations, 147.
Magnetism, terrestrial, publications relating
to, 149.
Malasia, on the ornithology of, 187.
Mammals of Australia, on the extinct, 223.
Margaritacez, on the structure of the shells
of the, 20.
Marine zoology of Corfu and the Ionian is-
lands, 390.
Metallic-plate engraving, progress of, as ap-
plied to ornithology, 202.
Metamorphism, 155.
Meteorological department, on the, 152.
Meteorological observations, on simultaneous
magnetical and, 143.
——, discussion of, 152.
——, hourly, carried on at Inverness, 391.
Meteorological observatories, British colo-
nial, 144.
Meteorology of Toronto, on the, 42.
of Prague, 43.
Microscopic structure of shells, 1.
Milne (David) on registering ealehigdike
shocks in Scotland, 85.
Mollusca, component elements of the shells
of, 15.
—, British Nudibranchiate, 24.
——,, present number of known British spe-
cies of, 25.
Monographs, notice of ornithological, 196.
Moseley (Rev. Prof.), experiments on steam
engines, 90.
Museums, ornithological, 215.
12
116
Nayadez, on the structure of the shells of
the, 21.
New Zealand, on the ornithology of, 189.
Nototherium, 231.
inerme, 231.
— Mitchelli, 232.
Nudibranchiata, development of the senses
in the, 29.
Nudibranchiate mollusca, on the British, 24.
Observations, new series of magnetical and
meteorological, at fixed stations, 146.
, itinerant, not in the nature of formal
surveys, naval observatories, and other
local determinations, 149.
Observatories, British colonial, magnetical
and meteorological, 144.
Observatory, description of the Kew, 120.
Oldham (Thomas) on subterranean tempera-
ture in Ireland, 221.
Opsloe, analysis of alum slate from, 162.
Ornithological museums, list of, 215.
libraries, 217.
Ornithology, general systematieworks on, 173.
, progress and present state of, in Eu-
rope, 180.
——, in Britain, 181.
, in north and central continental Eu-
rope, 182.
, in France, 183.
——,, in Italy, 183.
——, in Greece, 184.
——., in Spain, 184.
——, in Asia Minor, 185.
, in Siberia, 185.
——, in Japan, 185.
——, in British India, 186.
——, in Malasia, 187.
, in Polynesia, 189.
——, in Australia, 189.
——, in New Zealand, 191.
——, in Africa, 191.
——, in North America, 192.
——, in central America, 194,
——, in the Galapagos islands, 194,
——,, in the West Indies, 194.
——, in South America, 195.
——, ornithological monographs, 196.
——, miscellaneous descriptions of species,
199.
——, progress of the pictorial art as applied
to, 201.
—, on fossil, 209.
——, desiderata of, 217.
Osler’s anemometer, on the working of, at
Plymouth, 241.
——,, description of, 253.
— , results of, at Greenwich, 257, 266.
——, table showing amountof wind with, 259.
——, mean results of, at Devonport, for 1841
and 1842, 265.
Ostracez, on the structure of the shells of
the, 19.
Owen. (Prof.) on. the extinct. mammals of
Australia, with descriptions of certain fos-
sils indicative of the former existence in
INDEX I.
that continent of large marsupial repre- .
sentatives of the order Pachydermata, 223.
Pachydermata, on fossils indicating the ex-
istence of marsupial representatives of the
order, in Australia, 223.
Palliobranchiata, on the shells of the, 16.
Paranthine from Arendal, analysis of green,
165.
Pectinide, on the structure of the shell of
the, 19.
Placoides, 303. y
Placunide, on the structure of the shells of
the, 18.
Plants, influence of light on the growth of,
29.
, influence of fucoidal, upon the forma-
tions of the earth, 155.
, analysis of, 158.
Pluvio electrometer, 141.
Plymouth, on the working of Whewell and
Osler’s anemometers at, 241.
Poissons fossiles de l’argile de Londres, sur
les, 279.
Pole (Prof.), experiments on steam-engines,
91.
Polynesia, on the ornithology of, 189.
Port Famine, atmospheric valley at, 56.
Portlock (Capt.) on the marine zoology of
Corfu and the Ionian islands, 390.
Prague, meteorology of, 43.
Provisional reports and notices of progress in
special researches entrusted to committees
and individuals, 390.
Pyrometer, experiments with Houldsworth’s,
107, 109.
Rain and vapour gauge, used at the Kew Ob-
servatory, on the, 128.
Robinson (Dr.) on captive balloons, 390.
Ronalds (Francis) on the Kew Observatory,
120.
Rosse (the Earl of) on the construction of
large reflecting telescopes, 79.
Russell (J. Scott) on waves, 311.
on the form of ships, 391.
Sabine (Lieut.-Col. Edward) on the meteor-
ology of Toronto in Canada, 42.
on simultaneous magnetical and meteor-
ological observations, 143.
——,, letter to, from Prof. Boguslawski, on
magnetic observations made at Breslau,
154.
Scandinavian alum slate, metamorphosis of
the, 155.
Schists in Scandinavia, metamorphosed fu-
coid, 163.
Scopulz of spiders, on the, 62.
Scotland, on registering earthquake shocks
in, 85.
Sea-fish, summary of, inhabiting the coasts
of England, 302.
Seas, proposed survey of the China, 148.
—, barometric observations reduced to the
level of the, 275.
Pout of light on the germination
mony 29!
_ ——, on the growth and vitality of, 94.
_ Shells, microscopic structure of, 1.
' ——, condition of the calcareous matter in, 3.
——, animal basis of, 4.
—, prismatic cellular structure of, 4.
——,, membranous substance in, 9.
, hacreous structure in, 13.
— , tubular structure in, 14.
——,, cancellated structure in, 14.
Sheppey, list of species of the bony fish of, 304.
Ships, on the form of, 391.
Siberia, on the ornithology of, 185.
Slate, metamorphosis of the Scandinavian
alum, 155.
— , analysis of, from Bornholm and Opsloe,
162, 168.
Smoke, on the prevention of, 100, 114, 118.
——.,, description of boiler used for the, 115.
Spain, on the ornithology of, 184.
Spiders, scopulz of, 62.
_ Stars, nomenclature of the, 32.
Steam-engines, experiments on, 91.
Storm clock, 142.
papers, specimen of, at the Kew Obser-
vatory, 134.
Strickland (H. E.) on the growth and vita-
lity of seeds, 94.
on the recent progress and present
state of ornithology, 160.
» Sweden, magnetic survey of, 148.
Telescopes, construction of large reflecting,
Temperature of Toronto and Prague, on the,
43.
— , variations of the, 58, 59.
——,, at Greenwich, 60.
—, differences of, at Greenwich and To-
ronto, 61.
— , subterranean, in Ireland, 221.
Terebratula, on the fossil species of the ge-
nus, 17.
— psittacea, on the shell of, 16.
Terminology, external, 209.
Terrestrial magnetism, on publications rela-
ting to, 149.
Thermometers used at the Kew Observatory,
» on the, 127.
Toronto, meteorology of, 42.
_ ‘Trinity College (the Master of) on simultane-
~~ ous magnetical and meteorological obser-
__ vations, 143.
“Tritoniadz, 25, 26.
“Uralite from the Ural, if identical with that
from Arendal in Norway, 165.
Vane used at the Kew observatory, on the,129.
Vapour, aqueous, contained in the atmo-
sphere of Toronto, 47.
——,, mean degree of humidity of the, 48.
——,, mean tension of the, 48.
~ Vapour pressure, variations of the, at ‘To-
ronto, 58, 59. : ,
4)
i
i
, wu
INDEX I.
‘117
Vapour pressure, differences of, at Greenwich
and Toronto, 61.
Vitrifaction, on a gas furnace for experi-
ments on, 82.
Voltaic electrometer used at the Kew Obser-
vatory, 123.
——, comparison of, 135.
Waves, atmospheric, 267, 270.
, Stations at which observations were
made, 267, 270.
, explanation of the sections of, 277.
Waves, on, 311.
—, the nature of, and their velocity, 313.
——., system of water, 317.
——-, of the first order, 319.
—, genesis of the, 320.
——, genesis by impulsion of force horizon-
tally applied, 320.
——, genesis by a column of fluid, 320.
——., by protrusion of a solid, 321.
——, transmission of mechanical power by
the, 321.
——,, regenesis of, 322.
—, reflexion of the, 322.
——., measure of the power of wave genesis,
322.
——, imperfect genesis of the, 323.
, residuary positive, 323.
, disintegration of large wave masses, 323.
——,, residuary negative, 323.
——, motion of transmission of, 324.
——,, range of wave transmission, 324.
——, degradation of the, of the first order,
325.
——,, the velocity of transmission of the, 325.
——,, height of the, an element in its velo-
city, 325.
——,, history of a solitary, from observation,
325, 327.
——, experiments on the velocity of, 328.
——,, determination of the velocity of the,
328.
— , velocity of larger and smaller, 330.
, of the first order, not formally de-
scribed, 330. .
, theoretical results subsequent to the
publication of the author’s investigations,
333.
——,, rediscussion of the observations by the
method of curves of, 337.
, velocity due to, of the first order, 338.
——., the magnitude and form of the, 339.
——,, absolute motions of each water parti-
cle during transmission, 340.
——, parallelism of translation, 341.
——, range of horizontal translation equal at
all depths, 341.
; path of each water particle during
translation lies wholly in a vertical plane,
342.
——, phenomena of, of the first order, 342.
, geometrical representation of the, 345.
—, vertical motion of each particle of, 344.
——, horizontal motion of éach particle of,
344. :
118
Waves, mechanism of the, 345.
——, as a vehicle of power, 347.
——, negative, of the first order, 348.
, on the velocity of negative, of the first
order, 348, 349.
—, on some conditions which affect the
phznomena of the, of the first order, 351. |
——,, of translation, effect of the form of
channel on the, 352.
—, length of, an index of depth, 352.
breadth and depth, 353.
—,, form of transverse section of channel,
354.
——,, of the first order, in triangular chan-
nels, 355.
——., form of the channel affects the form of,
as well as their velocity, 357.
——, of the first order, incidence and refiex-
ion of the, 357.
——, on the lateral diffusion and accumula-
tion of the, 358.
—, axis of maximum displacement of the,
358.
—, on the diffusion of the, round an axis
_ of original transmission, 360.
—,, velocity of the, calculated for various
depths of the fluid in a channel of uniform
depth, extending from a depth 0:1 of an
. inch to 100 feet, 361.
——, of the second order, 363.
——, oscillating, 363.
——,on the standing, of running water,
364.
, height of, in a channel of variable |
INDEX TI.
) Waves, moving, of the second order—sea
; waves, 366, 370.
| ——, onthe length and velocity of, 367, 374.
, of the third order—capillary, 375, 377.
, on the velocity, distance and divergence
of, 377.
, comparison of experiments on the di-
vergence due to given velocities of genesis
of, 379.
——,, for determining the velocity of eurrents
or moving bodies by observations of diver-
gence, 380.
, of the fourth order—corpuscular—
sound wave of water, 382.
| West Indies, on the ornithology of the, 194.
Whewell’s (Rev. Dr.) anemometer, compara-
tive indications of Lind’s gauge and, 263.
, on the nomenclature of the stars, 32.
—— anemometer, on the working of, at
Plymouth, 241.
——, description of, 243.
Wind, variations of the force of the, at To-
ronto, 58.
, velocity of, by Foster’s anemometer, 251.
——, amount of, for 1841 and 1842, with
Osler’s anemometer, 259, 260.
——,, mean quantity of, for the four seasons,
261.
, amount of, for two months of 1844, 262.
Wood-engraving, progress of, as applied to
ornithology, 201.
Zoology, marine, of Corfu and the Ionian
islands, 390.
INDEX II.
TO
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.
ABYSSINIA, on the tape-worm as prevalent
in, 85.
Acetates, solvent powers of solutions of, 32.
Acid, action of nitric, on naphtha, 33.
——,, supposed formation of valerianic, from
indigo, 33.
Acteon viridis, on the anatomy of, 65.
Actino-chemistry, contributions to, 12.
Aden, a year’s meteorological observations
~ made at, 22.
Adulteration in tobacco, on Mr. Phillips’s
method of discovering, 29.
Africa, ethnography of, as determined by its
| languages, 79.
/ Agricultural labourers, hints on the improve-
ment of, 90.
| schools, near East Bourne, 87.
Air, temperature of the, at various soundings
of Huggate Well, 22.
Alder (Joshua) on Pterochilus, a new genus
of nudibranchiate Mollusca, and two new
species of Doris, 66.
Alexandria imperatricis, description of, 71.
Alison (W. P.) on the reports of the poor-
__ law commissioners on the state of the poor
in Scotland, 35.
Alligator, on the discovery of an, in the fresh-
water cliff at Hordwell, associated with
extinct mammalia, 50.
“Allis (T.), report on the birds of Yorkshire,
repared at the request of the Yorkshire
hilosophical Society, 60.
— on some peculiarities in the flight of
birds, 72.
_ —— on the cultivation of ferns, 73.
Allman (Prof.) on a new genus of parasitic
Arachnideans, 65.
— on the anatomy of Acteon viridis, 65.
—— on 2 new genus of nudibranchiate Mol-
lusca, 65.
—— on a new genus of helianthoid Zoo-
phytes, 66.
— on the structure of Lucernarie, 66.
Alsine stricta, 72.
Alsop (John) on the toadstones of Derby-
shire, 51.
America, on the partridges of, 61.
—,, southern limits of the Esquimaux race
in, 78.
— on the languages of, 83.
— on steam navigation in, 97.
Amphitype, a new photographic process, 12.
Amygdaloid, on the Exeter, 55.
Anemometer, on an improved, 23.
Anglesea, records of dredging operations on
the coast of, 63.
_ Animals, formation or secretion of carbon
by, 33.
i ——, on some new to the British seas, 64.
= ——-, suggestions for the observation of pe-
riodic changes in, 70.
Ansted (Prof.) on mining records, and the
means by which their preservation may be
best ensured, 42.
Arachnideans, on a new genus of parasitic,
65.
Argonauta Argo, further experiments and ob-
servations on the, 74.
— on the polypus of the, 76.
Ascidians, compound, on the position of the,
in the zoological scale, 66.
Astronomer Royal (The) on the state of the
reductions of the planetary and lunar ob-
servations made at Greenwich, 2.
— on the results of the tide observations
on the coast of Ireland, 4.
Atherstone Union, on the statistics of the,
93.
Attraction and repulsion, on the alternate
spheres of, 39.
Audiences, on the construction of buildings
for the accommodation of, 99.
Aurora borealis as seen at Alten, on the, 27.
Australian race and language, on the eastern
limits of the, 80.
Aves aquatic, 60.
terrestres, 59.
Babington (Mr.) addition, to, the list-of. Bri-
_ tish plants, 72.
q
INDEX II.
Hg
Bacchetti (Dr.) on a case of extra-uterine
pregnancy, 85.
Ball (Mr.) on the peculiar structure of the
hoof of the Giraffe, 63.
Barbacenia, new species of, 71.
Barege mobile, or canalization of rivers, ex-
planation of the, 99.
Barometer in the climate of London, solar
variations through the seasons of the, 14.
, relation of the average, to the winds
and rain of the cycle, 17.
, on the irregular movements of the, 21.
, diurnal variations of the, 22.
tubes, on an instrument called a baro-
meter-pump for filling, in vacuo, 24.
Barometrical registration, on simultaneous,
in the north of England, 21.
Bateman (John) on the collection of water
for the supply of towns, 100.
Bateman (Joseph) on Mr. Phillips’s method
of discovering adulteration in tobacco, 29.
Bathymetrical distribution of submarine life
on the northern shores of Scandinavia, 50.
Batten (Edmund) on the explanation of cer-
tain geological phenomena by the agency
of glaciers, 57.
Bengal, on the statistics of hospitals for the
insane at, 89.
Bevan (Dr.) on a new life-boat, 99.
Bile, on the functions of the, 86.
Birds, catalogue of, observed in S.-E. Dur-
ham, and in N.-W. Cleveland, 59.
—— of Yorkshire, on the, 60.
——., periodical, observed in 1843 and 1844,
at Llanrwst, North Wales, 61.
, peculiarities in the flight of, 72.
Birmingham (T.) on the advantages to be
obtained by turning canals into railways,
especially as applicable to the Royal Canal
lying between the city of Dublin and the
river Shannon, 97.
Blackwall (John) periodical birds observed
in 1843 and 1844 near Llanrwst, North
Wales, 61.
Blind, on the instruction of the, 86.
» ON an apparatus by which they can read
and write, 99.
Boats, on propelling, 98.
Bodies, solid, on the falling off from perfect
elasticity in, 25.
——,on an instrument for measuring, to a
minute degree of accuracy, 27.
Bodmer (J. G.) on a new apparatus for start-
ing heavy machinery, 98.
on a new furnace grate, 98,
on the new double piston steam-engine,
with a model, 98.
on improved cutting tools, 99.
Boscovich, on the alternate spheres of attrac-
tion and repulsion noticed by, 39.
Botany, 59.
Bowness (E.) on a plan for drawing coals
from pits without ropes or chains, 98.
Bowring (J. C.) on the theory and practice
of amalgamation of silver ores in Mexico
and Peru, 28.
120
Bracebridge (C. H.), on rural statistics, illus-
trated by those of the Atherstone Union,
93. avis
Brain, reflex function of the, 85.
Brent (W. B.) on the structure and relative
proportions of man at different epochs and
in different countries, 82.
Brewster (Sir D.) on the cause of an optical
phenomenon observed by the Rey. W.
Selwyn, 8.
on the cause of the colours in precious
opal, 9. ‘
on crystals in the cavities of topaz,
which are dissolved by heat and recrystal-
lize on cooling, 9.
on the cause of the white rings seen
round a luminous body when looked at
through specimens of calcareous spar, 9.
on a singular effect of the juxtaposition
of certain colours under particular circum-
stances, 10.
on.the accommodation of the eye to
various distances, 10.
on the polarization of light by rough
surfaces, and white dispersing surfaces, 11.
Bridges (W.).on wooden railways, 97.
Briggs (Henry) on industrial education, 112.
British Isles, on a geological map of the, 55.
Buchanan (J.) on a new locking apparatus
for carriages, 98.
Buckland’s (Dr.) Bridgewater treatise, The
Very Rev. the Dean of York on certain
passages in the, 44.
Buildings, construction of, for the accommo-
dation of audiences, 99.
Builth, on a section through the Silurian
rocks in the vicinity of, 46.
Buist (M.) on a nail found imbedded in a
block. of sandstone obtained from Kin-
goodie (Mylnfield) Quarry, North Britain,
ol.
Buttneriacez, new genus of the family, 71.
Byrne. (Oliver) on a new proportional com-
pass, 8.
explanations of the Barege mobile, or
canalization of rivers, and of the Grenier
mobile, or moveable granary for preserving
corn, 99.
on the improved compasses of M. De
Sire Lebrun, and the cold-drawn pipes of
M. Le Dru, 99. i
Calcutta, on the mortality of, 88.
Calycophyllum Stanleyanum, on the, 71.
Canals, advantages to be obtained by turning,
into railways, 97.
Canary Islands, stature of the Guanches, the
extinct inhabitants of the, 81.
Carbon, formation or secretion of, by animals,
ads
Carduus setosus, 72.
Carpenter (Dr.) on the position of the com-
pat Ascidians in the zoological scale,
66.
Carriages, on a new locking apparatus, for,
98.
INDEX JI.
Carus (Prof.), Dr. Thurnam on. the scientific
cranioscopy of, 86, Spurge
Cataracts, on the excavation of the rocky
channels of rivers by the recession of their,
45. ;
Chalk formation of Yorkshire, 31
Charlesworth (Edward) on a large specimen
of Plesiosaurus found at Kettleness, on the
Yorkshire coast, 49.
Chatsworth, on the great fountain at, 102.
Chemical affinity, on, 39.
Chemical compounds, influence of light on,
30.
Chemistry, 28.
Clendinning (Dr.) on the statistics of health,
elucidated by the records of the Maryle-
bone infirmary, 96.
Cleveland, catalogue of birds observed in
north-western, 59.
Climate of London, solar variation through
the seasons of the barometer in the, 14.
Clock, on the shape of the teeth of the
wheels of the, in the New Royal Ex-
change, 8.
Coal formations of England, on the midland,
46.
Coals, on a plan for drawing, from pits with-
out ropes or chains, 98.
Cole (John Francis) on the aurora borealis
as seen at Alten, 27.
on a remarkable and sudden fall of rain
at Alten, 28.
—— on the evaporation of the ice at Alten,28.
Colours in precious opal, on the cause of
the, 9.
singular effect of the juxtaposition of
certain, under particular circumstances, 10.
Compass, on a new proportional, 8.
on a new steering and azimuth, 12.
— on the improved, of M. De Sire Lebrun,
99.
Copperthwaite (William Charles) on the sta-
tistics of Old and New Malton, 89.
Corn, on a moveable granary for preserving,
99.
Cornwall, natural history of Goran in, 65,
Cranioscopy of Prof. Carus, on the scientific,
16.
Cretaceous formations of the Isle of Wight,
on the, 43.
Crowe (J. R.), general observations on the
climate of Norway and Finmark, with some
remarks on the geography, geology, and
agriculture, 27.
Crustacea, on the reproduction of lost parts
in the, 68.
on the organs of generation in the de-
capodous, 69.
Crystals in the cavities of topaz, on, 9.
Cycle, daily observations of the four classes
of winds, in each month of a, 16.
relation of the average barometer to the
winds and rain of the, 17.
Daguerreotype plates, impressions of, etched
by the agency of an acid, 38.
ty (Prof.) on the phosphorite rock in
Spanish Estremadura, 28.
Dean (Arthur) on the discovery of gold ores
i. » in Merionethshire, 56.
..
_ — on the stratification of igneous and se-
dimentary rocks of the Lower Silurian for-
* mation in, 56. 5
‘Dean of York (The Very Rev. the), his re-
marks on certain passages in Dr. Buck-
land’s Bridgewater treatise, 44.
Dean (Sir T.) on the construction of build-
ings for the accommodation of audiences,
99.
De la Beche (Sir H. T.) on that portion of
the Ordnance geological map of England,
now completely coloured, and on a section
through the Silurian rocks in the vicinity
of Builth, 46.
Dent (E. J.) on the shape of the teeth of the
wheels of the clock in the New Royal Ex-
change, 8.
on a new steering and azimuth com-
pass, 12.
Derbyshire, on the toadstones of, 57.
De Sire Lebrun (M.) on the improved com-
passes of, 99.
Dog as the ‘associate of man, on the, 81.
Doris, new species of, 66.
Dredging committee for 1844, report of the,
63.
Drury (Rev. Theodore) on the improvement
of agricultural labourers, 90.
Durham, catalogue of birds observed in
south-eastern, 59.
Bast Bourne, on agricultural schools near, 87.
Eddy (S.) on the Grassington lead mines,
illustrating a model of the mine, 52.
