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FIFTEENTH MEETING 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT CAMBRIDGE IN JUNE 1845. 


LONDON: 


JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
1846. 


PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


4 


CONTENTS. 


oi 
Page 
OssEcts and Rules of the Association .......scssessscsesseceseeeeseeens v 
Peekeery and Connell. 5 ssusdcsdescyishasidceveesenvsesoaysabanove tae eseosicnagyel Vill 
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ...........000e0e ix 
Table of Council from commencement .........602seeseceeeceeeeeceeeenees x 
Treasurer’s Account es : abewnbe xii 
Officers of Sectional Committees a waite dha ‘NeiiieNs Seen xiv 
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science XV 
Synopsis of Money Grants . aide seransiown ses KX 
Arrangement of the Beads 1 Evening Meetings Senceaednsign spaleal tacage tc (eae 
Address of the President... esin any tanemw ba nigsbidets Stateline ask dntaielannani:- hare 
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. 
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. HERScHEL, Bart. ; 
the Master or Trinity CoLtrece, Cambridge; the DEAN or E ty, 
the AsTRONOMER Royat, Dr. Luoyp and Colonel Sasine, appoint- 
ed to conduct the cooperation of the British Association in the System 
of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ...... 1 
On some Points in the aaperer of 5 mene a Lieut.-Colonel 
SaBinE, R.A., F.R.S. . 73 
Report on the Physiological ‘Askion of Medicines. By J. Buaxs MLE B., 
eaeC 4 &C. WC. 2 ceiseens baa 82 
On the Comet of 1843. By Dr. von Bocustawsxi of rica, Corre. 
sponding Member of the British Association .............:ccceeeeseeesene 86 
Report on the Actinograph. By Mr. Ropert HUNT .........c0c00e00 90 
On Ozone. By Professor ScuénsEIN of Basle. ; 91 
On the Influence of Friction upon Thermo- foe a Paut ERMAN 
I i Sia haan 0 Sd Cah RAMAN hia Geico salts aun sic ose diablo wate HE 
On the Self-registering Meteorological Instruments deariliead in the 
Observatory at Senftenberg. By the Baron SENFTENBERG ......0., 108 
Second Report on Atmospheric Waves. By Wittram Rapciirr Birt 112 
Sketch of the progress and present extent of ee Banks in the 
United Kingdom. By G. R. PORTER, F.R.S. ......scesseeeeeresseeeens 129 


' 


iv CONTENTS. 


Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the 
Theory of the Smelting of Iron. By Prof. Bunsen, of Marburg, 
Hesse Cassel, and Dr. Lyon PLayrair, of the Museum of Giconomie 
Geology, department of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests ............ 

Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan. By Joun 
Ricuarpson, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c., Medical bictiiics of Naval 
PAOMENGHIS -odccsucasscuse 

Report of the Bioinenietie: Seicieking of Prof. Doe Prof. rE Foams 
Dr. Lanxester, Mr. R. Taytor, Mr. TuHompson, Mr. BAL, Prof. 
AtiMAN, Mr. H. E. SrrickLanp, and Mr. BasinerTon, appointed 
for the purpose of Reporting on the oa of Periodical Phe- 
nomena of Animals and Vegetables... ss scene 

Fifth Report of a Committee, nacianaes of i. E. ae oe 
Prof. DausEeny, Prof. Henstow and Prof. Linp.ey, oe thai to 
continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds..., snails 


Page 


142 


arbor 


. 32] 


. 337 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


OF 


THE ASSOCIATION. 


—_——_»——. 


OBJECTS. 


Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by 
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more 
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those 
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an- 
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to 
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind 


_ which impede its progress. 


——__ 


RULES. 


ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. 


All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be- 
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con- 
form to its Rules. 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So- 
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in 
like manner, to become Members of the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of 
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council 
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem- 
bers of the Association. e 

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General 
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual 
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General 
Meeting. 

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES. 


Lirz Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They 
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub- 
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices 
of the Association. 

Annvat Susscrisrrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds, 
and in each following year the sum of Qne Pound. They shall receive 
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission 
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their 
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu- 
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all 
Future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis : 

b 


Vi RULES OF THE-ASSOCIATION. 


but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub- 
‘sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of 
One Pound. ‘They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association. 

Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. 
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be 
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. 


The Association consists of the following classes :— 

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid 
on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, shall pay on ad- 
mission ‘en Pounds as a composition. 

8. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the 
payment of One Pound annually, [may resume their Membership after inter- 
mission of Annual Payment. ] 

4. Annual Members admitted or to be admitted in any year since 18359, 
subject to the payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in 
each following year, [may resume their membership after intermission of 
Annual Payment. ] 

§. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. 


And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual 
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price, 
according to the following specification, viz, :— 

1. Gratis. —Ol\d Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo- 
sition for Annual Payments, and Two Pounds as a Book Subscrip- 
tion. 

New Life Members who shall have paid Ten Pounds as a composition. 
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Subscription. 

2, At reduced or Members’ Prices.x—Old Life Members who have paid 
Five Pounds as a composition for Annual Payments, but no Book 
Subscription. 

Annual Members, who, having paid on admission Two Pounds, have 
intermitted their Annual Subscription in any subsequent year, 

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for that 
year only. ] 

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. 


MEETINGS, 

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place 
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre- 
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi- 
zers of the Association. 

GENERAL COMMITTEE. 

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or 
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the 
following persons :— 

1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au- 
thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 

2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society, 
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects 
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. 

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed- 
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Vii 


4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three, 
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any 
place where the Association has formerly met. 

5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who 
are specially nominated in writing for the meeting of the year by the Presi- 
dent and General Secretaries. 

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex 


officio members of the General Committee for the time being. 


SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con- 
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches 
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof. 

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would 
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and 
brought under consideration at the next Meeting. 

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of 
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons, 
for the information of the Annual Meetings. 


COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS, 

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which 
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees, 
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise 
to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- 
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com- 
mittee of Recommendations, and not gee into consideration by the General 
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommen- 
dations. 

LOCAL COMMITTEES. 


Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to 
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. 

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those 
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. 


OFFICERS. 
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a 
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 
COUNCIL. 


_ In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be 
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council 
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the 
Meeting. 


PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS. 


The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve 
his right of property therein. 
ACCOUNTS. 


The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 
pperinted by the Meeting. 
b2 


Vili OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1845-46. 


—@—— 


Trustees (permanent).—Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S,, F.R.S. 
John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. The Very Reverend G. Peacock, D.D., Dean of 
Ely, F.R.S. 


President. —Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents.—The Right Hon, The Earl of Hardwicke. The Right 
Reverend the Lord Bishop of Norwich. The Rev. John Graham, D.D., 
Master of Christ’s College. Rev, Gilbert Ainslie, D.D., Master of Pembroke 
Hall. G.B. Airy, Esq., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. Rev. Adam Sedgwick, 
F.R.S., Woodwardian Professor. 


President Elect.—Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, G.C.S., F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents Elect.—The Marquis of Winchester. The Earl of Yar- 
borough. Viscount Palmerston, M.P. Lord Ashburton. The Bishop of 
Oxford, F.R.S., F.G.S. The Right Hon. the Speaker, Charles Shaw Le- 
fevre, M.P., F.G.S. Sir George T. Staunton, Bart., M.P.,D.C.L. Professor 
Owen, M.D., F.R.S. Rev. Professor Powell, F.R.S. 


General Secretaries. { vient «Cot. Sabine, For. Sec. R.S., Woolwich. 
Assistant General Secretary.—John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S., York. 


General Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, 
London. 


Secretaries for the Southampton Meeting in 1846.—Henry Clark, M.D. 
T. H. C. Moody, Esq. ; 


Treasurer to the Meeting in 1846.—John Sadleir Moody, Esq. 


Council.—Professor Ansted. Sir H. T. De la Beche. Dr. Daubeny. 
Professor E. Forbes. Professor T. Graham, H. Hallam, Esq. Rev. W. V. 
Harcourt. James Heywood, Esq. Dr. Hodgkin. Eaton Hodgkinson, Esq. 
William Hopkins, Esq. Leonard Horner, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Sir 
Charles Lemon, Bart. The Marquis of Northampton. The Very Rev. G. 
Peacock, D.D., Dean of Ely. Sir John Richardson, M.D. Dr. Roget. 
Prof. J. Forbes Royle, M.D. H.E. Strickland, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes. 
William Thompson, Esq. H. Warburton, Esq. Professor Wheatstone. 
Professor C. J. B. Williams, M.D. Professor Willis. 


Local Trreasurers.—William Gray, jun., Esq., York. Dr. Daubeny, Ox- 
ford. C. C. Babington, Esq., Cambridge. Charles Forbes, Esq., Edinburgh. 
John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin. William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. Samuel 
Turner, Esq., Liverpool. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
James Russell, Esq., Birmingham. Professor Ramsay, Glasgow. Henry 
Woollcombe, Esq., Plymouth. G. W. Ormerod, Esq., Manchester. James 
Roche, Esq., Cork. 


Auditors.—Professor Ansted. Leonard Horner, Esq. Lieut.-Col. Sykes. 


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x MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. 


II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who 
have served on the Council in former years. 


Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.P., F,R.S. 

Adamson, J. 

Adare, Viscount, M.P., F.R.S. 

Airy, G. B., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. 

Ainslie, Rey. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- 
broke Hall, Cambridge. 

Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S. 

Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. 

Ashburton, Lord. 

Babbage, Caprlcg, F F. ie Ss. 

Babington, C. C., F.L.S. 

Baily, Francis, F. 7 S. 

Barker, George. 

Bengough, George. 

Bentham, George, F.L.S. 

Bigge, Charles. 

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D. 

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., LL.D., F.R.S. 

Breadalbane, The Marquis of, F. R. 8. 

Brisbane, Lieut.-General Sir Thomas M., Bart., 
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S, 

Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Brunel, Sir M. L., ERS. 

Buckland, Very Rev. tae, D.D., Dean of 
Westminster, F.R.S 

Burlington, The Earl of, MM. A., F.R.S., Chan- 
cellor of the University of London. 

Carson, Rev. Joseph. 

Catheart, The Earl, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. 

Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D., Professor of Di- 
vinity, Edinburgh. 

Christie, Professor 8. H., M.A., Sec.R.S. 

Clare, Peter, F.R.A.S. 

Clark, Rev. Professor, M.D. (Cambridge). 

Clark, Henry, M.D. 

Clark, G. T. 

Clift, William, F.R.S. 

Colquhoun, J. C., M.P. 

alone Rey. W, D., M.A., F.R.S. 

Corrie, John, F.R.S. 

Currie, William Wallace. 

Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Daniell, Professor J. ., F.R.S. 

Dartmouth, The Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Daubeny, Professor Charles G.B., M.D., 
E.R.S. 


De la Beche, Sir Henry T., F.R.S., Director 
of the Ordnance Geological Survey of 
Great Britain. 

Drinkwater, J. E. 

Durham, The Bishop of, F.R.S., 

Egerton, Lord Francis, F.G.S. 

Egerton, Sir Philip de M. Grey, Bart., F.R.S. 

Bliot, Lord, M.P. 

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Fitzwilliam, The Earl, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Fleming, H., M.D. 

Forbes, Charles. 

Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R.S. 

Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S. 

Fox, Robert Were. 

Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S 


Graham, Rey. John, D.D., Master of Christ’s 
College, Cambridge. 

Graham, Professor Thomas, M.A., F.R. 8. 

Gray, John E., F.R.S. 

Gray, Jonathan, 

Gray, William, jun., F.G.S. 

Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F,R.S. 

Greenough, G. B., F.R.S. 

Hallam, Henry, M.A., F.R.5. 

Hamilton, W. J., M.P,, Sec. G.S. 

Hamilton, Sir William R., Astronomer Royal 
of Ireland, M.R.I.A. 

Harcourt, Rey. William Vernon, M,A., 

Hardwicke, The Earl of. 

Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Harris, W. Snow, F.R.S. 

Hatfeild, William, F.G.S. 

Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L,S. 

Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S. 

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rey. William, Dean of 
Manchester, LL.D., F.L.S. 

Herschel, Sir John F.W., Rart., D.C.L., F.R.S, 

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., ERS. 

Heywood, James, F.R.S. 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D. 

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.8. 

Hodgson, Joseph, F.R.S. 

Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.8. 

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. 

Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S. 

Horner, Leonard, Pres. G.S., V.P.R.S, 

Hovenden, Y. F., M.A. 

Hutton, Robert, F.G,S. 

Hutton, William, F.R.S. 

Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S. 

Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S. 

Jerrard, H. B. 

Johnston, Professor J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S. 

Keleher, William, 

Lardner, Rey. Dr. 

Lee, R., M.D., F.R.S. 

Lansdowne, The Marquis of, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, M 1 eae 

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. 

Liddell, Andrew. 

Lindley, Professor, Ph.D., F.R.S. 

Listowel, The Earl of. 

Lloyd, Rev. Bartholomew, D.D., Provost of 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

Lloyd, Rev. Professor, D.D., F.R.S. 

Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., Y.P.R.S. 

Luby, Rey. Thomas. 

Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S. 

MacCullagh, Professor, D.C.L., M.R.LA. 

Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal. 

MacLeay, William Sharp, F.L.S. 

MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S. 

Meynell, Thomas, jun., F.L.S. 

Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S. 

Moilliet, J. L. 

Moody, T. F 


MEMBERS OF COUNCIL. xi 


Morley, The Earl of. 

Morpeth, Viscount, F.G.S. 

Moseley, Rey. Henry, M.A,, F,R.S, 

Mount Edgcumbe, The Earl of. 

Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.S., F.R.S, 

Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E. 

Nicol, Rey. J. P., LL.D. 

Northampton, The Marquis of, President of 
the Royal Society. 

Northumberland, The Duke of, K.G., M.A., 
E.R.S, 

Norwich, The Bishop of, President of the 
Linnean Society, F.R.S. 

Ormerod, G, W. 

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D. 

Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S. 

Oxford, The Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Osler, Follett. 

Palmerston, Viscount, M.P. 

Peacock, Very Rev. George, D.D., Dean of 
Ely, V.P.R.S. 

Pendarves, E., F.R.S. 

Phillips, Professor John, F.R.S. 

Powell, Rey. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. 

Prichard, J. C., M.D,, F.R.S. 

Ramsay, Professor W., M.A. 

Rennie, George, Y.P. & Treas. B.S. 

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S., President of the 
Institute of Civil Engineers. 

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S. 

Ritchie, Rev. Professor, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Robinson, Rev. J., D.D. 

Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D. 

Robison, Sir John, Sec. R.S. Edin. 

Roche, James. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec.R.S. 

Ross, Capt. Sir James C., R.N., F.R.S. 

Rosse, The Earl of, F.R. s. 

Royle, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S. 

Russell, James. . 


Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, R.A., For. 
Sec.R.S. 

Sanders, William. 

Sandon, Lord. 

Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S. 

Sedgwick, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S. 

Selby, Prideaux John, F.R.S.E. 

Smith, Lt.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S. 

Staunton, Sir George T., Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D, 

Strang, John. 

Strickland, H. E., F.G.S. 

Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel W. H., F.R.S. 

Talbot, W. H. Fox, M.A., F.R.S. 

Tayler, Rev. J. J. 

Taylor, John, F.R.S. 

Taylor, Richard, jun., F.G.S. 

Thompson, William, F,1u.S. 

Traill, J. $., M.D. 

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S. 

Turner, Samuel. 

Turner, Rev. W. 

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S. 

Walker, James, F.R.S. 

Walker, J. N. 

Warburton, Henry, M.A., M.P., F.R.S. 

Washington, Captain, R.N, 

West, William, F.R.S. 

Wheatstone, Professor, F.R.S. 

Whewell, Rey. William, D.D. »Master of Trinity 
College, Cambridge. 

Williams, Professor Charles J.B., M.D.,F.R.S. 

Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 

Winchester, The Marquis of. 

Woolleombe, Henry, F.S.A.. 

Wortley, San Hon. John Stuart, B.A., M.P., 
F.R.S. 

Yarrell, William, F.L.S. 

Yarborough, The Earl of. 

Yates, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE 


TREASURER’S ACCOUNT from 


RECEIPTS. 
Bs he pas oe Syn aes 
To Life Compositions received at the York Meeting and since 781 0 0 
To Annual Subscriptions ...... Ditton... Ditto...... Ditto...... 452 2°0 
To Ladies’ Tickets..........+000. Ditto...... Ditto...... Ditto...... 260 0 0 
To Sections’ Ticket ............ Ditto...... Ditto...... Ditto... vc 10 0 
To Minors’ Tickets ............ Ditto......Ditto...... Ditto...... 8 0 0 
To received Compositions for Books (future publications) ... 164 0 0 
To received Dividends on £5500 in the 3 per cent. Consols, 
6 months to January 1845 (less Income Tax) ............ 80 1 11 
To received from the Sale of Reports, viz. 
TSG WOl!s AACN gy. tes cocve cdc onesvanve Tiieeie 211 3 
PONG IMO ARE ca sencaweisenwesstaas esses snite- Strats 25: 3.0 «0 
3rd vol 413 0 
MITES owe aaidy geen cae vou asts cans oacuntadaehn tte ate os 315 8 
Sth Vol. weccecesece Switaid 
6th vol. 615 4 
7th vol. (fie | gaa) 
8th vol. 713 0 
9th vol. 12 3 0 
10th vol. . 9 LY 8 
11th vol. “¢ 13 11 3 
DET OLGES on abasaeettensccoDapepnaccass essenoee seecen 47 13 10 
‘ 13th vol. ........ Betieertesett ss beeeedausgre sone i lie 
Lithographs...........+0 Syes sree pasebeubeeer ep oes 1 13, .0 
Dublin Communications.......... ospereas sorecceee 0 2 0 
— 132 18 8 
Balance carried GOWN ....e.ssseeseeseesees 360 10 5 
) 


£2239 13 0 


On Account of the Printing 


To Balance of the grant from Her Majesty’s Government brought on from 
TASt GCCOUNL ascescrveetonerovssesiscecsccessesosasusessocssescrsedessestersrsssrene 984 2 0 


£934 2 0 


British Association for the 


To Balance in hand of the Account for Printing Lalande and Lacaille’s 
Catalogues 'i...5))cciscces: 


£634 2 0 


ROBERT HUTTON, 7] 
LEONARD HORNER, $ Auditors. 
LIEUT.-COLONEL SYKES, J 


’ 
‘ 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 


26th of September 1844 to the 19th of June 1845. 


PAYMENTS. 


By Balance due on the General Account brought on .......+. 
By Sundry Disbursements by Treasurer and Local Treasurers, 
including the Expenses of the Meeting at York, Adver- 


tising, and Sundry Printing ...........sseeeeee nudawies te Son? 
By Printing, &c. of the 13th Report (12th vol.) ........ plat 
By Engraving, &c. for the 14th Report (18th vol.)........... 3 
By Salaries to Assistant General Secretary, Accountant, &c. 
6 months to end of December 1844 .........06 Se declan? A 


By Paid to Committees on Account of Grants for Scientific 
purposes, viz. for— 
Publication of the British Association Catalogue of Stars 


Meteorological Observations at Inverness ...... ee evecsovees ee 
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-operation ....... Schocken 
Meteorological Instruments at Edinburgh.........ssssesseees 3 
Reduction of Anemometrical Observations at Plymouth ... 
Electrical Experiments at Kew Observatory ...........00. . 
Maintaining the Establishment in...... ditto...,.0006 see eoder 
For Kreil’s Barometrograph ..........s00005 ees ataek eancaecdan 
Gases from Iron Furnaces .......sesecesessoneesseessees cuentas 
Experiments on the Actinograph ...........00. Geenredtascsses 
Microscopic Structure of Shells ....... BUSA ICOLO. pocut Gace 
Exotic Anoplura...... Hewebousecve Sai Rive canbe va on oe ee ooeee 1843 
Vitality of Seeds .........ccscessveccscvaeecsees eM Ran mek cits 1843 

Ditto...... ditto 3.7... Eertcor Witsd hate heaeeckegss 1844 
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ......sesccesssecveseeevees fonts tse 
Physiological Action of Medicines......... At croc neice 
Statistics of Sickness and Mortality in York....... aguieibeerc 
Registration of Earthquake Shocks ......ssessseeseaeee 1843 


of Lalande and Lacaille’s Catalogues of Stars. 


478 1 5 

286 12 10 

397 13 6 

70 15 6 

175 0 0 
351 14 6 
30 18 11 
16 16 8 
18 11 9 
25 0 0 
43 17 8 
149 15 0 
25 0 0 
50 0 0 
15 0 0 
20 0 0 
10 0 0 
20 7 
7 0 0 
10 0 0 
20 0 0 
20 0 0 
15 14 8 

————_ 831 9 9 

£2239 13 0 


By Paid on Account of Printing, &c. since last Meeting.......c.sssesseseee see §=9800 0 0 
Balance ......... 634 2 0 


Advancement of Science. 
By Balance due on the General Account ssccssessecaseenecensees 
By Balance in the Bankers’ hands ......... Nidegne tacos gsm 
Ditto...... General Treasurer’s hands............ss0006 


Ditto......Local Treasurers’ hands .....sesesecseseecees 


_ £934 2 0 


360 10 5 
246 19 10 
14 3 10 
12 7 11 


— 27311 7 


£634 2 0 


xiv OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE 
CAMBRIDGE MEETING. 


SECTION A.——-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 


President.—The Very Rev. the Dean of Ely. 

Vice-Presidents.—Sir D. Brewster, K.H., F.R.S. L. & E. Sir Thomas 
M. Brisbane, F.R.S. L. & E. Professor Challis. Professor J. D, Forbes, 
F.R.S. L. & E. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Astronomer Royal of Ireland. 

Secretaries.—Rev. H. Goodwin. Professor Stevelly, LL.D. G. G. 
Stokes, Esq. 


SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE, INCLUDING ITS APPLICATION TO 
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS, 


President.—Rey. Professor Cumming. 

Vice- Presidents. —Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. Professor Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Professor Thomas Graham, F.R.S. L. & E. Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A., 
F.R.S. Professor Miller, M.A., F.R.S. 

Secretaries.—Robert Hunt. J.P. Joule. Professor Miller, M.D., F.R.S. 
E. Solly, F.R.S. 


SECTION C.— GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


President.—Rev. Professor Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. ; 

Vice-Presidents.—Captain Sir George Back, R.A,, V.P.R. Geog. S, _ Rev. 
W. Buckland, D.D., F.R.S. The Earl of Enniskillen, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
L. Horner, F.R.S. W.J. Hamilton, M.P., F.R.S. 

Secretaries.—Rev. J. G. Cumming, M.A. A.C. Ramsay, F.G,S. Rev. 
W. Thorp, F.G.S. 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


President.—The Rev. Professor Henslow, F.L.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—Bishop of Norwich, F.R.S. Professor E. Forbes, F.R.S. 
C. C. Babington, F.L.S. Rev. L. Jenyns, F.L.S, W. Ogilby, F.L.S, 

Secretaries.—E. Lankester, M.D., F.L.S. J. V. Wollaston, B.A. 


SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY. 
President.—Professor J. Haviland, M.D. 
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Clark, M.D. Professor Fisher, M.D. Thomas 


Hodgkin, M.D. R. G. Latham, M.D. 
Secretaries.—R. Sargent, M.D. Dr. Webster. 


‘ 


SECTION F.—STATISTICS. 


President.—Ear] Fitzwilliam, M.A., F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—Lord Sandon, M.P. Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. Sir Charles 
Lemon, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. Professor Pryme. 

Secretaries,—Joseph Fletcher, Esq, W. Cooke Taylor, LL.D. 


SECTION G.—MECHANICS. 


President.—George Rennie, F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—Wm. Fairbairn. Sir John J. Guest, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. 
J. Scott Russell, F.R.S. Edinb. Professor Willis, F.R.S. 

Secretary.—Rev. W. T. Kingsley, M.A. 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. KV 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Paris. Dr. A.D, Bache, 
Philadelphia. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Professor Bessel, Kénigs- 
berg, Professor H. von Boguslawski, Breslau. Professor Braschmann- 
Moscow. Professor De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dove, Berlin. Pro- 
fessor Dumas, Paris. Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin. Professor Encke, Berlin. 
Dr. A. Erman, Berlin. Professor Henry, Princeton, United States. Profes- 
sor Kreil, Prague. M. Kupffer, St. Petersburg. Dr, Langberg, Christiania. 
M. Frisiani, Milan. Baron Alexander von Humboldt, Berlin. M. Jacobi, 
St, Petersburg. Professor Jacobi, Kénigsberg. Dr. Lamont, Munich. 
Baron von Liebig,Giessen, Professor Link, Berlin. Professor Girsted, Copen- 
hagen. M. Otto, Breslau (deceased). Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal, Turin. 
M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor C. Ritter, Berlin. Professor Schumacher, 
Altona. Baron Senftenberg, Bohemia, Professor Wartmann, Lausanne. 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT THE Cam- 
BRIDGE MEETING IN JunE 1845. 


Involving Applications to Government and Public Institutions. 
MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 


Resolutions adopted by the Magnetic Conference. 


1. That the Magnetic Observatory at Greenwich be permanently con- 
tinued, upon the most extensive and efficient scale that the interests of the 
Sciences of Magnetism and Meteorology may require. 

2. That it be earnestly recommended to the Provost and Fellows of 
Trinity College, Dublin, to continue the Magnetical and Meteorological Ob- 
servations at the Observatory instituted by that University. 

3. That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Toronto upon 
its present footing until the 31st of December 1848, unless in the mean time 
arrangements can be made for its permanent establishment. 

4, That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Van Diemen’s 
Land until the 31st of December 1848, unless in the mean time arrange- 
ments can be made for its permanent establishment. 

5. That it be recommended that the Obseryatory at St. Helena should be 
continued upon its present establishment for a period terminating on the 31st 
of December 1848, for special Meteorological objects. 

6. That it be recommended that the building and materials of the Mag- 
netical and Meteorological Obseryatory at the Cape of Good Hope should 
be transferred to the Astronomical Observatory there, to which an Assistant, 
should be added, for the purpose of making absolute Magnetical Determi- 
nations, 

7. That it be recommended to the Court of Directors of the East India 
Company, that the Observatories of Simla and Singapore be discontinued at 
the end of the present year; but that the Magnetic and Meteorological 
Observations now made at Bombay and Madras be permanently continued 
in connexion with the Astronomical Observations at these Stations, and that 
it be further recommended to the Court of Directors, to sanction the pro- 
posal made by Mr. Elliot, for a Magnetic Survey of the Indian meas to 

-commence at the close of the present year. 
8. That it be recommended that the Canadian Survey be continued until 
- the connexion of Toronto with the American Stations be completed. 


XV REPORT—1845. 


9. That it be recommended that advantage should be taken of every op- 
portunity of extending Magnetic Surveys in regions not hitherto surveyed, 
and in the neighbourhood of Magnetic Observatories. pide 

10. That it be strongly recommended that the Staff of Colonel Sabine’s 
establishment at Woolwich be maintained, with such an increased force as 
may cause the observations which have been made, and those which shall 
hereafter be made, to be reduced and published with all possible expe- 
dition. 

11. That this Meeting have recommended the reduction of the Establish- 
ments at present attached to some of the Magnetical and Meteorological 
Observatories, in the full confidence that if, after careful discussion of the 
Observations made to the end of 1845, there should appear to be reason for 
restoring some of those Establishments, and for forming new ones, the 
British Government and the East India Company will give their aid with the 
same liberality which they have displayed in the maintenance of the existing 
Observatories. 

12. That the cordial cooperation which has hitherto prevailed between 
the British and Foreign Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories, having 
produced the most important results, and being considered by us as abso- 
lutely essential to the success of the great system of combined observation 
which has been undertaken, it is earnestly recommended that the same spirit 
of cooperation should continue to prevail; and that the President of the 
British Association be requested to make application to the British Govern- 
ment, to convey the expression of this opinion to the Governments of those 
other countries which have already taken part in the Observations. 

13. The British Association, assembled at Cambridge, cannot permit the 
proceedings of this Meeting to terminate without expressing their sense of 
great obligation to the eminent Foreign Gentlemen who have taken part in 
the discussions of the Conference, and whose unwearied attention has been 
most effectively bestowed on every part of the proceedings. 

14. That the Committee which has hitherto conducted the cooperation of 
the British Association, in the system of combined observations, be re- 
appointed, for the purpose of preparing a report to accompany the presenta- 
tion to the British Government and to the Directors of the East India Com- 
pany, of the resolutions passed at this Meeting, and that the 


Marquis of Northampton, Professor Christie, and 
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor J. D. Forbes, 


be added to the Committee. 


Resolved, in conformity with the express opinion of the Magnetic Con- 
ference, sanctioned by the Committee of Recommendations— 


“ That it is highly desirable to encourage by specific pecuniary reward the 
improvement of Self-recording Magnetical ‘and Meteorological Apparatus ; 


and that 
The President of the British Association, and 
The President of the Royal Society, 


be requested to solicit the favourable consideration of Her Majesty’s Go- 
vernment to this subject.” 
GEOLOGY. 


That the President of the British Association cooperate with the President 
of the Royal Society, the President of the Geological Society, the President 
of the Royal Asiatic Society, Sir H. T. De la Beche, the Rev. Dr. Buck- 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xvii 


land, and R. I. Murchison, Esq., in making a representation to Her Majesty’s 
Government for a grant in further aid of the publication of the Researches 
of Dr, Falconer and Captain Cautley of the Bengal Artillery, on the Fossil 
Fauna of Northern India. 

That the President of the British Association, the General Secretary, the 
President of the Geological Society, the Director of the Geological Survey 
of the United Kingdom, the Professors of Geology in Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, G. B. Greenough, Esq., R. Griffith, Esq., Major S. Clerke, T. Sop- 
with, Esq., with power to add to their number, be requested to act as a 
Committee, for the purpose, with special reference to Steam Navigation and 
Steam Power for manufacturing industry, of laying down, by means of - 
coloured signs upon a Map of the World, every region in which coal, 
capable of being used as fuel, is known to exist, and to accompany the Map, 
when completed, with an explanatory Report; showing the geographical 
and geological position of such coal deposit in the several regions and its . 
superficial extent; the amount in number and thickness of the workable 
seams, so far as the same can be ascertained, and the facilities of working 
them; the nearest large towns and sea-ports, and the means of transport 
from the mines to the sea-ports; the mineral.and economical properties of 
the coal; and whether ores of iron exist in the deposit, accompanied by 
ready access to limestone. 

That the Committee be authorized, on the part of the British Association, 
to solicit the assistance of Her Majesty’s Government in carrying this object 
into effect. 

The President of the Geological Society to be the convener of this Com- 
mittee. ; 


Recommendations for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money. 

That M. Dove be requested to carry out his offer to reduce, in the manner 
stated by him, the Meteorological Observations at the Van Diemen’s Land 
Observatory. 

That the Astronomer Royal be requested to reduce, in the same manner, 
the Observations at the Greenwich Observatory. 

That Reports be requested from— 

Professor Challis—On the Progress and Present State of Astronomy, 
from the period embraced in the Report by the Astronomer Royal. 

Mr. G. G. Stokes—On recent Researches in Hydrodynamics. 

The Dean of Ely—On the recent Progress of that branch of Analysis 
which relates to the Theory of Equations. 

Mr. Phillips—On the instrumental Methods which have been employed 
in Anemometry. 

Mr. Ellis—On the recent Progress of Analysis. 

That Mr. T, Stevenson be requested to continue his Experiments on the 
Force of Waves at different depths. 

That Reports be requested from— 

Mr. Mallet—On the Corrosion of Iron Rails in and out of use. 

Mr. Hunt—On the Influence of Light upon the Growth of Plants. 

Mr. Hunt—On the Result of Observations with the Actinograph. 
Dr. Perey, Rev. W. V. Harcourt, and Prof. W. H. Miller-—On the Re- 
sult of,an Examination of Crystalline Slags. 
‘ “oie Hodgkin and Dr. R. G. Latham—On the Varieties of ‘the Human 

ace. 


xviii REPORT—1845, 


Prof. Owen, Prof. E. Forbes, Dr. Lankester, Mr. R. Taylor, Mr. Thomp- 
son, Mr. Ball, Prof. Allman, Mr. H. E. Strickland, Mr. Babington, Rev. L. 
Jenyns, and Rey. Prof. Henslow—On the Registration of Periodical Pha+ 
nomena in Animals and Vegetables. 

Dr. Latham—On Ethnographical Philology. 

Dr. Royle—On the Geographical Distribution of Plants in India. 

Prof. E. Forbes—On the Results of the Dredging Operations in the 
British Seas. 

Mr. Porter—On the Statistics of the Iron Trade. 

Mr. Rennie, Mr. Paxton, Mr. J. Taylor, jun., Mr. Russell, and Mr. Eaton 
Hodgkinson—On the Hydrodynamical Phenomena of the Reservoir and 
Fountain at Chatsworth. 


That the following Communications, presented to this Meeting, be printed 
entire in the Transactions of the Association, viz.— 

M. Boguslawski—On the Comet of 1843. 

M. Paul Erman—On the Effect of Friction on Thermo-Electricity. 

Baron Senftenberg—On the Self-Registering Instruments in use at Senf- 
tenberg. 

Baron Waltershausen—On Etna. 

Colonel Sabine—On the Meteorology of Bombay. 

Mr. Porter—On Savings’ Banks. 


ee 


That Section E. be in future entitled the ‘ Section of Physiology.’ 

That it be referred to the Council to take into consideration previous to 
the next Meeting the expediency of discontinuing the Kew Observatory. 

That a Committee, consisting of Sir J. Herschel, the Astronomer Royal, 
and Lieut. Stratford, be requested to arrange. for the gratuitous distribution 
of 150 copies of the British Association Catalogue of Stars to Public Insti- 
tutions, and 25 copies to individuals. 

That 10 copies of the British Association Catalogue be placed at the dis- 
posal of Lieutenant Stratford. 


Recommendations of Special Researches in Science, involving Grants of 
Money. 
KEW OBSERVATORY. 
That the sum of £150 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the 
purpose of maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory. 
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 
That Mr. Birt be requested to continue his Researches on Atmospheric 
Undulations, with £7 at his disposal for the purpose. _ me 
That M. A. Erman, Corresponding Member of the British Association, be 
requested to superintend the computation of the Gaussian Constants for 
1839, and of the probable errors of the values so deduced, with £50 at his 
disposal for the purpose. ; 
That certain expenses incurred by Mr. Osler in completing the ar- 
rangements for Anemometry at Plymouth and Edinburgh, amounting to 
£11 17s. 6d., be paid. 
CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 


That Dr. Schunck be requested to continue his investigations on Colour- 
ing Matters, with £10 at his disposal for the purpose. 


RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. xix 


GEOLOGY. 


That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Murchison, the Earl of Enniskillen, 
and Dr. Buckland, be requested to obtain the continuation and completion, 
by M. Agassiz, of the examination of the Fossil Fishes of the London Clay, 
as compared with those of the Calcaire grossier of the Paris Basin, with 
£100 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


That Dr. Carpenter be requested to pursue his investigations on the Mi- 
eroscopie Structure of Recent and Fossil Shells, with £10 at his disposal for 
the purpose. 

That a Committee, consisting of Prof. E. Forbes, Mr. Goodsir, Mr. Pat- 
terson, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Ball, Mr. J. Smith, Mr. Couch, Dr. Allman, 
Mr. M‘Andrew, Mr. Alder, and the Rev. F. W. Hope, be requested to con+ 
tinue their investigations on the Marine Zoology of Britain by means of the 
dredge, with £10 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. 

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Hodgkin, Dr. R. G. Latham, Dr. 
Prichard, Prof. Owen, Dr. H. Ware, Mr. J. E. Gray, Dr. Lankester, Dr. 
A. Smith, Mr. A. Strickland, and Mr. Babington, be requested to continue 
their investigations into the Varieties of the Human Race, with £15 at the 
disposal of the Committee for the purpose. 

That a Committee, consisting of Prof. Owen, Prof. E. Forbes, Sir C. 
Lemon, and Mr. Couch, be requested to aid Mr. Peach in his Researches into 
the Marine Zoology of Cornwall, with.£10 at the disposal.of the Committee 
for the purpose. 

That a Committee, consisting of Capt. Portlock, Prof. E. Forbes, Mr. 
Thompson, and Mr. Ball, be requested to pursue their Researches on the 
Marine Zoology of Corfu by means of the dredge, with £10 at the disposal 
of the Committee for the purpose. 

_ That a Committee, consisting of Mr. H. E. Strickland, Dr. Daubeny, 
Prof. Lindley, Prof. Henslow, Mr. Babington, Prof. Balfour, Mr. Mackay, 
and Mr. D. Moore, be requested to continue their experiments on the Vi- 
tality of Seeds, with £10 at the disposal of the Committee for the purpose. 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


That certain expenses incurred by Mr. Erichsen during Researches on 
Asphyxia, amounting to £6 16s. 2d., be paid. 


STATISTICS. 


That a Committee, consisting of Dr, Laycock, Dr. Alison, and Mr. E. 
Chadwick, be requested to continue their inquiries into the Statistics of Sick- 
ness and Mortality m York, with £20 at the disposal of the Committee for 
the purpose. 


' 
MECHANICS, 


That Mr. Hodgkinson be requested to continue his Experiments on the 
Strength of Materials, with £60 at his disposal for the purpose, 


xx i SYNOPSIS. 


Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Oljects by the 
General Committee at the Cambridge Meeting, June 1845, with the 
Name of the Member, who alone or as the First of a Committee, as 


entitled to draw for the Money. 


Kem Observatory. 


For maintaining the establishment in Kew Observatory under 
the direction of the Council.....cceseseccecccceccoees 


Mathematical and Physical Science. 
Birt, W.—For Researches on Atmospheric Undulations...... 
Erman, A.—For Computation of the Gaussian Constants for 


DS OOeit epetoketeietere’s eis cle eeeee eeeeseeseeeeeeeeseeeeeeee 


Oster, Mr.—Expenses attending Anemometer ..++eeeeeeee 


Chemical Science. 
Scuuncx, Dr.—For Investigations on Colouring Matters...... 


Geology. 


Morcuison, R. I.—For obtaining the completion of the Exa- 
mination, by M. Agassiz, of the Fossil Fishes of the London 


Clay eeeeeeeesaeeeeeeeeereeseeeeeeereseeeseeeeeeeeeee 


Zoology and Botany. 


Carpenter, Dr.—For investigations on the Microscopic Struc- 
ture of Recent and Fossil Shells....... Me es 
Forszs, Prof. E.—For investigations into the Marine Zoology of 
Britain by means of the Dredge ...-+.++sseeeeeeeeeese 
Hopvexin, Dr.—For investigations into the Varieties of the 
Human Race ......c0ceccssccccescosecccccccces 
Owen, Professor.—For Researches into the Marine Zoology of 
GMC, sais sinja-ciho)s. 6.5m. cnnin Pyne gi megie s © oie eis aap 
PorttLock, Captain. —For Researches into the Marine Zoology 
of Corfu by means of the Dredge ......-0.-sseeee- 
Srricktanv, H. E,—For continuing Experiments on the Vi- 
Pap iteeOer ae ais woah nme Saa'se ee secccecusumn 


Medical Science. 


Ericusen, I. E.—For Expenses incurred in Researches on 
AsphyXia se cecccecccescceccsescvcccnrcusressccess 


Statistics. 
Laycock, Dr.—For inquiries into the Statistics of Sickness and 
Mortality in York ..ccsececcccccce revs eccrcceceene 
Mechanics. 


Hopextnson, E.—For continuing Experiments on the Strength 
| Ofer teniahe  iai'eva\ oe wehaleloeeto tails terevélis loxplee stele se 'o,sveceyezeimiejaness 


£ s ad 
150 0 0° 
7 0 0 
50 0 0 
1117 6 
10 0 0 
100 0 0 
10 0 O 
10 0 0 
15 0 0 
T0""O "70 
10 0 0O 
10 0 O 
616 2 
20 0 90 
60 0 0 


Total of Grants ...see++e+e-£480 13 8 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for 
Scientific Purposes. 


1834. 
£ os. ad, 
Tide Discussions .... 20 9% 0 
P 1835. 
Tide Discussions 62 0 0 


BritishFossillchthyology 105 0 0 


ictal ahaa 

1836. 
Tide Discussions ..-- 163 0 0 
BritishFossilIchthyology 105 0 0 


Thermometric Observa- 


aiieRan «0 een. 00 00. 0). 

Experiments on long- 
continued Heat .... 17 1 O 
Rain Gauges .....+-- 913 0 
Refraction Experiments 15 0 0 
Lunar Nutation ...... 60 0 0 
Thermometers ...--.- 15 6 0 
£434 14 0 

1837. 

Tide Discussions...... 284 1 0 
Chemical Constants .. 2413 6 
Lunar Nutation ...... 70 0 O 
Observations on Waves. 100 12 0 
Tides at Bristol ...... 150 0 O 

Meteorology and Subter- 
ranean Temperature. 89 5 0 
VitrificationExperiments 150 0 0 
Heart Experiments. . 8 4 6 
Barometric Observant 30 0 0 
Barometers......---- 1118 6 
£918 14 6 

1838. 

Tide Discussions...... 29 0 O 
British Fossil Fishes .. 100 0 0O 

Meteorological Observa- 

tions and Anemometer 
(construction) .-...+-+ -100 0 0 
Cast Iron (strength of). 60 0 0 

Animal and Vegetable 

Substances (preserva- 
MON GE) | sis ois, s areieie e ~ My -4e10 
Carried forward £308 1 10 


1845. 


Cc 


£ s. d. 
Brought forward 308 1 10 
Railway Constants .... 41 12 10 
Bristol Tides ........ 50 0 O 
Growth of Plants 75.0 0 
Mud in Rivers ...... 3 6 6 
Education Committee... 50° 0 0O 
Heart Experiments.... 5 38 0 
Land and Sea Level .. 267 8 7 
Subterranean Tempera- 

Line Goh awe es azutbiee hie 6 0 
Steam-vessels ......-- 100 0 O 
Meteorological Commit- 

CEG isi rananee leo weg lg WOU beh 
Thermometers ...e-. 16 4 O 

£956 12 2 
1839. 
Fossil Ichthyology .... 110 0 0 
Meteorological Observa- 

tions at Plymouth .. 63 10 0 
Mechanism of Waves.. 144 2 0 
Bristol Tides ........ 385 18 6 
Meteorology and Subter- 

ranean Temperature. 21 11 0 
VitrificationExperiments 9 4 7 
Cast Iron Experiments. 100 0 0 
Railway Constants.... 28 7% 2 
Land and Sea Level .. 274 1 4 
Steam-Vessels’ Engines. 100 0 0 
Stars in Histoire Céleste 331 18 6 
Stars in Lacaille...... 11 0 0 
StarsinR.A.S.Catalogue 6 16 6 

‘Animal Secretions .... 1010 9 
Steam-engines in Corn- 

Wall asia ojeiers.o use’ via) 100.) O48 
Atmospheric Air...... 16 1 0 
Cast and Wrought Iron, 40 0 0 
Heat on Organic Bodies 3 0 O 
Gases on Solar Spec- 

Lenya ee le ove ar rales Oe ORD 
Hourly Meteorological 

Observations, Inver- 

ness and Kingussie.. 49 7 8 
Fossil Reptiles ...... 118 2 9 
Mining Statistics...... 50 0 0 

£1595 11 0O 


£1235 10 11 


£ 
539 


8. 


SACS aos 


xxii -REPORT—1845, 
&~s. 'd. 
1840. Brought forward 
Bristol Tides ........ 100 0 0 | Fossil Reptiles ...... 
Subterranean Tempera- Foreign Memoirs .... 
tHTE § 2. 2.00 scccnccs) WAG 6)| Railway, Sections .... 
Heart Experiments.... 18 19 0 | Forms of Vessels 
Lungs Experiments .. 8 13 0 | Meteorological Observa- 
Tide Discussions...,.. 50 0 0 tions at Plymouth .. 
Land and Sea Level .. 611 1 | Magnetical Observations 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) 242 10 0 | Fishes of the Old Red 
Stars (Lacaille) ...... 415 0 Sandstone: ........ 
Stars (Catalogue) 264 0 O | Tides at Leith....... ° 
Atmospheric Air...... 15 15 © | Anemometer at Edin- 
Water ondron..4.....:° 10-0 0 Pn oun ina 
Heat on Organic Bodies 7 0 0 | Tabulating Observations 
Meteorological Observa- Races of Men........ 
fipnisots f.3:.0' 52 17 6 | Radiate Animals...... 
Foreign Scientific Me-. 
WMDIFS) }. sstiewnd aoervdl2s:1. | 6 
Working Population .. 100 0 0 1842. 
School Statistics ...... 50 0 0 Dynamometric Instru- 
Forms of Vessels .... 184 7 0 WHENES! «<x ie’s'n"a'a’s’s 6 
Chemical and Electrical Anoplura Britannize .. 
Phznomena....... 40 0 O | Tides at Bristol ...... 
Meteorological Observa- Gases on Light ...... 
tions at Plymouth .. 80 0 0 | Chronometers........ 
Magnetical Observations 185 13 9 | Marine Zoology ..... , 
£1546 16 4 | British Fossil Mammalia 
—— | Statistics of Education... 
Marine Steam-vessels’ 
1841. Engines .. oisisia's 
Observations on Waves. 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) 
Meteorologyand Subter- Stars (British Associa- 
ranean Temperature. 8 8 O tion Catalogue of) .. 
Actinometers ........ 10 0 0 | Railway Sections...... 
Earthquake Shocks .. 17 7 0 | British Belemnites .... 
Acrid Poisons...... -» 6 O O | Fossil Reptiles (publica- 
Veins and Absorbents.. 3 0 0 tion of Report) .... 
Mud in Rivers........ 5 0 © | Forms of Vessels .... 
Marine Zoology ...... 15 12 8 | Galvanic Experiments on 
Skeleton Maps ..... + 20-0" 0 Rocks os -anatyessis 
Mountain Barometers... 6 18 6 | Meteorological Experi- 
Stars (Histoire Céleste), 185 0 0 ments at Plymouth.. 
Stars (Lacaille) ...... 79 5 O | Constant Indicator and 
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17 19 6 Dynamometric Instru- 
Stars (Catalogue of) .. 40 0 0 ments :. i sapelunw 
Water on Iron........ 50 0 O | Force of Wind........ 
Meteorological Observa- Light on Growthof Seeds 
tions at Inverness .. 20 0 0 | Vital Statistics ...... 
Meteorological Observa- Vegetative Power of 
tions (reduction of).. 25 0 0 Seed (. . oieia's ove 'satare 


Carried forward £589 1 


co 


| 


8 


Carried forward £1442 


ooco 


co | me 


cooocooanooene 


oo 


ooo 


coco 


) 
- 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


£& 


Ss. 


d. 


_ Brought forward 1442 8 & 


Questions on Human 


Racked . ewes SUPE FIO 0 
£1449 17 8 
: 1843. 
Revision of the Nomen- 
clature of Stars .... 2 0 0 
Reduction of Stars, Bri- - 
tish Association Cata- 
logue* ..... ages en VO 
Anomalous Tides, Frith 
Beenie oss os 0's 5 120 0 0 
Hourly Meteorological 
Observations at Kin- 
gussie and Inverness 77 12 8 
Meteorological Observa- 
tions at Plymouth .. 55 0 0 
Whewell’s Meteorolo- 
gical Anemometer at 
Plymouth ........ 10 0 0 
Meteorological Observa- 
tions, Osler’s Anemo- 
meter at Plymouth... 20 0 0 
Reduction of Meteorolo- 
gical Observations .. 30 0 0 
Meteorological Instru- 
ments and Gratuities 39 6 0 
Construction of Anemo- 
meter at Inverness... 56 12 2 
Magnetic Co-operation. 10 8 10 
Meteorological Recorder 
_ for Kew Observatory 50 0 0 
Action of Gases on Light 18 16 1 
Establishment at Kew 
Observatory, Wages, 
Repairs, Furniture,and 
Sundries .......... 183 4 7 
Experiments by Captive 
Balloons .......... 81 8 0 
Oxidation of the Rails 
of Railways......-. 20 0 0 
Publication of Report on 
Fossil Reptiles .... 40 0 0 
pence Drawings of 
Railway Sections.... 147 18 3 
Registration of Earth- 
© quake Shocks...... 30 0 0 
ea on Zoological 
'Nomenclature,..... 10 0 0 
» © Carried forward £977 6 7 


£ 


xxii 


s. 


d. 


Brought forward 977 6 7 


Uncovering Lower Red 
Sandstone near Man- 


Chester... .sseccesee 4° 4 6 
Vegetative Power of 
Sdedh o.8e cade: 5 38 8 
Marine Testacea (Habits 
Of) see be side op 208 omeD 
Marine Zoology.... 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology...... 214 11 
Preparation of Report 
on British Fossil Mam- 
TUVALA ase ae ds ar es whee -- 100 0 O 
Physiological operations 
of Medicinal Agents 20 0 0 
Vital Statistics........ 86 5 8 
Additional Experiments 
ontheFormsofVessels. 70 O O 
Additional Experiments 
onthe Formsof Vessels 100 0 O 
Reduction of Observa- 
tions on the Forms of 
Vessels.....+02-+4-. 100 O O 
Morin’s Instrument and 
Constant Indicator .. 69 14 10 
Experiments on the 
Strength of Materials 60 0 0 
£1565 10 2 
3 1844. 
Meteorological Observa- 
tions at Kingussie and 
Inverness ........ . 12 0 0 
CompletingObservations 
at Plymouth ...... 35 0 0 
Magnetic and Meteoro- 
logicalCo-operation.. 25 8 4 
Publication of the Bri- 
tish Association Cata- 
logue of Stars...... 85 0 0 
Observations on Tides 
on the East Coast of 
Scotland .......... 100 0 0 
Revision of the Nomen- 
clature of Stars..1842 2 9 6 
Maintaining the Esta- 
blishment in Kew Ob- 
servatory...eseees. 117 17 3 
Instruments for Kew Ob- 
servatory....seeeee 56 7 3 
Carried forward £384 2 4 
c2 


xxiv REPORT—1845, 
EG AS. 1845. 
Brought forward 384 2 4 & it oh 
Influence of light on Publication of the British 
Plante os visiciate: oie wet LOiaOes0 Association Catalogue 
Subterraneous Tempera- Of Blara t astiste agian 351 14 6 
ture in Ireland .... 5 0 0 | Meteorological Observa-~ 
Coloured Drawings of tions at Inverness .. 30 18 11 
Railway Sections.... 15 17 6 | Magnetic and Meteoro- 
Investigation of Fossil logical Co-operation 1616 8 
Fishes of the Lower Meteorological Instru- 
Tertiary Strata.... 100 0 0 ments at Edinburgh 18 11 9 
Registering the Shocks Reduction of Anemome- 
of Earthquakes, 1842 23 11 10 trical Observations at 
Researches into the Plymouth....... ree Pa, 
Structure of Fossil Electrical Experiments 
Shells ..... “Ona 20 0 0 at Kew Observatory 43 17 8 
Radiata and Mollusca of Maintaining the Esta- 
the Aigean and Red blishment in Kew Ob- 
Seas........-.1842 100 0 0 servatory ...sesseee 149 15 0 
Geographical distribu- For Kreil’s Barometro- 
tions of Marine Zo- Graph... \»'s.n see scans Ruy ee 
ology aclckie miele LOLS 010 01! Gases from Iron Fur- 
Marine Zoology of De- ACHE <7 \acaltadion tats 50 0 0 
von and Cornwall.. 10 0 0 | Experiments on the Ac- 
Marine ZoologyofCorfu 10 0 0 tinograph........ 4’ > See, 
Experiments on the Vi- Microscopic Structure of 
tality of Seeds...... 9 0 8 DHEA ia i5<s seyseeen, eae OC 
Experiments on the Vi- Exotic Anoplura..1843 10 0 0 
tality of Seeds..1842 8 7 3 | Vitality of Seeds..1843 2 0 7 
Researches on Exotic Vitality of Seeds..1844 7 0 0 
Anoplura seen a eee 1'5.50> 30 Marine Zoology of Corn- 
Experiments on the ee hahaa 10 0 0 
Strength of Materials 100 © 0 | Physiological Action of 
Completing Experiments Medicines ........ 20 0 0 
on the Forms of Ships 100 0 0 | Statistics of Sickness and 
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10 0 0 Mortality in York .. 20 0 0 
Investigations on the in- Registration of Earth- 
ternal Constitution of quake Shocks ..1843 15 14 8 
NICEAIS «setae whic ga) Oe, CO £831 9 9 
Constant Indicator and ——e 
Morin’s Instrument, 
Ty AG gees ewe ee ee 
£981 12 8 


Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee. 


Committees and individuals to whom grants of money for scientific pur- 
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting 
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; with a 
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re- 
mains disposable on each grant. 

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso- 


“=r 


EXTRACTS FROM RESOLUTIONS OF GENERAL COMMITTEE. XXV 


ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that 
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be ordered 
by the General Committee. 

In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call 
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 2 Duke Street, Adelphi, London, for 
such portion of the sum granted as may from time to time be required. 

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate 
the payment of personal expenses to the Members. 

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua- 
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be 
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may 
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object. 


On Thursday evening, June 19th, at 8 p.m, in the Senate House, Cam- 
bridge, the late President, the Very Rev. George Peacock, D.D., F.R.S. 
(Dean of Ely), resigned his office to Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S., 
who took the Chair at the General Meeting, and delivered an Address, for 
which see p. xxvii. 

On Friday evening, June 20th, in the same room, G. B. Airy, Esq., F.R.S., 
Astronomer Royal, delivered a Discourse on the recent Progress of Terres- 
trial Magnetism. 

On Monday evening, June 23rd, in the same room, R. I. Murchison, Esq., 
F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the Geology of Russia. 

On Wednesday evening, October 2nd, at 8 p.m., in the same room, the 
Concluding General Meeting of the Association was held, when the Pro- 
ceedings of the General Committee, and the grants of money for scientific 
purposes, were explained to the Members. The Meeting was adjourned to 
Southampton, in the month of September, 1846. 


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ADDRESS 


BY 


SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, BART., F.R.S., 
&C. &C. 


GENTLEMEN,—The terms of kindness in which I have been introduced to 
your notice by my predecessor in the office which you have called on me to 
fill, have been gratifying to me in no common degree—not as contributing 
to the excitement of personal vanity (a feeling which the circumstances in 
which I stand, and the presence of so many individuals every way my su- 
periors, must tend powerfully to chastise), but as the emanation of a friend- 
ship begun at this University when we were youths together, preparing for 
our examinations for degrees, and contemplating each other, perhaps, with 
some degree of rivalry (if that can be called rivalry from which every spark 
of jealous feeling is absent). That friendship has since continued, warm and 
unshadowed for a single instant by the slightest cloud of disunion, and among 
all the stirring and deep-seated remembrances which the sight of these walls 
within which we are now assembled arouse, I can summon none more every 
way delightful and cheering than the contemplation of that mutual regard. 
It is, therefore, with no common feelings that I find myself now placed in 
this chair, as the representative of such a body as the British Association, 
and as the successor of such a friend and of such a man as its late President. 

Gentlemen, there are many sources of pride and satisfaction, in which 
self has no place, which crowd upon a Cambridge man in revisiting for a 
second time this University, as the scene of our annual labours. The de- 
velopment of its material splendour which has taken place in that interval 
of twelve years, vast and noble as it has been, has been more than kept pace 
with by the triumphs of its intellect, the progress of its system of instruction, 
and the influence of that progress on the public mind and the state of science 
in England. When I look at the scene around me—when I see the way in 
which our Sections are officered in so many instances by Cambridge men, 
not out of mere compliment to the body which receives us, but for the in- 
trinsic merit of the men, and the pre-eminence which the general voice of 
society accords them in their several departments—when I think of the large 
proportion of the muster-roll of science which is filled by Cambridge names, 
and when, without going into any details, and confining myself to only one 
branch of public instruction, I look back to the vast and extraordinary de- 
velopment in the state of mathematical cultivation and power in this Uni- 
versity, as evidenced both in its examinations and in the published works of 
its members, now, as compared with what it was in my own time—I am left 
at no loss to account for those triumphs and that influence to which J have 
alluded. It has ever been, and I trust it ever will continue to be, the pride 
and boast of this University to maintain, at a conspicuously high level, that 
sound and thoughtful and sobering discipline of mind which mathematical 
studies imply. Independent of the power which such studies confer as in- 
struments of investigation, there never was a period in the history of science 


XXVl REPORT—1845. 


in which their moral influence, if I may so term it, was more needed, as a 
corrective to that propensity which is beginning to prevail widely, and, I fear, 
balefully, over large departments of our philosophy, the propensity to crude 
and over-hasty generalization. To all such propensities the steady concentra- 
tion of thought, and its fixation on the clear and the definite which a long-and 
stern mathematical discipline imparts, is the best, and, indeed, the only proper 
antagonist. That such habits of thought exist, and characterize, in a pre- 
eminent degree, the discipline of this University, with a marked influence on 
the subsequent career of those who have been thoroughly imbued with it, is 
a matter of too great notoriety to need proof. Yet, in illustration of this 
disposition, I may be allowed to mention one or two features of its Scientific 
History, which seem to me especially worthy of notice on this occasion. The 
first of these is the institution of the Cambridge University Philosophical 
Society, that body at whose more especial invitation we are now here as- 
sembled, which has now subsisted for more than twenty years, and which has 
been a powerful means of cherishing and continuing those habits among 
resident members of the University, after the excitement of reading for 
academical honours is past. From this Society have emanated eight or nine 
volumes of memoirs, full of variety and interest, and such as no similar col- 
lection, originating as this has done in the bosom, and, in great measure, 
within the walls of an academical institution, can at all compare with; the 
Memoirs of the Ecole Polytechnique of Paris, perhaps, alone excepted. 
Without under-valuing any part of this collection, I may be allowed to par- 
ticularize, as adding largely to our stock of knowledge of their respective 
subjects, the Hydro-dynamical contributions of Prof. Challis—the Optical 
and Photological papers of Mr. Airy—those of Mr. Murphy on Definite 
Integrals—the curious speculations and intricate mathematical investigations 
of Mr. Hopkins on Geological Dynamics—and, more recently, the papers 
of Mr. De Morgan on the foundations of Algebra, which, taken in conjunc- 
tion with the prior researches of the Dean of Ely and Mr. Warren on the © 
geometrical interpretation of imaginary symbols in that science, have effectu- 
ally dissipated every obscurity which heretofore prevailed on this subject. 
The elucidation of the metaphysical difficulties in question, by this remark- 
able train of speculation, has, in fact, been so complete, that henceforward 
they will never be named as difficulties, but only as illustrations of principle. 
Nor does its interest end here, since it appears to have given rise to the theory 
of Quaternions of Sir W. Hamilton, and to the Triple Algebra of Mr. De 
Morgan himself, as well as to a variety of interesting inquiries of a similar 
nature on the part of Mr. Graves, Mr. Cayley, and others. Conceptions of 
a novel and refined kind have thus been introduced into analysis—new forms 
of imaginary expression rendered familiar—and a vein opened which I can- 
not but believe will terminate in some first-rate discovery in abstract science. 
Neither are inquiries into the logic of symbolic analysis, conducted as these 
have been, devoid of a bearing ov the progress even of physical science, 
Every inquiry, indeed, has such a bearing which teaches us that terms which 
we use in a narrow sphere of experience, as if we fully understood them, 
may, as our knowledge of nature increases, come to have superadded to them 
a new set of meanings and a wider range of interpretation. It is thus that 
modes of action and communication, which we hardly yet feel prepared to 
regard as strictly of a material character, may, ere many years have passed, 
come to be familiarly included in our notions of Light, Heat, Electricity and 
other agents of this class; and that the transference of physical causation 
from point to point in space—nay, even the generation or development of 
attractive, repulsive or directive forces at their points of arrival may come to 
be enumerated among their properties. The late marvellous discoveries in 


eee 
’ 


ADDRESS. XXIX 


actino-chemistry and the phenomena of muscular contraction as dependent 
on the will, are, perhaps, even now preparing us for the reception of ideas of 
this kind. 

Another instance of the efficacy of the course of study in this University, 
in producing not merely expert algebraists, but sound and original mathema- 
tical thinkers (and, perhaps, a more striking one, from the generality of its 
contributors being men of comparatively junior standing), is to be found in 
the publication of the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, of which already 
four volumes, full of very original communications, are before the public. It 
was set on foot in 1837, by the late Mr. Gregory, Fellow of Trinity College, 
whose premature death has bereft science of one who, beyond a doubt, had 
he lived, would have proved one of its chief ornaments, and the worthy re- 
presentative of a family already so distinguished in the annals of mathemati- 
cal and optical science. His papers on the ‘Calculus of Operations’ which 
appeared in that collection, fully justifies this impression, while they afford 
an excellent illustration of my general position. Nor ought I to omit men- 
tioning the Chemical Society, of whom he was among the founders, as indica- 
tive of the spirit of the place, untrammeled by abstract forms, and eager to 
spread itself over the whole field of human inquiry. 

Another great and distinguishing feature in the.scientific history of this 
place, is the establishment of its Astronomical Observatory, and the regular 
publication of the observations made in it. The science of Astronomy is so 
vast, and its objects so noble, that the practical study of it for its own sake is 
quite sufficient to ensure its pursuit wherever civilization exists. But such in- 
stitutions have a much wider influence than that which they exercise in for- 
warding their immediate object. Every astronomical observatory which 
publishes its observations becomes a nucleus for the formation around it of a 
school of exact practice— a standing and accessible example of the manner 
in which theories are brought to their extreme test—a centre, from which 
emanate a continual demand for and suggestion of refinements, delicacies, 
and precautions in matters of observation and apparatus which re-act upon 
the whole body of science, and stimulate, while they tend to render possible 
an equal refinement and precision in all its processes. It is impossible to 
speak too highly of the mode in which the business of this institution is carried 
on under its present eminent director; nor can it be forgotten in our ap- 
preciation of what it has done for science, that in it our present Astronomer 
Royal first proved and familiarized himself with that admirable system of 
astronomical observation, registry, and computation, which he has since 
brought to perfection in our great national observatory, and which have ren- 
dered it, under his direction, the pride and ornament of British science, and 
the admiration of Europe. 

Gentlemen, I should never have done.if I were to enlarge on, or even at- 
tempt to enumerate the many proofs which this University has afforded of its 
determination to render its institutions and endowments efficient for the pur- 
poses of public instruction, and available to science. But such encomiums, 
however merited, must not be allowed to encroach too largely on other objects 
which I propose to bring before your notice, and which relate to the more 
immediate business of the present meeting, and to the general interests of 
science. The first and every way the most important, is the subject of the 
Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories. Every member of this Associa- 
tion is, of course, aware of the great exertions which have been made during 
the last five years, on the part of the British, Russian, and several other foreign 
governments, and of our own East India Company, to furnish data on the 
most extensive and systematic scale, for elucidating the great problems of 
Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology, by the establishment of a system of 


XXX REPORT—1845. 


observatories all over the world, in which the phenomena are registered at 
instants strictly simultaneous, and at intervals of two hours throughout both 
day and night. With the particulars of these national institutions, and of 
the multitude of local and private ones of a similar nature, both in Europe, 
Asia, and America, working on the same concerted plan, so far as the means 
at their disposal enable them, I need not detain you: neither need I enter 
into any detailed explanation of the system of Magnetic Surveys, both by sea 
and land, which have been executed or are in progress, in connexion with, 
and based upon the observations carried on at the fixed stations. These 
things form the subject of Special Annual Reports, which the Committee 
appointed for the purpose have laid before us at our several meetings, ever 
since the commencement of the undertaking ; and the most recent of which 
" will be read in the Physical Section of the present meeting, in its regular 
course. It is sufficient for me to observe, that the result has been the accu- 
mulation of an enormous mass of most valuable observations, which are now 
and have been for some time in the course of publication ; and when thoroughly 
digested and discussed, as they are sure to be, by the talent and industry of 
magnetists and meteorologists, both in this country and abroad, cannot fail 
to place those sciences very far indeed in advance of their actual state. For 
such discussion, however, time must be allowed. Even were all the returns 
from the several observatories before the public (which they are not, and are 
very far from being), such is the mass of matter to be grappled with, and such 
the multitude of ways in which the observations will necessarily have to be 
grouped and combined to elicit mean results and quantitative laws, that several 
years must elapse before the’ full scientific value of the work done can pos- 
sibly be realized. 

Meanwhile, a question of the utmost moment arises, and which must be » 
resolved, so far as the British Association is concerned, before the breaking- 
up of this meeting. The second term of three years, for which the British 
Government and the East India Company have granted their establishments 
—nine in number—will terminate with the expiration of the current year, at 
which period, if no provision be made for their continuance, the observations 
at those establishments will of course cease, and with them, beyond a doubt, 
those ata great many—probably the great majority—of the foreign establish- 
ments, both national and local, which have been called into existence by the 
example of England, and depend on that example for their continuance or 
abandonment. Now, under these circumstances, it becomes a very grave 
subject for the consideration of our Committee of Recommendations, whether, 
to suffer this term to expire without an effort on the part of this Association 
to influence the Government for its continuance, or whether, on the other 
hand, we ought to make such an effort, and endeavour to secure either the 
continuance of these establishments for a further limited term, or the per- 
petuity of this or some equivalent system of observation in the same or dif- 
ferent localities, according to the present and future exigencies of science. 
I term this a grave subject of deliberation, and one which will call for the 
exercise of their soundest judgement ; because, in the first place, this system of 
combined observation is by far the greatest and most prolonged effort of 
scientific co-operation which the world has ever witnessed ; because, moreover, 
the spirit in which the demands of science have been met on this occasion 
by our own Government, by the Company, and by the other governments 
who have taken part in the matter, has been, in the largest sense of the words, 
munificent and unstinting ; and because the existence of such a spirit throws 
upon us a solemn responsibility to recommend nothing but upon the most 
entire conviction of very great evils consequent on the interruption, and very 
great benefits to accrue to science from the continuance of the observations. 


ADDRESS. . XXXl 


Happily we are not left without the means of forming a sound judgement 
on this momentous question. It isa case in which, connected as the science 
of Britain is with that of the other co-operating nations, we cannot and ought 
not to come to any conclusion without taking into our counsels the most 
eminent magnetists and meteorologists of other countries who have either 
taken a direct part in the observations, or whose reputation in those sciences 
is such as to give their opinions, in matters respecting them, a commanding 
weight. Accordingly it was resolved, at the York meeting last year, to invite 
the attendance of the eminent individuals I have alluded to at this meeting, 
with the especial object of conference on the subject. And in the interval 
since elapsed, knowing the improbability of a complete personal reunion from 
so many distant quarters, a circular has been forwarded to each of them, 
proposing certain special questions for reply, and inviting, besides, the fullest 
and freest communication of their views on the general subject. The replies 
received to this circular, which are numerous and in the highest degree in- 
teresting and instructive, have been printed and forwarded to the parties 
replying, with a request for their reconsideration and further communication, 
and have also been largely distributed at home to every member of our own 
Council, and the Committee of Recommendations, and to each member of 
the Council and Physical Committee of the Royal Society, which, conjointly 
with ourselves, memorialized Government for the establishment of the ob- 
servatories. 

In addition to the valuable matter thus communicated, I am happy to add, 
that several of the distinguished foreigners in question have responded to our 
invitation, and that in consequence this meeting is honoured by the personal 
presence of M. Kupffer, the Director-General of the Russian System of Mag- 
netic and Meteorological Observation ; of M. Ermann, the celebrated cireum- 
navigator and meteorologist ; of Baron von Senftenberg, the founder of the 
Astronomical, Magnetic, and Meteorological Observatory of Senftenberg ; of 
M. Kreil, the director of the Imperial Observatory at Prague; and of M. 
Boguslawski, director of the Royal Prussian Observatory of Breslau, all of 
whom have come over for the express purpose of affording us the benefit of 
their advice and experience in this discussion. To all the conferences be- 
tween these eminent foreigners and our own Magnetic and Meteorological 
Committee, and such of our members present as have taken any direct theo- 
retical or practical interest in the subjects, all the members of our Committee 
of Recommendations will have free access for the purpose of enabling them 
fully to acquaint themselves with the whole bearing of the case, and the ar- 
guments used respecting all the questions to be discussed, so that when the 
subject comes to be referred to them, as it must be if the opinion of the con- 
ference should be favourable to the continuance of the system, they may be 
fully prepared to make up their minds on it. 

I will not say one word from this chair which can have the appearance of 
in any way anticipating the conclusion which the conference thus organized 
may come to, or the course to be adopted in consequence. But I will take 
this opportunity of stating my ideas generally on the position to be assumed 
by this Association and by other scientific bodies in making demands on the 
national purse for scientific purposes. And I will also state, quite irrespective 
of the immediate question of magnetic co-operation, and therefore of the fate 
of this particular measure, what I conceive to be the objects which might be 
accomplished, and ought to be aimed at in the establishment of pHysicaL 
OBSERVATORIES, as part of the integrant institutions of each nation calling 
itself civilized, and as its contribution to Terrestrial Physics. 

, It is the pride and boast of an Englishman to pay his taxes cheerfully when 


he feels. assured of their application to great and worthy objects. And as 


XXXil REPORT—1845. 


civilization advances, we feel constantly more and more strongly, that, after 
the great objects of national defence, the stability of our institutions, the due 
administration of justice, and the healthy maintenance of our social state, are 
provided for, there is no object greater and more noble—none more worthy 
of national eflort—than the furtherance of science. Indeed, there is no surer 
test of the civilization of an age or nation than the degree in which this con- 
viction is felt. Among Englishmen it has been for a long time steadily in- 
creasing, and may now be regarded as universal among educated men of all 
classes. No government, and least of all a British government, can be in- 
sensible to the general prevalence of a sentiment of this kind ; and it is our 
good fortune, and has been so for several years, to have a government, (no 
matter what its denomination as respects party), impressible with such con- 
siderations, and really desirous to aid the forward struggle of intellect by 
placing at its disposal the material means of its advances. 

But to do so with effect, it is necessary to be thoroughly well-informed. 
The mere knowledge that such a disposition exists, is sufficient to surround 
those in power with every form of extravagant pretension. And even if this 
were not so, the number of competing claims, which cannot be all satisfied, 
can only harass and bewilder, unless there be somewhere seated a discrimi- 
nating and selecting judgement, which, among many important claims, shall 
fix upon the most important, and urge them with the weight of well-esta- 
blished character. I know not where such a selecting judgement can be so 
confidently looked for as in the great scientific bodies of the country, each 
in its own department, and in this Association, constituted, in great measure, 
out of, and so representing them all, and numbering besides, among its mem- 
bers, abundance of men of excellent science and enlightened minds who be- 
long to none of them. The constitution of such a body is the guarantee both 
for the general soundness of its recommendations, and for the due weighing 
of their comparative importance, should ever the claims of different branches 
of science come into competition with each other. 

In performing this most important office of suggesting channels through 
which the fertilizing streams of national munificence can be most usefully 
conveyed over the immense and varied fields of scientific culture, it be- 
comes us, in the first place, to be so fully impressed with a sense of duty 
to the great cause for which we are assembled, as not to hesitate for an instant 
in making a recommendation of whose propriety we are satisfied, on them ere 
ground that the aid required is of great and even of unusual magnitude. 
And on the other hand, keeping within certain reasonable limits of total 
amount, which each individual must estimate for himself, and which it would 
be unwise and indeed impossible to express in terms, it will be at once felt 
that economy in asking is quite as high a “ distributive virtue” as economy in 
granting, and that every pound recommended unnecessarily is so mueh cha- 
racter thrown away. I make these observations because the principles they 
contain cannot be too frequently impressed, and by no means because I con- 
sider them to have been overstepped in any part of our conduct hitherto. In 
the next place, it should be borne in mind that, in recommending to Govern- 
ment, not a mere grant of money, but a scientific enterprise or a national 
establishment, whether temporary or permanent, not only is it our duty so to 
place it before them that its grounds of recommendation shall be thoroughly 
intelligible, but that its whole proposed extent shall be seen; or at least if 
that cannot be, that it should be clearly stated to be the possible commence- 
ment of something more extensive ; and besides, that the printing and publi- 
cation of results should, in every such case, be made an express part of the 
recommendation. And, again, we must not forget that our interest in the 
matter does not cease with such publication. It becomes our duty to forward, 


ADDRESS. Xxxili 


_ by every encouragement in our power, the due consideration and scientific 

_ discussion of results so procured—to urge it upon the science of our own 
country and of Europe, and to aid from our own resources those who may be 
willing to charge themselves with their analysis, and direct or execute the 
numerical computations or graphical projections it may involve. This is ac- 
tually the predicament in which we stand, in reference to the immense mass 
of data already accumulated by the magnetic and meteorological observa- 
tories. Let the science of England, and especially the rising and vigorous 
mind which is pressing onward to distinction, gird itself to the work of grap- 
pling with this mass. Let it not be said that we are always to look abroad 
whenever industry and genius are required. to act in union for the discussion 
of great masses of raw observation. Let us take example from what we see 
going on in Germany, where a Dove, a Kamtz and a Mahlmann are battling 
with the meteorology, a Gauss, a Weber and an Ermann with the magnetism 
of the world. The mind of Britain is equal to the task; its mathematical 
strength, developed of late years to an unprecedented extent, is competent to 
any theoretical analysis or technical combination. Nothing is wauting but 
the resolute and persevering devotion of undistracted thought to a single ob- 
ject, and that will not be long wanting when once the want is declared and 
dwelt upon, and the high prize of public estimation held forth to those who 
fairly and freely adventure themselves in this career. Never was there a 
time when the mind of the country, as well as its resources of every kind, 
answered so fully and readily to any call reasonable in itself and properly 
urged upon it. Do we call for facts? they are poured upon us in such pro- 
fusion as for a time to overwhelm us, like the Roman maid who sank under 
the load of wealth she called down upon herself. Witness the piles of un- 
reduced meteorological observations which load our shelves and archives; 
witness the immense and admirably arranged catalogues of stars which have 
been and still are pouring in from all quarters upon our astronomy so soon 
as the want of extensive catalogues came to be felt and declared. What we 
now want is thought, steadily directed to single objects, with a determination 
to eschew the besetting evil of our age—the temptation to squander and di- 
lute it upon a thousand different lines of inquiry. The philosopher must be 
wedded to his subject if he would see the children and the children’s children 
of his intellect flourishing in honour around him. 

The establishment of astronomical observatories has been, in all ages and 
nations, the first public recognition of science as an integrant part of civili- 
zation. Astronomy, however, is only one out of many sciences, which can 
be advanced by a combined system of observation and calculation carried on 
uninterruptedly ; where, in the way of experiment, man has no control, and 
whose only handle is the continual observation of Nature as it developes 
itself under our eyes, and a constant collateral endeavour to concentrate the 
records of that observation into empirical laws in the first instance, and to 
ascend from those laws to theories. Speaking in a utilitarian point of view, 

__ the globe which we inhabit is quite as important a subject of scientific inquiry 
| as the stars. We depend for our bread of life and every comfort on its eli- 
_ mates and seasons, on the movements of its winds and waters. We guide 
_ ourselves over the ocean, when astronomical observations fail, by our know- 
_ ledge of the laws of its magnetism; we learn the sublimest lessons from the 
records of its geological history; and the great facts which its figure, 
magnitude, and attraction, offer to mathematical inquiry, form the very basis 
of Astronomy itself. Terrestrial Physics, therefore, form a subject every way 
worthy to be associated with Astronomy as a matter of universal interest and 
public support, and one which cannot be adequately studied except in the 
_ way in which Astronomy itself has been—by permanent establishments 


XXXIV REPORT—1845. 


keeping up an unbroken series of observation :—but with this difference, that 
whereas the chief data of Astronomy might be supplied by the establishment 
of a very few well-worked observatories properly dispersed in the two hemi- 
spheres—the gigantic problems of meteorology, magnetism, and oceanic 
movements can only be resolved by a far more extensive geographical dis- 
tribution of observing stations, and by a steady, persevering, systematic attack, 
to which every civilized nation, as it has a direct interest in the result, ought 
to feel bound to contribute its contingent. 

I trust that the time is not far distant when such will be the case, and when 
no nation calling itself civilized will deem its institutions complete without 
the establishment of a permanent physical observatory, with at least so much 
provision for astronomical and magnetic observation as shall suffice to make 
it a local centre of reference for geographical determinations and trigono- 
metrical and magnetic surveys—which latter, if we are ever to attain to a 
theory of the secular changes of the earth’s magnetism, will have to be re- 
peated at intervals of twenty or thirty years for a long while to come. Ra- 
pidly progressive as our colonies are, and emulous of the civilization of the 
mother country, it seems not too much to hope from them, that they should 
take upon themselves, each according to its means, the establishment and 
maintenance of such institutions both for their own advantage and improve- 
ment, and as their contributions to the science of the world. A noble ex- 
ample has been set them in this respect, within a very few months, by our 
colony of British Guiana, in which a society recently constituted, in the best 
spirit of British co-operation, has established and endowed an observatory of 
this very description, furnishing it partly from their own resources and partly 
by the aid of government, with astronomical, magnetic, and meteorological 
instruments, and engaging a competent observer at a handsome salary to work 
the establishment—an example which deserves to be followed wherever British 
enterprise has struck root and flourished. 

The perfectly unbroken and normal registry of all the meteorological and 
magnetic elements—and of tidal fluctuations where the locality admits— 
would form the staple business of every such observatory, and, according to 
its means of observation, periodical phenomena of every description would 
claim attention, for which the list supplied by M. Quetelet, which extends 
not merely to the phases of inanimate life, but to their effects on the animal 
and vegetable creation, will leave us at no loss beyond the difficulty of selec- 
tion. The division of phenomena which magnetic observation has suggested 
into periodical, secular, and occasional, will apply mutatis mutandis to every 
department. Under the head of occasional phenomena, storms, magnetic 
disturbances, auroras, extraordinary tides, earthquake movements, meteors, 
&ce., would supply an ample field of observation; while among the secular 
changes, indications of the varying level of land and sea would necessitate the 
establishment of permanent marks, and the reference to them of the actual 
mean sea level which would emerge from a series of tidal observations, carried 
round a complete period of the moon’s nodes with a certainty capable of de- 
tecting the smallest changes. 

The abridgement of the merely mechanical work of such observatories by 
self-registering apparatus, is a subject which cannot be too strongly insisted 
on. Neither has the invention of instruments for superseding the necessity 
of much arithmetical calculation by the direct registry of éotal effects. re- 
ceived anything like the attention it deserves. Considering the perfection to 
which mechanism has arrived in all its departments, these contrivances pro- 
mise to become of immense utility. The more the merely mechanical part 
of the observer’s duty can be alleviated, the more will he be enabled to apply 
himself to the theory of his subject, and to perform what I conceive ought to 


.\ ADDRESS. XXXV- 


be regarded as the most important of all his duties, and which in time will 
come to be universally so considered—I mean the systematic deduction from’ 
the registered observations of the mean values and local co-efficients of di- 
urnal, menstrual, and annual change. These deductions, in the case of per- 
manent institutions, ought not, if possible, to be thrown upon the public, and 
their effective execution would be the best and most honourable test of the 
zeal and ability of their directors. 

Nothing damps the ardour of an observer like the absence of an object 
appreciable and attainable by himself. One of my predecessors in this chair 
has well remarked, that a man may as well keep a register of his dreams as 
of the weather, or any other set of daily pheenomena, if the spirit of grouping, 
combining, and eliciting results be absent. It can hardly be expected, indeed, 
that observers of facts of this nature should themselves reason from them up 
to the highest theories. For that their position unfits them, as they see but 
locally and partially. But no other class of persons stands in anything like 
so favourable a position for working out the first elementary laws of pheno- 
mena, and referring them to their immediate points of dependence. Those 
who witness their daily progress, with that interest which a direct object in 
view inspires, have in this respect an infinite advantage over those who have 
to go over the same ground in the form of a mass of dry figures. A thou- 
sand suggestions arise, a thousand improvements occur-s-a spirit of inter- 
change of ideas is generated, the surrounding district is laid under contribu- 
tion for the elucidation of innumerable points, where a chain of corre- 
sponding observation is desirable ; and what would otherwise be a scene of 
irksome routine, becomes a school of physical science. It is needless to say 
how much such a spirit must be excited by the institution of provincial and 
colonial scientific societies, like that which I have just had occasion to men- 
tion. Sea as well as land observations are, however, equally required for the 
effectual working out of these great physical problems. A ship is an itinerant 
observatory ; and, in spite of its instability, one which enjoys several eminent 
advantages—in the uniform level and nature of the surface, which eliminate 
a multitude of causes of disturbance and uncertainty, to which land observa- 
tions are liable. The exceeding precision with which magnetic observations 
can be made at sea, has been abundantly proved in the Antarctic Voyage of 
Sir James Ross, by which an invaluable mass of data has been thus secured 
to science. That voyage has also conferred another and most important ac- 
cession to our knowledge in the striking discovery of a permanently low 
barometric pressure in high south latitudes over the whole Antarctic ocean— 
a pressure actually inferior by considerably more than an inch of mercury, to 
what is found between the Tropics. A fact so novel and remarkable will of 
course give rise to a variety of speculations as to its cause; and I anticipate 
one of the most interesting discussions which have ever taken place in our 
Physical Section, should that great cireumnavigator favour us, as I hope he 
will, with a vivdé voce account of it. The voyage now happily commenced 
under the most favourable auspices for the further prosecution of our Arctic 
discoveries under Sir John Franklin, will bring to the test of direct experiment 
a mode of accounting for this extraordinary phenomenon thrown out by 
Colonel Sabine, which, if realized, will necessitate a complete revision of our 
whole system of barometric observation in high latitudes, and a total recon- 
struction of all our knowledge of the laws of pressure in regions where ex- 
cessive cold prevails. This, with the magnetic survey of the Arctic seas, and 
the not improbable solution of the great geographical problem which forms 
the chief: object of the expedition, will furnish a sufficient answer to those, 
ifany there be, who regard such voyages as useless. Let us hope and pray, 
that it may please Providence to shield him and his brave companions from 


XXXVi REPORT—1845. 


the many dangers of their enterprise, and restore them in health and honour 
to their country. 

I cannot quit this subject without reverting to and deploring the great loss 
which science has recently sustained in the death of the late Prof. Daniell, 
one of its most eminent and successful cultivators inthis country. His work 
on Meteorology is, if I mistake not, the first in which the distinction between 
the aqueous and gaseous atmospheres, and their mutual independence, was 
clearly and strongly insisted on as a highly influential element in meteorolo- 
gical theory. Every succeeding investigation has placed this in a clearer 
light. In the hands of M. Dove, and more recently of Colonel Sabine, it has 
proved the means of accounting for some of the most striking features in the 
diurnal variations of the barometer. The continual generation of the aqueous 
atmosphere at the Equator, and its destruction in high latitudes, furnishesa mo- 
tive power in meteorology, whose mode of action, and the mechanism through 
which it acts, have yet to be inquired into. Mr. Daniell’s claims to scientific 
distinction were, however, not confined to this branch. In his hands, the 
voltaic pile became an infinitely more powerful and manageable instrument 
than had ever before been thought possible; and his improvements in its 
construction (the effect not of accident, but of patient and persevering experi- 
mental inquiry), have in effect changed the face of Electro-Chemistry. Nor 
did he confine himself to these improvements. He applied them: and among 
the last and most interesting inquiries of his life, are a series of electro-che- 
mical researches which may rank with the best things yet produced in that 
line. 

The immediate importance of these subjects to one material part of our 
business at this meeting, has caused me to dwell more at length than perhaps I 
otherwise should on them. I would gladly use what time may remain without 
exciting your impatience, in taking a view of some features in the present 
state and future prospects of that branch of science to which my own attention 
has been chiefly directed, as well as to some points in the philosophy of 
science generally, in which it appears to me that a disposition is becoming 
prevalent towards lines of speculation, calculated rather to bewilder than 
enlighten, and, at all events, to deprive the pursuit of science of that which, 
toa rightly constituted mind, mustever beone of its highest and most attractive 
sources of interest, by reducing it to a mere assemblage of marrowless and 
meaningless facts and laws. 

The last year must ever be considered an epoch in astronomy, from its 
having witnessed the successful completion of the Earl of Rosse’s six-feet 
reflector—an achievement of such magnitude, both in itself as a means of 
discovery, and in respect of the difficulties to be surmounted in its construc- 
tion (difficulties which perhaps few persons here present are better able from 
experience to appreciate than myself), that I want words to express my ad- 
miration of it. I have not myself been so fortunate as to have witnessed its 
performance, but from what its noble constructor has himself informed me 
of its effects on one particular nebula, with whose appearance in powerful 
telescopes I am familiar, I am prepared for any statement which may be made 
of its optical capacity. What may be the effect of so enormous a power in 
adding to our knowledge of our own immediate neighbours in the-universe, 
it is of course impossible to conjecture ; but for my own part I cannot help 
contemplating, as one of the grand fields open for discovery with such an 
instrument, those marvellous and mysterious bodies or systems of bodies, the 
Nebule. By far the major part, probably at least nine-tenths of the nebu- 
lous contents of the heavens, consist of nebule of spherical or elliptical forms 
presenting every variety of elongation and central condensation. Of these 
a great number have been resolved into distinct stars, and a vast multitude 


= Se 


: 


ADDRESS.. Xxxvll 


more have been found to present that mottled appearance which renders it 
almost a matter of certainty that an increase of optical power would show 
them to be similarly composed. A not unnatural or unfair induction would 
therefore seem to be, that those which resist such resolution do so only in 
consequence of the smallness and closeness of the stars of which they con- 
sist; that, in short, they are only optically and not physically nebulous. 
There is, however, one circumstance which deserves especial remark, and 
which, now that my own observation has extended to the nebule of both he- 
mispheres, I feel able to announce with confidence as a general law, viz. that 
the character of easy resolvability into separate and distinct stars is almost 
entirely confined to nebulz deviating but little from the spherical form ; 
while, on the other hand, very elliptic nebulz, even large and bright ones, 
offer much greater difficulty in this respect. The cause of this difference 
must, of course, be conjectural, but, I believe, it is not possible for any one 
to review seriatim the nebulous contents of the heavens without being satisfied 
of its reality as a physical character. Possibly the limits of the conditions 
of dynamical stability in a spherical cluster may be compatible with less 
numerous and comparatively larger individual constituents than in an elliptic 
one. Be that as it may, though there is no doubt a great number of elliptic 
nebule in which stars have not yet been noticed, yet there are so many in 
which they have, and the gradation is so insensible from the most perfectly 
spherical to the most elongated elliptic form, that the force of the general 
induction is hardly weakened by this peculiarity; and for my own part I 
should have little hesitation in admitting all nebule of this class to be, in fact, 
congeries of stars. And this seems to have been my Father's opinion of their 
constitution, with the exception of certain very peculiar-looking objects, re- 
specting whose nature all opinion must for the present besuspended. Now, 
among all the wonders which the heavens present to our contemplation, there 
is none more astonishing than such close compacted families or communities 
of stars, forming systems either insulated from all others, or in binary con- 
nexion, as double clusters whose confines intermix, and consisting of indivi- 
dual stars nearly equal in apparent magnitude, and crowded together in such 
multitudes as to defy all attempts to count or even to estimate their numbers. 
What are these mysterious families? Under what dynamical conditions do 
they subsist? Is it conceivable that they can exist at all, and endure under 
the Newtonian law of gravitation without perpetual collisions? And, if so, 
what a problem of unimaginable complexity is presented by such a system if 
we should attempt to dive into its perturbations and its conditions of stability 
by the feeble aid of our analysis! The existence of a luminous matter, not 


‘congregated into massive bodies in the nature of stars, but disseminated 


through vast regions of space in a vaporous or cloud-like state, undergoing, 
or awaiting the slow process of aggregation into masses by the power of gra- 
vitation, was originally suggested to the late Sir W. Herschel in his reviews 
of the nebulz, by those extraordinary objects which his researches disclosed, 
which exhibit no regularity of outline, no systematic gradation of brightness, 
but of which the wisps and curls of a cirrhus cloud afford a not inapt deserip- 
tion. The wildest imagination can conceive nothing more capricious than 
their forms, which in many instances seem totally devoid of plan—as much so 
as real clouds,—in others offer traces of a regularity hardly less uncouth and 
characteristic, and which in some cases seems to indicate a cellular, in others 
a sheeted structure, complicated in folds as if agitated by internal winds. 

_ Should the powers of an instrument such as Lord Rosse’s succeed in resol- 
ving these also into stars, and, moreover, in demonstrating the starry nature 
of the regular elliptic nebule, which have hitherto resisted such decomposi- 
tion, the idea of a nebulous matter, in the nature of ashining fluid, or conden- 

1845. d 


XXXVill REPORT—1845. 
* 

sible gas, must, of course, cease to rest on any support derived from actual 
observation in the sidereal heavens, whatever countenance it may still receive 
in the minds of cosmogonists from the tails and atmospheres of comets, and 
the zodiacal light in our own system. But though all idea of its being ever 
given to mortal eye, to view aught that can be regarded as an outstanding 
portion of primeval chaos, be dissipated, it will by no means have been even 
then demonstrated that among those stars so confusedly scattered, no aggre- 
gating powers are in action, tending to draw them into groups and insulate 
them from neighbouring groups; and, speaking from my own impressions, 
I should say that, in the structure of the Magellanic Clouds, it is really difficult 
not to believe we see distinct evidences of the exercise of such a power. 
This part of my Father’s general views of the construction of the heavens, 
therefore, being entirely distinct from what has of late been called “ the 
nebulous hypothesis,” will still subsist as a matter of rational and philoso- 
phical speculation,—and perhaps all the better for being separated from the 
other. 

Much has been said of late of the Nebulous Hypothesis, as a mode of re- 
presenting the origin of our own planetary system. Anidea of Laplace, of 
which it is impossible to deny the ingenuity, of the successive abandonment 
of planetary rings, collecting themselves into planets by a revolving mass 
gradually shrinking in dimension by the loss of heat, and finally concentrating 
itself into a sun, has been insisted on with some pertinacity, and supposed to 
receive almost demonstrative support from considerations to which I shall 
presently refer. Iam by no means disposed to quarrel with the nebulous 
hypothesis even in this form, as a matter of pure speculation, and without 
any reference to final causes; but if it is to be regarded as a demonstrated 
truth, or as receiving the smallest support from any observed numerical rela- 
tions which actually hold good among the elements of the planetary orbits, I 
beg leave to demur. Assuredly it receives no support from observation of 
the effects of sidereal aggregation, as exemplified in the formation of globu- 
lar and elliptic clusters, supposing them to have resulted from such aggrega- 
tion. For we see this cause, working itself out in thousands of instances, to 
have resulted, not in the formation of a single large central body, surrounded 
by a few much smaller attendants, disposed in one plane around it,—but in 
systems of infinitely greater complexity, consisting of multitudes of nearly 
equal luminaries, grouped together in a solid elliptic or globular form. So 
far, then, as any conclusion from our observations of nebule can go, the re- 
sult of agglomerative tendencies may, indeed, be the formation of families of 
stars of a general and very striking character; but we see nothing to lead us 
to presume its further result to’ be the surrounding of those stars with plane- 
tary attendants. If, therefore, we go on to push its application to that extent, 
we clearly theorize in advance of all inductive observation. 

But if we go still farther, as has been done in a philosophical work of 
much mathematical pretension, which has lately come into a good deal of no- 
tice in this country*, and attempt “to give a mathematical consistency ” to 
such a cosmogony by the “ indispensable criterion” of “a numerical veritica- 
tion,’—and so exhibit, as “necessary consequences of such a mode of for- 
mation,” a series of numbers which observation has established independent 
of any such hypothesis, as primordial elements of our system—if, in pursuit 
of this idea, we find the author first computing the time of rotation the sun 
must have had about its axis so that a planet situate on its surface and form- 
ing a part of it should not press on that surface, and should therefore be in 
a state of indifference as to its adhesion or detachment—if we find him, in 
this computation, throwing overboard as troublesome all those essential con- 


* M. Comte, Phil. Positive, ii. 376. 


. 


ADDRESS. XXXIX 


siderations of the law of cooling, the change of spheroidical form, the internal 
distribution of density, the probable non-circulation of the internal and ex- 
ternal shells in the same periodic time, on which alone it is possible to execute 
such a calculation correctly ; and avowedly, as a short-cut to a result, using 
as the basis of his calculation “the elementary Huyghenian theorems for the 
evaluation of centrifugal forces in combination with the law of gravitation ” ; 
—a combination which, I need not explain to those who have read the first 
book of Newton, leads direct to Kepler’s law ;—and if we find him then 
gravely turning round upon us, and adducing the coincidence of the result- 
ing periods compared with the distances of the planets with this law of Kepler, 
as being the numerical verification in question,—where, I would ask, is there 
a student to be found who has graduated as a Senior Optime in this Uni- 
versity, who will not at once lay his finger on the fallacy of such an argu- 
ment*, and declare it a vicious circle? I really should consider some apo- 
logy needed for even mentioning an argument of the kind to such a meeting, 
were it not that this very reasoning, so ostentatiously put forward and so 
utterly baseless, has been eagerly received among us+ as the revelation of a 
profound analysis. When such is the case, it is surely time to throw in a 
word of warning, and to reiterate our recommendation of an early initiation 
into mathematics, and the cherishing a mathematical habit of thought, as the 
safeguard of all philosophy. 

A very great obstacle to the improvement of telescopes in this country has 
been happily removed within the past year by the repeal of the duty on glass. 
Hitherto, owing to the enormous expense of experiments to private indivi- 
duals not manufacturers, and to the heavy excise duties imposed on the 
manufacture, which has operated to repress all attempts on the part of prac- 
tical men to produce glass adapted to the construction of large achromatics, 
our opticians have been compelled to resort abroad for their materials— 
purchasing them at enormous prices, and never being able to procure the 
largest sizes. The skill, enterprise and capital of the British manufacturer 
have now free scope, and it is our own fault if we do not speedily rival, and 
perhaps outdo the far-famed works of Munich and Paris. Indeed, it is hardly 


* M. Comte (Philosophie Positive, ii. 376, &c.), the author of the reasoning alluded to, 
assures us that his calculations lead to results agreeing only approximately with the exact 
periods, a difference to the amount of one-forty-fifth part more or less existing in all. 
As he gives neither the steps nor the data of his calculations, it is impossible to trace the 
origin of this difference,—which, however, must arise from error somewhere, if his funda- 
mental prince le be really whathe states. For the Huyghenian measure of centrifugal force 


2 
( F acy ) “combined” with “ the law of gravitation” ( oo a =), replacing V by its 


é R 
equivalent, = can result in no other relation between P and R than what is expressed in the 


Keplerian law, and is incompatible with the smallest deviation from it. 

Whether the sun threw off the planets or not, Kepler’s law must be obeyed by them when 
pare fairly detached, and the sun concentrated into a spherical nucleus, such as we now 

nd it. 

In the above reasoning, the consideration of the sun’s varying oblateness has been omitted 
as complicating the argument. It is easily taken account of, but with no benefit to the 
theory contended against. It should moreover be noticed that the actual time of rotation 
of the sun on its axis stands in utter contradiction with that theory. 
~ How, then, can their actual observance of this law be adduced in proof of their origin, one 
way or the other? How is it proved that the sun must have thrown off planets at those 
distances and at no others, where we find them,—no matter in what times revolving ? 
That, indeed, would be a powerful presumptive argument ; but what geometer will venture 
on such a ¢owr d’analyse? And, lastly, how can it be adduced as a numerical coincidence 
of an hypothesis with observed fact to say that, at an unknown epoch, the sun’s rotation 
(not observed) must have been so and so, if the hypothesis were a true one? 

+ Mill. Logic, ii. 28.—Also, ‘ Vestiges of the Creation,’ p. 17. 

d2 


xl REPORT-—1845. 


possible to over-estimate the effect of this fiscal change on a variety of other 
sciences to which the costliness of glass apparatus has been hitherto an ex- 
ceeding drawback, not only from the actual expense of apparatus already in 
common use, but as repressing the invention and construction of new appli- 
cations of this useful material. 

A great deal of attention has been lately, and I think very wisely, drawn 
to the philosophy of science and to the principles of logic, as founded, not on 
arbitrary and pedantic forms, but on a careful inductive inquiry into the 
grounds of human belief, and the nature and extent of man’s intellectual 
faculties. If we are ever to hope that science will extend its range into the 
domain of social conduct, and model the course of human actions on that 
thoughtful and effective adaptation of means to their end, which is its funda- 
mental principle in all its applications (the means being here the total devo- 
tion of our moral and intellectual powers—the end, our own happiness and 
that of all around us)—if such be the far hopes and long-protracted aspira- 
tions of science, its philosophy and its logic assume a paramount importance, 
in proportion to the practical danger of erroneous conceptions in the one, and 
fallacious tests of the validity of reasoning in the other. 

On both these subjects works of first-rate importance have of late illustrated 
the scientific literature of this country. On the philosophy of science, we 
have witnessed fhe production, by the pen of a most distinguished member 
of this University, of a work so comprehensive in its views, so vivid in its 
illustrations, and so right-minded in its leading directions, that it seems to 
me impossible for any man of science, be his particular department of inquiry 
what it may, to rise from its perusal without feeling himself strengthened and 
invigorated for his own especial pursuit, and placed in a more favourable 
position for discovery in it than before, as well as more competent to estimate 
the true philosophical value and import of any new views which may open 
to him in its prosecution. From the peculiar and @ priori point of view in 
which the distinguished author of the work in question has thought proper to 
place himself before his subject, many may dissent; and I own myself to be 
of the number ;—but from this point of view it is perfectly possible to depart 
without losing sight of the massive reality of that subject itself: on the con- 
trary, that reality will be all the better seen and understood, and its magni- 
tude felt when viewed from opposite sides, and under the influence of every 
accident of light and shadow which peculiar habits of thought may throw 
over it. 

Accordingly, in the other work to which I have made allusion, and which, 
under the title of a ‘System of Logic,’ has for its object to give “a con- 
nected view of the princyples of evidence and the methods of scientific investi- 
gation,” its acute, and in many respects profound author, taking up an 
almost diametrically opposite station, and looking to experience as the ulti- 
mate foundation of all knowledge—at least, of all scientific knowledge, in 
its simplest axioms as well as in its most remote results—has presented us 
with a view of the inductive philosophy, very different indeed in its general 
aspect, but in which, when carefully examined, most essential features may 
be recognised as identical, while some are brought out with a salience and 
effect which could not be attained from the contrary point of sight. It cannot 
be expected that I should enter into any analysis or comparison of these re- 
markable works ; but it seemed to me impossible to avoid pointedly mention- 
ing them on this occasion, because they certainly, taken together, leave 
the philosophy of science, and indeed the principles of all general reasoning, 
in avery different state from that in which they foundthem. Their influence 
indeed, and that of some other works of prior date, in which the same gene- 
ral subjects have been more lightly touched upon, has already begun to be fe 


7 


ADDRESS. xli 


and responded to from a quarter where, perhaps, any sympathy in this respect 
might hardly have been looked for. The philosophical mind of Germany has 
begun, at length, effectually to awaken from the dreamy trance in which it 
had been held for the last half-century, and in which the jargon of the Abso- 
lutists and Ontologists had been received as oracular. An “ anti-speculative 
philosophy ” has arisen and found supporters—rejected, indeed, by the Onto- 
logists, but yearly gaining ground in the general mind. It is something so 
new for an English and a German philosopher to agree in their estimate 
either of the proper objects of speculation or of the proper mode of pursuing 
them, that we greet, not without some degree of astonishment, the appearance 
of works like the Logic and the New Psychology of Beneke, in which this 
false and delusive philosophy is entirely thrown aside, and appeal at once 
made to the nature of things as we find them, and to the laws of our in- 
tellectual and moral nature, as our own consciousness and the history of 
mankind reveal them to us*. 

Meanwhile, the fact is every year becoming more broadly manifest, by the 
successful application of scientific principles to subjects which had hitherto 
been only empirically treated (of which agriculture may be taken as perhaps 
the most conspicuous instance), that the great work of Bacon was not the 
completion, but, as he himself foresaw and foretold, only the commencement 
of his own philosophy ; and that we are even yet only at the threshold of that 
palace of Truth which succeeding generations will range over as their own 
—a world of scientific inquiry, in which not matter only and its properties, 
but the far more rich and complex relations of life and thought, of passion 
and motive, interest and actions, will come to be regarded as its legitimate 
objects. Nor let us fear that in so regarding them we run the smallest danger 
of collision with any of those great principles which we regard, and rightly 
regard, as sacred from question. A faithful and undoubting spirit carried 
into the inquiry will secure us from such dangers, and guide us, like an in- 
stinct, in our paths through that vast and entangled region which intervenes 
between those ultimate princinles and their extreme practical applications. 
It is only by working our way upwards towards those principles as well as 
downwards from them, that we can ever hope to penetrate such intricacies 
and thread their maze; and it would be worse than folly—it would be treason 
against all our highest feelings—to doubt that to those who spread themselves 
over these opposite lines, each moving in his own direction, a thousand points 
of meeting and mutual and joyful recognition will occur. 

But if Science be really destined to expand its scope, and embrace objects 
beyond the range of merely material relation, it must not altogether and 
obstinately refuse, even within the limits of such relations, to admit conceptions 
which at first sight may seem to trench upon the immaterial, such as we have 
been accustomed to regard it. The time seems to be approaching when a 
merely mechanical view of nature will become impossible—when the notion 
of accounting for a// the phenomena of nature, and even of mere physics, 
by simple attractions and repulsions fixedly and unchangeably inherent in 
material centres (granting any conceivable system of Boscovichian alterna- 
tions), will be deemed untenable. Already we have introduced the idea of 
heat-atmospheres about particles to vary their repulsive forces according to 
definite laws. But surely this can only be regarded as one of those provi- 
sional and temporary conceptions, which, though it may be useful as helping 
us to laws and as suggesting experiments, we must be prepared to resign if 
ever such ideas, for instance, as radiant stimulus or conducted influence 


* Vide Beneke, Neue Psychologie, s. 300 ef seg. for an admirable view of the state of 
metaphysical and logical philosophy in England. f 


xl REPORT—1845. 


should lose their present vagueness, and come to receive some distinct scien- 
tific interpretation. It is one thing, however, to suggest that our present 
language and conceptions should be held as provisional—another to recom- 
mend a general unsettling of all received ideas. Whatever innovations of 
this kind may arise, they can only be introduced slowly, and on a full sense 
of their necessity ; for the limited faculties of our nature will bear but little 
of this sort at a time without a kind of intoxication, which precludes all rec- 
tilinear progress—or, rather, all progress whatever, except in a direction 
which terminates in the wildest vagaries of mysticism and clairvoyance. 

But, without going into any subtleties, I may be allowed to suggest that 
it is at least high time that philosophers, both physical and others, should 
come to some nearer agreement than appears to prevail as to the meaning 
they intend to convey in speaking of causes and causation. On the one hand 
we are told that the grand object of physical inquiry is to explain the phz- 
nomena of nature by referring them to their causes; on the other, that the 
inquiry into causes is altogether vain and futile, and that Science has no 
concern but with the discovery of Jaws. Which of these is the truth? Or 
are both views of the matter true on a different interpretation of the terms ? 
Whichever view we may take, or whichever interpretation adopt, there is one 
thing certain,—the extreme inconvenience of such a state of language. This 
can only be reformed by a careful analysis of this widest of all human gene- 
ralizations, disentangling from one another the innumerable shades of mean- 
ing which have got confounded together in its progress, and establishing 
among them a rational classification and nomenclature. Until this is done 
we cannot be sure, that by the relation of cause and effect one and the same 
kind of relation is understood. Indeed, using the words as we do, we are 
quite sure that the contrary is often the case; and so long as uncertainty in 
this respect is suffered to prevail, so long will this unseemly contradiction 
subsist, and not only prejudice the cause of science in the eyes of mankiid, 
but create disunion of feeling, and even give rise to accusations and recri- 
minations on the score of principle among its cultivators. 

The evil I complain of becomes yet more grievous when the idea of law 
is brought so prominently forward as not merely to throw into the back- 
ground that of cause, but almost to thrust it out of view altogether; and if 
not to assume something approaching to the character of direct agency, at 
feast to place itself in the position of a substitute for what mankind in general 
understand by explanation: as when we are told, for example, that the suc- 
cessive appearance of races of organized beings on earth, and their disappear- 
ance, to give place to others, which Geology teaches us, is a result of some 
certain law of development, in virtue of which an unbroken chain of gra- 
dually exalted organization from the crystal to the globule, and thence, 
through the successive stages of the polypus, the mollusk, the insect, the fish, 
the reptile, the bird, and the beast, up to the monkey and the man (nay, for 
aught we know, even to the angel), has been (or remains to be) evolved. 
Surely, when we hear such a theory, the natural human craving after causes, 
capable in some conceivable way of giving rise to such changes and trans- 
formations of organ and intellect,—causes why the development at different 
parts of its progress should divaricate into different lines,—cawses, at all 
events, intermediate between the steps of the development—becomes im- 
portunate. And when nothing is offered to satisfy this craving, but loose 
and vague reference to favourable circumstances of climate, food, and general 
situation, which no experience has ever shown to convert one species into 
another ; who is there who does not at once perceive that such a theory is in 
no-respect more explanatory, than that would be which simply asserted a 
miraculous intervention at every successive step of that unknown series of 


f 
q 
; 


ADDRESS, xlii 


events by which the earth has been alternately peopled and dispeopled of its 
denizens ? 

A law may be a rule of action, but it is not action. The Great First 
Agent may lay down a rule of action for himself, and that rule may become 
known to man by observation of its uniformity : but constituted as our minds 
are, and having that conscious knowledge of causation which is forced upon 
us by the reality of the distinction between zntending a thing and doing it, 
we can never substitute the Rule for the Act. Either directly or through 
delegated agency, whatever takes place is not merely willed, but done, and 
what is done we then only declare to be explained, when we can trace a 
process, and show that it consists of steps analogous to those we observe in 
occurrences which have passed often enough before our own eyes to have 
become familiar, and to be termed xatural. So long as no such process 
can be traced and analysed out in this manner, so long the phenomenon 
is unexplained, and remains equally so whatever be the number of unex- 
plained steps inserted between its beginning and its end. ‘The transition 
from an inanimate crystal to a globule capable of such endless organic and 
intellectual development, is as great a step—as unexplained a one—as un- 
intelligible to us—and in any human sense of the word, as miraculous as the 
immediate creation and introduction upon earth of every species and every 
individual would be. Take these amazing facts of geology which way we 
will, we must resort elsewhere than to a mere speculative law of develop- 
ment for their explanation. ; 

. Visiting as we do once more this scene of one of our earliest and most 
agreeable receptions—as travellers on the journey of life brought back by. 
the course of events to scenes associated with exciting recollections and the 
memory of past kindness—we naturally pause and look back on the interval 
with that interest which always arises on such occasions; “ How has it fared 
with you meanwhile?” we fancy ourselves asked. ‘‘ How have you prosper- 
ed?” “Has this long interval been well or ill spent?” “ How is it with the 
cause in which you have embarked? ” “ Has it flourished or receded, and to 
what extent have you been able to advance it?” To all these questions we 
may, I believe, conscientiously, and with some self-gratulation, answer— 
Well! The young and then but partially fledged institution has become 
established and matured. Its principles have been brought to the test of a 
long and various experience, and been found to work according to the ex- 
pectations of its founders. Its practice has been brought to uniformity and 
consistency, on rules which, on the whole, have been found productive of no 
inconvenience to any of the parties concerned. Our calls for reports on the 
actual state and deficiencies of important branches of science, and on the 
most promising lines of research. in them, have been answered by most valu- 
able and important essays from men of the first eminence in their respective 
departments, not only condensing what is known, but adding largely to it, 
and in a multitude of cases entering very extensively indeed into original in- 
quiries and investigations ; of which Mr. Scott Russell’s Report on Waves, 
and Dr. Carpenter's on the Structure of Shells, and several others in the. 
most recently published volume of our Reports, that for the York meeting 
last summer, may be specified as conspicuous instances. 

_ Independent of these reports, the original: communications read or ver- 
bally made to our several Sections have been in the highest degree interest- 
ing and copious ; not only as illustrating and.extending almost every branch 


of science, but as having given rise to digéuissions and interchanges of idea 


and information between the members present, of which it is perfectly im- 
possible to appreciate sufficiently the influence and value. Ideas thus com- 


municated fructify in a wonderful manner on subsequent reflection, and be- 


xliv REPORT—1845. 


come, | am persuaded, in innumerable cases, the germs of theories, and the 
connecting links between distant regions of thought, which might have other- 
wise continued indefinitely dissociated. 

How far this Association has hitherto been instrumental in fulfilling the 
ends for which it was called into existence, can, however, be only imperfectly 
estimated from these considerations. Science, as it stands at present, is 
not merely advanced by speculation and thought; it stands in need of ma- 
terial appliances and means; its pursuit is costly, and to those who pursue 
it for its own sake, utterly unremunerative, however largely the community 
may benefit by its applications, and however successfully practical men may 
turn their own or others’ discoveries to account. Hence arises a wide field 
for scientific utility in the application of pecuniary resources in aid of private 
research, and one in which assuredly this Association has not held back its 
hand. I have had the curiosity to cast up the sums which have been ac- 
tually paid, or are now in immediate course of payment, on account of grants 
for scientific purposes by this Association since its last meeting at this place, 
and I find them to amount to not less than 11,1672. And when it is re- 
collected that in no case is any portion of these grants applied to cover any 
personal expense, it will easily be seen how very large an amount of scien- 
tific activity has been brought into play by its exertions in this respect, to 
say nothing of the now very numerous occasions in which the attention and 
’ aid of Government have been effectually drawn to specific objects at our 
instance. 

As regards the general progress of Science within the interval I have 
alluded to, it is far too wide a field for me now to enter upon, and it would 
be needless to do so in this assembly, scarcely a man of which has not been 
actively employed in urging on the triumphant march of its chariot-wheels, 
and felt in his own person the high excitement of success joined with that — 
noble glow which is the result of companionship in honourable effort. May 
such ever be the prevalent feeling among us! ‘True Science, like true Reli- 
gion, is wide-embracing in its extent and aim. Let interests divide the 
worldly and jealousies torment the envious! We breathe, or long to breathe, 
a purer empyrean. The common pursuit of Truth is of itself a brotherhood. 
In these our annual meetings, to which every corner of Britain—almost every 
nation in Europe sends forth as its representative some distinguished culti- 
vator of some separate branch of knowledge; where, I would ask, in so vast 
a variety of pursuits which seem to have hardly anything in common, are we 
to look for that acknowledged source of delight which draws us together and 
inspires us with a sense of unity? That astronomers should congregate to 
talk of stars and planets—chemists of atoms—geologists of strata—is natural 
enough ; but what is there of egual mutual interest, egually connected with 
and equally pervading all they are engaged upon, which causes their hearts 
to burn within them for mutual communication and unbosoming? Surely, 
were each of us to give utterance to all he feels, we should hear the chemist, 
the astronomer, the physiologist, the electrician, the botanist, the geologist, 
all with one accord, and each in the language of his own science, declaring 
not only the wonderful works of God disclosed by it, but the delight which 
their disclosure affords him, and the privilege he feels it to be to have aided 
in it. This is indeed a magnificent induction—a consilience there is no re- 
fusing. It leads us to look onward, through the long vista of time, with 
chastened but confident assurance that Science has still other and nobler 
work to do than any she has yet attempted ; work, which before she is pre- 
pared to attempt, the minds of men must be prepared to receive the attempt, 
—prepared, I mean, by an entire conviction of the wisdom of her views, the 
purity of her objects and the faithfulness of her disciples. 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Proceedings connected with the Magnetical and Meteorological Con- 
ference, held at Cambridge in June 1845. 


CONTENTS. 
Seventh Report of the Committee of the British Association..........0000sseeee ok 
Appendix :— 
Correspondence previous to the Conference in Cambridge ......+++... conceal be 
The Marquis of Northampton to Sir R. Peel-........ssseceeeceeeeeeceeeeeeenees 67 
Sip I, Elerachel to soit Eve (PGC. dickabs cea ccteescena con ddccceececseidcsedevacsivenccns 67 
Resolutions of the Magnetic Conference presented to Her Majesty’s Go- 
VEIMMENE cee seceeecerceeeeeeneeeees cdeeccencnecsnsncsecescessecsscceses PePererys 6 
Report of the Committee accompanying the same —«..seeseresesseeereeeserees 69 


Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sin J. HERSCHEL, 
Bart. ; the Master or Trinity CoLtuece, Cambridge; the DEAN 
or Exy, the Astronomer Roya, Dr. Luoyp and Colonel 

‘SaBINE, appointed to conduct the cooperation of the British Associ- 
ation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological 
Observations. 


Arctic Expedition. 


Ir having been resolved upon by government to equip a new Arctic Expe- 
dition, under the command of Sir John Franklin, with a view to the comple- 
tion of the discovery of a north-west passage, two ships, the Erebus and Terror, 
the former commanded by Sir J. Franklin, the latter by Captain Crozier, have 
been commissioned for the purpose, and provided not only with every former 
means of security and comfort, but with a means of applying the power of steam 
for availing themselves of occasional favourable opportunities for its application. 


_ So far as relates to the prosecution of magnetic and meteorological observa- 
_ tion, they go provided with all the necessary instruments and instructions. 
_ The officers, five in number, who will be charged with their use, have availed 
themselves with all diligence and assiduity of the instructions afforded them 
_ by Colonel Sabine, and should the Expedition pass the winter in the Arctic 
_ Sea, to the north of America, the opportunities afforded of observing mag- 


a 


_ netic disturbances, in near proximity to the Magnetic Pole and in the region 
of the Aurora, will be in the highest degree interesting, and will call for every 


practicable exertion in watching for and observing simultaneous disturbances 

in Europe and America, wherever magnetic observation is at the time in 

progress. Among the instruments with which this Expedition is provided, 
B 


4 REPORT—1845. 


is one of a novel description, contrived by Professor Lloyd, for determining 
the absolute total force by direct observation in dips from 80° to 90°. The 
interesting discovery of Sir James Ross, of a barometric pressure in the 
Antaretic Seas lower by more than an inch than at the equator, will render 
the barometric observations of this Expedition especially important, in con- 
sequence of attention being drawn to circumstances in the usual mode of 
executing barometric observations in severe colds, which have been supposed 
capable of partially masking this peculiarity, and upon which we shail now be 
enabled to pronounce definitively. 

As the Magnetic Pole will be again probably approached in this Expedition, 
an opportunity will be afforded of ascertaining (at least by subsequent calcu- 
lation) whether any and what change has taken place in the situation of that 
important point since the date of Sir James Ross’s observations, and should 
the Expedition be successful in making their passage home by Behring’s 
Straits, an invaluable series of data along the northern coast of America to 
the Straits in question will be secured. 


New Stations for Meteorological and Magnetic Observations. 


_ The Astronomical and Meteorological Society of British Guiana have re- 
cently established an observatory in that colony for the purpose of making 
astronomical, meteorological and magnetic observations, and have (partly by 
the grant of magnetic and other instruments used by Sir R. Schomburgk in 
his survey of the colony, partly at their own cost) furnished it with in- 
struments. Not content with this, however, they have engaged a competent 
and well-recommended observer, at a liberal salary, so that we have here an 
example which it may be hoped our other colonies will eagerly imitate, of 
scientific cooperation, voluntarily undertaken, in a highly interesting region, 
from which the best results may be hoped. 

The prospect of a colonial observatory at Colombo in Ceylon, though not 
yet realized, appears by a letter received by Colonel Sabine from Capt. Pick- 
ering, dated January 18, 1845, to be still entertained, since that gentleman 
has received the Governor's directions to prepare estimates for the building 
and establishment. 

It is assuredly much to be desired that such of our colonies as are capable 
of bearing the expense of such institutions, should be encouraged by such 
examples to take part in the great and important work which remains to be 
done, in order to place terrestrial magnetism and meteorology in the rank of 
permanently progressive sciences. The government observatories, by im- 
proving the instruments and methods of observation and chalking out the 
course of observation most desirable to be pursued, have laid the foundations 
of a system which must, sooner or later, be carried out in all climates and in 
every part of the globe. But the system is yet susceptible of further perfec- 
tion, which it has been and is receiving. Several important defects have 
been remedied, and as far as the magnetic observations go, a definite and 
well-directed course is taken. The meteorological system is also beginning to 
assume a more distinct and regularly improving form ; distinct notions of im- 
portant objects to be attained, and improvements introduced into the instru- 
mental departments, which by degrees will fit them for objects they are not 
yet competent to. Should the government observatories at Toronto and Van 
Diemen’s Land ultimately come to be handed over to their respective colonies 
as part of their domestic institutions, not only would a permanent contribution 
of data be secured to science, but incalculable benefit would arise to the 
colonies themselves, in the possession of establishments in which the art of | 
observing has been wrought up to elaborate perfection, and in which practice 


ON MAGNETI CAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 3 


going hand in hand with theory, would act as a powerful engine of public 
instruction. 
Magnetic Surveys. 


The completion of Lieut. Lefroy’s North American Survey has furnished 
data in the highest degree satisfactory. Above 100 stations have been ob- 
served by him, at which the three elements have been determined within the 
isodynamic oval of 1°7 in North America. The examination which has been 
instituted of these shows the observations to be satisfactory. His magnetome- 
trie observations, made hourly during the winter, show some extraordinary 
disturbances; one on the 17th April 1844, gave changes of 8° 10’ in declina- 
tion and 0°16 of horizontal force. 

Lieuts. Moor and Clerk sailed on the 9th of January from the Cape, on 
the magnetic survey of that portion of the Antarctic Ocean left unexplored 
by Sir James Ross, to which allusion was made as contemplated in our last 
report. This survey will complete our knowledge of iso-magnetic lines in the 
South Seas. 

In the United States Prof. Renwick has occupied himself with the obser- 
vation of the three magnetic elements at the stations of the Trigonometrical 
Survey from Rhode Island southward to Annapolis in Maryland, while Prof. 
Bache carries on the same process from Annapolis southward, and in the 
course of the current year will probably have extended his operations to the 
Gulf of Mexico. The former of these zealous cooperators in our cause has 
proposed to establish, at Columbia College, a barometrical record simultaneous 
with that at Toronto, in which instruments carefully compared with our 
standards, by means of a portable barometer making the circuit of London, 
New York, Toronto, New York, and London, will be employed. 


Publication of Magnetic and Meteorological Observations. 


The Toronto observations of 1840, 1841 and 1842, are printed, and in the 
hands of most of our correspondents. So are also the first volume of ‘ Extra- 
ordinary Magnetic Disturbances at the Government. Stations,’ and two vo- 
lumes of the ‘ Greenwich Observations,’ containing those of 1840, 1841 and 
1842. An immense arrear remains, and must remain, in spite of every exer- 
tion, unless an increase in the superintendent’s establishment afford the means 
of greater despatch. Representations have been made with the view of pro- 
euring such increase, the result of which is not yet known. Should it prove, 
as it is hoped, successful, the work of reduction and publication will proceed 
with all desirable alacrity, and the world be speedily put in possession of the 

whole results. 

_ The Honourable the Court of Directors of the East India Company has 
_ been applied to on the part of the Royal Society, to authorize the printing of 
_ the observations communicated from the four Indian establishments. The pro- 
position has been entertained, and estimates are in course of preparation. No 
final decision has been yet however come to, though there seems no reason to 
_ fear that it will be unfavourable. The observations which have been received 
_ from these observatories have been partially examined by Dr. Lloyd, and 
_ awaiting the appearance of the observations themselves in a public form, 
_ the following remarks on them, so far as that examination has gone, will pro- 
_bably be considered interesting to the Association :— 


Extracts of a Letter from Dr. Lloyd to Sir J. Herschel. 

Bay is, “ Trinity College, Dublin, Feb. 12, 1845. 

__ “The observations made during the first year and a half at the East India 

‘ompany’s Observatories were transmitted to me from the Royal Society, and 
B2 


4 : REPORT—1845. 


their examination has, I hope, enabled me to be of some use to the observers, 
in the correction and improvement of their methods of observing. Much 
valuable time however was lost at the commencement, owing to some diffi- 
culty respecting the transmission of the observations, of the nature of which 
I am not aware; and, as the last of the records sent were those of June or 
July 1842, I am unable to say how far the instructions suggested by the 
perusal of the earlier observations may have turned to account. These cir- 
cumstances, over which I had no control, prevented me from sending (as I 
otherwise should) any report on these observations to the Royal Society, as I 
felt that any report, founded upon the data which had come before me, would 
necessarily be unsatisfactory, and in some degree unjust, to the very zealous 
directors of the observatories. 

“J shall best perhaps fulfil the wish expressed in your letter, by. sending a 
few notes extracted from the memoranda which I made at the time of the 
perusal of the observations, which you can use as you think fit. 

“ The observatory at Simla, under the direction of Major Boileau, is in all 
respects admirably organized, and has furnished a larger amount of work than 
perhaps any of the whole cooperation. 

‘In order to save time, Major Boileau erected a temporary wooden build- 
ing at Simla on his arrival, and commenced his series of observations there the 
Ist of January 1841. Meanwhile, the site of the permanent observatory was 
selected, the stone available for the building carefully examined for mag- 
netism, &c.; the building erected on a judicious plan, and the observations 
begun there the Ist of July 1841. 

“ At this station the mean height of the barometer is only 23°2 inches; I 
need not observe upon the value of an extended and complete series of mete- 
orological observations made at this altitude (8000 feet about). .The many 
questions, the solution of which has been but partly obtained by the observa- 
tions of meteorologists upon the Faulhorn and the St. Bernard, may be ex- 
pected to receive a complete answer in the Simla observations. 

‘** Major Boileau has added much to the usual routine of observatory work. 
In September 1841, he commenced observing every fifteen minutes! and has, 
I believe, continued that immense labour to the present time. He also made, 
daily, two series of corresponding observations taken every five minutes, and 
each lasting one hour. One of these was made in correspondence with the 
Van Diemen’s Land Observatory, and the other with Singapore and Trevan- 
drum. He has made a very complete comparison of the wet-bulb and of 
Daniell’s hygrometer, and has constructed an elaborate table for reducing the 
results obtained with the former instrument. 

«« Among the remarkable results which appear on the face of the observa- 
tions, I may mention that, generally, during magnetic storms, the changes of 
intensity preponderate over those of direction in the results; while it seems 
to be otherwise in the regular hourly variations. 

“ Smart shocks of earthquake were felt at Simla on the 19th of February 
and 5th of March 1842, which disturbed all the magnets violently. Their 
mean positions were however unaltered, so that the effect was merely me- 
chanical. 

“Of the true magnetic disturbances, Major Boileau says, that that of the 
2nd and 4th of July 1842, was ‘the greatest which occurred since the esta- | 
blishment of the observatory.’ It was also the greatest observed in Dublin ; 
considerably greater than that of September 1841. 

“The absolute observations of declination and inclination at Simla are ex- _ 
cellent. Those of intensity are less so, owing to defects in the method of ob- 
servation, which have been since remedied. 


——_ 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 5 


“ Madras. 


“Lieut. Ludlow waited for the completion of the building of his observa- 
tory, and accordingly his regular series of observations commenced only in 
March 1841. He took the precaution of observing the time of vibration of 
all'his magnets in Dublin before starting, and on his arrival at Madras, and 
was thus enabled to select for use those whose magnetism was most steady. 

“You are aware that a perfect determination of the changes of the third 
element has been a serious desideratum in most of the observatories, the in- 
strument devised by me for the determination of the variations of the vertical 
component of the force having in most cases failed. The value of the results 
in this case depends entirely on the individual instrument, and I do not know 
any that have given good results, with the exception of those belonging to the 
observatories of Toronto, Madras and Singapore. This circumstance adds 
much value to the results of these observatories, inasmuch as the observations 
made with this apparatus cover a space of nearly three years, and of course it 
furnishes an argument for the publication of the Madras and Singapore ob- 
servations. : 

“Lieut. Ludlow cautiously avoided all the difficult. work of absolute deter- 
minations, until he found himself master of the methods; and accordingly his 
results of this kind are free from the errors which are to be found in the earlier 
observations made elsewhere. The absolute determinations commenced at 
Madras with the year 1842, 

“ Singapore. 

“The observations made at Singapore, under the direction of Lieut. 
Elliott, commenced earlier than either of the other Indian stations, namely, in 
December 1840, and (as regards term observations) in the month preceding. 

“The vertical force instrument has worked at this station perhaps better 
than at any other, and accordingly the results have a peculiar value. 

“The diurnal changes at Singapore are remarkable for their regularity, so 
much so, that the diurnal curve may be obtained satisfactorily from a very 
limited number of observations. 

“ After the example of Major Boileau, Lieut. Elliott has had observations 
taken every fifteen minutes, commencing in April 1842. I am not aware 
whether he still continues this labour. 

“ Lieut. Elliott has made, from time to time, a considerable series of obser- 
vations (simultaneous with those of the observatory) at Java, Borneo, and 
other places. 

“The atmosphere at Singapore is loaded with moisture. Lieut. Elliott has 
taken numerous observations of the actinometer ; but the place is unfavoura- 
ble and the observations unsatisfactory. 

“ Believe me to be, 
“ Dear Sir, very truly yours, 
“ H. Luoyp.” 


A letter from Professor Bache to Colonel Sabine announces the gratifying 
fact, that the Senate of the United States has ordered the publication, in 
full, at the expense of that government, of the magnetic and meteorological 
observations at Girard College, Philadelphia, and at Washington ; both which 
publications are now proceeding. 

M. Plantamour has commenced the publication of the observations at Ge- 
neva. M. Kreil has published the fifth volume of the Prague observations. 
As regards the circulation of the printed observations, arrangements have 
been made by the Royal Society for the regular communication of the Green- 
wich observations in this department to all the institutions and persons named 


6 ; 


REPORT—1845. 


in the annexed list, and as the demand for them will in all probability be 
hereafter greater than at present, an additional number will henceforward be 


printed. 


List of Observatories, Institutions and Individuals, entitled to receive a Copy 
of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Royal 


Observatory, Greenwich. 


Algiers 

Altona 
Armagh. . 
Berlin 
Bogoslowsk . 
Bombay . 
Barnaoul . . 
Breday; sis 
Breslau . 
Brussels . 
Cadiz . 

Cairo . 
Cambridge . 
Cambridge . 


Cape of Good Hope : 


Catherineburgh 
Christiana 
Cincinnati . 
Copenhagen 
Coimbra . 
Dorpat 
Dublin 

Gotha 
Hammerfest 
Hanover . 
Heidelberg . 
Helsingfors . 
Hobarton 
Hudson College 
WMasan os |. 
Kaw)... 
KG6nigsberg - 
Kremsmunster . 
Leipsic . 
Lougan . 
Madras . 
Manheim 
Marburg 
Marseilles 
Milan 

Munich . 
Nertchinsk . 
Nikolaieff 
Oxford . 
Palermo . 
Paramatta . 
‘Paris 3) 


- 


ee 


OBSERVATORIES. 


M. Aimé. 

M. Schumacher. 
Dr. Robinson. 
M. Encke. 


G. Buist. 
M. Prang, Ist. 


M. Quetelet. 
M. Cerquero. 
M. Lambert. 
J. Challis. 
United States. 
T. Maclear. 
M. Rochkoff. 
M. Hansteen. 
Mr. Locke. 
M. Oersted. 


M. Madler. 
Sir W. R. Hamilton. 


M. Tiedemann. 

M. Nervander. 

Van Diemen’s Land. 
United States. 

M. Simonoft. 
Observatory. 

M. Bessel. 


M. Weber. 
J. Ludlow. 


M. Carlini. 
M. Lamont. 
M. Prang, 2nd. 


M. J. Johnson, Esq. 


M. Arago. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 


Peking | V/s \ferhinne 
Philadelphia . . 


M. Gachkévitche. 
— Bache, Esq. 


Prague . . - + ‘ M. Kreil. 

Pulkowa. . = - ‘ M. Struve. 

St. Helena . ‘ 

St. Petersburgh M. Kupffer. 

Seeberg . . M. Hansen. 

Sttola 4, //-," she . J. H. Boileau. ~ 

Singapore : C. M. Elliot. 

Sitka . Messrs. Homann and Ivanoft. 


Stockholm i 
Peflisreyeh ihe 
Toronto. . -« 


M. Philadelphine. 
Lieut. Lefroy. 


Trevandrum J. Caldecott. 
Tubingen . 7 
Upsal . 
Vienna : . M. Littrow. 
Wilna .. . 
Zlatoouste . 

INSTITUTIONS. 
Aberdeen : . University. 
Berlin 7 . Academy of Sciences. 
Board of Ordnance . London. 
Bologna . Academy. 
Boston . Academy of Sciences. 
Bowden College United States. 
Dublin University. 


Edinburgh . 
Edinburgh . 


Astronomical Institution. 
Royal Society. 


Edinburgh . University. 

Glasgow .« University. 
Gottingen ih « - University. 

Harvard College . United States. 
Leyden . University. 

aT acts is! uses Academy of Sciences. 
Paris . Board of Longitude. 
Paris... Dépét de la Marine. 
Philadelphia . Philosophical Society. 
Queen’s Library . London. 

Royal Institution . . London. 

Royal Society . 3) 9 

St. Andrews . University. 

St. Petersburgh . Academy of Sciences. 
Savilian Library . Oxford. 

Stockholm . : Academy of Sciences. 
Trinity College, Library Cambridge. 


Upsal 


Society of Sciences. 


Waterville College ‘ : United States. 


INDIVIDUALS. 


Bessel, Prof. . - iis 
Brisbane, Sir Thomas Fa ee 


KOnigsberg. 
Makerstown, Kelso. 


REPORT—1845. 


Brittingham, Lieutenant, R.A. . Newfoundland. 
Lowndes Professor of Astronomy Cambridge. 


Plumian Professor of Astronomy Cambridge. 
Colebrook, Sir W. - . . .. New Brunswick. 
Dove, M. Piratierteteed see ee erie 
Erman,M... . ish. berlin: 

ox, RoW... Be, Falmouth. 

Harris, W. Snow, Esq. nek Plymouth. 
Howard, Luke, Esq. . 4 . Tottenham. 
Humboldt, Baron . we. 23). %Berlin: 

Kaemtz, M. . as igs . Dorpat. 

Lloyd, Rev. H. . . . University, Dublin. 
Loomis, —, Esq.. - - . . New York. 
Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart . . London. 
MacCullagh, James, Esq. - + « University, Dublin. 
Phillips, John, Esq. . . o'¥) 5/4) PORN 

Pickering, Captain, R.A. . . . Ceylon. 

Redfield, W. C., Esq. . - « New York. 

Reid, Lieutenant-Colonel . . Bermuda. 

Smyth, W.H., Captain R.N. . . London. 

South, Sir James. f - London. 


List of Meteorological and Magnetical Observations in the possession of the 
Royal Society. 


Meteorological Observations. 


Observatories. Periods of Observation. Observers. 
Bombay. 1842, 1843. G. Buist. 
Cape of Good Hope.|February 7 to November 1841, Lieut. Wilmot. 
Cochin. July 1842 to January 1844. J. B. Taylor. 
Erebus and Terror. |October 1839 to November 1842. ‘Ross and Crozier. 
Lucknow. June 1842 to October 1843. R. Wilcox. 
Madras. January to December 1843, to June 1844. (J. Ludlow. 
Niger Expedition. |May to July 1841. 

Penang. April 1843 to January 1844. \J. B. Taylor. 
Port Arthur. 1840. J. Lempriére. 
Ross Bank. October 1840 to December 1842. Capt. Ross. 
St. Helena. February to October 1840. Lieut. Lefroy. 
Singapore. 1841, 1842, 1843 to October 1844. C. M. Elliot. 
Simla. 1841,1842, Juneto Dec. 1843, Jan. to Nov.1844.|J. H. Boileau. 
Toronto. Jan. 1840 to August 1842. \Lieut. Riddell. 
Magnetical Observations. 
Observatories. Periods of Observation. Observers. 
Bombay. November 1841 to April 1842, Sep-/G. Buist. 
tember 1842 to May 1844. 
Borneo. October 1842. C. M. Elliot. 
Lucknow. June 1842 to December 1843. R. Wilcox. 
Madras. 1841, March 1842 to December 1843.|J. Ludlow. 
Singapore. {1840 to June 1842, August 1842 to/C. M. Elliot. 
December 1844. 
Simla. September 1841 to April 1843, June|J. H. Boileau. 
1843 to October 1844. 
Trevandrum. |May 1841 to March 1842. John Caldecott, Esq. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 9 


The Board of Ordnance has given orders that copies of all the observations 
at the Ordnance observatories shall henceforward be sent to the governors of 
all our colonies, to be by them deposited in the most accessible public li- 
braries for colonial reference. They have been hitherto, and will in future 
continue to be presented to the directors of all foreign magnetic and meteoro- 
logical observatories officially instituted, and to eminent persons in those 
sciences. 


Approaching conclusion of the present system of magnetic and meteorological 
establishments, and considerations thereby rendered necessary. 


The second term of three years for which the British Government and the 
East India Company have granted the existing establishments will conclude 
with the expiration of the current year; and as the termination of the British 
system of observation will in all probability carry along with it the cessation of 
many or most of the other European series of observations, it has been an 
anxious subject of deliberation with your Committee what course to recom- 
mend to the Association under such circumstances. On the one hand there 
is the serious responsibility of advising the continuance of very heavy expense, 
both to the Government and the East India Company, and of a vast devotion 
of time and labour of eminent individuals in science, and of energetic and 
devoted observers. On the other, the high importance of the objects in view, 
the interest which they yearly continue to excite more and more in the pub- 


_ lie mind, and the perception that the great problems they propose to resolve 


Sa ee a 
4 


are of a nature to yield only to continued and persevering inquiry. Under 
these considerations it was resolved at the last meeting of the Association to 
request a conference of the most eminent foreign magnetists and meteorolo- 
gists on the subject, viz. Messrs. Gauss, Weber, Humboldt, Dove, Erman, 
Hansteen, Plana, Plantamour, Kamtz, Gillis, Bache, Loomis, Kupffer, Arago, 
Quetelet, Kreil, Lamont, Boguslawski and Baron Senftenberg, to be held at 
this meeting, and invitations were issued accordingly, the gratifying effect 
of which has been to procure a prospect of the personal attendance at their 
deliberations, of Messrs. Kupffer, Kreil, Dove, Erman, and Baron Senften- 
berg. 

4 addition to this, an extensive correspondence has been entered into on 
the part of your Committee for the purpose of learning the sentiments both of 
them, and of such other high authorities in the practical and theoretical de- 
partments of these subjects, on the important matter under deliberation. 
This correspondence will be found attached as an appendix to the present 
report, and it has afforded your Committee the means of presenting to the 
conference for discussion the principal features of the subject in a more 
methodical order than would probably have been the case without some pre- 
liminary communication of the kind. A careful and minute analysis of the 
several letters received has enabled them to classify the various and valuable 
suggestions contained in them, and to arrange under distinct heads the ques- 
tions which will have to be decided on in case the general opinion should 
prove favourable to the longer continuance of the system. 

It has therefore appeared to your Committee advisable to propose for con- 


‘sideration at the approaching conference, the following heads of inquiry, 


without prejudice to such other points relative to the general question as the 
experience and judgement of any of their distinguished coadjutors may suggest 
for discussion. % 

I. Under all the circumstances, is it the opinion of the conference that the 
combined system of magnetic and meteorological observation ought to be 
continued longer? 


10 REPORT—1845. 


Should their opinion be in the negative, there is of course no room for 
further deliberation, except in so far as may relate to any changes of appa- 
ratus, methods, &e. which it may be worth while to make, or any experiments 
to perform in the short interval to the end of the year. In order therefore to 
give room for any further inquiry, it is necessary to suppose, at least provi- 
sionally, that some considerable amount of opinion in favour of continuance 
is manifested, which, should it prove to be the case (as the general tenor of 
the correspondence would appear to indicate), it may perhaps be advisable 
still to wave coming to any final conclusion on this principal head, until the 
subordinate subjects shall have undergone discussion ; and this, if for no other 
reason, because, agreeing in the general principle, it may be found impossible 
to reconcile all opinion respecting the details. Assuming then provisionally 
an affirmative opinion on the general principle, the following are the general 
heads under which it would appear most convenient to arrange the subjects of 
consideration :— 

A. The general system of magnetic observation at fixed stations. 

a. The daily observations. 
6. The absolute determinations. 
e. Term observations. 
d. Disturbances. 
e. Instruments. 
Jf. Additional observations. 
B. The general system of meteorological observation at fixed stations. 
a. The daily observations. 
6. Term observations. 
e. Instruments. 
d. Additional observations. 
C. Stations, and duration of the system. 
a. The Ordnance stations. 
b. The Admiralty stations. 
c. The East India stations. 
d. Permanence or temporary duration of the stations. 
e. Observers and assistants. 
D. Surveys and auxiliary stations. 
a. Magnetic surveys by land and sea. 
6. Auxiliary barometric stations. 

E. Problems solved and to be solved. 

F. Particular suggestions which deserve consideration. 

Under each of these general heads and their subdivisions, particular sug- 
gestions have been made and alterations proposed or objected to, giving rise 
to questions a great deal too numerous and extensive to admit of their being 
each discussed in full detail at a conference so limited in time as this must be. 
Nevertheless it will be proper to specify under each, in the manner of a re- 
sumé, what are the particular questions which have arisen in the minds of our 
correspondents or have been subsequently suggested, with a view to selecting 
those of most importance ; and these are as follows :— 

A a. Daily observations.—Should they be made hourly, two-hourly, four-, 
six- or eight-hourly ? by night as well as by day ? at Gottingen time 
or that of the place? at constant or variable hours with the season 
of the year? Should they be made two-hourly for a certain time 
and subsequently changed to four- or six-hourly ? 

A b, Absolute determinations—Should they be made monthly, or how often? 
For what elements? What methods should be pursued in their de- 
termination ? 


ne ee —<s 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. Jl] 


Ac. Term observations.—Should they be discarded (as seems the general 
impression) or increased in number and made weekly, as Dr. Lloyd 
recommends? Should Gottingen time be used in them? Should a 
term be broken off if no disturbance be apparent at the usual time 
of greatest disturbance ? 4 

A d. Disturbances.—Should the inquiry into disturbances rely on term- 
observations only, or should extra observations be made whenever 
they are supposed to be in progress? Should a few continuous ob- 
servations be made.at the usual hours of maximum disturbance, to 
detect them? Ought the readings of the instruments during them 
to be registered at definite instants of Gottingen mean time, or at 
the instants of great jumps or turning points? Ought any special 
provision to be made for their observation during Sir John Frank- 
lin’s stay near the pole ? 

A e. Instruments.—Ought the present instruments to continue in use, or 
any, and what changed? Ought magnets to be interchanged? 
Should self-registering magnetic apparatus to register disturbances 
attaining a certain magnitude? New instruments—induction mag- 
netometer—theodolite ditto—M. Lamont’s new inventions ? 

A f. Additional observations—Should any, and what, be in future made? 

Ba. Daily Meteorological Observations.—Should any immediate change be 
made in the hours? in the instruments? Should night observations 
be discontinued ? 

Bb. Meteorological Terms.—Should these be discontinued? Should they 
be modified as to the extent of the observations ? 

Be. Meteorological Instruments——Should self-registering instruments be 
used? and what? Should encouragements be held out for their 
improval ? and of what sort? who to be the judges, and what the 
conditions of their introduction into use? At what times and on 
what understandings are new instruments generally to be intro- 
duced? Should a system of itinerant instruments of comparison be 
adopted? at what intervals ? and in what order? 

Bd. Additional Observations.—Of thermometers, wet and dry, at several 
elevations in the air? Of temperatures of soil at several depths ? 
Of atmospheric electricity ? with what instrument? Peltier’s? 
Gourjon’s? Mr. Wheatstone’s new principle and apparatus? of 
barometer continuously during storms? Should the wind be regis- 
tered at each observation? Should any other class of phenomena 
be observed ? 

Ca,cb. Of the Ordnance and Admiralty Stations.—Should all be con- 
tinued in activity or not, and which? If the same number be re- 
tained, is it desirable to continue or change the stations? Should 
any endeavour be made to procure additional colonial stations ? 

Ce. The Hast India Observatories—Should any and which of them be 
continued? The expense of Simla being particularly heavy, is it 
desirable to recommend zés continuance ? 

Cd. Permanence or Temporary continuance.—For how long a period would 
it be desirable to continue each station seriatim? Should any one 
or more be permanent ? 

Ce. Observers and Assistants.—Should the force of each observatory serta- 
tim be diminished or increased ? 

Da. Survey and Auxiliary Stations —Should any and what local surveys 
be recommended? Should the observatories be given up, would any 
local surveys deserve recommendation? Should the observations 


12 REPORT—1845. 


of travellers be encouraged, and how?—by publication of their re- 
sults? At whose expense? Are there any extensive tracts of sea 
in which nautical surveys (Magnetic and Meteorological) would be 
desirable ? 

Db. Auxiliary Stations—By what means can chains or triangles of stations 
of meteorological observation be best encouraged or effected ? 
Should any attempt be made to carry out such a chain of posts 
northward from Toronto ? 


E. Problems Solved and to be Solved. 


Is it the opinion of the conference that the daw of diurnal change of the 
magnetic elements may be considered as satisfactorily ascertained for any and 
what station ? 

Is the law of daily range (disturbances excepted) of the magnetic elements 
or any of them made out ? 

Is the law of annual (periodical) fluctuation made out? Is its dependence 
on temperature ?—on evaporation ?—on precipitation ?—distinctly ascer- 
tained ? 

Is the direction and amount of secular change for any and what station made 
out ? 

Is Toronto favourably or unfavourably situated for,—I1st, the determination 
of the maximum or minimum quantity of dip, and has it been determined? 
Qndly, for the epoch of the turning point of dip, and has ¢hat been ascertained, 
or in how many years could it be ascertained, or is it xow possible to ascer- 
tain it at all? 

Has any correspondence in the magnitude and direction of great disturb- 
ances been perceived in very distant stations? 

Are days of great disturbance general though the particular phases differ 
in different localities ? 

Shall we, at the end of 1845, be in possession of data for computing the 
Gaussian constants for 1842-43, in virtue of the totality of observations 
made or to be made up to that time ? 

If not, is there a reasonable prospect that in a given time, say three or four 

‘years more, by proceeding as at present with observatories and surveys, we 
shall be so? 

Have the disturbance observations as yet manifested any intelligible con- 
nexion with aurora further than that certain auroras do and certain do not 
affect the needle ? 

Have the observations hitherto made held out any appearance of connexion 
with any other cause? 

In Meteorology.—Has any striking discovery been elicited by the observa- 
tions made, either at fixed stations or in the progress of the Antarctic ex- 
pedition besides that of the lower barometric pressure already noticed ? 

Has M. Dove's resolution of barometric fluctuation into two elements 
received any confirmation ? 


F. Particular Suggestions deserving Consideration. 


Is it desirable that meteorological registers made at sea in toto—or re- 
duced—should be published ? 

Would it be desirable if practicable to publish monthly or quarterly returns? 

Would it be advisable to procure from the Royal Society, or other quarters 
where meteorological observations are published, extra copies of these alone 
for circulation among meteorologists? and how are they to be circulated? 
and who to bear the expense ? 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 18 


Would it be advisable to recommend to the General Committee to appoint 
M. Erman to act as a committee to superintend the calculation of the 
Gaussian constants for 1829, with a grant of £50 per annum for two years 
according to his proposal ? 

Would it be advisable to accept M. Dove’s offer to reduce one station’s 
meteorological observations in the mode proposed by him, and to call on 
other members or others who may be disposed to follow his example, and to 
request them to act as a committee with or without money at disposal to do so 
‘on the system to be proposed by M. Dove? 

Is there any one ready to undertake a climatology of England according 
to M. Dove’s suggestion ? 

Professor Bache proposes general hourly observations for a year all over 
America, to commence a year hence [ ? exact day ...], would it be right to 
call upon private observers or public bodies to do the same in Europe, and 
in that case to guarantee their publication ? 

Is there any decided improvement capable of being suggested in the mode 
of publication of the colonial observations? 
Your Commitiee further report, that they have expended out of the grant 
of £50 placed at their disposal the amount of £16 16s. 8d., and request a 

continuance of the grant. 
Signed on the part of the Committee, 
J. F. W. HERSCHEL. 


APPENDIX. 


I. Circular addressed by Sir John Herschel, on the part of the Com- 
mittee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the Britis Asso- 
CIATION in the system of Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- 
tions. 

_ December 5, 1844. 

Sir,—It being understood that the term for which the British Government 
and East India Company have pledged their support of the British magnetic 
and meteorological establishments expires with the year 184.5, so that, unless re- 
newed, the British co-operation in those observations, on its present extensive — 
footing, will cease with the expiration of that year;—and the Committee of 
the British Association for the advancement of Science, appointed to conduct 
the co-operation of the Association in that system of observations, having to 
make, at the next meeting of the Association in June 1845, a general report 
on the progress made and the objects accomplished by the several establish- 
ments in Europe and elsewhere (so far as they shall be in possession of the 
necessary information), in which report this circumstance will necessarily 
be adverted to, they request the favour of your consideration of and reply to 
the following inquiries. 

Ist. Whether in your judgement there are any, and if so, what important 
objects to be accomplished by a continuance of the existing establishments 
for a longer period,—executing as at present both systematic and simultane- 
ous observations, or either class to the exclusion of the other? 

2nd. Do you consider that private research has to any useful and valuable 
degree been stimulated by the example of the government establishments in 
Europe and elsewhere, and that science has thereby received material con- 
tributions which would probably not otherwise have arisen? and can you state 
instances ? 


14 REPORT—1845. 


$rd. In case of the continuance of the observatories beyond 1845, would 
you be disposed to recommend any, and what modifications, extensions or 
alterations in the system of observing, or in the apparatus to be employed ? 

The full and free communication of your views in reply to these inquiries and 
on every part of the general subject, is very particularly requested ; and the 
Committee will also gladly be informed whether you will object to your reply 
to this letter being printed entire, or in part (by extracts) for mutual circula- 
tion, in continuance of this correspondence, should it appear to the Committee 
to be necessary. 

They further request that you will so time your reply that it may reach 
London before the 10th of March 1845, and that you will address it by post to 

Lieut.-Colonel Sabine, R.A., 
Woolwich, 
Magnetic Committee. England. 

Before the end of the current year, the first volume of the Observations at 
the British government stations, and the second of those at Greenwich, will 
be forwarded to you. A volume of extraordinary magnetic disturbances at 
the former stations, and the first volume of the Greenwich Observations, have 
already been so forwarded, and it is hoped duly received. 

I have the honour to be, with the highest consideration, 
Sir, your very obedient servant, 
J. F. W. HerscuHeEt, 
On the part of the Committee. 


THE LETTERS WHICH FOLLOW ARE REPLIES TO THE ABOVE 
CIRCULAR. 


Il. Professor Wilhelm Weber to Colonel Sabine. 
Leipzic, 1845, February 20. 


HocucErenrter Herr,—Ich weiss, dass ich Ihnen auf die vom Magnetic 
Committee vorgelegten Fragen keine Antwort geben kann, welche irgend 
wichtige und neue Notizen fiir Sie enthielte ; dennoch verfehle ich nicht, der 
mir gewordenen Aufforderung zu entsprechen, indem ich Ihnen ganz anheim 
stelle ob und welchen Gebrauch Sie davon machen wollen. 

I. Wir setzen wohl Alle das Vertrauen in diejenigen Regierungen, welche 
zur Begriindung systematischer magnetischer Beobachtungen auf der Erd- 
oberfliche beigetragen haben, dass sie auch den regelmdssigen Fortgang dieser 
systematischen Beobachtungen fiir die Zukunft sichern werden. In diesem 
Vertrauen habe auch ich die Errichtung eines magnetischen Observatoriums 
kiirzlich noch hier in Leipzig betrieben. Das in den ersten 6 Jahren ausge- 
fiihrte System von Beobachtungen ist ein sehr umfassendes gewesen, welches 
darauf berechnet war allen Forderungen zu geniigen, sowohl denen welche 
aus der bleibenden Aufgabe entspringen, zu deren Losung jedes Jahr und jedes 
Zeitalter seinen Beitrag liefern soll, als auch denen, welche in einer Menge 
voribergehender oder ein fiir allemal zu lésender Aufgaben begrundet waren. 
Welche Aufgaben der letzteren Art nach Ablauf der ersten 6 Jahre nun 
schon als vollkommen geldst und erledigt betrachtet werden diirfen, dartiber 
steht uns hier noch kein Urtheil zu; aber die Magnetic Committee wird 
vielleicht jetzt schon ein Urtheil dariiber aus den ihr allein vorliegenden Ma- 
terialien fallen kdnnen. Es muss daher der Magnetic Committee die Ent- 
scheidung iiberlassen bleiben, welche Forderungen in Betreff jener Art vor- 
iibergehender Aufgaben an die Zukunft noch iibrig bleiben, und ich beschranke 
mich auf eine Antwort darauf, ob die bleibende Aufgabe fiir sich allein die 
fernere Beibehaltung des ganzen Beobachtungs-Systems erfordere, welches 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 15 


fiir die ersten 6 Jahre angenommen worden war. Wenn es sich kiunftig 
einmal nur noch um die stets bletbende Aufgabe handelt, namlich 

von Jahr zu Jahr die Verainderungen genau zu bestimmen, welche in den 

vier und zwanzig (kunftig vielleicht 35) Elementen der Erdmagnetismus- 

Theorie Platz nehmen 
so werden wie ich glaube dann betrachtliche Reductionen in dem obigen sehr 

umfassenden Systeme vorgenommen werden dirfen. 

Nothwendig fiir diese bleibende Aufgabe scheint mir 
1. Die Erhaltung aller Observatorien auf entfernten Stationen ausser Europa; 
2. Die regelmassige (monatliche) Wiederholung aller absoluten Messungen in 

allen diesen Observatorien. 

Nicht nothwendig fir diese bleibende Aufgabe betrachte ich dagegen. 

1. Die bisherigen Termins-Beobachtungen—die vielleicht kiinftig auf die 
europiischen Stationen beschrankt werden diirften ; 

2. Die zweistiindigen taglichen Beobachtungen—die sich dann vielleicht auf 
achtstiindige reduciren liessen. 

Kurz es scheint mir moglich, wenn man wirklich so weit gelangt ist, dass 
bloss die bleibende Aufgabe noch in Riicksicht kommt, das System der Beo- 
bachtungen in der Art zu vereinfachen, dass Ein wohl unterrichtetes und 
geiibter Beobachter auf jedem Observatorium geniigt und keines Assistenten 
bedarf. Ein solches beschrankteres System von Beobachtungen muss stets 
ununterbrochen fortgesetzt werden, wenn die Geschichte des Erdmagnetismus 
kein blosses Stiickwerk bleiben soll und wenn die darauf beruhenden magne- 
tischen Karten diejenige Pracision und Planmissigkeit erlangen sollen, welche 
sie fiir die Praxis so nuitzlich machen wiirden. 

II. Was den mittelbaren Erfolg betrifft, welcher die systematische Betreib- 
ung der magnetischen Beobachtungen durch Anregung und Forderung an- 
derer wissenchaftlicher Bestrebungen gehabt habe, so lassen sich zwar diese 
Wirkungen schon jetzt nicht verkennen, doch bediirfen dieselben Zeit zu 
weiterer Entfaltung, bevor man ihren ganzen Umfang und ihre volle Wich- 
tigkeit tibersehen kann. 

In Deutschland z. B. existirten bisher blosse Sammlungen physikalischer 
Instrumente ohne feste Einrichtungen zu ihrer Benutzung, es gab keine phy- 
sikalischen Laboratorien und Observatorien. Solche Laboratorien und Obser- 
vatorien, welche fiir die Fortschritte der Wissenschaft unentbehrlich geworden 
sind, fangen jetzt an zu entstehen, und die den magnetischen Beobachtungen 
gemachten Bewilligungen geben dabei einen festen und sicheren Stiitzpunct, 
wie ich aus eigener Erfahrung bezeugen kann. Seitdem ferner die magne- 
tischen Beobachtungen ihre neuere Ausbildung und Vollendung gewonnen 
haben, haben wir in Deutschland mehrfach begonnen, die galvanischen Beo- 
bachtungen analogen Principien zu unterwerfen und wir haben auch dafiir 
absolute Maase eingefiihrt. Fir alle diese Untersuchungen bilden aber die 
magnetischen Beobachtungen nothwendige Elemente, die dabei als gegeben 
betrachtet werden miissen. Die magnetischen Beobachtungen sind daher 
nicht bloss zur Erforschung des Erdmagnetismus nothwendig, sondern sie sind 
jetzt auch ein wichtiges Element fiir vzele andere physikalische Untersuchung- 
en geworden. An unseren Universititen wird endlich die Wichtigkeit im- 
mer mehr erkannt, welche die Bildung ewacter Natur-Beobachter fiir die 
Wissenschaft und fiir das practische Leben hat. Bisher bot nur die Astro- 
nomie eine sehr einseitige Gelegenheit zur Bildung feiner Beobachter dar, 
welche nur von Wenigen benutzt werden konnte. Die Erfahrung hat be- 
wiesen, dass magnetische Observatorien zu vortrefilichen Bildungs-Anstalten 
fiir Beobachter dienen kénnen. : 

II. Was die Instrumente betrifft, so scheint mir, wenn die bisherigen Re- 


16 REPORT-—1845. 


sultate den Erwartungen der Magnetic Committee entsprechen sollten, kein 
Grund zu einer Aenderung vorzuliegen; selbst aber wenn hie und da die 
Erwartungen der Magnetic Committee in den Resultaten sich getiiuscht 
fanden, wiirde ich doch die Uberzeugung hegen, dass die Schuld davon (die 
verticalen Variationen ausgenommen) nicht in den Instrumenten, sondern in 
Mangel kunstgerechter Behandlung einzelner Beobachter zu suchen sei; und 
dass daher durch Vertiiuschung der Instrumente die Sache eher verschlim- 
mert als verbessert werden méchte, weil jeder neue Instrument eine neue 
kunstgerechte Behandlung fordern wurde. Mir scheint es in jeder Beziehung 
rathsam, die bisherigen Instrumente im Wesentlichen beizubehalten. Doch 
wiirde ich es fiir sehr nitzlich halten, wenn haufiger die Gelegenheit be- 
nutzt wiirde, dass Magnetstibe, deren Schwingungsdauer(und Temperatur) in 
dem einen magnetischen Observatorium genau gemessen worden wire, nach 
einem anderen Observatorium versandt wurden, um ihre Schwingungsdauer 
auch dort messen zu lassen, und umgekehrt. Es wiirde dadurch eine Con- 
trole fur die absoluten Intensitatsmessungen gewonnen werden, welche von 
Wichtigkeit ware so lange man noch nicht uberall auf eine ganz zuverlassige 
Ausfiihrung der absoluten Messungen sollte trauen kénnen. 

Ich benutze diese Gelegenheit, Ihnen, Hochgeehrter Herr, meinen Dank 
fiir den Empfang des 1sten Bandes Observations on days of unusual Mag- 
netic Disturbance, fiir mich sowohl als fiir das hiesige Observatorium auszu- 
sprechen; dagegen bemerke ich, dass die anderen im Schreiben des Magnetic 
Committee genannten Biicher mir bisher nicht zugekommen sind, namlich 
the Ist and the 2nd volume of the Greenwich Observations, and the Ist 
volume of the Observations at the Government Stations. 

Mit wahrer Hochachtung 
Ihr stets ergebenster, 
WILHELM WEBER. 


( Translation.) 
Leipsic, February 20, 1845. 


Dear S1r,—I know that I cannot return any answers to the questions pro- 
posed by the Magnetic Committee which shall contain any important matter 
new to you; I will not however omit to send a reply, leaving it to yourself to 
make use of it or not in any way you may see fit. 

I. We have all confidence in those governments who have aided in esta- 
blishing systematic magnetic observations over the surface of the earth, that 
they will assure the regular continuance of these systematic observations for 
the future. In this confidence I have recently promoted the establishment of 
a magnetic observatory here in Leipsic. The system of observation executed 
during the first six years has been a very comprehensive one, calculated to 
satisfy all demands, both those which arise out of the permanent problem to 
the solution of which every year and every epoch ought to furnish its share, 
and also those which had respect to a number of éemporary problems, or such 
as may be solved once for all. In regard to this latter class of problems, we 
have here no means of judging which of them may be already considered as 
completely satisfied and solved by means of the work of the first six years ; 
but the Magnetic Committee may perhaps already possess the materials on 
which to found such a judgement. It must therefore remain for them to de- 
cide what demands may still remain to be satisfied in respect to the tempo- 
rary problems referred to; I confine myself to the consideration whether the 
continuation of the whole observation system adopted for the first six years 
is required for the permanent problem only, this problem being, 

To determine accurately, year by year, the changes taking place in the 


% 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 17 


twenty-four (perhaps in future thirty-five) elements of the ‘ Erdmagne- 
tismus-Theorie.’ ; 
1 believe that as far as this object is concerned considerable reductions may 
be made in the above very comprehensive system. 

It appears to-me necessary for the permanent problem,— 

1st. To preserve all the observatories at remote stations out of Europe; 

2nd. To repeat regularly (every month) all absolute measurements at all 

these observatories. 

I consider it unnecessary for this object to continue,— 

Ist. The term observations, which may perhaps in future be confined to 

European stations ; 

gnd. The two-hourly daily observations, which may perhaps be reduced to 

eight-hourly. 

In short, it seems to me that, supposing we have really been so successful 
that nothing but the permanent problem remains, we may so far simplify our 
system that one well-instructed and practised observer at each observatory 
will suffice and will need no assistants. Such a limited system of observation 
must be constantly continued without interruption, if the history of terrestrial 
magnetism is to be no mere fragmentary work ; and if the magnetic maps 
based upon it are to possess that precision and conformity to system which 
would make them so useful in praxis. 

II. In regard to the indirect results which the systematic prosecution of 
magnetic observations may have had in exciting and furthering other scien- 
tific efforts, such effects are already unmistakeably recognizable, but they re- 
quire time for their further development before their whole extent and full 
importance can be seen. In Germany, for example, there existed hitherto 
mere collections of physical instruments without arrangements for their use ; 
there were no physical laboratories and observatories: these, which are be- 
come indispensable to the progress of science, are now beginning to arise, and 
for this the arrangements made for magnetic observations afford a solid and 
secure point d’appui, as I can testify from my own experience. Further, 


_ since magnetic observations have received their recent improvement and com- 


pleteness, we have begun in several places in Germany to subject galvanic 
observations to analogous principles, and have introduced for them also abso- 
lute measure ; but for all these researches magnetic observations afford neces- 
sary elements which must be regarded as data. Magnetic observations are 
therefore not only necessary for terrestrial magnetism, but are besides now 
become an important element for many other physical investigations. There 
is at our universities a growing recognition of the importance, both for science 
and for practical life, of forming exact observers of nature. Hitherto astro- 
nomy alone has afforded a very partial opportunity for the formation of fine 
observers, of which few could avail themselves. Experience has shown that 
magnetic observatories may serve as excellent training-schools in this respect. 

III. In regard to instruments, it appears to me that if the results obtained 
shall be found to correspond to the expectations of the Magnetic Committee, 
there will be no ground for alteration; and even if these expectations shall 
have been occasionally disappointed, I should yet be persuaded that (except 
in regard to vertical variations) the cause would be found to be not in the 
instruments, but in the unskilful handling of particular observers, and that 
a change of instruments would be likely to do more harm than good, as every 
new instrument requires a new skilful mode of handling. In every point of 
view it seems to me advisable to retain the present instruments without ma- 
terial alteration. But I should think it very desirable to take more frequent 
opportunities of sending magnetic bars, whose time of vibration (and correc- 

845. c 


18 - REPoRT—1845. 


tion for temperature) had been exactly determined at one observatory, to 
other observatories-where the time of vibration should be also determined and 
the bars sent back; thus affording a check on the absolute measurements of 
intensity, which is of importance until we can confide entirely in the thoroughly 
good execution of the absolute measurements at all the stations. 

I take this opportunity of expressing my thanks, both for myself and for the 
observatory at this place, for the first volume of ‘Observations on Days of un- 
usual Magnetic Disturbance:’ the other works mentioned in the letter of the 
Magnetic Committee, viz. the first and second volumes of the ‘Greenwich Ob- 
servations,’ and the first volume of the ‘Observations at the Government Sta- 
tions, have not yet reached me. 

With sincere esteem, always yours, 
WILHELM WEBER. 


Ill. From M. Kupffer, Director-General of the Magnetic Observatories in 
Russia, to Sir John Herschel. 


Monsieur LE PresipeNnT,—En réponse a votre lettre du 5 Décembre 1844, 
j'ai l’honneur de yous adresser les remarques suivantes sur les trois points y 
contenus : 

1°. Selon moi, nous ne sommes, rélativement 4 nos connaissances magné- 
tiques, qu’d l’entrée d’une nouvelle carriére, d’un nouveau champ d’exploita- 
tion, qui s’étend indéfinement devant nous. Voici effectivement, en peu de 
mots, ce que nous savons déja par nos observations, et ce que nous ne pou- 
vons apprendre que par des observations ultérieures. 

Nous possédons une excellente méthode pour déterminer la déclinaison 
absolue et ses variations, et nous avons étudié avec un soin extréme cet élé- 
ment important du magnétisme terrestre; nous avons constaté et déterminé 
plus exactement les rapports intimes qui existent entre ies variations offertes 
par la position de l'aiguille sur des points trés distans de la surface terrestre ; 
nous trouverons peut-étre méme déja, par une discussion plus approfondie de 
nos observations, les lois qui régissent ces phénoménes, et les causes aux 
quelles on peut les attribuer. Mais nous sommes bien éloignés de posséder 
des méthodes aussi exactes pour l’observation des deux autres élémens du 
magnétisme terrestre. Nous savons bien déterminer la valeur absolue de 
Vintensité et ses variations, dans leur composante horizontale, mais l’observa- 
tion de ia valeur absolue de J’intensité totale et de l’inclinaison, et de leurs 
variations ont encore offert des obstacles insurmontables aux efforts les plus 
persévérans. D’un autre cété, il n’y a pas lieu de renoncer a lespoir de ré- 
ussir prochainement; la théorie des inductions éléctriques nous ouvre une 
nouvelle route et une perspective de succés. 

Outre cela, nos observations mémes nous ont fait voir, d'une maniére non 
douteuse, que la marche de laiguille présente, 4 coté des phénoménes géné- 
raux, dont la simultanéité sur une grande portion de la surface terrestre a été 
démontrée par des observations antérieures, des irrégularités locales, dont la 
cause nous est encore entiérement inconnue et dont les rapports probables 
avec les phénoménes météorologiques sont encore a découvrir. 

Il y a donc encore beaucoup 4 faire et la matiére est bien loin d’étre épui- 
sée; il me semble au contraire, que la solution du probléme, que nous nous 
sommes proposé, n’a été qu ébauchée. 

Mais qu’y a-t-il encore a faire? La rapidité de notre marche nous a em- 

éché de regarder en arriére, nous ne savons pas encore bien nous mémes, a 
quels résultats nous sommes arrivés; une réunion des observateurs les plus 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 19 


actifs et les plus influens, qui ont pris part 4 notre entreprise, est devenu in- 
dispensable, pour discuter la marche 4 suivre. : 

9°. Pour répondre & cette question, il sera nécessaire d’établir avant tout 
le point de vue, dont la science en général est envisagée par notre gouverne- 
ment. En Angleterre, la science a éclairé d’abord, et réglé ensuite la marche 
d'une civilisation indigéne, elle en est le résultat et la fleur pour ainsi dire, et 
réclame le sécours du gouvernement dans quelques cas seulement, ot il y a 
de trés fortes dépenses 4 faire. La Russie, étant venue plus tard, a pu pro- 
fiter du travail intellectuel de toute l'Europe, elle a recu chez elle la science 
toute faite, comme une chose, dont J'utilité est généralement réconnue, et 
comme un des plus beaux ornemens de sa grandeur. Voila pourquoi le 
gouvernement russe cherche les hommes de science et est pour ainsi dire 
jaloux que rien de vraiment utile et bon ne se fasse en dehors de son influence. 
Il est facile de comprendre l’avantage de ce principe; il y a unité partout et 
il n’y a jamais double emploi; la science n’est pas la seule 4 y gagner, l'état y 
gagne aussi, parceque les mémes choses se font plus rapidement, plus stre- 
ment et avec moins de dépenses. 

Il n’est donc pas étonnant qu'il n’y a que fort peu d’hommes privés, qui se 
soient occupés d’observations météorologiques, et pas un, qui ait consacré 
une partie de ses moyens et de son temps aux observations magnétiques. 
Mr. Anatole Démidoff a établi un observatoire météorologique 4 Nigeney- 
tagnilsk dans ’Oural; Mr. Ougritchitch-Trebinsky, directeur de la douane a 
Taganrog, fait des observations météorologiques 4 23 pieds au dessus du ni- 
veau de la mer noire; nous avons plusieurs années d’observations thermomé- 
triques faites 4 Yakoutzk par le Sieur Névéroff négociant ; un autre, simple 
agriculteur, le Sieur Séménoff fait des observations météorologiques trés com- 
plétes 4 Koursk (midi de la Russie); Mr. Kalk en fait 4 Baltischport; plu- 
sieurs médécins en font dans ies lieux respectifs de leurs résidences. II est 
en général facile de voir, que le gout des observations météorologiques a fait 
de grands progrés en Russie, depuis |’établissement de nos observatoires mag- 
nétiques et météorologiques, qui, d’ailleurs, date déja chez nous de 1835; 
Yarchive météorologique de l Académie des Sciences, dans lequel se concen- 
trent toutes les observations météorologiques faites hors de notre entreprise 
magnétique, contient déja des séries plus ou moins completes de 75 points, 
situés dans toute l’étendue de Empire. II faut encore dire que le gouverne- 
ment a bien fourni des instrumens 4 presque toutes ces stations, mais toujours 
sur la demande des personnes qui ont voulu se charger de ces observations, 
et qu'il n'a donné aucune rétribution personnelle. iS 

3°. Quant aux modifications, qu'il y aurait 4 faire au plan des observations 
je crois qu'une convocation de tous les directeurs généraux (un représentant 
au moins pour chaque pays): et d’autant de directeurs spéciaux, qu’il sera 
possible de réunir, est- indispensable, pour disecuter 4 fond cette importante 
question. Je pense que la réunion de I’ Association Britannique 4 Cambridge, 
qui aura lieu cette année, offre une excellente occasion, qu il ne faut pas 
laisser passer. 

En vous priant, Monsieur de bien vouloir communiquer ces remarques au 
Comité, dont vous étes le président, et en vous autorisant de les faire impri- 
mer, si vous le jugez convenable, j'ai Vhonneur d’étre avec la considération la 
plus distinguée et les hommages les plus affectueux. 

Votre tout devoué, 
A. T. Kuprrer, 


Directeur-général des Observatoires Magnétiques 
’ 13 de l’Empire de Russie. 
St. Petersbourg, ce or Février, 1845. 


CoH 


20 REPORT—1845. 


IV. From Professor Loomis of New York University to Lieut.-Col. Sabine. 
New York University, Feb. 28, 1845. 

Dear Si1r,—Having been invited to express my opinion respecting the im- 
portance of continuing the establishments so liberally set on foot by the 
British government for magnetic and meteorological observations, while I 
admire the liberal policy of the government in what has already been done, 
I do not hesitate to express it as my conviction, that the immediate abandon- 
ment of these establishments would prove highly prejudicial to the cause of 
science. The present combined movement for magnetic observations had for 
its object the discovery of the cause of all terrestrial magnetic phenomena, 
This was to be accomplished by simultaneous observations of each of the 
magnetic elements at numerous stations scattered over the globe. The 
observations however must not only be made, they must all be brought to- 
gether, compared, discussed, interrogated, before we can know what lan- 
guage they speak ; they must be published and placed in the hands of all who 
are interested in the subject. The observations themselves constitute but the 
raw material; they are of little value until they are reduced, and it is dis- 
covered what general truths can be derived from them. 

But it may be asked, whether, having made our observations, we may not 
now safely pause until we have ascertained what results they are to furnish ? 
To this there are numerous objections; one of which is, that to suspend tem- 
porarily the present system of observations, would in many cases lead to their 
entire abandonment. But have not observations already been made sufficient 
to secure the object originally proposed? I presume no one is ready to 
answer this question in the affirmative. It commonly happens in experimental 
research, that after a series of fortunate experiments which have shed light 
on what was before shrouded in mystery, a careful comparison of all the ex- 
periments suggests some new combination, which, like an expertmentum crucis, 
would enable us finally to decide between conflicting theories. It is not 
reasonable to anticipate any better success in our magnetic researches. A 
discussion of the past observations will suggest plausible explanations which 
are consistent perhaps with all the observed phenomena; but to preclude all 
objections, it may be necessary to observe the phenomena under varied cir- 
cumstances; perhaps at new stations peculiarly situated, perhaps with pecu- 
liar instruments. To abandon the present system, therefore, before a thorough 
discussion has been undertaken of the observations already made, may be to 
stop short in the race when the prize is just within our reach. Let the obser- 
vations be published as rapidly as possible, let them be freely circulated. 
When the object for which the observatories were founded has been shown to 
be attained, then let them be dismantled. But suppose they are abandoned 
forthwith, and after a comparison of all the observations, we arrive at the pro- 
bable clue to all the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism ; but still some doubt 
remains, which however might probably be cleared up by a further continu- 
ance of the observations, with perhaps some slight modifications suggested by 
experience. Should we not condemn that ill-judged ceconomy, which, after 
forming a liberal plan for the accomplishment of a glorious end, stopped short 
in its execution before ascertaining whether or not the object in view had been 
attained? Surely it is the dictate of wisdom to hold on to the present posi- 
tions until we have ascertained whether the enemy has really surrendered ; 
and if he still holds out, let us inquire whether a different system of tactics 
would not promise better success. Let us not then abandon our present posts 
until we ascertain that our objects are accomplished, or until it is clear that 
success is not to be expected. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 21 


_ In the progress of my own researches, I have been particularly impressed 
with the importance of the observatory at Toronto. In an article published 
in the ‘ American Journal of Science,’ vol. xliii. p. 93, I attempted to deter- 
mine the annual change of dip in the United States; I found the materials 
for this investigation exceedingly meagre. It is of the utmost importance 
that there should be a few central stations where the mean annual motions of 
all the magnetic elements are accurately measured, as only in this way can 
observations made at scattered stations be reduced to a common epoch. 

‘The meteorological observations made at Toronto are perhaps no less im- 
portant than the magnetic. Having lately undertaken to investigate two storms 
which occurred in February 1842, my attention has been particularly called 
to this subject. I collected observations as far as practicable from every part 
of the United States and the adjoining British possessions. ‘The observations 
at Toronto were pre-eminent for their accuracy and completeness; they were 
made every two hours of the twenty-four, whereas at few other stations were 
there more than three or four daily observations. I attempted to analyse the 
phenomena on a somewhat nove: plan, which rendered the utmost accuracy 
desirable in all the observations of the barometer, thermometer, wind, &c. 
It is believed that a continuance of these observations promises important re- 
sults to the science of meteorology. Observers are now organized all over 
the United States, so that any storm which is embraced within our limits can 
be pretty fully investigated. But our great winter storms, whose features are 
the most strongly marked, and which are therefore best suited to inquiries of 
this kind, are of vast dimensions. On the morning of Feb. 3, 1842, rain was 
falling throughout nearly every portion of the United States, from an unknown 
distance in the Atlantic to far beyond the Mississippi, and from the Gulf of 
Mexico northward to an unknown distance beyond Lake Superior. The area 
upon which rain is ascertained to have been simultaneously falling was more 
than 1400 miles in a north and south direction. Now in order to exhibit a 
complete analysis of a storm, we need observations embracing its whole extent, 
otherwise we are obliged to supply deficiencies by conjecture. But almost all 
our great winter storms project over the British possessions on the north of us 
to an unknown extent; that is, it is seldom we have an opportunity to inves- 
tigate the phenomena of a great storm on its northern limit. The storms ex- 
tend northward beyond our present posts of observation. We have one station 
at Sault St. Mary, latitude 46° 29' N., but this is not sufficiently remote. We 
want a chain of meteorological posts extending indefinitely northward from 
the great lakes across the British possessions. There is nothing which would 
hold out a prospect of so rich a harvest to American meteorology as the 
establishment of such a chain of posts; this can only be effected through the 
agency of the British government. It would be desirable to have stations at 
intervals of 100 miles extending northward to the furthest outpost of civiliza- 
tion. Ten pounds will provide a station with instruments, and with a little 
pains-taking, competent men might probably be found to make the observa- 
tions gratuitously. The United States are admirably situated for a grand 
meteorological crusade. We have here a vast territory, covered by a popu- 
lation all speaking the same language. We have more than a hundred ob- 

_ servers who are now keeping registers, besides the observations at sixty mili- 

tary posts, mostly situated on the frontier. With a generous cooperation on 

_ the part of the British government in procuring registers from their extensive 

possessions north of the United States, our own observers would be inspired 

with new enthusiasm, and we might speedily hope for richer conquests than 
have been hitherto known in the domain of meteorology. Moreover, the pro- 
gress made in American meteorology is not exclusively of local value; a law 


22 REPORT—1845. 


of nature in America must be a law in Europe; so that every new principle 
here developed is the common property of the scientific world. 
With much respect I remain, yours truly, 
Ex14s Loomis, 


V. Dr. Lamont, Director of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory 
at Munich, to Lieut.- Col. Sabine. 
Munich, March 1, 1845. 

My pear S1r,—In reply to the letter addressed to me by the Committee 
of the British Association appointed to conduct the cooperation of the Asso- 
ciation with regard to magnetic observatories, I have in the first place to 
regref, that, with the exception of one volume of the ‘Greenwich Observa- 
tions,’ and the first part of the ‘ Observations on Days of unusual Magnetic 
Disturbance,’ no observations made at the British or colonial observatories 
have come to my knowledge; and though from the dispositions that have 
been made I have no doubt that the results will be found to answer the dif- 
ferent purposes of theoretical investigation, yet I cannot consider myself en- 
titled to express as yet any positive opinion on the subject*. 

The same question however that is now to be decided by the Committee of 
the British Association, viz. whether and in what manner the magnetic obser- 
vations ought to be continued after 1845, I have been for some time consider- 
ing myself with regard to our own observatory, and after a careful review of 
our results, and others that have come to my knowledge, I have resolved on 
the following plan :— 

1. At the end of this year I will give up the present system of two-hourly 
observations, and will make only three or four observations a-day ; the times 
of observation to be disposed in such a manner as will seem most advan- 
tageous for obtaining the daily range and the monthly means. As for the 
term days, they were observed at Munich only to the end of 1842, and then 
discontinued, from the reasons I mentioned in my report to the Academy 
(published in the ‘ Gelehrte Anzeigen’); the same reasons are also mentioned 
in the ‘ Bulletins de I’ Académie Royale de Bruxelles’ (vol. x. p. i. 178). 

2. I will determine the absolute values of the ditferent magnetic elements 
from time to time as has been done hitherto, both in the observatory and its 
immediate vicinity, and will endeavour to extend my observations to other 
parts of the country as far as circumstances will permit. 

3. Investigations respecting the construction of instruments and the methods 
of observation will be continued. It would, in my opinion, be a great advan- 
tage to science, and is also I believe possible, to render the results less liable 
to error and the methods more simple than they now are. 

4. I will endeavour to have the magnetic observatory kept exactly in its 
present state with regard to the instruments and their arrangement, in order 
that, if any circumstance be afterwards found to have influence on the obser- 
vations, the amount may be determined and the results corrected. Causes of 
error might yet be discovered, the effects of which it would be impossible to 
determine, except with the same instrument and in the same place. 

I have given this account of the system I myself intend to pursue, in order 
that the Committee may judge how far it might seem expedient to arrange the 
British and colonial observatories for two or three years to come on a similar 
plan, reducing at the same time the personal establishment to one or two as- 
sistants besides the director. On computing my own observations and those 


* Dr. Lamont’s opinion on this subject is contained in a subsequent letter, No. XVII. 


* 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 23 


of different other places, I have lately remarked a circumstance that seems 
to me in the present discussion not unworthy of attention, viz. that the form 
of the daily curves, as given by the monthly means, is nearly the same every 
year, while the magnitude of the curves or the meam daily range differs con- 
siderably from one year to another; thus, for instance, the curve representing 
the daily changes of declination for the month of August 1841 resembles very 
nearly the curve of the same month in 1842, but the ordinates in the former 
year are much greater; in other words, the /aw according to which the sun 
produced the daily changes was the same in both years, but the force (repre- 
sented by the ordinates, the greatest of which is equal to the daily range) was 
not the same. On this account the daily range may be considered as the 
most important magnetic element ; and what is most likely to lead us to a dis- 
covery of the causes of magnetic phenomena is a careful investigation of the 
circumstances (probably meteorological) on which the daily range depends. 
Similar considerations apply to the secular changes, which present remarkable 
irregularities from one month to another; these irregularities (not the secular 
change itself ) are probably connected with the same or similar causes as the 
differences of the daily range. I intend, as I mentioned before, that the ob- 
servations of our establishment shall be for some years to come particularly 
directed to these points ; and I am inclined to suppose that a similar system, 
if followed in the British and colonial observatories, would prove not only in 
this, but also in other respects, beneficial to the magnetic inquiry. The dail 
work of magnetic observatories has been hitherto so considerable, that little 
time was afforded for different minute investigations, that nevertheless are of 
great importance for the final results. By diminishing the daily work as I 
have mentioned, ample time will be afforded for various investigations respect- 
ing instruments, methods and probable errors ; the different methods of deter- 
mining the absolute horizontal force and inclination may be tried and the 
results compared; the constants of the instruments may be determined by 
repeated experiments and the probable errors ascertained ; experiments may 
be made to determine the effects of the temperature and moisture of the air 
on the suspension, the difference between the temperature indicated by the 
thermometer of the bifilar and the true temperature of the bar, together with 
the corrections depending on this difference, &c. Besides, if the observations 
(which I would think it important to publish with as little delay as possible) 
should at any place show anomalies or peculiarities, new observations may be 
made to any extent that may seem necessary for obtaining a decisive result. 
These I believe are the considerations that may be urged for continuing all 
the magnetic establishments as they now are, but on a reduced scale. As to 
the question whether the present system of observations should be continued 
without alteration, I will simply express my opinion that I do not think it ad- 
visable, and will not attempt to give reasons for this opinion, because I believe 
I agree on this’ point with all those who have taken active part in the mag- 
netic inquiry. .- ; 

There is one point alluded to in the letter of the Committee on which I 
will add a few words; I mean the powerful influence which the example of 
the British government has had in promoting in other countries the important 
branch of science now under consideration. A general interest in the pro- 
gress of science, and, above all, a willingness evinced in almost every country 
to take part in scientific enterprises that seem to require general cooperation, 
may be considered as characteristic of the present time, at least the effects 
have not at any former period been so conspicuously manifested. A plan of 
great utility for science, if judiciously arranged and once realized to a certain 
extent, can scarcely fail to obtain not only the support of scientific men in 


24 REPORT—1845. 


every quarter, but also the countenance of the governments, which in most 
countries is indispensable for every great undertaking. In establishing a 
chain of regular magnetic observatories to be extended over the different 
parts of the globe, the first and most powerful impulse was given in England ; 
and I think it may be justly asserted, that all that has been done in magnetism 
during the last six years is in some degree to be attributed to the example of 
the British government, and the zeal and energy with which the vast enter- 
prise, once resolved upon, was carried into effect. 
Believe me, my dear Sir, yours most sincerely, 
Lamont. 


P.S. I do not think that I have been able to answer satisfactorily any of 
the questions proposed by the Committee ; if however it were thought expe- 
dient to publish any part of this letter, I have no objection. 


VI. From Professor Dove of Berlin to Lieut.-Col. Sabine. 
Berlin, Marz 1, 1845. 

Dear Srr,—Die Antwort auf die von Sir John Herschel mir vorge- 
legten Fragen habe ich deutsch beantwortet, da jeder sich in seiner Mutter- 
sprache wohl am praecisesten ausdriickt. Ich hoffe, dass sie noch zu rechter Zeit 
in London ankommen werden, obgleich seit einigen Tagen alle unsre Eisen- 
bahnen in Schnee vergraben sind und selbst vermittelst des Militars noch nicht 
haben frei gemacht werden kénnen. Ich sage Ihnen meinen herzlichen Dank 
fiir die mir aiisserst interessante Schrift ‘ Meteorology of Toronto,’ in der Sie 
so freundlich meiner Arbeiten gedacht haben. Auch danke ich Hr. Riddell 
freundichst fiir die iibersendeten Magnetical Instructions. Leider habe ich 
nichts entgegenzusenden, da der vierte Theil meines “ Non-periodic Variations 
in the Distribution of Temperature on the surface of the Earth between 1729 
and 1843,” erst im Laufe des Sommers erscheinen wird. i 

In dem Briefe von Sir John Herschel erfahre ich, dass an mich a volume 
of Extraordinary Magnetic Disturbances at the British Government Stations, 
and the 1st volume of the ‘Greenwich Observations’ abgesendet worden sind, 
und dass ich the 1st volume of the * Observations at the British Government 
Stations,’ and the 2nd of those at Greenwich, erhalten werde. Leider habe ich 
nur die Magnetic Disturbances erhalten, wofiir ich meinen herzlichen Dank 
abstatte. 

Sollte es gewiinscht werden, dass ich an den Berechnungen der meteorolo- 
gischen Observationen Antheil nehme, so stelle ich meine Thatigkeit gern zur 
Disposition des Committee. 

Bei den non-periodie variations habe ich oft Gelegenheit gehabt, zu be- 
dauern, dass mir in England erschienene Beobachtungs-journale nicht zugang- 
lich waren. Sollte es nicht méglich seyn, dass jemand im Auftrage des Bri- 
tish Association eine Climatologie von England schreibe, in welche die mo- 
natliche Mittel der einzelnen Jahre der verschiedenen Beobachtungs-stationen 
abgedruckt wurden, wozu meine Arbeit doch bereits eine Vorarbeit ist. Sollte 
es ferner nicht zweckmissig seyn, wenn meteorologische Journale, welche den 
Transactions der Learned Societies und den philosophical Journals beigedruckt 
werden, in mehr Exemplaren abgezogen wiirden um nachher als selbststandige 
Jahrgange in Druck zu kommen. Wie unendlich viel Zeit wurde gewonnen 
werden, wenn man nicht mehr gezwungen wire sich jeden einzelnen Monat in 
einem besondern Bande aufzusuchen, der, wenn er in einer Offentlichen Bi- 
bliothek gerade verliehen ist eine Arbeit oft Monate lang unterbricht. Ein 
von der British Association ausgehender Vorschlag wiirde dann wohl auch in 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 25 


andern Liindern Nachahmung findern, und man wiirde in der Folge schneller 
die Wissenschaft durch Arbeiten fordern kénnen. 
I have the honour to be, with the highest consideration, 
Your very obedient servant, H. W. Dove. 


Die Aufgabe, welche meteorologische Observatorien zu losen haben, ist cine 
dreifache, sie sollen die mittlern Werthe liefern, die empirischen Gesetze 
ihrer periodischen Veranderungen, endlich Data an die Hand geben, um die 
gleichzeitige Verbreitung einer meteorologischen Erscheinung und ihr Fort- 
schreiten iiber die Oberflache der Erde auffinden zu konnen. 

Da die Mittel nur nach Elimination der periodischen Veranderungen 
erhalten werden konnen, so kommt es zunachst auf die Feststellung dieser 
an. Dazu sind stiindliche Beobachtungen unerlasslich, fiir Temperatur, Druck 
und Feuchtigkeit. Da aber der Spielraum der taglichen Oscillationen bei 
triibem Wetter viel geringer als bei heiterm, der Gang der tiglichen barome- 


* trischen Veranderungen in beiden Fallen sogar ein verschiedener, so scheinen 


zur Feststellung der Gesetze derselben mehrere Jahre unerlisslich. Auch 
konnen nur mehrere Jahre die nothigen Correctionselemente geben, um aus der 
Beobachtung einzelner Stunden die monatlichen Mittelderdrei oben erwahnten 
Grossen (Temperatur, Druck, Feuchtigkeit) zu berechnen. Ich glaube dass bei 
dem jetzigen Standpunkt der Wissenschaft zweijahrige stiindliche Beobach- 
tungen schon ein sehr werthvolles Material liefern, und dass fiinfjahrige den 
Anforderungen wohl vollstandig geniigen. 

Was die Veranderungen in der jahrlichen Periode betrifft, so haben die 
dreimonatlichen Abschnitte, welche man in der Regel meteorologische Jahres- 
zeiten nennt, nur fiir gewisse geographische Breiten diese Bedeutung, wahrend 
sie fur andre Breiten heterogenes verbinden und zusammengehoriges ausein- 
ander reissen. Ich halte es daher fiir nothwendig tberall bis auf monatliche 
Mittel zuriickzugehen. Da aber mit der Verkurzung des Zeitraumes seine 
Veranderlichkeit wachst, so wird-eine linger fortgesetzte Beobachtungsreihe 
hier erst sichre Elemente geben. Da aber ein System stiindlicher Beobach- 
tungen nicht so lange fortgesetzt werden kann, so werden an die Stelle der- 
selben Beobachtungen einzelner Stunden treten miissen. Welche sind zu 
wahlen? 

Will man die Gesetze der tiglichen Veranderungen hierbei noch im Auge 
behalten, so wird die Wahl gleichweit von einander abstehender Stunden 
wunschenswerth seyn, weil empirische Formeln, die ihren Gang darstellen 
sollen, am bequemsten aus diesen berechnet werden konnen. Wie aber 
auch diese gewahlt werden mogen, immer werden einige in die Nacht also 
unbequem fallen. So wie aber die Nachtbeobachtungen weefallen verliert 
man den Vortheil der Theilung der tiiglichen Periode in gleiche Abschnitte. 

Die Stunden 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, 9, oder 9, 12, 3, 9, sind mit Riicksicht auf die 
barometrischen Oscillationen gewahlt, sie sind fir die Berechnung der mit- 
Br'D 

2 
Barometer betrifft, so halte ich es fiir erwiesen, dass man es hier mit der 
Differenz zweier Veranderungen zu thun hat, und dass es daher grésseres 
Interesse hat, die tiiglichen Extreme der Verinderungen des Druckes der 
trocknen Luft und der Elasticitat der ihr beigemengten Wasserdimpfe ge- 
sondert zu kennen. Da aber die Stunden 3, 9, 3, 9, in dem Report of the 
Committee of Physics, including meteorology, empfohlen sind, so halte ich es 
fur gut sie beizubehalten. Nach meiner Ansicht namlich ist es vorzuziehen, 
einen einmal gefassten Beobachtungsplan consequent fortzufuhren, als ihn zu 


tleren Temperatur ebenfalls bequem. Was aber die Riicksicht auf das 


- 


26 REPORT—1845. . 


verandern, selbst wenn sich spiter herausstellen sollte, dass fiir gewisse Zwecke 
andre Stunden vorzuziehen gewesen waren. Denn die Hauptsache bei der 
Beantwortung einer meteorologischen Frage bleibt immer, uber eine még- 
lichst lange Reihe gleichartiger Beobachtungen disponiren zu kénnen. 

Meine Antwort auf die Frage 3, “would you be disposed to recommend any 
modification, extension or alteration in the system of observing or in the ap- 
paratus to be employed,” wiirde also verneinend seyn. 

Ad I. “What important objects are to be accomplished by the continuance 
of the existing establishments for a longer period,” erlaube ich mir folgende 
Bemerkungen : 

Wir besitzen von keinem Punkte der siidlichen Halbkugel, von keinem 
Punkte in Nordamerika eine barometrische, thermische oder atmische Wind- 
rose, keine Berechnung der vom Drehungsgesetze des Windes abhangigen 
Veriinderungen des Barometers, Thermometers und Hygrometers, die sich 
auf eine hinlangliche Anzahl von Beobachtungen griindet. Ich wiirde es fiir 
einen wesentlichen Dienst der Wissenschaft halten, wenn auch nur von einem 
extratropischen Station der siidlichen Halbkugel und einer aus Nordamerika 
eine 5- oder 10-jahrige Reihe dreimal tiglich angestellter Beobachtungen des 
Barometers, Thermometers, Hygrometers der Windesrichtung und des Re- 
gens vorhanden ware, um den Einfluss des auf der sudlichen Erdhalfte entge- 
gengesetzten Drehungsgesetzes und der Lage des Continentes gegen das Meer 
scharf bestimmen zu konnen. Der Gang des Barometers in der jahrlichen 
Periode, die Vertheilung der Regenmenge innerhalb derselben sind ebenfalls 
wichtige Fragen, welche dadurch ihre Beantwortung erhalten widen. Frei- 
lich mussten dazu mehrere Stationen mit einander verglichen werden. 

Ich erlaube mir hier noch einige Fragen anzudeuten, welche wenn sie auch 
nicht durch die bisherigen Stationen erledigt werden, dennoch ihrer Beant- 
wortung naher riicken wirden. 

1. Die an der aiissern Grenze des N.E. Passats herabfallenden Winterregen 
verwandeln sich in Siideuropa in ein Friihlings- und Herbstmaximum, welche 
wahrend des Winters durch schwachere Niederschlage verbunden sind. An 
den Alpen fallen diese beiden Maxima zusammen in ein Sommermaximum ; 
von da nach Norden hin findet eine regenlose Zeit im Jahre nicht mehr statt, 
indem uberall im Innern des Continents bis nach Holland hin das Maximum 
auf dem Scmmer fallt. Finden ahnliche Verhaltnisse auf der Siidhalfte der 
Erde statt? 

2. Die Vertheilung des atmosphiarischen Druckes in der jahrlichen Periode 


giebt wohl das sicherste Mittel dariiber zu entscheiden, ob ein in der Region 


der Passate oder Monsoons liegender Ort meteorologisch zur Sidhalfte oder 
Nordhialfte der Erde gehért. Wo liegt diese Grenze und wie breit ist unter 
verschiedenen Liingen die indifferente Zone, welche als diese Grenze anzu- 
sehen ist ? 

3. Die sogenannten unregelmissigen Verdnderungen des Barometers 
werden von einigen nur als Wirkungen verschieden temperirter und ungleich 
feuchter Luftstrome angesehn, andere unterscheiden hingegen die Wirkung 
der Strome von der Wirkung nach Art der Tonwellen fortschreitender Un- 
dulationen, welche sich tiber sehr grosse Theile der Erdfliche mit erheblicher 
Geschwindigkeit fortpflanzen. Aus der letzen Annahme scheint mir zufolgen: 

a. dass sie sich nicht einseitig nach einer Richtung fortpflanzen werden, 
sondern peripherisch. 
b. dass sie aus der gemassigten Zone auch in die heisse dringen missen. 
c. dass sie zu Interferenzerscheinungen Veranlassung geben werden. 
Die Beobachtungen an einzelnen Tagen (stiindlich) konnen daruber ent- 
scheiden welche Ansicht die richtige. 


* & 
ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 27 


4, Nachdem durch Untersuchungen iiber die nichtperiodischen Verainde- 
rungen der Temperaturvertheilung auf der Oberflache der Erde, sich heraus- 
gestellt hat, dass keine ungewohnliche Kalte irgendwo hervortritt ohne ein 
entgegengesetztes Extrem einer ungewohnlichen Warme als Compensation 
neben sich zu haben fragt sich 

a. ob diese Gegensitze stets auf einer Erdhialfte sich finden 
6. oder ob auch solche Gegensatze zwischen beiden Erdhilften statt- 
finden ? 

5. Findet in der Gegend des Monsoons nach den aissern Grenzen hin 
eine Zunahme des mittleren jahrlichen atmospharischen Druckes statt, wie 
in der Passatzone ? 

6. Ist man berechtigt, bei der Vertheilung des mittleren atmospharischen 
Druckes auf der Oberflache der Erde den Druck der troknen Luft zu sondern 
von dem der Dampfatmosphiare, wie es sich bei der Betrachtung der periodisch- 
en Verinderungen als erfolgreich ergeben hat ? 

Die Frage I]. Do you consider that private research has to any successful 
and valuable degree been estimated by the example of the government esta- 
blishment in Europe and elsewhere, and that science has thereby received 
material contributions, which would probably not otherwise have arisen, and 
can you state instances? glaube ich mit Ja beantworten zu konnen. 

Die Wirkung grossartiger wissenschaftlicher Unternehmungen ist eine 
nachhaltige, nicht auf die Gegenwart beschrankte. Was ware die Meteoro- 
logie ohne die Mannheimer Societat, welche es zuerst moglich machte, atmo- 
spharische Erscheinungen mit verglichenen Instrumenten durch gleichzeitige 
Beobachtungen einer scharfern Prufung zu unterwerfen. Welche wichtigen 
wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten sind auf diese Collectanen gegriindet worden. 
Aber diese Arbeiten datiren alle aus einer viel spatern Zeit als die ihrer 
Wirksamkeit. Daher wiirde es nicht auffallend seyn, wenn die jetzt wahrnehm- 
bare Folgen des jetzigen Unternehmens noch unerheblich waren. Doch ist 
diess nicht. Die Feststellung dass die aus der Gegend des Monsoons frither 
bekannte periodische Verainderung des atmospharischen Druckes im Verlauf 
des Jahres sich auf ganz Centralasien erstrecke (wie ich ausfiihrlich in Pogg. 
Annal. 58, p. 176, gezeigt habe) und die vollstaéndige Sonderung des continen- 
talen Klima vom Seeklima ist eine Entdeckung, welche wir den russischen Ob- 
servatorien verdanken ebenso wie die Moglichkeit in der heissen Zone die tag- 
lichen Aenderungen des Barometers in die constituirenden Elemente (Dampfund 
trockne Luft) zu zerlegen, nur den englischen Observatorien zu verdanken ist. 
Das wichtige Resultat der allgemeinen Verbreitung eines geringen atmospha- 
rischen Druckes vom Cap Horn bis in die stidarktischen Gegenden ist endlich 
das dritte erhebliche meteorologische Resultat, welches ohne die Siidpolarex- 
pedition noch lange unbekannt geblieben ware. Rechnet man dazu, wie viel- 
versprechend das System gleichzeitiger Beobachtungen ist, welches Hr. Lamont 
gegrindet hat, wie in den von Hrn. Herschel und Quetelet gesammelten und 
veranlassten stiindlichen Beobachtungen Data vorhanden sind, einzelne 
auffallende Pheenomene in erwiinschten Detail zu controlliren, so glaube ich 
wohl kaum noch hinzufiigen zu diirfen, dass jeder, welcher seine Thitigkeit 
vorzugsweise der Meteorologie zugewendet hat, nun im Stande sich fiihlt, 
Probleme von Neuem aufzunehmen, deren Loésung er einer viel spatern Zeit 
vorbehalten glaubte. 

Meine schliessliche Ueberzeugung ist daher, dass vorzugsweise durch langere 
Fortsetzung der systematischen Beobachtungen der Wissenschaft die erhe- 
blichste Dienst geleistet werden wird. 

H. W. Dove. 
Vorstehende Bemerkungen, so unbedeutend sie sind, stelle ich ganz zur 


’ 


28 REPORT—1845. 


Disposition des Committee indem ich zugleich mich zu entschuldigen bitte, 
dass ich sie deutsch geschrieben habe, um meine Ansicht mit der Bestimmt- 
heit auszudriicken, wie sie jedem in seiner Muttersprache gegeben ist. 


( Translation.) 


Berlin, 1st March 1845. 

Dear Sir,—I have answered the questions proposed to me by Sir John 
Herschel in German, because every one can express himself with greater pre- 
cision in his native language than in any other. I hope my letter will arrive 
in sufficient time, although all our railways have been for some days buried 
in snow, and are not yet opened even by the exertions of the military. I re- 
turn you my hearty thanks for the to me exceedingly interesting paper, 
é Meteorology of Toronto,’ in which you have so kindly referred to my works. 
Pray also give Mr. Riddell my very friendly thanks for ‘ Magnetical Instruc- 
tions. Iam sorry I have nothing to send in return, as the fourth part of my 
‘ Non-periodic Variations in the Distribution of Temperature on the Surface 
of the Earth between 1729 and 1843,’ will only appear in the course of the 
summer. 

From Sir John Herschel’s letter, I perceive that a volume of ‘ Extraordinary 
Magnetic Disturbances at the British Government Stations,’ and the first 
volume of the ‘Greenwich Observations,’ have been sent to me, and that I 
am to receive the first volume of the ‘ Observations at the British Government 
Stations,’ and the second volume of the ‘ Greenwich Observations.’ Unfor- 
tunately I have received only the ‘ Magnetic Disturbances,’ for which I 
return my cordial thanks. Should it be wished that I should take part in the 
calculations of the meteorological observations, I place my activity entirely 
at the disposal of the Committee. 

In the study of the non-periodic variations, I have often had occasion to 
regret that the journals of observations published in England were not acces- 
sible to me. Would it not be possible that some one should undertake, at 
the request of the British Association, a Climatology of England, in which 
the monthly means of the several years at the different observation stations 
should be printed, for which my work is even already a preparatory work ? 
Would it not further be very advantageous if the meteorological journals 
which are printed to accompany the Transactions of Learned Societies and 
Philosophical Journals had more copies taken off, that they might afterwards 
be bound up in complete and independent years? What an infinity of time 
would be saved if one was no longer forced to look for every single month 
in a different volume, which, if it happens to be lent away from a public 
library, often interrupts a work for months! A proposition emanating from 
the British Association would soon be imitated in other countries as well, and 
we should then be enabled to advance science more quickly. 

I have the honour to be, with the highest consideration, 

Your very obedient servant, 
(Signed) H. W. Dove. 


The problem to be solved by meteorological observations is a threefold 
one: they are to give mean values, empirical laws for the periodic variations 
of these values, and finally, to furnish data for tracing the simultaneous ex- 
tension and the progressive march of a meteorological phenomenon over the 
surface of the earth. 

As the mean quantities can only be obtained after the elimination of pe- 
riodical variations, the determination of the latter is directly demanded for 
both these objects, and hourly observations of temperature, pressure, and hu- 


—" 


adie a 
7 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 29 


midity are indispensable for this purpose. As the range of the diurnal 
variations is much less in clouded than in clear weather, and the diurnal 
march of the barometer is even different in the two cases, more years than 
one appear to be indispensable for the establishment of their Jaws ; more years 
than one are also required to give the necessary elements of correction for 
calculating the monthly means of temperature, pressure, and humidity, from 
the observations at the several hours. I believe that in the present state of 
science, even two years of hourly observation will give us very valuable ma- 
terials, and that five years will completely satisfy what is required in this 
respect. In regard to variations within the annual period, the three monthly 
sections ordinarily employed as meteorological seasons, are only truly such 
for certain latitudes; in other latitudes they combine heterogeneous data and 
dissever corresponding ones; I therefore hold it better to return everywhere 
to monthly means ; but as the shortening of the intervals increases their va- 
riability, a longer continued series becomes necessary to give assured ele- 
ments. As however the system of hourly observations cannot be continued 
so long, certain hours must be selected ; which are they to be? 

If it is desired to keep the laws of the diurnal variations still in view, hours 
at equal intervals will be desirable for the convenience of empirical formule ; 
but this would necessitate the inconvenience of night observation ; and if this 
is avoided, the advantage of equal intervals must be given up. 

The hours of 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, 9, or 9, 12, 3, 9, have been chosen with a view 
to the barometric oscillations ; they are also convenient for the calculation of 
the mean temperature. But as respects the barometer, I.regard it as proved 
that we have here to do with the difference of two variations, and that it is 
therefore of greater interest to learn separately the daily extremes of the va- 
riations of the pressure of the dry air and of the elasticity of thé aqueous 
vapour mingled therein. As however the hours 3, 9, 3, 9 have been recom- 
mended in the ‘ Report of the Committee of Physics,’ I hold it good to keep 
to them, thinking it better to continue consistently a system of observation 
once begun than to alter it, even though it be afterwards shown that other 
hours are preferable for certain objects: the command of as long a series as 
possible of precisely similar observations is always that which is chiefly to be 
desired for the solution of a meteorological question. 

To question 3, “ Would. you be disposed to recommend any modification,” 
&c. &c., my answer would therefore be negative. 

To question 1, “ What important objects are to be accomplished by the 
continuance of the existing establishments for a longer period,” I permit my- 
self the following remarks: — 

We possess from no point of the southern hemisphere, and from no point 
in North America, a barometric, thermic, or atmic windrose, no calculation 
of the variations of the barometer, thermometer, and hygrometer, dependent 
on the law of rotation of the wind, founded on a sufficient number of obser- 
vations. I should regard it as an essential service to science, if from only one 
extra-tropical station in the southern hemisphere, and from one in North 
America, we had a five or ten years series of observations three times a day 
of the barometer, thermometer, and hygrometer, direction of the wind, and 
quantity of rain; to enable us to determine the question of the opposite law 
of rotation in the southern hemisphere, and the influence of the relative po- 
sition of continent and sea. The annual march of the barometer and annual 
distribution of the quantity of rain are also important questions which would 
thus be answered. It would however require the intercomparison of different 
stations. 

I will now permit myself to allude to some questions, which if not solyed 


30 , REPORT—1845, ~ 


by the stations hitherto established, will be at least brought nearer to a 
solution. 

1. The winter rain which falls at the external limit of the N.E. trade, is 
changed in southern Europe to a spring and autumn maximum, connected 
by a less precipitation in winter; these twe maxima, when we come to the 
Alps, join themselves to form a summer maximum, and from thence north- 
wards we find no season free from rain; everywhere on the interior of the 
continent and as far as Holland the maximum is in summer. Does the 
southern hemisphere show similar relations ? 


2, The annual distribution of the atmospheric pressure gives the most cer- 


tain means of deciding whether a station within the region of trades or of 
monsoons belongs meteorologically to the northern or to the southern half of 
the globe. Where lies this limit, and how broad under different meridians is 
the indifferent zone, which is to be regarded as this limit? 

3. The so-called irregular variations of the barometer are regarded by some 
persons as only the effects of currents of air of unequal temperature and 
moisture ; other persons distinguish the effect of currents from the effect of 
undulations progressing in the manner of waves of sound, and propagating 
themselves with great velocity over large portions of the earth’s surface. 

From the latter hypothesis the consequences appear to me to be,— 

a. That they will not propagate themselves towards one side, but peri- 
pherically. 
6. That they must penetrate from the temperate into the torrid zone also. 
ec. That they will give rise to pheenomena of interference. 
Hourly observations on single days are capable of showing which view is 
correct. 

4. Investigations on the non-periodic variations of the distribution of tem- 
perature on the surface of the earth having shown that no unusual cold takes 
place anywhere without an unusual warmth by its side as a compensation, 
we ask,— ° 

a. Whether these oppositions are always in the same hemisphere ? 
6. Or whether similar oppositions exist also between the two hemispheres? 

5. Is there towards the outer limits of the monsoons an increase of the 
mean annual atmospheric pressure as in the trade zones? 

6. Are we justified, in regard to the distribution of the mean atmospheric 
pressure on the surface of the earth, in distinguishing the pressure of the dry 
air from that of the atmosphere of vapour in the manner which in the consi- 
deration of the periodical variations has shown itself fruitful in consequences? 

To question 2, “ Do you consider that private research has,” &c., I think I 
may answer,—The effect of great scientific undertakings is an enduring one, 
not limited to the present. What would meteorology have been without the 
Manheim Society, which first made it possible to subject to a closer exami- 
nation simultaneous observations made with compared instruments? What 
important scientific works are founded on these collections! yet these works 
all belong to a period much later than that of the activity of the system of 
the Manheim Society. It would not therefore be surprising if we could not 
yet see any important consequences from the present undertaking. It is not so 
however: the fact that the previously-known periodic annual variation of the 
atmospheric pressure in the region of the monsoons extends from thence to the 
whole of central Asia (as I have shown in detail in Pogg. Annal, 58, p. 176), 
and the complete distinction of the continental from the sea climate, are a 
discovery for which we have to thank the Russian observatories. The possi- 
bility within the torrid zone of resolving the diurnal variations of the baro- 
meter into their coexistent elements (vapour and dry air) is due to the 


eT 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 31 


English observatories. A third important meteorological result, which would 
have remained long unknown to us without the Antarctic Expedition, is the 
general extension of a low atmospheric pressure from Cape Horn to the An- 
taretic regions. If we include also the much-promising system of simultaneous 
observation founded by Lamont, and the data which, in the hourly obser- 
vations called for and collected by Herschel and Quetelet, exist for con- 
trolling with the desired detail single striking phenomena, I believe that I 
need hardly add, that every one who has devoted his activity to meteorology 
now feels himself in the case to take up afresh problems of which he formerly 
believed the solution to be reserved for a much later period. 

In conclusion, my conviction is that by longer continuance, especially of 
the systematic observations, the greatest service will be rendered to science. 

(Signed) H.W. Dove. 

I place entirely at the disposal of the Committee the foregoing remarks, 
inconsiderable as they are, and I ask them to excuse my having written them 
in German, in order to express my views with that definiteness which it is 
given to every one to do in his mother tongue. 


VII. M. Quetelet of Brussels to Lieut.-Col. Sabine. 
Bruxelles, le 5 Mars, 1845. 

Mon curr Monsieur,—Je me hate d’accuser réception de votre lettre du 
6 Décembre dernier, qui ne m’est parvenue que depuis trois jours, avec le pre- 
mier volume des ‘ Observations de Toronto. Je regrette vivement que le 
retard qu’a éprouvé votre lettre, et le peu de jours qui nous séparent du 10 
Mars, ne me permettront que de repondre partiellement aux questions que 
yous m’avez fait l’honneur de m’adresser. 

1°. En ce qui concernela premiére demande, il me serait bien difficile de juger 
dés 4 présent de tous les avantages que la science pourrait retirer de la con- 
tinuation du systéme des observations magnétiques actuellement existant, je 
n’ai pas encore été 4 méme d’établir des comparaisons entre les observations 
de l'Europe et celles des autres parties du globe, et de juger si les resultats 
qu'on était en droit d’attendre de Il Association si heureusement constituée, 
sont suffisamment réalisés, pour qu’on puisse renoncer désormais 4 en recueil- 
lir encore. 

Il est un point cependant dont je me suis occupé, et sur lequel je me per- 
mettrai d’attirer l'attention du comité; je veux parler du systéme des ob- 
servations météorologiques. Malgré les efforts persévérants de quelques 
savants, parmi lesquels il faut surtout ranger votre digne Président, nos con- 
naissances sur le mouvement des ondes atmosphériques sont encore bien 
bornées. Nous ne savons a-peu-prés rien sur les lieux o0 ces ondes se for- 
ment, sur la maniére dont elles se propagent, sur les directions qu’elles suivent 
plus particuliérement, sur leur vitesse de translation, sur les modifications que 
leur font subir la forme et la nature des asperités du globe ainsi que les vents ; 
én un mot, nous sommes dans l’impossibilité de construire une carte qui lie 


- entr’eux les mouvements propagés 4 travers l’atmosphére; nous ne savons 


pas méme si une pareille carte est possible. Pour expliquer ma pensée, je 
suppose qu'on réprésente au moyen de lignes, les oscillations atmosphériques, 
accusées par le barométre,en faisant usage des observations qui s’exécutent de 
deux en deux heures, 4 Greenwich, Dublin, Edimbourg, Bruxelles, Munich, 
Prague, St. Pétersbourg, et les autres villes qui ont adopté le systéme d’ob- 
servation proposé par la Société Royale, on se trouvera dans l'impossibilité 


de lier entre elles les diverses oscillations par la loi de continuité. Entre 


3174 REPORT—1845. 


Prague et St. Pétersbourg par exemple, la distance est trop grande pour qu’on 
puisse reconnaitre les ondulations qui sont dues aux mémes causes. Les 
mouvements se trouvent presqu’entiérement modifiés en passant de l’une a 
l'autre ville; et rien sur le passage ne constate ces modifications. On pour- 
rait y suppléer, en prenant des stations intermédiares, ot l'on observerait ne 
fut ce qu'une fois par jour pour établir la continuité, car les sommets consécu- 
tifs de deux ondes atmosphériques sont séparés en général par plusieurs jours 
d’intervalle; or, ce systéme secondaire qui rattacherait ensemble les points 
du réseau principal, n’existe pas méme pour l'Europe; et par suite il est a 
craindre que nous ne puissions tirer des observations actuelles, que des bien 
faibles secours pour résoudre la question qui nous occupe. 

Des observations isolées .sur les variations de pressions atmosphériques de 
température, etc. pourront toujours se faire 4 une époque quelconque; mais 
il n’existera peut-étre plus jamais une occasion aussi favorable pour embrasser 
dans leur géneralité plusieurs importantes questions de la physique du globe, 
et particuliérement l’intéressant probléme de la formation et de la transmission 
des ondes atmosphériques. 

Je pense done que, dans le cas ot l’existence de association serait pro- 
longée, le comité rendrait le service le plus important, si autour des grands 
points du réseau météorologique qu’on est parvenu a former, elle établissait, 
dans les localités qui le permettraient et notamment dans toute l’Europe, un 
réseau secondaire de points séparés par des intervalles de 60 a 80 lieues seule- 
ment, et ot l’on se bornerait 4 observer ne fut ce qu'une seule fois par jour 4 
une heure déterminée. Ces observations suffiraient pour établir la continuité 
entre les observations des stations principales, et pour leur donner une con- 
nection d’utilité que malheureusement elles n’ont pas a present. Assez d’ob= 
servateurs zélés repondraient sans doute a l’appel qui leur serait fait. 

2°. Vous avez bien voulu me demander encore si je pense que l'exemple 
du gouvernement Britannique a pu faire naitre des recherches particuliéres, et 
provoquer des travaux qui n’auraient pas été faits autrement? Votre ques- 
tion m’autorise 4 citer ce qui s'est passé en Belgique; ce n’est qu’en m’appu- 
yant sur l’invitation que la Société Royale m’avait fait honneur de m’adresser, 
que j'ai obtenu du gouvernement, les aides et les moyens nécessaires pour 
entreprendre une série d’observations qui manquaient complétement pour 
notre royaume. Nous ne connaissions absolument rien sur les variations 
diurnes et annuelles qui subissent, chez nous, les élémens magnétiques du 
globe. Pour la météorologie, nous avons pu recueillir également un ensem- 
ble d’observations qui ne sont pas sans importance pour la connaissance de 
notre climat. L’appel qui nous a été fait, a donc eu d’heureux resultats pour 
la science, en dehors méme de son objet spécial; car j’ignore encore si ces 
pénibles travaux répondront au but que le comité s’était proposé en les de- 
mandant ; il ne m’appartient pas de décider cette question. 

3°. J’ai répondu en partie a la troisieme demande du comité, en lui pro- 
posant de rattacher au grand réseau météorologique actuellement existant, un 
réseau secondaire, formé de triangles n’ayant que 60 4 80 lieues de coté. 

Quant aux instruments qu’on pourrait employer avec succés, je crois devoir 
specialement recommender |’électrométre de M. Peltier, dont je me sers depuis 
quelque temps avec le plus grand avantage. Cet instrument extrémement 
sensible accuse l’electricité de l’'air avec plus de sureté que tous les autres in- 
struments que j'ai employés; il fonctionne rapidement et a l’avantage de 
donner des résultats comparables. Conjointement avec cette électrométre, 
nous observons un galvanométre de Gourjon; mais cet instrument, malgré son 
extréme sensibilité, ne parle guéres qu’a l’approche des orages, et pendant 
les grandes commotions atmosphériques. Vous jugerez sans doute que l’elec- 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 33 


tricité joue un trop grande réle dans les phénoménes météorologiques pour 
qu’on ne lui accorda pas la plus sérieuse attention. 

Depuis 1839, aux observations météorologiques, je joins des observations 
sur la floraison des plantes, et en général sur les phénoménes périodiques 
naturels. A la reunion de l'association Britannique 4 Plymouth, j’ai appelé 
l’attention des observateurs sur ce genre d'études ; je me permettrai de le faire 
encore auprés du comité, bien persuadé que si l’on se bornait 4 enregistrer 
les phénoménes les plus frappants, et les plus faciles 4 observer, on en retire- 
rait des avantages réels pour la science, et l'on completerait le systéme des 
observations relatives aux phénoménes qui modifient périodiquement l'état de 
notre planéte. 

Permettez-moi d’ajouter encore quelques mots 4 cette lettre, pour vous faire 
connaitre ot en sont les travaux exécutés 4 l’observatoire de Bruxelles pour 
repondre aux demandes de la Société Royale. Les observations 4 termes 
fixes, pour les trois instruments magnétiques, ont été commencées en Janvier 
1840, et continuées réguliérement, de mois en mois, jusqu’d ce jour. Les 
différents resultats ont été successivement publiés pour 1840, 1841, 1842, et 
184%; on achéve en ce moment l’impression pour 1844. 

Les observations magnétiques et météorologiques reguliéres ont été faites, 
nuit et jour, de deux en deux heures; et, de plus, 4 quelques heures de rang 
impair, depuis le mois de Juin 1841. Tous les resultats ont été publiés 
également jusqu’a la fin de 1842; et l’on achéve d’imprimer ceux de 1843. 

Si le comité de l'association se proposait de continuer le systéme actuel 
d’observations au dela de 1845, et sil jugeait encore utile la coopération de 

_Yobservatoire de Bruxelles, je serais charmé de pouvoir en étre informé a 
temps, afin de prendre les mesures nécessaires pour que les travaux n’éprou- 
vent pas d’interruption. 

Agréez, je vous prie, mon cher Monsieur, l’expression de mes sentiments 
les plus distingués et les plus dévoués. 

Tout a vous, 
QUETELET. 


Si vous croyez que la lettre précédente puisse intéresser, je vous prierais de 
la communiquer au comité qui pourra en faire tel usage qui lui conviendra. 


VIII. Sir 7. M. Brisbane to Lieut.-Col. Sabine. 
Makerstoun, Kelso, 7th March, 1845, 


Sir,—I beg to acknowledge the receipt of the Toronto Magnetic Observa- 
tions, accompanied by the inquiries for the information of the Committee 
appointed in that system of observation. I herewith transmit the replies to 

_ these inquiries by Mr.’Broun my first assistant, who has evinced the utmost 
zeal and attention throughout, and he has been steadily supported by the 
others. Should the government decide on continuing the magnetic and me- 
teorological observations, I shall feel equally disposed to extend those made 
here, but on this point I shall decide hereafter. I hope shortly to furnish a 
_ copy of an abstract made by Professor Forbes, of the paper read to the Royal 
Society of Edinburgh on these observations; the abstract is short, but shows 
| what has been done. It is now in types, and as soon as I receive it, a copy 
shall be sent. 


I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant, 
Tuomas MAaxkpouGaL BRISBANE. 


1845, D 


34 REPORT—1845. 


From J. A. Broun, Esq., First Assistant in the Magnetical and Meteorologi- 
cal Observatory at Makerstoun. 
( Extract.) 


Query 1. “ Whether in your judgement there are any, and if so, what 
important objects to be accomplished by a continuance of the existing esta- 


blishments for a longer period, executing as at present both systematic and 


simultaneous observations, or either class to the exclusion of the others.” 

The declination, the easiest ascertained of all the magnetic elements, be- 
cause unconnected with the varying magnetic moment of the needle, is still 
mixed up with many errors which we are only discovering. This remark 
holds much more strongly for the components of intensity. The imperfections 
of our instruments and methods are only beginning to be ascertained. What 
shall we say of magnetic disturbances ? Have we found out the laws which 
connect these wonderful irregularities? Have we ascertained their connexion 
with other terrestrial phenomena, aurora for example? . 

I am afraid that to these and many other questions of a like nature, the 
answer would be unsatisfactory. A sifting investigation of the observations 
already made may do much. Dr. Lamont’s deductions of the law which seems 
to connect the excursions of the declination needle at different places during 
disturbances, while they show what may be done, likewise show how much 
there is to do. 

But are accurate and complete results to be obtained by the allotment of 
any short period for their determination? No. It is only gradually that we 
discoyer error, gradually remove it; time alone can show us what we ought 
and we need not observe. 


I am inclined to believe that it is from a thorough and careful investigation — 


of magnetic disturbances and their collateral phenomena, that we shall first 
arrive at a solution of the great questions of terrestrial magnetism. To observe 
disturbances well requires a continuous watch upon the magnetical instru- 
ments, and no watch is better than that which hourly or two-hourly observa- 
tions impose, besides their utility in determining the regular variations. 


It has long been my opinion that regular term observations are, at least at — 


present, unnecessary. There is little doubt that magnetic disturbances occur 
for the most part simultaneously over the whole world ; what use then of pre- 
arranged periods of observations, when the earth itself telegraphs the time, 
and the magnets point to the zealous observer, when he should and when he 
need not observe ? 


I have spoken chiefly of magnetism, but my remarks will apply equally to 


meteorology ; with it also much has to be done. The work of a few well- 
placed observatories in a few years will do more for science than all the 
scattered observations made loosely and irregularly for the last century. 

One great use of these observatories should be to co-ordinate the seattered 
observations made by travellers or others around them ; for this purpose there 


should be some provision for publishing these along with the observations of © 
the observatory, especially when the instruments have been compared and are — 


trustworthy. 


To the second query I cannot give any general answer. It may not be - 


amiss, however, to mention this, the Makerstoun Observatory, as a consequence 
of the foundation of the government observatories, nor to state that hourly 
magnetical and meteorological observations have been made here throughout 


1844, and are being continued in 1845, while a large mass of extra observa- 


tions have been obtained. 
Query 3, “In case of the continuance of the observatories beyond 1845, 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 35 


would you be disposed to recommend any, and what modifications, extensions 
_ or alterations in the system of observing, or in the apparatus employed ?” 

Under Query 1, I have pointed out the preference which I would give to 
extra observations of disturbances, and have recommended the discontinuance 
at present of term observations. 

I am inclined to prefer hourly observations to two-hourly, as the first com- 
pared with the second does not add so greatly to the labour of the observer 
or the computer as might at first appear, at least when the whole work of the 
observatory is taken into account. 


IX. Dr. Lloyd to Sir John Herschel. 
Trinity College, Dublin, March 8, 1845. 

Dear Sir,—I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, on the part of | 
the Magnetic Committee of the British Association, and to reply to its several 
queries as far as I am able. 

The first question, viz. “ Whether there are any, and if so, what important 
objects to be accomplished by a continuance of the existing establishments 
for a longer period,” necessarily suggests the inquiry,—how far the objects 
originally proposed have been attained, or are likely to be attained, by the 
course of observation now in progress, and terminating with the present year ? 
We may afterwards inquire, whether there are any new objects suggested by 
the results themselves, or otherwise. : 

In reference to the first inquiry, it will be convenient to keep in mind the 
distinctions of magnetic determinations into those of the absolute values of the 
direction and intensity of the magnetic force at particular epochs, and those 
of the changes which they are continually undergoing ; and again, the sub- 
division of the latter into periodic variations, secular changes, and disturbances. 
Of these, the diurnal variations are those whose determination demands the 
greatest amount of labour, and they are fortunately also those which seem 
now to be best determined. I am of opinion that five years of uninterrupted 
hourly or two-hourly observation is fully adequate to the establishment of 
their empirical laws, with all the requisite precision ; and this opinion is con- 
firmed by the examination of the results of two years at the Toronto obser- 
vatory, recently published. 

The knowledge of the annual variations of the magnetic elements, and that 
of their secular changes, can be obtained with precision only by means of 
absolute determinations, often repeated at particular epochs, and reduced to 
their mean values by the help of the differential instruments. The instru- 
mental means which we at present possess are probably sufficient to furnish 
the data required in both parts of this delicate deduction with all the neces- 
Sary exactness; but the difficulty seems to lie in the irregular fluctuations of 
the elements themselves, or in other words,‘in the want of regularity in the 
annual period, and in the progression of the secular change. ‘To eliminate 
completely the effects of these irregularities, a longer course of observation 
is probably necessary; but in carrying it on it is by no means requisite that 
the daily observations should be as numerous as heretofore. 

_ Enough has probably been done to ascertain the more obvious phenomena 
of disturbances, and perhaps also to furnish the principal data for theory. 
_ Bat it is not improbable that the application of theory may suggest or demand 
additional data respecting them, and other methods of combined observation. 


D2 


36 REPORT—1845. 


any case, should further data be required, they may be furnished by self- 
registering apparatus. It would, however, be desirable to ascertain, at more 
than one latitude, the inflwence of height upon the temperature and moisture, 
by the means devised by Prof. Wheatstone, and about to be employed at 
Woolwich. To this we may add, as a desideratum, the determination of the 
laws of the electrical changes, taken in connexion with other meteorological 
phenomena. The observatory of the Association at Kew, and that of Green- 
wich, are the only stations which have furnished such results. 

On the whole, I cannot but consider the continuance of the observatories 
for a longer period, if not permanently, to be important to the branches of 
science which they were intended to elucidate, although I believe that their 
number may be somewhat diminished, and that the amount of systematic 
work (and therefore also the observing staff’) may, without detriment, be re- 
duced at all. 

In reply to the second query, I am not able to state any instance in which 
the establishment of the combined system of observation has elicited privae 
research, with the exception of the signal one of the Brisbane observatory. 
The very magnitude of the plan itself is a sufficient reason for this. It is 
however no inconsiderable boon to science that it has enlisted in her cause 
many zealous young men, willing and able to promote it, and whose talents 
probably might not otherwise have received this direction. It may be added, 
that private research may naturally be expected in the theoretical discussion 
of the experimental data. 

The answer to the third query is connected with that already given to the 
first. Assuming that the general features of the diurnal changes are suffi- 
ciently determined, I would recommend the discontinuance of the daily ob- 
servations, except at those hours in which the magnetic elements are in their 
most stable state, whether as respects the influence of the periodic changes, or 
of disturbances. Both these conditions are satisfied for Europe and America 
at the hour of the maximum of westerly declination, and that of the principal 
minimum of the horizontal force. 

I would recommend that more time be allotted to absolute and occasional 
observations, and in particular, that the absolute determination of the decli- 
nation should be made from time to time, like those of the other two elements, 
with a separate instrument. 

I would suggest that simultaneous observations at short intervals should be 
made on one day in each week during the year 1846. The objects which may 
be expected to be attained by such an extension of this class of observations, 
are— 

1. To furnish a record of a sufficient number of disturbances without the 

help of occasional observations. 

2. To supply a number of undisturbed series, sufficient to determine the 

diurnal curves for swmmer and winter from observations at short intervals. 

3. To afford the means of separating from one another the two classes of 

changes. 

4. To supply the simultaneous observations which are required in absolute 

and occasional determinations. 

It would probably in most cases be possible to obtain the occasional as- 
sistance necessary for such observations, without keeping up the whole of the 
present observing staff. 

With respect to magnetic instruments, I am not disposed to recommend any 
considerable alteration in the Declinometer and Bifilar Magnetometer already 
in use. Most of the improvements suggested by experience have been added 
from time to time ; and the advantage of strict comparability in method seems 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 37 


to outweigh any which might be derived from more perfect instrumental 
forms. Neither should I recommend the discontinuance of the Balance 
_ Magnetometer where (as at Toronto) it has given good results. I would how- 
-_ ever propose to add the Induction Inclinometer as an additional means of de- 
termining the variations of the third element, if in any case it has not been 
already furnished; and for the observation of the absolute declination and 
absolute intensity, I have suggested a form of instrument (the Zheodolite 
Magnetometer) which appears to combine exactness with facility of manipu- 
lation. Of the two latter instruments I send printed descriptions. To these 
I would propose to add a self-registering apparatus for recording the disturb- 
ances of the declination, which should reach a certain limit, constructed on 
Professor Wheatstone’s fertile principle of employing the force of a closed 
electrical circuit; and it would be easy to contrive it so as to distinguish 
positive and negative deflections on the record. 

In Meteorology, self-registering instruments (on Prof. Wheatstone’s prin- 
ciple, or some other) will probably soon supersede all other means of obser- 
ving. It will of course be desirable that each observatory which is to remain 
in operation should be furnished with such instruments as soon as their most 
convenient form shall have been determined. If to these be added an appa- 
ratus for the observation of atmospheric electricity, on the principle of that at . 
Kew, the equipment would probably be adequate to the present demands of 
meteorological science. 

I fear I have been somewhat prolix, and have only to add, that you are of 
course at liberty to make use of the foregoing suggestions in any manner you 
may think expedient. 

Believe me to be, dear Sir, yours very faithfully, 
/ H. Luoyp. 


X. John Phillips, Esq., to Lieut.-Col. Sabine. 


1 Islington Terrace, Kingstown, March 8, 1845. 

Dear Sir,—1. The objects to be sought for in observations of magnetical 
and meteorological phenomena appear to be the following :— 

a. Observations coincident with the local occurrences of unusual or unex- 
- plained phenomena, such as meteors, rotatory storms, remarkable hail- 

storms, &c. 

B. Observations to detect the laws of extensive disturbances in magnetical 
and meteorological elements, for in all such cases laws must be presumed 
to exist, and may probably be detected and determined. 

y- Observations to determine precisely the laws of general periodical oscil- 
lation and progression, whose ordinary aspect is known or supposed, such 
as daily oscillation, annual oscillation, and secular variation. 

In reference to all these points, it appears to me that the observatories already 
established should be continued. There can be no question that these objects 
are worthy of continued effort; that they are not yet fully attained, but are 

in progress of being attained by the steady employment of the present ob- 
__servation-power ; and that to cease this effort when the laws of phenomena 
are only just beginning to appear, would be quite unworthy of the scientific 
spirit which dictated this great combination. 

2. I am not aware that the establishment of the magnetical and meteoro- 
logical observatories has yet had any great effect in stimulating private experi- 
mental research. This may be in part attributed to the very slight degree in 
_ which the peculiar character of these establishments has become known to 
the public by their published fruits. It appears to me, however, that it is 


38 REPORT—1845. 


rather as consequent on the published results of the observatories, than as 
coincident with their labours, that we may expect to see private exertion 
stimulated and directed, and science advanced by these means. Individual 
efforts may be useful at the beginning to indicate, and finally to complete the 
application of great natural laws, but in such branches cf knowledge as mag- 
netism, the great body of facts must embrace areas of surface, duration of 
time, and frequency of observation, which remove all but special problems 
from the domain of private exertion. Nor can these special problems be 
properly defined or prosecuted by good methods until the more general re- 
sults to which they are supplementary are further advanced. 

If indeed self-registering instruments can be found for magnetism, it may 
become popular, as meteorology undoubtedly is popular, however little ad- 
vanced by the circumstance. 

3. In respect of magnetical phenomena, the systematic, simultaneous and 
extraordinary observations appear to include all that is essential. To the 
meteorological registration something may be added. 

To complete the data for studying the relations of heat and moisture, it is 
desirable to have observations of the thermometer and wet-bulb hygrometer 
at more than one height above the ground. If at three or four levels, say 
3, 6, 12, 24 feet above the surface, these instruments were frequently ob- 
served, information would be gained concerning the distribution of heat and 
moisture, in the part of the atmosphere where these conditions are the most 
variable, which could not fail to be important. 

There would probably be little difficulty in adding to the observations a 
register of long thermometers, sunk 3, 6, 12, and 24 feet below the surface, so 
as to extend the basis of the laws of distribution of daily and annual heats at 
small depths, which have been developed by Quetelet and Forbes. 

The rate of evaporation of water appears worthy of record, in connection 
with so complete a system of two-hourly (better hourly) temperature and 
hygrometry, especially as this observation may be found hereafter a valuable 
check upon the mechanical indications of the anemometers, which taken alone 
are liable to some objection. 

Very truly yours, 
To Col. Sabine, R.A., Woolwich. JOHN PHILLIPS. 


XI. Dr. Adolphe Erman, of Berlin, to Sir John Herschel and the Com- 
mittee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 
Berlin, March 11, 1845. 

GENTLEMEN,—I had the pleasure, a few days since, of receiving the volume 
entitled ‘ Observations at the Toronto Observatory, 1840 to 1842,’ and take 
the earliest opportunity of expressing my thanks to the British Government, 
through your kind intervention, for this most important present. Magnetical 
and meteorological observations made so uninterruptedly, and with such per- 
fect regard of all important circumstances as those contained in this volume, 
are of immeasurable value for the physical knowledge of our globe. The 
true object of meteorology appears more and more to be twofold, viz.— 

1. The representation of the periodical changes of every pheenomenon by 
function of sines ; and 

2. The representation of the mean values of the various phenomena by the 
V functions of Laplace, which must be applied to the values of atmospheric 
pressure, temperature, &c. observed in different points of the globe, as they 
have been by Gauss to the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. 

Which part soever of these two we may employ ourselyes with, it is always 


——— 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 39 


most welcome, and indeed indispensable, to be possessed of such a stock of 
exact facts relating to several parts of the earth as have been furnished by 
the English magnetical and meteorological observatories. In the first place, 

as regards the laws of periodical changes, the probable error of each particular 
observation has been exceedingly reduced by the exemplary and successful 
care your observers bestowed on the examination of the instruments employed. 
If therefore the phenomena under investigation were strictly periodical, | am 
inclined to think that a set of five years’ observations would suffice for deter- 
mining exactly the constants of the series that must represent them. But in 
reality this is not the case. In almost every one of the phenomena examined, 
the particular values for a given day varied so much from the average peri- 
odical range, and the discovery of the law of these variations relative to many 
of these phenomena is of so much importance, that the prolongation of the 
activity of the English observatories beyond the period of five years is ren- 
dered particularly desirable by this same circumstance. Let me quote only 
one example of this fact, out of the great number that actually exist. The 
English observations have first demonstrated that the instantaneous changes 
of terrestrial magnetism do not take place at so strictly contemporaneous mo- 
ments in America and in Europe as we were led to surmise by the European 
observations only. The proofs of this important fact however have not been 
obtained for every day of the period of observations, but only during the so- 
called term days, in which the English operations corresponded with those of 
the German Magnetic Association (Verein). How desirable would it be, 
notwithstanding, to discover on which of the stations a given perturbation 
has first occurred, and in what degree and rate of proceeding it has extended 
to the other points of observation! It is only by this course that we may 
hope to fathom the true law of these momentary variations of magnetic 
power ; or, in other words, the real position of their active cause and the pro- 
pagation of its effects. It will certainly be of material service to a future in- 
quirer on this subject to be provided with simultaneous observations of all the 
principal meteorological phenomena; but nevertheless it may be confidently 
predicted that he will be highly gratified to be furnished with the results of a 
longer series of observations than those given by a period of five years. Any 
one who has been engaged in similar investigations will recollect the pleasure 
he has often felt if, after having had a limited number of observations as the 
basis of his work, he has been able to strengthen it by the addition of some 
new ones. It seems to me, therefore, that the English Government will give 
a new proof of the zeal so worthy of a free and happy nation which they have 
displayed in the patronage and promotion of science, by granting a prolonga- 
tion of their magnetical and meteorological observations, in exactly the same 
manner as they have been proceeding hitherto, even after the expiration of the 
year 1845. A sufficient encouragement for the continuation of this institu- 
tion is afforded indeed by the brilliant results already obtained, which would 
immortalize it, even if its visible existence should be prematurely discontinued. 
I allude particularly to the exactitude of the mean annual values obtained at 
the different stations for every particular phenomenon. Toronto, for instance, 
affords in meteorological respects a highly interesting comparison with the 
opposite (western) coast of America. In an article on the climate of Ross 

in California, which I take the liberty of inclosing, I fixed the isothermal line of 
Yy°-267 R.= the mean temperature at the level of the sea, in 38° 34! lat., 233° 41! 
long. east of Paris. A further investigation proved that there is scarcely a 
point on our globe where in an equal latitude the mean temperature is as low 
as under this meridian, although in higher latitudes it is distinguished by re- 


40 REPORT—1845. 


latively high temperatures. I found on this occasion the isothermal points to 
be as follows:— 


Longitude | Mean temperature | Mean temperature | Distance of both 
5? 


east of Paris. 9°°267 700. isothermal lines. 
50 47°82 lat. 60°32 lat. 12:5 
925°0 A5'DZS ass — «. — 
30°0 — 53°30 ... 8°9 
35°0 A3Z°51 ... — see = 
127:0 A041 ... 45°51... 5°] 
228°0 — se 57°40 ... 18°9 
933°7 38°56 ... por st — 
263°0 41°16... — .. — 
985:0 40°45 ... 43°95 ... 3°5 


This remarkable want of parallelism of the isothermal lines of 9°-267 and of 
5°70, is confirmed in a surprising manner by the results obtained at Toronto. 

In 43°659 lat. 

In 280°°642 east of Paris, the mean temperature is = + 5°489 R. 

At 320°74 Paris feet elevation, 

or reduced to the level of the sea = + 57934 R. 

The above statements relative to the meridian of 285° east of Paris are 
founded on the following equation derived from former observations (p being 
the latitude, 7 the longitude east of Paris, both in degrees) :— 
Mean temperature at the oceanic level = 9°267 — (p — 40°45) 1°16 

— (1 — 285°00) 0°10, 

which gives for the point of the sea’s level, lying vertically under Toronto, 
..- + 5%969 R mean temperature; 7.e. a result differing only by 0°035 R 
from the one observed. From this it appears evident that it is well worth 
while to take the laws of these phenomena into serious consideration. 

Again, from the values observed at Toronto, viz.— 

Pressure of the whole atmosphere = 333!""223 Parisian, ) WwW 

Pressure of aqueous vapour a= ONO14 
Results for the sea’s level in the same latitude: 

Pressure of the whole atmosphere = 337!'"474 

Press. of aqueous vapour (about) = = 3!""0 

From my three years’ observations at sea, I concluded* the following mean 
annual values :— 


ithout correec- 
tion for differen- 
ces in the inten- 
sity of gravity. 


Pacific Ocean. Atlantic Ocean. 


Latitude. | Pressure of | Pressure of | Pressure of | Pressure of 


the whole | aqueous va- | the whole | aqueous va- 
atmosphere. pour. atmosphere. pour. 
40 ‘| 38710 | 4-25 33959 | 5:53) 3 
45 33646 3°62 33810 | 426 | 5 
ES | | | > 
43 39 336°62 3°78 | 338°50 4°61) 
i ! 


* For calculating, as at Toronto, by the heights of mercury in the barometer, corrected 
only for temperature (viz. reduced to 0° R.) but not for differences in the intensity of gravity. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 4] 


The pressure of the whole atmosphere at Toronto is therefore, as was to 
be expected, superior to that of the Pacific and inferior to that of the Atlan- 
tic in the same latitude. The pressure of vapour at this point, however, is 
considerably less than under the same latitude in either of the two oceans. 
This circumstance is explained, partly, by the hygrometrical observations 
giving the humidity of the air at Toronto = 0°78, and on the ocean at 40° 
lat. = 0°84, and on the ocean at 45° = 0°85; partly by the mean temperature 
of the continent at Toronto having been found to be considerably lower than 
under the same parallel at sea. 

You will pardon these superficial reflections, considering how difficult it is 
to avoid the temptation of making a preliminary use of a treasure like the 
Toronto observations, even when hoping to devote one’s leisure to its further 
study and development. 

In conclusion, I avail myself of your kind permission to submit two pro- 
posals relative to future magnetical and meteorological labours. 

1. The determinations of mean magnetic values for the year 1829 have not 
yet been completely applied to the deduction of the Gaussian constants of 
terrestrial magnetism for the same year. A comparison of the magnetical 
maps, representing the empirical results on the one hand and those calculated 
by the Gaussian constants on the other, is still far from presenting a perfect 
agreement. For the above year there is still wanting, therefore,— 

_ 1. Those values of the constants which best correspond to the existing 

observations; and 

2. The probable errors of each of those first bases of the theory. 

This deficiency appears to me a material one as regards science. The 
English and Russian observations combined will afford the most probable 
values of these constants for the year 1845, and it is consequently most de- 
sirable to learn, by a comparison with equally probable values of the same 
for the year 1829, their annual variation. Even should these values for 1829 
be somewhat less exact than the later ones, this circumstance is not of mate- 
rial importance, if the amount of their probable error is ascertained. Now 
both these requisites, the best possible determination of the constants for 1829 
and the calculation of their probable error, can be effected in the following 
manner :— 

1. By forming from each magnetic element observed in 1829 an equation 
containing on the one hand a known numeric value (i. e. the difference 
between the observed value of this element and the same calculated 
theoretically with the assumed preliminary amounts of the constants), 
and on the other certain given multiples of the corrections to be ap- 
plied singly to each of the 24 Gaussian constants ; and 

2. By resolving, according to the method of least squares, the linear equa- 
tions with 24 unknown elements, obtained in this manner (amounting 
in all to about 1000). 

By this means we shall obtain not only the most probable corrected values of 
the above constants, but likewise the probable error of each of them. 

In Schumacher’s Astronomical Notices (Astron. Nachrichten, Nos. 4.50, 452 
and 4.54:), the commencement of this undertaking has been published as exe- 
cuted at my request with exemplary zeal by a scientific young friend of mine. 
At my own suggestion, however, the prosecution and conclusion of this work 
has been deferred to a period when it might be performed without a ruinous 
sacrifice of time and trouble on the part of the individual engaged in it. It 
became evident indeed that a calculation of this extent would necessitate an 
entire devotion to the task of one or two years, for which the pecuniary assist- 
ance of some government would be indispensable. If you should be of the 


42 . REPORT—1845, 


same opinion as I am concerning the importance of this undertaking, you 
would confer an essential obligation on me by expressing your approval in a 
manner that would give it a sufficient weight to induce some government to 
grant the requisite means; 40/. or 50/. a year, for the term of two years, would 
suffice for a person residing in this country, and I could guarantee the com- 
plete and satisfactory performance of the whole, if completed in the same 
manner as it was begun. I leave it to the decision of the Committee of the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science to recommend this work 
to the attention of one of the two governments (the English and Russian) 
that have already displayed their zeal for the advancement of the magnetic 
science, or to some other, the Prussian for instance, that may wish to follow 
so laudable an example. At all events, I am convinced that the reeommen- 
dation of a committee enjoying so deserved a reputation as yours would be 
attended with the most complete success, a success so desirable for the ad- 
vancement of science. 

The second desideratum that occurs to me, refers to the form of publica- 
tion of meteorological observations at sea. Such observations having been 
regularly made during the many scientitic expeditions of later years, the 
journals of these voyages would easily furnish us with the diwrnal value of 
the observed phenomena, accompanied by a section of the latitude, longitude 
and date on each day of observation. 

The acquisition of similar tables, as afforded by the different voyages, is in 
my opinion of the greatest possible value as regards all questions of scientific 
meteorology. What imparts particular importance to the meteorological ob- 
servations as made at sea is, 

1. The equal elevation of the instruments ; 
2. The equal constitution of the surface on which the observations take 
place. 

As such tables would greatly facilitate the due combination of the observa- 
tions, I consider them in fact as indispensable. 

I am, Gentlemen, 
Your most obedient servant, 
A. ERMAN. 


XII. M. Gauss to Sir John Herschel. 
Gottingen, March 14, 1845. 

Dear Sir,—In answer to your letter of December 5th, 1844, I shall begin 
by replying to your /ast question, that I have no objection against your 
making what use you please of this letter, were it not my consciousness of its 
utter insignificancy. At all events, as I do not pretend to correctness in 
writing in your idiom, I beg your leave to put down what little I may have to 
say in German, the more so as yourself are perfectly master of the language 
of your forefathers. ° 


So sehr ich mich geehrt fiihle, dass Sie auf mein Urtheil in Beziehung auf 
das langere Fortbestehen der mit grossartiger Munificenz von der Britischen 
Regierung in fremden Welttheilen errichteten magnetischen Anstalten einen 
Werth zu legen scheinen, so leid thut es mir dass ich ausser Stande bin, auf 
die mir vorgelegten bestimmten Fragen eben so bestimmte Antworten zu geben, 
und zwar hauptsachlich aus dem Grunde, weil mir die Resultate der bisher 
in jenen Anstalten ausgefiihrten Arbeiten noch fast giinzlich unbekannt sind. 
In der That sind mir zwar der erster Band der zu Greenwich gemachten mag- 
netischen Beobachtungen und ein Band ausserordentliche magnetische Sto- 
rungen zu seiner Zeit richtig zugekommen, wofir ich meinen ergebensten 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 43 


Dank abstatte, allein der erste Band der Beobachtungen auf den aussereuro- 
piischen britischen Stationen, dessen Empfang Ihr giitiges Schreiben mich 
vor Schluss des vorigen Jahres hoffen liess, und der nach einem spatern 
Schreiben des Herrn Obristlieutenants Sabine spatestens bis zum 25 Februar 
hier eintreffen sollte, ist bis diese Stunde noch nicht angelangt. So lange aber 
noch nicht die Beobachtungen aus einer Anzahl von Jahren wirklich vorliegen, 
und, wie ich hinzusetzen muss, bevor solche nicht einer in gewissem Grade 
schon ins Einzelne gehenden Verarbeitung unterworfen sind, lisst sich un- 
méglich ein Urtheil dariiber fallen, ob und in welchem Maasse die vorgeset- 
sten Zwecke bereits erreicht seien. 

Von meinem Standpunkte aus muss ich demnach, gerade dieser Ungewiss- 
heit wegen, dringend wiinschen, dass diese Arbeiten wenigstens noch einige 
Jahre in der bisherigen Art und Ausdehnung fortgesetzt werden. 

Ich muss aber noch weiter gehen, und meine unversichtliche Hoffnung 
aussprechen, dass das Britisches Gouvernement vorzugsweise diesem Zweige 
wissenschaftlicher Bestrebungen eine fortdauernde Pflege zuwenden, und 
jenen Anstalten auf unbestimmte Zeit ihren Bestand sichern werde, mochte 
es auch nur mit gewissen Einschrankungen sein. Sollte es, der Kosten we- 
gen, fiir nothige erachtet werden, gewisse Beschrankungen eintreten zu las- 
sen, so wiirden solche meines Erachtens sich auf die Terminsbeobachtungen 
und auf die stiindlichen Aufzeichnungen beziehen k6nnen, und zwar so, dass 
man die erstern demnachst ganz aufhéren liesse, die letztern aber, anstatt wie 
bisher von 2 zu 2 Stunden, kiinftig nur von 6 zu 6, oder allenfalls auch nur 
von 8 zu 8 Stunden ausfiihrte, in Folge welcher Abinderungen das Personal 
und die Unterhaltungskosten wesentlich wurden verringert werden konnen. 
Ob aber diese Einschrankungen schon sofort, oder erst nach einigen Jahren 
eintreten sollen, dariiber kann ich, aus oben angefiihrten Griinden, fiir jetzt 
noch kein bestimmtes Urtheil aussprechen. 

Neben jenen tiglich drei oder viermahl, in gleichen Zwischenzeiten zu 
machenden Aufzeichnungen der magnetischen Elemente, wiirde die jahrlich 
mehreremahl mit dusserster Sorgfalt auszufihrende absolute Bestimmung 
derselben das Hauptgeschiaft bilden, unbeschadet derjenigen andern Arbeiten, 
welche die Vorsteher der Anstalten nach gemeinschaftlich unter sich zu tref- 
fenden Verabredungen ausfiihren méchten, und wobei haufiger wechselseit- 
iger Austausch von Magnetstaben und Apparaten manche lehrreiche Resul- 
tate geben, auch die Thatigkeit und die Geschicklichkeit der Vorsteher vielfach 
bewahren und controlliren kénnten. Dass iiberhaupt denjenigen Vorstehern, 
die auf angemessene Art ihre Talente und ihrer Kifer schon bewahrt haben, 
ein etwas freierer Spielraum fiir ihre Thatigkeit gelassen wurde, mochte ich 
fir sehr rathsam halten. 

Die Griinde fiir das nachhaltige Fortbestehen dieser Anstalten liegen iibri- 
gens so nahe,.dass es unnéthig scheint, sie weitlauftig zu entwickeln. Unsere 
kenntniss des Erdmagnetismus ist nur erst ein diirftiges Stiickwerk, so lange 
wir uns nur auf eine bestimmte Zeitepoche beschrinken, und nicht die schon 
nach wenigen Jahren sich merkliche machenden Siacularanderungen mit 
gleicher Sorgfall und Liebe verfolgen. Allerdings ist dazu das Zusammen- 
wirken sehr vieler Wissenschaftsfreunde an sehr vielen Punkten der Erdober- 
flache nothwendig, und ein halbes oder ganzes Dutzend magnetischer Obser- 
vatorien iiber die ganze Erde zerstreuet kann fiir sich allein betrachtet nur 
einen kleinen Beitrag liefern. Aber diese Muster Observatorien werden zu- 
gleich die Pflanzschulen von vielen tiichtigen Beobachtern werden, die ihre 
Thatigkeit tiberall hin verbreiten. Sie werden ferner reisenden Beobachtern 
zu Wasser und Lande Gelegenheit geben, ihre Instrumente zu priifen urid zu 
berichtigen, und ihre Beobachtungsgeschicklichkeit zu bewahren und zu ver- 


44 REPORT—1845. 


vollkommnen. Sie werden endlich dazu beitragen den Sinn fiir Erreichung 
moglich grosster Scharfe, der sonst nur in der Astronomie und hohern Geo- 
dasie zu treffen war, auch fiir die andern Theile der Naturwissenschaften zu 
beleben, zu nahren und zu verbreiten. ; 

Die Privatthitigkeit im Felde der magnetischen Beobachtungen liegt ubri- 
gens was Deutschland und die benachbarten Linder betrifft seit einer Reihe 
von Jahren offenkundig vor. Obgleich man nicht sagen kann, dass die Bri- 
tischen Anstalten dieselbe erst erweckt haben, da sie bekanntlich schon vor 
denselben vorhanden war, so haben doch diese Anstalten an mehrern Orten 
Erweiterung jener Thatigkeit veranlasst. ~ Daran aber ist jedenfalls nicht zu 
zweifeln, dass wenn die Britische Regierung ihre aussereuropiischen An- 
stalten eingehen liesse, dies auch einen entmuthigenden Einfluss auf die in 
Deutschland und anderwerts bestehenden Anstalten haben wiirde, um so 
mehr, da das Erscheinen des Organs dieser Thitigkeit, der Resultate des 
Magnetischen Vereins, seit der Entfernung des Professors Weber von Gottin- 
gen auf unbestimmte Zeit suspendirt ist. 


This indeed is all I have to say under present circumstances. I had de- 
layed my reply, which you expected to receive before 10th March, till today, 
in hopes to get the promised volume for inspection. But I can tarry no longer 
now (though Mr. Sabine’s letter seems to prorogate the ultimate term to 31st 
March), because, even if that volume should arrive tomorrow or in the next 
days, I am for the next weeks so overcharged with other affairs, that it would 
be impossible to give it a close examination. I conclude therefore with the 
assurance that I ever remain 

Faithfully yours, 
Cu. Fr. Gauss. 
( Translation.) 


Much as I feel honoured by your appearing to attach a value to my judge- 
ment in regard to the longer continuance of the magnetic establishments 
which the munificence of the British government has founded in different 
parts of the world, my regret is equally great that I cannot give to your 
questions answers as definite, and this chiefly because the results of the work 
executed in those establishments are still almost wholly unknown to me. I 
have as yet only received the Ist volume of the Greenwich magnetic obser- 
vations, and one volume of extraordinary magnetic disturbances, both which 
arrived duly, and I return my best thanks for them; but the 1st volume of 
the observations of the extra European British stations, which your letter 
made me hope for before the close of the year, and which, by a later letter 
from Colonel Sabine, should have arrived at latest on the 25th of February, 
has not yet reached me. But until the observations of some years are actually 
seen, and I must add, until they have undergone a certain degree of discus- 
sion and examination in detail, it is impossible to pronounce a judgement as 
to whether, and how far, the proposed objects are already obtained. 

In my present position, therefore, and on account of this very uncer- 
tainty, I can only urgently desire that these labours may be continued at 
least for some years longer, in the same manner and to the same extent as 
hitherto. 

But I must go stili further, and must express my confident hope that the 
British government will apply to this branch of science especially its perse- 
vering care, and that it will secure these establishments for an indefinite 
period, even should it be with certain limitations, should such be thought 
necessary. on account of expense; if so, the reductions might, I conceive, 
apply to terms and to hourly observations, discontinuing the former altogether, 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 45 


and reducing the latter to six-hourly or even eight-hourly records, which would 
materially lessen the personal staff and therefore the expense. But whether 
such reduction may take place yet, or whether only at the end of some years 
longer, is a question concerning which for the reasons already given I can 
pronounce no decided opinion at present. 

The principal employment at each observatory, in addition to the daily 
observations at equal intervals of six or eight hours, will be to make, several 
times a year, absolute determinations with the most extreme care, and this 
without prejudice to other work which the directors of the different establish- 
ments may concert together; among which, frequently-repeated interchange 
of magnetic bars and apparatuses will give many instructive results, and will 
also keep up and check the activity and the skill of the directors in many 
ways. Ishould also think it very advisable that those directors who have 
shown in a suitable manner their talents and their zeal, should be allowed 
somewhat freer scope for their activity. 

The reasons for continuing such establishments are so direct, that it seems 
unnecessary to develope them at much length. Our knowledge of terrestrial 
magnetism is but a fragment, so long as we confine it to one period of time 
only, and do not follow with equal care and interest those secular changes 
which make themselves felt even in the course of a few years. There is in- 
deed required the concurrence of very many friends of science at very many 
points on the earth’s surface ; and half a dozen, or even a dozen observato- 
ries scattered over the whole earth can, if taken alone, give only a small con- 
tribution. But these normal observatories may at the same time be schools 
for many good observers, who will extend their activity over a wider range. 
They will also afford to travelling observers the opportunity of testing and 
correcting their instruments, and keeping up and perfecting their skill in ob- 
servation, and they will contribute to arouse, to nourish, and to extend to 
other parts of natural knowledge that desire for the greatest possible accuracy 
in observation which was formerly met with only in astronomy and the higher 
geodesy. 

Private activity in the field of magnetic observation has, it is well known, 
existed for several years in Germany and the adjacent countries; but though 
it cannot be said to have been first awakened here by the British under- 
takings, since it existed before them, yet they have caused its further exten- 
sion. It cannot be doubted that if the British government were now to dis- 
continue its extra-European-establishments, this would have a discouraging 
influence on the existing establishments in Germany and elsewhere; the more 
so, as the publication of the organ of their activity (the ‘ Resultate des Magne- 
tischen Vereins’) has been indefinitely suspended since the removal of Pro- 
fessor Weber from Gottingen. 


XII. M. Kreil, Director of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory 
at Prague, to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. 


VEREHRTER Herr, Prag, 23 Marz, 1845. 

Ich erhielt vor wenigen Tagen die werth vollenmagnetischen und me- 
teorologischen Beobachtungen von Toronto 1840-41-42, und beeile mich 
nun das Schreiben zu beantworten, womit mich unterm 5 Dec. 1844, das 
magnetische Comité beehrte, und in welchem meine Ansicht uber einige 
dort vorgelegte Fragen gewiinscht wird. 

Mit grossem Vergnigen durchblatterte ich den Band, so wie auch den 
schon friiher erhaltenen der ‘ Observations on days of unusual disturbances; 


46 REPORT—1845. 


denn ich ersah daraus, dass den hochgespannten Erwartungen, die ich von 
den Leistungen dieser Anstalten hegte, nicht nur entsprochen, sondern dass 
sie in vieler Beziehung noch iibertroffen worden waren. Die Geschichte der 
Wissenschaften biethet kaum ein zweites Beispiel dar, wo so viele und mit so 
reichen Mitteln versehene Kriafte gleichzeitig und fiir denselben Zweck waren 
in Bewegung gesetzt worden ; und da ein machtiger Impuls in der physischen 
wie in der moralischen Welt seine Wirkungen stets nach allen Seiten hin 
dussert, so haben auch die grossartigen Anordnungen, wit welchen England 
auf die von aussen her ergangenen Aufforderungen antwortéte, auf dem euro- 
piischen Continente wieder manche Bestrebungen hervorgerufen, welche 
nicht ohne wesentlichen Nutzen fiir die Wissenschaft voriiber gehen werden. 
Um nur die nachsten dieser Bestrebungen zu nennen, so besitzen wir in der 
dstreichischen Monarchie zwei Anstalten fiir magnetische und meteorolo- 
gische Untersuchungen, Kremsmiinster und Senftenberg, von denen die erste 
wohl schon seit einem Jahrhunderte fiir Astronomie wirksam in den letzten 
Jahren ihre Thitigkeit auch dem Magnetismus zugewendet, und ihre Leist- 
ungen in den ‘ Annalen fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus’ bekannt 
gemacht; die zweite aber, wenn gleich erst ein Jahr alt, doch ihre Erstlings- 
friichte bereits der Oeffentlichkeit titbergeben hat. Bei beiden ist es mehr als 
zweifelhaft, ob sie ohne dem vorziiglich durch Englands Beitritt hervorge- 
brachten Ausschwunge, sich dem magnetischen Vereine angeschlossen hat- 
ten. Auch die nun in Aussicht stehende Bereisung der 6streichischen 
Monarchie zu magnetischen Zwecken, welche ich in diesem oder dem nach- 
sten Jahre zu beginnen hoffe, wiirde kaum zur Wirklichkeit gebracht worden 
seyn, hiitte man nicht auf England's Beispiel hinweisen konnen. 

Ich beschranke mich hier diese unserem Staate angehorigen Beispiele als 
Beweise aufzufiihren, dass die von der grossbritanischen Regierung errich- 
teten Anstalten manche andere Bemihungen ins Leben gerufen haben, von 
denen die wissenschaftwerthvolle Resultate theils schon erhalten hat, theils 
noch erwarten kann, und Uberlasse es anderen Gelehrten diese Thatsache 
durch die in ihrem Gebiethe vorfindigen Beweise noch mehr zu bekraftigen. 

Wenn aber gleich durch das Zusammenwirken so vieler ausgezeichneter 
Gelehrter fast aller gebildeten Nationen, berithmter Gesellschaften und er- 
leuchteter Regierungen im Fache des Magnetismus und der Meteorologie in 
den letzten Jahren mehr geleistet worden ist, als in irgend einem andern 
wissensschaftlichen Zweige in so kurzer Zeit je erreicht wurde, so darf man 
sich doch nicht schmeicheln, viel weiter als, wenigstens in den meisten Fallen, 
zur Erkenntniss der ersten, in die Augen fallendsten Thatsachen gelangt zu 
seyn. Der vorliegende Band der Toronto Beobachtungen liefert hiezu selbst 
den Beweis, da in vielen Fallen die bisher ausgefiihrte dreijahrige Beobach- 
tungsreihe noch nicht ausreichend erscheint zur Erziehung sicherer Ergeb- 
nisse ; so musste die Erkenntniss der jahrlichen Periode der Declinations- 
inderung (pag. 11), manche Einzelnheiten bei den Storungserscheinungen 
(pag. 21, 49), die Aenderungen der Vertical-Kraft (pag.62.) und der Inclina- 
tion (pag. 65.) einer langeren Beobachtungsreihe vorbehalten bleiben. Es ist 
zu vermuthen dass die Jahre 1843-45 die tiber manche dieser Punkte schwe- 
benden Perioden eingeschlossenen, sogenannten Sacular-Aenderungen so 
vollstiindige Aufklirung zu geben, dass sie fir alle in Zukunft dartiber anzu- 
stellenden Untersuchungen eine vollkommen feste Grundlage bilden kénnten. 
Um nur ein Beispiel anzufiihren, so wurde in diesen drei Jahren die Sacular- 
Aenderung der Inclination in Toronto so klein gefunden, dass aus den Beo- 
bachtungen nicht erkannt werden konnte in welcher Richtung sie vor sich 
gienge. Daman doch nicht annehmen kann, dass eine solehe Aenderung gar 
nicht bestehe, oder immer zu klein sey, um sich in einem dreijahrigen Zeit- 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 47 


raum selbst durch so scharfe Beobachtungen zu offenbaren, so muss man vor- 
aussetzen, dass sie an diesem Orte eben jetzt im Stillstande begriffen sey. 
Diess ist aber fiir alle zukiinftigen Untersuchungen tiber die Natur der mag- 
netischen Kraft ein eben so wichtiger Moment als z. B. die Erforschung der 
Sonnennihe eines Planeten zur Bestimmung seiner Bahn, und ein Abbrechen 
der Beobachtungen ehe dieser, und so viele andere nicht minder wichtige 
Punkte gehorig festgestellt sind, wiirde von den Gelehrten unseres und der 
kiinftigen Jahrhunderte, welche ihre Thatigkeit diesem Zweige widmen, 
hochlich bedauert werden. 

Wenn aber auch manche Punkte ihrer Natur nach nicht durch eine sechss 
jahrige Beobachtungsreihe festgestellt werden konnten, so sind doch gewiss 
andere dadurch zur volligen Evidenz gebracht worden, und was daran noch 
fehlt, ist nur der Mangelhaftigkeit der Instrumente zuzuschreiben, welche 
noch nicht jenen Grad von Vollendung erlangt haben, den wir an den fiir 
andere Beobachtungen bestimmten Apparaten zu sehen gewohnt sind. Dahin 
gehoren die tiglichen Aenderungen und die davon abhangigen Grdéssen. Selbst 
von vielen der in langere Perioden eingeschlossenen Aenderungen wie z. B. 
den monatlichen und jahrlichen wurden die meisten Umstande wo nicht mit 
Gewisheit doch mit einem hohen Grad von Wahrscheinlichkeit erkannt. 

Wenn also, wie gewiss alle Theilnehmer an ahnlichen Untersuchungen 
hoffen und wiinschen, das Bestehen der von der grossbritanischen Regierung 
errichteten magnetischen und meteorologischen Observatorien noch um 
einige Jahre verlingert wird, so sollten die sdculdéren Aenderungen und die 
Gesetze der Storungen als Hauptzweck im Auge behalten werden, und es ware 
die kiinftige Thatigkeit der Austalten diesem Zwecke gemiass einzurichten. 
Demnach scheint es mir hinreichend zu sein, statt stiindlichen oder zwei- 
stiindigen Beobachtungen, vierstiindige, also an jedem Tage sechs Beobacht- 
ungen auszufiihren, um Mittag, 4", 8", Mitternacht, 16%, 20", und zwar nicht 
nach Gottinger- sondern nach Ortszeit, weil es sich vorzugsweise um eine 
grindliche Kenntniss der Erscheinungen handelt, wie sie am Beobachtungsorte 
vor sich gehen, und weil fast alle riicksichtlich ihrer Periode von dem Stande 
der Sonne gegen den eigenen Meridian, nicht gegen einen fremden abhangen, 
ein Grundsatz, den man schon von jeher bei Ausfiihrung der meteorologischen 
Beobachtungen befolgt hat. Beiden magnetischen Terminsbeobachtungen 
war eine strenge Gleichzeitigkeit der Ablesungen allerdings wiinschenswerth, 
bei den taglich zu fixen Stunden anzustellenden Beobachtungen aber, glaube 
ich, sollte man sich eben so an die Ortszeit halten, als man es bisher bei den 
meteorologischen Terminen gethan hat. Hiebei ware es gut, wenn die sechs 
zu fixen Stunden anzustellenden magnet. Beobachtungen doppelt ausgefiihrt 
wiirden, namlich jedes Element sollte nach 5 Minuten zum zweitenmale beo- 
bachtet werden, weil die in der Zwischenzeit eingetretene Aenderung sehr oft 
das Vorhandenseyn einer Storung anzeigt, welche bei einer einfachen Beo- 
bachtung unbemerkt bleibt, und weil bei gut aufgestellten und gegen Luft- 
stromungen gehorig geschiitzten Apparaten diese Aenderungen auch iiber 
den taglichen Gang naheren Aufschluss geben kénnen. 

Die magnetischen Terminsbeobachtungen, welche hauptsachlich zur ge- 
naueren Erforschung der Gesetze der Storungen eingefuhrt wurden, haben 
diesem Zwecke nicht vollkommen entsprochen, weil wenige Storungen gréss- 
erer Art an den fiir diese Beobachtungen vorausbestimmten Tagen eingetroffen 
sind, daher viele Mihe vergebens angewendet wurde. Da man voraussetzen 
darf, dass die Beobachter sich fiir den Erfolg ihrer Arbeiten selbst interessiren, 
und alles aufbiethen werden, was sie fiir die Wissenschaft niitzlich machen 
kann, so diirfte man, wie ich glaube, die ausser den festgesetzten sechs Beo- 
bachtungsstunden anzustellenden Storungsbeobachtungen ihrem eigenen Er- 


48 REPORT—1845. 


messen tiberlassen, und ihnen héchstens tiber die Zeit-Intervalle, in welchen ~ 
die Ablesungen zu geschehen haben, und welche bei gut aufgestellten Ap- 
paraten die moglichst kiirzesten seyn sollen, einige Instruction ertheilen. Thr 
Hauptaugenmerk soll hiebei auf die Wendungspunkt, d. h. jene Zeit-Momente 
gerichtet seyn, wann ein Wachsen in ein Abnehmen und umgekehrt iibergeht. 
Will man aber noch ferner Beobachtungen an vorherbestimmten Tagen an- 
stellen lassen, so koénnte diess versuchsweise, d. h. so geschehen, dass man an 
diesen Tagen zu jenen Stunden, an welchen die Storungen am 6ftesten ein- 
zutreten pflegen, naimlich von 4 bis 10" Abends so beobachtet, wie es bisher 
bei Terminen zu geschehen pflegte, und die Beobachtungen nur in dem Fulle 
iiber 24 Stunden ausdehnt, wenn sich Spuren einer Stérung zeigen. 

Da barometrische Storungen dieselbe Wichtigkeit haben, wie magnetische, 
wenn gleich ihr Umfang nicht so ausgedehnt ist, so wire es wiinschenswerth, 
dass auch an Tagen, wo solche eintreten, die Ablesungen des Barometers in 
kiirzeren Intervallen als gewohnlich ausgefiihrt wiirden, etwa von Stunde zu 
Stunde, und in der Nahe de Wendepunkte, welche auch hier ganz besonders 
beriicksichtigt werden sollen, noch Ofters, weil aus der Vergleichung niher 
gelegener Beobachtungsorte die Richtung und Schnelligkeit der Luftwellen 
erkannt werden kann. 

In Hinsicht auf Instrumente scheint es mir zweckmissiger zu seyn, die ein- 
mal eingefihrten so lange zu behalten, als nicht eine neue Erfindung sie we- 
sentlich verbessert hat, weil bei Differenzbeobachtungen, um welche es sich 
hier vorziiglich handelt, der Nachtheil, den eine Unterbrechung und die An- 
wendung eines verschiedenen Apparates herbeifiihrt, nicht immer durch die 
grossere Genauigkeit des letzteren aufgehoben wird. Ueberall sollte man, so 
gut es angeht, die Arbeit durch Autographen zu erleichtern und zu vervoll- 
standigen trachten. Wenn die von hier nach England gesandten Exemplare 
der Baro- Thermo- und Hygrometrographen sich als zweckmissig bewahren, 
so ist fiir die Meteorologie viel gewonnen, und sie sollten verbreitet werden. 
Ich habe manche Versuche angestellt, nach demselben Principe auch magne- 
tische Autographen zu verfertigen; allein diese Versuche fiihrten zu grds- 
seren Auslagen, als ich bestreiten konnte. Ich musste sie aufgeben, ohne von 
der Unmoglichkeit des Gelingens iiberzeugt zu seyn. In England, wo die 
practische Mechanik auf einer so hohen Stufe steht, wiirde man leichter damit 
zu Stande kommen. 

Die Mittheilungen der Beobachtungen und ihrer Resultate haben stets um 
so grosseres Interesse, je frischer sie sind, und oft kann eine Vergleichung 
der Wahrnehmungen, so lange der erste Eindruck noch nicht erloschen ist, 
auch zu nicht unwichtigen Folgerungen fiihren, welche uns entgehen, wenn 
man die Vergleichung bloss nach den Ziffern austellen muss. Deshalb konnte 
vielleicht die Herausgabe der Beobachtungen in kleineren Parthien und in 
kiirzeren Fristen, nach Art einer Zeitschrift, etwa von Monat zu Monat ge- 
schehen. 

Da durch die Vereinfachung des Beobachtungssystems wahrscheinlich 
mehrere Beobachter disponibil werden, so konnte man diese vielleicht dazu 
verwenden, die Umgebungen des Beobachtungsortes zu bereisen, und einen 
magnetischen Survey auszufiihren. Meines Erachtens ist die Vervielfiltigung 
dieser Reisen, und die damit verbundene Untersuchung iiber die Vertheilung 
des Erdmagnetismus, derjenige Schritt, welcher in diesem Fache zunachst zu 
thun ist. Die Beobachtungen sollten sich hiebei nicht nur tiber alle mag- 
netischen Elemente, sondern wo méglich auch iiber die geognostische Be- 
schaffenheit des Bodens ausdehnen, weil der Zusammenhang zwischen dieser 
und dem Erdmagnetismus ein Punkt von der grossten Wichtigkeit ist. 

Diess sind die Ansichten welche ich tiber diese grosse wissenschaftliche 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 49 


Unternehmung hege, und die ich hiemit frei und unumwunden ausgesprochen 
habe. Findet die Association es fiir zweckmassig sie ganz oder theilweise 
zu veroffentlichen, so stebt von meiner Seite nichts im Wege. 
Mit ausgezeichneter Hochachtung, 
Ergebenster, 
KREIL. 


( Translation.) 
Prague, 23rd March, 1845. 

Dear Sir,—I received a few days ago the valuable ‘ Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observations at Toronto, 1840-42,’ and I now hasten to reply 
to the communication with which the Magnetic Committee have honoured 
me under date of the 5th of December 1844, in which my views respecting 
some questions therein proposed were requested. 

I have looked over this volume and that which I had previously received, 
entitled ‘Observations on Days of unusual Magnetic Disturbance’ with great 
pleasure, for I have seen by these volumes that the highly-wrought expecta- 
tions of the results of these establishments which I cherished, are not only 
met but have in many respects been even exceeded. The history of science 
hardly offers a second example where so many and such richly-provided forces 
have been put into action simultaneously and for the same object; and asa 
powerful impulse, whether in the physical or in the moral world, always ex- 
tends its effects on every side, so the great system of action by which England 
has responded to the call which proceeded from hence has reacted on the con- 
tinent of Europe, and has called forth several efforts which will not pass 
away without having done essential service to science. Among these I will 
name only the two which fall most immediately under my notice. We have 
in Austria two establishments for magnetical and meteorological researches, 
Kremsminster and Senftenberg ; at the first of which places astronomy has 
been actively followed for a century, magnetism only since the last few years, 
and its results are published in the ‘ Annalen fiir Meteorologie und Erd- 
magnetismus.’ The Senftenberg establishment, though only a year old, has 
already published its first fruits. It is more than doubtful whether either 
would have joined the magnetic cooperative system, had it not been for that 
great development which is due to England especially. The magnetic survey 
of Austria, which I hope to begin either this year or the next, would hardly 
have been brought to pass if we had not been enabled to point to the example 
of England. I confine myself to adducing instances belonging to our own 
state, to show that establishments and other endeavours which have pro- 
duced, or which promise to produce, valuable results, have been stimulated 
by the example of England ; and I leave to other cultivators of science to con- 
firm this fact by instances more particularly belonging to their own spheres 
of observation. 

But although the concurrence of so many distinguished men of science, 
and of almost all the civilized nations, illustrious societies, and enlightened 
governments, has done more for magnetism and meteorology than was ever 
accomplished for any other branch of science in so short a time, yet we ought 
not to flatter ourselves that we have done more, at least in the majority of 
eases, than arrive at the knowledge of the first and most obvious facts. The | 
volume of the ‘ Toronto Observations’ now before me itself affords proof of 
this, for in many cases it appears that the series of three years’ observations 
is not sufficient to afford assured results; the knowledge of the annual period 
of declination changes (p. xi.), of some peculiarities in the phzenomena of 

1845. E 


50 REPORT——1845. 


disturbances (pp. xxi. and xlix.), the variations of the vertical force (p. Ixii.), 
and of the inclination (p. Ixv.), require a longer series of observations. We 
may hope that the years 1843-45 will have done much to clear away the 
doubts remaining on these particular points, but they certainly cannot afford 
such a complete elucidation of the variations comprehended within longer 
periods, otherwise called secular variations, as may be capable of forming a 
perfectly solid foundation for all future researches. To allude only to one 
instance; the secular change of the inclination at Toronto during the last 
three years has been found to be so small, that it cannot even be discovered 
in which direction it takes place. As we cannot assume that there is no such 
change, or that it is always so small as to escape detection even by such exact 
observations during an interval of three years, we must suppose that at To- 
ronto the inclination was stationary at that time. But such a moment is, for 
all future investigations concerning the nature of the magnetic forces, of an 
importance similar for instance to that of the perihelion of a planet for the 
determination of its path, and to break off the observations before this and so 
many other no less important points are properly established, would be greatly 
lamented by those men of science who may devote their activity to this 
branch of science either in the present or in the ensuing century. 

If however there are many points which from their very nature cannot be 
settled by a six years’ series of observations, there are others certainly for 
which the evidence will be complete ; or if anything be still wanting, it will 
be owing solely to the incompleteness of the instrumental means which have 
not yet attained to that high degree of perfection to which we are accustomed 
in the apparatus belonging to other kinds of observation. The diurnal varia- 
tion and all the quantities depending thereon are of this class; and even for 
the variations comprised by longer periods, the monthly and annual variations 
for example, most of the circumstances belonging to them will be known, if 
not with certainty, yet with a high degree of probability. 

If, then, as is assuredly wished and hoped by all who take part in investi- 
gations of this nature, the magnetical and meteorological observatories esta- 
blished by the British government be continued for some years longer, the 
secular variations and the laws of disturbances should be regarded as the 
principal objects to be kept in view, and the activity of the different establish- 
ments should be directed accordingly. In this view it might suffice if four- 
hourly observations were substituted for hourly or two-hourly, taking for in- 
stance, 0, 44, 84, 12, 16" and 20%, and employing not Gottingen time but the 
time of the station, as the special object in view is to obtain a thorough know- 
ledge of the phenomena as they present themselves at the place of obser- 
vation, inasmuch as their march depends in almost all cases on the position of 
the sun relatively to their own meridian, not to that of another and distant 
station, a principle always followed in meteorological observations. In mag- 
netic terms, no doubt strict simultaneity of reading is always desirable, but 
the daily observations at fixed hours should I think be taken by the time of 
the station, as has hitherto been done in meteorological terms, The magnetic 
observations, if made at fixed hours each day, might be taken doubly by re- 
peating the reading of each element at the end of five minutes. By this 
means, the presence of disturbance, which might escape detection by a single 
observation, would often be discovered, and with well-established instruments 
properly protected against currents of air, the alterations taking place in those 
short intervals would also furnish inferences concerning the diurnal march, 

The magnetic term days, which were principally designed for the more 
accurate investigation of the laws of disturbances, have not perfectly answered 
to this view, because few of the greater disturbances occurred on the pre- 


Kon 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 51 


scribed days of observation, so that much labour has been bestowed in vain. 
As we may assume that the observers are themselves interested in the results 
of their labours, and will willingly supply all the useful service to science in 
their power, we may, I think, leave to themselves what they may do at times 
of disturbance, in addition to the six daily observations, directing them at the 
utmost in some degree as to the intervals at which the readings should be 
taken, and which, with well-established instruments, ought to be as short as 
possible. The chief attention of the observers should be directed to the 
turning points, i.e. to the moment of time when an increase is changed into 
a decrease, and vice versd. If however it be still desired to institute obser- 
vations on prescribed days, it might be done tentatively, ¢.e. by observing on 
such days, in the manner hitherto followed on term days, at those hours when 
disturbances most frequently begin, i.e. from 4 to 10 p.m., completing the 
twenty-four hours of observation only when indications of disturbance are 
perceived. 

As barometric disturbances have the same interest as magnetic ones, al- 
though their range is more limited, it would be desirable on days when they 
occur to take more frequent readings than usual, it may be every hour, and 
oftener near the points of turning, which ought to receive especial attention, 
as the comparison of neighbouring stations of observation may make known 
the direction and velocity of the atmospheric wave. 

In respect to instruments, it appears to me better to retain those already in 
use, unless newly-devised ones offer very important improvement ; because in 
differential observations, which are chiefly in question, the disadvantages at- 
tendant on breaks and on the introduction of a different apparatus, are not 
always compensated by the greater exactness of the new instrument. As far 
as can be done, it will be desirable to lighten the work, and to render it 
more complete by the use of self-registering apparatus. If the barometro- 
thermometro- and hygrometro-graphs sent to England are found to answer, 
their advantage to meteorology will be great, and their use ought to be 
extended. I have made many trials at constructing magnetic autographs on 
the same principle, hut have found the experiment too expensive, and have 
therefore relinquished it, though without being convinced of the impossibility 
of success. In England, where there are such good artists, it might be less 
difficult. 

The earlier the observations and their results are communicated the greater 
will be their interest, and it may often happen that a comparison made while 
the first impression is still fresh on the mind may lead to not unimportant de- 
ductions, which escape when the comparison has to be made with the figures 
merely. Possibly it might be advantageous to publish the observations in 
smaller parts after the manner of a periodical journal,—it might be monthly. 

As the simplification of the system of observation would probably leave 
several observers at liberty, they might perhaps devote the time thus gained 
to the execution of magnetic surveys in adjoining districts. The multiplica- 
tion of such journeys and their results concerning the distribution of terres- 
trial magnetism appears to me to be the step most immediately needed. These 
observations ought to include, besides all the magnetic elements, a notice of 
the geognostic character of the ground, as its connexion with terrestrial mag- 
netism is a point of great importance. 

“IT have now given freely my views respecting this great scientific under- 
taking, and if the Association would think it useful to publish them, either in 
whole or in part, they are entirely at their disposal. 

mt With highest esteem, yours, KREIL. 


ria tt] 


EQ 


52 REPORT—1845. 


XIV.—G. B. Airy, Esq., Astronomer Royal, to Sir John Herschel. 


Royal Observatory, Greenwich, April 7, 1845. 

My pear S1r,—I have to acknowledge the receipt of the circular letter 
issued by you on the part of a Committee of the British Association, dated 5th 
December 1844, and proposing certain queries regarding the propriety of 
continuing the existing magnetic and meteorological observatories beyond the 
termination of the present year, to which answers are invited. 

In the answers which I subjoin, I beg leave to refer to the numbers at- 
tached to the questions in your letter. : 

In reply to question 1. 

Several important points have already been made out from the observa- 
tions; and undoubtedly, by continuing the observations, these same points 
would be established with an accuracy somewhat (but not much) greater 
than at present. I do not expect to obtain anything new; but it is scarcely 
possible yet to tell, for want of reduction and digestion of the observations as 
far as they are made. It seems not improbable that a great part of what 
future theory may suggest can be made out by simultaneous observations 
conducted at a comparatively trifling expense: at the same time it is certain 
that great light has been cast upon the interpretation of the simultaneous ob- 
servations by using them in conjunction with the hourly and two-hourly 
observations. All things considered, I do not see sufficient ground for con- 
tinuing the systematic two-hourly observations. 

In reply to question 2. 

If by “private research” is meant “research by persons not officially con- 
nected with the various Magnetical, &c. Observatories,” I do not believe that 
private research has been stimulated in the smallest degree. The research of 
persons connected with the observatories, in subjects nearly related to but 
not exactly included in the routine of the observatories, has naturally been 
much stimulated. 

In reply to question 3. 

I am totally unable, from want of discussion of the observations already 
made, to suggest anything. I perceive that strict simultaneity of observations 
and precisely similar construction of instruments are desirable; and I urge the 
latter point the more strongly, because there has been a sensible change in 
the construction of the instruments adopted for many observatories, and be- 
cause it is far more difficult to carry out any general regulation regarding 
the instruments than anything which depends on mere personal arrange- 
ments. 

I now advert generally to the general question, as requested in the last 
paragraph of the circular letter. 

First, it must be remarked that the object of these observatories is totally 
different from that of astronomical observatories. It is not intended to attach 
very great importance to the accurate determination of the present state of 
certain elements, or of their secular changes (as in astronomical determina- 
tions), not because they are unimportant, but because they can be determined 
in a very much less expensive way. It is scarcely an object to ascertain the 
co-efficients or argument-epochs of inequalities following known laws (as in 
astronomy), because the present state of the science does not admit of it. 
The object is, to make out such laws as we can, to use our discoveries for the 
suggestion of other observations, and from these to make out other laws, &e. 
Now it is to be remarked that we shall have at most of the observatories full 
five years of continuous and simultaneous observations. I certainly do 
think that these are sufficient to give us, with reasonable accuracy, the first 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 53 


laws to which I have alluded above (if they are not, I can hardly conceive 
that any number of years would be found sufficient). And if they are suffi- 
cient, then I see that very great mischief is done by continuing them. At pre- 
sent, by the greatest efforts which it is possible to make, the Prague observa- 
tions are published in a roughly reduced form, only as far as 1843 ; those of 
Toronto and Greenwich as far as 1842, and no other so far. While the ob- 
servations continue, with the existing establishment of computers, there is no 
possibility of hastening this reduction and publication. Now we want leisure 
to complete the publication (to the same extent to which it has already gone). 
We want leisure further to discuss with reference to more scientific principles 
the observations at each station. We want leisure calmly to compare the 
results obtained at different stations. And above all, we want leisure to unite 
all by some such comprehensive theory as that by which Gauss united the 
then accessible observations of declination, dip, and intensity, all over the 
earth. As long as the observations shall be continued, so long a¢ leasé will 
those discussions be delayed, and so long aé /east will the real intellectual pro- 
gress of the science be put off. 

I am therefore clearly of opinion that it is desirable to terminate the pre- 
sent system of observations at the end of the present year. 

In thus terminating the existing system of observations, I do not consider 
that the attention to the subject is at all suspended. I consider that the at- 
tention is diverted to a more favourable direction ; and I look to the resump- 
tion of the observations at some future time as a probable consequence of it. 
Such observations would probably be undertaken under very different cir- 
cumstances from those of the present series. | New points of theory would. 
have been suggested, new stations selected, new instruments adopted ; and the 
object of the new series of observations would be, to make out the new laws to 
which I have alluded above. 

In all that I have said thus far, I have alluded only to the interests of sci- 
ence as involved in the decision as'to the time of terminating the observations. 
But I think that I should be wrong if I omitted to call attention to the ex- 
pense of the. observations. The annual expense of the Greenwich Magnetical 
and Meteorological Observatory, including printing, is almost £1200. This 
expense, while the observations and reductions are printed in the same detail, 
can scarcely be diminished. 

I request that you will use your discretion as to printing the whole or any 
part of this letter. i 

I am, my dear Sir, 
Very truly yours, 
G. B. Arry. 


XV.—Lieut.-Colonel Sabine to Sir John Herschel, Bart. 
Woolwich, April 21, 1845. 

My pear Srr,—It has been intimated to me that the consideration of the 
questions now before the Committee may be materially aided by such a brief 
notice as I may be able to take in the compass of a letter, of what the colonial 
observatories will have accomplished at the close of 1845, towards the fulfil- 
ment of the objects originally proposed; and of what further they may be 
expected to accomplish if their continuance is prolonged for another period. 
I propose to comply with this suggestion, and at the same time to state the 
opinions to which my own judgement at present inclines. 

I. Magnetical Observations.—We shall have determined the absolute values 
of the different magnetic elements at the several stations with as much, or 


54 REPORT—1845. 


almost as much precision, as such determinations can be made with the most 
recent instruments, and in a manner which will probably leave little to be de- 
sired on that head. 

We shall also have determined satisfactorily the mean values of the diur- 
nal variations ; including under that expression, the effects both of the so- 
called irregular disturbances, now ascertained* to have a sensible mean influ- 
ence on the diurnal variation of the magnetic direction and force, and of the 
more regular diurnal fluctuation connected with the sun’s hour angle. In 
the first two years of the Toronto Observations these effects have been 
in a great degree separated from each other, and the mean values of each 
ascertained. ' 

In respect to secular changes, we have learnt that neither the instrumen- 
tal means which were originally furnished, nor the methods of observation 
originally directed, were fully competent for this part of the inquiry; and 
we have substituted a system of absolute determinations made monthly with 
instruments subsequently contrived, combined with the observations of the 
differential instruments used with various precautions stated in the pub- 
lished volume of the Toronto Observationst. This process has already 
been some months in operation, and we are able to say with confidence that 
it will accomplish the purpose, if a sufficient time be given. I fully con- 
cur with those who consider,,that the endeavours which we are making, to 
place on record and transmit to posterity the present magnetic state of the 
globe, would be deficient in a most essential particular, if they failed to deter- 
mine the secular changes which are at present taking place at our stations of 
-observation. 

There is also a very important class of determinations which are in progress 
of accomplishment by the same improved means that have been resorted to 
for the secular changes, which yet require some further time for their satis- 
factory completion. I allude to the annual variations of the magnetic ele- 
ments. The evidence brought forward in the volume of the Toronto Observa- 
tions appears to leave little doubt of the general fact, that the terrestrial 
magnetic force is at that station considerably greater in summer than in 
winter, and that the annual variation forms a regular progression intimately 
connected with the march of the temperature{. The complete establishment 
of this important fact in terrestrial physics, and a satisfactory measure of its 
mean value at each of the stations, together with similar determinations in 
respect to the annual variation of the magnetic direction (which is also indi- 
cated at Toronto, though in a less decided manner), may be confidently 
expected by perseverance in the means which have been adopted in the last 
few months. 

For the sake therefore of the secular and annual changes, I concur in opi- 
nion with those who desire a somewhat longer continuance of the magnetic 
observations at the stations which are now occupied ; though I am at the same 
time of opinion that an observatory starting with our present instruments, and 
our present methods of observation, might be expected to satisfy in a reason- 
able manner ail the desiderata which have been mentioned, in a period of five 

ears. 
i With respect to the sémultaneous observations made at the periods now fa- 
miliarly known by the nate of magnetic term-days, the objects sought were 
of a less definite character, and it is therefore not so easy to say to what ex- 
tent the purposes which called them forth have been fulfilled by what has 
already been done. Much has undoubtedly been learned respecting the phae- 


* Toronto Observations, pp. xxvii and xlix. 
T Pp. xi. xxxiii. 1. vii. (note). t Pp. xxxvii. ef seq. 


aie 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 55 


nomena of disturbances. They have been shown by the Toronto observa- 
tions to follow a certain order, in frequency, in force, and in direction, con- 
nected with the hours of the day. The comparison of the observations at 
Toronto and Van Diemen Island, in the volume of ‘ Unusual Magnetic Dis- 
turbances,’—the intercomparison of the observations at the several European 
stations in the ‘Resultate’ of MM. Gauss and Weber,—the comparison of the 
American stations with each other and with a European station in the Toronto 
volume,—have all shown that highly interesting and important conclusions are 
derivable from this class of observations. It cannot be doubted that a more 
general and elaborate examination of what has been already done, will both 
add to the number of these conclusions, and will point out special problems to 
be solved by a continuance, and possibly by some modification, of the system 
of simultaneous observation. Meanwhile it may perhaps be desirable to dis- 
continue, for the present at least, pre-arranged term observations, and to sub- 
stitute for them the most comprehensive and assiduous observation of the 
phenomena at times of great disturbance that the strength of each observa- 
tory will permit; holding all things ready, however, to cooperate in any pro- 
position of conjoint observation, that may grow out of the further examina- 


tion to which the great body of observations already collected will doubtless 


be subjected. Whilst the Arctic Expedition is in the northern seas, the 
phenomena during periods of great disturbance ought to be particularly at- 
tended to at stations in high magnetic latitudes in Europe and America, and 
specially at Toronto; as, should the Expedition be detained during a winter, 
their instruments will be established in a locality which may render simulta- 
neous observations of extraordinary interest and value. ~I think also that it 
may be more advantageous on some occasions to observe the precise instants 
of the occurrence of remarkable phenomena, than to record the indications 
of the instruments at fixed intervals of regular recurrence. 

Il. Meteorological Observations—The periods during which hourly ob- 
servations have been maintained at our observatories is probably sufficient in 
the greater part of instances to meet the problems now presenting themselves ; 
if so, the attention bestowed on them might now be advantageously directed 
to observations having more special objects in view. I feel by no means con- 
fident, however, that more than three and a half years of hourly observation 
may not be desirable at Toronto, to meet questions which, if not already be- 
ginning to be considered, are not unlikely to be so in the rapid march which 
this science is now making; and I am inclined to think that it may be ex- 
pedient that there should be a full series of at least five years of hourly ob- 
servation, obtained at some one station in Europe and another in America; 
and that for the latter, Toronto is remarkably well situated. 

There are a variety of special problems requiring systematic observation, 
of which the solution is extremely important in theoretical respects, and in- 
dispensable if anything like completeness is desired in the record to be left 
by our observatories. 1°. The separation of the pressures of the air and vapour, 
which united constitute the barometric pressure, has only been feasible since 
the invention of instruments to measure the tension of the vapour. The facts 
which this most important addition to our instrumental means has disclosed 
in the different observatories, some portion of which is already before the 
public*, are sufficient to show that a new era has opened in scientific meteor- 
ology ; that observations conducted as they have been at the observatories 
reveal as their immediate fruits the laws of the periodical and systematic va- 
riations of the aqueous and gaseous pressures, and their connection with the 
variations of the temperature and those of the direction and force of the wind. 

* Brit, Assoc. Reports, 1844, pp. 42-62, 


56 REPORT—1845. » 


There are however many points yet to be ascertained, which have grown out 
of the observations already made, and which are essential to our perfect 
acquaintance with the mutual relations and dependencies of the periodical 
variations; such, for example, as a more precise knowledge of the several 
turning periods of the different variations. These are now occupying atten- 
tion, and will require some further time. 2°. A meteorological record can 
scarcely be considered as otherwise than imperfect that does not show, with 
some satisfactory degree of approximation, the volume of air which, on the 
average of the year, passes the station of observation, and the direction in 
which it moves. For this purpose our instrumental means need, and are re- 
ceiving, further improvements. 3°. The investigations into the laws of storms 
have shown the importance of continuous records being made of the several 
meteorological phenomena at periods of great atmospherical disturbance : at 
Toronto in particular these are likely to be very valuable, on account of the 
excellent field afforded by the North American continent for the prosecution 
of this inquiry. 

I have named a few of the meteorological objects which are likely to be 
obtained by a prolongation of the term for which the observatories have been 
sanctioned. Other objects have been pointed out in the letters of several of 
the correspondents who have addressed the Committee. Those which I have 
mentioned are all more or less involved in the original instructions, though 
the instrumental means, or the methods of observation, required to carry them 
out, may not have been so clearly perceived then as they are now. Amongst 
these may also be classed, observations on the important subject of atmo- 
spherical electricity. 

I am of opinion, therefore,—with reference to the observatories originally 
recommended by the British Association,—that it is now desirable to recom- 
mend,— 

Ist. That the time for which the observatory at Toronto is sanctioned 
should be prolonged. 

Qnd. That the time for which the observatory at Van Diemen Island is 
sanctioned should also be prolonged; but that the establishment of that ob- 
servatory should be reduced to a director and one assistant, reducing the 
routine of daily observation proportionally. The personal establishment of this 
observatory is on a different footing from that of the Ordnance observatories, 
and the reduction will there be attended with a considerable saving of expense. 

3rd. That one, at least, of the observatories at the Cape of Good Hope and 
St. Helena should be continued. If the astronomical observatory at the Cape 
will undertake the monthly absolute magnetical determinations, and their con- 
nexion by means of the differential instruments, the Ordnance observatory at 
the Cape may be discontinued, and that at St. Helena maintained. 


Before I close this letter, I wish to advert to the expediency of extending 
the system of observation now in operation at Toronto, St. Helena, and the 
Cape of Good Hope, to other of the British colonies, where the same objects 
can be accomplished in an equally effective and economical manner. 

In cases where the institution of similar establishments is strongly urged 
by the governor of a colony,—where competent persons are present and dis- 
posed to superintend the observations,—and where soldiers of the artillery are 
stationed whose services may be available, and whose employment has now 
been shown to be economical and effective in a high degree in the execution 
of a laborious and exact routine of observation,—there is wanting only a sup- 
ply of instruments,—the temporary allotment of a building to contain them,— 
extra pay such as the individuals at the above-named observatories receive,— 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 57 


and an authoritative connexion with the head-quarter establishment, whence 
they may derive instruction and guidance. 

The cost of one of the Ordnance observatories (including 100J. a-year for 
incidentals of all kinds) is 3920. a-year, exclusive of publication. It may be 
assumed that five years of hourly observation is a sufficient time of continu- 
ance for obtaining in any particular colony the mean values of the magnetical 
and meteorological elements, and their diurnal, annual, and secular variations, 
as well as the peculiarities of climate bearing on the health and industrial oc- 
cupations of man. If the observations were printed zz full detail for the five 
years, they would occupy two quarto volumes; but if it were thought suffi- 
cient that duplicate or triplicate manuscript copies should be deposited in 
different public libraries, and that publication should be confined to abstracts 
and an analysis, the cost of the publication would form but a small addition. 

The colonies of Ceylon, New Brunswick, Bermuda, and Newfoundland are 
in the described case ; their respective governors are recommending the esta- 
blishment of magnetical and meteorological observatories in them; competent 
directors are on the spot; and they are all artillery stations. 

The volume of the Observations at Toronto in 1840-1842 is now before 
the public, and affords a fair example of what these institutions accomplish 
at the above-named cost*. It furnishes also the means of estimating the ad- 
vantages to the sciences of magnetism and meteorology, of accomplishing the 
same objects in other and different parts of the globe, at an expense which is 
small in comparison with that of civil establishments, and which may in some 
instances at least (as at Ceylon) be offered from the colony itself. 

Believe me, my dear Sir, sincerely yours, 
s EDWARD SABINE. 


XVI.—Professor Dove to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. 

Berlin, April 21. 

Aur Ihren Wunsch fiige ich diesen Zeilen noch einige Bemerkungen 
iiber die Toronto Beobachtungen bei, welche ich so wie die beiden Theile 
des Greenwich Magnetical and Meteorological Observations erhalten habe, 
fiir welche Geschenke ich mich auf das Dankbarste verpflichtet fihle. Ich 
ersuche Sie, diese Bemerkungen nur als meine individuelle Ansicht anzusehen, 
und tberzeugt zu sein, dass ich mein Urtheil bereitwillig dem der Manner 
unterordne, von welchen dieses grossartige Unternehmen veranlasst worden 
ist und geleitet wird. Die meteorologischen Beobachtungen in Toronto sind 
nach meinem Urtheil vollkommen geeignet, um weiter in demselben Weise 
fortgesetzt, jede Frage zu beantworten, welche in Beziehung auf die barometri- 
schen, thermischen und hygrometrischen Verhaltnisse der Atmosphire in 
Riicksicht auf die periodischen Veranderungen derselben auf dem jetzigen 
Standpunkte der Wissenschaft aufgeworfen werden konnen. Auch lasst die 
Redaction derselben in dieser Beziehung, so viel ich sehe, nichts zu winschen 


e 
* £392 is the annual amount of the sum paid by the public for one of these establish- 
ments, which would uot be paid if the establishment did not exist. It does not include the 
_ regimental pay (nearly an equal sum) of the officer and men employed in the observatory, 
_ because they continue to form a part of the peace establishment of the regiment of artillery, 
_ and of the available strength of the corps in the particular colony. A discretionary power 
has been given by the Master-General of the Ordnance to the commanding officer of artillery 
in each colony, to stop the work of an observatory on the occurrence of an emergency 
requiring the military services of all; but at all other times, whilst thus temporarily occupied 
in rendering scientific services, their military duties are performed gratuitously by their 
brother officers and soldiers, and form to that extent a contribution to science on the part of 
the whole regiment. 


58 REPORT—1845. 


ubrig, denn sie ist vollkommen iibersichtlich und gewadhrt die bedeutende 
Erleichterung einer bereits bereckneten Elasticitaét der Dampfe. 

Detaillirte Beobachtungsjournale dienen aber ausserdem dazu, die mit den 
periodischen Veranderungen sich verwebenden Verainderungen kennen zu 
lernen, welche vorzugsweise von einer Anderung in der Windesrichtung 
abhangen. Ziehe ich zum.Beispiel an allen den Tagen, an welchen Mittags 
N.W. beobachtet wurde, die vorhergehende Ablesung des Barometers um 10" 
von der Mittagsbeobachtung, oder diese von der um 2? erhaltenen ab, so 
werde ich unmittelbar erfahren, ob auch in Nordamerika mit N.W. das 
Barometer steigt d. h. ob der N.W. der Uebergang eines wirmeren leichteren 
Windes in einen schwereren kiilteren ist. Bei den grossen Bogen, durch 
welche die Windfahne sich dreht, sind nahe abstehende Beobachtung wiinsch- 
enswerth, und bei der Seltenheit mancher Richtungen wird man bei solchen 
Rechnungen so viel Aufzeichnungen der Windesrichtung wiinschen, als iiber- 
haupt Ablesungen andrer Instrumente erfolgt sind. In Beziehung auf die 
Auffindung der Gesetze der von der Windesrichtung abhingigen Verin- 
derungen, scheint es mir daher héchst wiinschenswerth, auch samtliche Auf- 
zeichnungen der Windesrichtungen zu erhalten. Um den Raum zu ersparen, 
konnte zugleich the pressure etwa so angegeben werden, SW, SW, wo die 
danebenstehende Zahl den Druck bezeichnete. 

Was bei dem grossartigen Englischen und Russischen Unternehmen, denen 
sich die Stationen Briissel, Miinchen und Prag so verdienstlich angeschlossen 
haben, mir vorzugsweise wiinschenswerth scheint, ist dass das erhaltene Beo- 
bachtungsmaterial nicht blos publicirt werde, um wie die Mannheimer 
Ephemeriden fast ein halbes Jahrhundert unbenutzt zu liegen, sondern dass 
sobald als méglich Resultate daraus gezogen werden, um zu zeigen, was auf 
diesem Wege geleistet werden kann. Die grossen damit verkniipften Reck- 
nungen verlangen aber eine Theilung der Arbeit. Ich wiirde daher vorschla- 
gen, dass die British Association diese Vertheilung tibernehme, wie sie in 
ahnlicher Weise in Beziehung auf die Sterncharten von der Berliner Akade- 
mie ausgegangen ist, Um zum Beispiel also die von der Windesrichtung 
abhingigen Veriinderungen des Druckes der Luft und der Dampfe, ebenso 
die der Temperatur kennen zu lernen, miisste z. B. fiir jede Windesrichtung 
die Veranderung jener drei Grdssen in 4 Stunden berechnet werden. Um 
aber die periodische Veranderung zu eliminiren, missten die Beobachtungen 
um 12, 2, 4.... noch nicht zu einem gemeinsamen Mittel vereinigt werden. 
Ich wiirde mich z. B. gern anheischig machen, fur eine der Stationen in 
jedem Jahre diese Rechnung zu iibernehmen. Nach einem Zeitraum von 
5 Jahren kénnten die so gesammelten Data dann vereinigt werden und man 
wurde durch die Stationen Greenwich, Newfoundland, Toronto, Van Diemen’s 
Land, Petersburg, Barnaul, Nertchinsk, Peking, Briissel, Miinchen, Prag eine 
sehr geniigende Beantwortung der Frage erhalten, welchen modificirenden 
Einfluss die Lage an der Ost- oder Westseite eine Meeres, im Innern der 
Continente oder an der Kiiste, auf der nérdlichen oder stidlichen Erdhalfte 
habe. 

Da man annehmen darf, dass, so wie zwischen den Tropen die Luftmenge, 
welche unten nach dem /Zquator hinfliest, compensirt wird durch einen ent- 
gegengesetzten Strom in der Hohe, auch die neben einander liegenden Stréme 
in der gemissigten Zone einander in der Weise das Gleichgewicht halten, 
dass, was innerhalb eines Jahres iiber gewisse Stellen eines Parallels dem 
Pole zufliesst, uber andre Stellen desselben Parallels zum /Equator zuriick- 
kehrt, so sollte man zunachst mit Beriicksichtigung der Intensitit entweder 
an keinem Orte eine vorherschende Windesrichtung erwarten, oder an einigen 
eine der andern entgegengesetzte. Aber die Luft, welche vom AZquator 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 59 


her den Parallel tiberschreitet, kommt bei diesem mit einer hohen Tempera- 
tur an; welche sie bei ihrem weitern Fortschreiten nach dem Pole immer mehr 
an den Boden, iiber welchen sie strémt, abgiebt, welche sie daher bei ihrer 
Rickkehr zum Parallel nach dem AZquator hin nicht wieder mitbringt. Kal- 
tere Luft nimmt einen geringeren Raum ein als warmere. Der Luftstrom 
ist daher, wenn er vom Pole zum Zquator fliesst, schmaler als wenn er dem 
Pole zustrémt. Findet diess Hin- und Herstrémen in verianderlichen Bet- 
ten statt, so wird derselbe Beobachtungsort nothwendig 6fter in einem Sud- 
strome sich befinden, als in einem Nordstréme, die Anzahl der siidlichen 
Winde also im ganzen Jahre die der nérdlichen tbertreffen. Da aber aus- 
serdem die siidlichen feuchten Winde in immer erneuerten Niederschlagen 
ihren Wasserdampf in Form von Regen, &c. absetzen, so kehrt zwar in dem 
trocknem nérdlichen Winde dieselbe Luftmasse nach dem Aiquator zuruck, 
welche als Siidstrom dem Pole zufloss, aber das, was als luftférmiger Begleiter 
auf dem Hinwege mit die Quecksilbersaiile hob, fliesst theilweise unter dem 
Gefisse des Barometers als tropfbar Flussiges zurick, ohne zur Hebung des 
Quecksilbers mitzuwirken. Bei Erwagung der eben besprochenen Verdnder- 
ungen, welche die Luft zwischen Hingang nach den Polen und Rickkebr 
yon ihnen erfahrt, sieht man ein, dass in der ganzen gemassigten Zone die 
mittlere Windesrichtung eine eequatoriale sein kann, welche wegen der Dre- 
hung der Erde in der nérdlicher Erdhalfte eine stidwestliche, in der sudli- 
cher eine nordwestliche wird. Es ist aber klar, dass innerhalb einzelner Theile 
der jahrlichen Periode an einem Ort die Luft nach dem Pole, an andern nach 
dem Aiquator strémen wird, ja es scheint diess im Allgemeinen in der Weise 
stattzufinden, dass wihrend in Nordamerika im Sommer die Windesrichtung 
verhdltnissmassig sudlicher ist als im Winter, das Umgekehrte in Europa 
stattfindet. Bei der Veradnderlichkeit der mittlern Windesrichtung iberhaupt 
lasst sich diese Frage nur durch gleichzeitige Beobachtungen entscheiden, ein 
neuer Grund die beobachteten Windesrichtungen in aller Vollstandigkeit 2u 
erhalten. 

Bezeichnet 5, 6, 6,6, ....6, den mittleren Barometerstand respective bei 
den Winden S.S.W. W.....S.E, 2, 2,...., die Anzahl der beobachteten 
Richtungen, so wird der mittlere Barometerstand 


ee nb, + n, b, + ny b;.s.. + ng bg 
: i N, + Ny + ----Ns 
werden. Hitten also Winde gleich oft geweht, so wurde die Windesrichtung 
keinen Einfluss auf den Barometerstand gehabt haben. Es wire dann da 
n, =n, = n,... =n, der Barometerstand 6, = oe. Der 
Unterschied 6 = 6, giebt also den Einfluss der mittleren Windesrichtung auf 
den mittleren Barometerstand. Besitzt man also eine barometrische Windrose, 
so kann man entscheiden, ob der mittlere Druck ein auf diese Art normaler 
oder afomaler ist. Dasselbe gielt fiir Temperatur, Feuchtigkeit. Aber an 
solehe Berechnungen ist nut zu denken, wena die Windesrichtungen mit den 
entsprechenden Ablesungen vollstandig publicirt sind. Ob der so ungenugsam 
Einfluss erheblich oder nicht ist, ist ganz gleichgiltig, denn es ist ein eben 
i solcher Fortschritt, wenn man eine moégliche Erklarung als ungenugsam 
_ beseitigt, als wenn man eine vermuthete rechtfertigt. Die Aufnahme der 
 Intensitatsbestimmungen verindert die Aufgabe. Bis jetzt nennt man die 
_ mitlere Temperatur eines Ortes das arithmetische Mittel einander nahe lie- 
gender gleichweit abstehender Beobachtungen innerhalb der zu betrachtenden 
Periode. Da aber wihrend der Wind stiirmischer weht mehr Luft iiber den 
Beobachtungsort strémt als bei langsamen Luftstrome, so ist die Zahl, welche 


60 REPORT—1845. 


die mittlere Temperatur der iiber den Beobachtungsort stromenden Luft 
angiebt eine andre als das was man als mittlere Temperatur des Zeitraumes 
bis jetzt allein betrachtet hat. Es ist nicht unwahrscheinli¢h, dass bei gewisse 
meteorologischen Fragen es sich um diese Zahlen handelt, und es wird daher 
ein wenn auch anniherndes Intensitatsmaass ein wichtiger Beitrag wo aber 
ebenfalls jede Intensitaétsmessung mit der gleichzeitige barometrischen, ther- 
mischen und hygrometrischen combinirt werden muss. 

Die wichtige Frage, ob bei horizontaler Bewegung der atmospharischen 
Luft eine Sonderung der trocknen Luft und der ihnen beigemengten Was- 
serdimpfe zu machen sei, wie es bei den periodischen Anderungen wohl nun 
erwiesen ist, wird durch die angestellten Beobachtungen ebenfalls erledigt 
werden. 

Diess sind die Grinde welche es mir wiinschenswerth erscheinen lassen, den 
speciellen Angaben des Standes der Instrumente auch noch die der Windes- 
richtungen hinzuzufigen. Es ist diess aber auch der einzige Wunsch, der 
mir bei einer aufmerksamen Prufung erheblich schien. Vortrefflich ist, dass 
ausser die quantitative Bestimmungen auch eine Art Commentar dem Jour- 
nale beigefiigt ist. Die Physionomie des Wetters lasst sich nur so beschrei- 
ben und es ist dabei wieder hochlich anzuerkennen, dass die vortrefiliche 
Terminologie von Howard beibehalten ist. 

Die Beobachtungen von Van Diemen’s-land erwarte ich mit der grdssten 
Spannung. Ein meteorologisches Journal von der siidlichen Erdhilfte in sol- 
cher Vollstindigkeit fillt eine Licke aus, welche seit lange so sehr fuhlbar 
war. Auch die Station St. Helena ist sehr glucklich gewahlt, in der Passat- 
zone ohne Monsoons und dabei das Cap als Controlle an der aussern Grenze 
des Passat. 

Entschuldigen Sie alle diese fliichtigen Bemerkungen, die ich deutsch 
schreibe, um den Brief nicht aufzuhalten. Ich freue mich im Voraus an den 
Besprechungen Theil nehmen zu konnen, welche uber ein so grossartiges 
Unternehmen unter Mannern stattfinden werden, die im Stande sind unter so 
verschiedenen Himmelstrichen der Natur Fragen vorzulegen. Das einzige 
was ein deutscher Naturforscher zu bringen im Stande ist, ist das Versprechen 
sich bei den Arbeiten, welche nun erfodert werden, zu betheiligen, so weit 
diess der Sache forderlich sein kann. Meteorologische Untersuchungen 
kénnen im ginstigsten Falle von einem Einzelnen wohl angeregt werden, 
sie bedurfen aber zu ihrer weitern Forderung des Zusammenwirkens einer 
Gesammtheit. Dass die Meteorologie diess finden wurde, war immer bei mir 
eine stille Hoffnung, dass sie es aber so bald und in so grossem Maasstabe 
gefunden hat, ist selbst uber meine kuhnsten Erwartungen. 

Believe me, sincerely yours, 
H. W. Dove. 


( Translation.) 
Berlin, April 21. 

At your wish I add some remarks on the Toronto Observations, which I 
have received, as well as the two volumes of the ‘Greenwich Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observations,’ for all of which I return my grateful thanks. I 
desire that the following remarks may be regarded as only my own individual 
views, which I submit to those of the persons by whom this great undertaking 
has been promoted and guided. 

The meteorological observations at Toronto, continued in the same manner, 
appear to me to be perfectly fitted to answer every question which, in the 
present state of science, can be proposed concerning the barometric, thermic 
and hygrometric relations of the atmosphere, in respect to their periodical 


ee ee 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 61h 


changes. The redaction also leaves nothing to be desired in this respect, for 
it is perfectly lucid, and has the great advantage of the tension of the vapour 
being already computed. 

But detailed observation-journals offer the further advantage of enabling 
us to trace the changes, depending chiefly on variations in the direction of 
the wind, which are mixed up with the periodical changes. If, for example, on 
every day when the direction of the wind at noon was north-west I deduct the 
preceding or 10* reading of the barometer from the noon-observation, or the 
noon-observation from that at 2 hours, I shall infer directly whether in North 
America, as in Europe, the barometer rises with the north-west wind, 2. e. 
whether north-west is the passage from a warmer lighter wind to a heavier 
colder one. Considering the large arcs through which the wind-vane moves, 
it is desirable to have observations near together, and the rare occurrence of 
several directions is an additional reason why we should have as many records 
of the direction of the wind as of the readings of the other meteorological 
instruments. With the directions the pressures also may be given, and to 
save space they might perhaps be thus recorded: SW, SW,, where the num- 
ber expresses the pressure. 

That which appears to me most desirable in the great English and Russian 
undertaking, to which Brussels, 'Munich and Prague have so meritoriously 
joined themselves, is, that the materials gathered should not only be published 
as was done with the Mannheim Ephemerides, which remained unemployed 
for more than half a century afterwards, but that results should be deduced 
from them as soon as possible. The extensive calculations connected here- 
with will require a division of labour: I would propose that the British As- 
sociation should undertake the distribution of the parts, as the Berlin Aca- 
demy did in regard to the maps of the stars. For example; in order to learn 
the variations in the pressures of the air and vapour, and in the temperature, 
dependent on the direction of the wind, we must not combine in a common 
mean the values at the several observation-hours when any particular wind 
has blown, but we must first eliminate from these values the periodical varia- 
tions by which they have been affected. I would willingly offer to undertake 
this calculation for each year for one station. If at the end of five years the 
data from the stations of Greenwich, Newfoundland, Toronto, Van Diemen 
Island, Petersburg, Nertchinsk, Pekin, Brussels, Munich and Prague were 
combined, we should obtain from them a satisfactory reply in respect to the 
modifying influence of situation, whether on the east or on the west side of the 
sea,—whether in the interior of a continent, or on the coast,—whether in the 
northern or in the southern hemisphere. 