Education, statistical notices on the state of,
in York, 91.
—— industrial, 112.
Elasticity in solid bodies, on the falling off
from perfect, 25.
Electricity without contact, production of, 39.
Electro-chemical action, on, 35.
Electrolysotype, on the, 36.
Electrotype, on a method of, 39.
England, midland coal formations of, 46.
Entozoa, on the structure and development
of the cystic, 67.
Erythrin, on some products of the decompo-
> sition of, 31.
fy Esquimanx race, southern limits of the, in
America, 78.
Estremadura, Spanish,'on the phosphorite
rock in, 28.
Ethno-epo-graphy, on, 84.
Ethnographical maps, mode of constructing,
84.
Ethnography of Africa as determined by its
languages, 79.
Everest (Lieut.-Col.) on the geodetical ope-
rations of India, 3.
—— on an instrument called a barometer-
ora for filling barometer tubes in vacuo,
INDEX II.
121
‘Exeter amygdaloid, on the, 55.
Exley (Thomas) on the alternate i edie of
attraction and repulsion, noticed by New-
ton, Boscovich, and others; and on che-
mical affinity, 39.
Eye, on the accommodation of the, to va-
rious distances, 10.
Fairbairn (W.) on the ceconomy of the ex-
pansive action of steam in steam-engines,
98.
Fauna of Ireland, additions to the, 66.
Featherstonhaugh (G. W.) on the excavation
of the rocky channels of rivers by the re-
cession of their cataracts, 45.
Felkin (William) on the statistics of the ma-
chine-wrought hosiery trade, 91.
Ferns, on the cultivation of, 73.
Ferrotype, on the, 35.
Fishes of Yorkshire, on the, 62.
— on the sclerotic plates in, 63.
Fish river of the North Polar Sea, 58.
Flames, oxyhydrogen, on increasing the in-
tensity of the, 33.
Fletcher (Joseph), statistical notices of the
state of education in York, 91.
Flora of Yorkshire, on the, 70.
Forbes (Prof. E.) on the tertiary and cre-
taceous formations of the Isle of Wight,
43.
—— dredging operations on the coast of
Anglesea by, 63.
—— on some animals new to the British
seas, 64.
—— on the morphology of the reproductive
system of Sertularian zoophytes, and its
analogy with that of flowering plants, 68.
Forbes (Prof. J. D.), an attempt to establish
the plastic nature of glacier ice by direct
experiment, 24,
Fowler (Dr.), additional facts relative to the
case of a blind and deaf mute, 85.
France, on a geological map of part of, 55.
, on the mining industry of, 86.
Frankfort on the Maine, on the statistics of,
88.
Freshwater cliff at Hordwell, discovery of an
alligator in the, associated with extinct
mammalia, 50.
Frog, experiments with zinc on the limbs of
a, 38.
Furnace-grate, on a new, 98.
Garrow Hills, on the ethnographical position
of certain tribes of the, 80.
Galium Vaillantii, 73.
Gassiot (M.) on the production of electricity
without contact, 39.
Geodetical operations of India, on the, 3.
Geography, physical, 42.
Geological map of England, Ordnance, on
that portion now completely coloured, 46.
—— phenomena, explanation of certain, by
the agency of glaciers, 57.
Geology, 42.
. —— of Norfolk Island, on the, 57.
122
Gibbes (Sir G., M.D.) on the constitution of
matter, 41.
Gilbert (Mrs.) on agricultural schools, 87.
Giraffe, peculiar structure of the hoof of the,
63.
Glacier ice, an attempt to establish the plastic
nature of, by direct experiment, 24.
Glaciers, explanation of certain geological
phenomena by the agency of, 57.
Glass furnaces, air-duct to be used in, for the
prevention of smoke, 35.
Goadby (A.) on the conservation of sub-
stances, 69.
Goddard (James Thomas) on an improved
anemometer, 23.
Gold ores, discovery of, in Merionethshire,
56.
Goodman (John) on the analogy of the ex-
istences or forces, light, heat, voltaic and
ordinary electricities, 11.
Goodsir (Harry D. 8S.) on the structure and
development of the cystic entozoa, 67.
on the reproduction of lost parts in the
crustacea, 68.
on the organs of generation in the de-
capodous crustacea, 69.
Goran, in Cornwall, on the natural history
of, 65.
Gould (John), a monograph of the subfamily
Odontophorine, or partridges of America,
61.
Grallatores, 60.
Granary for preserving corn, moveable, on
the, 99.
Grassington lead mines, on the, 52.
Grate, on a new furnace, 98.
Gravels of Ireland, occurrence of marine
shells in the, 57.
Gray (J.) on the causes of the great Versailles
railway accident, 97.
experiments on iron bars, 98.
Green (Dr.) on Nasmyth’s steam pile driver,
98.
Greenhow (T. M.) on an air-duct to be used
in glass furnaces for the prevention of
smoke, 35.
Greenwich, state of the reductions of the
planetary and lunar observations made
at, 2.
Grenier mobile, or moveable granary for pre-
serving corn, 99.
Grewe (J. H.), experiment with the ther-
mometer on the mountain Storvandofjeld,
27.
Griffith (Richard) on certain Silurian districts
of Ireland, 46.
Grit, on the relative age and true position of
the millstone, 51.
Grove (Prof.) on photography, 37.
Guanches, the extinct inhabitants of the Ca-
nary Islands, on the stature of the, 81.
Guano, 32.
Guiana, British, on the forest trees of, 72.
——, on two new species of Laurinez from,
72,
— , on the natives of, 83.
INDEX II.
Hall (Elias) on the midland coal formations
of England, 46.
Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on a theory of quater-
nions, 2.
Hancock (Albany) on Pterochilus, a new
genus of nudibranchiate mollusca, and two
new species of Doris, 66.
Hawaiian Jslands, on the natives of the, 82.
Hawkins (I.) on the ceconomy of artificial
light for preserving sight, 100.
Health, on the statistics of, 96.
Heat, specific, 34.
Helianthoid zoophytes, on a new genus of,
66.
Heming (Dr.) on a disease of the tongue, 84.
Herschel (Sir J. F. W., Bart.), contributions
to actino-chemistry; on the amphitype, a
new photographic process, 12.
Hodgkin (Dr.) on the dog as the associate of
man, 81.
on the stature of the Guanches, the ex-
tinct inhabitants of the Canary Islands, 81.
on the tape-worm as prevalent in Abys-
sinia, 85.
Hodgkinson (Eaton), experimental inquiries
into the falling off from perfect elasticity
in solid bodies, 25.
Hogg (John), catalogue of birds observed in
S.-E. Durham, and in N.-W. Cleveland, 59.
Hopkins (T.) on the-irregular movements of
the barometer, 21.
on the diurnal variations of the baro-
meter, 22.
Hordwell, discovery of an alligator in the
freshwater cliff at, 50.
Hosiery trade, on the statistics of the ma-
chine-wrought, 91.
Hospitals for the insane in Bengal, on the
statistics of, 89.
Howard (Luke), the mean year, or solar va-
riation through the seasons of the baro-
meter in the climate of London, 14.
Huggate well, temperature of the air at va-
rious soundings of, 22.
Hunt (Robert) on the influence of light on
chemical compounds, and electro-chemical
action, 35.
on the ferrotype, and the property of
sulphate of iron in developing photogra-
phic images, 36.
Hyndman (Mr.), dredging operations on the
north coast of Ireland, 64.
Ibbetson (L. L. B.) on a method of electro-
type, by which the deposition on minute
objects is easily accomplished, 39.
on the tertiary and cretaceous forma-
tions of the Isle of Wight, 43.
Ice, glacier, an attempt to establish the pla-
stic nature of, by direct experiment, 24.
Ichthyosaurus, anomalous structure in the
paddle of a species of, 51.
India, on the geodetical operations of, 3.
, on the Shyens and Karens of, 84.
Indigo, on the supposed formation of vale-
rianic acid from, 33.
ustrial education, on, 112.
ane, on the statistics of hospitals for the,
in Bengal, 89.
4 Insanity, on the relative liability of the two
~ sexes to, 92.
3 beieares, 60.
Treland, results of the tide observations on
the coast of, 4.
— on certain Silurian districts of, 46.
—, occurrence of marine shells in the
gravels of, 57.
—, dredging operations on the north coast
of, 64.
_ —, additions to the fauna of, 66.
_ Tron, cast, action of a new process of mag-
netic manipulation on, 12, 100.
——, property of sulphate of, in developing
photographic images, 36.
_ ——on the alteration that takes place in,
by being exposed to long-continued vibra-
tion, 41.
_ —— experiments on bars of, 98.
Isle of Wight, on a newly-discovered species
of Unio, from the wealden strata of the, 42.
—,, on the tertiary and cretaceous forma-
tions of the, 43.
_ Jordan (C. J.) on increasing the intensity of
___ the oxyhydrogen flame, 33.
_ Joule (J. P.) on specific heat, 34.
_ Kemp (Dr.) on the functions of the bile, 86.
Kettleness, on a large specimen of Plesio-
___ saurus found at, 40.
_ Kincaid (Mr.) on the Shyens and Karens of
India, 84.
King (Dr. Richard) on the Fish River of the
North Polar Sea, 58.
— on the supposed extinct inhabitants of
Newfoundland, 83.
Kingoodie Quarry, on a nail found imbedded
in a block of sandstone from, 51.
Knipe (J.) on a geological map of the British
Isles and part of France, 55.
Kombst (Dr.) on the mode of constructing
___ ethnographical maps, 84.
_ Languages of America, on the, 83.
_ Latham (Dr. R. G.) on the southern limits of
_ the Esquimaux race in America, 78.
_ —— on the ethnography of Africa as deter-
_ mined by its languages, 79.
—— on the eastern limits of the Australian
_ race and language, 80.
—— on the ethnographical position of cer-
‘tain tribes of the Garrow Hills, 80.
Laycock (Dr.), suggestions for the observation
of periodic changes in animals, 70.
—— on the refiex function of the brain, 85.
— on the sanatory condition of York du-
ring the years 1839-43, 90.
—— on the addition to vital statistics con-
tained in the first Report of the Commis-
-sioners of Inquiry into’ the circumstances
affecting the Health of Towns, 90.
a
i Karens of India, on the, 84.
INDEX II.
123
Laurent (M.), Prof. MacCullagh on an at-
tempt lately made by, to explain on me-
chanical principles the phenomenon of
circular polarization in liquids, 7.
Laurinee, two new species of the family, 72.
Lead mines, on the Grassington, 52.
Le Dru (M.) on the cold-drawn pipes of, 99.
Lee (Dr. J.), communications on meteorology
from Norway, presented by, 27.
Leigh (Dr.) on the action of nitric acid on
naphtha, 33.
Letter carriers, on a plan for preventing the
stealing of letters by, 103.
Life-boat, on a new, 99.
Lightia lemniscata, description of, 71.
Light, on certain points connected with el-
liptic polarization of, 7.
, on the dispersion and absorption of, 8.
, polarization of by rough surfaces, and
white dispersing surfaces, 11.
, influence of, on chemical compounds,3o.
, artificial, on the ceconomy of, for pre-
serving sight, 100.
Limestones of Yorkshire, on the, 30.
Liquids, on an attempt to explain by mecha-
nical principles the phenomena of circular
polarization in, 7.
Littledale (Mr.) on an apparatus invented by,
by which the blind can read and write, 99.
Llanrwst, periodical birds observed at, in
1843 and 1844, 61.
London, solar variations through the seasons
of the barometer in the climate of, 14.
Loven (Prof.) on the bathymetrical distribu-
tion of submarine life on the northern
Shores of Scandinavia, 50.
Lowman (the late Mr.) on the orthochrono-
graph invented by, 14.
Lucas (W.) on the limestones of Yorkshire, 30.
—on the alteration that takes place in iron
by being exposed to long-continued vibra-
tion, 41.
Lucernariz, on the structure of the, 66.
Lunar observations, state of the reductions
of the, made at Greenwich, 2.
Lycopodium, on the acid formed by the ac-
tion of hydrate of potash upon, 33.
MacCullagh (Prof.)on an attempt lately made
by M. Laurent, to explain on mechanical
principles the phenomenon of circular po-
larization in liquids, 7.
Machinery, new apparatus for starting heavy,
98.
Maconochie (Capt.) on the physical charac-
ter and geology of Norfolk Island, 57.
Magnesian limestone of Yorkshire, 30.
Magnetic manipulation, on a new process of,
and its action on cast iron and steel bars, 12,
100.
Malton, statistics of Old and New, 89.
Mammalia, on the discovery of extinct, in
the freshwater cliff at Hordwell, 50.
Manipulation, on a new process of magnetic,
and its action on cast iron and steel bars, 12,
100.
124
Man, on the dog as the associate of, 81.
——, on the stature and relative proportions
of, 82.
Mantell (G. A.) on a newly-discovered spe-
cies of Unio, from the Wealden strata of
the Isle of Wight, 42.
Map of the British Isles and part of France,
on a geological, 55.
——, on new Swedish and Norwegian geolo-
gical, 55.
——, ethnographical mode of constructing,
84.
Mathematics, 1.
Matter, constitution of, 41.
Matteucci (M.) experiments with zinc on the
limbs of a frog, 38.
Mayer (Serjeant) a year’s meteorological ob-
servations made at Aden, 22.
M‘Andrew (Mr.) dredging operations on the
coast of Anglesea, 63.
—— on some animals new to the British seas,
discovered by, 64.
M‘Conochie (Capt.) on the statistics of the
criminal population of Norfolk Island, 93.
Mechanical science, 96.
Medical science, 84.
Mercer (John, jun.) on the solvent power of
solutions of acetates, 32.
Merionethshire, discovery of gold ore in, 56.
Merriman (Dr. S. W. J.) on the comparative
frequency of uterine conception, 89.
Metallic cylinders, on a new machine for as-
certaining the diameter of, 98.
Meteorological observations made at Aden,22.
—— at Christiana in 1843, 27.
—— at the Alten observatory, 28.
Meteorology, communications from Norway
on, 27.
Mexico, on the theory and practice of amal-
gamation of silver ores in, 28.
Meynell (T.) on the fishes of Yorkshire, 62.
Miller (Gen.) on the Sandwich islanders, 83.
Mineral springs and other waters of York-
shire, 28, 105.
Mines, on the Grassington lead, 52.
Mining industry of France, on the, 86.
Mining records, and the means by which their
preservation may be best ensured, 42.
Mollusca, on a new genus of nudibranchiate,
65, 66.
Moore (O. A.) on the flora of Yorkshire, 70.
Moro (Signor Gaetano) on the communica-
tion between the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans, through the isthmus of Tehuan-
tepec, 58.
Morphia, on the influence of the endermic
application of the salts of, in swelling of
the joints, 86.
Morphology of the reproductive system of
Sertularian zoophytes, 68.
Morris (Rev. Francis Orpen) on a plan for
preventing the stealing of letters by letter
carriers, 103.
on zoological nomenclature, 78.
Mortality of Calcutta, on the, 88.
Mountain limestone of Yorkshire, 30.
INDEX II.
|
|
}
Murchison (R. I.) on the Palaozoic rocks of
Scandinavia and Russia, particularly as to
the Lower Silurian rocks which form their
true base, 53.
on new Swedish and Norwegian geo-
logical maps, 55.
Muscular current of the frog, on the, 38.
Muspratt (J. S.) on the supposed formation
of valerianic acid from indigo, and on the
acid which is formed by the action of hy-
drate of potash upon Lycopodium, 33.
Mute, additional facts relative to the case of
a blind and deaf, 85.
Myers (the Rey. T.) on ethno-epo-graphy, 84.
Naphtha, action of nitric acid on, 33.
Nasmyth’ssteam pile-driver, Dr. Green on, 98.
Natatores, 60.
Newfoundland, supposed extinct inhabitants
of, 83.
Newton, on the alternate spheres of attrac-
tion and repulsion noticed by, 39.
Nitric acid, action of, on naphtha, 33.
Norfolk Island, physical character and geo-
logy of, 57.
——, on the statistics of the criminal popu-
lation of, 93.
Norway, communications on meteorology
from, presented by John Lee, LL.D., 27.
Nudibranchiate mollusca, on a new genus of,
65, 66.
Numbers, on the double square representation
of prime and composite, 2.
O’Brien (Rev. M.) on the propagation of
waves in a resisted medium, with a new
explanation of the dispersion and absorp-
tion of light, and other optical phzno-
mena, 8.
Oceans, on the communication between the
Atlantic and Pacific, through the isthmus
of Tehuantepec, 58.
Odontophorine, a monograph of the sub-
family, 61.
Oldham (Thomas) on the occurrence of ma-
rine shells in the gravels of Ireland, 57.
Oolitic limestone of Yorkshire, 31.
Opal, cause of the colours in precious, 9.
Ophiocaryon paradoxa, on the, 71.
Optical phenomenon, on the cause of an,
observed by the Rey. W. Selwyn, 8.
Ores, on the theory and practice of amalgama-
tion of, in Mexico and Pern, 28.
, discovery of gold,in Merionethshire,56.
Orthochronograph, on the, 14.
Owen (Prof.) on a human skull from South
Australia, 63.
on the conversion of the skull, by the
Aboriginals of South Australia, into vessels
for holding and carrying water, 77.
Oxyhydrogen flame, on increasing the inten-
sity of the, 33.
Pal#ozoic rocks of Scandinavia and Russia,
on the, 53.
Papilionacez, new genus of, 71.
ridges of America, 61.
on (Mr.) on the great fountain at Chats-
; _ worth, erected by the Duke of Devonshire,
102.
‘id Peach (Charles William) on marine zoology,
_ —— on the natural history of Goran in Corn-
wall, 65.
Peretti (Prof.) on the bitter principles of some
vegetables, 84.
Perigal (Henry, jun.) on the probable mode
_ of constructing the Pyramids, 103.
Peru, on the theory and practice of amalga-
mation of silver ores in, 28.
Phznomena, on optical, 8.
_ Phillips (Prof.) on the curves of annual tem-
perature at York, 21.
_ — 0n simultaneous barometrical registra-
tion in the north of England, 21.
——-on the quantities of rain received in
gauges at unequal elevations upon the
ground, 21.
Phillips (Mr.), Dr. Bateman on his method
of discovering adulteration in tobacco, 29.
Phosphorite rock in Spanish Estremadura, on
the, 28. :
_ Photographic images, property of sulphate
of iron in developing, 36.
—— process, on a new, 12, 36.
- Photography, on, 37, 105.
Physical geography, 42.
Physics, 1.
Pile-driver, on Nasmyth’s steam, 98.
Planetary and lunar observations, state of the
reductions of the, made at Greenwich, 2.
Plesiosaurus, on a large specimen of, found
at Kettleness, 49.
Polarization in liquids, on an attempt to ex-
plain on mechanical principles the phzno-
menon of circular, 7.
—— of light, on certain points connected
with, 7.
——,, by rough surfaces, 11.
Poor law commissioners, on the report of the,
on the state of the poor in Scotland, 95.
' Porter (G. R.) on the mining industry of
France, 86.
_ Powell (the Rey. Prof.) on certain points
connected with elliptic polarization of
light, 7.
' Power (Madame Jeanette), further experi-
_ ments and observations on the Argonauta
_ Argo, 74.
-——, on the polypus of the Argonauta Argo,
» 76.
; Pregnancy, on a case of extra-uterine, 85.
Probabilities, principle in the theory of, 1.
Pterochilus, description of, 66.
Pyramids, on the probable mode of construct-
“ing the, 103.
Quaternions, on a theory of, 2.
Railway accident, on the causes. of the great
Versailles, 97. ;
Railway trains, on the resistance. of, 96; ..
i
INDEX II.
125
Railways, advantages to be obtained by turn-
ing canals into, 97.
——,, on wooden, 97.
Rain, comparison of the, which fell at Flo-
rence Court with that at Belfast, from
July 6, 1843 to July 6, 1844, 14.
———, on the quantities of, received in gauges
at unequal elevations upon the ground, 21.
Rankin (Rev. T.) on the temperature of the
air at various soundings of Huggate Well,
upon the Wolds of the East Riding, York-
shire, 22.
—— onathunder-storm on Yorkshire Wolds,
July 5, 1843, 23.
Raptores, 59.
Rasores, 60.
Rawson (Mr.) on the summation of infinite
series, 2.
Repulsion, on the alternate spheres of at-
traction and, 39.
Richards (Rev. W.) on the natives of the
Hawaiian Islands, 82.
Rigg (Robert) on the formation or secretion
of carbon by animals, the disappearance of
hydrogen and oxygen, and the generation
of animal heat during the process, 33.
Rivers, on the excavation of rocky channels
by, by the recession of their cataracts, 45.
—,, on the canalization of, 99.
Rock, phosphorite, in Spanish Estremadura,
28.
——, palzozoic, of Scandinavia and Russia,
53
——, stratification of igneous and sediment-
ary, of the Lower Silurian formation in
North Wales, 56.
Rooke (J.) on the relative age and true po-
sition of the millstone grit and shale, in
reference to the carboniferous system of
stratified rocks in the British Pennine chain
of hills, 51.
Royal Exchange, on the shape of the teeth of
the wheels of the clock in the new, 8:
Russell (J. Scott) on the tides of the east
coast of Scotland, 6. Q
on the nature of the sound wave, 11.
on the resistance of railway trains, 961 .
Russia, paleozoic rocks of, 53.
Sandstone, on a nail found imbedded in 2
block of, 51.
Sandwich islanders, on the, 83.
Savings banks, on the financial ceconomy of,
O2t
Scandinavia, on the bathymetrical distribu-
tion of submarine life on the northern
shores of, 50.
——,, paleozoic rocks of, 53.
Scantlometer, on the 99.
Schomburgk (Chevalier) on a new species of
Barbacenia, 71.
—— on the Ophiocaryon paradoxa, the snake
nut tree, 71.
—— onthe Calycophyllum Stanleyanum, 71.
— description of Lightia lemniscata,a new
genus of the! family Buttneriacésx, 71,
126
Schomburgk (Chevalier), description of Alex-
andria imperatricis, a new genus of Papi-
lionacee, 71.
—— on the forest trees of British Guiana, 72.
on two new species of the family Lau-
rinez, from the forests of Guiana, 72.
on the natives of Guiana, 83.
Schoolcraft (H.R.) on the languages of Ame-
rica, 83.
Schunck (Edward) on some products of the
decomposition of erythrin, 31.
Scoresby (Rev. Dr.) on a new process of mag-
netic manipulation, and its action on cast
iron and steel bars, 12.
on steam navigation in America, 97.
—— on a new process of magnetic manipu-
lation, with its effects on hard steel and
cast iron, 100.
Scotland, on,the tides of the east coast of, 6.
, on the state of the poor in, 95.
Sclerotic plates in fishes, on the, 63.
Sea, on the Fish River of the North Polar, 58.
——, on some animals new to the British, 64.
Selwyn (Rev. W.), Sir David Brewster on
the cause of an optical phenomenon ob-
served by, 8.
Series, on diverging infinite, 1.
, summation of infinite, 2.
Shale, on the relative age and true position
of the, 51.
Shells, marine, in the gravels of Ireland, 57.
Shyens of India, on the, 84.
Sight, on the ceconomy of artificial light for
preserving, 100.
Silk-worm, on the cultivation of the, 73.
_ Silurian rocks in the vicinity of Builth, on a
section through the, 46.
— districts of Ireland, on certain, 46.
Silver ores in Mexico and Peru, on the theory
and practice of amalgamation of, 28.
Skull, human, from South Australia, 63.
——,, conversion of the, by the Aboriginals of
South Australia, into vessels for holding
and carrying water, 77.
Sloper (B. G.) on the filtration of water for
the supply of towns, 102.
Smith (Dr.) on the action of nitric acid on
naphtha, 33.
Smith (Mr.) on propelling boats, 98.
Smoke, air-duct to be used in glass furnaces
for the prevention of, 35.
Snake-nut tree, on the, 71.
Spar, on the cause of the white rings seen
round a luminous body when looked at
through specimens of calcareous, 9.
Statistics, 86.
— of Frankfort on the Maine, 88.
of hospitals for the insane in Bengal, 89.
— of Old and New Malton, 89.
on the addition to vital, 90.
—— of the machine-wrought hosiery trade,
91.
of the criminal population of Norfolk
Island, 93.
on rural, 93.
Steam-engine, on the new double, 98.
1
INDEX II.
Steam-engines, on the ceconomy of the ex-
pansive action of steam in, 98. ‘
Steam navigation in America, 97.
Steam, on heating by, 35.
Steel bars, action of a new process of mag-
netic manipulation on, 12, 100.
Storvandofjeld, lowest degree of cold on the
top of the mountain, 27.
Strickland (H. E.) on an anomalous structure
in the paddle of a species of Ichthyosaurus,
i Ae
Strychnos toxifera, 72.
Submarine life, on the bathymetrical distri-
bution of, on the northern shores of Scan-
dinavia, 50.
Substances, on the conservation of, 69.
Sykes (Lieut.-Col.) on the statistics of Frank-
fort on the Maine, 88.
on the mortality of Calcutta, 88.
on the statistics of hospitals for the in-
sane in Bengal, 89.
Sylvester (J. J.) on the double square re-
presentation of prime and composite num-
bers, 2.
Tenia, on the removal of, 85.
Talbot (H. F.) on photography, 105.
Tape-worm, on the, as prevalent in Abyssi-
nia, 85.
Taylor (Rev. W.) on the instruction of the
blind, 86.
— on an apparatus invented by Mr. Lit-
tledale, by which the blind can read and
write, 99. ;
Tehuantepec, on the communication between
the Atlantic and Pacifie oceans, through
the isthmus of, 58.
Temperature, curves of annual, at York, 21.
Tertiary formations of the Isle of Wight, on
the, 43.
Thompson (W.), comparison of the rain
which fell at Florence Court, with that at
Belfast, from July 6th, 1843, to July 6th,
1844, 14.
——, additions to the fauna of Ireland, 66.
Thomson (Dr.) on the influence of the ende-
mic application of the salts of morphia in
painful permanent swelling of the joints,
causing contractions, 86.
Thunder storm on Yorkshire Wolds, singular
appearance of a, 23.
Thurnam (Dr.) on the scientific cranioscopy
of Prof. Carus, 86.
on the relative liability of the two sexes
to insanity, 92.
Tide observations, results of the, on the coast
of Ireland, 4.
Tides of the east coast of Scotland, on the, 6.
Tilley (Thomas) on a peculiar condition of
zinc, produced by a long-continued high
temperature, 35.
Toadstones of Derbyshire, on the, 51:
Topaz, on crystals in the cavities of, 9.
Tongue, on a disease of the, 84.
‘Towns, on circumstances affecting the health
of, 90.
a
y
|
ms, on the collection of water for the sup-
_ ply of, 100.
-—, on the filtration of water for the supply
of, 102.
Unio, on a newly discovered species of, 42.
Uterine conception, on the comparative fre-
quency of, 85.
_ Uterine pregnancy, on a case of extra, 85.
_Valerianic acid, on the supposed formation
_ of, from indigo, 33.
_ Vegetables, on the bitter principles of some,
= 84.
- Versailles railway accident, on the causes of
the great, 97.
_ Vibration, on the alteration that takes place
___iniron by being exposed to long-continued,
; Voltaic current of the frog, on the specific,
; 38.
_ Warington (Robert) on guano, 32.
_ Water, on the collection of, for the supply of
___ towns, 100.
_ —, on the filtration of, 102.
_ Wave, nature of the sound, 11.
_ Waves, propagation of, in a resisted me-
dium, 8.
_ Wealden strata of the Isle of Wight, on a
newly discovered species of Unio from the,
42.
_ West (W.) on the mineral springs and other
__ waters of Yorkshire, 28, 105.
_ —— on heating by steam, 35.
_ Wheatstone (Prof.) on a singular effect of the
, juxtaposition of certain colours under par-
_ ticular circumstances, 10.
_ Whitby (Mrs.) on the cultivation of the silk-
worm, 73.
Whitworth (Mr.) on an instrument for mea-
suring bodies to a very minute degree of
accuracy, 27.
INDEX II.
127
Whitworth (Mr.) on a new machine for as-
certaining the diameter of metallic cylin-
ders, 98.
Williams (Dr.) on the removal of Teenia, 85.
Williams (the Rey. David) on the Exeter
amygdaloid, 55.
Winds, daily observations of the four classes
of, in each month of a cycle, 16.
Wood (Dr. Thomas) on the electrolysotype,
a new photographic process, 36.
Wood (S.) on an alligator in the freshwater
cliff at Hordwell, associated with extinct
mammalia, 50.
Woollgar (J. W.) on the financial ceconomy
of savings banks, 92.
Wylson (James) on the scantlometer, 99.
York, curves of annual temperature at, 21.
, on the sanatory condition of, during
1839-1843, 90.
——,, statistical notices of the state of edu-
cation in, 91.
Yorkshire, mineral springs and other waters
of, 28, 105.
, on the limestones of, 30.
— , birds of, 60.
——, on the fishes of, 62.
——,, on the flora of, 70.
— Wolds, singular appearance of a thunder
storm on, 23.
Young (Prof.) on a principle in the theory of
probabilities, 1.
on diverging infinite series, 1.
Zinc, peculiar condition of, 35.
, experiments with, on the limbs of a
frog, 38. :
Zoological nomenclature, on, 78.
Zoology, 59.
, marine, 64.
Zoophytes, on a new genus of helianthoid,
65.
, on the morphology of the reproductive
system of sertularian, 68.
THE END.
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LIST OF THE MEMBERS
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF
SCIENCE.
LIFE MEMBERS.
MARCH 1, 1845.
Those Members to whose names an asterisk* is prefixed, have entitled them-
selves to receive their Copies of the Reports of the Association by paying
£2 as a fixed Book-Subscription.
*,* Tt is requested that any inaccuracy in the names and designations of the Members may be communicated
to Messrs. Richard and John E. Taylor, Printers, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.
Azszort, Richard.
Abell, Joshua, 27, Eustace Street, Dublin.
*Ahlett, Joseph, Llanbedr Hall, Ruthin, Den-
bighshire. :
Abraham, John Hessey, F.L.S., Sheffield.
Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart.,M.A., M.P.,
E.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Killerton, Devon.
Acland, H. W., Killerton, Devon.
Adair, John, 11, Mountjoy Square, Dublin.
*Adam, Walter, M.D., 39, George’s Square,
Edinburgh.
Adamson, John, F.S.A., F.L.S., Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
*Adare, Edwin, Viscount, M.P., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 76,
Eaton Square, London; Dunraven Castle,
Glamorganshire.
Adderley, Charles Bowyer, M.P., Hams Hill,
Coleshill, Warwickshire.
Adeane, H.J., Babraham, Cambridgeshire.
Ainsworth, Peter, M. P., Smithills Hall, Bol-
| ton.
*Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Egremont,
Cumberland.
Airy, George Biddell, M.A., D.C.L., Astro-
nomer Royal, F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Hon.
M.R.LA. and R.S.E., F.C.P.S., Royal Ob-
servatory, Greenwich.
Aitkin, Thomas, 709, Gallowgate, Glasgow.
Akroyd, Edward, Bankfield, Halifax.
*Aldam, William, jun., M.P., Warmsworth,
near Doncaster.
Alderson, James, M.D., F.R.S., Hull.
Alexander, Edward N., F.S.A., Halifax.
Alexander, James, Glasgow.
*Alexander, William Maxwell, Southbarr,
Paisley.
Allan, William, Glasgow.
*Allecock, Samuel, Arlington Place, Man-
chester.
Allen, William, 50, Henry Street, Dublin.
*Allis, Thomas, Osbaldwick, York,
Allman, William, M.D., Dublin.
Alston, John, Glasgow.
*Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Ovenden
near Halifax.
*Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, Stour-
bridge.
Anderson, D., Driffield, Yorkshire,
Anderson, James A., Glasgow.
Anderson, Nathaniel, Dublin.
*Anderton, James, Mountville near York.
Andrews, Thomas, M.D., Professor of Che-
mistry in the Royal Belfast Academical
Institution, M.R.1.A., Belfast.
*Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Professor of Geology in King’s
College, London; Vice-Secretary to the
Geological Society, Somerset House, Lon-
don.
Anthony, Charles, Clifton.
Apjohn, James, M.D., M.R.1.A., Professor of
Chemistry, Dublin.
*Armistead, John, Springfield Mount near.
Leeds.
Armstrong, George, Pemberton Buildings,
Liverpool.
Armstrong, Thomas, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
Arnott, G. A. Walker, LL.D., F.R.S. Ed.,
F.L.S., Arlary, Kinross-shire,
Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S., 38, Bedford
Square, London.
Arrow, John James, Edinburgh.
Ash, Rev. E. J., M.A., F.C.P.S., Brisley,
Norfolk.
Ashhurst, Rev. T. H., D.C.L., All Soul’s Col-
lege, Oxford.
Ashton, Thomas, Hyde, Cheshire.
*Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 71, Mosley Street,
Manchester.
#*Ashworth, Edmund, Turton near Bolton.
Ashworth, Henry, Turton near Bolton.
Aspland, Rey. Robert, M.A., Hackney.
Aspland, Rev. R. Brooke, M. A., Dukinfield,
near Manchester.
2 LIFE MEMBERS.
Aspland, Algernon Sydney, Lamb Building,
Temple, London.
Astley, Rev. Richard, Shrewsbury.
Atkinson, John, 20, East Parade, Leeds.
*Atkinson, Joseph B., 5, Freemantle Square,
Bristol.
Atkinson, Richard, College Green, Dublin.
Atkinson, William, Weaste Lodge near
Manchester.
*Auldjo, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.8., Noel
House, Kensington.
*Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. L.&E., Hon.
M.R.LA., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., 1, Dorset
Street, Manchester Square, London.
Babbage, B. H.,1, Dorset Street, Manchester
Square, London.
*Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., Sec.C.P.S., (Local Treasurer), St.
John’s College, Cambridge.
Bache, Rev. Samuel, Edgbaston near Bir-
mingham.
Backhouse, Edmund, Darlington.
*Backhouse, John Church, Darlington.
Backhouse, Thomas James, Sunderland.
*Baddeley, Capt. Fred. H., R.E., Ceylon.
Bagot, Thomas N., Ballymoe, Co. Galway.
Bailey, Samuel, Sheffield.
*Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro.
Bainbridge, Joseph, Messrs. Fletcher and
Co., 10, King’s Arms Yard, Coleman
Street, London.
*Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton House
near Barnard Castle, Durham.
Baines, Edward, jun., Hanover Square,
Leeds.
Bald, Robert, C.E., F.R.S.E., Glasgow.
Bald, William, C.E., F.R.S.E., Glasgow.
Baldwin, Charles Barry, M.P., 6, Parliament
Street, London; and Guernston, Totness,
Devon.
Baldwin, Rev. John, M.A., Dalton, near
Ulverstone, Lancashire.
Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Regius Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of
Glasgow, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., The College,
Glasgow.
Ball, John, M.R.I.A., 85, Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.
Ball, Richard, Taunton.
Ball, Robert, M.R.LA., 3, Granby Row,
Dublin.
*Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West-
moreland.
Bannerman, Alexander, Didsbury near Man-
chester.
*Barbour, Robert, Portland Street, Man-
chester.
Barclay, Charles, F.S.A., F.G.S., M.R.A.S.,
Bury Hill, Dorking.
Barclay, James, Catrine, Ayrshire.
Barker, Francis, M.D., M.R.LA., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Dublin,
Trinity College, Dublin.
*Barker, George, F.R.S., Birmingham.
Barker, James, Bakewell, Derbyshire.
*Barker, Richard, M.D., M.R.D.S., 6, Gar-
diner’s Row, Dublin.
Barlow, Edward.
Barlow, Major, 5, Great George Street,
Dublin.
Barlow, Peter, 5, Great George Street,
Dublin.
Barnes, James R., Summerfield near Bolton.
Barnes, Rev. Joseph Watkins, M.A., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Trinity College, Cambridge.
Barnes, Thomas Addison, Whitburn, South
Shields.
*Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle.
*Barnett, Richard, Stourport, Worcester-
shire.
Baron, John, M.D., F.R.S., Cheltenham.
Barstow, Thomas, Garrow Hill near York.
*Barton, John, 44, St. Mary Street, Dublin.
Bateman, James, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.H.S.,
Knypersley Hall, near Congleton, Staf-
fordshire.
*Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., East
India Road, London.
Bateman, J. F., Pall Mall, Manchester.
Bateson, James Glynn, Liverpool.
*Bayldon, John, Lendal, York.
Bayley, Rev. J., M.A.
*Bayley, William, Stockton-upon-Tees.
Bayly, John, 1, Brunswick Terrace, Ply-
mouth.
Bazley, Thomas 8., jun., Acton Square,
Salford, Manchester.
Beale, Samuel, Birmingham.
Beale, Captain, Toronto, Upper Canada.
Beamish, Francis B., Cork.
*Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., Sans Souci, Prest-
bury, Cheltenham.
Bean, R. H., Backwell Hill near Bristol.
*Beaston, William, Rotherham near Sheftield.
*Beaufoy, Henry, F.R.S., F.L.S., South Lam-
beth, London.
*Belcombe, Henry Stephens, M.D., Minster
Yard, York.
Belgrave, Rev. Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S.,
North Kilworth, Leicestershire.
Bell, Frederick John, F.G.S., 338, Oxford
Street, London.
Bell, Jacob, F.L.S., 338, Oxford Street,
London.
Bell, Matthew P., Glasgow.
Bell, Thomas, Professor of Zoology in King’s
College, London, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8.,
17, New Broad Street, London.
*Bell, Thomas, Picton Place, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
Bell, William, Edinburgh.
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor, Grosvenor Square,
Manchester.
Bellingham, Sir Alan, Castle Bellingham.
Bengough, George, The Ridge near Wot-
ton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
Benkhausen, George, 9, Argyll Street, Lon-
don.
Benson, Robert, jun., Fairfield, Manchester.
Bentley, John, Birch House near Man-
chester.
eS
LIFE MEMBERS. er
Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.1.A., 5, West-
land Row, Dublin.
Bethune, J. E. D., 80, Chester Square, Lon-
don; and Balfour, Fife.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Bradford,
Yorkshire.
oe Robert, Rodney Street, Liver-
pool,
Bilton, Rev. William, M.A., F.G.S., Home-
wood, Kent.
Bingham, Rey. William, M.A.
Bingley, Henry, Queen’s Assay Master,
E.L.S., F.H.S., Royal Mint, London.
Binney, E. W., Cross Street, Manchester.
*Binyon, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester.
*Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man-
chester.
Birchall, Henry, Park Lane, Leeds.
*Bird, William, 5,Old Church Yard, Liverpool.
Birkenshaw, John Cass, 85, Micklegate,
. York.
*Birks, Thomas Rawson, Watton near Ware,
Herts.
*Birley, Richard, Upper Brook Street, Man-
chester.
Birmingham, Thomas, Kilmann, Kilconnel,
Treland.
Black, Henderson, Woodford, Co. Down.
Black, James, M.D.,F.G.S., Park Place, Man-
chester.
Blackburn, Bewicke, Clapham Common,
London.
Blackburne, Right Hon. Francis, Dublin.
Blackburne, Rev. John, M.A., Attercliffe near
Sheffield.
Blackburne, Rev.John, jun., M.A., Attercliffe
near Sheffield.
*Blackwall, John, F.L.S., Oakland, Llanrwst,
Denbighshire.
*Blackwell, Thomas Evans, F.G.S,, Fox-
hangers, Devizes.
*Blake, William, Silyer Street, Taunton.
*Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S., Birming-
ham.
Blanchard, Lt.-Colonel, 1, Melville Crescent,
Edinburgh.
*Bland, Rev. Miles, D.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.R.A.S., Lilley Rectory, near Luton,
Bedfordshire. 7
Blanshard, William, York.
Blick, Rey. Charles, B.D., F.C.P.8., St.
John’s College, Cambridge.
Bliss, Rey. Philip, D.C.L., Keeper of the
Archives, and Registrar of the University
of Oxford, F.S.A., Oxford.
*Blood, Bindon, M.R.I.A., F.R.S.E., 22,
Queen Street, Edinburgh.
Blood, William B., Hawthornside, Hawick.
Blore, Edward, F.S.A., 7, Welbeck Street,
London.
Blundell, R. H., Liverpool.
Blunt, Henry, Shrewsbury.
Blyth, B. Hall.
Boase, C. W., Dundee.
*Boddington, Benjamin, Burcher, Kington,
Herefordshire.
*Bodley, Thomas, F.G.S., Pittsville, Chelten-
ham.
Bogle, James, Glasgow. :
*Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
M.R.I., 20, Upper Brook Street, London ;
and Ketteringham Park, Wymondham,
Norfolk.
Bolton, R. L., Gambier Terrace, Liverpool.
*Bompas, George G., M.D., Fish Ponds, near
Bristol.
*Bompas, G. J., M.D., Fish Ponds, near Bristol.
Bond, H. J. H., M.D., Cambridge.
*Bond, Walter M., The Argory, Moy, Ireland.
Bonomi, Ignatius, Bailey, Durham.
Bonomi, Joseph, M.W.S., 103, St. Martin’s
Lane, London.
Boothman, Thomas, Ardwick Place, Man-
chester.
Bosworth, Rev. Joseph, D.D.,F.R.S., F.S.A.,
Etwell, Uttoxeter.
Botfield, Beriah, M.P., F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.8., F.R.G.S.,
9, Stratton Street, London; and Norton
Hall, Daventry, Northamptonshire.
Bottomley, William, Belfast. ’
*Boughton, Sir William Edward Rouse, Bart.,
F.R.S., Downton Hall, near Ludlow,
Shropshire,
Boult, E. 8., India Buildings, Liverpool.
Bourne, J. D., Rodney Street, Liverpool.
Bowman, William, F.R.8., 14, Golden
Square, London.
Boyle, Alexander, M.R.I.A., 35, College
Green, Dublin.
Brabant, R. H., M.D., Devizes.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, The Hall, Ather-
stone, Warwickshire.
Bradshaw, Rev. John.
*Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Stratford,
Essex.
Brady, D. F., 38, Old Dominick Street,
Dublin.
Braham, J. H., The Grange, Brompton,
London.
Braid, James, St. Peter’s Square, Man-
chester.
*Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, Wake-
field.
*Brammall, Jonathan, Sheffield.
Brancker, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Wadham Col-
lege, Oxford.
Brandreth, J. M., Preston.
Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., 21, Park Lane, London; and
Taymouth Castle, Perthshire,
*Briggs, Major-General John, E.I.C.S.,F.R.S.,
F.G.S8., M.R.A.8., 158, Albany Street,
London.
Bright, John, M.P., Rochdale, Lancashire.
*Brisbane, Lieut.-General Sir Thomas Mak-
dougall, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L.,
President of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, F.R.S., Hon.M.R.1A., FLS.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Makerstown, Kelso.
Broadbent, Thomas, Marsden Square, Man-
chester.
4 LIFE MEMBERS.
*Brockedon, Philip N., 29, Devonshire Street,
Queen Square, London.
Brocklebank, Thomas, Wavertree, Liverpool.
Brogden, John, 28, Ardwick Green, Man-
chester.
*Brogden, John, jun., Ardwick Place, Man-
chester.
Bromilow, Henry G.
Brook, William, Meltham, York.
*Brooke, Charles, 29, Keppel Street, Russell
Square, London.
Brooke, Henry James, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Clapham Rise, London.
*Brooks, Samuel, Market Street, Manchester.
Brooks, William, Henley House, Hudders-
field.
Brown, Alexander, M.A., Beilby Grange,
Wetherby, Yorkshire.
Brown, Charles Edward, Cambridge.
Brown, G. B., Halifax.
Brown, Hugh, Broadstone, Ayrshire.
Brown, James, Glasgow. :
Brown, John, F.G.S., Stanway near Col-
chester.
Brown, John, Lea Castle near Kiddermin-
ster.
Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon.
M.R.I.A., Hon. M.R.S.Ed., V.P.L.S.,
F.R.G.S., Hon. M.C.P.S., 17, Dean Street,
Soho, London.
Brown, Thomas, Ebbw Vale near Newport,
Monmouthshire.
*Brown, William, Douglas, Isle of Man.
Brown, William, Richmond Hill near Liver-
pool.
Browne-Clayton, General, K.C., D.C.L.,
F.S.A., Wigan, Lancashire.
Brownlie, Archibald, Glasgow.
*Bruce, Alexander John, Kilmarnock.
*Bruce, Haliday, M.R.LA., 37, Dame Street,
Dublin.
*Brunel, Isambart Kingdom, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
18, Duke Street, Westminster.
Bryce, James, M.A., F.G.S., Belfast.
Bryce, Rey. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Bel-
fast Academy, Belfast.
Buchan, L., Manchester.
Buchanan, Andrew, M.D., Regius Professor
of the Institutes of Medicine in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow, Glasgow.
Buchanan, Archibald,jun., Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C., Poulton Hall, Cheshire.
Buchanan, James, R.E., 16, Union Street,
Glasgow.
*Buck, George Watson, Manchester.
*Buckland, Rev. William, DD., Canon of
Christ Church,and Professor of Mineralogy
and Geology in the University of Oxford,
V.P.RS., F.LS., V.P.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Hon. M.C.P.S., Christ Church, Oxford.
*Buller, Sir Antony, Pound near Tavistock,
Devon.
*Bulman, John, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Bunch, Rev. R. J., M.A., Emmanuel College,
Cambridge.
Bunt, T. G., Bristol.
aii, William John, D.C.L., F.L.S., Ful-
am.
Burd, John, Mosley Street, Manchester.