As within the tropics the lower current of air flowing towards the equator is 
compensated by an opposite current above, so we may assume that in the tem- 
perate zone the equipoise is maintained by currents on the same level flow- 
ing in opposite directions, and thus that the air, which in the course of the 
year passes over certain stations on a given parallel towards the pole, returns 
towards the equator, passing over other stations on the same parallel. We 
should expect, that if we find (taking the intensity into account) a prevailing 
direction of the wind at some stations, we should find an opposite direction at 


_ other stations. But the air which passes over the parallel coming from the 


_ equator brings with it a higher temperature, which it gradually parts with as 


it flows over the surface of the earth, and which it cannot therefore bring 
back with it when it passes the same parallel on its return towards the equator. 
Now colder air occupies less space than warmer air, and therefore the current 
of air flowing from the pole to the equator is narrower than when it flows 
from the equator to the pole. If the beds in which these opposite currents 


62 REPORT—1845. 


flow are shifting ones, the same station will necessarily be oftener in a south- 
erly than in a northerly current (in the northern hemisphere), and the pro- 
portion of southerly wind will in the course of the year exceed that of north- 
erly. Moreover the southerly winds bring with them a quantity of vapour, 
with which they are continually parting in the form of rain and other preci- 
pitations: the returning northern dry winds do indeed bring back the same 
mass of air, but without its aériform companion, which having now assumed 
the form of liquid, no longer contributes to raise the column of mercury in the 
barometer, On considering the above-described alterations to which the at- 
mosphere is subjected on its passage from and return to the equator, we see 
that throughout the temperate zones the mean direetion of the wind may be 
from the equator, converted by the rotation of the earth into a south-westerly 
direction in the northern, and a north-westerly in the southern hemisphere. It 
is plain, however, that taking the year in detached parts, the air may be flowing 
towards the pole in one place and towards the equator in another: and we do 
find that in summer the direction of the wind in North America is relatively 
more southerly than in winter; whilst the contrary is the case at the same 
season in Europe. To arrive at decided conclusions, however, on this point, 
we require simultaneous observations, and on account of the great variability, 
the full record of the direction and pressure of the wind. 

If 6, 6, b, b, . . . . b, denote the mean height of the barometer respect- 
ively for the winds S., S.W., W.,. ...S.E., 2, 2 .... 2%, the number of 
the observed directions, then the mean height of the barometer b will be 


— 114) + Me by + ty by ores + tg by 
MR, + My +My 220. + Mg 
If all the winds had blown with equal frequency, the direction of the wind 
would have had no influence on the mean height of the barometer. If, then, 


b,+6,+ b5..+.+0% 
8 


Thus the difference 6 — 5’ gives the influence of the mean direction of the 
wind on the mean height of the barometer. If we thus possess a barometrie 
wind-rose, we are enabled to decide whether the mean pressure is in this way 
normal or anomalous. The same holds good for temperature and moisture. 
But such calculations require the directions of the wind to be given as fully 
as the corresponding readings of the other instruments. No matter whether 
the result be to find a material influence or not, for progress is equally made 
by a proposed possible explanation being set aside as insufficient, or by its 
being justified and confirmed. The taking in determinations of intensity 
alters the problem. Hitherto we have regarded as the mean temperature of 
a place, the arithmetical mean of observations at equal and short intervals 
during the period under consideration. But inasmuch as when the wind 
blows strongly more air passes over the place of observation than when the 
eurrent is slower, the number which should give the mean temperature of the 
air flowing over the station may differ from that which is given by the arith- 
metical mean of the observations. It is not improbable that in certain meteo- 
rological questions these hitherto unconsidered values may be those treated 
of, and hence even an approximate measure of intensity may be an im- 
portant contribution; in this case also every measurement of intensity must 
be combined with the corresponding barometric, thermic and hygrometric 
record. 

These observations will also determine the important question, whether, in_ 
the horizontal movement of the atmosphere, we are to separate the dry air 


n, = N,=N,.-...=%,, the barometric height b’= 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 63 


and the aqueous vapour mingled therein, as has been proved to be just with 
respect to the periodical changes. 

These are the reasons for which it appears to me desirable that the direc- 
tions of the wind should be given in every instance in addition to the other 
observations. But this is the only wish which I can form after attentive ex- 
amination. It is excellent, that besides the quantitative determinations, a kind 
of commentary has been added to the journal. It is only thus that the phy- 
siognomy of the weather can be described, and it is deserving of acknowledge- 
ment, that in this commentary the approved nomenclature of Howard has 
been employed. 

I await the observations of the Van Diemen Island observations with the 
greatest earnestness. A meteorological journal of such completeness from 
the southern hemisphere supplies a want which has long been greatly felt. 
St. Helena also is very happily chosen, being in the trade zone without mon- 
soons; and the Cape being at the outer limit of the south-east trade will be 
valuable as a check. 

Excuse these passing remarks being written in German, not to delay the 
letter. I rejoice in the anticipation of being enabled to take part in the con- 
versations and discussions which will take place at Cambridge on the subjeet 
of this great undertaking, between men who are in the position to interrogate 
nature in such various regions of the earth. All that a German cultivator of 
science can bring is the promise to take part in the work which may be now | 
required, so far as may aid the furtherance of the cause. Meteorological in- 
vestigations may indeed in the most favourable cases be excited by one indi- 
vidual, but for their more extended prosecution they need the cooperation of 
many. ‘That meteorology should receive this advantage was always with me 
a hope, which I scarcely ventured to express; but that she should find it so 
soon, and on such a scale, has indeed surpassed my boldest expectations, . 


Believe me, sincerely yours, 
H, W. Dove, 


XVII.— Extract from a Letter from Dr. Lamont to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. 
Munich, April 26, 1845, 

My pear Sir,—I have received a short time ago the volume which you 
had the kindness to send me, containing the observations of ‘loronto, 1840- 
1842, and can assure you that the results have greatly surpassed my expecta- 
tions. Indeed, I believe that very few European establishments have been 
conducted with so much skill and care and scrupulous attention to the various 
circumstances on which the accuracy of the observations depend. This is 
deserving of particular acknowledgement, because those entrusted with the 
care of the observatory might have contented themselves with simply exe- 
cuting the instructions of the Royal Society; in this way also a series of ob- 
servations would have been made, but the value of the results would have 
‘been yery different, The historical details prefixed to the Toronto observa- 
tions agree perfectly with what has been experienced at other observatories, 
_and particularly at ours: the same difficulties were met with and the same 
reforms gradually introduced. At present the Toronto observatory, by the 
"accounts given in the Introduction to the Observations, must be considered 
as being in the most efficient state; all the arrangements seem to me to be 
ery judiciously made. It must be considered as an immense advantage, that 
€ same observations can be made with different instruments: the agreement 
f the results obtained in different ways affords the best means of judging how 
‘ar confidence can be placed in the observations, I have been comparing the 


64 REPORT—1845. 


daily changes at Toronto with those observed at Munich and other places in 
Europe, but do not think that any law can be found out till a greater num- 
ber of places in both hemispheres can be compared. 

* * * * # * 


The beginning of this letter might, if you think proper, be added to the 
one I wrote you in answer to the questions of the Committee. 
Believe me, my dear Sir, 
Yours most sincerely, 
Lamont. 


XVII.—From Professor Ch. F'. Gauss to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. 
Gottingen, May 5, 1845. 

My prar Srr,—It has been long a nourished favourite wish of mine to 
pay once at least a visit to your happy island, the seat of so much grandeur 
in all pursuits that ennoble and embellish life, and certainly there could not 
be a more favourable opportunity than the congregation of the British Asso- 
ciation, where almost all, eminent in science, may be expected to be met 
with. 

The invitation of the President, and your kind offers to clear perplexities 
a stranger might be exposed to, have therefore been very strong temptations 
to me, and I have long balanced before submitting to the weighty reasons 
my state of health opposes at present to undertaking such a journey. Be 
pleased therefore to express to the President my excuses, and my deep regret 
for my not being able to profit by the honourable invitation, and accept 
yourself my warmest thanks for your kind intentions. 

Also I feel highly obliged to you for the volume of ‘'Toronto Observations,’ 
and the VIth part of your Contributions, which I received a few weeks ago. 
Beset as I have been by a train of urgent business, I could till now only look 
over hastily these precious materials. My anxious wishes for the permanent 
continuance of the Foreign British Magnetic Establishments have indeed 
been strengthened by the inspection of the ‘Toronto Observations ;’ but a 
work of this description deserves and requires a much closer scrutiny than at 
this moment is in my power to afford. For this same reason, and in consi- 
deration of the extremely short term prescribed by Sir John Herschel (which 
would have left only two or three days for gathering materials and writing 
down the note he desired), I felt disqualified to send any important addition 
to what I had already written on that head. 

Probably Dr. Weber will be under less impediment than myself to be pre- 
sent at the approaching meeting of the British Association, in which case I 
hope he will take his road by Gottingen, and favour me with some sojourn 
here. We may then confer between ourselves on the matter in hand, and 
exchange and rectify our views on that head, so that he may take to the de- 
bates the result of our joint opinions. 

Believe me to remain always, dear Sir, 
Your obliged, faithful servant, 
C. F. Gauss. 


— 


XIX.—Baron A. Von Humboldt to the Committee of the British Association. 
Par, le 15 Mai, 1845. 

InFINIMENT sensible aux marques de confiance bienveillante dont j'ai été 

honoré de la part du Committee of the British Association for the Advance- 

ment of Science, je ne puis plus explicitement répondre a la question qui m/a 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 65 


été addressée par cette illustre societé qu’en exprimant le plus vif désir de 
voir continuer les observations des stations magnétiques au dela du terme de 
année 1845. Tout ce quia été publié jusqu'ici aux frais et par la noble 
munificence du Gouvernement Britannique est d'une si haute importance 
pour I’étude des perturbations simultanées dans les regions les plus éloignées 
du globe que cette importance meme suffit pour motiver le désir que j’ex- 
prime. Il ne me parait pas douteux que le gouvernement Russe s’associera 
a cette continuation des observations magnétiques et météorologiques de sorte 
que pendant le séjour du Capitaine Franklin dans les régions arctiques ; les 
stations restées en activité dans les deux hémisphéres offriront des points de 
comparaison dont il serait bien regrettable de se priver lorsqu’il s’agit d’un 
interét si généralement reconnu. 

Je supplie le Committee et individuellement mon excellent ami Sir John 
Herschel d’agréer /hommage de mon respectueux dévouement. 

Lr Baron DE HuMso.pr. 


XX.— From W. C. Redfield, Esq. of New York to Lieut.-Colonel Sabine. 
New York, March 13th, 1845. 
Received at Woolwich, June 5th. 

Srr,—I had the honour to receive by the last steamer a letter from the 
President of the British Association relating to the combined system of mag- 
netical and meteorological observations, which will close on the first of 
January next, and inviting my attendance at the consultations which are pro- 
posed to be held on this subject by the principal cultivators of the sciences 
of magnetism and meteorology at the next meeting of the Association in the 
University of Cambridge, on the 19th of June. 

I regret to say that pressing engagements will prevent me from being pre- 
sent on that interesting occasion, and compel me to forego the pleasure of 
attending the proceedings and deliberations of that distinguished body. But 
I ardently desire that some means may be devised for procuring the further 
continuance of this invaluable system of combined observations in magnetism 
and meteorology. These observations, if continued, appear likely to have an 
important influence upon the progress of these sciences, and their suspension 
at this early period, when the difficulties of concerted action have been so far 
overcome and the importance of the observations has begun to be realized, 
would be greatly lamented by the friends of science throughout the world. 

I have long desired that these combined observations might be made avail- 
able for determining the course of the main current of the lower atmosphere, 
in different regions, as shown by the observed courses of the clouds, apart 
from the particular and varying directions of the winds at the earth’s surface, 
and also as apart from the low scuds or cumuli which are borne by the sur- 
face winds, for I deem this knowledge as being perhaps essential to a just 
estimate of the laws or forces which control the circulation of our atmosphere, 

_. With my best wishes for the continued prosperity and usefulness of the 
Association, and with sentiments of high consideration and regard, 
I have the honour to be, Sir, your most obedient servant, 
f W. C. REepFIELD. 
ih. Lieut.-Col. Sabine, Woolwich. 


' 


‘XXI.—In compliance with a resolution passed at a meeting of the General 
ommittee of the British Association at York in October 1844, the following 
stter has been addressed to those foreign gentlemen who have taken a leading 
1845. F 


66 REPORT—1845. 


part in the combined system of ‘magnetical and meteorological observations 
now in progress. 
‘« Cambridge, February 22nd, 1845. 

“ Str,—As the second triennial period of the combined system of Mag- 
netical and Meteorological Observations will close on the 1st of January 1846, 
it becomes extremely desirable to ascertain, as far as may be practicable, the 
opinions of the various distinguished philosophers who have taken a promi- 
nent part in suggesting or making them, with respect to the expediency of 
continuing them for a longer term. 

“It was with this view that a letter was addressed to you, Sir, by Sir John 
Herschel, the President Elect of the British Association, respectfully request- 
ing your opinion, as far as the results of the observations had come to your 
knowledge, of the extent to which you considered the objects for which they 
were instituted as already accomplished, and also of the advantages which the 
sciences of Magnetism and Meteorology might derive from their longer con- 
tinuance. 

“ Considering, however, the great difficulty of communicating by writing 
the latest results of observations made at such distant stations, and of con- 
centrating into one view the united experience of so many observers, the 
British Association at their last Meeting at York unanimously adopted a 
suggestion made by M. Kupffer of St. Petersburg, to invite the attendance at 
their next Meeting in the University of Cambridge on the 19th of June, of 
the principal cultivators of the sciences of terrestrial magnetism and meteor- 
ology, for the purpose of conferring together upon the course which they 
might judge to be most expedient hereafter to pursue, and of recommending 
to their respective Governments such measures as they might consider best 
calculated to give full effect to this great scientific operation. 

“T have been, consequently, requested by the Council of the British Asso- 
ciation to solicit the honour of your attendance at their next meeting at Cam- 
bridge, which begins on the 19th and closes on the 25th of June; and I beg 
further to inform you that arrangements will be made by Lieut.-Colonel Sa- 
bine and the Staff of Computers placed under his orders by the British Go- 
vernment, to bring under your notice the results of the observations brought 
down to the latest possible period, and to furnish every information which 
an extensive correspondence with the observers and others interested in this 
important inquiry may place at his disposal. 

‘‘ | have reason to believe that the railway between London and Cambridge, 
and between Yarmouth and Cambridge, will be opened before the 19th of 
June; and [ am further authorized to state that the leading Members of the 
University of Cambridge will feel highly favoured by your appearance 
amongst them, and will endeavour to make every arrangement in their power 
which may contribute to your comfort and convenience during your visit. 

“ If it should be your intention to attend the proposed conference, I should 
feel obliged to you if you would communicate your intention to Lieut.-Colonel 
Sabine at Woolwich, who will gladly furnish you with any further informa- 
tion which you may require. 

**T have the honour to be, Sir, 
*‘ With the greatest consideration and regard, 
“Your most obedient servant, 
(Signed) “GEORGE Pracock, 
“« President of the British Association.” 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 67 


From the Marquis of Northampton, President of the Royal Society, to 
the Right Honourable Sir Robert Peel, Bart. 


London, July 3, 1845. 


Dear S1r,—The Council of the Royal Society having had before them 
the resolutions of the Magnetic Conference at Cambridge, to which, as a 
member of that Conference, I drew their attention, entirely concur in the 
recommendations that they contain, and request the favourable consideration 
of Her Majesty's Government to the subject, to which they attach the highest 
importance. 

The Council of the Royal Society having named the same gentlemen to 
draw up an accompanying explanatory report as the British Association, it is 
of course the report of the Royal Society. 

I am, dear Sir, 
Yours truly, 
(Signed) NorTHAMPTON. 


From Sir J. Herschel, Bart., President of the British Association, to the 
Right Honourable Sir Robert Peel, Bart. 


London, July 3, 1845. 


Srr,—I have the honour to forward for your perusal the accompanying 
resolutions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, as- 
sembled at Cambridge on the 25th ult., and respectfully to request your favour- 
able consideration of them on the part of Her Majesty’s Government, and 
more particularly of the Ist, grd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and 
14th, in which the aid and countenance of Government are solicited in favour 
of the continuance of the magnetic and meteorological operations now in 
progress, and which terminates on the 31st of December 1845. 

Accompanying this letter, 1 have moreover the honour to enclose the re- 
port alluded to in resolution 14th, explanatory of the proceedings which have 
led to this application, and which I trust will place their whole bearing in a 
distinct and satisfactory light. 

I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Very respectfully, your obedient and humble Servant, 
(Signed) J. F. W. HerscHet, 
President of the British Association. 


Resolutions of the Magnetic Conference, adopted by the General Committee of 
the British Association, June 25th, 1845. 


1. That it be recommended that the Magnetic Observatory at Greenwich 
e permanently continued upon the most extensive and efficient scale that the 
interests of the sciences of Magnetism and Meteorology may require. 

_ 2. That it be earnestly recommended to the Proyost and Fellows of Trinity 
_ College, Dublin, to continue the magnetical and meteorological obseryations 
at the Observatory instituted by that University. An ae 
__ 3. That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Toronto upon 
its present footing until the 3lst of December 1848, unless in the mean 

_ time arrangements can be made for its permanent establishment. 
_ 4. That it be recommended to continue the Observatory at Van Diemen’s 
. ; F2 


68 REPORT—1845. 


Land until the 31st of December 1848, unless in the meantime arrangements 
can be made for its permanent establishment. 

5. That it be recommended that the Observatory at St. Helena should be 
continued upon its present establishment for a period terminating on the 31st 
of December 1848, for special meteorological objects. 

6. That it be recommended that the building and instruments of the Mag- 
netical and Meteorological Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope be trans- 
ferred to the Astronomical Observatory, to which an assistant should be 
added, for the purpose of making absolute magnetic determinations. 

7. That it be recommended to the Court of Directors of the Honourable 
East India Company, that the Observatories of Simla and Singapore be dis- 
continued at the end of the present year; but that the Magnetic and Meteo- 
rological Observatories now made at Bombay and Madras be permanently 
continued in connexion with the Astronomical Observatories at those stations ; 
and that it be further recommended to the Court of Directors to sanction the 
proposal made by Lieutenant Elliot for a magnetic survey of the Indian 
Seas, to commence with the close of the present year. 

8. That it be recommended that the Canadian survey be continued until 
the connexion of Toronto with the American stations be completed. 

9. That it be recommended that advantage should be taken of every 
opportunity of extending magnetic surveys in regions not hitherto surveyed, 
and in the neighbourhood of magnetic observatories. 

10. That it be strongly recommended that the staff of Colonel Sabine’s 
establishment at Woolwich be maintained, with such an increased force as 
may cause the observations which have been made, and those which ‘shall 
hereafter be made, to be reduced and published with all possible expedition. 

11. That this Meeting have recommended the reduction of the establish- 
ments at present attached to some of the magnetic and meteorological obser- 
vatories, in the full confidence, that if, after careful discussion of the observa- 
tions made to the end of 1845, there should appear to be reason for restoring 
some of those establishments and for forming new ones, the British Govern- 
ment and the East India Company will give their aid with the same liberaity 
which they have displayed in the maintenance of the existing observatories. 

12. That the cordial co-operation which has hitherto prevailed between 
the British and Foreign Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories having 
produced the most important results, and being considered by us as abso- 
lutely essential to the success of the great system of combined observation 
which has been undertaken, it is earnestly hoped that the same spirit of co- 
operation will continue to prevail; and that the President of the British 
Association be requested to make application to the British Government to 
convey the expression of this opinion to the governments of those other 
countries which have already taken part in the observations. 

13. The British Association assembled at Cambridge cannot permit the 
proceedings of this Meeting to terminate without expressing their sense of 
great obligation to the eminent foreign gentlemen who have taken part in the 
discussions of the Conference, and whose unwearied attention has been most 
effectively bestowed on every part of the proceedings. 

14. That the Committee which has hitherto conducted the co-operation of 
the British Association in the system of combined observations, be reappointed, 
for the purpose of preparing a report to accompany the presentation to the 
British Government and to the Directors of the Honourable East India Com- 
pany, of the resolutions passed at this meeting ; and that the Marquis of North- 
ampton, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor Christie, and Professor J. D. 
Forbes, be added to the Committee. J. F. W. HerscHec. 


. 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 69 


Report, explanatory of the proceedings which have led to an application on the 
part of the British Association and of the Royal Society to Her Majesty's 
Government and to the Honourable Court of Directors of the East India 
Company, for a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observa- 
tions now carrying on under their respective sanctions: drawn up by a 
Committee appointed by those bodies, consisting of Sir J. Herschel, the 
Marquis of Northampton, the Dean of Ely, the Master of Trinity College, 
Cambridge, Col. Sabine, Dr. Lloyd, the Astronomer Royal, Sir J. Lubbock, 
Professor Christie, and Professor J. D. Forbes. 


It being understood that the second term of three years for which the 
Magnetic and Meteorological Observatories established under Her Majesty’s 
Board of Admiralty at Greenwich and in Van Diemen’s Island, those sup- 
ported by Her Majesty’s Board of Ordnance at Toronto, St. Helena, and the 
Cape of Good Hope, and those of the Honourable East India Company at 
Simla, Madras, Bombay and Singapore, was granted, will terminate at the 
expiration of the current year, unless provision be made for their continuance, 
and that with their cessation the combined system of British and Foreign co- 
operation for the investigation of magnetic and meteorological phenomena, 
which has now been five years in progress, must be broken up,—it be- 
came a subject of deep consideration to the British Association, in which the 
conception of this operation was matured, and at whose instance, conjointly 
with that of the Royal Society, it was set on foot and supported by the mu- 
nificence of the Government and the Honourable East India Company, 
whether it were consistent with the interests of science that they should suffer 
this term to expire without an effort on their part to procure its continuance, 
or the contrary. 

Connected as the science of Britain is with that of the other nations whose 
Governments have taken an interest in these operations, it appeared alike un- 
just to those nations and unsatisfactory in itself to come to any conclusion 
without calling for the opinion and judgement, not only on those of our own 
countrymen who have most distinguished themselves in these departments of 
science and have taken active part in the observations, but also of the most 

. eminent magnetists and meteorologists of other countries, especially such as 
have superintended observatories established for these objects. 

Accordingly it was resolved, at a meeting of the British Association held at 
York in the year 1844, to invite to a conference on the subject all the most 
eminent persons in those sciences in Russia, Germany, Prussia, Belgium, 
France, Italy and America, who had taken any part in the observations, and 
some others particularly distinguished in the sciences of Magnetism and Me- 
teorology whose opinions appeared entitled to great weight ; and in the mean- 
time also to solicit the written communication of their sentiments on the sub- 
ject in question, as a further guide to the formation of a well-considered 
opinion. 

In reply to the request for written communications, which was also made to 
such of our own countrymen as were known best to understand the subjects 

_ and to have advanced them by their researches, a number of very valuable 
letters were received, which were forthwith printed (with translations of 
_ those written in the German language) and placed in the hands of every 

person likely to take any part in the discussion or effective consideration of 
_ the subject, including the President and Council of the Royal Society, and 
also the members of the Committee of Physics of the Royal Society, and the 
Council and Committee of Recommendations of the British Association itself. 
Pursuant to the invitation of the Association above alluded to, the follow- 


40 REPORT—1845. 


ing gentlemen attended the proposed Conference, which was held at Cam- 
bridge in the week terminating on the 25th of June, viz.— 


M. Kupffer, Director-General of the Magnetic Observatories of the Em- 
pire of Russia. 

M. Kreil, Director of the Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory at 
Prague. 

Baron von Senftenberg, Founder of the Astronomical, Magnetic and 
Meteorological Observatory at Senftenberg in Bohemia. : 

Dr. Adolphe Erman, Professor of Physics in the University of Berlin, 
and author of a work entitled ‘ Reise um die Erde in den Jahren 
1828 bis 1830. Physikalische Beobachtungen.’ 

Herr Dove, Professor of Physics in the University of Berlin, author of 
a work entitled ‘ Ueber die nicht periodischen Verander ungen der 
Temperatur Vertheilung auf die Oberflache der Erde.” 

Dr. von Boguslawski, Conservator of the Royal Observatory at Breslau, 
and Professor of Astronomy of that University. 


The Conference was also attended by the Baron von Waltershausen, a gen- 
tleman who has taken part in the magnetic observations of Messrs. Gauss and 
Weber at Gottingen, and executed a magnetic survey of portions of Italy 
and Sicily. ar ranidg 

In addition to these gentlemen and to a Committee consisting of Sir John 
Herschel, Bart., the Very Rev. the Dean of Ely, Dr. Lloyd, Dr, Whewell, 
Lieutenant-Colonel Sabine, and the Astronomer Royal, the following gentle- 
men, eminent as magnetists or meteorologists, were also requested especially 
to attend the meetings of the Conference, viz.— 


J. Phillips, Esq., author of several works on magnetism and mete- 
orology. 

Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane, Bart., P.R.S. Edin. 

J. A. Broun, Esq., Director of Sir T. Brisbane’s Magnetic and Mete- 

.  orological Observatory at Makerstown. 

J. D. Forbes, Esq., Professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh. 

Capt. Sir James C. Ross, R.N. 

The Rev. Dr. Scoresby, author of several well-known publications on 

_ Magnetism. 

A. Lawson, Esq., Founder of a Meteorological Observatory at Bath. 

Lieut. Riddell, R.A., Assistant-Superintendent of Ordnance Magnetic 
Observatories. 

W. Snow Harris, Esq., author of several well-known publications on 
meteorology. 


The Conference was also attended by the Marquis of Northampton, Pre- 
sident of the Royal Society, and by Colonel Sykes, one of the Directors of 
the Hon. East India Company. 

And to secure at once the due publicity for its discussions by the attendance 
of persons whose opinions are entitled to weight, but who might be acci- 
dentaily omitted in the above list, and an impartial judgement by that body 
on whose recorded judgement the British Association is accustomed to rely 
in matters of scientific importance, every member of the Committee of Re- 
commendations of that Association was requested to attend the meetings of 
the Conference, which were held at Cambridge on the 20th, 21st, 23rd, 24th, 
and 25th of June, and in which every part of the subject underwent discus- 
sion upon a plan previously arranged and placed in the hands of all present, 
in the report drawn up for that purpose by the Magnetic Committee. 

In these meetings the following opinions of the Conference were recorded, | 


ON MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 71 


on an understanding that the general question of continuance should be de- 
ferred till it should appear whether or not the members of the Conference 
were sufficiently agreed on the details of the observations desirable to be pur- 
sued to enable them to come to any affirmative conclusion thereupon :— 

In reference to the daily magnetic observations, after discussing a variety 
of stiggestions as to the hours at which observations might most advantage- 
ously be made, in case the curtailment of the two-hourly system were deemed 
necessary; it was agreed that the Conference was tifiable to suggest a scheme 
less comprehensive than the one- or two-hourly system, which would provide 
with sufficient security for the accomplishment of all the objects of the daily 
observations ; and that therefore, in observatories whose strength will permit, 
it is expedient that the system be carried on henceforth as heretofore, and at 
the Gottingen hours. 

In reference to the. absolute magnetic determinations, it appeared to be the 
general opinion that such determinations of the declination and horizontal 
force should be made at least monthly, in connexion with the differential 
magnetometers, and that observations of inclination should be made weekly, 
and that care should be taken that all absolute determinations should be made 
beyond the influence of the other magnets and with separate instruments. 

In reference to the subjects of term-observations and disturbances, it ap- 
peared to be the opinion of the greater part of the members of the Confer- 
ence, that it is expedient to continue the same yearly number of term-days 
as at present, and with the intervals which are in use, and that it is very de- 
sirable to continue to give the same attention as hitherto to observations of 
unusual disturbances, leaving however the intervals and mode of observation 
during disturbances to the discretion of the directors of observatories. 

In reference to the magnetic instruments most desirable to be used in the 
observatories, it appeared to be the general opinion that the differential in- 
struments had better continue as at present ; that the absolute determinations 
of declination and horizontal force should be made with distinct instruments, 
and that the léngths of the bars of the latter should be left to the discretion 
of the directors. 

The employment of bars of small dimensions; having short times of vibra- 
tion, was strongly recommended for observations during disturbances. 

It appeared to the members desirable that an instrument should be con- 
trived to serve the purposes of an alarm on the occurrence of disturbances 
exceeding a certain limit.’ Such an instrument would be particularly useful 
in observations where the observing staff was smaller, and where therefore the 
daily observatories were not made hourly or two-hourly. 

The importance of obtaining observations of the third element (viz. of 
the vertical force) and the occasional imperfection of the balance magneto- 
meter, appear to render it the opinion of the members that Dr. Lloyd's in- 
duction inclinometer might be advantageously employed in the observatoriés 
in addition to the balance magnetometer. 

In reference to the question, whether atiy and what additional magnetic 
observations should be made in future, it did not appear that any were 
deemed desirable. 

As regards thé system of meteorological observation and instruments, the 

_ recorded opinions of the Conference were as follows :— 

___ That the instruments and times of observation at present in use should be 
continued. 

_ That it is very highly important that self-recording meteorological instru- 
_ ments should be improved to such a degree as to enable a considerable por- 
_ tion of the observing staff of an observatory to be dispensed with; and that 


72 REPORT—1845. 


it might be desirable to hold out some specific pecuniary encouragement for 
the invention or improvement of such instruments, under such regulations as 
might seem most likely to be effective for the purpose. 

That it is desirable to add to the meteorological observations now made, 
observations of the thermometer and wet bulb hygrometer, at more than one 
height above the ground, and to register the temperature below the surface 
by means of long thermometers, sunk in the ground at depths of three, six, 
twelve, and at extra-tropical stations twenty-four French feet below the 
surface. 

That the meteorological instruments should be observed at short intervals 
in disturbed states of the atmosphere, during extreme depressions or eleva- 
tions of the barometer, and during rapid changes; and that the simultaneous 
directions of the wind should be carefully noted. 

That instruments for the observation of atmospheric electricity on the prin- 
ciple of the apparatus at Kew should be employed in the observatories, and 
that an instrument should be devised and employed for the purpose of indi- 
cating the variations in the electricity induced from the earth. 

That it is desirable to have rain-gauges established at different heights, the 
heights to be dependent on local circumstances. 

As regards the general question of the continuance of the system, the sta- 
tions and their duration, surveys and auxiliary stations, and other points con- 
nected with the prolongation of the observations, fourteen distinct resolutions 
were entered into by the Conference, which are contained in the paper marked 
(A) accompanying this report ; all which were subsequently adopted by the 
Committee of Recommendations, and being thus brought before the General 
Committee of the British Association, were further adopted as part of the 
proceedings of the Association, and as such are hereby most respectfully 
submitted to the favourable consideration of those authorities by which alone 
they can be carried into effect. 

Among particular suggestions deserving consideration, it was agreed that 
Professor Erman’s offer to act as a committee to superintend certain calcula- 
tions connected with the Gaussian constants for 1829 with a grant of £50 per 
annum, to be placed at his disposal, out of the funds of the British Association 
for two years, ought to be accepted and recommended for adoption. And it 
was accordingly subsequently adopted by the Committee of Recommendations 
and by the General Committee. 

M. Dove’s offer to reduce the meteorological observations at one station, 
viz. Van Diemen’s Island, was also recommended to be accepted, as well as a 
similar offer from the Astronomer Royal to do the same on the same plan for 
those at Greenwich; and both were accordingly accepted and placed on the 
list of recommendations not involving grants of money for the year. 

During the continuation of the Conference, in an interval of its meetings, 
an inspection took place by its members of several magnetic instruments of 
recent construction. Among these were a dipping-needle by Repsold, Dr. 
Lamont’s apparatus for magnetic surveys, and several of the smaller instru- 
ments in use in the British Colonial observatories. 

The Committee appointed to prepare this report cannot conclude it with- 
out recording their opinion of the very great and important advantages se- 
cured to science by the zeal and disciplined regularity of the officers, non- 
commissioned officers, and men of the Royal Regiment of Artillery and of 
the Naval and East India Service, who have been employed on the duties of 
the observatories ; advantages which could hardly have been secured in so 
eminent a-degree at all the stations by other means. Nor ought they to omit 
attributing their due share of merit to those officers and non-commissioned 


' 


ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 73 


officers, who by voluntarily performing the duties of their absent comrades, 
have enabled them to undertake and perform the duties of the observatories 
without detriment or inconvenience to the service in general. # 
Signed, on the part of the Committee, 
J. F. W. HerscHe. 


On some Points in the Meteorology of Bombay. 
By Lieut.-Colonel Sanine, R.A., F.R.S. 


[A communication read to the Mathematical and Physical Section, and ordered to be printed 

entire amongst the Reports. | 
In a communication which I had the honour to make to the Section at the 
York meeting of the British Association, on the subject of the meteorological 
observations made at Toronto in Canada in the years 1840 to 1842, I noticed 
some of the advantages which were likely to result to the science of meteor- 
ology, from the resolution of the barometric pressure into its two constituents 
of aqueous and of gaseous pressure. It was shown that when the constituents 
of the barometric pressure at Toronto were thus disengaged from each other 
and presented separately, their annual and diurnal variations exhibited a very 
striking and instructive accordance with the annual and diurnal variations of 
the temperature. The characteristic features of the several variations when 
projected in curves were seen to be the same, consisting in all cases of a single 
progression, having one ascending and one descending branch; the epochs 
of maxima and minima of the pressures being the same, or very nearly the 
same, with those of the maxima and minima of temperature; and the corre- 
spondence in other respects being such as to manifest the existence of a very 
intimate connexion between the periodical variations of the temperature, and 
those of the elastic forces of the air and vapour. The curve of gaseous pres- 
sure was inverse in respect to the other two; that is to say, as the tempera- 
ture increased the elastic force of the vapour increased also, but that of the 
air diminished, and vice versd ; and this was the case both in the annual and 
the diurnal variations. 

Such being the facts, I endeavoured to show, in the case of the diurnal va- 
riations, that the correspondence of the phenomena of the temperature and 
gaseous pressure might be explained, in accordance with principles which 
had been long and universally admitted in the interpretation of other meteo- 
rological phenomena, by the suppositions,—of an extension in height and 
consequent overflow in the higher regions of the atmosphere of the column 
of air over the place of observation, during the hours of the day when the 
surface of the earth was gaining heat by radiation,—and of a contraction of 
the column during the hours of diminishing temperature, and consequent re- 
ception of the overflow from other portions of the atmosphere, which in 
their turn had become heated and elongated. 

According to this explanation there should exist, during the hours of the day 
when the temperature is increasing,—|st, an ascending current of air at the 
place of observation, of which the strength should be measured by the amount 
of the increments of temperature corresponding to given intervals of time; and 

2nd, a lateral influx of air at the lower parts of the column, of proportionate 


_ ‘velocity, constituting a diurnal variation in the force of the wind at the place 


of observation, which should also correspond with the variations of the tem- 
perature in the epochs of its maximum and minimum, and intermediate gra- 
dation of strength. The anemometrical observations at Toronto were shown 
to be in agreement with the view which had been then taken, confirming the 


¥4 REPORT—1845. 


existence of a diurnal variation in the force of the wind, corresponding in all 
respects with the variation of the temperature. 

Admitting the explanation thus offered to be satisfactory in regard to the 
diurnal variations, it was Obvious that the correspondence of the annual va- 
riations of the temperature and pressures might receive an analogous expla- 
nation. 

A comparison of the results of the observations at Toronto with those of 
the observations of M. Kreil at Prague in Bohemia, (published in the Mag. 
und Met. Beob. zu Prag, and in the Jahrbuch fiir Prag. 1843,) showed 
that the characteristic features of the periodical variations at Toronto were 
not peculiar to that locality, but might rather be considered as belonging to 
stations situated in the temperate zone and in the interior of a continent. 
The annual and diurnal variations at Prague were also single progressions, 
and the same correspondence was observable between the variations of the 
temperature and of the gaseous pressure. 

The publication of the volume of magnetical and meteorological observa- 
tions made at Greenwich in 1842, which took place shortly after the meeting 
of the Association at York; enabled me to add a postscript to the printed 
statement of my communication in the annual volume of the Association 
Reports; showing the correspondence of the results at Greenwich with the 
relations which had been found to exist in the periodical march of the phe- 
nomena at Toronto and at Prague. 

From the concurrence of these three stations, it was obvious that a consider- 
able insight had been obtained into the laws which regulate the periodical 
variations in the temperate zone, and into the sequence of natural causes and 
effects, in accordance with which the annual and diurnal fluctuations of the 
elastic forces of air and vapour at the surface of the earth depend on the va- 
riations of temperature: and from these premises it was inferred, that the 
normal state of the diurnal variations of the pressures of the air and vapour 
and of the force of the wind, in the temperate zone, might be regarded as 
that of a single progression with one maximum and one minimum, the epochs 
of which should nearly coincide with those of the maximum and minimum 
of temperature *. 


* Since this communication was read at Cambridge I have received from M. Dove a copy 
of a paper read to the Academy of Berlin, entitled ‘ Ueber die periodischen aenderungen der 
druckes der Attiosphare im Innern der Continente,’ in which the remarkable facts are stated, 
that at Catherinenbourg and Nertchinsk (on the mean of several years), and at Barnaoul (in 
the years 1838 and 1840), the mean diurnal darometric curve itself exhibits but one maxi- 
mum and one minimum in the twenty-four hours; the maximum coinciding nearly with the 
coldest, and the minimum with the hottest hours of the day. At these stations therefore, 
and in the years referred to, the forenoon maximum disappeared, and the barometrie curve as- 
similated in character to the curve of the dry air in other places in the temperate zone. 
These stations are situated far in the interior of the greatest extent of dry land on the surface 
of our globe, and at a very great distance from an expanse of water, from whence vapour 
can be supplied. The diminished pressure of the dry air produced by the ascending current 
and overflow as the temperature of the day increases, is not therefore compensated by an 
increased elasticity of vapour, and the curve of the diurnal variation of the barometer ap- 
proximates to the form assumed when the elasticities of the vapour at the several hours of 
observation are abstracted. This assimilation in character of the barometric and (inferred) 
gaseous curves, which is thus found to take place in cases where, from natural causes, the 
influence of the vapour is greatly lessened, appears a confirmation of the propriety of sepa- 
rating the effects of the elastic forces of the dry air and vapour in their action on the bard- 
meter. 

M.; Dove considers that the single progression of the diurnal barometric curve, which takes 
place at the three Asiatic stations referred to in this note, is characteristic of a true continen- 
tal climate. Itis, without doubt, characteristic of an extreme climate, and as such is highly 
instructive. There appears reason to doubt whether an extreme climate of corresponding 
character exist at all in the temperate latitudes of the continent of America. 

If, however, we examine the record of the observations made hourly in the year 1842 at 


Oj 


Se 


ae 
= 


Se 


= 


ee a 


- ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 45 


That exceptions should be found to this state of things in particular loca- 
lities in the temperate zone was far from being improbable; it could not be 
expected that the influences of temperature should always be so simple and 
direct as they appeared to be at Toronto; and a more complex aspect of the 
phznomena might particularly be looked for, where’a juxtaposition should 
exist of columns of air resting on surfaces differently affected by heat (as 
those of land and sea), and possessing different retaining and radiating pro- 
perties. In such localities within the tropics, the well-known regular occur- 
rence of land and sea breezes for many months of the year made it obvious 
that a double progression in the diurnal variation of the force of the wind 
must exist, and rendered it highly probable that a double progression of the 
gaseous pressure would also be found. It was therefore with great pleasure 
that I received, through the kindness of Dr. Buist, a copy of the monthly 
abstracts of the two-hourly meteorological observations, made under that 
gentleman’s superintendence at the observatory at Bombay in the year 1843 ; 
accompanied by a copy of his meteorological report for that year, possessing 
a particular value, in the full account which it gives of the periodical varia- 
tions of the wind, and in the means which it thereby affords of explaining 
the diurnal variation of the gaseous pressure. This pressure presents at 
Bombay an aspect at first sight more complex thah at the three above-named 
stations in the temperate zone, but I believe it to be equally traceable to va- 
riations of the temperature, and to furnish a probable type of the variations 
at intertropical stations similarly circumstaiiced in regard to the vicinity of 
the sea. _ weet 

The observatory at Bombay is situated on the island of Colabah, in N. lat. 
18° 54! and E. long. 72° 50! at an elevation of thirty-five feet above the level 
of the sea. In the copy of the observations received from Dr. Buist, the 
nonthly abstracts are given separately for each month, of the standard ther- 
mometer,—of the wet thermometer, and of its depression below the dry,—and 
of the barometer. In Table I. I have brought in one view the thermometrical 
and barometrical means at every second hour; and the mean tension of the 
vapour and méan gaseous pressure at the same hours. The tension of the 
vapour at the several observation hours has been coniputed from the monthly 
means, at the same hours, of the wet thermometer and of its depression 
below the dry thermometer. The valiies are consequently somewhat less 
than they would have been, had. the tension been computed from each indi- 
vidual observation of the wet and dry thermometers, and had the mean of 
the tensions thus obtained been taken as the value corresponding to the hour. 
The difference is however 80 small, that for the present purpose it may be 
regarded as quite insignificant. It would not aniount in a single instance to 
the hundredth part of an inch; and as in every instancé the difference would 
be in the same direction, the relative values, which are those with which we 
Catherinenbourg, Barnaoul and Nertchinsk, in the ‘ Annuaire Magnétique et Météorologique 
de Russie,’ we find that at Catherinenbourg in that year the barometer exhibits a double pro- 
gression, but that the morning maximum, which occurs at the observation hour of 8" 22™ a.m., 
exceeds the antecedent minimum only by a quantity less thai 0°003 in. At Barnaoul there is 
also a double progression in the barometric mean in that year, the morning maximum being 
still small, and taking place between the observation hours of 95 54™ and 10554" a.m, At 
perecansl also there is a morning maximum occurring at the observation hour of 9° 17" a.m. 

n all the three cases the double progression shown by the barometer disappears wholly in 
the curve of the dry air, which curve exhibits at these three stations, as well as at Toronto, 
Prague and Greenwich, but one maximum and one minimum in the twenty-four hours. At 
the three stations of extreme dryness cited by M. Dove, therefore the vapour was still suffi- 


cient to impart, in the year 1842 at least, a double progression to the diurnal variation of the 
barometer; but the hour of the morning maximum was earlier than where the increase of 


__-vapour, as the day advances, is greater. 


76 REPORT—1845. 


are at present concerned, would be scarcely sensibly affected. The pressures 
of the dry air (or the gaseous pressures) are obtained by deducting the ten- 
sion of the vapour from the whole barometric pressure. 


Tas_te I. 


Bombay, 1843.—Mean Temperature, Mean Barometric Pressure, Mean Ten- 
sion of Vapour, and Mean Gaseous Pressure at every second hour. 


Hours of Mean Bombay Tension of Gaseous 
aa A 1 — Temperature. | Barometer. Vapour. Preemie! 
i in. in. in. 

18 78-4 29-805 0:750 29°055 

20 79°6 29-840 0:766 29:074 

22 81:8 29°852 0-771 29-081 

0 83:2 29°817 0-768 29-049 

2 84:1 29°776 0°795 28-981 

4 83:9 29°755 0-800 28-955 

6 82:3 29°74 0-802 28:972 

8 81:2 29-806 0801 29-005 

10 80°3 29°825 0:780 29°045 

12 79'8 29°809 0-775 29-034 

14 79°4 29°786 0-766 29-020 

16 73:9 29:778 0:761 29:017 

Mean of the year ...| 81:1 29:802 6-780 29-022 


The sun is vertical at Bombay twice in the year, viz. in the middle of May 
and towards the end of July. The rainy season sets in about the commence- 
ment of June (in 1843 on the 2nd of June), and terminates in August, but 
with heavy showers of no long duration continuing into September. During 
the rainy season, and in the month of May which immediately precedes it, 
the sky is most commonly covered with clouds, by which the heating of the 
earth by day, and its cooling at night by radiation, are impeded, and the 
range of the diurnal variation of the temperature is greatly lessened in com- 
parison with what takes place at other times in the year. The strength of 
the land and the sea breezes in those months is also comparatively feeble, and 
on many days the alternation of land and sea breeze is wholly wanting. Du- 
ring the months of November, December, January and February, the diurnal 
range of the temperature is more than twice as great as in the rainy season, 
and the land and sea breezes prevail with the greatest regularity and force. 

In addition to the monthly tables, we may therefore advantageously collect 
in one view, for purposes of contrast, the means of the months of May, 
June, July and August, as the season when the sky is generally clouded,—and 
of the months of November, December, January and February, as the season 
of opposite character, wheu the range of the diurnal temperature is greatest, 
and the land and sea breezes alternate regularly, and blow with considerable 
strength. These seasons are contrasted in Table II. 

If we direct our attention to the diurnal variations, commencing with those 
of the temperature, we find them exhibiting a single progression, having a 
minimum at 18" and a maximum at 2"; the average difference between the 
temperature at 18" and 2" being 7°77 in the clear season, 3°71 in the clouded 
season, and 5°°7 on the mean of the whole year. 

When however we direct our attention to the gaseous pressure, we perceive, 
very distinctly marked, the characters of a double progression, having one 
maximum at 10" and another at 22"; one minimum at 4° and another at 16%. 


ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 77 


The double progression is exhibited both in the clouded and in the clear 
seasons, with a slight difference only in the hours of maxima; the principal 
maximum in the cloudy season being at 205 instead of 29%, and the inferior 
maximum in the clear season being at 12" instead of 10%. 
diurnal variation, like that of the temperature, is more than twice as great in 
the clear as in the clouded season, marking distinctly the connexion subsist- 
ing between the phenomena of the temperature and of the gaseous pressure. 


TABLE II. 


The range of the 


Bombay, 1843.—Comparison of the Temperature and of the Gaseous Pres- 
sure in the months of May, June, July and August, when the sky is usually 
covered with clouds; and in November, December, January and February, 
when the sky is usually clear. 


Hours PE Mean Time at __-‘Temperaturen 
ombay. 

Astronomical Reckoning. Peers Eg eae bay te oly 

18 741 81-9 

20 75°3 83:1 

22 781 84:3 

0 80°8 85°1 

2 81:9 85°6 

4 81:7 85°4 

6 79°6 84:3 

8 78-4 83-4 

10 76:9 83:0 

12 76-2 82:7 

14 75°7 82-6 

16 74:9 82:2 

Means .......0. 2.5 778 83°7 


Gaseous Pressure. 


\November, December, |May, June, July 


January and February.| and August. 


in. 
29-344 
29-368 
29°391 
29-353 
29-230 
29-195 
29-199 
29-248 
29308 
29°316 
29-295 
29-285 


29-298 


in. 
28-782 
28-806 
28-798 
28°782 
28-746 
28-724 
28-740 
28-754 
28-800 
28-775 
28-754 
28°753 


28°763 


If we now turn our attention to the phenomena of the direction and force 
of the wind, we find by Dr. Buist’s report, that for 200 days in the year there 
is a regular alternation of land and sea breezes. 
usually about 104, or between 10” and 14", blows strongest and freshest towards 
daybreak, and gradually declines until about 994, at which time the direction 
of the aérial currents changes, and there is generally a lull of an hour or an 
The sea breeze then sets in, the ripple on the 
surface of the water indicating its commencement being first observed close 


hour and a half’s duration. 


in shore, and extending itself gradually out to sea. 


The land breeze springs up 


The sea breeze is freshest 


from 2" to 44, and progressively declines in the evening hours. 

The diurnal variation in the force of the wind during these 200 days is 
therefore obviously a double progression, having two maxima and two mi- 
nima; one maximum at or near the hottest, and the other at or near the cold- 
est hour of the day,—being the hours when the difference of temperature is 
greatest between the columns of air which rest respectively on the surfaces 
of land and sea; and two minima coinciding with the hours, when the surface 
temperature over the land and over the sea approaches nearly to an equality. 

In the remaining portion of the year the diurnal range of the temperature 
is most frequently insufficient to produce that alternation in the direction of 
the wind, which prevails uninterruptedly during the larger portion. There 
appears however to have been only one month, viz. July, in the year 1843, in 
which there were not some days in which the alternation of land and sea 
breezes was perceptible. The causes which produce the alternation are not 


78 REPORT—1845, 


therefore wholly inoperative, though the effects are comparatively feeble du- 
ring the clouded weather which accompanies the south-west monsoon*. 

If we now view together the diurnal variations of the wind and gaseous 
pressure, as shown in the Plate, we find a minimum of pressure coinciding 
with the greatest strength of the sea breeze ; a second minimum of pressure 
coinciding with the greatest strength of the land breeze; and a maximum of 
pressure at each of the periods when a change takes place in the direction of 
the aérial currents; or, otherwise stated, we find a decrease of pressure coin- 
cident with the increase of strength both of the land and sea breezes, and an 
increase of pressure coincident with their decline in strength. 

The facts thus stated appear to me to admit of the following explanation :— 
the diminution of pressure which precedes the minimum at 4" is occa- 
sioned by the rarefaction and ascent of the column during the heat of the 
day, and its consequent overflow in the higher regions of the atmosphere, 
which is but partially counterbalanced in the forenoon by the influx of the 
sea breeze at the lower part of the column. Shortly after the hottest hour 
is passed, the overflow above and the supply below become equal in amount, 
and the diminution of pressure ceases. As the temperature falls towards 
evening, the column progressively contracts, when the influx from the sea 
’ breeze more than counterbalances the overflow, and the pressure again in- 
creases until a temporary equilibrium is restored, when the sea breeze ceases 
and the pressure is stationary. 

As the night advances, the air oyer the land becomes colder than over 
the sea; the length of the column over the land contracts, and the air in its 
lower part becomes denser than in that over the sea: an interchange then 
commences of an opposite character to that which prevailed during the 
day. The outward flow is now from the lower part of the column, or 
from the land towards the sea, causing the pressure to diminish over the 
land ; it continues to do so until towards daybreak, when the strength of the 
land breeze is greatest, because the air over the land is then coldest in com- 
parison with that over the sea. As the sun gains in altitude and the tempe- 
rature of the day advances, the land heats rapidly; the density of the air 
over the land and sea returns towards an equality ; the land breeze declines 
in strength, and the drain from the lower part of the column ceases to coun- 
terbalance the overflow which the land column is at the same time receiving 
in the higher regions; the pressure consequently haying attained a second 
minimum at or near the hour of the greatest disproportion of temperature, 
again increases until the temperature and height of the column over the sea 
and land are the same, and the pressure again becomes stationary. But now 
the rarefaction of the column over the land continuing, its increase in height 
above the less heated column with which it is in juxtaposition, and its con- 
sequent overflow, occasion the pressure to decrease until the minimum at 
4. o'clock is reached. 

We have thus therefore at Bombay a double progression of the diurnal 
variation of the gaseous pressure ; the principal minimum occurring at 4 o'clock 
in the afternoon, occasioned by an overflow from the column in the higher 
regions of the atmosphere ; and the second minimum occurring at 18%, occa- 
sioned by an efflux from the lower part of the column. The first minimum 
is similar to that which has been shown to take place at Toronto, Prague and 


* There are no data in Dr. Buist’s report from which the diurnal variation in the force of 
the wind may be judged of in the days during the south-west monsoon, when no alternation 
takes place in its direction. It would seem probable that on such days the variation should 
be a single progression, weakest towards daybreak, and strongest about the hottest hour of 
the day. 


- 


ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 79 


Greenwich, and is similarly explained: the second minimum, which does not 
take place at the three above-named stations, is owing to the juxtaposition of 
the columns of air over the sea and land, which differ in temperature, and 
therefore in density and height, in consequence of their resting respectively 
on surfaces which,are differently affected by heat. 

The Plate shows the curve of the gaseous pressure, and the curve of the 
elastic force of the vapour; and between them is placed a diagram illustrating 
the hours of prevalence and of the greatest strength of the land and sea 
breezes. At Toronto and at Greenwich the diurnal curve of the vapour is 
a single progression, having its maximum at or near the hottest hour of the 
day, and its minimum at or near the coldest hour. We perceive in the Plate 
which represents the phenomena at Bombay, the modification which takes 
place in consequence of the supply of vapour brought in by the sea breeze 
continuing until a late hour in the evening, and prolonging the period during 
which the tension is at or near its maximum. ‘The minimum occurs as usual 
at or near the hour of the coldest temperature. 


If, then, the explanation which I have offered to the Section, of the physical 
causes which produce the diurnal variation of the gaseous pressure at Bom- 
bay, be correct, the diurnal variation of the barometric pressure occurring 
there is also explained, since it is simply the combination of the two elastic 
forces of the air and of the vapour. 

The solution of the problem of the diurnal variation of the barometer is 
therefore obtained by the resolution of the barometric pressure into its con- 
stituent pressures of vapour and air; since the physical causes of the diurnal 
variation of the component pressures have been respectively traced to the 
variations of temperature produced in the twenty-four hours by the earth’s 
revolution on its axis, and to the different proper ‘ties possessed by the mate- 
rial bodies at the surface of the globe in respect to the reception, conveyance, 
and radiation of heat. 


Annual variation—We now proceed to the annual variations, which are 
shown in the subjoined table. 


Taste III. 
| Monthly Means greater (+) or less 
ce) (—) than the Annual Means. 
1843, Tempera-| Vapour | Gaseous Barometer. ‘9 
ture. Pressure. | Pressure. 5 |Tempera-{| Vapour | Gaseous 
x ture. Pressure. | Pressure. 
January 76-4 | 0578 | 29-352 | 29:930 | 67 | —47 | —6-202 | +6329 
February 777 0648 | 29-246 | 29894 | 71 | —3-4 | —0-132 | +0:223 
March ...... 79:7 0-710 | 29:128 | 29-8388 | 74) —1:4 | —0-070 | +0:105 
April ......| 84:2 0°853 | 28-961 | 29:814 | 76] +3:1 | +0073 | —0-062 
May 0.0.40. 85-9 | 0-921 | 28-743 | 29-664 | 78) +4:8 | +0-141 | —0-280 
June......... 85:4 0:935 | 28:718 | 29653 | 80} +43 |+40:155 | —0:305 
Wenig 8025: 82:1 | 0896 | 28-737 | 29-633 | 85 | 11-0 |+0-116 | —0-286 
August ...... 81:2 0:859 | 28869 | 29°728 | 84) +0-1 0:079 | —0:154 
September..| 81:1 0:859 | 28:920 | 29:779 | 84 0-0 |-+0:079 | —0:103 


October ...| 822 | 0819 | 29-096 | 29-845 | 78 | +1:1 | -+0-039 | 0-003 
November..| 805 | 0-675 | 29-213 | 29-888 | 67| —0:6 | —0-105 | +0-190 
December..| 76:6 | 0592 | 29368 | 29-960 | 67| —4:5 | —0-188 | 10-345 


81:1 0:780 | 29:023 | 29:803 | 76 


We here perceive that the leading features of the phenomena ar clearly 
analogous to those which have been seen to present themselyes at Pay 


80 REPORT—1845. 


Prague and Greenwich ; viz. a correspondence of the maximum of vapour 
pressure and minimum of gaseous pressure with the maximum of tempera- 
ture,—and of the minimum of vapour pressure and maximum of gaseous 
pressure with the minimum of temperature; and a progressive march of the 
three variations from the minimum to the maximum, and back to the mini- 
mum again. The epochs, or turning-points of the respective phzenomena, are 
not in every case strictly identical ; but their connexion, which is the subject 
immediately before us, is most obvious. 

We have thus a further illustration of the universality of the principle of 
the dependence of the regular periodical variations, annual as well as diurnal, 
of the pressures of the dry air and of the vapour, on those of the temperature *. 


* In the tropics and in the temperate zone the heat of summer produces and accompanies 
a low gaseous pressure, and the cold of winter a high gaseous pressure. When we consider 
how large a portion of the northern hemisphere is occupied by land, which becoming greatly 
heated in summer rarefies the superincumbent atmosphere, causing it to overtop the adjacent 
less heated masses, and to overflow them, we should be led to expect that in parts of the 
Arctic Circle situated to the north of the great continents, the gaseous pressure should be 
increased in summer, and that the curve of annual variation should become the converse of 
what it is in the lower latitudes. It appears from the meteorological observations made in 
1843 by Messrs. Grewe and Cole, and presented to the British Association at the York meet- 
ing by Dr. Lee, that such is the case at Alten, near the north cape of Europe. The barometer 
and thermometer were observed three times a day, from October 1842 to December 1843 
inclusive. The hours of observation were 9 a.m., 3 p.m. and 9 p.m. No hygrometric 
observations were made, but we are able to infer the approximate tension of the vapour from 
the record of the thermometer. The quarterly means of the barometer and thermometer in 
1843 are as follows; the barometer being reduced to the level of the sea, and corrected for 
gravity :— 


Barometer. Thermometer, 
in. 
December, January, February...... 29°375 24 F. 
March, April, May .........00 wcoeee 29°948 27-7 
June, July, August .....s..eeseeee -- 29:905 52°4 
September, October, November... 29°716 34:2 
Mean of the year ......... pesscancdeeel (ea 4a0 34:6 


Assuming the humidity in each quarter of the year to be 75, or the vapour to be in each 
case three-fourths of that required for saturation at the respective temperatures, we should 
have the following gaseous pressures :— 


in. 
December, January, February ........sseeseeeenee. 29°257 


March, April, May ...cccccccsesesceesece Sigaivcres> 29-804 
June, July, August .......csccceeeseeees sessesecneee 29'616 
September, October, November, December ... 29°566 

29-561 


It appears therefore that in the six summer months the mean barometric pressure exceeded 
that of the winter months by 0°381 inch; and the mean gaseous pressure of summer ex- 
ceeded that of winter by about 0°3 inch. As in this case the curve of the gaseous pres- 
sure, as well as that of the aqueous vapour, accords in character with the curve of tempera- 
ture, i.e. ascends with ascending temperature, and descends with descending temperature,— 
the barometric annual range is greater than the gaseous annual range, which is contrary to 
what takes place in the temperate and equatorial zones. It is not improbable that in the 
Antarctic Circle the phenomenon which we have just noticed as taking place in the Arctic 
Circle, viz. the summer increase of the gaseous pressure,—may not be found in the same degree, 
if at all; for the two hemispheres present a remarkable contrast in their respective propor- 
tions of sea and land, and the rarefaction of the atmosphere over the middle latitudes of the 
southern hemisphere during its summer must be greatly less than in the same latitudes of the 
northern hemisphere in the corresponding season. The barometrical observations made by 
Sir James Ross in summer in the Antarctic Circle accord with this inference ; since after cor- 
recting them for the shortening of the column of mercury by the increased force of gravity 
in the high latitudes, and abstracting the small tension of vapour corresponding to the tem- 
perature, the mean gaseous pressure deduced from them, though nearly equal to the mean 
gaseous pressure of the year at Bombay, does not exceed it; whereas at Alten it is only im 


a — 


— oo _ 


eS ee 


ON SOME POINTS IN THE METEOROLOGY OF BOMBAY. 81 


The humidity exhibits also a single progression ; but may perhaps be rather 
characterized as evidencing a very dry season from November to February, 
and a very humid one from June to September, the latter season being that 
of the rains. The average degree of humidity in the year is very slightly 
lower than either at Toronto or at Greenwich, but is still closely approaching 
to a value expressing the presence of three-fourths of the quantity of vapour 
required for saturation. 

The mean gaseous pressure in 1843, derived from the two-hourly obser- 
vations, appears to have been (29:023 + 0:025, an index correction which 
Dr. Buist gives as that of the barometer with which the observations were 
made =) 29:048 English inches; or, measured by the height of a mercurial 
column in the latitude of 45°, 28°988. The height above the sea is thirty-five 
feet, and the latitude 19° N. 

The mean height of the barometer in the year 1843, derived from obser- 
vations at every second hour, appears to have been (29°803 + 0:025=) 
29828, or, with the correction applied for gravity, 29°768, the elevation being 
thirty-five feet above the sea. This is less than what is generally received 
as the average height of the barometer in the same latitude. From the careful 
comparison described in Dr. Buist’s report of the standard barometer with 
several other barometers, there seems great reason to believe that the mean 
height shown by it must be a very near approximation at least to the true 
mean atmospheric pressure in the year 1843 at Bombay. 

The mean height of the barometer in the four clouded months of May, 
June, July and August, is 29°667 ; and in the four clear months of November, 
December, January and February, 29°921. The mean vapour pressure in 
the same seasons is respectively 0°904 and 0°623, and the gaseous pressure 
consequently 28°763 and 29:298. There is therefore between the two sea- 
sons a difference of 0°535 in. of gaseous pressure, and of 5°84 of tempera- 
ture; the lowest pressure corresponding to the highest temperature, and vice 
versd. If we may allow ourselves to make a rough proportion drawn from 
a single case, we may estimate a decrement of 0:1 in. of pressure to an in- 
crement of 1° F. The highest temperature and lowest pressure are accom- 
panied for nearly the whole of the period by the southern monsoon; the 
lowest temperature and the highest pressure are accompanied by the north- 
ern monsoon. 

The curves of the annual variation of the gaseous, barometric, and vapour 
pressures, which are represented in the Plate, show how much of the influ- 
ence produced on the gaseous pressure, by the alternation of the overflow 
in the high regions of the atmosphere as either side of the equator becomes 
heated in its turn, is masked in the barometric curve by the combination 
in the latter of the vapour pressure, the variations of which take place 
throughout the year in the opposite direction to those of the gaseous pres- 
sure. From this cause the range of the barometric curve during the year 
is only 0°327 inch, whilst that of the gaseous pressure is 0°650 inch. 

. . The analogy of the annual and diurnal variations, considered in respect to 
the explanation which has been attempted of the latter, is too obvious to be 
_ dwelt upon. The decreased gaseous pressure in the hot season is occasioned 
_ the winter months that the gaseous pressure descends so low as to approximate to the usual 
mean gaseous pressure of the tropical regions. 
itis much to be desired that the zealous observers at Alten should observe the wet ther- 
_ mometer at the same time as the barometer; the register would also be rendered much more 
complete by the addition of another observation-hour, about 6 a.m., which might not perhaps 
be inconvenient. The atmospheric pressure and the tension of vapour at or near the coldest 
hour of the twenty-four, are important data in meteorological discussions. 


1845. G 


82 REPORT—1845. 


by the rarefaction of the air over the land whilst the sun is in the northern 
signs, and its consequent overflow in the higher regions, producing a return 
current in the lower strata; and the increased pressure in the cold season. is 
occasioned by the cooling and condensation of the air, whilst the sun is on 
the south side of the equinoctial, and its consequent reception of the overflow 
in the upper strata from the regions which are then more powerfully warmed, 
and which is but partially counteracted by the opposite current in the lower 
strata. 

In concluding this communication, I beg respectfully to submit to the con- 
sideration of the eminent meteorologists here present, that it is very important 
towards the progress of this science, that the propriety (in such discussions 
as the present) of separating the effect of the two elastic forees which are 
considered to unite in forming the barometric pressure, should be speedily 
admitted or disproved. ‘The very remarkable fact recently brought to our 
notice by Sir James Ross, as one of the results of his memorable voyage, that 
the mean height of the barometer is full an inch less in the latitude of 75° S. 
than in the tropics, and that it diminishes progressively from the tropics to 
the high latitudes, presses the consideration of this point upon our notice; 
for it is either explained wholly or in greater part by the diminution of the 
vapour constituent in the higher latitudes, which diminution appears nearly 
to correspond throughout to the decrease of barometric pressure observed 
by Sir James Ross; or it is a fact unexplained, and I believe hitherto unat- 
tempted to be explained, on any other hypothesis, and of so startling a cha- 
racter as to call for immediate attention. 

If, by deducting the tension of the vapour from the barometric pressure, 
we do indeed obtain a true measure of the pressure of the gaseous portion 
of the atmosphere, the variations of the mean annual gaseous pressure, which 
will thus be obtained in different parts of the globe,—and the differences 
of pressure in different seasons at individual stations,—may be expected to 
throw a much clearer light than we have hitherto possessed on those great 
aérial currents, which owe their origin to variations of temperature proceed- 
ing partly from the different angles of inclination at which the sun’s rays 
are received, and partly from the nature and configuratioa of the material 
bodies at the surface of the earth: and a field of research appears to be thus 
opened by which our knowledge of both the persistent and the periodical 
disturbances of the equilibrium of the atmosphere may be greatly extended. 


Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines. By J. BLAKE, 
M.B., F.R.CS. &c. &c. 


Tue present report is but a continuation of that which was read at the last 
Meeting of the Association, and which has since been published in the Trans- 
actions. The investigation of the action of medicines has been confined to 
the observation of the effects that follow their direct introduction into the 
blood, by means of injections into the arteries or veins, and in most instances 
the hemadynamometer has been used, in order to ascertain more accurately 
the effects produced on the heart and vascular system. Although this view 
of the subject may appear to be of no practical utility, yet I trust that the 
results arrived at will justify the course that has been pursued. In my for- 
mer memoirs on this subject I have endeavoured to prove that isomorphous 
substances, when introduced directly into the blood, exert an analogous in- 
fluence on the animal economy. The experiments I am about to bring for» 


ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 83 


ward afford additional confirmation of the views I have already advanced, 
and, with the facts that have been published, will, I trust, constitute a sufficient 
amount of evidence to firmly establish the truth of the law in question. The 
experiments I have now to bring forward have been performed with the 
tartrate of antimony, the salts of palladium and platinum, and with the chloric, 
hydrochloric, bromic and iodic acids. 

Tartrate of Antimony.—This substance when injected into the veins gives 
rise to exactly the same phenomena as would the arsenic or phosphoric acids, 
and which have been detailed in the last report. The quantity required to 
cause death was about a drachm of the salt. 

Chloride of Palladium—This salt is very poisonous, for when introduced 
into the veins it possesses the power of arresting the action of the heart, in 
smaller doses than any other substance I have experimented with. On inject- 
ing half a grain, dissolved in half an ounce of water, into the jugular of a dog, 
the action of the heart became rather fluttering after a few seconds, and then 
slower ; there was no expression of pain. On injecting a grain of the salt, the 
action of the heart was arrested in about 12". The respiration is often sus- 
pended for a minute or two, and then recommences, continues regularly for 
about a minute, and is again suspended. I have observed this to recur five 
times after the injection of two doses of a quarter of a grain each ; the animal 
lay on its side without the slightest expression of pain, although perfectly 
sensible; there were no convulsions: after death the heart was found quite 
still, the blood in the left cavities of a dirty scarlet, showing that the heart 
had not been arrested from asphyxia; it coagulated slowly; the lungs were 
almost white and anzemic. On injecting a solution containing half a grain 
into the arterial system, violent spasm was immediately produced: the 
pressure rapidly increased from 5 to 12 inches, as indicated by the hemady- 
namometer* ; respiration continued at intervals, and the pressure in the 
arterial system gradually fell, but was still at six inches four minutes and 
a half after all regular respiratory movements had ceased. The salts of pla- 
tinum give rise to precisely similar pheenomena when injected into the arteries 
and veins; they do not appear to be so poisonous as those of palladium, 
as it requires three or four grains to be injected into the vein before the action 
of the heart is arrested. Osmium and iridium, the other members of this 
isomorphous group, have not been experimented with on account of their 
great rarity. 

I have only now to notice the phenomena that are produced by the well- 
known isomorphous group—iodine, chlorine and bromine. The forms under 
which these substances have been used are as iodic, bromic, chloric and 

hydrochloric acids. I shall only allude to the effects that have been ob- 
served after the introduction of the iodie acid into the veins and arteries, 
as the acids of chlorine aud bromine give rise to effects perfectly analogous. 
_Todic acid and the substances that are related to it present an analogy with 
the salts of silver and soda in their action on the animal economy; they are 
however perfectly distinct in one or two particulars, in which also they closely 

_ agree amongst themselves, 
_. When injected into the veins, iodic acid evidently exerts an influence on 
_ the passage of the blood through the lungs: immediately after the injection 
_ of a solution containing 10 grains of the acid into the veins, the pressure in 
_ the arteries becomes lowered. In a short time we have most unequivocal 
roofs of its action on the lungs, by the escape of a quantity of frothy fluid 
m the air-passages, which soon causes the death of the animal by asphyxia. 


; oo The pressure in the arterial system is given in inches of mercury, as ascertained by the 
dynamometer. 
G2 


84 REPORT—1845. 


If the dose be larger (25 grains of iodic acid for instance), the passage of the 
blood through the lungs becomes at once arrested, and the animal rapidly 
dies from congestion of the venous system. After death the lungs are found 
congested and red, serous effusion having taken place in their tissue as well 
as in the air-passages. The heart generally contains a medium quantity of 
dark blood, which coagulates firmly. If the thorax is opened immediately 
after death, the ventricles are found beating rhythmically, although the auri- 
cles have lost all trace of irritability,—a fact which forms a curious exception 
to the general rule, and which has only been observed in connection with 
this class of substances. When injected into the arteries, the phenomena 
produced by iodic acid are very extraordinary. The first effect that followed 
the introduction of six grains of the acid into the artery was an immediate 
diminution of the pressure in the arterial system: in the instance alluded to, 
it fell in the course of a few seconds from six to eight inches down to two, 
the heart’s action being very slow ; the animal cried, respiration became sus- 
pended, and in about a minute it lay to all appearance quite dead ; after an- 
other minute however the pressure in the arterial system suddenly increased to 
nine inches, the heart beating quite regularly, although the animal still lay as 
if dead; the pressure gradually diminished, and at four minutes after the in- 
jection, and three minutes after every external sign of life had ceased, it had 
again sunk to five inches. A most curious phenomenon now presented itself, 
viz. a sudden rise of full three inches, in the pressure of the blood in the 
arterial system. This increase in the pressure was followed by two respira- 
tory movements, and by slight motion in the legs and tail. After this the 
pressure gradually sunk, and the heart stopped seven minutes after the injec- 
tion. The chloric and bromic acids give rise when injected into the arteries 
to phenomena exactly analogous to those just described: with hydrochloric 
acid the action of the heart does not continue so long after respiration has 
ceased, nor has the augmentation in the pressure after the cessation of re- 
spiratory movements been observed with this substance; this might possibly 
be owing to its not containing oxygen. 

Having now brought forward the facts which have been ascertained since 
my last report, in support of the analogous action of isomorphous substances 
on animals, I propose to take a general review of the whole of the evidence 
we are now in possession of relating to this law, and also of those facts which 
appear to militate against it; merely premising, that, in the present imperfect 
state of our knowledge as regards the isomorphous relations of bodies, it is 
not to be expected that a first attempt to arrive at any generalization found- 
ed on these properties should not present many anomalies and apparent 
contradictions, which it will require further investigations to clear up, or 
which may lead to important modifications in the expression of the law itself. 
The evidence in favour of the law is derived from the following facts :—first, 
the similarity of action of the following isomorphous substances belonging 
to the magnesian class; viz. magnesia, lime, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, 
zine, cadmium, copper and bismuth,—substances which present striking differ- 
ences in their ordinary chemical affinities, but which agree in being isomor- 
phous, and also in producing analogous phenomena on animals when intro- 
duced directly into the blood. The salts also of another well-marked isomor- 
phous group, viz. lead, strontia and baryta, closely agree in their actions on 
the animal system. Palladium and platinum, in the effects they produce 
when introduced directly into the blood, lend their support to this law. 
Phosphorus, antimony and arsenic, a strictly isomorphous group, give rise to 
analogous reactions on the animal economy. ‘The chlorine group also fully 
bears out the law, at least as regards iodine, bromine and chlorine, for fluorine 


ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF MEDICINES. 85 


has not been experimented with. The salts of soda and silver also agree in 
the effects they produce, although presenting a more striking contrast in many 
of their chemical properties than is to be found in any other class. On the 
other hand, potash and ammonia, two substances between which well-marked 
isomorphous relations exist, differ to a certain extent in the phenomena they 
give rise to when introduced into the blood. It is possible that the compound 
nature of the radical of ammonia, differing so completely as it does from the 
other inorganic radicals, may introduce certain modifications in its relation 
to organized compounds. The only other fact that my investigations have 
made me acquainted with, which appears to oppose itself to this law, is, the 
analogy that exists to a certain extent between the salts of lead and the 
chlorine group and silver. As regards the more marked phenomena pro- 
duced by the salts of lead, they are such as its connection with strontian and 
baryta would lead us to suppose ; but in one respect, viz. in their action on 
the lungs, they resemble the salts of silver. As regards this anomaly I would 
merely observe, that galena and sulphuret of silver are found under the same 
form. 

Such is the evidence with which my researches have furnished me, in sup- 
port of the law of the analogous action of isomorphous substances on 
organized beings, and I think it sufficient to justify us in admitting that the 
molecular reactions that take place between the elements of living bodies 
and inorganic substances are to a great extent independent of chemical affi- 
nity, but are connected with those properties of matter which are expressed 
by its isomorphous relations. It is evident that this law must lead to important 
modifications in the investigation of physiological phenomena: in considering 
the action of unorganized substances on organized beings, it is clear that 
our attention must not be so exclusively directed to the chemical properties 
of these substances: it must not be as alkalies or acids or salts that their 
action on organized beings must be investigated, but as regards their isomor- 
phous relations, or those properties of matter which are evidently connected 
with the form it assumes, and which have recently been elucidated by the 
researches of Kopff. But whilst this lay would tend to remove the inves-_ 
tigation of physiclogical phenomena from the domain of pure chemistry, it is 
far from leading us to conclude that the reactions that take place amongst 
materials of which organized beings are composed are essentially of a different 
character from those which we observe amongst the simpler forms of matter. 
The difference between the more simple combinations of the elements with 
One another and those they form with the more complicated compounds of 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen that exist in the living body, seems 

' to be, that in the former instance they combine under the influence of che- 
mical affinity, whilst in the latter it would appear to be a physical polarity 
that influences the formation of the compound:: it is the former power that 
gives rise to the union of sulphuric acid and soda, whilst the latter causes 
the compound to assume a definite crystalline form. It would appear, in fact, 
as if the force of chemical affinity was more or less neutralized in living 

__ beings, and that their elements are held together by other forces than those 

_ which prevail amongst unorganized compounds. In the present early stage 

__ of these researches, I would not attempt to generalize this law beyond that 

j velass of facts to which it has been proved experimentally to apply ; it may 

admit of a far more extended application, embracing in its expression not 
merely the combinations of the compound elements of organized beings, but 
also the combinations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, of which 

_ these elements consist. In the present imperfect state of our knowledge, it 

uld be hazardous to offer an opinion on the nature of the compounds 


86 REPORT—1845. 


that are formed under the influence of this law, when inorganic substances 
are introduced into the blood ; it remains even to be proved if the pheno- 
mena they give rise to are owing to the formation of any definite compounds 
between them and the elements of the blood and tissues. In the absence’ of 
all direct proof on this point, I would offer one or two considerations which 
would tend to indicate that the probability is in favour of the formation of 
definite compounds between the inorganic element and the blood and tissues. 

The researches of Mulder on the composition of albumen and fibrine 
prove, that the presence or absence of certain elements in very small pro- 
portions may essentially alter the properties of the protein compounds. The 
whole of the fibrine, for instance, in the blood of a small animal does not 
contain more than two grains of sulphur, which however appears to form as 
essential an element in its composition as it does in sulphuric acid ; if there- 
fore we introduce into the blood any substance which should deprive the 
fibrine of its sulphur, either by combining with the sulphur itself, or by re- 
placing it in the protein compound, we should immediately have a fluid cir- 
culating over the body which would not contain any fibrine, and which might 
be totally unfitted for carrying on the vital phenomena; two or three grains 
of baryta for instance, supposing it capable of producing such a reaction, 
would suffice to defibrinize the whole of the blood. Another consideration 
that would favour the supposition that isomorphous substances form certain 
definite analogous compounds with the blood and tissues, is, that we gene- 
rally find that the different substances belonging to the same isomorphous 
group give rise to certain physical changes in the blood which are readily 
recognizable ; thus the whole of the magnesian family agree in depriving the 
blood in a greater or less degree of its property of coagulation ; the same re- 
marks will apply to most of the other groups. It is highly probable that 
these physical changes are owing to the formation of certain definite com- 
pounds between the elements of the blood and the substances mixed with it. 
A careful analysis of the organs on which different classes of substances ap- 
pear more particularly to act, would probably elucidate this point. 

Before concluding, I would offer a remark on the relative poisoning powers 
of the substances that have been experimented with. The salts of palla- 
dium, platinum and baryta are those which prove fatal in the smallest doses ; 
and it is a curious fact, that, under an isomorphous point of view, these three 
substances are those which have the least analogy with the elements that 
enter into the formation of the animal solids and fluids ; on the other hand, 
arsenic, which might have been supposed to be rapidly fatal, is so inert when 
introduced into the blood that it will not speedily produce death, unless indeed 
it is injected in quantities sufficient to directly coagulate the blood. It re- 
mains for future experiments to determine if this is owing to its being iso- 
morphous to one of the elements of the fluids and solids, the phosphorous. 


On the Comet of 1843. By Dr. von Bocustawski of Breslau, Cor- 
responding Member of the British Association. 


[A communication made to the Mathematical and Physical Section at Cambridge, 
and ordered to be printed entire amongst the Reports.] 


Tue great Comet of 1843 was regarded with much interest by the whole 
world, more particularly by astronomers, and has left us some very import- 
ant questions to solve; that is, we require to know whether it be periodic 
or not, and the marvellous appearance of its magnificent tail should be 


ON THE COMET OF 1843. 87 


explained. The series of observations of the comet is far too short to enable 
us to derive from it a calculation on the ellipticity of the orbit. Some attempts 
have given negative results, and even a hyperbola, which is however less 
probable than that the observations were imperfect. The review would have 
promised better success, if there had been any comets in former days whose 
appearances resembled this, since this inquiry is extremely limited, from 
unavoidable reasons. The principal are these :— 

The comet of 1843 is one of those whose visibility in broad daylight near 
the sun at the time of perihelion is incontestably proved. In ovr hemisphere 
it can never be seen near midnight, either before or after. Nor can it ever 
be seen to the north of the ecliptic ; and even in the south of the zodiac there 
are but few constellations in which it can rise above our horizon; only in 

ridanus, or in the feet of Cetus during the months of February and March; 

d afterwards in Corvus, and in Hydra during the months of October and 
November. 

Guided by these considerations, in the excellent ‘ Cometography ’ of Pingré 
we meet with the comet of 1695, seen in Brazil, in India, at Macao, and in the 
islands of St. Anne in America, pursuing its path through Corvus into Hydra. 
The magnificent tail upholds the supposition that the head was in the prin- 
cipal extremity. 

On the 7th of February 1106, a comet appeared in Palestine (and was after- 
wards seen in China) which occupied that part of the heavens in which the 
sun sets in winter. From it there proceeded a long whitish ray resembling 
a linen cloth, which came to an end below the constellation of Orion. 

Aristotle makes use of nearly the same words in describing (in his ‘ Meteor- 
ology’) the comet which appeared 371 years B.c. ‘In the severest part of 
the winter,” says he, “this prodigious star was seen to appear in the evening. 
It set soon after the sun; but its light extended something like an avenue 
of trees over a third of the heavens. It rose up to the belt of Orion and 
then disappeared.” Thus we have two striking portraits of the comet of 
1843 ; but resemblance alone decides nothing. 

OF the three comets here cited, only that of 1695 affords us details of its 
apparent path through the heavens. Three Jesuits, who it appears possessed 
astronomical knowledge,—Father Noel at Macao, Father Bouvet at Surat, 
and Father Jacob at All Saints’ Bay in Brazil,—give us a learned description 
of it according to the taste of their time; whilst an anonymous observer on 
one of the islands of St. Anne in America, carefully notes down five or six 
times, between the 2nd and 19th of November, those stars of Corvus and 
Hydra through which the head of the comet had continued its route. 

Pingré owns that he attempted in vain to combine these observations, 
in order to derive from them some approximation to the comet’s orbit ; and yet 
the whole of them, including the daily progress of the comet, are represented 
in the most satisfactory manner by the elements of the comet of 1843; that 
is, supposing the same distance of perihelion, the same longitude for the peri- 
helion and for the ascending node, and the same inclination, and admitting 
the 24th of October 1695 as the day of the perihelion passage. 

The elements of an entirely different orbit, caleulated by Mr. Burckhardt 
from the inedited observations of Mr. Delisle, do not give at all the same re- 
sults, and perhaps owe their existence to the same cause which M. Bessel has 
revealed in the ‘ Ast. Nach.’ of Schumacher. The details of my calculations 

will. soon appear in that work, and will prove the great probability of the 
assertion which, in the presence of this illustrious Association, I have today 
made for the first time. 
__» Meanwhile I may be permitted to draw the conclusion that the period of 


~ 


88 REPORT—1845. 


the last revolution occupied 147 years and 127 days, and to mention the 
consequences which result therefrom. 

Four anterior revolutions of 147 years and 5 months, conduct us to the 
comet of the year 1106, of which we have already spoken ; and from thence, 
ten revolutions of 147 years and 9 months, carry us back to the comet of 
Aristotle, 371 years B.c. 

The difference of several months between the earlier times of revolution 
and those of the present day, far from disturbing our hypothesis, serve to 
confirm it. It is the effect of the resisting medium in space, which has already 
manifested itself in the comets of Encke and Biela, and which we might ex- 
pect to find acting with far greater force on a comet which buries itself in 
the densest beds of zther which surround the sun. This may perhaps afford 


a new opportunity for studying this interesting force, which, by ee 


the excentricity of the orbits, and constantly decreasing the time of their r 
volutions, will accomplish in the course of ages the reunion of these celestial 
bodies, which possess very large resisting surfaces, but very small masses, 
with the great centre of general gravity. 

Other comets have also appeared at intervals corresponding to a number 
of complete revolutions, the probability of whose identity with that of 1843 
is greater or less according to the circumstances which accompany them. 

These are,—the great comet of 1548, or that of the Turks; that of 1401, 
during Lent; the comet which appeared before the death of Pope Innocent IV. 
in 1254; that of 367 seen im broad daylight; the comet of 219; and 
finally, that of the year 74 a.p. If I may be allowed to include these, we 
have accounts of fen reappearances of this famous comet from the time of 
Aristotle up to the present day ; and it is worthy of remark that all were seen, 
as it appears, ONLY after the epoch of the perihelion. Perhaps, when I shall 
have furnished them with the demonstration of my assertion, astronomers may 
like to name this comet after Aristotle, and to look upon it as the symbol of 
that immortal philosopher. 

If it is considered that the ellipticity of this comet’s orbit is established, 
it is declaring it at the same time to be both more esoteric and more exoteric 
than any other vassal of the sun with which we are more closely acquainted. 

Immersed on the day of perihelion in the photosphere of the sun itself, 
our comet hastened, with a velocity of more than 414 English miles in a second 
of time, to escape from the great attractive force, making the semi-cireuit 
of the sun in the short space of one hour and a half, in order to pursue its 
distant route in an ellipse, whose length exceeds the breadth by nearly 57 
times, the latter not being equal to the diameter of the earth’s orbit; whilst 
the aphelion is 5,316,000,000 English miles from the sun,—nearly three 
times more than the orbit of the most distant planet discovered by William 
Herschel of immortal memory. 

There our comet proceeded at the very slow pace of 74 English feet in a 
second, which however was just the means of reconducting it to the sun. 
If this be true, our posterity will see it return in the summer of 1990, 
that is to say, if accident favour it at a season when the comet is never above 
the horizon during the absence of the sun; but it will be more surely seen 
in the autumn of the year 2137, when it will present a similar appearance to 
that of 1695. 

I trust I may be allowed to trespass on a little more time, in order to add 
a few words on the tail of this comet, which reasonably enough attracted so 
much general attention. 

How is it that no one saw either the comet or its magnificent tail before 
the perihelion, neither in Europe, nor even in the tropics? Was it impossi- 


SSS 


ON THE COMET OF 1843. 89 


ble? Notatall. Beginning from the 27th of January, the comet appeared above 
our horizon, and rose up higher day by day. The visibility of the tail should 
have commenced still sooner, and with a splendour surpassing that which it 
assumed in the month of March, increasing daily through the month of Fe- 
bruary, crossing the meridian every evening with the stars in the constellation 
Lepus. Nothing of all this occurred. It was seen suddenly immediately after 
the perihelion in full daylight only a few degrees from the sun, five or six 
degrees in length, which probably answers to more than ten times as much 
seen in the night time. The spectators of it in tropical countries know not 
how to find words to express the greatness and magnificence of its appear- 
ance. When it unfolded itself to our eyes towards the 18th or 19th of March, 
it was already much diminished in splendour, as we find by the unanimous 
assertions of witnesses, and yet it excited general surprise in these countries. 

On the 21st of March my pupils observed the tail, already sensibly shortened 
to the naked eye, as far as n Leporis, whilst 1 could follow it in the finder 
beyond Sirius, leaving that star to the south. Thus the naked eye only saw 
a length of tail=23 the distance of the earth from the sun, whilst the 
finder showed it sia times the radius of the orbit of the earth, or 581 millions 
of English miles, being of far greater extent than the orbit of Jupiter. And 
assuredly my finder would not show the extreme limit of this phenomenon, 
which manifested on this occasion the common law of all the tails of comets, 
that of taking a direction exactly opposite to the sun, followed by the 
comet from the first day of its appearance after the perihelion. But where 
was its tail before this epoch? will be demanded at each reappearance. 

Is it always lost during the long absence from the sun, and regained by 
the reunion? Where is the force which has each time engendered a body of 
such gigantic dimensions; the:force, in a body so feeble and unshapen as the 
comet, which can project an enormous luminous mass in a short*space of time 
as far as beyond the orbit of Jupiter; to conduct it half round the sun in 
12 30™ 395 for the extreme limit perceived by the finder, a route of 1826 
millions of English miles? That is a celerity of more than a third of a million 
of English miles in a second,—a velocity which surpasses that of light by 
three-fourths! This really pronounces the impossibility of a mechanic nature 
in comets’ tails; it ranges them amongst dynamic appearances. 

However, nothing is as yet explained by this assertion. I consider even 
that only a profound study and perfect knowledge of the works of the late 
Brandes of Breslau, of M. Bessel’s calculations of Halley’s comet before the 
perihelion, and Sir John Herschel’s after this epoch (including the aspect of 
the comet of 22nd January 1836 just like a fixed star), can conduct us to a 
more or less plausible theory of this most highly interesting phenomenon. 
Nevertheless, in such a case it appears to me necessary to endeavour to 
establish a tolerably probable hypothesis, and which may explain a certain 
number of the facts according to the new principle. It will serve, not only 
to show by an example the possibility of the new conjecture, but also to guide 
us, when there is a discordance amongst the observations, to points of view 
more just and more admissible. 

It is now some time since I endeavoured to demonstrate, that, from the 
circumstance of there being no loss of intensity nor refraction from a ray of 
light passing through the volume of a comet, the law of the intensity of 


their light (which as with the planets follows that of the inverse ratio of the 


square of the distance from the sun, but in an abnormal manner that of the 


_ simple distance from the earth) leads us to regard these stars as an accumu- 
_ lation of an immense number of very small bodies, of which each one possesses 


sufficient mass to play the part of a central body, and which all move round 


90 REPORT—1845. 


their common centre of gravity in regular orbits, whilst this dynamic centre 
describes the cometary orbit round the sun. 

What we see at the head of the comet is the brightness formed by these 
numerous particles being lighted up by the sun, each one being too small to 
be distinguished separately. Thence the cause of the nebulous aspect of 
comets, resembling that of the accumulations of stars, which often from the 
same cause are seen as nebula. The form of each individual of these corpus- 
cles decides the fact of its having a rotatory movement or not. The form 
must be amorphous or crystalline, according to the matter and conditions at 
the moment of the first formation. This formation may be renewed as often 
as these atoms are put into a state of fusion, or subjected to a species of ce- 
mentation, which might very possibly occur when a comet passes very near 
thesun. Endowed with the facets of crystals, and obliged by their form always 
to preserve the sume direction towards the sun, these corpuscles may unite all 
the requisite conditions up to an entire reflexion of the solar rays. 

He who knows how much may be united in this phenomenon of entire re+ 
flexion, will understand the considerable illumination which it may spread to 
the greatest distance in space. 

We have only to admit that the atoms which form the zodiacal light, seen 
lighted up only by simple rays of the sun, are spread over far more distant 
spaces, to enable us to explain a dynamic origin for the tails, thus placing 
them amongst the phenomena of the zodiacal light, the parhelia, halos, the 
rainy bands of the Indian summer, and even the general world of atoms lighted 
up by the sun. 

Thus may comets be perhaps the grand reflectors of our solar system, 
sent us from time to time by the Creator of the world to throw light upon 
hitherto unknown parts of his Creation, too immense for our senses, and even 
for our minds! 


Report on the Actinograph. By Mr. Rospert Hun. 


Many circumstances have conspired to prevent the author from completing 
any observations with this instrument. A few rough experiments made with 
a view of testing the merits of it, comprise all that has as yet been done, 

The importance of a method of registering the amount of chemical in- 
fluence associated with the solar rays, is evident. When we consider the 
ever-varying conditions of these radiations, producing remarkable pheeno- 
mena, not merely during the changes of the year, but over the vegetable 
world, within the brief period of a day—when we find the practical photo- 
graphist stating that two hours before noon he can produce effects, which he 
cannot produce two hours after the sun has crossed the meridian, it will be 
clear to every one, that some accurate means of registering the relations be- 
tween the amount of light and actinic (chemical) power, which are evidently 
not in strict ratio to each other, is desirable. 

The instrument constructed for the Association, although not yet com- 
plete, answers this purpose remarkably well. It consists essentially of a 
fixed brass cylinder, about which is wound a piece of prepared photographic 
paper. This paper is so prepared with the bromide of silver, that it is 
equally sensitive to all the rays of the prismatic spectrum. Over this is 
placed another cylinder which is driven by clock-work, and it performs a 


revolution in twenty-four hours. In the moveable cylinder is a triangular — 


slit, the largest part being exactly one hundred times the size of the smallest, 
which is a mere point, and this opening is divided by bars into one hundred 


; 


_ ON OZONE. 91 


parts. In passing round, the opening exposes regularly to solar influence 
different parts of the photographic paper,—the smallest part of the opening 
allowing the influence to be exerted for considerably less than a minute, 
whilst the largest part admits of the action of the sun’s rays for more than 
an hour. The paper, by experiment, is so adjusted, that the greatest amount 
of actinic power darkens it completely during the shortest exposure, whilst 
the weak light of winter is just sufficient to produce the effect during the 
passage of the longest part of the opening. The degrees between these 
points become of course, under the ever-varying conditions of solar radia- 
tion, unequally darkened, and the paper being carefully marked to the hours 
of the day, it is quite easy to register numerically the varying effects pro- 
duced. It will not therefore be necessary to have recourse to any plan of 
fixing the impressions made, which is always an uncertain process. It is 
hoped that by the next meeting of the Association the author will be enabled 
to furnish registers complete for twelve months, and he thinks he shall then 
be enabled to show that the actinic influence is one which must be taken 
into account in many inquiries, and to prove that thé actinic or chemical 
power, and the phenomena of luminous and thermic action, are not found 
in any constant ratio in the solar rays, but that they are liable to continual 
variation. 


On Ozone. By Professor ScHONBEIN of Basle. 


Tue British Association has done me the honour of inviting me to prepare 
a report on my researches regarding a peculiar agent to which I have given 
the name “Ozone.” Flattering as such a charge must have proved to me, I 
undertake its execution with great diffidence, less on account of the subject 
of the report itself, than in consequence of my being obliged to make use of 
an idiom which I am not in the habit of speaking. Having fully experienced 
on former occasions the kindness of the same Association I have now the 
honour to address, I count upon your indulgence, and am convinced that 
you will receive with your wonted urbanity the very imperfect communica- 
tion of a man who is certainly in one respect an alien to this country, but who 
feels himself nevertheless intimately connected with your land by many ties 
of friendship and scientific intercourse, and considers old hospitable England 
as his second home. 

Were I not actuated by such feelings, I would not have ventured to come 
forward on this occasion, and it is to those feelings alone*that I owe the 
courage requisite for a stranger who is to speak before an Association count- 
ing amongst its members the very essence of British philosophers. In taking 
the liberty to give you an account of the results obtained from researches 

_ with which I have been occupied these last six years, I shall chiefly keep in 

' view the most novel facts I have been fortunate enough to ascertain, and I 
shall try to be as concise and clear as possible in stating them. Now and 
then, as the occasion occurs, I intend to enter into theoretical considerations 
and draw inferences from the phenomena observed. After having made you 
fully acquainted with the subject of my report, I need not say how much you 
will oblige me by making any observation or suygestion calculated to clear 
up a matter which I readily allow is yet very far from being thoroughly un- 
derstood and sifted to the bottom. I shall feel myself fully repaid for the 
many pains I have taken these last five or six years in investigating the 
nature of the electrical smell, if I happen to succeed in convincing you that 
_ my subject is worthy of philosophical research and likely to open a new field 


— 2. >= 


eS 


92 REPORT—1845. 


of inquiry. First of all permit me to state the reasons which induced me to 
undertake that series of investigations, the principal results of which will form 
the substance of my communication. 

The peculiar smell developed during electrical discharges and the pecu- 
liar odour disengaged by lightning, have been the subject of a good deal 
of conjecture; but as far as I know, philosophers have not yet succeeded in 
clearing up the nature of that smell. The obscurity in which that phe- 
nomenon is enveloped, and the fact, I think first stated by myself, that on elee- 
trolysing water an odour makes its appearance very like to that called the 
electrical smell, excited my curiosity so much the more, that the circumstances 
under which the two sorts of smells are produced are apparently so very 
different from each other. 

I made up my mind to investigate the subject as closely as possible, and in 
spite of its peculiar difficulty and many fruitless endeavours, 1 succeeded at 
last in ascertaining some facts which seemed to open a path for further and 
accurate inquiry. 

These facts were,—1, that the odoriferous principle developed during 
the electrolysis of water is only disengaged at the positive electrode; 2, 
that the same principle may be preserved in well-closed bottles for any length 
of time; 3, that this principle polarizes negatively gold and platinum; 4, that 
the odoriferous substance is destroyed by heat and a number of oxidizable 
bodies; 5, that the electrical brush has the same odour as the oxygen dis- 
engaged at the positive electrode; 6, that the brush has the power of polar- 
izing negatively gold and platinum; 7, that on heating the points out of 
which electricity is passing into the atmosphere, they no more develope the 
electrical smell. From these and some other facts, I was inclined to infer that 
the electrical brush produces the same principle which is disengaged at the 
positive electrode during the electrolysis of water, and as chlorine, with regard 
to its voltaic bearings, acts very similarly to this odoriferous principle, I sus- 
pected the latter to be a body analogous to chlorine. To decide on the cor- 
rectness of that conjecture, there seemed to be no other way left open than 
to isolate the principle in question; but considering the infinitely small 
quantities in which the odoriferous substance is produced under the cir- 
cumstances mentioned, the carrying into effect that isolation assumed the 
appearance of a thing lying beyond the reach of possibility. Yet after many 
trials undertaken with a view of producing more abundantly and by other 
than electrical means, my peculiar principle, I succeeded at last in doing so, 
and phosphorus proved to be the substance most convenient to obtain that 
end. And from the discovery of the most remarkable action which that body 
under certain circumstances exerts upon common air, I was led to ascertain 
the whole series of the curious and rather surprising facts Iam about to state, 
and to arrive, if not at the complete solution of my problem, at least at the 
opening of the path which will ultimately lead to that goal. 

And now I am touching upon that part of my report which, as to its mat- 
ter of fact contents, is the more interesting one of the whole of the commu- 
nication I have to make to you, and I beg leave to call your attention to the 
following statements :— 

1. If at a temperature of 32° a piece of phosphorus, having a clear surface, 
be placed in a bottle filled with common air, a peculiar smell makes its ap- 
pearance which is considered to be due to the vapour of phosphorus; at the 
same time that the included air assumes the power of polarizing positively a 
plate of platinum or gold which happens to be brought in contact with it. 

2. Everything remaining in the state indicated, except the temperature 
being raised to about 60°, a change will very soon take place both with re- 


ON OZONE. 93 


gard to the smell of the air and the electro-motive power of the latter. The 
former will resemble the electrical smell, and the air will now be able to po- 


_ larize negatively gold or platinum. 


3. Atmospheric air completely deprived of its moisture and put in contact 
with phosphorus, does not give rise to the production of the electro-negative 
principle. 

4, Atmospheric air, which contains only small quantities of the vapours of 
zther, alcohol, olefiant gas, sulphurous acid, nitrous acid, sulphuretted, phos- 
phuretted or seleniuretted hydrogen, is not ‘capable of developing the elec- 
trical smell, or assuming the state of the electro-negative polarity. 

5. A mixture of oxygen and carbonic acid, or of oxygen and hydrogen, 
acts with regard to phosphorus like the common air, or an artificial mixture 
of oxygen and nitrogen. 

6. Pure oxygen, or nitrogen, or hydrogen, or carbonic acid gas, whether 
moist or anhydrous, being placed i in contact with phosphorus, becomes posi- 
tively polarized ; but none of those substances produce our electro-negative 
principle or the electrical smell. 

7. To generalize the circumstances under which phosphorus is prevented 
from generating the said principle, it may be said that anything that stops the 
slow combustion or the emission of light of phosphorus at the common tem- 
perature, also renders impossible the development of the electrical smell, whilst 
the latter is always produced in an atmosphere in which phosphorus exhibits 
in the dark the phenomenon of a lively emission of light. 

8. The positive polarity and alliaceous odour assumed at zero by common 
air in contact with phosphorus, is most likely due to the vapour of that body, 
whilst the negative polarity and the electrical smell developed at a higher 
temperature in the same air, originate in that peculiar principle, which, on 
account of its strong odour, I have called ozone. 

As far as my experiments go they show that ozone enjoys the following 


_ properties :— 


a 


1. Stripes of blue litmus paper, being plunged into an ozonized atmosphere, 
are within a very short time completely bleached without being reddened 
in the least degree. Stripes of paper, having been coloured blue by a solu- 
tion of indigo, and placed under the same circumstances, turn white. A 
solution of indigo or of litmus, being shaken with an ozonized air, loses also 
its colour exactly in the same way as if the solution had been treated by 
chlorine. 

2. Most metals, silver even not excepted, being in a state of minute me- 
chanical division and put in contact with ozone, almost instantaneously de- 
stroy that principle at the common temperature. Silver being changed 
under the circumstances into a compound containing nothing but metal and 
oxygen, it seems that the other metals are also oxidized by ozone. 

3. Iodine put into an ozonized atmosphere is changed into iodic acid. 

4. Powder of charcoal very rapidly destroys ozone. 

5. Phosphorus quickly takes up ozone, being transformed into phosphoric 
oe 

6. Sulphuretted, seleniuretted, phosphuretted, carburetted, and ioduretted 
hydrogen rapidly destroy ozone, and are themselves decomposed by that 
principle. 

7. Sulphurous acid and ozone being mixed together disappear and produce 
Malpdniric acid. 

8. Nitrous acid and ozone destroy each other with instantaneous quick- 
hess, producing nitric acid. 
~ 9. A number of metallic protoxides being put in contact with an ozonized 


94 REPORT—1845. 


atmosphere are changed into peroxides. Solutions of the alkaline bases, as 
potash, soda, baryta, &c., take up rather slowly ozone, producing peroxides. 
The hydrates of the protoxides of manganese, lead, cobalt, nickel, or silver, 
being attached to stripes of paper and suspended in an ozonized atmosphere, 
are rather-rapidly changed into the peroxides of those metals. Potash takes 
up ozone and water too. 

10. A solution of iodide of potassium is rapidly decomposed by being 


treated with ozonized air, iodine being eliminated. At the same time iodate’ 


of potash is produced, which production is however preceded by the forma- 


tion of a peculiar compound most likely consisting of iodide and peroxide of 


potassium. Hence it comes that paste of starch being mixed up with some 
iodide of potassium and exposed to ozonized air, instantaneously turns blue, 
and proves to be the most delicate test for ascertaining the presence of ozone. 

11. Crystals of bromide of potassium, put into paste of starch and exposed 
to the action of ozone, colour that paste orange-yellow. 

12. A solution of the yellow ferro-cyanide of potassium readily takes up 
ozone, yielding the red ferro-sesquicyanide. 

13. The white cyanide of iron, being exposed to the action of an ozonized 
atmosphere, is instantaneously changed into the blue one. 

14. The salts of the protoxides of iron and tin rapidly destroy ozone, and 
are transformed into peroxide salts. 

15, A great number of metallic sulphurets, being put in contact with ozo- 
nized air, lose their colour and are changed into sulphates; a piece of paper 
having been written over with a solution of acetate of lead and blackened by 
sulphuretted hydrogen, rapidly turns white within ozonized air. 

16. A number of organic substances, both of vegetable and animal origin, 
being placed within ozonized air, almost instantaneously destroy the odori- 
ferous principle; for instance, saw-dust, straw, ulmin, vegetable mould, albu- 
men, fibrine, caseous matter, and therefore blood, milk and common cheese. 

17. If ozonized air be caused to pass through a narrow tube into the open 
air, that current, of course, produces all the chemical reactions before men- 
tioned; but if part of the tube of emission is heated not quite red-hot, the 
peculiar smell of the current disappears at once, and along with it all the 
chemical and voltaic properties belonging to ozone. Its bleaching and po- 
larizing power, its capability of decomposing iodide of potassium, &c., are 

one. 
. 18. Common air, being as richly as possible charged with ozone, has a smell 
resembling very much that of chlorine, bromine and iodine; but if ozone is 
much diluted with common air, its smell cannot be distinguished from that 
developed near points of electrical emission. 

19. If common air, strongly charged with ozone, be inhaled only in mode- 
rate quantities, effects are produced similar to those caused by the respira- 
tion of chlorine, ¢. e, coughing, and an inflammation of the mucous mem- 
branes. Small animals put into richly ozonized air die very soon. I sawa 
mouse, which had been placed in a large bottle filled with strongly ozonized 
air, succumbing within the space of five minutes. As the quantity of the 
ozone which killed the animal must have been immeasurably small, it appears 
that this principle proves highly deleterious to the animal system. 

20. Chemically pure water, being acidulated by pure sulphuric acid or 
phosphoric acid and electrolyzed, yields oxygen charged with the same prin- 
ciple, which is produced when phosphorus acts upon common air; for that 
oxygen enjoys all the properties belonging to ozone engendered by the agency 
of phosphorus. ‘To obtain ozone by voltaic means, it is necessary that the 
acidulated water employed for that purpose be entirely free from any sub- 


ee ee 


ON OZONE. 95 


stance having a tendency to unite with oxygen or ozone, and that besides 
the temperature of the liquid to be electrolyzed be as low as possible. When 
the conditions indicated are fulfilled, the disengagement of ozone taking place 
at the positive electrode will last as long as the current continues to pass 
through the said liquid. Hence it follows that no production of ozone will 
take place if the electrodes consist of other metals than gold or platinum, or 
if the liquid to be electrolyzed contains small quantities of sulphuretted 
hydrogen, sulphurous acid, proto-sulphate of iron, zther, alcohol, &c. An 
aqueous solution of potash does not yield a trace of ozone, because free ozone 
is taken up by that solution. 

21. The electrical brush developes, as is well known to philosophers, a 
peculiar odour which cannot, as I have already mentioned, be distinguished 
from that of diluted ozone, be that ozone produced by the agency of phos- 
phorus or by the electrolysis of water. But the chemical and voltaic reac- 
tions exhibited by the electrical brush are also quite the same as those pro- 
duced either by chemical or voltaic ozone. Platinum foil being exposed 
to the action of that brush assumes the state of negative polarity, a piece of 
litmus paper is bleached, iodide of potassium or hydro-iodic acid decomposed, 
iodine being eliminated, the ferro-cyanide of potassium transformed into the 
sesqui-cyanide, the hydrate of protoxide of lead changed into the brown 
peroxide, provided the substances mentioned be sufficiently long acted upon 
by the electrical brush. If only small quantities of sulphurous acid, nitrous 
acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, olefiant gas, or vapour of zther or alcohol are 
present in the air into which the electrical brush is passing, the latter does 
not develope the peculiar electrical smell, neither does it produce any of the 
chemical or voltaic reactions before mentioned. A point of electrical emis- 
sion being heated not quite red-hot, yields a brush which has no smell what- 
soever, has no polarizing or bleaching power, does not decompose iodide of 
potassium, &c.; but as soon as the point in question is suffered to cool down 
again below a certain degree of temperature, the peculiar smell reappears, and 
along with it we obtain again all the reactions peculiar to ozone. From these 
facts we are allowed I think to draw the inference, that the odoriferous prin- 

_ ciple disengaged by the electrical brush is identical with the odoriferous sub- 
stance which is developed at the positive electrode during the electrolysis 
of water, and identical also with the electro-uegative principle resulting from 
a peculiar action exerted by phosphorus upon the moist atmospheric air. 

In order to ascertain the nature of that remarkable principle, I have tried 
a variety of methods with the view of procuring it in an isolated state, but all 
my endeavours made to that effect have hitherto failed, and I am not yet 
able to give quite a decisive answer to the question, What is ozone? 

That principle being developed by phosphorus within a mixture of oxygen 
and nitrogen, but not in pure oxygen; having in many experiments obtained 
no ozone from electrolyzing water which had been boiled and deprived of its 
atmospheric air; producing the same principle within the atmosphere by the 
agency of common electricity; and considering the striking analogy which 
exists between ozone and chlorine; I was for a time induced to think the 
former to be an elementary substance forming a constituent part of azote, and 

_to give up my first idea, according to which I considered ozone as a peculiar 

compound consisting of oxygen and hydrogen. ‘ 

_ The impossibility of isolating the principle, and the fact that nothing but 

oxidizing effects could be obtained from making ozone to act upon a great 

‘number of substances, induced me to resume the first view I took of the 

subject in question, and to institute a series of experiments with the intention 
of ascertaining more accurately the conditions required for the formation of 


4 
a 


96 REPORT—1845. 


ozone. In that inquiry I found that the presence of water is quite indispen- 
sable for engendering ozone, and that it is the more abundantly produced the 
larger the quantity of water which is put into contact both with phosphorus 
and common air. I likewise ascertained that no ozone is formed by phos- 
phorus if free oxygen be excluded. Nitrogen may be replaced by carbonic 
acid or hydrogen without stopping the generation of ozone. Hence it fol- 
lows that nitrogen has directly nothing to do with the production of ozone, 
and that the latter cannot be a constituent part of azote. From the fact 
that dry ozone passing along a heated tube is found to be destroyed, we must 
also infer that it is no elementary principle. 

Now, taking together all the facts regarding both the circumstances under 
which ozone is formed and the chemical effects produced by that substance, 
we can hardly help admitting that the odoriferous principle is a compound 
consisting of oxygen and water. The experiments made independently of 
myself by my friend, the excellent and accurate chemist of Geneva, M. Ma- 
rignac, and by M. de la Rive also, have led to results quite in accordance 
with the view I originally took of the nature of ozone. Marignac and De la 
Rive have ascertained that acidulated water, containing not the slightest trace 
either of free nitrogen or azotic matter, yields ozone as long as a voltaic 
current is made to pass through that liquid, provided however it be kept as 
cold as possible. M.Marignac has also found that mixtures of oxygen and hy- 
drogen, or oxygen and carbonic acid gas, charged with aqueous vapour, pro- 
duce ozone as well as a moist mixture of oxygen and azote. That able chemist 
has further ascertained that silver in a state of minute mechanical division 
readily takes up ozone, yielding nothing but a compound of'silver and oxy- 
gen. Agreeably to my own experiments, M. Marignac has shown that ozone 
transforms iodide of potassium into iodate of potash. 

Now these facts, combined with those ascertained by myself, seem to leave 
hardly any doubt about the nature of ozone, and confirm the view I took of it 
Six years ago. 

Thenard has made us acquainted with a compound consisting of one equi- 
valent of water and one of oxygen. The question now is, whether the known 
peroxide of hydrogen be identical with my ozone. According to Thenard’s 
own statements, peroxide of hydrogen has no odour, is soluble in water in 
any proportion, is less volatile than the latter, in decomposing itself it de- 
composes oxide of silver, reduces the peroxide of lead to a lower degree of 
oxidation, is not affected by iron, tin, or antimony, does not oxidize silver, but 
is decomposed by that metal, undergoes a spontaneous slow decomposition 
at the common temperature, and cannot exist at the boiling-point of water. 
The experiments of Becquerel and my own have shown that platinum, on 
being plunged into dilute oxygenized water, assumes the state of positive po- 
larity. On the other hand, ozone has a strong and peculiar odour, is insolu- 
ble in water, exists, as far as we know, always in a gaseous state, readily oxi- 
dizes iron, tin, antimony, and even silver at the common temperature, changes 
the hydrates of the protoxides of lead and silver into the peroxides of those 
metals, seems not to be acted upon at all by gold or platinum, or the per- 
oxides of lead and silver, and can bear a temperature considerably higher than 
that of boiling water without suffering decomposition; it seems to be stable 
at the common temperature, is decomposed not only by fibrine, but also by 
albumen, caseine and a variety of organic substances, and polarizes nega- 
tively gold or platinum. Now these facts seem to prove that ozone is dif- 
ferent from peroxide of hydrogen. Whether the former contains more or 
less oxygen than the latter, or whether it is an isomeric modification of oxy- 
genized water, can only be ascertained after having submitted isolated ozone 


8 
ON OZONE. 97 


- to analysis; I am however inclined to think that ozone will turn out to be a 
compound isomerical with peroxide of hydrogen, a conjecture which seems 
to be supported by the fact, that the odoriferous principle acts in so many 
cases the part of chlorine. On that subject however I shall speak hereafter. 
As to the production of ozone, we must, as far as our experiments go, account 
for it in the following manner:—Phosphorus, being placed under certain cir- 
cumstances, enjoys the peculiar faculty to determine a chemical combination 
between oxygen and water. ‘The same compound is produced in a secondary 
way on electrolyzing water ; part of the oxygen, being in a nascent state and 
eliminated at the positive electrode, unites with water, and ozone, being inso- 
luble in the latter liquid, is disengaged along with another part of oxygen 
that does not combine with water. It is possible that gold or platinum 
acting the part of the positive electrode may have something to do with the 
fact, that not the whole quantity of oxygen set free by the action of the cur- 
rent is united with water and transformed into ozone, for it may be that 
ozone being in a peculiar state (for instance, in the fluid state), happens to 
be decomposed by the metals mentioned just in the same way as common 
peroxide of hydrogen is. 

Common electricity passing through atmospheric air acts upon that mix- 
ture like phosphorus, 7. e. determines part of the atmospheric oxygen to unite 
with aqueous vapour to form ozone. 

Before concluding the first part of my report, allow me to say a word or 
two about the well-known phenomenon which phosphorus exhibits when 
placed in moist atmospheric air. At the common temperature, and under 
the circumstances mentioned, that substance gives out in the dark rather a 
lively light, and is changed into a mixture of phosphoric and phosphorous 
acids. In dry atmospheric air scarcely any emission of light takes place, and 
in oxygen none at all. My experiments have invariably shown that no ozone 
is produced if phosphorus does not shine in the dark, and that the emission 
of light is the more lively the more richly common air or any other gaseous 
mixture happens to be charged with ozone. As phosphorus, like all other 
readily oxidizable substances, quickly takes up ozone at the common temper- 
ature, there can be entertained hardly any doubt that the shining of phos- 
phorus which takes place within moist atmospheric air chiefly depends upon 
the reaction exerted by ozone on phosphorus, and that the oxidation of that 
substance is effected less by the free atmospheric oxygen than by the oxy- 
gen contained in ozone. By dint of some peculiar power, phosphorus de- 

termines, first, the formation of ozone out of the oxygen and aqueous 

_yapour of the air; and so soon as this compound is generated, part of it be- 

_ gins to act upon phosphorus, and change the latter into acid, whilst another 

portion of ozone is dissipated into the surrounding air. If the bottle con- 

‘taining common air and a sufficient quantity of phosphorus happen to be 

_ completely closed, the production of ozone and its subsequent decomposition 

_ effected by phosphorus will continue so long as there is free oxygen present 

‘in the air; and we find therefore, after a certain time, in the bottle nothing 
but nitrogen and phosphatic acid. According to this view, the disappear- 

ance of the atmospheric oxygen is not due to the direct oxidation of phos- 

_ phorus, but to the previous formation of ozone determined by that element, 

and to the subsequent decomposition likewise brought about by phosphorus. 

As to the cause of the emission of light alluded to, I am quite confident that 

lies in*the ozonization of phosphorus, if I am allowed to use that expres- 

sion, that is to say, in the oxidation of phosphorus being effected by the 
agency of ozone. 

_ + The correctness of that explanation is put beyond a doubt, by the fact that 

1845. H 

&. 


>. OS 


98 REPORT—1845. 


a number of gaseous substances being mixed with common air, phosphorus is 
prevented from shining in the dark. Gaseous, nitrous, or sulphurous acid, 
sulphuretted hydrogen, olefiant gas, hydro-iodice acid gas, vapour of ether, or 
alcohol, have this effect. Now according to the results of my experiments, 
all the substances mentioned instantaneously take up or destroy ozone, and 
such being the case, we can easily conceive why those gases and vapours 
present in the atmospheric air do not prevent phosphorus both from shining 
in the dark and from being changed into phosphatic acid, No ozone is or 
can be produced under those circumstances ; for if that compound did ever 
happen to exist in that air, it would be instantaneously destroyed by the 
agents mentioned. Any gaseous substance therefore which readily unites 
with free ozone will prevent phosphorus from shining in that atmosphere, 
and of course also hinder the formation of ozone, Water being an indis- 
pensable ingredient for the generation of ozone, we can now easily see why 
in completely dry air the shining of phosphorus is nearly imperceptible. It 
is true, under these circumstances, some emission of light takes place, but it 
is exceedingly slight if compared to that exhibited in moist air. It is possible 
that that feeble phosphorescence results from a very small portion of oxygen 
directly uniting with phosphorus. 

As ozone, in its action upon metals and a variety of other bodies, exhibits 
a very striking similarity to that which chlorine exerts upon the same sub- 
stances, and as the remarkable analogy existing between these two principles 
extends itself even to the way of producing them, I shall take, on a future 
occasion, the liberty to submit to you some considerations regarding that 
subject, and bearing upon the two rival theories which have been founded 
with reference to chlorine. 


On the part which Ozone acts in the Atmosphere. 


Paste of starch, being mixed up with some chemically pure iodide of potas- 
sium and exposed for some time to the action of the open air, turns blue, 
whilst the same paste, shut up*in a bottle filled with atmospheric air, re- 
mains colourless. Pieces of white linen, having been drenched with a so- 
lution of pure iodide of potassium, and left for some time in the open air, 
assume a brownish tint, which is due to iodine set free under the cireum- 
stances mentioned. That elimination of iodine does not, as far as my expe- 
riments go, take place in air inclosed within a bottle, though that air should 
contain even half its volume of carbonic acid gas. Iodide of potassium, 
after having for some time been exposed to the action of the open air, re- 
tains traces of a peculiar peroxide of potassium, of iodate and carhonate of 
potash, whilst in iodide of potassium kept in well-closed vessels nothing of 
the kind is found. From these facts it appears that the before-mentioned 
elimination of iodine, and the formation both of peroxide of potassium and 
jiodate of potash, are not due to the action of free atmospheric oxygen nor to 
that of carbonic acid. According to my former experiments, air having 
been artificially ozonized, and made to pass through a solution of pure iodide 
of potassium, eliminates iodine, and causes the production of the said perox- 
ide, iodate and carbonate of potash. Hence it follows that ozone produces, 
with the iodide of potassium, the same chemical changes as those which are 
effected by the open air, and between the two actions there is a difference of 
degree only and ‘not of kind. 

Now neither free oxygen, nor azote, nor carbonic acid being able to pro- 
duce that effect, we must conclude that there is something peculiar in the 
atmosphere which causes the decomposition of our iodide, and has up to this 
present moment escaped the attention of chemists. But of what nature is 


ON OZONE. 99 


that oxidizing agent? My experiments have shown that during the electri- 
cal discharges which we effect by artificial means within atmospheric air, 
ozone makes its appearance, and from that fact we are allowed, I think, to 
draw the inference that ozone is also produced as often as the electrical equi- 
librium of the atmosphere suffers disturbance from natural causes. Now 
electrical discharges of that description continually taking place in that at- 
. mosphere, it follows that the odoriferous principle is continually formed there. 

This conclusion, taken together with the before-mentioned fact, that iodide 
of potassium is changed by ozone exactly in the same way as it is by atmo- 
spheric air, renders it highly probable, if not altogether certain, that the pe- 
euliar oxidizing agent contained in our atmosphere is nothing but ozone 
produced by atmospheric electricity. Starting from that supposition, it is 
very easy to see why the freely circulating air only acts upon the iodide, and 
why stagnant or inclosed air does not. The quantity of ozone contained in 
a small volume of air must be exceedingly minute, and large quantities of air 
are therefore required to pass over a particle of iodide in order to cause a 
perceptible elimination of iodine. 

If ozone is to be considered as a constituent part of our atmosphere, and 
it be a well-ascertained fact that ozone is capable of oxidizing a great 
number of substances at the common temperature, we can hardly help ascri- 
bing to that subtle agent many slow oxidations which are effected in the 
atmosphere. As electrical discharges take place not only during a thunder- 
storm, but daily and hourly, and as those discharges give rise to the produc- 
tion of ozone, that principle would by degrees accumulate to an alarming 
amount, and so as to endanger animal life, if nature had not taken care to 
remove it almost as quickly as it is formed. That removal is principally 
effected by the large quantities of organic matter which cover the surface of 
the earth, and which are suspended in the waters of the ocean. 

Not one single elementary body, and very few oxidizable compounds, com- 
bine at the common temperature with free oxygen; oxidizable substances must 
be more or less heated in order to unite with that element. And it isa 
well-known fact, that oxygen, being in certain states of combination, is able 
to combine at the common temperature with a great variety of substances. 
Such being the case, we must be rather surprised at the facility with which 
organic substances, placed in contact with the atmosphere, are decomposed 
and transformed into carbonic acid and water, and that circumstance must 
strike us still more if we consider that carbon and hydrogen require high 
temperatures to be united with free oxygen. On account of the facts men- 
tioned, it is rather difficult to admit that it is the gaseous oxygen of the at- 
mosphere which combines with the carbon and hydrogen of organic mat- 

- ters. According to the statements I have made, ozone has the power to de- 
stroy all vegetable colours, and is taken up by a variety of organic substances. 
I think there can be hardly any doubt that the reactions mentioned are due 
to the oxygen of ozone being thrown upon the oxidizable constituent parts of 
vegetable and animal matter, and it is therefore very likely that atmospheric 
_ ozone acts some part in the slow decomposition which organic substances 
_ undergo in the open air, and that atmospheric ozone has also something to 
_ do with the common bleaching process. I however do not mean to say that 
the mentioned oxidations are exclusively to be ascribed to that ozone which 
_ is produced by the agency of atmospheric electricity. 
_- We know that ozone may be produced in another than electrical manner, 
namely, by what the French call action de présence, or by the catalytic force 
_ of Berzelius. Phosphorus, in its action upon moist atmospheric air, exhibits 
the most interesting example of the kind, so that we may consider it as a 
H2 


100 REPORT—1845. 


fundamental phenomenon which will best serve us to develope our ideas re- 
garding the course of the slow oxidations which take place in the atmosphere. 

Though phosphorus be one of the most readily oxidizable substances, it 
does not, to a perceptible degree, combine at the common temperature with 
the oxygen of atmospheric air, if the latter be completely deprived of its 
moisture. But no sooner has aqueous vapour been added to that air, than 
the oxidation of phosphorus begins, and along with it the emission of light 
and the production of ozone. Of that agent we know that it oxidizes readily 
at the common temperature even silver and iodine, and of course phosphorus 
too. Hence it appears that ozone, at the very moment of its being formed 
under the catalytic influence of phosphorus, out of atmospheric oxygen and 
water, reacts upon phosphorus, and causes both the formation of phosphatic 
acid and the emission of light. 

Every chemist knows the fact that dry atmospheric air is not capable of 
oxidizing at the common temperature even the most oxidizable metals, and 
that under the same circumstances dry organic matters are not acted upon 
by anhydrous atmospheric air. Hence we conclude, that besides the atmo- 
spheric oxygen, water acts an important part in the slow oxidations which 
both the inorganic and organic substances undergo in the open air. 

As far as I know, chemists entertain the opinion that in the cases men- 
tioned water acts only a secondary part, that is to say, the part of a solvent 
for oxygen. It is supposed that the gaseous state of that body weakens consi- 
derably its affinity for the oxidizable substances, and it is said that the affinity 
is much increased by depriving oxygen of its gaseous condition, for instance, 
by dissolving that body in water. 

As long as we had not been acquainted with the remarkable action exerted 
by phosphorus upon moist atmospheric air, the notions alluded to appeared 
to be plausible enough, and notably the rapid acidification which phosphorus 
at the common temperature undergoes in humid air could satisfactorily be 
accounted for in the way mentioned. But in the present state of science we 
can no longer keep up that view, and are obliged to admit that the slow com- 
bustion which phosphorus undergoes in damp air is principally, if not exclu- 
sively due to the exalted oxidizing power of ozone engendered by the cata- 
lytic force of phosphorus. Now if phosphorus enjoys the power of deter- 
mining the atmospheric oxygen to unite with water into ozone, I think the 
conjecture is not over-bold which ascribes the same faculty to some other 
oxidizable substances. In this respect shining wood offers a very remarkable 
case. It is well known that the substance mentioned exhibits the slow com- 
bustion under circumstances very similar to those under which phosphorus 
undergoes the same change. Water being taken away both from atmo- 
spheric air and the rotten wood, that wood ceases to shine in the dark, and 
the formation of carbonic acid is also stopped. Now we cannot say that it is 
the want of water on account of which the oxidation of the wood is prevented, 
because out of the product of the slow combustion a protecting film is formed 
round the combustible matter, as might be said regarding phosphorus ; car- 
bonic acid, being a gaseous substance, leaves the wood as soon as it is produced. 
It seems not unlikely that the peculiar bearing of shining wood is due to the 
same cause to which phosphorus owes its remarkable properties, and if that 
conjecture is allowed to be made, we may go further, and admit the possibility 
that the organic substances which undergo a decomposition in the open air 
possess the power of producing ozone out of free oxygen and water, and that 
it is on this account that those substances require, besides oxygen, some 
water, in order to be resolved at the common temperature into carbonic acid 
and water. 


ON OZONE. 101 


‘Why that power is not enjoyed by uncombined carbon or hydrogen we 
know no more than we can as yet give a good reason for the fact that 
oxygen, being in a certain state of combination, is more apt to unite with 
oxidizable substances than uncombined oxygen. The phosphorescence of the 
sea, which never fails to strike with astonishment every man who witnesses 
for the first time that beautiful pheenomenon, seems to originate in organic 
matter, which in a state of minute mechanical division is mixed up with the 
waters of the ocean. If Iam not mistaken, one of the first-rate philoso- 
phical observers of the day, Ehrenberg, takes that view of the subject. The 
intensity of this phosphorescence is not everywhere the same; in the tropical 
climates the phenomenon is more brilliant than in the seas of the colder 
regions. It is also well known that the phosphorescence of the sea is inti- 
mately connected with the motion of its waters, or to speak more properly, 
that the phenomenon is dependent upon the particles of those waters being 
brought in immediate contact with the atmosphere. When a ship moves 
about, or the wind happens to agitate the sea, the surface of the brine is 
continually renewed, and consequently new particles of organic matter are 
every moment brought into contact with the surrounding air. As under 
these circumstances the phosphorescence is always called forth, the German 
philosopher has come to the conclusion that the phenomenon mentioned is 
principally due to an action exerted by the atmosphere upon the waters of 
the ocean, and ingeniously enough Ehrenberg considers that phosphorescence 
as the effect of a sort of respiration of the sea. If the waters of the ocean 
were found to contain phosphorus dissolved, nobody would doubt in the 
least that the phosphorescence in question depended upon the slow com- 
bustion of that substance taking place at the surface of the sea, and we could 
easily see why the motion of its waters, the temperature, &c., exert an in- 
fluence upon the phenomenon. Now as we have got in shining wood an 
organic matter which, like phosphorus, undergoes the slow combustion in 
moist air, and as it is not unlikely that phosphorus and shining wood act in 
the same way upon atmospheric air, that is to say, that both substances pro- 
duce ozone out of the oxygen and aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, it ap- 
pears not improbable that there exist some other organic substances enjoying 
the property of shining in the dark. The organic matter occurring in the 
waters of the sea, and originating in the remains of a countless number of 
animal beings which are daily dying in the depths of the ocean, may very 
possibly enjoy that property, so much the more as that matter happens to be 
in a state of extremely minute mechanical division. 

According to the conjecture suggested, we may consider that animal matter, 
with regard to its bearing to the atmosphere, as a representative either of 
phosphorus or shining wood, and we can account for the phosphorescence 
of the sea in the same way as we have explained the slow combustion which 
phosphorus undergoes in moist atmospheric air. Agreeably to that view, 
the light given out by the waters of the ocean must be considered as the 
effect of a process of oxidation taking place on a most extensive scale, which 
process is carried on less by the free oxygen of the atmosphere, than by that 
of the ozone which we suppose to be produced by the catalytic force of the 
animal matter of the sea. 

It is possible that the glow-worm and other animals shining in the dark 
generate a matter which acts upon atmospheric air in the same way as phos- 
_ phorus does. 

; peat is one of the facts best known, that carbonic acid is continually pro- 
_ duced in the animal body, and that the formation of that compound is inti- 
‘mately connected both with the functions of respiration and the change of 


102 REPORT—1845. 


blood. Wherever that carbonic acid may be produced, certain it is that the 
carbon required for its production comes from the body, and that the oxida- 
tion of that element takes place at a temperature at which carbon, being in a 
free state, does not combine with oxygen. From the large quantities of carbonic 
acid produced during the respiration of an,animal, and the minute quantities 
of free ozone inhaled, it appears that that carbonic acid cannot be engendered 
by atmospheric ozone. May we be allowed to suppose that blood being 
put in contact with atmospheric oxygen acts upon the latter as phosphorus 
does upon the same oxygen? Is it perhaps to ozone being formed in the 
way alluded to that the carbonic acid breathed out owes its origin? May 
we compare, in a chemical point of view, phosphorus placed in atmospheric 
air to an animal breathing in the same air? Strangely as these questions 
may sound, we can hardly help putting them, after having discovered in 
ozone so powerful an oxidizing agent, and found in phosphorus so remark- 
able a means to produce it. 

In spite of the floods of light which recent chemical and physiological re- 
searches have thrown upon the function of respiration, we are still very far 
from understanding thoroughly that phenomenon, and for that very reason 
every fact which promises to unveil further that mystery is, in my opinion, 
highly worthy of all the attention both of physiologists and chemical philo- 
sophers. And as the subject I have treated of is such as to remind, as it 
were of itself, of its possible bearings to respiration, I think it will not be left 
entirely unnoticed. 

Considering the great importance of the part which the atmosphere acts 
in different departments of organic and inorganic nature, it is very desirable 
that it should become more and more the subject of the most careful and ex- 
tensive researches, and that chemists in particular should direct their atten- 
tion to those phenomena which take place in atmospheric air, or are depen- 
dent upon the latter; for much as modern science has done in that field of 
inquiry, it cannot be denied that the greatest mysteries are yet to be unveiled 
in it. Holding the opinion that the extraordinary action which phosphorus 
exerts upon atmospheric air discloses to us a fundamental phenomenon, I 
am inclined to believe that that action, once fully understood, will give us 
an insight into the cause of a series of phenomena which at this present 
moment are yet enveloped in utter darkness. 


On the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-electricity. 
By Pauu Erman of Berlin. 


[A communication read to the Mathematical and Physical Section, and ordered to be printed 
entire amongst the Reports. ] 
Are the forces that govern the interior constitution of bodies wo in number, 
and essentially distinct; or do the effects usually called chemical, proceed 
from the same cause as those to which we give the appellation of mechanical ? 
The future progress of science depends on the solution of this problem, which 
the recent development of physics has brought almost entirely within the 
province of electricity. In this province, the two schools, the chemical and 
the contact of theorists, rival each other in the sagacity and energy they 
display in the defence of their tenets. Let us indicate however a strategical 
position, the importance of which the contact party do not appear to have 
sufficiently seized. Friction is merely a repeated molecular contact, so that 
the mathematical expression of its effects would perhaps only consist in higher 


‘ON THE INFLUENCE OF FRICTION UPON THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 103 


powers of the quantity that expresses the effect of contact. We have known 
from time immemorial that it developes heat, without understanding the 
reason of its so doing ; subsequently it was found that it developes the static 
electricity of isolators; and at length Mr. Faraday has found that it modifies 
equally the dynamic electricity produced by the contact of thermo-electrical 
conductors. In spite of the importance of this last fact and the weight of 
so great a name, it does not appear to have met with sufficient attention in 
scientific circles. Some observers, who appeal to the authority of Mr. Em- 
met, express what they consider to be the law of this action, by saying that 
thermo-electricity of contact is changed invariably into the opposite state by 
the friction of the two metallic factors. Others, on the contrary, deny in 
toto the influence of friction on thermo-electric phenomena. Thus it was 
recently adverted to in a scientific journal as a highly paradoxical fact, that 
in a given case the friction had caused a change of sign in the thermo-elec- 
tric declination produced by the contact of two heterogeneous metals; but 
at the same time this “ unheard-of” fact, as it was called, was explained by 
supposing gratuitously that the friction had been effected whilst keeping the 
metal to be rubbed in the naked hand, and in thus producing an accidental 
change of temperature. This explanation was offered on the assumption 
that friction in itself is not capable of producing any effect. Between the 
two extremes of tribothermo-eleetric omnipotence and nullity, I have tried to 
discover the middle course of truth. If Iam bold enough to call your atten- 
tion to some of the preliminary results of these labours, it is solely with a 
view of contributing to the more general discussion of this question, and 
with the hope of some observers joining me in these researches, and con- 
trolling, rectifying, and extending my experiments. 

For the experiments now to be mentioned, one of Nobili’s thermo-electric 
multiplicators of particularly delicate structure is requisite. Being furnished 
with an instrument of this kind, I proceeded in the following manner. A 
bar of bismuth was joined to that branch of the rheophore of this instru- 
ment where the silver of a voltaic element (silver and zinc) produces an 
eastern deviation, and a bar of antimony to the other branch of the rheo- 
phore. Both these bars were provided with handles, so that they could be 
employed without undergoing any change of temperature in the manipu- 
lation. When, through these being stationed in the same room, the two bars 
had previously arrived at the temperature of the surrounding space, no de- 
viation whatsoever was produced by their contact, but the slightest friction 
of either of them against the other gave immediately an eastern deviation. 
This latter extended even to an entire revolution of the needle in the same 
sense if the friction proceeded rather more rapidly. By gently raising the 
common temperature of the two bars to 30° or 35° of Reaum. scale, their 
contact in a state of repose always produced a stationary eastern deviation of 
about 30°, which by rubbing was further increased to 60°, and there likewise 
remained invariable as long as friction continued. At length, when I cooled 
the bars (below the temperature of the room) by the evaporation of naphtha 
vitrioli, their contact continually produced a western deviation, which by rub- 
bing was instantaneously changed into a contrary or eastern one of apparently 
the same amount as before, and this likewise remained stationary as long as 
the friction continued, but by the interruption of it the western deviation was 
immediately restored. This simple sketch of the phenomena of changes of 
intensity or even of sign, which friction at the point of contact gives to the 
deviation of a multiplicator’s needle, will already suffice to exhibit it as a mere 
consequence of the heat produced by the action of rubbing. Indeed, by 
joining to the point of contact of the two metals a button somewhat warmed 


104: REPORT—1845. LNT KO 


or cooled (in comparison with the surrounding space), the influence on de- 
viation was just as the above-mentioned effects of friction might lead us to 
expect. Iwas confirmed in this position by operating on many groups or 
eombinations of the substances which form the thermo-electric series. Thus, 
for instance, the sulphuret of molybdenum, which when joined to bismuth 
gives no deviation by difference of temperature, appeared likewise with- 
out any influence when rubbed on the same metal. The sulphuret of lead 
(galena), which alone in the whole series makes bismuth negative by heat, 
renders it also negative by friction. Omitting for the present some very 
interesting details, which I reserve for a monograph of tribothermie elec- 
tricity, it seems evident, therefore, that in these experiments the metallic 
conductors of electricity are thoroughly devoid of such specific or direct 
faculty of producing positive or negative electrodynamic actions, as the iso- 
lating substances possess for producing electrostatic effects ; if you should not 
incline, with some of our philosophers, to regard even the electricity pro- 
duced by friction of isolators as but a modification of heat. But postponing 
this question, let us see in what manner the theory, and perhaps even the 
practical application of electricity, may be promoted by the researches on 
tribothermic electrization. For this purpose we must enter into some further 
details :—1. The tribothermical effect is an instantaneous one. Indeed, at 
the very beginning of friction of any intensity, the needle moves. There 
is no trace whatever of the retardation undergone by heat when spreading 
through the mass of any substance. 2. The tribothermic effect is likewise in- 
dependent of the masses putin action. The point ofa needle rubbed against 
a considerable heterogeneous mass, gives immediately the deviation ; and an 
increase of extent of the surfaces in friction does not appear even to add 
materially to the intensity of electrization. 3. The deviation vanishes quite as 
instantaneously as it commenced, and the immediate return of the needle to 
its primitive station is even one of the most striking features of the phzno- 
menon. These three facts are very instructive, and seem by far more likely 
to be effected by a vibratory motion of molecules, than by the continuous 
efflux of a calorific fluid. Indeed, if we suppose any mass imbued with a 
given quantity of heat, and producing, when brought into contact with the 
other elements of a couple, a certain deviation proportionable to this quan- 
tity ; the slightest increase of deviation would then require a considerable 
addition of heat, and, such addition taking place, the deviation could but 
augment very slowly, while, on the contrary, we find by experiment that the 
slightest friction produces a strong deviation. Moreoyer, supposing once 
more that the very quantity of heat, represented by the temperature and by 
the mass of the whole body, were the efficient cause of the deviation, the in- 
crease of deviation produced should be durable, while by experiment we 
always see it instantaneously vanish when friction ceases, just as should be the 
case were it produced solely by a molecular action of the rubbing-points. In 
the event of the refrigerated metal giving a western deviation, which a mo- 
mentaneous friction inverts into an eastern one, but only as long as the fric- 
tion lasts, the result is still more paradoxical, and we have probably no other 
explanation of it, but by admitting a specific difference between the mode 
of production of heat in this-case on the one hand, and in that of heat per- 
manently residing in the body on the other. The type of molecular vibra- 
tions will once more, and very naturally, be recalled by this remarkable fact. 
4. The tribothermic deviations attain in every case amaximum, which under 
similar circumstances is different for different couples of metals. Indeed the 
friction produces, while it exists, new increments of heat which must give rise 
to increments of deviation. These latter however become more and more 


ae 


ON THE INFLUENCE OF FRICTION UPON THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 105 


insensible, and at length seem only active in causing the persistence of the 
maximum of deviation. I found the values of the maxima for different 
couples just in the same proportion as their thermo-electric effects. 

The four above-mentioned facts require an assiduous inquiry, supported 
by numeric determinations. The quantity of permanent heat, which by a 
friction of given duration accumulates in the metals, should be measured, 
and it must be ascertained whether this residue is equal in each of them; in 
other words, whether at the end of a continued friction the needle returns 
precisely to its primitive position, or only approaches to it ; and, if an excess 
of temperature is denoted, in which of the two metals it has taken place. 
Any one who knows the difficulty of managing such delicate instruments, 
will understand why, after innumerable essays, I am not yet able to give a 
categorical answer to these questions. 

After a friction somewhat prolonged the needle does not return imme- 
diately to its original position, but the difference is very trifling, and some- 
times doubtful or ambiguous. Whenever, by a very efficacious friction, I 
had carried the deviation to a maximum of 60°, the needle, on the friction 
ceasing, underwent a vibration of six or eight degrees, but as the slowness of 
these oscillations enabled the temperature to become equal for the two bars, 
the first position of equilibrium remained ambiguous. In one apparatus a 
dise of bismuth was uniformly rubbed during twenty minutes on a disc of 
antimony. When the friction ceased, I immediately inserted between the 
two metals a highly susceptible thermopile, and it appeared by this process 
that antimony was constantly the most heated. Nevertheless, I regard this 
point as not yet fully proved. 

In excusing the defectiveness of my results by the arduous nature of the 
observations required, I consider it my duty to indicate to the philosophers 
who would co-operate in the eminently important tribothermical researches, a 
circumstance which most decidedly contributes to their difficulty. ‘The metals 
to be examined must be joined to the multiplicator by rheophoric wires, and 
these are mostly heterogeneous to the metals, as bismuth, antimony and cobalt 
cannot yet be wiredrawn by any known process. In employing wires of cop- 
per, of platinum, or of nickel, we might hope that their specific action on the 
thermo-electrical elements could be neglected, and that therefore the observed 
deviation might be assumed to result only from the temperature, or from the 
friction of the thermo-electric couple. A course of rather tedious experiments 
has shown me that this supposition is most erroneous and utterly deceptive, 
when applied to refined investigations and highly susceptible instruments. A 
multitude of contradictory and incoherent facts accumulated themselves like 
a chaos, before I arrived at the source of error. Thus, when I broke a bar of 
chemically pure antimony in the middle, and rubbed against each other 
the once contiguous surfaces of these two parts, I obtained very sensible 
deviations, but sometimes positive and sometimes negative. It was the same 
with the bismuth when similarly treated. It appeared at length that these 
strange results were merely owing to the action of the thermo-electrie metals 
on their heterogeneous rheophores, for two copper elements with copper 
rheophores, and two zine elements with rheophores of zinc, never give the 
slightest trace of tribothermo-electric effect, whilst any of these two metals 
produces a strong deviation, when after friction it is singly applied to the 
button of the multiplicator. A voluminous journal of attempts to decide the 
questions treated in the former part of this paper was nullified by the unex- 


_ pected thermo-electric influence of the rheophores destroying its value. The 


best means I ultimately discovered for reducing this source of error, whose 
entire: elimination is impossible, consists in the interposition of a plate cut 


106 REPORT—1845. 


from a piece of pure graphite, between the thermo-electric agent and its 
rheophore. The graphite acts but very feebly by its contact with heteroge- 
neous substances, and at the same time proves an excellent conductor for 
electricity excited in any other manner. It is desirable that other means may 
be found to obviate the impediments resulting from the extreme sensibility of 
the apparatus which must be necessarily employed, as a minute absolute in- 
tensity is a characteristic feature of all tribo-electric actions, and can alone 
explain the reason of their having been so long either unnoticed or errone- 
ously estimated. When, by immersion in a vessel of warm water, the tempe- 
rature of a bar of bismuth and of another of antimony is elevated to upwards 
of 45° R., they will give by this contact a very strong eastward deviation, but 
the friction will not cause it to increase any more in asensible degree. When, 
on the contrary, the same two bars are greatly refrigerated by being plunged 
in triturated ice, their contact gives a strong negative or western deviation, but 
the friction in this case, far from inverting this effect, is not even able to di- 
minish it in any material degree. The calorific increments produced by fric- 
tion are in themselves very feeble; the tribothermic multiplicator acts, in 
respect to them, as a microscopic apparatus ; but the fact that its indications 
are circumscribed within certain limits, and becomes insensible when these 
limits are passed, is of striking importance. We need only to ascertain by 
very careful experiments the degrees of heat and of refrigeration given to the 
metals, by which their friction loses its influence on the needle, in order to 
obtain for a scale of tribothermic production of heat, two fixed points which 
can be reproduced in any instance, in exactly the same manner as the fixed 
terms of our ordinary thermometer. The philosophers who may apply them- 
selves to tribothermic experiments, will not fail to meet with the paradox of two 
electric currents acting simultaneously in contrary directions. In the frequent 
cases where the contact produces a deviation of the needle in a certain sense 
and the friction in the contrary one, we can so modify these actions that the 
needle remains in equilibrium in an intermediate position, obeying the two 
currents that travel along the same wire in contrary directions. As to the 
obscure question of the relation between the direction in which the heat moves, 
according to the received terminology of the thermo-electric phenomena, and 
the direction in which electricity proceeds, it is not impossible, although 
highly improbable, that tribothermo-electric researches may throw some 
light upon it. The following Table presents the state of this question :— 


Being at the temperature 
Being heated, of the surrounding space. 


p ‘ The contact gives an eastern deviation. 
totes) ae 4 Beat loses heat and gains electricity. 
? ‘ The contact gives an eastern deviation. 
eee “eign ‘Ban gains heat and gains electricity. 
Being at the t tur 
Being refrigerated. of the sitergundirg spdde, ati) 
Bismuth h eilinan The contact gives a western deviation. 
Lem tr Y-+ ) Bismuth gains heat and /oses electricity. 
. : The contact gives a western deviation. 
Saou | ee 1 Bismoth loses heat and loses electricity. 


The friction increases the eastern deviations and changes all the western 
into eastern ones, that is to say, that bismuth becomes equally positive by an 
increase or a diminution of heat. May it be inferred that heat when nascent 
by the act of friction has a property specifically different from that of heat 
residing previously in a metal? Are we perhaps on the eve of finding at 
length something analogous to the brilliant discovery of Peltier, that gal- 
vanic electricity produces heat in proceeding from antimony to bismuth, 


ON THE INFLUENCE OF FRICTION UPON THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 107 


and cold when travelling inversely, by which M. Lenz has produced conge- 
lation ? 

The electric telegraph is becoming popular at present, but it generally re- 
quires an apparatus which is variable in its effects and expensive in its employ- 
ment. It would therefore be advantageous to substitute the purely mecha- 
nical principle of the tribothermic telegraph. For by removing the stopper 
of a wheel-work, a disc of bismuth rubs against another of antimony, and 
at the same instant the needle at the opposite extreme of the rheophore is 
put in motion. I have ascertained the instantaneousness of this operation for 
tolerably considerable distances. Employed as a signal, it would have the 
advantage, that after the interval of some days or months, when the clockwork 
is put in motion, the effect of friction would take place, whereas in the vol- 
taic telegraph there would be a chance of the combination having lost its 
efficacy by the lapse of time. 


P.S.—Berlin, August. A highly competent judge (Mr. Grove) being of 
opinion that I have imperfectly explained the grounds for my suspicion of a 
possible analogy between certain effects of the heat which is generated in the 
act of friction and the discovery of M. Peltier, I regret that in my paper I have 
affected a form too strictly aphoristic. I shall endeavour to remedy this by 
selecting, among many others, one tribothermo-electric fact, whose very para- 
doxical character first induced me to suppose such an analogy. Let a erystal 
of sulphuret of lead (galena) be placed at one of the poles of the multiplier, 
and at the other pole (to be alternately placed in action) of the rheophore a 
bar of bismuth and a bar of antimony ; the bismuth being rubbed against the 
crystal, takes immediately a negative electric charge. This exception was 
already known for the same metal heated. Fromall the analogies hitherto 
known, it results that antimony being rubbed in the same way should become 
positive, and that to obtain by it a negative declination of the magnetic needle, 
it ought to be refrigerated. Now I find by experiment that the friction of 
antimony against a crystal of galena gives absolutely the same declination as 
the bismuth: in fact, the direction, the intensity and the quickness of the 
effect, are in the two cases sensibly equal; and we cannot deny that in this 
very paradoxical case, it appears that an increment of nascent heat produces 
in the antimony the effect of cooling. The singular effects which are ob- 
served when uncrystallized masses of sulphuret of lead are substituted for the 
single crystal of galena, confirm the supposition that the effects of friction 
depend on molecular movements. I am anxious that more practised observers 
may succeed. in obtaining tribothermical effects by simple internal vibration 
of elastic sound-plates. I have not yet succeeded in this. But the great 
prize in this race of discovery would fall to him who should discover a dif- 
ference of thermo-electric action, according as a magnetically polarized bar 
should be rubbed (that is, molecularly heated) at the one or the other of 
its poles. 

The magnet-stone and the magnetic sulphuret of iron, exert, when rubbed, 
a strong thermo-electric action. I have employed these substances, as well 
as magnetic steel bars, in this curious investigation, but hitherto without 
success. 


Utter 


108 REPORT—1845. 


Ou the Self-registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the 
Observatory at Senftenberg. By the BARon SENFTENBERG. 


[A communication read to the Mathematical and Physical Section, and ordered to be printed 
entire among the Reports. ] 

Ir any branch of natural philosophy can derive advantage from comparison 
of observations made at different localities, this is particularly the case with 
meteorology. Isolated observations made at one and the same spot may 
furnish valuable data; but the ultimate benefit that can by them accrue to 
science, however carefully they be made, is only obtained by their combina- 
tion with corresponding ones, made at more or less remote stations on our 
globe, thus establishing a first basis, succeeded by others, to form the links 
of that chain of arguments which may lead to the discovery of the primary 
causes of atmospheric changes. 

Itis by this process that we have already been enabled to ascertain that me- 
teorological phenomena are but the wheels of that great mechanism, whereof 
change of temperature is the motive power, whence the greater commotions 
extending over vast regions, as well as also minor local alterations, can be traced. 
Although the results of phenomena included in the first class are in general 
of higher importance than those in the second, these latter ones are not the less 
deserving of minute attention, for the purpose of arriving at a just perception 
of the process that takes place in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and are 
even indispensable for ascertaining the effect of local causes, from which each 
single observation must first be cleared before it can be made use of in com- 
parison with others made possibly under different influences. For this pur- 
pose observations made at two observatories at no great distance, but in other 
respects very differently situated, whereof the one is in a valley, the other on 
a mountain, or the one on an island surrounded by a great extent of water, 
the other on an extended level sandy plain, may lead to important results ; 
and such have indeed already been derived from comparative observations 
made at Geneva and at the Hospice on the St. Bernard. The success to be 
derived from such observations depends, however, mainly on their regularity 
and multiplicity at both stations at stated intervals; for phenomena arising 
from local causes are generally of short duration, and would escape the notice 
of an observer who makes but two or three observations in the course of 
a day, and of others he would have seen but the beginning or the end, 
which would furnish but imperfect data for comparison. It is on this account 
that self-registering instruments, regularly compared with the usual ones, 
afford great advantages, as no phenomenon, of however transient a duration, 
can occur without being registered by them. Such instruments have for 
nearly two years been in use at the Senftenberg Observatory, and the proofs 
of what can be accomplished by them are detailed in vol. v. of the Magnetic 
and Meteorological Observations at Prague, which contain, however, only 
those made with the barometrograph. More recently thermo- and hygrome- 
trographs have also been in active use there. Of course such instruments 
are complicated in their construction, and require practice in their manage- 
ment, whence the first series of observations are not so regular as those made 
with the usual ones, nor are the specimens now produced* intended to fur- 
nish the foundation for establishing new data or hypotheses; they are only 
intended as specimens to show what results might be obtained by these means 
under more favourable circumstances. A detailed description of these in- 
struments is contained in the third and fourth volume of the Magnetic and 


* Consisting of a selected series of tables, and diagrams of observations recorded contem- 
poraneously at Prague and Senftenberg. 


8 
: J 
¥ 


< 


ON SELF-REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 109 


Meteorological Observations made at Prague; it is therefore deemed suffi- 
cient now only to state that they register from five to five minutes the va- 
riations of pressure, temperature and moisture of the atmosphere. The 
appended numerical Tables contain the hourly variations, and are of course 
only extracts made from the original curves marked from five to five minutes 
by the autograph, which was deemed sufficient for ascertaining the numerical 
value of any point of the curve. The series now submitted to observation 
is selected from and confined to days when considerable atmospheric changes 
occurred, so as to afford a proof of the advantage to be derived by em- 
ploying such instruments. On other days, where the variations are more 
confined to the ordinary rates, fewer observations and at greater intervals are 
sufficient to make these apparent, us on such days the differences in variation 
at less distant places are so insignificant that they become scarcely percepti- 
ble; no doubt however the medium of extended regular observations would 
afford the means to appreciate such, but for the present and first attempt and 
trial, days when the atmosphere was more agitated seem better suited for 
the proposed purpose. [Table II. contains the Observations for the 18—-19th 
June as an example. ] 

The two stations where these observations were made are,—1. Senftenberg, 
which is nearly due east 100 English miles from Prague, a distance quite 
sufficient to produce variations in these phenomena, which are however in- 
creased by other local causes. The observatory there is situated on the 
centre of the property on the river Adler, 1281 Paris feet above the level of 
the sea, in latitude 50° 5! 8!'-8, and longitude, east of Greenwich, 1" 5! 46!"-98. 
Its immediate site is on lias and mica slate, but at no great distance it is more 
or less surrounded by higher ground with granite, gneiss and old red sand- 
stone, and considerable forests. 2. Prague, situated in a more level country, 
and the river Moldau flowing through the town with a breadth of about 200 
fathoms, is only 524 Paris feet above the level of the sea, without much 
woodland in its neighbourhood, the lower strata of the surrounding hills 
being principally lias, sandstone and argillaceous schist,—all circumstances 
which may produce influence on the atmospheric variations. 

After these preliminary remarks, a little attehtion to the curves described 
by both barometrographs will soon convince us that they run nearly parallel, 
and that it is more particularly the deviation from parallelism which should 
be more nearly examined. The pressure of the air at Prague being 0°9 
inch greater than at Senftenberg, and the curve of Prague being the lower 
one, their approach towards each other when the curves are rising proves 
that the rising commenced earlier at Prague than at Senftenberg ; whereas 
an approach when the curves are descending denotes a quicker diminution 
of the pressure at Senftenberg. This is applicable to the extreme bends, or 
those points of the curve where a maximum in either sense has taken place, 
where the rising passes into falling, or the reverse ; and in those cases when 
a curye that was before running nearly in a horizontal direction gradually 
begins to rise or fall; but if two curves continue for a while both to rise or 
to fall, a gradual convergency or divergency must also be accounted for by 
the weight of the atmosphere undergoing a change of the same nature at 
both places, but a greater one in the one than the other. Variations, how- 
ever, observed during a longer period, embracing a succession of days, are 
generally so nearly of the same value at both stations, that by present expe- 


rience no decided opinion can be expressed in which of them the total 
_ amount of change is greatest. 


= 


Me 
py] 


e annexed Table shows the amount of barometric variation during forty- 


five days, by which it appears that the medium at Prague was only 0°005 inch 


H 


110 REPORT—1845. 


greater than at Senftenberg, a difference so small that no conclusion ean by 
it be arrived at to determine at which of the two stations it was greater. 

It may thus be concluded that the deviation of the curves from parallelism 
is produced by the difference in time at which the maximum and minimum 
took place at the two stations. By a closer inspection of the curves, it ap- 
pears that when they are either approaching to or receding from each other, 
this is produced by a minimum which has taken place sooner at Prague than 
Senftenberg. Thus the first curve on the 18th and 19th of June at Prague 
shows a minimum between the hours nineteen and twenty, whilst in the 
Senftenberg curve it is not perceptible till the hours of twenty-two to twenty- 
three, This fact becomes still more conspicuous on other days, for on the 
24th and 25th of August, where a minimum occurs in Prague at 4 o'clock, 
and at Senftenberg only at 10 o'clock, on the 29th and 30th of September we 
find the minimum at Prague already at the eleventh hour, which was only 
reached at Senftenberg on the nineteenth hour. Further, Oct. 3 and 4, 
minimum at Prague at the fifteenth hour, at Senftenberg at the sixteenth 
hour; Oct. 7 and 8, minimum at Prague at the second hour, at Senftenberg 
at the fifth hour ; Nov. 8 and 9, minimum at Prague at the seventeenth hour 
forty-five minutes, at Senftenberg at the nineteenth hour ; Nov. 13 and 14, 
minimum at Prague at the twelfth hour, at Senftenberg at the thirteenth 
hour; and Nov. 15 and 16, minimum at Prague at the sixteenth hour, at 
Senftenberg at the twenty-second hour. [The curves for the 18—19th June, 
24-95th June, and 25th—26th June, are given in Plate II. as examples. ] 

These facts have recurred so regularly, that although the number of ob- 
servations is not great, the law may be established between the above-named 
two places of observation with a degree of certainty the more to be relied on, 
as it invariably takes place whatever the direction of the wind may be. It 
thus follows that it has its crigin in the higher regions, and is independent of 
local influences. A change in the opposite direction, that is, a transition from 
rising to falling, does not appear greatly to affect the parallelism of the curves ; 
at all events no decisive proofs to that effect can be traced from the maxima 
of Sept. 30 and Oct. 1, Oct. 3 and 4, Oct. 4 and 5, Oct.6 and 7, Oct. 7 and 8, 
Oct. 14 and 15, and Nov. 15 and 16. 

But it is not only the minima terminating a long-continued decrease of a 
curve that follow the above-mentioned law, but also disturbances that hitherto 
have been considered as proceeding from local causes, such as transient gales 
of wind, thunder-storms, sudden changes of temperature and moisture, all 
which are indicated earlier at Prague than at Senftenberg by the autographs. 
It must however be owned, that the number of such eases hitherto observed 
is too small to draw certain inferences from. As an instance, the barome- 
tric curve at Prague on the 24th and 25th of June shows between the hours 
twenty and twenty-one a sudden transitory increase of pressure of the air, oc- 
casioned by a storm which came from the west-north-west wheeling round toa 
breeze from the east-north-east. The barometer at Senftenberg did not begin 
to rise before the twenty-first hour and thirty minutes, and continued to do 
so till the twenty-third hour, the wind at east-south-east. On the following 
day both places were visited by thunder-storms, which greatly affected the 
state of the barometer, causing it alternately to rise and fall. At Prague 
the first indications in the curve were perceptible at 7 o'clock, and the undu- 
lations extended to 10 o’clock. The phenomenon occupied the southern part 
of the hemisphere, the wind at south-west. In Senftenberg the thunder- 
storm lasted from 9 till 11, and at 9 o’clock the wind was north-west. On 
the 27th of June the thermometrograph at Prague indicated a rapid decrease 
of temperature between 3 and 4 o’clock, which was also perceived at Senf- 


= 


ne ee ee 


ee 


ON SELF-REGISTERING METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 111 


tenberg between 4 and 5 o'clock, and this falling lasted for one hour and 
twenty minutes. The beginning of this phenomenon was marked so pre- 
cisely by the autographs, that no uncertainty greater than five minutes could 
have occurred. 

These first trials are only intended as examples to show the method of 
using such instruments with the view of furnishing dates for the advancement 
of science. The proposed object to be effected by the hourly observations 
for thirty-six successive hours, at a fixed time, may by such instruments be 
more readily and minutely attained. It is hardly to be expected that the 
phznomena suited for such studies should exactly occur on such days as 
have been previously selected, whilst by the assistance of such instruments 
they cannot fail to be registered at all times and whenever they may occur. 

The example here furnished may suffice as a first attempt to show in what 
manner such an apparatus may be applied for the promotion of science by 
multiplying the materials fit to be studied. If they should be deemed of too 
voluminous a nature, the consideration should not be lost sight of, that such 
studies have never suffered from too great a multiplicity of useful data, but 
frequently from the contrary cause. 


Taste I. Barometric Maxima and Minima at Senftenberg and Prague, 
August 1844. 


Senftenberg. Prague, Difference. Senftenberg. Prague. Diffarenge. 
Max. | Min. | Max, | Min, |Senf.! Prag. Max. | Min. | Max, Min. Senf. Prag, 
0. 333-56) 321-68] 344-50 331-50| 6°88) 1-00 Oct. 7.| 391-47] 316-76 381-23] 387-01) 471 | 429 
. | 321-88] 319-44| 331-95 328-71) 2-44! 3-24)| ,, 8. | 821-61] 319-07, 331-71/ 329-88) 2:54) 1:83 
. | 319-28] 317-66] 328-90, 327-61] 1-62 1-29] ,, 11.| 321-32) 317-86 331-41) 327-21] 3:46 | 4:20 
. | 319-33] 315-24| 328-54| 325-05] 4-03) 8-49] ,, 12, | 322-14] 320-34| 332-27| 330-80] 1:80 | 1-47 
. | 318-25) 315-47| 328-37 325-78] 2-78, 2-59)| ,, 15,| 318-42) 315-69) 328-23) 325:33) 2-738 | 2:90 
6. | 318-79] 315-72) 328-92 326-70) 3-07| 2:22) ,, 20, | 320-15] 316-05) 330-16) 25:56, 4:10} 4-60 
. | 319-48] 317-75] 329-33| 328-00) 1-73) 1:33] ,, 29, | 322-16] 319-62 332-47/ 3830-16} 254 | 231 
. | 321-69] 319-24] 332-29 329-00) 2-45| 3:29] Noy. 1.| 321-96] 318-71 332-14) 328-49) 3:25 | 3°65 
. | 319-00] 318-64] 329-40 328-59/0°36| 0-81] ,, 2, 318-58] 315-62! 828:31/325-18] 2-96 | 313 
3. | 321-06) 317°34| 330-79) 328-09 3:72)2-70) ,, 3, | 815-53) 313-95, 325-69) 323-62/ 1:62 | 2-07 
9.| 319-34] 317-76| 329-60 32873] 1-58/0:87| ,, 8. | 319-02] 316-30 329-17) 325-48) 2-72 | 369 
1. | 319-09} 317-50) 329-75| 326-95) 1:59 2-80) ,, 9, | 316-21} 314-42 325:33/324-42) 1:79 | 0-91 
4,| 318-15] 316:21| 328-71} 325°80| 1:94/2:91 ,, 9,|316-34) 314-42 326-04| 324-42; 1:92] 1-62 
6. | 318-06] 315-63) 328-91) 325-72) 2-43 3-19] ,, 10,| 318-13) 316-25 327-33, 326-42) 1°88 | 9-91 
2. | 319-90| 318-94) 329-51 328-69] 0-96|0-82| ,, 14.|322-92/ 317-75 333-69|327°88| 5°17] 5°81 
. | 321-09] 318-62) 331-10' 328-72] 2°47/2:38| ,, 15.| 825-08] 328-04 335-84] 33386] 2-02 | 1-98 
8. | 324-04! 321-82| 333-99) 331-35] 2-22, 2°64) ,, 15,| 3825-08] 323-09, 335-84|332-49| 1:99 | 3:35 
. | 821-71| 320-00) 331-25) 329-67] 1-71) 1-58!) ,, 16,| 322-66) 320-73 332°31/ 331-64) 1:93 | 0-67 
0. | 32306) 319-60) 334-05) 329-70| 3-46, 4°35) ,, 16, | 322-76) 320-73, 333-96 331-64, 2°03 | 2-32 
1, | 323-68] 321-89] 334-25| 331-87| 1-79, 2°38) ,, 17./324:36 322°97) 335-06 33413] 1:39 | 0-938 
4 | 
2. | 321-77| 316-49] 331-69) 326-17) 5°28, 5°42| ,, 20.|324-27| 322-13 334-72, 332-47) 2-14 | 2-25 
8. | 317-81] 315-49) 328:51|326-00| 2:32, 2-51) ,, 21.|321-84) 318-59| 332-23/ 329-60) 3:25 | 2-63 
4, | 321-22) 315-30) 331-78] 826-04) 5-92) 5-74) Dec, 30, | 323-43) 320-95) 333-54) 380-94) 2-48 | 2-60 
5. | 322-28) 320-74! 332-23| 330-32) 1-54) 1-91 Sum! 119-91 | 122-58 
oe 320-49| 331-42| 330°35| 1-20) 1-07 Mean .| 2498| 2-554 
3 


112 


Senf. 


. 321-88 
. | 21:87 
. | 21°86 
21:85 
21-84 
21:83 
21°82 
21°81 
21°68 
21:59 
21-49 
21:38 
21:19 
20:99 
20-80 
20°65 
20:30 
20:22 
20-10 
20-02 
20-00 
19-92 
19°65 
19-44 


. (319-28 
18°97 
18°81 
18°57 
18-29 
18:13 
17:96 
17:80 
17°79 
W777 
17°66 
17°69 
17°78 
17:86 
18:05 
18:20 
18:35 
18:50 
18°65 


parent regularity of the flowing of the waves, producing certain of the maxima — 


Prag. 


331-95 
31-94 
31-94 
31:87 
31-79 
31:79 
31-60 
31-62 
31:63 
31-44 
31-25 
31-05 
30°81 
30-44 
30-23 
29:98 
29-67 
29:52 
29-40 
29:22 
29-05 
28-96 
28:87 
28-71 


328°51 
28°32 
28°26 
27°95 
27°85 
27-80 
27°65 
27:65 
27°61 
27-69 
27°77 
28-10 
28:21 
28°57 
28°65 
28°75 
28°85 
28°88 
28-90 


State of Barometer. 


P.—S. 


— 


10°07 
10:07 
10-08 
10:02 
9-95 
9-96 
9:78 
9°81 
9:95 
9°85 
9-76 
9:67 
9-62 
9-45 
9-43 
9°33 
9:37 


State of 
Thermometer. 


Senf.} Prag. 
70\4 9:0 
6-4 8°6 
6:0 8-1 
58 76 
6:0 7:3 
6:0 69 
70) 71 
9:3 8°5 
10:0} 105 
11:2} 11:7 
12:0; 12:9 
12°8| 14:0 
13:7} 15:2 
145} 16:4 
15:2] 166 
15°5| 18:2 
15°77) 18:2 
150} 18:5 
147| 17:8 
14:0} 16°5 
12°0| 15:3 
94) 14:8 
86| 14:3 
8:8] 13°6 
va [412-9 
«| 123 
see 11:8 
ose 11-4 
J 111 
age 11:0 
et SO. 
15-2} 12°6 
Ppp ee a 
we | 147 
; 22:7 

Priel a 5°) 

. 12-4 
12-4 

12:5 

12:7 

126 

12°9 

12-6 


REPORT—1845. 


TaB_e II. 
18th June, 1844. 


Relative Humidity. Ran Nol Papal 
P,—S. ||Senf. |Prag.|P.—S. ‘Senf. Prag.| p.—S. 
+2-0|| 76 | 64 | —12/ 2°86 [2°54 | 0-02 
422)| 75 | 64 | —11|2°69 )2°74 |40-05 
42:1]! 75 | 66 9 ||2-60 |2°71 |4.0-11 
41:8|| 74 | 71 | — 3|)2°53 [2°81 | 40-28 
+1:3|| 76 | 74 | — 2||2°64 |2-86 | 40-22 
+0-9|| 77 | 73 | — 4|/2°67 |2°68 |+0-01 
+0-1|| 75 | 72 | — 3]'2-82|2°74 |—0-08 
—0°8 || 71 | 66 | — 5|/3-20 [2-80 | — 0-40 
40:5 || 64 | 60 | — 43-00 |2-93 |—0-07 
+05 || 55 | 50 | — 5/282 |2-68 |—0-14 
40-9 || 57 | 41 | —16||3-14 |2-42 |_0-72 
+1-2|| 51 | 40 | —11 ||2-98 |2-56 |_0-42 
+15 || 54 | 40 | —14|/3-37 |2-77 |—0°60 
41-9|| 45 | 39 | — 6//2-99 |2°64 |—0-35 
41-4|| 48 | 88 | —10]3:36 |2-93 |—0-43 
4+2-7|| 45 | 33 | —12|/3-38 2-91 |—0-47 
+2-5|| 41 | 36 | — 5||3-00 [3:22 |4.0-22 
+35 || 44 | 82 | —12|/3-03 |2-89 |—0-14 
+3:1|| 50 | 35 | —15 |3-38 |3-05 | 0-338 
42-5 || 62 | 42 | —20|\3-97 |3-27 |—0-70 
43:3 || 72 | 50 | —22|/3-96 |3-97 |--0:39 
45:4|| 85 | 54 | —31 |/3-86 |3-66 |—0-20 
+5°7 || 88 | 59 | —29 |\3-76 |3°84 | 40-08 | 
44:8 || 81 | 64 | —17||3:54|3-96 | 40-42 
88 | 70 | —18]| ... |4:138 
88 | 78 | —10]| ... |4:38 
$6 | 81 }— 5] ... |4:38 
80 | 80 Ol] ... 4°19 
76 | 80|+ 4|| ... [4:09 
73 | 80|+ 7]| ... {4:05 
70 | 80 | +10}! ... }4:07 
65 | 74 | + 9/455 [4:25 
65 | 71 |+ 6]| ... |4:58 
65 | 68 |+ 3]| ... |4:59 
60 | 77 | +17 451 
50 | 81 | +3] 4:53 
.. || 50 | 85 | +35 4-75 
57 | 82 | 425 4:68 
73) 81\4+ 8 5°19 
TG | fol 2 4°35 
80 | 70 | —10 4-05 
80 | 74 | — 6 4:36 
80 | 78 | — 2 4-04 


Second Report on Atmospheric Waves. 
By WiuuiaM Rapcuirr Birt. 


Tue Report which I have the honour to present to the Association on the 
present occasion will consist of three portions :— 
Ist. Of some remarks on the regular monthly altitude of the barometer 
above 30 inches, as observed at Greenwich by the Astronomer Royal ; the ap- 


Senf. 


—E— 


N.W. 


0.8.0. 


| 
|| 0.8.0. 


| 


Direction of 
ind. 


Prag. 


i 


R- 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. ‘113 


and their intervals; also the determination of the direction in which they move, 
from observations at the three stations, Greenwich, Prague, and Munich. 

Qnd. Of the recurrence of the symmetrical wave observed in November 
1842, in November 1843, and October 1844, with the mean wave deduced 
from combining the three. 

3rd. Of an extension of the investigation of the waves A 1 and B 1, forming 
the subject of the last report. This portion is confirmatory of the views then 
advanced, and will include evidence of the existence of two larger waves on 
which those noticed last year were superposed. 


. Section I. 
Rise of the Barometer above 30 inches. 


In Table IV. of the abstracts of the results of meteorological observations 
made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1840 and 1841, Mr, Airy has 
shown that in every month the barometer rose above 30 inches. The same 
result is shown in Table V. of the abstracts for 1842. The observations made 
at the Colonial Observatory at Toronto indicate the same general fact ; in 
every month during 1841 and 1842 the barometer rose above 29°750. ‘The 
altitudes, when reduced to the level of the sea, agree with those at Greenwich, 
showing a rise on both sides of the Atlantic above 30 inches in every month. 
When, however, the dates of the maxima at the two stations are compared, 
-we find in almost all instances considerable difference, that is, the absolute 
maxima at both stations are generally several days’ interval from each other. 
On turning to the daily records of barometric pressure at both stations, we 
find maxima occurring at but few days’ interval from each other, so that cor- 
responding to the greatest altitude for the month at one, we obtain shortly 
before or after a maximum at the other. This leads us to a fact of a very 
interesting nature, and one that is generally borne out by the Greenwich ob- 
servations, namely, that ¢wice in each month the barometer passes a maximum 
above, or but very slightly depressed below 30 inches, but more usually above. 

Upon subjecting the Toronto observations to a closer scrutiny and clearing 
them from every extraneous influence, so that the pure gaseous pressure may 
alone be contemplated, the rise to this gauge-point (30 inches, or with the 
tension of the aqueous vapour deducted 29°900) is much more frequent, and 
there are but few exceptions to the general fact, that the pressures at the 
epochs of maxima are confined to small excursions, seldom amounting to *1 
inch above or below the mean—30°030, including those observations that 
are evidently of an extraordinary character—29°983, excluding them and the 


lower readings marked (+) in the following Table, which includes all such 
_ maxima observed at Toronto during the period of the regular flowing of the 


waves at Greenwich, hereafter to be noticed. The observations, as recorded 
in the volume of Toronto observations, have been reduced to the level of the 
sea ; the tension of aqueous vapour has been subtracted in each case, and the 
gaseous pressures resulting have been corrected for the diurnal and annual 
oscillations as determined from the two years’ observations. During the pe- 
riod embraced by the table at the station Toronto, the gaseous pressure 
appears to have passed a maximum about or not far removed from the 3rd 


_ of each month, and another about the 16th or 17th; intermediate maxima, 


5, 


about the 10th and 27th, have also been observed, but with less regularity. 
From observations made during so short a period at only one station it would 
be premature to draw any conclusions. It however appears very desirable that 
some approximation to the Canadian normal wave should be attempted, by 
combining the observations in a manner somewhat similar to that which I 


- part of this report). 


i 1845. I 


ey adopted with regard to the great November wave (see the second 


—_ ae 


: 


114 REPORT—1845. - : 


TABLE I. 


Maxima of the Gaseous Atmospheric Pressure observed at Toronto between 
January 24 and September 15, 1841, corrected for the Annual and Di- 


urnal Oscillations, and reduced to the level of the sea. 


Month. Epoch. | Altitude. Month Epoch. | Altitude. 
| ad h in. h in. 
January ....| 25 18* | 29:912 | May......... 18 20 29°900 
- 28 8% | 29994 || _ ,, 29 0» | 29:932 
February.... 3 22* | 30098 | June......... 2 20° | 30°036 
4 7 22 30°245* || ,, 9 0 | 29-978 
% 17 12 29-994 pS 16 14 | 29-999 
F 24 0 30°011 E 20 16° | 29-923 
March......| 1 22 299900 | July... 2 208 30°067 
af | 420° | 30345* % 7 18 29°868t 
< |; $18 29-977 5 10 42 | 29-986 
e | 9 20° | 30-019 93 16 222 | 29-980 
7 | 11 8* | 380°103* s 20 4 30°048 
BS | 16 20 30°383* is 26 0 30°003 
. / 30 6° | 30-025 » 27 22 29:988 
April s.ussss 2 18 29°914 | August...... 1 223 | 29-950 
“ 5 22 SY ali | ie 11 14% | 29-942 
;, 15 2 30:410* | ,, 15 18 29°923 
* 22 0 30°245* > 19 16% | 29°853+ 
ie 27 18" | 29:875t ||, 23 18 30°156* 
May..-.sss-s 3 6 30°029 |September | 14 18 30:148* 
| 620 | 30011 | 


Upon carefully collating the Greenwich observations for the same period 
and reducing all maxima above 29:800 to the level of the sea, we obtain the 
results recorded in the following Table. ‘The same frequency of rise above 
the gauge-point (30:000) noticed at Toronto is observable at Greenwich; 
and to a certain extent there is some agreement in the epochs of the maxima; 
epochs differin.; less than 30 hours, both series being reduced to Gottingen 
mean time, are marked (*) in both tables. 


TaBLe If. o 


Barometric Maxima observed at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, between 
January 23 and September 20, 1841, reduced to the level of the sea. 


Month. Epoch. | Altitude. Month. Epoch. | Altitude. 
dh in. dh 
January ...| 24 22% | 30437 || June........{ 3 228 
‘ 28 0? 304 J 8 10 
x 31 18 “452 " 13 20 
February 3 4 ‘114 % 15 22 
ra 10 0 “123 > 21 208 
i‘ 21 22 | 30-452 . 27 14 
March...... 3 227 | 29-988 diily cease. 2 128 
Wy 10 22° | 30572 . 9 128 
M4 24 0 | 30-329 " 16 208 
nae 28 0 | 29-998 a 24 10 
5) 30 2? | 29°998 || August ....) 1 20% 
| April ....... 9 22 80-183 > 12 10° 
ee 13 10 202 " 18 228 
bei 18 0 “O11 7 26 10 
> | 26 10 +180 September; 1 0 
| 4 27 228 294 A, | § 20 
a4 29 20 240 * | 10 22 
May «e+... | 10 0 235 w | 16 22 
3 13 20 44] » 19 22 
+ 23 20 |- -260 | 
= 28 22" | 30-168 


#® Maxima more than ‘1 inch above 30 in. 


+ Maxima more than ‘1 inch below 30in. ~ 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 115 


The passages of maxima about or not far removed from the 3rd of each 
monta, appears to have failed at Greenwich for April and May. On turning, 
however, to the Greenwich records we find maxima within 12 hours of the 
epochs at Toronto of the following values, when corrected for sea level. April 
2, 14 hours, 29:815 ; May 3, 4 hours, 29°851. It consequently appears that the 
two series so far agree in the general fact, that about the 3rd of each month 
for the period included in the tables, the barometer passed maxima on both 
sides of the Atlantic, the excursions above or below the gauge-point at Green- 
wich being much greater than those at Toronto. 

Upon a still closer comparison of the maxima at both stations, it appears 
highly probable that, with few exceptions, they are nearly contemporaneous, 
the excursions at Greenwich being, as just noticed, by far the greatest. It 
is a matter of regret that at present this most interesting subject cannot be 
followed out in all its details, and that the announcement cannot extend much 
beyond the high probability that during nearly eight months of the year 1841 
the barometric movements on both sides of the Atlantic (Toronto and Green- 
wich being at present the extreme stations) were connected, in so far as the 
observations indicate a tendency to increased pressure at both stations at 
nearly the same epochs, and that these epochs appear to observe some regu- 
larity, exhibiting a periodicity of about 30 days’ interval, especially that of 
maximum pressure, about the 3rd of each month, which is clearly traced at 
both stations. The greater excursions at Greenwich, the insular station, are 
perfectly in accordance with facts of a similar character developed in the 
course of the reduction of meteorological observations (see Sir John Her- 
schel’s Report in the volume for 1843). 

A comparison of the Table of Barometric Maxima in the Greenwich Abs- 
tracts, with a similar table in the 15th volume of the Memoirs of the Royal 
Academy of Brussels, p. 17, leads to the same result as that obtained from 
a comparison of the Greenwich and Toronto observations, in so far as the 
absolute maxima at both stations, Greenwich and Brussels, are not in all 
cases contemporaneous, or separated only by a short interval. The table 
alluded to gives only one maximum in the month, the highest reading. In 
the Greenwich records we find corresponding maxima to these, with short 
intervals between the transits at each station. From a consideration of the 
two series of maxima the following Table has been formed. 


Tas_e_e IIL. 


Exhibiting the symmictrical disposition of Barometric Waves on each side 
a central Axis, June 3: 22, 1841. ; 


Month. Epoch. Altitude. | Interval. | Wave. 


a in. dh 
March...... 10 22 30°572 138 2 6 
es 24 0 329 20 10 5 
April .......) 13 10 +202 13 0 4 
Ht 26 10 180 17 10 3 
May.........| 13 20 441 10 0 2, 
Es 23 20 260 ll 2 1 
JUNE seceeee 3 22 426 Axis. 
B 15 22 289 12 0 1 
a8 27 14 ‘179 11 16 2 
July ........ 912 | ‘019 11 22 3 
s 24 10 +232 14 22 4 
August ..... 12 10 010 19 0 5 
£ 26 10 30°353 14 0 6 


12 


* 


116 REPORT—1845. 


The barometric curve accompanying the Greenwich observations for 1840 
and 1841, exhibits a considerable interval between the minima of January and 
February in the latter year; this interval is 36 days, and may be advantage- 
ously compared with a long interval between the maxima of September 19 
and October 21, of 31 days 16 hours. This long interval is remarkable for a 
considerable and symmetrical depression of the barometer, nearly midway 
between the two maxima, namely from October 5,22 hours 57 minutes to 23 
hours 55 minutes ; the reading uncorrected for sea level was 28°697. If we 
consider the point equally distant from the January and February minima to 
be the summit of a normal wave, we shall have the epoch of its transit January 
28:18: now the period from this apex to the depression in October will equal 
250 days. The middle point of this period falls on the 2nd of June; on the 
3rd of June, 22 hours, the barometer passed a maximum. On each side of 
this maximum are 6 maxima with a mean interval of 14 days 1 hour. It is 
interesting to observe, that the minimum of the 16th of February, and that 
of the 5th of October, are the boundaries of the period of least range; mean 
range for the seven months 1:029. Upon the hypothesis that the maxima were 
the crests of waves, it appears that during the period of least range sixteen 
waves traversed England, having a mean interval between their crests of 14: 
days 5 hours. The column of intervals clearly exhibits a considerable regu- 
larity in the succession of these waves, as well as their symmetrical position 
relative to the axis, and their altitudes support the same idea. Taking the 
middle wave June 3 : 22, we find corresponding altitudes on either side; thus 
the highest wave passed Greenwich on March 10: 22, altitude 30°572. Six 
waves on the other side of the axis, we also have the highest reading, namely 
August 26 : 10, altitude 30°353. The following Table places this regularity 
both as respects altitudes and intervals in a clearer light. 


Taste IV. 
Altitudes of Waves equally distant from the Axis, June 3:22. 


; Mean Mean 
Wave. Epoch. Altitnde. Altitude. | Interval. 
th. |March ...... 2 : : 
August...... 26 10)  -353 ¢| 20°62 | 14 1 


5th. |March ...... 24 0 329 


August...... 12101 -olos| 30169 | 14 8 


ve Titty co, 34 10) aap f] 80217 | 12 18, 
SN ffaiywccce, 8 13] up {| 80009 | 12 8 
mjunes 87 14] 79 f| 80810 | 
eT, 18 22] aay f] 80874 | 1118 
Axis, [June......... 3 22| 30-426 


On pursuing the investigation beyond the period of least range and ex- 
tending it into that of the great winter oscillations, the same regularity of 
perturbation is still apparent; there appears to be a symmetrical movement 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 117 


of the barometer on a large scale, of a somewhat similar character to that of 
the great November wave. The oscillations on each side the central maximum 
June 3: 22 have evidently a symmetrical relation, and are to be distinguished 
from the monthly maxima before alluded to. It is highly probable that a 
further examination of the Toronto observations will furnish us with the Ca- 
nadian type of atmospheric waves, in the same manner as Sir John Herschel 
found various continental types, and that in some localities (Hanover for in- 
stance) the barometric curves were exceedingly anomalous, arising most pro- 
bably from an interference of different systems of waves. It is also pro- 
bable that a further examination of the Greenwich observations relative to 
the monthly maxima will develope the corresponding British type, and that 
an investigation of the greater symmetrical movements will conduct us to 
phenomena of a highly interesting character. 


Directions of Waves. 


The apparent regularity of the flowing of these waves, has induced the 
hope that by a more detailed examination of the transits of the maxima at 
distant stations, a tolerable idea may be formed of the direction in which 
they move, and thus a step may be gained in ascending to their causes. If 
we take Greenwich, Prague and Munich, as three stations, the order of transit 
will vary, as the direction of the axis of translation of each wave varies. 
The following appear to be some of the phzenomena presented by waves mo- 
ving in different directions. 

I. Waves from W.N.W., or nearly so.—The crests will first pass Green- 
wich, and at a considerable period after they will pass Munich and Prague; 
these stations they will pass about the same time; Munich and Prague will 
therefore have simultaneous maxima. 

II. Waves from 8.W.—The crests will pass the stations in the following 
order: Greenwich, Munich, Prague. 

III. Waves from S.S.W.—The crests will pass Greenwich and Munich 
simultaneously, and afterwards Prague. 

IV. Waves from S. by W.—The crests pass the stations in the following 
order: Munich, Greenwich, Prague. 

V. Waves from $.—The crests will pass the stations nearly at the same 
time. 

VI. Waves from S.S.E.—The crests pass the stations in the following or- 
der: Munich, Prague, Greenwich. 

The fact that numerous systems of waves traverse Europe at the same time 
renders it very difficult to determine the intervals between the transits of two 
successive maxima of the same system ; the only mode appears to be, to ar- 
range all the maxima and minima, and to classify and examine those that are 
moving in the same direction and that transit the stations under the same 
circumstances. 

Table V. exhibits the maxima and minima that passed Munich between 
the transits of two minima, which apparently marked the passage of the an- 
terior and posterior troughs of a normal wave; the altitudes are converted 
into English inches and reduced to the level of the sea. 

During this period we find three maxima from the §.S.W.; the intervals 
between them are nearly equal ; the first 104 hours, and the second 97 hours. 
The middle wave is the highest, 30°667 ; those on each side are nearly of the 
same altitude 30°304 and 30275; the central wave is the highest of the series, 
which opens with a small wave from W.N.W. Table VI. exhibits the features 
of this wave. 


118 REPORT—1845. 


TABLE V. 


Barometric Maxima and Minima observed at Munich during the transit of 
a supposed normal wave *. 


No.| Phase.} Direction. | Epoch. moet Rafer. Wave. 

EEE, RR EE a ee ee hE ee ee 
1 | Min. | w.n-w. | March. 18 4 | 380/103 R. 
2] Max.| w.xn.w.| , 18 28 +238 re 1 
3| Min. | weew.| ,, 19 4 ‘171.4, 
ig Pl ee ah ee GY Abeer ea Re cia Cae | 
5 | Max. | w.n-w. $3 19 20 304 I. 3 
6 | Min. | s.w. po i AS 238 ie 
7 | Max S.W. - 21 11 342 Il. 4 
8 | Min s.w. . 22 4 218 Il. 

9 | Max. | s.s.w. * 23 22 “667 III. 5 
10 | Min. | w.n.w. ss 27 «4 “123 A 
11 | Max. | s.s.w Ex 27 23 275 Ill. 6 
12 | Min. | w.n.w. Bs 30 4 218 I. 
13 | Max. | w.N.w. 3 30 18 +390 ip 7 
14 |} Min S.W. 31 14 *027 II. 
15 | Max s.w. | April 110 | 30-095 Il. 8 
16 | Min. | w.n-w. 5 212} 29-884 I. 


TasLe VI.—First Wave from W.N.W. 


Anterior Trough (A). 


Posterior Trough (P). 


Station. |EpochofTransit.| Altitude. |/EpochofTransit.| Altitude. ||Epoch of Transit.| Altitude. . 


dh |Eng, in. d hjEng. in. d h/Eng. in. 
Greenwich .|March 17 18) 29°501 ||March 18 14} 29-721 ||March 18 20 29-682 
Prague....-. » 18 4) 30009 || ,, 18 22) 30089 || ,, 19-1) 30-071 
Munich ..... Ma 18 4} 30°103 eS 18 23} 30-238 " 19 4| 30171 
ee ea BC ot ei ce I 


Co-ordinates. 


Altitude from | Amplitude} Diff. Anterior and 


Station. | anterior Trough.| in Time, | Posterior Troughs. 
ng. in. ho’ P—A. Eng. in. | 
Greenwich . “220 26 ‘l 
Munich ..... 135 24 068 
Prague...... 080 21 062 


It is probable that as the posterior slope of this wave passed off, it was met 
by the anterior slope of the first S.S.W. wave, so that the true posterior trough 
was not observed, the minimuin being anticipated and the readings being 
higher than they would otherwise have been. It is also probable that this 
wave rode on the anterior slope of a normal wave. 

Thesucceeding maxima4and 5, from S.S.W.and W.N.W., passed Greenwich 
and Prague at both stations about the same hour, and Munich within six 
hours of each other. The posterior troughs of both were obliterated by a 
well-developed wave from S.W., interval 37 hours, after which the 2nd S.S.W. 
wave appeared, 


* It appears probable that the maxima recorded in Table III. indicated the crests of 
normal waves. The maxima and minima in this Table are those resulting from secondary 
waves. 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 119 


TABLE VII.—Wave from S.W. 
Anterior Trough (A), Crest. ' | Posterior Trough (P). £ 


Station. |Epochof Transit.} Altitude. ||Epoch of Transit.| Altitude, |/Epoch of Transit,| Altitude, 


j d h{Eng. in, d h Hing. in. d h/|Eng. in. 
Greenwich .|March 20 0} 29°672 ||March 20 22*| 29-718 '|March 21 20) 29-420 
Munich ..... 5 20 15| 30:238 » 2111 | 80342 | ,, 22 4) 30-218 


Prague....| . 21 2) 30038 |) ,, 2118] 30112 | ,, 22 16| 29°988 


Co-ordinates. 


Altitude from {Amplitude | Diff, Anterior and 


Station, PosteriorTrough.} in Time. | Posterior Troughs. 
Eng. in. hours. |A—P. Eng. in. 
Greenwich . +298 44 +252 
Munich ..... 24 37 020 
Prague....+- 124 38 050 


The next and fifth wave that transited the area was from the S.S.W,; the 
anterior trough was obliterated, as before noticed ; shortly before the crest 
of the succeeding wave of this system passed ; the W.N.W. system again made 
its appearance ; the anterior trough of the third observed wave passed Munich 
March 27:4. The following Table exhibits its features: it is altogether a 
much larger wave than the first. 


TasBLeE VIII.—Third observed Wave from W.N.W. 


Anterior Trough (A). Crest. Posterior Trough (P). 


Station. [Epoch of Transit.} Altitude. |/Epoch of Transit.| Altitude. Epochof Transit.) Altitude. 


h | Eng. in. - d h | Eng. in. 


' d_ hj Eng. in. d 
Greenwich .|March 26 4] 29°631 ||March 30 2| 29-998 ||April.. 1 16 | 29°596 
Munich ..... ” 27 = 4| 30°123 “4 30 18} 30:390 + 2 12 | 29°884 


Prague....-- on 27 «6| 29-947 re 30 20) 30-071 ei 2 10 | 29:674 
Co-ordinates. 


Station. Altitude from |Amplitude | Diff. Anterior and 


PosteriorTrough.| in Time, | Posterior Troughs. 

P Eng. ineh. hours. |A—P, Eng. inch. 
Greenwich . 402 156 035 
Munich ..... 506 152 239 
Prague...... 397 148 273 


The minimum from W.N.W,, March 30:4, appears to have been of a secon- 
dary character, that is, it was not a true trough, but was most probably pro- 
duced by the apex of the third S.S.W, wave which transited during the pas- 
sage of the anterior slope of the wave. During the transit of the posterior 
slope, the anterior slope of a small wave from S.W. passed. 

The 10th of March was characterized by exhibiting the highest barometri- 
cal reading during the year. The two highest readings of the month occurred 


* A maximum occurred March 20 : 2, two hours after the transit of the anterior trough, 
altitude 29°699. The very short interval between the anterior trough and this maximum 
most probably arose from the depressing influence of the posterior slope of the 8.S.W. wave, 
‘which passed Greenwich March 19:14, The semi-interval of the S.S.W. wave would oc- 
‘easion its minimum to pass Greenwich March 21 : 16, four hours earlier than the posterior 
trough of this, so that it is highly probable that the great depression then observed resulted 


é from both troughs. 


120 REPORT—1845. 


onthe 10th and 24th, with an interval of fourteen days; the semi-interval would 
give the included minimum onthe 17th. Upon the assumption that the crest 
of the normal wave passed the stations on the 24th, the preceding crest having 
passed on the 10th, we have the normal trough passing on the 17th: the 
numbers in Table V. appear to indicate a gradual rise and fall preceding and 
succeeding the highest reading of the 24th, such as might be expected from 
the transit of a large wave, the anterior and posterior slopes being indented 
and masked by the transits of smaller waves flowing in various directions. The 
numbers and directions in the table convey the idea of a certain regularity 
in the flowing of these secondary and superposed waves. During the transit 
of the normal wave three systems of waves appear to have traversed the area 
included by the stations, from W.N.W., S.W. and 8.S.W. The crests of the 
latter system (3 waves) were only observed, but the intervals being so nearly 
equal, induces the opinion that they succeeded each other with great regularity, 
and were accompanied with troughs, although those troughs were masked and 
concealed by the other systems. It is also probable that the altitudes of these 
waves were nearly equal, the apex of the central wave being elevated by that 
of the normal. The W.N.W. system appears to have been a system the 
waves of which were increasing in size; the altitudes do not appear to have 
been sufficiently high to have occasioned them to ride above the upper por- 
tion of the normal wave. The waves of the S.W. system were rather larger 
than the earliest W.N.W. wave. 

If we consider the low readings of the 18th to mark the anterior trough of 
the normal wave and the maximum of the 24th to indicate its crest, we have 
the following elements and co-ordinates. 


TABLE IX.—Normal Wave. 


Anterior Trough, Crest. Co-ordinates. 

Station. Ep sen a Tt Altitude. pene Teeit, Altitude. || Altitude. | Semi-interval. 
d hj} Eng. in. d h{| Eng. in. || Eng. in. hours. 
Greenwich .|March 17 18] 29501 |\March 24 0} 30-329 f 150 
Munich ..... » 18 4| 30-103 |} , 23 29] 30-667 || 564 138 
Prague...... + 18 4) 30-009 _ 25 8) 30-400 |, -391 172 


The close of Table V. gives the lowest reading for the period included by it, 
and did not the barometer continue to fall, we might consider this point as the 
posterior trough of the normal wave. ‘The following are the altitudes of the 
wave from this point, with the semi-intervals. 


Station. Altitude. |Semi-interval. 


Eng. in, hours, 
Greenwich ....| °733 208 
Munich ........ 783 230 
Prague.,....... 726 194 


It is clear that the above elements of the normal wave, as well as those of 
the superposed or secondary waves, are greatly modified, the first by the 
secondary waves, and these again by the normal wave, and by each other. 
There is great reason to believe that the troughs of the S.S.W. waves were 
concealed. It will be shown in another part of this report, that by compa- 
ring observations at two stations and examining their barometric differences, 
the passage of a crest or trough may be rendered apparent, which by this 


mode of investigation remains concealed. Nevertheless it is highly probable’ * 


ae 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 121) 


that, by discussing a long series of observations in this manner, a tolerable idea 
of the succession and systems of waves may be formed, and the general fea- 
tures of the normal waves made out. The one under consideration appears 
to have had an interval of fifteen days. The great symmetrical wave of Nov. 
1842 had nearly the same interval, and succeeding waves, possessing a simi- 
larity of character both in interval and curve, were observed about the same 
period of the year in 1843 and 1844. The examination of these recurring 
atmospheric movements forms the subject of the next portion of the report. 


Secrion II. 
Recurrence of Symmetrical Wave. 


The diagram which accompanies this report (see Plate III.) exhibits three 
curves to a great extent similar, at least in so far as there is a general tendency 
in the barometer to rise during the period of the anterior half, and a similar 
tendency in it to fall during the period of the posterior half. From what has 
just been advanced, as well as from the discussions which were reported last 
year, there is great reason to consider the indentations on the anterior and pos- 
terior slopes of the curve of 1842 as distinct secondary and superposed waves ; 
the same may be said of the indentations on the curves of 1843 and 1844. 
Now it is probable that were we to separate the barometric effects of these 
waves, we should obtain a much clearer conception of the form and general 
elements of the normal wave which on the three occasions recorded passed 
London. For this purpose the following steps have been taken. The gene- 
ral contour of the curves indicates that the respective maxima passed about 
the following dates. 

1842. November 18, noon. 
1843. ” 14, 5 
1844. October 27, ” 


These days (noon) are therefore assumed as the axes of the curves, and 
the altitudes at intervals of two hours have been carefully read off from the 
original projections, and a mean of the three taken, from which the follow- 
ing Table has been constructed. The table is arranged in two compartments, 
the first containing the ordinates of the anterior slope, the second those of 
the posterior. The first column in the first compartment indicates the hours 
before the transit of the crest (—) ; the second the mean ordinate correspond- 
ing to any given hour. In like manner, the first column in the second compart- 
ment indicates the hours after the transit of the crest (+ ), and the second the 
mean ordinate corresponding to any given hour after transit. These num- 
bers have been used in the construction of the fourth curve, which exhibits 
to the eye the general form of the normal wave, freed to a certain extent of 
the effects of the superposed waves. 

There are several drawbacks to the value of any conclusions that may be 
drawn from these numbers and projections in their present state :— 

Ist. They are deduced from unreduced observations. The projections of 
the three upper curves are laid down from observations as read off from the 
scale without any reduction whatever, and the mean curve has been obtained 
from these unreduced observations. 

2nd. The observations themselves were made at irregular intervals, so that in 
deducing the mean, the quantities observed have not been used. The altitudes 
at the given hours of the curves drawn through the points indicating these 
observed quantities, are the quantities from which the mean has been obtained. 

3rd. The curves, and consequently the mean, consists of two distinct ele- 
ments, namely, the pressure of the gaseous atmosphere and the pressure of 


4 


i 


122 - REPORT—1845. 


the aqueous vapour. The normal wave of the gaseous atmosphere is there- 
fore greatly modified by the pressure of the aqueous vapour in these projec- 
tions, 


TABLE X. 


Ordinates of the Mean Normal Curve, deduced from the recurring Curves | 
of 1842, 1843, 1844, November. 


| 
(ones Pe | altitudes, ||, Hours af | attitudes. | Hours be: | attitudes. | pours af | altitudes. 
hours. in. i hours. in. | hours. in, hours. in. 
Apex 30°321 ||Apex 30°32] || 76 — | 29°775 + | 29-789 
pee 330 | 2 + 302 || 78 — ‘766 || 78 + 788 : 
by ioe ‘331 | res ‘301 | 80 — 758 || 80 + 771 ! 
oe $27 || 6 + 298 || 82 — 758 || 82 + “755 
ee 323 || 8 + 295 || 84 — ‘761 || 84 + 733 
cee 321 || 10 + 302 | 86 — 763 || 86 + 717 
1g jen 314 || 12 + 300 || 88 — ‘760 || 88 + 696 
PAs cs 299 || 14 + 296 || 90 — 748 || 90 + 667 
Ae 274 || 16 + 278 || 92 — 747 || 92 4+ -630 
1s. 2 229 || 18 + 26] || 94 — 735 || 94 + 590 
20 — 204 || 20° + 236 || 96 — -730 || 96 + “555 
22 = 169 || 22) + 204 || 98 — 722 || 98 + 548 
24 — “152 | 24 + 169 ||100  — 712 100 + 546 
2% — “132 || 26 +4 -130 [102 — 689 ||102 + “555 
28 — 106 || 28 + 091 |104. — “682/104 + -562 
a0. s 081 || 30 + 061 1106 — ‘687 106 + 558 
32 — 057 || 32 + | 30031 }108 — -687 |108 + 565 
pg -026 || 34. + | 29986 |110 — 681 |110 + 571 
36 — | 30-006 || 36 + 968 |112 — 675 |112 + 576 
38 — | 29-991 || 38 + 941 114. — 664 114 + 583 
40 967 || 40 + 933 |116 — 669 |116 + 590 
a= ‘941 || 42 4 934 |118  — 685 |118 + 589 
44 — ‘919 || 44 4 943 | 120 ~— -728 |120 + 578 
a 909 || 46 + ‘956 |122  — 744 |\122 0 +4 552 
ag 908 | 48 + 950 |124 — 74) 1124 538 
50 — 900 || 50 + 932 |126 — 734 126 -498 
cee “892 || 52 + 932 |128  — 722 |\128 + +459 
4 i 883 || 54. + 924 |130 — 711 130 + 405 
56 — 866 || 56 + ‘914 |132  — “688 132 + "332 
58 — 853 || 58 4 895/134 — “659 {1134 + 
60 — 843 || 66 + 883/136 — 625 136 + 
62 — 835 || 20 + 871 138 — 588 [138 + 
Gd ws “821 | 64 + 870 |140  — 532 140 + 179 
66 — 811 || 66 + 862 [142 — 482/142 + 214 
68 — 809 || 68 + 845 [144 — “455 144 4 +240 
70 — “791 | 70 + 841/146 — 428 |146 + 255 
: ee 794 | 72 + 829/148 — | 29-411 /148 +4 | 29-282 
74 — | 29-791 || 74 + | 29-803 || | 


4th. The curves are projected for one station only. It is not only proba- 
ble, but in the case of the curve for 1842 it has been ascertained, that even 
for comparative short distances N.E. and S.W. of the line joining Dublin 
and Munich, the symmetry is considerably departed from, as will be shown 
in the further examination of that curve; it is therefore important, as well as 
deducing the mean normal curve from a combination of the three curves at 
one ‘station, to examine the character of the superposed waves at several 
stations previous to drawing any conclusions relative to the normal wave. 

5th. The projections are affected by the diurnal and annual variations of — 
gaseous and aqueous pressure, the causes of which are known. a 

We have however the means of obtaining at four important stations, the © 


& 


: 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 123 


elements of this normal wave freed from all extraneous cireumstances. At 
Munich we possess barometric records every hour for the three years ; these 
are reduced to the freezing temperature and accompanied with observations 
from which the tension of the vapour may be obtained. It will be.necessary 
for the three periods embraced in the diagram to express the barometric al- 
titudes in English inches, and reduce them to the level of the sea. When 
so reduced the vapour pressure must be deducted, leaving the gaseous pres- 
sure only, and this must be further corrected for the diurnal and annual 
variations of the gaseous pressure; we shall thus obtain three curves repre- 
senting the variations of gaseous pressure, the causes of which we are seeking, 
and the mean of these three curves will to a certain extent be freed from those 
indentations which appear to result from the passage of secondary waves. 

The same process must be adopted with respect to the observations at 
Prague, Brussels. and Greenwich ; when this is accomplished we shall obtain 
four normal curves, the comparison of which will be highly instructive and 
important. 

The curve of 1842 is tinted for the purpose of indicating the prevalent 
wind during the period occupied by one coloured portion. There does not 
appear much apparent relation between the colours and the flexures of the 
curve. Two points, however, claim our especial attention,—the change in 
the direction of the wind to nearly the opposite point, on the transit of the 
crest,—and the calms intervening between that and other changes nearly of a 
similar character. N.E. winds are coloured blue, S.W. pink, and S.E. green, 
The direction has been obtained from the Greenwich observations. 

Sir John Herschel has shown in his ‘ Report on the Reduction of Meteoro- 
logical Observations’ (Report, 1843, p. 99), that there must be a close and 
purely dynamical connexion between the advancing form of the wave and the 
molecular movement of the air; the character of the molecular movement will 
greatly depend on the order of the wave. In the absence of data for deter- 
mining the precise characters of the waves under consideration, it may not be 
uninteresting to offer a few remarks on the two points to which our atten- 
tion has been directed :—1st. The calm preceding the reversion of wind on the 
transit of the crest, Nov. 18th, 1842. A very casual comparison of the direc- 
tion of the wind at several stations marked on the area, shown in Plate XLII. 
(Report, 1844), indicates that the molecular movement was directed towards 
the point of least pressure, a result to be expected, and perfectly in accordance 
with the beautiful deductions of Col. Sabine (see his Report on the Meteor- 
ology of Toronto, Report, 1844). Now in the case of a large wave stretch- 
ing over an extensive area, the anterior and posterior troughs would mark out 
parallel or nearly parallel lines of least pressure; the molecular movement 
would be strongest in these troughs, and directed towards them from each 
side; at stations removed from them the force of the wind would be greatly 
diminished, and at the intervening crest it would be so small as to be inap- 
preciable ; but however small it might be, upon the crest passing any station, 
the direction of the wind at that station would be reversed, and it would in- 
crease in intensity until the transit of the posterior trough. In this manner 
it is apprehended that the reversion of the wind, and the calm preceding it, 

Noy. 18th, 1842, are explained. The Greenwich observations offer a fine 
illustration of the increase of intensity. November 19th, 6 and 8 hours, the 
‘anemometer recorded a pressure of 2 to 4lbs. to the square foot 30 hours 
after transit. Qnd. The remaining calms in the diagram may be explained 

n the same way, but the synchronous traversing of different systems of waves 
masks the effects and prevents the relations between the wind and the advan- 


124 REPORT—1845.. 


cing wave-form becoming so perceptible, as in the first instance, namely the 
transit of the crest of the normal wave. 


ee 


Section III. 
Investigation of secondary Waves A.1, A 2, B 1 (reported last year). 


In my letter to Sir John Herschel published in the last Report, I stated that 
the coloured projections indicated three things as connected with the disposi- 
tion of the atmosphere :—“ Ist, the depth or extent of colour will show the 
depression of the lower station below the upper ; 2nd, the intersections of the 
curves will indicate that at the time of intersection the stations had an 
equality of pressure; and 3rd, the change of the position of the same colour 
will point out that the station which exhibited or experienced the higher or 
lower pressure, afterwards experienced the lower or higher, with its amount.” 
In addition to these three indications, the coloured projections and the barometric 
differences they exhibit may be very extensively and advantageously used 
in this investigation, as at the time when any one intersection of the curves 
shows an equality of pressure at the respective stations, the intersection also 
indicates that either a crest or trough was passing between them. Now if, 
from other considerations, it is found that at any intersectionatrough is passing, 
the next intersection will exhibit the passage of the crest; the differences 
therefore between the curves, or in other words, the differences of pressure 
between the stations, will augment and decrease as the anterior slope passes, 
the greatest differences occurring as the middle of the slope transits. The 
same result will obtain as the posterior slope passes, but the affections of 
pressure will be altered; the station which exhibited the greatest pressure 
under the anterior slope will manifest the Jeas¢t under the posterior. This ' 
principle will indicate the passage of a wave independently of the state (7. e. 
rising or falling) of the barometer at the time. The mereury may be falling 
from the transit of the posterior slope of a wave passing in a certain direc- 
tion, and this may occur at both stations; yet, although both curves may be 
descending from a posterior slope in one direction, the opening between them 
may indicate the transit of an anterior slope in another. 


Wave B°. 

The last report brought the investigation as far as the determination of 
the waves A 1 and B 1 (Report, 1844, p. 273). The dimensions and velocity 
of the latter were given; also the character of the trough between A 1 and 
A. Inthe note to (24.), page 274, it is shown that these waves, especially 
B 1, were small waves superposed on much larger ones. The principle just 
alluded to enables us to determine the phases of the larger wave on which 
B 1 rolled, not however uninfluenced by the transits of others, but sufficiently 
well-marked to contemplate it in its individuality as it passed over the area 
from the 8.S.W. This wave we shall call Be. 


Wave B°. Between Scilly and Longstone. 


Anterior Trough. Crest. Posterior Trough. 
1842. Between h h h m 
Nov. 6: 15. Nov. 9: 18 and 19. Nov. 11 : 0: 30. 
7 OS ZL. 


Amplitude in time ..... 102 hours (about). 
ss space..... 2600 miles fs 
Velocity, about 25 miles per hour. 
N.B. The above determinations subject to correction in examining this 
wave at other stations. 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 195 


TasBLe XI. Wave B°. 
Barometric Differences arising from the Anterior and Posterior Slopes of B®. 


Epochs. |Longstone.| Scilly. Scilly +. Phases. 
1842, ewe 
d h | in. in. in, 
Noy. 6 _ 30°316 | 30°276 |— -040 | Anterior trough. 
306 |m *324 | + -018 

7 3 266 283 | + -017 
9 “215 270 | + -055 
15 | 30054 |m -241 |+ -187] . 
21 | 29-983 |m -273 |+ -290| 2 

8 3] -889 170 |4 -281 | 3 
9} °-747 | 30-066 |+ -319| x 
15 470 | 29849 | 4 °379 | “E 
21 +296 702 |-+ -406} = Greatest curve of 

9 2 m ern m oe £ a <i; _ anterior slope. 

te : 

5 426 553 ;-+ -127 | Crest. 
21 570 491 | — -079 |x 

10 : M a ae 7 oo § g. Greatest curve of 
15 | 286 |). 081 | — .-205. |. ra, Posterior slope. 
21 | 29:164 |m -061 | — -103 Pasteniet h 

11 3 | 28-990 | 29-081 | + -og1 | * OSetor trough. 


This Table exhibits the barometric differences arising from the passage of 
that section of B° which passed the extreme stations of the line given on page 
277, Report, 1844. In order to investigate the entire transit of this wave, it 
will be requisite to commence the examination of the distribution of pressure 
over the area at least two days earlier than the epoch chosen last year, namely, 
Noy. 6:15 instead of Nov. 8:15; and this is the more desirable, as during eight 
days previous to this epoch (Nov. 6:15) the barometer had maintained an 
altitude (with only one exception) above 30 inches. See Plate I. illustrating 
Sir John Herschel’s ‘ Report on Meteorological Reductions’ (Report, 1843). 
The table shows a very considerable fall during the transit of the anterior 
slope of B®. Now should there be no counteracting influence in operation, 
or in other words, should only one wave be passing, the barometer must rise 
during the transit of as anterior slope. We are therefore prepared, in accord- 
ance with the views advanced relative to the intersection of curves, to find 
another large wave moving in a different direction; and a comparison of the 
reducedaltitudes at Glasgow, Bardsey, South Bishop, Birmingham, Greenwich 
and St. Catherine’s Point, indicates that such a wave traversed the area, its 
erest passing the line joining Scilly and Bardsey Nov. 7:21, and its trough 
Nov. 9:3: this trough has already been noticed. .The details of this wave 
will be presented to the Association on a future occasion. By commencing 
the examination at this earlier period, we shall include the whole of the 
barometric movements immediately succeeding the state of comparative re- 
pose during the eight days already alluded to: the first great disturbance is 
evidently of a negative character, producing a great depression of the barome- 
ter, this was followed by those undulations which gave rise to the symmetrical 
wave exhibited in the diagram, and shown in Plate II. (Report, 1843). An- 
other advantage resulting from the earlier commencement of the investiga- 
tion, is that the complete transit of the wave producing the bulge noticed in 
the last report, (3.) (4.) (5.), page 271, is traced completely across the area. 

The principal phases of B° are given at the foot of p. 124. 


Wave Al. 
“A careful comparison of the reduced altitudes at Glasgow, Bardsey, Bir- 


126 REPORT—1845. 


mingham, South Bishop, and St. Catherine’s Point, from November 6 : 21 to 
7:1, leads to the very interesting fact that the anterior slope of this wave 
extended in the direction from Glasgow to St. Catherine’s Point. In the 
Report of last year we have this statement, “that a line cutting the crest of 
wave A 1 transversely appears to have passed through Genevaand Brussels.” — 
Report, 1844, p. 270 (2.). Now the line joining Glasgow and St Catherine's 
Point is nearly parallel with that joining Geneva and Brussels, anda line cut- 
ting the crest of wave A 1 transversely appears to have passed through Glas- 
gow and St. Catherine’s Point at 6:21. There can be but little doubt that 
from results so nearly similar at pairs of stations a considerable distance from 
each other and at epochs separated by an interval of 48 hours, we have iden- 
tified a distinct and well-developed wave. It will be the object of future 
research to trace this wave entirely across the area. 


Wave A°. 

The large wave alluded to in the remarks on B? is designated A°. Table XII. 
exhibits the barometric differences or variations at the stations on the line 
Scilly to Longstone ; at November 7 : 21, the stations Bardsey, South Bishop 
and Scilly, experienced a rise indicating the transit of the crest ; the greatest 
curvature occurred on this line at 8: 15, and the posterior trough at9:3. By 
combining these epochs we have the principal phases of the posterior slope 
of this wave ; all these phases occur on the same line, clearly indicating that 
they are connected, and result entirely from a distinct and different cause to 
that which produced the bulge or posterior slope of A 1. 


Tase XII. Wave A°. 
Barometric Differences every six hours, exhibiting the Phases of A®, 


Epochs. |Longstone.| Bardsey. |Sth.Bishop. Scilly. Phases. 
6 21 |— -010 | — -O11 | — -010 | +4 -048 
7 3 |— -:040 | — -031 | — :010 | — -041 
9 | — -051 |— -020 | — -000 | — -018 
15 | — ‘161 | — -031 | — -000 | — +029 
21 |— -071 |+4 -041 | 4+ +020 | +4 -032 | Apex. 
8 3 |— 094 | — -311 | — -216 | — -103 
9 | — -142 | — +152 | — -165 | — -104 
15 | — -277 | — -206 | — -126 | — °217 | Greatest curvature. 
21 |— 174 | — °169 | — -299 | — -147 
9 3 |— ‘071 |— :073 | — -083 | — -108 | Posterior trough. 


During the whole of this period B° exerted its elevating tendency. 


The projections of the synchronous curves for Munich, Prague, Geneva, 
Brussels, Paris, Haisboro, Greenwich, St. Catherine’s Point, Birmingham, 
Bardsey, South Bishop, and Dublin, November 8: 15 to 9: 3, exhibit four di- 
stinct areas of elevation, so that there are only certain curves of the group that 
intersect from the passage of B°; the remaining differences most probably 
arise to a great extent from the transit of A° 

The crest of A° passed Scilly to Bardsey, November 7:21 
The trough passed Scilly to Bardsey, ...November 9: 3 


diff. 30 hours 


Half breadth of wave in time ...........csseeeeseeeeeeeeee SO hours 
Altitude of crest at South Bishop. .................. 30°317 
Altitude of trough at South Bishop............0.+0 . 29°428 

"889 diff. 
Altitude of wave from posterior trough ............ ‘889 inch.” 


} 
| 


— 


ON ATMOSPHERIC WAVES. 127 


November 9: 3 we have the following altitudes reduced to the level of the 
sear November 9:3, Munich ..........ccsccseessseee veeee 30°256 
November 9:3, Bardsey .. ......ssessescececseseerses 29°38 
“871 diff. 
The close approximation of these differences appears to indicate that the 
slope from Munich to Bardsey was due to, and a representation of, the form 
of the posterior slope of A°, and that at this epoch the crest of the wave was 
situated near Munich; if so, we have for the first approximate amplitude and 
progress of this wave the following numbers :-— 


Amplitude...... 1856 miles 
Progress.......... 31 miles per hour 
Wave A 2. 
Taste XIII. 

Barometric Differences arising from the Anterior and Posterior Slopes of A 2. 
Epochs. | Dublin. | Bardsey. | Dublin. + Phases. ° 
8 21 |m29°391 | 29-458 | — -067 | Anterior trough. 

9 3 395 Im °385 | +°-010 
9 530 468 |+ 062 9 3 F 
15 | 576 lm +537 |+ -039 |9 9} | Anterior slope. 
21 555 506 |-+ 049 | Crest. 

10 3 323 342 | — -019 110 3 Posterjor sl 
9 189 | 208 | — -019 j10 9 f « S¥enOT Slope. 
15 021 | 28-979 | + :042 | Posterior trough. 


9:15 m Dublin. m Bardsey. Crest of B°. 

This Table exhibits the barometric differences at Dublin and Bardsey 
arising from the transit of wave AQ; it is an instance in which the transit of 
a crest is rendered apparent from the relative changes of pressure at the 
stations, although the barometer is falling at both from the passage of the 
posterior slope of B°. The following are the elements of the wave :— 


Wave A2. Between Bardsey and Dublin. 


Anterior Trough. Crest. Posterior Trough. 
1842. November 9:2 November 10:2 November 10: 14 
Amplitude in time, 36 hours. 
Elements of Waves. 


In the following Table the elements of the waves hitherto detected are 
brought together in one view. It is necessary to mention, that, from the na- 
ture of the inquiry and the present state of the investigation, these numbers 
are subject to correction. 


TasLeE XIV. Elements of Waves, Nov. 6 to 12, 1842. 


Epoch of | Amplitude. lyelocity, 


é 
a 2 Epoch of Epoch of Dian OP eRe Loe wr: | AS 
ES Direction: ifetiar Tough: Ren., ‘Trough Time Miles, permed ay 
é h d h mjd bh mj} bh by 

BolScilly to Longstone. ......s+sssseesses Nov. { FL t| 9 18 O11 0 30] 102] 2600] 25 
B}\Scilly to Longstone. ...............008 FPN BAW BW Gh HOP aa aah 341] 25 
AolSouth Bishop to St. Catherine’s Point.|...........s00e00 721 019 3 O} 60/1856) 31 
Ail J Glasgow to St. Catherine’s Pt. 

Banedein hy Wenevn ra Oe Lirig  PeReee Ted esa toy Cet LSS deditineii. 
A2/Dublin to Bardsey .....0...s0eeses scene » 9 2 110 2 O10 14 OF 36)1........ 


It appears highly probable that the direction of wave A? was similar to that 
of wave A! which it succeeded. The direction of wave A! is well-determined, 


128 | REPORT—1845. 


Tas_e XV. Exhibiting the Order of Succession of the Crests. 


1842. ; 
Noy. 6:21 | Crest of A} about entering on the area at Glasgow. 
a eek A© entered on the area at Bardsey, South Bishop, Scilly. 
yoo " B} entering on the area at Scilly. 
» 9:15 77 Bo extending from Dublin to Geneva. 
» 10:2 5 A’ entered on the area between Dublin and Bardsey. 


Should A? be found to be the succeeding wave to A!, the above Table indi- 
cates an interval of 3 days 5 hours (about) between these two successive crests. 
Thealtitudes are very different in consequence of the large posterior slope of A°. 

At the commencement of this investigation, it was stated that the only ef- 
ficient test that can be brought to bear on the theory that the non-periodic 
oscillations of the barometer are due to waves, appears to be the comparison 
of barometric observations reduced to the level of the sea. This view appears 
to be supported as far as the investigation has yet proceeded. It is cha- 
racteristic of waves that different systems pass onward without destroying 
each other ; each wave of each system pursues its own path, although crossed 
by others; and it can be followed in all its individuality. In the course of 
this inquiry three systems of waves have been detected, or at least three 
barometric maxima; these maxima have been found to move across the area 
in three different directions, having on each side a diminution of pressure. The 
progress of each of these maxima appears to have been quite independent of 
the others: thus at the opening of the observations, the line of greatest 
diminution of pressure on the English area was from Glasgow to St. Cathe- 
rine’s Point ; at alater period the observations indicated the direction of max- 
ima at right angles to this line, and that a line cutting this transversely passed 
through Geneva and Brussels; it is in this latter direction that the wave 
was considered to have been moving. The barometric phenomena in this 
direction progressed very slowly. While these movements were proceeding 
over the area, the barometric differences between Scilly and Longstone in- 
creased ; and the latter station exhibited a much less pressure than the former ; 
at length a decided line of maximum pressure is traced from Dublin to Ge- 
neva, after which the barometric affections at the stations are reversed, Scilly 
being the lowest and Longstone the highest. We have therefore a cause simul- 
taneously operating on the barometer with that which produced the move- 
ments from Glasgow to St. Catherine’s Point, and from Brussels to Geneva, - 
but evidently distinct, as the phenomena progressed in a different direction, 
namely from Scilly to Longstone. During the period that these two distinct 
but contemporaneous causes are in operation, producing certain barometric - 
phzenomena in certain directions, and from the last of which we should expect 
at certain stations, Scilly and Longstone, for instance, a rising barometer, we 
actually find it falling rapidly, but not without exhibiting the same phzno- 
mena that we apprehend characterizes this fall as resulting from a wave.. A 
decided line of maxima is observed; and in the same line, at a subsequent 
period, we find a line of minima; we can therefore, as previously remarked, 
trace each of these distinct sets of barometric phenomena in their own pe- 
culiar directions. It is however the reduction of the observations to the level 
of the sea that alone enables us to do this. The rise and fall at any one 
station, as exhibited by the curves (times being used as abscisse), give us 
the combined effects of the three systems, and unless they are carefully sepa- 
rated, as we have endeavoured to do in the preceding investigation, and which 
can only be done by taking the distance of the stations into account, we are 
perplexed with the apparent irregularity and capriciousness of the atmo- 
spheric changes. a 


ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 129 


We have already alluded to the molecular movement of the aérial particles 
or the wind as connected with these waves, and an opinion has been expressed 
that it is probable that generally the wind will be found directed towards the 
troughs. It has also been remarked that the great disturbance of the atmo- 
sphere, after the period of comparative repose previous to the 6th of Novem- 
ber, was of a negative character, producing a great depression of the mercu- 
rial column. Now the result of any great increase of temperature at any 
station would be a diminution of the pressure of the gaseous atmosphere (see 
Col. Sabine’s Report on the Meteorology of Toronto, Report, 1844). A cur- 
rent, or rather currents of air, would be produced in consequence; the baro- 
meter would fall, and the wind would be directed towards the line of least 
pressure (minima). This diminution of pressure would not however be con- 
fined to the locality in which the disturbance was produced, or even to those 
lines towards which the wind was directed, or the aérial current moved, it 
would gradually recede from the point of disturbance, giving rise to a wind 
in ifs progress still directed towards the line of least pressure ; the pheno- 
mena presented would be a rapidly falling barometer with an increasing force 
in the wind. This receding movement must be in the nature of a wave ; indeed 
it is difficult to conceive of a disturbance of the aérial ocean being imme- 
diately confined to the locality in which it originated. 

Mr. Scott Russell has determined that a wave of the first order does not 
diffuse itself equally in all directions around the place of disturbance, but 
that there is in one direction an axis along which it maintains the greatest 
height, has the widest range of translation, and travels with the greatest velo- 
city. Sufficient progress has not yet been made in this investigation, nor is 
the area included by the extreme stations of observation extensive enough 
to enable us to form any idea of the real character of these waves; much 
light however will be thrown on them by a careful comparison of the wind 
at each observation ; and it appears essential to bear in mind the distinction 

of Mr. Russell between waves of the first and second order, as any tests that 
_ may be applied having reference only to the characteristics of waves of the 
_ second order must necessarily fail, should these, especially the larger waves, 
be found analogous to waves of the first order. 

Postscript, Nov. 27, 1845.—Section II. of the preceding Report treats of 

_ the recurrence of certain symmetrical atmospheric movements in or near the 
_ month of November. These symmetrical oscillations were observed in 1842, 
_ 1843 and 1844, and great hopes were entertained that during the present au- 
_tumn they would again be observed. These hopes have been fully realized, 
_ the symmetrical wave has returned and has exhibited all its essential features. 
_ The barometric curve on the present occasion more nearly resembles that of 
1842 than those of the years 1843 and 1844; the large oscillation forming the 
"erest isvery distinctly marked. The apex passed London about noon of the 14th. 
_ Observations have been made at nearly thirty stations in the united kingdom. 


4 
5 


“Sketch of the progress and present extent of Savings’ Banks in the 
+ ' United Kingdom. By G. R. Porter, F.R.S. 


7 
_Amone the “signs of the times” which it is most satisfactory to contem- 
plate, because it affords at once evidence of social progress, and furnishes the 
best assurance for its continuance, must be placed the fact, that among the 
lasses of our countrymen who are in circumstances of ease and comfort 
there has of late arisen a great and growing concern for the well-being of the 
less favoured and more numerous class—those whose daily subsistence must be 
1845. K 


130 REPORT—1845. rv 


acquired by their daily toil. Influences to this end have long been quietly 
but steadily at work, set in motion by individuals, few in number and, for 
the most part, of small account in the eyes of the world, who were at first 
sustained only by the consciousness of duty performed, and who long remained 
uncheered by any evidences of success; those influences are now, however, 
openly and even ostentatiously employed, they have found their way into 
every circle, and have even received the homage of the senate. It has be- 
come fashionable to express the desire of promoting the general welfare of 
the working classes, and even to make some exertion to secure it, and we can 
hardly conceive that this stage of the question could have been reached, un- 
less through the sense of its importance having taken a firm hold of the pub- 
lic mind, enlisting among its promoters men who, by means of their station 
and intellectual endowments, must command the attention of society. 

The present is not an occasion on which it would be proper to enlarge upon 
the moral obligation to which allusion has now been made, but it is clearly with- 
in the province of statistical inquiry to ascertain, as correctly as possible, the ac- 
tual condition of those whom we would seek to benefit. Without such inquiries 
we must always be, as it were, groping in the dark, and liable to make a pro- 
fitless use of our energies, if even they should not be hurtfully employed. 

Various efforts, which have been attended with more or less of success, have 
been made of late years by our statistical societies, and by means of govern- 
ment commissioners, to place before the world true pictures of the social 
condition of great masses of our fellow-countrymen, who form what, by a 
somewhat arbitrary distinction, are called the working classes; and from a 
variety of journals and parliamentary reports much is to be learned concern- 
ing their means of living, as well as the manner in which such means are em- 
ployed. Our hours of leisure could hardly find better employment than in 
studying the different volumes in which this subject is authoritatively treated, 
in weighing the recommendations which they offer, and in helping to carry 
into execution those among them which appear to call for adoption, and which 
it may be in our power to forward. The volumes in question are within the 
reach of every one, and it would be productive of but little good to call 
away attention from them, by offering an analysis, or pretended analysis, of 
their contents. There is, however, one subject, intimately connected with 
the matters of which they treat, and which at the same time has become a 
thing of national importance, inquiry into which may throw light upon every 


branch of the subject, and which has not been made the matter of any recent — 
investigation—the progress of savings’ banks,—in describing which [ would ~ 


now venture to solicit a few minutes of attention on the part of the Section. 

Savings’ banks, it is well known, are to be placed among the inventions of 
the present century. They are of English origin, although, happily, they are 
not now confined to these kingdoms. We owe their institution to a well- 


known benevolent lady, Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield, who in 1804 induced six 


gentlemen, residing at Tottenham, near London, to receive deposits from la- 
bourers and servants, and to be responsible for their safety and return when 
needed to the depositors, with 5 per cent. interest thereon, provided the sum 
were not less than 20s., and had remained for a year at least in their hands. 
Deposits of not less than 1s. were received. Four years later (1808) eight 


individuals, of whom four were ladies, took upon themselves the like respon- 


sibility at Bath, engaging to pay 4 per cent. interest upon all deposits up to 


501., but limiting to 20004. the whole sum to be deposited. In the same year, | 


the late Mr. Whitbread tried, without success, to procure legislative sanction 
for a plan, whereby the small savings of the industrious labourer and artisan 
would be placed under the safeguard of public commissioners. # 

The first savings’ bank, regularly and minutely organized, was “The Pa= 


5 


ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 131 


rish Bank Friendly Society of Ruthwell” in Dumfries-shire, established through 
the exertions of Mr. Henry Duncan in 1810, and it was mainly owing to its 
success, as set forth in the published reports of that gentleman, that many 
other institutions were formed upon the model of that at Ruthwell, so that 
before any legislative provision had been made for their encouragement there 
existed 70 savings’ banks in England, 4 in Wales, and 4 in Ireland. 

In July 1817 two acts received the royal assent for encouraging the esta- 
blishment of banks for savings in England and Wales, and in Ireland. It was 
not until 1835 that these institutions were placed under legislative regula- 
tion in Scotland, a circumstance which in all probability is to be ascribed to 
the facilities given by bankers in that part of the kingdom for the profitable 
deposit with them of small sums. Under the acts of 1817, the sums depo- 
sited were placed by the trustees of each bank in the hands of the Commis- 
sioners for the reduction of the National Debt, who thereupon issued deben- 
tures for the amount bearing interest at the rate of 3d. per centum per diem, 
or 4/. 11s. 3d. per cent. per annum. It was customary for the trustees to allow 
4: per cent. only to the depositors, retaining the balance of the interest received 
from government to delray the necessary charges of the establishment for 
office-rent, clerks, &e. 

The progress of these savings’ banks, after receiving the sanction of the 
legislature, has become a matter of national importance, not only as affording 
means for judging concerning the actual and comparative condition, from 
time to time, of those classes of persons who make deposits, but also as in- 
centives to prudence, and in some degree, too, as security for good citizen- 
ship, among a very numerous body, now numbering more than a million of 
our fellow-subjects, who are thus made to feel that they too have an interest 
in the stability of government, and something to lose from acts of violence. 
By this means some slight degree of sympathy in feeling and interest has been 
ereated between classes as to whom that link was previously wanting, sothat the 
untaught orill-taught labourer orartisan who has a small, but to him important, 

capital arising from his savings and deposited in the savings’ bank,can nolonger 
look with the same feelings of estrangement as formerly upon those whose 
Savings, or those of their prudent ancestors, may have exceeded his own. 
_. During the five months that followed the passing of the acts of 1817, viz. 
to January 5; 1818, the savings deposited with the Commissioners for the re- 
duction of the National Debt amounted to 328,282/.' In each of the following 
thirteen years, to January 5, 1831, the sums so deposited were— 

b! Year ending 5th January 1819 ......... £1,567,667 — 


J, 
; 


Bnoiss 2 Sth», PO! ites 222 1,019,612 
40 + ble yy 5th -\,, lh >: Re ea eS ' 707,106 
is yo 414.808 gy Sth: 35 NOME Mest 4. <2. 1,205,960 
iow BRIS GY Sth iy a Se ei 1,632,166 é 
ebstebnig02) ci oSth: yo) 184 oo was) 1,089-448 
Me Metioneh, ovis Sth. jhe) I8B cows 2,586,219 
foil os (576i Sth 9 BBQG > .sdleviiz 1,261,290 
nie 5, 5th ,, BBO?!) assure. 526,155 
Peaabvasis eo Sth) » ¥ BBQB2! sitive 979,641 
Rigi 5) 5th’ °,, LOQD sd tivee.s 931,361 
Rion: go VIDAINEHE (1:r39) MOBBBOD sf -o!a. 4. 450,137 
OF qu adie 5 5th it) Cie 549,459 


” 
forming am aggregate sum of 15,677,503/., the greater part of which appears 
to\have been permanently lodged, since the sum remaining in deposit on the 
20th of November 1830, is stated to have been 13,507,565/., so that the sums 
withdrawn must have amounted in all that time to but little more than two 
millions in addition to the interest allowed. 
7 


132 ~ REPORT—1845. eal ni 


From and after the 20th of November 1829, detailed ‘statements have 
been made up from year to year, showing the sums remaining in deposit in- 
cluding interest, and the number of depositors in various classes according 
to the amount of their deposits, in each division and in each county of the 
kingdom. The aggregate numbers of depositors and sums deposited are 
shown in the following summary. 


ia: England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. United Kingdom, 


meer | r TT ee Oe 4 
20th | Deposit-| amount. |Deposit-| Amount. |Peposit-| Amount. |Deposit-| Amount. | Deposit- | Amount. 
Noy.| ors. ors. ors, ors. ors, 


ae | ES | | S| | 


£ # #£ &L #£ 
1830:367,812 {12,287,606'10,204 [314,903 |34,201| 905,056]... |... | 419,217|13,507,565 
1831 380.130 |12354,617\10,374 (322,546 |38,999 1,042,332| |... | ... | 499:503113;7191495 
1832)373,704 11,956,289/10,014 |301,509 |43,755 |1,178,201)_ ... mee 427,473|13,435,999 
1833(402,607 |12,680,512111,015 (329,887 |49,170 1,327,122]... | |... | 462,792114,337.52)| - 
1834'434,845 |13,582,102|11,183 |336,976 |53,179 (1,450,766) ... ee 499,207|15,369,844 


1835 466,862 |14,491,316|12,173 [356,135 |58,482 1,608,653)... ... | 587,517/16,456,104 
1826 515,444 |16,491,949|13,110 |422,585 [64,019 1,817,264] 6,753| 74,086) 599,326|18,805,884| 
1837 544,449 |17,178,041|13,963 [455,846 [64,101 1,829,226]13,553 | 160,902] 636,066|19,624,015 
1838 599,425 |18,566,490|15,232 |498,359 |69,933 2,048,469|22,646 | 279,994) 703,236|21,393,312 
1839 622,468 |19,246,221 15,893 [525,320 |75,296 2,218,239|34,739 | 436,032) 748,396|22,495,812 
1840 662,338 |20,203,438|15,825 |521,918 |76,155 2,206,733|43,737 | 588,961| 798,055/23,471,050 
18411695,791 |21,036,190|16,220 \527,688 |78,574 2,302,302150,619 | 608,509) 841,204/24,474,689 
1842 723,374 |21,780,373)/16,434 \531,928 [80,604 2,354,906/54,303| 652,129) 874,715|25,319,336 
1843'773,551 23,344,273 17,077 |555,849 [82,486 2,447,110/62,236| 830,083] 935,530)27,177,315 
1844 832,290 |25,112,865|18,690 (599,796 (91,248 2,749,017 |69,824 |1,043, 183 1,012,047 29,504,861 
Ne Mist ieatesd Ney peel els he ced ee a he 


The number of savings’ banks existing in the different divisions of the 
kingdom on the 20th of November of each year, beginning with 1830, was 
as follows :— 


England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. Total. 
TSS. se ok BLO ee casos os plete eaeuetiks gl ip gies. 51 cy sl acre ee 
TSSE spe soy, DO. ann Hib h eid, dieses.) NO y| gi mia alae tate 
MBO on GO Sovathrey, BAe ema per J cha iene cube oy A lanier 
TESS wa mic Oy OU) Lunia Pens RAW Mig OE: Ua eiegiene oii SS > eee ae 
DOB oe econ need DN ho aydising vert tn ete tm. ola 1 mye 90 4niarr oe tele 
TBSD. v0 5.ee. [OOD so we Meee, Genes 0) \ Dy ale « sie. ihe tial 
TES Sy. on win, See hee Song ol MER oe eteias. yates piomsie: (eee ee 
LEE NRL 12 | TSE ESOS RE: Eee 9) ech 


TSS oc srovosmne te Cation a MLO dente ¢ gti y 52, ohet ah eater nakt caer 
DBO aia, sty yp Ay om ae OO uae ©) ees = /pies | pene oe 
DEAD on cine BL eins ROD canes we.) Pa eiasayb ine, (oO a alee 
TEAL cree ua el. Calais. nae p:.) Bary <0 ogi eased ty eek 
UD site OE oti ok OO) cane "fhe © atmlmiah)? Oe sie 
TM ics te ES ie nbn bo Ou, ine il, PO ie mbid. GA ciate ana 
1844 .. BOD Nema tiy isegt) GLO. nein sO oe eee 


In addition to the numbers and the amounts shown in the foregoing sum- 
mary should be reckoned certain friendly societies, which, during the last 
five years, have been included in the accounts as being in direct communi- 
cation and account with the Commissioners for the reduction of the National 
Debt. These were,— 


Tn the year ending societies, having deposits 
20th November .. 184.0, 882 { amounting to £1,217,765 


3 1841, 354 2s 1,306,949 
33 1842, 371 Ps 1,449,244. 
2 1843, 395 et 1,609,288 


: 1844, 428 f 1,770,775 


H 


ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 133 


oved »ivooMaking the total deposits a 1840 


«| feooo) > those years amount in .. to £24,688,815 


jf 8 1841 to 25,781,638 
O a 1842 to 26,768,580 
i st 1843 to 28,786,603 
ie i 1844 to 31,275,636 


It will be seen, that with the exception of only one year in the entire 

series, there has been’a constantly increasing sum thus deposited. In 1832, 
_ doubtless owing to the political ferment in which the nation was then in- 

volved, there was a positive decrease in England and Wales, both in the 
number of depositors and the amount of their balances, viz.— 
England.... 6,426 fewer depositors £398,328 less deposits. 
Wales .... 360 ditto 21,037 ditto. 
The preceding vear, also a time of political excitement, was marked by a 
- much smaller addition than usual to the numbers and amounts of 1830, the 
» Increase having been, in 
England.... 12,318 depositors £67,011 deposits. 
ecole Wales .... 170 ditto 7,643 ditto. 
. The inerease in 1833, when the public mind had become more tranquillised, 
' -was,in ' England.... 28,903 depositors £724,223 deposits. 
Wales .... 1,001 ditto 28,378 ditto. 

It is worthy of remark, that although the same cause agitated the public 
in Ireland to which we have attributed this effect in England, it was not 
accompanied by the same result, possibly because the condition of agitation 
is one to which the people of Ireland are more accustomed than their fellow- 
subjects in England. The accounts for those years do not include Scotland. 
The increase, embracing England, Wales and Ireland, up to 1835, and there- 
after including Scotland also, has been 

1831 as compared with 1830 £211,930 


' 1833 a 1832 901,522 
i 1834 us 1833 1,032,323 
x 1835 Pn 1834 1,086,260 
: 1836 é 1835 2,265,694 including £74,086 Scotland. 
: 1837 os 1836 —- 818,131 
9 1838 2 1837 1,769,297 
i 1839 * 1838 1,032,500 
._ 1840 ee 1839 1,045,238 
- 1841 - 1840 1,003,639° 
| 1842 a 1841 844,647 
1843 a 1842 1,857,979 
1844: ¥. 1843 2,327,546 


Including the sums already mentioned as deposited by certain friendly so-- 
cieties, the increase, year by year, since 1840, has been— 
: 1841 as compared with 1840 £1,092,823 


ve 1842 a 1841 986,942 
oan 1843 hs 1842 2,018,023 
he: 1844 i 1843 2,489,033 


It is impossible not to remark the superiority over the other years of the 
_ seriés of 1836, 1838, 1843 and 1844, all of which were years of great com- 
. 7 cial activity, and all, with the exception of 1838, years of cheapness. 

7 “eel have added unreasonably to the number of figures with which 
ys tatement of this kind must be more or less accompanied, if the depo- 
sors had in each year been classified according to the amount of their de- 
- posits 


. This classification for the year 1844 was as follows :-— 


134 REPORT—1845. 


England. Wales. Ireland. Scotland: | Total. 
Not exceeding £20..461,195 9,459 41,546 592,442 564,642 
a 50 ..207,129 5,584 $33,298 192,259 258,270 
AS 100.. 91,729 1,998 10,601 3,249 107,577 
cS 150.. 32,083 634 3,024 640 36,381 
4 900.. 18,551 294 1,583 201 20,629 
Exceeding ....200.. 2,914 38 92 ou 3,044: 
813,601 18,007 90,144 68,791 990,543 
Charitable institutions. 9,789 205 677 630 11,301 
Friendly societies .... 8,900 478 422 403 10,203 
832,290 18,690 91,243 69,8294 1,012,047 
Friendly Societies in direct account with Commissioners............ 428 
SOtall Hess! ave bob ane emake 1,012,475 


The centesimal proportions in which the different classes stand to the 
whole number of individual depositors are as follows :— 
United 
England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. Kingdom. 
Not exceeding £20.. 56°68 52°53 46°09 76°24 57-00 


”» 50.. 25°46 31°01 36°94 17°82 26°08 
’» 100.. 11°28 11710 11°76 4°72 10°86 
» 150.. 3°94 3°52 3°35 0°93 3°67 
9 200.. 2°28 1:63 1°75 0°29 2:08 
Exceeding...... 200.. 0°36 0°21 0-11 — 0°31 


—_——_ —_—— ——— — _ 


100° 100° 100° 100° 100° 


It thus appears that the largest proportion of small deposits is made in Scot- 
land, more than three-fourths of the whole being in sums under 20/., a cir- 
cumstance which may be ascribable to the facility afforded by bankers, as 
already noticed. The smallest proportion of deposits of lowest amount is 
found in Ireland, a fact which probably results from the extreme poverty of 
the peasantry, and which deprives them of the power of making any savings, 
causing the savings’ banks to be the resort of classes in more easy circum~ 
stances than the generality of those who make deposits in England. 

The average balances to the credit of each depositor in the different divi- 
sions of the kingdom have been (discarding all fractional parts of a pound )— 


England. Wales. Treland. Scotland. Total. 

£ £ £ £ £ 

20th Noy. 1830 33 31 26 ead 33 
5 et AEE ee 31 26 3) 31 
3 1832 31 30 26 “ES 31 
‘ 1833 31 29 27 a 31 
ie » LGR peel 30 27 it 30 
3 1835 31 29 27 tis 30 
¥, 1836 31 29 28 9 30 
5s 1837 30 30 28 11 30 
» 1838} 30 30 29 11 30 
= 1839 30 30 29 11 29 
‘ 1840 29 29 29 11 28 
pS 1841 29 29 29 11 28 
» 1842]. 29 29 29 11 28 
" 1843 30 33 30 13 29 


- 1844 30 32 30 14 29 


’ ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


With the exception of the last two years of the series, in which there has 
been a general increase observable in the average deposits, the above figures 
exhibit a marked difference between England and Ireland, the average sum 
having regularly diminished in the former division, while it has as regularly 


increased in the latter division. 


During the fifteen years for which the accounts have been regularly made 
up, the per-centage increase in the number of depositors and amount of their 


balances has been— 


Depositors. Amount. 
England .. . . 126 percent.. . 104 per cent. 
Wales.) 6-3/8 wanes 83e;., 55 Mate 15) A 
Ireland). 2s. ..at%15 167i 3, os « 203 33 
Scotland (from 1836) 934 5 - «1308 ,, 
ENGLAND. 
+, | Sum deposit- 
é Average Expormon | a4 per indi- 
County. Population [Number of] Amount of | sm depo- | Of tePosi- | vidual of the 
ty in 1841. |depositors.| deposits. ceed as les ig hol € P 0p tat 
£é £ & ad 
Bedfordshire ......... 107,937 | 3,584} 111,526 31 |1lin30| 20 8 
BRODER | .o.c0kedaestseo -.| 160,226 12,020 | 359,676 29 lin 13 44 10 
BUGS edi si gscncase e+e 155,989 4,657 | 128,025 27 1in33| 16 5 
Cambridge .. «| 164,509 3,831 | 121,777 31 lin43} 14 9 
Chester ...csssccteases 395,300 15,802 | 554,400 36 1 in 26 28 0 
Cornwall ............... 341,269 12,915 | 492,013 38 1 in 26 28 10 
Cumberland............ 177,912 7,538 | 211,741 28 lin23 | 23 9 
Derby ......04 ica) 272'202 | 10,099 | 321,897 31 |1in27| 23 4 
MYGTON essed sates coer 533,731 | 49,866 |1,492,072 29 1 in 11 55 11 
DORCtH ..cccccteexesayas 11,470 | 412,628 35 lin 15 47 2 
‘Durham 7,823 | 201,354 27 lin4d4| 12 5 
HIQGEX Avilccdi dsawcisces , 14,413 | 428,202 29 lin24| 24° 9 
Gloucester ............ 25,526 | 818,157 32 linl7| 37 11 
Hereford ...........00 8,350 | 211,251 25 linl3 | 36 10 
Hertford ............00. 3,785 | 113,425 29 lin 41 14 5 
Huntingdon............ 58,699 1,765 | 52,001 29 lin33| 17 8 
LG) ee eee eee 548,161 | 33,392 | 945,273 28 Llinl6| 34 5 
|Lancaster......ses...00s 1,667,064 | 65,402 |1,980,143 30 lin25 | 23 9 
Leicester ......sesses00 215,855 6,803 | 173,581 25 lin32} 16 1 
Lincoln ..... er --| 362,717 18,451 | 497,509 26 lin 19 27 «+5 
Middlesex ............ 1,576,616 | 176,049 |4,521,589 25 lin 9| 57 2 
Monmouth .....s.0.06. 134,849 3,099 76,651 24 1 in 43 ll 5 
Norfolk .....ss..000 ..| 412,621 18,3836 | 527,300 28 lin22| 25 6 
Northampton ......... 199,061 8,410 | 243,600 28 lin 23 24 5 
Northumberland ...... 250,268 | 12,862 | 459,390 35 linl9| 36 8 
Nottingham............| 249,773 15,763 | 420,345 26 lin 16 33 «6 
Oxford .......sec0000e.s., 161,573 | 10,246 | 285,713 27 linl5 | 35 4 
Rutland ....esceeeee. 21,340 | Not any savings’ bank in this county. 
16,452 f 33 lin 47 0 
22,019 | 679,072 30 linl9} 31 1 
23,942 | 687,493 28 linl4]° 38 8 
15,868 | 452,306 29 lin33 | 17 8 
11,972 | 348,176 | 29 |1in26| 22 1 
31,250 | 749,199 23 linl9') 25 8 
15,709 | 420,570 26 linl9| 28 0 
21,221 | 468,270 22 lin 19 23 3 
942 24,719 26 lin 59 8 9 
11,706 | 413,941 35 lin22| 8110 
Worcester ...........+ 233,484 12,218 | 401,330 32 Tin 19 34 4 
York, East Riding 
» North Riding $|1,591,584 | 69,545 |2,105,866 30 lin23-| 26 5 
» West Riding 


WALES. 
Proportion | S¥™ deposit- 
aunty Population |Number of} Amount of Rail of deposi- Laptirmyicanp 
y in 1841, |depositors.| deposits. fated a - Be, whole pop fa 
£. £ sed. 
AVIgTESEa ...,.08c¢de sia 50,890 1,990 58,115 29 lin 26} 22 10 
IBTECOM 8s on cphs hides cage 53,295 1,073 25,045 23 lin 49 9.5 
Carmarthen............ 106,482 527 14,177 26 1 in 202 2 8 
Cardigan .......0....60 68,380 816 20,637 25 lin 83 6 0 
Carnarvon .......00... 81,068 408 11,612 28 1 in 198 210 
Denbigh .....evcsessns 89,291 1,903 46,003 24 lin 46]; 10 3 
MEINE. cde <a subs oeeeee atin 66,547 2,771 86,683 31 lin 24; 26 0 
Glamorgan ..........+. 173,462 3,695 | 115,604 31 lin 47] 138 4 
Merioneth ............ 39,238 587 15,646 26 lin 66 71 
Montgomery. «.......- 69,220 2,127 58,502 27 lin 32 16 10 
Pembroke .......2.00. 88,262 2,110 66,324 31 lin 41} 15.0 
Radnor.......ceceeeeeeee 25,186 | Not any savings’ bank in this county. 
IRELAND. 
. Sum depo- 
County. Population | Number of | Amount of ARR Prop romeo of sited per imdi- 
ty in 1841, depositors. deposits. | genosited. ‘to papas vies shits 
£ & 3.0 te 
FATIESIID wap pp sicsn aes 360,875 6,168 129,922 21 lin 58 (ga 
Armagh ............| 232,393 2,264 69,492 30 lin 102 5 71 
Cavan fepssscerega 243,158 308 8,904 28 lin 789 0 10 
lane ancaceseseme’ 286,394 834 24,328 29 lin 343 res 
Cork ......... seers] 854,118 15,684 506,246 32 lin 33); 11 10 
Down .......seeeeee 361,446 4,805 152,380 31 lin 75 8 5 
DDL i oanh> spas 372,773 24,178 683,487 28 lin 15/] 86 4 
Fermanagh ...... 156,481 1,535 54,303 35 4in 102 6 ll 
Galway .........06- 440,198 396 10,063 25 lin 1111 0 5 
Beery. Wonlhs Sacce. 293,880 1,510 37,969 25 lin 194 i i 
Kildare! .:...0ccess.: 114,488 1,018 29,070 28 lin 112 5 1 
Kilkenny ......... 202,420 1,398 48,021 34 lin 144 4 9 
King’s County ...| 146,857 1,365 42,937 31 lin 108 5 10 
Limerick ......... 330,029 4,318 146,731 33 lin 76 8 10 
Londonderry ...... 222,174 1,961 49,686 25 lin 113 4°5 
Louth .........00000 128,240 3,126 92,413 29 lin 41} 14 4 
MayOy. csussahteqcees 388,887 1,406 43,904 31 lin 276 2 3 
Meath §.cwa-deeness 183,828 1,486 47,324 3l lin 122 lee! 
Monaghan ......... 200,442 926 25,473 27 lin 216 2 6 
Queen’s County ...| 153,930 1,128 35,437 31 lin 1386 4 7 
Roscommon ...... 253,589 921 32,256 35 lin 275 2° 5 
SHON. decsiesscaann 181,002 865 27,493 31 lin 209 3.0 
Tipperary. .......0. 435,552 3,512 111,431 31 lin 124 anak 
TDYTORE sain asanee »| 312,956 1,846 54,0384 29 lin 169 3. 65 
Waterford ......... 196,187 3,782 110,183 29 lin 51] 11 2 
Westmeath ...... 141,300 733 33,243 45 lin 192 4° 8 
Wexford ......+00« -.| 202,083 1,457 47,907 32 lin 1388 4 8 
Wicklow. ......... 126,143 1,214 31,111 25 lin 103 4 il 


Not any savings’ bank in Carlow, Donegal, Drogheda, Leitrim, or Longford. 


a. 


Ky 
4 
: 


ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 137 


ScoTLAND. 


Average | Proportion of Sum depo- 


~~ County, Population | Number of | Amount of eure depositors |Sited per indi- 
y in 1841, depositors. deposits. deposited. |to bapilation ie Ws fe 

L £ £ fete 
Aberdeen. ......... 192,283 1,710 22,750 13 lin 112 2 4 
Argyle ......008... 97,140 240 3,353 13 1 in 404 0 8 
Banff .......eceeeeee 50,076 462 6,733 14 1 in 108 2 8 
Berwick .... «| 84,427 189 3,177 16 1 in 182 1 10 
‘Bute’ ...1..... «| 15,695 561 8,155 14 lin 28 1 4 
Caithness -| 86,197 218 3,225 14 1 in 166 1 9 
Clackmannan ...|. 19,116 140 1,627 11 1 in 186 1 8 
Dumfries. ........ 72,825 344 4,061 11 1 in 211 1 1 
Edinburgh ......... 225,623 23,859 322,346 13 lin 9 28. «6 
Lisi 9 Rep 3c 140,310 2,972 48,125 16 lin 47 6 10 
Forfar......ses.cve0s 170,400 4,616 48,006 10 lin 387 5.7 
Inverness. ......... 97,615 856 9,341 10 lin 114 1 Jl 
Kincardine ...... 33,052 1,149 22,549 19 lin 28 13 7 
Kircudbright....... 41,099 265 2,591 9 lin 155 1 38 
Lanark ............ 427,113 19,774 294,726 14 lin 21 13 9 
IMOTAY! cescc..:20s- 34,994 1,838 27,472 14 lin 19 15 8 
ONAN) . ccdeaseis vanes 9,218 198 2,212 ll lin 46 4 9 
2 eee een 138,151 4,735 60,721 12 lin 29 8 9 
Renfrew............. 154,755 2,361 36,107 15 lin 65 4 8 
Rossand Cromarty, 78,980 415 4,126 10 1 in 190 1 0 
Roxburgh ......... 46,003 804 20,188 25 lin 57 8 9 
Selkirk ........0... 7,989 315 4,812 15 lin 25 12 0 
Stirling ........00 82,179 770 9,746 12 1 in 106 2 4 


Not any savings’ bank in Ayr, Dumbarton, Haddington, Kinross, Linlithgow, Orkney and 
Shetland, Peebles, Sutherland, or Wigton. 


“In the preceding Tables the present condition is shown of each county of 
England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, respectively, as regards the savings 


_ deposited in these banks by the people. Assuming, as the basis for the cal- 


culation, the population of 1841, it will there be seen what proportion among 
them has deposits in a savings’ bank, and the sum per head to which those 
deposits would amount if equally divided among the whole number of inha- 
bitants. 

_ It may appear strange, that with the exception of Middlesex, the metro- 
politan county, and the great centre of wealth and of the employments which 
wealth creates, the largest amount of deposits, in proportion to the population, 
should be found in Devonshire, an agricultural county, in which there were, 
in a population of 533,460 persons in 1841, fewer than 7000 employed in all 
kinds of manufactures. This fact is, however, capable of easy and satisfac- 


_ tory explanation. The Devon and Exeter Savings’ Bank has been for many 
_ years placed under very zealous and able management, and in addition to the , 


constant services of Mr. Lee, its actuary, has received the support of con- 
siderably more than a hundred clergymen and gentlemen residing at differ- 


_ ent places within the county, who have taken pains to make known among 
_ the labouring poor in their respective neighbourhoods the benefits to be de- 
_ rived from even the smallest savings, and who have, at the cost of some per- 


sonal trouble, received such savings and transmitted them to Exeter for in- 


_ vestment, an operation which, unaided, the depositors could hardly have 
_ accomplished. This fact should serve as a stimulus to others who have the 


like opportunity of benefiting their poor neighbours, showing as it does that 
even in the least promising soil they may reap a large harvest of success if 


138 REPORT—1845. 


the needful labour be not withheld. On the other hand, it may create sur- 
prise that Lancashire, at the head of our manufacturing population, should 
stand so low in the scale with regard to the savings of the working classes, 
that there should be twenty-five counties of England, the average deposits in 
which are greater. This too is capable of explanation that must be satisfac- 
tory. In towns, and especially in places that are rapidly increasing, as the 
manufacturing towns and villages of Lancashire and the neighbouring counties 
have long been, more profitable opportunities present themselves for the in- 
vestment of small sums than are offered by savings’ banks. Among these 
opportunities building-clubs are common in those localities, and absorb the 
working man’s savings to an extent which few persons who have not inquired 
into the subject would conceive probable. 

The advantage held forth by the government to the working man as an in- 
ducement for him to save a portion of his earnings, was greater under the 
acts of 1817 than it is at present. The rate of interest then fixed was, as 
already stated, 3d. per centum per diem, or 4/. 11s. 3d. per cent. per annum, 
out of which the allowance made to depositors was usually 4 per cent., the 
remaining 11s. 3d. being retained to defray expenses. There was no restric- 
tion then placed upon depositors as to the amount of their savings ; they might 
deposit 100/. the first year and 50/. every year after, so long as they might 
be inclined or able to do so, and they might make investments in as many 
different savings’ banks as they judged proper and could effect. In time, 
however, parties not contemplated by the legislature in framing the law, find- 
ing that they could thus secure a higher rate of interest than was yielded by 
the public funds, and at the same time save all risk of fluctuation in the value 
of their deposits, used the savings’ banks to an inconvenient extent, and in 
1824 an act was passed limiting the amount that might be deposited the first 
year to 50/., and all future yearly deposits to 30/., with the further restrictions 
that no person should receive interest upon any amount beyond 200/., nor 
should be allowed to leave deposits in more than one savings’ bank. In 
1828 the rate of interest was reduced to 21d. per centum per diem, or 32, 8s. 
51d. per cent. per annum; the largest sum to be received in any one year 
was fixed at 30/., and 150/. was adopted as the largest sum upon which inter- 
est would be paid to any one depositor. In 1833 the laws relating to savings’ 
banks were extended to the Channel Islands, and in 1835, as already stated, 
they were made to embrace Scotland. ‘The latest act for the regulation of 
these institutions was passed in 1844; it further lowered the rate of interest 
paid by the public to 31 per cent. per annum, reducing to 2d. per centum per 
diem, or 3/. Os. 10d. per cent. per annum the allowance to depositors. This 
change took effect from and after the 20th of November 1844, the day to which 
the statements now brought forward are made up. Whether or not the allow- 
ing of a liberal rate of interest has much influence on the minds of the work- 
ing classes, leading them to spare a portion of their earnings, is a question 
which the result of this change may enable us to answer. If that answer 
should be in the affirmative—if the now diminished allowance for interest 
should in any degree check the disposition to saving on the part of the classes 
for whom savings’ banks are opened, the economy of parliament in thus re- 
stricting that allowance will prove a measure of very doubtful wisdom, and 
one as to which the legislature cannot too soon retrace its steps. 

It is to be regretted that the managers of savings’ banks have not generally 
availed themselves of the opportunities which they possess for throwing light 
upon the condition and habits of the various classes making deposits, by re- 
cording and publishing their occupations. Many years ago the Statistical 
Society of London addressed circular letters to each savings’ bank then exist- 


| 


< 


ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


ing, accompanied by forms to be filled up, 
‘of possessing correct knowledge upon the subject. This well-meant effort 
proved however wholly abortive. Some few of these establishments are ac- 
customed to publish such information; among these are the “ Devon and 
Exeter Savings’ Bank,” already mentioned, and the ‘« Manchester and Salford 
Bank for Savings.” As it may be useful to know the result exhibited by the 
accounts of two establishments, similar in their object but differing so mate- 
rially in their circumstances, I shall close this sketch by calling attention to 


their several statements. 


: Analysis of Depositors in the Devon and Exeter Savings’ Bank from 1827 


and pointing out the advantage 


to 1833. 


Malle servants «...sccsesesccscoevscetecctocecees 
Female servantS  ssccssecssececceesncseeecees 
Children of servants ......sssscscsesseecseesees 


Total servants ..sccccescsscceveessceeress 


Small shopkeepers  .....ssereesseceanereeseees 
Artificers and mechanics ..........+0.4 Pees 
LabOUrerS ..c.cs.cccececceesacceesccsnseceecncens 
Females in trade ...... AE Goer ss eee 
Apprentices ..e.sscssseesceveeeceweee ay were 
Carriers, drivers, porters, &:C. sseissceseerees 
Teachers, clerks, and shopmen .......-.+0+ 
Children of the above .....ss...+0 Ehiwatns aes 


Total traders and manufacturers ... 
Small farmers  ...ccccessssceasccceccecsenceeees 


Labourers ....seeess Me sckcwldwacaeacbneeuahtntes 
Children of the above ........-.ssseesereseees 


Total agriculturists © ....0++ wawehad de 


Soldiers, sailors, revenue-officers, &c. 


Miscellaneous .......sessseeveeeveccercceseeees 


Amount of 
deposits. 


£ 
43,612 
106,022 
3,284 


152,918 


26,900 
90,839 


40,190 
65,757 
53,933 


159,880 


32,654 


Average 
deposit. 


E-4 
50 
29 


31 19 


or 
i) 
oo 
bossy | bo 


| 
w 
Lin} 
J oc] | Home 


37 2 11 


140 kO - REPORT—1845. Z0VITAR “uO 


Classification of Depositors, with the Balance due to each Class at 20th of November 
1843, in the Manchester and Salford Bank for Savings. 


on. 

Total number of 3 3g |! 

pegornis onened under of each Total amount be- BES 

+ as ators . class re-| longing toeach | 973 7. 
Description of Depositors maining| class, doth Nov. Fg | 

open at 1843, we : 

) <j 

Male, |Female.| Total. 5 9h 

< 


C4 & | d. 
Domestic servants aboot te Ror eG A 1,301] 7,854) 9,155) 3,277| 86,131 138 1 
Clerks, shopmen, warehousemen, porters, an 

wives EL EB cece ccc cescceseseeseessssaesee 4,867 386} 5,253 1 
IMEINOTSLi..5.00ccsseccess.ccessincscoacseeececeseneseseves 3,514) 3,489} 7,003 4 
Milliners, dressmakers, and needle-women ......| ...... 1,530) 1,530} 584) 13,807 11 8 
Shoemakers, tailors, hatters, and wives ......... 1,55] 276| 1,827, 427; 11,984 8 2 
Cotton-spinners, weavers, and their assistants...| 3,717} 1,431) 5,148} 1,118) 29,273 8 6 
Silk-spinners, weavers, and their assistants ...... 244| 236) 480) 150) 4,263 1 10 
Calico-printers, bleachers, dyers, packers, ma- 

kers-up, &c., "and WIVES ..s.sessesesseeees ee 1,606; 134) 1,740; 490) 14,472.12 11 
Engravers, pattern designers, &c., and do. ...... 565 45 610} 229 7,264 1 9 
Mechanics and handicraftsmen, and COngiassees sae 1,293) 2,306} 3,599} 1,109} 32,370 4 0 
Bookbinders and letter-press printers, and do...,)_ 224 22| 246 86 2,029 18 6 
Masons, bricklayers, and their labourers, and do.| 1,525] 176) 1,701) 428) 11,872 0 8 
Joiners, coach-makers, and cabinet-makers, 

ANG GO. secscecececece STD Ai a 2,031) 177) 2,208; 550) 16,237 13 4 
Cab and omnibus drivers, mail-guards, &c.,anddo.| 124 28; = 152 50 1597 19 1 
Policemen, soldiers, and pensioners, and do. ...| 323 28) 351) 116 3,189 11 10 
Professional teachers and artists, and do.......... 648} 370) 1,018} 358] 11,739 4 3 
Tradesmen and small shopkeepers .......2.eee0» 1,443} 848) 2,291) 664) 23,772 11 2 
Farmers, gardeners, and their labourers, and 1,102| 133 1,235| 509] 15,823 18 6 

RUIVEN tie taccnetescreccscp¥erdcscacenerersascousct cus : ? , 

Other descriptions not particularly specified...... 2,160} 5,064) 7,224) 2,186) 76,784 6 

28,238} 24,533} 52,771) 17,533) 466,908 2 

Friendly societies .....ssscesscesseceeeseescceneesenee] “dete heehee 565) 223) 16,128 19 5 
Charitable institutions, including clothing so- } 

CIELIES Lo seseeeeeeee ELLIS ceupraeets teccneeens Psa i a 207/110 5,787 177 

28,238} 24,533] 53,543] 17,866] 488,824 19 2 


ON SAVINGS’ BANKS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 


141 


Classification of Depositors, with the Balance due to each Class at 20th of November 


1844. 
Se — = 1 
1. &S No. of Et 
g Total number of accounts S55 
| see =e ees under | of each |. Total amount be- #3 a 
Description of Depositors. ; ae crepes Nov. EE g 
R Ba aah ncad 2E5 
: Male. | Female.| Total. | 1844. & 3 
Bi £ s. d. Be 
Domestic servants .....sscsssccsssevseverseeeeees se...| 1,831] 8,641} 9,972} 3,500) 92,802 11 9) 26 
Ne eee Toe 409] BrrAs), 2008) . BEES 8. Yiviae | 
BEINN os kas pesponetprpn- <dacpcss ssc tnaessqescuenes ae 3,855| 3,835} 7,690] 3,775| *62,747 3 11) 16 
|Milliners, dressmakers, and needle-women ......] «++... 1,723} 1,728} 609| 15,968 17 6) 26 
Shoemakers, tailors, hatters, and wives ......... 1,704} 311} 2,015} 471) 13,904 5 6) 28 
Cotton-spinners, weavers, and their assistants...| 3,989 1,582| 5,571) 1,311} 37,891 5 11) 28 
a ae weavers, and their assistants ...... 273| 274 547) 193 5,058 7 3) 26 
alico-printers, bleachers, dyers, packers, ma- 
_ kers-up, &e., and Wivbs aS perenne are } 1,807 199] 2,006) 680, 19,119 8 4) 28 
Engravers, pattern designers, &c., and do. ...... 609 47| 656) 238) 8,668 0 7| 36 
Mechanics and handicraftsmen, and do. ......... 3,735| 393] 4,128] 1,601} 39,626 0 7} 24 
Bookbinders and letter-press printers, and do....| 250) 26) 276 97, 2,690 11 4) 27 
Masons, bricklayers, and their labourers, and do.| 1,697) 229} 1,926) 566) 14,591 3 0} 25 
> Vcaiieaueitin and cabinet-makers, 2,208} 215] 2,423| 683| 19,474 9 5] 28 
Cabandomnibus drivers, mail-guards, &c.,anddo.) 156 42) 198 76| 2,164 14 7] 28 
Policemen, soldiers, and pensioners, and do. .. 361 4] 402 135 3,999 1 2) 29 
Professional teachers and artists, and do.......... 709} 409] 1,118] 398] 13,982 18 7) 30 
| [Tradesmen and small shopkeepers.........+++.++++- 1,639] 1,040} 2,679} 919) 28,970 15 8 31 
ecm gardeners, and their labourers, and 1,171) 172] 1,343] 538] 19,854 19 1) 35 
{ Other descriptions not particularly specified...... 2,225) 5,248) 7,473] 2,474] $83,719 110) 33 
; | ZP 33,009] 24,886) 57,895] 20,266) 541,379 1 9| 26 
; jendly societies ....s.ssssessesserserseseeseess A BC aay 655| 287) 19,702 5 11} 68 
‘| “tag institutions, including clothing ia . | cece! 2291 «+197/ 7,231 12-7]. 56 
| ed SES ee Pau nee ee 
33,009] 24,886) 58,779] 20,680} 568,313 0 3 


* The greatest proportion of this class are no longer minors, the designation as originally 


entered being retained. 


+ This class contains a great number of depositors of different trades belonging to the 


other classes whose callings were not noted in the Register in the early years of the bank. 


142 REPORT—1845. 


Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the 
Theory of the Smelting of Tron. By Prof. Bunsen, of Marburg, 
Hesse Cassel, and Dr. Lyon Puayratr, of the Museum of Giconomic 
Geology, department of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests. 


In laying before the Association the report which we have now the honour 
to present, we are desirous, at the commencement of our subject, to examine 
closely the methods employed in the analyses of gases, not only as an argu- 
ment in favour of the processes used by ourselves, but also with the hope of 
improving the present state of eudiometry. 

Two distinct methods are employed in the analysis of combustible gases ; 
one of which consists in an exact determination of the voLumeEs of the gas 
about to be examined, and of those resulting from the combustion of its con- 
stituents with oxygen. By the other method, the products of combustion 
are collected in the liquid and solid form, and estimated directly according 
to WEIGHT. 

The last method would doubtless deserve the preference if we had to ope- 
rate upon a mixture of gases capable of being determined by the products of 
combustion without reference to the quantity of oxygen necessary to effect it ; 
in other words, when we have to examine a mixture containing only two 
combustible gases. In such a case, the combustion by means of oxide of 
copper affords products well-adapted for exact determination by weight. 
But, on the contrary, when the quantity of oxygen necessary for the com- 
bustion must be introduced as an element into the calculation, as is the case 
with the gases examined by us in the present paper, the method of analysis 
by weight is not only inexpedient, but also inexact. If that method were to 
be adopted, it is necessary to determine the loss (often not amounting to 
above a few centigrammes) sustained by a heavy combustion-tube, by weigh- 
ing it before and after the experiment, and thus subjecting it to all the sources 
of error due to a varying hygroscopic condition, and to the loss in weight oc- 
casioned by the long exposure of a considerable body of glass to a red heat. 
Another source of error equally great consists in the necessity for filling the 
whole apparatus for combustion and condensation with nitrogen gas previous 
to the commencement of the experiment. The smallest quantity of oxygen 
which may remain in the gas, or in the porous oxide of copper, or which 
may be introduced by diffusion, must derange the results, and cause great 
uncertainty in the determinations. Any error arising from this source is so 
much the more to be feared, because it does not affect one constituent merely, 
but extends its influence equally to the ascertained value of all the other in- 
gredients. 

We cannot afford better arguments for the reception of our methods of 
investigation than by briefly reviewing the results obtained by different in- 
quirers in the examination of the gases evolved from furnaces worked by 
charcoal. It is obvious that the composition of these gases cannot be the 
same under all circumstances, for the nature of the fuel, the pressure of the 
blast, and even the shape of the furnace itself, must exert a varying influence 
in modifying the processes which affect the composition of the gases. But 
when we consider, at the same time, that these modifying influences have 
their maximum and minimum in corresponding parts of furnaces treated in a 
similar manner, we still have a right to expect an elucidation of the law regu- 
lating the formation of the gases by a careful comparison of their compo- 
sition. One of us first endeavoured to solve this problem by an examination 
of the gases issuing from the furnace of Vickerhagen, although he did not 
then consider the results obtained in the inquiry as expressive of a general 


a 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 143 


theory of the nature of the processes in the furnace. This research was 
afterwards pursued in a similar manner, and with confirmatory results, by 
Scheerer and Langberg in the iron-works of Baerum. Both these chemists 
have conferred a lasting benefit on this new field of metallurgical inquiry 
by their elaborate investigations ; and as their experiments agree with those 
performed in Germany, the generality of the law regulating the production 
and action of the solid and gaseous products of charcoal-furnaces is esta- 
blished. This is shown by a comparison of the results obtained at Vicker- 
hagen and Baerum :— 


\Composition* according to volume of the gases at Vickerhagen. 


Height above the tuyére ...|172feet.] 162. 143, | 133. | 113. | Saf. | 53, 


MVATEOPENM' Te. tacedsscinccaercsee 62:34 | 62:25 | 66:29 | 62:47 | 63:89 | 61-45 | 64-58 
Carbonic acid ............... 877 | 11:14 3°32 3°44 3°60 7:57 5:97 
Carbonic oxide .............+ 24:20 | 22:24 | 25:77 | 30°08 |} 29:27 | 26:99 | 26-51 
Light carburetted hydrogen| 3°36 310 | 4:04 2:24 107 | 3°84 1:88 
SESVUTOPOM 00 0000dn-scnseneech- 133] 127] 058 |. 177) 217] O15} 1-06 


Composition according to volume of the gases at Baerum. 


Height above the tuyére ...| 23 feet. | 203. 18. 153. 13. 10. 

Nitrogen ..... | TO PREGA 64-43 | 62°65 | 63:20] 64:28] 66:12] 64:97 
Carbonic acid ............... 22:20 | 18:21 12-45 4:27 8:50 5:69 
Carbonic oxide .....,......... 8:04 | 15:33] 18:57 | 29:17 | 20:28] 26-38 
Light carburetted hydrogen 3°87 1:28 1:27 1:23 118 0:00 
FAV ALOEN | oe neceeseg2sc-eneeevs 1-46 2-53 4°51 1:05 3°92 2-96 


100-00 | 100:00 |} 100:00 | 100-00 | 100:00 | 100-00 


A simple inspection of the comparison now instituted is sufficient to 
show that the law, regulating the changes suffered by the ascending column 
of gas in furnaces supplied with charcoal as fuel, is the same in those of Vick- 
erhagen and Baerum. In both cases the carbonic acid diminishes as we de- 
scend from the upper part of the furnace towards the hearth, until it attains 
a minimum, when it again begins to increase, without however reaching the 
proportion which it at first possessed. In both cases the carbonic oxide at- 
tains its maximum about the middle of the furnace, and diminishes in a 
greater ratio upwards than downwards. In both furnaces the quantity of 
carburetted hydrogen remains constant in the upper part, and diminishes, 
although still relatively constant, in the lower region; and finally, in both 
cases, an irregularity in the quantity of hydrogen, probably caused by local 
influences, is observed at all depths. . It could scarcely be expected that 
these phenomena should proceed at proportional heights of furnaces of dif- 
ferent sizes; but it would not be difficult to explain the influence exerted 
upon the maximum and minimum composition of the gases at different 
positions by the dimensions of the furnace, the nature of the materials, and 


* We have found it necessary to correct the calculations given in the original memoir in 
Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ as they are, almost without exception, erroneously calculated. 

tp The gas taken from a depth of 83 feet is anomalous in composition, but as this is ob- 
viously due to one of those disturbances which frequently take place in furnaces of small 
dimensions, we neglect the consideration of this analysis. 


i 
. 


144 REPORT—1845. 


the pressure of the blast, as soon as proper data are furnished bg continued 
inquiries in this field of research. 

The great accordance between the results of the two series of experiments 
now detailed, executed as they were quite independently of each other, the 
one series in Germany, the other in Norway, renders it surprising that a similar 
inquiry instituted by Ebelmen on the furnaces of Clerval and Audincourt 
should have led to results differing so essentially from those now described. 
This chemist gives the following composition, according to volume, for the 
gases of the furnace at Clerval :— 


Height above the tuyére ...|253 feet.) 223. 173. 133. 93. 8. 


DRTOGEN cee. ches cds Ssiocesee 63-07 
Carbonic acid 0-00 
Carbonic oxide 35°01 


Light carburetted hydrogen 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0:00 
FLYdrogen. ..5....0cccccsscennse 5°82 6-00 5°44 3°82 3°59 1:92 


100-00 | 100-00 | 100°00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 


The difference of these results from those detailed above is very striking, 
especially when we consider that carburetted hydrogen is entirely absent 
from Ebelmen’s analyses, and that the hydrogen is as great as 6 per cent. 
The close relation between the nitrogen and oxygen of these gases, and 
especially the great regularity in the increase and diminution of their respec- 
tive constituents, would certainly appear to be a guarantee for the accuracy 
of the analyses. Indeed Ebelmen himself seems so deeply impressed with 
their value and with their exclusive accuracy, that he has considered it quite 
unnecessary even to refer to the previous elaborate investigations on this 
subject in Germany. As he has not honoured one of us, the author of these 
investigations, with a reference, of course the difference between his results 
and those of that paper still remain unexplained, and we shall therefore en- 
deavour to fill up this gap in our knowledge. 

The analyses of Ebelmen differ from our own in being quite destitute of 
earburetted hydrogen. It would be a great error to suppose that the absence 
of this ingredient is not essential. The gas escaping from the furnace at 
Baerum contains, according to weight,— 


Nitrogen . . 2» + » « 5895 
Carbonicacid . . . . + 31°68 
Carbonic oxide . . . - « 728 
Carburetted hydrogen. . . 2°00 
Hydrogen. . . ». - - - O09 


— —__—___. 


100:00 


The two parts of carburetted hydrogen contained in this mixture give, 
on combustion, 26938 units * of heat; and no less than 10°76 parts of car- 
bonic oxide would be necessary to generate the same amount. An error of 
2 in the quantity of carburetted hydrogen, with respect to the combustible 
value of the gas, is equivalent to a loss of 10°76 parts of carbonic oxide gas. 
But surely a theoretical conclusion must be of small value when based upon 
an analysis in which there are errors of more than 10 per cent. of the car- 
bonic oxide. It therefore becomes a most important question tc determine 

* Unit of heat is a convenient term to employ in the present report, because it expresses 
a standard amount. The amount of heat necessary to elevate 2°204 Ibs. of water (1 kilo- 
gramme) from 0° Cent. to 1° C., we assume as unity. 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 145 


whether’ carburetted hydrogen ought to be considered as an essential con- 
stituent of the gases, and whether its absence in the cases cited is due to an 
error in Ebelmen’s analyses. 

It is well known that ordinary charcoal is very far from being pure carbon, 
and that it in fact contains about 20 per cent. of foreign matters, which 
escape as gaseous and liquid products when it is heated to redness. If car- 
buretted hydrogen form, as is generally supposed, an essential constituent of 
the gases resulting from the distillation of wood-charcoal, it is quite clear that 
it cannot be absent from the gases of furnaces supplied with that fuel. Al- 
though the presence of carburetted hydrogen in the gases obtained by the 
distillation of charcoal is generally acknowledged, we have thought it not 
superfluous to put this fact beyond all doubt by a renewed examination. The 
charcoal subjected to experiment was heated in a narrow glass tube, con- 
nected with a long dry tube to retain the liquid products of distillation, and 
the gases, after passing through this, were collected over mercury. In order 
to remove any elayl or hydrated oxide of methyl, which might possibly have 
accompanied the gases, they were conducted through a long tube filled with 
fuming sulphuric acid, attached to which was another tube moistened with 
water. The analysis of the gases was then effected in an exact eudiometer, 
and according to the methods which we describe in an after part of this report. 

I. A specimen of very well-burnt charcoal, from beech-wood, yielded a 
gas of the following composition, according to volume :— 


Carbonic acid » « 23°65 
Carburetted hydrogen. . - 11°00 
Carbonic oxide . . .. - 15°96 
Hydrogen. . . - - - - 49°39 


100°00 


II. A good specimen of charcoal from fir-wood, also well-burnt, gave a 
gas constituted as under. 

III. 0:6500 gramme of oak-charcoal, of a similar nature to the last, left 
behind 0:47 carbon, and yielded 70 cubic centimetres of gas at 0° C. and 0°76 
bar., consisting as under. 

IV. 0°733 imperfectly burnt beech-wood charcoal, pulverulent, and of a 
blackish-brown colour, left 0°443 carbon and 250 cubic centimetres of gas 
at 0° C. and 0°76 bar., which gas was composed as under. 


II. Ill. IV. 
Gas of Gas of Gas of 
Fir-charcoal. Oak-charcoal. Beech-charcoal. 
Carbonic acid. ......- 15°96 19°58 35°36 
Carburetted hydrogen .. 20°32 20°75 20°78 
Carbonic oxide ...... 13°62 90°57 14°41 
. Hydrogen... .... +. 50°10 39°10 29°45 
; 100:00 100:00 100-00 


If we assume the most unfavourable condition to the calculation, that the 
charcoal used in the furnace of Clerval was of the most select quality, which 
could not have been the case, it follows from the analysis and consumption 
of charcoal at that place, that no less than 479 cubic feet of light carburetted 
hydrogen must have escaped from the top of the furnace every hour, and yet 
not.a trace of this large quantity is to be found in Ebelmen’s analyses. The 
above experiments prove beyond contradiction that the carburetted hydrogen 
found by Scheerer and by us in the gases from charcoal, is actually an essen- 


" 1845. L 
q 


\ 
. 
. 
} 


146 - REPORT—1845. 


tial constituent of furnace-gases. The absence of this important ingre- 
dient from Ebelmen’s analyses might be explained on the supposition that 
the gases upon which he operated were collected from a part without the 
column of charcoal, and between it and the lining of the furnace. However, 
we cannot reproach Ebelmen with drawing a theory of the mutual action of 
the gaseous and solid products of the furnace from a mixture of gas which 
had only partially been subjected to this action, because the presence of 7 per 
cent. of hydrogen indicated by his analyses would be still more inexplicable 
on this supposition. Hence we must look to another source for the errors in 
his analyses, and it will be found to lie in the incompleteness of the methods 
used by him. His method of determining the nature and composition of the 
combustible gases, was to pass them over red-hot oxide of copper, collecting 
the products of combustion in the usual way, and forming an opinion of the 
presence or absence of carburetted hydrogen by the loss in weight of the 
combustion-tube. In order to show the degree of inaccuracy of this method, 
it will be best to choose a special case as an example, and as such we select 
the first analysis of the gases of Clerval. The volume of gas used in his ex- 
periments, 1500 cubie centimetres*, contained 87:3 cubic centimetres of 
hydrogen and 352°65 cubic centimetres of carbonic oxide gas. In order to 
burn this quantity, the combustion-tube suffered a loss in weight of 0°3160 
gramme. If we supposed the whole of the hydrogen to be present as car- 
buretted hydrogen, taking its carbon from a corresponding quantity of car- 
bonic oxide, the 1500 cubic centimetres of gas must have contained 43°65 
carburetted hydrogen and 309-0 carbonic oxide ; and, on this supposition, the 
combustion-tube must have diminished in weight 0°3473 gramme, instead of 
0°3150 gramme. It will be seen from this calculation, that the question as 
to whether the mixture of gases contains 5°82 per cent. hydrogen, or instead 
of that quantity, 3°09 light carburetted hydrogen, is entirely dependent upon 
a difference in weight of not more than 0°0323 gramme. Let us assume 
that the weight of the combustion-tube and its contents was 80 grammes, 
then an error of ,,4,, in the weighing would cause a change in the results 
from the composition, as found by Ebelmen, to that placed beside it calculated 
on this supposition :— 


On the supposition that he 


According to was liable to an error of only 

Ebelmen. zoGos in weighing. 
Nitrogen «see eae S779 61°36 
Carbonic acid ....... 12:88 13°68 
Carbonic oxide ...... 23°55 21°87 
Carburetted hydrogen .. 0:00 3°09 
Hydrogen sss esses . BZ 0°00 

100°00 100°00 


Such uncertainties as these are never to be feared in a eudiometric ana- 
lysis conducted with proper precautions; for they would imply errors in 
measurement which could not take place without the most gross negligence. 
Now when we consider the circumstances which would tend to diminish the 
loss in weight of the combustion-tube in Ebelmen’s experiments, and con- 


* Tn the details of our analyses we always employ the French weights and measures, now 
universally used on the continent, and by most of our eminent chemists in this country. 
Their convenience is very great, and as science is universal and not local, English memoirs 
are more readily adopted on the continent when the translators have not the trouble of re- 
ducing our weights and measures. Where the numbers are absolute and not relative, we 
employ English measures. 


ene 
ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 147 


sequently diminish the quantity of carburetted hydrogen, while it increased 
that of hydrogen, we shall be the more inclined to attribute the erroneous 
results of his experiments to the uncertain methods employed by him in ana- 
lysis. The smallest quantity of oxygen remaining in the nitrogen with which 
the apparatus was filled previous to the experiment, the gases retained by the 
porous copper formed during the reduction, the carbon also retained by this 
copper, the smallest quantity of foreign substances which may attach them- 
selves to the combustion-tube, softened as it is by heat during the experi- 
ment,—all these must tend to increase the chances of an error of ~>4>5 in 
weighing ; a difference so small as even without the operation of these causes 
almost to be within the errors of observation, and sufficient to account for 
the erroneous results obtained by Ebelmen. But whatever may have been 
the grounds which induced Ebelmen to avoid referring to the original inves- 
tigations in Germany, when we consider the great labour which he bestowed 
on the inquiry; it will ever remain to be regretted that he did not introduce 
into his memoir an explanation of the grounds upon which he accorded the 
preference to his method of analysis, which differs from that of his prede- 
cessors in the inquiry more by its tediousness than its accuracy, and which 
we consider it necessary altogether to avoid in the following research. At 
the same time it cannot be denied, that eudiometric analysis, as usually 
performed, is little deserving of high commendation, or of universal adoption, 
although this is less owing to its incompleteness than to the neglect of the 
many precautions which should be adopted to procure accuracy. 

Before proceeding to our investigation, we thought it necessary to examine 
with great care all the conditions essential to obtain a proper degree of ac- 
curacy. It cannot, therefore, be thought superfluous to describe in detail 
the methods employed in the inquiry, especially as these must form the foun- 
dation for the reception of the conclusions which we draw from the experi- 
ments. 

The combustion and measurement of the gases is most conveniently and 
accurately performed in uniform glass tubes of 18-19 inches in length and 
about 0°6 inch internal and 0°8 inch external diameter ; in the closed end of 
the tube there is inserted by fusion two platina wires of the thickness of horse 
hair, for the purpose of passing the electric spark. The tube is divided into 
millimetres, and with this view, is covered with common etching paste, or 
still better, with a thin layer of wax containing a little turpentine, which may 
be laid very uniformly on the warmed surface of the glass by means of a 
hair pencil. The glass is then minutely graduated by a peculiar instru- 
ment, and subjected to the action of gaseous hydrofluoric acid, which, when 
evolved from a paste of fluoride of calcium and concentrated sulphuric acid 
placed in a vessel of lead slightly warmed, effects the etching in ten to fifteen 
minutes, and much more legibly than the liquid hydrofluoric acid usually 
employed in the graduation of thermometers. 

The capacity of the tube, which has thus been divided into millimetres, 
is easily determined by measurement. For this purpose, the tube is placed 
vertically with the table, its hermetically sealed end being downwards, and 
is then filled with successive portions of mercury carefully measured. The 
different lengths occupied by these equal volumes correspond to equal capa- 
cities of the tube. If the mercury in the successive parts of the tube ad, be, 
ed, de, &c. take up the lengths measured on the graduation L L! L'' L’", and 
_ the short parts of the tube ad, bc, ed, &c. be considered uniform in calibre, 
_ We obtain respective values of the divisional marks between ab, be, &c. with 
respect to the volumes corresponding to them expressed by the unity cor- 
responding to the length L, when L! L" L!", &c. are divided by L. On add- 
L2 


le oe ee 


148 “REPORT—1845. 


ing together these quantities, a graduation originally arbitrary becomes a 
comparable measure corresponding to the capacity of the tube. We obtain 
by this means a table of correction which gives the true volume of the tube 
corresponding to each mark. 

It is necessary, in order to obviate the parallax on reading from the surface 
of the mercury, to use a small moveable mirror (Plate IV. fig. 1), which is 
placed on the opposite side of the tube. If the pupil of the eye seen through 
the tube in the mirror appears halved by the mark corresponding to the con- 
vexity of the mercury, the reading may be considered as exact. If the 
volume of the measured gas be read, as must always be the case, from the 
highest point of the convexity of the mercury, we must add to the correc- 
tions a small constant quantity deduced from the value found in the plate, 
and which may be named the fault of the convexity, the necessity for which 
will be rendered obvious by the following consideration :—If the reading of 
the volume of the mercury during the measurement of the instrument be at 
the mark a, the capacity a ab is not measured, but only the volume eged 
(fig. 2). Now on using the instrument, if we read a volume of gas at the 
same mark a, while the convexity takes the place dg 6, this volume as read 
does not correspond toe ge 6, but tothe real capacity egeb + deged. 
Hence the quantity deg ec is not measured by the reading, and must there- 
fore be added to the volumes observed, which otherwise would be too small. 
This quantity may be ascertained by an experiment, and serves for all fu- 
ture corrections. Ifa dilute solution of bichloride of mercury be placed in 
contact with the convexity, it disappears immediately, on account of the for- 
mation of a thin layer of protochloride of mercury which adheres to the glass. 
The mercury now shows the horizontal surface f6. The quantity caae is 
obviously equal to fe aa f, which may be measured directly by the divi- 
sions on the tube. Hence the quantity cd ée must be equal to2 x aaPf, 
which is the quantity that must be added to the observed volume on every 
reading. 

Another source of error may arise from air bubbles, which are apt to at- 
tach themselves to the glass during the filling of the tube, and being loosened 
when gas is admitted, render the latter impure. If these bubbles of air be 
visible to the naked eye, it is easy enough to separate them by means of a 
wire ; but the walls still remain covered with microscopic bubbles which 
cannot be removed in this way. In order, therefore, to prevent altogether 
this danger to the experiment, it is necessary to clean very carefully with 
unsized paper the walls of the tube after every experiment, and to introduce 
the mercury by means of a funnel with a long neck ending in a narrow 
opening at the lower end, and placed at the bottom of the tube. The mer- 
cury flowing from this funnel adheres to the walls of the tube, with a perfectly 
clear mirror-like surface. 

Especial care must be taken that air neither enters nor escapes during the 
combustion of the gas in the eudiometer. This evil is perfectly avoided by 
pressing the open end of the instrument, during the explosion, upon a per- 
fectly smooth sheet of caoutchouc placed under the mercury in the pneumatic 
trough. However, it is quite necessary to take care that the caoutchouc has 
not carried down with it any air, which might easily find its way into the 
eudiometer by the diminished tension of the gas. The caoutchouc is there- 
fore moistened with a solution of corrosive sublimate, and very slowly sunk 
into the mercury ; the protochloride of mercury formed between the mercury 
and the caoutchouc causes such complete adhesion as to exclude all air. 

Finally, the reading can only be made exact by using the mirror formerly 
described, and estimating the position of the level of the column of mercury 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 149 


in the eudiometer above that in the trough, so that the difference may be 
brought into the calculation. By reading in this manner the error is avoided; 
which otherwise would result from heating the gases by the hand in adjust- 
ing the outer and inner levels, and it also enables us to record the results 
without touching the apparatus, which thus preserves a constant temperature. 

It is quite necessary, in estimating the volumes of the gases, to use the sub- 
stances for absorption in a bulk as small as possible, and in a form which 
may easily and completely be removed from the tubes, so that the gases may 
neither be rendered impure by air introduced, nor their reading rendered 
erroneous by some of the absorbing substance adhering to the sides of the 
tube. This is best effected by casting the materials into the form of bullets, 
by means of a common bullet-mould, into which a thin piano wire hasbeen 
previously introduced. If there are to be two determinations of carbonic 
acid, the one before the combustion of the gas, the other after, it is neces- 
sary to transfer the gas from one eudiometer to another, after the first deter- 
mination, in order to avoid the chance of error which might result from potash 
adhering to the side of the tube during the first absorption ; and for this 
purpose it is obviously of little consequence whether the whole or only a part 
of the volume of the gas be transferred. The adhesion of air to the piano 
wire is so insignificant, that it might be completely neglected ; but to avoid 
error, it is better to amalgamate the outer surface of the iron wire; this may 
be done by rubbing it with an amalgam of potassium and mercury, without 
destroying its tenacity. Rusty iron wire must not on any account be em- 
ployed, and equal care must be taken to keep its inferior end under the mer- 
cury during the absorption; for if it be exposed to the air, an endosmose 
and exosmose is effected to such an extent, as in certain cases to endanger 
the value of the analysis. 

In order to estimate olefiant gas and the hydrocarbons accompanying it, 
we have invented a very simple and efficacious method, which may be use- 
fully employed in the analysis of coal-gas. A little bullet is prepared out of 
the same materials as those used for making the negative element of the coal 
battery. For this purpose a bullet-mould, supplied with a platinum-wire 
having a bent end, is filled with a pounded mixture of two parts of coke and 
one part of coal, and is then heated before the blowpipe flame. The ball 
made in this way is afterwards dipped into a concentrated solution of sugar, 
and heated very strongly in the open reducing flame of the blowpipe ; it is 
now ready, and must be preserved for use carefully protected from moisture. 
This lump of charcoal, about the size of a small pistol-bullet, is capable of 
absorbing into its pores 0°5 gramme of sulphuric acid without appearing wet 
on the surface, and it can be introduced into and withdrawn from the eudio- 
meter without moistening it to any appreciable extent. For the purpose of 
experiment, it is made to absorb a mixture consisting of one part of anhy- 
drous and two parts of concentrated hydrated sulphuric acid. The proof 
that the acid contained in the bullet has been sufficient for the absorption of 
the olefiant gas, is the emission of white fumes in the air after its withdrawal 
from the mixture of gases, which of course must be quite dry. As the an- 
hydrous sulphuric acid emits vapour possessing considerable tension, and is 
never obtained free from sulphurous acid, and as the latter gas is also formed 
by the action of sulphuric acid on the hydrocarbons, an augmentation of the 
volume of the mixture is thus produced. ‘To remove both these sources of 
error, after the conclusion of the above experiment, a little dry ball made of 
gypsum and peroxide of lead is introduced into the eudiometer. This has 
the double effect of removing both, for while the peroxide of lead absorbs 


150 REPORT—1845. 


the sulphurous acid, the anhydrous sulphuric acid robs the gypsum of part 
of its water, thus becoming hydrated sulphuric acid and losing its tension. 

When the oxygen is estimated, not by combustion with hydrogen, but by 
absorption with phosphorus, the precaution must always be taken to sepa- 
rate the vapours of phosphorous acid by a bullet of caustic potash, before 
effecting the measurement. 

As the tension of the aqueous vapour, and in fact every known precau- 
tionary means were adopted in our experiments, we believe it to be unne- 
cessary to enter into further detail. But, at the same time, as it is necessary 
that we should submit to the Association some proofs of the degree of accu- 
racy which we profess to have attained in this mode of analysis, we do not 
consider it superfluous to lay before it a series of analyses of common air, 
made with eudiometers such as have been described, but of various sizes, 
and with air collected at different times, the analyses being made with the 
precautions recommended by us. And we are less afraid of being accused 
of unnecessary detail, because these analyses show most decidedly that the 
presence of nitrogen during the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen does 
not cause the formation of ammonia, or of any degree of oxidation of ni- 
trogen. We thought this question, involving as it does the whole value of our 
labours, so important as to be submitted to rigorous experimental research. 

The air employed in these experiments was collected in the neighbour- 
hood of Marburg in the open air, and carefully freed from carbonic acid : 
the measurement of the respective volumes of gases was effected at the maxi- 
mum of moisture. 


I. Experiments with a eudiometer of small dimensions. 
Ist Experiment, June 14, 1844. 


Volume. i nee , aan of Barometer. 
iS m m 
Volume of air used creccsscccessesseeseese| 200°L 18:0 0:2075 0:7480 
Volume after admission of hydrogen ,..| 307-1 17:8 0°1343 0-7480 
Volume after the combustion .......++«. 2118 18-0 0°2250 0:7480 


Qnd Experiment, June 15. 


Volume of air used ..ccccccsseeeseeees aacael. 1 9S'2 18 02420 0-7476 
Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 346-4 18 0:0962 07476 
Volume after combustion ..........+- sooeee| 280°2 18 0-1600 0°7476 


3rd Experiment, June 18, with the same air as the last. 


Volume Of air used .....c.ee.e-cevceseerece 231°4 16°4 0°1963 07451 

Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 822+9 16:2 0°1092 0:7433 

Volume after combustion ........seeesereee 230'8 164 0-1969 0:7410 
4th Experiment. 

Volume of air used ....c.ssccccsccsencevees 214-4 173 0-2305 0°7467 

Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 313°5 17:3 0-1367 0°7478 

Volume after combustion ........+«.. eeeee| 2343 17-1 0:2224 0:7474 


a 


’ 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 151 


II. Experiments with a eudiometer of larger dimensions, such as that used 
. in our experiments. 


5th Experiment, June 30. 


Temp. | Difference of 


Volume. Cent. level. Barometer. 
° m m 
Volume of hydrogen used........es++000++ 1461 71 0-2149 0:7460 
Volume after admission of air ...........- 313°0 17-1 0:0593 0°7460 
Volume after combustion ..........scc00ee- 2169 17-1 0°1506 0:7449 
6th Experiment, July 1. 
Volume of hydrogen used........... aE ES 1556 | 16:8 02069 |. 0-7447 
Volume after admission of air ............ 297-1 16:9 0:0750 0:7442 
Volume after combustion ........-..s..000« 2143 17-0 0:1528 0:7444 


III. Experiments with a large, long and wide eudiometer. 
7th Experiment, July }. 


Temp. | Difference of 


Volume. Gone tere: Barometer. 
° m ae m 
Volume of air used ........sscecescereceees 663°2 16:0 0-2301 0°7453 
Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 881-3 16-2 0:0237 0°7453 
Volume after combustion ........s+s+..s00 7350 16°5 0-1658 0-7448 
8th Experiment, July 10. 
Volume of air used ...se.seseeessseeessenes 676'8 16:4 0:2160 0°7444 
Volume after admission of hydrogen ...|) 8787 | 16-5 0:0225 0-7444 
Volume after combustion ......+0...sseeees 716-6 16:2 0:1667 0:7444 
9th Experiment, July 12. 
Volume of air used ......secsesecseeeeese --| 657-2 16°8 0-2408 0-7457 
Volume after admission of hydrogen ...| 890-9 16:8 0-0099 0°7457 
Volume after combustion ..,.... asad aaa 752°8 16:8 0:1460 0°7449 


From the preceding experiments, the composition of air is as follows:— 


Nitrogen. Oxygen. 
78°92 21-08 
78:93 21:07 
78°98 21:02 
78:99 21-01 


7910 20 ame by a larger eudiometer, such as that 


Determined by the smallest eudiometer. 


79:09 20°91 : : 

7914 20°86 used in our experiments, ¥ 

7910 20:90 

7919 20°81 >Determined by the largest eudiometer. 

79°05 20°95 

The great agreement of these experiments with one another, and with the 

results obtained by the extremely careful experimental determination of the 
composition of air by Dumas, proves that the eudiometric analyses of gases 
admit of a degree of exactness which certainly is not surpassed by the most 
minute analytical methods; and they further show, that the presence of ni- 


152 REPORT—1845. 


trogen does not exercise any disturbing influence on the estimation of explo- 
sive mixtures of gases. 


The nature of the gases ascending through the various parts of an iron 
furnace is obviously dependent upon the nature of the fuel used in it. 
Coke, brown coal and wood yield a gas containing as combustible consti- 
tuents only carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide and hydrogen. The ana- 
lysis of such a mixture offers no difficulties, and the proportion of the gases 
may be easily calculated if we are acquainted with the volume occupied by 
the oxygen which disappears, and that of the carbonic acid produced, re- 
ferring them to the volume of gas employed. 


A mixture of gas consisting of 1 vol. H+1 vol. H,C+1 vol. CO =3 vol. 
requires for combustion ......... 3 vol.O+2 vol.O+2 vol. O =3 vol. 
and yields \....5).0,) Sacs02c-.0e002 | VOL'CO,+1 vol CO, =2 vol. 


If we call any given mixture of gas A, consisting of x hydrogen, y light 
carburetted hydrogen, and p carbonic oxide; and further call the oxygen 
necessary for the combustion B, and the carbonic acid produced C, we ob- 
tain the following equations :— 


e+y+p=A, 
4u+2y+ip=B, 
yt+tp=C; 
and out of these follow 
1. #wz=A—C. 
I2B—A 
g, = , 
y 3 

3. pes 


But the gas generated, when coal is used as fuel, may contain, in addition to 
the above gases, olefiant gas, gaseous hydrocarbons of various compositions, 
and sulphuretted hydrogen. The examination of such a complex mixture of 
gases offers rare difficulties, which may be overcome by estimating directly 
the sulphuretted hydrogen and the hydrocarbons differing in composition 
from light carburetted hydrogen. Sulphuretted hydrogen is easily enough 
determined, but for the estimation of hydrocarbons, not even an approximative 
method is known. It is quite true that they may be condensed by free chlorine 
in the dark ; but the necessity of making such experiments over water render 
the results wholly inexact. This method also gives a source of error, which 
becomes materially increased by the circumstance that the tension of the sub- 
stance containing chlorine formed by the condensation cannot be brought into 
the calculation. We have therefore tried to condense the gases in a proper 
apparatus by means of perchloride of antimony. In order to be sure of the 
applicability of this substance, it was necessary to be certain that this com- 
pound of chlorine kept back the desired hydrocarbon without acting upon 
the remaining constituents of the mixture. It may easily be proved that 
carbonic oxide, light carburetted hydrogen and hydrogen are left quite un- 
changed by it, for after streaming through the liquid contained in a Liebig’s 
potash apparatus, they are again obtained unaltered in quantity or in proper- 
ties. But it was not so simple to decide whether olefiant gas and the other 
hydrocarbons of unknown composition were separated in this way pure and 
capable of quantitative determination. We have endeavoured to decide this 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 153 


_ 


question in a way certainly somewhat tedious, but not the less positive. In the 


first place, it was necessary to be satisfied of the correctness of the opinion 


generally received, but, as far as we are aware, unproved, that the gaseous 
products of distillation of coal, in addition to carbonic oxide, hydrogen, ole- 
fiant gas and carburetted hydrogen, still contained other hydrocarbons. If 
the latter be absent, we are able by a eudiometric analysis to determine the 
constituents of a mixture of gases containing four ingredients, if we estimate 
for a given volume of the mixture A, the quantity of oxygen necessary for its 
combustion B, and the carbonic acid thus formed C, and also the proportion 
of the latter to the amount of aqueous vapour produced. Thus it requires 


A mixture consisting of 1 vol. H+1 vol. H.C +1 vol. HC +1 vol.CO =4 vol. 


for combustion ......... 1vol.0+2 vol. O+3 vol.O +4 vol. O =6 vol. 
from which is produced 1 vol. CO,+2 vol. CO.+1 vol. CO, =4 vol. 
and also ......seeee+-ee-e- 1 Vol. HO+2 vol. HO+2 vol. HO =5 vol. 


If we denote these quantities by the same letters as above, the olefiant 
gas by z, and the proportion of the aqueous vapour produced by the com- 


bustion to the carbonic acid as Ee the following four equations result : 


a+y+z+p =A, 
ut 2y+3z2+ap=B, 
yt+t22+p =v, 
x+2y+ 22 ma 8 
y+22+p E 


The value of the four unknown quantities x, y, 2 and p, are thus deter- 
mined :— 


- 


Sy Rae RY 
e=2A+4B 30 (p+5); 


on 


y=—2A—6B+5C(2 +1). 


2 


s=A4+4B—8C(- +1). 


Ws p=-2B+C(7+2). 


If the mixture of gases contain actually only the four assumed consti- 
tuents, we obtain positive values for x, y, 2 and p. If one of these quan- 
tities be negative, this is a proof that the mixture must contain other com- 
pounds than those assumed. 

In order to obtain something conclusive as to the nature of coal-gas, a 
quantity of coal was heated to redness in a combustion-tube, in such a man- 
ner that the gaseous products of distillation were not obliged to traverse the 
red-hot layers of coal. The gas was first conducted into a cool receiver, 
where it deposited the liquid products of distillation, after which it was freed 
from carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen by means of a solution of 
oxide of lead in potash, and also from water by being made to pass through 
a tube filled with chloride of calcium, leading into a.eudiometer standing 
over mercury. An indefinite quantity of the gas was also led over red-hot 
oxide of copper, and yielded 0°23749 grm. carbonic acid and 0°2239 grm. 
water, which correspond with 120°55 cubic centimetres of carbonic acid, and 


, 


154 REPORT—1845. 


_ with 277-27 cubic centimetres of aqueous vapour. The eudiometric analysis 
gave the following result :— 


Volume. vaup i Pressure. 0° C.1m. 
° m 
Volume of gas used. .,.sep:sereeseeseereeees te : 2:3 0:4127 54:06 
Volume after admission of Oxygen ...+.....+6 03 0°6289 219°10 
Volume after COMbUStION.......c+eeeseeeeeneeees ‘ 0-2 05277 127:25 
Volume after absorption of carbonic acid ...| 182°8 | —3 0°4794 88°61 
Volume after admission of hydrogen ,,....... 3003 | —25 0:5952 180:39 
Volume after COmbuStION ......+eeeesseeseeeeeeee 10671 | —1:7 0:3987 42°57 
Volume after another admission of hydrogen| 295°0 | —1-7 0°5863 174-04 
Volume after combustion .........:..csseeeereeeee 106-2 | —1°5 0-4194 44:79 


In these data, and also in all those which follow, the tension caused by the 
aqueous vapour formed during the combustion is never neglected, and the 
correction necessary for it at the given pressure is already brought into the 
calculation. A simple consideration of these experiments gives us the fol- 
lowing values for the elements necessary to the calculation :— 


D 


ae 2°2993, 
A = 5406, 
B= 76:02, 
C = 38°64. 


These quantities lead us to the following composition : 


Light carburetted hydrogen... +-73°18 
Carbonic oxide ..........s.0.000. -- 14°08 
Hydrogen y..sesseccesccocsssseeee — 8°89 
OIPHBIG GAO wxccccdvenaccenxpscess | — eee 


In this case, therefore, the formula leads to an impossible result, which 
proves that other constituents must be in the mixture of gases. From these 
facts we may also derive another conclusion. If we deduct in the last four 
experiments the excess of oxygen left after the combustion from the volume 
of gas measured after the absorption of carbonic acid, the remainder will 
give the nitrogen originally contained in the mixture, or that liberated by 
the combustion. This calculation shows that the nitrogen = 0°01, from 
which we conclude that the gas from coal, distilled and collected as we have 
described, does not contain in appreciable quantity nitrogen, cyanogen, or 
any other nitrogenous substance. Hence it follows that the gaseous mix- 
ture must contain, in addition to the hydrocarbons already mentioned, others 
of unknown composition. It was now quite necessary to ascertain positively 
whether perchloride of antimony completely effected the separation of the 
latter as well as of olefiant gas. This question is easily decided by conduct- 
ing coal-gas freed from carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen through a 
Liebig’s potash tube containing perchloride of antimony, behind which is 
placed another containing potash for the purpose of arresting the volatile 
perchloride, and a tube filled with chloride of calcium to prevent the escape 
of aqueous vapour. The gas treated in this way is collected over mercury, 
and exploded with the necessary quantity of oxygen, which is determined 
as well as that of the carbonic acid generated; and the proportion of the 
latter to the amount of aqueous vapour produced is obtained by leading an- 
other portion of the gas over red-hot oxide of copper. With this knowledge 


a 
s 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 155 


we possess all the data for estimating the amount of light carburetted hy- 
drogen, carbonic oxide and hydrogen, not only by the formule 1, 2, 3, but 
also by those afterwards described (4, 5, 6, 7) for calculating the quantities 
of light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, olefiant gas and hydrogen 
contained in a mixture. When both these calculations agree, and when we 
obtain by the last of them e as the value of the olefiant gas, this result may 
be viewed as a certain proof of the complete retention of the olefiant gas and 
other hydrocarbons of unknown composition by the perchloride of antimony 
without any change in the other gases. An experiment instituted for this 
purpose gave the following result :— 


Volume. Sealy i Pressure. 1m. at 0° 
BRMIRCUE LG aca yf uo ods achacgh se asia tions cAsanesess 1554 | —4:3 0:4497 71:00 
After admission Of O.....cccccccscessesescecserecs 343°4 —4:3 0°6351 221-57 
IFLEN COMBUSTION .ccsascerccessacevccccssscucseuss 197°6 —43 0:4872 97°81 
After absorption Of CO. ....scecsecseseeeeceees 122°8 | —3:7 0-4109 51:15 
After admission Of H  ....,cccesecesesceceececees 330°3 | —3'7 06171 206-62 
FA SHED COMPUSHLON -ccccescanasehencvssspaypacceuyens 130-7 | —37 0-4041 53°53 


The relation of aqueous vapour to carbonic acid 02035 grm. : 02113 grm. 
The values deduced for calculation are— 


= 2:3488, 


A = 70°88, 
B= 99°54, 
C = 46°66. 
The formule 1, 2, 3 give us the composition,— 


HA ydrogem. 4. -iissscs sos0dsovsisesee 24022 
Light carburetted hydrogen... 42°73 
Carbonic oxide .....,........00. 3°93 
NiFOMED ssissbieecease ds dacdees ONE 


The formule 4, 5, 6, ‘7 give, on the other hand,— 


FLVQROEON, ..-esnpitan sen eps /savas | 24°H0 
Light carburetted hydrogen... 42:27 
Carbonic oxide,......0..s+se0ee 3°83 
FUMIO tas tc nasned na atnpon- thle 
Olefiant gas ........ s..sseceeeee + 0°28 


The agreement of these results may be considered as a proof of the appli- 
eability of perchloride of antimony for our purposes, as the differences are 
quite within the errors of observation, and as similar differences might arise 


by a variation from unity in the third decimal of the expression Ee But to 


remove every possible doubt as to the accuracy of our results, we have taken 
the specific gravity of the mixture of gases treated with perchloride of anti- 
mony, and compared this result with the theoretical density as calculated from 
the known composition. 

In estimating the specific gravity, it was of importance to operate upon a 
smaller volume of gas than usual, because it was necessary to have the same 
gas collected over mercury, not only in the combustion with oxide of cop- 
per, and in the eudiometric analysis, but also in taking the density of the 


4 


156 REPORT—1845. 


gas. We have therefore used in our experiments a plan somewhat deviating 
from that usually adopted, and which for simplicity and accuracy merits to 
be followed in other cases. The vessel used for weighing the gas consisted 
of a flask such as that used for digestion, and of a capacity of 200 cubic cen- 
timetres; the neck of this flask was drawn out before the blowpipe until the 
opening was narrowed to the thickness of a straw, and was then supplied 
with a well-fitted ground glass stopper. This flask, the capacity of which 
had been previously accurately determined, was filled with mercury, with the 
precautions already described (page 148), and the gas to be weighed was then 
introduced, leaving however the mercury still in the vessel, to the height of 
one- or two-tenths of an inch. The apparatus, with its mouth placed under 
mercury, is placed as vertically as possible, and allowed to acquire a uniform 
temperature. When this has taken place the stopper is introduced, and by 
means of an etched graduation on the neck, the height of the mercury over 
the level of that in the trough is accurately noted, in order to deduct this 
from the column of mercury in the barometer observed at the same time. 
The flask, removed from the trough, and carefully cleaned on the outside, is 
then weighed, with all the necessary data for corrections employed in such 
cases, after which it is filled with dry air, care being taken that none of its 
liquid contents are lost in doing so; and then it is again weighed. An ex- 
periment made in this way with gas purified by perchloride of antimony, gave 
the following result :— 


Volume of the gas weighed at 9° C. and 0°7337 pressure, 211°05 cubic 
centimetres. 
Weight of the flask filled with gas at 9°-9 C. and 0°7557 pressure, 49°0262 


grms. 
Weight of the flask filled with air at — 3°5 C.and 0°7557 pressure, 49°1920 
grms. 


The specific gravity, 0°4073, which results from this experiment, does not 
differ from 0°41, the density calculated from the above analysis, more than we 
might expect, from the possibility of error of observation in such experiments. 

The experiments now detailed prove that other hydrocarbons must be 
present, besides olefiant gas and light carburetted hydrogen, but they do not 
show whether olefiant gas itself is contained in the mixture. Its presence is 
however easily shown, by the circumstance that the perchloride of antimony 
used in the absorption yields by distillation with water chloride of elayle 
with all its characteristic properties. 

When a stream of gas, obtained by the distillation of coal, is conducted 
through a Liebig’s tube filled with a solution of oxide of lead in potash, a pre- 
cipitate falls, consisting of sulphuret and carbonate of lead: sulphuretted 
hydrogen and carbonic acid gases are therefore constituents of the mixture. 
But there is not a trace of the vapours of sulphuret of carbon in the gas, for 
the gas thus purified does not in the least degree smell of sulphuret of carbon, 
being in fact quite destitute of smell. 

The gases evolved from iron furnaces must contain nitrogen, in addition 
to those described, for this gas enters with the air supplied by the blast. The 
preceding investigations show us that the gases from furnaces contain the 
following constituents :— 


1. Nitrogen. 

. Ammonia. 

. Carbonic acid. 

. Carbonic oxide. 

. Light carburetted hydrogen. 


OS oo 


own 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 157 


6. Olefiant gas. 

7. Carburetted hydrogen, of unknown composition. 
8. Hydrogen. 

9. Sulphuretted hydrogen. 
10. Aqueous vapour. 


An iron furnace must be viewed as an apparatus destined to carry on 
chemical processes of the most various kind. These operations begin at the 
top of the furnace, and stretch downwards to its hearth in well-defined suc- 
cession. The final products of all these operations appear partly at the hearth 
and partly at the mouth; in the latter in the form of a column of combustible 
gas, in the former in the liquid form of slag and cast iron. The nature of 
the combustible gas stands in a relation so intimate to the changes suffered 
by the materials put into the furnace, that its different composition in the 
various regions of the furnace indicates the changes suffered by the materials 
introduced as they descend in their way to the entrance of the blast. Now as 
the examination of this column of air in its various heights in the furnace 
must be the key to the questions upon which the theory and practice of the 
manufacture of iron depend, it is of the first importance to subject it to a 
rigid examination. The successive changes suffered by the column of gas 
in its passage can only be elucidated by a direct examination of its com- 
position in the various regions of the furnace. We can however employ a 
method to ascertain the average composition of the gas escaping from the 
mouth of the furnace ; for although the method does not give the compo- 
sition itself, it enables us to fix the narrow limits between which it varies. 
In order, however, to understand the part played by the coal itself in the 
formation of gas from the furnace, it is necessary to examine closely the 
phenomena which would ensue were the furnace filled with nothing else ex- 
cept the fuel. On this account we must recapitulate the results obtained 
in an inquiry formerly instituted in Germany by one of us, as this may 
be considered established by the repetition of the experiments by others, and 
by the numerous appliances to practice which have already resulted from 
them. It was shown by these experiments, which receive renewed confir- 
mation and extension from our present inquiry,— 

1st. That the oxygen introduced by the blast is burned in the immediate 
vicinity of the tuyére; 

2nd. That the oxygen is converted into carbonic oxide also in the imme- 
diate vicinity of the tuyére; and finally, 

8rd. That the coal loses all its gaseous products of distillation much above 
the point at which its combustion commences. 

It is therefore clear that the gasification of the coal, if such a term be ad- 
missible, must take place in the regular course of the furnace, at two points 
quite separated from each other. At a certain depth from the mouth of 
the furnace the gases due to the distillation or coaking of the coal must 
escape. Further down in the furnace the gasification will be completed, be- 
cause the coal freed from its volatile products must here enter into combus- 
tion. These products of distillation and combustion, mixed with the nitrogen 
of the atmospheric air, forms the column of gas which appears as a combus- 
tible gas at the mouth of the furnace. Now when we consider that the 
quantity of coal which loses its gases in traversing the distillatory part of the 
furnace must correspond to that burnt before the tuyére by the air intro- 
duced in the blast, it follows that the composition of the gases evolved from 
the furnace will be given if we add the products of distillation of any given 


158 REPORT—1845. 


quantity of coal to the products of combustion of the coke formed from that 
coal. 