*Burd, John, jun., Mount Sion, Radcliffe,
Manchester.
Burgoyne, Colonel, Board of Works, Dub-
lin.
*Burke, Francis, 5, Upper Rutland Street,
Dublin.
*Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., LL.D.,
Chancellor of the University of London,
F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., 10,
Belgrave Square, London; and Holkar
Hall, Milnthorpe.
Burn, William, London.
Bushell, Christopher, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Butler, Spitsburg, Birmingham.
Butterfield,Charles Dales, St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
Buxton, Edward North, Upton.
Byng, William B., F.R.A.S., Staines, Mid-
dlesex.
Cabbell, Benjamin Bond, F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.R.G.S., 1, Brick Court, Temple, London.
Cabbell, George, Glasgow.
Cadell, Robert, Edinburgh.
Caldecott, John, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Observa-
tory, Travancore, India.
Caldwell, Robert, M.R.LA., 9, Bachelor’s
Walk, Dublin.
Callender, W. R., Victoria Park, Rusholme,
near Manchester.
Cameron, John, Glasgow.
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart., M.P.,
72, Portland Place, London; Marchmont
House, Berwickshire.
Campbell, Rev. James, D.D., Forkhill, Dun-
dalk, Ireland.
*Campbell, Sir James, Glasgow.
Campbell, James, Edinburgh.
Campbell, John Archibald, F.R.S.E., Albyn
Place, Edinburgh.
*Campbell, William, 34, Candlerigg Street,
Glasgow. ‘
Canterbury, Right Hon. William Howley,
D.D., Lord Archbishop of, F.R.S., F.8.A.,
F.H.S., Lambeth Palace.
Cape, Rev. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S., Clare Hall,
Cambridge.
Carew, William H. Pole, M.P., Antony House,
near Devonport.
Cargill, William, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Carlisle, Thomas, Waterloo Villa, Clifton,
Bristol.
Carmichael, Andrew, M.R.I.A., 24, Palace
Row, Dublin.
Carmichael, H., 18, Hume Street, Dublin.
Carmichael, James, Sandyford, Glasgow.
Carmichael, John T. C., Messrs. Todd and
Co., Cork.
Carmichael, Richard, M.R.I.A., Dublin.
*Carne, Joseph, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S.,
Penzance.
Carpmael, William, 4, Old Square, Lincoln’s
Inn, London.
x
LIFE MEMBERS. 5
*Carpenter, Rev. Philip Pearsall, B.A., Stand,
Pilkington, near Manchester.
Carr, Ralph, Dunston Hill, Durham.
*Carr, William, Blackheath.
*Cartmell, Rey. James, M.A.,
Christ’s College, Cambridge.
Cartmell, William, M.D., Carlisle.
Cartwright, Rev. R. B.
Cash, George, M.R.I.A., 34, Rutland Square,
Dublin.
*Cassels, Rey. Andrew, M.A., Batley Vicar-
age, near Leeds.
Castle, Charles, Clifton, Bristol.
Castle, Robert, Redland Grove, Bristol.
*Cathcart, Charles Murray, Earl, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Inverleith House, Edin-
burgh.
Caw, John Y., Mosley Street, Manchester.
*Cayley, Sir George, Bart., Hon. M.C.P.S.,
20, Hertford Street, May Fair, London;
Brompton, North Riding, Yorkshire.
Cayley, Digby, Brompton, North Riding,
Yorkshire.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet, M.P., Wydale,
Malton, Yorkshire.
Chadwick, Edwin, 1, Somerset Place, So-
merset House, London.
Chadwick, Elias, M.A., Swinton, Manchester.
*Chadwick, Hugo Mavesyn, Mem. Egypt. Lit.
Soc., Mavesyn-Ridware, Rugeley.
Chadwick, John, Broadfield, Rochdale.
*Challis, Rey. James, M.A., Plumian Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Cam-
bridge, F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., Observatory,
Cambridge.
Chalmers, Rev. Thomas, D.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
Chambers, George, High Green, Sheffield.
Chambers, John, Ridgefield, Manchester.
*Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Edin-
burgh.
*Champney, Henry Nelson, The Mount, York.
Chance, R. L., Summerfield House, Bir-
mingham.
*Chanter, John, Wine Office Court, Fleet
Street, London.
Chapman, Capt. John James, R.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S., Atheneum Club, Pall Mall,
London.
Charlesworth, Edward, F.G.S., Curator to
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society’s
Museum, York.
Charters, Samuel, Bath.
*Chatterton, Sir William, Bart., F.R.G.S.,
Castlemahon, Cork.
*Cheetham, David, Staleybridge, Manchester.
Cheshire, John, Hartford, Cheshire.
*Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., Professor
of Mathematics and ‘Astronomy in the
University of Durham, F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S.,
Durham.
*Chichester, Ashhurst Turner Gilbert, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of, 38, Park Street, Grosvenor
Square, London; and the Palace, Chi-
chester.
Chippindall,John,MosleyStreet, Manchester.
F.C.P.S.,
*Chiswell, Thomas, 63, Faulkner Street, Man-
chester.
*Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., Professor of
Mathematics in the Royal Military Aca-
demy, Woolwich, Sec.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.,
The Common, Woolwich.
Christison, Robert, M.D., Professor of Die-
tetics, Materia Medica and Pharmacy in
the University of Edinburgh, F.R.S.E.,
Edinburgh.
Clare, Peter, F.R.A.S., Quay Street, Man-
chester.
Clark, Courtney K., Haugh End, Halifax.
*Clark, Francis, Hazelwood near Birmingham.
Clark, G. T., Madras.
Clark, Sir James, Bart., M.D., Physician to
the Queen, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 22 B, Brook
Street, Grosvenor Square, London.
Clark, Thomas, 123, Baggot Street, Dublin.
Clark, Rev. William, M.D., Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Cambridge,
E.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Cambridge.
Clarke, Rev. C. C., B.D., Archdeacon of Ox-
ford; Oxford.
Clarke, George, Mosley Street, Manchester.
Clarke, George, Crumpsall Lodge, Manches-
ter.
Clarke, Joseph, Ashby-de-la-Laund, Lincoln.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A., Knedlington, York-
shire.
Clarkson, Rev. J., B.A.
*Clay, J. Travis, F.G.S., Rastrick near Hud-
dersfield.
*Clear, William, 92, South Mall, Cork.
Clendinning, Alexander, M.R.I.A., West
Port, Ireland.
Clonbrock, Robert, Lord, 23, Dover Street,
London; and Clonbrock, Galway.
Cloncurry, Valentine Browne,
M.R.D.S., Maritimo, Dublin.
Clough, Rev. Alfred B., B.D. F.S.A.,
Brandeston, Northamptonshire. :
Clow, John, 23, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool.
*Coathupe, Charles Thornton, Wraxall near
Bristol.
Cobb, Edward, Banbury, Oxfordshire.
*Cocker, Jonathan, 28, Crown Street, Liver-
pool.
Coby, Colonel Thomas, R.E., LL.D.,
E.R.S. L.&E., M.R.LA., F.G.S., M.R.A.S.,
F.R.AS., ERGS., Ordnance Map Office,
Tower, London.
Coles, William, Charing Cross, London.
Collins, J. V., M.R.D.S., 10, Denzill Street,
Dublin.
Collins, Robert, M.D., M.R.D.S., 2, Merrion
Square, Dublin.
Collis, Stephen Edward, Listowel, Ireland.
Colthurst, John, Clifton, Bristol.
Colville, Sir Charles Henry, F.G.S., Duffield
Park, Derby.
Combe, George, Edinburgh.
Compton, Earl, Castle Ashby, Northampton-
shire.
*Compton, Lord Alwyne, Castle Ashby,
Northamptonshire.
Lord,
6 LIFE MEMBERS.
Connel, Archibald, Edinburgh.
Connel, Arthur, F.R.S.E., Professor of Che-
mistry in the University of St. Andrew’s,
Scotland.
*Consterdine, James, New Cannon Street,
Manchester.
*Conway, Charles, Pontnwydd Works, New-
port, Monmouthshire.
*Conybeare, Rev. William Daniel, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Hon. M.C.P.S.,
Axminster, Devon.
Cooke, Captain Adolphus, Cookborough,
. Ireland.
Cooke, Rey. George Leigh, B.D., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Oxford; Cubington.
Cooke, Howard, M.D.,71, Blessington Street,
Dublin.
Cooke, J. B., Exchange Buildings, Liverpool.
Cooke, James K., M.A., 71, Blessington
Street, Dublin.
Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A., Magdalen College,
Oxford.
Cooper, Edward Joshua, Markree Castle,
Sligo.
Cooper, James, New South Wales.
Cooper, Joseph, Queen’s College, Cambridge.
Cooper, Paul, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset.
Copland, William, F.R.S.E., Dumfries.
Corbett, Edward, Pendleton near Manches-
ter.
*Corbett, Richard, Aston Hall, Shropshire.
Cormack, John Rose, M.D., F.R.S.E., Edin-
burgh.
Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S., Emmanuel
College, Cambridge.
Cottam, George, 2, Winsley Street, London.
*Cottam, Samuel E., F.R.A.S., Brazennose
Street, Manchester.
Cotter, John, Cork.
Cotton, G. S.
Cotton, William, F.R.S., F.S.A., 3, Crosby
Square, Bishopsgate Street, London; and
Walwood House, Leytonstone.
*Cotton, Rev. William Charles, M.A., Windsor.
Coulter, Thomas, M.D., M.R.LA., 28, Tri-
nity College, Dublin.
Couper, James, Glasgow.
*Courtney, Henry, M.R.LA.,27,Upper Mount
Street, Dublin.
Courtney, Richard, 117, Baggot Street,
Dublin.
Cowan, John, Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Scot-
land.
*Cox, Joseph, F.G.8., Wisbeach, Cambridge-
shire.
Cox, Robert.
Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
*Crampton, The Honourable Justice, LL.D.,
M.R.1LA., 50, Lower Baggot Street, Dub-
lin.
*Crane, George, F.G.S., Yniscedwyn Iron
Works, near Swansea.
Craven, Robert, Hull.
Cresswell, Sir Cresswell, Knt., Fleming
House, Old Brompton, London.
*Crewdson, Thomas D., Dacca Mills, Man-
chester.
Creyke, Ralph, Rawcliffe Hall near Selby.
*Creyke, Captain Richard, R.N., 7, Albe-
marle Villas, Stoke, Devon.
Creyke, Rev. Stephen, M.A., Wigginton,
near York.
*Crichton, William, Glasgow.
Croft, Rev. John, M.A., F.C.P.S., Eaton
Bishop, Herefordshire.
Croker, Charles Philips, M.D., M.R.LA.,
Merrion Square, Dublin.
Crompton, J. W., Edgbaston near Bir-
mingham.
*Crompton, Rey. Joseph, Norwich.
Crompton, Thomas B., Farnworth near
Bolton.
Crook, J. Taylor, Wolstonholme Square,
Liverpool.
Crook, William Henry, LL.D.
*Crooke, G. W., Liverpool.
Crosthwaite, Leland, M.R.D.S., Chapel Izod,
Dublin.
Cubitt, William, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S., 6, Great George Strect,
Westminster.
Culley, Robert, Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
Cumber, Charles, Mount Street, St. Peter’s,
Manchester.
Cunningham, John, Liverpool.
*Currer, Rey. Danson Richardson, Clifton
House, York.
*Curtis, John Wright, Alton, Hants.
Cusack, James William, M.D., M.R.LA., 3,
Kildare Street, Dublin.
Cuthbertson, Allan, Glasgow.
D’Aguilar, Major-General George, China.
*Dalby, Rev. William, M.A., Rector of Comp-
ton Basset, near Calne, Wilts.
Dale, Edward, York.
Dalmahoy, James, E.I.C.S., F.R.S.E.
Dalmeny, Lord, M.P., 14, Grosvenor Place,
London ; Dalmeny Park, near Edinburgh.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A., Dunkirk
House, near Minchinhampton.
*Dalton, Rev. James Edward, B.D., F.C.P.S.,
Queen’s College, Cambridge.
Dalziel, John, M.D., Dumfriesshire.
Daniel, Henry, M.D., Parthenon Club,
Regent Street, London.
*Daniell, John Frederick, D.C.L., Professor
of Chemistry in King’s College, London,
and Examiner in Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of London, For. Sec. R.S. ; Norwood.
Danson, Edward, Lime Street, Liverpool.
Danson, William, 6, Shaw Street, Liverpool.
*Darbishire, Samuel D., Manchester.
Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.H.S., F.R.G.S., St. James’s
Square, London; and Sandwell Park,
Birmingham.
*Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D., Ald-
rich’s Professor of Chemistry, Regius Pro-
fessor of Botany, and Sibthorpian Pro-
fessor of Rural Economy in the University
}
LIFE MEMBERS. 7
of Oxford, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.1.A., F.L.S.,
F.G.8., (Local Treasurer), Oxford.
*Davenport, Edward Davies, F.R.S., 28,
Lower Brook Street, London ; and Capes-
thorne, Cheshire.
Davey, Richard, F.G.S., Redruth, Cornwall.
Davies, J. Birt, M.D., Birmingham.
Davies, James.
Davies, Dr. Thomas, Chester.
Davies, Thomas, Handsworth near Bir-
mingham.
Davis, Charles, M.D., M.R.LA., St. Anne
Street, Dublin.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A., Whitby.
Davy, Edmund, Professor of Chemistry to
the Royal Dublin Society, F.R.S.,M.R.LA.,
Dublin.
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S., West Brom-
wich, near Birmingham.
Dawes, Matthew, F.G.S., Bolton-le-Moors.
*Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S., Cam-
den Lodge, Cranbrook, Kent.
*Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.
*Dawson, Henry, 14, St. James’s Terrace,
Liverpool.
Dawson, James, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool.
Dawson, John, Halifax.
Dawson, Robert, Woodleigh near Kings-
bridge, Devon.
Dawson, Thomas, Glasgow.
Day, George.
*Deane, Sir Thomas, Dundanion Castle, Cork.
Deck, Isaiah, F.G.S., Cambridge.
De Grey, Thomas Philip, Earl, F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.H.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 4, St. James’s
Square, London; and Newby Park, Bo-
roughbridge, Yorkshire.
De la Beche, Sir Henry Thomas, Director of
the Ordnance Geological Survey of Great
Britain, F.R.S., F.L.S., For. Sec. G.S.,
F.R.G.S8.; Museum of Economic Geology,
Craig’s Court, Charing Cross, London.
Denison, Captain William Thomas, R.E.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Wood Street,
Woolwich.
Dent,EdwardJ.,F.R.A.S.,82,Strand,London.
*Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby, York.
Dent, William Y., Marr near Doncaster.
Derby, Edward, Earl of, K.G., M.A., LL.D.,
President of the Zoological Society, F.L.S.,
F,H.S., F.R.G.S., Grosvenor Square, Lon-
don ; and Knowsley Hall, Lancashire.
De Tabley, George, Lord, F.Z.S.,32, Mount
Street, London; and Tabley House,
Knutsford, Cheshire,
Deuchar, John, Morningside, Edinburgh.
*Dickinson, John, 67, Stephen’s Green, Dub-
lin.
*Dikes, William Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield.
Dilke, C. Wentworth, F.R.G.S., Wellington
Street North, Strand, London.
*Dilke, C. Wentworth, jun., 76, Sloane
Street, London.
Dircks, Henry, 77, King William Street,
City, London.
Dixon, Rev. W. H., Bishopthorpe near York.
Dixon, William Joshua, Bootle near Liver-
pool.
*Dobbin, Leonard, jun., 23, Gardiner’s Place,
Dublin.
Dockray, Benjamin, Lancaster.
Dodsworth, Benjamin, Blake Street, York.
*Dodsworth, George, Fulford near York.
D’Olier, Isaac M., M.R.I.A., Bank of Ire-
land, Dublin.
Dolphin, John, Hunter House, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
Dollond, George, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.,
59, St. Paul’s Churchyard, London.
Donkin, J. R., Westow, Whitwell.
*Donkin, Thomas, F.R.A.S., Westow, near
Whitwell.
Donnelly, William, M.D., Davenport.
Douglas, James, Cavers, Roxburghshire.
Douglas, John, Gyrn, Holywell, North Wales.
Dowdall, Hamilton.
Downall, Rev. John, Budworth, Notting-
hamshire.
*Downie, Alexander, Crossbasket near Glas-
gow.
Drennan, William, M.R.J.A., Belfast.
Drummond, David, Stirling.
Drummond, H. Home, M.P., F.R.S.E., Blair
Drummond, Stirling.
*Drury, William,M.D.,GarnGad Hill,Glasgow.
Duncan, J. F., M.D., 19, Gardiner’s Place,
Dublin.
*Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House,
Finglass, Co. Dublin.
Duncan, W. H., M.D., Liverpool.
Dundas, Major-General Robert, Arlington
Street, London.
Dunlop, Alexander, Clober, Milngavie near
Glasgow.
Dunn, William, Glasgow.
Dunnington, Rey.J.,M.A., F.C.P.8., Thickett
Hall, York.
Durham, Edward Maltby, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.S.A., 4, Upper Port-
land Place, London ; and Auckland Cas-
tle, Durham.
Durnford, Rev. R., Middleton, Lancashire.
*Dury, Rev. Theodore, M.A., Westmill, near
Buntingford, Herts.
Dwyer, Rev. Thomas, M.A., West Derby
Street, Liverpool.
Dykes, Robert, 2, Woodside Crescent, Glas-
gow.
Dyson, Thomas Wilson, 28, Oldham Street,
Manchester.
Earle, Charles, F.G.S., Leamington, War-
wickshire.
Earle, William, jun., Abercromby Square,
Liverpool.
Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Cambridge.
Eaton, Rev. George, M.A., Halliwell, near
_ Bolton.
Ebden, Rev. James C., M.A., F.R.A.S.,
F.C.P.S., Great Stukeley, Huntingdon-
shire.
8 LIFE MEMBERS.
*Ebrington, Hugh, Viscount, M.P., 17, Gros-
venor Square, London.
Eddison, Edwin, Headingley near Leeds,
Eden, Thomas, 96, Mount Pleasant, Liver-
pool.
Eden, James, 52, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool.
Edgar, P. M., Bristol.
Edwards, James, Downing College, Cam-
bridge.
Edwards, John, Halifax.
Edwards, Joshua, Bedford Street, Liverpool.
Egerton, Lord Francis Leveson, M.P., Rector
of University and King’s College, Aber-
deen, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 18, Belgrave
Square, London; and Worsley Hall, near
Manchester.
*Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Oulton Park, Che-
shire.
*Bgerton, Rev. Thomas, F.G.S.
Egginton, Samuel Hall, North Ferriby, York-
shire.
Ellacombe, Rev. H. T., F.S.A., Bitton, near
Bristol.
Ellice, Alexander, B.A., Caius College, Cam-
bridge.
Ellens, G. C.
Elliott, John Fogg, Elvet Hill, Durham.
Ellis, George.
Ellis, Richard.
*Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone House,
near Malton, Yorkshire.
Ellis, Thomas, M.D.
*fillis, Thomas Flower, M.A., F.R.AAS.,
F.C.P.S., 15, Bedford Place, London.
Ellman, E. B., Berwick near Lewes, Sussex.
Ellman, Robert Harvey, Glynde near Lewes.
Eltoft, William, Cheetham Hill near Man-
chester.
Empson, William, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of
Law, East India College, Haylebury, Herts.
English, Henry.
Enniskillen, William Willoughby, Earl of,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Florence
Court, Fermanagh, Ireland.
*Enys, John Samuel, F.G.S., Enys, Cornwall.
*Erle, Christopher, F.G.S., Atheneum, Pall
Mall, London; and Hardwick, Bucking-
hamshire.
Estcourt, T.G.B., D.C.L., M.P., F.S.A.,
F.R.G.S., 82, Eaton Place, London; and
Estcourt, near Tetbury, Gloucestershire.
Estcourt, W. J., Balliol College, Oxford.
Eustace, John, M.D., 21, Middle Glo’ster
Street, Dublin.
Evanson, R. T., M.D.
Everest, Dr., St. Anne Street, Liverpool.
Ewart, William, M.P., 6, Cambridge Square,
Hyde Park, London.
*Exley, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Cotham, Bristol.
Eyre, Rev. C. W., M.A., Carlton, Notting-
hamshire.
Eyton, Charles, Hendred House, Abingdon.
*Fairbairn, William, Manchester.
Fairbairn, Peter, Leeds.
Fairbairn, Thomas, Mill Wall,Poplar, London.
Fannin, John, M.A., 41, Grafton Street,
Dublin.
Fannin, Robert, M.R.D.S.,51, Leeson Street,
Dublin.
*Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., Fullerian Professor
of Chemistry in the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., Hon.
M.R.S.Ed., F.G.S., Hon.M.C.P.S., 21, Al-
bemarle Street, London.
Fearon, John Peter, F.G.S., 1, Crown Office
Row, Temple, London.
Fell, S. B., Ulverstone, Lancashire.
*Fellows, Charles, F.R.G.S., 30, Russell
Square, London.
Ferrall, J. M., M.R.1.A., 38, Rutland Square,
Dublin.
Ferrier, A. J., William Street, Dublin.
Ferrier, James, M.R.D.S., Willow Park,
Booter’s Town, Co. Dublin.
Feversham, William, Lord, Duncombe Park,
Yorkshire.
Field, E. W., 41, Bedford Row, London.
Fielden, William, Todmorden, Lancashire.
Fielding, G. H., M.D., Hull.
Finch, Charles, jun., Cambridge.
Finch, John, Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liver-
pool.
Finch, John, jun., Liverpool.
Finlay, James, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Firth, Thomas, Northwich.
Fish, William Croft, Finsbury Bank, 76, St.
John’s Street Road, London.
Fisher, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
*Fisher, Rev. J. M., M.A., 9, Lower Grove
Terrace, Brompton, London.
*Fisher, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Luccombe, near
Minehead, Somerset.
Fitzpatrick, Matthew, 12, Peter Street, Dub-
lin.
*Fitzwilliam, Charles William, Earl, F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Presi-
dent of the Yorkshire Philosophical So-
ciety ; Mortimer House, Grosvenor Place,
London ; and Wentworth House, Rother-
ham.
Fitzwilliam, Hon. George Wentworth, M.P.,
Mortimer House, Grosvenor Place, Lon-
don; and Wentworth House, Rotherham.
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart., M.P.,
Rossall Hall, Fleetwood, Lancashire.
Fleming, Christopher, M.D., 9, Molesworth
Street, Dublin.
*Fleming, Colonel James,
Appin, Argyleshire.
Fleming, John G., M.D., Glasgow.
Fleming, John, M.A., Bootle near Liverpool.
*Fleming, William M., Barochan, Renfrew-
shire.
*Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester.
Fletcher, E., Rodney Street, Liverpool.
Fletcher, Jacob, Clifton near Bolton.
Fletcher, Joseph,3, Trafalgar Square, London.
*Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Manches-
ter.