As no further experiments are required to determine the products of com- 
bustion, the question as to the constitution of gases evolved from coal fur- 
naces is reduced to the examination of the liquid and gaseous products re- 
sulting from the distillation of any given kind of coal. These products will 
be very different, according as they come in contact with the red-hot coal, 
or escape without passing over it. In the last case we obtain the immediate 
products resulting from the decomposition of coal, while in the first we have 
the products arising from their action upon it. The conditions essential to 
the production of the first case are more or less combined in furnaces in which 
the materials are put in in a finely-divided state, and go slowly down from the 
top to the bottom of the furnace. Under these circumstanees the coal be- 
comes heated pretty equably throughout its entire mass by the larger heating 
surface which it offers to the ascending column of gas; and the tar conden- 
sing in the upper parts of the furnace is carried away by this stream of air, 
before the coals saturated with it reach that point in the furnace where the 
temperature is sufficient for the further decomposition of the products, of di- 
stillation. The gases generated from the furnace, under such conditions, must 
contain a smaller quantity of combustible matter. It is therefore of import- 
ance to determine the average composition of the gases formed from the 
products of distillation unmixed with the substances-arising from their ac- 
tion upon the red-hot coal. The composition of a gaseous mixture of this 
kind is also interesting, because it points out the limits to which the quan- 
tity of combustible constituents in furnace gases may be reduced. In order 
to obtain gases of this kind, the most convenient way is to fill a combustion- 
tube with the coal to be examingd, which is placed in a horizontal layer 
and heated from the closed end of the tube to the open end, so that the gases 
are not obliged to traverse over red-hot coal in their escape from the tube. 
The apparatus used by us in the determination of the liquid and gaseous 
products of distillation is drawn in fig. 4. @a@ is a common combustion fur- 
nace, in which is placed the tube coating the coal. The tube is made of 
difficultly fusible green glass, about 3 inch wide, and surrounded by a 
thin sheet of copper containing between it and the glass a layer of powdered 
charcoal, so that the weight may not alter during the heating. The end of 
the tube is drawn out before the flame of the blowpipe, and connected by 
means of a weighed strong caoutchouc tube with the receiver 6, which is 
destined to receive the tar and ammoniacal water : ¢ is a bent tube filled with 
chloride of calcium for the double purpose of retaining the water and am- 
monia which passes over with the gases: d is a Liebig’s tube filled with a 
solution of oxide of lead in caustic potash, behind which is placed another 
tube filled with chloride of calcium for the reception of the aqueous vapour 
carried off from the potash. This arrangement enables us to determine the 
amount of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, each of which is de- 
termined by boiling the black precipitate in a platinum vessel with caustic 
potash, and then weighing the precipitate thus freed from carbonate of lead. 
The receiver filled with perchloride of antimony (f) serves for the deter- 
mination of olefiant gas and the volatile hydrocarbons accompanying it. On 
-aecount of the great volatility of this compound of chlorine, it is necessary 
to connect it with a potash apparatus (g), which itself is connected with an 
absorbing tube containing sulphuric acid. As the chloride of antimony is 
apt to become hot during the condensation, and thus cause an escape of a 
volatile chlorinated hydrocarbon, we prefer to use an alcholic instead of an 
aqueous solution of potash. If this be neglected, subchloride of mercury is 


ge 


ia i a ail at 


; 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 159 


sometimes observed in the succeeding eudiometric analyses. The gases pro- 
cured after this treatment, consisting of hydrogen, light carburetted hydro- 
gen and carbonic oxide, are entirely destitute of smell, and without action 
upon mercury. As soon as all the atmospheric air is expelled from the ap- 
paratus, which we find by analysis to be effected by the distillation of about 
300 grains of coal, the conducting tube () is dipped under mercury and the 
gas collected. In order to have it of average composition, the gas is col- 
lected over mercury in a glass vessel, of a capacity of 800 to 1000 cubic cen- 
timetres. 

The glass tubes conveying the gas into the vessel is connected with the rest 
of the apparatus by means of a caoutchouc joint, and a tube, rather narrowed 
in the middle. This contracted tube is fused when the receiver is filled, 
but immediately opened again with a pair of tongs in that part which still 
remains in contact with the system of absorption, so that the experiment may 
be continued until the coal ceases to yield gas. As soon as this point is at- 
tained, the fire is removed from the combustion furnace, and the distillatory 
tube opened by cutting away with a diamond its drawn-out neck, so far as it 
is filled with coal-tar. The part of the absorptive system formerly in con- 
nection with the mercurial apparatus is now attached to a hand air-pump, 
and the apparatus filled with atmospheric air by a few gentle strokes of the 
pump. The loss in weight of the distillatory tube, after being filled with air, 
adding the weight of the part cut off, gives the amount of coal left behind 
by the distillation, and also the total weight of the liquids and gases which 
have escaped from the coal. The quantity of fluid matter is determined by 
the weight of the receivers 6, c, and by the loss in weight of the fragment of 
glass tube when freed from tar. The receivers d, e give the quantity of car- 
bonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, the receiver f,g, 4 the weight of the 
olefiant gases and condensable hydrocarbons. By subtracting the weight of 
these collected products of distillation from the loss sustained by the distil- 
latory tube, the remainder indicates the weight of the non-condensable gases, 
the composition of which in hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen and carbonic 
oxide, is easily determined by a eudiometric analysis. 

The amount of tar produced by the distillation may be determined by 
throwing the contents of the first receiver on a weighed filter moistened with 
water, washing it, and, after drying both it and the moist receiver, the weight 
of these, added to that of the tar in the cut fragment of tube, gives a very 
exact result as to its amount. The ammonia contained in the water is 
best obtained by distilling it with a large excess of potash into a receiver 
containing muriatic acid, until at least two-thirds of the liquid have passed 
over, and it is then collected in the usual way by evaporation and precipi- 
tation with chloride of platinum, the washing of the double salt being best 
effected by a mixture of alcohol and ether, according to Varrentrapp and 
Wills’ recommendation. The amount of water is of course known by de- 
ducting the weight of the tar and ammonia from the total weight. 

In order to draw conclusions as to the composition of the gases of the fur- 
nace, it is of importance to ascertain the composition of those absorbed by 
the perchloride of antimony. To determine this point, a quantity of coal 
was heated to redness with the precautions already described, and collected 
in a gasometer filled with milk of lime. This gas, carefully dried by passing 
over chloride of calcium, was led into perchloride of antimony until the 
latter was saturated. An indefinite quantity of the black liquid thus ob- 
tained was put into a combustion-tube with oxide of copper, the front part of 
the tube being supplied with copper shavings, and on combustion, 0°1226 


_ water and 0°3626 carbonic acid were obtained, which correspond to 


160 REPORT—1845. 


Found. Olefiant gas. 
Carbon. |i eet s is 8790 85°71 
Hydrogen . «~~. « 12:10 | 14°29 


100°00 100°00 


This result agrees so closely with the composition of olefiant gas, that we 
may calculate the hydrocarbon as that gas, especially as any fault, arising 
from so doing in the case of gases from furnaces, would be appreciable only 
in the fourth decimal place. Gasforth coal, analysed in the manner now 
described, gave the following results :— 

1. Weight of the coalused. . . » » - ee ww 16°7457 
2 9 coke remaining . . ee pte 8s aie Lancs Glad peat 
3 a distilled gases and liquids . gk am er ae cee 
4. a liquid products themselves . . . . «© - 3°3506 
5. a the water contained inthem. . . . . . 1°3027 
6. $ platinum salt obtained fromit . . . . . 04592 
7 s. quantity oftar .. . - 2:0479 
8 ss sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic aout o. Os Tl, 
9. s sulphuret of lead formed . . « - « - + 0°6423 
10. 9 condensed hydrocarbons . . . . + + + 01262 
11. + the uncondensed gases. . . « « - ~ 14554 


The results of the analysis of the uncondensed gases ae already been 
used in a former calculation, and gave— 
Composition according to volume. 
Hydrogen .. . Se heer ar 77 
Carburetted hydrogen ea hike fe) 
Carbonic oxide. . . . . «© - 393 
Ngtrogeh 21) she eres IS 
71:00 
The 1°4554 grm. obtained by the distillation consist of-— 


grm. 
Hydrogen. . » « + + « « 00836 
Carburetted hydrogen. . . . 1°1758 
Carbonic oxide . . . . - ~- 071901 
Nitrogen . . « s+ + » «+ » 00059 


14.554 
Hence the coal examined is converted by dry distillation into the following 
products :— 
Carbon “sy se oe te eo LE5420". 68925 
I See a eek Aas Sa - 2:0479 . . 12:230 
Water. . . dl oa ~ 12674 . . 7569 
Light carburetted hydrogen Crees o  MV758) 00 eed 
Carbonic oxide. . Cahprmn, S70 SS OT0OL Se a aes 
Carbonic acid . . : POTTS © S\. s 


Condensed hydrocarbons and olefiant gas - 01262 . . 0°753 
Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . - ~- - « 00918 . . 0°549 
EiyGrogen erin eS MOOSIG a) see 
Ammonia* . ... . : . 20853" ‘(Ore 
Mitrogen’ |) Meth ie Te Me if e 00059 . - 0°035 


“Te 7457 00" 100:000 


* The ammonia which may have passed over without condensing in the water is neglected 
in this calculation. 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 161 


These results enable us to determine the composition of the furnace-gases. 
It is clear that the 68°92 per cent. of carbon found in the analysis will be 
converted by the blast into carbonic oxide above the tuyére. -As we have 
already seen that the coal loses its gases by distillation near the top of the 
furnace, a corresponding weight of coke must burn before the tuyére, and 
hence we require only to add to the composition of the furnace-gases the 
carbonic oxide produced by the combustion of 68-92 per cent. of carbon and 
the nitrogen of the air expended in the combustion. This calculation gives— 


Nitrogen - 2 2 2 6 6 ee wo 64135 
Carbonie oxide::2. 0 5. Sef 8 0s BETES 
Light carburetted hydrogen. . . . 17464 
Carbonic acid.) Sis! e ear een OE 
Condensed hydrocarbons. . . . . O154 
Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . «. - O14 
EL OACOR LT se a tha a ae! hole sa OF 
Ammonia® 2) 0-6 eke elo ee OO 
100:000. 

If we calculate, with reference to these circumstances, and according to 
volume, the composition of the gases escaping from a furnace filled with Gas- 
forth coal, we obtain— 

INiGRO EA”) 025 ei oy a ME) 6 net) 02 ey ye EDABS 
Carbonic oxide... sy «i els 4 +0» 832168 
Light carburetted hydrogen . . . 2°527 
Carhonic acid) ij c65 5 ws oe ein BD 
Condensed hydrocarbons. ... . - O15] 
Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . . - 0°091 
EARAROB CR os 0), op dre signe oe eh wal 
AIBMABEE GE) Vel ah sj yas es ef ears  OOTO 
100:000 vols. 


The result thus obtained affords a very simple means of determining the 
influence exerted upon the composition of furnace-gases by the gaseous pro- 
ducts of distillation of the coal. If we suppose the coal to be freed from its 
volatile products, and exposed to the action of a stream of air in a furnace, 
a volume of air containing 62°423 nitrogen will be converted by the influence 
of the red-hot coal into a gaseous mixture of the following composition :— 


Nitrogen. . . 2. - « 62423 
Carbonic oxide . . . . 32°788 


Accordingly, we obtain a gaseous mixture— 
Of gases generated by combustion . ee Bet - a NCE SR ia i Sear 
Carbonic oxide . . . . . 0-380 
Light carburetted hydrogen . 2°527 
Carbonicacid . . ... . 0139 
Of gases generated by distillation .< Olefiantgas . . . . . . O51 
Sulphuretted hydrogen . . 0091 
Hydrogen=":. 2. - 1431 
(Ammonia. <j) «ya cohen a OZ 
100-000 


Thus we see that there is a considerable influence exerted by the gaseous 
_ products of distillation on the composition of the gases produced by com- 
_ bustion. 
1845. M 


. 
‘ : 


162 REPORT—1845. 


The heat lost in a furnace may be easily compared with that actually 
realized. The following numbers exhibit the quantities of heat (expressed 
by the unities which we formerly described) generated during the combustion 
of the gases, and they show at the same time the part played by each con- 
stituent in the development of the heat :— 

I. II. 
64135 Nitrogen yields . 2. . 2. sv» 00000 
33°758 Carbonic oxide yields . . . . . . 84463 

1°464 Light carburetted hydrogen yields . . 19719 
0°224 Carbonic acid yields oe @) rae | 00000 
0°154 Olefiant gas yields eile paves,  DB9S) 
0°114 Sulphuretted hydrogen yields . . . 510 
0°107 Hydrogen yields . net | 3713 
0:044 Ammonia yields . . . 1... 6s 267 


100:000 Furnace-gases yield . . . . « « « 110570 units of heat. 


The numbers (II.) representing the units of heat are calculated from the 
data on the heat of combustion found in the posthumous papers of Dulong. 


x «,, { Carbon burning to CO, heats 15444 grains of water to 1499°C. 
= ° ” ” CO,, bb} ” 7371° 
3. | Carbonic oxide i; ‘5 ‘8 2502° 

& & | Hydrogen ¥ mM 34:706° 
E a Light carburetted hydrogen Ri " 13469° 
2s Olefiant gas i i” 12329° 
uy 6 Sulphuretted hydrogen 9 iy 4476°% 
= Ammonia ss - 6060°* 


The quantity of heat actually generated in the furnace during the escape 
of the unused 110570 units of heat may be determined by the amount of 
nitrogen in the gases, which corresponds to the quantity of the air consumed 
during their escape. The amount of nitrogen found, viz. 64°126, corresponds 
to 83°29 of atmospheric air, which is able to effect the conversion of 14°367 
carbon into carbonic oxide gas. Proceeding on the experiments of Dulong, 
the quantity of heat thus liberated will be 21536°. Thus it follows that a 
furnace filled with Gasforth coal could realize in the most favourable condi- 
tions only 16°30 per cent. of its combustible material. The remainder, 83°70 
per cent., escapes as unused but useful combustible matter. The practical 
use of these gases does not depend merely upon the quantity of heat generated 
during their combustion, but involves another equally importaut considera- 
tion, viz. the temperature capable of being attained by their use as fuel. This 
may be determined without any new experiments, by founding the calculation 
on the composition of the gas, its combustible value, and the capacity for heat 
of the products generated during combustion. 

1 kil. of the gas gives, by its combustion, as we have already seen, 1105°7 
units of heat. The products of combustion weigh 271385 kil.; and if this 
last quantity + consisted of water, the heat liberated would raise it to a tem- 
sae Now as the capacity of heat of water is to that of the pro- 
ducts of combustion as 1 : 0°2665, and the elevation of temperature produced 
in different bodies of equal weight, by equal quantities of heat, is in inverse 


perature 


* The ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen are calculated from their constituents. 
+ In this, and also in other similar calculations, the small quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen 
has been left out of the calculation, 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 163 


proportion to their capacity for heat, we obtain, as the expression for the tem- 


1105 
ing with air, Sabo wes = = 1940°C., 


perature of the mixture of gas burni 
or 3522° Fahr. 

In these calculations we have neglected the influence exerted on the com- 
position of the products of combustion by the gases escaping from the iron 
ore and limestone. Of course this must differ according to the quantities of 
materials used in the furnaces, and we therefore select as a basis for the cal- 
culation the iron furnaces of Alfreton, belonging to Mr. Oakes, the dimen- 
sions of which are given in fig. 6. We proceed on the supposition that the 
carbonic avid of the limestone and the oxygen of the ore are separated as 
carbonic acid. The coal used in the furnace was subjected to distillation 
with the precautions already described, and the composition thus obtained 
gives us the limits to which the combustible constituent of the gases from 
the furnace might be deteriorated under the most unfavourable eae Onan 


Le Weightiof the coaluded sR RA . 25°71 70 


2. - coke remaining . . - « « 17:2894 
3. 4 gaseous and liquid products oF distillation - 84276 
4. 39 liquid products alone . . . . . . . « 5*7239 
5. Quantity of tar in the latter. 2. 2. 1 1 ee eee F945 
6. i water . . . 3°2294: 
ie Fr} chloride of platinum wri ammonium fon the 

latter’! -/20". - + 05498 
8. % sulphuretted hydrogen ‘and eartonte atid » « O8574 
9. bs sulphuret of lead formed. . . . . . « « 04530 


10. Weight of the condensed hydrocarbons . . . . . . . 01891 


The eudiometric analysis of the uncondensed gases gave the following re- 
sults :— 


Volume. | Temp. Pressure. 1m. at 0°C. 
GAUGED a eas eEize a decattuweesattas cevseces dds 119-9 10°C. | 04739 54°81 
After admission of oxygen wel 38044 10 06542 192-11 
After the explosion ........... ...| 189-9 10 0:5335 97°73 
After absorption of CO, ..... see| 125-9 9-9 0:4801 58-33 
After admission of hydrogen 350°1 9:9 0:6850 231-44 
PREPER OR PlOSION o/s tess. ehoesnesscdess shee 129-2 10 0°4625 57°64 


If we suppose that the very inconsiderable quantity of nitrogen found in 
the calculation (0°4:) was an unavoidable impurity, we obtain, by the use of 
the formula 1, 2,.3, the following composition for the gas examined :— 

According to volume. According to weight. 


Hydrogen. . Cie i Dba 0:001377 
Light carburetted hydrogen. - + 34°64 0:024656 
Carbonic oxide. . eli | hin 0005954 

54°81 0°031987 


The 2:2142 carbonic oxide, carburetted hydrogen and hydrogen found in 
the analysis consist therefore of— 


Light carburetted tiphe al am ve  kOOT, 


Carbonic oxide . . rashid yp tid Oe ul be 2, 
GTR EN ie etigh she vn) 3.) aoe 
22142 


M 2 


164 REPORT—1845. 


Thus 100 parts of the coal were broken up into the following products :— 


CarDONl prinac eine oi sod. Ati Mua ian lila eases y= a gee 
URE tee Brake ei ey oe sp etce! sth tap, Seanee a. coer ead 
WV ACER vo igus Vn Makin, uel oy) of CLO get ot teen 
Carburetted hydrogen. . . . . 1707 . . 6°638 
Carbonic oxide. . . . . . « O42. . 1602 
Carbone atid ss ee es fk LUO sy oe 
Condensed hydrocarbons. . . . O°7132 . . 0513 
Sulphuretted hydrogen . . . . O°065 «. « 0253 
Hiydragens hee tS OOS t sh St Oe 
ureiioriin® ee eo PRATT Es UY SHOR cl Ones 


25°717 100:000 


The 67-228 carbon in the above analysis must escape altogether as car- 
bonic oxide, if a part of it were not converted into carbonic acid at the ex- 
pense of the oxygen of the iron ore. In order to determine the quantity of 
carbonic acid thus produced, we must refer to the details of the Alfreton 
iron-works, in which the following materials are used for the production of 
140 lbs. of pig-iron :— 

4.20 Ibs. calcined iron ore; 390 lbs. coal; 170 lbs. limestone. 

According to the above experiment, 100 parts of the coal used give 67:228 
of coke; but this quantity of coke does not correspond exactly to that of the 
carbonic oxide formed during its combustion. It is necessary before calcu- 
lating this to deduct the amount of ashes contained in the coal, and the fol- 
lowing analysis of the Furnace-coal of Alfreton gives us the data for the cal- 
culation :— 

Carian a3) 6. Yi hite (ns te Deep hin the) TBS 
Hydrogen Sirach ster ean 
ORV BER se. ie etiieitie oh SP ate OTT 
NLR RRR einem asts®, [wooo tte Hie 30, 9 OTS 
Hygrometric water... .- - 7°50 
ASHES s)he) lei otf fo J shite « 268 


* 


100:00 


As the 2:68 of ashes must be deducted from the 67:228 of coke, the latter 
corresponds to 64°548 of pure carbon. Part of this carbon however enters 
into combination with the iron, and is thus withdrawn from combustion. If 
we take, according to the analysis of Bromeis +, 3°3 per cent. as the average 
amount of carbon in cast iron, there must be 1'18 subtracted from the 64°548 
of carbon, because the proportion of iron produced to coaLused is 35°8 : 100. 
If we conceive the remainder 63°368 carbon to be burnt with air to carbonic 
oxide, we obtain as the product of combustion a mixture of— 

Nitrogen . » « « « + .285°100 
Carbonic oxide . . . . 147°858 


Of this 147-858 carbonic oxide, part is converted into carbonic acid at the: 


expense of the oxygen in the iron ore. The quantity of cast iron produced 
from 100 of coal is 35°8, and corresponds to 34°62 of pure iron, for the re- 
duction of which 14°83 oxygen must have been given over to the carbonic 
oxide gas. By this means 25°952 of the latter would be converted into 40°782 


* The ammonia escaping with the gases out of the condensed alcoholic water is neglected 
in this calculation. 
+ Bromeis, Liebig’s Ann. der Chem. B, xliii. 8, 243, 


i 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 165 


of carbonic acid. The quantity of limestone added to 100 of coal is 43°59. 


This limestone consists, according to our analysis, of— 
Dame eee heels he Vv Gad 
Carbonic acid. . . . . . 429 
Magnesia . «s+ « + « « O06 
Adoring sete SF 6 nie Meier; OS 
Moisture andloss. . . . -. 1% 
100°0 
We must therefore introduce into the calculation, that 18°7 of carbonic 
acid are evolved from the limestone for every 100 parts of coal. By noticing 
all these observations the result is obtained, that 100 parts of coal thrown 
into the mouth of the furnace is reduced to 67°228 coke, by the loss of ga- 
seous matter, and that this quantity, by passing into combustion when it has 
descended to the tuyére, produces a gas which, mixed with the nitrogen of 
the air and the carbonic acid from the limestone, passes back to the mouth 
of the furnace in the form of a gas consisting of— 
Nitromen st. st «eae OU 
Carbonic acid . .. .. 59482 
Carbonic oxide . .'. . 121°906 


464°248 


If this quantity be added to the products of distillation of 100 parts of 
coal, the following composition is obtained for the gases escaping from the 
furnace :— 


: Il. 
According to weight. According to volume. 

IETOREM hei e hen ist.y-6 itn tah OOROD 60°907 
Cannanlesgeit ns 6.6% 4 #4 34 Bo4'0))) LAGS 8°370 
Carbonic oxide . . 2.0) * 26006 26°846 
Light carburetted hydrogen @ oe fee od B97 2°536 
Hydrogen Mh ete Sates pave ee APRA 1126 
Condensed hydrocarbons oie thea, OFLOS, 0°112 
Sulphuretted rib oa oe 4 tal, ONS 0°04.5 
Ammonia. . . wt hohe, Mee Oat 0:058 

100-000 100000 


From the numbers given in I. we may compare the proportion of the heat 
realized in the furnace during the process with that which escapes in the 
form of useful combustible matter. 

These are generated by the combustion of— 

59°559 Nitwoper) 3). secs oe.” 0000 
12°765 Carbonic acid. . . . . . . +. 0000 
26:006 Carbonic oxide . . A a ote GBUG TE 
1397 Light carburetted hydrogen Bete SOG 
O78 Hydrovemy ites ar eS OU Od 
0°108 Olefiant gas. . Salant s ey hao 
0°:053 Sulphuretted hydrogen . Sere a. hea 
Osu Ammomm pags ee) s,s. sh se | AG 


100°000 88374 


And therefore out of 100 of the gases, 88374 units of heat are generated. 
The units of heat, 88374, may be considered as the measure of the quanti- 
ties of heat capable of being realized by the combustion of the furnace-gases. 
In order to find the proportion of the fuel actually realized in the furnace to 
that lost, we have only to calculate the: units of heat produced in the furnace 


166 REPORT—1845. 


itself during the development of 100 parts of the furnace-gases. The only 
source of heat in the furnace is the oxidation of carbon, and this oxidation is 
effected at the cost of the air introduced by the blast, and that of the oxygen 
contained in the oxide of iron. Let us now consider the influence on the 
units of heat occasioned by the combustion of the carbonic oxide at the ex- 
pense of oxygen in the oxide of iron. From the posthumous results of Du- 
long on the heat of combustion, it follows that the quantities of heat evolved 
by the combustion of 1 lit. (61:028 cubic inches) of oxygen with iron or with 
carbonic oxide is almost quite equal. The first gives 6216 and the latter 
6260 units of heat. The trifling difference between these numbers is quite 
within the limits of error of observation, and therefore we may draw the con- 
clusion, as Ebelmen has already done, that the reduction of the oxide of iron 
is without influence upon the development of heat in the furnace; for in the 
reduction of the oxide of iron at the cost of the carbonic oxide a thermo- 
neutrality takes place. Hence the combustion of the oxygen of the air is the 
only source of heat in the furnace. It suffices to determine the amount of 
oxygen which has accompanied the 59°559 nitrogen into the furnace in the 
form of atmospheric air, in order to fix the amount of heat generated. The 
carbonic oxide formed by the combustion of this oxygen is the only source 
of heat realized in the furnace, and corresponds, as will be seen in the follow- 
ing calculation, to 20001. For every 20001 units of heat realized in the 
furnace, 88374 are lost by the gases which escape. 

Hence follows the remarkable conclusion, that in the furnaces of Al- 
freton not less than 81°54 per cent. of the fuel is lost in the form of combus- 
tible matter still fit for use, and that only 18°46 per cent. of the whole fuel 
is realized in carrying out the processes in the furnace. 

The maximum temperature which might be obtained by the combustion 
of the gases may easily be deduced by the following considerations. 1 kil. 
(15444 grains) of the gas burned with atmospheric air gives 1:9338 kil. pro- 
ducts of combustion, of the following composition and specific heat :— 


Nitrogen: se), yy ets s oy SOBDLG, 0.0 §, O71 889 
Rarbonieacidsaian «<6 3 «A896. oe) 5. OO0RDE 
Aqueous'vapour. ©... - .- 2088 . . O0L76 


100°000 0°2696 


If we divide the units of heat, viz. 883-74, arising from the combustion of 
1 kil. of the gases, by the number resulting when the quantity of the pro- 
ducts of combustion is multiplied by their specifie heat (19338 x 02696), 
we obtain for the temperature of the flame 16952 C., or 3083° Fahr. It is 
obvious that the gases escaping from the furnace must be of still more value 
as fuel than that expressed by our calculations founded upon their compo- 
sition when of minimum value. They must be of a higher value, from the 
circumstance that the reaction of the liquid products of distillation on the 
red-hot coals produces a number of gaseous substances which must necessarily 
increase their value as fuel. The upper layers of coal, limestone and iron, 
being cold, cause a condensation of the water and tar, both of which drop 
back upon the red-hot coals in the inferior layers, and become partly decom- 
posed into hydrogen and carbonic oxide gas ; whilst another part of the tar is 
broken up into hydrogen, light carburetted hydrogen and charcoal. The 
portions escaping this decomposition are condensed anew by the cold layers 
above, and finally themselves suffer change. For the purpose of determining 
the influence exerted by this circumstance on the composition of the gases, we 
have repeated the experiment on the distillation of the coal, reversing however 
the mode of heating the tube ; we began at the front part instead of the closed 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES, 167 


end of the tube, so that the products of distillation might have to traverse 
the red-hot coals, and thus suffer a similar process of decomposition to that 
which they experience in iron furnaces. The ammonia in this experiment 
was collected in a Liebig’s condenser filled with muriatic acid, and the 
gases were detained in a gasometer filled with boiled water. The determi- 
nation of the other data necessary for the calculation was done as in the pre- 
vious experiments, and the following results were obtained :— 
Weight of the coal used . « . 1 6 6 ee 6 ee + © 204550 


o coke remaining . . » « + » 13°6568 
m liquid and gaseous products of distillation - - 6°7982 
is liquid products alone . . . - + + 85389 
‘i chloride of platinum and ammonium obtained . 0°7681 
3 sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid . . 0°5159 
rr sulphuret of lead . . . «1. we © «© « 02500 

gases evolved . . « 9 9) a'2593 


The quantity of gas collected had the following composition : _ 
In First Eudiometer. 


Volume. Pressure. Temp. 1m. at 0° C, 
Original volume .......sssevsessenesseeeescees 1162 | 06321 | 11-0 7061 
After absorption Of HC ........ccseeeeseneee 111-9 0°6294 10:8 67:75 
In Second Eudiometer. 
Original volume ...scscssseeseccevensceenenses ; 0:4441 111 46:35 
After admission of O oF 0°6152 11:0 166°84 
After explosion ........++« 0-5308 111 98°86 


After absorption of CO, 0-5040 10-4 77:30 
After admission of H .. va 0:7080 11-1 26092 
After Explosion .........sseseocsscscsscsosccsces y 0°4201 113 30°42 


Hydrogen . . ¢ oe 2) 1132 
Light carburetted hydrogen - » 28°28 
Carbonic oxide. . Hed oti 1GBS 
Olefiant' gas. 6 fe 8 se ey 408 
100°00 
The 3°259 grms. of the gases obtained by distillation must therefore be 
composed as follows :— 


Hydrogen . . - « = 0298 
Light carburetted hydrogen Pinas deta 1 UF 
Carbonic oxide. . See Aeeay 
Olefiantmasist 25 827 

3°259 


100 parts of the coal distilled in this way gave— 
COKE cach ebe ead sis anteOOy ven «Ol. Lae 


Tar and water . . - . 3480 . . 16°594 
Light carburetted hydrogen pga ha, ss (hao 
Carbonic oxide . . . Pies leis a Ooee 
Carbonic acid . ..... . O480 . . 2289 
Olefiant gas . . ae duttevih. | Ue ti sats ako 


Sulphuretted hydrogen Radial \ ace Uaeh Wien’ «OU Te 
FAVUFOC EDs. sean ages ae, OES, vos, Laat 
EET TUE amen RY RR te RE ARS 8 069 1 Ai aa Uo 


20°971 100:000 


168 REPORT—1845. 


This result, contrasted with that obtained when the coal was distilled so 
as to prevent the products of distillation passing over the red-hot coal, 
enables us to see clearly the influence exerted upon the tar and steam by the 
glowing fuel. The liquid products of distillation and the coke are diminished 
in quantity, and in their place we find an increase of carbonic oxide, olefiant 
gas and hydrogen, arising from the carbon being oxidized at the expense of 
water, and from the decomposition of tar at an elevated temperature. Now 
if we calculate the composition of the furnace-gases from the principles now 
laid down, we obtain the following result :— 


I. Il. 
According to weight. According to volume. 

NittoPed wettest. se ee OAS 57°878 
Carbonicacilie "So Ph. oe Da 9°823 
Carbonic oxide... . . 23°956 24°042 
Light carburetted hydrogen . . . 1°555 2°743 
IPEVGrOuEN hie. ete? ees ates oe 4972 
Olefiant gas siege Fatttle Fie, coh ee + CUPGOG 0392 
Sulphuretted hydrogen. . . . . 0°043 0°035 
ANBAOHIA eke ts y's see, @ ODO 0115 

100000 100°000 


The proportion of the substances in this mixture of gases may be viewed 
as the limits to which the quantity of combustible constituents may increase, 
when formed under the conditions such as those existing in the Alfreton 
iron-works. We observe at the same time, that the increase of combustible 
materials effected by the reaction of the liquid products of distillation on the 
red-hot coal, principally depend upon the augmentation of hydrogen and ole- 
fiant gas. If we calculate from the above numbers, according to the princi- 
ples already laid down, the quantity of heat evolved in the furnace by the 
formation of 100 parts by weight of the gases, and compare it with the heat 
which might be derived by the combustion of these gases themselves, we 
obtain the proportion 98583 : 19550, a result showing that in the Alfreton 
furnaces, under favourable circumstances, only 16°55 per cent. of fuel is 
realized; while 83°45 per cent. is actually lost by escaping in the form of 
inflammable gases. 

1 kil. of the gas burnt with air gives 1-9290 kil. products of combustion, 
which consist of 

NGETOREN oon o),5 018. = ie peer oe 
Carbonic acid . .. . . 29°83 
Aqueous vapour... . 284 


100°00 


The specific heat of the products of combustion calculated from this com- 
position corresponds to 0°2740, from which it follows that the temperature of 
the flame of this gas burned with air would be 1768° C., or 3214° Fahr. 

Thus then the temperature of the gases of the Alfreton furnaces is 3214° 
Fahr., when generated under conditions approaching to the favourable cir- 
cumstances in the furnaces themselves. 


Theory of the Hot-Blast Furnaces. 
The previous inquiries have led us to a knowledge of the average compo- 
sition of the furnace-gases, as they are produced during the processes in 
operation in various parts of the furnace. We have endeavoured to point 


a 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 169 


out the influence exerted on the average composition of the gases by the 
materials introduced into the furnace, the ultimate products of all of which 
changes appear at the mouth of the furnace. We now proceed to the most 
important part of our inquiry by endeavouring to elucidate the nature and 
mutual relation of all the processes in the reduction of iron. To obtain a 
knowledge of them, it was necessary to become acquainted with the changes 
suffered by the ascending column of air from the blast to the mouth of the 
furnace. We have collected the gases from various depths of the furnace in 
the manner employed by one of us in his inquiries into the theory of German 
furnaces in which charcoal is used as fuel. This method has been more 
Jately used by Ebelmen, with several changes which we have been compelled 
to reject, because in them he introduced a source of error which vitiated his 
results. 

The apparatus for collecting the gases in our experiments consisted of 
a system of tubes twenty-six feet in length, made of soft malleable iron. 
The tube was one inch in diameter, and consisted of pieces of five feet in 
length, screwed together so as to be air-tight. ‘The depth of the tube in the 
furnace was known by white marks placed at the distance of one foot, and 
we found that about three of these sunk in an hour during the first part of 
the experiment, although more slowly afterwards. ‘The top part of the tube 
was furnished with a lead pipe, through which the gases were conducted to 
a place fit for experiment. The system of tubes was balanced by a chain 
passing over a block fixed to a stout wooden upright, and fastened by chains 
round the furnace. The strong heat of the flame issuing from the top of the 
furnace rendered it necessary to wet the support from time to time, and this 
was effected by a fire-engine placed at some distance on the platform. The 
gases themselves were collected in glass tubes four inches Jong and 3 inch 
wide, these tubes being drawn out at both ends and connected with each other, 
and also with the lead tube, by caoutchouc joints. ‘The pressure of the gas, 
which amounted often to several inches of water, was too powerful to allow 
the glass tubes to be hermetically sealed while they remained in connection 
with the lead pipe. We therefore found it necessary to heat the tubes so as 
to expand the air to a certain extent, then to tie the caoutchouc joints, and 


. hot to seal the tubes hermetically until they had cooled down sufficiently to 


prevent any small explosion during the melting of the glass. A vertical sec- 
tion of the furnace upon which our experiments were made is represented in 
fig. 6 ; it is of the usual size of furnaces in this country, and is supplied with 
air heated to 626° Fahr., 330° C. This air passes into the furnace under a 
pressure of mercury of 6°75 inches, out of a nozzle of 2°75 inches in diameter. 
The iron ore melted in this furnace is an aluminous sphareosiderit, which 
is previously roasted so as to free it from moisture and carbonic acid, and 
by this means is converted into an argillaceous peroxide of iron. The fur- 
nace is supplied with eighty charges in the course of twenty-four hours; 
each of these charges, as we have already mentioned, consisting of 420 lbs. 


of calcined ironstone, 390 lbs. of coal, and 170 lbs. of limestone, the product 


of which is 140 lbs. of pig-iron. The limestone is broken up into pieces 
about the size of the fist before being introduced into the furnace, but the 
coal and ironstone are projected in lumps which not unfrequently weigh above 


twenty pounds. Iron ore and limestone are thrown into the furnace without 


any previous mixture. We have collected the gases in all the regions below 
and above the zone of fusion, for in the latter the collection was impossible, 
owing to the high temperature, which softened the tubes, or melted them 
completely. Although the gases under the zone of fusion are actually at a 
higher temperature than they are at that point of the furnace, we succeeded 


170 é REPORT—1845. 


in obtaining them by boring through the Front over the hearth of the fur- 
nace, and introducing an iron tube*. 
The gases collected over the zone of fusion were first examined, and gave 
the following results :— 
Experiment I. 


The depth of the tube was five feet below the upper stratum of fuel and 
materials. The gases issuing from the tube possessed a peculiar smell dif- 
ferent to that of coal-gas, but very similar to the characteristic odour of 
acrolein ; they burned with a yellowish red fame, and were not accompanied 
with brown vapours of tar. Number of charges, 6. 


A. Estimation of olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 


Volume, Pressure. Temp. | 1m, ato°Cc. 
(eas il Ramee HS EPR PPLE 1320 | 06558 | 120 | 82-93 
After absorption of olefiant gas 131°5 0°6550 11:8 82°57 
After absorption of carbonic acid ......... 1224 0°6471 11:0 76:13 
B. Examination of the gas freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 
GES TISEL, |. coe cavncsheuntennts oansteaesie islenaes 125-2 0°4626 11:0 55°67 
After admission Of O  .......ssessecseeeeeees : 0°5452 11:3 107-74 


After combustion ...........+ Y 0:5168 111 89:20 
After absorption of CO, Y 0:4946 11:0 71:17 
After admission of H_ .. 0°6537 11:0 20209 
ALter GOMBUSHION: spircencascetassdereesevesyers Y 05172 11:0 89-29 


Nitrogen. «6 s 2 6 8 8 © 6 65585 
Carbonic acid « «6 8 «ee TT 
Carbonic oxide.) 5 sie 6) © 9 2597 
Light carburetted hydrogen . . 3°75 
Eivdvapens) sifie Hilweore vlna: FS 
Olefiant gabe. s 1 we ee O48 


100°00 
Experiment II. 


The depth of the tube was eight feet. The blast had been interrupted for a 
whole hour previous to the experiment, but the gases were not collected until 
the furnace had been for some time in tranquil action. The flame and smell 
were exactly the same as in the first experiment. Number of charges, 14. 


* We have already stated that the principal experiments on which our present inquiry is 
founded were instituted at Alfreton iron-works, the property of Mr. Oakes of Riddings House. 
The liberality with which this gentleman opened all his processes to our inspection, and the 
zeal with which he aided us in our inquiry, under circumstances of no ordinary difficulty, 
cannot be acknowledged by us with sufficient gratitude. A few short months however have 
deprived industry of a most scientific manufacturer and society of a most amiable man. Our 
acknowledgments that our success in the inquiry is mainly owing to the facilities which he 
offered to us must now fall upon the dead instead of upon the living; but we cannot refrain 
from expressing our thanks to his sons, who aided us materially in our experiments with 
their practical knowledge, and especially to Mr. C. Oakes, whose well-appointed laboratory 
and skill in chemical manipulation were placed at our disposal during our residence at Rid- 
dings House. 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 171 


A. Estimation of olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 


ee EEE EEUU EEE SEES SERENE? 


Volume. Pressure. Temp. | 1m. ato°C. 
Wet >-asesayyssisc-angananias<testaediens 105-4 | 06254 | 11-0 | 63:36 
After absorption of olefiant gas .....-.++... 1046 0°6248 11:0 62°82 
After absorption of carbonic acid ......... 95°5 06173 101 56°85 
B. Examination of gas freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 
GABURED vo .ccisdssesceesccesecessesestsncesncus 125-4 0°4628 105 55°83 
After admission Of O  .....s.essseeeeeers eevee] 211-9 0°5680 110 115-70 
After Combustion ........sccscssseeeeeeeeeeees 185°5 05221 11:0 93°10 
After absorption Of CO, y.sssseseseessneeeene 155-3 0°5032 10:0 75:39 
After admission Of H  ..sscsssssseecsecueenees 3448 0°6757 105 224°36 
After combustion ....... tt) ee Oe 195:5 0:5342 10:9 100°43 


OL ERO REE RASS I Rane ee Me WS en ee Te 
Mitraren sg RS Oe Sa TT 
Carpenle Aciq- 5. ee BAZ 
Carbonic oxide. . . «+, 2024 
Light carburetted hydrogen oe BBS 
FIQMEOGON ey Jo ie es oe gi Oa 
Olefiant gas. .- . -. ». » - « 0°85 


100:00 
Experiment III. 


The depth of the tube in the furnace was eleven feet, and the gases evolved 
were accompanied by vapour of tar, and possessed the smell of coal-gas. The 
flame was of a clear yellow, with a strong illuminating power. The number 
of charges was twenty-three. 


A. Estimation of carbonic acid and olefiant gas. 


Volume. Pressure. Temp. | 1m.ato°C. 

eee are Ct La eee Tee 1083 | 06377 | 90 66-86 
After absorption of olefiant gas ............ 107°6 0°6357 9-0 66:22 
After absorption of carbonic acid ......... 98:8 0°6274 9-4 59°93 

B. Examination of the gas freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 
Gas sed ..-.,s5c0...eeesenene ts 0°4773 9-4 60°45 
After admission of O ........ 0°5639 9°4 11933 
After CombUStION .......ssseseeereeencneeerees ; 0°5322 9-4 95:90 
After absorption Of CO, ........ssesseseeeee ; 05126 9:3 77-19 
After admission of H_ ........... Brehp oagp veo] 290-2 0:6336 9:3 177°82 
After Combustion .......cssceseeseeseneeneanees 119-9 0-4540 9°5 52-60 


Nittogeicas shen oh se ee re BRST 
Carbonic acid 6.» . 0 6 » 941 
Carbonic oxide. . . « » 23°16 
Light carburetted hydrogen soe ape 
BPpGrO ren MGT at hie as 4 OS 
Oletant eas Tele, HS es Ores 


 - : 100°00 
: Experiment IV. 


The depth of the tube in the furnace was fourteen feet; the number of 
charges twenty-six; the smell of the gases was ammoniacal and tarry ; va- 


“me 


a 


172 REPORT—1845. / 


pours of tar were visible, and the flame was yellow, but of small illuminating 
power. 


A. Estimation of olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 


Volume. Pressure. Temp. | 1m. at0°C, 
Ene) EES OPIMBM Rear EDERAL 1242 | 0-6462 75 78:12 
After absorption of olefiant gas ............ 121°0 0°6529 75. 76:89 
After absorption of carbonic acid ......... 1115 06430 75 69:78 
B. Examination of gas freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 
ASARETIRCH. “Lo ecestveacesescaeenencunceasareceases 147-2 0-4956 75 71:01 
After introduction Of 0  ...cessseseseeeeesees 2326 0:5800 75 13131 
After combustion ..........+ Bvelcaasaviteress. 188-4 0:5363 77 98-27 
After absorption Of CO, .....cceesseseceeeeee 156-1 05108 74 7763 
After introduction Of H_ .....seccsessseeseees 291°6 06361 77 180-40 
After COMDUStION ......csssecsscsseeceseeeeeees 144-0 0:4927 77 69:00 


Iiira en TT ew rie yw piel OO 
Carbonic acid”... . . . se) | 610 
Carbonic oxide. .. . - » 19°32 
Light carburetted hydrogen eee" Groen 


Pivdrogen. «eee eee 8 PETRA 
Qlefiant gas." es ee |) AST 


100-00 
Experiment V. 

Depth of the tube in the furnace seventeen feet, thirty-two charges ; the 
stream of gas which had been interrupted for a short time possessed a peculiar 
tarry smell. There were no vapours of tar, and the flame was yellow and 
only slightly illuminating. 


A. Estimation of carbonic acid and olefiant gas. 


Volume. | Pressure. Temp. 1m. at0°C, 
RGeoriRedl | <3: Fines vss fname on seeae teak 1145 | 06414) 11-6 | 70-45 
After absorption of olefiant gas ....... cosceces 1130 | 0°6412 117 69°48 
After absorption of carbonic acid ............ 99:0 | 0°6320 10:9 60°72 


B. Examination of the gas freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 


re He) boo acs salontsshenwaens  sivaemne fs 1255 | 0-4740| 12°0 56:99 
After admission of O ...... Serececssenseernes «| 2134 | 05615 11:8 114-86 
After COMDUStION ..-....sseeceseccscenevecesens : 05345 118 95-40 
After absorption of CO, 0:5197 115 80°14 
After admission of H.......... : 0:6784 11-7 216°38 
After Combustion .....cccccrscccsecececssceee oe : 0:5237 118 86°04 


Nitrogen «6006 1s. j6. paris) (GBD 
Carbonic acid. . . .- « « « 12°43 
Carbonic oxide .. . on ee ST 
Light carburetted hydrogen ote! ate 
Hiydrogen 5 (jis, ne) « e ” FG2 
Olefiant gas . . . «. « - - 1°38 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 


Experiment VI. 


173 


. Depth of the tube twenty feet, thirty-eight charges. The gases were not 
accompanied by vapours of tar, they smelt ammoniacal and burnt with a pale 


blue flame. 
A. Estimation of olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 

Volume. | Pressure. Temp. 1m. ato°c. 
etek: iT ids enna oaestyittl cece 96:2 | 0-7284| 123 | 67-05 
After absorption of olefiant gas ..«.....++s 96-2 | 07274 12-1 67:01 
After absorption of carbonic acid............, 870 | 0-7175 12-2 59°75 
B. Examination of the gas freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 
Gas USCd....ccccerceceseerserenscees Se ebsere ase 113°9 | 0°4586 12:2 50:00 
After admission of O..... 213:0 | 0:5590 12°7 113°78 
After combustion ........ 1928 | 0:5391 12:7 99°32 
After absorption of CO, .. | 169°8 | 0:5285 12-1 85°93 
After admission of H.........cesseeeers | 835°5 | 06777 12:7 117-27 
After COMBUSTION .......ssceererees See eaaecnnie 130:7 | 0:4890 12:2 61-18 


Nitrogen . . . - + + + + 60°46 
Carbonic acid. . . - + + «+ 10°83 
Carbonic oxide -. . - - - - 19°48 
Light carburetted hydrogen. . 4°40 
Hydrogen. . - - + + + + 483 


100°00 
Experiment VII. 


Depth of the tube twenty-three feet, forty-two charges. The gas was 
unaccompanied by tarry vapours, but smelt slightly, although distinetly, of 


eyanogen, and burnt with a pale blue flame of no illuminating power. 
A. Estimation of olefiant and carbonic acid gases. 


Volume. | Pressure. Temp. 1m. at0°C. 
Gage sate. seceesondiass fe ildca essssaeeee| 1216 | 06517] 80 77-02 
After absorption of olefiant gas ....++...++ 121-6 | 0:6517 8:0 77-02 
After absorption of carbonic acid gas ...... 113-0 | 0°6441 8:0 70°71 
B. Examination of the gases freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 
Gas USed.......cescccsseeneeeeeesenens S paetiorae 134-9 | 0:4817 8:0 63:14 
After admission of O.......... pen chicntoscasias’ 2309 | 0:5770 8-0 129°46 
After combustion ....... euidad typ ueue doaehisavs 208°9 | 0:5560 8-0 112-86 
After absorption Of COg «sscccssseseeeseerees 180°1 | 0:5312 73 93°18 
After admission of H...... 0-6720 77 218-03 
After combustion ....... scciss : 0:4730 78 58°75 


Nitrogen - 2 ee + + + + (58°25 
Carbonic acid. . . - +--+ + 819 
Carbonic oxide . . . - + + 26°97 
Light carburetted hydrogen. - 1°64 
Hydrogen. «. - + s+ © + 4°92 


100°00 


Experiment VIII. 


Depth of the tube twenty-four feet; the number of charges and character 


of the gases was the same as in the last experiment. 


174 _ REPORT—1845. 


A. Estimation of olefiant and carbonic acid gases. 


_ | Volume. | Pressure. Temp. |lm,.ato°C. 
GanOKBdS.).cceuvysssdsanineiinstss kuru o 1418 | 06562 | 10-9 89-48 
After absorption of olefiant gas .........+4 141:8 | 0:6562 10:9 89:48 
After absorption of carbonic acid.,.......++ 1283 | 0:6523 11:0 80:46 
B. Examination of the gases freed from olefiant gas and carbonic acid. 
GAS TISEC..cscpubsh-vecssescenonsserspsocrnnaperss: 139°7 | 0:4792 11-0 64:36 
After admission Of O,,...-...,.seeeeenenereeees 207°9 | 0:5479 11:0 109:50 
After COMbUStION ......c0c...csseersseeeenevers 181-6 | 05215 11:0 91:05 
After absorption Of CO. .,.....ssseeseeeseeee 1481 | 05011 11-0 71:35 
After admission Of H............ccsseeeeeeeeees 2863 | 0:6267 11-2 172:36 
After combustion ...... Tae Pete eda cat COne 1646 | 0:5075 115 80:16 


Nitrppén” 2 5. ee we te SBOE 
CHMIC OCI acs te gs NOE 
Carbonie oxidg . . 9. °. ss 25°10 
Light carburetted hydrogen. . 2°33 
Hydrogen. . . - . » » » 6°66 


100°00 


The gas which we collected within two feet nine inches of the tuyére, pos- 
sesses such a remarkable composition that we are obliged to devote to it par- 
ticular attention. The gases, although collected only two feet nine inches 
above the entrance of air, are entirely free from oxygen, and, what is still more 
remarkable, do not contain a trace of carbonic acid. Olefiant gas and light 
carburetted hydrogen could not be present, as the gases produced in the re- 
gion of the furnace are evolved from materials long exposed to a white heat. 
Cyanogen, however, was found in the gaseous mixture in such quantity as 
to be quite sensible by its smell, and by giving the flame its characteristic 
purple colour. 

The analysis of the mixture was effected in the same manner as in the 
preceding cases, but it is necessary to use the following equations in the 
calculation of its composition. ‘ 

We call the quantity of gas used in the analysis A, the quantity of its 
constituents hydrogen, carbonic oxide, cyanogen, and nitrogen, respectively 
2, y, z,; and designate the oxygen used in tle combustion as O, and that 
remaining after combustion as p, and the volumes of gas remaining after the 
combustion, and then after the absorption of the carbonic acid, as B and C ; 
we then obtain the following expressions :— 

A=atyt+2t+n%. 
B=Oj+nt+te+4y—32. 
C=O+n—2-—4y— $2. 
O —p=t2e+ty4+ 22. 

The values of the unknown quantities deduced from these equations are— 


C—p+A), 
$20-—B + Eee 


A—3C 
yoo. cESD) 
MUTA wii eit 

3C—p+A-—20. 
eda rrr WMT VOLT 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 175 


The gas collected six feet above the hearthstone of the furnace, and two 
feet nine inches above the tuyére, gave the following results by eudiometric 
analysis :— 


Volume. | Pressure. Temp. 1m.ato°C. 
Gas USed........ssecseessoaes es sedans ddveori 1413 | 04935 | 85 67°63 
After admission Of O........scsseeeseesescoeees 180°1 0°5323 8-5 92-98 
After COMbUStION ...0+0.cssereeeeeeeeereererers 156-5 | 0:5083 8:7 77:10 
After absorption of COg ..c..ceseseseeeeeeees 110-1 | 0-4688 9-0 49-97 
After admission Of H............csssecseeseeees 199:2 | 0:5493 9-0 105-93 
After explosion ......ssssessescceseseneereeeeues 155:7 | 0:5077 9:0 76:53 


The composition of this gas, calculated out of the preceding numbers by 
the equations just given, is— 
Nitrogen . . - + «+ 58°05 
Carbonic oxide . . - 37°43 
Hydrogen . - - - + 3°18 
Cyanogen . - + ~ - 1°34 


100°00 


If we calculate the proportion of the nitrogen (including also that in the 
cyanogen) to the oxygen contained in the gas, after subtracting a quantity - 
corresponding to the hydrogen, we obtain the numbers 79°2:22'8, which 
differ only 2 per cent. from the quantity of oxygen in atmospheric air. Now 
by calculating this gaseous mixture on the supposition that it does not con- 
tain cyanogen and consists merely of nitrogen, carbonic oxide, carburetted 
hydrogen and hydrogen, using the formule which we have provided for such 
cases, the following composition would result, which is not admissible under 
the circumstances in which the gas is formed :— 


Nitrogen. |. 3. + 59'39 
Carbonic oxide . . - 38°33 
Carburetted hydrogen . 1°79 
Pigeiroget ya.) eile ite, ae 


100°00 


Hence this calculation leads us to a composition in which nearly 2 per cent. 
of light carburetted hydrogen is present, an assumption which at once proves 
its inaccuracy, when we consider the point of the furnace at which the gas 
was collected. A consideration of the previous analyses explains the change 
suffered by the column of air in its ascent in the furnace. 


1 | uw. | ur | iv. | v. | vr | vi. VIIL, | Ix. 
34, 


Depth under the top .......... 5feet.| 8. 11. 14, | 17, | 20. 23. 24, 
Nitrogen....... secaveessececeses| 00°OD| 54°77] 52°57 50°95! 55-49] 60-46] 58:28 | 56°75 | 58-05 
Carbonic acid..,....s..sse00e 7-77| 9-42) 9-41] 9-10] 12-43] 10:83] 8-19] 10°08} 0-00 
Carbonic oxide ........s5.+++ 25-97| 20:24] 23-16} 19°32/ 18-77| 19-43) 29-97 | 25-19 | 37-43 
Light carburetted hydrogen | 3°75) 8:28) 4°57 6-64) 4:31| 4-40) 1:64) 2:83) 0-00 
Hydrogen ........sceeveesneee 6:73] 6°49] 9:38| 12-42} 7-62] 4:83) 4:92| 5°65; 318 
Olefiant gas . sf 0°43} 0°85} 0:95} 1:57] 1-38} 0-00} 0:00] 0:00) 0-00 
Cyanogen ..secessrsereseee see 0-00] 0-00} 0:00} 0-00} 0-00} 0-00| trace. | trace. | 1°34) - 


__ Aglance at the tabulated results shows that light carburetted hydrogen must 
~ be considered an essential constituent of the gaseous mixture, even at a depth 


176 ny REPORT—1845. 


of twenty-four feet in the furnace. Now as one of us has elsewhere shown that 
carburetted hydrogen can neither be formed by the direct combination of 
carbon with hydrogen, nor by the decomposition of water at the expense 
of the coals, it must be viewed as a product of distillation, a fact of consider- 
able importance in the theory of the process of smelting in this country, and 
which leads to the following conclusion,—That the region of the furnace in 
which the coking of the coal is effected extends to a depth of twenty-four 
feet from the mouth. 

When we consider that the coals are thrown into the furnace in large 
masses, sometimes 20 Ib. in weight, it will scarcely excite surprise that the 
space required by the coal, before being converted entirely into coke, is above 
one-half of the whole depth of the furnace. 

The tabulated composition of the gases further shows that the quantity of ni- 
trogen in the gaseous mixture, taken at a depth of fourteen feet, is at a minimum, 
while the olefiant gas, carburetted hydrogen and hydrogen is at a maximum. 
As the latter gases are formed from coal only under the influence of an ele- 
vated temperature, we draw from this circumstance the conclusion, that the 
process of distillation of the coal reaches its maximum at a depth of fourteen 
feet. We remarked, in describing the experiments in detail, that the gases 
were free from the vapours of tar to a depth of fourteen feet, but that they 
became richly laden with them on attaining a depth of seventeen feet. The 
absence of these vapours from the upper part of the furnace proves that they 
suffer decomposition as they pass through the upper layers of red-hot coal. 
The water ascending through these layers must also suffer decomposition, 
and this fact explains the irregularity in the proportions between the car- 
bonic acid and carbonic oxide. 

When we compare with each other the different quantities of carbonic 
oxide and carbonic acid at various depths of the furnace, we see a complete 
absence of any mutual dependence, contrary to what was observed to be the 
case in the smaller German furnaces fed with charcoal. In order to under- 
stand this phenomenon, it is necessary to consider attentively the conditions 
under which the materials are exposed. 

We have already seen that the coal has to travel twenty-four feet, from 
the mouth to the doshes of the furnace, before it is deprived of its volatile 
carbonaceous products, hygroscopic water, and water formed by the distilla- 
tion. Now even if we admit that the temperature in this part of the furnace 
is never so much lowered by the uninterrupted gasification of the coal as to 
prevent the reduction of the iron ore, by which carbonic oxide is converted 
into carbonic acid, still the ore would always be exposed not only to the de- 
oxidizing influence of the furnace-gases, but also to the oxidizing powers of 
the steam evolved from the coal, which has escaped being coked. The pro- 
jection of the coal into the furnace in large pieces has therefore the effect of 
subjecting the ore to a simultaneous reduction and oxidation, on account of 
which the relation between the carbonic acid, carbonic oxide and hydrogen 
is made to depend upon local circumstances in the upper part of the furnace. 
Now when we further consider that the carbonic oxide and carbonic acid 
escaping from the mouth of the furnace, and from the part superior to the 
boshes, are almost in equal proportion, we are compelled to look for the 
cause of reduction of the ore in a region of the furnace still deeper. How- 


ever, all doubt as to this fact disappears when we refer to the proportion be- ~_ 


tween the nitrogen and oxygen of the gases collected. If the reduction of 
the ore and evolution of carbonic acid from the limestone had been com- 
pletely effected above the point of the furnace to which we reached, the gases 
formed below would have contained their nitrogen and oxygen in the same 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES, 177 


proportion as in air, and would not have become richer in oxygen gas. But 
it will be seen that this is really not the case by the following table of the 
varying proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in the gases collected from the 
various depths :— 


79:2 
23:7 


79:2 
28:2 


79-2 
24:6 


79°2 
19°5 


79°2 
25°7 


79:2 
24:9 


Nitrogen............ 79:2 
23°6 


Oxygen ....+...+... 27-7 | 27:8 


79-2 | 


We see from this series of numbers, that the relation of the gases, as re- 
gards their proportions from the mouth of the furnace downwards, is quite 
the reverse of that observed in the German furnaces. At first sight the cir- 
cumstance strikes us as very inexplicable, because we do not know any che- 
mical process in the furnace capable of diminishing the amount of oxygen 
contained in the gases; but we are enabled to explain this anomaly on an 
attentive consideration. The diminution of oxygen begins chiefly at the 
point where the gases generated by the combustion of coal become developed. 
The proportion of these gases to each other, shows that, when liberated from 
the coal, they cannot mix quite uniformly with the column of air ascending 
from the lower parts of the furnace. Hence the gas collected at this region 
of the furnace is richer in the gaseous products of distillation of coal than 
would correspond to its average composition; the hydrogen, for example, 
actually increases to above 12 per cent. If we suppose, as we have done in 
the above numerical series, that the hydrogen is derived from the decompo- 
sition of water at the expense of the carbon, the quantity of oxygen could 
not decrease, whatever may be the proportion of the gases generated in this 
way at the various points of the furnace. But if, as we must suppose, the 
hydrogen is principally derived from the olefiant gas and empyreumatic oils 
decomposed by the high temperature, the calculation leads us to a smaller 
quantity of oxygen than really represents the truth. This fact warrants the 
conclusion,—That the mean composition of the gases cannot be determined 
at that point of the furnace where the evolution of gas by distillation is at its 
maximum. 

The source of this uncertainty disappears in the deeper parts of the furnace, 
where the olefiant gas and the higher hydrocarbons are no longer present. 
The result obtained at the depth of twenty-three and twenty-four feet, giving the 
constant mean proportion 79°2: 27, proves that under thetwenty-four feet, there 
is an evolution of carbonic acid caused either by the reduction of the ore, or by 
the escape of carbonic acid from the limestone, or perhaps by both causes 
together. Now we conclude, from the average composition of the gases 
evolved from the materials used in the furnace, that this evolution of car- 
bonic acid is really owing to the reduction of the ore, and that the process 
of reduction takes place only in the boshes. The average composition must 
be somewhere between the following numbers :—— 

NMatrogen j.0ii0y Mak) sree) eye GO90T.».-»-. 57878 
Carbonic acid ...)+- - . 8370 .... 9823 
Carbonic oxide. . . - 26°846 .... 24042 
Light carburetted hydrogen wig: RIA a Sa ain once 
iydresenisi si exisgges nie LILZG,..., 0) 4 OC2 
Olefiant gash) wid singe) DLL, «5,05 0392 
Sulphuric hydrogen . . . 0045 .... 0:035 
Ammonia. ..... + 45 «+ » 0058 ..... O115 
a 100-000 100-000 


178 -REPORT—1845, 


This mixture of gases contains,— 

1. The products of distillation of the coal. 

2. The products of its combustion. 

3. The carbonic acid generated during the reduction of the ore, and ex- 
pelled from the limestone. 

The proportion of nitrogen to oxygen, as deduced from these analyses, 
is 79'2 : 27:33, and 79:2 : 26°67, or an average of 79°2:27. The products 
of combustion of the coal give the proportion existing in atmospheric air 
79°2:20°8. Now as the amount of oxygen in the products of distillation of 
the coal is quite insignificant, and may be safely neglected in the calculation, 
the increase of oxygen from 20°8 to 27 must depend upon the carbonic acid 
of the limestone, and the oxygen of the ore given to carbon during the re- 
duction. But the gas collected at twenty-three and twenty-four feet deep, 
contains 27°6 and 26°5 oxygen to 79:2 nitrogen. Hence at this depth the 
gas must have already accumulated all the oxygen of the iron, and the car- 
bonie acid of the limestone. These facts warrant us in drawing the follow- 
ing conclusion,—That in hot-blast furnaces fed with coal, the reduction of 
the iron and expulsion of carbonic acid from the limestone takes place in 
the boshes of the furnace. 

We cannot define by direct observation the exact region of the furnace 
in which the melting of the iron and formation of the slag are effected, but as 
the large masses of ironstone cannot enter the hearth in any form except as 
a liquid, we may safely assume that the point of fusion is at the top of the 
hearth in hot-blast furnaces. 

With the object of rendering these processes more intelligible, we have 
shaded a section of the furnace so as to represent the different parts em- 
ployed in their special functions, the drawing being made to an exact scale. 
A B is the space in which the distillation proceeds, B C and C D show the 
region in which the reduction of the ore and evolution of the carbonic acid 
are effected, and in which the materials attain the temperature necessary for 
fusion. 

The marked difference between the results obtained in the continental fur- 
naces and those in this country will cease to excite surprise, when we bear in 
mind the different nature of the fuel employed. The principal reason of the 
great depression of the region of reduction in the furnaces of this country, is 
that almost all the body of the furnace is taken up in the process of coking ; 
and hence the point of reduction must be still further lowered if the pieces 
of coal be of'a large size. These pieces, often in bulk equal to a cubic foot, 
must remain a long time before the heat penetrates thoroughly through them, 
and the column of air ascending through this material must yield its heat in 
order to render gaseous above 30 per cent. of the fuel. Hence the depres- 
sion of the temperature of the upper half of the furnace becomes so great 
that it does not suffice for the reduction of the ore, nor is it sufficient for 
the expulsion of carbonic acid from the limestone. Another important 
cause lowering the region of reduction, is the high pressure at which the 
blast is thrown into the furnace, the pressure being six or seven times the 
amount of that used in Germany. The materials, on this account, traverse 
through the furnace much more speedily, and therefore require to pass 
through a larger space to become heated. All these circumstances have 
much less influence in the German and Swedish furnaces. The charcoal 
with which the latter are fed is a fuel almost completely coked, and the ma- 
terials, being in small fragments and thoroughly mixed, offer a heating sur- 
face at least a hundred times greater than that exposed in English furnaces. 


a a oe 


: 


‘ 
q 


i 


k 
. 
7 


W 


J 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 179 


The small pressure of the blast also effects a slow combustion, so that the 
fuel frequently takes twice or three times the period to pass through the 
same region of the furnace, 


On the application of Furnace-Gases to practical purposes. 


In this division of the subject we have to consider the useful purposes to 
which these gases may be applied when employed as fuel. Their practical 
value does not so much depend on the amount of heat capable of being ge- 
nerated by their combustion, as upon their maximum temperature ; and both 
these conditions may be exhibited by examining the composition of the vari- 
ous mixtures of gases obtained from different depths in the furnace. But it 
would be erroneous to suppose that the values thus obtained by calculation 
expressed in all cases the average practical effects capable of being derived 
by their application on the large seale, for such a conclusion would only be 
justifiable when the numbers obtained by analyses expressed the average 
value. That this is not the case has been shown in the above considerations 
as to the proportion between the nitrogen and oxygen, for we observed at the 
depth of fourteen feet, when the gases were richest in combustible materials, 
this relation was the least observed. Even in the highest layer of the 
gaseous mixture, the constituents of which may be viewed as most intimately 
mixed, we obtain a combustible value more than one-third greater than the 
above, when we estimate it according to the composition of the materials 
thrown into the furnace, and the products of distillation of the coal. In 
order, therefore, to found our calculations on a firm basis, we will estimate 
the practical value of the gases according to the results obtained in our 
former calculations, as to the limits of variation in the value of the gases, 
when deduced from the composition of the materials with which the furnace 
is supplied. This mode of proceeding will safely lead us to numbers ex- 
pressing the average value, and will enable us to repose upon them with 
confidence, from the assurance that the results capable of being obtained on 
the large scale, must be much greater than those expressed by calculation. 

Our experiments have proved the combustibility of the entire column of gas, 
even when cold, from a depth of twenty-four feet to the mouth ofthe furnace. 
Hence it follows that the gas collected from any point to this depth is capable 
of being applied asfuel. It would be objectionable, however, to conduct the 
gas from a deep region of the furnace, because we should thus draw off the 
heat necessary to support the process of coking the coal in its upper part. 
The gas might be collected from the upper part of the furnace without any de- 
triment to the process, and with additional advantage as fuel, because, while it 
contains all the combustible products of distillation, it is not deteriorated by 
having taken up any incombustible ingredients. This cireumstance greatly 
facilitates the application of the combustible gases, for it removes the obstacle 
to their use in furnaces fed with charcoal. In the latter, the zones of distilla- 
tion and reduction lie more closely together, and the proportion of ore and 
limestone to the coal is so much greater than in this country, that the amount 


_ of carbonic acid evolved obliges the withdrawal of the combustible gases 


from a low region of the furnace, where the reduction of the ore and evolu- 


_ tion of carbonic acid have been completed. But the withdrawal of the gaseous 


fuel from a region below that of the reduction necessarily produces such 
disturbance in the operations of the furnace, that only a small part of these 
gases dare be removed, while the largest portion must still be allowed to re- 
main and administer to its necessities. The advantage to be derived from 
the use of the gaseous fuel in this country will therefore be the more obvious, 


when we consider that its apvlication cannot derange any of the processes 


N 2 


180 - - REPORT—1845. 


essential to the reduction and smelting of the ore. In furnaces fed with char- 
coal, the gaseous fuel has been collected and applied without any great diffi- 
culty, by building into the wall of the furnace a cireular channel supplied in 
the inner part with a grating so as to prevent its obstruction by the materials 
introduced into the furnace. The gases stream freely through this channel, 
even though the furnace is left entirely open, and though the pressure is so 
inconsiderable as scarcely to affect a water manometer. The great pressure 
of blast used in English furnaces led us to the conviction that in them the 
column of gas must be much more compressed, and we have confirmed this 
opinion by a series of measurements on a water manometer attached to the 
tube through which the gases were collected for experiment. The pres- 
sure of the gases expressed by the height of the column of water at various 
depths is as follows :-— 
5feet . . . O12 inch. 
Oo be ee et OS | gs 
Loe AS eral ae pag ai ma 
LBM ees OO 5 
Oye ek ee POUL ay 
<2 get lls Sean i a | a ae 
Ee oe a eh UL 99 


This table proves that even in the highest portion of the gaseous column, 
the pressure is considerably greater than in that region of the furnace from 
which the gases are withdrawn in Germany. 

Hence it follows that hot-blast furnaces fed with coal are peculiarly well- 
adapted for the economy of gaseous fuel, which may be conducted from the 
furnace and applied without in any way interfering with its operations. 

We have already shown, on the very lowest calculation, that at least 81°54 
per cent. of valuable fuel must escape from the mouth of the Alfreton furnace. 
Now as about fourteen tons of coal are used in that furnace every twenty-four 
hours, it follows, according to our experiments, that 11°4 tons of coal are lost 
every twenty-four hours by escaping in the form of gases still capable of 
being used as excellent fuel. 

We have previously shown, that the temperature capable of being attained 
by the combustion of these gases is 3083° Fahr. (1695°-2 C.), and, by using a 
blast sufficiently heated, this could easily be raised to 3632° Fahr. (2000° C.). 
Now as Pouillet has shown that cast iron melts at 2192° Fahr. (1200° C.), it 
follows that the gases of hot-blast furnaces fed with coal, when burned with 
hot air, would yield a temperature more than sufficient to melt iron. 


The gases of our furnaces fed with coal contain a very valuable consti- 
tuent, which is entirely absent from the charcoal furnaces of the continent. 
This substance is ammonia, which is present in such abundance, as to be 
sensible to the smell in the gases collected from the deeper parts of the fur- 
nace. We have therefore devoted our special attention to this valuable in- 
gredient, and have arrived at the conclusion that it is possible to economise 
it in the most simple manner. The ammonia may be obtained in the form 
of sal-ammoniac, if the gas previous to its application as fuel be conducted 
through a chamber containing muriatie acid. In collecting the ammonia in 
this manner, there need be little fear of any considerable deposition of tar, 
for the product of distillation flows back upon red-hot coal, and is so com- 
pletely decomposed, that the tube, thirty feet long, used by us for a period of 
twelve hours in collecting the gases, scarcely contained a trace of tar, although 
its temperature was not sensibly higher than that of the surrounding air. 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 181 


If the solution of sal-ammoniac produced by the condensation of the am- 
monia be allowed to flow into an evaporating pan, over the surface of which 
a small part of the flame of the combustible gas is allowed to play, a conve- 
nient arrangement of the liquid and of the burning stream of gas would en- 
able us to obtain a constant flow of a concentrated solution of sal-ammoniac 
as an auxiliary in the manufacture. The advantage of its collection is, that 
without any further consumption of fuel, or any considerable expenditure of 
labour, a valuable commercial ingredient would be economised. Hence it is 
of importance to estimate how much ammonia we might hope to obtain in 
this way ; and this is easily determined by the quantity generated during the 
distillation of coal. We have subjected the furnace-coal of Alfreton to 
various trials, both by distilling it per se, and along with a mixture of soda 
and lime, and then by separating the ammonia in the usual way from the 
liquid products of distillation by means of chloride of platinum. 

I. 2°887 furnace-coal of Alfreton, heated with soda and lime, yielded 
0:0801 chloride of platinum and ammonia. 

II. The experiment repeated with 5°687 coal gave 0°175 chloride of plati- 
hum and ammonium. 

III. 20°455 grms. distilled per se, gave a product collected in muriatic acid, 
which, after separation of the tar, yielded 0°7681 chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

Hence 100 parts of the furnace-coal of Alfreton yields the following quan- 
tities of sal-ammoniac : — 


I. Experiment . . . 0666 
Il. ie aig «): O°739 
III. z! - + « 0:902 


Mean .... O69 


Now, as 280 ewt. of coal are consumed in the Alfreton furnace every twenty- 

four hours, it follows that more than 2 cwt. sal-ammoniac might be obtained 
from it as a subsidiary product, without increasing the cost of manufacture, or 
in the slightest degree disturbing the process of smelting. 
__ We have confined ourselves in this examination principally to the con- 
sideration of the furnace-coal of Alfreton, but we may naturally expect con« 
siderable differences as to the amount of nitrogen in other coals used in this 
and in other countries. The estimation of the nitrogen, with regard to the 
possibility of applying the ammonia generated by their distillation, thus be- 
comes a question of considerable importance. We therefore reserve for 
ourselves the prosecution of this inquiry in a succeeding paper. Before 
leaving this subject, however, we have to allude to some experiments, show- 
ing the facility of condensing the ammonia. 

As the gases from the upper parts of the furnace are saturated with aque- 
ous vapour, which condenses along with the ammonia in the lead tube with 
which they were collected, we have taken the proportion of the ammonia 
carried away in the gases, so as to compare it with that which had suffered 
condensation. For this purpose, the gases flowing through the iron and lead 
pipes, sunk from eight to ten and a half feet beneath the charging-plate, 
/ were conducted through muriatic acid for two hours seven minutes. We 
determined the volume of the gas passing through the acid by collecting it at 
- various times during the experiment in a balloon made of gold-beater’s skin, 
‘of the capacity of 380°8 cubic inches, observing the time which was re- 
‘quired to fill the balloon. The mean result, which deviated only slightly 
from the individual trials, showed that the gas required 1! 7 to fill the bal- 


182 REPORT—1845, 


loon, and therefore that 43304°76 cubic inches have passed through the mu- 
riatic acid. The examination of the muriatic acid used in the experiment 
gave 0°198 grm. chloride of platinum and ammonium, corresponding to 
0°0152 ammonia. If we assume as the composition of the gases that formed 
at a depth of eight feet, we can easily calculate the quantity of coal necessary 
to produce the above 43304°76 cubic inches of gas. According to analysis, 
1000 cubic centimetres of this gas contain 5477 cubic centimetres of nitro- 
gen. We have already seen that nitrogen is not produced from the materials 
introduced into the furnace, and hence all the amount present must have 
been introduced by the blast as atmospheric air, which, burning before the 
tuyére, mixed with the gaseous products of distillation in the upper parts of 
the furnace, and produced the above 547°7 cubic centimetres of nitrogen. 
But as this amount of nitrogen is derived from atmospheric air, it implies that 
143°84 cubic centimetres, or (*2066 grm. of oxygen has been consumed in 
the lower part of the furnace by uniting with 0°1549 grm. of coke, in the 
formation of carbonic oxide. But, as has already been shown by a previous 
experiment, 0°2304 grm. of coal must have been distilled to produce the 
0°1549 grm. of coke; and as the above quantity of coal is required to gene- 
rate one litre of the above gaseous mixture, 163°5 grm. must have been em- 
ployed in the generation of the 43304 cubic inches of gas washed by the 
muriatic acid. Hence it follows that only 0°0093 grm., or 3°77 per cent. of 
the ammonia generated from 100 parts of the coal (which according to our 
experiments amounts to 0°2463 grm.) pass over along with the gases; so that 
the remaining 0°2370 grm., or 96°23 per cent. of ammonia, must have been 
condensed in the water of distillation found in the tube. In fact we ascer- 
tained that the lead tube contained a clear liquid so strongly charged with 
ammonia as instantly to render blue reddened litmus paper held over it. 
These experiments prove how easily the ammonia might be condensed, even 
without the intervention of an acid. 

It will be observed that the gases from the inferior parts of the furnace 
contain cyanogen, the presence of which is highly interesting, not only in a 
theoretical, but also in a practical point of view. This gas appears imme- 
diately over the point of entrance of the blast, and again disappears at a 
sinall elevation above it, so that at the top of the boshes only traces of it are 
observed. The compound of this substance with potassium appears to play 
a most important part in the furnace, although its functions have apparently 
been altogether overlooked. This is the more surprising, as it has long been 
known that cyanide of potassium effloresces on the walls in certain states of 
the furnace. We have been fortunate enough to elucidate the conditions of 
its formation and to fix its region in the furnace. In obtaining information 
with regard to the formation of this cyanogen gas, it was necessary to with- 
draw the gases from the vicinity of the hearth of the furnace, and through 
the kindness of Mr. Oakes we were enabled to bore a hole over the Front of 
the furnace two feet nine inches above the level of the tuyére. As soon as 
this hole was made a gas issued from it possessing strong illuminating powers, 
and burning with a yellow flame, from which came abundant vapours of white 
smoke. On introducing an iron pipe into the hole, without allowing it to 
pass into the furnace, it was retained sufficiently cool to prevent its fusion, 
and we were enabled to collect the volatile products. The gases which poured 
out of this tube under a pressure of several feet of water were so richly laden 
with vapours of cyanide of potassium, that we were obliged to use precautions 
in approaching its opening, so as not to suffer injurious consequences from 
this poisonous material. Although the conducting-tube was twenty-two feet 
in length, the amount of cyanide of potassium carried along with the gas was 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 183 


so considerable as to fill in a very short time glass tubes of one-eighth of an 
inch in width, and we therefore endeavoured to obtain an approximative result 
as to the amount which thus passed over with the gases and escaped con- 
densation in the long tube. The opening of the iron tube was connected 
with an empty Wolf’s-bottle, to which another was attached containing water, 
in such a manner that the gas had to stream through a layer of four inches of 
the latter. The first of these bottles became quickly filled with a rich white 
sublimate of dry cyanide of potassium, while the water in the second became 
a tolerably concentrated solution of the same substance. It was now neces- 
sary to determine the quantity of gas which passed through the bottles, and 
this we ascertained by accurately noting the time employed in the experi- 
ment and the exact period necessary to fill a balloon of known capacity 
attached to the second bottle. 

1. Duration of the experiment, 24 minutes ; 

2. Mean time required to fill the balloon, 25 seconds ; 

3. Capacity of the balloon, 380°8 cubic inches. 

Hence it follows that 21933 cubic inches of gas passed through the bottle. 
The cyanide of potassium in the Wolf’s-bottles and their connecting tubes 
were made into one solution, which weighed 381-024 grms., and 129:211 grms. 
of" this solution yielded 0°62208 grm. cyanide of silver, which was easily de- 
composed by fuming sulphuric acid. Hence, in the 21933 cubic inches of 
gas which had passed through the flasks, there must have been 0°8944 grm. 
of cyanide of potassium held in mechanical suspension. We have already 
seen that the gas possessed the following composition :— 


Nitrogen . e « + « « « 58°05 
Carbonic oxide . * . « . 37°43 
ddydrogen 11/5) sie fe es BIB 
Cyanogen «6 «--, + + 6 1°34 


100°00 


The 21933 cubic inches of gas, admitting only its approximative estima- 
tion, its temperature being neglected, must contain 1192-97 grains of carbon, 
corresponding to 1774°79 grains of coal. Hence out of 100 parts of coal, at 
least 0°778 of cyanide of potassium are generated; and as 31200 pounds 
of coal are consumed every day in the furnace, it is obvious that at least 
2247 lbs. of cyanide of potassium are generated daily in the Alfreton fur- 
nace and hitherto have been altogether lost. 

When the iron tube used in the experiment was withdrawn from the fur- 
nace, it was found to be encrusted with melted cyanide of potassium, which 
speedily deliquesced in the air. On bringing it in contact with water, a con- 
siderable quantity of hydrogen gas was evolved, obviously due to the pre- 
sence of reduced potassium, or to its compound with carbonic oxide. In 
the tube itself at least three or four times the amount of cyanide of potassium 
was condensed, so that we may be quite certain that the amount formed is 
far more considerable than we have stated. With these unexpected results 
before us, it became of importance to determine the origin of the large quan- 
tity of potassium in the furnace. At first we conceived that it might be 
present in the limestone, which not unfrequently contains carbonate of potash, 
according to the researches of various chemists; but on examining as much 
as 30 grammes, we were unable to detect in it the smallest trace. However, 
we were informed by Mr. Charles Oakes that he had detected the presence 
of potash in the iron ore, and we are glad to be able to confirm the result of 
this talented young chemist. We have subjected an average sample of the 


184 REPORT—1845. LO THT uO 


ealeined ore to analysis, according to the methods usually employed in such 
cases. The quantity used in the analysis was 2°324 grms., which yielded 
1-400 peroxide of iron, 0°153 alumina, 0°145 carbonate of lime, 0°202 phos- 
phate of magnesia, and 0°599 silica. In order to estimate the amount of 
potash, 17-936 grms. were ignited with carbonate of barytes, dissolved in mu~ 
riatic acid, and the bases, aiter separation of the silica, were as much as pos- 
sible precipitated by carbonate of ammonia. The solution was then freed 
from barytes by means of sulphuric acid, and the excess of the latter removed 
by evaporation with chloride of strontium. In this way the remaining bases 
were converted into chlorides soluble in alcohol, and the solution mixed with 
chloride of platinum and evaporated to dryness in the water-bath left a resi- 
due, which, treated with alcohol to dissolve out the other chlorides, consisted 
of pure chloride of platinum and potassium, and weighed 0°689 grm. This 
analysis gives the following composition for the calcined ore:— 


Siita a ee Peer eae pp 
Peroxide ofiron . . . . 60°242 
Atamind soos tts ce 6 Met es OOo 
' Lime . Sab ules 3°510 
Magnesia . a tla pial sl cc 
PGtash reer tere eee OT aes 
Manganese . - . - - -_ traces. 


100°000 


Another source of the potash was found to be in the coal, although to a 
iess extent than in the ore: 1°627 grm. of the coal, dried at 212°, yielded 
0°122 grm. of water; 0°2865 grm. gave 0°7865 grm. of carbonic acid and 
07153 grm. of water ; 2°887 grms., heated with the mixture of soda and lime, 
gave 0:0801 of chloride of platinum and ammonium. The experiment, re- 
peated with 5°687 grms. gave 0°175 of the above salt; 13:059 grms. of coal 
yielded 0°3505 grm. of ashes, which did not effervesce with acids; and this 
quantity of ashes, treated as in the case of the iron ore, gave 0°046 grm. of 
chloride of platinum and potassium. The coal therefore is composed as 
follows :— 

CMD atatel a Mea yiend ay, Abdi 
ELV ONG GN fd ek es tims te ode tpe pie edge 
ORV CNT facie ie 0 9 borne LOU 
INVERO RED oo ete is. sacle mae! s\ uy Ue 
WVALEE sie sala ven ins), Pon a pceniemmeieeh 
SLICALEE 9 Seen te ire. 6 de, sey tnp OL 
EAE Ye ee cei ha isin te ahah tule Ui 


100:00 


The quantity of ironstone consumed by the furnace every twenty-four hours 
is 33600 lbs., and that of coal 31200 lbs., so that the furnace receives every 
day in these materials 271°48 Ibs. of potash, corresponding to 377°3 lbs. of 
cyanide of potassium. Thus these analyses render intelligible the large 
quantity of potash which we observed in the inferior parts of the furnace. 

But we have yet to discuss the most interesting and important question bear- 
ing upon the presence of cyanide of potassium, viz. the origin of its cyanogen. 
We know how easily ammonia in contact with carbon at high temperatures 
is converted into cyanide of ammonium. Hence we should be apt at once 
to admit that the formation of cyanogen is due to the ammonia so freely 
evolved from the coal during its distillation; and if this view were correct, 


" 


ON THE GASES EVOLVED FROM IRON FURNACES. 185 


the existence of one must arise from the destruction of the other. But when 
we view more closely the circumstances under which the cyanogen is pro- 
duced, we are compelled to admit that the ammonia cannot take part in its 
formation. The hearth, at which the formation of cyanogen takes place, is 
the deepest and hottest part of the furnace, and it would be absurd to 
suppose that the coal which reaches this part could contain a trace of am- 
monia, exposed as it has been for eighty hours to a red heat, and in one 
part to a temperature sufficient to reduce potash. Hence we are compelled 
to adopt the only remaining conclusion, that the nitrogen of the air intro- 
duced by the blast combines directly with carbon to form cyanogen. This 
direct formation has been argued for by various chemists, and supported in 
this country by the experiments of Fownes and Young. But as it has been 
objected to experiments of this kind, that they were instituted without refer- 
ence to the ammonia of the air, which is apt to be taken by most substances 
exposed to it, it is searcely to be wondered at that the direct generation of 
ammonia is still doubted by distinguished chemists. We have therefore 
thought it necessary to determine this disputed question by an experiment 
which seems to banish all sources of error. We have led simultaneously, and 
under exactly the same conditions, a stream of carbonic acid and another of 
nitrogen, at a very high temperature, over a mixture of two parts of charcoal 
from sugar and one part of chemically pure carbonate of potash, and have 
subjected the products to careful examination. The apparatus used by us 
in these experiments is represented in fig. 9: a is a gasometer, from which a 
uniform stream of air is made to pass through a bottle filled with sulphuric 
acid (6), and then through a gun-barrel (cc) filled with copper turnings. 
The gun-barrel is kept in a furnace, so that the air passing through it is 
thoroughly deprived of oxygen and passes into the gun-barrel (d d) filled with 
the mixture of charcoal and potash, and heated to a temperature sufficient 
to reduce potassium. In the same furnace is placed another gun-barrel (ee), 
filled with the same mixture, and over which is passed a stream of dry car- 
bonic acid from the apparatus fg. When both the systems were completely 
filled, one with nitrogen, the other with carbonic acid, the streams of gas were 
allowed to pass slowly over the mixture of potash and charcoal, both the 
tubes in the same furnace being kept at a temperature sufficient to reduce 
potassium. The gas passing out of the tube filled with carbonic acid had all 
the characters of pure carbonic oxide, being transparent, inodorous, and 
burning with a pale blue flame, without depositing any kind of sublimate. 
The tube over which nitrogen passed emitted a gas richly laden with a white 
smoke of cyanide of potassium, which sublimed in such quantity as to stop 
the conducting-tube. When the nitrogen was passed so slowly through the 
sulphuric acid that the bubbles passed only once in a second, its absorption 
by the potash was complete, and no gas appeared at the mouth of the gun- 
barrel ; but as soon as the temperature was lowered, so as to be under that 
necessary for the reduction of potassium, the absorption of nitrogen ceased. 
The contents of the tube over which carbonic acid had passed were examined 
after cooling without the detection of the smallest trace of cyanide of potas- 
sium. The mixture treated with nitrogen, on the other hand, dissolved (with 
the exception of its charcoal) with a very powerful odour of hydrocyanic 
acid. The solution exhibited all the reactions of cyanide of potassium, and 
yielded 6:982 grms. of cyanide of silver, which dissolved (with decomposition ) 
in fuming sulphuric acid without leaving any residue of chloride of silver after 
being diluted with water. Hence we cannot for a moment demur to the fol- 
lowing eonclusion,—That a considerable quantity of cyanide of potassium is 
formed: in iron furnaces immediately above the point where the blast comes 


186 REPORT—1845,. 


in contact with the glowing fuel, and that it owes its formation to a direct union 
of carbon with potassium and nitrogen of the air. 

Our experiments have further shown that cyanide of potassium is volatile 
at high temperatures, and this property is of much influence in the part which 
it takes in the reducing process of the furnace. Carried up by the ascending 
eurrent of gas, the cyanide of potassium, partly in a state of vapour, partly 
as a solid, reaches the region of the furnace in which the reduction is effected, 
and here it exerts its well-known reducing power. In consequence of this 
it is decomposed into nitrogen, carbonic acid, and carbonate of potash, the 
former of which passes up with the ascending gaseous column to the mouth 
of the furnace, while the latter, not being volatile, falls back with the other 
materials in the furnace to that point where it is again converted inte cyanide 
of potassium, under the influence of the carbon and nitrogen. Hence a large 
quantity of ore may in this way be reduced in the lower part of the furnace, 
by comparatively a small quantity of regenerated cyanide of potassium. The 
importance of this view of the part played by cyanide of potassium, although 
previously entirely neglected, will be seen when we consider that this power- 
ful reducing agent must accumulate in the furnace to a considerable extent. 
The region of the furnace where the highest temperature prevails forms a 
limited space, beyond which the cyanide of potassium cannot extend to the 
lower parts of the furnace until its quantity is so much increased by the pot- 
ash descending in the materials supplied that the excess of cyanide of potas- 
sium escapes volatilization and reaches the blast, where it is burnt and con- 
verted into nitrogen, carbonic acid and carbonate of potash, the basis of which 
unites with the slag. We have already shown that the relation of the nitro- 
gen to the oxygen in the gaseous mixture, collected only two and a half feet 
over the tuyére, is 79°2 : 22°8, after deducting a quantity of oxygen corre- 
sponding to the hydrogen. If the gas generated at this place contained only 
the nitrogen and oxygen due to the air, the proportion would be 79°2: 20°8 ; 
and hence it follows that the gases at this point must either have obtained 
oxygen from a source independent of the air, or that a proportion of nitrogen 
has been abstracted from them. Any one who has had the opportunity of 
observing the temperature of the furnace at this part will at once agree with 
the opinion that the excess of oxygen cannot be derived from the carbonic 
acid or iron ore. A simple inspection of the materials enables us to reject 
such an explanation as erroneous, for the fused materials flowing from the fur- 
nace do not evolve gas, although they come from a point in the immediate 
vicinity of that where the oxygen has been taken up. 

We must therefore admit'that this pheenomenon is connected with the for- 
mation of cyanide of potassium in the furnace. The potash, as it yields its 
oxygen to carbon during its conversion to cyanide of potassium, assumes for 
every volume of oxygen lost by it two volumes of nitrogen in the form of 
cyanogen, and consequently the proportion of nitrogen to oxygen is neces- 
sarily increased. 


a 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 187 


Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan. By Joun 
Ricuarpson, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., §¢., Medical Inspector of 
Naval Hospitals. 


Tuer following report is essentially a list of the fish which are known to 
inhabit the waters of the Chinese empire, to which I have added the Japanese 
species that have been named in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ of Siebold, edited by 
Temminck and Schlegel, and now in the course of publication. The po- 
sition of the southern islands of Japan, in the same parallels of latitude 
with the northern coasts of China, and with only a narrow sea intervening, 
would lead us to believe that the species of fish which resort to the op- 
posing shores of the two kingdoms are the same, and such is the fact as 
far as our evidence goes. Accurate local catalogues of animals are of much 
utility to the zoologist, being indispensable instruments for eliciting the geo- 
graphical distribution of forms and species; but in respect of documents of 
this kind, ichthyology is far behind the other departments of natural history. 
We have ample lists of the quadrupeds, birds, reptiles and plants of most of 
the larger districts of the globe, but out of Europe we cannot refer to an 
enumeration of the fish of any country that can be said to approach com- 
pleteness, with the exception of the ichthyology of the Red sea, which has 
been made known by the labours of Forskal, Ehrenberg and Rippell. The 
fish of Madeira have been catalogued by the Rev. R. T. Lowe, and those of 
the Canaries, collected by Webb and Bertholet, have been described in the 
ichthyological part of their work by M. Valenciennes. The fish of British 
India also have been extensively figured by Russell, Buchanan-Hamilton and 
Mc&Clelland; but much comparative examination of the species of that wide 
country is still required to enable us to distinguish those which are com- 
mon to other countries or districts of the ocean from those which are pecu- 
liar to it. Some of the northern states also of the North American union have 
very laudably caused catalogues to be formed of the animals of their respective 
territories, and from the great ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ of Cuvier and Valen- 
ciennes, we may extract lists, though by no means full ones, of the Acantho- 
pterygian fish that inhabit the coasts of Brazil, the Caribbean sea, Polynesia, 
and the Malay archipelago; but of the ichthyology of the extra-tropical 
seas of the southern hemisphere, and of the whole range of the North and 
South American coast washed by the Pacific, it is almost silent. About a 
score of Japanese and Chinese fish were discovered in the time of Linnzus 
by Lagerstroém, Houttuyn, Osbeck and others, and a few were added by 
Langsdorff, who accompanied the Russian admiral in his voyage to the isles 
of Japan and the South Sea. With these exceptions, the fish of the eastern 
coasts of Asia, from the sea of Ochotsk down to Cochin China, were, till 
very recently, known to European naturalists merely by drawings of native 
artists, several collections of which are to be found in the British and Paris 
libraries*. Within the last two years Temminck and Schlegel have com. 
menced the publication, which we have already alluded to, of Siebold’s ich- 
thyological researches in Japan, and have carried on the work to the eighth 
fasciculus, and through the great families of Percide, Triglide, Scienide, 
Sparide and Scomberide. Several novel and interesting forms have been 
already illustrated in this important work, most of them ranging to the 
southern coasts of China, and not unknown to English ichthyologists, though 
published for the first time in the ‘Fauna Japonica.’ For upwards of fifteen 

* A paper published in the third volume of the Chinese Repository, and partly reprinted 
by Dr. Cantor in his account of the Flora and Fauna of Chusan (Annals and Mag. of Nat. 


Hist., vol. ix.), gives a more detailed account of what las been done by Europeans in illus- 
tration of the natural history of China. 


Cen Y 


188 REPORT— 1845. PHTHOL AWE WO 


years materials for an ample account of the fish of China have existed in 
England. John Reeves, Esq., who was long resident at Macao, filling an 
important office in the employ of the India Company, with an enlightened 
munificence, caused beautiful coloured drawings, mostly of the natural size, 
to be made of no fewer than 340 species of fish which are brought to the 


markets at Canton. These drawings are executed with a correctness and 


finish which will be sought for in vain in the older works on ichthyology, 
and which are not surpassed in the plates of any large European work of the 
present day. The unrivalled brilliancy and effect of the colouring, and cor- 
rectness of profile, render them excellent portraits of the fish they are intended 
to represent ; but further details of a technical kind, such as the distribution 
of the teeth in the roof of the mouth, the numbers of the gill-rays, and the 
fine serratures and denticulations on the edges of the opercular pieces, are 
required for the location of the species in their proper genera. Such minute 
characters, which can be detected, in many instances, only by aid of a lens, 
require to be exaggerated to be shown in a drawing, and indeed, when the 
serratures of the gill-pieces were sufficiently large to be conspicuous to the 
naked eye, the Chinese artist has seldom failed to represent them. Mr. 
Reeves had four copies of these drawings made. One set, which he presented 
to General Hardwicke, is bound up with that officer’s large collection of 
sketches of Indian fish, in four folio volumes, which he bequeathed to the 
British Museum. These volumes have been inspected by many English and 
foreign ichthyologists, and, among others, by Muller and Henle, who refer to 
them in their excellent ‘ Plagiostomen.’ Another copy, left by Mr. Reeves at 
Macao with Mr. Beale, formed the groundwork of the enumeration of Chi- 
nese fish in Bridgeman’s ‘ Chrestomathy,’ in which, by the way, very nume- 
rous mistakes in the generic names occur. A third copy, which he liberally 
lent to me, is the foundation of this report*. The Banksian library also 
contains a work entitled ‘ Figure Piscium Sinensium a Pictore Sinensi pictee,’ 
which is referred to by M. Valenciennes in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
volumes of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ treating of the Cyprinide ; the same 
library possesses a Japanese treatise on fishes, with their Chinese names ap- 
pended, and with coloured plates ; and a manuscript work entitled, “ Descrip- 


tions of Animals,” being an account, in the Linnzean method, of the various - 


species, both terrestrial and marine, observed in a voyage to India and China, 
with pen and ink figures of small size, but well-executed. The author is un- 
known. There are also several Chinese works in the library of the British 
Museum containing figures of fishes, but they are far inferior to the others 
we have mentioned, and look more like fanciful designs than natural history 


* General Hardwicke began his collections of illustrations of Asiatic zoology in the last 
century, and continued them till his final return to this country in 1818. He lost many 
specimens and the fruit of much labour by three several shipwrecks ; but this, instead of 
damping his ardour, roused him to fresh exertions, and he was busy up to the time of his 
death in preparing his collections for publication, the scientific part having been undertaken 
by Mr. Gray. Among the drawings of fish which he procured, there are some by Major 
Neeld, others by Major Farquhar, and a considerable number copied from the drawings of 
Buchanan Hamilton, by that gentleman’s consent, and by the same artists which he em- 
ployed. This is mentioned because a charge of piracy has been made’in the Calcutta Journal 
against General Hardwicke, who was however too high-minded to appropriate to himself 
the labours of others without due acknowledgement; and the careful references in his own 
writing on the drawings of Buchanan Hamilton, show that he had no intention of claiming 
anything that belonged to that distinguished naturalist. The General bequeathed his speci- 
mens and the whole of his collections of drawings, amounting to twenty folio volumes, to the 
British Museum, and also set apart’'a sum of money to defray the expense of publishing the 
scientific description of them. His collections have been deposited, as he wished, im the 
national institution, but his intentions respecting the publication have been entirely frustrated 
by a chancery suit, which was instituted soon after his death. 


oo ES 


ia 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 189 


illustrations. Mr. Reeves deposited in the British Museum specimens of 
Chinese fish, both dried and preserved in spirits, part of them the very ex- 
amples which are figured in his drawings. His son, J. R. Reeves, Esq., has 
likewise presented various fish procured at Macao to the British Museum ; 
among which are several species not figured in his father’s drawings. The 
Rev. George Vachell, who was Chaplain to the India Company at Macao 
fifteen years ago, collected about 100 species of fish there, and presented 
them to the Philosophical Institution at Cambridge, in whose museum they 
are preserved in spirits, and mostly in good condition. One or two small 
collections made at Chusan have reached the India House from officers 
serving there during the late war, and several have been sent to Haslar 
Hospital by the naval officers employed on various parts of the coast, more 
especially by R. A. Bankier, Esq., surgeon in the Royal Navy, and Captain 
Sir Edward Belcher, whose specimens are figured in the ‘Ichthyology of 
the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ recently published by aid from the Treasury 
under the auspices of the Government. The College of Surgeons of Lon- 
don also possesses a small number of Chinese fish, procured by Sir Everard 
Home in the estuary of the Yang tsze keang, the great river which falls 
into the entrance of the Yellow sea. An assemblage of Chinese fish, ex- 
ceeding all these in number, exists in the Chinese collection, made by Mr. 
Dunn, and now exhibiting at Hyde Park. The proprietor most liberally 
permitted me to examine this important collection; but owing to my re- 
sidence at a distance from London, and the way in which the bottles hold- 
ing the fish are secured in screwed-up cases, I have not been able to avail 
myself of this permission to the necessary extent for the identification 
of known species or the description of new ones. In the same collection 
there are also many coloured drawings of fish. The following list is drawn 
up from these various sources. Looking to the number of species which it 
includes, I cannot but consider it as a pretty full enumeration of the fresh- 
water and marine fish of the eastern coasts of the Chinese empire, and it will 
furnish the inquirer into the geographical distribution of forms with several 
important facts. The ichthyology of China forms a material link in the 
evidence by which we are enabled to trace the variations in the numbers and 
grouping of species from the seas of Ochotsk, Kamtschatka and Behring’s 
Strait southwards, by the Philippines, Malay archipelago, Javan sea and 
Torres Straits to the coasts of Australia. The ‘Ichthyology of the Voyage 
of the Erebus and Terror, under the command of Sir James Clark Ross, 
another work which owes its existence to the support of Government, will 
contain a much fuller account of the fish of the higher southern latitudes 
than any previous ichthyological publication, together with figures of at least 
100 new species, some of them taken beyond the 71st parallel. In fact, the 
gradual disappearance of the arctic forms in the seas of Japan and the north 
of China, their replacement by other assemblages in the warmer latitudes, 
and their re-appearance on the coasts of Van Diemen’s Land, the southern 
‘islands of New Zealand, the Aucklands and other antarctic lands, may be 
followed with equal, if not more accuracy than similar gradations can be 
traced through the Atlantic ocean. 

General ichthyology has not made sufficient progress to enable us to de- 
“duce the laws by which the geographical distribution of species is regulated. 
~The only modern work which professes to describe all the species is yet in 
progress, and judging from the numerous additions of new species made by 
every scientific expedition that has left Great Britain or France since the pub- 
lication of the first ten or twelve volumes of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ we 
“are assured that very many fish remain to be incorporated in it when it sees 


190 REPORT-—1845. OF APO RERIAO 


a new edition, or in any other work that embraces the same objects: and in 
regard to the extent of range of the described species, the alterations will be 
no less important. I shall not therefore attempt more in this paper in refer- 
ence to the geographical distribution of fish than merely to mention one or 
two facts that have some bearing on opinions at present entertained by geo- 
logists. Much stress has been laid upon the existence of tropical forms of 
fish in the ancient deposits of northern latitudes as a proof of the high tem- 
perature of the earth in former ages; but I believe that the range of inter- 
tropical species is less restricted than it has been supposed to be. Among 
the Bermudas, on the 32nd parallel, the Chetodontide are so abundant that 
they are preserved in basins inclosed from the sea as an important article of 
food for the garrison and inhabitants; and a considerable number of fish 
range northwards from the Brazils to the coasts of the United States, some 
of them even to the banks of Newfoundland. It is probable that the gulf- 
stream has something to do with this, as fewer tropical forms seem to reach 
the same parallels on the coasts of Europe. If so, there is probably a cur- 
rent of a similar kind setting to the northward on the coasts of China, for 
many species which abound in the Indian ocean range as far north as Japan. 
M. Agassiz says, “ Les Xiphioides de Sheppy ont tous le bee arrondi comme 
le Tetrapture et les Histiophores; or ces derniers ne quittent jamais les mers 
du Sud.” (Rep. Br. Ass. for 1844, p. 305.) Yet M. Burger has discovered 
a Histiophorus on the south-west coasts of the Japanese isles, and the same 
or another species exists in the seas of New Zealand. 

Several remarkable generic forms described in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ such 
as Hoplegnathus or Scarodon, Histiopterus, Melanichthys or Crenidens and 
others, have been detected also in the Australian seas. In short, from the 
42nd degree of south latitude to the same parallel north of the equator, be- 
tween the meridians which include Australia, New Zealand, the Malay ar- 
chipelago, China and Japan, there is but one ichthyological province, though 
towards the respective extremes there is a mingling of antarctic and arctic 
forms with a corresponding diminution in the numbers of the intertropical 
ones. But in the middle portion of this province its dimensions in longitude 
are vastly extended. Very many species of the Red sea, the eastern coast 
of Africa, Madagascar and the Mauritius, range to the Indian ocean, the 
southern seas of China, the Malay archipelago, the northern coasts of Au- 
stralia, and the whole of Polynesia,—the almost continuous ranges of islands 
apparently favouring their distribution. A comparatively small number of 
these species enter the Atlantic, and such as do are mostly Seomberoids, 
Scopelines, Lophobranchs, Plectognathes or Sharks. It is repeatedly re- 
marked in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ that few species of fish cross the 
Atlantic. From this observation, the Scomberoids which skim the surface 
of the high seas ought perhaps to be excluded; and some allowance must 
also be made for South American species discovered on the African coasts 
and islands since the time that the passages in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ to 
which I allude, were written. But with these qualifications, the remark ap- 
pears to be well-founded, and the great bulk of species on different sides of 
the Atlantic are different. When we seek for some cause which may explain 
this difference in the distribution of the fish of the two oceans, we observe 
that the bounding shores of the Atlantic run north and south, with a deep 
sea between them, and no transverse chains of islands. On the other hand, 
we have from Africa eastward, within the warmer districts of the ocean, a 
continuous range through the Indian ocean and archipelago, the Malay ar- 
chipelago and Polynesia, which embraces three-fourths of the cireumference 
of the globe; there being no points of continent which cut through that 


ON THE [ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 19] 
. 


great zone and project into the colder regions to the southward*. Could 
we suppose so extensive a belt, having a breadth of sixty degrees of latitude, 
to be suddenly elevated, we should find the remains of fish scattered over it 
to be everywhere nearly alike ;—the species having a local distribution being 
comparatively few and unimportant. These spoils of fish would of course, 
if the opinions of Professor E. Forbes be well-founded, be associated with as~ 
semblages of mollusks and other marine animals, varying according to the 
depth at which the deposit took place. When we advance northwards in 
the Atlantic, beyond the 44th parallel, the number of species common to 
both shores increases. The salmon of America is identical with that which 
frequents the British Isles and the coasts of Norway and Sweden, and the 
same is the case with the codfish and several other members of the Gadoid 
family, and also with some Cottoids. The Cottoids increase in number and 
variety as we approach the Arctic circle, and this is the case also in the 
northern arm of the Pacific, though the generic forms differ from those of 
the Atlantic. From the near approach probably of the Asiatic and Ame- 
rican coasts at Behring Straits, the fish on both sides are nearly alike, down 
to the sea of Ochotsk on the one side, and Admiralty inlet on the other. In 
the sea of Japan, and the neighbouring coasts of China, we find northern 
forms associated with many common to the temperate and warmer parts of 
the ocean. In the colder regions of the southern hemisphere there is again 
a predominance of the Cottoid and Gobioid families, but with a dissimilarity 
in some of the generic forms, though there are also many genera identical 
with those of the northern ones. We again find in the southern seas codfish 
much like those of the north, and Notacanthus and Macrourus, two very re- 
markable Greenland genera, which inhabit deep water, and are seldom pro« 
cured except when thrown up by storms, have recently been discovered 
on the coasts of New Zealand and South Australia. Several genera are 
peculiar to the southern hemisphere, such as Notothenia, Bovichthys and 
Harpagifer; and of these we find the same species at the Falklands, Cape 
Horn, Auckland Islands and Kerguelen’s Land; in fact, in the whole circle 
of the high latitudes. The fish of the New Zealand seas differ little from 
those of Van Diemen’s Land and South Australia. 

From what has been stated, it appears that the ichthyology of the Austra- 
lian seas has an Asiatic character + as opposed to the Atlantic or South 
American assemblages of species. The fish of the Pacific coasts of America 


* Neither the objects nor the limits of this report admit of a full consideration of the 
manner in which an archipelago extending in longitude favours the diffusion of many spe- 
cies of fish; but I may remark cursorily, that the multiplication of places of deposit for 
spawn on the shores of the islands and intervening coral banks, and the appropriate food 
that many fish find in such places, may have much influence. The Chetodontide, Labride, 
Balistide and other groups of littoral fish, are among the most remarkable for the extensive 
range of species. Some of the Lophobranchi who inhabit floating beds of sea-weed, to which 
they adhere by their prehensile tails, have also an extensive range; the moveable and exten- 
sive beds of Sagasso being, in fact, as far as they are concerned, so many islands. 

+ Mr. Gray informs us, that setting aside the Marsupials of Australia, which are of a dif- 
ferent group from the South American ones, the ordinary quadrupeds, of which many species 
are now known, have an Asiatic character; and that all the Australian reptiles are like those 
of the Old World, while those which inhabit the Galapagos belong to American groups. The 
genera, he goes on to remark, of the Australian reptiles are mostly peculiar, but belong to 
Asiatic, or at least to Old World families. One species, named Geeko verus, is common to 
Australia and to India and its islands, and the Plestiedon 5-lineatum, which is very common 
in North America, exists also in Australia and Japan, and may perhaps have been introduced. 
The genus, which is a very natural one, and well-characterized, consists of five species, viz. 
the cosmopolite one that we have mentioned, a second one inhabiting America, a third one 
belonging to North Africa, and two to China. Specimens from different localities have been 
carefully examined by Mr. Gray, who considers the diffusion of the species of this genus 
as an anomaly in the geographical distribution of reptiles, 


192 REPORT—1845. 


are too imperfectly known to enable us to ascertain how many of them range 
to the other side of the great ocean. Is there a marked change either in 
generic forms or species between the eastern limits of Polynesia and the 
American coasts ? 

The desultory observations I have thrown out respecting the distribution 
of fish apply more particularly to the marine osseous fish, but those which 
compose the sub-class of Cartilaginei have even a more extensive range. The 
sharks of the China seas and of Australia are for the most part identical. 
One of them, the Cestracion, has attracted the attention of geologists on ac- 
count of the teeth of an ancient species having been found in European de- 
posits, associated with fossil palms and other plants of the warmer regions. 
But whatever inference may be drawn from the character of the plants, no 
great reliance ought to be placed on the teeth of the Cestracion as an indi- 
cation of the temperature when the deposit was made. The Australian 
species, or one differing from it chiefly in colour and little in form, inhabits 
likewise the seas of China and Japan; and when deposits now forming are 
revealed to the eyes of future geologists, its spoils will be found associated 
with the Huon pines of Van Diemen’s Land, the Hucalypti of New Holland, 
the fern trees of New Zealand, or with the vegetation of the temperate parts 
of Asia, according to the locality that is explored. 

With regard to freshwater fish, China agrees closely with the peninsula of 
India in the generic forms, but not in species. It abounds with Cyprinide, 
Ophicephali and Siluride. As in the distribution of marine fish the inter- 
position of a continent stretching from the tropics far into the temperate or 
colder parts of the ocean separates different ichthyological groups; so with 
respect to the freshwater species, the intrusion of arms of the sea running 
far to the northwards, or the interposition of a lofty mountain chain, effects the 
same thing. The freshwater fish of the Cape of Good Hope, and the South 
American ones are different from those of India and China. The remarkable 
mailed Siluroids of intertropical America are unlike any freshwater fish of 
Africa or Asia, while the Ophicephali are almost exclusively Asiatic ; a genus 
of the same family being found at the Cape of Good Hope but none in Ame- 
rica. The Cyprinide have been said to be wanting in Polynesia and Au- 
stralia. In the coral islands of Polynesia their absence is clearly owing to 
the want of lakes or rivers, and of Australia it may be said that the rivers 
have not been sufficiently explored. They exist in the larger islands of the 
Javan chain, and it is likely that the same species will hereafter be detected 
in the northern parts of Australia. And the Cyprinoid family is not alto- 
gether unknown in Australia. A curious marine Cyprinoid, the Rhynchana 
greyi (Ichth. of Voy. of Erebus and Terror), is not rare in the seas of New 
Zealand and South Australia. It has been a prevalent opinion that the Cy- 
prinide are exclusively freshwater fish, but the Catastomz of North America 
frequent the estuaries of the rivers which fall into the Arctic sea, living indif- 
ferently in the salt and fresh water, and thriving wherever they find proper 
food. The anadromous Percoids differ very slightly in form from others that 
are purely inhabitants of fresh waters ; and many examples of the same kind 
might be adduced from among the marine fish *. The common anadromous 
salmon (Salmo salar) does not descend beyond the 41st degree of latitude on 
the eastern coast of America, and it is probably restrained within similar bounds 
on the eastern coast of Asia, for we find no representations of it among the 

* In the genera dmbassis and Apogon, there are species truly marine, with others closely 
resembling them, that inhabit fresh waters and even thermal springs of high temperature. 
Most of the Coregoni pass their whole lives in inland waters, but many individuals, carried 
down to the sea by river floods, live and thrive in the brackish or salt waters of the estuaries : 


and the brackish lagoons of Port Essington on the north coast of Australia furnish full-grown 
examples of Carangi, Mesopriones, and other fish considered to be purely marine. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 193 


‘Chinese drawings. It is said by ichthyological writers to be an inhabitant 
of all the northern part of the Old World, from the entrance of the Bay of 
Biscay northwards, by the North Cape, along the Arctic shores of Asia and 
down the coasts of Kamtschatka to the sea of Ochotsk, including the Baltic, 
White sea, Gulf of Kara and other inlets*. Other kinds of salmon abound 
in the estuaries of Kamtschatka, and on the opposite coast of America down 
to the Oregon, but none appear to descend to China. 

In the following list Mr. Reeves’s drawings are quoted by their original 
numbers in his portfolio, and also as they are now placed in the volumes 
bequeathed by General Hardwicke to the nation. A few of Mr. Reeves’s 
drawings, which are not in General Hardwicke’s collection, are also quoted. 
When I have seen Chinese examples of any of the species enumerated in the 
list, I have seldom omitted to mention the museum in which they are de- 
posited ; and when nothing is said of specimens, it is to be understood that 
the species is named from the inspection of Mr. Reeves’s drawings, or when 
there is no figure on the authority of the authors quoted. The Chinese 
names are in some cases written from sound and not from senset. The sounds 
in English characters and the translations were furnished to me by Mr. Reeves 
and Mr. Birch, of the British Museum. 

Mr. Reeves informs me that few of the fishes represented in the drawings 
are brought to the tables of foreigners. Soles are almost constantly presented 
at breakfast, and the Sciena lucida generally forms a part of that meal. 
The Leucosoma, or White Bait of the residents, and a Serranus, are regular 
dinner dishes; and the Polynemus called Salmon-fish and the Stromateus or 
Pomfret, when in season. Sturgeon is occasionally seen. The Chinese eat 
all kinds, from a shrimp to a shark ; but Carp, Bream, Siluri, Ophicephali 
and Gobies, are the principal fish seen in the markets of Canton. 

Tn drawing up the list I have received much aid from John Edward Gray, 
Esq., Keeper of the Zoological Department of the British Museum, who 
had commenced a work on the subject; and great facility in consulting the 
books and specimens of that institution. With the same want of reserve the 
Museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution was opened to me; and 
I have already mentioned the liberality of the late proprietor of the Chinese 
collection at Hyde Park. 


Sub-classis CARTILAGINEI. 
Ordo Squat. 
Fam. ScyLLiipz. 


ScyLL1um MACULATUM, Gray, Hardw. Illustr. Ind. Zool. t. 98. f.1. Miiller 
und Henle, Plagiostomen, seite 5.taf.; Icon. Reeves, 264; Hardw. Cartil. 38. 
Chinese name, Laou hoo sha, “Tiger shark” (Birch); Zaow hoo sha, 
“ Tiger shark” (Reeves). 


The British Museum possesses a Chinese specimen presented by General Hardwicke. Mr. 
Reeves's figure measures 2 feet 4 inches, and is the portrait of an individual which was 
3 feet long. 


Hab. China sea. Indian ocean. Canton. 


* Professor Nilsson mentions that salmon inhabit the freshwater lakes of Sweden named 
Wenern and Siljan during the winter and spring, and then ascend the rivers to spawn, re- 
turning to the lakes again to recruit, as salmon of other rivers do to the sea. The same 
habit has been ascribed to the salmon of Lake Ontario. 

_ + That is, when the proper character is a complex one, the writer will substitute one of 
the same sound but of a more simple form, hence the apparent want of meaning of some of 
the English translations. See note, p. 200. 

1845. si 


194 REPORT—1845. 


Scyti1um BurGERI, M. und H., seite 8. taf. 2. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CHILOSCYLLIUM PLAGIOSUM, Bennett (Scyllium), Life of Raffles, p. 693 ; 
M. und H.p.17. Seyllium ornatum, Gray, Hardw. Ill. t. 98. f. 2. var. 2. 
M. und H.; Jcon. Reeves, 252 ; Hardw. Cartil. 45. var. 3. M. und H. Chi- 
nese name, Pan chith sha, “ Striped bamboo shark ” (Birch, Reeves); Icon. 
Reeves, a. 2; Hardw. Cartil. 44; Chinese name, Za sha, var. 4 M. und H. 
The British Museum possesses an example of the second variety which was brought from 

China by John Reeves, Esq., and there are others in the collection of the Cambridge Philo- 


sophical Society, also obtained at Canton by the Rev. George Vachell. Figure 252 in Mr. 
Reeves’s portfolio measures 2 feet 4 inches, and 6 2 nearly 14 inches. 


Hab. Seas of Japan and China, the Indian ocean and the coasts of the Brazils! (M. 
und H.) 


CROssORRHINUS BARBATUS,-Lin. (Squalus); M. und H. 21. taf. 5. Watt’s 
shark, Phillips’s Voy. to Bots Bay, p. 168. pl. 43. Le squale barbu, Brouss. 
Lacép. i. p. 247. Squalus barbatus et lobatus, Bl. Schn. pp. 128, 137. 
Scyllium lobatum, Cuv. Rég. An. ii. p. 387. 

Hab. Seas of Japan and Australia. An Australian specimen exists in the museum at 

Haslar. 


Fam. CARCHARID&. 


CarcuariAs [Scottopon ] acurus, Rupp. Chondr. p. 5. taf. 18. f. 4; M. 
und H. 29. WScoliodon russellii, Gray. Icon. Reeves, a.5; Hardw. Cart. 
50 & 47. Chinese name, Sha tsze, “ Sharkling” (Birch); Sha yu, “ Shark- 
fish” (Reeves); Sha u (Bridgem. Chrest. 184). 


The British Museum possesses a specimen of this shark from Canton, presented by John 
Reeves, Esq. 


Hab. China seas, Canton. Javan sea. Indian ocean and Red sea. 


CarcHariAs [Prionopon] pDussumIERI, Valenc.; M. et H. 47; Icon. 
Reeves, a. 1 ; Hardw. Cartil. 51. Chinese name, 7’se tow sha, “ Regular 
head shark” (Birch); Chae tow sha, “ Even-headed shark” (Reeves) 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 186). 


Hab. China sea. Canton. Indian ocean. 


CARCHARIAS (PRIONODON) MELANOPTERUS, Quoy et Gaim., Freye. Voy. 
pl. 43. f. 12; Bennett, Life of Raff. p.693 ; Riipp. Chondr. p. 3; M. und 
H. 43. Sq. requin, Lacép. i. p. 169. pl. 8. f. 1; Zeon. Reeves, a. 3; Hardw. 
Cart. 49. Chinese name, Woo yih sha (Birch); Woo yih sha, “ Black- 
finned shark” (Reeves) ; U sth sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 187). 


Hab. China sea. Waigiou. Javan sea. Timor. Australian seas. Red sea. 


SpHyRNA zyGmNA, Rondelet, p. 389; Ray; Lin. Bloch, 117 (Squalus). 
Koma sorra, Russ. 12. Zygena malleus, Valenc. Mém. du Mus. ix. p. 223. 
pl. 11. f. 1; Yarrell, ii, p. 406. Z. dewisii, Griff. An. Kingd. pl. 50. 
Sphyrna zygena, M. und H. 52; Icon. Reeves, a. 4; Hardw. Cart. 59. 
Chinese name, Kung tsze sha (Birch) ; Kung tsze means children’s toys 
(Reeves); Kung tsz mo sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 189). 

Hab. China seas. Canton. Indian ocean. Brazilian coasts. Mediterranean, Coasts of 

France and English channel. 

Fam. GALEIDZ, 

Gaterus sapronicus, M. und H. 58. 


' Hab. Sea of Japan. 


ona 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 195 


Fam. ScyLLIODONTIDZ&. 


TRIAKIs scyLuium, M. und H. 63. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 
Fam. MusteLip@. 


Mustetvus vutcaris, M. und H. Smooth hound, Yarr. ii. p. 333. 
Hab. Japanese and China seas. Australian coasts. Cape of Good Hope. Atlantic. Medi- 


terranean. English channel. 
Fam. LAMNID&. 


Lamna cornusica, Lin. (Squalus), Gmel. 1497 ; Goodenough, Lin. Tr. iii. 
p- 80. pl. 15. Porbeagle, Borlase, Cornw. p. 265. pl. 26. f.4; Yarr. p. 384, 
and Beaumaris shark, p. 387. Sg. monensis, Penn. iii. pl.’7; Shaw, Zool. v. 
p- 350. Lamna cornubica, Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 389 ; M. und H. 67. 

Hab. Coasts of Norway. The Sound. English channel. Mediterranean. Atlantic. Sea of 

Japan. : 

Fam. CEsTRACIONTIDE. 

CESTRACION ZEBRA, Gray, Zool. Misc. p. 5; Jeon. Reeves, 174; Hardw. 
Cart. 52. Chinese name, Maou urh sha, “ Cat-shark ” (Birch); Mau e 
sha, “ Kitten-shark ” (Reeves); Mau i sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 185). 
Specimens of this fish from China exist in the British Museum and in the museum at Has- 

lar. They are all banded transversely, and very differently from the Australian specimens of 

C. phillipi. We have compared drawings of recent examples of this fish with Mr. Keeves’s of 

zebra, and find them to be very dissimilar in their markings, but the species are very much 

alike in form. Miiller and Henle most probably consider them to be identical, as they men- 
tion C. phillipi as an inhabitant of the Japanese seas. Small examples of zebra may be found 
in the Chinese insect-boxes. 
Hab. Sea of China. 
Fam. NoTIDANIDZ. 


Heptancnus 1npicus, Cuv. Régn. An. p. 39; Agass, iii. tab. E. f. 1. (Vo- 
tidanus), M. und H. p. 82. tab. 
Hab. Seas of China, Australia, and the Indian ocean. 


Ordo Ratz. 
Fam. RuinoBaTipz& (Squatinoraie, M. und H.). 


Rurna ancytostomus, Bl. Schn. p. 352. t. 72; Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. 


Zool. pl. 102. f. 2, The jaws. Jeon. Reeves, 3. 74; Hardw. Cart. 69, 
70, 71; Owen, Odont. pl. 23, The teeth. Chinese name, Pe pa sha, 
“ Guitar shark” (Birch); Pe pa yu, “Pe pa shark.” “The pe pa isa 
musical instrument like the guitar” (Reeves). Pe pa u (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 164:). 

Mr. Reeves deposited a Chinese specimen of this fish in the British Museum. 

Hab. Seas of China (Reeves). Indian ocean (BI.). 


RuHINOBATUS SCHLEGELI, M. und H. p. 123. tafel. 

The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s specimens, which differs a little from the 
figure in Miiller and Henle’s work, in having larger eyes, and somewhat differently shaped 
spout-holes. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


RuHINOBATUS HYNNICEPHALUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, a.7; Hardw 
Cart. 63. Chinese name, Le tow sha (Birch); Lae tow sha, “ Plough- 
headed sha” (Reeves); Lai tow sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 186). 


I have seen no specimen of this fish, but after a careful comparison with the description 
and figures of the species of the several sub-genera composing this genus, as constituted in 
the ‘ Plagiostomen’ of Miiller and Henle, it was not found to correspond with any of them, 


02 


196 REPORT—1845. 


The disc is wider than that of R. schlegelii, the length being in proportion to the breadth 
as 7:6: itis more undulated on the fore edge, there being a conspicuous widely-rounded 
lobe opposite the eyes, and the snout is acuminated, but yet blunt at the point. A single 
acute tooth on the hinder edge of the spout-holes. The width of the disc somewhat exceeds 
one-third of the whole length of the fish. Colour shining yellowish-brown, with specks of a 
darker tint of the same, arranged for the most part so as to form small sub-circular areas. 
Length of the figure 194 inches. ; 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


Puatyruina stnensis, M. und H. p.125. aie chinoise, Lacép. i. p. 34 
et 157. pl. 2. £.2; Icon. Reeves, 182; Hardw. Cart. 74. Chinese name, 
Hwang teen poo*, “ Yellow spotted ray” (Birch). 

A Chinese specimen exists in the British Museum. 
Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Canton. 


Fam. TorPEDINIDE. 


NarcineE TIMLEI, Bl. Schn. ( Zorpedo), p.359; Henle, Nare. p. 34. taf. 2. 
f. 4; M. und H. p. 130. 


Hab. Indian ocean and sea of Japan. 


Narcine tincuia, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 227; Hardw. Cart. 72. 
Chinese name, Muh cho poo, “‘ Wooden ladle handle ray” (Reeves); Muh 
cheoh po (Bridgem. Chrest. 240); Zhemilly yar, Hindostanee. 


Mr. Reeves’s drawing shows only the upper surface of the fish, but I possess another figure 
executed by the late Dr. Wight in India, which gives a view also of the under disc, and shows 
that this Torpedo belongs to the sub-genus Narcine. The upper lip is entire with a slight 
point at the central bridle, and the dental plates turn out over the upper and under jaw. In 
the outline of the disc it resembles the Nalla temere of Russell (pl. 2), but in this fish the 
ground colour is white and the spots more round and regular. 

The width of the disc is to its length as six to seven, and as it is widest posterior to its 
middle, it has a very broadly ovate form, without any angles, the snout being rounded. The 
breadth of the disc is equal to the length of the tail from the anus to the tip of the caudal fin. 
The ventrals have a slightly convex edge with the fore and hinder corners only moderately 
rounded. The claspers project beyond its edge. First dorsal rather larger than the second. 
The distance between the eyes and edge of the snout is equal to a fourth of the width of the 
disc, and the spout-holes, which are larger than the orbits and have smooth edges, are con- 
tiguous to them. Colour of the upper surface reddish-brown, with larger and smaller dark 
liver-brown spots, the largest being placed-on the middle line of the back and tail. Some of 
the spots which lie round the electrical apparatus run into curved bars, and there are two lon- 
gitudinal dark bars on the ventrals. The under surface is white, with reddish and purple tints 
round the edges of the various parts. Length of the figure 13 inches. Breadth of the disc 
5°2 inches. 


Hab. China seas. Canton (Reeves). Indian ocean. Madras (Wight). 
Muh cho poo, Reeves, 6 ; Hardw. Cart. 73. 


This figure has the same Chinese name with the preceding one, and much the same colours 
and spots, but it presents such difference in form, that, looking to the general accuracy of Mr. 
Reeves’s admirable collection of drawings, prevents me from considering it as a representation 
of the same fish; yet the discrepancies are not sufficient in the absence of specimens to induce 
me to name it as specifically distinct. The general proportions of length and breadth do not 
differ greatly from those of lingula, but the disc is more widely rounded anteriorly, and more 
gibbous just behind the eyes, making an approach, though a slight one, to the sub-rhomboidal 
form of N. indica. The posterior corners of the disc overlap the ventrals rather more, and 
the latter are considerably larger with a more rounded outline. They extend backwards to 
the middle of the first dorsal. The second dorsal is drawn a trifle larger than the first. The 
eyes also are proportionally nearer to each other and to the fore-edge of the disc than in lin- 
gula. There are some slight differences in the spots, but scarcely so much as to require de- 
scription. The posterior lobes of thé disc are deeply tinged with arterial blood-red, but the 
colours in other respects are the same. The fish represented was a female, as no claspers are 
shown. Length of the figure 16 inches, width 8°3 inches. 

Hab. China sea. Canton. 


(ens 2 ee 
* The term poo comprises a Chinese genus, which may be generally translated as “ray.” 


4 a4 


\ ' 
ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 197 


Fam. Raupz. 


Rata KENoseEI, “Birger,” M. und H. p. 149. tafel; Icon. Reeves, 198 ; 
Hardw. Cart.77. Chinese name, Ping sha poo (Birch), “ Butterfly Poo 
ray” (Reeves). 


Miiller and Henle describe the colours of the dried fish as uniform. In Mr. Reeves’s draw- 
ing the ground colour is clove-brown, shaded obscurely with liver-brown, and with a reddish-~ 
brown tint before the eye. There are also many paler wood-brown spots, which are sprinkled 
with dark dots. Exterior to the eyes on each side, six of the smaller pale spots are arranged 
so as to form a ring round a central one: similarly arranged spots occur near the margin of the 
widest part of the disc on each side, and also more posteriorly, while nearer the mesial line on 
each side there is an uninterrupted pale ring with a central spot, and a like ring exists on the 
posterior lobe of the disc. The edges of the under surface, which are partially shown in the 
drawing, are purplish-red. The spines correspond better with the letter-press description than 
with the figure given in the ‘Plagiostomen’ of Miiller and Henle. Length of figure 14 inches, 
width 84. 

Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Canton. 


Fam. TRYGONIDE. 

TRYGON UARNACK, Riippell, Atl. p. 51; Chondr. taf. 19. f. 2 (Pastinachus). 
M. und H. p.158. Zr. omescherit, Forsk.9; Riipp. Atl. p.51. Tryg. 
russellii, Gray, Ill. Ind. Zool. 100; Icon. 89. Hardw. ined. (a drawing of 
Tr. russellii) ; Icon. Reeves, a. 37 ; Hardw. Cart.91 (Femina). Chinese 
name, Hwa kin, “ Variegated ray” (Reeves) ; Icon. Reeves, 279? Hardw. 
Cart. 90 (Mas)? 


A specimen in spirits and a dried skin from the Indian seas were bequeathed by General 
Hardwicke to the British Museum. 


Hab. Sea of China. Indian ocean. Red sea and Cape of Good Hope. 


TryGon AKAJEI, “ Birger,” M. und H. p. 165. tafel. 
Hab. South-west coast of Japan. 


Trycon zucel, “ Birger,” M. und H. p. 165. tafel. 
Hab. Sea of Japan and China. Macao (Belanger). Indian ocean. 


‘TryGON BENNETTI, M. und H. p. 160. tafel; Icon. Reeves, a.45; Hardw. 


87 & 88, which is a duplicate. Chinese name, Hwang poo, “ Yellow 
ray ” (Reeves, Birch). 

A Chinese specimen exists in the British Museum. 

Hab. China sea. Caribbean sea! (M. und H.) 


TRYGON CARNEA, Icon. Reeves, 226; Hardw. Cart.86. Chinese name, Pzh 
yith poo, “ White jade-ray” (Birch) ; “ White-fleshed ray” (Reeves). 


This ray has much resemblance in form to the Tr. walga, as figured by Miller and Henle, 
and still more to the Tenkee shindraki of Russell (pl. 5), or to Tr. bennettii, M. und H.; but it 
has aconsiderably longer tail than either, and slight indications of both an upper and an under 
short hem-like seam on the tail. The fori of the disc is obovate, with a sharp point to the snout, 
but no incurvature of the fore-edge, nor any decided convexity. Its breadth at the hinder 
edge of the spout-holes is equal to its length, excluding the ventrals, and the tail measures 
fully twice as much. The eyes are distant from the point of the snout one-quarter of the 
length of the disc, and less than that from each other. Two small spines (or perhaps pores) 
are situated side by side between the posterior edges of the spout-holes on the middle line. 
Colour, pale flesh-red, almost white in parts; the tail darker towards the point. It is pos- 
sible that this may be merely a variety of Tr. bennettii. Mr. Reeves thinks that it is the 
young of some species. Length or breadth of disc, 23 inches, 


Hab. China sea. Macao. 


PreRoPLATEA MicRURA, Bl. Schn. (Zrygon), p.300; M. und H. p. 169. 
Tenkee kunsul, Russ. 6. Raia pecilura, Shaw, 291. Trygon pecilura, 


198 REPORT—1845. 


Bennett, Life of Raffles, p. 694; Icon. Reeves, 209; Hardw. Cart. 80 
(Fem.) ; and Reeves, a.48; Hardw. Cart.’78, 81 dupl. (Mas). Chinese 
name, Peih yu, “ Shoulder-fish” (Reeves); this var. has three spots on 
each pectoral fin. Jcon. Reeves, 235; Hardw. Cart. 82; Chinese name, 
Fe peth poo, “ Flying shoulder ray ;” this is a monstrosity with pectorals 
divided, so that it appears to have four fins. 

Hab. China and Javan seas. The Indian ocean and Red sea. 


Fam. MyLioBATIDZ&. 


MYyLioBATES NIEUHOFII, Bl. Schn. p. 364 (Raia). M. und H. p.177. Moo- 
harra-tenkee, Russ.’7. Fasciated ray, Shaw, Zool. 286. Myliobates aquila, 
Bonap. F. It. Raia macrocephala, Icon. Parkins. in Bib. Banks. 48 ; Icon. 
Reeves, a. 38; Hardw. Cart.97. Chinese name, Chang ying, “Spread kite” 
(Birch) ; “ Broad eagle” (Reeves) ; Cheung ung (Bridgem. Chrest. 157). 
Hab. Chinese and Australian seas (Reeves, Solander). Indian ocean. Mediterranean 

(M. und H.). 

My LioBaTES MACULATUS, Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. pl. 101; M. und H. 
p- 178; Icon. Reeves, 212; Hardw. Cart. 99 & 100 (duplicate). Chinese 
name, Hwa teén chang ying, “ Long ray” (Birch); Fa teem chang ying, 
“ Flowered-spotted long ray” (Reeves); Za tim cheung ang (Bridgem. 
Chrest. p. 158). 


Hab. China sea. Indian ocean. 


MyxiosaTes vuLTor, M. und H. p.179. 
The British Museum contains an example of this species from China. 
Hab, Chinese seas. 


? MyriopaTes ocuLeus, Icon. Reeves, 281; Hardw. Cart. 98; Hin My- 
liobatis (oder Aétobatis) der vielleicht nur eine Varietat des M. maculatus 
ist. M. und H. p. 129 (in notd). 


In this drawing the disc of the fish is thickly covered with eyed spots, which are inclosed 
in blackish-green reticulations. Each spot has a pale silvery central disc, surrounded by a 
blackish ring, which is shaded off, and is itself enchased in a broader pale wood-brown border. 
The disc is rounded on each side in front, and falcate behind, with a small acute point form- 
ing its interior tip. The figure is about 22 inches long, of which 16 inches is tail. The width 
of the disc from tip to tip is 8 inches. 1 have met with no specimen of this fish. 


Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


? AETOBATES FLAGELLUM, Bl. Schn. 361. tab.73?; M. und H.180; Jeon. 
Reeves, 273 ; Hardw. 101. Chinese name, Hih jow chang ying, “ Black- 
fleshed spread kite” (Birch); Hah yoh chang ying, “ Black-bodied long 
Eagle” (Reeves). 

Hab. China seas. “Indian ocean. Red sea.” 
Obs. Icon. Reeves, 236 ; Hardw. 102. Chinese name, Hung tsuy ying, 

“ Red-lipped kite” (Birch); Hung tsuy ying, “ Thick-nosed ray” (Reeves). 
This is, perhaps, a violet-coloured variety of 4étobates? flagellum. 

Hab. Macao, in July. 
Ordo STURIONEs. 


Fam. STURIONIDZ. 


ACIPENSER CHINENSIs, Gray, Hardw. Ill. pl. 98. f. 5. 


Hab. China. Spec. Br. Mus. 

It is probable that some species of Chimera or Callorrhynchus exists in the seas of China 
and Japan. We have seen a small figure of the latter, which was sketched at Bow Island; 
but we have not met with a Petromyzon in any of the collections of Chinese fish or drawings. 


j 
sa 
4 
% 
h 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 199 


Sub-classis OstinopteRyeu1, MacLeay. 
Ordo PLECTOGNATHI. 
Fam. TETRODONTIDZ&. 


Diopon punctatus, Cuv. Rég. An. ii, p.367. D. attinga, BI.125. D- 
hystrix, Bl. 126. 
Sir Edward Belcher brought several small specimens from the Chinese seas. 
Hab. Sea of China. Malay archipelago. Indian ocean and Red sea, 


TETRODON BIMACULATUS, Bennett (nova sp.), Zocl. of Beechey’s Voy. p.50; 
Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. Voy. p. 119. pl. 57. fig. 7-9. Tet. fasciatus, 
M‘Clelland, Cal. Journ. p. 412. pl. 21. f.2 (non BL. Schn.). 

Specimens were brought from China by Sir Edward Belcher, and others exist in the Chi- 
nese collection at Hyde Park, 
Hab. Sea of China. 


TETRODON OCELLATUS, Osbeck (Diodon), Eng. trans. i. p. 365; Bl. 145; 
Icon. Reeves, 271 ; Hardw. Cart. 15. Chinese name, Yu po (Reeves) ; 
Yu paou, “Jade bubble” (Birch); Kai po y (Osbeck); Rich. Ichth. of 
Sulph. Voy. p. 120. pl. 58. f.1, 2. 
Specimens of this fish, in spirits, exist in the British Museum and Chinese collection at 
Hyde Park, and its dry skins are very common in the insect-boxes sold at Canton. 
Hab. China. Canton. Chusan. Japan. It is said in BI. Schn. to inhabit fresh waters 
near the sea. 


TETRODON OCELLATUS, var. guttulatus, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. Voy. 
p- 121. pl. 58. f.3; Icon. Reeves, 96 0; Hardw. Cart. 13. Chinese name, 
Ke paou, “ Fowl bubble.” 


A specimen was deposited by Mr. Reeves in the British Museum. The colour in the 
. drawing is honey-yellow on the back, with the large spots above the pectorals, and at the 
root of the dorsal dark umber-brown, the small ones silvery. 


Hab. China. 


TETRODON ALBO-PLUMBEUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. Voy. p. 121. 

pl. 58. f.6,’7. Japanese fishes, Br. Mus. No. 17. 

A specimen exists in the British Museum, which may be readily confounded with the var. 
guttulatus of ocellatus. It is distinguished by the course of the porous lines on the snout, and 
the distribution of the spines on the body. The figure in the Japanese fishes, which I have 
supposed to represent the adult of this species, has much resemblance to the 7. honckenii of 


Bloch. 143, 
Hab. China and Japan. 


TETRODON sPADICEuS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 123. pl.58. 
f.4 & 5. 
‘The British Museum possesses a specimen presented by Mr. Reeves, and there are others 
in the Chinese Collection at Hyde Park. 
Hab. China, Canton, 


TETRODON LATERNA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 124. pl. 61. 
£.2; Icon. Reeves, 99; Hardw. Cart. 14. Chinese name, Ting lung 
paou, “Chinese lantern-bubble” (Birch); Tsung lung paou, “ Bladder 
lantern” (Reeves) ; Tsang lung pau (Bridgem. Chrest. 239). 


A pencil sketch made by Ellis in 1780, on Cook’s last voyage, at Pulo Condore, China, most 
probably refers to this species. He states the rays to be D. 11; A.11; C.9; P.17. 


Hab. China. 

TETRODON HISPIDUs, Lin., Ameen. Acad. Chinens, Lagoerstr. Dec. 23, 1754 
(non Lacép.). 
Hab. China, 


200 REPORT—1845. 


ORTHAGORISCUS sPINosuS, Cuv. Rég. An. ii. p. 370; Richardson, Ichth. of 
Sulph. Voy. p. 125. pl. 62. f. 10-12. Orth. hispidus, Bl. Schn. p. 511. 
Diodon mola, Pall. Spic. Zool. viii. p. 39. t. 4. f.'7; Keelr. Nov. Com. Petr. 
x. pl. 8. f.3. 

A specimen exists in the British Museum, which was brought from the Chinese seas. » 
Hab. Sea of China. 


OrtHacoriscus oBLoncus, Bl. Schn. p. 511. t.97. Yarr. Br. Fishes, ii. 
p. 534.pl. Tetrodon truncatus, Penn. Br. Zool. iii. p.170. pl.22._ Donov. 
pl. 41. Zetrodon lune, Lacép. i. pl. 22. £.2; Icon. No. 29. Japanese 
fishes, Br. Mus. 

It is possible that several species may be confounded under the appellation of ‘ oblong sun- 
fish,” a point which must be determined by a comparison of specimens from various quarters 
of the ocean. Mr. Yarrell’s figure is not so high as Bloch’s, which, according to Cuvier, was 
drawn from a fish taken at the Cape of Good Hope. Lacépéde’s figure corresponds with this 
in form, but it is variously striped, and is made a distinct species in the ‘ Régne Animal * under 
the name of O. varius. Mr. Yarrell however observes, that the British examples acquired 
beautiful waved stripes after death. The Japanese figure has the form of Bloch’s. 


Hab. The whole Atlantic. Cape of Good Hope. Chinese seas. Japan. 


OsTRACION cornutus, Lin., Bl. 133; Bl. Schn. p. 500; Icon. Reeves (nullo 
numero non Hardw.). 
Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. “India. Barbadoes” (BI. Schn.). 


OsTRACION ACULEATUS, “ Houttuyn, in Haarl. 20 Deel. ii. 346 ;” Bl. Schn. 
p- 500. 


Not having seen a drawing or specimen of this, I do not know how far it differs from the 
preceding species. 


Hab. “ In mari Japonico” (Bl. Schn.). 


OstTRACION HEXAGONUS, “ Thunberg, N.S. A. xi. 101. f.3;” Stock. Trans. 
1790. p-107; Bl. Schn. 502. 
Hab. “ ?fare Japonicum” (Bl. Schn.). 


OsTRACION STELLIFER, Bl. Schn. 499. tab. 97. f.1. Japanese Fishes, fig. 36. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Specimen in the British Museum. 


Fam. BALISTID#. 


BALISTES STELLARIS, Lacépéde (Le Baliste étoilé), i. p.350. pl. 15. f.1 ; 
Bl. Schn. 476. Somdrum yellakah, Russ.23?. Balistes occultator, Hard., 
Teon. ined. B. oculatus, Gray, Hardw. Illust. pl. 90. f. 1. 

Specimens were brought from the Chinese seas by Sir Edward Belcher. Russell’s figure 
shows fewer and proportionally larger spots, and less star-like than those exhibited by the 
specimens. 

Hab. Sea of China (Belcher) and the Indian ocean (Hardw.). 

Sir Edward Belcher’s collection also contains Balistes aureolus (Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. 


Voy. p. 126. pl. 59. f.1, 2), and B. castaneus (id. pl.59. f. 5, 6), which may possibly be from 
the Chinese sea; but the locality of their capture was not noted. 


BALISTES VETULA, Lin. Chinensia Lagoer. Ameen. Acad. 1754; Bl. 150; 
Less. Voy. de la Coq. pl. 9. f. 2. 


Hab. Sea of China. Indian ocean. Atlantic. Island of Ascension (Osbeck). 


Bauistes niapé, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 127.0), G0. te 25 
Teon. Reeves, a.35; Hardw. Cart. 22. Hih pe yang, “ Black-skinned 
yang or ocean-fish” (Reeves, Birch) *. 

Hab. China seas. Canton. 


%* Of this Chinese name, with that of Monacanthus chinensis, the artist writing down from 
sound has used two characters with different meanings for the same idea. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 20] 


BALISTES FRENATUS, Commerson apud Lacép. (Baliste bridé), i. p.335 et 
$81. pl.15. £.3; Icon. Reeves, 229; Hardw. Cart. 23; Rich. Ichth. of 
Sulph. &c., p. 129. pl. 62. f. 1. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


BaLisTEs VACHELLII, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. Voy. p. 129. 


A specimen exists in the collection of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, presented by 
the Rev. George Vachell. 


Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


BALISTES ALBO-CAUDATUS, Commerson apud Lacép. i. p. 336 et 382. pl. 18. 
f.2 (Baliste armé). Riippell, Neue Wirlb. pl. 16. f.1; Icon. Reeves, 
265; Hardw. Cart. 21 & 23. Bal. subarmatus, Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. 
Zool. pl. 90. f. 3? 

Hab. Sea of China (Reeves). Indian ocean (Hardw.). Red sea (Riipp.). 


BALISTES CONSPICILLUM, BI. Schn. 474. Le Baliste Americain, Lacép. 
i. p. 377. pl. 16. f. 2; Quoy et Gaim., Uranie, pl. .f.1; Less. et Garn. 
’ Voy. de la Coquille, pl. 9; Icon. Reeves, 285 ; Hardw. Cart. 20. 


Hab. Sea of China. Malay archipelago. Indian ocean. Mauritius and sea of Madagascar. 


BatisTEs RINGENS, Bl.152. f.2. Le Baliste silonné, Lacép. i. p. 370. pl. 18. 
f.1. B. nigra (ringens, Lin.), Osbeck, Voy. Eng. tr. ii. p.93. B. niger, 
BI. Schn. 471. 

Sir Edward Belcher brought a specimen from China. 
Hab. Sea of China. Sumatra. Indian ocean. Isle of Ascension (Osbeck),. 


MonacanTHUS CHINENSIS, Osbeck (Balistes), Voy. i. p.177, Eng. tr.; 
Bl. 152. f.1; Icon. Reeves, 89; Hardw. Cart. 31 (et ab Indid, 28 ?). Chi- 
nese name, Hth pe yang, “ Black-skinned goat” (Birch) ; “ Black-skinned 
sheep ” ( Bestes)- Hah pe yeang (Bridgem. 50). 

Specimens exist in the British Museum and Chinese collection at Hyde Park. 
Hab. Sea of China (Reeves). Indian ocean (Hardw.). Australia (Ichth. of Er. and Terr.) 


MonacanTHUs BIFILAMENTOSUS, Lesson, Voy. de la Coq. p.109. pl.8; 
Icon. Reeves, 266; Hardw. Cart. 32. é 


A specimen presented by Mr. Reeves, obtained at Canton, is preserved in the British 
Museum. 


Hah. Seas of China and the Moluccas. 


MonacantTuus JAponicus, “Tilesius (Balistes), Mém.de Moscou, ii. pl.13;” 
Cuy. Régn. An. ii. p. 373; Icon. Reeves, 275 ; Hardw. Cart. 33. Tabaduck, 
Draw. by Dep. Ass. Comm. Gen. Neill, of King George’s Sound fish, No. 51, 
Br. Mus. 


Not having access to the Memoirs of the Natural History Society of Moscow at present, 
the identity of Tilesius’s fish with specimens brought by Sir Edward Belcher from the sea 
of China, and with others from South-west Australia, and also with the drawings above 
quoted, is to be considered simply as a conjecture. 

Hab. Seas of China. Japan and Australia. 


MoNnACANTHUS LINEOLATUS, Richardson. Fad. A. 34; C.12; P. 13. 


A specimen of this fish was sent from Hong Kong to Haslar Museum by Surgeon R. A. 
Bankier, of the Royal Navy. It has lost the dorsal fin by friction, but is otherwise in good 
condition. Its height at the tip of the pelvic spine is equal to half its total length, and its 
greatest thickness is rather less than one-third of the height. The profile is an irregular 
oval, beyond which the short trunk of the tail projects not more than a tenth of the whole 
length. The face ascends in a straight line to the dorsal spine, whose height is equal to one 
quarter of the height of the body. The space between this spine and the second dorsal, cor- 
responding in length to the spine, is horizontal and somewhat depressed. The pelvic bone is 
not capable of being stretched much out of the ova], and the membrane behind it is thin, not 
capable of lateral distension, and without rays, but having the small scales narrower and far- 
ther apart than on the body, and thus admitting of a slight folding-up. The edge of the 


202 REPORT—1845. 


membrane is convexly curved. The skin is covered with small scales which are each com- 
posed of a dozen or more minute spines that appear to stand out on every side, but the 
skin feels rough only when the finger is drawn towards the head, These scales do not appear 
to differ in size on any part of the head or body when viewed by the naked eye, but on the 
lateral’ parts of the tail the numerous spines of each scale are seen through a lens to be replaced 
by one, two, or three fine recurved bristles. All the fin-rays are rough, with minute points, 
and the dorsal is armed on each side by a row of pretty strong recurved spinous teeth, its front 
being rough like the other rays. ‘The small trigger-ray in its axilla can be detected only by 
dissection. The point of the pelvic bone is a knob set with spines somewhat coarser than 
those of the scales. The pectoral fin is small and the gill-opening does not descend below 
the base of its first ray. There is no peculiarity in the scales which border this opening. The 
colour, after maceration in spirits, is purplish-gray, with about twelve interrupted horizontal 
dark lines on the body, running from the head to the caudal fin. There are also some spots 
on the face. No lateral line can be detected. There are two dark vertical bands on the 
caudal. This species is readily distinguished from M. bifilamentosus and chinensis by the 
want of the strong curved caudal spines, and from M. japonicus by the profile, the form of the 
scales and dewlap, and by the horizontal dark streaks. It differs from the monoceros of Os~ 
beck (Voy. i. p. 178) in the anal rays being only thirty-four instead of fifty-one. Indeed I be- 
lieve that the species alluded to by Osbeck, and also his scriptus (p. 174), aré referrible to the 
Aleuteres mentioned below. Length of the specimen 5 inches. Height of body 24 inches. 


Hab. Coasts of Hong Kong. 


ALEUTERES LEVIS, Bl. 414. (Balistes), Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. Voy. 
p- 131. pl. 61. f.3. Balistes monoceros, Solander ; Icon. Parkins. No. 64, 
Bib. Banks. Balistes scriptus, Osbeck, i. p. 174, Engl. tr. ? 


Hab. China seas? Canary islands. Caribbean sea. 


ALEUTERES BERARDI, Lesson, Voy. de la Coq. Ichth. p. 107. pl. 7; Richard- 
son, Voy. of Sulph. p. 132. pl.61. f. 1; Jeon. Reeves, 173; Hardw. Cart. 
34. Chinese name, Sha mong, “Sand dog” (Reeves); Sha mang 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 49). 

Specimens were brought from China by Sir Edward Belcher. 
Hab. Seas of China and New Guinea. 


TRIACANTHUS BIACULEATUS, Bl. 148. f.2. (Balistes), Cuv. Régn. An. ii. 
p. 374; Icon. Reeves, A. 24; Hardw. Cart. 36. Chinese name, Pe yang 
(Birch); Po pe yang, “ Naked skin” (Reeves); Moh pe yeang (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 48). 


Specimens of this exist in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, the British Museum, and 
the museum at Haslar. Examples from different localities vary in the comparative height of 
the body and alittle in the distribution of the black marks. An Indian example has a broad 
black stripe on the preorbitar. 


Hab. Seas of China, the Malay archipelago, Australia, and the Indian ocean. 


Ordo LopHoBRANCHII. 
Fam. SYNGNATHIDE. 


SYNGNATHUS HARDWICKII, Gray, Hardw. Ill. pl. 89. f. 3. 


Dried specimens, tied up in bundles, are brought in numbers from China, and many exam- 
ples exist in the British and Haslar Museums. 


Hab. Seas of China and India. 


SYNGNATHUS BIACULEATUS, Bl. 121. f. 1, 2; Bl. Schn. p. 515. t. 1. 
Hab. Seas of China and the Philippines; and the Indian ocean. Spec. Br. Mus. 


Other species inhabit the Chinese seas, but we have not yet had time to determine what 
they are, 


Fam. PeGasipz. 
PEGASUS LATERNARIUS, Cuy. Régn. An. ii. p. 364. in notis. 
Common in the Chinese insect-boxes. Many examples in the British Museum and at 
Haslar Hospital. 
Hab. Sea of China and Japan. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 203 


PEGASUS LATIROSTRIS, Richardson. 


Specimens exist in the British Museum, and are occasionally to be met with in the Chinese 
insect-boxes. They have the general form of P. draco, but the beak is nearly as broad as it 
is long. As in the others, the beak is grooved in the centre above and below, and the edges 
of the upper groove are elevated so as to form a furrowed crest with an irregular outline. The 
flat lateral plates of the snout are transversely ridged, and toothed on the edges by the points 
of the ridges. In /aternarius the edges of the inferior groove of the beak are elevated, and 
the mesial line above is partially so, making seven ridges. The whole is shorter and much 
narrower than that either of draco or latirostris, yet specimens of the latter with the lateral 
edges of the beak mutilated may be mistaken for it. 


Hab. Sea of China. 


SoLenosTomus PARADOXUS, Pallas, Spic. viii. p.32. t.4. £.6 (Fistularia). 
Seba, 3. 34. f. 2; Bl. Schn. p. 114. t. 30. f. 2. 
Hab, Amboyna. Probably China? Some Chinese drawings appear to be extravagant 
representations of this fish. 
Ordo CTENOBRANCHII. 


Fam. Lopuiip@. 


Loruius seTicERus, Wahl, in skrivter af naturh. iv. p. 215. tab. 3. f. 5, 6. 
L. viviparus, Bl. Schn. p. 142. t: 32. LZ setigerus, C. et V. xii. p. 383; 
Icon. Reeves, 161; Hardw. 299. Chinese name, Shin ma yu, “Quiver- 
ing flax-fish” (Birch); Chin ma yu (Reeves); Chan ma u (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 51). Aad. D.3-8; A.9; C.9; P.17; V. 15. 


Small specimens of this fish, pinned down and dried, abound in the boxes of insects sold 


. at the Chinese ports to foreigners. ‘The museum at Haslar contains several of a larger size, 


taken in the China seas by Sir Edward Belcher, but they have been unfortunately consider- 
ably injured by friction during their voyage to England. Mr. Reeves’s drawing of the 
recent fish leaves however little to be desired. In form it agrees with Bloch’s figure, but 
the latter exaggerates the spines of the head. The humeral or coracoid spine is alike in both 
representations. The general colour is hair-brown, finely marbled by a lighter tint on the 
upper surface of the body and pectoral fins. A blackish mark speckled with white occupies 
the pectoral axilla. The caudal is less sharply banded than in Bloch’s figure; a pinkish hue 
spreads over the anal, which, like the dorsal, is unspotted. 


Hab. The Japanese and China seas. Canton. 


CHEIRONECTES RANINUS, Tilesius, Mém. de Moscou, xi. pl. 16. Ch. mar- 
moratus, Cuy., Less. et Garnot, Voy. du Duperrey, pl. 16. f.2; C. et V. 
xii. p. 402. 

M. Valenciennes considers the New Guinea Cheironectes, procured by the naturalists of Za 
Coquille, to be the same with that previously discovered on the coasts of Japan and named by 
Tilesius. 

Hab. Coasts of Japan and New Guinea. 


HAievTEA sTELLATA, Wahl. (ZLophius), Mém. d’Hist. Nat. de Copenh. 
iv. p. 214. t. 3. an. 1797; Tilesius, Voy. de Krusenst. pl. 61. f.3 et 4. 
Lophius muricatus, Shaw, Zool. pl. 162; Icon. Reeves, 

Dried specimens of this fish exist in almost every ichthyological museum. Under surface 
coloured, in Mr. Reeves’s figure, of a bright lake-red. Upper surface aurora-red, clouded with 
reddish-brown, with many specks of lake and groups of small black spots, the whole having a 
freckled appearance. Fins bright lake-red with black edges. 

Hab, China and Japan. 

Tribus Cycroropr (Miller). 


Fam. EcHENEIDIDE. 


ECHENEIS NAUCRATES, Lin. Bl.171; Russell, 49. Australian remora, Griff. 
Cuv. 10, plate opposite to p. 504. Heheneis vittata, Riipp. Neue Wirlb. 
seite 82; Icon. Reeves, 97h ; Hardw. Malac. 286, 287. 

On comparing specimens from the Caribbean and African seas, Polynesia, Western Australia, 
and Bass’s straits, no difference of any importance was detected, except in the number of fin- 


204 REPORT—1845. 


rays and valves of the sucking apparatus, which I have found however to vary as widely 
among individuals from the same locality, so that the ray-formula might be given as D, 2|33 to 
38; A. 2|32 to 38; Discal valves 23 to 26. A young Chinese specimen which was presented 
to the British Museum by Mr. Reeves, has the following numbers: Br. 9; D.2|38; C. 17; 
P. 21; V. 1|5; Discal valves 24. It agrees with a specimen of the same size in the same mu- 
seum which was captured at Tenasserim. Dr. Riippell observes, that the many individuals 
which he had an opportunity of observing in the Red sea presented constant differences in the 
numbers of the fin-rays and in colour from the Atlantic fish. In regard to the latter, I have 
stated above the variations of the rays that exist in the few specimens furnished by the museum 
at Haslar; and in respect to colour, I may add that the patterns they present appear to be 
infinite. Ihave seen on the western coast of Africa some hundreds attached to the bottom of 
a ship, and darting off in a dense body to partake of the washings of the cook’s coppers or any 
other greasy matter that was thrown overboard. All had, it is true, a very disagreeable- 
looking livid ground colour and a dark band on the cheek more or less extensively prolonged 
on the flanks, but the rest of the dark marks seemed to be alike in no two individuals. Spe- 
cimens 6 or 8 inches long have a trapezoidal caudal fin, but when they attain 18 inches or 
more the end of the fin is lunate, and the curve seemingly increases in older individuals, as it 
is pretty considerable in a specimen 24 feet long. 

Hab. Seas of China, the Malay archipelago, Australia, Polynesia and India. The Red sea 
and the Atlantic on both sides. 


Fam. CycLoPTERIDz. 
Gosigesox TUDES, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 103. pl- 46. f. 1-3. 


Hab. China seas? Spec. in Sir E. Belcher’s collection. 


Fam. GoBIIDz. 


Forster, in his ‘ Faunula Sinensis,’ which comprehends the discoveries of 
preceding ichthyologists, enumerates only four members of this family, under 
the names of Gobius niger (Osbeck), G. eleotris, G. anguillaris, and G. pec- 
tinirostris (L.). These will be noticed under their respective heads. 


GosIus FASCIATO-puNCTATUS, Richardson, Ichth. of the Voy. of the Sul- 
phur, p. 145. pl. 62. f. 13, 14; Descript. of Anim. p. 148. fig. 98. Icon. 
Reeves, 146; Hardw. Acanth. 278. Mus. Brit. Chinese name, Sun hong 
(Reeves). Rad. D.6|-1\9; A.1|8; C.19; P.17; V. 1|5-1|5, united. 


This species belongs to a group of Gobies which have the depressed head and general 
aspect of Philypnus dormitator, and is very nearly allied to Gobius russelii (C. et V. 12. p. 75). 
It strongly resembles G. kokius, pl. 14. f. 1. of Jacquemont, Voy. dans |’Inde, which may be 
the same, #hough there are some differences. A specimen was presented to the British Mu- 
seum by John Reeves, Esq., and there are examples of it in the Chinese collection at Hyde 
Park and in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 


Hab. Canton. Runs with great swiftness over the paddy-grounds at Whampoa. 


Gostus cHINEnsts, Osbeck, p. 260, Trad. Allem. G. eleotris, Lin. ed. xii. 

in Chin. Stnn-haoo (Hist. de Poiss. xii. p. 138); Jcon. Reeves, f. 89. 

“ Rad. B.5; D.6|-11; A.8; C.12; P.18; V. 8, united.” The Chinese 

name is written Sinn-has in the English translation, ii. p. 32. 

In Mr. Reeves’s drawing the back is mottled blackish-green, with clusters of grass-green 
and golden specks on the sides. The belly is grayish and silvery, the pectorals clay-coloured, 
the ventrals blackish-gray, and the vertical fins hair-brown, with two darker bars on the 
second dorsal. 

Hab. Macao. 


Gosius PLATYCEPHALUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 1.94. Rad. D.6|-9; 
A.1|9; P.15; C.25. (Spec. Cam. Ph. Inst.) 


A single specimen of a Goby, not in very good condition, exists in the museum of the 
Cambridge Philosophical Institution, having been brought from China by the Rev. George 
Vachell. It belongs to the group of kokius, but I have not been able to identify it with any 
of those described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ It has a depressed head with the eyes almost 
touching, an advancing lower jaw and a rounded caudal. Teeth setaceous, not crowded, 
and disposed much like those of a Serranus. The outer row on the lower jaw is composed of 
somewhat taller recurved ones. Four of the very short upper and under caudal rays appear 


© 
ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 205 


to be not jointed. Scales large, ciliate, with flabellate streaks on the disc. Cheeks and per- 
haps the gill-cover naked. General colour dark or blackish, mottled with pale irregular spots, 
lower jaw spotted with liver-brown and white. Dorsal mottled by rows of black specks on 
the rays. Mr. Reeves’s drawing shows irregular blackish-green specks thickly spread over 
the olive-green ground colour of body and head, with an admixture of reddish-orange on the 
lower part of the sides and belly, the whole having a dark hue. Vertical fins olive-green and 
hair-brown obscurely mottled. Pectorals gall-stone yellow, with a blackish mark on the scaly 
base. The figure shows seven rays in the first dorsal. 


Hab. Macao. 


Goxzius ripPiLeris, Richardson. Rad. D.6|-1|/10; A.1|10; C.17$; P.21; 

V. 1|5-1|5, united. 

This species is of the group headed in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ (xii. p. 85) by G. venenatus. 
The height of the head is equal to half its length, which is contained four times and a quarter 
in the whole length of the fish, or thrice and a half when the caudal is excluded. Belly pro- 
minent behind the ventrals, and the height there equals the length of the head. Lower jaw 
rather longest. Small eyes more than adiameter apart. Teeth in broad villiform plates, with 
those in the outer row a little taller, especially on the sides of the upper jaw and front of the 
lower one. A small canine on the middle of each limb of the lower jaw. Scales ciliated, with 
strong streaks diverging from the free apex of their exposed rhomboidal discs. Head scaly, 
forward to the eyes. A porous curved line beneath the eye, a longitudinal one crossing the 
middle of the cheek, and another on the upper edge of the interoperculum. First dorsal 
about twice as high as the second one. Caudal fenestrated by clear points, but its colours 
have perished. Six rows of roundish or arrow-headed clear specks correspond with the rows 
of scales on the sides, and there is a series of pale curved muscular marks along the lateral 
line. The Rev. G. Vachell’s specimen, deposited in the museum of the Cambridge Philoso- 
phical Society, measures 34 inches. 

Hab. Macao. 


Gogius MARGARITURUS, Richardson. Fad. D.6\-1/12; A. 110; C. 178; 

P.17; V. 1|5-1|5, united. 

Another species of the same group, deposited in the same institution by the Rev. G. Vachell, 
is distinguished by a series of silvery specks running down the middle of the tail. These 
specks, six in number, are irregular in form, and the first is placed over the vent, a narrow 
silvery stripe coincident with the spinal column preceding it. There are also a few silvery 
specks on the nape, one on the temples, another on the gill-cover, and two lines of pores on the 
cheek. The scales are pretty large, ciliated and faintly streaked. The body has a linear 
form, its height being about the eighth of the whole length of the fish. Head bluntly rounded 
in profile at the snout, with the jaws equal. Teeth minute, but the outer row taller, the vil- 
liform inner ones being very low and much crowded. A recurved canine in the middle of 
the limb of the lower jaw. Eyes a full diameter apart. Caudal pointed. 

Hab. Macao. 


Gostus FiiFER, C. et V. xii. p. 106; Icon. Reeves, 276; Hardw. 

Rad. D. 6|-1|10; A. 1|8; C. 21; P.17; V. 1]5-1|5, united. 

The Indian fish described under this name in the ‘Histoire des Poissons’ is made the type of 
a group of Gobies which have short bodies and minute scales buried inthe skin. Specimens 
in good order have been deposited in the British Museum and with the Cambridge Philoso- 
phical Society by John Reeves, Esq. and the Rev. George Vachell, which show that the fish 
when alive is very handsomely and gaily ornamented. 


Hab. The Indian ocean, China seas, and Malay archipelago. Macao. 


Gosius ommarturus, Richardson, Ichth, of the Voy. of the Sulphur, p. 146. 
pl. 55. f. 1.3; Icon. Reeves, 147; Hardw. Chinese name, Chang yaow 
(Birch) ; Chang yaou neen, “ Long-waisted” (Reeves) ; Cheung in nain 
(Bridgem. Chrest.74). Rad. D.9|-20; A. 1|17; C.37; P.22; V. 1|5-1[5, 
united. 

A specimen in the British Museum, from John Reeves, Esq. 
Hab. Macao. 


Gogius sTIGMoTHONUsS, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. p. 147. 
Rad, D. 9|-1|13 vel 14; A. 1[11; C.35; P. 18; V. 1|5-1|5, united. 


vt ee Ce 
é 


206 REPORT—1845. 


Much like the last, and like it distinguished from the other Gobies by a greater number 
of rays than usual in the first dorsal. In this species that fin has a black mark. The Cam- 
bridge Philosophical Institution has two specimens, collected by the Rev. George Vachell. 


Hab. Macao. 


GoBIUS LAGERSTROEMIANUS. Gob. eleotris, Lin. Amcen. Acad. Dec. 1754. : 
“ Rad. B. 5; D.11|-10; A.9; C.9! P. 20; V. 10.” (Lin.) 


In the paper above quoted, which is entitled “ Chinensia Lagerstroemiana,” Linneus cha- 
racterises a Goby in the following terms:—* Lingua levis. Dentes parvi acuminati. Oculi 
a tergo capitis. Radiis pinne dorsi prime acuminatis mollibus simplicibus. Pinne ventrales 
fere infundibuliformes. Cauda integra, rotundata. Piscis totus wna cum pinnis nebulosus.” 
It seems to be allied to the preceding two species by the large number of rays in the first 
dorsal. 


Hab. China, 


Gosius TANNOAO, Osbeck, Voy. to China, Engl. tr.i.p.201. “ Rad. B. 4? 
D. 11|-10; A. 13; C.18; V. 12. funnel-shaped.” (Osb.) 


Osbeck, in the account of his voyage to China, performed in 1751, but not published till 
1757, and after his specimens had been examined by Linnzus, mentions a Goby, which is 
called Tunnoao by the Chinese, and which he considers to be the same with the G. niger of 
Linneus. This mistake is pointed out in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ by M. Valenciennes (xiv. 
p- 16), but in quoting the rays of the first dorsal from Osbeck, there is a misprint of 1| for 11). 
At page 188 of the volume of the work just quoted, this fish is suspected to be a variety of 
the Periophthalmus kelreuteri ; and it is possible that both this and the preceding species may 
actually belong to that genus. In the German translation of Osbeck’s ‘ Voyage,’ this species 
appears to have been named Apocryptes cantonensis (C. et V. J. c.)s 


Hab. Canton. 


GoBIOIDES MELANURUS, Broussonnet ( Gobius), MSS.; Descript. of Anim. 
p. 147. fig. 158. “ Rad. D. 18; A.9; C.13; P.14; V. 7.” (Id. Z.¢.) 


The figure here quoted has a general resemblance to Gobioides broussonneti of Lacépéde 
(C. et V. pl. 348), but the single dorsal and the anal occupy ‘ess space. The name of Gobius 
melanurus was written by Broussonnet himself over the figure, and he mentions the species by 
the same appellation in his first decade. The pectorals appear to be funnel-shaped, but their 
rays have most probably been incorrectly counted. The unknown author of the work gives 
us merely the following notice of the characters in addition to the numbers of the rays quoted . 
above :—* Nearly cylindrical. Head roundish. One dorsal. Tail pointed with a black spot 
on the base of the fin” above the middle. “ Eight inches long.” 


Hab. “In Canton river. Eaten by the Chinese.” | 


ApocryPTES SERPERASTER, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3.55; Hardw. 239. 
Chinese name, Pih-shay, “White snake” (Birch); Pak hop, ** White frog” 
(Reeves); Pak kop (Bridgem. Chrest.’73). Rad. D.6|-27; A.27; C.23; 

P. 23; V. 1/5-1|5, united. 

This fish is very commonly carried about the streets for sale. Two specimens, now in the 
museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, were brought from China by the Rev. 
George Vachell. They have less resemblance to Osbeck’s figure of Apocryptes pectinirostris 
than what is shown by a Boleophthalmus, obtained in the same seas by Mr. Vachell and 
noticed below. 4. serperaster has a long pointed caudal, and scales sufficiently visible to the j 
naked eye, but not ciliated, or only sparingly and deciduously so. A skinny preorbitar lip. 
Three canines on each intermaxillary, and one interior one on each side of the symphysis 
below. Twenty-one side teeth on each limb of the upper jaw, and sixteen horizontal ones . 
with incurved tips on each limb of the lower jaw. Five rays of first dorsal nearly of equal 
length, the sixth very short, and omitted in Reeves’s figure. The last ray of the second 
dorsal and anal divided to the base. Colour dirty wood-brown with darker patches at intervals. t 
Paler and silvery on the sides and belly. The figure shows none of the spots or blue lines on t 
the dorsaJs which exist in Osbeck’s pectinirostris, Length of the specimens 6 inches, of the 
caudal nearly 1} inch. Length from snout to anus 2°2 inches. 


Hab. Macao. 


TRYPAUCHEN VAGINA, C. et V. xii. p. 153; Icon. Reeves, 6. 57; Hardw. 
Acanth. 283. Chinese name, Hung tae, “Red lae” (Reeves, Birch, 
Bridgem. Chrest. 230). 


ny 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 207 


Rad. B. 4; D. 6/41; A. 40; C.17. (Spec. Mus. Haslar.) 
D. 6/42; A 42; C.17. (Spec. Mus. Brit.) 
D. 6/446; A. 46; C.17. tsoce Mus. Camb.) 
B.4; D. 6/49; A.1]45; C.17. (Hist. des Pois.) 


The fin-rays of this fish when shrivelled in spirits are counted with difficulty, but after 
much pains in examining a considerable number of specimens, I find the above variations with- 
out any other marked difference in form to indicate a plurality of species. Chinése exam- 
ples have been brought to this country by John Reeves, Esq., Commander Dawkins, R.N., Sir 
Edward Belcher, Sir Everard Home, and the Rev. George Vachell. 


Hab. The Indian ocean and China seas. (Hong Kong, Macao, Chusan, and Woosung at 
the mouth of the Yang tse kiang). 


AmsBtyopus ruGosus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 6. 7; Hardw. Acanth. 
282. Chinese name, Shay hing, “ Warp snake” (Reeves, who states that 
hing signifies the warp of a web); She kang (Bridgem. Chrest. 231). 
Rad. D. 6/89; A.40; C.17; P.173 V. 1|5-1|5, united. 


Two Chinese species of this genus have been named by ichthyologists. One, the Tentoide 
hermannien of Lacépéde, was originally described from a Chinese painting, and is most pro- 
bably the Shay king of Mr. Reeves’s portfolio, but as thé specific name has been appropriated 
in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ to an Indian fish, which is certainly distinct if Hamilton Bu- 
chanan’s figure 9, pl. 5, be correct, confusion will be best avoided by giving it another name. 
Three specimens, brought from Macao by the Rev. George Vachell, exist in the museum of the 
Cambridge Philosophical Society, which are remarkable for the sharply-elevated, crenated, 
cuticular ridges on the face and lower jaw. Four of these ridges radiate from the eye as a 
centre, and five diverge from a spot onthe cheek. These are connected by longitudinal ridges, 
and there are several less prominent and more distinctly porous ones on the gill-pieces. The 
lower jaw is crossed transversely by short ridges as prominent as those on the face. Neither 
from the figures nor descriptions of other species do we learn that they have facial ridges ap- 
proaching to these in distinctness. The upper jaw shows about fourteen more or less acute com- 
pressed teeth in its circumference, The lower jaw is armed by about six teeth longer than the 
upper ones, and in both jaws there are several rows of much smaller, crowded, acute teeth, 
well-separated from the outer ones. The head is contained 7% times in the total length, the 
vent is rather behind the anterior third, and the caudal fin forms a ninth of the whole length. 
The dorsal fin is somewhat highest about the middle of the tail, where it rather exceeds half 
the height, and the anal, in which no spine could be detected, is half as high as the dorsal. 
The fins are fleshy, so that the rays are not to be counted without difficulty. Mr. Vachell’s 
specimens and Mr. Reeves’s figure have a contraction at the junction of the vertical fins, as if a 
string had been tied tightly round them, and it is probable that they are so usually carried by 
the fishermen. Ventrals spoon-shaped, with short stout spines. Scales-very minute, deeply 
imbedded and distant from each other. Length, total 6°25 inches; of which the distance between 
mouth and anus is 2°38 inches, and the length of caudal 0°72 inch. Another specimen mea- 
sures 83 inches, and a third 34 inches. 


Hab. Macao. 


AMBLYOPUS ANGUILLARIS, Lin.? (Gobius). Rad. D.6|39; A. 37 vel 38; 
C. 17*. 


Two specimens in the Cambridge Philosophical Society’s museum, brought from Macao by 
the Rev. George Vachell, agree tolerably with the short characters given by Linnzus of his 
anguillaris, received from the same quarter. As compared with other 4mblyopi, indeed the 
pectoral fins could not be said to be “valdé parve,” but they may be so described in refer- 
ence to the Gobies, with which Linnzus grouped this fish. The difference in the enumeration 
of the rays of the dorsal and anal will be lessened, if instead of twelve rays given to the caudal in 
the ‘Systema Nature,’ we reckon seventeen. This species is whitish or colourless in spirits, with 
translucent integuments, permitting the contents of the belly to shine through, and the fine mem- 
branes are more delicate, so that the rays can be more readily seen. The minute black eyes 
are easily seen on the white head. The caudal is larger and more lanceolate than in rugosus, 
and the pectorals longer and more acute. The porous lines on the face are scarcely elevated, 


* There are either several spccies of Amblyopus in the Chinese waters, or the numbers of the 
Tays differ in the same species. In the ‘ Descriptions of Animals,’ which we already quoted, 
f. 15 represents an Amblyopus, which Broussonnet has considered as the anguillaris of 
Linneus. The author enumerates the rays as D.47; A. 42; P.8; V.6; and says that the 
fish dwells in the muddy banks of the river at Canton, and is eaten by the natives. 


RBORKATAL TMA 4 ) SOREPORT=1845/ 90.100 H PHI wae ze 


and the dentition differs from that of rugosus. There are four, five, or six slender cylindrical 
teeth on each limb of each jaw, rather acute, with brown tips, and not all ofone length. The 
interior ones are in a single row, small and pearly, a few near the angle of the upper jaw 
being slightly larger. Length 4:80 inches, of which the caudal is 1-12 inch, the head 0°60 inch, 
and the length from mouth to vent 1°48 inch. 


Hab. Macao. 


PERIOPHTHALMUS MODESTUS, Cantor, Annals of Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p. 29. 
“ Rad. B. 2? D.15|-1]12; A. 111; C. 13; P. 11; V. 1|5—1]5, united.” 
LG 28 brunneus,“cinereo-marmoraltus ; abdomine albo-cerulescenti, alis pallide flavis ; dorsali 
anteriori fasciis nigris duabus ornatd ; radiis alarum nigro-punctatis.” 


‘“ Hab. Chusan, along the coasts of banks and canals,” (Cantor, J. c.) 


BoLEOPHTHALMUS BODDAERTI, Pallas (Gobius), Spic. Zool. viii. p.11.t. 2. 
f. 4, 5; Bl. Schn. 66; C. et V.xiv. p.199. Gobius striatus, Bl. Schn. 71. 
t. 16. Icon. Reeves, 3.38; Hardw. Acanth. 295. Chinese name, Hwa 
ya (Birch) ; Fa yu (Reeves) ; “ Flower-fish;” Yau (Bridgem. Chrest.’77); 
Ieon. Reeves, Hardw. 291, 292, 293, & 294. Descript. of Anim. p.150. 
fig. 100. Rad. D. 5|-24 vel 26; A. 25 vel 26, &c. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


Specimens, procured at Macao by John Reeves, Esq. and the Rev. George Vachell, are 
deposited in the British Museum and with the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Mr. Reeves’s 
figure omits the vertical bands which are conspicuous in his specimen, and are perhaps 
rendered more apparent by maceration in spirits; on the other hand, the brilliant pale- 
green specks on the body of the drawing are nearly effaced in the specimens. Distorted 
figures of this fish, with swollen gill-covers and a*round open mouth, are drawn in its proper 
colours on the Chinese earthenware. Mr. Reeves’s figures 291, 292, 293 and 294, show the 
fish as used for this purpose. 


Hab. Indian ocean, Malacca, Moluccas and China seas. Macao. At eertain seasons it is 
hawked through the streets of Canton. 


BoLEoPHTHALMUS PECTINIROSTRIS, Lin. ( Gobius), Chinensia Lagerstroem. 
Ameen. Acad. Dec. 1754. Osbeck, Voy. 1757. Engl. transl. p.200. Apo- 
cryptes chinensis, Osbeck, Ameen. Acad. iv. pl. 3. f. 3. Ap. pectinirostris, 
C. et V. xii. p. 150. _ Chinese name, Fay-ye (Osbeck, Eng. tr.) ; Fai-ja, 

French tr.). Fad. D. 5|-25; A. 26; C. 21; P.19; V.1|5-1|5, united. 
Cambr. spec.) 

A specimen brought from Canton by the Rev. G. Vachell and deposited in the Cambridge 
Philosophical Institution, corresponds with the few particulars mentioned in the passages 
regarding this species quoted above, except that the colours have suffered from long mace- 
ration in spirits, and can no longer be well made out. As the pectorals are mounted on an 
arm-like basis, though it is short and not bent, I have referred this fish rather to Boleo- 
phthalmus than to Apocryptes. The dentition does not seem to distinguish the two genera as 
established in the ‘Histoire des Poissons,’ at least I can perceive no essential distinction between 
the teeth of dp. dentatus (C. V. xiv. p. 148) and of a Boleophthalmus. The rays of the first 
dorsal of pectinirostris are all filamentous, the central one being tallest and the others gra- 
duated. Themembrane dark purple. Pectorals lanceolate. Ventrals small, infundibuliform. 
Fins generally tipped with wood-brown, and a diffused brownish spot on the second dorsal. 
Body brownish-gray, spotting effaced. Belly white. Scales very minute, the integument 
swelling over them like papille. Three canine teeth on each side of the symphysis of the 
upper jaw are followed by eighteen very minute lateralones. Twenty-seven horizontal teeth 
with brownish truncated tips, which are not incurved, arm each limb of the lower jaw, and there 
is a stronger interior tooth on each side of the symphysis. A small obtuse lobe projects from 
the preorbitar lip behind the canines on each side. The eyes touch each other, and their 
upper lids are granulated. Length, total 2°80 inches; length of head 0°62, length of caudal 
0°50 inch. 


Hab, Canton, 

BoLEOPHTHALMUS AUCUPATORIUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. 
p-148. pl. 62. f. 1-4; Descript. of Anim. p. 149. fig. 99; Icon. Reeves, (3. 53; 
Hardw. Acanth. 295. Chinese name, Kan ke pang, “ Pursuing fowl-staft” 
(Reeves) ; Kong hai pang (Bridgem. Chrest.'72). Fad. D. 5|-26 ; A.1|25 
vel 27; C.17; P. 21; V. 1|5-1|5, united. (Spec. Coll. of Surg.) 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 209 


Examples of this species exist in the British Museum and in the collection of the Cambridge 
Philosophical Society, procured at Macao by John Reeves, Esq. and the Rev. George Vachell. 
The College of Surgeons also possesses specimens obtained at Woosung in the estuary of 
Yang tse kiang by Sir Everard Home. The species has much resemblance to the Gobius viridis 
of Buchanan Hamilton, pl. 32. f. 12 (Boleophthalmus viridis of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ 
xii. p. 213), in form and also in the spotting, but the colours differ, and the Indian fish has a 
higher profile. It is probably the species noticed from a Chinese painting in the ‘ Histoire 
des Poissons’ (xii. p. 215) as bearing a resemblance to B. histiophorus. 


Hab. China seas. Macao. Muddy places, Whampoa. Woosung. 


BoLEOPHTHALMUS CHINENSIS, C. et V. xii. p. 215. 


Described solely from a Chinese painting as having a high pointed first dorsal, and a gray 
body sprinkled with brown specks, and more scattered clusters of white and green points; 
also four deep gray bands on the bases of the pectorals. 


Hab. Canton. 


BoLrorHTHALMus sInicus, C. et V. xii. p. 215. 


Also described from a drawing. It is grayish-brown, dotted finely with the same, and 
marked by scattered green spots and points. The pectorals are tinged with orange. 


+ Hab. Canton. 


BoLroPHTHALMUS CAMPYLOSTOMUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3. 52’ 
Hardw. Acanth. 290. Chinese name, Peth how how, “ Bent-mouth dog” 
(Birch) ; “ Broken-mouthed dog” (Reeves); Mah hau kau (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 71). 


Of this fish we have seen no specimen, and it may eventually prove to be one of the pre- 
ceding two species, but the colours and markings do not correspond with the little that is said 
of them. It is a less slender fish than the B. aucupatorius, and has a comparatively low first 
dorsal, with a shorter though acute caudal fin.. It has a yellowish-brown colour above the ° 
middle line, with crowded darker specks of the same and a flesh-red tint below, also mottled 
on the flanks with darker purplish dots. The belly before the vent and the cheeks are un- 
spotted. The base of the pectoral is dark, the ventrals and anal are ochraceous, and the other 
fins are pale gray or dilute broecoli-brown. A single black spot tips the second dorsal pos- 
teriorly. 


Hab. Canton. 


ELEoTRIS FLAMMANS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 29. “ Rad. B. 6; 
D.6|-1|10; A. 1]9; C.15; P.18; V.1)5.” (Cantor.) 


“ E. superne violaceo-brunneus; ald dorsali anteriori fasciis tribus wndulatis violaceis, 
flammeo-marginatd ; posteriori fasciis undulatis quatuor nigris, radiis alarum aurantiacis, 
apicibus nonnullis flammeis, aliis nigris ; ald caudali violaceo-canescenti, fasciis tribus ceruleis, 
radiorum flavorum apicibus flavis; ald anali aurantiacd, fasciis quinque nigris undulatis, 
radiorum brunneorum apicibus nigris; alis ventralibus pectoralibusque pallide violaceis, radi- 
orum flavorum apicibus nigris.” 

“ Hab, Chusan, canals and estuaries.” (Cantor, J, c.) 


ELEOTRIS CANTHERIUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 114; Hardw. Acanth. 
279. Chinese name, Neen yu (Reeves); Neen u (Bridgem. Chrest. 76). 
Rad. D.6|-9; A.8; C.14; P.12; V.1|5 (ex figura). 


The ground colour of this fish is deep yellowish-brown with blackish-brown reticulations, 
corresponding in size to the scales, and defined above by a dark line running from the eye 
along the upper quarter of the height to the caudal. The areas of the meshes are paler. A. 
short blackish bar runs backwards from the lower part of the eye to the preoperculum, and 
there are some crowded blackish-brown dots on the gill-plate. The dorsals, anals and ven- 
trals have a pale neutral tint colour (bluish or pearl-gray). The first dorsal is crossed by 
three branching and undulating lines, and the second dorsal by eight pairs of blue waving 
lines. The anal and ventrals are marked along each ray by a crowded series of small blue 
arrow-heads or chevrons. The caudal is also marked with chevrons, but they are orange- 

* brown and umber, and the ground tint of the fin corresponds with that of the body. ‘The 
pectoral is wood-brown or buff, with blackish dots on the rays. 


| Hab. Macao. 
1845. P 


q 


210 © REPORT—1845, 


PHILYPNUS SINENSIS, Lacépéde (Le bostryche chinois), iii. p. 141. pl. 2. 
Gobius sinensis, C. et V. xii. p. 94. Philypnus ocellicauda, Richardson, 
Zool. Sulph. pp. 59 & 149. pl. 56. f.15, 16; Icon. Reeves, 3, 8; Hardw. 
Acanth. Chinese name, Neaou yu, “ Bird-fish” (Birch); Oo yu, “ Black 
fish” (Reeves) ; Ow yu (Bridgem. Chrest. 7). 

_ In the ‘ Zoology of the Voyage of the Sulphur’ I have described and figured a Chinese spe- 
cimen of this fish, which was presented to the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq., but I 
was not then aware that it had been previously named by Lacépéde, who had merely seen a 
Chinese drawing of it. His designation is here restored in right of its priority. 

Hab. Canton. 
Tribus Percina. 


Fam. CALLIONYMIDZ&. 


CALLionyMmus REEveEsII, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 60. pl. 36 ; 

Icon. Reeves, 180; Hardw. Acanth. 

Rad. D.4|-9; A.8; C.11; P. 19; V. 15. (Male) 
D.4|-9; A.9; C.10; P.19; V.1|5. (Females.) 

Since I described a male of this species in the work above quoted, I have examined two 
examples brought from Macao by the Rev. George Vachell, which I consider to be females, 
and to justify my quotation of Mr. Reeves’s figure as appertaining to this species. The latter 
drawing is a good representation of these specimens, except that it shows but a small portion 
of the black mark between the third and fourth rays of the comparatively low first dorsal, the 
fin-membrane of the individual placed before the Chinese artist having evidently been torn. 
Neither of the specimens has an anal tubercle: both of them have three recurved teeth on the 
upper side of the long preopercular spine, and one ef them has moreover a strong basal tooth 
beneath pointing forwards, while the other has merely a slight indication of an under-tooth 
near the middle of the spine. 


Hab. Hong Kong. Macao, 


CALLionyMus japonicus, Houttuyn, Stockholm Trans. 1790. p. 107; BI. 

Schn. p. 40, “Rad. D. 4|-10; A.9; C.10; P.19; V. 5,” loc. cit, 

“ C, capitis spind simplici postice interius serratd, margine orbitarum elevato acuto, pinnd dor- 
sali prima brevissimd, ocello nigro notatd, pinnis nigro maculatis, caudali valde elongata.” 
(Schn.) I strongly suspect that Houttuyn’s fish is identical with that which I have considered 
to be the female of C. reevesii, though the caudal fin is longer than in Mr. Vachell’s specimens, 
and shorter than that of the male figured in the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur.’ 


Hab. Japan. 


CALLIONyMUs PuNcTATUS, Langsdorff, Mus. Berol. C. japonicus, C. et V. 

xii. p. 299. 

M, Valenciennes considers a Japanese Callionymus, deposited by M. Langsdorff in the 
museum of the University of Berlin, to be specifically the same with the C. japonicus of 
Houttuyn noticed above, but as he states that M. Langsdorff’s fish has a curved preopercular 
spine, with three spreading upper spinous teeth turned forwards (en patte d'oie), this can 
scarcely be reconciled with the description of the spine of japonicus. C. punctatus has asmall 
tooth on the hinder part of the orbit which does not exist in C. reevesii. 


Hab. Japan. 


CaALLionyMus HINDsII, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 64. pl. 87. 
f. 3, 4. 
A Macao specimen of this fish was presented to the Cambridge Philosophical Institution by 
the Rev. George Vachell. It does not possess the post- orbital tooth of punctatus. 
Hab. Pacific ocean (Sir E. Belcher). China seas. Canton (Vachell), 


HopLicutuys LANGsporFii, C. et V. iv. p. 265, t. 81. 

Schlegel states, in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ that the anatomy of this fish shows its real affinities 
to be with Callionymus. In the text of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ the initial H. of the generic 
name has been inadvertently omitted, but the word is correctly printed “ J7oplichthys”’ in the 
table of contents at the beginning of the volume. 


Hab, Japan. 


i le a 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 211 


Fam. URANOSCOPIDA. 


Uranoscorus scaser, Lin., C. et V. iii. p.287. Fad. B.6; D.3j-1[12; 

Aa iS; C.104; P17; V-1|5- 

Sir Edward Belcher brought an Uranoscope from China, which on a careful comparison 
with a Mediterranean specimen of scaber, presented no difference of form. Its colours were 
effaced. ; 

Hab. China seas. 


Uranoscorus sper, Temm, et Schlegel, Faun, Jap. Sieb. p. 26. pl. 9. £15 
Icon. Reeves, 162 & 166; Hardw. Acanth. 87, 88. Chinese name, 
Koh yu, “ Horned fish” (Reeves); Koh u (Bridgem. Chrest. 39). Rad. 
B.6; D 5|-12vel 13; A. 13 vel 14; C.114; P.18; V.1|5. (Spec. Birger.) 
This species is distinguished from the preceding, which it closely resembles, by having a 

tooth fewer on the under edge of the preoperculum and by other slight differences in form. 

I have had an opportunity of comparing Sir Edward Belcher’s Chinese specimen of scaber 

above mentioned with one of Biirger’s Japanese examples of asper belonging to the British 

Museum. The text of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ quotes the rays of asper as D. 5|-11; A. 15, &. ; 

but a specimen in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, procured at Macao by the 

Rey. George Vachell, and Biirger’s one authenticated by Schlegel, present the formula which 

we have given above. ‘The last two rays of the dorsal and anal are approximated and may 

be reckoned as branches or separate rays, making the numbers 12 or 13 and 13 or 14, ac- 
cording to the way in which they are viewed. 
Hab, South coasts of Japan and the coasts of China down to Canton, 


Urnanoscopus Bicinctus, Temm. et Schlegel, in Fauna Jap. Siebold, p. 26. 
Hab. Japan. 


Uranoscopus INERMIS, C. et V. iii. p. 310. t.65; Temm.et Schl. in Fauna 
Japon. p. 27. 


Hab, Indian ocean and sea of Japan. 


Uranoscorus ELonGATus, Temm, et Schl. in Fauna Jap. Sieb. p. 27. t. 9. 
f. 2. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


PERcIS PULCHELLA, Temm. et Schl. in Fauna Jap. 24. t. 10.7.2. ‘ Rad. 
B. 6; D. 5|-22; A. 1/17; C.16; P.15; V.1|5.” (Fauna Japon.) 


A specimen collected by the Rev. George Vachell exists in the museum of the Cam- 
bridge Philosophical Institution, which ought, I think, to be referred to this species, though 
its fin-rays are as follows:—Rad. B. 6; D. 5|-20; A. 16; C. 138, &c. The caudal fin has 
the second long ray from the top lengthened as in pulchella; there are four rows of white 
spots on the anal; and the streaks on the head are nearly as exhibited in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ 
particularly a black crescentic mark behind each eye. The dots on the dorsal are mostly. 
effaced. 

I have some suspicion of the Japanese fish being merely a variety of the Percis nebulosa 
(C. et V. iii. p. 260), and that the Dentew fasciatus (Solander, Pisces Australie), or Percis 
emeryana (Richardson, Icones Piscium, t. 1. f. 1), is another variety; in which case the fish 
inhabits the ocean from Japan down to Australia. 


Hab. Japan and China. 


PERCIS sEXFASCIATA, Temm. et Schl. Fauna Jap. p. 25. 
Hab. Japan. 


It appears to me that the peculiar forms of the rays of the anal, as well as of some of the 
other fins, and many other particulars of structure, ally this group more closely to the T7i- 
glide than to the Percide. The Trachinus vipera has the suborbitar united by a bony bridge 
to the upper limb of the preoperculum, and other members of the group show more or less of 
that projection of the suborbitar chain which characterizes the following family. 


Fam. CorTipa. 


SYNANCEIA EROSA, Langsdorff, C. et V. iv. p.459. t.96; Temm. et Schl. 
Fauna Jap. Sieb. p. 45. t. 16. f. 1. 


Hab. Japan. J 
P2 


212 -REPORT—1845. WTKO 


APLOACTIS ASPERA, Temm. et Schl. in Fauna Jap. Sieb. p. 51. t.22. f.3 et 4 ; 
Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 72. 
This fish appears to have been first noticed by Tilesius on the Japanese coast. See Pallas, 
* Zoogr. Rossica,’ p. 129, note to Cottus villosus. 
Hab. Seas of Japan. 


APLOACTIS BREVICEPS, Richardson ( Synanceia), Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, 
p- 71. 
Mr. Reeves presented one specimen to the British Museum, and the Rev. George Vachell 
three to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. | 
Hab. Sea of Macao. 


PELOR JAPONICUM, C. et V. iv. p.437.t.93; Temm. et Schl. F. Japon. Sieb. 
p- 44. t. 18. f.2; Icon. Reeves, 140; Hardw. Acanth. 119. Chinese name, 
Meaow yu (Birch); Maou yu (Reeves), “Cat fish;” Mau u (Bridgem. 
Chrest.181). Japanese name, “ Oniogose” (Fauna Jap.). Rad. D. 17|6; 
A. 2|10; C. 112; P.10 et 2; V.1|5. (Spec. Biirger). 


Two specimens of this fish exist in the British Museum; one of them brought from Can- 
ton by John Reeves, Esq., and the other sent by Biirger from Japan to Berlin, whence it was 
transferred to England. Mr. Reeves’s fish differs from the Japan one in having eight soft rays 
in the dorsal with much smaller white spots on the body and fins. Although the ‘Fauna Ja- 
ponica’ contains the following passage, “/’anal a douxe rayons et point d’épineux,” we have 
found two pungent anal rays in Biirger’s specimen which was named at the Berlin Museum. 

Hab. Seas of Japan and China. 


PELOR AURANTIACUM, Temm. et Schl. Fauna Jap. p. 44. t.18.f.1. Ja- 
panese name, Kiwogose. ’ 
Hab. Seas of Japan. 


Petor cuvieri, Gray, Hardw. Illustr.; Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. 
p- 72. pl. 39; Icon. Reeves, 164; Hardw. Acanth. 124 & 125. Chinese 
name, Hwang-yu, “ Yellow panther-fish” (Birch) ; Wong paou yu, “ Yel- 
low-spotted fish” (Reeves); Wong pau u (Bridgem. Chrest. 179). 


The British Museum is indebted to John Reeves, Esq. for a specimen of this fish, The 
low ridge connecting the posterior edges of the orbits is straight, while in Pelor japonicum it 
bends forwards. 


Hab. Canton. 


PELoR sINENSB, C. et V. ix. p. 468. 
Hab. Canton. 


Pretor TIGRINUM, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3.42; Hardw. Acanth. 118. 
Chinese name, Laou hu yu, “ Old tiger-fish ” (Birch) ; Laouw hoo yu, 
“ Tiger-fish ” (Reeves); Lo tu yu (Bridgem. Chrest. 177). 


The Cambridge Philosophical Institution possesses a specimen which was procured by the 
Rev. George Vachell at Canton, and is correctly represented by Mr. Reeves’s figure, ex- 
cept in the dorsal fin. In this the first three dorsal spines are a little separated from the 
others, and the coarse membrane of the rest of the fin is notched to half the depth of each spine 
and forms a thick lobulet to every tip. The soft dorsal is crossed obliquely by a dark brown 
bar, and there are three approximating brown bars on its base, which also cross the posterior 
spinous rays obliquely. The caudal has a brown membrane, and its rays are ringed by about 
six white marks alternating with brown ones. The body is brown with whitish spots more 
mottled than in the figure, and the intermediate spaces are paler. The form of the head is 
well rendered, and fringed barbels depend from almost every salient point. Two small ones 
hang from the chin, and a large one with a basal branchlet from the middle of each limb of 
the lower jaw. A thin smooth transverse ridge unites the orbits behind; there is a com- 
pressed knob behind each eye, and three knobs flank the nape on each side and include three 
rays of the dorsal. The lateral preocular depressions are deep. A short, stout, and not 
very pungent preopercular spine can be felt through the skin, 


Hab. Canton. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 213 


Apistes ALATUS, C. et V: iv. p-392; Temm. et Schl. F. Jap. p. 49. Trigla 

worra-minou, Russell, 159 ; Icon. Reeves, 169; Hardw. Acanth. 136. 

I luve seen no Chinese examples of this fish, but Mr. Reeves’s figure, notwithstanding the 
omission of the suborbitar and preopercular spines, agrees so well with Russell’s, that I have 
no hesitation in referring them both to the same species. The Chinese drawing shows a 
silvery head, a pale orange-brown body, black pectorals, a large black patch on the spinous 
dorsal with gray mottlings on the rest of the fin; five dark bars on the soft dorsal, as many 
on the caudal, and two incomplete ones on the anal. Ventrals pinkish, spotless. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan, and the Indian ocean. 


AprisTEs TRACHINOIDES, C. et V. xii. p. 401. t. 92. Rad. D. 3|-12|4; A. 3|4; 
C.12; P.9 et 4; V. 14 


A Chinese specimen, collected by the Rev. George Vachell, exists in the museum of 
the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the collection of Sir Edward Belcher contains an- 
other example, which is most probably also from the China seas. They agree with the de- 
scription and figure in the * Histoire des Poissons,’ except that there are four unbranched rays 
in the pectoral, and that the dark dorsal bands are prolonged across the body. 


Hab. Javan and Chinese seas. 


APpIsTES RUBRIPINNIS, Temm. et Schl. F. Jap. p. 49. pl. 22. f. 2. 
Hab. Coasts of Japan. 


APpIsTES LONGISPINIS, C. et V.iv. p. 408. Apiste a longue épine, Quoy et 
Gaimard, Voy. de I’Astrol. pl. 11. f.4. Rad. D. 14/8; A. 3|5; C. 78; 
P.11; V.1/4. (Spec. Mus. Brit.) 

The British Museum possesses Chinese specimens presented by John Reeves, Esq., and 

Indian ones received from General Hardwicke. 

Hab. Indian ocean, the Moluccas and sea of China. 


Minovus woorA, C. et V. xii. p.421. Trigla woora minoo, Russell, i159, A. 

Rad. D. 10|11; A. 1|9; C.11; P. 115 V- 1|5. (China spec.) 

Dried examples abound in the Chinese boxes of insects, and there is one in the museum 
of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution preserved in spirits, which was brought from Can- 
ton by the Rev. George Vachell. I have not established their specific identity with the 
Indian fish from the want of specimens from the latter country. 


Hab. The Mauritius, the Indian and China seas. 


Fam. TRIGLIDE. 


Prerois VOLITANS, Gmel. (.Scorpena), C. et V. iv. p. 352. pl. 88. Scorpena 
volitans, Benn. Ceylon, pl.1. Scorpéne mahé, Lacép. iii. p. 278, et il. 
p- 290; Icon. Reeves, B. 1; Hardw. Acanth. 120; Reeves, 261; Hardw. 
‘Acanth. 121. Chinese name, Kew yu, or Mow yu and King yu (Birch, 
Reeves). 


Mr. Reeves’s figure 8 1 was not done from the recent fish like his other drawings, but 
copied from a painting by Mr. Millet, in which the supra-orbitar cirrhi had been omitted. 
The cirrhi under the eye were added when the fish figured in drawing 261 was procured. 


Hab. Seychelles, Mauritius, Indian ocean and Archipelago, Javan sea and coasts of China: 
also Japan according to Lacépéde. It is said to ascend into brackish or fresh water, and to 
be reared in ponds at Batavia. 


PreRois LUNULATA, Temm. et Schl. Fauna Jap. p. 45. pl. 19; Icon, Reeves, 
165; Hardw. Acanth. 123. Chinese name, Lung seu yu, “ Dragon's 
peard-fish” (Birch, Reeves); Lung su u (Bridgem. Chrest. 178). “« Japa- 
nese name, Jamonakami” (Fauna Jap.). 


on i: 1 sare now in the museum at Haslar was obtained on the Canton coast by Sir Edward 
elcher. ; 


Hab. Coasts of Japan and China. 


214 REPORT—1845. ' ire 


CHIRUS HEXAGRAMMUS, Steller (also Hexagrammus asper, MSS.). Labraa 
hexagrammus, Tilesius, Mém. de \’Ac, de Pétersb. ii. pl. 23. f. 3; Pallas, 
Zoogr. Ross. p. 284; Temm. et Schl. F. Jap. p. 53. pl. 23. “Japanese 
name, Abramee” (Fauna Jap.). 


I have seen no representation of a Chirus in Chinese drawings, but the genus is not un- 
common on both shores of the Northern Pacific. A species closely resembling this one, if 
not actually the same, inhabits the harbour of Sitka. (Ch. denarius, Richardson, Ichth. of 
Voy. of Sulph. p. 78. pl. 44. f. 2.) 


Hab. Coasts of Japan and Kamtschatka. 


Cuirus AGRAMMuS, Temm. et Schl. (Labrazx), F. Jap. p. 56. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


SEBASTES 1NERMIS, C. et V. iv. p. 346; Temm. et Schl. F. Jap. p. 47. pl. 21. 
f.3 and 4. 


Hab. Japan. 


SEBASTES VACHELLII, Richardson. Icon. Reeves,69?; Hardw. Acanth.114? 
Chinese name, Shih how hung, “ Stony dog” (Reeves); “ Rock-dog gen- 
tleman” (Birch); Shih how hong (Bridgem. 137). 


In the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution there is a small Sebastes which 
was brought from China by the Rev. George Vachell, that I have not been able to identify 
with any described species, neither am I confident that Mr. Reeves’s figure ought to be re- 
ferred to it; but it agrees better with it than with any other that I have seen. 

Eyes approximated with elevated orbital plates and a ridge dividing the furrow between 
them. Three acute, falcate teeth on the edge of each orbit, three larger ones behind the 
orbit, and a small one on the temples. Nasal spines small and acute. Under edge of the pre- 
orbitar straight, ending in a spinous tooth pointing backwards. A thin unarmed ridge is con- 
tinued from this tooth across the cheek to the root of the preopercular spine, where it is met 
by another ridge coming from the under edge of the orbit. These converging lines or ridges 
enclose a smooth disc, the rest of the cheek being scaly. Operculum armed by two small, 
flat spinous points and three angular corners. Opercular spines flat, weak and small, with no 
visible ridges extending from their roots. Gill-cover scaly. Maxillaries and jaws without 
scales. Angular ridges and points of the supra-scapulars and supra-axillary plate of the co- 
racoid bone neither strong nor conspicuous. Scales of the body small, oblique and ciliated. 
Colours of specimen faded. From the uncertainty of the drawing belonging to this species I 
do not describe its tints in connection with it. 


Hab. Canton. 


SEBASTES PACHYCEPHALUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 47. pl. 20. f.3; Icon. 
Reeves, 218 ; Hardw. Acanth. 115. Chinese name, Shih gaou yu, “ Proud 
stone-fish” (Reeves). Rad. D. 13|12; A. 3|6; P. 7 et 12, &e. 


A specimen exists in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. The colours are not described 
in the ‘ Fauna Japonica;’ but the following are the leading tints exhibited in Mr. Reeves’s 
figure :—The body generally is brownish-red, paler and more lively on the under parts, and 
very ‘dark towards the dorsal line. It is dotted throughout by darker points, apparently one 
to each scale, and there are several large, pale or bluish round spots on the sides. The head 
above and on the cheeks is like the body, and beneath it is unspotted. A crimson or reddish- 
orange is the general tint of the vertical fins, which, except the anal, have also two or three 
rows of dark round spots. The pectorals are orpiment and reddish-orange, with rows of 
black dots on the upper or branching rays. The ventrals are reddish-orange without spots. 

Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


SEBASTES LoNGIcEPS, Richardson. Rad. D.13|]0; A. 2|6; P.17; V. 15. 


In the boxes of insects which are brought from China I have found examples of two spe- 
cies of Sebastes which appear to be undescribed. One of them has some resemblance to S. 
pachycephalus, but differs from it, and the rest of its congeners, in the greater comparative 
length of its head, which is contained twice and a half in the total length of the fish, caudal 
included. The nasal spines are very small, and there are three small teeth on the slightly 
raised upper edge of the obit, four or five minute serratures in its middle part, and three larger 
jagged teeth at its posterior corner. The two low, rounded intra-orbital ridges are separated 
from each other by a narrow mesial furrow, and the whole space between the eyes does not 


———— 


ae 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 215 


exceed two-thirds of the diameter of the orbit. The ridge which flanks the top of the cranium 
is a regular saw with five teeth; but the temporal ridges, though equally prominent, are more 
irregularly toothed. A low, thin, irregularly incised edge crests the infra-orbitar ridge, and 
three minute teeth arm the posterior edge of the preorbitar. The preopercular spine is very 
short, and is not bigger than the compressed tooth which overlies it. Only two teeth or an- 
gular corners exist on the edge of the bone below the spine. The operculum shows the usual 
two low ribs ending in short spinous points, but there are no serratures on the suboperculum, 
interoperculum or lower jaw. Small scales cover the top of the head to the nostrils, the cheek 
and gill-covers; but none ¢an be detected on the maxillaries, which are most probably scaleless 
in the recent fish. The scales are minutely toothed on the edge. 


Hab. China. 
SEBASTES SERRULATUS, Richardson. Aad. B.7; D. 13/11; A. 35; C. 144. 


This Sebastes, also discovered in ah insect-box, is not atmed on the head by rows of spines 
like others of the genus, but presents in place of them very low, thin and serrated crests. A 
low double crest skirts the upper edge of the orbit, and is followed on each side of the cranium 
by a rather higher single one. Two ridges, nearly as high as the edges of the orbit, run for- 
ward between the eyes to the nostrils, their tips being the only substitutes for the usual nasal 
spines. The small preorbitar has an irregular but obscurely stellate cancellated disc, with two 
small descending spinous teeth on its under edge. ‘The second suborbitar, which crosses the 
cheek, shows two thin, finely serrated crests that include arugose disc. The edge of the pre- 
operculum is serrated throughout, but it is only by aid of a lens that a minute spine can be de- 
tected at its angle, and clusters of spinous points on the usual sites of the four angular corners. 
The temples are roughly bony, and each limb of the lower jaw is traversed by three serrated 
crests higher than the cranial ones. A triangular operculum ends in a minute spinous point*, 
the suboperculum being prolonged beyond it to a fine tip. A few crenatures exist on the sub- 
operculum where its edge meets the interoperculum. 

Top of the head nearly on a line with the back, the orbits being close to the profile, but not 
elevated. The interorbitar space exceeds half the diameter of the orbit in breadth, and is 
scaly between the ridges. Scales cover the whole side of the head except the ridges, and also 
the disc of the maxillary, and like those which cover the body, they are coarsely ciliated. 
Minute villiform teeth arm the jaws and the very small acute chevron of the vomer; but the 
palate bones appear to be toothless. This points to a generic difference from Sebastes. Many 
of the rays have been mutilated and the specimen is otherwise much injured, so that we can- 
not complete the description. The dorsal spines are slender, moderately tall, and grooved on 
the sides. The first two are contiguous to each other, and the penultimate one is much shorter 
than the last one. The pectorals reach to the beginning of the anal fin; and the third anal 
spine is one-fourth longer than the second one. The head forms nearly a third of the entire 
length, which in our specimen is 4 inches. 


Hab. Sea of China. 


SEBASTES MARMORATUS, C. et V. iv. p. 345; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 46. pl. 21. 
f. 1 and 2. 


The British Museum possesses oné of Birger’s specimens, which I have not been able to 
identify with any of Mr. Reeves’s drawings. 


Hab. Japan. 


Sesastrs ALBo-FAsciATus, Lacépéde (Holocentrus), iv. p. 372; C. et V. 
iv. p. 344. 
The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ consider this to be merely a variety of marmoratus. 
Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


SEBASTES sINENsISs, M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. p. 397. 


P21. f,.3. 


Mr. M‘Clelland thinks that this may belong to the preceding species. His figure differs in 
ptofile from that of S. marmoratus in the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ 


Hab. Chusan. 
Scorrmna cirrHosA, Thunberg (Perca), Mém. de Stockh. 14. pl. 7. f. 2. 


* Most of the Sebastes and Scorpene have their bony operculum strengthened by two di- 
verging tibs, whose points are spinous. In this species a vestige of a single rib only can be 
etected, 


216. . +, REPORTS 1845. wyotin, sw KO 


An. 1793; C. et V. iv. p. 318; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 42. pl. 17. f. 2, 3. 
“ Japanese name, Oiarakabu.” 

The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s Japanese specimens. 

Hab. Indian ocean and sea of Japan, 


ScorP#NA NEGLECTA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 43. pl. 17. f. 4. Rad. 
D. 12| 9; A.3l5; C.11 ; P.9et11; V.1|5. (Fauna Jap. 
D. 12/10; 3\5; 134; P.8et.8; V. 1)5...( Dried spec. 


To this species I am inclined to refer five or six small specimens which I picked out of the 
China insect-boxes, chiefly because they have a black spot between the seventh and ninth dor- 
sal rays. The spines, intra-orbitar ridges, &c., correspond with the descriptions and figure in 
the ‘Fauna Japonica ;’ but the length of the lower preorbitar, which almost equals that of an 
Apistes, is not noticed in that work. The specimens are much damaged, though the barbel be- 
tween the posterior superciliary spines is still visible. The cheek is not scaly, and in this 
the species differs from the Scorpena militaris (Ichth. Ereb. and Terr.) of Yan Diemen’s Land, 
which in most other respects it closely resembles, Edge of the palate-bones and chevron of the 
vomer set with teeth. Scales finely ciliated. 


Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. 


ScorPENA LEONINA, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 66; Hardw. Acanth. 116. 
Chinese name, Shih sze tsze, “ Stone-lion,” such as are placed before 
houses (Birch); ‘“ Stone-lion’s whelp” (Reeves); Shih tz tsz (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 116). 


This species much resembles a Platycephalus, in the flatness of its head and the manner in 
which the rows of its strong spines are tiled upon each other. A pretty tall-feathered barbel 
rises from the posterior third of the orbit, and there are many others on the lower jaw and 
under corner of the maxillary and preoperculum, also numerous small ones on the flanks, The 
ground tint of the sides, which is reddish-brown, is clouded by largish masses of dark umber, 
the belly being paler and the summit of the back dark. The vertical fins are irregularly and 
obliquely barred with umber, and the pectorals are, marked also by three cross bars formed by 
umbrine spots on the rays. Iris and tip of the caudal reddish. These particulars are noted 
solely from Mr. Reeves’s figure. A specimen of the fish exists in the Chinese collection at Hyde 
Park, but I have not as yet examined it. 


Hab. Canton. 


CENTRIDERMICHTHYS UNCINATUS, Temm. et Schl. (Cottus), F. J. p. 38; 
Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 74. pl. 54. f. 6-10 (C. ansatus). 
Rad. B.6; D. 8|-19; A.17; C. 912; P.17; V. 1/4. 

It is very probably a fish of this genus, which was observed by Steller at Cape Cronok and 
the mouth of the Itschia, and named by him Co¢tus villosus (Pall. Zoogr. Ross. p. 129). He 
states that it has three barbels on the lower jaw, and compares it to a Platycephalus, which 
Centridermichthys in fact considerably resembles. Tilesius, on the other hand, seems to have 
mistaken for Cottus villosus the Aploactes aspera noticed above, which is by no means like a 
Platycephalus. 

Several specimens of Centridermichthys uncinatus, procured at Woosung in the estuary of the 
Yang tsee kiang kew by Sir Everard Home, were presented by him to the College of Surgeons, 
Another species inhabits the American coasts on the opposite side of the Pacific, viz. C. asper 
(Richardson, Fauna Boreal. Amer. pl. 95. f. 1). 


Hab. China seas. 


Hemitepipotus ties, C. et V. iv. p. 276. t. 85. Cottus hemilepidotus, 
Tilesius, Mém. de Pétersb. iii. p. 262. pl. 11. Cottus trachurus, Pallas, 
Zoogr. Ross. p. 138. 


Hab. Japan, Sagalien, sea of Ochotsk, Kurile islands and north-western shores of America. 


PLATYCEPHALUS INSIDIATOR, Bloch, Schn. p. 59. P. spatula, id. p. 59. 
Batrachus indicus, id. p. 43. Callionymus indicus, Lin. — Cotte made- 
casse, Lacép. iii. p. 248. pl. 11. f.1,2. PI. insidiator, C. et V. iv. p. 227; 
Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 39. pl. 15. f.1; Icon. Bl. pl. 424; Russell ({rrwa), 

1. 46. 
ae Rev. George Vachell brought a specimen from Canton, which is now in tae museum of 


the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 
Hab. Red sea, Indian ocean, Moluccas, and seas of China and Japan. 


Stayed 


\ 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 217 


PLAtycerHALus GuTTATUS, C. et V. iv. p. 224; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 39. 
pl. 15. f.2; Icon. Reeves, 65; Hardw. Acanth.110. Chinese name, Sha 
hea (Birch); ‘“ Pebble armour” (Reeves); Sha hap (Bridgem. Chrest. 40). 
Japanese name, Notschi (Iangsdorff) ; Onigotscht (Fauna, Japonica). 


»’A’Canton specimen of this fish exists in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical So- 
ciety, to which it’ was presented by the Rev. George Vachell. 


Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. 


PLATYCEPHALUS CULTELLATUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 8. 28; Hardw. 
Acanth. 109. Rad. D. 1|-7|-13; A. 13, &e. (Figure.) 


Mr. Reeves’s drawing here quoted resembles no figure of a Platycephalus with which I am 
acquainted, nor does it correspond to any of the numerous species described in the ‘ Histoire 
des Poissons.’ It is remarkable for the length of its flat head, which forms nearly a third of 
the total length. Its small eyes are placed far forward and almost two diameters apart, Their 
orbits and the buccal ridges are unarmed. ‘The cranial ridges (two on each side) are armed 
by a series of recumbent spines without any of the parallel or diverging lines which exist on 
the same parts in P. insidiator. The preopercular spines are equal, or the upper one rather 
exceeds the other. There are no spines on the lateral line. The colour of the fish, as is usual 
in the genus, is brownish, with numerous darker specks on the head, shoulders, pectoral and 
ventral fins. The body is without spots, but the back is crossed down to the lateral line by 
four deep brown bars, one under the first dorsal, two under the second, and the fourth behind 
the latter fin. ‘The caudal is marked by five bars, the outer pair on each side being oblique ; 
put there are no markings on the dorsals and anal. In the number of bars on the back this 
figure agrees with the Pl. crocodilus of Krusenstern, pl. 59. f. 2, which I have not as yet had 
an opportunity of consulting. In the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ and ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ Kru- 
senstern’s plate is conjectured to be a bad representation of Pl. guttatus, from which Reeves’s 
well-executed drawing is decidedly distinct. 


Hab. Canton. 


PLATYCEPHALUS JAPONICUS, Tilesius, Krusenst. Atlas, pl. 56. f.1; C. et V. 
iv. p.256 ; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 40. pl. 16. f.3. 
Sir Edward Belcher brought a specimen of this fish from the China seas, 
Hab. Seas of Japan and China. 


PriarycerHa.us aspER, C. et V. iv. p. 257. pl. 82; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
p. 40. pl. 16. f. 4, 5. 
The same officer brought two examples of this fish from the same quarter. 
Hab. Seas of Japan and China. 


PLATYCEPHALUS SPzNosUS, Temm. et Schl. F.J. p.40. pl. 16. f.1, 2; Icon. 
Reeves (non Hardw.). 
I obtained a Chinese specimen of this fish from the insect-boxes above mentioned. 
Hab. Seas of Japan and China. 


PLATYCEPHALUS ENDRACHTENSIS, Quoy et Gaimard, Voy. de Freye. p. 353 ; 
C. et V. iv. p. 240. 


We have compared a specimen of this fish, which was taken at Chusan by Dr. Cantor, with 
one obtained on the north-west coast of Australia by Surgeon R. A. Bankier, R.N., and can 
detect no difference whatever, except that the two preorbitar teeth are less prominent in the 
Chinese specimen, which is smaller. The species is perhaps the most depressed of the 
Platycephali. 

Hab. Seas of China and Australia. 

In the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ the Siluris imber bis of Houttuyn (Mém. dela Soc. de Harlem, 
t.xx. p. 388), or the Centranodon of Lacépéde, is shown to be a Platycephalus, and it is almost 
certainly one of the species above enumerated, but the description does not enable us to de- 
termine which of them. 


Bempras saronicus, C. et V. iv. p. 283. pl. 83; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 41. 
pi. 16. f. 8. 
‘Hab. Japan. 
Bemsras curtus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 48. pl. 16. f. 6, 7. 
~ Hab. Japan. 


218 | REPORT—1845. H 


ASPIDOPHORUS SUPERCILIOSUS, C. et V. iv. p.215. Cottus et Phalangistes 
japonicus, Pall. Spic. p. 31. pl.5. Agonus japonicus, Bl. Schn. 105. 


Hab. Sea of Japan, northward to the Kourile Islands. 


ASPIDOPHORUS ROSTRATUS, Tilesius (Agonus), Mém. de l’Acad. de Pétersb. 
iv. ph 14; C. et V. iv. p.212. Phalangistes fusiformis, Tilesius in Pallas’ 
Zoogr. Ross. iii. p. 116. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. Gulf of Aniva. Sagalien. Kourile islands. 


ASsPIDOPHORUS LEVIGATUS, Tilesius (Agonus), Mém. de Pétersb. iv. p.436; 
C. et V. iv. p.214. Syngnathus segaliensis, Tilesius, Mém. de la Soc. 
Imp. de Moscou, ii. p. 216. pl. 14. 

Hab. Jesso. 
Three other Aspidophori inhabit the coasts of Kamtschatka, Sagalien, or the Kourile 

Islands. 

CorTTus INTERMEDIus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 38. 

Hab. Jesso. 


The sea of Ochotsk nourishes five other Cotti, viz. C. minutus, jaok, stelleri, mertensit and 
marmoratus, all noticed in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ 


PERISTEDION ORIENTALE, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p.37. pl. 14. f. 5, 6. 
Hab. Japan. 

DactyLoPTERUS ORIENTALIS, C. et V. iv. p.134. pl. 76; Temm. et Schl. 
F. J. p. 37. 

Hab. Seas of Japan and China. Specimens are frequently to be found in the Chinese 
insect- boxes. 

TRIGLA BURGERI, Temm. et Schl. F.J. p.35. pl. 14. f.1, 2; Icon. Reeves, 
f.3; Hardw. Acanth. 106. Chinese name, Hung keo, “ Red horn 4 
(Reeves, Birch); Hung koh (Bridgem. Chrest. 79). 

It forms a part of almost every collection of Chinese fish that we have seen. 
Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. Hong Kong. 


TRIGLA PAPILIONACEA, Solander, Pisces Australie, ined. p. 23; Icon. 
Parkinsonii in Bib. Banks, ii. t. 104. Zrigla kumu, Less. et Garnot, Voy. 
de la Coquille, pl.19; C. et V. iv. p.50; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 37 ; Icon. 
Reeves, 159; Hardw. 107. Chinese name, Lan yih yu, “‘ Green wing or 
fin” (Birch); Zam e yu, “ Blue-finned fish” (Reeves); Lam yih u 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 78). 

We have compared the Chinese and Australian specimens. 
Hab. Seas of Japan, China, New Zealand, Van Diemen’s Land, and the Cape of Good Hope. 


TRIGLA HEMISTICTA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 36. pl.14. £.3, 4. Trigla 
alata, Houttuyn, Mém. de la Soc. de Harlem, xx. p. 336 ?. 
The Haslar Museum possesses an example of this species, which was brought from China by 
Captain Dawkins, R.N. 
Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


TrIGLA spinosa, M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. p. 396. pl. 22. 
tere 


Mr. M‘Clelland’s figure has a more sloping profile than that of Zr. papilionacea, and the 
fin-rays differ in number, otherwise there is nothing in his description to distinguish it from 
that species. It is not, as he is inclined to think, the Tr. alata of Houttuyn, since it wants 
the rostral spines. 

Hab. Chusan. 

Fam. PoLyNEMInz&. 

PoLYNEMUS TETRADACTYLUS, Shaw, Zool.; C. V. iii. p. 375. Trigla asiatica, 
Lin. P.guadrinarius, Solander, Pisces Austr.; Icon. Parkinsonii in Bib. 
Banks, serv.101. Maga jellee, Russell, 183. P. teria, Buchanan Hamilt. 
pp- 224, 381. Icon. Reeves, 6.29; Hardw. 91; Acanth.93 & 94. Chinese 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 219 


name, Ma yew (Reeves), “ Salmon-fish” of the foreign residents (Reeves) ; 

Ma yau (Bridgem. Chrest. 105). 

Hab. Indian ocean and rivers. Javan archipelago. Coasts of Australia and China. 

Figure 242 of Mr. Reeves’s collection (Hardw. 89) may represent the young of the preceding. 
It differs in having a more prominent belly and a shorter anal fin, though with as numerous 
rays as the anal of the preceding. It also wants the fine black lines which run through the 
centres of each row of scales above the lateral line, which are represented in the preceding 
figure. The four free pectoral rays have the same relative length. 


PoLyNEMUS PLEBEIUS, Broussonnet, Ichth.; C. et V iii. p.380; Temm. et 
Schl. F. J. p.29. pl. 11. f.1. P. lineatus, Lacép. v. pl. 13. £2. LP. sele, 
Buch. Hamilt. Ganges, p. 226 & 381. Trigla asiatica, Forst. Deser. 
Anim. p. 236; Icon. Georgii Forst. in Bib. Banks, serv. 241. f. 1. 


Hab. Mauritius, Indian ocean, sea of Japan and Polynesia. 


.Potynemus xantuonemus, C. et V. vii. p. 517 ; Icon. Reeves, a.15; Hardw. 
Acanth. 90. Chinese name, Ma keaou lang (Reeves); Ma kau long 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 114). 


The figure has a zigzag blackish line above the base of the pectoral, which is not noticed 
in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ but in other respects it agrees with the description in that work, 


Hab. Indian ocean and China sea. Canton. 


Fam. MuLiipe. 


UrENEUS CHRYSOPLEURON, Temm. et Schl. F.J. p.29. pl.12. f.15 Jcon. 
Reeves, 268; Hardw. Acanth.98. Chinese name, Hung ée neaou (Birch.); 
Hong te new, “ Red-coated mullet” (Reeves). 


This species is established in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ solely from a drawing of M. Biirger’s, no 
specimen having reached the authors. Mr. Reeves’s drawing is more elaborately coloured, 
and differs from that in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ more in minute details than in general effect. 
The edges of the scales have an olive tint, and their discs are occupied by flexuose, red veins. 
The end of the snout, a circle round the eye, and the upper edge of the preorbitar are of a 
brighter vermilion, as is also the gill-cover. A bluish streak marks the base of the pectoral. 

Hab. China and Japan. 


Urenevs susviTTaTus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 30. Rad. D 7|-1|9; A.1|6; 
V. 1|5. (Camb. spec.) 


I am inclined to refer to this species a fish presented to the Cambridge Philosophical Society 
by the Rev. George Vachell. Narrow villiform bands of fine short teeth arm the jaws, acute 
chevron of the vomer and the palate-bones. The limbs of the preoperculum meet in a right 
angle, the extreme corner being slightly rounded and crenated.. The barbels reach to the edge 
of the gill-opening. Reticulated and strongly ciliated scales cover the body, and the thirty-two 
which compose the lateral line are each traversed by a tube having three short branchlets on 
its upper side and one eloite The line passes the anal before its curve is complete. Most 
of the colours have perished, but two faint bars remain on the dorsal, one of the bars having 
a black spot init. Length of fish, 4 inch. Height, 0°9 inch. Length of head, 0°95 inch. 

Hab. Seas of Japan and China. 


Ureneus B1acuLEatus, Gray (J. E.), Cat. of the Brit. Mus.; Icon. Reeves, 
a.22; Hardw. Acanth. 101. Chinese name, Fei te tseo (Birch) ; Fe te tso, 
“ Flying crying tso” (Reeves); F% tai tsewh (Bridgem. Chrest. 228). 
Rad. D.8|-9; A.7; P.14; V.1)5. 


An example of this species, brought from Canton by John Reeves, Esq., exists in the British 
Museum. It belongs to the tribe ‘‘ without palatine teeth, and with the jaw-teeth widely set 
in a single row;” but it has no black spot on the tail. The very short anterior spine of the 
first dorsal is not represented in the figure. All the rays of the second dorsal and anal are 
jointed. Opercular spines conspicuous, the upper one being short and blunt, the lower one 
longer and acute. A dense bushy cluster is formed by the tubes on each scale of the lateral 
line. The barbels reach to the inferior part of the gill-opening, and the jaw-teeth are short- 
conical. Olive-green is the chief tint on the back and upper parts of the sides, deepest on 
the edges of the scales, whose discs, as they approach the flanks, acquire more and more of a 
pale reddish hue. These are so arranged as to form two indistinct longitudinal reddish stripes, 


220° REPORT—1845, oO. (OV NTHOT AT KO 


The belly is tile-red, while the fins have a colour approaching more to carmine, but the mem- 
branes of the ventrals and anal are mostly orpiment-orange. A dull reddish-brown tinges 
the front of the head. and a more lively carmine the lips and corners of the mouth. Along 
the middle of the olive-coloured preorbitar there is a dark streak, and another marks out its 
lower edge. A peach-blossom red spot is placed on the top of the tail immediately behind the 
second dorsal. 


Hab. Canton. 


UpeEneus RUSSELI, C. et V. iii. p.465. Rahtee goolivinda, Russell, pl. 157. 
Mullus indicus, Shaw, Zool. iv. p. 614; Icon. Reeves, a. 36; Hardw. 
Acanth. 102. Chinese name, Z'sing fei te (Birch); Ching fe te (Reeves). 
Rad. D.9|-9; A.1\7; C.144; P.16; V.1|5. (Brit. Mus. spec.) 


An injured specimen of this fish, procured at Canton by the Rev. George Vachell, exists in 
the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and there are two from the same place 
in the British Museum, presented by John Reeves, Esq., which differ from the drawing merely 
in the black spot on the top of the tail being a little further back. The species belongs to 
the same group with biaculeatus, which it resembles in figure, and the Chinese appellation iss 
the same with a distinctive epithet added. 

The first spine of the dorsal is very short and incumbent on the base of the second, while 
the last spine is very small, recumbent and not easily detected, so that only seven may be 
reckoned, unless on minute inspection. Joints exist at top of the first ray of the second 
dorsal, and the point of the anal spine is flexible. The operculum has two small spinous points, 
and its anterior border is striated. The scales are granular and reticulate on their outer 
margin, minutely pitted on the disc, and furrowed and granulated towards the base. Each 
scale of the lateral line is marked by a little torch, that is, a cluster of many simple or merely 
forked short branchlets supported on a thickish tubular stem. 

The colours are pretty well described by Russell. In Mr. Reeves’s figure a short blue line 
runs from the orbit to the nostril, another borders the preorbitar beneath, and three descend 
from the temples to the cheek and gill-cover. The large anterior lateral spot is of a bright 
gamboge, and the posterior one is purplish-black. Five orange-coloured streaks cross the 
anal obliquely. 


Hab. Indian and China seas. 


UpenEus BENSASI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 30. pl. 11. f. 2. “ Japanese name, 
Bensasi.” 
Hab. Seas of Japan. 


Uveneus TRAGULA, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, a.21; Hardw. Acanth. 105. 
Chinese name, Yang tswan, “Ocean borer” (Birch); “ Sea arrow” (Reeves); 
Yéung tsiin, (Bridgem. Chrest. 229). Rad. D. 7. vel 8|-1|8; A. 1|6, &c. 


This species is allied to sub-vitiatus, dubius and others of the same group which have 
banded caudals. Mr. Reeves presented a Canton specimen to the British Museum, and I 
have received two from Surgeon R. A. Bankier, R. N., procured at Hong Kong. The short 
tubes on the scales of the lateral line are for the most part divided, and one of the branches is 
generally notched at the end, while the other emits very short transverse branchlets. The 
whole cluster on each scale looks to the naked eye to be merely a club-shaped tube. Narrow 
bands of minute, slender but bluntish teeth, arm the jaws and edges of the palate-bones, and 
there are still smaller ones on the chevron of the vomer. The barbels reach to the preoper- 
culum. A more slender fish than vittatus and less so than t@niopterus. Blackish-green ; 
upper half of the body traversed by a pale streak, commencing at the eye and coincident at 
first with the lateral line, but running above it in its course through the tail. Round purplish 
dots are distributed equally over the whole body, but are most conspicuous on the lower sil- 
very parts. On the cheeks, the specks are dark umber, smaller and not round. The dorsals 
are darkish, especially towards their tips, with obscure bars in the specimens, and on the second 
the darker colour forms a large blotch. Six dark brown bars cross the caudal. The anal 
and ventrals are roseate with round dots, which are deep reddish-brown on the ventrals. 


Hab. Canton. 


Uvenevs pusius, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 30. pl. 11. f. 3. 


Hab. Seas of Japan. 

There remains two of Mr. Reeves’s figures, which we are unable to place in their proper 
groups from ignorance of their dentition. One of them, named Yang chuey, “ Foreign mullet” 
(Icon. Reeves, a. 44; Hardw. 103), has the external form of Up. bensasi, which enters the first 
division of the genus, but it wants the bands and spots on the fins of that species. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 221 


» The other (Icon. Reeves, 250; Hardw. 104) resembles Up. bilineatus of Quoy and Gai- 
mard, in having two longitudinal streaks, but differs in its more oblique profile and greater 
number of fin-rays. Both these and the rest of the species figured by Mr. Reeves, were pro- 
cured at Canton. 

Fam. Percip&. 


APOGON NOVEM-FASCIATUS, C. et V. ii. p.154; Temm. et Schl. F.J. p. 2. 
pl.2. f.2; Icon. Reeves, 8.9; Hardw. Acanth. 8. Chinese name, Hung 
so ho, “ Red-flowering water lily” (Reeves) ; Hung soo ho “ Red-combed 
water-lily” (Birch). 

Hab. Seas of Japan, China, the Moluccas, Java and Floris. 


APOGON SEMILINEATUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 4. pl. 2. f. 2. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


APOGON LINEATUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 3. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


APpoGon NIGRIPINNIS, C. et V. ii. p. 152; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 3. 


Hab. Indian ocean, Seas of Java and Japan. 


Apocon carinatus, C. et V. ii. p.157; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 3. 
Hab. Japan. 


APOGON TRIMACULATUS, C. et V. ii. p. 156? Less. et Garnot, Voy. du Du- 
perrey, p. 237? Icon. Reeves, 70; Hardw. Acanth. 9. Chinese name, 
Ydng sun ko (Reeves); Yéng tsiin (Bridgem. Chrest. 229). Rad. 
D.7|-1|9; A. 2|8; C. 16%; V.1|5. (Chinese spec.) 

Mr. Reeves has deposited the specimen from which his figure was drawn in the British 
Museum. It has the form of 4p. trimaculatus, but scarcely any traces are discernible of the 
three black dorsal spots, and the figure wants these spots entirely, having a bronzed umber 
colour on the back, with pale sides. The pectoral is orange, and the other fins brownish- 
purple, all without spots. The Chinese fish has a great similarity to 4p. rex-mullorum, but 
its body is a little higher. The spine of the second dorsal is strong. The preoperculum is 
serrated nearly all round, and the villiform bands of teeth on the jaws are shorter and finer 
than those of 4p. rex-mullorum. 

Hab. Seas of Java? and China. 


AmBAssIs VACHELLII, Richardson. Rad. D.7|-1|9; A. 3|9; P. 13; V.1)5. 


A Canton specimen of this fish, collected by the Rev. George Vachell, belongs to the Cam- 
bridge Philosophical Institution, which differs from the three noticed in the ‘ Histoire des 
Poissons,’ that have no more than nine soft rays in the second dorsal, in having four teeth re- 
clining backwards on the hinder part of the orbit. Scaly nape, convexly coped with an acute 
mesialline ; the scales coming to a point between the posterior parts of the orbits. | Gill-cover 
entire and scaly, a single row of large ones on the inter-operculum, which is also entire. Two 
acute edges of the lower limb of preoperculum beautifully serrated, and the posterior edge of 
the upper limb rather openly and slenderly toothed. The corner is rounded, and the fore- 
edge of the upper limb is vertical and smooth. Whole edge of the preorbitar spinously toothed. 
Eye large; lower jaw ascending. 

A recumbent, concealed pre-dorsal spine. The spines of the dorsal are curiously beaded, 
as if jointed; and the ventral spine also is torulose. The lateral line, composed of about thirty 
scales, is arched anteriorly in a brown band, which descends from the first dorsal, and is there 
diffracted and resumed two scales’ breadth lower, whence it is continued in a silvery stripe to 
the tail. Length of fish, 2°50 inches. Height of body, 1-68 inch. 

Hab. Canton. 


DipLoprion BIFASCIATUM, C. et V. ii. p. 137. pl. 21 ; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
p- 2; Icon. Reeves, a. 27; Hardw. Acanth. 5. Chinese name, Hwang te 
yu, “ Hwang te’s fish,” named after one of the judges of Hades (Reeves) ; 
“Yellow emperor's fish” (Birch). ad. D. 8|-15 ad 19; A. 2|12; 

meee Poe; (P) TG OVE 5: 

4: ‘Specimens exist in every collection of Chinese fish, and small ones are common in the 

insect-boxes sold at Canton. Recent colour bright lemon-yellow, with spinous. dorsal, yen- 


922 _- - REPORT—1845. 1 US 


trals and lateral mark black ; also a very narrow edging of the same to the bright yellow ver- 
tical fins. The body is crossed vertically by upwards of twenty narrow bars, bent en chevron, 
and differing slightly from the ground tint. 


Hab. Japanese, Chinese and Javan seas. 


Nrpuon srinosus, C. et V. ii, p. 131. pl. 19; Temm. et Schl. p. 1. pl. 1. f. 1. 
The British Museum possesses a specimen sent from Japan by Biirger. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


LarteEs nositis, C. et V, ii. p. 96. pl. 13. Pandoomenoo, Russell, 131. 
Coius vacti, Buchan. Hamilt. Ganges, pp. 86, 369. pl. 16. f. 28; Icon. 
Reeves, a. 10; Hardw. Acanth. 7. Chinese name, Zsao yu (Birch); 
Tso yu (Reeves); so u (Bridgem. Chrest. 166). 


Mr. Reeves’s specimen from Canton, deposited in the British Museum, and other examples 
in the,Chinese collection at Hyde Park, agree exactly with Indian ones; but Mr. Reeyes’s 
figure is not so happy as the rest of his admirable drawings, being inexact in the numbers of 
the soft rays and in the anal spines, 

Hab. Indian ocean and sea of China. Ganges. Canton. It is not mentioned in the 
* Fauna Japonica.’ 


LaATES CALCARIFER, C. et V. ii. p. 100; Bl. 244? Icon. Reeves, a. 11 ; 
Hardw. Acanth. 64. Chinese name, H7h tsaou (Birch) ; Hth tso, “ Black 
tso” (Reeves); Hak ts‘o (Bridgem. 128). ad. D. 8\11; A. 38. 

The figure in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio above quoted, has the same defects with that of Lates 
nobilis, but a mounted specimen, brought by that gentleman from Canton and deposited in the 
British Museum, has the number of rays given above, and four teeth on the humeral bone. 
Its length is 10°25 inches, of which the head measures 2°50 inches. Bloch’s figure is not ac- 
curate in the details. The lateral line in this species is more boldly arched above the pectoral 
than in Z. nobilis. 

Hab. Coasts of China. 

The Ta loo, Variegated ”” (Reeves, 88), Za lo (Bridgem. Chrest. 172), much re- 
sembles these Lates in form, but it has too many spines for any described species either of that 
genus or of Labrax. The Chinese generic epithet belongs to Labraa. 


Lasrax JAPonicus, C. et V. ii. p. 85. Perca-labrax japonicus, Temm. et 
Schl. F. J. p. 2. pl. 2. f. 1. Holocentrum maculatum, M‘Clelland, Caleutta 
Journ. Nat. Hist. p. 400. pl. 21. f. 1. Lates punctulatus, Cantor, fide spec. ; 
Icon. Reeves, 135 ; Hardw. Acanth. 43. Chinese name, Pan tsaou “Striped 
tsaou” (Birch) ; Pan loo (Reeves); Pans lé (Bridgem. Chrest. 217). 

We have had an opportunity of comparing one of Biirger’s Japanese specimens, now in the 
British Museum, with others from various parts of the Chinese coasts. Mr. Reeves’s figure is 
that of the young fish. One Chinese specimen, said to have been transmitted to London by 
Mr. M‘Clelland, is labelled ates punctatus, but I do not know whether it has been published 
by that name or not. Specimens exist in the British Museum, India-House and Haslar mu- 
seums, and in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. 

Hab. Seas of Japan and China. Hong Kong, Canton, Peiho, Chusan, &c. 


Fam. Berycipz (Low Fishes of Madeira), 


Monocentris JAPoniIcus, Houttuyn ( Gasterosteus), Mém. de Harlem, xx. 
p- 329; C. et V. iv. p. 461; Bl. Schn. pl. 24; Temm. et Schl. FJ. pi: 50. 
pl. 22. f.1. Sciena japonica, Thunberg, Mém. de ]’Acad. des Sciences 
de Swede, xi. p. 102. pl. 3. Lepisacanthe, Lacép. iii. p. 321. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Myripristes JAronicus, C. et V. iii. p. 173. pl. 58; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
p- 22. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


a 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 223 


MyripristEs PRALINuS, C. et V. iii. p. 170 et vii. p. 486. Rad. D.10|13; 
A. 411; C.198; V.1/7. - 
A Canton specimen was presented to the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. 
Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. : 


HoLocEeNnTRUM SPINOSISSIMUM, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 22; Icon. Reeves, 
84; Hardw. Acanth. 84. Holocentre a bande blanche, Lacép. iv. p. 272, 
373? Chinese name, Tsewen Keun Kea, “'Tseang Keun’s armour ;” 
“Tseang Keun is a military officer” (Reeves); Tsedng kwan kap (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 93). Rad. B.8; D.11|13; A. 4|7, &e. 


Mr. Reeves’s Canton specimen is depositéd in the British Museum. Lacépéde, on the 
authority of Japanese drawings, named one species of this genus Holocentre a bande blanche, 
and another Holocentre blanc-rouge. On the supposition that the only two Holocentra which 
I have met with in collections of Chinese fish are the same two which frequent the seas of 
Japan, I have considered his bande blanche as identical with the spinosissimum of the ‘ Fauna 
Japonica,’ because of its white stripes. Our enumeration of the fin-rays differs from that 
recorded in the work in question ; but it is difficult in this genus, without dissection, to distin- 
guish between entire rays and branches, especially of the anal fin, and two observers will 
searcely reckon alike. Caudal and anal yellow, the front of latter and sides of former red. 
Edge of dorsal yellow. 


Hab. Coasts of Japan and China, 


HoLocEnTRUM ALBO-RUBRUM, Lacép. iv. p. 372; Icon. Reeves, a. 19; 
Hardw. Acanth. 83. Chinese name, Kin lin hea, “ Scaly metallic armour” 
(Reeves); Kam lun kép (Bridgem, Chrest. 94). Rad, B. 8; D, 11/14; 
A.4|9; P. 1|12, &e. 

For the reason given above I have referred this Chinese fish to the species named by Lacé- 
péde. Specimens from Canton exist in the British Museum, presented by John Reeves, Esq., 
and in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, by the Rev. George Vachell. 
There are also examples of it in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. Cuvier was inclined 
to think that the Japanese painting referred to by Lacépéde, was a representation of H. ori- 
entale, but a careful examination of the specimens causes me to doubt the correctness of this 
opinion and to have recourse to Lacépéde’s prior appellation. 

The infraorbitar chain is finely fringed and unequally toothed throughout, the anterior 
point of the preorbitar being armed by one strong curved tooth followed by five or six small 
conical ones, differing in appearance from the rest, which are more setaceous. Interoperculum 
armed by six or seven teeth, the posterior three being largest. Ribs or longitudinal streaks 
of operculum ending in four or five slender points; the two spines strong and slightly diver- 
gent. Vertical edge of preoperculum strongly toothed above the thick, smooth spine ; under 
edge also toothed; the disc smooth. Under jaw and maxillaries streaked in two directions. 
Temporal plate streaked and toothed. Posterior frontal rusticated; from seven to ten striz on 
each side of the hind head; supra-scapular and scapula finely toothed and furrowed. An acute 
tooth of the nasal bone overlies the edge of the intermaxillary; and there are streaks and a 
small tooth on the supra-axillary plate of the*coracoid bone; thirty-seven scales on lateral 
line. There is none of the yellow colour on the fins which the preceding species shows, 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 
Fam, SILLAGINIDE. 


Siztaco saponica, Temm. et Schl. F. J. 23. pl. 10. f. 1; Ieon. Reeves, 
B. 40; Hardw. Acanth. 3. Chinese name, Sha tswan, “Sand spear” 
(Reeves); Sha tsiin (Bridgem. Chrest. 202). Rad, B.5; D. 11|-1/22; 
A. 3/21, &e. 

John Reeves, Esq, and the Rev, George Vachell brought specimens from Canton, which 
are deposited in the British Museum and with the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. The 
numbers of rays, as given above, correspond with the figure but not the text of the ‘Fauna Ja- 
ponica,’ They were reckoned in one of Mr. Vachell’s specimens. The second spine of the 
first dorsal is rather taller than the first, and the curve of the lateral line is exaggerated in 
Mr. Reeves’s drawing. 


Fam. Scigznipz. 
Scizna Japonica, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 58. pl. 54. f. 1. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


224 | -REPORT—1845. ? ten 


Scrzna_LucripA, Richardson, Ichth. Voy. of Sulphur, p. 87. pl. 44. f. 3, 4; 

Icon. Reeves, 3.6; Hardw. Acanth. 130. . Chinese name, Hwang pe tow 

Birch) ; Wang pe tow, “ Yellow-skin head” (Reeves); Wang pi tau, 
Bridgem. Chrest. 98). 


The Sciena lucida forms part of all the collections of Chinese fish that we have examined, 
and is one of the most common fish on the breakfast tables of the foreign residents at Macao. 
Wang pe is the fruit of the Cookia punctata. 


Hab. Seas of China. Chusan. Ningpo. Canton. 


Scrzna crocea, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 139; Hardw. Acanth. 131. 
Chinese name, Hwang hwa (Reeves) ; ‘‘ Yellow paint” (Birch); (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 169?) Rad. D. 9|-1|33; A. 1|8; C.174; P. 16; V.1)5. 

This fish is intermediate in form, as well as in the numbers of its fin-rays, between Sc. lucida 
and Sc. pama (Buch.), and differs considerably in character from the two Atlantic species and 
from Sc. japonica, having more the aspect of a Johnius. 

The following particulars are noted from a Canton specimen presented to the British Mu- 
seum by John Reeves, Esq. :—Outer teeth of the upper jaw widely set, short, subulate, acute ; 
a canine tooth a little stouter than the others on each side of the symphysis; and a villiform 
band within. On the lower jaw, the subulate teeth area little taller and slightly curved, with 
numerous small ones amongst them, but no distinct interior villiform bands. The maxillary 
is strengthened anteriorly by a smooth rib which projects at the tip. Four pores at the end of 
the lower jaw; and five teeth pointing upwards on the upper limb of the preoperculum. Two 
thin, flat, triangular, acute and flexible tips to the operculum, with a cartilaginous prolonga- 
tion of the suboperculum extending much beyond them. Anal spine having about one-third 
of the length of the soft rays. Scales soft and nacry, the curve of the lateral line terminating 
at the tip of the pectoral, but less boldly arched than in the figure. Pectorals, under-parts 
of the body, sides of the head, and ventral spine saffron-yellow, the anal showing a reddish- 
orange hue. The fish attains a considerable size. 


Hab. Sea of China. Canton, 


Orotituus AuREUvS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 234; Hardw. Acanth. 129. 
Chinese name, Kin léen hwo, “ Gold scale hwo” (Birch) ; Kinn lin han, 
“ Golden-scaled han” (Reeves). Fad. D. 10|-1|25; A. 2|9; P. 17; 
V. 15. 


John Reeves, Esq. presented two Canton specimens of this fish to the British Museum. 
They have five pores at the tip of the lower jaw ; a row of subulate teeth on the upper jaw, a 
card-like or villiform band within, and a canine tooth near the symphysis. On the lower jaw 
there are no villiform bands within the subulate teeth, but two or three rows of minute ones 
exterior to them. Maxillary striated, truncated. Preorbitar and snout scaly. Preoperculum 
streaked on its border and slightly crenato-dentate. Bony operculum ending in two narrow, 
acute, triangular flat points, separated from each other by a deep oblique fissure. First anal 
spine almost concealed; second slender, half the length of the soft rays. Colour generally 
dark with much brown, unspotted on body. T'wo rows of spots between the rays on second 
dorsal; pectorals and lower fins orange. 


Hab. Canton. 


OToLITHUS REEVESH, Richardson. Rad. D. 10|-1|31; A. 2/7; C.17; P. 

19; V. 1[5. 

This species has the general form of the preceding, but differs from it in having a more 
blunt, rounded, and prominent snout, a shorter rounded caudal, approaching less to a rhomb, 
and the preopercvlum spinously toothed on the upper limb and rounded corner, where the 
teeth are large. On its under limb the teeth have the usual crenato-dentate character ob- 
served in this genus. The dorsal is more deeply divided than in aureus, and the two equal 
tips of the bony operculum are shorter and stronger. The second anal spine, though shorter 
than the soft rays, is stout and finely striated; dentition and pores on chin as in aureus. On 
the upper half of the body there are oblique lines which pass some way below the lateral 
line. The number of anal rays forbid us to refer this fish to the bispinosus of the ‘ Histoire des 
Poissons,’ and it does not agree with the others described in that work. The British Museum 
possesses a Chinese specimen obtained from Mr. Reeves, but he does not appear to have had 
a drawing made of it. 


Hab, Canton. 


— 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 925 


Oro.itHus ArcENTEUs, Kuhl et Van Hasselt, apud C. et V. v. p. 62? 
Icon. Reeves, 200; Hardw. Acanth. 133. Rad. D. 10|-1|28; A. 2|7; 
P.17; V.1|5. (Chin. Spec. Cam. Ph. Inst.). 


In the absence of specimens or figures of the Batavian O. argenteus, the Chinese fish can be 
referred to the same species only with doubt. An example of the Chinese fish was presented 
to the Cambridge Philosophical Institution by the Rev. George Vachell. 

An outer row of short, equal subulate teeth, moderately widely set, arm both jaws, and 
within the upper ones there is a narrow microscopical villiform band, but none such are per- 
ceptible on the lower jaw. A long, curved, and not stout canine stands on each side of the 
symphysis of each jaw, the upper ones being widely apart, so as to receive the inferior pair be- 
tween them. The lower jaw is slightly longer than the snout. Curve of the lateral line 
completed opposite to the anus and middle of the second dorsal. The bony operculum is 
traversed by two fine ribs whose ends project slightly, the notch between them being inconspi- 
cuous. ‘The second anal spine is slender, weak, and only half the length of the soft rays; 
the first one is a mere point. Length of specimen, 6°55 inches; length of head, 1°55 inch; 
length from snout to anus, 3°55 inches; from snout to caudal, 5:50’ inches; height of body, 
1:25 inch. 

Hab. Canton. Straits of Malacca? (Major Farquhaf), Javan sea? (K. et V. H.) 


OToLITHUS TRIDENTIFER, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3.54; Hardw. Acanth. 
132. Chinese name, San ya (Birch); San nga (Reeves), “ Three-teeth;” 
Sém ngd (Bridgem. Chrest. 142). Rad. D. 10|-1|27; A. 2/6; P.15; 
V.1|5. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 


Two strong curved canines above and one below near the symphysis, with an equal row of 
lateral subulate teeth on both jaws, more closely set in the lower one. By aid of a lens, a 
narrow band of villiform teeth can be detected within the others above; and beneath there are 
a few intermixed with the principal ones. Some striz are visible on the end of the maxillary ; 
and there are depressions on the lower jaw, but no pores could be detected. The- preoper- 
culum is armed feebly by small acute teeth, and the bony operculum shows two narrow points 
separated from each other by a fissure. The fish is pale and silvery, with a light bluish gray 
tint along the back. The lower half of the caudal, front of the anal, ventrals, and the pectorals 
are gall-stone yellow. The rest of the fins are pale and spotless, the upper half of the caudal 
alone being deeper and approaching to blackish-gray. 


Hab. Chinaseas. Canton. 


Corvina GrypoTa, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3. 12; Hardw. Acanth. 
Chinese name, Hwo tow (Reeves, Birch); Wak tau (Bridgem. Chrest. 127). 
Rad. D. 10|-1|29; A. 2/7 vel 8; C.182; P.18; V.1|5. (Spec. Hasl. Mus.) 


Most of the collections of Chinese fish that we have examined contain examples of a Corvina, 
which with the general aspect of C. coitor of Buchanan Hamilton (pl. 27. f. 24), has a 
straighter profile and a shorter and blunter snout that curves downwards from the nostrils, 
much like that of Umbrina vulgaris; it seenfs to be allied to Sciena lucida. Upperjaw armed 
by a concave densely villiform plate of teeth with a stronger subulate outer row, brownish at the 
tips, which are even ; on the lower jaw the villiform plate is boldly convex. Minute pores exist 
on the snout, and there are five large’pores at the end of the lower jaw. ‘The scaly preorbitar 
receives beneath its edge, the entire maxillary and all the intermaxillary except the dental 
margin. A deep recess exists on the outside of the maxillary pedicles, and a little triangular 
point of the preorbitar lip hangs over it. The limbs of the lower jaw are scaly, and thin bony 
ridges of the suborbitar chain cross the scaly cheek. The preoperculum is bounded towards 
the cheek by a smooth bony edge; its posterior edge is free and is widely set with slender 
subulate teeth, the most distinct ones being the tips of ribs which cross the disc of the bone. 
Interoperculum entire, mostly concealed beneath the preoperculum ; suboperculum also entire, 
rather narrow. Two low even diverging ribs cross the operculum and end in points which are 
scarcely pungent, and the edge of bone between them is nearly even. Lateral line formed by 
a series of simple tubes, boldly arched anteriorly, and becoming straight in the tail by a gra- 
dual sweep ending opposite the beginning of the anal. Scales tender, nacry, and very deci- 
duous. Second anal spine not strong, a little shorter than the soft rays. Caudal subrhomboidal. 
Ventrals with a short filamentous tip. Colour mostly silvery, with some yellow tints on fore 
part of anal, ventrals, and pectorals. Length about 7 inches. 


‘Hab. Canton. 


Corvina sin, C. et V. v. p. 122; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 58. pl. 24. f. 2; 
Icon. Reeves, 94; Hardw. Acanth., 130. Chinese name, Hwang Hwi, 
1845. Q 


226 REPORT—1845. 


“ Yellow Pichere”? (Reeves) ; Hwang hwo “ Yellow hwé fish” (Birch) ; 
Wong wak (Bridgem. Chrest. 99). 
The figure of the hwang-hwa is the nearest in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio to the plate of the 


* Fauna Japonica’ quoted above, but it does not agree exactly with it, the profile of the forehead 


differing a little, and the anal spine being rather stronger. We have seen no specimen that 
could be referred to this species. 


Hab. Japan, China, and the Indian ocean. 


Corvina CATALEA, C. et V. v. p. 128. Lutjan diacanthe, Lacépéde, iv. pp. 
195 et 244. Katchelee, Russell, 116; Icon. Reeves, 207 ; Hardw. Acanth. 
128. Chinese name, Man yu (Reeves); Man i (Bridgem. Chrest. 174). 
Rad. D. 10|-1|21 ; A.2|7;P.19 vel 20; V.1|5. (Chin. Spec. Brit. Mus.) 
A Chinese specimen of this fish, 93 inches long, has been deposited in the British Museum 

by John Reeves, Esq. The spots are as in Russell’s plate, with a few more of them descend- 

ing below the lateral line, but there are also two rows of spots on the first dorsal, which are 
only obscurely indicated in Mr. Reeves’s figure. 
Hab. Indian ocean. Chinasea. Canton. 


CoRVINA NALLA-KATCHELEE, Russell, 115; Icon. Reeves, 225; Hardw. 
Acanth. 134. Chinese name, Ma-man (Birch) ; Ma pin (Reeves). Rad. 
D. 10|-28;A. 2/7; P. 16; V.1|5. (Chin. Spec. Brit. Mus.) 

The British Museum possesses a mounted specimen of this fish and one in spirits, both 
brought from Canton by Mr. Reeves. Russell says that the Coromandel fishermen take this 
to be the male of C. catalea. The differences in the numbers of the rays of the fins seem to 
render it expedient to keep them distinct ; the snout of this is more obtuse; like the pre- 
ceding, it has five pores on the lower jaw; the second anal spine is only half the length of the 
soft rays. 


Hab. Indian and China seas. Canton. 


CorviNA? ALBIFLORA, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 8.48; Hardw. Acanth. 
Chinese name, Pih hwa (Birch); Pih fa (Reeves), “ White flower ;”’ Pak 
sfa (Bridgem. Chrest. 129). 

This is apparently a Corvina with stronger teeth than the other species in Mr. Reeves’s port- 
folio, but we have seen no specimen that can be referred to it, nor can we identify it with any 
one described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ by the short accounts of the speeies therein men- 
tioned. ‘The base of the second dorsal is marked by a row of black dots, one on each ray. 
The general colour is silvery with pale bluish-gray on the discs of the scales, the gray tint 
deepening along the dorsal line. Pectorals, fronts of the ventrals and anal and lobes of the 
caudal, more or less deeply tinged with orange or yellow. First dorsal darker than the other 
fins, but there are no spots except the row on the base of the second dorsal. 


Hab. Canton. 


Umprina russE.il, C. et V.v. p. 178; Qualar-katchelee, Russell, 118 ; 
‘Icon. Reeves, 8.37; Hardw. Acanth. Chinese name, Sdng seu hwa 
(Birch); “Live pencil-beard” (Reeves); Shang ssi wak (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 175). Rad. D. 11|27; A. 2|7; C.15¢; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. 
Ph. Inst.) 

The Cambridge Philosophical Institution is indebted to the Rev. George Vachell for a Can- 
ton specimen of this fish. Jt has a mesial barbel on the chin, with a deep pore on each 
side of it, and fifty scales on the lateral line. The whole fish is brightly nacry with a pale 


reddish-brown tint along the dorsal line; pale yellow second dorsal, pectorals, and ventrals ; 
and front of anal yellow or orange. 


Hab. Indian and China seas. Canton. 


Fam. HzMuLonip&. 
DIAGRAMMA cIncTUM, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p.61. pl. 26.f. 1; Icon. Reeves, 
82; Hardw. Acanth. Chinese name, Hwa juen shin, “ Flowery soft lips” 
(Birch) ; Fa juen shen (Reeves); Fé un shan (Bridgem. Chrest. 95). 


The Chinese collection at Hyde Park and the British Museum contain several specimens of 
this fish, which we have compared with a specimen of Biirger’s from Japan, also belonging to 
the latter institution. The bands of colour, and indeed the whole form of the fish, are singu- 


eM ee ae ee ey en ER 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 227 


larly like those of Diacope seb@ (Russell, 99; C. et V. ii. p. 411), but there are no spots on the 
latter. The markings still more closely resemble those of Hapalogenys maculatus (Reeves, a. 
49). Mr. Reeves’s drawing represents both the Chinese and Japanese specimens more faith- 
fully than the figure published in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ but the profile of neither is quite steep 
enough. 


Hab. Coasts of China’and Japan. 


DiaGRAMMA GATERINA, Forskal (Sciena), C. et V. v. p. 301. pl. 125. 
Holocentre gaterin, Lacép. iv. p.347 ; Ruppell, Atl. 32. f. 1; Zcon. Reeves, 
a. 50; Hardw. Acanth. 50. Chinese name, Hung teen tseu (Birch) ; 
Hung teen tso (Reeves), “ Red-spotted tso fish.” Rad. D. 1415; A. 
3/7, &c. (Spec. Chin. Collect.) 


Notwithstanding the difference in the numbers of the dorsal rays, I have ventured to refer 
this Chinese fish to the Sciena gaterina of Forskal. Riippell’s figure differs from the one in 
the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ considerably in the steepness of the profile. Mr. Reeves’s drawing 
is in this respect most like the latter, but in the form and distribution of its spots it has more 
resemblance to Riippell’s figure. The Chinese collection at Hyde Park contains a specimen 
of this fish. 

Hab. Red sea and coasts of China. 


Diacramna Pictum, Thunberg (Perca), Nov. Mém. de Stockh. xiii. p. 141. 
pl.5; C.et V.v.p.315; Temm. et Schl. F.J.p.62; Hardw. Acanth. 138. 


A specimen sent to the museum at Haslar from Hong Kong, by Surgeon R. A. Bankier, 
R.N., differs from the description of the species in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ in its first dorsal 
being black with a white edge, which is the extension of the mesial frontal band. 


Hab. Seas of Japan, China and Malay archipelago, and the Indian ocean. 


DIAGRAMMA PQ@CILOPTERUM, C. et V. v. p. 314; Seba, iii. pl. 27. f. 17; 
Temm. et Schl. v. p. 314; Zcon. Reeves, 190; Hardw. Acanth.65. ad. 
D. 10|21; A. 3/6, &c. (Chin. Spec.) 

Specimens exist in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, and we have found dried ones in 
the Chinese insect-boxes. 
Hab. Seas of Japan, China, Malay archipelago, and India. 


DiaGRAMMA PuUNCTATUM, Ehrenberg, C. et V. v. p. 302; Temm. et Schl. 
F. J. p. 60; Quoy et Gaim. Voy. de |’Astrol. pl. 12. f.2; Riippell, Atl. 
pl. 32. f.2; Icon. Reeves, 78; Hardw. Acanth. 30. Chinese name, Yaou 
we, “Want tail” (Birch); Yaou ne (Reeves); Yap mi (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 214). 

The colouring of Mr. Reeves’s drawing corresponds closely with the description in the ‘ Fauna 
Japonica,’ and approaches nearer to the plate in the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe’ than to that in 
Riippell’s ‘ Atlas.” The Chinese collection at Hyde Park contains a specimen. It has three 
pairs of pores on the lower jaw. 


Hab. Red sea, Malay archipelago, and seas of China and Japan. 


PRISTIPOMA KAAKAN, C. et V.v. p. 244; Ruppell, Neue Wirlb. p. 123. 
pl. 30. f. 1; Icon. Reeves, 201; Hardw. Acanth. 52. Chinese name, Jow 
loo (Birch, Reeves): Tau lo (Bridgem. Chrest. 134). (Chin. Spec.) 

A specimen from China has been deposited in the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. 
Hab. Red sea, Indian ocean, Malay archipelago, and China sea. 


PrisTIrPoMA NAGEB, Riippell, Neue Wirlb. p. 124. taf. 30. f. 2; Icon, 
Reeves, 244; Hardw. Acanth. 62. Chinese name, Sing loo (Reeves) ; 
“ Starry loo fish” (Birch). fad. D.12|12 ad 15; A.3|7; &c. (Chin. Spec.) 


John Reeves, Esq. has deposited a specimen of this fish in the British Museum. The 
Rev. George Vachell presented another to the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, and there 
are several in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. _ 


Hab. Red and China seas. 


PRIsTIPOMA PIHLOO, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, a. 29; Hardw. Acanth, 
Q2 


228 REPORT—1845. 


135. Chinese name, Pih loo, “ White loo fish” (Reeves, Birch); Pak lo 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 135). Rad. D.11|14; A. 3|8; C.174; P. 16; V. 1|5. 


Mr. Reeves’s China specimen is in the British Museum. It greatly resembles nageb, but 
has a more convex profile, and differs in its markings. It has a row of seven roundish dark 
spots or short transverse bars along the back above the lateral line, in which respect it differs 
from P. guoraca, whose form is not dissimilar. No pores were detected on the lower jaw. 
The teeth on the jaws are villiform, the dental surface being narrower on the upper jaw, and 
bounded by an outer row of short subulate teeth. The roof of the mouth is toothless. Space 
round the nostrils and jaws nacry ; all the opercular pieces and the cheek scaly. Disc of pre- 
operculum broad, its outline parabolic and its posterior edge toothed, the teeth being more 
remote at the corner. The figure, which is otherwise a good representation of the specimen, 
does not bring the curve of the preoperculum far enough back. A band of small scales crosses 
the nape from one scapula to the other; the second anal is longer and stronger than the 
third one. This species is similar in its markings to Mesoprion johnii, Bl. 318, but the spe- 
cimen has no vomerine nor palatine teeth. (C. et V-) 


Hab. Canton. 


PrisTIPOMA JAPONICUM, C. et V. v. p. 288; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 60. 
pl. 26. f. 2; Icon. Reeves, 202 ; Hardw. Acanth.71. Chinese name, Hae 
tseth (Birch); Hae tseik (Reeves), “Sea-tsaou;” Hoi tsik (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 223). Japanese name, Jousaki (Langsdorff). Rad. D. 15|16; 
A. 3/7; P. 17, &e. (Chin. Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


The figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ represents a fish with a considerably lower body than 
the Chinese, which we have referred to that species on account of its agreement in all other 
respects with the characters of the species. The British Museum received a Chinese specimen 
from John Reeves, Esq. Second and third anal spines equal and striated. The scales are small. 


Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. 


PrIsTIPOMA ? CHLORONOTUM, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 231; Hardw. 
Acanth. 77. Chinese name, Tsing pei cha, “ Green-backed tseu fish” 
Birch) ; Ching keae tso (Reeves). Rad. D.12|22 vel 23; A. 3/12; &c. 
efrom the drawing.) 


Of this fish we have seen no specimen. It has the thickish lips and preoperculum of a 
Pristipoma and the even dorsal of Pr. japonicum. The scales are larger than in that species, 
and the second anal spine is conspicuously longer and stronger than the third one. A greenish- 
gray tint, approaching where most intense to olive-green, pervades the upper parts of the 
body and the vertical fins, being deepest on the discs of the scales, which have silvery mar- 
gins. The sides are paler and are glossed by auricula-purple, and the lips, cheeks, and pectoral 
and ventral fins are lavender-purple without spots anywhere. 


Hab. Seas of China. Canton. 


PrisTIPOMA? GALLINACEUM, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3.22; Hardw. 
Acanth. 44. Chinese name, Ke yu, “ Fowl-fish” (Reeves, Birch). ad. 
D. 14|18; A. 2?|7, &c. (from the figure.) 

Of this also I have seen no specimen: judging from the figure, it seems to approach 
Pr. japonicum, but its scales are larger and its dorsal more notched. Its lower fins are orange 
and its caudal lobes tipped with carmine, the body generally silvery and the fins unspotted. 
It is possible that this may be the Hemulon mentioned by Dr. Cantor as frequenting the 
estuary of the Peiho. It has carmine blotches on the lips like Hemulon. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


PRISTIPOMA ? GRAMMOP@CILUM, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, a. 9; Hardw. 
Acanth. 56. Chinese name, Zuen chin la, “Soft-mouthed 1a fish” 
(Birch) ; Quen shin la, “ Flexible-finned lap” (Reeves); Un shan lap 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 96). Rad. D. 14|20; A. 3|9 vel 10, &c. (from the 
figure.) 

This fish has a different physiognomy from any of the preceding ones, and we cannot assign 


it to a genus with confidence, from not having seen a specimen. It has the even dorsal of 
Pr. japonicum, but much larger scales, which are silvery. The cheeks and side of the head 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 229 


are streaked by nine or ten reddish stripes, and the whole back and sides are dotted with red 
spots about the size of partridge shot. The fins are dark and without spots; the parts about 
the mouth are carmine, as in Hemulon. 
Hab. Canton. 
Fam. SERRANIDE. 


MEsopPrion UNIMACULATUS, C. et V. ii. p. 441; Quoy et Gaim. Zool. de 
Freye. p. 304. pl. 5. f. 3. Doondiawah, Russell, 97 ; Icon. Reeves, a. 25 ; 
Hardw. Acanth. 21. Hwang tsaou, “ Yellow tsaou fish.” Chinese name, 
Hwang tso, “ Yellow tso” (Reeves); Wang tso (Bridgem. Chrest. 133). 
Rad. D. 10|13 vel 14, A. 3/7, &c. (China spec. Brit. Mus.) 


The specimen collected at Canton by John Reeves, Esq. is deposited in the British Museum. 
Hab. Indian ocean, Malay archipelago, and China seas. 


MEeEsoprion HOTEEN, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, a. 28; Hardw. Acanth. 66. 
Ho teen. Chinese name, Ho teen yo, “‘ Burn-spotted” (Reeves) ; Fo tim tso 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 220). Rad. D.10|13; A. 3|8, &c. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 
Several examples of a Chinese fish strongly resembling the preceding exist in the Chinese 

collection at Hyde Park and in the British Museum, but differing from it in having a preoper- 

cular notch and subopercular knob, both slighter than is usual in Diacope. Neither the spe- 
cimens nor drawing agree sufficiently with Russell’s figure 110 (Mesoprion quinquelineatus, 

C. et V.), nor 98 (Diacope notata, C. et V.), nor with Bloch’s M. johnii (318), to be referred 

to either of them. 

The canine teeth in the upper jaw are acute and well-apart. In the lower jaw there is a 
short one in the middle of the limb on each side. The vomerine and palatine teeth are covered 
by the horizontal velum. The preorbitar and lower jaw are studded with minute pores. A 
small pit exists on the chin. The scales of the cheek form an oval oblique band extending 
from the temples to near the corner of the mouth, bounded above by smooth integument, 
which spreads over the preorbitar and below by the disc of the preoperculum. Preoperculum 
having a broad disc coarsely toothed at the corner, some of the inferior teeth pointing forward ; 
under limb serrated ; operculum with two obtuse lobes. The darker discs of the scales form 
rows of faint spots. Second and third anal spines about equal in length, the second one a little 
the stoutest, and neither of them equal to the soft rays in length. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


MEsoprRion ANNULARIS, C. et V. ii. p. 484. et iii. p. 497. Diéacope annu- 
laris, Riippell, Atl. p. 74. taf. 24. f.2; Quoy et Gaim. Astrol. pl. 5. f. 4. 
Rad. D.11|14; A. 3/8; C. 164; P.15; V. 1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 


The Rev. George Vachell presented a Canton specimen to the Cambridge Philosophical 
Institution. 
Hab. Indian ocean. Javan and China seas. 


DIAcoPE CALVETII, Quoy et Gaim. Voy. de l’Uranie, pl. 57. f. 1; C. et V. 
ii. p. 429; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 14. 
Hab. Japan. Timor. 


Diacore sparus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 14. 
Hab. Japan. 


Diacore Borensis, C. et V. ii. p. 436. Diacope tiea, Lesson, Voy. de Du- 
perrey, p. 231. pl. 23; Icon. Reeves, 196 ; Hardw. Acanth. 68. Chinese 
name, Heung yu, “Cock,” or “ Male fish (Birch);” Hung u (Bridgem. 
Chrest.167). Fad. D. 11/14; A. 3|9, &c. (Reev. spec. Brit. Mus.) 


Hab. Polynesia. China sea. Canton (Reeves). Society isles (Lesson). 


Diacore ocToLineATA, C. et V. ii. p. 118; Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 12. 
pl. 6. f. 2. Holocentrus quinquelinearis, Bl. 239. H. bengalensis, Bl. 
946. f.2. Perca vittata, Solander, Icon. Parkins. Bibl. Banks. Perca 
polyzonias, Forst. Animal. cura Lichtenst. p. 225; Icon. Georg. Forster, 


‘ce DR) 


230 — REPORT—1845. 


Biblioth. Banks; Jcon. Reeves, 93; Hardw. Acanth. 29 & 33. Chinese 
~ name, Hwa mei tsaou (Birch); Hwa mei tso, “ Painted eye-brow” (Reeves); 

Wa mii tso (Bridgem. Chrest. 68). 

A common Chinese fish, and in all the collections. Most of the Chinese specimens have 
the fifth line below the pectoral, which is often wanting in examples from other quarters; and 


one specimen in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park has the lateral black mark so frequent 
in the Diacopes. 


Hab. Red sea, Mauritius, Polynesia, Australia, Malay archipelago, Chinese and Japanese 
seas. 


PLEecTROPOMA LEOPARDUS, Lacépéde (Holocentrus), iv. p. 332 et 337. 
Plectropoma leopardinum, C. et V. ii. p. 392. t. 36; Temm. et Schl. 
Faun. Japon. Sieb. p. 12. 

Hab. Seas of Japan and Australia. 


PLecTROPOMA susukKI, C. et V. ii. p. 404; Temm. et Schl. F.J. p. 11. pl. 4. 
f.1 (upper figure); Icon. Reeves, a. 34; Hardw. Acanth. 25, Chinese 
name, Tsing shih pan (Birch); Ching sheh pan, “Blue garoupa” (Reeves) ; 
Shik pan u (Bridgem. Chrest. 59). 

Mr. Reeves states this to be the commonest of the Serrani or Garoupas on the Chinese coast. 
Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. 


(Merous.) 


SERRANUS ALTIVELIS, C. et V. ii. p. 324. t. 25; Icon. Reeves, 267; Hardw. 
Acanth. 67. Chinese name, To yu, “Carrier fish” (Birch); Ming yu 
(Reeves). Rad. D.10|18 vel19; A.3|9 vel 10; P.15. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 
The British Museum possesses a specimen obtained in one of Cook’s voyages, and one 

brought from China by John Reeves, Esq. Sir Edward Belcher also obtained one in his 

voyage in the Sulphur. 
Hab. Javan and Chinese seas. 


SERRANUS GILBERTI, Richardson, Ann. Nat. Hist. March 1842. vol. ix. p. 
19; Icon. Reeves, 257 ; Hardw. Acanth. 26. Chinese name, Hwé paou 
yu, “Spotted leopard fish;” Fa hou yu, “ Spotted garoupa” (Reeves). 
Rad. D. 11/17; A. 3|9; C. 153; P.17; V.1|5. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 
This is one of the Serrani which bear a close resemblance to merra, and are perhaps merely 

varieties of that species. It is a common fish in the southern seas, yet I have not been able 

to identify it with any of the numerous species or varieties described in the ‘ Histoire des 

Poissons.’ In the British Museum there are examples from China and North Australia which 

do not differ from each other. 

Hab. Torres straits. China seas. 


SERRANUS MEGACHIR, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 113; Hardw. Acanth. 
98. Chinese name, Tue mei pan, “ Tortoise-shell garoupa” (Reeves). 
Rad. D.11|15; A. 3|8; C.128; P.15; V.1|5. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


This is another merou, almost identical in the markings of its body and fins with gélberti, 
but distinguished from it and from merra by the greater size of its pectoral fin, which is edged 
with black and reaches beyond the anus. The only species described in the Fauna Japonica’ 
which resembles this, is the S. epistictus, and that has the spots on the fore part of the body 
ranged in three rows, which coalesce into one row posteriorly, The “ tortoise-shell merou” 
grows to the length of a foot. There are examples of it in the Chinese collection at Hyde 
Park and in the British Museum, the latter presented by Mr. Reeves. 

Hab. Coasts of China. 


SERRANUS EPISTIcTUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 8. 


None of Mr, Reeves’s drawings correspond with the description of this species, nor have we 
seen any Chinese specimens of it, 


Hab. Japanese sea, 


; 


a 


ae 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 231 


SERRANUS AKA-ARA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 9. pl. 3. f. 1. 
Rad. D. 11/15; A. 3|8. (Biirger’s Spec. Brit. Mus.) 
D. 11/16; A. 3/8; C.17; P.15; V. 1|5. (F. Jap.) 
The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s specimens of this fish, which was labelled 
haxzzo ara. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


SERRANUS sHIHPAN*, Icon. Reeves, 71; Hardw. Acanth.39. Chinese name, 
Shih pan (Reeves); Shik pan u (Bridgem. Chrest. 59). Rad. D.11|16; 
A. 3/8; C.174; P.16 vel 17; V.1|5. (Spee. Brit. Mus.) 

I have been strongly inclined to consider this fish as identical with the preceding one, but 
nothing is said in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ of the dark bars which cross the body, and which are 
very evident both in the dried specimens and in those preserved in spirits. The species ap- 
pears to be common in the China seas and to attain the size of 16 or 18 inches. We have 
seen examples of it in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, the British Museum, and the 
Cambridge Philosophical Institution. 

Teeth rather small, each intermaxillary armed by a curved canine. In the lower jaw the 
canines are longer, and the outer row is composed of subulate teeth set widely. The chevron 
of the vomer is acute and small, and the dental bands of the palate bones are narrow and 
feebly toothed. Thelimbs of the preoperculum meet at rather less than a right angle, the upper 
one slightly convex and acutely toothed, the lower one almost straight, with microscopical cre- 
natures. In some specimens, the coarse teeth at the angle of the bone are divided by a notch 
into two groups, in others there are two strong divergent teeth at the angle ; the bone is densely 
scaly up to the teeth. In Mr. Reeves’s figure the preoperculum is shown of too parabolic a 
form. The operculum ends in three acute teeth, the middle one being the largest; the tip of 
the gill-cover is slender and acute ; small scales cover the lower jaw, and the scales on the body 
are strongly ciliated ; the lateral line is conspicuous and formed of a series of tubes, one on 
each scale inclined upwards, and the fins are scaly to near their tips. Five or six dark bars 
cross the sides, two of them running up on the spinous dorsal, and two on the soft fin, which 
is also traversed in the middle by a cross-bar. The bars are irregular in form, and the caudal 
fin is crossed by two or three less distinct ones. The body and head are marked by round red 
spots, much as aka-ara is represented to be in the ‘Fauna Japonica,’ and there are some 
larger faint red marks on the spinous dorsal. The anal and pectoral are both crossed by dusky 
bars or clouds, and the ventrals are edged with the same. All the under-parts of the head and 
body are auvora-red. The Chinese name has been attached to this species as a provisional 
designation until the suspicion above-mentioned of its identity with the aka-ara be proved or 
disproved. : 

Hab. China seas. Canton (Reeves, Vachell, &c.). 


SERRANUS VARIEGATUS, Icon. Reeves, 87; Hardw. Acanth. 22. Chinese 
name, Ta shih pan, “Variegated garoupa” (Reeves). tad. D. 11[10; 
2\7, &c. (Reeves’s drawing.) 

Were it not for the small number of rays in the soft dorsal indicated in the figure here 
quoted, I should have no hesitation in saying that it is the representation merely of a young 
individual of the shih pan. The cross bands, however, are fewer, broader and fainter. The 
buff-coloured ground tint and the deep orange-red spots are the same in both. In the varie- 
gatus these spots form two rows on both the spinous and soft parts of the dorsal, and also on 
the upper half of the tail; and there are two black spots with pale borders on the latter fin. 
All the vertical fins are obscurely clouded or banded, and the pectorals are buff-coloured with 
orange borders and black bases. We have seen no specimen that corresponds to this figure, 
which measures 54 inches, 

Hab. China seas. Canton. 


SERRANUS Awo-ARA, Temm, et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 9. pl. 3. f.2. Rad. 
D. 11|16; A. 3|8. (Spec. of Biirger’s, Brit. Mus.) 
One of Burger's specimens, now in the British Museum, has been carefully compared with 


Mr. Reeves’s drawings, and not identified with any of them. The yellow borders of the fins 
distinguish this fish when recent. 


Hab. Sea of Japan, 
SERRANUus URA, C. et V. ii. p.332. S.ara, Temm. et Schi. F. J. Sieb. p. 9. 


Having seen neither specimens nor figures of this fish, we are unable to say, from the short 


* The words shih pan means “ stone-coloured stripe.” 


932 REPORT—1845. 


descriptions of it in the works we have quoted, what are the characters that distinguish i 
from the other Chinese species. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


SERRANUS AREOLATUS, Forskal (Perea), C. et V. ii. p.350. Perca taurina, 
Geoff. Saint-Hilaire, Egypt, pl. 20. f.1; Is. Geoff. p.201. Serranus areo- 
latus japonicus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 8. 


The Japanese fish is stated to differ from the species in the Red sea only in having the 
pectorals of an uniformly yellow hue and the caudal slightly rounded. We have seen no 
specimen of it. 


Hab. Red sea. Sea of Japan. 


SERRANUS REEVESII, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 211; Hardw. Acanth. 32. 
Chinese name, Fa pan, “Variegated garoupa” (Reeves); Fa pan u 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 62). Rad. D. 11|14; A. 3|8, &c. (ex sigurd.) 


The spots of this figure are singularly like those of S. heragonatus (Forster, C. et V. ii. 
p- 330), but the angles of the meshes want the bright white spots; there is a more decided 
notch in the preoperculum, and the third anal spine is longer than the second. The ground 
colour is pale aurora-red, the spots orange-brown, and the head and body are clouded by 
about twelve large brown patches on each side. The spots are equally crowded on all the fins, 
but are rather rounder than on the body. They are slightly deeper than the ground tint on 
the pectorals, which is like that of the body, but clearer. The cther fins have a brownish 
hue, and the spots on the dorsal and ventrals are umber-brown, and on the caudal and anal au- 
ricula-purple; the ground tint of the latter fins being also dark. The upper tip of the caudal 
is lighter: that fin is truncated or slightly rounded. The lower jaw projects considerably be- 
yond the upper one. Length of the figure 10 inches. 


Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


SERRANUS STIGMAPOMUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves,’ 72; Hardw. Acanth. 
24. Chinese name, Hh shih pan,“ Black garoupa” (Reeves); Hak shik 
pau (Bridgem. Chrest. 59). Rad. B.'7; D. 9|17; A. 3/8; C. 19, &e. 


The individual from which Mr. Reeves’s drawing was made was presented by that gentle- 
man to the British Museum. It agrees singularly well with the description of Serranus hawa 
mebari in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ in all that relates to colours and markings; but that species 
differs in the number of rays, and is said to belong to the true Serrani with naked jaws, while 
this is a Merou. 

The teeth are small and fine, but with a canine on each side of the symphysis of the upper 
jaw. No scales on the upper jaw or maxillary, but the snout is scaly even before the nostrils, 
and scales exist on the preorbitar and suborbitars, and cover the preoperculum toits extreme edge. 
The lower jaw is furnished with small, deeply imbedded scales. Preoperculum curved in the arc 
ofa circle, and minutely toothed in a pectinated manner on its upper limb, a little coarser at the 
angle. Gill-cover very obtuse, or cut nearly vertically with a slightly projecting tip opposite 
the central spine, which is thin and flat. Lateral line considerably arched. Fins rounded 
and covered with small scales. The anal has three stout spines, shorter than the soft rays. 

The colour is pale chestnut, with eight well-defined and regular, darker vertical bands, 
which encroach a little on the dorsal. The head and fins are mostly of the colour of the bands ; 
the tips of the dorsal and edges of the pectoral and anal dark. The soft dorsal has a pale edge, 
and the upper edge of the caudal is pale, the under one dark. A round black spot occupies 
the membrane filling the sinus between the two upper opercular spines. 


Hab. Chinaseas. Canton (Reeves). North-west coast of Australia? (Lieut. Emery.) 


SERRANUS NEBULOSUS, C. et V. ii. p. 313. Rad. D.11|16; A. 3/7 vel 8 
(second spine longest). (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


There are two specimens of this fish in the British Museum, which were brought from Can- 
ton by John Reeves, Esq., and one whose origin is unknown. 


Hab. China seas. 


SERRANUS TRIMACULATUS, C. et V. ii. p. 331; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 
p.8. Epinephelus japonicus, Krusenst. Voy. pl. 64. f.2. tad. D. 11/17; 
A. 3|7; C. 154; P.17; V. 1|5. (Several spec.) 

In the ‘Histoire des Poissons’ the numbers of the rays being quoted from Krusenstern’s 
figure are erroneous. There seems however to be some variation in their number. In one of 


uw 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 233 


Biirger’s Japanese specimens in the British Museum we reckoned D. 11|15, the last divided 
so deeply that it might be taken for two, and A. 3/8. In the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ the numbers 
are stated to be D.11|16; A. 318, &c., and we have given above the numbers we found in Chi- 
nese specimens brought from Canton by John Reeves, Esq. and the Rev. George Vachell. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Canton. 


SERRANUS PECILINOTUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 6. 
Hab. Japanese seas. 


SERRANUs ocTocincTus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 7. 
Hab. Japanese seas. 


SERRANUS LATIFASCIATUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 7. 
Hab. Japanese seas. 


SERRANUS MYRIASTER, C. et V. ii. p. 365; Ruppell, Atl. pl. 27. f.1. Mérou 
mille étoiles, Quoy et Gaim. Voy. de l’Astrol. pl. 3. f.1; Voy. de la Coquille, 
pl. 37. Rad. D. 9|16; A. 3|8; C. 153; P.17; V.1|5. (Chin. Spec.) 
A specimen of this fish was brought from the Chinese seas by Sir Edward Belcher, which is 

much better represented by Riippell’s figure than by those given in the other works we have 

quoted. The figure in the ‘ Voy. of the Coquille’ wants the blue edging of the fins, and has 
more resemblance even in the colouring to the Serranus rogaa of Riippell than to myriaster. 

We have seen examples from Australia which differ in no respect from the Chinese ones. 


Hab. Sandwich islands. Polynesia. New Guinea. Australia. China and the Red sea. 


SERRANUS CYANOPODUS, Icon. Reeves, 249; Hardw. Acanth. 69. Chinese 
name, Tsing te (Birch) ; Ching te, “ Blue foot” (Reeves). Rad. D. 11|20; 
A. 3|7, &e. (ex figura.) 

This drawing has a general resemblance to 5. myriaster, but with a more arched nape, a 
higher spinous dorsal, a projecting point at the corner of the preoperculum, much smaller and 
differently disposed dots. ‘The general colour is flax-flower-blue, deepening to indigo on the 
back, and having purplish tints on the face and breast. The spots are small, bluish-black, and 
extend to all the fins, except the pectoral and anal. They become gradually less on the lower 
parts of the sides and disappear on the breast and belly. The pectorals are yellowish-gray, 
with blue bases; but the rest of the fins are blue like the body, the extremity of the caudal 
being also tinged with blue and the anal with purple. The fins do not show the marginal 
streak so evident in myriaster. The caudal is truncated, 


Hab: China seas. Canton. 


SerRANUS FoRMOSUS, Shaw (Sciena), Zool. Misc. pl. 1007; C. et V. ii. 
p- 311. Rahtee bontoo, Russell, pl. 129; con. Reeves, a. 46; Hardw. 
Acanth. 31. Chinese name, Hth hwei tsze, “ Black-spirit thorn” (Birch) ; 
Hih kwei tze, “ Black spirit” (Reeves). Rad. D. 9|17; A. 3|8, &c. 
Minute scales cover the entire surface of the maxillary, except the folds of the lips; and the 

fins are densely scaly. The general tint of the body, dorsal and base of the anal is reddish- 

orange, the gill-cover being tinged with siskin-green. The body is traversed by numerous 
china-blue lines, which are oblique on the back, but horizontal on the sides. They run out 
upon the dorsal and anal, changing to sap-green. Six of the blue lines cross the face, radiating 
from round the orbit, and there are some blue spots before the eye and on the lips. The rays 

of the ventrals are partly blue, partly green; the outer half of the anal is green, and it has a 

border of blue and black. The pectorals and anal are dark prussian-blue, their rays being 

paler. Russell’s plate omits the lines on the spinous dorsal, gives a wrong direction to those 
on the anal, and represents all the lines as too broad. Mr. Reeves’s drawing is an excellent 
representation of a specimen in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. 


Hab. Indian ocean. Sea of China. Canton. 


SERRANUS MARGINALIS, Bloch, 328 (Epinephelus); C. et V. ii. p. 301. 
Holocentre rosmare, Lacép. iv. pl.’7. f.2. S. tsirimenara, Temm. et Schl. 
F. J. p.8; Icon. Reeves, 246; Hardw. Acanth.27. Rad. D.11|15 vel 16; 
A. 3|8, &c. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


The tsirimenara of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ is distinguished by the authors from marginalis 


ee 


We ESA 


234 REPORT—1845. 


by its possessing a row of five or six irregular, whitish and indistinct spots on the flanks, Mr. 
Reeves’s figure shows vertical bands in pairs, faint, and merely a little paler than the rest of 
the red colour, but no spots. There are Chinese specimens in spirits in the British Museum 
and Chinese collection at Hyde Park, which offer no tangible difference when compared with 
a dried specimen of Biirger’s, also in the British Museum. Neither could we detect any dis- 
crepancy betwixt the Chinese specimens and one obtained at Copang, in the island of Timor, 
by Mr. Gilbert. 

Judging solely from the description of S. oceanicus in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ in the 
absence of authentic specimens or good figures, it appears to be the same with marginalis; but 
the Perca fasciata of Forskal, referred by Cuvier to oceanicus, is probably a different species. 
Its dorsal and anal fins are edged with yellow, and it is evidently the same with the Perca 
rubescens of Solander, of which a drawing by Parkinson (No. 61) exists in the Banksian 
Library. 


Hab. Javan, Chinese and Japanese seas. 


We have seen no specimen corresponding with Mr, Reeves’s drawing 255 (Hardw, Acanth. 
23), which looks like a less carefully executed representation of a young S. marginalis. Its 
anal spines are however proportionally larger, and its cheek and gill-cover are glossed with 
green. The Chinese name is Hing pau yu, “Red garoupa.” 


SERRANUS MOARA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 10. f. 2. lower figure 
(which is erroneously numbered). 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


SERRANUS DERMOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 10. 
Hab. Sea of Japan, 


(Serrans propres.—Perches de mer.) 


SERRANUS VITTA, Quoy. et Gaim. Voy. de Freyc. pl. 58. f. 3; C. et V. ii, 
p. 239; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (Diacope), p. 13. pl. 6. f. 1; Icon. 
Reeves, 3.27; Hardw. Acanth. 51. Chinese name, Ho tsaow (Birch) ; 
Ho tso, “ Fire tso” (Reeves); Fo tso (Bridgem. Chrest. 132). 


Two young individuals of this species, which Surgeon Bankier has sent from Hong Kong, 
have the lateral stripe darker than in older individuals, and a black mark swelling round that 
part of it which is under the middle of the soft dorsal, as in some Diacopes and Mesoprions. 
There is scarcely any notch in the preoperculum either in the young or old, and the suboper- 
cular knob is very indistinct. The dental plate of the yvomer is rhomboidal, and the habit of 
the fish is not that of Serranus, neither is it more like Diacope. 


Hab. North coast of Australia, New Guinea, Javan, Chinese and Japanese seas. Hong 
Kong (Surgeon R. A. Bankier). 


SERRANUS KAWAMEBARI, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 5. “ Rad. D. 12/12; 
A, 210,” &c. (Fauna Jap.) 


This is compared with hepatus in the ‘Fauna Japonica,’ and is described as possessing a 
round black spot between the two upper opercular spines, 

The British Museum possesses a Canton specimen presented to it by Mr. Reeves, which we 
are inclined to consider as the kawamebari, though it wants the black opercular spot, It has the 
scaleless jaws and narrow, naked preopercular disc of the true Serrani. The upper limb of the 
preoperculum is nearly vertical, slightly arched, finely toothed, with four or five stronger di- 
vergent teeth at the squarish angle, and a horizontal toothless under limb, Lateral line slightly 
arched. Fins delicate, rounded. Ground colour pale brown, marbled with irregular darker 
confluent spots. The sides are traversed by six bars inclining forwards as they descend, and 
rendered paler by the absence of the spots which fill the interspaces. On the head the same 
colours, but the pale bands are longitudinal. Three dark lines cross the cheek obliquely from 
the eye to the angle of the gill-cover, The dorsal is obscurely clouded with a dark point be- 
hind the tip of each spine; the soft dorsal and anal are darkish, the pectoral nearly colour- 
less. Length of specimen 6 inches. 


Hab. Seas of Japan and China. Canton (Reeves). 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 235 


(Les Barbiers.) 


SERRANUS OCULATUS, C. et V. ii. p. 266. pl. 32; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 
p- 5. 


Hab. Japanese and Caribbean seas. 


Capropon, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 64. pl. 30. 


This fish is placed with doubt as to its true position among the Scienide by the authors of 
the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ but though it is stated to have only five gill-rays, I cannot help think- 
ing that its true affinities are with the Barbers, and its dentition is indeed exactly similar to 
that of the Zang or Taa, a South Australian Serranus. 


Hab, Japanese seas, 


CENTROPRISTES HIRUNDINACEUS, C. et V. vii. p.450; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
Sieb. p. 14. pl. 5. f. 1. 
Hab. Sea of Japan, 


AvLococEePHALUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 15. pl. 5. f. 2. 
The British Museum possesses two examples of this fish from the Mauritius, 
Hab. The coasts of the Mauritius and the Japanese sea. 


GLaucosoMA BURGERI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 62. pl. 27; Richard- 
son, Ichth, of Voy. of Erebus and Terror, p. 27. 
The discovery in the Australian seas of a second species of this genus has rendered a spe- 


cific appellation necessary for the Japanese’ one, and we have named it in honour of Birger, 
whose description and drawing are the authorities for the species. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 
Fam. THERAPONINA. 


HaApPALOGENYS NITENS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 84. pl. 43. 
f.1 & 2; Icon. Reeves, 92; Hardw. Acanth. 164, 165. Chinese name, 
Vin pe li (Reeves); Yan pi lap (Bridgem. Chrest. 101). 


The specimen from which Mr, Reeves’s drawing was made was deposited by that gentle- 
man in the British Museum. 
Hab, China sea, Canton, 


HAPALOGENYS ANALIS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 85. pl. 43. 
f. 3 ; Icon. Reeves, 91; Hardw. Acanth.167. Pristipome mucroné, Eydoux 
et Souleyet.t. .f.1. Chinese name, Shih tseu (Birch); Shi hea ha 
(Reeves); Shik kip lap (Bridgem. Chrest. 97). 


Mr. Reeves’s specimen of this fish also is in the British Museum. 
Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


HApPALOGENYS MACULATUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, a. 49; Hardw. 
Acanth. 42. Chinese name, Kin sth (Reeves); Kin fung, “Gold-wind” 
(Birch). Rad. D.11|15; A. 3/9; C.172; P.16; V. 15. 


In general form and in the distribution of its coloured bands and spots, this species bears 
a singular resemblance to Diagramma cinctum, as has been already noticed (supra, p. 226), 
Body thickest a little below the arched lateral line, and thinning off above to the acute nape 
and dorsal line. The belly is obtuse, and the top of the cranium widens gradually until it 
becomes flat between the fore parts of the orbits. Chin and edge of the lower jaw covered by 
a soft papillose lip; upper lip less coarsely papillose. Four small pores on the chin and two 
on each limb of the lower jaw, whose articulation is under the fore part of the orbit. Jaw- 
teeth villiform, the outer row short-conical and acute. Roof of the mouth toothless, lined 
with plaited, villous membranes, the villi being densely crowded behind the crescentic velum. 
Maxillary truncated-with a small point at the fore corner. Preoperculum strongly and 

\ 


ory |) a 
mec 


236 REPORT—1845. 


rather widely toothed on both limbs, the teeth at the corner coarser. Gill-cover short and 
triangular, with a sub-acute, triangular bony tip, and an oblique, acute notch above it. No 
scales on the lower jaw, but the fore part of the maxillary and the preorbitar and suborbitar 
chain, with the rest of the side of the head up to the extreme edges of the gill-cover, are finely 
scaly. Supra-scapular spinously toothed. 

The scales are rough like those of a Priacanthus. The lateral line is arched to under the 
third dorsal spine, when it descends, and is a little undulated under the soft dorsal. No 
scales on the spinous dorsal ; but the bases of the soft dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal are scaly. 
A stout recumbent spine precedes the soft dorsal. Second anal spine much stronger and 
larger than the third, which does not much exceed the first one. 

Scales generally bright and silvery: a bright silvery border edges the lower part of the 
operculum, and the cheek is also bright, but the rest of the head has a dark neutral tint or 
bluish-gray. The upper half of the body, the tail and the vertical fins are marked by round 
spots of the same. There is also a bluish-gray band on the hind head, another descending 
from the nape to behind the pectoral, and a third, descending from the anterior half of the 
spinous dorsal, curves when it reaches the lateral line backwards along the tail, much like the 
curved band of Diacope seba@. The ground colour of the pectorals, spinous, dorsal and caudal 
is sienna- or ochre-yellow ; that of the soft dorsal and anal olive-green. Ventrals hair- brown, 
edged like the spinous dorsal with brownish-black. Length 4} inches. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


HAPALOGENYS NIGRIPINNIs, Temm. et Schl. (Pogonias); F.J. Sieb. p. 59. 
pl.25. Rad. B.6; D. 11|16 vel 17; A. 3/8 vel 9, &e. 


A specimen of Biirger’s in the British Museum, which is doubtless an example of this spe- 
cies, though it was labelled when received from Berlin Pogonias melanopterus, differs from the 
figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ in having a rather less concave profile and a somewhat differ- 
ently shaped profile. It has a recumbent spine before the dorsal, which is not noticed by its 
describers, and the scales which partially cover the dorsal are omitted in the figure they have 
given. The species differs from the other members of the genus named above, in the papillz 
of the under-lip being sufficiently elongated to produce a beard, and it therefore stands in the 
same relation to them that Pogonias does to Micropogon. 


Hab. Japanese sea. 


ANOPLUS BANJOS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. p. 17. pl.8. Banjos, Voy. de Kru- 
senst. pl. 54. f.1. Rad. D.10|12; A. 3/7; C.174; V.1|5. (Biirger’s 
Spec.) 

The conjectures of the authors of this genus, that the Coius polota of Buchanan and Hamil- 
ton is a second species, have been found to be correct by Edward Blyth, Esq., who has ascer- 
tained that the Indian fish wants the recumbent dorsal spine of Hapalogenys. The Coius bino- 
tatus, Gray, Hardw. Illustr., is said by Mr. Blyth to be merely a variety of polota. A Japa- 
nese species of Anoplus collected by Biirger exists in the British Museum. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


ScoLopsIDES RUPELII, C. et V. v. p. 332. Se. kurite, Riippell, Atl. p. 3. 
taf. 2. fig. 3; Icon. Reeves, 47; Hardw. Acanth. 48. Chinese name, 
Hung hae tsth, “Red sea-rule” (Reeves, Birch). Rad. D.10|9; A. 3|7; 
P.17, &c. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 


The differences between this fish and Scolopsides kate (C. et V. v. p. 329; Bl. 325. f. 2) 
appear to be extremely slight, or at least they are not very clearly exposed in the ‘ Histoire 
des Poissons.’ Bloch says that his specimen came from the sea of Japan, and it is highly 
probable that he had the rupelit before him even if the Malabar kate be a distinct species. 
The British Museum possesses a Chinese specimen of rupelii, presented by Mr. Reeves, 
Villiform teeth, long and slender. Two suborbitar teeth pointing backwards, one under the 
other and more slender; none pointing forwards. A small angle of bone on the edge of the 
operculum, not spinous. “ 


Hab. Red sea and seas of China and Japan. 


ScoLoPsIDES INERMIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 63. pl. 28; Icon. 
Reeves, 262; Hardw. Acanth. 57. Rad. D.10|9; A. 3|7; C.17; P.18; 
V.1|5. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 


The British Museum has Mr. Reeves’s specimen of this fish. The drawing differs from the 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 237 


figure in the ‘Fauna Japonica,’ just as a recent specimen from one that has become flaccid in 
spirits and lost its plumpness and height. The vertical bands are also fainter in the drawing, 
and the fins have a deep saffron-yellow or Dutch-orange colour instead of the pale primrose 
tint shown in the ‘Fauna Japonica.’ Teeth villiform with an outer row of stouter ones. 
Lower jaw teeth shorter. A very minute bony point on the edge of the gill-cover. A flat, 
acute, suborbitar tooth, with a point beneath its base. Edge of the suborbitar under the pos- 
terior third of the orbit strongly serrated. We have seen a drawing of a Scolopsides, executed 
at the islands of Houtman’s Abrolhos, on the west coast of Australia, by Lieut. Emery, of the 
Royal Navy, which strongly resembles this fish; but the fins have only a yellow border and 
are otherwise colourless, 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


ScoLorsipEs pomoris, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 3.15; Hardw. Acanth. 
Chinese names, Shih hei, “ Stone robber” (Reeves); Shih tset (Birch). 


Though this drawing does not exhibit the peculiar suborbitar tooth of the genus, I am in- 
duced, in the absence of specimens, from its near resemblance to the preceding two species, 
to refer it to Scolopsides ; and if this reference be correct, it possesses specific marks in the jet 
black tip of the gill-cover, and in a black speck on the base of the upper pectoral ray. It has 
the yellow fins and bright carmine spot on the gill-cover of the preceding species ; but its back 
is browner and its profile undulated. Length of the drawing 6 inches. 


Hab. Chinese sea. Canton. 


LogotEs 1ncurvus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 168; Hardw. Acanth. 76. 
Rad. D. 12|15; A. 3/11; P.17, &c. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 


This fish has the blackish hue of Lobotes farkarii, but not the orange-coloured fins, and it 
has a more deeply incurved profile and higher fins than any species described in the ‘ Histoire 
des Poissons.’ f 

Head scaly to orbit and forward on the cheek to the angle of the mouth, also the disc of the 
preoperculum. Edge of this bone spinosely dentate all round. Gill-cover, with a rounded 
projecting bony point and no sinus above it, scaly to the edge. Supra axillary plates of co- 
racoid bone with fourteen teeth. Soft,dorsal, anal caudal and base of pectoral scaly. Spines 
strongly striated. Outer row of teeth subulato-conical, inclined backwards, rather taller on 
the sides of the lower jaw. Within the upper jaw a narrow band of granular teeth. On the 
lower jaw the interior teeth are in a single row and very minute. In the drawing the sides 
and head are densely clouded with blackish purple mixed on the base of the fins, and towards 
the lower parts with siskin-green. The soft dorsal, anal and caudal are blacker, and the lat- 
ter is edged obscurely above and below with yellow or pale green. The pectoral is clay- 
coloured; the ventrals and spinous dorsal clouded with neutral tint. Length 12 inches, 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


LogoTtes ciTRiINus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 191; Hardw. Acanth. 168. 


This species has the pale bar on the extremity of the caudal fin and some other colours 
ascribed to Lobotes erate in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ particularly to the specimens which 
M. Dussumier brought from the coast of Malabar (v. p. 323); but the height of the body is 
greater, being equal to half the length of the fish, caudal fin excluded, and I have therefore 
thought it expedient to give it a provisional specific name. The Chinese collection at Hyde 
Park contains specimens which I have very cursorily examined. The ground colour in Mr. 
Reeves’s drawing is dull lemon-yellow, with obscure purplish clouding, a purplish black shading 
round the eye, on the tip of the gill-cover, the nape and bases of the vertical fins and pec- 
torals. The pectorals are pale and transparent, the rest of the fins are blackish, more or less 
clouded, and the soft dorsal and anal are bordered with buff-orange. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


PRIACANTHUS BENMEBARI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p.19. pl. 7. f. 1. 
Krusenst. 53. f.2. Rad. D.10|13; A.3|14; C. 163; P.19; V.1|5. 


The British Museum possesses two of Biirger’s Japanese specimens. In them the end of 
the caudal is concave, not convex, as in the figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica ;’ and the scales are 
not so rough as in most other species. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


PRIACANTHUS TAYENUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3.14; Hardw. Acanth. 


238 REPORT—1845. 


36. Chinese name, Za yen lap, “ Large-eyed lap” (Reeves); Tai gans 
lap (Bridgem. Chrest. 129). Rad. D. 9 vel 10/12; A. 3|12 vel 13; C. 
164; P.19. ; 


There is some difficulty in discovering ready characters by which the Priacanthi may be 
distinguished from one another. In the published descriptions much stress has been laid on 
the form and size of the angular projection of the preoperculum, but this varies greatly on 
different sides of the same individual, and in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ it is stated that there is a 
variation in this part as well as in the relative size of the fins, depending on the age of the 
individual. ‘The fish at present under consideration may perhaps eventually prove to belong 
to the preceding species, should the elongation of the tips of the caudal and peak of the dorsal 
be discovered to be merely a sexual peculiarity or the more perfect state of the fish. One 
specimen exists in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, to which it was pre 
sented by the Rev. George Vachell, and another in the British Museum, received from John 
Reeves, Esq., both obtained at Canton. 

Eye fully as large as in boops, interfering a little with the profile, and not much above half 
a diameter from the end of the snout. Height of body equal to one-fourth of the total length; 
suborbitar chain presenting small knobs round the margin of the orbit, crenated on the lower 
edge; preorbitar narrow and toothed. In both specimens the preopéfcular spine is long, 
tapering, and acute on one side and comparatively short on the other, and its serratures are not 
uniform ; the operculum has a very small spinous point, which is the tip of a shortridge; the 
fourth soft ray of the dorsal is lengthened into a short filiform tip, the posterior corner of the 
fin being rounded ; the anal is much rounded and about half the height of the body ; caudal 
forked, with the tips acute and lengthened, particularly the upper one in Mr. Reeves’s spe- 
cimen ; but in Mr. Vachell’s, the upper tip only isa little larger than the rest of the fin, and is 
nearly straight on the edge; pectoral considerably smaller than in benmebari, and rounded; 
ventrals large ; the scales silvery and bright. In the figure a bright carmine colour runs along 
the base of the dorsal, and gradually fades away as it descends the sides, which are silvery; 
the same is the case on the head; a faint roseate tint spreads over the dorsal, the edge being 
deeper; the anal and ventrals are pale blue, the latter being rose-coloured towards the edges, 
and marked by about eight rows of brown spots, with two larger round ones in the membrane 
which connects the last ray with the belly as far as the anus; the pectorals and caudal are 
siskin-green and rose-coloured. One specimen 44 inches, the other 94 inches. 

The Priacanthus speculum of the Seychelle islands is stated in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ 
(vii. p. 471) to be readily distinguished from other species by its forked caudal. We are 
prevented from considering it as identical with the Chinese fish, by the eye being a full dia- 
meter of the orbit from the edge of the snout, the extreme smallness of the preopercular 
point, and the absence of the round spots on the pectoral. In the latter character dayenus 
agrees more nearly though not perfectly with benmebari. In the angular or pointed dorsal 
it resembles japonicus. 


Hab. Chinese sea. Canton. 


PRIACANTHUs DuBIUs, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 19. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


PrRiACANTHUS JAPONICUS, C. et V. iii. p. 106. pl. 50; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
Sieb. p. 20. 


Hab. Japanese sea. 


PRIACANTHUS NIPHONIUS, C. et V. iii. p. 107; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 
p-21. Rad. D. 10|12; A. 3|10; &c. (Biirger’s spec.) 
One of Biirger’s specimens is in the British Museum. Scales much rougher than those of 


benmebari. In the roughness and general character of the scales Priacanthus approaches to 
the Myripristide. 


THERAPON THERAPS, C. et V. iii. p. 129. et vii. p. 475. pl. 53; Richardson, 
Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 126. Pterapon trivittatus, Gray, Hardw. Ill. ; Zeon. 
Reeves, a. 43; Hardw. Acanth. 49. Chinese name, Ketseé tsze (Birch) ; 
Kin sih (Reeves); Aborigines of Port Essington, At a goorn (Gilbert). 


Hab. Seychelles, Indian ocean, Torres Straits, Javan and Chinese seas. 


THERAFON SERVUS, Bloch ( Holocentrus), 238 ; C. et V. iii. p.125; Richard. 
Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p.126. Grammistes servus, Bl. Schn. p.185. Sciena 


% 
oF 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 239 


Jarbua, Shaw, Gen. Zool. iv. p. 541 ; Icon. Reeves, 3.44; Hardw. Acanth. 
Chinese name, Ting kun yu, “Nail-fish” (Reeves); Ting hung u 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 130). 


Some of the Chinese specimens of this fish in the British Museum possess all the characters 
ascribed to servus, others seem to be intermediate between this species, theraps and o«y- 
rhynchus; so that it is difficult to decide on the species to which they ought to be referred. 


Hab. Red sea, Indian ocean, north-west coast of Australia, Javan sea, Torres Straits, the 

Moluccas and Chinese sea. 

THERAPON OXYRHYNCcHUS, Temm. et Schleg. F. J. Sieb. p. 16. pl. 6. f. 3; 
Icon. Reeves, 193; Hardw. Acanth. 70. Chinese name, Shih hed tseé, 
“Stony-horned tseé ” (Birch); Shih koh tsih, “Strong-horned ¢sih” 
(Reeves, Bridgem. Chrest. 131). 

The brown lines in Mr. Reeves’s figure resemble those of Th. ghebul, Ehrenberg. Several 


éxamiples exist in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, and there is one in the museum at 
Haslar, which was obtained near Canton by Captain Dawkins of the Royal Navy. 


Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. 


THERAPON QUADRILINEATUS, Bloch (Holocentrus), 239. f. 2.; C. et V. iii. 
p- 134; Icon. Reeves, 6.34; Hardw. Acanth. Chinese name, Chang ko po 
(Reeves) ; Cheung ho po (Bridgem. Chrest. 136). 

Hab. Chinese sea. 


LATILUs ARGENTATUS, Cuv. et Val. v. p. 369. et ix. p.495; Temm. et Schl. 
F. J. Sieb. p. 63. pl. 28. f.2. Coryphene chinoise, Lacép. iii. p. 176 et 
209. Coryphena sima, Bl. Schn. p. 296; Icon. Reeves, 192; Hardw. 
Acanth. Chinese name, Fang tow hwo, “Square-headed hwo” (Birch) ; 
Fang tow wuh, “ Square-head wuh” (Reeves); Fang tow wah (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 215). 


Mr. Reeves’s drawing has a pale purplish-red hue, but he has informed me that the recent 
tints of the fish had faded before it was submitted to the painter. It represents the form of a 
specimen of Biirger’s in the British Museum better than the figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ 
the caudal in the latter being more rounded. 

Hab. Indian ocean and seas of China and Japan. 


Fam. Cirrwirip# (Gray). 


CIRRHITES AUREUS, Temm. et Schl. p. 15. pl. 7. f£.2; Icon. Reeves, a. 16; 
Hardw. Acanth. 47. Chinese name, Hwang. gaou,.“ Yellow gaou” 
(Reeves). 


Mr. Reeves’s drawing shows a fatty protuberance on the nape, overhanging the orbit, and 
a blackish patch on the gill-cover, which do not appear in the plate of the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ 
An example of the fish exists in the British Museum which agrees with Mr. Reeves’s painting. 


Hab. Chinese and Japanese seas. 


CHEILODACTYLUS zonaATus, C. et V. v. p. 365. pl. 129; Temm. et Schl. 
F. J. Sieb. p. 64. pl.29. Labre du Japon, Krusenst. Voy. pl. 63.f.1; Icon. - 
Reeves, 8.43; Hardw. Acanth. Chinese name, Ke kung yu, “ Cock fish” 
(Reeves, Birch); Kai kung u (Bridgem. Chrest. 124). 

The British Museum possesses two of Biirger’s specimens of this fish, and there are Chinese 


ones in the collection at Hyde Park, the form of which is better represented by Mr. Reeves’s 
drawing than by the figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 
Fam. Manipa. 


Gerres Equuta, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 76. pl. 9. f.1; Icon. Reeves, 
215; Hardw. Acanth. 148. Chinese name, Tswan tsuy, « Boring mouth” 
(Reeves) ; “ Boring lips” (Birch). ad. D. 9/10; A. 3[7; C.178; P, 
16; V. 1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 


~~ Te pe en eee 


240 REPORT—1845. \yaET RS SH MO 


The Rev. George Vachell has deposited a Canton specimen in the museum of the Cambridge 
Philosophical Society. sbi 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


Gerres punctatus, C. et V. vi. p. 480. Woodan, Russell, 68? Icon. 
Reeves, 260; Hardw. Acanth. 149. Chinese name, Hae tsih (Birch, 
Reeves); ‘“ Sea tsih” (Reeves ). 

Mr. Reeves’s figure, probably from an oversight of the artist, shows four anal spines. 
Hab. Indian ocean and China seas. 


GERRES ? Icon. Reeves, 3.39; Hardw. Acanth. 


This drawing evidently represents another species of Gerres, having less elongation of the 
anterior dorsal spines, and wanting the vertical faint purple bands; but the drawing is less 
precise in its details than in most others of this admirable collection, and in the absence of 
specimens we cannot ascertain whether it be a described species or not. Its Chinese appel- 
lation is the same with that of the punctatus. 


Hab. China seas. 

Dirrema, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 77. pl. 40. f.2. “ Rad. B.6; D. 
10|22; A. 3|27; P.19; C.16; V. 1|5.” (Fauna Jap.) 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CuetorTerus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 7. pl. 37.f.2. “ Rad. B. 4; 
D. 10/10; A. 3i8; C.18; P.17; V. 1|5.” (Fauna Jap.) ) 


Hab. Sea of Japan, 


Fam. SpARIDE. 
CurysoPurys ARIES, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 67. pl. 31. 
A Chinese specimen exists in the collection at Hyde Park. Incisors between chisel-shaped 
and conical. 
Hab. Japanese and Chinese seas. 


CHuRYSOPHRYS TUMIFRONS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 70. pl. 34. 
A specimen of Biirger’s in the British Museum has the hind head less high, and the pre- 
orbitar one-third lower than the figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Curysopurys MAJOR, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 71. pl. 35. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Curysopurys BERDA, Forskal (Sparus), p. 32; C. et V. vi. p.113 ; Ruppell, 
Neue Wirlb. p. 120. taf. 27. f.4. Sparus hasta, Bl. Schn. p.275; Icon. 
Reeves, 223; Hardw. Acanth.75. Rad. D.11|11; A. 3|8, &c. (Spec. Chin. 
coll.) 

Specimens of this fish exist in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park and in the British Mu- 
seum, the latter brought from Canton by John Reeves, Esq. In Mr. Reeves’s drawing the 
large pectoral is ochraceous, the rest of the fish gray, with a yellowish gloss on the belly, and 
the base of each scale blackish-gray. The lips are thick, and the fish has a scieenoid aspect. 
It is compared by Mr. Reeves with Diagramma cinctum. 


Hat. Red sea, Indian ocean, and China. 8 


Curysopurys LONGISPINIS, C. et V. p. 116; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 

p- 68. pl. 32. 

One of Biirger’s specimens in the British Museum has the preoperculum streaked on the 
disc and pectinately toothed on its vertical edge, the teeth bluntish, and concealed by mem= 
brane in the recent fish. A narrow, flat, blunt, bony point terminates the operculum behind 
the tip of the gill-flap. First anal spine very short, third one slender, second stouter and 
longer. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 24] 


CuRYSOPHRYS CARDINALIS, Lacép. (Sparus), iv. p. 141; C. et V. vi. p. 130; 
Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 69. pl. 33; Icon. Reeves, 199; Hardw. 
Acanth. 46. Chinese name, Kin sze lé*, “ Gold-skein 14 fish” (Birch) ; 
Kum sze lap (Reeves); Kum su lap (Bridgem. Chrest. 212). ad. D. 
12|10; A. 3/9; C.17; P. 14; V. 1]5. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 

Mr. Reeves has deposited a Canton specimen 7 inches long in the British Museum, and 
there are several in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. Asmall, slightly pungent opercular 
point. Nuchal scales scarcely to be distinguished from the others, Three pits on each limb of 
the lower jaw. Preorbitar equal in height and breadth. 