Kinlochlaich,
——
LIFE MEMBERS. 9
Fletcher, Samuel, King Street, Manchester.
Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D., Birmingham.
Fletcher, William, LL.D., 26, Merrion
Square, Dublin.
Flood, C. J., Lower Mount Street, Dublin.
Flood, Valentine, M.D., M.R.1.A., 19, Bless-
ington Street, Dublin.
Forbes, Charles, (Local Treasurer), Edin-
burgh.
Forbes, Edward, Professor of Botany in
King’s College, London; Palzontologist to
the Ordnance Geological Survey, F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., Museum, Craig’s Court,
Charing Cross, London.
Forbes, George, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
*Forbes, James David, Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Edin-
burgh, F.R.S.L.& E., F.G.S., Hon.
M.C.P.S., Edinburgh.
Forbes, Sir John Stuart, Bart., F.R.S.E.,
Fettercairne House, Kincardineshire.
*Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12, Old
Burlington Street, London.
Ford, H. R., Harcholme near Rochdale.
Ford, John, 1, Lawrence Street, York.
Formby, Richard, M.D., Sandon Terrace,
Liverpool.
*Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling.
Forshall, Rev. Josiah, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
» Hon. M.R.I.A., British Museum.
*Forster, Robert, A.B., Springfield, Dungan-
non, Ireland.
*Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire-
land.
Foster, H. 8., Brooklands, Cambridge.
*Foster, John, M.A., Clapham.
Foster, R., Brooklands, Cambridge.
Fothergill, Benjamin, Faulkner Street, Man-
chester.
Foulger, William, Norwich.
*Fowler, Robert, 19, Merrion Square South,
Dublin.
Fox, Alfred, Falmouth.
Fox, Charles, Bellefield, Birmingham.
*Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthal near Truro.
Fox, George Townsend, F.L.S., F.G.S.. 17,
Cavendish Place, Brighton.
*Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth.
- Fox, Robert Were, Falmouth.
Fox, Thomas.
Francis, William, Ph.D., F.L.S., 16, Soley
Terrace, Pentonville, London.
*Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles, Mal-
ton, Yorkshire.
Franks, Rey. J. C., M.A., Huddersfield.
Franks, Robert, M.R.D.S., 152, Leeson
Street, Dublin.
Fraser, J., 17, Lower Dorset Street, Dublin.
Fraser, J. W., Manchester.
Freeth, Lieut., Manchester.
Frere, George Edward, F.R.S., Twerton,
near Bath.
Frickelton, George, M.D., Oxford Street,
Liverpool.
Fripp, Charles Bowles, Bristol.
Fripp, George D., Clifton, Bristol.
Frodsham, William James, F.R.S., 4, Change
Alley, Cornhill, London.
Frost, Charles, Hull.
Fry, Francis, Cotham, Bristol.
Fry, Richard, Berkeley Square, Bristol.
Fry, Robert, Tockington, Gloucestershire.
*Fullarton, Allan, Greenock.
Furlong, Rev. Thomas, 146, Leeson Street,
Dublin.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A., 21,
Woburn Square, London. i
Gair, S. S., 5, Gambier Terrace, Liverpool.
*Galbraith, J. A., Dublin.
Galloway, S. H., Luibach, Austria.
Gardiner, Lot, Cannon Street, Manchester.
Garnett, Jeremiah, Warren Street, Man-
chester.
Garnons, Rev. William Lewes Pugh, B.D.,
F.L.S., F.C.P.S., Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge.
Gaskell, William, Dovor Street, Manchester.
*Gee, Alfred S., Dinting Vale near Man-
chester.
Gibb, Duncan, Strand Street, Liverpool.
Gibbins, Joseph, Birmingham.
Gibbins, Thomas, Birmingham.
*Gibbins, William, Falmouth.
Gibson, Edward, Hull.
*Gilbert, John Davies, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Eastbourne, Sussex.
Gilbert, Dr. J. H., Radcliffe near Man-
chester.
Gilbertson, William, Preston.
Gilby, Rev. W. Robinson, M.A., F.R.A.S.,
Beverley, Yorkshire.
Gilderdale, J., M.A., Egerton Lodge, Hud-
dersfield.
Giles, Rey. William, Everton near Liverpool.
Gill, Robert, Sedgley Hall near Manchester.
Gill, Thomas, M.P., Crescent, Plymouth.
Gillies, John, M.D. ,
Glin, The Knight of, A.M., Glin Castle, Co.
Limerick.
Glover, Edward Lister, Smedley Hill near
Manchester.
Glover, George, Lecturer on Natural Phi-
losophy, Edinburgh.
Glover, Thomas, Manchester.
Glynn, Joseph, F.R.S., Butterley, Derbyshire.
Godby, Augustus, General Post Office,
Dublin.
*Goff, William, Ovoca Lodge, Rathdrum, Co.
Wicklow.
Goldie, George, M.D., St. Leonard’s Place,
York.
Goldsmid, Francis Henry, 5, Stone Build-
ings, Lincoln’s Inn, London.
Gooch, Thomas L., Hallywell Lane, Chee-
tham, Manchester.
Goodhall, Henry Edmund, F.G.S., 4, Lau-
rence Pountney Place, London.
*Goodman, John, Salford, Lancashire.
Goodwin, Rev. Harvey, M.A., F.C.P.S.,Caius
College, Cambridge.
*Gordon, James, 46, Park Street, Bristol.
10 LIFE MEMBERS.
*Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., Dela-
mont, Killyleigh, Downshire.
Gordon, Lewis, Edinburgh.
*Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, A.B., Box-
moor, Herts.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering.
Gough, Nathan, Water Street, Manchester.
Gould, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., 20,
Broad Street, Golden Square, London.
Gould, John, Ardwick Green, Manchester.
Gourlie, William, Garnet Hill, Glasgow.
Grace, Captain P., R.N., 10, Mount Street,
Berkeley Square, London.
Gradon, Colonel George, R.E.
*Grame, James, Garvoch, Perth.
Graham, Lieut. David, Mecklewood, Stir-
lingshire.
Graham, Rev. John, D.D., Master of Christ’s
College, Cambridge, F.C.P.S., Cambridge.
Graham, John, Mayfield near Manchester.
Graham, John, Craigalian, Stirlingshire.
Graham, Robert, M.D., Professor of Clinical
Medicine and of Botany in the University
of Edinburgh, F.R.S.E., F.L.8., Hon.
M.C.P.S., Edinburgh.
*Graham, Thomas, M.A., Professorof Chemis-
try in University College, London, F.R.S.
L. & E., 9, Torrington Square, London.
*Grahame, Captain Duncan, Irvine, Scotland.
Grainger, Richard, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Grantham, Rev. George, B.D., Magdalen
College, Oxford.
Granville, Augustus Bozzi, M.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., M.R.A.S., 109, Piccadilly, London.
Grasswell, R. N., Herne Hill.
*Graves, Rev. Charles, M.A., Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Dublin,
M.R.L.A., 2, Trinity College, Dublin.
*Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D., Bri-
gown Glebe, Mitchelstown, Co. Cork.
*Gray, John, Greenock.
*Gray, John, 29, Leicester Street, Hull.
*Gray, John Edward, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
British Museum.
Gray, Rev. Walker, M.A., Henbury, Bristol.
Gray, Rev. William, M.A., Brafferton, Bo-
roughbridge.
*Gray, William, jun.,F.G.S., (Local Treasurer),
Minster Yard, York.
Green, Joseph Henry, Professor of Anatomy
to the Royal Academy, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Hadley, near Barnet.
Green, Henry, Knutsford.
Greene, Joseph, Dublin.
Greenall, Peter, St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*Greenaway, Edward, 9, River Terrace, City
Road, London.
Greenler, Matthew, Glasgow.
Greenwood, Edwin, Keighley, Yorkshire.
Gregg, T. H., 8, Grafton Street, Fitzroy
Square, London.
Gresham, Rev. John, LL.D.
Gresham, T. M., Sackville Street, Dublin.
*Greswell, Rey. Richd., M.A.,F.R.S.,F.R.G.S.,
Beaumont Street, Oxford.
Greville, R. K., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh,
Grey, Captain The Hon. Frederick William,
Howick, Northumberland.
*Griffin, John Joseph, Glasgow.
Griffin, S. F., Beale’s Wharf, Southwark.
Griffin, Thomas, Beale’s Wharf, Southwark.
Griffith, Rev. C. T., D.D., Warminster.
Griffith, George R., Fitzwilliam Place,
Dublin.
Griffith, Joseph P., Great Elm, Somerset.
*Griffith, Richard, M.R.LA.,, F.G.S., Fitzwil-
liam Place, Dublin.
Griffith, Walter H., 13 Clare Street, Dublin.
Griffiths, John, B.A., Wadham College, Ox-
ford.
Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A., Errwood, Buxton.
*Grooby, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.A.S., Swin-
don, Wilts.
Grove, William Robert, M.A., Professor of
Experimental Philosophy in the London
Institution, F.R.S.,4, Hare Court, Temple,
London.
Guest, Edwin, M.A., F.R.S.,F.L.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.C.P.S., 4, King’s Bench Walk, Temple,
London.
Guest, Sir Josiah John, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., 8, Spring Gardens, Lon-
don; and Merthyr Tydvil, Glamorganshire.
Guinness, Richard Seymour, Stillorgan near
Dublin.
Guinness, R. R,, 26, South Frederick Street,
Dublin.
Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, Rathdrum,
Co. Wicklow.
*Gutch, John James, 88, Micklegate, York.
Gwynne, Colonel A. G., Aberayron, Cardi-
ganshire.
*Habershon, Joseph, jun., The Holmes, Ro-
therham, Yorkshire.
Hackett, Michael, Book Lawn, Palmerston.
Hackworth, Timothy, Darlington.
Haden, G. N., Trowbridge, Wilts.
Hadfield, George, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Haggitt, Rev. G., Bury St. Edmund’s.
Hailstone, Edward, Bradford.
*Hailstone, Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S., Horton
Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Haire, James, 19, Summer Hill, Dublin.”
Hall, J. R., 40, Grove End Road, St. John’s
Wood, London.
*Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex.
*Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 24, Wilton Crescent,
Knightsbridge, London.
Halliday, A. H., M.A., Belfast.
Halsall, Edward, Bristol.
Halswell, Edmund S., M.A., F.R.S., Gore
Lodge, Brompton, London.
Hamilton, Archibald.
Hamilton, Rey. Henry Parr, M.A., F.R.S.,
E.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., Wath Rectory,
near Ripon, Yorkshire.
*Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Peru.
*Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D., As-
tronomer Royal of Ireland, and Andrews’
Professor of Astronomy in the University
—— oe a)
LIFE MEMBERS. 1]
of Dublin, M.R.1.A., F.R.A.S., Obser-
vatory, Dublin.
*Hamilton, William John, M.P., Sec. G.5.,
F.R.G.S., 14, Chesham Place, Belgrave
Square, London.
Hamilton, William Richard, F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.R.G.S., For. Sec. R.S.L., 12, Bolton
Row, May Fair, London.
*Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock.
Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E., Edin-
burgh.
Harcourt, Rev.-C. G. Vernon, M.A., Roth-
bury, Northumberland.
Harcourt, Egerton V. Vernon, F.G.S., Nune-
ham Park, Oxford.
Harcourt, George, M.P., Nuneham, Oxford.
Harcourt, Captain Octavius Vernon, Swin-
ton Park, Yorkshire.
*Harcourt, Rev. William V. Vernon, M.A.,
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.IL.A., F.G.S., Bolton
Percy, York.
*Hare, Charles John, M.B., M.L., 9, Lang-
ham Place, London.
Hare, Samuel, Leeds.
Harford, John Scandrett, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., Blaise Castle, Bristol.
Harford, Summers, Reform Club, London.
Harkworth, Timothy, Soho Shilden, Dar-
lington.
*Harley, John, Wain Worn, Pontypool.
*Harris, Alfred, Manningham Lodge, near
Bradford.
Harris, Hon. Charles, F.G.S., Wilton, Wilts.
*Harris, George William, 2, Gloucester Place,
Regent’s Park, London.
*Harris, Henry, Heaton Hall near Bradford.
Harris, William Snow, F.R.S., Plymouth.
Harrisson, Robert, M.D., Professor of Ana-
tomy and Surgery in the University of
Dublin, M.R.I.A., 1, Hume Street, Dublin.
Hart, John, M.D., M.R.I.A., 3, Ely Place,
Dublin.
*Harter, William, Broughton, Manchester.
Hartley, James, Sunderland.
Hartley, J. B., Bootle near Liverpool.
*Hartley, Jesse, Trentham Street, Liverpool.
Hartnell, Aaron, 8, Grenville Place, Clifton,
Bristol.
Hartnell, M. A., B.A., Birches House, near
Stroud.
Hartop, Henry, Barmborough Hall near
Rotherham.
Hartstonge, Major R. W., 15, Molesworth
Street, Dublin.
Harvey, J.R., M.D., St. Patrick’s Place, Cork.
*Harvey, Joseph C., Youghal, Co. Cork.
Hasted, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.B.S., B L.S.,
Bury St. Edmund’s.
Hastings, Rev. H. S., Axeley Kings.
*Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.
Haughton, James, M.R.D.S., 34, Eccles’
Street, Dublin.
Haughton, William, 28, City Quay, Dublin.
Hawes, Benjamin, M. P,, 9, ‘Queen’s Square,
W estminster.
Hawkins, John Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., 8, Suffolk Street, London; and
Bignor Park, Petworth, Sussex.
*Hawkins, John Isaac, 26, Judd Place West,
New Road, London.
*Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., Sharpham Park,
near Glastonbury.
*Hawkshaw, John, F.G.S., Islington House,
Salford, Manchester.
*Haworth, George, Rochdale, Lancashire.
*Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Hayward, W. W., Cambridge.
Heath, John, 11, Albemarle Street, London.
Henn, Richard, 22, Merrion Square, Dub-
lin.
*Henry, Alexander, Portland Street, Man-
chester.
Henry, Franklin, Portland Street, Man-
chester.
Henry, John S8., Portland Street, Man-
chester.
Henry, Mitchell, Portland Street, Man-
chester.
*Henry, William Charles, M.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
*Henslow, Rev. John Stevens, M.A., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of
Cambridge, and Examiner in Botany in
the University of London, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Hitcham, Bildeston, Suffolk.
Henwood, William Jory, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Hepburn, Thomas, Clapham, London.
Hepworth, John M., Ackworth, Yorkshire.
*Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham.
*Herbert, Very Rev. William, Dean of Man-
chester, Manchester.
Herbertson, John, Glasgow.
Hereford, Thomas Musgrave, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, F.G.S.,F.C.P.S., 17, Hill Street,
Berkeley Square, London; and the Palace,
Hereford.
Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, Bart.,
M.A., D.C.L., F.RS. L. & E., Hon.
M.R.LA, F.G.S., FRAS., EC.P.S.,
Collingwood, near Hawkhurst, Kent,
Hey, Richard, York.
Hey, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S., Clifton,
York.
Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S., 9,
Hyde Park Gardens, London ; and Clare-
mont, Manchester.
*Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Acresfield, Manchester.
*Heywood, Robert, Bolton.
Heywood, Thomas Percival,
Manchester.
Heyworth, Laurence, Liverpool.
Higginbotham, Samuel, Exchange Square,
Glasgow.
Higson, Peter, Clifton near Bolton.
Hildyard, Rev. James, M.A., F.C.P.S.,
Christ’s College, Cambridge.
*Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., Christ
Church, Oxford.
Hill, Arthur, Bruce Castle, Tottenham.
Claremont,
12 LIFE MEMBERS.
*Hill, Henry, 13, Orchard Street, Portman
Square, London.
*Hill, Rowland, F.R.A.S., 1, Orme Square,
Bayswater.
*Hill, Thomas, Rose Cottage, Oughtrington,
Lymm, near Warrington.
*Hill, Thomas Wright, F.R.A.S., Bruce Cas-
tle, Tottenham.
Hincks, Rev. William, F.L.S., Gardener’s
Row, Hampstead.
Hindley, Charles, M.P., 1, Dartmouth Street,
Westminster ; and Dukinfield Lodge, near
Manchester.
Hindley, H. J., Nile Street, Liverpool.
*Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick, Northumber-
land.
*Hoare, George Tooker, Godstone, Surrey.
Hoare, J. Gurney, Hampstead.
*Hoblyn, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., White
Barnes, Buntingford, Herts.
Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 9, Lower
Brook Street, London.
*Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., F.G.S., 14,
Crescent, Salford, Manchester.
*Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool.
Hodgson, J. F., Heskin Hall, Lancashire.
Hodgson, Joseph, F.R.S., Birmingham.
Hodgson, Thomas, Castlegate, York.
Hogan, William, M.A., M.R.I.A., 15, Fitz-
william Street, Dublin.
Hogg, John, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., 12, King’s Bench Walk, Tem-
ple, London; and Norton, Stockton-on-
Tees.
*Holden, Moses, 13, Jordan Street, Preston.
*Holditch, Rev. Hamnett, M.A., F.C.P.S.,
Caius College, Cambridge.
*Holland, P. H., 86, Grosvenor Street, Man-
chester.
Holme, Edward, M.D., F.L.S., President of
the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, Manchester.
Holmes, Rev. W. R., Wakefield, Yorkshire.
Holt, Edward, Falkner Street, Liverpool.
Holt, Henry, Notton near Wakefield.
Hone, James, Dublin.
Hone, Joseph, M.R.D.S., 47, Harcourt
Street, Dublin.
*Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.D.S., 50, Harcourt
Street, Dublin.
Honeyman, John.
Hope, Right Hon. John, Lord Justice-Clerk,
F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
Hope, Thomas Arthur, Liverpool.
Hope, William, Hope Street, Liverpool.
*Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.G.S., Sec.C.P.S., Cambridge.
Hopkinson, William, Stamford.
Hornby, Hugh, Sandown, Liverpool.
*Horner, Leonard, President of the Geologi-
cal Society of London, F.R.S. L. & E., 2,
Bedford Place, Russell Square, London.
Horsfall, Charles, Everton, Liverpool.
Horsfall, John, Wakefield.
*Horsfield, George, Stanley Street, Red
Bank, Manchester.
Hotham, Rev. Charles, M.A., F.L.S., Roos,
Patrington, Yorkshire.
Hovenden, V. F., M.A., Bath.
Houghton, James, Rodney Street, Liverpool.
Houghton, William, Salisbury Street, Liver-
pool.
Houghton, William, Moss Street, Liverpool.
*Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street, Man-
chester.
Houston, J., M.D., M.R.1.A., 31, York
Street, Dublin.
Houtson, John, Minshull Street, Manches-
ter.
Howell, John, M.D., Clifton.
*Hoyle, John, 10, Brown Street, Manchester.
Huddart, Rev. T. P., 14, Mountjoy Square
East, Dublin.
Hudson, George, Monkgate, York.
*Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.LA., 24, Ste-
phen’s Green, Dublin.
Hudson, James, 7,Foxley Road, Kennington.
Hudson, John, Oxford.
Hughes, D. S.,
Hughes, Frederick Robert, Kingstown near
Dublin.
Hughes, H. H., 4, Westland Row, Dublin.
Hughes, John, Grove, Stillorgan, Dublin.
Hull, Arthur H., Donaghadee, Ireland.
*Hull, William Darley, F.G.S., Fairburn,
Rostrevor, Ireland.
Hulley, Dr., St. John’s Street, Manchester.
*Hulse, Edward, Ail Soul’s College, Oxford.
Hume, Arthur, Dawson Street, Dublin.
Humphreys, Joseph, Claremont, Dublin.
Hunt, R. G.,
Hunter, Adam, M.D., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
*Hunter, Adam, M.D., Leeds.
Hunter, Andrew G.
Hunter, Robert, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., High-
gate, London.
Hunter, W. Percival,
Husband, William Dalla, Coney Street, York.
Hussey, Rev. Robert, B.D., Regius Professor
of Ecclesiastical History in the University
of Oxford ; Christ Church, Oxford.
*Hutchison, Graham, 16, Blythswoud Square,
Glasgow.
Hutchinson, James,
Hutton, Daniel, 6, Lower Dominick Street,
Dublin.
Hutton, Edward, M.D., M.R.I.A., 29, Gar-
diner’s Place, Dublin.
Hutton, H., M.R.1LA., 18, Gardiner’s Place,
Dublin.
Hutton, Henry, Mountjoy Square East,
Dublin.
*Hutton, Robert, M.R.1.A., V.P.G.S., Putney
Park, Surrey.
Hutton, Crompton, Putney Park, Surrey.
Hutton, Thomas, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., 14,
Summer Hill, Dublin.
Hutton, Timothy, Clifton Castle, Bedale,
Yorkshire.
*Hutton, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., (Local Trea-
surer,) Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Hyde, Edward, Dukinfield near Manchester.
LIFE MEMBERS, 13
Hyett, William Henry, F.R.S., Painswick,
Gloucestershire.
*Ibbetson, Levett Landen Boscawen, F.G.S.,
22, Upper Phillimore Place, Kensington,
London.
Inglis, James, M.D., Halifax, Yorkshire.
Inglis, Sir Robert Harry, Bart., LL.D., M.P.,
F.R.S., F.S.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 7, Bed-
ford Square, London ; and Milton Bryan,
near Woburn.
*Ingram, Thomas Wells, 85, Bradford Street,
Birmingham.
Treland, Rey. Edmond Stanley, M.A., Mel-
ton Mowbray, Leicestershire.
Ireland, R. S., M.D., 121, Stephen’s Green,
_ Dublin.
Irwin, Rev. Alexander, M.A., Cullenswood,
Dublin.
Isley, William, Bristol.
Jackson, Charles,
Jackson, George Vaughan, M.A., F.C.P.S.,
Curramore, Ballina, Ireland.
*Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Blackwater
Town, Armagh.
Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D., St. An-
drew’s, Scotland.
Jacob, Arthur, M.D., M.R.LA., 23, Ely
Place, Dublin.
*Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough.
James, Captain Henry, R.E., I'.G.S., Phoenix
Park, Dublin.
James, James, Birmingham.
James, Sir John K., Bart., 9, Cavendish
Row, Dublin.
Jardine, James, C.E., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., Edinburgh.
*Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
Jardine Hall, Applegarth, by Lockerby,
Dumfriesshire.
Jarrett, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Professor of
Arabic in the University of Cambridge,
F.C.P.S., Cambridge.
Jebb, Rev. John, 41, Rutland Square, Dublin.
Jeffery, Joshua,
Jeffreys, Rev. R., B.D., Cockfield, Suffolk.
Jellicorse, John, Hunt’s Bank, Manches-
ter.
*Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of Di-
vinity and Ecclesiastical History in the
University of Durham, Durham.
Jennette, Matthew, Hamilton Street, Bir-
kenhead, Cheshire.
*Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Swaffham-Bulbeck, Cambridge-
shire.
*Jerram, Rey. S. John, M.A., Witney, Oxford-
shire.
*Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Examiner in
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in
the University of London; Long Strat-
ten, Norfolk.
Jerrard, Rev. Joseph H., M.A., D.C.L., Ex-
aminer in Classics in the University of
London ; Caius College, Cambridge.
Jesse, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Ard-
wick Green, Manchester.
Jessop, William, jun., Butterley Hall, Derby.
Job, Samuel, 3, Chatham Place, Liverpool.
Johnson, Edward, Field House, Chester.
Johnson, Captain Edward John, R.N.,F.R.S.,
Oxford Terrace, London.
Johnson, John,
Johnson, Percival Norton, F.G.S., 38, Meck-
lenburgh Square, London.
*Johnson, Thomas, Mosley Street, Man-
chester.
Johnson, William, F.G.S., Grosvenor Granite
Wharf, Westminster.
Johnston, Alexander Robert, 19, Great Cum-
berland Place, London.
Johnston, James F. W., M.A., Lecturer in
Chemistry and Mineralogy in the Univer-
sity of Durham, F.R.S. L.&E., F.G.S., Dur-
ham.
Johnston, John, The Delves, St. Helen’s,
Lancashire.
*Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stirling-
shire.
*Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, Bart.,
M.P., M.A., F.G.S., 27, Grosvenor Square,
London; and Hackness Hall,Scarborough.
Jollie, Walter, Edinburgh.
Jones, Benjamin §., Linnard Place, Circus
Road, St. John’s Wood, London.
*Jones, Christopher Hird, 2, Castle Street,
Liverpool.
*Jones, Major Edward, Plympton near Ply-
mouth.
Jones, E. T., Clifton.
Jones, Rev. Harry Longueville, Paris.
*Jones, Josiah, 2, Castle Street, Liverpool.
*Jones, Robert, 59, Pembroke Place, Liver-
pool.
*Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey Street,
Salford, Manchester.
*Joule, James Prescott, New Bailey Street,
Salford, Manchester.
Joy, Henry Holmes, M.A., M.R.LA., 17,
Mountjoy Square East, Dublin.
Joy, J.H.,2, Mountjoy Square South, Dublin.
Joy, W. B., 2, Mountjoy Square South,
Dublin.
+Jubb, Abraham, Halifax.
Jukes, J. B., M.A., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pat-
tingham, near Wolverhampton.
Kane, Robert, M.D., Professor of Natural
and Experimental Philosophy to the Royal
Dublin Society, and of Chemistry to the
Apothecaries’ Hall ‘of Ireland, M.R.I.A.,
Dublin.
Kay, JohnCunliff, Fairfield Hall near Skipton.
*Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House,
Bury, Lancashire.
Kay, Robert, West Bank, Bolton, Lancashire.
*Keleher, William, Cork Library, Cork.
Kelly, J. C.
Kelsall, J., Rochdale, Lancashire.
*Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire.
Kenedy, Rev. J., D.D.
14 LIFE MEMBERS.
Kennedy, John, Manchester.
Kenny, Mathias, M.D.
Kenrick, Rev. George, Hampstead.
Kenrick, George 8., West Bromwich, near
Birmingham.
Kenrick, Rey.John, M.A., 16, Gillygate, York.
*Kenrick, Samuel, Handsworth Hall, near
Birmingham.
Kent, J. C., Chamber Court, near Upton-
on-Severn.
*Kerr, Archibald, Glasgow.
Kerr, James M., Glasgow.
*Kerr, Robert, jun., Glasgow.
Kerr, Stewart, Hyde Park Foundry, Glasgow.
Key, Lieut, C. H., 2nd Dragoon Guards,
104, Princes Street, Edinburgh,
Kidd, John, M,D., Regius Professor of Me-
dicine, and Aldrich’s Professor of and
Lee’s Lecturer in Anatomy in the Univer-
sity of Oxford, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S,, Hon.
M.C.P.S., Oxford.
King, The Honourable James, M.R.ILA.,
Mitchelstown Castle, Co. Cork.
King, Joseph, Everton, Liverpool.
King, Richard, 4, Piccadilly, London.
King, Rev. Samuel, M.A,, F.R.A.S,, The
Wilderness, Dartmouth, Devon.
King, William Poole, Bristol.
Kingston, A. J,, Mosstown,Longford, Ireland.
Kinnear, J, G., F.R.S.E., Glasgow.
Kirkpatrick, Rev. W. B., 2, Cabra Road,
Phipsborough, Dublin.
Kirshaw, James, High Street, Manchester.
Knight, Sir A. J., M.D., Sheffield,
Knight, Henry, Birmingham,
Knipe, J. A., 9, Wine Office Court, Fleet
Street, London.
*Knowles, Edward R. J., 23, George Street,
Ryde, Isle of Wight.
Knowles, George Beauchamp, F.L.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in Queen’s College, and
Hon. Sec. to the Birmingham Botanical
Society ; St. Paul’s Square, Birmingham.
Knowles, John, jun., London Road, Man-
chester,
Knowles, L. P., Liverpool.
*Knowles, William, 15, Park Place, Clifton,
Bristol.
*Knox, G. James, 1, Maddox Street, Regent
Street, London.
Knox, Henry, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Knox, Rey. H. B., M.R.J.A., Deanery, Had-
leigh, Suffolk.
Knox, TeiPs,
Kurtz, Andrew, Upper Stanhope Street, Li-
yerpool.
Lace, Ambrose, Liverpool.
Lacy, Henry C., Kenyon House, Manchester.
*Lacy, Henry C. jun., Queen’s College, Oxford.
Laird, John, Birkenhead, Cheshire.
Lamb, David, Liverpool.
Lambert, Richard, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Lane, Richard, Manchester.
Lang, Gabriel H.,
Langley, George, Boxford, Suffolk.
*Langton, William, Manchester.
*Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.G.S., F.H.S., F.R.A.S., 52,
Berkeley Square, London; and Bowood
Park, Wiltshire.
Lanyon, Charles,
Laprimandaye, Rev. Charles, M.A., Leyton.
*Larcom, Captain Thomas A., R.E., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.R.G.S., Ordnance Survey
Office, Phcenix Park, Dublin.
Lassell, William, F.R.A.S., Starfield, West
Derby Road, Liverpool.
*La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., Castle
Street, Dublin.
Lauder, Sir Thomas Dick, Bart., F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S., Edinburgh.
Law, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S., Boxford,
Suffolk.
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles, Escrick
Park, near York.
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby, Es-
crick Park, near York.
Lawrence, William, F.R.S., 18, Whitehall
Place, London.
*Lawson, Andrew, M.P., Boroughbridge,
Yorkshire.
Laycock, Thomas, M.D., Petergate, York.
Leadbetter, John, Glasgow.
*Leah, Henry, Byerley Hall near Bradford,
Yorkshire.
*Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield.
*Leather, John Towlerton, Dam House near
Sheffield.
Lee, Daniel, Crescent, Salford, Manchester.
Lee, Henry, M.D., F.L.S., 21, Charlotte
Street, Bloomsbury, London.
*Lee, Rev. James Prince, M.A., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., King Edward’s School,
Birmingham.
*Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S., 5, College, Doctor’s Commons,
London ; and Hartwell House, near Ayles-
bury, Buckinghamshire.
Leechman, James, Glasgow.
Leeson, H. B., M.A., M.D., F.C.P.S., M.R.L.,
St. Thomas’s Hospital, and Greenwich.
*Lefroy, Lieut., R.A., Woolwich.
*Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., F.G.S., High
Legh, Cheshire.
Legh, Rev. H. C., High Legh, Cheshire.
Legh, P. T., 116, Lower Gardiner Street,
Dublin.
Leigh, John Shaw, Childerall Hall, near
Liverpool.
*Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of,
M.R.L.A., F.H.S., F.Z.S., 6, Carlton House
Terrace, London; and Carton House,
Maynooth.
*Lemon,SirCharles,Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.HLS., F.R.G.S.,46,Charles Street, Berke-
ley Square, London; and Carclew, near
Falmouth.
Lentaigne, Joshua, 12, Great Denmark
Street, Dublin.
Lentaigne, Joshua, M,D.,12, Great Denmark
Street, Dublin.
é LIFE MEMBERS.
Lewis, T. D., 58, Cadogan Place, London.
*Lewis, Captain Thomas Locke, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Ibsley Cottage, near
Exeter.
Leyland, John, Rodney Street, Liverpool.
*Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow.
Lightfoot, J. J., 10, Old Burlington Street,
London.
Lindley, John, Ph.D., Professor of Botany in
University College, London, F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.HLS., 21, Regent Street, London.
*Lindsay, Henry L., C.E., Armagh.
*Lingard, John V., Stockport, Cheshire.
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Lyston House near Ross, Herefordshire.
*Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., 5, Token-
house Yard, London.
Lister, J., Great Mersey Street, Liverpool.
Littledale, Harold, Liscard, Cheshire.
Litton, D., 18, Lower Mount Street, Dublin=
Litton, Samuel, M.D., Professor of Botany
and Agriculture to the Royal Dublin So-
ciety, M.R.I.A., Dublin.
Lizars, Alexander J., M.D., Professor of
Anatomy, Marischal College, Aberdeen.
_ Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A., Whittington, Oswestry.
Lloyd, Edward, King Street, Manchester.
Lloyd, Edward J,, Oldfield Hall, Manchester.
Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S., Newbold Ter-
race, Leamington, Warwickshire.
*Lloyd, Rey. Humphrey, D.D., Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, F.R,S., M.R.I.A., Dublin.
Lloyd, Owen, Boyle, Ireland.
Lloyd, R. A., Whittington, Oswestry.
Lloyd, Rees Lewis, 22, Cavendish Street,
Chorlton-upon-Medlock.
*Lloyd, William Horton, F.L.S., F.S.A.,
F.R.G.S., 1, Park Square West, Regent’s
Park, London.
Lock, Edward, Oxford.
Locke, Joseph, Grand Junction Railway,
Liverpool.
Locke, W. O., M.D.,
*Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swanswick near Bath.
Lockhart, Alexander M°Donald, Lee.
Loder, J. 8., Bath.
Lodge, Rev. John, M.A., Principal Librarian
in the University of Cambridge, F.G,S.,
F.C.P.8., Magdalen College, Cambridge.
*Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S., Caius Col-
lege, Cambridge.
*Logan, William Edmond, F.G.S., Hart Lo-
gan’s, Esq., 4, York Gate, London.
London, Right Hon, Charles James Blom-
field, D.D., Lord Bishop of, London
House, St. James’s Square, London.
Longfield, Mountifort, LL.D., M.R.LA.,
Regius Professor of Law in the Univer-
sity of Dublin, 6, Fitzwilliam Square,
Dublin.
Longridge, W. S., jun., Bedlington, North-
umberland.
Lowe, George, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.A.S., 39,
Finsbury Circus, London.
Lowndes, Matthew D., Seaforth near Liver-
pool.
15
Lowndes, W., Egremont, Cheshire.
Loyd, Samuel Jones, F.G.S., 22, Norfolk
Street, Park Lane, London ; and Wickham
Park, Bromley.
*Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A.,
V.P. & Treas. R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., 23,
St. James’s Place, London; and High
Elms, Farnborough, Kent.
Lucas, Edward,
*Lucas, William, The Mills, near Sheffield.
Lucena, J. L., 4, Garden Court, Temple,
* London.
Lutwidge, R. W.S., M.A., Old Square, Lin-
coln’s Inn, London.
*Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., F.C.P.8., R. W.
8. Lutwidge’s, Esq., Old Square, Lincoln’s
Inn, London,
*Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 16, Hart Street, Blooms-
bury, London.
Lyon, Dr., Oxford Road, Manchester.
Lyte, Rev. H. F., Berryhead, near Brixham.
M*Adam, James, Secretary to the Natural
History Society, Belfast.
*M°AI, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brighstone,
Newport, Isle of Wight.
*M°Andrew, Robert, 84, Upper Parliament
Street, Liverpool.
*MacBrayne, Robert, Barony Glebe, Glasgow.
Macbride, John David, D.C.L., Principal of
Magdalen Hall, and Lord Almoner’s Reader
in Arabic, Oxford, F.R.S., F.G.S., Oxford.
M°Clelland, James, 17, South Hanover
Street, Glasgow.
*M¢Connel, James, Manchester.
*MacCullagh, James, LL.D., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of
Dublin, F.R.S., M.R.LA., Trinity College,
Dublin.
M°Cullagh, John, A.B.,Trinity College, Dub-
lin.
*McCulloch, George, 16, Clayland’s Road,
Clapham Road, London.
Macdonald, William, M.D., F.R.S.H., F.L.S.,
F.G.8., Edinburgh.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G., Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin.
*MacDonnell, Rey. Richard, D.D., M.R.LA.,
Trinity College, Dublin.
Macdougall, A. H., 46, Parliament Street,
London.
*M°Ewan, John, Glasgow.
MacGregor, Alexander, Messrs. Dennistoun
and Co., Glasgow.
MacGregor, J., Woolton Hill, Liverpool.
MacGregor, Robert, 17, Monteith Row,
Glasgow.
MacInnes, Major-General, Fern Lodge,
Hampstead, Middlesex.
Macintosh, Colonel A. F., K.H., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Glasgow,
Macintosh, D. M., London.
M*Kain, Daniel, C.E,, Miller Street, Glasgow.
Mackay, J. T., M.R.LA., Cottage Terrace,
Dublin.
-
16 LIFE MEMBERS.
M‘Kenny, John, M.R.D.S., 13, Beresford
Place, Dublin.
Mackenzie, Rev. Kenneth, Borrowstoness,
Linlithgowshire.
*Mackenzie, Sir Francis A., Bart., Kinellan
by Dingwall, Scotland.
Mackerral, William, Paisley.
Mackie, Rev. J. M., M.A., Christ Church,
Oxford.
Mackinlay, James, M.D.,
Maclagan, D., M.D., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
M° Master, Maxwell, 97 Grafton St., Dublin.
MacNeil, Sir John, G.C.B., F.R.S.E.,
F.R.G.S., Queen Street, Edinburgh.
MacNeill, Sir John, LL.D., Professor of Civil
Engineering in the University of Dublin,
F.R.S., M.R.1.A., F.R.A.S., 9, Whitehall
Place, London.
Macredie, P. B. M., F.R.S.#., trates Ayr-
shire.
Magan, F., 20, Usher’s Island, Dublin.
Magor, J. P., Redruth, Cornwall.
Maguise, Bernard, Belmont, Co. Westmeath.
Mahon, Sir James F. Ross, Bart., Castlegar,
Ireland.
Malcoim, Frederick, Paternoster ates Lon-
don.
.Malcolm, Neil, Porttalloch, Tockdlphend.
Malcolm, William, Glasgow.
Mallet, Robert, M.R.LA., 94, Capel Street,
Dublin.
Malley, A. J.
Marriott, John, Allerton, Liverpool.
Marsden, Richard, Norfolk St., Manchester.
Marsh, Sir Henry, Bart., M.D., M.R.LA.,
9, Merrion Square North, Dublin.
Marshall, James, Headingley near Leeds.
*Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., Head-
ingley near Leeds.
Marsland, James, jun., Burnley, Lancashire.
Martin, Rev. F., M.A., F.C.P.S., Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge.
Martin, James, Gate-Helmsley near York.
Martin, Studley, 3, Chesterfield Street, Li-
verpool.
*Martineau, Rey. James, 12, Mason Street,
Edge Hill, Liverpool.
*Mason, Thomas, York.
Massy, Hugh, Lord, Hermitage, Castlecon-
nel, Co. Limerick.
*Mather, Daniel, 58, Mount Pleasant, Liver-
pool.
*Mather, John, 58, Mount Pleasant, Liver-
pool.
Mather, William, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Mathews, William P., Secretary to Board
of Charitable Bequests, Dublin Castle,
Dublin.
Maund, Benjamin, F.L.S., Bromsgrove, Wor-
cestershire.
*Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnnebrogue,
Downpatrick, Ireland.
Maynard, Henry, M.D., London.
Maynard, Thomas, Birkenhead, Cheshire.
*Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.LA., 22, Upper
Merrion Street, Dublin.
Mayne, Edward Ellis, French Street, Dublin.
*Meadows, James, Green Hill, Greenheys,
Manchester.
Mellor, J., 24, Shaw Street, Liverpool.
Melville, Robert, Viscount, K.T., Chancellor
of the University of St. Andrew’s, F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 3, Somerset Place,
Somerset House, London; and Melville
Castle, near Edinburgh.
Merz, Philip,
*Meynell, Thomas, jun., F.L.S., Gillygate,
York.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., Perth.
Miller, John, C.E., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
*Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter.
Miller, William Hallows, M.A., Professor
of Mineralogy in the University of Cam-
bridge, F.R.S., F.G.S., Sec.C.P.S., Cam- -
bridge.
Milligan, Robert, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York.
Milne, Sir David, K.C.B., F.R.S.E., Edin-
burgh.
*Milne, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Edin-
burgh.
Milne, Captain, R.N., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
Milne, Thomas, Warley House near Halifax.
Milnes, Richard M., M.P., Frystone Hall,
Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.
Milton, William Thomas Spenser, Viscount,
F.R.G.S., 4, Grosvenor Square, London ;
and Wentworth House, Rotherham.
Mollan, John, M.D., 32, Upper Glo’ster
Street, Dublin.
Molyneux,James, 91,Duke Street, Liverpool.
Molyneux, Lieut., Junior United Service
Club, London.
*Money, Rev. Kyrle Ernle, M.A., Much
March Parsonage, Ledbury,Herefordshire.
Monteagle, Thomas, Lord, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S., 37, Lower Brook Street, Lon-
don; and Trenchard, Co. Limerick.
Montgomery, Matthew, Glasgow.
Moore, Alexander, Preston.
Moore, John, 12, Broad Weir, Bristol.
Moore, John Carrick, F.G.S., 37, Hertford
Street, Mayfair, London.
Moore, John, F.L.S., Cornbrook Terrace,
Manchester.
Moore, W. D., 9, St. Anne Street, Dublin.
Morant, Rev. James, Wakefield.
*More, John Shank, Professor of the Law of
Scotland in the University of Edinburgh,
F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
Morgan, Captain Evan, R.A., Ballineolig,
Co. Cork.
Morgan, James, High Sheriff, Co. Cork.
Morgan, John Minter, 12, Stratton Street,
Piccadilly, London.
Morgan, William, D.C.L.,
Moriarty, Merion, M.D., Dowry Parade,
Clifton.
Morley, George, South Parade, Leeds.
Morpeth, George William Frederick, Vis-
count, M.A.,12, Grosvenor Place, London;
and Castle Howard, Yorkshire.
LIFE MEMBERS. 17
*Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen, B.A., Crambe,
Yorkshire.
Morris, S., M.R.D.S., Fortwein, Clontarf,
near Dublin.
Morrison, Major-General, Madras Artillery,
C.B., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., 10, Lower
Grosvenor Street, London; and Green-
field, Clackmannan, near Alloa, Scotland.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., 15, Portland Place, London; and
Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon-Trent, Staf-
fordshire.
Moss, John, Otterspool near Liverpool.
Motte, W. R. Standish.
Mounsey, John, Sunderland.
Mowbray, James, Combus, Clackmannan,
Scotland.
Muir, Rev. John, St. Vigean’s by Arbroath.
Munby, Arthur Joseph, Blake Street, York.
*Murchison, Roderick Impey, President of
the Royal Geographical Society, V.P.R.S.,
Hon. M.RB.LA.,F.L.S., V.P.G.S.(GENERAL
Srcrerary), 16, Belgrave Square, Lon-
‘ don.
Murley, C. H., Cheltenham.
Murray, George,
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 50, Albe-
marle Street, London.
*Murray, John, C.E., Pier House, Sunderland.
Murray, Stewart, Glasgow.
*Murray, William, Polmaise, Stirling.
Murray, William, Marshall Meadow near
Berwick.
Muschamp, Emerson, Sunderland.
Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D.,
Archdeacon of Craven, F.C.P.S., Halifax.
oy iia John, Toureen, Cappoquin, Ire-
and. ;
Muspratt, James, 9, Pembroke Place, Liver-
pool.
Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph.D., Seaforth
-Hall, near Liverpool.
Muston, George, Lower Park Row, Bristol.
Myers, Rev. F., Keswick, Cumberland.
Nadin, Joseph, Manchester.
Naime, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
*Napier, Johnstone, Dinting Vale near Man-
chester.
Nasmyth, Alexander, F.L.S., F.G.S., 13 a,
George Street, Hanover Square, London.
Nasmyth, Robert, F.R.S.E., 78, George
Street, Edinburgh.
Napper, J. L., Loughrea, Co. Meath.
Neilson, Robert, Woolton Hill, Liverpool.
Neilson, J. B., Glasgow.
Nelson, Rev. G. M., B.D., Boddicot Grange,
near Banbury.
Ness, John, Helmsley near York.
Nevin, Ninian.
New, Herbert, Evesham, Worcestershire.
Newall, Henry, Hare Hill, Rochdale, Lanca-
shire.
*Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead-upon-
Tyne.
Newbery, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Manchester.
Newbigging, P. S. K., M.D., Edinburgh.
Newby, Richard,
*Newman, Francis William, 4, Cavendish
Place, Chorlton-upon-Medlock, near Man-
chester.
*Newman, William,Darley Hall near Barnsley,
Yorkshire.
*Newman, William Lewin, F.R.A.S., St. He-
len’s Square, York.
Nicholl, Iltyd, Usk, Monmouth.
*Nicholls, John Ashton, Ancoat’s Crescent,
Manchester.
*Nicholson, C., Cowan Head, Kendal.
*Nicholson, John A., M.D.,M.R.I.A., Balrath,
Kells, Co. Meath.
Nicholson, Richard, Monk Bar, York.
Nicholson, Robert, C.E., Royal Arcade,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Normanby, Constantine Henry, Marquis of,
Mulgrave Castle, Whitby, Yorkshire.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart., M.P.,
F.G.S., Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
Norris, Charles, St. John’s House, Halifax.
Norris, William, Halifax.
*Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, President of the Royal Society,
F.S.4., Hon. M.R.LA., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Vice Patron C.P.S., 145, Picca-
dilly, London; and Castle Ashby, North-
amptonshire.
*Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G.,
LL.D., Chancellor of the University of
. Cambridge, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
. F.R.G.S., Patron C.P.S., Northumberland
‘House, Strand, London; Alnwick Castle,
Northumberland.
*Norwich, Edward Stanley, D.D., Lord Bi-
shop of, President of the Linnean Society,
F.R.S., Hon.M.R.1.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
38, Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, Lon-
_ don; and the Palace, Norwich.
“Noverre, R., M.D.,
Nowell, John, Farnley Hall, Huddersfield.
Nurse, William Mountford, 4, Upper Gore,
Kensington, London.
O’Beirne, James, M.D., 23, North Cumber-
land Street, Dublin.
O’Brien, Sir Lucius, Bart., M.R.I.A., Dro-
moland, Newmarket-on- Fergus, Ireland.
O’Callaghan, George, Tullas, Co. Clare.