Hab. Chinese and Japanese seas. 


CHRYSOPHRYS ? TIcon. Reeves, 95; Hardw. Acanth. 59. Chinese 
name, Kam tzena, “Geld-threaded robe” (Reeves); Kam sze nap (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 100). Rad. D.12|11; A.3|8; P. 13, &c. (Reeves’s figure.) 

This figure looks very much like a second representation of cardinalis, the only differences 

I can perceive being its rather larger head, the third anal spine rather shorter than the second 

one, and the serratures of the supra-scapular more strongly marked ; it has moreover yellow 

not roseate pectorals, pale angular marks on the spinous dorsal, and wants the superciliary 
green streak represented in the drawing of cardinalis. 
Hab. China. Canton. 


CHRYSOPHRYS AURIPES, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 128; Hardw. Acanth. 
58. Chinese name Kin tze li, ‘Gold thread 1a fish” (Birch, Reeves). 
Rad. D. 11/11; A. 3|8; C.17£; P.15; V. 1[5. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

A Canton specimen of this fish, presented to the British Museum by Mr. Reeves, has three 
longish, subulate, somewhat incurved teeth on each intermaxillary, and five rows of small upper 
molars; the interior rows being short, and the last three teeth of the third row bigger than the 
rest, but not exceeding swan-shot; there is the usual crowd of small teeth behind the incisors, 
and four rows of the lower molars. Preorbitar twice as long as itis high. Preopercular 
disc faintly striated. Operculum ending in a small flat truncated point, with the bone sloped 
away above and below, where the edge is more concave than above. A row of crenated and 
striated, but not very conspicuous nuchal scales. The dorsal spines swell out on alternate sides, 
and the second anal spine is longer and stronger than the third one, which equals the soft 
rays. The height of the body is contained two times and a half in the total length, and the 
profile rises with little convexity and no undulation from the upper lip to the dorsal. The fal- 
cate pectoral, which is rather too short in the figure, reaches to the anal. The colour is brightly 
silvery, with ash-gray shadings on the base of the scales. The dorsal and upper half of the 
caudal are also gray with darker shadings on their borders. The lower half of the caudal and 
the other fins are saffron-yellow. Length of figure 7} inches, 


Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. 


CuHRYSOPHRYS XANTHOPODA, Richardson, Jcon. Reeves, 85; Hardw. 
Acanth. 61. Chinese name, Hwang yth (Birch); Hwang yih, “ Yellow 
fin” (Reeves); Wong yi (Bridgem. Chrest. 221). ad. D. 1111; 
A. 3|9; P. 15, &c. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 


Mr. Reeves has deposited a specimen of this fish also in the British Museum. In form 
it is very similar to the last, except that the profile bulges a little at the orbit. The 
colours also are nearly the same, the back showing merely a deeper tint of yellowish-gray with 
some green on the nape and parts of the head; the yellow of the lower fins also is more. 
vivid. The specimen has only two short conical canines on each intermaxillary and five rows 
of molars, the largest, which are those of the middle row, not exceeding partridge-shot. The 
canines are very short in the lower jaw, and there are only three rows of molars to be clearly 

-made out. Preorbitar es in auripes, and with W thin papyraceous edge. Preoperculum 
striated on the disc, and minutely but regularly serrated along the upper limb. Flat point of 
the operculum rather more prominent than in auripes, and much like the corresponding 
point in a Scolopsides. Middle anal spine long and strong as in auripes, and the pectoral 
long. Length of the figure 84 inches, 

Both the preceding species have the colours of the Chitchillee of Russell, plate 91 


* This character, as written on the drawing here and in the following places, is pro- 
nounced cha (Morrison, Dict. i. part 2, No. 32), but Bridgem. Chrest. substitutes i. 


1845. R 


942 i REPORT—1845. 


(Chrysophrys chrysargyra, C. et V,); butin that figure the third anal spine is larger than the 
second, the soft rays of the fin are more numerous, and the profile is more arched. 


Hab, China seas. Canton. 


PAGRUS UNICOLOR, Quoy et Gaim. (Chrysophrys), Voy. de ’Uranie, p. 299 ; 
C. et V. vi. p. 162; Icon. Reeves, 160; Hardw. Acanth, 41. hinese 
name, Hung li, “ Red la” (Reeves) ; Hung lap (Bridgem. Chrest, 213). 
Rad. 12|10; A. 3|8; C. 15; V. 1|5, (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

Specimens brought from Canton by John Reeves, Esq. and the Rey. George Vachell, exist in 

the British Museum and Cambridge Philosophical Institution. Surgeon R, A. Bankier, R. N., 

sent one to the Haslar Museum from Hong Kong. Third anal spine longer than second one. 


Hab, China seas (Canton). Western Australia (King George’s Sound). 


DeENnTEX SETIGERUS, C. et V. vi. p. 253. Spare chinois, Lacép. iv. p. 46 ; 
Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 73. pl, 37.f.1; Jeon, Reeves, 3.58 ; Hardw. 
Acanth. 60. Chinese name, Kin sze yu, “Gold silk fish” (Jap. Fish, ii. 
p- 20); Hung shan, “ Variegated red silk” (Birch) ; Hung sam, “ Red 
jacket” (Reeves); Hong sham (Bridgem, Chrest. 66). 

The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s specimens, and also one brought from Canton 
by John Reeves, Esq. 
Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. 


DenTeEx Griseus, Temm. et Schl, F. J. Sieb. p. 72. pl. 36. 
A specimen of Biirger’s exists in the British Museum, 
Hab. Japanese sea, 


LETHRINUS HEMATOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl, F. J. Sieb. p. 72. pl. 36; 
Richardson, Zool. of Sulph. p. 144. pl. 64. f. 1-3; Zeon. Reeves, 232; 
Hardw. Acanth. 63. Chinese name, Z’seen tsuy ld, “ Dog-lipped 14” 
(Birch); Tseen tsuy tso (Reeves). 

We have seen a specimen in the British Museum, brought from Canton by John Reeves, 

Esq., and one sent from Hong Kong by Surgeon R. A. Bankier, R.N. 

Hab, Seas of Japan and China. Canton. Hong Kong. 


LeTHRINUS ANATARIUS, Richardson, Zool. of Sulph. Voy. p, 145. Icon, 
Reeves, 245; Hardw. Acanth. 55. Chinese name, Go ld, “‘ Goose Ja 
fish” (Birch) ; Go tso, “ Goose tso” (Reeves). 

Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


CRENIDENS PUNCTATUS, Gray (Girella), Ill. Ind. Zool, Hardw. pl. 98. 
f. 3,4. Icon. Reeves, 79; Hardw. Acanth. 74. Chinese name, Kwa tze 
li, “Melon la fish” (Birch); Kwa ize tso (Reeves). Rad. B.5? D, 
14|13 vel 15|14; A.3|1lad13; C.153; P.20; V. 1|5. (Spee. Br. Mus.) 
Mr. Reeves deposited two specimens of this fish in the British Museum. Teeth curved, 

flat and expanding towards their ends, which are tricuspid, standing out in three rows on the 
margin of the jaw; and a little way behind them a brush-like band of much smaller teeth, 
which are also tricuspid, and like the others except in size. Preoperculum minutely serrated 
on the edge and radiately ridged on the disc. Lower part of gill-eover and suboperculum 
smooth and sealeless. Operculum ending in two thin, flat, widely separated corners. Scales 
strongly ptenoid, pale, with dark borders, and resembling melon-seed, The preyailing colour 
of Mr. Reeves’s figure is umber-brown, deeper above the lateral Jine and on the dorsal fin. The 
other fins are blackish-gray, the pectoral having a yellow edge. The iris bright blue. Cau- 
dal even. 

Hfab. China. Canton. 

CRENIDENS LEONINUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 263 ; Hardw. Acanth. 
73. Shih tze tso, “ Stone lion tso” (Birch). Rad. D. 1416; A. 3/12 
vel 13, &c. (Reeves’s fig.) 

The general colour of the head and upper puarts of this fish is apple-green, the belly gra- 
dually becoming faint tile-red. The green colour spreads oyer the scaly bases of the fins, 
their membranes are purple with a greenish gloss. 

Hab. Canton. 


oe a ae 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 243 


CrENIDENS MELANICHTHYs, Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. p.'75. pl. 39. Icon. 
Reeves, 247; Hardw. Acanth.'72. Chinese name, Lith yen he, “ Green- 
eyed fowl” (Birch, Reeves). Rad. D. 14|14; A. 3|12; C.17; P- 17; 
v. 1|5. (Fauna Jap. and Reeves's fig.) 


The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ have named this species as the type of a peculiar 
genus, but have not assigned any strong reason for separating it from Crenidens. They mu 
agree with them in thinking that the group ought to be subdivided, should observe that Mr. 
Gray’s generic name Girella is prior to the Melanichthys of the ‘ Fauna Japonica. In Mr. 
Reeves’s drawing the general colour is black and blackish-purple, with purer purple tints on 
the face. The caudal is glossed with purplish-brown, the soft dorsals, anal and pectorals, 
with deep blackish green, and the ventrals, spinous dorsal and spines of the anal, with Boneues 
purple. The eyes are green. These various shades of dark colours give a general blackis! 
aspect to the fish. In the illumination of the figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica the colour is 
black, the greenish and purple tints being omitted, as they are in a drawing made by Deputy- 
Assistant Commissary General Neill, of Crenidens tephr@ops, a Western-Australian fish, which 
agrees nearly in outline with the Japanese fish. (Ichth. Ereb. and Terror, pl. 41. f. 1, 2,) The 
Australian names are Kowelany and Memon. . 

Another Western-Australian fish, similar in profile, has the body thinning off like a wedge 
towards the belly, and is known to the settlers by the name of “ Zebra-fish, ’ on account of 
nine black vertical bars on the sides. Its local names are Kgummul and Karraway, ‘‘ The 
striped.” : 

A third Australian fish having the same local name of Memon, and another also of Muddier, 
has more of a Scaroid aspect than the preceding, but yet appears to be of the same genus. 
A scale which accompanies Mr. Neill’s drawing has the same form and ptenoid structure with 
those of the preceding two Australian fish. ° The caudal is truncated, with the side-points pro- 
jecting to the length of one-third of the fin, and the intermaxillaries and mazxillaries ? are set 
by a close row of large trenchant teeth. The colour is black, marbled with sky-blue and a 
brownish-red tint on the breast. The yentrals blackish-gray and blue ; the other fins black. 
The figure is twenty-one inches long. Mr, Neill’s drawings of these and many other Austra- 
lian fish are contained in a volume which he presented to the British Museum. The ‘Ichthy~ 
ology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror’ (p. 36, pl. 25. f. 2) contains a description and 
figure of Crenidens triglyphus, a Port Jackson fish which has the physiognomy of Crenidens 
forskalii, while the group of Melanichthys approaches more to the Pomacentride in general 
aspect, 


Hab, Seas of Japan and China, 


Fam. ACANTHURIDZ. 


AMPHACANTHUS MARGARITIFERUS, C. et V. x. p.145. “ Chaetodon cana- 
liculatus, Park Lin, Tr. iii, p. 33, Amph. canaliculatus, Bl. Schn. p. 209 
(Hist. des Pois. x. p. 146). Amph. albo-punctatus, Temm, et Schl, F. J. 
Sieb. p. 128. Icon. Reeves, 259; Hardw. Acanth. Rad. D, 13|10; 
A.'7|9; C. 1742; P. 15; V. 2|3. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 

A specimen of this fish from Canton was presented to the Cambridge Philosophical Society 
by the Rev. George Vachell. The profile of the snout is somewhat gibbous before the eye. 
The teeth are deeply notched, the eusps unequal and crenated. The preoperculum is marked 
at its angle by three or four diverging furrows, and a few small scales are sunk in the integu- 
ment of the cheek close to its bend. The lateral line is composed of a series of short simple 
tubes not very close. Hye rather large. The drawing is grass-green on the upper parts and 
on the dorsal and caudal fins, the colour fading to mountain-green and bluish-gray as it de- 
scends the sides. Many oval silvery spots are scattered over the sides. The spinous dorsal is 
narrowly edged with blackish-gray ; there are dots of that colour on the rays, and the anal and 
ventrals are spotted or barred with the same. The pectorals are pale green at the hase, passing 
into aclay colour on the disc of the fins. The belly and sides of the head have much silvery 
lustre. Length 7 inches. The green changes to brown in spirits. 

Hab. Seas of China and Japan, Indian ocean, 


AMPHACANTHUS FuscEsceNs, “ Houttuyn, Mem. de Haerl, xx, p. 333 ;” 
 C.et V. x. p. 156; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 127. pl. 68. f. 1; Icon, 
Reeves, 115; Hardw. Acanth.229. Chinese name, Le mong (Reeves); 
_ Lai mang (Bridgem. Chrest. 37). Rad. D.13|10; A. 7|9; V. 2|3, &e. 
A mounted and varnished specimen exists in the British Museum, which was brought from 
Canton by John Reeves, Esq.; and there is another example in the Chinese collection at Hyde 


RQ 


1 


244 REPORT—1845., Key meee 


Park. The post-frontal is ridged in a radiated way and slightly cancellated, and no scales 
could be discovered through the varnish on the cheeks or temples. The teeth are strongly 
tricuspid, the larger middle lobe rounded and crenated, the lateral ones acute. In the draw- 
ing an accessory or binate anal spine is shown, and the same thing is noticed by Park in his 
description of dmph. margaritiferus. The body is clouded with umber-brown and silvery 
blotches, occupying nearly equal space, but a dark tint prevailing onthe back. On the flanks 
and tail there are besides many small silvery dots. The throat is umber-brown, and the 
sides of the head are umber-brown and olive-green, shading into eachother. The caudal, 
soft dorsal, posterior half of the spinous part and soft anal are chestnut-brown. A cream- 
yellow stripe runs along the base of the anal. The ventrals, fore-part of the dorsal, and 
spinous portion of the anal are bluish-gray, and the pectorals straw-yellow with an umber- 
brown blotch on the base. Length 10 inches. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Canton. 


AMPHACANTHUS AURANTIACUS, Temm. et Schleg. F. J. Sieb. p. 128. pl. 68. 
se 


Hab. Sea of Japan; rare. 


ACANTHURUS ORBICULARIS, Quoy et Gaim.; C. et V. x. p. 237. 


The scales or cuticular ridges on the edge of the thorax, from the gill-openings to the ven- 
trals, are serrated by fine, acute teeth pointing backwards. A specimen exists in Haslar 
Museum. 


Hab. Chinese Sea (Sir Edward Belcher). Guam (Hist. des Pois.). 


NAseEus FRONTICORNIS, “ Commerson ;” C.et V. x. p.259; Temm. et Schl. 
F. J. Sieb. p.129. pl. 69. Harpurus monoceros, J. R. Forst.Deser. An. ed. 
Licht. p. 219 ; Icon. G. Forster, Bib. Banks, 194. Monocerus biaculeatus, 
Bl. Schn. p.180. Maseus longicornis, Guer.; Icon. Rég. An. pl. 35. f. 31. 
“ Name at Waigiou, Hen-raw ; at Otaheiti, H-ooma,” Forster. 

Hab. Chinese and Japanese seas. Sandwich islands (Webber). Polynesia. Guam. 


In Sir Edward Belcher’s collection there are several species of Acanthuride, among which is 
an adult Naseus brevirostris, and also specimens of Naseus lituratus, some of which may have 
been collected in China; but as this officer visited New Guinea, which has been recorded pre- 
viously as the native place of these fish, and he put fish from various localities into the same 
jars, we are unable to affirm that any of these specimens are Chinese. 


Prionurus scALprumM, C. et V. x. p. 298; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 
p- 129. pl. 70; Zcon. Reeves, 183; Hardw. Acanth. Chinese name, 
Hih tseang keun, “ Black general” (Birch); Hak tseang keun tsang, 
“ Black éseang keun (a military officer)” Reeves. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 


General colour blackish-purple, paler towards the belly, the fins blacker, and a narrow 
reddish streak from the angle of the mouth to the preoperculum. 


Hab. Chinese and Japanese seas. 


Fam. CHEZTODONTIDE. 


PIMELEPTERUs INDICUS, Kuhl et Van Hasselt, in C. et V. vii. p. 2705 
Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 86. “ Rad. D.11|12; A. 3|11,” &c. (F. J.) 


Hab. Indian ocean. Sea of Japan. 


PEemPuHERIs MOLUCA, C. et V. vii. p. 306; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 85. 
pl. 44. f. 3. 


Hab. The seas of Japan and the Moluccas. 


Hyesrinotus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 84. pl. 42. f. 2. 

I possess a drawing of a fish caught in the Bight of Benin by Dr. Thompson of the Royal 
Navy, which has the exact profile, the position of the ventrals and general appearance of M. 
Biirger’s figure published in the ‘Fauna Japonica,’ except that the ventrals have the red 
colour of the rest of the fish. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 
Drepane PuncraTa, Lin. (Chetodon), C. et V. vii. p. 132. Chetodon 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 245 


~» punetatus, Solander ; Icon. 21. Parkinson, Bib. Banks. Laété, Russell, 79 ; 
‘Icon. Reeves, 51; Hardw. 162. Chinese name, Ke lung tsang, “ Coop 
tsang fish” (Birch); “ Fowl-basket” (Reeves). 
Hab. Round the entire coasts of Australia and New Guinea, and inthe Javan and China 
seas, and the Indian ocean. 


DREPANE LONGIMANA, Bl. Schn. (Chetodon), p. 231; C. et V. vii. p. 133, 
Terla, Russell, 80-81 ; Jcon. Reeves, 241; Hardw. Acanth. 159. Chi- 
nese name, Lew tsang, “Willow sang” (Birch) ; “ Willow dory” (Reeves). 
Rad. D. 9\21; A.3{19; C.178; P.17; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 
The vertical bars which are described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ from faded specimens, 

have a lively auricula-purple colour, and are eight in number. The Rev. George Vachell 

has deposited a Canton specimen in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. 
Hab. Indian ocean, Javan and China seas. 


Scatopuacus arcus, Lin. (Chetodon); C. et V. vii. p. 136. Pool 
chitsilloo, Russell, 78. Icon. Reeves, 272? Hardw. Acanth.171? Rad. 
D.11|17; A. 4|14, &e. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 

Two specimens of this fish exist in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, which were 
brought from Canton by the Rev. George Vachell, and there are several in the Chinese col- 
lection at Hyde Park, all of which vary from one another in the size of the spots, which in 
some are bigger than the orbit, in others less. Mr. Reeves’s drawing shows much larger 
spots, and a more concave and sloping profile than Russell’s figure. The colour is also more 
purpurascent, sombre and dingy than it is described to be in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ so 
that it may possibly represent a distinct species. 

Hab. India. China. Moluccas. 


ScATOPHAGUS ORNATUS, C.et V. vii. p. 143. Icon. Reeves, 6.35; Hardw. 
Acanth. 169. Chinese name, Kin hoo, “ Metal drum” (Birch) ; Kin koo, 
“ Golden drum” (Reeves). 
Length of figure 24 inches. 
Hab. China. Amboyna. 


SCATOPHAGUS BOUGAINVILLI, C. et V. vii. p. 142? Icon. Reeves, 83 ; 
Hardw. Acanth.172. Chinese name, Lang peen yu, “Good flat fish” 
(Reeves, Birch). 

This drawing has exactly the profile of Russell’s figure of argus, but the dorsal spines are 
rather lower, and the second anal spine considerably larger than the others. The colour is 
lemon~yellow with a bright golden lustre, becoming silvery towards the belly, much of the 
head and parts of the fins being shaded by deep liver-brown. There are also some fainter 
large brown marks on the upper half of the body. In form this figure agrees with the de- 
scription of Bougainvillit, of which the true colours and markings are not known, the speci- 
men described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ having been badly preserved. 

Hab. China. 


Epurerus orszis, Bloch (Chetodon), 202, f.2; C. et V. vii. p. 127; La- 
cépéde, iv. p. 458 et 491; Icon. Reeves, 210; Hardw. Acanth. 157. 
Chinese name, Yin kung (Birch); Ying kung (Reeves); Ngan hung 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 30). 


Hab. Indian ocean and China sea. 


PLATAX EHRENBERGII, C. et V. vii. p.221. Platax vespertilio, Whitch. 

Bennett, Ceylon, pl. 5; Jeon. Reeves, 103 ; Hardw. Acanth. 179. Chi- 

‘nese name, Fei yih, “Flying wings” (Birch); Fe yih, “Flying fins” 

(Reeves); Fi yik (Bridgem. Chrest. 26). 

Mr. Reeves’s drawing has the yellow caudal fin with the dark brown bar on its base, and 
the precise dimensions of body and vertical fins which Bennett’s figure possesses. It shows 
moreover the broad vertical bars, of which there is only a trace in the Ceylon plate, viz. an 
ocular band, a pectoral one, a broad one taking in the soft dorsal and anal, and the brown bar 


246 REPORT—1845. 


on the base of the caudal, which mikes a fourth. The yellow tints aré not so general a8 they 
are shown by Mr. Bennett, being more confined to the breast. 


Hab. Mauritius. Red sea. Indian océan and China sea. 


PLATAX VESPERTILIO, Bloch, 199; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 83. pl. 43. 
Platax blochii, C. et V. vii. p. 222. 


The figure in the ‘Fauna Japonica’ wants an undulation in the arched part of the lateral 
line and the yellow caudal, with its /-shaped edge, which are shown in Mr. Reeves’s figure 
of the preceding. The authors of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ consider their fish to be the true 
vespertilio, though there are some peculiarities of coluur. 


Hab. Mauritius. Indian ocean. New Guinea and China. 


Haniocuus MACROLEPIDOTUS, Bloch, 200. f.1 (Chetodon). C. et V. vii. 
p- 93; Temm. et Schl. p. 82. pl. 44. f. 1. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. Moluccas. Celebes. New Guinea. Indian ocean, Mauritius and 
Mozambique. 


HoLACANTHUS SEPTENTRIONALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 82. pl. 44; 

Icon. Reeves, 178; Hardw. Acanth. 175. 

Mr. Reeves’s drawing is illuminated with a rich orange-brown ground colour and pure 
china-blue stripes, which are broader than in the figure of the fish in the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ 
One stripe is bent into a ring on the operculum and another on the base of the pectoral. The 
soft dorsal and anal are blackish, the other fins reddish-orange. 


Hab. Sea of China and Japan. 


‘ Cu#TODON AuREus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 81. pl. 42. f. 15 Icon. 
Reeves, a. 23; Hardw. Acanth.151. Chinese name, Ho paou kin, “ Purse 
gold” (Birch) ; “ Golden purse” (Reeves); Ho pau ham ( Bridgem. Chrest. 
25). 

Lge mae collare of Bloch (pl. 216. f. 1), which he says he had from Japan, appears 
to be this species. The profile, bands and numbers of the rays agree tolerably well. 
Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 9 


CuzTopon sETIFER, Bloch, pl. 425. f. 1; C. et V. vii. p. 76. 
Sir Edward Belcher obtained specimens of this fish in the outer China sea. 
Hab. China sea, Moluccas, Polynesia, the Indian ocean, and Mozambique channel. 


CuzTODON Mopgstus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 80. pl. 41. f. 2; Icon. 
Reeves, (3.41; Hardw. Acanth. Chinese name, 7séén tsuy li (Birch) ; 
Tseen tsui lap, “ Sharp-nose lap” (Reeves); T'sim tsuy lap (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 23). 


Mr. Reeves kept 4 specimen of this fish alive for some weeks in a glass globe filled with 
sea water. There is a Japanese example in the British Museum. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


Cu=Topon stricatTus, Langsdorff. C. et V. vii. p. 25. pl. 170; Temmi. et 
Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 80. pl. 40. f. 1; Zcon. Reeves, 3. 4; Hardw. Acanth. 
166. Chinese name, Chae yu, “ Fuel-fish” (Birch) ; “ Faggot-fish,” from 
the resemblance of its stripes to a bundle of fire-wood (Reeves). 

Mr. Reeves deposited a Canton specimen in the British Museum. 
Hab, Seas of China and Japan. 


Psrttus ARGENTEUSs, Lin. (Chetodon), Chin. Lageersir. in Ameen. Ac. 
1754. iv. p.249. No. 26; Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Ereb. and Terror, 
pl. 35. f. 1-3. con. Reeves, 240; Hardw. Acanth. 226. Chinese name, 
Yin leen tsang, “ Silver-scaled tsang” (Reeves, Birch). Fad. B.6; D. 
8|29; A. 3|29; C. 173; P.173 V..4|5. 

Dr. J. O. M‘ Williams, the intrepid and scientific surgeon of the Niger expedition, presented 
two specimens of this fish to the Haslar Museum. He obtained them at Norfolk island. 

Hab. Polynesia. Hast coast of Australia and sea of Chinas Canton (Reeves). Norfolk 
island (M‘Williams). Vanicolo (Quoy et Gaimard). 


i Fa Se 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 247 


HopteGnatuus FAScIAtus, Temm. et Schl. (Scarodon), F. J. Sieb. p. 89. 

pl. 46. f. 1 and 2. Genus Hoplegnathus, Zool. Trans. vol. iii. p. 114; 

“ Poisson perroquet noir; Krusenst. Voy. Atl. pl. 52.f.2.” “ Rad. B.7; 

D. 12|16; A. 3/13; C.17; P. 18; V. 1|5.” (Fauna Jap.) 

I tead an account of the genus Hoplegnathus before the Zoological Society, on the 9th of 
March, 1841, which was noticed shortly afterwards in the Zoological Proceedings, and sub- 
sequently published at length; with a figure, in the Zoological Transactions. A fasciculus 
of the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ which was published towards the end of the year 1844, gives an 
account of the same genus under the name of Scarodon, and mentions the earliest represen- 
tatiun of a species in the Atlas of ‘ Kruséhstern’s Voyage.’ The specinien described in the 
Zoological Transactions was suppose to be Australian, and differs from all the Chinese spe- 
cies in its more oblong form. I counted only five branchiostegous rays in the only example 
(a dried skin) which I had an opportunity of examining. The rays were as follows :—Br. 5? 
D. 12/12; A. 3|12; C. 154; P. 18; V.1[5. The colour was gone. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


HorLecnaTHus PuNcTATUS, Temm. et Schl. (Scarodon), F.J. Sieb. p. 91; 
Icon. Reeves, a. 12; Hardw. Acanth. 308. Chinese name, Hih shih la, 
“Black stone 14” (Birch); Hih shih tsoo (Reeves). 

Specimens of this fish exist in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. I have also seen very 
cursorily, in the museum at Fort Pitt, a spotted Hoplegnathus from Norfolk Island, which 
seemed to be more oblong and of a lighter colour than this species. 


Hab. Seas of Japan and China. 


HorLecNaTHus macutosus, Icon. Reeves, 270; Hardw. 173. (Spec. 
Chinese collection at Hyde Park.) 


Not having examined the specimens in the Chinese collection and compared them with one 
another, this is propounded only provisionally as a separate species. In Mr. Reeves’s draw- 
ings the spots are of two sizes, many smaller ones being scattered among others of the same 
dimensions with those of punctatus. More rays are shown in the soft dorsal and anal than in 
the figure of that species. The profile is less gibbous at the eyes, and the ventrals are smaller ; 
but on the whole the two drawings are very much alike and may be both representations of 
one species. 


Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 
Fam. FisTuLARIDZ. 

AULOSTOMA CHINENS!Is, Bloch, 338 (Fistularia). Fistularia sinensis, La- 
cépéde, v. p. 357. 

Sir Edward Belcher has deposited a Chinese specimen of this fish in the museum at Haslar. 
Hab. China seas. Polynesia. 

FISTULARIA IMMACULATA, Commerson. Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p.167. Fistu- 
laria tabaccaria, White’s Voy. to Botany Bay, p. 2962. f.2. Icon. Reeves, 
185; Hardw. 315. Chinese name, Ma peen yu, “ Horse-whip fish” 
(Reeves) ; Ma pin (Bridgem. Chrest. 52). 

Three Chinese specimens of this fish exist in the British Museum. 


Hab. China seas. Malay archipelago. Coasts of Australia. 


AMPHISILE scuTATA, Lin. (Centriscus). Bl. 123. f.2. ‘Klein Mant. Ichth.” 
Riippell Neue Wirlb. 142. 


Chinese specimens exist in the British Museum, Sir Edward Belcher’s collection and in 
the Canton insect-boxes. 


Hab. Chinese sea, Malay archipelago, Indian ocean and Red sea. 


Tribus Per1opoPHARYNGEI. 
bch Fam. Mueiripaz. 
Mueit saponicus, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 134. pl. 72. f.1. MM. ce- 


248 REPORT—1845. isk KO 


phalotus, Cantor, Ann.and Mag. of Nat. Hist. xi. p.29._ Rad. D.4|-1|8;' 
A. 39; C.14¢; P. 16; V.1|5. (Cantor's Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


Hab. Seas of Japan and China, Estuaries and canals (Cantor). 


Mueit (vel CestRaus?) xANTHURUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 197 ; 
Hardw. Acanth. 260. Chinese name, Hwang wei tze, “ Yellow-tailed 
parer” (Birch) ; Hwang ne tsae, “ Yellow-tailed” (Reeves); Wong ne 
tsai (Bridgem. Chrest. 117). 


This Mullet has a close resemblance in form to japonicus, but as it is a little more slender 
and its colours differ, we have given it a distinct name. The snout is represented as pro- 
jecting beyond the lower jaw, which shuts close up beneath it. The back is coloured pale 
leek-green, the sides and belly being silvery and pearly, with a short dark streak in the 
middle of each scale, making six or seven rows, none being perceptible below the middle of 
the fish. There are some hyacinth-red tints on the face and edges of the gill-pieces, and a 
pale-blue shading in the middle of the operculum. The pectoral is honey-yellow, very dark 
at the base and pale at the end. The membrane of the first dorsal is very pale-red lilac; the 
second dorsal is wood-brown; the ventrals and anal buff-orange, the latter having an opake 
white bar at its base. The caudal is gamboge-yellow with a crimson border in the notch. 

Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


Mucit MELANCRANUS, Jcon. Reeves, 73; Hardw. Acanth. 259. Chinese 
name, Woo tow (Birch) ; Ootow, “Black head” (Reeves); Utau(Bridgem. 
Chrest. 119). 


In Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, which was formed chiefly in the China seas, though 
specimens from other parts of the ocean were mixed with the fish there taken, I find a Mugil 
having a close resemblance to Mr. Reeves’s drawing above quoted, except that the belly is 
rather more prominent. ‘The upper lip is more fleshy and the orifice of the mouth consider- 
ably larger than in M. strongylocephalus, exceeding the size of the orbit in both directions. 
The under lip is horizontal with a slightly notched keel, and the teeth, which penetrate it, 
are sufficiently visible to the naked eye. The slender maxillary is visible nearly for its whole 
length when the mouth is closed, but it scarcely projects beyond the preorbitar, which has a 
straight front edge finely toothed, and ends in a point formed by a tooth larger than the rest. 
It is the tapering narrow form of this bone, and not a notch, which prevents it from concealing 
the maxillary. The length of the head and height of the body are equal, and rather exceed 
a fifth of the length of the fish. ‘lhe pectorals are contained six times and three-quarters in 
the same length, and the lobes of the caudal four times anda third. The thickness at the gill- 
plates is equal to two-thirds of the height of the body, but under the first dorsal the thickness 
is less than half the height. There are thirty-seven scales in a row, besides some small ones 
on the caudal, and eleven rows under the first dorsal. Each scale has eight or ten fan-like 
furrows diverging from a small tube before the middle of the disc, and the free border of the 
scale is tessellated by worn teeth, which, though minute, show on the edge. There are 
none of the branching lines seen in the scale of strongylocephalus, in which also the only ap- 
pearance of ptenoid structure is obscure and confined to the middle of the disc. The second 
dorsal and anal are scaly, and the latter commences a little sooner and ends a little further 
from the caudal. The caudal is also minutely scaly almost to the tips of its lobes. The top 
of the head is flat from the preoperculum forwards, but is much narrower than that of macro- 
lepidotus ; the nape is flatly rounded. There are the usual long scales at the first dorsal, 
above the pectoral and ventrals, and between the latter, but none of them are very conspicuous, 
The remains of a blue mark on the front base of the pectorals and a purple tint in the axilla 
are still visible in the specimen, which differs from c@ruleo-maculatus and azillaris in the 
pectorals not being long or pointed. 

In Mr. Reeves’s drawing, the top of the head, a circle round the eye, and the borders of the 
gill-pieces are dark oil-green; the top of the back is greenish-gray, and the sides silvery, with 
a yellowish-gray line through the middle of each row of scales. The pectorals are orpiment- 
orange with a blue mark on the scaly base, and the other fins are greenish-gray. Length of 
specimen 7°7 inches; from snout to gill-opening, 1°65 inch; to anus, 4 inches; to end of 
scales on base of caudal, 6°15. Height under the first dorsal, 7°55. Thickness at gill-plates, 
0:95. Between the orbits, 0°65. Thickness of back under the first dorsal, 0°70 inch. 

It is probable that this species is the Mullet referred to by Dr. Cantor as inhabiting the 


Peiho, and supposed by him to be the Mugil parsia of Buchanan Hamilton (Ganges, pl. 17. 
f. 21), Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 15. 


Hab. China seas? (Belcher). Canton (Reeves), 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 249 


Muein H@MATOCHEILUs, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 135. pl. 62. f. 2. 
Icon. Reeves, 8.49; Hardw. Acanth. 262. Chinese name, Keuen yu, 
“ Dog’s fish” (Reeves, Birch). 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


Mueim mMAcRoLEpPiIpotus, Riippell, Atlas, p. 140, tafel. f.2.a.6.; C. et V. 
\xi. p. 136. 
A specimen of this fish exists in Sir E, Belcher’s collection. 
Hab. Red sea (Riippell). Polynesia and Indian ocean (C. et V.). China seas? (Belcher.) 


MuGiL sTRONGYLOCEPHALUS, Richardson. 


The Haslar Museum possesses an example of this fish, procured at Hong Kong by Surgeon 
R. A. Bankier, R.N. The orifice of the extended mouth is small and triangular, the lips are 
thin with acute edges, the lower one being horizontal with a central notched keel. The teeth 
are invisible to the naked eye, but with a lens their points may be seen protruding through 
the edges of the lips like fine hairs. The jaws have considerable protractility, and when 
thrust out, the maxillaries are wholly seen; but when the mouth is retracted they are com- 
pletely hidden, The preorbitar is very narrow, with a rounded and finely toothed tip, behind 
which a smooth shallow groove turns round the edge of the bone, giving it a twisted appear- 
ance; but there is no distinct notch and no teeth on the fore-edge of the bone. In profile 
the fish has considerable resemblance to the macrolepidotus of Riippell (Atlas, 35. f. 2), but 
when seen from above, its snout, though rounded, is much narrower, being little more than 
half as wide as the head is at the gill-covers. It differs from eeruleo-maculatus (C. et V. xi. 
p- 128) and its allies in not having a thick upper lip. The height of the body is to the whole 
length of the fish as 1 to 53; the thickness, which is greatest at the gill-plates, as 1 to 7-8; and 
the length of the head as | to 46. «In profile the fish closely resembles M. parsia of Bu- 
chanan Hamilton (pl. 17. f. 21), and the curve is regular from the dorsal to the nostrils. 
When viewed from above, however, there appears a greater narrowness of the snout, which, 
though obtuse, has not more than half the width at the nostrils that it has at the gill-plates, 
The head is also much and evenly rounded off laterally, being in nowise flattened. It differs 
further from parsia in the maxillary being entirely concealed. The cleft of the shut mouth 
is bent en chevron, the angle being at the symphysis. An adipose substance, such as exists at 
certain seasons in the Mackerel, invests the temples and front of the eye, partially covering 
the preorbitar and leaving a vertically elliptical part of the eye visible. Thirty-one scales 
form a row between the gill-opening and caudal, and there are ten rows in the height of the 
body. ach scale has from seven to twelve basal furrows with a corresponding number of 
crenatures, a small central tube with a fine line running back from it and branching off to the 
various furrows, and on the posterior or free border there are thirty or forty fine lines com- 
mencing near the tube and becoming fissures on the extreme edge, producing so many flat and 
extremely thin teeth set like those of a fine comb. The central tubes, when the scales are in 
situ, produce, in conjunction with the basal furrows which shine through, the appearance of as 
many lateral lines as there are rows of scales, causing the marks on each scale to appear com- 
pound, though they are really simple. On the head there are several scales which have each 
two or three contiguous deeply impressed furrows on their discs; these produce one row on 
each temple, and another on each side more interiorly, which are connected by a transverse 
row on the nape, and also by a cross row at the orbits. The anal commences a little before 
the dorsal, and also ends sooner, though it is a little larger. The difference of origin is not 
so great as in M. parsia. Neither of the fins are large, and they are both scaly. The first 
anal spine is so minute that it can be detected only by dissection, The fourth spine of the first 
dorsal is short and slender. There are pointed scaly processes over the pectorals and ven- 
trals, and one between the latter fins. No peculiar markings remain on the specimen, which, 
except that the tips of the pectorals are broken, is in excellent condition. The scales are 
bright, and the whole fore-part back to the anus is dark bronze-coloured, more as if the fish 
had been stained by others in the same jar than like an original marking. There is no spot 
on the base of the pectoral. Length 7 inches; from snout to anus, 3°8 inches ; to dorsal, 
2°85 inches; to termination of scales on the tail, 5°75 inches. Length of head, 1°35 inch, 
Height of body, 1°5 inch. Thickness at gill-plates, 0°90 inch. 

Hab. Sea of China, Hong Kong. 


Mue. ventricosus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 3.31; Hardw. Acanth. 
261. Chinese name, Pah tze, “ White mullet” (Reeves); Pith tse, “ White 
parer” (Birch); Patz tsai (Bridgem. Chrest. 118). 


This Mullet, which is known to us only by the figure, is remarkable for its slender-pointed 


250 : REPORT—1845. 


head, the prominent curve Of its belly, and the thickness of the trunk ofits tail. The under- 
lip is shown as shutting in under the snout, and the form of the preorbitar is not so di- 
stinctly defined as to enable us to place the species in its proper group. The height of the 
body is contained three times and a half in the total length, caudal included. The back is 
little elevated but is angular in profile, which rises in a gentle and slightly concave slope 
from the point of the snout to the first dorsal. From thence to the second dorsal the line is 
horizontal ; ahd the rest of the tipper profile to the base of the caudal is slightly concave. 
The under curve is boldly convex to the anus, from whence to the caudal the ascent is con- 
siderable and the curve concave. The second dorsal commences one-third of the length be- 
hind the beginning of the anal, and extends as far beyond it. The space between the anal 
and caudal exceeds the length of the anal. The caudal is acutely but not deeply notched. 

On the back and upper part of the sides the discs of the scales are pale grass-green, their 
margins silvery, and the whole lower patts ate pearly and silvery. The tubes of the scales 
are strongly marked down to the middle of the sides, producing rows. The mouth is hya- 
cinth-red, the fore part of the gill-cover is buff-orange, and there is a patch of bright Berlin- 
blue at the upper angle of the gill-opening. The pectoral is dark brownish olive-green; the 
first dorsal red lilac-purple; the second dorsal and caudal mountain-green, the notch of the 
latter being edged with plum-purple ; the membrane of the anal is pale mountain-green, its 
rays and a streak at its base being white. The rays of the ventrals are also opake, white, with 
some carmine streaks on their tips, and the membrane is pale blue. 


Hub. Chinese sea. Canton. 
Fam. ANABANTIDA. 


ANABAS SCANDENS, Daldorf (Perea), Lin. Tr. iii. p.62; C. et V. vii. p. 325 ; 
Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist.ix. p. 28. Anthias testudineus, Bl. 322. Amphi- 
prion testudineus et scansor, Bl. Schn. p. 204. Cephalopholis, id. p. 570. 
Lutjan tortue, Lacép. iv. p. 192 et 235. L. grimpeur, ibid. p. 195 et 239. 
Coius cobojius, Buch. Ham. pl. 13. f. 33. 

Hab. Chusan. Streamlets and canals (Dr. Cantor). Malacca. Celebes. Java: Indian 
peninsula. 


PoLyAcANTHUS CHINENSIS, Bloch, 218, f. 1 (Chetodon); C. et V. vii. p. 
357. Chétodon chinois, Lacép. iv. p. 461 et 496. 
Hab. China. 


PoLyACANTHUS? PALUDOSUS, Descript. of Animals, Banks, Lib. MSS. No. 
84, p. 167. fig. 101 (Labrus). Rad. B.5; D.7|8; A.17\6; P.10; V. 
1|6. (Lib. citat.) 

The anonymous author of the book quoted above has given a pen-ahd-ink sketch of a 
small fish taken by him in the ditches and stagnant pools of Danes Island in the river at 
Canton, and named by him Labrus paludosus. Broussonnet has referred it to the Z. opercu- 
laris of Linneus, but we think erroneously, as the numbers of the rays do not agree, the spines 
of the dorsal in particular differing widely. It seems to be either a Polyacanthus or Macro- 
podus, and it differs from the described species of the latter in its cuneate tail and in the tips 
of the other two vertical fins being less elongated. Its form is oblong-linear; the height 
being contained five or six times in the total length; the head obtuse in profile, and the 
mouth at mid-height and terminal. The body tapers slightly to the semi-oval end of the 
tail, which is embraced by the pointed caudal. Body compressed and scaly, the back narrow. 
The second ray of the ventrals is stated to be very long by the author, but his figure repre- 
sents it as not reaching beyond the anterior third of the anal. The colour is olive-green with 
ten transverse yellow bars, and there is a dark mark on the upper part of the gill-cover near 
its edge. 

Hab. Canton. 


PoLyACANTHUS? OPERCULARIS, Lin. (Zabrus), Ammeen. Acad. iv. p.428. 
“ Rad. D. 12|8; A. 15|13; C. 16; V. 1[5.” (Linn.) 


This fish is described as having its body extended nearly in form of a parallelogram with 
the soft rays of the dorsal and anal longer than the spines, and the ventrals with a thread-like 
point. The body is shining with more than ten cross brown bars, the head spotted above, 
and the tip of the gill-cover marked by a dark brown spot. 


Hab. China. 
The Labrus linearis of Lin., Am. Acad.i. p. 597, is considered by Ctivier as belonging 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 251 


to this family. Its rays are B. 6; D. 20|1; A. 15; ©. 12; P. 12; V. 2/4, the single soft 
dorsal ray being considered as anomalous among the Acanthopterygii. 


MAacroropus VIRIDI-AURATUS, Lacép. iii. p. 417. pl. 16, f.1; C. ét V. vii. 
is 
Hab. China, Cochin-china. 


Macroropus venustus, C. et V. vii. p. 375. M. ocellatus, Cantor, Ann. 
Nat. ix. p.28? “Rad. B.4; D.17|8; A. 20|12; C.12; P. 11; V.1|6.” 
(Cantor.) 


Hab. Canton (Dussumier). Chusan (Cantor). 


OsPHRONEMUS OLFAX, Commerson; C. et V. vii. p. 377. Osphronéme gou- 
rami, Lacép. iii. p. 117. pl. 3. f.2. Trichopus goramy, Shaw, iv. p. 388. 


Hab. China. Java. Naturalised in the Isle of France and Cayenne. 


OPHICEPHALUS MACULATUS, Lacépéde (Bostrychus), iii. p. 140 et 143; 
C. et V. vii. p. 437; Icon. Reeves, 148 et 8.19; Hardw. 251. Chinese 
name, Sing yu, “Living fish” (Reeves, Birch, Bridgem. Chrest. 121). 
Rad. D. 42; A. 1|27; C.22; P.16; V.1]5. (Spec. Camb. Phil. Inst.) 


Height of body one-sixth of total length, and rather more than half the length of the head. 
Teeth short and densely villiform, or rather finely card-like, with a cluster of longer ones at 
the symphysis, as in the Serrani. A portion of the dental surface projects forward at the apex 
of the lower jaw, and the teeth of the exterior row there and at the sides of the jaw are stronger 
than the rest. The palatine bonés are armed with stronger curved teeth, having smaller ones 
at their bases. Vomerine teeth small. Pharyngeal apparatus an oval cell capable of being 
closed by various lobes which spring from its borders. Scales ciliated, and strongly marked 
by curved streaks nearly parallel to their posterior edges. Lateral line interrupted over the 
anus, and commencing agaih on the second row of scales beneath, whence it runs straight to the 
end of the tail. Ground colour yellowish-brown, fading to broccoli-brown and bluish-gray on 
the belly. Large irregular blackish-browh spots in two or three rows on the sides, and ten 
.or eleven round spots along the base of the dotsal, which becomes dark towards thé edge, and 
in the figure shows obsturely three otlier rows of dark spots; these aré effaced in the speci- 
mens. The dnal also is dark on its outer half, and shows faintly a series of oblique bars. 
One blackish-brown stripe passes backwards from the eye along the temporal groove, and 
dilates on the side of the head and upper edge of the gill-cover; another crosses the cheek 
lower down, and passing over the lower border of the operculum, is continued to the base of 
the pectoral; the spacé between these is nearly filled by a paler umber«brown bar, which is 
bordered by the yellowish-brown ground colour. Thefe are also blackish-brown spots and 
bats. scattered over the nose, top of the head and jaws; and three imperféct bars on the pec- 
torals. The caudal in fig. 148 is uniformly dark, with two transverse bars on its scaly base. 
In figure (3. 19 the basal half of the caudal is straw-yellow, with four dark transverse bars, and 
the other vertical fins are also lighter with more definite bars. Length of specimen 53 inches; 
length from snott to anus, 2°45 inches; length of head, 1°6 inch; height of body, 0°9 inch. 

There is a difference in the numbers of the fin-rays in Mr. ReeVes’s two figures. 

The above description is drawn up of two specimens in the museum of the Cambridge Phi- 
losophical Institution, which were brought from Canton by the Rev. George Vachell. In the 
Same institution are two rather larger specimens from the same quafter which do not differ in 
any essential point of structtire, but present a series of bright silvery rhotnboidal marks be- 
tween the two principal rows of dark lateral spots, having, with them, a quincuncial arrange- 
ment, These bright places are not shown in either of Mr. Reeves’s figures. There are series 
of pores in the temporal fossz2 down the limb of the preoperculum and along the limbs of the 
lower jaw. The lateral line is interrupted over the anus, but there are as many rows of lines 
as there are scales, so that the proper continuation of the line is difficult to make out, Length 
of specimens 63 and 8} inches; rays of dorsal, 44; of anal, 1|28. 

; These Ophicephali are carried about the streets of Canton in tubs and are cut in pieces alive 
or sale. 


Hab. Canton: 


_OpnicerHatus tris, C. et V. vii. p. 439. ’ 


Described from a Chinese painting brought from Canton by M. Dussumier. An azure- 
blue spot on the end of the tail. 


.- (Hab. Canton, : 


252 REPORT—1845, rHOr AAT MO 


OPHICEPHALUS MILIARIS, C. et V. vii. p. 439. 
Also described from a Chinese painting. 
Hab. Canton. 


OruHIcEPHALUS ARGUS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. History, ix. p.29. “Rad. B.5; 
D.49; A. 33; C.14; P.16; V. 1|5” (Cantor). 


“ Brownish-green back and sides, reddish-white abdomen ; numerous black ocellated spots 
edged with white above the lateral line; fins yellow, spotted with black.”—Cantor. 


Hab. Chusan. Streamlets and estuaries. 


OpHICEPHALUS GRANDINOSUS, C. et V. vii. p. 434. 
Described from a painting executed at Canton. 
Hab. Canton. 


OpHICEPHALUS ocULATUS, Lacépéde (Bostrychoides), iii. p. 144 et 145. 
Ophicephalus ocellatus, C. et V. vii. p. 454. 


This species is very imperfectly known, and only from a Chinese painting. 
Hab. China. 


OPpHICEPHALUS PUTICOLA, Icon. Reeves, 142; Hardw. 248. Chinese name, 
Tsing hung yu, “Well kung yu” (Reeves); Ching hung u (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 245 ). 


As most of the Chinese Ophicephali have been described from drawings only, and the colours 
appear to vary with age and season, it is probable that there has been an undue multiplication 
of species; and the drawing now quoted may eventually prove to be referrible to the same 
species with Lacépéde’s ocwlatus, but his figure differs in form, and it is impossible to reconcile 
the two in the present state of our knowledge of the ichthyology of Canton. 

Mr. Reeves’s drawing of puticola presents a light oil-green colour along the back, gradually 
passing on the sides and belly into peach-blossom red; a pale apple-green bar deeper towards 
its edges covers the temples and operculum; and there are about eleven blackish-green bars 
on the sides, bent backwards en chevron in the middle, and fading away towards the belly. 
On the scaly base of the tail, above its middle, there is a round spot of the same blackish-green 
hue. The head behind the eyes, the whole of the sides, the lower half of the dorsal, and the 
basal half of the caudal, are thickly spotted with points and small lines of sienna-yellow. All 
the fins are broadly bordered with blackish-gray, the basal halves of the anal and dorsal being 
ochraceous, and of the pectorals and caudal approaching to hyacinth-red. The tubular mar- 
gins of the anterior nasal openings are represented as unusually long; the caudal as much 
rounded, and the length as equal to six times and one-half the height of the body. D. 43; 
A. 34, &c. Length of figure 94 inches. 


Hab. Canton. 


OpHicEPHALUS Jovis, Icon. Reeves, 143; Hardw. 249. Chinese name, 
Luy hung yu, “Thunder king’s fish” (Birch, Reeves); Lut hung u 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 246). 


As the young of Oph. marulius differs very greatly from the adult in its colours, so it is not 
impossible but this may be the young of the preceding. Its different Chinese designation, 
however, and very different tints of colour, induce us to name it as distinct. 

The body is marked by ten or eleven blackish-green waved and forked bands, alternating 
with as many arterial blood-red ones; the two colours being about equal in quantity, either 
may be considered as the ground one. The top of the head is dark green; a dark green 
stripe which runs backwards from the eye and spreads over the gill-cover, is traversed part 
of the way by two red bars; and there is a red spot near the tip of the gill-flap. Some yel- 
low points are scattered on the side of the head and along the flanks, but not nearly so copi- 
ously asin puticola. The caudal, dorsal and pectorals are broccoli-brown, without bars or spots. 
The anal is yellowish-brown at the base, marked along its middle by a narrow white riband, 
which is shaded above by blackish-gray passing into white, and finally, the edge of the fin is 
bluish-gray. The anterior nostrils are tubular, but the tubes are scarcely so long as those of 
puticola. The form of the fish otherwise is much the same as in that species. Length of 
figure nearly 6 inches. 


Hab. Canton. , 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 253 


Tribus ? 
Fam. PoMACENTRID&. 


GLyPHISODON CzZLESTINUS, Solander (Chetodon), MSS. Bib. Banks; C. et 
V. v. p. 464; Icon. Parkins. Bib. Banks., 31; Reeves, 256; Hardw. 143. 
» Rad. D. 13|12 ad 14; A. 2|11 vel 12, &c. (Spee. var.) 


Specimens from China have been presented to the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq., 
and to Haslar Museum by Sir Edward Belcher and Capt. Dawkins, R.N. 

The teeth are entire, chisel-shaped and trenchant in a single row. 

Hab. Mozambique. Seychelles. Mauritius. Indian ocean. Polynesia and Chinese sea. 


GLYPHISODON. TYRWHITTI, Benn. Ceylon (Chetodon), pl. 25 ; Icon. Reeves, 
a. 31; Hardw. 144. Rad. D.13}12; A. 211, &c. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 


A specimen of this fish in the British Museum, brought from China by Mr. Reeves, can be 
distinguished from the preceding only by the teeth, which are those of a Dascyllus, and are 
villiform, with the front row stronger. It has not the aspect of a Dascyllus, nor the serrated 
preoperculum. It is not easy to say which of Mr. Reeves’s drawings, a. 3] or 256, repre- 
sents this fish best, but on the whole we have thought proper to refer to the former, which 
indicates the blue borders of the caudal more distinctly. The two figures are illuminated 
much alike, viz. with fine vertical blue or black bands, and intermediate spaces on the back 
of bright gamboge yellow. In a. 31 the yellow colour spreads over the dorsal to near its 
edge, while in 256 the fin is uniformly dark blue, the scaly sheath at its base being yellow; 
a. 31 has also a crimson-red head and a streak of carmine round the base of the pectoral. 
Length of figure 6 inches. 


Hab. Canton. Ceylon. 


GLyYPHIsODON RAHTI, Russell (Rahti-pola), 86? C. et V. v. p. 456 et ix. 
p- 507? Icon. Reeves, a. 33; Hardw. 142. 


The prevailing colour in Mr. Reeves’s drawing is pale mountain-green, without any of the 
yellow of the preceding two species. The cheeks and gill-covers are crimson. The fins are 
greenish, but darken greatly towards their borders. The species has been determined solely 
from the drawing, and is doubtful. In the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ Bennet’s figure of Che- 
todon tyrwhitti is referred to rahti, but as it is illuminated in accordance with Reeves’s figure 
a. 31, I have considered it to be a representation of the specimen described in the preceding 
article. 


Hab. Red sea. Indian ocean, Malay archipelago and Chinese sea. 


GLyPHisopon sorpipus, Forskal (Chetodon), p. 62; C. et V. v. p. 468; 
Riuppell, Atl. p. 34. taf. 8. f.1. Calamoia pota, Russell, 85. Poma- 
canthe sale, Lacép. iv. p. 519. 


Examples of this species, procured in the China seas by Capt. Dawkins, R.N., were pre- 
sented by him to the museum at Haslar. 


Hab. Red sea. Indian ocean. China seas. 


We have not seen a specimen to which we could refer Mr. Reeves’s drawing 274 (Hardw. 
145), and are unable to determine the genus to which it belongs. It has the aspect of Gly- 
phisodon, a large eye, narrow preorbitar, oblong-oval form, the height of the body being equal 
to half the distance between the snout and the base of the caudal fin. The rays are D. 13|11 
or12; A. 2|10, &c.; the second anal spine is stouter than usual, the caudal much forked with 
pointed lobes, and there is a filiform tip to the ventrals. The general tint is dark greenish- 
blue without bars, the head glossed with crimson, the fins blackish-brown, and a black mark 
on the base of the pectoral. The drawing, like the rest, was executed at Canton. It measures 
5 inches. 


GuyrHisopon BANKIERI, Richardson. Rad. D. 13/11; A. 211; C.15; 
P.17; V.1|5. (Spec.) 

_ The only example we have seen of this species was sent to Haslar Museum from Hong 
Kong, by Surgeon R. A. Bankier, R.N. It has the oblong form of a Pomacentrus, the height 
of the body being contained thrice and a half in the total length, caudalincluded. The teeth 
Stand in a single row and are chisel-shaped, with truncated entire tips. The eye is large; 
the preorbitar and suborbitar chain very narrow and not toothed; the yertical limb of the 


254 REPORT—1845. | aHT “oO 


preoperculum uneven, but not regularly toothed; and the onerculum terminating in a flat acute 
pungent point, with a shallow sinus above it ending in a sharp corner: a longitudinal row of 
scales between the gill-opening and caudal contains twenty-six. The lateral line terminates 
at the base of the last dorsal ray, and is continued lower down by a little pore in the disc of 
each scale. The vertical fins are scaly as usual. The middle soft rays of the dorsal end in a short 
filiform tip, and there is a corresponding acumjnation of the anal, but not so well marked. The 
caudal is slightly forked with-acute tips, The species differs from the members of the group 
headed in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ by azureus, in the pointed lobes of the caudal. It has 
lost much of its colour, and shows no traces of the dark eye-like spots which characterize the 
majority of the group. The caudal, end of the tail and hinder parts of the dorsal and anal 
retain a tinge of yellow; the rest of the two latter fins appears to have been fringed with 
black, and the fore-part generally of the fish looks dark. Length 2% inches, 


Hab. Chinese seas. Hong Kong. 


Heviases notatus, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 66. “Rad. D. 13|12 vel 
13; A. 913, &c.; B. 5,” (F. J.) 


This species has a spot behind the dorsal like Glyphisodon sordidus. 
Hab. Japan, 


HELIASES RETICULATUS, Richardson. ad. D. 12/15; A. 2/13; C. 154; 
P. 17; V.1|5- (Specs) 


The profile of this species, leaving out part of the tail, is nearly orbicular, and the bodyis 
greatly compressed. Teeth in one row short, subulate, acute, with very minute ones behind, 
scarcely perceptible even through a lens. Narrow preorbitar scaly, and when examined by 
a lens, seen to be minutely toothed; as is also the vertical limb of the preoperculum, a few 
teeth at the corner of this bone being larger. A slight sinus in the operculum. Twenty-five 
scales in a row between gill-cover and anus, and ten or eleven in a vertical row, the lateral 
line being traced on the second row from the base of the dorsal. It is at first marked by a 
single pore on the disc of each scale, and further on by a series of short tubes which terminate 
at the end of the dorsal, Most of the posterior scales have a little pit on their dises, producing 
the semblance of several lateral lines. We have seen only two examples of this species, which 
were brought from China by Sir Edward Belcher, The tips of the soft rays of their vertical 
fins are a little shortened, but the caudal is sufficiently perfect to show that it was slightly 
notched at the end, After long maceration in spirits, the ground colour is milk-white, with 
a well-defined pale yellowish-brown border to each scale, producing a net-work with acutely 
elliptical meshes. The spinous dorsal and the ventrals are clouded with umber-brown, The 
other fins retain no colour. Length 23 inches. 


Hab. China seas (Sir E. Belcher). 


PoMACcENTRUS NIGRICANS, Lacépéde (Holocentrus), iv. p. 332 et 367 ; 
C. et V. v. p. 425; Icon. Reeves, a. 32; Hardw. 146, Chinese name, 
Hih yu, “ Black fish” (Reeves, Birch), 


Hab. Sandwich islands and coasts of China. 


AMPHIPRION CHRYSARGYRUS, Icon. Reeves, a. 26; Hardw. 141. Chinese 
name, Hae kin yu, “ Silver gold fish” (Birch) ; “Sea gold fish” (Reeves). 


It has been remarked in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ that the differently coloured Amphi- 
prions may be in many instances mere varieties of one species. As these have however been 
described and named, it seems necessary that this one, whether species or variety, should also 
be noted, 

The general colour appears nearly uniform, but is composed of black with orange-brown 
and crimson, the latter colour replacing the others before the nose. The breast, pectorals and 
ventrals are bright saffron- or king’s-yellow; a white band descends from the nape over the 
fore part of gill-cover and edge of preoperculum, another from the posterior dorsal spines to 
the anal region, and a third occupies the trunk of the tail between the vertical fins, These 
three bands have a faint flesh-coloured or roseate tinge, and the first two are edged with ver- 
digris-green. The caudal is cream-yellow without shadings or spots, The lobes of the caudal 
are obtuse, Length 43 inches. 


AMPHIPRION JAPoNICcUs, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 66. Rad. B. 5; 
D. 10|15; A. 2|14; C, 24; P.19; V.1|5. (Spec. Haslar Mus.) 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 255 


The Haslar Museum possesses specimens of this fish, presented to it by Capt, Dawkins, R.N., 
who brought them from China. In one individual the ventrals are wholly orange-coloured, 
in another they are edged like the anal with black, as described by the authors of the ‘ Fauna 
Japonica.’ It is probable that both this fish and the one preceding it will eventually prove to 
be mere varieties of chrysopterus. In japonicus the stomach is nearly globular with three 
conical pyloric czeca, and the eggs are oblong-oval, and not round. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


AMPHIPRION CHRYSOPTERUS, C. et V, v. p, 401. 
Hab. Japanese sea, 


Tribus PHARYNGOGNATHI. 
Fam. LABRIDZ. 


Larrus rdtuinus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves,197; Hardw. , Chinese 
name, Jze ko, “Purple parrot” (Birch); Soo ko (Reeves); Su ho 
(Bridgem. 219). Rad. D. 9|11; A. 3|10; C. 123; P. 12; V, 1]5. 


This fish agrees with LZ. peccilopleura and gayi in the number of the rays and in many 
other characters, but differs from both as much as they do from one another. 

Teeth labroid, curved, acute and conical, diminishing as they recede from the symphysis ; 
but a large curved canine tooth stands forwards from the angle of the mouth. A row of small 
interior teeth runs as far back as the middle of the upper jaw, but in the lower jaw it is con- 
fined to the front part. Five rows of small tiled scales cover the cheek up to the suborbitar 
chain. None exist on the disc of the preoperculum, nor on the dilated interoperculum which 
spreads under the throat. Large irregular scales cover the operculum. Lateral line traced 
on twenty-six or twenty-seven scales by bushy muciferous canals. Hach cluster is formed of 
obtuse bifurcations thrice repeated, but the forks are less numerous near the bend of the line 
at the end of the dorsal, and almost disappear in the short space behind it. The very even 
dorsal and anal fins move in furrows formed by scaly fillets, and there is a filament behind 
the tip of each dorsal spine. The drawing is coloured aurora-red, passing into hyacinth-red 
on the back, with a darker meniscoid patch on the edge of each scale, and ten green lines ra- 
diating from the eye forwards, across the top of the head and backwards over the nape, but 
not on the cheek. There is also a yellowish tinge on the snout. The vertical fins are coloured 
like the body, but the dorsal and base of the caudal are glossed with yellow and green, and 
the dorsal is marked by three rows of small olive-green spots. The ventrals are peach-blos- 
som red, and the pectorals transparent, with a bliie edge to their scaly base. Length of the 
specimen 93 inches; of the drawing, 7 inches. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


Lasrus rusicinosus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Rad. D. 911; A, 3{10; 
C. 138; P.11; V.1|5. (Spec. Br, Mus, _ inches long.) 


Our knowledge of this species is derived from one of Biirger's Japanese specimens beleng- 
ing to the British Museum, It has the general form of L. edthinus, but is rather more slender, 
and is further distinguished from that species by a purple spot at the base of the fifth dorsal 
spine, some white spots on the back and four brown longitudinal lines. There are twenty- 
five scales on the lateral line, and the muciferous canals on each are twice forked on the an- 
terior part of the body, and more simple posteriorly, being no where bushy. The number of 
the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ which is to contain the descriptions of the Labride@ is not yet published 
(March 1, 1846), and we do not therefore know whether the authors of the work in their 
selection of the specific epithet had reference to the Sparus rubiginosus of Solander, which is 
either a Labrus or Julis. ‘This however has a lunate caudal with acute angles, while the Japa- 
nese fish has a rounded or nearly square caudal (vide Iulis ? rubiginosus, Richardson, ‘Ann, 
and Mag, of Nat. Hist,’ for June 1843), 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


LABRUS RETICULATUS, Temm, et Schl. F. J. pl. 83, 83 A, 84, 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Lasrus JAponicus, C, et V. xiii. p. 99; Temm, et Schl. pl. 85. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Cossypnus RETICULATUS, C. et V. xiii. p.139. Labrus reticulatus, Temm. 
et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 83 (Jumn.), pl. 83 A. (Med. etat.); pl. 84 (Adult.). 


256 REPORT—1845. ne vo 


The text appertaining to this Plate is not yet published (Sept. 1845). 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CossyPHUS MICROLEPIDOTUS, Bl. 292 (Labrus); C. et V. xiii. p. 140. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CossyPHus BILUNULATUS, Lacépéde (Labrus), iii. p. 454 et 528; C. et V. 
xiii. p. 122; Icon. Reeves, 243; Hardw.302. Chinese name, Hung ying 
yu, “ Red parrot-fish” (Birch); “ Red eagle-fish” (Reeves). 


Hyacinth-red glossed with yellow inferiorly, each scale finely dotted on the margin with 
brownish-red, the head above deep crimson, with arterial blood-red stripes. Cheeks and gill- 
pieces silvery with purplish tints, a few red specks and a brownish-red stripe from the corner 
of the mouth over the lower part of the cheek and suboperculum to tlie gill-opening. Soft parts 
of vertical fins and caudal yellow with red shadings. Spinous dorsal, pectorals and ventrals 
lake-red. Black marks on the hinder part of back and top of tail, and first three dorsal spines 
blackish-blue. Length of figure 93 inches. 


Hab. Mauritius. China seas. Canton. 


CossypHus cyANostoLus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 251; Hardw. 292. 
Chinese name, TJsing e, “ Blue clothes” (Birch); Ching e, “ Blue coat” 


(Reeves); Zsing i (Bridgem. Chrest. 123). Rad. D. 13/7; A. 3|10; 
C. 123; P.18; V.1|5. (Dried spec. Br. Mus.) 


A dried specimen of this fish, brought from Canton by John Reeves, Esq., exists in the 
British Museum, measuring fourteen inches in length. The drawing is eleven inches long. 
In the number of the rays and many other characters it agrees with C. schenleinii, but it has 
not the vertical profile of that species. In the rays, and also in the form and distribution of 
the markings, it is much like the Labrus japonicus as figured in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ pl. 85, 
but has a much less convex and more sloping profile as well as a different ground colour. The 
latter difference would weigh little as a specific distinction, since the reds, greens and blues of 
the Labrid@ are interchangeable at various seasons and after the death of the fish; but there 
is also a discrepancy in the ramifications of the mucous canals which form the lateral line. 
They are less branched anteriorly in L. japonicus, but in C. cyanostolus, as in schcenleinii, they 
become more simple posteriorly. 

Height of body contained twice and two-thirds in the whole length. Profile between the 
upper lip and dorsal a small are of a circle, slightly gibbous at the eye. A long scaly 
trunk of the tail, the scales covering much of the caudal fin, which consequently looks short 
and spreadslittle. A stout subulato-conical tooth next the symphysis is followed by a shorter 
one. The jaw behind them swells out into a thickish roll, in which a short conical tooth is 
implanted immediately behind the front canine; further along the jaw there are some scarcely 
perceptible granular teeth. In the lower jaw the second tooth is slightly recurved, and there 
is no toothlet in the bony roll behind the front canine, but some very minute granular teeth 
exist on the edge of the jaw, and at the angle of the mouth four contiguous teeth rise above 
the rest; but even these are small and might be easily overlooked in a recent specimen. Lips 
large. Top of the head, large preorbitar, margin of the orbit, lower jaw, most of the inter- 
opercular plate, and the disc of the preoperculum minutely porous. Five rows of small, round, 
distant scales imbedded in the cheek, thinning off to one row on the temples. Upper limb of 
preoperculum finely serrated by teeth which point upwards, the corner slightly rounded, and 
the lower limb half as long as the upper one. Interoperculum spreading out into a large sub- 
membranaceous flap which comes over the throat. In the specimen there are only four or five 
scales remaining on this bone, and they are closely tiled at the angle of the preoperculum. 
Four or five rows of larger scales exist on the operculum. The gill-flap ends in a rounded 
membranous lobe which projects over the base of the pectoral. Lateral line composed of thirty 
scales, and marked on each scale by a bush-like cluster of mucous canals, which are equally 
full of branches from the beginning to the end of the line. Each cluster is bifurcated, 
spreading equally above and below the line, and each fork consists of about four undulating 
branches with short lateral branchlets. The basal striae show faintly through the scale 
which overlaps them. A patch of scales covers the supra-scapular, as in a sparoid. 

The ground colour of the drawing is oil-green, darker on the head and back, and each scale 
on the body and hinder part of the gill-cover is marked by an oval indigo-blue spot placed 
vertically, and shaded off for the most part by greenish-blue. There are no spots beneath and 
before the pectoral, and on the tail behind the anal and dorsal the spots are placed lengthwise, 
so as to form longitudinal rows, which end in nearly continuous streaks on the caudal. They 
are broken again into spots on the extremity of the caudal, and some of the streaks are glossed 
with green, Three blue and green stripes radiate from the eye over the nose, and as many 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 257 


backwards over the temples. A blue stripe edged with hyacinth-red borders the lips and 
passes from the angle of the mouth over the lower limb of the preoperculum and subopercu- 
Jum. The membrane of the dorsal is hyacinth-red, the rays blue; a series of blue and green 
blotches mark the membrane between the spines at the points of the large scales, which form 
a furrow for the fin, and there is a series of small blue points along the base of this scaly fur- 
row. The anal is lemon-yellow with an indigo-blue border, and streaks of the same, which 
Meander over the fin and anastomose. The pectorals are purplish with an aurora-red scaly 
base bordered with blue. The rays of the ventrals are indigo-blue, and the membrane of the 
caudal crimson and brown. 

The description of form is wholly from the dried specimen. Twosmaller examples in spirits 
from China are also deposited in the British Museum. In these there are two acute teeth in 
the bony swelling behind the front canine, but no visible granular ones. There is however a 
small canine at the angle of the mouth. In the lower jaw the interior bony roll is flattish near 
the symphysis, and the posterior two-thirds of its length is occupied by short, conical and 
rather acute teeth. Two rows of scales cover two-thirds of the interoperculum; there are 
three or four rows of large opercular scales, and the scaly fillets at the base of the anal and 
dorsal are very distinct. The specimens are 113 inches long. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


CossyeHus ommorTerRus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 98; Hardw. 295. 
Chinese name, Hwa ying ko, “ Blue parrot” (Birch) ; “ Variegated parrot- 
fish” (Reeves); Ta aing ko (Bridgem. Chrest.65). Rad. B. 5; D.13]7; 
A. 3/10; P.17 vel 18; V.1|5. (Mounted spec. Br. Mus.) 


The British Museum possesses 2 mounted specimen of this fish, which was brought from 
Canton by John Reeves, Esq. It is nearly allied by form and colour to C. cyanostolus, schcen- 
leinit and Labrus japonicus, all of which agree closely in the numbers of the fin-rays, but it 
is readily distinguished by an eyed spot in the soft dorsal. Profile much like that of C. cya- 
nostolus, with a more gibbous nape, and the eye closer to the frontal line. The small scales 
on the top of the head terminate between the orbits by a deeply concave line. The snout, 
nasal region, jaws, throat, fore part of cheek and disc of preoperculum are naked. Five rows of 
small scales occupy a space in the curve of the preoperculum, equal in breadth to that of the 
porous skin betwixt them and the eye. Upper limb of the preoperculum finely and equally 
serrated; under edge roughish, but not distinctly crenated; its corner slightly rounded. Five 
or six horizontal rows of scales on the gill-cover, which ends in a roundish flap, that is nar- 
rowed, as in the preceding species, by a curve cutting into the suboperculum. A strong coni- 
cal tooth next the symphysis of the upper jaw inclines to the mesial line and rests against its 
fellow in the other intermaxillary ; a small tooth immediately follows it, and in the middle of 
the gape there is another, but none at the corner of the mouth, and no other teeth, although 
some faint crenatures may be detected on the edge of the jaw. In the lower jaw the front 
tooth on each limb is almost horizontal; a smaller one succeeds, as in the upper jaw, but 
the tooth in the middle of the limb is wanting; there is a single row of minute rounded 
teeth on the rather acute edge of the jaw, two or three of them next the corner of the mouth, 
rising above the others. A small bony roll or ridge swells up behind the front teeth of the 
lower jaw, but the limbs of the jaw are rather thin. About twenty-eight scales enter into a 
row between the gill-opening and caudal, and the radiating lines appear more distinctly than 
in cyanostolus. ‘The lateral line is formed by a short stem on each scale with short curved 
branchlets directed upwards and downwards, the branchlets becoming inconspicuous under 
the last five dorsal rays, and more posteriorly. This answers to the description of the lateral 
line in C. schcenleinii, but the specimen has not the low dorsal of that species, nor the vertical 
forehead. The tips of the membrane overtop the spines of the dorsal. 

The ground colour of the drawing is apple-green deepening to blackish-green on the back, 
and passing into oil-green and wax-yellow towards the belly. The pectorals and most of the 
caudal have the middle tint of the sides, and the head is mostly oil-green with much lustre. 
Each scale down to the lower edge of the pectcral has an oval mark on its disc, which ante- 
Yiorly is ultramarine-blue, and posteriorly verdigris-green. The bases of the caudal rays are 
also green, and the upper corner of the fin is orpiment-orange, edged with blue, while the 
lower corner is wholly purple. The anal has a blue stripe at its base, two rows of blue spots 
on its disc, and a purple edge. The dorsal is yellowish-brown with the tips of membrane be- 
hind the spines, and a row of patches along the middle of the fin blue. The edge of the soft 

art of the fin is orange, and there is a blackish-blue spot, surrounded by a paler ring, on the 
te of the first two jointed rays. The rays of the ventrals are blue, and the scaly base of 
the pectorals is Dutch-orange, finely dotted with brown and edged with blue. The lips are 
blue; a blue stripe runs back from the angle of the mouth to the preoperculum; and a blue 
strea k surrounds the gill-cover some way from its border. The eye is encircled by a blue 
' s 


258 REPORT—1845. © CET, 


ring; a streak of the same hue runs downwards to the upper lip, and two pass backwards 
over the temples and upper part of the gill-flap. Length of the specimen 64 inches. The 
drawing is an inch and a half longer. : 


Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


CTENOLABRUS AURIGARIUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 90. 
pl. 45. f.1,2. Icon. Reeves, 3.24; Hardw. 303. Chinese name, Kin 
shaou (Birch); Kum shaou, “Golden ration” (Reeves); Kam_ shau, 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 67). ad. D.9|11; A. 3|9; C.123; P. 12; V. 1|5. 
(Spec. Br. Mus.) 


The British Museum possesses an example of this species preserved in spirits, which was 
brought from Canton by John Reeves, Esq.; and there is another in the Chinese collection 
at Hyde Park. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


CTENOLABRUS RUBELLIO, Richardson, Ichth. Voy. of Sulphur, p. 93. pl. 45. 
Icon. Reeves, 90; Hardw. 54. Chinese name, Hung ying ko le, “ Red 


parrot carp” (Birch); “Red Parrot carp” (Reeves). Rad. D. 9|10; 
A. 3|8; C. 123; P.13; V. 1|5. 


A mounted specimen of this fish from Canton was presented to the British Museum by John 
Reeves, Esq. In the structure of the gill-pieces, the numbers of the fin-rays and other cha- 
racters, this and the preceding species, and also Ctenolabrus flagellifer, have much resemblance 
to Labrus japonicus and Cossyphus schoenleinii, cyanostolus and ommopterus. Their distribu- 
tion into different genera seems to be artificial. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


CuerLio 1nERMIs, Forskal (Zabrus), Descr. An. p. 34. Labrus fusiformis, 
Riippell, Neue Wirlb. p. 7. taf. 1. f.4. Cheilio forskalit, C. et V. xiii. 
p- 349; Icon. Reeves, 100; Hardw. 304. Chinese name, Hae lung, “ Sea 
dragon” (Reeves, Birch) ; Hoi lung (Bridgem. Chrest. 103). 


The colours and markings of the Chinese fish agree in the main with individuals taken in 
the Red sea, but as there is some difference, it may be proper to describe Mr. Reeves’s draw- 
ing. The ground colour is dark duck-green, deepening to blackish-green on the summit of 
the back, and fading away on the ventral line. The rays of all the fins have the same green 
colour. Each scale is marked by a clear round white spot, shaded with sky-blue. In the de- 
scriptions of the Red sea fish these spots are said to be confined to the lower parts of the sides, 
A pale red-lilac streak runs from the corner of the mouth to the preoperculum. The suboper- 
culum is edged by a line of the same colour, and several traverse its disc and anastomose with 
one another. A small China-blue bar, bent en chevron, is placed on the tip of the gill-cover. Eye 
reddish-orange. The membranes of the dorsal and caudal are hyacinth-red, and the lower 
half of the former is marked by three rows of white spots. The basal half of the anal is white 
with oblique bars of hyacinth-red, its outer border is reddish-lilac. The pectorals are olive- 
green and the ventrals blue. 


Hab. Sea of China (Canton). Red sea. 


JULIS ExORNATUS; Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, GB. 10; Hardw. 
Rad. D. 9|12; A. 3{12; C. 124; vel 1414; vel 9/13; P. 14; Ve 1|5. 


4? 

Specimens of this fish were sent from Hong Kong by Surgeon R. A. Bankier, R.N.; 
several exist in the British Museum and Cambridge Philosophical Institution, which were 
brought from Canton by John Reeves, Esq. and the Rev. George Vachell; and there are also 
three in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. Height of body and length of head equal to 
one another, and to one-fourth of the total length: the thickness contained twice and one- 
half in the height. Caudal rounded. About twenty-six scales in the lateral line, which is 
bent suddenly down near the end of the dorsal by a short oblique elbow. Each scale of the 
line is marked obscurely by three short tubes, diverging from the point of a very short stem. 
Scales truncated at the base, elliptical at the posterior or free end, with about twenty to 
twenty-six fine furrows on each end diverging in a fan-like manner from near the centre, a 
triangular space on each side showing only the parallel lines of structure. Teeth rather 
bluntish ; a sharp curved canine standing forwards from each side of upper jaw near the angle 
of the mouth. Jaws with considerable protractility. 

In Mr. Reeves’s drawing the ground colour of the body is pistachio-green, the breast and 
belly being paler. About eight or nine irregular bars, formed by the dark borders of the 


es 


Bah: 
ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SHAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 259 


scales, descend from the back past the middle. The vertical fins are vermilion-red, with 
four rows of round and oval straw-yellow spots occupying more space than the red, which 
however forms a border to the dorsal and anal. In the specimens only two rows of these yel- 
low spots remain on the dorsal, the outer half of the fins being red with a very slight mottling; 
but there is a dark spot on the dorsal, between the fifth and seventh spines, which is not 
shown in the figure. The corners of the caudal, both in the figure and specimens, are yellow, 
and in the figure there are various orange-coloured spots and bars on the head shaded with 
blue. The form of these can be traced on the specimens though the colour is gone. The 
dorsal spines have filamentous tips, and are shorter than the soft rays. Length of specimens 
and figure 53 and 6 inches. The anal spines vary from one to three, there being one or two 
additional jointed rays when the spines are deficient. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. Hong Kong. 


JULIS EXORNATUS, var. a.? Icon. Reeves, 258; Hardw. —. Chinese name, 
Ying ko yu (Reeves); “Parrot fish” (Birch); Ang ko u (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 63). 

Notwithstanding that this drawing and the following differ somewhat in form and in the 
numbers of the spinous rays from the preceding one as well as in colours, I have a strong 
suspicion that they are “all three representations of the same species in different conditions. 
The yellow corners of the caudal are common to them all. The marks on the head and on 
the dorsal are also on the same plan, and on comparing the numerous specimens of exornatus 
which we have seen, most of them appear intermediate in their markings between Mr. Reeves’s 
drawings G3. 10 and 258. 

In 258 the green colour of the body is varied by an elliptical orange-brown spot, placed 
vertically on each scale. There are three indistinct golden spots under the spinous rays and 
fore-half of the soft dorsal, and four yellow patches on the middle height of the tail posterior to 
the anus, which shade off into the green. The bars on the head are orange-brown, instead 
of orpiment-orange. The two basal rows of spots on the dorsal and anal are dull, and of a 
wax-yellow or olive-green colour, and the ground colour of these with their outer halves and 
the middle part of the caudal are cochineal-red or dark crimson. The corners of the caudal 
are bright yellow. The base of the pectoral is red, and there is a bluish shade on the supras 
axillary plate of the coracoid bone. Some blue marks exist also on the upper half of the 
spinous dorsal, most crowded between the fifth and seventh spines, where the dark mark of 
exornatus is placed. Length of figure nearly 7 inches. 


Hab. Sea of China. 


JULIs EXORNATUS, var. 3. Icon. Reeves, 86; Hardw.297. Chinese name, 
Ying ko le (Reeves, Birch); “ Parrot carp” (Birch); “ Parrot carp” 
(Reeves); Ang ko i (Bridgem. Chrest. 63). 

In this figure the head is marked and coloured like the preceding one, but the sides-are 
chequered by square golden spots which alternate with similar spaces of the ground colour, 
This is green, like the preceding varieties, on the head, along the back, and in the middle 
over the anus; but in the humeral region and on the tail it passes into indigo-blue. The 
belly is white, the white passing along above the base of the anal; while in the preceding 
figures, the ground colour, though paler, goes to the base of the fin. The dorsal is coloured 
not much unlike that of the preceding, but the orange-brown ground colour fades to hair- 
brown on the outer half, and the spots at the base of the fin are orange, shaded with pale 
yellow. The anal is pale green on the basal half, and purple exteriorly, with a darker green 
stripe where the colours meet. The corners of the caudal are bright yellow, the middle part 
dark grayish-blue, with indigo-blue spots on the base. The scaly base of the pectoral red, as 
in mee In some respects this figure resembles the Julis decussatus (Benn. Ceylon, 
pl. 14), 

Hab. Sea of China, 


JULIS DORSALIS, Quoy et Gaim., Astrol. pl. 15. f.5; C. et V. xiii. p. 448. 
Labrus pulcherrimus, Solander, Icon. Park. Bib. Banks, 49. Sparus 
hardwickii, Benn. Ceyl. 12. 

Several specimens exist in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection. 
_ Hab. Sea of China? Polynesia, Malay archipelago, Indian ocean, and sea of Mauritius, 


JULIS TRIMACULATUS, Quoy et Gaim., Astrol. pl.20. £2; C. et V. xiii. 

_ p. 452. 

" Several examples of this species exist in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, which agree well 
s2 


i 


260 - REPORT—1845, sir ib 


with the figure in the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe,’ though it is objected to in the ‘ Histoire 
des Poissons’ as not being sufficiently gibbous at the nape. The markings on the head are 
exactly as in the figure, and also the first and last of the three black dorsal spots, but the in- 
termediate one has disappeared in all the specimens. The borders of all the scales are 
brightly silvery. 

Hab. Sea of China? Vanikoro. 


JULIs Pa@ciLopTERus, F. J. 86. bis, f.1. Icon. Reeves, 233; Hardw. 299. 
Rad. D.9|13 vel14; A.2|14; C.113; P.12; V.1|5. (Spec. Mus. Brit.) 


A dried specimen of this fish exists in the British Museum, which was brought from Can- 
ton by John Reeves, Esq. The height of the body is somewhat less than the length of the 
head, and equals one-fourth of the whole length of the fish. The upper jaw has five conico- 
subulate teeth of the usual form, with small rounded interior ones, and these come forward to 
the edge of the jaw behind the last subulate tooth in two or three rows, like the minute mo- 
lars of a sparoid. On the lower jaw there are thirteen exterior teeth on each limb, and the 
interior granular teeth do not run so far back. Gill-flap tapering, but rounded at the tip. 
Lateral line composed of twenty-nine scales, slightly arched at its commencement, then con- 
tinuing horizontal as far as the ninth soft ray of the dorsal, when it is bent down over three 
scales and continued straight again to the caudal. It is marked om each scale by a gently 
waved and slightly rising tube, which before the bend of the line is simple and more poste- 
riorly emits one or two branchlets. The ground colour is pistachio-green, darker on the bases 
of the scales, and fading to asparagus-green on the lower parts of the sides. The nape is 
brownish-red, and two stripes of that colour traverse the fish, the narrower one keeping along 
the summit of the back and the broader one along the middle of the side. On this stripe above 


the pectoral there is a dark blackish-blue spot. There are many rows of small, round reddish- , 


orange spots, nearly as numerous as the scales, and becoming dark orange-brown in the 
stripes. These spots extend to the caudal, which is deep sulphur-yellow. The head is marked 
by golden stripes bordered by blue. The dorsal and anal are pale crimson with a greenish 
tint on the soft rays, and are thickly sprinkled with carmine spots. The pectorals and ven- 
trals are almost colourless, but the scaly base of the former is yellow and purple bounded by 
ared streak. The lateral stripe is almost black in the dried specimen. Length of specimen 
83 inches, of head 2 inches. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. 


JULIS THERSITES, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 208; Hardw. i. 298, &c. 

This species wants the brown longitudinal stripes of the preceding, but has otherwise con- 
siderable similarity in its tints of colour and markings. If the humped-back be not an acci- 
dental individual deformity, the fish is at once distinguished by it from other species. The 
ground colour of the head is duck-green, dark on the back, paler on the sides, and mixed with 
oil-green and yellow; the under surface is pale blue. There is a darker meniscoid spot on each 
scale, which on the shoulder and pectoral region is orange-red. A large dark blue mark over 
the pectoral has the spots on the scales almost black. The lines and spots on the head are 
vermilion with blue edges. The fins are pale Berlin-blue and are covered with tile-red 
spots, which form transverse bars on the caudal, and the dorsal and anal have a submarginal 
red stripe. The base of the pectoral is blue with a red streak; its membrane and that of the 
ventrals are spotless. The back of this fish rises into a bold hump under the spinous dorsal, 
the lateral line partaking of the curvature. Length of the figure 7 inches. 

Hab. China seas, Canton. 


JuLis Ltunanris, Lin. (Labrus); C. et V. xiii. p. 409. Labrus lutescens et 
LL. lorius, Solander, MSS. Icon. Parkins. Bib. Banks, 47. Z. gallus, 
Forskal. Z. zeylonicus, Penn. Ind. Zool. p. 56. pl.16. Julis hardwickii, 
Gray, Illust. Ind. Zool. pl. 9. Icon. Reeves, a. 30; Hardw. 300. Rad. 
D. 8|13; A. 2|11; C. 114; P.14; V.1|5. (Spec. Mus. Brit.) 

Several specimens from Canton exist in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park and in the 

British Museum, the latter being the donation of John Reeves, Esq. 


Hab. China seas. Canton. Java. Polynesia. Siam. Ceylon. Red sea. 


JuLis MENIscus, C. et V. xiii. p. 415. 
Hab. Seas of China (Canton). . Seychelles (Dussumier). 


JULIS VIRIDIS, Bl. 282 (Labrus); C. et V. xiii. p. 420. 
Hab. Sea of Japan? Mauritius. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 26] 


GOMPHOSUS CEPEDIANUS, Quoy et Gaim. Freycinet, pl. 55. fig. 2; C. et V. 
> Xiv. p- 18. pl. 390. 

A specimen, seven inches long, exists in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection. 

Hab. Sea of China? the Sandwich Isles, Carolines, and Otaheiti. 


NovacuLaA PENTADACTYLA, “ Ankarkrona Mem. de Stockh. An. 1740 
(Blennius), i. p. 451. pl. 3. f.2;” C. et V. xiv. p. 67. Coryphena pen- 
tadactyla, Bl. 173. 

Hab. China seas. Celebes. 


XyricutTuys punicevus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 184; Hardw. i. 306. 


This drawing represents a fish having a profile more vertical than that of the European 
cultratus and much like that of Rippell’s bimaculata, but with a proportionally higher body, 
a taller first dorsal ray, larger filiform tip to the ventrals, apparently no scales on the cheek, 
a much less rounded caudal, larger front teeth, and a lateral spot placed nearly, like that of 
avo, on the seventh or eighth scale of the lateral line and rising above it. As near as one can 
judge from description alone, its form seems to be like that of X. cyanifrons of the ‘ Histoire 
des Poissons,’ but its colours do not correspond and its black lateral mark distinguishes it. 

The colours of the upper and lower part of the sides and the disc of the caudal fin are 
bright carmine, the middle of the flanks from the pectoral to the hinder part of the anal being 
pale buff orange, as are also the membranes of the dorsal andanal. The top of the head and 
back above the lateral line which terminates at the base of the last dorsal ray are lavender- 
purple; the trunk of the tail, which is bisected by the short second portion of the lateral 
line, being wholly carmine. Each scale throughout the body has a deeper coloured meniscoid 
segment on its edge, but of the same tint with its much paler disc. The cheeks are carmine 
with red-lilac-purple gill-pieces, throat and breast. The profile of the head, from the nape 
to the dorsal, is edged with a blue and green stripe, and there are six or seven wavy crimson 
streaks on the temples, and a few faint longitudinal ones on the operculum. Two rows of 
blue dots run along the summit of the back, and three rows along the belly, beginning at the 
ventrals and thinning off at the end of the anal. An oval black mark without a pale border 
is placed on the lateral line at the seventh scale, most of the spots being above the line. The 
anterior dorsal ray, which is nearly equal in height to the nape and twice as tall as the 
other rays, is blue, and three blue lines, more or less interrupted, run along the fin, which is 
shaded on the edge with lake-red. The anal has a blue line along its base, and its rays are 
blue with red tips. The upper and under edges of the caudal are buff orange, and its pos- 
terior rounded edge pale or whitish. Ventrals lemon-yellow with purple rays, and the pec- 
torals purple at the base, shaded at the top into blackish-gray. Length of drawing 7 inches. 

Hab. China seas. Canton. 


In the Chinese collection at Hyde Park there are drawings of another species or variety of 
Xyrichthys. 


XYRICHTHYS DEA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 87. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CHEILINUS NEBULOSUS, Richardson. Rad. D. 9/10; A. 3|8; C. 162; P. 

#2. 3..Vo1|5. 

This species seems to be nearly allied in form and in being banded vertically to the Ch. 
quinquecinctus of Riippell, but the caudal is much less notched between the points of the 
rays, the anal is rounded at the top and not so long, the profile of the forehead more even 
and sloping, the snout more slender, and the pale and vertical bands differently placed. It 
agrees with guinquecinctus in having two rows of scales on the cheek, and in the bases of the 
vertical fins being sheathed by large scales like a Cossyphus. It differs from Ch. fasciatus, 
Bl. 257, in having a truncated and slightly rounded caudal, as well as in the profile and dis- 
position of the dark bands. 

The muzzle is slender, the profile of the face straight and sloping, nearly touching the eye, 
and the nape very slightly arched. The height of the body is contained three times anda 
half in the total length, caudal included. Of this length the head forms rather less than 
one-third. The dorsal is rather less rounded at the tip than the anal, and they are nearly of 
equal length, neither of them passing the base of the caudal. The rays of the caudal are 
forked at the tips, and scarcely project beyond the membrane. The ventrals are attached 
under the axilla of the pectorals, being somewhat further back than in Ch. quinquecinctus, as 
represented by Riippell. The two anterior teeth of each jaw are so much larger than the 
others as to appear like canines, and behind the upper ones are three or four bluntish teeth. 
On the limbs of both jaws the teeth are ina single series, diminishing slightly as they approach 


SBR: was -REPORT—1845. “i ah We 


the angle of the mouth, The jaw is not swelled as in Cossyphus, but except in that respect 
and the interrupted lateral line, this fish agrees closely with that genus. The scales are large, 
there being only about twenty in a longitudinal row behind the gill-opening. The upper 
part of the lateral line is traced on thirteen scales and the lower one on eight, the parts over- 
lapping each other a little. The tubes of the scales are sparingly furnished with lateral 
branches which are mostly short and basal, On some scales near the tail they are quite 
simple. 

The prevailing tint of the specimens, which have been for two years in spirits, is a rich pur- 
plish brown, with lighter parts forming indistinctly about six bars, the first of which descends 
from the suboperculum over the breast, the second is behind the pectoral, and the last on the 
base of the caudal. The dark parts are clouded and spotted, and run over the dorsal and 
anal. They anastomose irregularly with one another, and are also varied by a narrow pale 
vertical streak on each scale, the tip of the scale being dark. Similar streaks, inclined various 
ways, exist on the scales of the operculum and temples, and on the cheek and interoperculum 
they are contracted into a roundish spot in the centre of each scale. Three pale lines cross 
each preorbitar, and one follows the curve of the orbit on the suborbitar, having underneath 
it a row of pale pores with open mouths. The caudal is pale towards the base, dark and 
mottled on the posterior, with the extreme tip paler again, The pectoral is pale without 
markings, and there are dark blotches on the ventrals. 

Two specimens, about five inches long, exist in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, in which 
they were associated with some Chinese fish, but the place of their capture was not noted. 

Hab. Sea of China. 


EPIBULUS INSIDIATOR, Pallas (Sparus), Spicil. p. 41. t. 5. fig. 1; C. et V. 
xiv. p. 110. pl. 398. Sparus insidiator, Bl. Schn. 278. 


A specimen exists in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, most probably but not certainly obtained 
on the coast of China. : 


Hab. Sea of China? Moluccas, Java, Sumatra and the Mauritius. 


Scarus LimBatTus, C, et V. xiv. p.271. Icon. Reeves, a.13; Hardw. 312. 

~ Chinese name, Ching e, “Blue clothes” (Reeves); sing 7 (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 123). Scarus ovifrons, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 88? Rad. 
D. 9]10; A. 3|9; C. 114; P.14; V.1|5. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


John Reeves, Esq. presented an example of this specimen from Canton to the British Mu- 
seum. It differs slightly, in the numbers of its rays, from the specimen of limbatus described 
in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ also from Canton, yet the distribution of the colours is so 
similar, that I have little hesitation in considering it to be of the same species. I am also of 
opinion that it is identical with Sc. ovifrons of the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ It has agibbous snout, 
though not to the same degree as is exhibited in the figure of the species just named, but 
such gibbosities vary in many fish with age, and not unfrequently with the degree of fatness 
of the individual. There is some discrepancy as to colour, and on that account I have quoted 
the synonym with doubt, which may perhaps be cleared away when the letter-press of this 
portion of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ appears, and we learn whether the figure was illuminated from 
the recent fish or from one whose colours had partially changed. The Chinese name of the fish 
is the same as that of the Cossyphus cyanostolus. The jaws are greenish with a smooth sur- 
face, in which the form of the teeth is obscurely seen. The edges of the jaws are crenated, 
particularly posteriorly, where the edges are also undulated, but there is no canine tooth 
there. The scales have finely granulated discs, and the lateral line is formed of a series of 
tubes, each with a bushy tip. which is so obscure as scarcely to be distinguished from the granu- 
lations. Twenty-five scales compose the line, the last three lying on the caudal fin. Length 
of specimen 16} inches, of drawing 14 inches. In the drawing the general colour is blackish- 
green, slightly glossed with brown on the belly, the edges of the scales being dark chocolate, 
The dark green surrounds the eye, and glosses the lower part of the cheek and the inter- 
operculum ; the rest of the sides of the head, the breast and dises of all the fins are dark 
hyacinth-red, which in the anal is glossed with auricula-purple. The outer edges of all the fins, 
the corner of the mouth and the lower lipare indigo-blue, The edges of the lips are carmine. 

Hab. Seas of China, Japan, Java, and the Mauritius. 


ScARUS PYRROSTETHUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 76; Hardw. 309. Chi- 
nese name, Suy nga, “ Grinding teeth” (Reeves); Tsui nga (Bridgem. 
125). Rad. D.9|10; A.3|9; C.113; P.14; V.1]5. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 


A specimen in the British Museum is identified by Mr. Reeves as belonging to the species 
which his drawing represents. The specimen measures 13% inches, the drawing an inch 


a m 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 263 


more. In form and distribution of colours the species closely resembles Scarus frenatus, 
Lacép., Sc. psittacus and Sc. harid, Riipp., Sc. harid, C. et V. (which is different from that of 
Riippell), and Se. dusswmieri, and several others described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ It 
cannot however be perfectly reconciled with the descriptions of any of them; and unless 
several characters, which have been relied upon by ichthyologists for distinguishing species, 
should proye to be mere individual variations, it is a proper species; but I expect when 
further comparisons have been instituted, that a number of nominal species, and this probably 
among the number, will be absorbed in the more ancient designations. In the ‘ Histoire des 
Poissons,’ the name of Riippell’s Scarus is changed from harid to ruppelii, another species or 
variety being described as the harid of Forskal ; but the dentition, as described by the latter 
author, agrees much better with Riippell’s fish than with the harid of M. Valenciennes, which 
wants the canines at the angle of the mouth. Se, pyrrostethus is much like Sc. pepo (Benn. 
Ceyl. 28. Maj. Neild’s drawing in Hardw. Coll. Br. Mus, No. 313) in distribution of colours, 
but that fish has an uniformly arched profile. 

Scarus pyrrostethus has the profile of the face moderately concave before the eye, and the 
acute points of the caudal projecting very little beyond the even or slightly rounded end of 
the intermediate membrane. The white jaws are moderately convex and bulge less than 
those of Jimbatus. About ten teeth may be counted on each side of the symphysis of each 
jaw, and there is no canine at the angle of the mouth. The scales of the cheek approach 
close to the orbit and permit less of the veined suborbitars to be seen than in /imbatus, The 
lateral line is traced on twenty-five scales by a tube on each, which emits a few simple 
branches upwards and downwards, and has no bushy end. [The harid of the ‘ Histoire des 
Poissons’ is described as having a lateral line formed of a series of unbranched tubes.] The 
discs of the scales are more finely granulated than in limbatus. The first anal spine is very 
short, and the last soft ray is divided only at the tip, while the last ray of the dorsal is divided 
to the base. 

Each scale on the body and tail, down to the level of the lower edge of the pectoral fin, has 
an indigo-blue disc with a broad golden-coloured border edged with chestnut-brown. The 
borders are wider on the back and the blue discs smaller, and the scaly sheath of the base of 
the dorsal presents alternate, short, golden and blue vertical bars, the blue running into a 
stripe of the same colour that runs along the bottom of the membrane. The rays of the fin 
and its outer border are also blue, the membrane being reddish-orange. The anal has a 
yeddish-orange disc without the blue rays, but its outer edge and a line skirting its base are 
blue. The same blue colour exists on the upper and under edge of the caudal and the first rays 
of the pectoral and ventrals, but not on any other part of these fins. A part of the pectoral next 
the blue ray, three soft rays of the ventrals, and the under part of the fish below the level of 
the pectorals, are reddish-orange. The disc of the caudal and upper parts of the head are 

ellowish-brown. The eye and lips are orpiment orange, and there is a blue bar behind each 
ip; another curves up from the angle of the mouth to the orbit to terminate there, and a 
blue streak passes from the temples over the eye and across the forehead, to meet its fellow on 
the other side. 


Hab. Chinese sea. Canton. 

ScaRUS CHRULEO-PUNCTATUS, Riippell, Neue Wirlb, p. 24. pl, 7. f. 3. 
(Calliodon) ; C. et V. xiv. p. 262. Icon. Reeves, 248; Hardw. i. 311. 
Chinese name, Ma e, “ Flax clothes” (Birch); “ Ma clothed ;” Ma is a 
Canton word (Reeves), 

Mr, Reeves’s drawing shows numerous blue dots on the head, and also four rows of them 
on the rays of the ventrals and anal, which are not mentioned in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ 
but which are indicated in Riippell’s figure. 

Hab. Sea of China and the Red sea. 


CALLIODON cHLOROLEPIS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 137. pl. 
64. f. 4-7 ; Icon. Reeves, 77; Hardw. i. 310. Chinese name, T’suy leen 
chuy, “ Green-scaled tsuy-fish” (Birch); Tsuy lin chuey, “ Sealy king- 
fisher ;” Tsuy is the name of the king-fisher (Reeves) ; Tsui lun chut 
(Bridgem, Chrest. 122). 

Surgeon R. A. Bankier, of the Royal Navy, presented a specimen of this fish, which he 
obtained at Hong Kong, to Haslar Museum, 
‘Hab. China seas. Canton (J. Reeves, Esq.). Hong Kong (Surgeon R. A. Bankier, R.N.). 


CaLiiopon JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. pl, 89. (Letter-press not 
_ published.) 
' Hab. Sea of Japan. 


264 9° REPORT—1845, 


SAT MD 
Fam. SCOMBERESOCIDA. 


BELONE CAUDIMACULA, Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 285. Kuddera A., Russell, 
176. Icon. Reeves, 3.33; Hardw. Malac. 135. Chinese name, Ho ¢sin, 
“ Stork’s bill” (Reeves, Birch) ; Hok tsam (Bridgem. Chrest. 57). 


Hab. China, Canton (Reeves). Penang, and a salt-water lake near Calcutta (Hardwicke). 
River Brunai in Borneo. Port Essington, North Australia, 


BELonE ciconitA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 186; Hardw. Malae. 134. 


This drawing does not correspond with Russell’s figure of the Wohkla kuddera 175, nor with 
the two Belones described by Riippell in the ‘Neue Wirlbethiere,’ nor with figures of any other 
species that we have met with. The two jaws are equal, or very nearly so, and when mea- 
sured to the front of the orbit, their length is contained four times and three-quarters in the 
whole length of the fish. The anal is long, the dorsal moderately so, and commencing over 
the second quarter of the anal, it seems to approach a little nearer to the caudal than that fin. 
The caudal is slightly lunate at the end with the lower lobe rather the most prominent. The 
back is green, the sides silvery with a purplish tint. Scales are distinctly represented in the 
green upper part of the body, which is separated from the nacry sides by a lateral line, but 
no inferior lateral line or keel is shown in the figure. 


Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. 


HeEMIRAMPHUS INTERMEDIUS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 30. Icon. 
Reeves, 167; Hardw. Malac. 129, 133. Chinese name, Cheung tin tsam 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 80); “ Long-headed borer” (Reeves). Had. B. 9; 
D. 114; A. 1]17; C. 153; P.11; V. 1|5. (Chin. Spec.) 


This species differs at first sight from H. longirostris (Cuv. et Russell, 178), and from H. 
brevirostris (Idem et Russ. 177), in the relative size of the lower jaw, being less than that of 
the one and longer than that of the other. From H. gamberur (Riipp. Neue Wirlb. 74; La- 
cép. v. pl. 7. f. 2), it is distinguished by some differences in the numbers of the rays as well 
as by the comparative length of the lower jaw. We have received specimens of infermedius 
both from Chusan and Canton, but all of them have lost many of their scales, and also in 
some degree their proper shape, by maceration in spirits. A section of the body has the form 
of a thin wedge, broadest near the back, which is rounded by the swelling muscles of the 
sides, and attenuated towards the acute belly. There is no appearance of there ever 
having been much projection at the inferior lateral line, so as to render the section quadran- 
gular. This line runs near the edge of the belly from the lower part of the operculum nearly 
to the caudal fin. It is formed by a simple or in some places a forked tube on each scale. 
The preorbitar is sub-elliptical, with an undulated disc and a minute central umbo. Its 
anterior edge describes the quadrant of a circle ; its posterior one is much less curved. The 
dorsal and anal are opposite to each other at their commencement, and the former reaches a 
little nearer to the caudal, though it has fewer rays than the anal. The lower lobe of the 
caudal is the longest, as usual. The back is greenish, the sides silvery, and there is a broad 
lateral stripe more brilliantly silvery than the rest, which dilates between the dorsal and anal, 
The following measurements furnish the comparative lengths of the several parts. Length from 
the point of the upper jaw to end of caudal, 5-25 inches. From ditto to gill-opening, 0°91 
inch. From ditto to anus, 3°38 inches. Length of upper jaw, 0:2 inch. Length from point of 
lower jaw to end of caudal, 6°35 inches. From ditto to angle of mouth, 1°38 inch. From 
ditto to fore-edge of orbit, 16 inch. From ditto to gill-opening, 2°18 inches. 


Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. Chusan. 


Exoc&Tus voLANs, Solander, MSS. Bib. Banks. Jcon. Parkinson, 110. Bib. 
Banks. Rad. D.12; A.13; C.152; P.15; V.6. All jointed. Length 
of specimen 53 inches. 


A specimen of this fish was brought from China by Sir Edward Belcher. It is probably 
the same species with the evolans of Bloch (398) ; but in his figure the ventrals are as near 
to the end of the snout as to the beginning of the anal, while in the Chinese specimen the 
distance from the snout to the ventrals, when carried backwards, reaches past the middle of 
the anal; in other respects there appears to be little difference. The same officer brought 
several specimens of young flying fish from the Chinese seas, evidently of the same species, 
but none of them exceeding 24 inches in length. All these have the profile of the face more 
curved, with a variable degree of gibbosity of the nape. They have also two brown spots on 
the top of the occiput, formed by a congeries of small specks, All the specimens are so much 


> 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 265 


injured that I think it better to avoid attempting a minute description, especially as I have 
not an Atlantic example of evolans at hand for comparison. 


~ Hab. Seas of China and Polynesia. 


Exocztus FAsciatus, Lesueur, Jour. Ac. Nat. Se. Philad. ii. pl. 4. f. 2. 

Length of specimen 23 inch. 

Sir Edward Belcher brought an Exocetus from the sea of China which seems to belong to 
this species, but the specimen having been preserved in salt, the colours have perished and the 
fins are mutilaced in their length. It agrees however with fasciatus in the approximation of 
the large eye to the end of the snout, in which it differs from Ex. exiliens of Bloch (397). It 
has also a similar degree of concavity between the eyes with that exhibited in M. Lesueur’s 
figure (fig. 2. 6); and there is a correspondence also in other parts. The fins look dark. 


Hab. Sea of China. 


Exocztus monocirruus, Richardson. Rad. D. 13; A. 13; C. 152; 
P.15; V.6. Length of spec. 2} inches. 


Several Exoceti having barbels have been figured, viz. Ex. nuthulit (Lesueur), furcatus 
of Mitchell, and. appendiculatus of Wood, which have a plurality of these appendages, and 
comatus of Mitchell, which is described as having only a single one, but which agrees with 
the others that have been named in the backward position of the ventrals resembling eviliens. 

_A species with two very short barbels, inhabiting the seas of Polynesia, has the ventrals 
placed as in Ex.-mesogaster of Bloch (399), but in it the pectoral reaches only to the fore 
part of the anal, and it is distinguished from all other Eoceti by the size and height of its 
dorsal, which is black on the upper half. This fish was taken by Banks and Solander at 
Otaheite, and is named in the manuscripts of the latter Ex. brachypterus. Parkinson’s figure 
of it is numbered 108. 

In a small Exocetus, which was obtained by Sir Edward Belcher on the coast of China and 
which we have named monocirrhus, the distance from the end of the snout to the ventrals, when 
carried backwards, does not reach to the middle of the anal ; and the pectoral extends a little 
beyond the base of the caudal. The eye is rather larger than that of volans, and is situated 
at a similar distance from the end of the snout. The barbel, which is black and wrinkled, 
springs from the end of the chin, and is flat or furrowed on the surface that applies to the mem- 
brane between the jaws. It does not equal the head in length, but it may perhaps have lost 
a small part of its tip. There is no trace of a minute lateral barbel such as is shown in Mr, 
Wood's figure of appendiculatus (Journ. Ac. Sc. Phil. iv. p. 283. pl. 17. f. 2). 


Hab. Sea of China. 


Fam. BLENNIIDA. 


BLENNIUS ? AURO-SPLENDIDUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 0 (non Hardw.). 


It is possible that this species may be a Pholis, Petroscirtes or Salarias, but in the absence 
of information respecting its dentition and gill-openings, we cannot say to which of the genera 
established in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ it properly belongs. It has much of the aspect of 
a Blenny, and has a vertical face and crested head like the males of Blennius pavo, and of 
some other species. The body is longer than of the fish just named, and the first seven dorsal 
rays are elongated, the remainder of the fin being even. The body is wax-yellow, with a 
brownish bar faintly indicated on the posterior part of the lateral line, and five rows of bright 
golden specks intermingled with much smaller and more numerous black dots in seven or 
eight rows. The head and all the fins, except the anal, are bright king’s yellow. The crest 
is dotted with black, and a bar of that hue descends from it through the eye to the corner of 
the mouth. There is also a round black mark on the middle of the fore-part of the dorsal, 
comprising the first four rays. The anal is reddish-orange or buff, passing into yellow at its 
base. Length of the figure nearly 4 inches. 


Hab, Macao. 


BLENNIUS? FASCIOLATOCEPS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves (nullo numero 
nec Hardw.). 


* This figure represents a fish having more nearly the proportions of Blennius pavo than the 
preceding. Its head is also crested, and the dorsal perfectly even without elongated rays. 


General colour wax-yellow, obscurely mottled, the head marked by five vertical black bands 


ona brighter yellow ground, The second band passes through the eye, and the fifth descends 


266 REPORT—1845, ‘Ol SHIT nO 


from the shoulder over the gill-opening. The fins are dull honey-yellow, Neither this 
figure nor that of the preceding species show any barbels or cirrhi, Length of figure 22 inches, 


Hab. Macao. 
SALARIAS FAscIATUS, BI, pl. 162, f. 1 (Blennius). C. et V. xi. p. 324. 


The native place of this fish is unknown, there being some uncertainty as to whether it 
came from India or Japan, Few particulars respecting its structure are recorded, 


PETROSCIRTES BANKIERI, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 136. pl, 64. 
f, 8-10. Genus, Petroscirtes, Riippell; Blennechis, C. et V. 


Surgeon R. A. Bankier presented a specimen which he obtained at Hong Kong to Haslar 
Hospital. 


Hab. Hong Kong. 


STICHHUS HEXAGRAMMUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 136. pl. 73, f, 1. 
“ Rad. B.6; D.40|; A. 29 simplices; C.12; P.14; V.3.” (Fauna Jap.) 
Genus Sticheus, Remhardt, Oversigt over det Kongelige, &c. 1835-6. 
p- 9. 

Hab. Japan, Bay of Simabara. 


GUNNELLUS NEBULOSUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 73. f. 2. (Letter- 
press not yet published.) Rad. D. 80|; A. 39; C,21; P.15; V.1|1. 
(Spec. 9 inch. long in Br. Mus.) 

Hab. Japan. Bay of Mogi. 


GUNNELLUS CRASSISPINA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 139. “ Rad. D. 
78; A. 2|10; V. 1[1.” (Faun. Jap. /. ¢.) 
Hab. Japan. 


Dicrysoma, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 139. pl. 73. f. 3. Spec. 43 inch. 
long in Br. Mus. “ Rad. B.6; D.58|9; A. 2/43; C.10; P.10.” (Fauna 
Jap.) 

Hab. Japan. Bay of Simabara. 


Tribus ScoMBRISINA. . 
Fam. ZEIDz. 


ZEUS JAPONICUS, Tilesius, Voy. Krusenst. pl.61 (Dorée ou Poisson a miroir 
du Japon). C,et V, x. p. 24; Temm, et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 123, Icon. 
piscium a Pictore Sinense pict. Bib. Banks. Japan Fishes, Bib. Banks. 
Zeus australis, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Erebus and Terror, p. 36. 
pl. 25, f. 1. 

In the work last quoted I gave a figure of a Dory obtained by Sir James C, Ross at Port 
Jackson, drawn from a specimen that was in very bad condition, The account of the Japanese 
Dory, contained in the ‘Fauna Japonica,’ mentions no character that I do not find in the 
Australian one. 

Hab. Seas of Japan, China, and Australia. 


Zeus neBuLosus, Temm. et Schl, F, J. Sieb. p. 11. pl. 66. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 
SPHYRENIDE. 
SpHyrR#NA oBTUSATA, C. et V. ii. p. 350; Temm. et Schl. F, J. p, 83. 
pl. 13. f. 2. 


Hab. Southern coasts of Australia, Javan sea, sea of Japan, Indian ocean, and the Mauritius. 


SpHyRENA CHINENSIS, Lacépéde, v. p. 334. pl. 10. f. 2; Icon. Reeves, 62; 
Hardw. 86. Chinese name, Chuh tséen, “Bamboo stick”; Choh tsin 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 224). Rad. B.7; D. 5|-1|8; A. 2|8; P. 20; V. 15. 
A specimen in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, brought from China by 


a 


“a rel fee 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 267 


the Rev: George Vachell, enables us to give a short account of this species. It differs from 
obtusata in having two points to the gill-cover, and from all the species that have been hitherto 
figured, in its higher shoulder and more concave profile. The specimen does not exhibit this 
peculiarity of form so strongly as the figure, but it is flaccid and may have lost its exact shape. 

Canine teeth acute, subulate and slightly flexuose, like the italic s. Two on each side, 
widely set on the upper jaw, with small lateral teeth pointing backwards, not arranged by 
threes but with intervals, as if one had fallen out here and there. A few tall, compressed, 
lancet-shaped teeth arm the palate-bones, and smaller teeth of the same form stand in a single 
row on the limbs of the lower jaw, their size augmenting gradually as they near the corner of 
the mouth; two canines standing contiguously on the tip of the jaw. No teeth on the small 
chevron ‘of the vomer. The gill-cover shows two small, slender, flat points, the upper one 
being rather the longest. Lateral line almost straight; torulose, 


Hab. Canton. 


SPHYRENA NIGRIPINNIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 34. pl. 13. f. 1. 
Hab. Japanese sea. 


SpHyvr=Zna (VULGARIS) Japonica, C. et V. ii. p. 354; Temm. et Schl. 
F. J. Sieb. p. 33. 


This fish was merely indicated in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ from a Japanese drawing, 
but the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ possess a single dried specimen, which they state to 
be in no respect different from the European one. It is distinguished from the Indian Sphy- 
rene by the ventrals being further back than the tips of the pectorals. 


Hab, Japanese sea. (Mediterranean ?) 


Fam. ScoMBRISIDZ. 


ScoMBER ScomBRUS, Lin. Bl. Auct. C. et V. viii. p.6; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
Sieb. p. 92 ; Icon. Reeves, 163. Chinese name, Ta che, “ Variegated che” 
(Reeves); Fa chi (Bridgem. Chrest. 105). 


Hab. Chinese and Japanese seas. Cape of Good Hope. Atlantic. Mediterranean. Black 
sea (not in the sea of Azof). English channel. North sea and Baltic, 


ScomMBER PNEUMATOPHORUS, “ Laroche,” C, et V. viii. p. 36; Temm. et 
Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 93. pl. 47. f. 1 et 2. 


Hab. Chinese, Japanese, and Australian seas. Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of North 
Africa. 


ScOMBER DELPHINALIS, “ Commerson,” C. et V. viii. p. 53. Icon. Reeves, 
6. 23; Hardw.i.183. Chinese name, Hwa tsze (Birch); Ta éze, “ Flowered 
tze” (Reeves) ; Fa chi (Bridgem. Chrest. 106). 


Hab. China seas and coasts of Madagascar. 


THYNNUS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p, 94. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


THYNNUS THUNNINA, C. et V. viii. p. 104. t. 202; Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
Sieb. p. 95. pl. 48. Maguereau a quatre points, Geoftr, Egypt. pl. 24. 
f.3. Japan Fishes, Bib. Banks, fig. 35. 


Hab, Japanese sea. Mediterranean, 


THYNNUS PELAMYS, Lin. (Scomber). C. et V. viii. p. 113. Japan Fishes, 
Bib. Banks, fig. 49. Jcon. G. Forsteri, 230. in Bib. Banks (Atlantic) ; 
_Temm, et Schl. F. J, Sieb. p. 96. pl. 49. - 


Hab, Seaof Japan. Malay Archipelago, Straits of Sunda. Polynesia. South American 
eoasts. Canaries. African coasts, 


Tuynnus sisi, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 97. pl. 50 (sibu). 
_\ Hab. Sea of Japan. 


268 _  REPORT—1845. WIND THT ZO 


THYNNUS MACROPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 98. pl. 51... 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


PELAMIS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 39. pl. 52. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Cysium comMERsont, Lacép. ii. p. 600. pl. 20. f. 1? (Scomber). C. et V. 
viii. p. 165?; Riippell, Atl. p. 94. taf. 25. Icon. Reeves, 228; Hardw. 
i. 184. Chinese name, Zan teen heaou, “ Green-spotted keaou” (Birch) ; 
Lam teem how, “ Blue-spotted kow” (Reeves). 


The spinous dorsal is higher than in Lacépéde and Russell’s figure, and more resembles 
Riippell’s, supposing that the membrane connecting the filamentous tips were more fully de- 
veloped than it is shown to be in his figure. The central half of the fin is pure white. 


Hab. Chinaseas. Indian ocean. Red sea and the Mauritius. 


? Cysrum MERTENSII, C. et V. viii. p. 179? con. Régn. An. ed. nova. 
Icon. Reeves, 216; Hardw. 182. Chinese name, Shen keaou, “‘ Fleshy 
heaou.” (Reeves); “ Edible keaow” (Birch). (Figure 15 inches long.) 
Hab. China seas. 


CyBIUM CHINENSE, Lacépéde iii. p. 23 (Scomber). C. et V. viii. p. 180; 
Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 100. pl. 53. f.. 1. Icon. Reeves, a. 52; Hardw. 
i. 186? Chinese name, Vew pe keaou, “Cow-skin keaow” (Birch) ; Mew 
pe kaou (Reeves). 

eS eapa closely to the preceding, but it has more dorsal spines, and wants the spots on 
e tail. 
Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


Cygr1um nrpHonium, C. et V. viii. p. 180 ; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 101. 
pl. 53. f. 2. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Cypium GutTatoum, Bl. Schn. (Scomber), p.23. t.5; C. et V. viii. p. 173 ; 
Wingeram, Russell, 134; Icon. Reeves, 3. 46; Hardw.i. 181. Chinese 
name, Keaou yu (Birch); Kaou yu (Reeves); Kau u (Bridgem. Chrest. 
243). 


Hab. China seas. Malaccas and the Indian ocean. 


TricHtunus ARMATUS, Gray, Zool. Mise. p.9. 7. savala, C. et V. viii. 
p- 251; Icon. Reeves, 6. 56; Hardw. 189. Chinese name, Pik tae, 
“White girdle” (Birch); “White tape” (Reeves); Pak tat (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 241). 

A Chinese specimen of this fish exists in the British Museum. 
Hab. China sea. Indian ocean. 


TRICHIURUS LEPTURUS, JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. p. 102, pl. 
54. Tr. muticus, Gray, Zool. Misc. p. 10? 
Hab. Sea of Japan. (Atlantic?) 


TRICHIURUS INTERMEDIUS, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 10. Fad. D. 128 vel 
130; P.12. (Spec. Haslar Mus.) 


I have had an opportunity of examining several specimens of this fish, viz. two brought 
from the neighbourhood of Canton by Captain Dawkins and Sir Edward Belcher, and one 
from the mouth of the Yan tze kiang by Sir Everard Home, besides some injured ones, all of 
this species. They agree in the height of the body, which is greatest some way behind the 
anus or nearly in the middle, being equal to one-fourteenth of the whole length ; the head* 
PR ETT NS A) SEA a SE ES ee Ee ee 

* Measured between the tip of the snout and end of gill-flap. As the lower jaw projects 
the relative height of the head would be greater if the measurement were made from thence. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 269 


being equal to one-ninth, and the finless tip of the tail toa tenth. The lateral line runs about 
two-fifths of the height from the edge of the belly, and three from the summit of the back. 
The distance between the tip of the snout and fore-edge of the orbit is one-third of the length of 
the head. There are upwards of fifteen very faint streaks on the preorbitar. The margin 
of the upper jaw is curved at the junction of the intermaxillary and maxillary, and the former 
bone carries ten small teeth, exclusive of the canine one, while the latter is armed by only seven, 
which are somewhat larger. The maxillary can retire wholly under the preorbitar, and scarcely 
reaches the orbit. The canine teeth have a thin posterior edge at the tip, which ends 
abruptly, producing a barb which is too minute to be seen ,by the naked eye, and not to be 
compared with the acute arrow-headed tooth of 7’r. lepturus, as represented in Bl. Schn. t. 
100. The small teeth are enlarged by similar edges at the base, the tips being narrower and 
roundish. Top of the head flattish without an acute ridge. The spines on the under edge 
of the tail are so minute that they cannot be reckoned even by aid of a lens in a plump per- 
fect specimen. In one alittle decayed, they are seen to be the clear pungent tips of the inter- 
spinous bones, with which they agree in number, amounting to about 110 or more. There 
are two spinous points on the hinder edge of the very small anus. Length, 14°15 inches. 
From snout to anus, 4:09. Length of head 1°55, of point of tail beyond the dorsal fin 1°40. 
Height of body 1 inch. 
Hab. Sea of China, 


NaucrRaATEs inpicus, C. et V. viii. p. 326. 


Specimens of this fish were brought from the China seas by Captain Dawkins, and presented 
‘by him to the Haslar Museum. 


Hab, China seas. Amboyna. Indian ocean. 


ELECATE BIVITTATA, C. et V. viii. p. 338; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 104. 
pl. 56; Icon. Reeves, 172; Hardw. 192. 


Mr. Reeves’s figure shows the bands as described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ but not 
the white corners of the caudal. Neither the one nor the other are expressed in the plate of 
the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan, and the Moluccas, 


CHORINEMUS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 106. pl. 57. f. 1. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


-CHORINEMUS LEUCOPHTHALMUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 219; Hardw. 
195. Chinese name, Yin pib heaou, “ Silver-white keaouw” (Birch) ; Yen 
pak keaou, “ White-eyed mackerel” (Reeves). 


Ihave been unable to refer this figure to any described species. It has nearly the proportions 
and general form of Ch. commersonianus, but it wants the spots, and has a more obtuse snout 
and larger ventrals. The profile is incurved over the eye which renders the snout gibbous. 
The eye is large. The lateral line makes a small arch at its commencement and is then waved 
twice slightly up and down under the spinous dorsal, the remainder being quite straight from 
the third or fourth soft ray to the caudal. The scales appear to be very minute, deeply im- 
bedded in the satiny skin and not close to each other. Most of the fish is brightly silvery, 
but the back is deep lavender-purple, which fades away before it reaches the lateral line. The 
snout and temples are shaded with the same, and there is a large blackish-purple patch on 
the upper and posterior parts of the operculum. The supra-scapular region is brightly sil- 
very, as is also the iris, which has a yellow ring round it. The pectorals are cream-yellow, 
Shaded at the base with brown. The teeth are shown small, setaceous, and thickly set on 
both jaws. Length of figure 16 inches. 


Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


(CHORINEMUS DELICATULUs, Richardson. con. Reeves, i. 92; Hardw. 
220. Chinese name, Wang seang, “ Royal omen” (Birch). 
__ This figure has much the general form of Bloch’s aculeatus, but differs in the mouth being 
cleft beyond the middle of the head, and consequently passing the eye considerably. Its 
»snout is also more gibbous. at the nostrils. It may possibly be the young of some of the 
‘Spotted species. In the size of its mouth it appears to coincide with exoletus, but the lateral 
mpeirants the undulations which are noticed in the description which is given of that fish in 
the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ The cleft of its mouth is larger than that of leucophthalmus. The 
Jateral line makes an angle over the pectoral and afterwards continues straight without any 
‘undulation whatever. In the figure the back is illuminated by a clouded mixture of delicate 
‘sienna-yellow, having metallic lustre and pale siskin-green, the parts below the lateral line 


270 ‘  REPORT—1845. Owe PU OY SRP RO 


being brightly silvery. A stripe of umber-brown runs along the side of the head over the 
eye, the temporal groove is shaded by the same, and there are a few diverging brown streaks 
on the upper edge of the operculum and humeral bones. The pectoral and caudal are ochra- 
ceous, the dorsal and anal faint mountain-green, and the ventrals pink. Length of the figure 
6 inches. 


Hab. Chinese sea. 


TRACHINOTUS AURATUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 104; Hardw. 196. 
Chinese name, Hwang lii tsang, “Yellow wax tsang” (Birch); Wong la 
tsong, “ Yellow wax” (Reeves); Wong lap tsong (Bridgem. Chrest. 150). 
Rad. D. 6|-1|20; A.2|-1|17; C.178. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

This species makes the nearest approach to 7'r. mokalee, but its snout is not so high, and 
its colour differs. The British Museum possesses a specimen from Macao which measures 
9 inches in length; but it attains a greater size, as Mr. Reeves’s figure measures 14 inches, 
The height is equal to twice the length, including the central caudal rays. The snout is not 
vertical as in mokalee, but is very convex, the profile running nearly straight, or scarcely 
arched, from the nostrils to the dorsal with a slope of about forty degrees. The points of the 
dorsal and anal are a little less acute and falcate than in mokalee. The caudal is deeply 
forked, the length of its lobes being equal to half the height of the body. First jointed rays of 
dorsal and ana! compressed but strong, lateral line undulated. The colour is a bright saffron- 
yellow, with much lustre, which gives place on the breast and along the belly and base of the 
anal to a pure silvery colour. The head is also yellow, with silvery lower jaw and edges of 
the gill-pieces: a blue tint spreads round the nostrils. The dorsal and pectorals are dark 
hair-brown, the former with a pale edge. The ventrals are bluish white, and are smaller than 
the pectorals; the anal is tinged with orange, and the caudal, mostly coloured like the dorsal, 
is edged in the depth of the fork with yellow. ¢ 

Hab. China seas. Canton. 

In the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, there are two specimens of a Trachinotus of an- 
other species, but having the same number of dorsal spines with the preceding. J examined 
them only in a very cursory manner. 


TRACHINOTUS ANOMALUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 107. pl. 57. f. 2. 
“ Rad. D. 4|-9)30; A. 2|-1|29; C.20; P.20; V.1|5.” (F. Jap. from 
figure.) 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


TRACHINOTUS MELO, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 97; Hardw. 218. Chi- 
nese name, Kwa tsze tsang, “ Melon tsang” (Birch) ; “Melon seed ¢song” 
(Reeves); Kwa tsz tsong (Bridgem. Chrest.152). Rad. D.7|19; A. 3|17; 
C. 1622; P.18; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 


Yhe 7. anomalus of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ is described solely from the figure which was 
executed in Japan. It may therefore prove, when better known, to be the same species with 
the Chinese one represented in Mr. Reeves’s drawing. Of this an example exists in the Museum 
of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, which was brought from Canton by the Rev. 
George Vachell. It has the same elliptical profile with anomalus, but its snout is more obtuse 
and sufficiently gibbous at the nostrils to project a little beyond the mouth. Mouth small. 
Nostrils two round contiguous openings before the eye. Eye large. Anus between the tips 
of the ventrals immediately before the anal fin, no free spines intervening. Head nacry, with- 
out scales. Scales of the body very minute and tender, but not deciduous. Lateral line 
nearly straight, without any semblance of a keel or armature posteriorly. There are no 
scales on the vertical fins. The spines of the dorsal have been omitted by the artist, and they 
may be very readily overlooked when recumbent: they are seven in number, exclusive of 
the recumbent ones. The first is very short, and the sixth is shorter than the fifth, so that 
the spinous part has a very slightly arched shape, and is almost as distinct from the soft part as 
in some Scie@nid@, which are described as having two dorsals. The sixth spine equals the 
fifth one in length, and belongs more properly to the soft fin, which is notin any way pointed 
or faleate. The second anal spine is as long as the third one, and is stronger and somewhat 
curved. Pectorals moderate size. Ventral spines short: these ventrals, from the thinness of 
the belly, are contiguous. The fish generally is brilliantly nacry or silvery, with a bluish-gray 
tint along the back and at the bases of the opercular pieces. There is a wood-brown tint on 
the nape, and a gloss of the same on the sides. The fins are transparent, and the dorsal is 
traversed by a faint stripe below its middle; and another faint brownish stripe a little arched 
runs from the temples to the trunk of the tail. The muscles shine through the integuments 
of the sides, producing stripes bent en chevron, first at the brown stripe and then in the oppo- 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SHAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 271 


site direction at the lateral line. Length of the specimen, 2°15 inches. Height of its body, 
085 inch. Length of figure, 6 inches. 
Hab. China seas. Macao. 

Another Trachinotus, resembling the preceding, but apparently not the same, exists in the 
Chinese collection at Hyde Park. Its numbers are—Rays, D. 8|16; A. 3|16; V. 15, &c. 
The first dorsal spine is very small, the second one is the highest, and is large and greatly 
compressed. The first anal spine also is very short, the second one strong, and the third one 
as tall as the second, but slender, delicate, and looking like a soft ray. The examination of 
this specimen was too hurried to enable me to record other particulars. 


Hab. China seas. Macao. 


BLEPHARIS FASCIATUS, Riippell, Atl. p. 129. pl. 32. f.2; Icon. Reeves, 2693 
Hardw. 214. Chinese name, Pih sew kung “ White-haired sir” (Birch) ; 
Pak seu kung (Reeves); Pak su kung (Bridgem. Chrest. 36). Same 
name as the Scyris indica. Rad. D.8|23; A. -1|193 C.1622 5) Pillt6; 
V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 


A specimen brought from Canton by the Rev. George Vachell exists in the Museum of the 
Cambridge Philosophical Institution. Its rays differ a little from the numbers given by Rtip- 
pell, but the profile so closely corresponds that I have little hesitation in considering it to be 
his species. The dorsal spines are arched, the third one being tallest, and the first; seventh 
and eighth very short. Scales small and deeply imbedded. Lateral line completing its curve 
under the fourteenth or fifteenth soft dorsal rays, keeled in the tail and armed with minute 
closely-incumbent shields, which gradually pass into a torulose line as they approach the 
curve. 


Hab. China and Red seas. 
Bieruaris rnpicus, C. et V. ix.p.154; Temm. et Schl. p. 113. pl. 60. f. 2. 


This is a shorter and higher fish than the preceding, and has not so convex a cranium, » In 
the text uf the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ six dorsal spines are mentioned, but the figure shows 
eight, and one at the base of the soft ray. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. The Moluccas. . 


Gauicutuys MAgor, C. et V. ix. p. 168. pl. 254; Russell, 57; Icon. 
Reeves, 189; Hardw. 211. Chinese name, Chang e mong, “ Long-finned 
mong” (Reeves); Cheung yik mong (Bridgem. Chrest. 35). Rad. D. 
6-119; A.1|16; P.18; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 

A specimen obtained by the Rev. George Vachell at Macao was presented by him to the 
Cambridge Philosophical Institution. It agrees with the plate in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ 
except in the profile, from the nostrils to the mouth being rather more oblique, as represented 
in Bloch’s plate, 192. f.1. The teeth are minute in several rows below, in.one or two above. 
The scales of the body are invisible tothe naked eye, but may be detected by a common eye~ 
glass. The lateral line is composed of tubes, giving it a torulose appearance; and on the 
slender part of the tail the little eminences become wider, making approach to obtuse shields. 
The usual recumbent spine exists before the dorsal, and it is preceded by three interspinous 
bones whose thin nail-like heads show through the integument. There are also two inter- 
spinous bones protruding before the anal. The anterior filamentous branches of the first four { 
dorsal and anal rays are black, and the anal also is black. Mr. Reeves’s drawing is very sil- 
very, with a faint diffused blush of red-lilae-purple, and four vertical bands of that colour 
a little darker, but still very pale. There are crimson blotches on the base of the pectorals, 
Sl edge of the ventrals, and under part of the anal and dorsal. Length of fizure 

1 es. 


Hab. China seas. Moluccas and Indian ocean. 


SERIOLA PuRPURASCENS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p.113. pl.61. “ Rad. 
D. 7|-1|30; A. 2|-1|20; C. 25; P. 20; V. 1|5.” (F. J.) 
- Hab. Sea of Japan. 


SeRioLa Avro-virtAra, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 115 (pl. 62. f. 1. 
» not yet published); Jeon. Reeves, 230; Hardw.210. Chinese name, Kin 
: The che, “Gold-edged pool” (Birch) ; Kum peen che, “Golden-bordered ” 
_ (Reeves). Rad. D.7|-1|32; A. 2|-1|20; C178; P.18; V.1|5. (Chinese 
_ Spec. Br. Mus.) 

Besides the principal yellow band, Mn Reeves’s figure shows another, which runs from the 


ee 


(+ ee - REPORT—1845.. 


eye over the suprasscapulars. The ventrals are blotched with purple and green, and there are 
- differences in the tints of less moment. It is a shorter fish than purpurascens. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. Canton. 


SERIOLA QUINQUERADIATA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 115. pl. 62. f. 2. 

“ Rad. D. 5|-1|382; A. 2|-1]19; C. 22; P. 22; V. 1|5.”. (Fs J.) 
6|-1|31;  — 2|-1/20; P.20, &e. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

It is probable that this is a mere variety of auro-vittata. In a specimen in the British 
Museum which was brought from China by Mr. Reeves, we found six spines in the first dorsal. 
This individual presented no other difference in form from auro-vittata, except that the teeth 
were a little shorter and more closely villiform. It measured ten inches, and the specimen 
of auro-vittata, with which it was carefully compared, exceeded it by only one inch. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


SeRIoLA INTERMEDIA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 116. ‘Rad. D. 
7|-1|82; A.1|-1[15; C. 164; P.21; V.1|5.” (F. J.) 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 

Lactarius DELICATULUS, Bl. Schn. p. 31 (Scomber lactarius). C. et V. ix. 
p- 238 ; Chundawah, Russell, 108; Icon. Reeves, 170; Hardw. Acanth. 38 ; 
(Scales very deciduous) Reeves. 
Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. 


Nomeus mauritu, Cuv. Régn. An. 1" ed.ii. p. 315; C. et V. ix. p. 243. 
pl. 262 ( Seriola argyromelas). 


In Sir Edward Belcher’s collection several specimens of this fish were marked as having 
been taken in the China seas. They have not the marks of N. peronii, but correspond well 
with the figure of mauritii in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ 

Hab. Brazils. Coast of Guinea and sea of China. 


EMMELICHTHYS SCHLEGELI, Richardson. Erythrichthys, Temm. et Schl. 

F. J. Sieb. p. 117. “pl. 63. f. 1.” r 

Hab. Sea ofJapan. 

The ninth decade of the Ichthyological part of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ has just reached me as 
this sheet is passing through the press, and I perceive by the figure of Erythrichthys in the 
63rd plate, that the genus is identical with the Australian one which I published in the ‘ Ich- 
thyology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’ on the Ist of March 1845. I do not know 
the date of the letter-press of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ describing Erythrichthys. The Australian 
species differs in the form of its preorbitar and in the dorsal spines. The genus seems to me 
to be more allied to the Sparoid or Meznoid families than to the Scomberoid, from which it 
differs in its ptenoid scales, 


Scomsroprs, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 118. “pl. 63. f. 2.” 
Hab, Sea of Japan. 


CorypHaNA Japonica, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 120. pl, 64. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


STROMATEUS ARGENTEUS, Bloch, 421; C. et V. ix. p- 393; Icon. Reeves, 
B.32; Hardw.227. Chinese name, Tsang yu (Reeves, Birch); Tsong u 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 148). This is one of the most common fish brought to 
table during its season in China (Reeves). Rad. D.?|44; A.46; C.15; 
P. 24. (Dried spec. Br. Mus.) 


Mr. Reeves presented a specimen to the British Museum. No spines protrude through the 
skin in front of the dorsal, but six or seven interspinous bones show through the thick integu- 
ment. Two or three rays of the anal also are deeply concealed in the front of the fin. This 
specimen, compared with Russell’s figure of caxdidus (pl. 42), was found to differ in the po- 
sition of the anus relative to the anal fin, and to want the streaks in the supra-scapular region, 
there being only a few on thenape. The operculum itself is marked by strie diverging from 
its upper anterior corner. The profile is a little gibbous behind the eye, and as evenly curved 
asin candidus. The specimen measured 11} inches in length, and the figure 143; the body 
being 73 high in the latter. : 

Hab. China seas. Canton. Indian ocean. ) 


STROMATEUS NIGER, Bloch, 160 (Str. paru). C, et V.ix. p. 385. Nalla sanda- 


pe 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 273 


wah, Russell, 43; Icon. Reeves, 194; Hardw. 225. Chinese name, Mth 
tsang (Birch); Hak tsong, “ Black tsang” (Reeves, Bridgem., Chrest.149). 

Read. D.4|42; A. 1|86; P. 21. &c. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

The British Museum possesses a Chinese specimen. One spine can be observed incumbent 
on the front of the dorsal, but the other three are concealed. The specimen measures 144 
inches, the figure nearly 11. There is a greater’ distance between the anus and anal fin in 
this species than in the preceding one. The lateral line is decidedly keeled, and the fins are 
less pointed than they are represented to be in Bloch’s fig. 160, and much less than in his 
plate 422. The colour is yellowish-gray with lilac and purple tints by no means dark, so 
that the name of niger is not appropriate. 

Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. 


STROMATEUS SECURIFER, C. et V. ix. p. 344. pl. 373; Cantor, Ann. Nat. 
Hist. ix. p. 45. 


Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. Chusan (Cantor). 


SrROMATEUS PUNCTATISSIMUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 121. pl. 65. 
More pointed and longer anal than argenteus has. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Srromartevs atous, Russell, 42, (Atoo hoia). C. et V. ix. p. 389. “ Stroma- 
teus sinensis, Euphrasen in N. Schwed. Abh. ix. p.49.t.9;” Bl. Schn. 492. 
Hab. Sea of China, 


SrROoMATEUS ACULEATUS, Bl. Schn. p. 492; C. et V.ix. p. 394. “iS. argen- 
teus, Euphrasen N. Schwed. Abh. ix. p. 49. t. 9.” (Mem. de Stockh.) 
Hab. China seas. 


SESERINUS VACHELLII, Richardson. Rad. D. 5/42; A. 3/37; C. 1712; 
P. 21; V.1|5. (Spec. Camb. Ph. Inst.) 


This fish has the same close resemblance to Stromateus niger that Seserinus microchirus 
has to Stromateus fiatola. The Prince of Canino has replaced the Mediterranean Seserinus 
in the genus Stromateus, but the discovery of the Chinese species with larger ventrals and a 
keeled lateral line justifies Cuvier’s separation of the two forms. The Rev. George Vachell 
brought two specimens from Canton of the Seserinus which we have named in honour of him. 
It isa greatly compressed fish, which is thickest at the orbits, the height of its body being only 
a quarter less than the length, caudalexcluded. The acute nuchal ridge vanishes in the inter- 
orbital space, which is however not flat. A recumbent spine is placed in front of the dorsal, and 
five erect ones are so buried in front of the fin that they can be detected only by dissection. 
The fifth spine has a long, flexible, but not jointed tip, which is also concealed; the others are 
pungent. The first anal spine is short, the third one a quarter of the length of the soft rays, 
and the second one of intermediate length. Both the dorsal and anal are falcate. The pec- 
torals are long and falcate, their tips reaching over two-thirds of the anal. Ventrals small, 
falcate or pointed, attached beneath the corner of the preoperculum, and having the anus be- 
tween their tips. Tail slender, caudal deeply forked. Scales small, the lateral line torulose 
or keeled on the tail by soft triangular plates, which have an acute point that catches the fin- 
ger when drawn back. These plates are small, and when examined with a lens appear to be 
formed of two divergent tubes, with the acute point rising from the disc they enclose. 

Eye distant from the profile. Preoperculum and operculum striated. Lower jaw when 
depressed longer than the upper one. Teeth as fine as hairs, slightly curved in one close row 
on both jaws. Colour gone. 

Length 3:75 inches. Height of body between dorsal and anal, 2 inches. Length of head, 
1 inch. 

Hab. China seas. Canton. 


Caranx rracuurvs, Lin. Bl. (Scomber). C. et V. ix. p. 11; Temm. et 
Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 109. pl. 59. f. 1. With 70 to 75 shields on lateral line. 


__ Hab, Chinese and Japanese seas. Amboyna. New Zealand. Australian seas. Cape 
of Good Hope. English Channel. 


CaRAnx ROTLERI, Bloch, t. 346 (Scomber). C. et V.ix. p.29 ; Icon. Reeves, 
ah 1845. T 


yee ) MREPORTEHESSS. (ocu0r NTH! GEE KO 


206; Hardw. 203. Chinese name, Peen hea (Birch); Peen hap che, 

“ Flat-scaled mackerel” (Reeves); Pin hap chi (Bridgem. Chrest. 109). 

Hab. China sea. Malaccas and Red sea, 

Obs. Only one species of Caranx, with several separate finlets succeeding to the dorsal and 
anal, is distinguished in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ The woragoo of Russell (143), which is 
therein referred to that species, has a more “flatly curved lateral line; and there is a second 
figure 75 in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio with another Chinese name which presents some differences, 
though slight, from rot/eri. There are fewer detached finlets, the pectoral fin is shorter, does 
not quite reach to the anal, and is contained above four times in the total length of the fish ; 
and the black spot on the gill-plate, instead of being high up on the operculum, is on the 
middle of its edge, as in the woragoo. The numbers of shields on the lateral line and of the 
rays of the fins are nearly the same as in ro¢t/eri, but the curved commencement of the line 
has been omitted by the artist. Teeth close shorn, villiform, with a taller outer row. Lad. 
D. 7|-1]12 et vii.; A. 2|-1[10 et vi.; P. 25; &c. Sguame carinate, 53, This is not so 
strongly marked a variety as some that we observe among the Zrachuri, Its Chinese name is 
Chih kea txe,  Red-mailed tender fish” (Birch). 

Hab. Sea of China and the Indian ocean. 


CaRANx MuROADSI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 108. pl. 58. f. 1; Zeon. 
Reeves, (5 36. Chinese name, Jsze yu, “ Affectionate fish” (Reeves, 
Birch); Chi u (Bridgem. Chrest. 111). 


The first dorsal and the anal spines are omitted in Mr. Reeves’s figure, probably because 
they were depressed in the specimen placed before the artist. The bronze stripe, which is 
represented narrow and defined in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ is diffused over much of the side in 
the Chinese figure. 


Hab. Coasts of China and Japan. 


CARANX MARUADSI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 109. pl. 58. £2. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CARANX CANCROIDES, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 3. 30. Chinese name, 
Hwa tsze, “The crab mackerel” (Reeves); Hea che (Birch); Ha chi 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 108). Rad. D. 7|-1|22; A. 1|19, &e. Squame cari- 
nate, 40. (Spec. C. Ph. Inst.) 


A specimen of this Caranx was brought from Canton by the Rev. George Vachell, and pre- 
sented by him to the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, It belongs to the group of luna 
(Histoire des Poissons, ix. p. 80), which have the teeth in a single row. They are scarcely 
perceptible, except through the aid ofa lens. The species differs from C. platessa and geor- 
gianus and others of the group in the numbers of its rays and extent of armature of the late- 
ral line. The form is elliptical, the height of body being to the length, caudal included, as 
one to three, The profile from the mouth to the dorsal is sloping with a moderate convexity, 
and corresponds in its obliquity and curvature with the under profile from ventrals to tip of 
lower jaw. Pectorals as long as the head, and equal to one-fourth of the length of the fish, 
Lateral line straight and cuirassed forward to the beginning of the anal, the shields embracing 
nearly the whole height of the tail behind that fin, No spots are shown on the operculum 
or elsewhere. The back is coloured olive-green, and the sides and belly brightly silvery, 
with a tinge of lake on the breast. ‘The fins are transparent, without any darkening on the:r 
edges, and have an uniform pale greenish hue. Length of the drawing 4% inches, 

Hab. China seas, Canton. 


CARANxX CEsTUS, Richardson. Jcon, Reeves, a. 39; Hardw. 206. Chinese 
name, Tae yu, “ Girdle-fish” (Birch); Te yu (Reeves). 

This drawing is remarkable among the other representations of the Chinese Scomberoids 
in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio for the size and definite form of the scales. The shields on the keel 
are strong and pointed, and run forward to beneath the beginning of the second dorsal, The 
lateral line appears to be but slightly arched over the pectoral. In form the fish is regularly 
elliptical, the ventral and dorsal curves equal, and not more convex in the anterior than in 
the posterior half of the ellipse. Height one-third of the length, including the central caudal 
rays. Head forming a fourth of the same length. Snout rather acute. Eye somewhat large. 
Teeth apparently in a single row, small and slender. Pectorals falcate, reaching over the an- 
terior quarter of the anal. This fin and the dorsal are acute and higher anteriorly, but not so 
much so as to be falcate. The spinous dorsal one quarter lower than the fore-part of the second 
fin. Three anal spines are shown as incumbent on the first soft ray of the anal, but ne free 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 275 


spines, though from the large space which intervenes between the anus and anal it is pro- 
bable that such exist. Colour of the back olive-green, with a diffused yellow tinge over the 
lateral line and temples. There is a very slight tint of lake along the under side of the la- 
teral line, and the under parts are pearly and silvery. Pectorals and ventrals pure sulphur- 
* yellow, the former having a carmine streak across the base, edged with bluish-gray. There is 
also a reddish stripe along the bases of the dorsal and anal, and the tips are red. A small black 
spot exists on the edge of the gill-cover, and the membrane connecting the last ten dorsal rays 
is tipped with black. 
Hab. China sea. Canton. 


Carangi. 


CaRAnx ForsTeERr!, C. et V. ix. p. 107. Yarradanree para, Russell, 14'7 ? 
Scomber hippos, Forster, Hist. Anim. p. 199; Icon. G. Forster in Bib. 
Banks, No. 221; Reeves, 214; Hardw. 207; Chinese name, Fang che, 
« Square mackerel” (Reeves); Fong chi (Bridgem. Chrest, 107). 


Hab. Mauritius, Indian ocean, China seas, Malay archipelago, New Zealand and Austra- 
lian seas. 


Caranx MALABARICUS, Bl. Schn. p. 31 (Scomber). C. et V. ix. p. 121. 
Tallam parah, Russell, 150; Icon. Reeves, 8, 21; Hardw. 208. Hwa 
tsang (Birch); Fa tsong, “ Flowered or variegated mackerel” (Reeves) ; 
Fa tsong (Bridgem, Chrest. 151). Rad. D, 8|-1|22; A, 118 vel 19, &e. 
(2 Spec. C. Ph. Inst. from China.) 


Hab. China seas, Indian ocean and Red sea. Canton (Vachell). 


CarRANx EQUULA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 111. pl. 60. f.1. “ Rad. 
D. 8|-1|24; A. 2|-1|23,” &c. (F. Jap.) 
The figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ has a near resemblance to Mr. Reeves’s drawing £. 21, 
which is quoted above as representing C. malabaricus, but its profile is more sloping. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Caranx nicripzs, C. et V. ix. p.122 et p. 141 (Olistes atropus). Mais pa- 

rah, Russell, 152; Icon. Reeves, 181 ; Hardw, 224. 

The Brama atropus, Bl. Sch.'p. 98. t. 28, seems to be also this fish, and Schneider indeed 
mentions the first dorsal and the spines before the anal, as he observed them in the dried spe- 
cimen recumbent in their respective grooves. He also points out its Scomberoid charaeters. 
Atropus is therefore the prior specific name, but being compounded of Greek and Latin it is 
objectionable, and may be allowed to give place to the appellation of the same import proposed 
in the ‘Histoire des Poissons.’ M. Valenciennes states that a specimen preserved in Bloch’s 
museum is labelled Brama melampus and Scomber ciliaris, Examples of the species from 
China exist in the British Museum and the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. 

Hab. China sea and Indian ocean. « 


CARANX FLAVO-CH#RULEUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 110. pl. 59. f. 2; 
Icon, Reeves, 213; Hardw. 204, Chinese name, Hwang joo, “ Yellow 
milk” (Birch) ; Wang joo, “ Yellow breast” (Reeves) ; Wong u (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 112). 

A specimen of this fish exists in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park. 
Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 


CARANX CHRYSOPHRYS, var. hyemalis, C. et V ix. p. 77? Icon. Reeves, 
239; Hardw. 209. Chinese name, Tung kwa tsang (Birch); Tong hwa 
tsong, “ Winter gourd” (Reeves). Rad. 8|-1|21 ; A. 2|-1|19, &c. (Reeves’s 
drawing.) 

This figure closely resembles that of chrysophrys in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ except 
that the snout is rather blunter ; there is a small incurvature of the profile at the nostrils, the 
points of the dorsal and anal are scarcely so long, and the cheek, as well as the belly nearly 
to the anal spines, are represented scaleless. The golden tint of the eyebrow is very obscure. 
Length of figure 14 inches. 

Hab. China sea. Seychelles ? 
T 2 


276 RKREPORT—1845. 1 Sar “oO 


CARANX MARGARITA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, r, nullo numero; Hardw 
Acanth. 205. Chinese name, Hwang chang, “ Yellow bowels” (Birch). 
This Caranx much resembles C. flavo-ceruleus or cancroides in its profile, its height being 

one-third of the total length, and the space between the snout and first dorsal flatly arched, — 

not steep, as in the Carangi. The breast is scaly, but no scales are shown on the cheek, nor any 
teeth in the jaws. ‘The arch of the lateral line terminates over the beginning of the anal and 
under the ninth ray of the second dorsal, the straight part being pretty strongly armed by 
about eighteen or twenty bucklers. The spines of the first dorsal are rather tall and stout, and 
the fin ends at the foot of the second. The fish has a pearly hue throughout, with some faint 
yellow tints on the upper half of the body and forehead. The caudal and anal are saffron- 
yellow, the first dorsal and ventrals French-gray, and the second dorsal greenish-gray with 
yellowish front rays. Length of figure 4°32 inches, height of body 1°50 inch. 

Hab. Sea of China. Canton. 


Citule. 


CaRANX CILIARIS, C, et V. ix. p. 129; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 112. 
Tchawil parah, Russell, 151. Rad. D. 8|-1|21; A. 2|-1|18; P. 15. (Spec. 
C. Ph. Inst.) 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan, Malay archipelago and Indian ocean. 


Scyris 1nvica, C. et V. ix. p. 145. pl. 252 ; Riipp. Atl. taf. 33. f. 1; con. 
Reeves, a. 17; Hardw. 213. Chinese name, Pih seu kung, “ White-bearded 
gentleman”; Pih seu kung, “ White-bearded king” (Reeves); Pak su 
kung (Bridgem. Chrest. 36). Fad. D. 7|19; A. 1|16; C. 174; P.17; 
V. 1\5. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

A dried specimen of this fish brought from Canton by Mr. Reeves was presented by him 
to the British Museum. It measures 12°25 inches in length; the height of the body is 5°65 
inches, and the length of the head 3 inches. Three interspinous bones present their blunt 
edges before the recumbent spine, which precedes the seven dorsal spines. 


Hab. China seas. Malay archipelago and Indian ocean. 


EQuuLaA NUCHALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 126. “ pl. 67. f. 1” (not 
yet publ.) ; con. Reeves, g. 90. et b. 85 set of small figures; Hardw. 221 
et 223. Chinese name, Kow yaou, “ Dog’s waist” (Birch). 

Two specimens were brought from Canton by the Rey. George Vachell. 
Hab. China and Japan. 


EquuLa RIVULATA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 126. “ pl. 67. f. 2” (not 
yet published); Icon. Reeves, c. 86; Hardw. 219. Chinese.name, Hwa 
shin lth or hin tsze, “ Flowery bodied ” (Birch). 


The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ mention that the specimens they examined were in 
bad condition, otherwise I should have hesitated in referring Mr. Reeves’s most beautiful and 
elaborately finished drawing to the species established by them, on account of a difference in 
their relative heights. Mr. Reeves’s figure shows the height of the body to be half the length 
to the base of the caudal; but the description in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ gives to it a more 
elongated form, and we have not seen the plate. The fish, as represented in Mr. Reeves’s 
drawing, is brightly silvery, with pale, wood-brown, short undulating bars pretty closely 
ranged in two or three rows above the lateral line. They are continued down the sides by 
silvery streaks. The fins are pale, slightly ochraceous, with a brighter yellow tint at the be- 
ginning of the dorsal and anal. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan. 

Mene MACULATA, BI. Schn. p. 95. pl. 22 (Zeus). C. et V. x. p. 104. pl. 
285; Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 127. “pl. 67. f. 3” (not published). 
Mené Anne-Caroline, Lacép. v. pl. 14. f. 2. 


Hab. Seas of China and Japan and Indian ocean. 


XyYPHIIDE, Agassiz. 


HisTIOPHORUS ORIENTALIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 103. pl. 35. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. Malay archipelago. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 277 


WPARTT CEPOLIDA. 


Ceroza timpata, C. et V. x. p. 402; Voy. de Krusenst. pl. 60. f. 1. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CEPOLA MARGINATA, C. et V. x. p. 402; Krusenst. pl. 60. f. 1. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CEPOLA KRUSENSTERNI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 71. f. 1. 
The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ are inclined to include the two preceding species in 
this one. The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s specimens. 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


CrproLa HuNGTA, Icon. Reeves, 3.2; Hardw. 228. Chinese name, Hung 
tae, “ Red girdle” (Birch); “ Red tape” (Reeves); Hung tai (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 5). 


We cannot refer this figure to any of the foregoing Cepole, nor, on account of the numbers 
of the rays, to abbreviatus, of which we have seen neither figure nor detailed description. 
Height at the pectorals equal to the length of the head, or to one-tenth of the whole length 
of the fish. The upper and under profiles incline evenly and gradually to each other, and 
meet in an acute point at the tail. The fins are highest anteriorly and diminish in height like 
the body, also meeting in an acute point, the caudal not being distinguished by longer rays 
from the adjoining parts of the other two vertical fins. The anal is higher than the dorsal. 
Ventrals exactly under the pectorals. The whole surface of the body is divided into almost 
square rhombs by yellow lines, and there isa nacry spot in the centre of each. There are only 
ninety-four of these rhombs in a line between the gill-opening and point of the tail, so that 
they are greatly larger than the scales of the other Cepole. The general tint is pale ochre- 
yellow passing into reddish-orange on the back, and there are eighteen equidistant gamboge- 
yellow spots on the middle of the sides, the yellow tint confined to the lines dividing the scales 
from one another. These spots are much larger than those of krusensternii and not in pairs, 
The orbits and top of the head are shaded with carmine, and there is a carmine stripe along 
the middle of the dorsal, the edge of the fin being saffron-yellow and the base pearl-gray. 
The anal is lake at the base, white along the middle, and saffron-yellow edged interiorly with 
lake on the border. Pectorals yellow. Ventrals lake. Length of the drawing 12 inches. 
Height of body at ventrals 1:15 inch. Height of dorsal anteriorly 0°48; of anal anteriorly 
0°70 inch. 

Hab. China seas. Canton. 


LorHorEs CAPELLEI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 132. pl. 71 et 72. . 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Tribus HETEROSOMATA. 
Fam. PLATESSOIDES. 


PLATESSA CHINENSIS, Lacépéde, iv. p.595 et 638. pl.14. f. 1?.( Pleuronectes), 
Gray, Ind. Zool. pl. 94. f. 1; Icon. Reeves, 107, a et 6; Hardw. Malac. 
261, 262. Chinese name, Hwa tsdng pe, “ Variegated boiler nose” 
(Birch) ; Hwa tsang pe (Reeves). Icon. piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi, &c. 