O’Grady, M., M.D., Lamancha, Dublin.
*Q’Reardon, John, M.D., 35, York Street,
Dublin. :
O'Reilly, Lieut.-Colonel, Brockmouth, Dun-
bar, Scotland.
Odgers, Rev. William James, Plymouth.
Olier, Isaac, M.D., Colegnes, Booterstown,
Dublin.
Oliphant, William, jun., Edinburgh.
Ormerod, George Wareing, M.A., F.G.S.,
( Local Treasurer), 2, Essex Street, Man-
chester.
Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D., M.R.1L.A.,
(Local Treasurer), 13, South Frederick
Street, Dublin.
18
Orpen, John H., LL.D., M.R.L.A., 13, South
Frederick Street, Dublin.
*Orpen, Charles Edward H., M.D., M.R.LA.,
34, Hamilton Square, Woodside, Birken-
head, Cheshire.
Orr, A. 8., Herbert Place, Dublin.
Orrell, Alfred, Mosley Street, Manchester.
*Osler, A, Follett, Birmingham.
Osler, Thomas, Birmingham.
*Ossalinski, Count, Chestnut Hill, Ambleside,
Westmoreland.
Overend, Wilson, Sheffield.
*Outram, Benjamin Fonseca, M.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 1, Hanover Square,
London.
*Owen, Jeremiah, H. M. Dockyard, Ports-
mouth.
Owen, Richard, M.D., Hunterian Professor
of Anatomy in the Royal College of Sur-
geons of England, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.G.S.,
Hon. M.C.P.S., Royal College of Surgeons,
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London.
Owens, John, Chorlton-upon-Medlock near
Manchester.
*Palmer, William, St. Giles’s, Oxford.
Palmer, William; M.A., F.G.S., Gresham
Lecturer in Law, 6, King’s Bench Walk,
Temple, London.
Palmes, William Lindsay, M.A., Naburn,
near York.
*Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool.
Parker, Joseph, F.G.S., Upton Cheyney, Bil-
ton near Bristol.
Parker, Richard Dunscombe, Cork.
Parker, Rey. William, M.A., Saham, Norfolk.
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E., 50, Ran-
keilour Street, Edinburgh.
Parnell, E. A., 7, Cambell Street, Liverpool.
Partington, James Edge, Oxford Road, Man-
chester.
Partridge, Richard, Professor of Anatomy in
King’s College, London, F.R.S., 17, New
Street, Spring Gardens, London.
*Pasley, Major-General Charles William, C.B.,
Royal Engineers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S., Board of Trade, White-
hall.
*Patterson, Robert, 3, College Square North,
Belfast.
*Pattinson, Hugh Lee, F.G.S., Millfield Ter-
race, Gateshead-upon-Tyne.
Paul, Henry, Woodside House, Glasgow.
Paxton, James, Rugby, Warwickshire.
Paxton, Joseph, F.L.S., F.H.S., Chatsworth, |
Derbyshire.
Peacock, Very Rev. George, D.D., Dean of |
Ely, Lowndean Professor of Astronomy
in the University of Cambridge, V-P.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., Deanery, Ely.
Pearsall, Thomas John, Assistant Secretary
and Curator to the Literary and Philoso-
phical Society, Hull.
Pearson, Charles, Greenwich.
Pearson, Rev. Thomas, A.M., Queen’s Col- |
lege, Cambridge.
j
t
LIFE MEMBERS.
Pearson, Rev. William, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., Hon.M.C.P.S., South Kilworth,
near Welford, Northamptonshire.
Pease, Joseph, Darlington, Durham.
Peckitt, Henry, Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk,
Yorkshire.
ees Algernon, Wisbech, Cambridge-
shire.
*Peckover, Daniel, Woodhall near Bradford,
Yorkshire.
*Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, Mut-
ley House near Plymouth.
Peel, Right Hon. Sir Robert, Bart. D.C.L.,
First Lord of the Treasury, M.P., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Whitehall Gar-
dens, London; and Drayton Manor, Staf-
fordshire.
*Peel, George, Higher Ardwick Lodge, Man-
chester.
*Peile, Williamson, F.G.S., Lowther Street,
Whitehaven.
Pemberton, Rev. Robert Norgrave, F.G.S.,
Stretton, Salop.
Pemberton, R. S., Belmont, Durham.
Pendarves, Edward William Wynne, M.A.,
M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.H.S., 36, Eaton
Place, Belgrave Square, London; and
Pendarves, Truro, Cornwall.
Pennefather, Right Hon. Edward, Lord
Chief Justice of the Queen’s Bench, 5,
Fitzwilliam Square, Dublin.
*Perigal, Frederick, 33, Torrington Square,
London.
Perkins, Rev. R. B., M.A., Wotton-under-
Edge, Gloucestershire.
Perry, Rev. Charles, M.A.,
Perry, James, Obelisk Park, Blackrock,
Dublin.
*Peters, Edward, Temple Row, Birmingham.
Pett, Samuel, F.G.S., 40, Tavistock Square,
London.
Peyton, Abel, Birmingham.
*Philips, Mark, M.P., Park near Manchester.
Philips, Robert N., The Park near Prestwich,
Manchester.
*Phillips, John, Professor of Geology in the
University of Dublin, F.R.S., F.G.S., (As-
SISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY), St.
Mary’s Lodge, York.
Phillips, Richard, F.R.S. L.&E., F.G.S., Mu-
seum of Economic Geology,Craig’s Court,
Charing Cross, London.
Phillips, Rev. Samuel, Wootton Priory, Li-
verpool.
*Philpott, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.C.P.S., Catha-
rine Hall, Cambridge.
Pigott, J. H. Smith, Brockley Hall, Bristol.
*Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork.
Pilgrim, Charles H., F.R.A.S., 17, York Ter-
race, Regent’s Park, London.
Pim, George, M.R.I.A., Brennan’s Town,
Cabinteely, Dublin.
Pim, James, jun., M.R.I.A., Monkstown,
Dublin.
Pim, Jonathan, jun., Parnall Place, Dublin,
Pim, W. H., Monkstown, Dublin.
LIFE MEMBERS. 19
Pinney, Charles, Clifton.
*Pitt, George, 4, Great Portland Street,
London.
Playfair, Lyon, Ph.D., F.G.S., Manchester.
Plumptre, Frederick Charles, D.D., Master
of University College, Oxford; University
College, Oxford.
Plumptre, R. B.,M.A., Forthampton, Tewkes-
bury.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, D.D., Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.
Pollock, A., 16, Capel Street, Dublin.
*Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth.
*Poppelwell, Matthew, Rosella Place, Tyne-
mouth.
Porter, Rev. Charles, B.D., Stamford.
*Porter, George Richardson, F.R.S., M.R.A.S.,
Board of Trade, Whitehall, London.
*Porter, Henry John, Tandragee Castle, Co.
Armagh.
Porter, Rev. T. H., D.D., Trinity College,
Dublin.
*Portlock, Captain Joseph Ellison, Royal En-
gineers, F.R.S., M.R.LA.,F.G.S.,F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S., Corfu.
Potter, Henry Glasford, F.L.S., F.G.S., Ridley
Place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Potter, John, George Street, Manchester.
Potter, Richard, M.A., F.C.P.S., Professor of
Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in
University College, London.
Potter, S. T., Drumsra, Co. Leitrim.
Potter, Thomas, jun., George Street, Man-
chester.
Potter, William, Birkenhead, Cheshire.
*Powell, Rev. Baden, M.A.,Savilian Professor
of Geometry in the University of Oxford,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Oxford.
Powell, Rev. Dr., Madras.
Pratt, Rev. J. H., M.A., F.C.P.S., Calcutta.
*Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
55, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London; and
Lansdowne Place West, Bath.
Prest, Edward, St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
Prest, John, Blossom Street, York.
Preston, Cooper, Flasby Hall, Skipton, York-
shire.
*Prestwich, Joseph, jun., F.G.S., 20, Mark
Lane, London.
*Pretious, Thomas, Royal Dockyard, Pem-
broke.
Prevost, John Lewis, Consul-General for
Switzerland, Treas. G.S., 3, Suffolk Place,
Pall Mall East, London,
Price, J. T., Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
Price, Thomas, Manchester.
Prichard, James Cowles, M.D., F.R.S., Hon.
M.R.1.A.,F.R.G.S., Hon.M.C.P.S., Bristol.
Prideaux, John, Plymouth.
*Prince, Rey. John Charles, 63, St. Anne
Street, Liverpool.
Pring, Captain Daniel, R.N., Honiton, Devon.
*Pritchard, Andrew, 162, Fleet Street, Lon-
don.
Proctor, Thomas, 4, Guinea Street, Bristol.
Protheroe, Captain W. G. B., Dolewilim, St.
Clair’s, Carnarvonshire.
*Prower, Rey.J. M.,M.A., Swindon, Wiltshire.
*Pumphrey, Charles, New Town Row, Bir-
mingham.
Punnett, Rev. John, M.A.,F.C.P.S.,St.Earth,
Cornwall.
Putland, George, Lower Mount Street, Dub-
lin.
Radcliffe, John, Layland, Chorley, Lanca-
shire.
Radford, J. G., 11, Catharine Street, Liver-
pool.
*Radford, William, M.D., Sidmouth.
Radice, Evasio, LL.D., Trinity College, Dub-
lin.
Radstock, Lord, 26, Portland Place, London.
Raffles, Rev. Thomas, D.D., Edge Hill, Li-
verpool.
Rake, Joseph, Charlotte Street, Bristol.
Ramsay, Sir James, Bart., Bamff House,
Perthshire.
*Ramsay, William, M.A., F.S.S., Professor of
Humanity in the University of Glasgow,
(Local Treasurer), The College, Glasgow.
*Rance, Henry, Cambridge.
Rand, John, Wheatley Hill, Bradford.
Randolph, Rev. J. H., M.A., F.G.S., Brad-
field, Manningtree, Essex.
Ranelagh, Lord, 3, Bolton Row, London.
Ransome, Thomas, Altringham, Cheshire.
Rashleigh, Jonathan, Menabilly, Foy, Corn-
wall.
Rathbone, Theodore W., Allerton Priory,
near Liverpool.
Rathbone, William, Liverpool.
Rathbone, William, jun., Liverpool.
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D., Bootham,
York.
*Rawlins, John, Birmingham.
Rawson, Christopher, F.G.S., Hope House,
Halifax.
Rawson, R. W., F.R.G.S., London.
Rawson, T.S., Hyde Park Road, Liverpool.
*Rawson, Thomas William, Saville Lodge,
Halifax.
Read, John, Derwent Hall, Sheffield.
*Read, William Henry Rudston, M.A., F.L.S.,
F.H.S., Hayton near Pocklington, York-
shire.
*Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S.,
Stone Vicarage, Aylesbury.
Redwood, Isaac, Cae Wern near Neath,
South Wales.
Reid, W., Glasgow.
Reid, John, Glasgow.
Rennie, Sir John, Knt., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., 15, Whitehall Place, London.
Rennie, George, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 21, Whitehall Place,
London.
*Renny, H. L., M.R.1.A., Dublin.
Reynolds, W., M.D., Liverpool.
Reynolds, William, 38, Water Street, Liver-
pool.
20 LIFE MEMBERS.
Rice, The Hon. 8. E. Spring, Custom House,
London.
*Richardson, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S., Haslar Hospital, Gosport.
Richardson, James, Glasgow.
Richardson, Thomas, Glasgow.
Richardson, Thomas, Montpelier Hill, Dublin.
Richardson, Rev. William, Durham.
Richardson, William, Micklegate, York.
Rickman, Thomas, F.S.A., Birmingham.
*Riddell, Lieut. Charles J. B., R.A., F.R.S.,
Woolwich.
Ridgway, John, Cauldon Place, Potteries,
Staffordshire.
Rigg, Robert, F.R.S., Greenford, Middlesex.
Ripon, Charles Thomas Longley, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, The Palace, Ripon, Yorkshire.
Robb, George,
*Roberts, Richard, Manchester.
Roberton, John, Oxford Road, Manchester.
Robins, William, Stourbridge.
*Robinson, John, Shamrock Lodge, Athlone,
Treland.
Robinson, Jonathan, Spring Bank, Stock-
ort.
Raia Rev. Thomas R., D.D., M.R.I.A.,
F.R.A.S., Observatory, Armagh.
*Robson, Rev. John, D.D., Glasgow.
Rochfort, J. S.
Rodger, Robert, Glasgow.
Roe, H., M.R.LA., 2, Fitzwilliam Square,
Dublin.
Roe, G. N., Donnybrook, Dublin.
*Rogers, Rev. Canon, M.A., Redruth, Corn-
wall.
*Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., V.P.S.A., F.R.G.S., 18, Upper
Bedford Place, London.
Rosebery, Archibald John, Earl of, K.T.,
F.R.S., 139, Piccadilly, London ; and Dal-
meney Park, Linlithgowshire.
Ross, Captain Sir James Clark, R.N., D.C.L.,
V.P.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Elliott Place,
Blackheath, Kent.
Ross, William, Cannon Street, Manchester.
Rosse, William, Earl of, F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Birr Castle,
King’s County, Ireland.
Rosson, John, Moore Hall near Ormskirk,
Lancashire.
Rotch, Benjamin, 1, Furnival’s Inn, Holborn,
London.
Rothman, Richard W., M.D., Registrar of
the University of London, F.R.A.S.,
F.C.P.S., A 6, Albany, London.
*Rothwell, Peter, Bolton.
*Roughton, William, jun., Kettering, North-
amptonshire.
*Rowland, John, Railway Station, and King-
ston Street, Hull.
*Rowntree, Joseph, Pavement, York.
*Royle, John Forbes, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., Professor of Materia Medica and
Therapeutics in King’s College, London;
4, Bulstrode Street, Manchester Square,
London.
*Rushout, Captain George (1st Life Guards),
F.G.S., The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall,
London.
Russel, John, Risca near Newport.
Russell, Frederick, Brislington near Bristol.
*Russell, James, (Local Treasurer), Birming-
ham.
Russell, John Scott, M.A., F.R.S.E., 4, Mid-
dle Scotland Yard, Whitehall, London;
and Greenock.
Russell, John, Dublin.
Russell, Robert, View Forth, Edinburgh.
Russell, Rev. T., Enfield.
Rutson, William, Newby Wishe, Northal-
lerton, Yorkshire.
*Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham.
*Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, Royal Ar-
tillery, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. (GENERAL
SEecrerary), Woolwich.
Sadleir, Rev.Francis, D.D., M.R.1.A., Provost
of the University of Dublin ; Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin.
Salkeld, Joseph, Penrith, Cumberland.
Salmon, Wm. Wroughton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
9, Park Square, Regent’s Park, London;
and Devizes, Wiltshire.
Salusbury, Sir John, Knt., North Wales.
Sambrooke, T. G., Arundel Wharf, Water
Street, Strand, London.
Sanders, John Naish, F.G.S., Fielding House,
Clifton, Bristol.
*Sanders, William, F.G.S., (Local Treasurer),
Park Street, Bristol.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B., Sallow Glin, Tar-
bert, Co. Kerry.
Sargent, Richard S., M.D., 9, Upper Gardi-
ner Street, Dublin.
Satterfield, Joshua, Greenheys, Manchester.
*Satterthwaite, Michael, M.D., Grosvenor
Street, Manchester.
Saunders, William, Hampton Street, Ply-
mouth.
*Schemman, J. C. (Hamburgh), at L. Thorn-
ton’s, Esg., Camp Hill, Birmingham.
*Schlick, Le Chevalier, Member of the Im-
perial Academies of Milan, Venice, &c., at
Rey. Charles Hassell’s, Fox Earth’s, near
Newcastle-under-Lyne, Staffordshire.
Schofield, Benj., Crossfield near Rochdale,
Lancashire.
Schofield, Joseph, Littleborough near Roch-
dale, Lancashire.
*Schofield, Robert, Rochdale, Lancashire.
Schofield, W. F., 34, Portland Street, Man-
chester.
Scholefield, William, Birmingham.
*Scholes, T. Seddon, Bank, Cannon Street,
Manchester.
*Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster.
Schunck, Edward, Belfield near Rochdale,
Lancashire.
*Scoresby, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S. L.&E.,
Bradford, Yorkshire.
Scott, James, Q.C., Merrion Square South,
Dublin.
- a
LIFE MEMBERS. 21
Searle, William, Cambridge.
*Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., Woodwardian
Professor of Geology in the University of
Cambridge, and Prebendary of Norwich,
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S., FR.A.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.
Selby, Prideaux John, F.L.S., F.G.S., Twizell
House, Belford, Northumberland.
Selwyn, Rev. William, M.A., Prebendary of
Ely, F.C.P.S., Branston, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
*Semple, Robert, Richmond Lodge, Waver-
tree, Liverpool.
Serle, Rev. Philip, B.D., F.G.S., Oddington,
Oxford.
Seymour, George Hicks, Stonegate, York.
Seymour, John, 21, Bootham, York.
*Shaen, William, Crix, Witham, Essex.
*Shanks, James, C.E.,. 23, Garseube Place,
Glasgow.
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A., Wakefield.
Sharp, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Wakefield.
Sharp, Rev. William, B.A., Wakefield.
*Sharp, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.RAS.,
Humber Bank House, Hull.
Sharpey, William, M.D., Professor of Ana-
tomy and Physiology in University Col-
lege, London ;, and Examiner in Anatomy
and Physiology in the University of Lon-
don, F.R.S. L. & E., 35, Gloucester Cres-
cent, Regent’s Park, London.
Shepherd, Rey. William, LL.D., Gateacre,
Liverpool.
Sheppard, Henry, Clifton, Bristol.
Sheppard, Rev. W. H., B.A., Newland Vicar-
age, Monmouth.
*Sherrard, David Henry, 84, Upper Dorset
Street, Dublin.
Shore, Offley, Sheffield.
Short, Rey. Augustus, M.A., Christ Church,
Oxford.
Shutt, William,
Shuttleworth, John, Stamp Office, Man-
chester.
Sidney, M. J. F., Cowpen, Newcastle.
Sigmond, George, M.D., FES.A., 35, Baker
Street, Portman Square, London.
*Sillar, Zechariah, M.D., Rainford, near Li-
verpool.
Simms, William, F.R.A.S., 138, Fleet Street,
London.
*Simpson, Samuel, Lancaster.
*Simpson, Thomas, M.D., Minster Yard,
York.
Simpson, Thomas, 4, Mount Vernon, Liver-
pool.
Simpson, Thomas, Blake Street, York.
Simpson, William, Hammersmith near Lon-
don.
Singer, Rev. Joseph Henderson, D.D., Pro-
fessor of Modern History in the University
of Dublin, M.R.I.A., Dublin.
*Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy, D.D., M.R.I.A.,
Kilcoleman Parsonage, Claremorris, Co.
Mayo.
Sisson, William, F.G.S., 46, Leicester Square,
London.
Skelmersdale, Edward, Lord, F.R.G.S., La-
tham House, Lancashire.
*Slater, William, Princess Street, Manchester.
*Sleeman, Philip, Windsor Terrace, Ply-
mouth.
Sligo, George, Sea-Cliffe, Haddington, Scot-
land.
Sligo, John, F.R.S.E., Carmyle, Scotland.
*Smales, R. H., Kingston-bottom.
*Smethurst, Rev. Robert, Green Hill, Pil-
kington, near Manchester.
Smethurst, Rev. John, Moreton-Hampstead,
near Exeter.
Smith, Archibald, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.C.P.S.,
Trinity College, Cambridge.
Smith, Rev. B., F.S.A.,
*Smith, Rev. George Sidney, D.D., Professor
of Biblical Greek in the University of Dub-
lin, M.R.I.A., Trinity College, Dublin.
Smith, Henry, Edgbaston near Birming-
ham.
Smith, James, F.R.S.L.&E.,F.G.S.,F.B.G.S.,
Jordan Hill, near Glasgow.
Smith, James, F.G.S., Deanston near Doune,
Stirling.
Smith, James, 9, St. James’s Road, Liver-
pool.
Smith, James, Longsight, Manchester.
Smith, John, Birkenshaw Cottage, Glasgow.
*Smith, John, Welton Garth near Hull.
Smith, John Peter George, Liverpool.
*Smith, Rev. John Pye, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Homerton, Middlesex.
*Smith, Rev. Philip, B.A., Cheshunt College,
Herts.
*Smith, Robert Mackay, Windsor Street,
Edinburgh.
Smith, Samuel,
Smith, Thomas, South Hill Grove, Liver-
pool.
Soden, John,
Soden, J. Smith, Bath.
*Solly, Edward, F.R.S., F.L.S., 38, Bedford
Row, London.
*Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A.,F.R.S.,F.S.A.,
F.G.S,, Surge Hill, King’s Langley, Herts.
Somerset, Edward Adolphus, Duke of, K.G.,
D.C.L., F.RB.S., F.S.A., F.L.S., Park Lane,
London; Bradley House, Mere, Wiltshire.
*Sopwith, Thomas, F.G.S., Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Sorby, Alfred, Sheffield.
Speir, Thomas, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
*Spence, Joseph, Pavement, York.
Spineto, The Marquis, Cambridge.
Spottiswoode, Colonel, United Service Club,
London.
Square, Joseph Elliot, Plymouth.
*Squire, Lovell, Falmouth.
Stagg, J. Dickinson, Middleton-Teasdale, by
Barnard Castle, Durham.
St. Albans, William, Duke of, 80, Piccadilly,
London.
Stamforth, Rev. Thomas, Bolton.
22 LIFE MEMBERS.
Stanger, Joshua, Keswick, Cumberland.
*Stanger, William, M.D., Cape of Good Hope.
Stanley, Rev. A. P., Alderly, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
Stansfield, Hamer, Headingley Lodge near
Leeds.
Stanway, J. Holt, Manchester.
Stapleton, H. M., B.M., 1, Mountjoy Place,
Dublin.
Staveley, T. K., Ripon, Yorkshire.
Stenhouse, John, Glasgow.
Stevenson, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.C.P.S.,
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
Stevenson, H., Birkenhead, Cheshire.
Stevenson, Robert, C.E., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., Baxter’s Place, Edinburgh.
Stewart, Robert, Glasgow.
Stewart, Thomas.
Stiff, James B., 19, Portland Square, Bris-
tol.
Stirling, Archibald, Keir.
Stirling, William, jun., Keir.
St. Leger, Anthony B., 10, Berkeley Square,
London.
Stoddart, George, 11, Russell Square, Lon-
don.
Stowe, William, Buckingham.
Stowell, Rev. W. H., Rotherham, Yorkshire.
Stowell, Rev. H., Acton Square, Salford,
Manchester.
Strachan, James M., The Grove, Teddington,
Middlesex.
Strachey, Richard, Ashwick Grove, Bristol.
*Stratford, William Samuel, Lieut. R.N., Su-
perintendent of the Nautical Almanac,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 6, Notting-Hill Square,
Kensington.
*Strickland, Arthur, Bridlington Quay, York-
shire.
*Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ireland.
Strickland, Hugh Edwin, M.A., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Cracombe House, Evesham.
Strickland, J. E., French Park, Roscommon,
Treland.
Strickland, William, French Park, Roscom-
mon, Ireland.
Strong, Rev. William, Stanground near Pe-
terborough.
Stroud, Rev. Joseph, M.A., Wadham Col-
lege, Oxford.
Stuart, Robert, Manchester.
Stutchbury, Samuel, Curator to the Philo-
sophical and Literary Institution, Bristol,
F.G.S., Hotwells, Bristol.
*Sutcliffe, William, 4, Belmont, Bath.
Sutherland, Alexander John, M.D., F.G.S.,
1, Parliament Street, London.
Sutherland, Alexander Robert, M.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.H.S., 1, Parliament Street, Lon-
don.
Sutton, J. B., Carlisle.
Swanwick, J. W., Hollin’s Vale, Bury, Lan-
cashire.
Sweetman, Walter, M.R.D.S., 4, Mountjoy
Square, Dublin.
*Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel William Henry, F.R.S.,
Hon. M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.AS.,
47, Albion Street, Hyde Park, London.
Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., F-.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., 4, Park Street, Grosvenor
Square, London.
Synge, Alexander H., Glanmore, Ashford,
Co. Wicklow.
Synge, Francis, Glanmore, Ashford, Co.
Wicklow.
Synge, John, Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wick-
low.
Synge, John Hatch, Glanmore, Ashford, Co.
Wicklow.
Tagart, Rey. Edward, F.S.A., F.G.S., 33,
Porchester Terrace, Bayswater.
Talbot, W. H. Fox, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., 31, Sackville Street,
London; Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham.
Taprell, William, 1, Hare Court, Temple,
London.
*Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Manchester.
Taylor, Captain Edward, Barracks, York.
Taylor, Frederick, Everton Terrace, Liverpool.
*Taylor, James, Todmorden Hall, near Roch-
dale, Lancashire.
*Taylor, John, Strensham Court, Worcester-
shire.
*Taylor, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., (Genr-
RAL TREASURER), 2, Duke Street, Adel-
phi; and Sheffield House, Church Street,
Kensington, London.
*Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., Coed Di, near
Mold, Flintshire.
*Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., Wood, Penryn,
Cornwall.
*Taylor, Captain Joseph Needham, R.N., 61,
Moorgate Street, London.
Taylor, Captain P. Meadows, in the Service
of His Highness the Nizam, Hyderabad,
East Indies.
*Taylor, Richard, F.S.A., Assist. Sec. L.S.,
M.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 6,
Charterhouse Square, London.
Taylor, Rey. William, F.R.S.,77, Westbourne
Terrace, Hyde Park, London.
Taylor, William Cooke, LL.D., 38, Arling-
ton Street, Camden Town, London.
Teale, Thomas Pridgin, F.L.S., Leeds.
Teather, John, Alstonley, Cumberland.
Tempest, Colonel, Tong Hall near Leeds.
Tennant, Charles, Glasgow.
*Tennant, James, Professor of Mineralogy in
King’s College, London, F.G.S., 149,
Strand, London.
Tennent, R. J., Belfast.
*Thicknesse, Ralph, jun., Beech Hill, near
Wigan.
*Thodey, Winwood, 4, Poultry, London.
Thom, Rey. David, Falkner Street, Liverpool.
Thom, John, 34, Kent Street, Glasgow.
Thomas, Edward, Charlotte Street, Bristol.
Thomas, George, Great George Street, Bristol.
Thomason, Sir Edward, Knt., Ludlow.
*Thompson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield.
Thompson, George.
LIFE MEMBERS.
Thompson, George.
Thompson, George,Church Street,Liverpool.
Thompson, Harry Stephen, Kirby Hall,
Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.
Thompson, Henry Stafford, Fairfield near
York.
*Thompson, John, Little Stonegate, York.
Thompson, Leonard, Sheriff-Hutton Park,
Yorkshire.
Thompson, Richard John, Kirby Hall, Great
Ouseburn, Yorkshire.
Thompson, Thomas, Hull.
Thompson, William, President of the Natu-
ral History and Philosophical Society of
Belfast ; Donegal Square, Belfast.
Thomson, Anthony Todd, M.D., Professor
of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in
University College, London, F.L.S., 30,
Welbeck Street, London.
*Thomson, Edmund Peel, Manchester.
Thomson, George, Oxford.
*Thomson, James, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Primrose, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
*Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh.
Thomson, Robert Dundas, M.D., Lecturer
on Practical Chemistry in the University
of Glasgow; The College, Glasgow.
Thomson, Thomas, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
Thornely, Thomas, M.P., Liverpool.
*Thornton, Samuel, Camp Hill, Birmingham.
*Thorp, The Venerable Thomas, B.D., Arch-
deacon of Bristol, F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Tri-
nity College, Cambridge.
Thurnam, John, M.D., Retreat, near York.
*Tidswell, Benjamin K., 65, King Street,
Manchester.
Tierney, Edward, M.R.D.S., 15, Lower
Fitzwilliam Street, Dublin.
Tinker, Ebenezer, Melham near Huddersfield. |
*Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S., Briarly Aigburth,
Liverpool.
Tite, William, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Hon. |
Sec. London Institution, 25, Upper Bed-
ford Place, London.
*Tobin, Sir John, Knt., Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
Tobin, Rey. John, Liscard, Cheshire.
Todd, Rev. J. H., D.D., M.R.LA., Trinity |
College, Dublin.
Todhunter, J., 3, College Green, Dublin.
Torrie, Thomas Jameson, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., |
Edinburgh.
Towgood, Edward, St. Neot’s, Huntingdon-
shire.
Townend, John, Polygon, Ardwick, Man-
chester.
Townend, T. S., Polygon, Ardwick, Man- |
chester.
Townend, Thomas, Manchester. :
Townsend, George, Newbury, Berkshire.
*Townsend, Richard E.,Springfield, Norwood.
Townsend, R. W., Derry Ross, Carberry, Co. |
Cork.
Travers, Robert, M.B., 9, Eustace Street,
Dublin.
Tregelles, Nathaniel, Neath Abbey, Gla- |
morganshire.
23
Trench, F. A., St. Catharine’s Park, Dublin.
*Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Northumber-
land.
Trevelyan, Walter Calverley, M.A.,F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Wallington, Northum-
berland.
Tucker, J. M., Clifton, Bristol.
Tuckett, Francis, Frenchay near Bristol.
Tuckett, Frederick, Frenchay near Bristol.
Tuckett, Henry, Frenchay near Bristol.
Tudor, William, Bath.
Tuke, J. H., Lawrence Street, York.
Tuke, Samuel, Lawrence Street, York.
*Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., Caius College,
Cambridge.
Turner, Charles, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Turner, John, Coney Street, York.
*Turner, Samuel, F.R.S., F.G.S,, F.R.AS.,
(Local Treasurer), Liverpool.
Turner, Thomas, M.D., 31, Curzon Street,
May Fair, London.
Turner, William, Halifax.
Twamley, Charles, Dudley, Worcestershire.
*Tweedy, William Mansell, Truro, Cornwall.
*Tyrconnel, John Delayal, Earl of, F.G.S.,
F.H.S., Kiplin Park, near Catterick,
Yorkshire.
Tyrrell, John, Exeter.
Upton, Rev. James Samuel, M.A., F.G.S.,
F.C.P.S., Tankersley, Barnsley, York-
shire.
*Vallack, Rev. Benj. W. S., St. Budeaux, near
Plymouth.
*Vance, Robert, 5, Gardiner’s Row, Dublin.
Vavasour, Sir Henry Mervyn, Bart., Mel-
bourne Hall, near York.
Veitch, A. J., M.D., Galway, Ireland.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., Lower Clayton,
Bucks.
Vernon, George John, Lord, F.H.S., 12,
Great Marlborough Street, London; and
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire. :
Veysie, Rev. Daniel, B.D., Christ Church,
Oxford.
Visgar, Harman, Pyle House, Bristol.
| *Vivian, H. Hussey, Swansea.
Voelker, Professor Charles, Switzerland.
Vye, Nathaniel, Ilfracombe, Devon.
Walker, Edward, Chester.
Walker, Francis, F.L.S., F.G.S., 49, Bedford
Square, London.
Walker, James,C.E.,F.R.S. L. & E.,23, Great
George Street, Westminster.
*Walker, John, Weaste House, Pendleton,
Manchester.
Walker, John, jun., Glasgow.
Walker, John Frederick, Mount Villa, near
York.
*Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Allerton Hall.
*Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., Reader in Ex-
perimental Philosophyin the University of
Oxford, F.R.S., Wadham College, Oxford.
24 LIFE MEMBERS.
Walker, Samuel, Prospect Hill, Pendleton,
Manchester.
*Walker, Thomas, 3, Cannon Street, Man-
chester.
Walker, Rev. W. F., M.A., Greenacres Moor,
Oldham.
Wall, Rey. Charles William, D.D., Professor
of Hebrew in the University of Dublin,
M.R.I.A., Dublin.
Wall,Rev.R.H.,M.A.,6, Hume Street,Dublin.
Wallace, J. R., Isle of Man.
*Wallace, Rev. Robert, F.G.S., 2, Cavendish
Place, Grosvenor Square, Manchester.
Wallinger, Rey. William, Hastings.
Walmesley, Sir Joshua, Knt., Liverpool.
Walmesley, Joshua, Church Street, Liverpool.
Walsh, Johu, (Prussian Consul), Dublin.
Walton, Thomas Todd, jun., King’s Parade,
Bristol.
Wansey, William, F.S.A., 1, Riches Court,
Lime Street, London.
*Warburton, Henry, M.A., M.P., F-.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,45, Cadogan Place, Sloane
Street, London.
Ward, Rev. Richard, M.A., F.C.P.S., 24,
Cadogan Place, London.
Ward, William Sykes, Leath Lodge, Leeds.
Wardell, William, Chester.
*Ware, Samuel Hibbert, M.D., F.R.S.E., Hale
Barns Green, near Altringham, Cheshire.
*Warren, Richard B., Q.C., 35, Leeson Street,
Dublin.
Warwick, W. A., Cambridge.
*Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.,
Halifax, Yorkshire.
Watford, A., Cambridge.
Watkins, James R., Bolton.
Watson, Hewett Cottrell, F.L.S., Thames
Ditton, Surrey.
*Watson, Henry Hough, Bolton-le-Moor.
Watson, James, Glasgow.
Watson, William, Ayr, Scotland.
Watts, William.
Waud, Rev. S. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S.,
Rettenden, Essex.
*Weaver, Thomas, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., F.G.S.,
16, Stafford Row, Pimlico, London ; and
Woodlands, Wrington, Somersetshire.
Webb, Rev. John, M.A., F.S.A., Tretire near
Ross, Herefordshire.
*Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., Tretire
near Ross, Herefordshire.
Webster, B. D., Penns near Birmingham.
Webster, Thomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., 2,
Pump Court, Temple, London.
Weld, Isaac, Hon. Secretary to the Royal
Dublin Society, M.R.LA., Dublin.
Wellstood, John, Moss Street, Liverpool.
Wenlock, Paul Beilby, Lord, 29, Berkeley
Square, London; and Escrick Park, near
York.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon, Went-
worth Castle, near Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*West, William, Highfield House near Leeds.
West, William, M.D., 5, Great Denmark
Street, Dublin.
Westcott, Jasper, 20, Portland Square,
Bristol.
Westhead, Edward, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
near Manchester.
Westhead, John, Manchester.
*Westhead, Joshua Procter, York House,
Manchester.
Wharton, W. L., M.A., Dryburn, Durham.
Wheatstone, Charles, Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in King’s College, Lon-
don, F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., 20, Conduit
Street, London.
Wheeler, Daniel, 24, West Clifton, Bristol.
*Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., Master of
Trinity College, and Professor of Moral
Philosophy in the University of Cam-
bridge, Pres. C.P.S., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A.,
F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Trinity
College, Cambridge.
White, John, jun., Glasgow.
White, William, jun., Moreton-hampstead,
near Exeter.
Whitehouse, William, Exchange Buildings,
Liverpool.
Whiteside, Rev. J. W., Ripon, Yorkshire.
*Whiteside, James, Q.C., M.R.I.A., 2, Mount-
joy Square, Dublin.
Whitley, Rev. Charles Thomas, M.A.,
Reader in Natural Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham, F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S.,
Durham.
*Whitworth, Joseph, Manchester.
*Whyatt, George, jun., Openshaw, Man-
chester.
*Whyte, Thomas, Edinburgh.
*Wickenden, Joseph, F.G.S., Birmingham.
Wigram, Rev. Joseph C.
*Wilberforce, The Venerable Archdeacon
Robert I., Burton Agnes, Driffield, York-
shire.
*Wilberforce, The Venerable Archdeacon
Samuel, F.G.S., The Close, Winchester.
Wilderspin, Samuel.
Willan, William, 6, Old Bridge Street,
Dublin.
*Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester.
Williams, Caleb, Micklegate, York.
Williams, Charles J. B., M.D., Professor of
Medicine in University College, London,
F.R.S., 7, Holles Street, Cavendish Square,
London.
Williams, C. W., Dublin Steam Packet
Office, Liverpool.
*Williams, Rev. David, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Blea-
don, near Wells, Somersetshire.
Williams, John Sutton.
Williams, John, jun., F.R.S., F.L.S., Scorier
House, near Redruth, Cornwall.
Williams, Richard, Dame Street, Dublin.
Williams, Robert, Bridehead, Dorset.
Williams, Robert, jun.
Williams, Walter, Oxhill, Handsworth, Staf-
fordshire.
*Williams, William, 6, Rood Lane, City, Lon-
don.
Williamson, Robert, Scarborough.
a
LIFE MEMBERS. 25
*Williamson, Rev. William, B.D., F.C.P.S.,
Clare Hall, Cambridge.
Williamson, W. C., Manchester.
Willimott, John, F.G.S., 7, Great Russell
Street, Covent Garden, London.
Willis, Rev. Robert, M.A., Jacksonian Pro-
fessor of Natural and Experimental Phi-
losophy in the University of Cambridge,
F.RS., F.G.S., F.C.P.8., Cambridge.
*Wills, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Wills, W. R., Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Wilson, Alexander, F.R.S., 34, Bryanstone
Square, London.
Wilson, Edward, F.G.S., Abbot Hall, Ken-
dal, Westmoreland.
Wilson, George, Moreton Street, Strange-
ways, Manchester.
Wilson, James, F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
*Wilson, Rev. James, D.D., M.R.I.A., 10,
Warrington Street, Dublin.
*Wilson, John, Dundyvan, Glasgow.
Wilson, John, jun., Dundyvan, Glasgow.
Wilson, John, F.G.S.,Barneymains near Had-
dington, Scotland.
*Wilson, John, Bootham, York.
Wilson, Thomas, Crimbles House, Leeds.
Wilson, T. W., Fulford near York.
*Wilson, William, Troon near Glasgow.
Wilson, W. J., Manchester.
*Winsor, F. A., 57, Lincoln’s Inn Fields,
London.
*Winterbottom, James Edward, M.D..,F.L.S.,
F.G.S., East Woodhay, Hants.
*Wood, Charles, M.P., Garraby Park, York-
shire.
Wood, John, 23, Oxford Square, Hyde Park,
London.
*Wood, John, St. Saviourgate, York.
Wood, Peter, M.D., Manchester.
Wood, Rev. Samuel, Lewes, Sussex.
Wood, Samuel, 16, Castle Street, Liverpool.
*Woodhead, G., Mottram near Manchester.
*Woods, Edward, 7, Church Street, Edge-
hill, Liverpool.
Woods, Samuel, jun., India Buildings, Li-
verpool.
*Woollcombe, Henry, F.S.A., (Local Trea-
surer), Crescent, Plymouth.
Woolley, John, Staleybridge, Manchester.
Woollgar, J. W., F.R.A.S., Lewes, Sussex.
*Wormald, Richard, jun., 6, Broad Street
Buildings, City, London.
Worthington, Archibald, Whitchurch, Sa-
lop.
Worthington, James, Sale Hall near Man-
chester.
Worthington, Robert, Sale Hall near Man-
chester.
Worthington, William, Brockhurst Hall,
Northwich, Cheshire.
Wright, Edmund, Cannon Street, Manches-
ter.
Wright, John, Glasgow.
Wright, John Smith, Rimpston Hall, Not-
tinghamshire.
Wright, J. R., C.E., Glasgow.
*Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett,
Somersetshire. .
Wright, Thomas, London.
Wright, T. G., M.D., Wakefield.
Wrottesley, The Hon. John, M.A., F.R.A.S.,
Blackheath.
Wyld, James, F.R.G.S., 454, West Strand,
London.
*Yarborough, George Cooke, Camp’s Mount,
Doncaster.
Yarrell, William, F.LS., F.Z.S., Ryder
Street, St. James’s, London.
Yate, Rev. Charles, B.D., Holme, Yorkshire.
Yates, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., 49, Upper Bedford Place, Lon-
don.
Yates, James, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
*Yates, Joseph Brooks, F.S.A., F.R.G.S., West
Dingle, near Liverpool.
*Yates, R. Vaughan, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
Yeates, George, 2, Grafton Street, Dublin.
Yelverton, William, Kirkdale near Liverpool.
York, Right Hon. Edward Harcourt, D.C.L.,
Lord Archbishop of, 40, Grosvenor Square,
London; and Bishopthorpe, near York.
*Yorke, Henry G. Redhead, M.P., 81, Eaton
Square, London.
*Yorke, Lt.-Colonel Philip, 89, Eaton Place,
Belgrave Square, London.
Young, James, Newton near Liverpool. |
Young, James, South Shields, Durham.
Young, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.A.S., Rectory,
Newdigate, Dorking.
Young, John, Taunton, Somersetshire.
Young, Thomas, North Shields, Northum-
berland.
*Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones, near
Sheffield.
Younge, Robert, F.L.S., Greystones, near
Sheftield.
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Cabrey, Thomas, 11 Micklegate without, York.
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ham, York.
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York.
Dean, Arthur, C.E., Dolgelly, Merionethshire.
Denny, Henry, Philosophical and Literary
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Falconer, Hugh, A.M., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
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Goodsir, Harry D. 8., M.W.S., Conservator of
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Heslop, Rev. John, Clifton, York.
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2 Duke Street, Adelphi. Office, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street.
LOCAL TREASURERS. DEPOTS.
PUGSISKS icncecercesccquc-v> William Gray, Jun., Esq. ... Yorkshire Museum.
OXFORD ....... soucacntos- Dr. Daubeny ........ caseescdee Ashmolean Museum, Mr. Kirkland.
CAMBRIDGE ..... eiemeed C. C. Babington, Esq. ........ House of the Philosophical Society.
EDINBURGH .........0 Charles Forbes, Esq. ........- Apartments of the Royal Society.
BDOBEIN' oo c..c5.5.ccceeuee Dr. Orpen ........seeeeeeeeeeee13 South Frederick Street.
PRPEES UOT oss .acucrcancesns William Sanders, Esq. ....... Philosophical Institution, Park Street.
s LIVERPOOL............. ..Samuel Turner, Esq. .....-.++ Bank of England Branch Bank,
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. William Hutton, Esq.......+0. Natural History Society.
BIRMINGHAM ....... .....dames Russell, Esq....... ....-Philosophical Institution.
GLASGOW .....eeceeesseeeePYOf. RAMSAY ceesececereececees The College.
PLYMOUTH ......ccccceese Henry Woollcombe, Esq. ...Athenzeum.
. Mr. James Orme, Lit. and Phil. Society,
MANCHESTER...........-G. W. Ormerod, Esq....... Chapel Yard, 9 Cheapside, King St.
CORK aiecesseeeee sseseeseedames Roche, Esq.........00e Cork.
PROCEEDINGS or tue FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York
_and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, 10s.
Contents :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the
Tides ;—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the Present
State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electricity ;—Sir David
Brewster, on the Progress of Optics ;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present State of Mineralogy ;
—Rev. W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present State of Geology ;—Dr. Prit-
chard’s Review of Philological and Physical Researches.‘
Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity, Chemistry,
Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Botany, and the Arts;
and an Exposition of the Object and Plan of the Association, &c.
PROCEEDINGS or true THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833, 8s.
ConTENTs :—Proceedings of the Meeting;—Mr. John Taylor, on Mineral Veins ;—Dr.
Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous Sy-
stem ;—Mr. Peter Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—Mr. S. H. Christie, on the Magnet-
ism of the Earth;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydro-
dynamics ;—Mr. George Rennie, on Hydraulics as a Branch of Engineering, Part I. ;—Rev.
G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Analysis.
Together with Papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and Mecha-
nical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science.
PROCEEDINGS or tue FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834, 10s.
ConTENTs :—Mr. H. D. Rogers, on the Geology of North America;—Dr. C. Henry, on
the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on Zoology ;—
Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics;—Mr. G. Rennie,
on Hydraulics, Part IJ.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association
and its Committees.
Constants ;—Edward Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the
Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.
1p. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
Pr
~
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, 7s.
ConTENTs :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
John Richardson, M.D., Report on the present state of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W. Snow Harris, Report on the Progress of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—
Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds ;—C. Vignolles, Esq., Report of the Committee on Railway Sections;—Report of the
Committee for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D.,
Abstract of Professor Liebig’s Report on “ Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pa-
thology ;”—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I. ;—Robert
Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of
Plants ;—Louis Agassiz, Report on thé Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sand-
stone ;—William Fairbairn, Eisg., Appendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties
of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast;—David Milne, Esq., Report of the Com-
mittee appointed at the Meeting of the British Association held at Plymouth in 1841, for re-
gistering Shocks of Earthquakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee appointed at the
Tenth Meeting of the Association for the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-En-
gines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting Engine at
different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form: of Ships ;
—Report of a Committee appointed “ to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of
Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis” ;—Report of a Committee on
the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress
in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Ss. ;
ConTENTS :—Robert Mallet, Esq., Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water,
whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought
Iron, and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction
of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on
Steam-engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the
Vitality of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Esq., Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the
Frith of Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Esq., Notice of a Report of the
Committee on the Form of Ships ;—J. Blake, Esq., Report on the Physiological Action of Me-
dicines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to print and circulate a Report on Zoological
Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee appointed in 1842, for registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to them desirable;
—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons ;—Professor
Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report ;—Report of the Committee for the Translation and
Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Tes-
tacea ;—Edward Forbes, Esq., Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Augean Sea, and
on their distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—M. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of
British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—Richard Owen,
Esq., Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the Ex-
cavation made at the junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at
Collyhurst, near Manchester ;—W. Thompscn, Esq., Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div.
Invertebrata ;—Provisional Bephriaaged Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted
to Committees and Individuals. * ¥
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its OSE Ss.
CA i
By SE ott
LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATUREY ‘haw MBHRS who met at Cambridge in 1833,
with the Proceedings of the Public \keetirg: i; Bric 4s. (To Members, 35.)
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