Mr. Reeves figures two examples of this species, one with the eyes on the right side, the 
other on the left; and the figure given by Mr. Gray in Hardwicke’s ‘ Illustrations of Indian 
Zoology,’ was drawn from one of Mr.-Reeves’s Canton specimens deposited in the British 
Museum. The general colour of the upper side is dull umber, clouded faintly with liver- 
brown, with scattered small black spots, each surrounded by a pale ring. The fins are also 
brown, and the vertical ones are marked by rather large, well-defined, roundish, dark liver- 
brown spots, most crowded on the caudal, which is rhomboidal. Length 6 and 10 inches. 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


PLATESSA CHINENSIS, var.? c@ruleo-oculea. Icon. Reeves, 204; Hardw. 
Malac. 263. 
This seems to be from the drawing, for we have seen no specimen, to be a pale variety of 
chinensis. The ground colour is bluish-gray, clouded with blackish-gray, and the spots are 
dark blue with sky-blue borders; the vertical fins are tile-red on their basal halves, and 


278 REPORT—1845. MP, us 


bluish- or blackish-gray towards their borders, The spots as in chinensis, with the addition 
of a few on the ventrals. 


Hab. Chinese coasts: Canton. 


PLATESSA VELAFRACTA, Icon. Reeves, 105; Hardw. Malac. 264. Chinese 
name, Hwa po pung, “ Variegated sail-fish” (Birch); Fa po pang, “ Va- 
riegated broken mat” (Reeves); Fa po pung (Bridgem. Chrest. 145). 
This drawing differs little in appearance from 107, Platessa chinensis. The ground tint 

and shadings are nearly the same, the black spots want the pale borders, and the blotches on 

the fins run into each other and form a border of grayish-black. The caudal is less rhom- 
boidal and more rounded at the end. 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


PLATESssA BALTEATA; Icon. Reeves, 205; Hardw. Malac. 259. Chinese 
name, Po piing, “ Broken sail” (Birch); Po pung, “ Broken mat flounder” 
(Reeves, Bridgem. Chrest. 54). 

This has the same Chinese appellation with chrysoptera which follows, the same regularly 
oval form and the brownish-red ground tint, interspersed with a few small darker points and 
crossed by several dark brown bands, one on the nape, another broad one behind the pec- 
torals, a forked one further back, and a narrow one on the tail. The vertical fins are speckled 
with dark brown, Caudal rhomboidal. Length of drawing 74 inches, 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


Piatessa curysopterA, Bloch, Schn. (Pleuronectes), p. 151? Icon. 
Reeves, 104; Hardw. Malac. 260. Chinese name, Po pung, “ Broken 
sail” (Birch); Po pang, “ Broken mat” (Reeves); Po pung (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 54). 

Mr. Reeves’s drawing 104 answers better than any other one in his portfolio to the short 
characters of chrysoptera contained in Schneider's edition of Bloch, and this is our only rea- 
son for considering it to be the same species. 

The ground tint of the drawing is brownish-red or orange-coloured brown, with iumerous 
minute specks of umber and irregular rings of the same equally dispersed over the body with 
paler dull areas. The fins are wax-yellow, with reddish rays spotted with brown. Caudal 
fin subrhomboidal. Length of specimen 10 inches. 

A specimen in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park has conical teeth on the lower jaw and 
near the symphysis of the upper one, with smaller ones laterally, and a prominent smooth 
acute iriterorbital ridge. 

Hab. Chinese coasts. Canton. 


PLATESSA ASPERRIMA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 91. (Letter-press not 
yet published.) 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


-HippoGiossus pENTEX, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. p. 102. pl. 47. eon. 
Reeves, 195; Hardw. Malac. 267. Chinese name, 7so how, “ Mouth on 
the left” (Birch); Tso hau, “ Left mouth” (Reeves); Tso hau (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 147). Rad. B.7; D.47; A. 33; C.18; P.17; V. a 
Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


HiprocLossus ORTHORHYNCHUS, Icon. Reeves, 106; Hardw. Malac. 266. 
Chinese name, Ching pe, “ Straight nosed” (Birch); “ True nose” 
(Reeves); Ching pi (Bridgem. Chrest. 146). 


We have seen no specimen of this. The figure represents the dorsal as commencing much 
further back than in the preceding; the ground colour as broccoli-brown, with a darker 
clove-brown bar running between the middles of the dorsal and anal, 4nd blénding with bars 
or shadings of the same tint which cover shoulder and arch over the pectoral. The vertical 
fins are also broccoli-brown, with a few obscure darker blotches. Pectorals yellowish-brown 
with fine dark speckling. 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 279 


Hirrociossus GonioGRraApuicus, Icon. Reeves, 254; Hardw. Malac. 265. 


The ground colour of this drawing is yellowish-brown, marked like a map with large an- 
gular blotches of dark umber- or liver-brown, which extend to the caudal, and one or two of 
them also rtin out on the dorsal and anal. The membranes of the fin are between yellowish- 
brown and rust-coloured, and their rays are obscurely speckled. Five or six umber-brown 
bars cross the pectoral. Length of drawing 8% itiches. 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. ; 


Ruombus cinnamomeus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. xciii. (Letter-press 
not yet published.) 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Samaris cristatus, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 8; Zcon. Reeves, 171; Hardw. 
Malac. 268. “Rad. D.61; A. 51; C.16; P.4; V.5.” (Gray, lc.) 
Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


‘ Sonea OmMATURA, Richardson. Jeon. Reeves, 8.13 ; Hardw. Malac. 273, 
275. Chinese name, Hwa tat sha, “ Flowered or variegated sole” 
(Reeves); Hwa ta sha*, “Striped or flowery sole,” also Woo teén ye, 
“ Black guava leaf” (Birch); /a tat sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 204).. Rad. 
D. 70; A.60; P. 11-11; V.3 vel 4. (Specs Camb. Phil. Inst.) 


Two of the Rev. George Vachell’s specimens of this fish exist in the Cambridge Philoso- 
phical Institution, and small ones are very common in the China insect-boxes. It belongs to 
the subdivision of the genus which is characterized by the blending together of the three vers 
tical fins, and is very much like the Indian Solea xebra, but it is not so much elongated, and 
has a peculiar eye-like mark on the caudal fin, formed by several yellow spots, inclosed by a 
bright yellow parallelogram, of which one side is deficient. The body is crossed by about 
twenty-three vertical whitish bars, alternately broader and narrower, and bent backwards, 
where they run out on the fins. The intermediate spaces ate wood-brown on the body and 
blackish on the fins; short bars radiate forward from the eyes on the snout. A 

The eyes are on the tight side, and are small and nearly contiguous. The teeth, if any 
€xiSst, ate itivisible to the naked eye. ‘The left lips and gill-membranes are fringed, and the 
latter are united to the pectorals, the union of the left gill-membtane being more conspicuous. 
The scales on both sides of the fish are strongly ciliated and run up on the fin-rays. The 
lateral line is straight. Length of the figure 8¢ inches. The specimens are smaller. 

Th form this species is intermediate between the Jerree potoo, B, Russell, 81, and Jerree potoo, 
C, 825 and in the germinate distribution of its vertical stripes it agrees with neither. 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. Sea of Borneo. © , 


SoLEA ovatis, Richardson. Zeon. Reeves; 179 ; Hardw. Malac. 1779. Chinese 
name, Teaow pan yu (Birch). 

This greatly resembles Pleuronectes pan, Buch. Hamilton, pl. 24. f.42; but the hinder end 
is less acute, the form being a perfect oval, equally blunt both ways. The mouth also is cleft 
beyond the eyes, which appear to be more approximated, and the dark liver-brown spots are 
more numerous. The ground colour is reddish-brown. 


Hab. Coasts of China. 


SonEzA FOLIACEA; Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, G. 5; Hardw. Malac. 271. 
Chinese name, Ween ye ize, “Guava-leafed sole” (Birch) ; Neem yeep tze 
ok Nim ip tsai (Bridgem. Chrest. 203; Icon. Reeves, h. 91; 

ardw. Malac. 269). 

This differs little from the preceding, but the mouth is not so much cleft, the eyes smaller 
and further apart, like those of Pleuronectes pan; and the spots are composed of a congeries of 
smaller ones, The ground colour of drawing #: 5 is pale reddish-brown, but in the smaller 
one, ft. 91, it is olive-greens 


Hab. Coasts of Chinas Canton. 


Sorra ovata, Richardson. Rad. D. 65; A. 47; Ci 21; P.9, &e. 
(Spee. Camb. Phil. Inst.) 


In this species the rounded caudal is well distinguished from the other two vertical fins, 


* The term ¢a shi, applied to the sole; means “to beat the sand,” 


280. as REPORT—1845, ; fry wire vO 
though they are united to its base by membranes. The dorsal commences over the anterior 
edge, and there is no membranous edge from thence to the mouth, which is a little way be- 
hind the very obtuse snout. Form ovate and very regular. Teeth nearly imperceptible and 
existing on the reverse side of mouth only. A band of cuticular filaments commences on the 
under lip and extends backwards to the lower edge of the gill-cover, fringing the gill-opening 
on the pale side only. The lower eye touches the upper lip, and the eyelids of both eyes are 
minutely scaly. Scales on both sides very strongly ciliated, but rather more rough on the 
coloured or right side ; equally large on the head as elsewhere, and covering the fins in broad 
belts above and below. Lateral line straight. Upper side of the four specimens, which are 
preserved in spirits, grayish-brown, with a minute mottling a little deeper than the general 
tint, and some scattered black specks, which are not round. Under side of fish lead-gray, 
unspotted. Pectorals blackish behind, and on the outer half on the anterior surface. Caudal 
spotted. Length 34 inches. Height 13. 


Hab. China seas. Canton (Rev. George Vachell). 


PLAGIUSA AURO-LIMBATA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 151; Hardw. Malac. 
983. Chinese name, Kin peen tae shae, “Golden-winged sole” (Reeves); 
Kin peen ta sha (Birch); Hak tim tar sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 210). 


This fish, judging solely from the drawing, is elliptic anteriorly and tapers gradually to the 
end of the moderately acute tail, the height of the body, excluding the fins, being contained 
three times and a quarter in the length. The snout appears to be edged with membrane, and 
the dorsal commences above the level of the eye and rather before the mouth. Eyes less than 
a diameter of the orbit apart and placed over the middle of the mouth. Head one-fifth of the 
total length. Scales of moderate size. Lateral line quite straight. No ventrals shown in the 
figure. Colour uniform chestnut-brown, without spots, the fins being merely a little lighter 
and the fore part of the anal alone varying, being bluish-gray. Length of figure 103 inches. 

Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


PLAGIUSA PUNCTICEPS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, m. 95; Hardw. Malac. 
982. Chinese name, Nae pih (Birch). 


This figure corresponds with the preceding in outline, but the dorsal does not appear to 
reach before the eyes. Lateral line straight. Scales moderate. Colour yellowish-brown, with 


irregular blotches of a much deeper tint of the same scattered over the body, and many dark 
specks on the head. Length of figure 43 inches. 


PLAGIUSA NIGRO-LABECULATA, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 152; non 
Hardw. Chinese name, Hih teen ta sha, “ Black-spotted sole” (Birch, 
Reeves); Hak tim tar sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 210). 


This fish has not the symmetry of auro-limbata, but its height has the same relative pro- 
portion to its length, and its colour is the same with the addition of about a dozen roundish 
black marks on the fore-part of the body and humeral region. Dorsal fin commencing pos- 
terior to the eyes. If the artist has been inaccurate in indicating the origin of the dorsal in 
this and the two preceding figures, they may be all varieties of one species. 

Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


PLAGIUSA GRAMMICA, Richardson. 


Two specimens of a Plagiusa, closely resembling the preceding two in form, exist in the 
museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, to which they were presented by the 
Rev. George Vachell. The height of the body is contained three times and three-quarters in 
the total length, and the length of the head five times and two-thirds. Snout edged by a 
skinny membrane without rays, the dorsal commencing above the eyes and before the tip of 
the lower jaw. Eyes small and almost contiguous. Scales smaller than those shown in the 
figure of auro-limbata, strongly serrated on both sides of the fish. Lateral line straight. 
Ventrals situated in the same plane with the anal, one composed of four rays being distinct, and 
the other joined to the anal, and as it were forming its first four rays. Both are pointed. The 
anus is on one side of the second ventral and opposite to its last ray. Fins not scaly. Colour 
dark chestnut-brown, slightly streaked or shaded with umber, and marked by three irregular 
rows of dark vertical lines like Chinese characters. Length of specimen 33 inches. 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


PLAGIUSA ABBRBVIATA, Gray, Hardw. Ill. ii. pl. 94, f. 3. drawn from Mr. 
Reeves’s China specimen; Jcon. Reeves, 6.17; Hardw. Malac. 284. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 281 


‘Chinese name, Tze leen ta sha, “ Minute-scaled sole” (Reeves); Sai lin 

tat sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 205). . 

Besides the straight central) lateral line, another runs along the back at a little distance 
fromthe fin, and is continued round the snout to the mouth; and a third runs in like man- 
ner, near the edge of the belly forward to the gill-opening. A transverse line crosses the 
nape, connecting the upper and middle lines, and another cross line, originating from the true 
lateral line a little further forwards, descends on the temples, and there divides; one branch 
encircling the gill-cover; and another, descending the preoperculum and running forwards to 
the point of the lower lip. Eyes over the posterior corner of the mouth. Colour pmber- 
brown, the fins yellowish-brown without spots, but the gill-cover and middle of the body are 
darker and shading off. The defined black patch which includes the-gill-cover in Mr. Gray’s 
figure is merely a darker brown shading off in Mr. Reeves’s drawing. 


Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


PLAGIUSA MELAMPETALA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 150; Hardw. Malac. 
985. Chinese name, Hih leén ta sha, “ Black-scaled sole” (Birch); Hih 
lin tat sha (Reeves); Hak lun tar sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 207). 

This is a large scaled species with two lines, as in bilineata (Bloch, 188, the Jerree potoo, 
E, Russell, 74, and Pl. potous, Cuv., Jerree potoo, D, Russell, 73), but with the dorsal not shown 
further forwards than the gill-opening. The general colour is dark chestnut-brown, with an 
obscure clouding of umber-brown, a large grayish blotch behind the gill-openings, and an- 
other near the hinder part of the anal. The fins are bluish- or blackish-gray. Eyes over 
the mouth. Height of body equal to the length of the head, or to one-fourth of the length 
of the body, excluding the fins. Length of figure 134 inches. 

Hah. Coasts of China. Canton. 


PLAGIUSA FAVosQuAMIs, Icon. Reeves, 3. 50; Hardw. Malac. 281. Chinese 
name, Meih leén ta, “Small-scaled sole” (Birch); Meth lin tat sha, 
“Close-sealed sole” (Reeves) ; Mat lin tat sha (Bridgem. Chrest. 206). 
This species has proportionally larger scales than the preceding one. The dorsal com- 

mences over the middle of the mouth and before the eyes. The mouth has a smooth flesh- 

coloured edge, and the form of the body is elongated, its height equalling the length of the 
head, and being contained four times in the total length. Colour chestnut-brown, darker 
along the middle of the back, and each scale marked near the margin by a streak of umber- 
brown. Length about 93 inches. 

Hab. Coasts of China. Canton. 


Tribus ? 
Fam. SILURIDZ. 


SILURUS xANTHOSTEUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 133. pl. 56. 
f.12-14. Icon. Reeves, 102; Hardw. Malac. 142, 143 (duplicates). Chi- 
nese name, Hwang hih, “ Yellow bone” (Birch); Hwang hwi (Reeves) ; 
Wong kwat u (Bridgem. Chrest. 190). 


The British Museum possesses Chinese examples of this fish presented by Mr. Reeves, and 
two specimens from Chusan, which were collected there by Dr. Cantor, and came from him 
through the India House, labelled S. punctatus and nanus. The labels have evidently been 
accidentally transposed, and could not have been attached by Dr. Cantor to these specimens, as 
they want the black lateral spots and black edges to the pectorals, which he mentions in his 
description of punctatus, and no account of a species named zanus is contained in his paper 
on the Fauna of Chusan. 


Hab. Canton (Reeves). Chusan (Cantor). 


Siturus sinensis, Lacép. v. pp. 58 et 82. pl. 2. f. 1 (Le silure chinois). 
M‘Clelland, Calc. Journ. iv. p.402. Icon. Reeves, 131; Hardw. Malac. 
141. Chinese name, Léen yu, “ Sickle fish” (Birch); Lin yu (Reeves) ; 
Lim u (Bridgem. Chrest. 191). 

This and the preceding species belong to the group of Siluri, which have short faces and 
Projecting lower jaws, embracing the upper lip when the mouth is shut, and giving them, 
together with an accompanying elevation of the shoulder, more or less the aspect of a Schilbe. 
8. zanthosteus is distinguished at once from the present species by the union of the anal and 


282 REPORT—1845, 


caudal, as in S. glanis or asotus. Lacépéde’s figure of S. sinensis is too rude to be of much 
use, and we are quite of M. Valenciennes’ opinion when he says that it is by no means pre- 
cise enough to serve for the establishment of a species. Mr. M‘Clelland has however had an 
opportunity of examining a Silurus from Chusan, which he has referred to Lacépéde’s species ; 
and Mr. Reeves’s drawing above-quoted answers better to the description of the colours and 
markings of sinensis than to any species introduced into the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ His 
drawing represents a fish with the nape but sparingly elevated, and having a caudal slightly 
notched in the middle with rounded equal lobes, the lower one distinct from the anal. The 
maxillary barbel reaches nearly to the end of the pectoral; the barbels of the lower jaw are 
not qitite half as long. The lateral line runs straight, a little above the mid-height, and is 
marked by a series of yellowish white points, which are met at right angles by about fourteen 
short rows of the same kind of dots descending at regular intervals from the back. The ground 
colour of the body is oil-green passing into yellowish-gray, and is reticulated by irregular 
meshes of neutral tint of a deeper colour. The meshes disappear in the darker hue of the 
summit of the back which approaches to blackish-green, and do not spread over the belly, 
which is white; but they descend lower at the anus, and include the posterior two-thirds of 
the anal. The ground colour is mostly silvery below the lateral line, but a buff-coloured band 
runs along the base of the anal, reticulated like the rest of the body. The dorsal, caudal and 
border of'the anal are oil-green ; the basal part of the anal being lilac-purple, with the darker 
reticulations posteriorly. The pectorals are lilac at the base, dull green on the disc, and have 
a yellow border. The ventrals are pale greenish-yellow with a lilac tint. The upper parts 
of the head are yellowish-brown with a purplish blush and without spots. Length of the 
figure 144 inches. 
Hab. Canton. Chusan. 


«“Sizrurus mysoricus, C. et V. xiv. p. 364. Silurus duda, Buch. Hamilt. 

p- 152; M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. iv. p. 402.” 

These references are given entirely on the authority of Mr. M‘Clelland. Having the In- 
dian fish under his eye, his opportunity for comparing it with his Chusan specimen is good; 
and it is important that a scrupulous comparison should be made, as this is one of the very 
few instances in which the same species of freshwater fish has been detected in India and 
China. The pointed caudal lobes distinguish this species from the foregoing ones. 


Hab. Chusan (M‘Clelland). 


«“ SILURUS BIMACULATUS, Bl. 364; C. et V. xiv. p. 360; M‘Clelland, Cale. 
Journ. iv. p.401.” 
Hab. Chusan (M‘Clelland). 


“ SrruRUS PUNCTATUS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 30.” 

“S. superné nitidé olivaceo-viridescens sive brunnescens, seriebus duabus 
punetorum nigrorum infra lineam lateralem ; abdomine albo-flavescenti ; 
alis dorsalibus, caudalibus analibusque nigris ; ventralibus albo-flavescen- 
tibus ; pectoralibus laté nigro marginatis. Cirrhi 3; Radii: D.5; A.80; 
C.15; P.1|5; V.14; Br. 5.” 


“Hab. Fresh and brackish water in the island of Chusan.” (Cantor; Zc.) No specimen. 


Sinurus JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. Faun. Jap. Sieb. Aad. D.5 5 A.72; 

C.17; P.1|l1; V.12. (Spec. Br. Mus., 11 inches long.) 

The part of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ relating to this species is not yet published, but we have 
compared the specimen with S. aanthosteus. The ventrals are farther behind the dorsal than 
in that species, and the maxillary barbel not longer than the head. Short branchlets descend 
at intervals from the lateral line. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


? Backus crinavis, Richardsot. Jcon. Reeves, 217 ; Hardw. Malac. 179 
(et 180 dupl.). Chinese name, Sang maow (Birch); “ Growing hair” 
(Reeves). Length of fig. 10 inches. 

This drawing closely resembles Bagrus sagor, Buch. (Icons Hatdw. Malac. 169 et 176; C. 
et V. xiv. p: 446), and also B. bilineatus, C. et V.454; Russ. 169 ; but we are prevented from 
referring it to either of these species by its rather smaller anal and considerably larger ven- 
trals, Its profile is sufficiently like that of bilineatus or deddiyellah (Russ.) to need no fur- 
ther description, except that the ascent from the snout to the dorsal is a continuous straight 


a 
: 
ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 283 


line without any rounding before the dorsal, The maxillary barbels réach to the gill-opening, 
the exterior submandibular pair are half as long, and the interior pair a quarter as long, The 
operculum is finely veined, and the roughness of the nuchal plate is shown in the drawing by 
fine gold points. The lateral line is flatly arched over the pectoral, and takes a straight course 
from the tip of that fin to the caudal rather above mid-height. The points of the ribs form 
an oblique line from the shoulder to the anal. The dorsal and pectoral spines are slender and 
serrated in front: their posterior teeth, if they possess any, are not shown in the drawing. 
The top of the head, nape and back is sap-green, with fine parallel streaks of a deeper tint, 
bent en chevron near the dorsal line, and disappearing at the lateral line; the sides and belly 
are silvery with a purplish reflexion. There are some crimson tints round the mouth, and 
purplish ones at the union of the gill-pieces and on the breast; also a greenish-yellow border 
round the end of the tail embraced by the caudal. The dorsal is celandine-green, with darker 
rays tinged with crimson at the base. The adipose fin is yellow, with a black spot on the 
edge. The pectorals and ventrals have crimson-coloured rays and buff membranes. The anal 
is sulphur-yellow and the caudal a dingy wax-yellow. This drawing agrees in several par- 
ticulats with the description of Arius ocellatus noticed below. 


Hab. Canton. 


BAcrus timBatus, Richardson. 


Note of Mr. Réeves’s drawings represent this fish; which was brought from Canton by the 
Rev. G. Vachell ; the only one that it resembles in having eight barbels being the Pimelodus ? 
fulviedraco noticed below. From this it is distinguished by all the fins being edged with black, 
and the specimen shows no traces of the peculiar markings of fulvi«draco. I examined it 
cursorily, and noted down only a few of its characters. There is a short viliform dental plate 
on the vomer, set more densely and with shorter teeth than the jaws, and continued without 
a break over the mesial line. The casque terminates over the base of the péectorals, but sends 
out a natrow styloid process which touches the small chevron of the second interspinous bone. 
The adipose fin rises imperceptibly from the dorsal line, and the ventrals are smaller than 
those of B.? crinalis, and do not reach to the anus. The ventrals have six rays, the last of 
which is divided to the base. A supra-axillary plate is half the length of the pectorals, and 
tbe nasal cirrhus is short. 


Hab. Canton. Specimen in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. 


? Bacrus (an Pimetopus ?) BouDERIUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 203 ; 
Hardw. 183. Chinese name, ew yu, “ Buffalo fish” (Birch) ; Nou yu, 
* Cow fish” (Reeves); Ngaw u (Bridgem. Chrest. 194). 


A spécimen of this fish éxists in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, but we liave -not ex- 
amined the palate so as to ascertain from its dentition whether it is properly placed in this 
genus or not. Ifit be a Bagrus it belongs to the group which have eight barbels, a long anal 
and a comparatively short adipose fin, It comes nearest to B. vdcha (Buch. Ham.) of any 
member of the group described in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ but may be at once distinguished 
by its much smaller mouth and fleshy lips. The liad, viewed in profile, is depressed, taper- 
ing and rather pointed, with the eye rather nearer to the gill-opening than to the énd of the 
snout. The lower jaw is shorter than the snout, and the mouth is not cleft so far back as the 
posterior nostrils, which aré about midway betwéen the eye and end of the snout. ‘The nape 
rises suddenly in an arch from the hind hedd, and then runs backwards with little ascent to 
the first dorsal. The height of the body there is equal to the length of the head, or to one- 
fifth of the total length of the fish. The maxillary barbels are rather longer than the head: 
the exterior submatidibular ones are a thitd shorter, while the nasal barbels and the interior 
submandibular ones are a little longer than the quarter of the length of the head. The lateral 
line is arched at the commencement, and then runs nearly straight from before the first dor- 
sal to the caudal, a little above the middle height of the body. [In B. buchanani, Val., 
the latéral line is straight from end to end.] The pectoral spine is strong, and is strongly 
serfated towards its tip interiotly. A tfiangular plate proceeding from the humeral chain is 
shown very boldly in the figure above the fin. The dorsal spine is draWn without serratures, 
taller than the soft rays, pretty stout and rather spindle-shaped, with a tapering acute point. 
Six soft rays are shown. ‘The ventrals are pretty large, but smaller than the pectorals; the 
anal long, containing above thirty rays; the adipose fin of a moderate size; and the caudal 
deeply forked, but with the lobes rather obtuse and equal. The colour on the dorsal aspect 
is dark mountain-green or greenish-gray, passing high on the sides into sienna-yellow, which 
continues down to the pale lilac edge of the belly. There are no spots; The fins have all 
more or less of lake or crimson-red with greenish rays. The two colours are most distinctly 
separated on the anal, the base being rose-red or carmine, and the outer half gtass-green. 


284 vav! tA AMI REPORT—1845. (0. (07 TH 9l AMT “O 


The base of the caudal is oil-green, the middle parts crimson, and the hinder edge: blackish- 
green. The lips are orpiment-orange. Length of the figure 164 inches. iA 


Hab. Canton (Reeves). No specimen. 


Inthe ‘Description of Animals,’ &c., which we have repeatedly quoted, there is a sketch 
(fig. 162) of a Siluroid with a short adipose fin and long anal, which I should have referred to 
B. bouderius, but for the shortness and number of the barbels, which are stated in the text to 
be only four; and only two are shown in the drawing, the maxillary one, which is the 
longest, being shorter than the head, and the submandibular one still smaller. _ The nostrils 
are shown without cirrhi, and the belly is more prominent than that of Reeves’s bouderius. In 
the text (p. 191) the head is said to be “naked and somewhat depressed, the body compressed, 
smooth and gray. Breast prominent. Ventral in middle of the abdomen. The rays B. 14; 
D. 8; A.30; C.28; P.13; V.6. Length 20 inches.” 


Hab. Canton river. 


? BAGRUS VACHELLI, Richardson. Rad. D. 1|7; A. 23; C.17%; P.1/8; 
V.6; Cirrhi 8. 


A specimen of this fish exists in the collection of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, 
to which it was presented by the Rev. G. Vachell. In the form of the adipose fin and general 
outline it resembles Mr. Reeves’s drawing 203, which is described above under the appellation 
of Bagrus? bouderius, but the anal fin is not so extensive. In the hasty record I made of its 
characters, I unfortunately omitted to note the exact nature of the dental plates on the roof 
of the mouth, having merely written that the teeth are disposed in broad, close shorn villiform 
plates ; so there remains an uncertainty as to the genus which cannot be cleared up without 
a re-examination of the spedimen. The mouth is small, and the under jaw is shorter than the 
snout, which is round. The maxillary barbels are as long as the head and larger than the 
others; the interior submandibular pair equal the nasal ones, and are shorter than the exte- 
rior submandibular ones. They are all slender. The dorsal spine is smooth in front, but is 
armed with recurved teeth behind. The pectoral spine is also smooth in front, but it is 
strongly toothed behind. Many short rays are incumbent on the base of the caudal, above 
and below. Three front rays of the anal are short and graduated, and the last dorsal ray is 
divided to the base. The specimen is five inches long. In the number of the anal rays this 
specimen nearly agrees with Arius ocellatus introduced below. 


Hab. Canton. 


Arius FALCARIUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 134. pl. 62. f. '7-9. 
Icon. Reeves, 101 ; Hardw. Malac.184. Chinese name, Léen yu, “ Sickle 
fish” (Reeves, Birch); Zim wu (Bridgem. Chrest. 193). Length of draw- 
ing 103 inches. 

Hab. Canton. Spec. Brit. Mus. 


ARIUS SINENSIS, C. et V. xv. p. 72. 
Hab. “ Touraine” (Hist. des Poiss.). 


Arius ocEvLATus, BI. Schn. (Silurus), 378; C. et V. xv. p. 104. Stlurus 
maculatus, Thunb. Act. Stockh. 1792. pl. 1. f. 1 et 2. 


The only one of Mr. Reeves’s drawings which has anything like an eyed spot on the adi- 
pose fin is the one described above as the Bagrus? crinalis ; but this is scarcely a distinguish- 
ing mark, as many of the Siluride have the adipose more or less broadly edged with black. 

Hab. Japan. 


? GALEICHTHYs STANNEUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 238 ; Hardw. Malac. 
177. Chinese name, Seth yu, “Tin fish” (Birch); Seth yu, “ Tin fish” 
(Reeves). Seih means also the gingling ornaments of a horse. 

I have referred this fignre to Galeichthys on account of its resemblance to G. feliceps, C. 
et V. pl. 424, but it may nevertheless be a Pimelodus. The head seems to be quite smooth 
above, with less appearance of a casque than in the figure of feliceps above-quoted. The gra- 
nulations of a narrow interparietal process and a small crutch at the base of the dorsal spine 
are however shown. The head is wide and depressed, with a rounded snout, and forms about 
one-fourth of the total length of the fish. The height of the body is equal to rather more 
than a fifth of the length. The nasal orifices are round without either valves or barbels. 
The maxillary barbels are shorter than the head, but are longer than the exterior subman- 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 285 


4@ibular pair, and more than twice as long as the interior pair. There is a large triangular 
plate of the humeral chain above the pectoral which is covered with smooth skin. The dorsal 
and pectoral spines are long and rather slender, the former being equal to two-thirds of the 
height of the fish.and serrated both before and behind. The latter is also serrated on both 
sides, but only at the tip. The adipose fin rises abruptly from the back, and is small; the 
anal is of moderate size; behind these fins the tail becomes narrower than usual in a siluroid, 
but again expands where it is embraced by the base of the caudal. The caudal is deeply 
forked with acute lobes. The lateral line is arched at the shoulder, and descends to the 
middle height of the body over the ventrals, its course to the caudal fin being straight from 
thence. The general colour is violet-purple passing into Scotch-blue, and gradually changing 
‘to a bright silvery tint on the lower part of the sides and under surface of the head. A series 
of chevrons are shown between the ventrals and pectorals evidently corresponding to the ribs. 
The under fins are bluish, the dorsal and caudal purplish brown. Length of the drawing, 
153 inches. The Chinese name probably refers to the colour of the body. 


Hab. Canton. 


PIMELoDus GuTTaTus, Lacépéde, v. pp. 96 et 113. pl. 5. f. 1; C. et V. xv. 
p- 143. Icon. Reeves, 129 et 130; Hardw. Malac. 161. Chinese name, 
Hwa han, “Flowery or spotted chiton” (Birch); Za kan, “ Variegated 
kan” (Reeves); Fa kom (Bridgem. Chrest. 196). ad. D.1|6; A. 1|8; 
C. 15; P. 1|8; V. 8. (Fig. Reev.) Length of fig. 129, 133 inches; of 130, 
164 inches. 

This species was known to Lacépéde only by a Chinese drawing; and though Mr. Reeves’s 
drawings present both a top and side view whereby we can perceive that the fish has no casque, 
yet from our ignorance of the dentition we cannot, say positively that it belongs to the genus 
Pimelodus as constituted in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons.’ It has considerable resemblance to 
Bagrus cavasius, possessing the eight barbels, long adipose and short anal which characterise 
the group to which that species belongs, and which is equivalent to the genus Porcus of M. 
Geoffroy St. Hilaire. On the other hand} it has also.the external characters of the Pimelodes, 
with a round head destitute of a casque and with eight barbels. In profile the head appears 
conical and rather slender, with an acute snout which projects beyond the lower jaw, the face 
and nape rising in a straight gentle acclivity to the dorsal. Viewed from above, the snout is 
broadly rounded; there is no appearance of a casque, and the distance between the eyes is 
equal to a third of the length of the head. The head forms one-fourth of the length of the 
fish, caudal excluded ; and the height of the body at the commencement of the dorsal is nearly 
equal to a sixth of the length, caudal included. The maxillary barbels reach to the tip of 
the pectoral. The outer pair of submandibular barbels are less than half that length, and the 
other two and the nasal pair are still shorter. The pectoral spine is stout and very strongly 
toothed behind, but no teeth are shown on the dorsal one in either figure. The dorsal termi- 
nates over the first ventral ray, and the adipose fin commencing over the axilla of the ventrals 
extends far past the anal and almost to the caudal, being nearly equal in length to a third of 
the fish. The caudal is deeply notched with thick, rounded equal lobes. The lateral line 
has a very slight decurvature as far as the ventrals, but is otherwise nearly straight and rather 
nearer to the belly than to the back. The supra-axillary plate of the humeral chain is drawn 
narrow and rather long. The colour of the back, top of the head and breast is brownish purple- 

ted; the sides and belly white, with a faint wax-yellow or siskin-green reflexion. Many 

transverse bars are shown, that meet en chevron near the back, and again less sharply at the 
lateral line, which is green. The body, adipose fin, and caudal and the rays of the dorsal and 
ventrals are marked with many scattered black spots of irregular shapes and sizes. The dor- 
sal, adipose and caudal are yellowish-brown at the base, the rays of the pectoral are greenish, 


and those of the ventrals and anal carmine. The membranes of most of the fins appear to be 
thin and transparent. 


Icon. Reeves, 132; Hardw. Malac. 162. Chinese name, Han yu, “Chiton 
fish” (Birch); Kan yu, “ Han tiled-fish” (Reeves); Kom u (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 192). Figure 13 inches long. 


This is seemingly another representation of the same species, with the outline a little dis- 
‘torted from the example placed before the artist having been in a more limber state. Hence 
the profile, instead of rising from the snout in a straight acclivity, is undulated by the compa- 
‘rative depression of the head and swelling out of the nape. Some serratures are shown at 
‘the tip of the dorsal spine, and the silvery supra-axillary plate of the humeral chain is notched, 
sas in the figure of B. cavasius (Jacquemont, Voy. de l’Inde, pl. 16. f. 2): there are no other 
perceptible differences of structure. The spots on the base of the caudal are more numerous, 

_ but» they are fewer and more scattered on the body than in the other figures, and’ there are 


4 
f 


286 — REPORT—1845. yee) Saree es 


none on the lower fins. The purplish-brown tints are confined to the shoulder, the general 
colour posteriorly being shining yellowish-brown, with oil-green transverse bars. 


Hab. Canton. 


PIMELODUS CANTONENSIS, C. et V. xv. p. 142 (8 barbels). 
Hab. Fresh waters at Canton; 


Pimetopus Asper, M‘Clelland, Calc. Journ. iv. p. 404, pl. 24. f. 2. 
Hab. Chusan, 


PimeLopus TACH:sURUS, Lacépéde ( Tachisurus chinensis), v, p. 151. pl. 5. 
fig. 2; C. et V. xv. p. 163, 


Lacépéde describes this fish from a Chinese drawing. His figure is not without consider- 
able resemblance in general form to the drawing which we have named Galeichthys stanneus, 
but Mr, Reeves’s figure is entirely without blotches such as are represented by Lacépéde. 


Hab. China. 


PimeLopus mone, Richardson. Icon, Reeves, 8,20; Hardw. Malac. 173. 
Chinese name, Ming ize, “ Grain or barley-awn fish” (Reeves, Birch) ; 
Mong tsai (Bridgem. Chrest. 195). 


In outline and the relative size and shape of the fins, this drawing has some resemblance 
tothe Arius pumilus of Jacquemont (Voy. dans l’Inde, pl, 18. f. 1), but it wants the casque and 
the crutch-like interspinous process of that fish, there being merely a few black dots on the 
nape, probably intended to represent some roughness of that part. There are no nasal barbels, 
The maxillary ones reach beyond the head, and the submandibular ones are shorter, The 
upper half of the dorsal spine is serrated in front and behind; and the pectoral one only 
behind. Theanal is smalland rectangular. The adipose fin also rectangular, and of medium 
size. The caudal acutely forked. The fish is drawn curved, and the lateral line, which is 
marked by a silvery stripe, has a corresponding curvature, but is evidently quite straight when 
the fish is in a true position. The back of the fish is bluish or greenish-gray, the other parts 
being more or less brightly silvery. The fins have a similar tint to the back, and there is a 
small black mark on the edge of the adipose fin, Length of the drawing 53 inches, 


Hab. Canton. 


PimMELoDUS? FULVI-DRACO, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 155; Hardw. 
Malac. 174 (et 175 dupl.). Chinese name, Hwang lung, “ Yellow-dragon” 
(Birch, Reeves); Wong lung (Bridgem. Chrest. 199). Length of the 
figure 51 inches. 

The profile of this fish, the form of the head and operculum, and the unusual distribution of 
the dark patches of colour, remind one of the Pimelodus bagarius of Buchanan Hamilton, but 
it wants the prolongations of the dorsal, pectorals and caudal, which characterise that species, 
and also the enlargement of the maxillary barbels. It has likewise much resemblance to the 
P. viridescens of the same author, of which fig. 157, Hardw. Malac, is a coloured representa- 
tion. In pl. 11. f. 56 (Fishes of the Ganges), the engraving has been less accurately executed 
than in the rest of Buchanan Hamilton’s plates, and the three green bars which cross the back 
are not distinctly shown. In fulvi-draco the maxillary barbels are a little longer than the 
head, while the nasal one is only half that length, being about equal to the four submandi- 
bular ones, ‘The dorsal and pectoral spines are both stout, the latter being serrated on both 
sides, the former only behind. The caudal is forked with thickish lobes. There are two 
colours in the body, viz. olive-green and sienna-yellow, each forming three vertical bands 
with a connecting longitudinal stripe low on the sides. Of these the olive-green occupies the 
greatest space, A dark dingy green stripe runs through each caudal lobe, the rest of the fin 
being yellowish-brown. The dorsal is also yellowish-brown and the anal a rather lighter 
yellow, but with a broad green bar in its middle, descending from the horizontal ventral stripe 
of that colour. The pectorals and ventrals are dark with pale rays. The prevailing tints on 
the head are yellowish-brown and sienna-yellow, passing into a darker brown above. 


Hab. Canton, 


Piorosus LineAtus, C. et V. xv. p. 412. Plotose Anguille, Lacépéde, v. 
p- 129, 130. pl. 3. f.2. Ingelee, Russell, 166. Plotose ikapor, Lesson, Voy. 
des Duperrey, pl. 31. f. 3; Krusenstern, pl. 60. f. 12 et 13. Plotosus an- 
guillaris, Rupp, Neue Wirlb. p.76. Icon. Reeves, 2. 11; Hardw. Malae. 


‘ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 287 

199. Chinese name, Yen ting (Birch) ; Gan ting, “ Cottage nail” (Reeves) ; 
Om ting (Bridgem. Chrest. 197). Icon. piscium 24 a pict. Sin. &c. 

Hab, Seas of Japan and China, Macao. Philippines. Amboyna. Celebes,. Western 
Australia. Friendly Isles, Indian Ocean, Mauritius. Seychelles and Red sea, Chinese 
specimens exist in the museum of the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, the British 
Museum, the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, Haslar Museum, and very commonly in the 
Chinese insect-boxes. 

CLARIAS PULICARIS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 135. pl. 62. f. 5. 
6. Icon. Reeves, 3-16; Hardw. Malac. 198. Chinese name, Z’th sa, 
“Pond louse” Seah Tang sih, “ Bird-flea” (Reeves); Zong sat 
(Bridgem. Chrest. 198). 

Hab. Canton. Spec. Br. Mus. (Reeves). 

The Macropterote brun of Lacép. v. pl. 2. f. 2. is probably the above species, and not the 
Clarias fuscus of Sumatra (C. et V. xv. p. 383). 

CLaRIAS HExACIcINNUS, Lacé€p. (Macropteronotus), v. pp. 84, 88. pl. 2. f. 3. 
Established on a Chinese painting. 

Hab. China. 


CLARIAS ABBREVIATUS, C. et V. xv. p. 386. 


This species resembles Lacépéde’s C. hewacicinnus in the shortness of its body. 
Hab. Canton. 


The Cossyphus ater of M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. (iv. p. 405. pl. 24. f. 3), is apparently 
an injured example of a fish of this genus. The specimen came from China. 


Tribus ? 
Fam. CypRINID&. 


As we know the bulk of the Chinese species of this difficult family chiefly 
from Mr, Reeves’s drawings, the Cuvierian generic groups seem to be better 
adapted for their description than the minuter subdivisions of more recent 
ichthyologists, depending as many of them do on anatomical characters. I 
have compared these drawings carefully with General Hardwicke’s numerous 
figures of Indian Cyprinide*, and also with the plates of M‘Clelland’s paper 
in the 19th volume of the Asiatic Researches for 1839, and am satisfied 
that the Chinese species are almost wholly different from those of the pe- 
ninsula of India. Mrs. Bowdich (now Lee) copied for Baron Cuvier many 
drawings of Chinese fish, some of which are referred to by M. Valenciennes 
in the sixteenth and seventeenth volumes of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ which 
treat of the Cyprinide. Mr, Brown kindly pointed out to me the drawings 
she traced from in the Banksian Library. They are kept loose in a port- 
folio, and are entitled in the Catalogue ‘Icones piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi 
Cantoni eleganter pictz, fol.’ Aided by the dimensions of the tracings noted 
by M. Valenciennes, and his descriptions of the colours, I have been able to 
identify most of these drawings with the species named by him; but as he 
quotes more of Mrs. Bowdich’s tracings of Cyprinide than there are origi- 
nals in this small collection, it is evident that she made copies also of the 
figures in some other Chinese book or collection of drawings; and M. Va- 
lenciennes also mentions several figures of Cyprinide which he saw in the 
Banksian Library, but which I have not been able to find. 

(Cyprini veri vel cirrhati.) 

CypPRINUS ATRO-VIRENS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 116; Hardw. Malac. 7. 
Chinese name, Hih le, “ Black carp” (Reeves, Birch); Hak li (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 15), Length of drawing 114 inches. 

The height of the body isa little more than a third of the length, and the back is elevated in 


* There are in all 128 drawings of Cyprinide in the Hardwickian volumes, of which 65 
appear from the references on many of them, and the sameness of the style of others, to haye 
_been executed by the artists that were employed by Buchanan Hamilton. 


288 : REPORT—1845.. THTHOt TT 


form of a long flat ellipsoidal arch, rounding off and descending considerably, at the shoulder, 
to meet the depressed and scarcely convex profile of the face. The chief spine of the dorsal 
and also of the anal is strongly serrated posteriorly almost to the base. The barbels at the 
angle of the mouth are about equal to the rictus in length, and those which spring from the 
middle of the maxillary are not much shorter, in which respect the drawing differs from that of 
nigro-auratus of Lacépéde. Seventeen soft rays are shown in the dorsal and six in the anal, 
the last one in both being divided to the base*. The discs of the scales have a shining bronze 
colour, their bases a deep blackish-green. The head is mostly dark blackish-green with some 
golden reflexions, and the operculum is marked with curved streaks descending from its upper 
anterior corner. The pectoral and caudal are blackish-green, the dorsal dark hair-brown, and 
the three unde;x fins have ochraceous rays. The lateral line is slightly deflexed, equidistant 
from back and belly, and is composed of about twenty-eight scales. 


Hab. Canton. 


CypRINUS RUBRO-Fuscus, Lacépéde, v. p. 331. pl. 16. f. 1; C.et V. xvi.p. 74. 
Icon. Reeves, 117; Hardw. Malac. 4. Chinese name, Tang le, “ Pond 
carp” (Reeves, Birch) ; Tong li (Bridgem. Chrest. 14). Length of figure 
11+] inch. 


It is with the doubt which pervades all such approximations that we refer Mr. Reeves’s 
drawing, above-quoted, to the species noticed by Lacépéde. In general form it approaches that 
of Reeves, 116 (aéro-virens), but the outline of the back is rather less flat, and slopes mo- 
derately each way to an apex at the beginning of the dorsal, The height is contained. thrice 
and one-sixth in the total length, of which the head makes a fourth. The rays shown by the 
artist are D. 2/20; A. 2[5 ; the strong spines being deeply serrated, and the last soft rays di- 
vided to the base. The dorsal commences over the tip of the pectorals and front of the ven- 
trals, and terminates a little farther from the caudal than the anal does. The lateral line is 
straight, and is composed of twenty-eight or thirty scales. The scales generally are brightly 
silvery with olive-green bases, which deepen on the back to blackish-green, and fade lower 
on the sides to apple-green and oil-green. There is a slight reddish blush on the shoulder, 
and an ochraceous tint on the breast and lower parts of the head. The operculumis streaked 
on its upper anterior half. The dorsal is pale ash-gray, with a row in the middle of darker 
pearl-gray blotches between the rays. The ventrals and anal are also pale with bright red 
tips, and the caudal is bordered at the end with red, the body of the fin being dark yellowish- 
gray. The pectoral is blackish-gray. 


Hab. Canton. 


CyPRINUS FLAMMANS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 118; Hardw. Malae. 6. 
Chinese name, Ho ke, “ Fire carp” (Reeves, Birch); Fo k (Bridgem. 
Chrest.18). Length of drawing 101 inches. 

This drawing represents a fish with the same profile as the preceding one (Reeves, 117), 
the only differences being a trifling increase in the length of the head, and the dorsal com- 
mencing a very little farther back. The barbels are the same, and both this and the two 
preceding species have a conspicuous, elevated, scoop-shaped border to the posterior nasal 
orifice. The rays shown in the figure are D. 2|18 cr. 19; A.2|5. It is possible that this may 
be merely the rubro-fuscus in its spawning dress. The lateral line is very slightly decurved, 
and is traced on thirty-one scales. The operculum is striated almost to the edge. The bases 
of the scales down to a row or two. below the lateral line are duck-green, so defined as to pro- 
duce rows of rectangular spots. The discs of the upper scales and the upper parts of the head 
have bronze reflexions; the lateral ones are silvery with a reddish blush, and the whole under 
parts of the head and body are bright orpiment-orange, the colours being most intense onthe | 
circumference of the scales. The ventrals and anal are also orange; the pectorals and caudal 
lake-red, and the dorsal pale chestnut-brown. 


Hab. Canton. 


CyYPRINUS VIRIDI-VIOLACEUS, Lacépéde, v. p. 548. pl. 16. f. 3. Icon. Reeves, | 
157; Hardw. Malac. 5. Chinese name, Lith le, “ Green carp” (Reeves, | 
Birch); Luk li (Bridgem. Chrest. 13). Rad. B.3; D. 2|19; A.2|5; C.18§; | 
P.14; V.9. (Reev. Spec.) 


Mr. Reeves has deposited two specimens in the British Museum, which we refer to his figure, || 
and also, though with less confidence, to Lacépéde’s viridi-violaceus. In profile it differs a | 
little from the preceding species, in the curve of the back passing insensibly into the tail, and 


* In most of the drawings the very short anterior spines of the dorsal and anal are omitted. 
We enumerate only those which are shown by the artist. 


3 ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 289: 


‘in the facial line not being so suddenly depressed at its union with the nape, which is never- 
theless gibbous. The height of the body is equal to a third of the total length, of which the 
head forms one-fourth ; excluding the caudal, the head is equal to a third of the length; the 
‘thickness amounts to nearly half the height. The barbel which issues from near the middle 
of the maxillary is very small; that which springs from near its tip is moderately large. The 
‘straight or very slightly decurved lateral line is traced on thirty-three scales, and there are 
ten rows of scales in the height of the body. Their discs are obscurely radiated and roughish. 
No streaks appear on the gill-cover. The dorsal commences some way before the ventrals 
and over the posterior third of the pectorals; its third soft ray stands above the front of the 
ventrals. Its large spine and that of the anal are strongly serrated, and the last soft ray of the 
two fins is divided to the base. 
The general hue of this fish is fully darker than any other one of Mr. Reeves’s drawings of 
the genus, the bases and edges of the scales being blackish-green passing into greenish-black, 
| with bronze discs above the lateral line, the light and dark parts being arranged so as to 
produce lines corresponding in number with the rows of the scales. The dark bases are con- 
tinued over the belly, but restricted in size; and the discs of the scales below the lateral line 
are pale olive-green with very slightly deeper coloured edges. Some crimson and lake tints 
exist on the belly and under surface of the tail. The top of the head is blackish-green, the 
cheeks and opercula are rich, dark auricula-purple, bordered by brilliant bronze. Under 
parts of the head and throat buff-orange. Dorsal ash-gray with a yellowish-gray base. The 
ventrals and anal are pale with rosaceous tips; the pectorals show faint yellow, purple and 
red tints, and the dark clove-brown caudal has the ends of the lobes hyacinth-red. Lengths 
of the specimens 6 and 8% inches: of the figure 103 inches. 


Hab. Canton. 


Cyprinus HysiscorpEs, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 156; Hardw. Malac. 3. 
Chinese name, Foo yung le (Birch) ; Foo yang le, “ Hibiscus-flower carp ” 


(Reeves); Fu yung h (Bridgem. Chrest. 12). Length of figure 12-2 

inches, 

This has much the form of viridi-violaceus, but is more elegantly shaped at the nape, which 
is not so gibbous. The barbels are longer and the fins are all very tall, seemingly the effect 
of monstrous growth. A small specimen apparently of this species, but with a triple caudal, 
was brought from China by Captain Dawkins. Only one spine, the tall serrated one, is re- 
presented by the artist in the dorsal and anal, whose rays are D1[19; A. 1|6 or 7. The colour 

' of the back down to the straight lateral line is the same as in viridi-violaceus, but the purple 
tints are replaced on the side of the head by a shining bronze colour. The sides and belly 
are silvery, with a greenish-gray shade at the bases of the scales. Dorsal and caudal brownish- 
red, fading to purplish-red towards the edges; anal and pectorals blood-red, the spine of the 
former and rays of the latter being light purplish-gray. Anterior half of the ventrals blackish- 
purple, the posterior half peach-blossom red. 


Hat. Canton. 


Cyprinus acuminaTus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 125; Hardw. Malac. 2. 
Chinese name, Shang hae li, “‘ Shang hae 1a fish,” or the “‘ Shang hati wax- 
fish” (Birch) ; “ Superior sea-carp” (Reeves); Sheung hoi lap (Bridgem. 
Chrest.17). Length of drawing 93 inches. 

This species has an elevated back, shaped in profile like the roof of a house, with the sum- 
mit at the commencement of the dorsal, which is over the posterior third of the small pectoral 
‘and some way before the ventrals. The posterior slope of the back is the more gradual one, 
and is entirely occupied by the dorsal. The belly is horizontal, with a short upward slope to 
‘the tail which is occupied by the anal. Head small, forming one-fifth of the length of the fish, 
while the height of the body equals a third of the same length. The nostrils want the valve or 
erect lip shown in the drawings of the preceding species, and there is a deep groove across the 
snout a short way before them, and on a line with the front of the preorbitar. The tip of the 
snout is tumid, though not large. The barbels are small, particularly the upper pair. The 

rays shown in the drawing are D. 2|19; A. 2|5. The spines are strong and coarsely serrated, 
_ particularly the anal one. 
Top of the head and bases of the scales of the back oil-green. More and more of the discs 
_ of the scales become silvery as they approach the lateral line; and they are wholly so lower 
‘down, except that a very pale wax-yellow colour marks their bases on the belly. The cheek 
_ is bluish-gray ; the fins are all more or less tinged with aurora-red, with pale borders. The 
Ted is deepest on the caudal, but that fin also has a broad colourless border at the end. The 
lips are reddish, and the eye, which is large, has a red iris. 


~~ Hab. Canton. 
—-: 1845. U 


290 ' REPORT—1845, az or VK 


CyPRINUS NIGRO-AURATUS, Lacépéde, v. p. 547. pl. 16. f.2; C. et V. xvi. 
p- 73. Icon. Reeves, 119; Hardw. Malac. 1. -Chinese name, Hae de, 
“ Sea-carp”” (Reeves, Birch); Hoi li (Bridgem, Chrest.16). Length of 
the drawing 15} inches. 


If one may judge from the size of the figure, this is the largest true carp that came under 
Mr. Reeves’s observation. Its profile rises very considerably in a bold arch to the dorsal, with 
a shallow transverse groove before the nostrils and a slight undulation at the nape. The 
belly is flattish, The height of the body is contained thrice in the total length, and the length 
of the head four times and a half. The mouth is rather oblique, and the upper jaw goes 
beyond and somewhat overhangs the lower one. The upper barbels are short*. The lateral 
line, which is traced on thirty-one scales, is slightly decurved, and descends a little below the 
middle height, taking a straight course through thg middle of the tail after passing (the ven- 
trals. No streaks are shown on the gill-covers. The long, low dorsal commences behind 
the tip of the pectorals and before the ventrals, and reaches past the middle of the anal. The 
pectorals and ventrals are small and rounded. The rays shown in the figure are D, 1|21; 
A. 2|5. The dorsal spine is serrated; but the anal one, which is longer and stronger, is re- 
presented as smooth. The colours are not dark, the scales having much silvery lustre: they 
are shaded at the base with olive-green on the back, and with pale honey-yellow on the lower 
parts. 

M. Valenciennes mentions that he saw two paintings of this species in the library of Sir 
Joseph Banks, but I have been able to discover only one of these, and it is the only true Cy- 
prinus with barbels contained in the collection named *Icones Piscium 24, &c.’ The figure is 
10 inches long and 383 inches high, and its pectoral fin has been omitted. The name of nigro- 
auratus is not characteristic either of this drawing or of Mr. Reeves’s, which show much more 
lively colours than M. Lacépéde describes, as M. Valenciennes has remarked. But for the 
observation of the latter naturalist, who has examined the Chinese drawings on which M. La- 
cépéde’s species are founded, I should have been inclined to quote Mr. Reeves’s darkest draw- 
ing, our atro-virens, as corresponding best with the epithet nigro-auratus. 

Hab. Canton. 


CyPRINUS SCULPONEATUS, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 120; Hardw. Malac. 
8. Chinese name, Keth le (Birch); “Clog or Wooden-shoe carp ” (Reeves); 
Kik li (Bridgem. Chrest.21). Length of figure 83 inches, 


This species differs from the preceding ones in form, the dorsal being more flatly arched 
and the belly more prominent, with a considerable upward slope behind to join the trunk of 
the tail. The height of the body is contained thrice and one-half, and the length of the head 
four times and a quarter in the whole length. The lateral line, which is considerably de- 
curved, but does not descend beyond the middle height, is traced on twenty-nine scales. The 
barbels are rather short. The dorsal commences over the first ventral ray, and the greater 
part of the anal is posterior to its termination. The rays shown in the figure are D. 2|17 or 
18; A. 2|5. The spines are serrated and shorter than the soft rays. A valve is shown be- 
tween the nostrils. 

The scales have much silvery Instre, and are almost wholly nacry below the lateral line ; 
but the back is tinted with leek-green, which deepens into blackish-green at the base of the 
scales and forms spots. The edges of the upper scales are also darker leek-green, and the 
top of the head is of the same colour, There are carmine tints on the lips and tips of the anal 
and caudal. The pectoral, dorsal and caudal, are leek-green, the ventrals and anal very pale 
ochre, , 

Hab. Canton, 


Obs. The seven species noticed above seem all to be true Cyprini, allied 
to the common carp of Europe; and their existence in the Chinese waters 
shows a marked difference between the ichthyology of that country and of 
India, which does not appear to possess any member of this group. The 
Cyprinus semiplotus of M‘Clelland is indeed introduced among the true carps 
with barbels in the ‘ Histoire des Poissons’ ; but this would appear to be from 
inadvertence, as the figure in the ‘ Asiatic Researches’ (19. pl. 37. f. 2), and 


* On first looking at the figure only the barbels which hang from the corners of the 
mouth are seen; but on examining more narrowly, we may perceive that the painter has 
drawn the upper barbels lying close to the maxillary. 


ira 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 291 


‘Mr. M‘Clelland’s character of his genus Cyprinus both indicate that it does 
not possess these appendages ; and no serratures are shown on the dorsal cr 
anal spines. 


Cyprinus? rossicoLa, Gray (Mursa), Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, a. 40; 
_Hardw. Malac. 11. Chinese name, Hang le, “Ditch carp” (Birch) ; 
Kang he, “ Ditch carp” (Reeves). Length of figure 8 inches. 


This fish has two moderate-sized barbels issuing from behind the middle of the lip and none 
from the corner of the mouth, and on that account I should have placed it in the genus Ro- 
hita of M. Valenciennes, which had previously received the appellation of Nandina from Mr. 
Gray, both authors deriving their generic name from one of Buchanan Hamilton’s species. 
Mr. Reeves’s drawing, however, does not indicate that development of the upper lip, nor 
the fringes that characterise Rohita; and it is probably on this account that Mr. Gray, in the 
analysis that he had commenced of these drawings, bestowed on this one another generic 
epithet as above quoted. In the uncertainty which exists respecting the true characters of 
this species, I have preferred noticing it under the general appellation of Cyprinus. In the 
extent of the dorsal it resembles the Cyprinus nandina of Buchanan Hamilton, or the 
Cirrhinus macronotus of M‘Clelland, but it differs much from that fish in its profile. The back 
forms a very flat elliptical curve, and there is a considerable gibbous descent at the shoulder 
to meet the facial line, which would be a straight slope, were it not that a slight rising 
of the thin snout gives it a small degree of concavity. The mouth is terminal, and the lower 
jaw is very little shorter than the upper one. The head is exactly a fourth of the length of 
the fish, and the height of the body somewhat exceeds a third of the length. The eye is 
rather small, and is equidistant from the mouth and gill-opening. The nostrils are not drawn 
with an elevated border. The lateral line is considerably decurved, descending over the ven- 
trals below the middle height, but running through the middle of the tail. It is traced on 
only twenty-five scales. A few short streaks radiate from the anterior superior corner of the 
operculum. The dorsal, which is highest anteriorly and has a straight edge, begins before 
the ventrals, over the last fifth of the pectorals, and approaches almost as near to the cau- 
dal as the anal does. Its first two rays are drawn as stout and spinous, standing up stiffly, 
from the others: they are not denticulated. The anterior anal rays are nearly similar, The 
numbers shown by the artist are D. 2|20; A. 2|5, &c. The scales are mostly silvery, with a 
pale mountain-green tint towards the base ofeach. This tint covers more of the disc towards 
the back, and most of the upper scales are also edged with the same. There is a crimson tint 
on the top of the head, and a faint blush of the same runs along the side above the lateral 
line. The lips are carmine, and the pectorals, anal and caudal, are carmine at the base, 
mixed with buff towards their borders, the extreme edge of the caudal being mountain-greén. 
The dorsal is celandine-green with carmine rays, and the ventrals bluish-gray, also with car- 
mine rays. 


Hab, Canton. 
(Cyprini non cirrhati :—Cyprinopsis, Fitzinger ; Carassius, Nilsson.) 


CypRINUS LINEATUS, C. et V. xvi. p. 96. 
Hab. Macao. 


Cyprinus CARAssSIOIDES, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, 126; Hardw. 
Malac. 12. Chinese name, Keith yu, “ Shoe fish” (Reeves, Birch); Aik u 
(Bridgem. Chrest.21). Length of figure 9 inches. 


This drawing represents a fish having nearly the same profile with C. acuminatus, being 
merely a little higher and wanting the transverse furrow on the snout as well as the barbels. 
The dorsal, which is high in front with an even edge, begins over the middle of the ventrals 
and terminates opposite to the middle of the anal. The anal spine is thick and as long as 
the soft rays; the dorsal one is shorter ; both are serrated: The numbers shown are D. 2]185 
A. 2|5, &c. Lateral line straight and traced on twenty-eight scales. No streaks on the oper- 

culum. The scules are brightly silvery, shaded gradually from their bases with greenish-gray 
above the lateral line, and with faint sulphur-yellow lower on the sides and belly. The edges 
of the opercular pieces and of the humeral chain are also sulphur-yellow. The fins have ash- 
gray edges, and are tinged with aurora-red towards their bases. The dorsal has a soiled hya-. 
' cinth-red bar along its base, and another more distinct along its middle. The eye-brow. is 
| flax-flower blue. 


Hab. Canton. 
u2 


1s 


292 REPORT—1845.. — WT “O° 


Cyprinus (CARASSIUS) BURGERI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.3{15 ; 

A. 3|5; C.19%; P.17; V.9. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

The specimen in the British Museum is four inches long, and is named by the authors of 
the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ It may possibly be the same with the preceding, which it resembles in 
outline, but it has fewer dorsal rays. There are thirty-one scales bearing tubes on the lateral 
line, and twelve rows in the height of the fish. It seems to have been a paler fish than the 
following species. 

Hab. Japan. 


CypRINUS GIBELIOIDES, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 29. Icon. Reeves, 123 ; 
Hardw. Malac.10. Chinese name, 7’sih* yu (Birch); Tsth u, “ Pattern 
carp” (Reeves). Rad. B.3; D.4|17; A. 3|6; C.182; P.18; V.9. 


As M. Valenciennes compares C. langsdorfii to gibelio, it is possible that Dr. Cantor’s fish 
may be the same. Several of Dr. Cantor’s specimens have reached the British Museum 
through the India House, one of them labelled C. nigrescens, which was probably merely a 
provisional name, and changed when Dr. Cantor drew up his paper. In form the fish is re- 
gular and ratherelegant. Its face is convex, and the shoulder ascends in a gentle arch to the 
dorsal. The head makes rather less than a fourth part of the length of the whole fish; the 
height of the body is contained three times and a quarter in the length, and the thickness rather 
more than seven times, or twice and one-third in the height. The mouth is small, not being 
cleft as far as the nostrils. The symphysis of the lower jaw rises in the form of a minute obtuse 
point. The lateral line is straight or very slightly decurved, and is traced on twenty-seven 
scales. There are thirteen rows of scales in the height : each scale is marked on the disc by 
streaks radiating from the centre. The dorsal commences over the ventrals and extends back 
to the middle of the short anal. It has four spines, of which the two anterior ones are very 
minute: the fourth one is strongly toothed behind, and its flexible tip is also toothed. The 
same is the case with the third anal spine. The posterior pair of soft rays in both fins are 
approximated at the base. The colour on the back is greenish-gray, deepening at the base of 
the scales to blackish-gray, becoming lighter inferiorly and changing to an ochraceous tint on 
the breast. The fins are greenish or blackish-gray, of different degrees of intensity, and their 
edges when folded are blackish. The pectoral and anal fins are red on their fore-edges. The 
figure is 74 inches long; the smallest specimen only 23 inches. 


Hab. Canton. Chusan. 


Cyprinus (cARASSIUS) CUVIERI, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. ad. D. 3|18 ; 
A. 3|5; C. 198; P.17; A.9. (Jap. Spec. Br. Mus. length 4 inches.) 
This is much like gibelioides, and may prove to be the same, in which case Dr. Cantor’s 


name has the priority. It seems rather more slender, and has a shorter and more delicate 
pectoral. 


Hab. Japan. 


Cyprinus LANGsDoRFII, C. et V. xvi. p. 99. 


The ‘Icones Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi,’ &c., include three figures which may belong to 
this species, if they are not referable to the gébelioides of Cantor. They have the lobes of the 
caudal and the sinus between them much more obtuse than those of gibelioides, or of Reeves’s 
figure 123, and apparently the large suborbitar of langsdorfii. Their lengths are 6 inches, 
54 and 3 inches respectively. 


Hab. Japan. 


CyPRINUS THORACATUs, C. et V. xvi. p. 97. 


M. Valenciennes refers to this species a Japanese painting of a fish whose Chinese name is 
tsi, but this is a generic appellation apparently equivalent to Carassius. 


Hab. Mauritius (and Japan ?). 


CypRINUS ABBREVIATUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 124; Hardw. Malac. 
13. Chinese name, Sih hith tséih { (Birch) ; Suh kwut sih, “ Contracted 
bone carp” (Reeves) ; Shuk kwat tsik (Bridgem. Chrest. 20). Length of 
drawing 7% inches. 


* Tsth is one of the names of the cuttle fish. 
+ The teeth of the spines are omitted in the figure, 
t “The fish which has the power of raising and depressing, or rather puckering its bone.” 


ae 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS.OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 293 


_ © This’ species has a short, high body, with a peculiarly short trunk of the tail.. The length 


of the head is contained four times and a sixth in the total length, and the height of the body 


twice anda half. The profile of the back is very slightly arched, so that it is almost parallel 
‘to the straight belly, and the descent to the mouth is mostly from the nape and is pretty steep. 


There is also a considerable ascent from the breast to the mouth, which is terminal, but with 


‘the lower jaw a little longer than the upperone. A small conical eminence is represented on 


the snout immediately before the nostrils. The eye is rather small and is about twice as far 
from the gill-opening as from the tip of the snout. The cheek appears from the drawing to 
be covered by the preorbitar, like that of ¢horacatus, and the whole surface of the operculum 
is streaked. The lateral line is perfectly straight and is traced on twenty-three scales only. 
The dorsal commences over the front of the ventrals and approaches as near to the caudal as 
the anal does. The latter fin has the same direction with the caudal, being attached to a ver- 
tical inflection of the under profile. The spines of the dorsal and anal are shorter than the 
soft rays. The figure shows. D. 2|18; A. 2|5, &c. 

The scales are silvery with bluish- or blackish-gray bases, deeper towards the back, but 
very pale towards the belly. The top of the head is dark greenish-gray, and the shoulders 
brownish. The edges of the gill-pieces and the throat are straw-yellow. The fins are green- 
ish-gray with a slightly brownish tinge on the lower part of the dorsal. 


Hab. Canton. 


CypRINUS AURATUS, Lin. BI. 93 et 410; C. et V. xvi. Jcon. Reeves, 121 
and a sheet representing 7 varieties; Hardw. Malac. 9; Descript. of Ani- 
mals, p. 203. f.213. Chinese name, Kin tsih (Birch) ; Kan tseth, “Golden 
carp” (Reeves); Kam tsik (Bridgem. Chrest. 22). 


Figure 121 Reeves appears to be the fish in its natural or uncultivated state. Its colours 
are pure hyacinth-red, with silvery borders to the scales and saffron-yellow edges to the gill- 
pieces. The pectoral, dorsal and caudal are hyacinth-red with a pale bluish-gray border to 
the latter. The scaly base of the pectoral is purple and lilac, the rays of the anal are yellow 
and those of the ventral red. The most brilliant of the cultivated varieties represented in 
Mr. Reeves’s drawings are vermilion and arterial blood-red, picked off with bright gold-yel- 
low. Others have the scales shaded with Berlin- and flax-flower-blue, and are marked with 
large vermilion patches. One is wholly bronze-coloured, the colour being deepest along the 
back. All the cultivated varieties have an elevated edge or valve between the nostrils, which 
is not shown in figure 121, and also the triple caudal: one of them has a double anal; 
three of them have dorsals but of different sizes, and four of them want the dorsals entirely. 
One of them has very large eyes, and two or three of them eyes sustained on a telescopic 
pedestal. 

Hab. “The Province of Tche kiang from latitude 27° 12’ N. to 31° 10’ N.” (Hist. des 
Poiss. p. 105.) 

Among the ‘ Icones Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi,’ &c., one figure measuring 8} inches in 
length and nearly 2 inches in height, and belonging to the group of Carassius, has no repre- 
sentative in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio. The dorsal and anal are acute, and the caudal very much 
so; the lateral line straight and a little below the mid-height, and traced on thirty-four scales. 
Colour mountain-green, with metallic lustre on the back, replaced below the middle of the 
sides by a silvery tint. Upper fins coloured like the back, lower ones pale. M. Valenciennes, 
at p. 101 of the 16th volume of the ‘ Histoire des Poissons,’ mentions two drawings in the 
Banksian library, one of which may be the figure here noticed, and the other perhaps one of 
the three paintings which we have alluded to above under the head of Cyprinus langsdorfii. 


Capro#TA RHOMBEA, Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. Rad. D. 14; A.12; C. 
193; P.17; V. 8. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 37 inches long.) 
Lateral line straight a little below the middle, traced on thirty-nine scales: ten rows of 


scales on the height of the body. First two rays of dorsal and anal jointed, but incumbent on 
the base of the third one. 


Hab. Japan. 


CApoETA LimBaTaA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.10; A. 12; C. 
192; P.13; V. 8. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 

_ Lateral line decurved:in the middle to the lower third of the height and traced on thirty- 

three or thirty-four scales. The part of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ relating to this fish and the 

preceding one is not yet published. 


at Hab. Japan, 


294 REPORT—1845. -ETRMO 


BARBUS DEAURATUS, C. et V. xvi. p. 188; Icon. Reeves, 154; Hardw. 
Malac. 96. Chinese name, Kea yu (Birch); “ Excellent yu” (Reeves) ; 
Ka u (Bridgem. Chrest. 6). Length of the drawing 10} inches. 

Colour of the body a rich golden-yellow, faintly reticulated and changing to silver on the 
belly. Back marked by six or seven large blotches of umber-brown, which are partly con- 
fluent behind the dorsal. Head purplish-red and crimson on the upper half, rest whitish. 
Tip of the gill-flap sap-green. The basal half of the caudal is pale gall-stone yellow: the 
other fins have yellowish rays, and their membranes more or less deeply shaded by blackish- 
gray. Front rays of the anal and pectoral and also the axilla of the latter crimson. 

Hab. Canton. Cochin China. 


ABRAMIS BRAMULA, C. et V. xvi. p. 357, fide figure inter Icon. Piscium 
94 a pictore Sinensi Cantoni pictas, Bib. Banks; Icon. Reeves, 108; 
Hardw. Malac. 16. Chinese name, Peen yu, “ Side fish” (Birch); Peen 
yu, “Flat fish” (Reeves); Pin u (Bridgem. Chrest.9). Length of draw- 
ing 19 inches. Height 6 inches. Length of head 35 inches. Genus 
Rhodeus? Agassiz. 


This species is partly rhomboidal in form, the very strong, round and slightly curved dor- 
sal spine crowning the superior angle. The slope is straight from thence to near the base of 
the caudal, but anteriorly it is moderately convex to the nape, where the depression or hori- 
zontality of the facial line gives a considerable concavity to the profile. The posterior under- 
side of the rhomb is shorter than the upper one and is wholly occupied by the anal. The 
under angle of the rhomb is wanting, the belly being straight from the’anus to the pectoral, 
where the outline again ascends. The height to the apex of the rhomb is equal to nearly a 
third of the whole length of the fish. The very obtuse lower jaw is a little shorter than the 
thickish upper one, yet the mouth is terminal. Eye large, a little above mid-height and much 
nearer to the end of the snout than to the gill-opening. The triangular dorsal commences 
behind the ventrals and ends opposite to the anus. Its height is equal to half that of the body 
and much exceeds that of its base. The rays shown in the drawing are D. 2/6, the strong 
second spine being a little shorter than the adjoining branched ray, and the last ray divided 
to the base. A. 1|29: the spine strong. Caudal deeply forked. Lateral line traced on forty- 
one scales, decidedly below the middle height and very slightly decurved. Scales large, very 
silvery, and on the back faintly oil-green with a well-defined rectangular or crescentic olive 
or blackish-green spot on the base of each. From the lateral line downwards these spots are 
replaced by light pearl-gray shadings. The temples and edges of the gill-plates are buff and 
saffron-yellow ; the top of the head hair-brown ; and the end of the nose and centre of the 
operculum bluish- or greenish-gray. Upper half of the operculum reddish-brown ; lower half 
pale yellow. Dorsal clove-brown with a broad bluish-gray border. Anal greenish-gray at 
the base and bluish-gray on the border. Caudal blackish-gray with a crimson base. Ventrals 
pale with bluish-gray rays. 

Hab. Canton. 


ABRAMIS TERMINALIS, Richardson; Zcon. Reeves, 80; Hardw. Malae. 15. 
Chinese name, Peen yu, “ Border fish” (Reeves); Pinu (Bridgem. Chrest. 
10). Length of drawing 9 inches. Height of body 3. Length of head 
1°63 inch. Genus Rhodeus?, Agass. 


This fish has the rhomboidal form of the preceding species; but the profile of the very small 
head, instead of being almost horizontal, forms part of the anterior face of the rhomb. The 
dorsal spine is strong and tall, being equal to two-thirds of the height; but the anal spine is 
represented as slender. D. 2|7; A. 1|20. Dorsal placed as in the preceding species, its base 
little exceeding half its height. Caudal deeply forked with very acute lobes. Eye large ; 
snout acute; mouth small. Lips thin, but drawn as if both upper and under one were double. 
Thescales appear to be very delicate andnacry ; about fifty-eight are represented as forming the 
lateral line, which is conspicuously decurved from the middle of the pectoral to the middle of 
the anal. The scales are shaded with greenish-gray on the back and are pearly on the sides 
without spots, the resulting general tint being pale. Opercular pieces and eye bordered with 
oil-green, and there are some reddish tints on the snout and round the gill-opening, The 
fins yellowish-gray and greenish-gray. 

Hab. Canton. 


ABRAMIS RHOMBOIDALIS, C. et V. xvii. p. '78 (Leuciscus). 
M. Valenciennes describes this species from a Chinese painting, and it appears from his 


as 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 295 


account of it to have much resemblance to one of the preceding two, but it differs from them 
both in having a gibbous forehead, in the lateral line traversing the body at mid-height and 
in the greater number of its anal rays, 


Hab. China. 


Leuciscus CHEVANELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 358. 
Hab. China. 


Levciscus moxirrix, C. et V. xvii. p. 360; LZ. hypophthalmus, Gray, Cat. 
Br. Mus.; Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 139. pl. 63. f. 1; Zeon. 
Reeves, a.54; Hardw. Malac. 34. Chinese name, Peen yu, “ Broad fish” 
(Reeves, Birch). Genus Aspius?, Agassiz. 

A specimen was presented by Mr. Reeves to the British Museum. Having omitted to de- 
scribe the colouring in the ‘ Ichthyology of the Sulphur,’ I may here state that in Mr. Reeves’s 
drawing the top of the head is represented of a deep olive-green colour, and that a fainter 
tint of the same extends along the back, but is glossed with much brassy lustre. Immediately 
above the lateral line there is a dilute tinge of crimson, and all the under parts are pearl-gray 
and brightly silvery. The cheeks are silvery. The under lip deep rose-red, and the gill- 
cover and membrane are washed with the same. The rays of all the fins are more or less 
brightly crimson, and the membranes, which vary from dark greenish-gray to blackish-gray, 
are glossed with crimson on the under fins. This tint is richest on the pectorals, and there 
are also orange colours between the rays of these fins. 

Since this fish was figured and described in the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur’ 
under the specific name given to it by Mr. Gray, I have ascertained by consulting the ‘ Icones 
Piscium 24 a pictore Sinensi Cantoni eleganter pictz,’ that it is the LZ. molitria of M. Valen- 
ciennes. The drawing in the work just quoted measures 11 inches, 

Hab, Canton. : 


Leuciscus nositis, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus.; Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of 
Sulphur, p. 140. pl. 63. f. 3; Icon. Reeves, 134; Hardw. Malac.33. Chi- 
nese name, Tsing yu, “ Eminent fish” (Reeves). Genus Aspius, Agassiz. 
Mr. Reeves has deposited a specimen of this fish also in the British Museum. The brassy 
hue of the scales of this and the preceding species draws attention to the names cupreus and 
@neus given by M. Valenciennes to two Chinese Leucisc?, but the few particulars of form 
‘which he has recorded do not correspond, and had the drawings he comments upon repre- 
sented either hypophthalmus or nobilis, he could not have failed to remark the unusual de- 
pression of the eyes into the curve of the preoperculum. In fact both extremities of the sub- 
orbitar chain rise above the level of the eye, as they do also, though in a less degree, in L. 
jeselia and some other species. 
Hab. Canton. 


Leuciscus rosetta, C. et V. xvi. p. 356. Length of figure 103 inches, the 
head one-third of the length. 


L. nobilis is the only Leuciscus represented by Mr. Reeves’s drawings which has so large a 
head as rosetia; and in nobilis the head equals the third of the length only when the caudal 
is excluded. There is no drawing of this species among the ‘Icones Piscium 24 a pictore 
Sinensi,’ &c. 


Hab. China. 


Levuctscus rEcuRVICcEPS, Richardson. Jeon. Reeves, 149; Hardw. Malac. 
14. Chinese name, Yaou hing, “ Stiff necked” (Birch) ; Kew too, “ Hooked 
head” (Reeves). Length of figure from mouth 15 inches. Height of body 
$3. Length of head 3. Genus Aspius, Agassiz. 


This fish is remarkable for the face being inclined upwards by a sudden curvature over the 
temples like the profile of a pug-dog. The nape rises in a short arc, but the dorsal line is 
only slightly convex, while the belly is considerably more curved, and the tail behind the anal 
isslender. The head, excluding the lower jaw, is one-fifth of the length of the fish; and the 
height of the body is a little more. The drawing represents a convex keel between the ven- 
trals and anus. The cleft of the mouth is vertical, with a curve towards its angle; and the 
lower jaw, which forms the anterior end of the head, is dilated and apparently naked, like 
that of Aspius mento and mazillaris. The large eye is equal in diameter to a fourth part of 
the length of the head, and is situated one diameter behind the mouth, The lateral line is 
decurved at its commencement, and makes a sudden Short bend downwards under the dorsal, 
after which it ascends very gently in a straight line till it has passed some way beyond the 


296 UY WEPORTAH1845, yoo rovierio! are 


anal, and then runs straight for the short remaining space to the caudal. Scales small, there 
being about sixty-eight rows represented between the gill-opening and caudal. Dorsal having 
a height in front of twice the length of its base, acute and placed over the middle space be- 
tween the ventrals and anal. Its second ray is represented as strong, round and curved like 
that of a Rhodius, and the first one as slender, but only a third part shorter. Anus behind 
the middle, ventrals well forward, and the pectorals triangular and acute. D. 2|6; last di- 
vided to base; A. 31. Caudal forked. The scales have silvery discs, and are shaded at the 
base with greenish-gray on the back; on the upper part of the sides with very pale buff or 
ochre-yellow ; and below the lateral line with pearl-gray, the whole being very bright, except 
on the summit of the back, where the gray spreads over the entire discs of the scales. Dorsal 
the colour of the back, with a brownish tint on the rays. Pectoral, ventrals and anal colour- 
less on the outer halves, and yellowish-brown at the base. In the anal the brown is confined 
to the fore part of the fin. The caudal is tinged with darker yellowish-brown at the base, and 
is bluish-gray on the posterior half. 


Hab. Canton. 


LevuciIscus MOLITORELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 359; Jeon. Reeves, 110; Hardw. 
Malaec. 22. Chinese name, Joo ling*, “ Land carp” (Birch); “Ground 
carp” (Reeves); Zo ling (Bridgem. Chrest.33). Length of drawing 134 
inches. Height of body 3°1 inches. Length of head 2:15. Genus Aspius?, 
Agassiz. 

This drawing has all the characters recorded by M. Valenciennes of molitorella, except that 
the caudal has longer and more pointed lobes than other Leucisci represented in Mr. Reeves’s 
drawings, while this fin is said in the molitorella to have the lobes rounded and little length- 
ened. I have not however thought it advisable to keep it distinct merely because of this dis- 
crepancy. In the drawing the snout projects beyond the mouth, which is small, with the 
lower jaw shutting close up. Its dorsal is large, triangular, and as high in front as the body, 
with a base nearly as long as its height. The ventrals are attached beneath its middle. The 
anal is nearer to the caudal than to the ventrals. The rays are D. 12 or 13; A. 7. 

The summit of the back is olive-green, with a quadrangular spot at the base of each scale 
of dark duck-green approaching to blackish-green. These spots disappear above the lateral 
line, which is nearly straight, and give place to a pale shading of bluish-green, which is re- 
placed on the belly by cream-yellow, the discs of the scales being mostly silvery. About 
twelve of the scales immediately above the pectoral fin are bordered with china-blue, their 
discs remaining silvery, and thus producing a reticulated rhomboidal spot. The dorsal, ventrals: 
and anal are very pale mountain-green and transparent ; the first being oil-green at the base, 
and the two latter tipped with peach-blossom red. The caudal has greenish rays and roseate 
tints with a bluish-gray edge; and the rays of the pectoral are also greenish with a faintly 
roseate membrane. The sides of the head are silvery, shaded with green and glossed by some 
rose-coloured and lilac tints. 


Hab. Canton. 


LEvuciIscus FINTELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 356. 
Hab. China. 


‘Leuciscus nemistietus, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 133; Hardw. Malac. 
26. Chinese name, Zsing yu (Reeves, Birch). Length of figure 144 
inches. 


L. fintella is represented as being thrice as long as it is high; but in the figure of hemi- 
stictus the height is contained four times and a half in the length, and the head five times. It 
has a general resemblance to the Barilius goha of Buchanan Hamilton, p. 385 (Hardw. Malac. 
36 and 53; Opsarius gracilis, M‘Clelland, 47. f. 1), but it wants the spots on the head, and 
the dots on the body are blacker and more regular. The profile of hemistictus is symmetrically 
fusiform. The head is a slender cone with a bluntish apex; and the lower jaw, which is 
shorter than the upper one, is represented as shutting as it were partly within it. The dorsal 
commences a little before the ventrals, which are attached in the middle of the length, caudal 
excluded, and the vent terminates the third quarter of the same distance. No streaks on the 
gill-cover. Scales large, smooth and nacry, thirty-eight in a longitudinal row and eight or 
nine in height. The lateral line is evenly decurved and runs beneath mid-height till it passes 
the anal, after which it runs straight in the middle of the tail. Back olive-green with a nar- 
row border of paler oil-green to the posterior edge of each scale, and a well-defined round 
spot of blackish-green or greenish-black on the base, making six rows in the middle of the 


* Ling is ‘a kind of carp,” “a fish resembling a carp.” 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 297 


body, all of them above the lateral line, but only four on the trunk of the tail; one of them 


below the lateral line. The, discs of the scales are more silvery on the sides, and beneath the 


lateral line they are faintly shaded at the base with pearl-gray, and have neither spots nor 
coloured borders. Head greenish above, glossed with crimson on the snout, temples and oper- 
culum, and silvery with yellow shadings beneath. Dorsal yellowish-gray. Pectorals greenish 
at the base and cream-yellow elsewhere. Anal and ventrals pale cream-yellow with ochraceous 
rays. Caudal dark blackish-gray. Iris silvery with a patch of orpiment-orange. 


Hab. Canton. 


Lervciscus MAcHmRIoIwES, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 111. Hardw. Ma- 
lac. Chinese name, Lan taou, “ Rope-knife” (Birch) ; Lan tow (Reeves). 
Length of figure 7i inches. Height14inch. Genus Chela?, Buch. Ham. 


Pelecus?, Agassiz. 

The shading of the drawing seems to indicate that the belly of this fish is acute from the 
middle of the pectorals to the anus. Its back is very flatly arched, the nearly horizontal face 
forming part of the curve, which is much inferior in convexity to the belly. The height of 
the body is about equal to the seventh of the length, of which the head forms less than an 
eighth part. The scales seem to be small and delicate, and the lateral line descends at its 
commencement in a short arc to the lower quarter of the height, and then runs horizontally 
from the last quarter of the anus, where it rises parallel to the curve of the attachment of the 
anal fin, and again resumes its horizontal direction when it has reached the middle of the tail. 
The dorsal commences a little behind the front of the ventrals or in the middle of the length, 
caudal excluded. It is taller than the anal, and equals it in the length of its base. The 


~ caudal is forked. 


The very silvery scales are shaded at the bases with leek-green on the back and light pearl- 
gray on the belly. The fins are pale mountain-green, transparent and without spots, except 
the pectoral, which is asparagus-green with a blackish spot on its inferior angle, near the base. 
There are some greenish-yellow shadings on the head. 


Hab. Canton. 


Levciscus acutus, Broussonnet MSS. in Descript. of Anim. p. 205. fig. 
194 (Cyprinus). Leuc. acutirostris, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, 
a. 42; Hardw. Malac. 29. Chinese name, Leen taou (Birch) ; Leen tou, 
« Sickle or reaping-knife” (Reeves). Length of figure 7°35 inches. Height 

_ of body 1°85 inch. Length of head 1:35 inch. 


This figure has considerable resemblance to L. macherioides, and the curvature of the lateral 
line is the same, but it has a straighter back, a more convex belly, higher body, and a longer 
and lower anal. The head is equally slender, the snout and lower jaw more acute, and the 
eye larger. The triangular and acute dorsal commences opposite to the axilla of the ven- 
trals. The pectorals are very acute and the anal reaches near to the caudal. The rays 
shown in Mr. Reeves’s figure are D. 8; A. 15. In the ‘ Descr. of Animals’ they are noted 
as D. 8; A. 14; C.18; P. 15; V.8. About thirty-four scales exist in a longitudinal row, 
and there are ten or eleven rows in the height. 

Colour of the back pale and pure wood-brown with seven pale crimson, longitudinal streaks 
in the whole height, corresponding with the rows of scales. Below the middle height the 
scales are shaded with pearl-gray. ‘The caudal is pistachio-green, the dorsal, anal and pec- 
torals ash-gray, with a blotch of rich carmine on the base and first ray of the dorsal, and a 
slight blush of the same on the base of the ventrals, the first anal ray, and all the pectoral rays. 

_ Hab. Canton, 


Leuciscus IDELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 362. Icon. Reeves, 122; Hardw. 
Malac. 23. Chinese name, Hwan yu, “Hwan fish” (Birch); Hwan u, 
“Strong carp” (Reeves). Length of figure 171 inches. Jcon. Piscium a 
pictore Sinensi 24, &c., drawing 144 inches long. Rad. D.9; A.9; C.198; 
P.19; V.8, omnes articulati. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Genus Aspius?, Agassiz. 

_An Idus?, Heckel. 


»A-specimen deposited in the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. measures fourteen 
inches in length. . Itis fusiform, with a thickish tail and rather acute snout, perfectly well 
represented by Mr. Reeves’s drawing. The stoutish upper jaw projects beyond the lower 
one; and cuives slightly over it, but'the rictus of the mouth is not large and does not reach 


_ backwards to the nostrils. Operculum finely streaked. The eye is rather above the middle 


height of the head, and the furrowed preorbitar and temporal extremity of the suborbitar 
tubes rise above its level, The maxillary touches the corner of the mouth, but scarcely forms * 


' . 
a 
n, 


298 — REPORT—1845. toy Fier ve 


part of the upper lip. It is semi-lanceolate with a straight fore-edge. The lateral line de+ 
scends a little at its commencement, and when opposite to the acute tip of the pectoral, takes 
a straight course along the middle of the height to the tail. It is traced on thirty-six scales, 
and there are nine rows of scales in the height of the body, of which five are above the lateral 
line. The dorsal commences a little before the middle of the length, caudal excluded, and 
its height, which is equal to two-thirds of the height of the body, measures almost twice the 
length of its base. The last ray being comparatively longer and the corners of the fin rounded, 
it has not the triangular form of the dorsal of many of the other Leucisci. The front of 
the ventrals is under the middle of the dorsal, and the anal is midway between them and the 
caudal. 

The large discs of the scales, down to a row beneath the lateral line, have an uniform oil- 
green tint with much lustre, and are surrounded by a defined border of deep duck-green, pro- 
ducing hexagonal reticulations. Lower down, the discs of the scales are silvery, and the 
meshes that enclose them pass into ochre- and cream-yellows. The base of the pectoral and 
scales before that fin have a red-lilac tint, and the head corresponds in colour with the body, 
being green above and ochraceous or cream-coloured below. There is a little blue around 
the eye and on the upper corner of the operculum. The pectorals are green, with a brownish 
gloss; the ventrals buff-coloured, and the other fins dark greenish-gray, the rays of the caudal 
being dark green. In the figure belonging to the collection in the Banksian library quoted 
by M. Valenciennes, the bases of the scales are darker than the borders, but the drawings are 
otherwise so much alike as to occasion little doubt of their being representatives of the same 
species. 

Hab. Canton. 


Leuciscus piceus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 153; Hardw. Malac. 24. 
Chinese name, Hih hwan, “ Black hwan fish” (Birch); Hih wan, “ Black 
—” (Reeves); Hak wan (Bridgem. Chrest. 233). Length of the 
figure 153 inches. Height of body 3 inches. Length of head 33 inches. 


This fish is elongated like idelia, but is rather less symmetrical, has even a thicker tail, 
more obtusely-forked caudal, and more unevenness in the profile of the head and shoulders. 
The mouth is similarly formed, the eye in the same position, and the fins similar in place and 
form. Thescales are smaller but appear to be equally strong, and the lateral line as distinctly 
marked by an elevated straight tube on each scale. It runs very nearly straight, or with a 
slight general decurvature along the middle of the fish. The fins are taller than those of 
jesella, the dorsal being equal in height to the body, and the anal not very much lower. All 
the fins are obtuse. The operculum and supra-scapulars are furrowed. 

General colour pitchy or blackish-brown, deepest on the back, and gradually changing on 
the belly to bluish-gray. The scales are not enclosed in a dark mesh-work like those of 
jesella, but are darkest on the fore-edge, and grow gradually paler towards their bases. Head 
blackish-gray above, beneath white. There is a greenish tint on the breast and a tinge of 
crimson along the edge of the belly. All the fins are blackish-gray, deepening to black to- 
wards the edges, and their rays are whitish at the base. There are forty-three scales on the 
lateral line, and ten or eleven rows in height. The rays shown are D. 9; A. 10, &c. 


Hab. Canton. 


LEuciscus coREENSIS, C. et V. xvii. p. 355. 
Hab. Japan. Corea. 


Leuciscus JESELLA, C. et V. xvii. p. 360. 
Hab. Canton. 


Levuciscus xANTHURUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 112; Hardw. Malac. 25. 
Chinese name, Hwang we ling, “ Yellow-tailed carp” (Birch); Hwang 
ne ling (Reeves); Wong mi ling (Bridgem. Chrest. 30). Length of figure 
11 inches. Height of body nearly 3 inches. Length of head 1:8 inch. 
Genus Aspius ?, Agassiz. 

This figure represents a fish with an elevated back rising to a point at the beginning of the 
dorsal. The anterior slope is varied by a moderate gibbosity of the nape, but the posterior 
one runs in a perfectly straight, obliquely-descending line to the caudal fin. Belly most pro- 
minent under the middle of the pectorals, sloping suddenly up to the throat and very gradually 
to the caudal. Head small. Eye large and low in the cheek. Snout full and apparently 
fleshy, projecting beyond the lower jaw, which shuts up beneath it. Pectorals small, acute. 
The dorsal commences in the middle of the distance between the top of the snout and base of 
the caudal, and its second ray is represented as stout, round, and acute, like that of a Rhodeus, 

* the third one being also simple, but more slender and shorter. D. 3|6, last divided to base ; 


] 
ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 299 


A. 11, &c. The front of the ventrals is rather before the dorsal: the anal is small, the caudal 
deeply forked with thickish lobes. The lateral line is a little decurved over the pectoral, and 
then takes a straight course below the middle of the height to the caudal. It is traced on 
about forty-eight scales, which are consequently rather small, fourteen or fifteen rows are re- 
presented in the height. 

The colour of the back is pure oil-green, the silvery borders of the scales increasing in 
breadth on the flanks, the green is confined to a slight tinge on the base of each, and on the 
belly it is replaced by pearl-gray. Caudal saffron-yellow with a bluish-gray border. The 
top of the head is coloured like the back, the snout and under jaw are crimson, the temples 
mountain-green, and the operculum purple, The dorsal is pale buff with the third ray crimson, 
and there are crimson tints on the bases of the inferior fins; the front of the anal being yel- 
lowish-green, All the inferior fins appear to be transparent. 

Hab. Canton. 


Levciscus samsusA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 141. pl. 63. 
f.2. Icon. Reeves, 286 ; Hardw. Malac. 32. Chinese name, Chih nuy 
yu, “Bamboo spoilt fish” (Birch). (An Chela, Ham. Buch.? Pelecus, 
Agassiz ?) 

A specimen was presented to the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. which measures 
seventeen inches in length. Not having seen Mr. Reeves’s drawing of this species until after 
the publication of the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ the colours of the recent fish 
were not therein described. They are pale chestnut-brown on the back with silvery discs to 
the scales, and a gradual passage into greenish-gray on the belly. The jaws, pectorals, lower 
fins, and under lobe of the caudal are ochre-yellow; the upper lobe of the caudal the same, 
with a greenish tinge, and the dorsal greenish-blue. There are also some blushes of carmine 
at the bases of the ventrals and caudal. This Zeuciscus is remarkable for the size and soli- 
dity of the intermaxillaries, and for the conical process which rises from the symphysis of the 
lower jaw, as well as for its slender form. 

Hab. Canton. 


LeEuciscus curRIcULUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 141; Hardw. Malac. 28. 
Chinese name, H7h shih wan, “ Stone-black barrow (Birch) ; “ Black-stone 
carriage” (Reeves); Hak shik wan (Bridgem. Chrest. 236). Rad. omnes 
articulati; D.8; A. 9; C.193; P.19; V.9. (Spec. Br. Mus. J. R. 
Reeves, Esq.) Length 83 inches. Height of body 1 inch. Thickness 
0°95. Length of head 1:48 inch. 


Shape fusiform, with a conical head and narrow snout slightly longer than the lower jaw. 
The lateral line runs in the middle of the height, and has a gentle decurvature from end to 
end. It is traced on forty scales, and there are ten or eleven rows in the height. The height 
slightly surpasses the length of the head, and is contained five times and a half in the total 
length of the fish. The dorsal, narrow and less in height than the body, commences oppo- 
site to the front of the ventrals, which are in the middle of the length, caudal excluded. 
The pectorals are obtuse and do not reach the ventrals. The anal is short and similar to the 
dorsal. Caudal forked. Operculum striated. 

Colour of the back liver-brown, with greenish glosses and longitudinal streaks of darker 
brown. Beneath the lateral line the scales have much nacry lustre and a very pale roseate 
tint. There are some grass-green tints round the eye and on the operculum. The fins are 
dark olive or blackish-green, with crimson tints on the bases of all except the dorsal. 
| Hab, Canton. 


Leuciscus vANDELLA, C. et V. xvii. p.363. Icones Piscium 24 a pictore 
Sinensi, &c. (two figures on separate sheets). 


Judging from the drawings, this approaches closely to curriculus, but its caudal is more 
forked and the lateral line more bent down and in a different curve. 


Hab. Canton. 
Leuciscus PLENvS, Broussonnet MSS. in Descript. of Anim. p. 204. fig. 197 
(Cyprinus). 


‘This sketch most resembles L. curriculus (141 Reeves), but does not quite agree with it. 
“The head is oblong, somewhat depressed. Body oblong and roundish. Dorsal nearly in 
the middle. Tail bifid. Ventrals opposite to the posterior ray of the dorsal. Pectorals 
pointed. Lateral line convex downwards.” “D.8; A.11; C. 20; P.14; V.10.” A, 
foot long. 

| Hab. “ Canton river.” 


300 REPORT—1845. OTFTOTHTHM HT UO 


Leuctscus curreus, C. et V. xvii. p. 361. 
Hab. China. 


Leruciscus Homospitotus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, a. 20; Hardw. Ma- 
lac. 27. Chinese name, Hung yen seun, “ Red-eyed sprout” (Birch) ; 
Hung lang seun, “ Red-eyed? seun” (Reeves); Hung ngen sun (Bridgem. 
Chrest. 236). Length of figure 10 inches. Height of body 2-2 inches. 
Length of head 1-9 inch. Genus Aspius?, Agassiz. Alburnus?, Heckel. 


This fish has an elegant, symmetrical fusiform shape, the back rather less arched than the 
belly, the face nearly straight, and a very slight gibbosity at thenape. The head is slenderly 
conical with an obtuse snout, projecting a little beyond the lower jaw. The eye is nearly in the 
centre, between the tip of the snout and the gill-opening, and the nostrils are considerably 
before it. Dorsal rounded, commencing opposite the front of the ventrals. Anal short, mo- 
derately high. Caudal forked. Lateral line equally decurved to near the caudal, descending 
a little below the middle opposite to the ventrals, and traced on about thirty-five scales. There 
are nine rows in the height. D.9; A. 9 or 10, &c. 

Colour of the back pure wood-brown, with four or five streaks of the same through the rows 
of scales. The scales are shaded with pearl or ash-gray below the lateral line. Caudal leek- 
green. Dorsal, anal and ventrals mountain-green, with crimson tints on the rays. Pectorals 
crimson and asparagus-green. Upper quarter of the itis orpiment-orange, the rest silvery. 
There are a few black specks on the commencement of the lateral line, and three short rows 
of similar ones above it; the middle row being under the dorsal and the two others on the 
shoulder. 


Hab. Canton. 


Leuciscus £NEUS, C. et V. xvii. p. 361. 
Hab. China. 


Leuciscus TEMMINCKII, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (unpubl.) Rad. D.9; 
A. 13; C.19%; P.13; V.9. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 2:4 inches long.) 


Lateral line decurved, principally in the pectoral region, to the lower quarter of the height. 
Forty-two scales ina row. A dark longitudinal stripe on the middle of the side. Lateral 
line lower than that of Z. homospilotus, which this fish resembles in profile. 


Hab. Japan. 


Leuciscus pLaAtypus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (unpubl.) Rad. D. 9; 
A.12; C. 192; P.17; V.9. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 5 inches long.) 
Lateral line decurved to lower third of height. Forty-three scales ina row. Rays of the 
anal curiously compressed. 
Hab. Japan. 


Lruciscus Minor, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. (unpubl.) Rad. D. 9; 
A.11; C.198; P.15; V.9. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 32 inches long.) 
Lateral line decurved to the lower quarter of the height. ‘Thirty-nine scales in a row. 
Hab. Japan. 


CoBITIS ANGUILLICAUDATUS, Cantor, Ann. Nat. Hist. ix. p. 30. An. 1842; 
Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of the Sulph. p. 143. pl. 55. f.9, 10. C. pee- 
toralis, M‘Clelland, Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. p. 400. pl. 23. f. 3. An. 1844. 
C. erythropterus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Icon. Reeves, 278 ; Hardw. 
Malac. 118 et 1]9. dupl. 

The British Museum and the India House are in possession of several of Dr, Cantor’s spe- 


cimens, and of a Japanese one named by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica; five or six were 
presented by Sir Everard Home, Bart. to the College of Surgeons. 


_ Hab. Canton, Chusan. Yang tze kiang kew. 


CosiTis PSAMMISMUS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 145; Hardw. Malac. 120. 
Chinese name, Sha chuy, “Sand club” (Birch); Sha Chiuy, “Sand- 


needle” (Reeves) ; Sha chui (Bridgem. Chrest. 104). Length of drawing. 


we 
% inches. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 301 


In this drawing only four barbels are shown, and the ventrals are a little farther forward 
than in anguillicaudatus. The general colour of the body is umber-brown, pretty dark on the 
back, but paler and with silvery lustre on the sides. The fins arealso brown. A considerable 
number of oblong or roundish black spots are pretty equally scattered over the whole body, 
and there are more crowded round ones on all the fins except the ventrals. 


‘Hab. Canton. 


CoBITIS HEMATOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.7; A. 5; 
C.1612; P.11; V.7. (Spec. Br. Mus. 52 inches long.) 
Hab. Japan. ‘ 
Fam. ScopeLintp#& (Miiller). 


SAuRUS NEHEREvS, Buchanan Hamilton ( Osmerus), Fish of Ganges, p. 209 ; 
Wana motta, Russell, 171. Salmo microps et Harpodon, Lesueur, Journ. 
Ac. Se. of Phil. v. pl. 3. f.1, 1a. Saurus ophiodon, Cuv. Régn. Anim. ii. 
p- 314; Descript. of Anim. p. 192. fig. 160 ; Icon. Reeves, a. 18 ; Hardw. 
Malac. 207 (et 208, 209, dr. of Osmerus nehereus of India). Chinese 
name, Kow too, “A dog vomiting” (Birch); Kou tza, “ Dogs’ guts” 
(Reeves) ; Kau to. u_(Bridgem. Chrest. 164). Rad. D.12; A. 15 (vel 
13-14); C.172; P.9; V.9. (Spec. Coll. Surg.) 

The British Museum possesses a Canton specimen of this fish, presented by Mr. Reeves, 
and there are many in the museum of the College of Surgeons, which were sent from Woosung 
by Capt. Sir Everard Home, Bart., R.N. Mr. Reeves mentions that this is the species which 
is exported from Bombay in a dried state, and sold in London under the name of “ Bombay 
ducks.” In Mr. Reeves’s drawing, a long spinous-looking prolongation of the suboperculum 
is shown, which seems to have originated in some mistake of the artist, as there is no trace 
of it in the specimen. The skin is naked, except the lateral line, which is protected by mo- 
derately-sized tiled scales, which are more crowded posteriorly and run out on the caudal, 
forming a middle point or lobe which is shorter than the side. The largest specimen we have 
examined is eleven inches long. 

Hab. Sea of China. Indian ocean. Chusan. Woosung. Canton. 


SAuRus LEMNiscatus, Lacépéde (L’ Osmere galonné), v. p. 230. 238. pl. 6. 
f.1. Saurus elegans, Gray, Cat. Brit. Mus. Icon. Reeves, 188 ; Hardw. 
-Malac. 206. Length of drawing 9 inches. 


This drawing resembles Salmo fotens, Bl. 384. f. 2, more than any other Saurus of which 
we have seen afigure. It has the same very short obtuse snout, short pectorals, forward ven- 
trals and long anal, but S. feetens has an unspotted body and is an inhabitant of the Atlantic. 
Lacépéde’s figure of Jemniscatus is rude, but his description of the patterns of the markings 
answers exactly to Mr. Reeves’s drawing, though the cglours are not the same. His plate and 
his description are both founded upon a drawing on vellum by Plumier, and it is very pro- 
bable that in the lapse of time the colours may have undergone considerable change, assu- 
ming that they were perfectly correct in the first instance. 

In Mr. Reeves’s drawing, the ground-colour on the top of the back is lemon-yellow, which 
is thickly speckled with irregular spots of brownish-red and umber-brown; on the sides the 
yellow forms about four longitudinal stripes, alternating with purplish-red ones, the latter 
becoming broader and changing to crimson on the belly. The head is mostly of the purplish- 
red tint, and there is a black spot on the supra-scapular. The dorsal, ventrals and anal are 
transparent and faintly crimson, with one yellow bar on the ventrals and two or three on the 
dorsal. The dorsal is yellowish at the base and blackish-gray on its posterior border. The 
cheeks and body are scaly, but no scales are shown on the gill-cover. 

Hab. Sea of China. 


Saurus vartecatus, Commerson in Lacépéde (Salmone varié), v. p. 157- 
+224. pl. 3. f. 1. Icon. Reeves, 187 ; Hardw. Malac. 205. Chinese name, 
Hwa how kwiin, “ Flowery dog stick” (Birch); Fa kow kwan, “ Painted 
dog stick” (Reeves). ad. B.12; D.13; A.7, last one divided to the 
base; P.15; V.8. (Spec. Brit. Mus.) 
_A Chinese specimen was presented to the British Museum by Mr. Reeves. The teeth of 
the upper jaw are small, unequal in height, and disposed in two rows; the lower jaw ones 
are longer, hastate, and in three or four rows. The teeth which arm the palatine bones are 


302 REPORT—1845. TTUOT GY wo 


cardiform ; those on the tongue are very strong. The ground colour of the back is a mottled 
mixture of greenish-gray and yellow, varied by fifteen or sixteen transverse bars composed of 
small spots of umber-brown. These bars are irregular on the top of the back, but they descend 
below the lateral line, and are there more distinct, from the intervening spaces being gam- 
boge-yellow. The belly is brightly silvery. The head is varied by many spots of umber-brown, 
the jaws being also much spotted. The caudal is pale orange-brown, with about nine trans- 
verse bars thickly spotted with umber. The other fins are more or less deeply yellowish-brown 
with five or six rows of darker spots on the rays, except the pectorals, which do not appear 
to be spotted. 

The Dentex nebulosus (Banks and Solander, Parkinson, Icon. 113. Bib. Banks), which 
frequents the seas of Otaheite, has considerable resemblance to this species. 


Hab. Seas of China and the Mauritius. 


SAURUS ARGYROPHANES, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 6.15; Hardw. Malac. 
Chinese name, Kin lin chuy, “ Silk-scaled chuy” (Birch) ; Kin lin cheuy, 
“ Silver-scaled cheuy” (Reeves) ; Kam lun chui (Bridgem. Chrest. 165). 
Rad. 1D. 9* 3A. 'T1* ;'Vi9 (ex figura). Length of figure 10 inches. 


This, judging from the drawing, is a more elongated species than the preceding ones, the 
height of the body scarcely exceeding a seventh of the total length. The eye is moderately 
large, and is situated over the middle of the cleft of the mouth. The pectorals, which are not 
large, reach just to the front of the ventrals, and the dorsal commences over the axilla of the 
latter fins. The caudal is forked as in the preceding two species, without any middle lobe. 
The lateral line is strongly marked, and one of the most distinctive characters of the fish ap- 
pears to be the strong contrast between the colours above and below the line, the upper parts 
being a decided yellowish-brown, darker on the edges of the scales, producing reticulations, and 
the lower parts bright silvery, the two tints being exactly defined by the lateral line, which is 
darker than the other parts. The head is mostly coloured like the back, There are no spots 
either on the body or fins, but the ends of the pectorals and the posterior edge of the caudal 
are blackish. 

Sir Edward Belcher’s collection contains a Saurus which I should be inclined to refer to the 
species represented by Mr. Reeves’s drawing, but for the greater acuteness of the snout of the 
specimen. They correspond i in colours and position of the fins. In this specimen the height 
of the body is inferior to its width, and is contained about eight times in the total length. The 
back is rounded and depressed, and the thickness diminishes gradually from the dorsal fin to 
the tip of the acute snout, and also in the other direction to the slender tail, which is rouhd near 
the base of the caudal fin. The jaws are equal. The cleft of the mouth exceeds half the di- 
stance from the tip of the snout to the edge of the gill-cover. The centre of the eye is rather 
behind the middle of the cleft, and the length of the head exceeds a fifth part of the whole 
length, or more exactly forms a fourth part of the length, caudal excluded. The eyes encroach 
on the profile and are about a diameter apart, the edges of the orbits being deficient or notched 
above. The interorbital space is concave. The occiput ends in a serrated edge, which is 
slightly concave posteriorly, and the, supra-scapulars also show a projecting rough edge. 
The fronts of the yentrals are attached exactly midway between the tip of the snout and the 
vent. The tips of the pectoral reach just to their first ray, and the commencement of the 
dorsal is a little behind the axilla of the ventrals. The rays are B. 12-13; D.10; A. 12; 
C. 178; P. 13; V.8. The lateral line is straight and is formed by a series of pores; there 
are also a number of lines parallel to it, produced by the transparency of the scales, permitting 
the meeting of the edges of two rows to shine through the discs of the intervening incumbent 
row. The teeth are slender with lanceolate tips, but none of them appear to be distinctly 
barbed. In the upper jaw, the tall ones are inclined forwards and are ranged in a widely-set 
series, with some shorter ones at the base. In the lower jaw there are several graduated rows 
inclined inwards, the interior row being the tallest. The palatine teeth form card-like plates 
which approach each other anteriorly in an acute angle, leaving a narrow smooth space on the 
mesial line. The surface of the tongue is also armed by rows of teeth, but smaller than any 
of the others we have mentioned. The edges of the branchial arches are rough, with much 

‘more minute teeth, very dissimilar to the slender, curved and barbed teeth of the gills of 
Harpodon. 


Hab. Most probably the China seas. 


Mycroruum Boors, Richardson, Ichth, of Voy. of Erebus and Terror, p. 39. 
pl. 27. f. 6-12. 


* The incumbent front ray of these fins is omitted in the figure, and the formula ought 
to be D. 10; A, 12, &c. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 303 


‘Sir Edward Belcher and Sir James Ross brought home examples of this species, which 
‘have been deposited in the British Museum. 


- Hab. Seas of China (Belcher), New Zealand and Australia (Ross). 


ASTRONESTHES NIGRA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p, 97. 
pl. 50. f. 1-3. 
Sir Edward Belcher obtained two specimens. 
Hab. China seas. ? 


Levucosoma cutnensis, Osbeck (Albula), Voy. i, p. 385. Leucosoma 
reevesii, Gray, Zool, Mise. p. 4; Lcon. Reeves, 144; Hardw. Malac. 212. 
Chinese name, Pih fan yu, “White rice fish” (Birch); Pih fan yu, 
“ White fan yu” (Reeves); Pak fan u (Bridgem. Chrest, 244); Pack 
fanny (Osbeck). Rad. “B.3;’ D.11; A.25; C.1944; P.10; V.6 vel 7. 
(Spec, Reev.) 


Examples of this fish exist in the British Museum, where they were deposited by Mr. 
Reeves and General Hardwicke, in the Chinese collection at Hyde Park, and in the Cam- 
bridge Philosophical Institution, to which they were presented by the Rev. George Vachell. 
As Osbeck’s generic appellation was in his day generally applied to the Coregoni, it is pro-= 
bable that he did not consider this fish as presenting peculiar generic characters, and had no 
intention of restricting the name of Albula to this species; Mr. Gray’s expressive one of Leu-~ 
cosoma is therefore the proper generic appellation for this very peculiar form: besides, Bloch 
after Osbeck gave the name of A4lbula to the genus Butirinus, and its re-introduction would 
lead to confusion. It is the ‘ white bait” of the foreign residents at Macao. 

Body elongated, roundish anteriorly ; compressed and higher at the dorsal, which is far back, 
the compression increasing in the tail, which is again more slender. A furrow runs along the 
top of the back to the front of the dorsal and reappears behind that fin. There is likewise a 
furrow from the ventrals to the anus, and the very low posterior part of the anal stands also 
inafurrow. The body is scaleless and transparent, so that the muscles, intestines and spinal 
column can be seen without dissection. Head and jaws very much depressed, presenting a 
mere edge in profile, but when viewed from ubove, showing a lanceolate outline much 
like the bill of a Tyrannula. The head appears to be composed chiefly of thin, flexible and 
diaphanous bone, A fine short mesial ridge exists at the end of the snout, and farther back there 
is a rhomboidal membranous space, which is perforated by three holes, through each of which 
a tooth of the lower jaw protrudes when the mouth is closed. The velum of the upper jaw is 
posterior to this membranous space. The eyes are lateral and encroach both on the upper 
and under profiles of the head. Two minute nasal orifices are situated a short way before 
each eye, The jaws are equal and the short cleft of the mouth is nearly horizontal, but with 
a slight arching in the middle. The maxillary curves over the angle of the mouth, and send- 
ing a fine slip in front of the end of the intermaxillary, forms a considerable part of the mar- 
gin of the upper jaw. About four widely separated, subulate, recurved teeth arm the limb of 
each intermaxillary; and between the foremost of these canines and the tip of the jaw there are 
several much smaller ones in a single series. A close pectinated row of short teeth edges the 
maxillary ; and the lateral teeth of the lower jaw are also smaller and more numerous than 
the upper ones; but in front, a little within the narrow, unarmed tip of the jaw, three strong 
teeth stand in a triangle and pass through the holes above mentioned. The palatine bones 
are finely toothed on the edge, but there are no teeth on the vomer, which is not at all pro- 
minent. A row of strong recurved teeth runs along the middle of the pointed tongue. The 
-gill-cover is convex and curves in so as to touch its fellow on the under surface of the head ; 
the opening is large and is partly seen on the upper surface of the head. The gill-membrane 
unites with the isthmus about one-third nearer to the eye than to the tip of the gill-cover. 
The ventrals are attached rather before the middle of the fish, the first dorsal considerably 
farther back, and the adipose fin over the hinder part of the anal, which is wholly behind the 
dorsal. The first stout ventral ray is jointed, but 1 can perceive no joints in the short anterior 
ray of the dorsal and anal. The first two rays of the dorsal are graduated and incumbent on 

the base of the third one, which is the tallest; the three anterior rays of the anal are also im- 
bedded in the base of the fin*. The pectoral is obliquely truncated, and the caudal is acutely 
notched at the end. On the base of the fin above and below there is a seam-like edge which 
is supported by fourteen short rays, The gut appears to be a straight tube without convolu- 
‘tions, but I did not ascertain the absence of pyloric ceca. Length 73 inches. 

Hab. Canton. 


_.. * There is probably some variety in the numbers of the rays as in notes of the specimen 
belonging to the Cambridge Philosophical Society I find them recorded as D. 14; A, 30, 
The numbers given above correspond better with the enumeration of Osbeck and Gray, 


304 REPORT—1845. Tk ae Stage 


Fam. SALMONIDE. 


PTEROGLOSSUS ALTIVELIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 


Two specimens exist in the British Museum labelled as above. They measure 7 inches 
and 42 inches respectively. 


Hab. Japan. 
Fam. CLuPEIDEX. 


CLUPEA ISINGLEENA, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, 60; Hardw. Malae. 219. 
Chinese name, Tsing lin, “Blue scale” (Birch); Tsing lein, “ Blue 
scale” (Reeves); Tsing lun (Bridgem. Chrest. 82). Rad. B. 5, upper 
ones broad; D.15; A. 2], slender; P. ; V.8 (Spec. Br. Mus.) 
Length 53 inches. 


John Russell Reeves, Esq. presented a specimen of this fish to the British Museum. It is 
a short high fish with a rounded back and a very acute belly, which is serrated by sixteen 
teeth before the ventrals and ten behind them. The height is contained thrice in the length 
to the base of the caudal, or thrice and three-quarters when that fin is included. The curve 
of the back is slight, that of the belly very considerable, and attaining its apex under the be= 
ginning of the dorsal. The length of the head is one-fifth less than the height of the body. 
The mouth is small and terminal, and the maxillary, which is oval and obtuse at the lower 
end, reaches to beneath the middle of the eye; near its articulating head, a portion of the 
oval is deficient on the upper side only. There are no teeth on the jaws, but the lining of 
the mouth and the oval disc of the tongue are studded with minute papillz. There are ten 
rows of scales in the height of the body and forty inarow. The ventrals are under the fore- 
third of the rather large dorsal, and all the fins are scaly. The scales of the back are bright 
grass-green with silvery edges; lower down they are more silvery with pale ultramarine blue 
shadings. The fins are pale asparagus-green, with a yellow tint on the pectorals, and the 
head is mostly silvery with green shadings, orange iris and gamboge edges to the gill-pieces. 
There is a dark honey-yellow spot on the humeral bone. 

This fish has more resemblance to the Kowal or Kowarloo of Russell (186) than to any 
other figure in his book, but he enumerates the dorsal rays as 18. They may however, on 
a comparison of specimens, prove to be the same. It is not unlike Bloch’s figure (pl. 405) of 
Clupea sinensis, hut there are no indications of the black bars on the dorsal and caudal in 
Mr. Reeves’s figure. 


Hab. Chinese seas, 


CLUPEA NYMPH#A, Richardson. Icon. Reeves, (3.25; Hardw. Malac. 222. 
Chinese name, Chang yaou lin, “ Long-waisted scale” (Birch); Chang 
yaou lin, “ Long fine waist” (Reeves) ; Cheung iu lun (Bridgem. Chrest. 
83). Rad. B.6 (vel'7?); D. 17; A.15 (vel 16); C.158; P.18; V.9. 
(Specimen in the Br. Mus. brought from Canton by Mr. Reeves.) 


The head forms a fourth of the length of the fish, caudal excluded, or rather more than a 
fifth part including that fin. Both back and belly are acute, and the thickness of the body 
equals half its height. The back rises in a very gentle curve from the snout to the dorsal, 
and descends still more gently to the caudal. The curve of the belly is more convex from 
the tip of the lower jaw to the front of the pectorals, but posteriorly it corresponds with that 
of the back. The end of the under jaw forms the extremity of the head. Eye near the pro- 
file. The disc of the maxillary is an oval approaching nearly to a circle, with a short, slender 
articulating process: its lower end comes under the middle of the eye. The intermaxillary 
forms the border of the upper jaw, the maxillary merely touching the corner of the small 
orifice with its rounded shoulder. The centre of the dorsal is a little anterior to the middle 
of the length, caudal excluded, and the ventrals are attached under the middle of the dorsal. 
There are forty or forty-one scales in a longitudinal row. The belly is strongly serrated be- 
hind the ventrals, but before these fins the points of the keeled scales are more depressed. 
The pointed scaly process over the pectoral equals the fin in length. 

Colour of the back light duck-green with silvery borders to the scales. The sides silvery 
shaded by faint bluish-green. Head silvery with green shadings and some rich umber tints 
on the hind-head and humeral bones. Fins asparagus-green with darkish edges to the 
caudal. The pectorals are wood-brown. 

This fish agrees generally with the figure of Clupanodon sinensis of Lacépéde (v. pl. 11. 
f, 2. pp. 468, 471), but does not correspond in the numbers of the fin-rays. It may neverthe- . 
less be the same; but as the names of chinensis and sinensis have been too liberally applied 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 305 


to Chinese fish, and to more than one species in this genus, confusion will be avoided by 
dropping it in this instance, even were the identity of Mr. Reeves’s specimen and Lacépéde’s 
more clearly made out than we have been able to do. It is very unlike the Clupea sinensis 
of Bloch, 405. 

Hab. Chinese seas. 


CLUPEA CHRULEO-VITTATA, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 59; Hardw. Mal. 

223. Chinese name, Hwang tsih, “ Yellow glossy” (Birch); Hwang tseth, 

“ Yellow ” (Reeves); Wong chak (Bridgem. Chrest. 84). Length 

of figure 83 inches. 

This drawing greatly resembles the preceding species in form, and it has even a better title 
to the epithet of long-waisted. The dorsal curve is similar to that of nymphea, but the ven- 
tral one is more gradual anteriorly, its summit being thrown back to the middle of the dorsal. 
The anal is longer and lower, and the pectoral reaches only one-third of the distance to the 
ventrals. The rays shown by the artist are D. 17; A. 18 or 19. The scales are as large as 
those of nymphaa, about forty-two being represented in a longitudinal row. No serratures 
are shown on the belly. 

The upper parts are grass-green with a brownish gloss along the top of the back. The 
sides are more completely silvery, but a little above the middle the scales are bordered by 
China-blue producing a stripe, and the silvery parts lower down have a purplish reflexion and 
some pale blue shadings on the bases of the scales. Some crimson tints occur on the sides of 
the head. Caudal and ventrals asparagus-green. The other fins yellowish- or greenish-gray. 


Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. 


CLUPEA FLOSMARIs, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 64; Hardw. Malac. f 
Chinese name, Hae ho, “Sea lily” (Birch); Hae ho, “ Sea river” (Reeves); 
Hoi ho (Bridgem. Chrest. 85). Length of figure 6 inches. 


This drawing represents a rather slender fish with the dorsal curve exceeding that of the 
belly, and having a culminating point at the commencement of the dorsal. Ventrals far back 
under the posterior part of the dorsal. Anal short, more than the length of its base distant 
from the caudal, which is much forked with acute lobes. The skin is represented as nacry 
without distinct scales, but with the fasciculi of the muscles, which meet in chevrons in the 
middle height shining through. The rays shown by the artist are D. 11; A. 9. 

The back is shaded with leek-green; the sides pearly with blue and crimson reflexions. 
Head silvery with pale green shadings. Pectorals faintly crimsoned: other fins asparagus- 
green and transparent. An umber-brown streak runs from the upper angle of the gill-open- 
ing over the shoulder and disappears gradually under the commencement of the dorsal. 

Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. _ 

In the ‘ Description of Animals,’ p. 201, fig. 149, we have a sketch and short notice of a 
slender Clupeoid fish having a resemblance to C. flosmaris in general form. Its length is 
stated to be four inches, and the numbers of the rays to be as follows: D. 138; A. 19; C.14; 
P.10; V.9. “The body long, narrow and somewhat compressed. Dorsal fin in the middle 
of the back. Tail with two acute lobes. Mouth small, curving upwards. Maxillary flat, 
narrow, pointed and entire.” The belly is represented as serrated, and the pointed maxillary 
as reaching a little past the eye. 

Hab. Canton river. 


CrupeEa GrAcizis, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 

A specimen so labelled exists in the British Museum, but it is in bad condition, and I have 
not been able to identify it with any of the preceding species. 

Hab. Japan. 


_ AwosA REEVEsII, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, a. 8; Hardw. Malac. 220. 
Chinese name, San le (Reeves, Birch); Sam lai (Bridgem. Chrest. 92). 
Rad. D.17; A.17; C.17%; P.15; V.8. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length 
of fig. 17 inches. Length of spec. 15 inches. 

Mr. Reeves deposited a specimen in the British Museum which still retains the original 
label numbered in reference to his drawing. It has considerable resemblance to the palasah 
of Russell (198), or Icon. Hardw. Malac. 214, fig. indica, but the pectoral fin is shorter, the 
coarseness of the scales on the caudal and the numbers of the fin-rays differ, and we therefore 
keep them distinct. Russell states the rays of 4losa palasah to be D. 18; A. 20; V. 9, &e. 
“In A, reevesii the eye is placed considerably below the temporal groove, and the maxillary, 
which is slender at its head, swells out in the middle into a regular obtuse oval, and reaches 

. x 


306 | REPORT—]845, Ko 


back to the hinder edge of the orbit. Some branching veins exist on the shoulder, but none 
are visible on the gill-cover. No teeth on the jaws or maxillary. The lateral line cannot be 
made out. The scales are faintly streaked. Thirty of them compose a longitudinal row, and 
there are thirteen rows over the ventrals. Thirteen depressed teeth exist on the rim of the 
belly before the ventrals, and there are fourteen more prominent ones behind these fins, The 
front of the dorsal is midway between the end of the nose and the base of the caudal. 

The colour of the back is dark greenish- and blackish-gray, forming lines corresponding 
in number with the rows of scales, Sides and belly very silvery with pearl-gray lines. Snout 
and top of the head gray and dull crimson, with a greenish shade over the eye; rest of the 
head silvery with lilac reflexions. Pectorals cream-yellow, glossed in the upper border with 
purplish-gray. The other fins clove-brown. 

Hab. Chinese seas. 


ALOSA PALASAH, Russell, 198.? Jeon. Reeves, 3.51; Hardw. Malac. 221. 
Chinese name, Sam le (Reeves, Birch); Sam lai (Bridgem. Chrest. 183). 
Rad. B.6; D.16; A.18; P.15; V.9. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length of 
spec. 7 inches. The figure measures 12 inches. 


This species has, like 4. reevesii, much resemblance to Russell's figure 198, and as the fin- 
rays approach pretty nearly to those of the Indian fish in numbers, we have considered them 
to be the same, but not without doubt, because there is a difference in the size and form of the 
pectoral, besides other discrepancies. Mr, Reeves’s Chinese specimen differs from 4. reevesii 
in having a larger head with its profile running more evenly into that of the back, which is 
moreover acuminated at the beginning of the dorsal. The head forms a fourth part of the 
whole length of the fish; the height of the body is contained thrice and two-thirds in that 
length, and the thickness is equal to a third of the height. The back is acute, and the belly 
much more so, and strongly serrated between the ventrals and anus, The mesial ridge of 
the cranium commences between the nostrils, and after dilating a little, tapers off again and 
disappears without reaching the nape. The sides of the cranium slope a little downwards 
from the mesial ridge. The shoulder is feebly veined, but the gill-covers are smooth. 

The maxillary having an oblong-oval form reaches back to the hinder edge of the orbit. 
The tongue is widely oval with a small keel on its tip, and the symphysis of the lower jaw 
also rises in a small point. No teeth on the jaws. Forty scales form a longitudinal row, 
and there are fifteen rows in height. The pectorals are rather larger than those of 4. reevesii, 
and reach nearly to the ventrals, which are attached before the middle of the dorsal. The 
caudal is much forked. 

The scales are shaded by pale leek-green on the back, and by pearl-gray on the sides and 
belly. The snout and shoulder-plates are glossed with red. The pectorals, ventrals and 
upper half of the dorsal are cream-yellow, the rays of the pectorals being buff-coloured. The 
lower parts of the dorsal, anal and caudal are ash-gray, the latter fin being tinted with car- 
mine at its base. 

Mr, Reeves mentions that this fish is very plentiful in its season, but is very bony; and 
Russell makes a similar remark respecting the Indian fish, which is known at the tables of the 
English residents by the name of “ sable-fish.” 

Hab, Seas of China and India. 


ILIsHA ABNoRMIS, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. con. Reeves, 81 ; Hardw. Malac. 
240. Chinese name, Tsaou pih, “ Dead white” (Birch) ; Tso pth, “ White 
tso” (Reeves); Tso pak (Bridgem. Chrest. 81). Rad. D.19; A. 48; 
C. 192; P,16. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length of spec. 144 inches. Length 
of fig. 152 inches. 


In the ‘Régne Animal’ (ii. p. 319) Cuvier mentions that the yangarloo of Russell, 191, . 
and his ditchoee, 192*, may be separated from the herrings on account of the position of the 
dorsal behind the ventrals and the length of the anal. Mr. Gray has given this group a name 
evidently taken from the specific appellation of one of Buchanan-Hamilton’s Clupee. 

Mr. Reeves deposited a dried and varnished specimen of Jlisha abnormis, numbered in 
reference to his drawing, in the British Museum. It is a more elongated fish than the jan- 
garloo, and consequently much more so than the ditchoee. Its profile slopes gently from the 
nostrils to the shoulder, which is a little gibbous, and then runs horizontally to the dorsal, 
whence it declines slightly to the caudal. The face has however a marked degree of conca- 
vity caused by the intermaxillaries being inclined upwards, which is common to all the known 
members of the gronp. The under profile is a long uniform curve, extending from the under 


* The Clupea affinis (Gray, Hard. Ill, Ind. Zool.) is also a member of this group. 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 807 


jaw to the end of the anal. The short trunk of the tail behind this fin is slender, and the 
‘caudal is forked like the tail of a swallow with long tapering lobes, the lower one being con- 
siderably the longest. ‘The dorsal terminates just over the anus, and the belly is most pro- 
Minent opposite toit. The intermaxillaries aregshort, lie transversely at the end of the snout, 
and are armed-with a single row of very short subulate teeth. The maxillary has a broad 
disc, whose width exceeds half its length, and whose end reaches to the articulation of the 
lower jaw. It is shaped like the valve of a wide Pinna, and its fore shoulder only enters into 
the composition of the orifice of the mouth. Its under edge, which lies on the limb of the 
lower jaw, is toothed. The point of the lower jaw projects beyond the intermaxillaries. Eye 
large, near the profile. About fifty scales enter into a row extending from the gill-opening 
to the caudal, and there are fourteen rows in the height. The belly is strongly serrated by 
fourteen teeth before the ventrals and thirteen behind them. The anal is long and low. 
The scales are very silvery and are tinged on the back by brownish purple-red, and lower 
down by a very pale cream colour. The jaws are siskin-green; there is a purple blotch on 


' the under part of the preorbitar and a greenish-gray one over the eye. Fins cream-yellow, 


the vertical ones having also blackish-gray borders. Seven branchial rays are shown in the 
figure. Their number cannot be made out in the specimen*. 

Hab. Chinese sea. 

Icon. Reeves, 67; Hardw. Malac. 240, is a smaller drawing than the figure of abnormis, 
but exhibits no other difference in form than a slightly shorter and less pointed pectoral. The 
back is shaded with pale leek-green instead of brown, and the purplish tints of the head are 
more extended, but the prevalence of the silvery lustre is so great that there is no striking 
difference in the colours of the drawings. Length of the figure 14 inches. Number 241 in 
Hardwicke’s ‘Malacopterygii’ is a drawing of a species captured at Penang, which has a higher 
shoulder and smaller ventrals than abnormis, but otherwise much resembles it. 


CuHAToessus AQquosus, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 63; Hardw. Malac. 230. 
Chinese name, Shwuy hwa, “Slipping in the water” (Birch); Shwuy 
hwii, “ Watery bone” (Reeves); Shui wat (Bridgem. Chrest. 89). Fad. 
D.18; A.23; C.195; P.15; V.8. (Spec. Br. Mus.) Length 7 inches. 
Mr. Reeves has deposited in the British Museum a dried specimen of this fish numbered 

in accordance with his figure. Its form is symmetrical, the curve of the back corresponding 

with that of the belly. The height of the body is greatest in front of the dorsal and ven- 
trals, which are opposite to each other, and is contained thrice and three-quarters in the total 
length. The upper jaw projects beyond the lower one, and the intermaxillaries form two- 
thirds of the upper lip. The maxillaries are oblong, but taper towards their articulating ends. 

They reach backwards as far as the anterior third of the eye: the articulation of the lower 

jaw is under the posterior third. The eye has an elliptical iris, placed vertically like that of 

a feline animal. There are forty-six scales in a longitudinal row, exclusive of three or four 

smaller ones on the base of the caudal, and thirteen or fourteen rows in the height of the body. 

The keeled belly is armed by thirteen spinous teeth behind the ventrals, and by about fifteen 

before them; but the latter are nearly obsolete. The ventrals are rather before the middle 

of the length, caudal excluded. The upper parts are leek-green with silvery edges to the 
scales, and the lower parts silvery and pearl-gray, with a crimson blush. Caudal and anal 
oil-green. Dorsal and ventrals pale oil-green, the former tipped with carmine. Pectorals 
yellow. There are some blue and carmine tints on the head. 

This fish approaches the Cl. nasus, Bl. 429, f. 1, in form, but does not agree exactly either 


_ with that figure or the Kome of Russell, 196, and there is a difference in the numbers of the 


fin-rays. 
Hab, Chinese sea. 


‘Cuartorssus TR1zA, Linn. Amen. Acad. Chinens. Lagerstr. No. 30, An.1754 
(Clupea). Icon. Reeves, 224; Hardw. Malac. 232. Chinese name, 
Yen yaou lin, “ Silver-waisted scale” (Birch); Yen yaou lin, “ Silver- 
scaled waist” (Reeves). Length of the figure 9} inches. 


Mr. Reeves observes that the nose of this fish, when recent, was as transparent as glass, 
and that he suspects some mistake in the characters of the Chinese name. It is not easy to 
‘identify one among several species closely resembling each other with the short account given 
‘of triza in the ‘Ameen. Acad.,’ but this figure corresponds most nearly with the characters 
‘enumerated by Linneus. The C. thrissa of Osbeck has more rays in the dorsal. In form 
‘triza approaches the Cl. thrissa of Bloch, 404, but the back is more arched and the anal 


LA} * Russell enumerates six in his species, ; 
x2 


308 . REPORT-—1845. nC raok 24 VG 


fin lower and considerably longer. The snout is obtuse and shorter than the lower jaw, the 
profile of the head arched. ‘he ventrals, which are under the middle of the dorsal, are 
equidistant from the end of the snout and base of the caudal. The point of the acute pecto- 
rals passes beyond them and falls but a little,short of the anus. None of the other Chatoessi 
represented in Mr. Reeves’s portfolio have pectorals of equal length. The truncated end of 
the maxillary reaches as far as the anterior third of the orbit. The eye is rather large and is 
some distance from the profile. 

The scales are silvery and show towards their bases a mixture of blackish-green, oil-green 
and honey-yellow, the dark green predominating on the ridge of the back. Below the late- 
ral line blue tints are intermixed with the general silvery lustre, and the honey-yellow forms 
faint longitudinal streaks corresponding with the rows of scales. There are some bluish and 
purple tints round the eye, and a rich orange-coloured brown on the occiput and supra-sca~ 
pular region, which gradually disappears on the shoulder. The caudal is lemon-yellow, with 
a flesh-coloured tint at the base and blackish-gray posterior edges. The other fins are pale 
bluish-lilac. 

Hab. China sea. 


CHATOESSUS CHRYSOPTERUS, Richardson. Descript. of Animals, p. 200. fig. 
148. Icon. Reeves,61; Hardw. Malac.231. Chinese name, Hwang yu, 
“ Yellow fish” (Reeves, Birch); Wong u hoi (Bridgem. Chrest. 91). 
Length of figure 94 inches. 


This drawing represents a fish with a higher body than C. triza, a more arched back and 
a shorter anal. The height is equal to exactly a third of the length, including the extreme 
tips of the acutely-forked caudal. The back is regularly and considerably arched ; the belly 
is still more convex. The ventrals are a little before the middle, caudal excluded, and are 
attached beneath the fore part of the dorsal. The top of the triangular pectoral falls con- 
siderably short of the ventrals. The jaws are equal, the mouth small, and the maxillary 
reaches only to the front of the eye, which is smaller and higher in the head than that of 
Ch. triza. 

The scales are brightly silvery, and are shaded towards the base on the back with dark 
leek-green. Below the middle they are sparingly shaded with pale bluish-lilac. The top of 
the head and edges of the gill-pieces are green; there is a prussian blue patch at the tem~- 
poral groove and some carmine tints on the snout and suboperculum. The fins are gamboge- 
and lemon-yellow, this colour being most faint on the dorsal and ventrals. The front of the 
dorsal and bases of the pectorals and ventrals are tinged with carmine. 


Hab. Chinese sea. 


CHATOESSUS MACULATUS, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Icon. Reeves, 109; Hardw. 
Malac. 233. Chinese name, Hwang yu, “ Yellow fish” (Birch, Reeves) ; 
Wong u (Bridgem. Chrest. 87). ad. D.16; A.28. (Spec. Camb. Ph. 
Inst.) Length of figure 84 inches. 


The Rev. George Vachell obtained a specimen of this fish at Canton and presented it to 
the Cambridge Philosophical Institution. It is symmetrical in its form, the ventral and dor- 
sal curves being nearly alike, and the height at the front of the dorsal very nearly equal to 
one-third of the length, caudal included. The ventrals are attached before the middle, caudal 
excluded, and under the fore-third of the dorsal. The posterior dorsal ray reaches, as in the 
other species, to the base of the caudal. The belly is strongly serrated by seven teeth before 
the ventrals and nineteen behind them. A notch in the upper jaw receives the pointed ex- 
tremity of the lower one, which is scarcely shorter than the snout. The maxillary is rounded 
at the end and reaches the middle of the eye. 

The colour of the back is pale leek-green, which soon passes into pale honey-yellow. Be- 
low the middle the yellow gives place to pale lilac. These colours are confined to the base 
of the scales, which are very silvery, occupying however more and more of the disc as they 
approach the top of the back. A round black spot exists on the shoulder and is followed on 
the flanks by five others, which diminish successively in size. The head is varied by yellow- 
ish, brownish and crimson tints on a silvery ground. ‘The rays of the pectoral are buff or 
orpiment-orange, the caudal dull yellow with blackish-gray posterior edges, and the other 
fins show a very pale bluish-gray tint. The Chinese name is the same as that of Ch, chry- 
sopterus, which this species certainly closely resembles in form. The black spots may perhaps 
disappear in some seasons. 


Hab. Chinese seas. 


ENGRAULIS COMMERSONIANUS, Lacépéde (Stolephore commersonien), v. 


i a 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 309 


- op» 382. pl. 12. f. 1. Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 323. Clupea vittargentea, 
~ Lacép. v. p. 424, 458, 461, exclus. syn. Clupea nattoo vel nettooli, Russ. 
“187. Atherina australis, White, Voy. New S. Wales, 196. f.1. Rad. 
B.10; D.16; A. 23; C.192; P.13; V.7. Length of spec. 33 inches. 
John Russell Reeves, Esq. presented several examples of this fish to the British Museum. 
The species is ranged by Cuvier among the Anchovies, whose bellies are not toothed; but 


the specimens show six teeth before the ventrals as fine as hairs. None exist behind these 
fins. An adipose substance fills an angle before and behind the eye as in the Mackerels. 


Hab. Seas of China, Australia and India. 


The Stolephore japonois of Lacépéde, or the Atherina japonica of Houttuyn, Act. Haarl. 
xx. p. 340, is probably the above species, with the rays of the dorsal imperfectly counted; 
and it is possible that the fish of which a notice from the ‘ Description of Animals’ follows 
after Cl. flosmaris, p. 803, may also be an Anchovy, though it is not represented as having a 
projecting nose. 


NoToPTeRuS KAPIRAT, Lacép. ii. p.189,190. Gymmnotus notopterus, Pall. 
Spic. vi. pl. 6. f.2. Clupea synura, Bl. Schn. p. 426. Mystus karipat, 
Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. pl. 91. f. 2. con. Hard. Malac. Ined. 246. 


Schneider states that he examined two dried examples of this fish, one from India, the 
other from China. He particularly notices the smallness of the ventrals, so that it could not 
be the pengay of Renard, f. 90, which he saw, as that has long ventrals, nor, as he is silent 
about spots on the tail, is it so likely to have been the Mystus chitot of Pennant, ‘ View of 
Hindostan,’ t. xi. (Mystus chitala, Ham. Buch. p. 236, 882; Gray, Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. 
pl. 9). f. 1). 

Hab. Seas of China and India. 


Cori1a GRAvu, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 99. pl. 54. f. 1 & 2. 
Clupea mystus, Osbeck, Voy. ii. p. 25. Engl. tr.; Linn. Ameen. Ae. iv. t. 3. 
f.12. Mystus clupeoides, Lacép. v. p. 466, 467. Icon. Reeves, a. 14; 
Hardw. Malac. 252. Chinese name, Fung we, “ Pheenix tail” (Birch) ; 
Fung ne (Reeves); Fung mi (Bridgem. Chrest.3). Rad. B.10; D.12; 
A. 86; C. 20; P. vii. et 10; V.'7. (Spec. Hasl. Mus.) Genus, Adara, 
Temm. et Schl. 


A specimen was brought from the Chinese seas by Captain Dawkins, R.N., and presented 
to the museum at Haslar. 


. Hab. Chinese seas. Canton. 


Comia PLAyFAIRiI, M‘Clelland (Chetomus), Cale. Journ. iv. plate . 
Polynemus, Descript. of Anim. p. 198. fig. 150; Adara, Temm. et Schl. 
Icon. Reeves, (3.26; Hardw. Malac. Chinese name, Matse (Birch) ; Ma- 
chai (Reeves). Rad. B.9; D.12; A. 70 ad 80; C. 20; P. vi. et 14; 
V. 7. (Spec. Br. Mus.) 

Specimens exist in all the collections of Chinese fishes that we have seen. The scales are 
used in the manufacture of artificial pearls, and the fish is eaten, when pickled, by the 
Chinese. A Japanese specimen exists in the British Museum and is labelled “‘Adara” by 
the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica.’ It agrees with Coilia grayii in the number of its anal 


rays, but has the form of C. playfairii and the same number of free pectoral rays. Its num- 
bers are D, 12; A. 86; C. 21; P. vi. et 14; V. 7. 


Hab, Chinese seas. Chusan. Yangtze kiang. Canton river. Hong Kong. Japan. 


Turyssa mystTax, Bl. Schn. p. 426. t. Ixxxiii. (Clupea). Cuv. Régn. An. 
p- 323. Clupea malabaricus, Bl. 432; Bl. Schn. p. 425. Poorawah, 
Russell, 189; Icon. Reeves, 138; Hardw. Malac. 236. Chinese name, 
Tsing kwa (Reeves). Rad. B. 12; D.13; A.39; C. 198; P.133°V.'7. 

(Spec. Br. Mus.) Length of specimens 74 and 9 inches. Length of 
figure 93. 

Mr. Reeves has deposited a specimen in spirits and also a varnished one in the British 

Museum. We have not had an opportunity of comparing them with Indian examples, but 


ae 


310 REPORT—1845. thew Yo 


we have little doubt but the synonyms we have cited above are correct, as the figures show 
the characteristic black mark with white veins on the shoulder, and the indistinct stripe along 
the middle of the anal. Mr. Reeves’s drawing however, which agrees with his specimens, 
shows a slight gibbosity on the hind head, which is not represented in the figures of Bloch 
and Russell. 

The head is acutely ridged from the nape to the end of the snout, the sides sloping down 
to the lateral ridges. The intermaxillaries are small and lie in the same line with the long, 
slender acute maxillaries, which are composed of three pieces. These and the lower jaw are 
set with fine teeth. There is no tongue, and the gills coming forward to the tip of the lower 
jaw are connected by a narrow ridge-like isthmus, which is rough with minutely villiform 
teeth. The head is contained nearly six times in the total length; the height of the body 
somewhat exceeds a fifth of the length, and the thickness is contained twice and a half times 
in the height. The belly is serrated by thirteen teeth before the ventrals and nine behind 
them. ‘There are eleven rows of scales in the height of the body, and thirty-eight in a row 
between the gill-opening and base of the caudal. 

The dorsal surface is coloured by dark grass-green, which is mixed with brown on the top 
of the head; the lower parts are brightly silvery. ‘The black humeral patch is finely veined 
with white. The dorsal and ventrals are pistachio-green, the former being blackish on the 
edges and tinged with yellow in front. The anal is yellow in front, the rest of the fin being 
green, darkening along the middle so as to form a stripe. The caudal is greenish at the base ; 
bright saffron-yellow on the disc, and blackish-green on the edges. The pectoral is also saf- 
fron-yellow, and is sparingly mottled with blackish-green. 


Hab. Seas of China and India. 


Mercators sETIPINNis, J. R. Forster, in jiguré Georgio Forster pict. 242. 
Bib. Banks; Richardson, Ann. Nat. Hist. x. p. 493. Clupea thrissoides, 
Schn. 424. cum Cl. cyprinoide, Bl. 403. confusé; Clupea eyprinoides, 
Broussonnet, Ichth. (non Blochii); Kundinga, Russell, 203? Icon. 
Reeves, 96; Hardw. Malac. 234. Chinese name, Hang tsaou pih, “ Ditch 
dead white” (Birch); Hang tso pak (Reeves, Bridgem. Chrest. 88). 
Rad. Br. 21-22; D. 18 vel 19; A. 25; C. 204; P.15; V.10. (Spec. 
Br. Mus.) 


We have not seen an Indian or Chinese example of this. species, but specimens exist in the 
British Museum from Port Essington, and have been described at length in the ‘Annals and 
Magazine of Natural History’ as above quoted. One anomaly occurs in Mr. Reeves’s draw- 
ing, the existence of a pointed canine tooth in the upper jaw, whereas in the specimens the 
edges of the jaws are rough with very narrow bands of minute teeth. The colours in the 
Chinese painting are also different from those described by Forster, but Broussonnet’s figure, 
as well as George Forster’s, correspond exactly in profile and size of fins, shape of head, &c., 
with Mr. Reeves’s drawing. Russell’s seems distorted, probably from the flaccidity of the 
specimen. 

P The discs of the scales are like frosted silver, and they have a well-defined border of a 
polished silvery appearance. The scales of the lateral line are forty in number, and they are 
marked by six or seven radiating, forked furrows. In Mr. Reeves’s drawing the bases of the 
scales on the baek are shaded with bluish-lilac, which gradually changes on the sides and belly 
to celandine-green. ‘The sides of the head are oil- and siskin-green, the occiput being tinged 
with hyacinth-red. The pectorals are yellow, which is mixed with brown on the upper 
border ; the last ray of the dorsal is sulphur-yellow; the rest of the fins are hair-brown, the 
fronts of the dorsal and anal being wood-brown. Iris grass-green. ; 


Hab. Seas of China, India, Australia and Polynesia. Brackish lagoons, Port Essington. 


MecGALors curTIFILIS, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, 136; Hardw. Malac. 
Chinese name, Ke yu (Birch); Ko yu (Reeves); Ki u (Bridgem. Chrest. 
86). Length of figure 8 inches. 


This drawing represents a rather more slender fish than M. setipinnis, with a smaller eye, 
narrower maxillary, fewer scales both longitudinally and vertically, the dorsal commencing 
farther back over the axilla of the ventrals, and having with the anal fewer rays. The last 
ray of the dorsal is shorter, and the last anal one more decidedly lengthened than the corre- 
sponding rays of C. setipinnis. The bright silvery edges of the scales are not so sharply defined 
and distinguished from the discs, which in this fish are leek-green above the lateral line, and 
gradually change to pearl-gray towards the belly. The upper parts of the head are dark olive- 
green. The dorsal and caudal approach to blackish-green, the latter being very dark ; the 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 311 


ventrals and anal are pale and transparent, and the pectoral lemon-yellow. The scales of the 
lateral line are marked by the same kind of silvery furrows as M. setipinnis, 


Hab. Chinese seas. 


ELops MAcHNATA, Forskal, No. 100 (Argentina). Synode chinois, Lacép. 
Vv. p. 319.322. pl. 10. f.1. male. Jinagow, Russell, 179. Elops machnata, 
Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Ereb, and Terror, p. 59. pl. 36. fig. 3-5. 
Icon. Reeves, 137; Hardw. Malac. . Chinese name, Chuh kheaou, 


“‘ Bamboo ” (Reeves). 

Mr. Reeves has deposited a specimen from Canton in the British Museum. This fish is 
totally distinct from the Mugil salmoneus of Forster, a figure of which is given in the ‘ Ich- 
thyology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’ pl. 36. fig. 1, 2. 


Hab. Seas of China and India. Red sea. 


Etors purrurAscens, Richardson. Jcon. Reeves, a. 53; Hardw. Malac. 
- Chinese name, Chuh kin, “ Variegated bamboo” (Reeves). Length 
of figure 103 inches. 
This drawing does not differ very greatly from the preceding one in form, but it represents 
a fish having a more irregular dorsal outline and Jess arched, a more convex belly, and the 
lateral line slightly decurved throughout its whole length. The face is gibbous just before 
the eye, and there is a less marked convexity at the nape. The summit of the back is grass- 
green, beneath which a blackish-purple band extends from the nape to the upper lobe of the 
caudal, terminating rather abruptly about half-way to the lateral line. The rest of the side 
is brightly silvery with a slight gloss of pearl-gray. The top of the head is grass-green. 
The edges of the maxillaries and gill-pieces are green and crimson. The dorsal and caudal 
are leek-green, passing into blackish-green on the rays and edges; the ventrals and anal are 
pale mountain-green with some yellow; and the pectorals are bright sulphur-yellow sprinkled 
with a few dark green specks. The cluster of black dots on the cheeks and preopertulum 
of EZ. machnata are not shown in this figure. 


Hab. Chinese seas. 


Currocenrrus porap, Forskal, No. 108 (Clupea). Clupea dentex, Bl. 
Schn. 428. L’Esoce chirocentre, Lacép. Wahlah, Russell, 199 ; Descript. 
of Anim. p. 194. fig. 161, taken at Madras and named by Broussonnet 
Eisox clupeoides. Icon. Reeves, B. 47; Hardw. Malac. 237, Chinese ; 
Hardw. Malac. 239, Indian. Chinese name, Poo édou, “Cloth knife” 
(Birch); Poo tou, “ Knife cloth” (Reeves); Po to (Bridgem. Chrest. 90). 
Rad. D.16; A. 34, first two minute; C. 1912; P.16; V.7. Length of 
spec. 10} inches. Genus, Chirocentrus, Cuv. Régn. An. 


The British Museum possesses a specimen in spirits from Canton presented by Mr. Reeves, 
which we have not had an opportunity of comparing with the Indian fish. The drawings 
of the latter differ a little in the position of the ventrals, but as this may have been owing 
to inattention, we have not kept the Chinese fish distinct. 

_ The Chinese specimen has a long canine on each small transverse intermaxillary. The 
Strap-shaped maxillary reaches to the middle of the orbit and the articulation of the lower 
jaw; its edge is armed with small subulate teeth, which become very minute towards its tip. 
Hach limb of the lower jaw is furnished with five or six tall slender teeth inclining backwards, 
and having.a short tooth between each pair. The ventrals are as near as possible in the mid- 
dle of the length, excluding the whole caudal fin from the bases of its lobes. A long nacry 
appendage exists in front of the pectoral, and there is another in its axilla; but the rest of 
the skin is wrinkled and smooth, withont scales, and resembling fine tinfoil in its lustre. The 
teeth on the edge of the belly, shown in Mr. Reeves’s figure, are not formed by pungent 
scales, but by the points of the ribs. The belly is acute, like a knife, from the gills to the 
anal. The cheek is soft and nacry, and the skin of the temples is striated. The head has a 
scomberoid aspect above and its lateral ridges are smooth. 

_ The colour of the back is pistachio-green, the rest of the fish brightly silvery with purplish 
teflexions, and the courses of the muscles are shown by oblique lines meeting in the middle 
height. Fins yellowish-gray, the edgés of the caudal shaded with blackish-gray. 


Hab. Seas of India ard China. 


Sa2 ; . 


312... REPORT—1845. 


Tribus APoDEs. Sie 


Fam. ANGUILLIDA. 


ANGUILLA AvisoTIs, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 104. pl. 51. 
f.1. Icon. Reeves, 222; Hardw. Malac. 288. Chinese name, Woo 
urh shen, “Crow-ear eel” (Birch); Woo urh shen, “ Black-eared eel” 
(Reeves). 

Hab. Canton. 


ANGUILLA CLATHRATA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 104, 

A specimen from Canton exists in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution, to which it was 
presented by the Rey. George Vachell. 

Hab. Canton, 


ANGUILLA sINENSIS, M‘Clelland, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. p. 406. 
pl. 25. f. 2. and No. 18. p. 208. July 1844. A 


' Hab. Chusan. The British Museum possesses a specimen of Dr. Cantor’s. 


ANGUILLA MACROPTERA, M‘Clelland, l.c. p. 407. pl. 25. f. 1. et No. 18. 
p- 208. 
Hab. Chusan. 


Conerus TRIcusPIDATUS, M‘Clelland (Murenesox), Cale. Jour. N. Hist. 
iv. p. 408. t. 24. f. 1. and No. 18. p.210. Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. 
p- 105. pl. 51. f.2. Jeon. Reeves, a. 41; Hardw. Malac. 295. Chinese 
name, Ho shen, “ Stork eel” (Birch); “ Hook-billed eek” (Reeves). 
Specimens collected by the Rev. George Vachell and Sir Everard Home exist in the mu- 

seums of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and College of Surgeons. 
Hab. Chusan. Ningpo. Canton. 


Conerus LEPTURUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Sulph. Voy. p. 106. pl. 56. 
f. 1-6. 
Hab. Canton. 


Concrus FAsciATus, Gray, Cat. Br. Mus. Jcon. Reeves, 284; Hardw. 
Malac. 291 et 293. dupl. 


In this Conger the vent is a little before the middle of the fish, and the dorsal fin com- 
mences over the centre of the ventrals. There is a pair of tubular nostrils or cirrhi on each 
side of the snout, and a pair of smail holes or pores on each side of the mesial line in the in- 
terorbital space. The ground colour is ochre-yellow with irregular purplish-black blotches 
on the dorsal and back, and descending to the middle of the sides. Several of these blotches 
or bars enclose spots of the ground colour. The top of the head is purplish-black, and three 
dark spots are placed in a triangular position on the hind head. The cheeks, under part of 
the head and the anal have the bright ochraceous ground tint, the edge of the latter being 
dark. The dorsal and ventrals are mountain-green, the blotches on the former forming part 
of the bars which cross the back. The breadth of the head is equal to half its length, which 
is an eighth part of the whole length of the fish. Snout rather obtuse, gill-openings lateral. 
The rays of the caudal fin are shown at the tip of the tail, otherwise this might have been 
taken for an Ophisurus, which it resembles in its banded markings. 

Hab. Chinese sea. 


OPHISURUS DICELLURUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 106. pl. 48. 
f. 2-4. 
Sir Everard Home presented a specimen to the College of Surgeons. 
Hab. Mouth of the river Yang tze keang. 


OpuisurUS coLuBRINuS, Linn. Gmel. (Murena), Boddaert apud Pall. 
Beytr. ii. p. 56. t. 2. f. 3; Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 351. La murenophis 
colubrine, Lacép. v. p. 641. pl. 19. f.1. Murena annulata, Thunberg, 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 313 


Spec. Ichth. viii. pl. 1. f. 1. Gymnothorax annulatus, Bl. Schn. p. 527. 
Ophithorax colubrinus, M‘Clelland, Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. No. 18. p. 212. 
July 1844. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


-Opuisurus spapiceus, Richardson. 


A specimen of this fish was presented to the British Museum by John Reeves, Esq. The 
snout, though not wide, has a truncated tip, and the distance between its extremity and 
the anus is to the length of the fish, as 0°43 to 1:0. Three teeth stand in a triangle at the 
extremity of the upper jaw, and behind them, the jaw teeth, consisting of a single row on 
each side, meet in an angle on the symphysis, within which there are five or six small 
teeth on the mesial line. The lower jaw is armed like the upper one with a single series 
on each limb, but there are none anterior to the point at which these side lines meet. The 
tip of the jaw is rounded and considerably shorter than the upper one. Nostrils very mi- 
nute, with an orifice over the eye near its middle, having slightly raised edges, and another 
terminating a short thickish tube on each side of the snout, and there are two minute lobu- 
lets on the edge of the upper lip, the posterior one situated beneath the eye, and the other 
half-way between it and the end of the snout. The throat forms a slightly plaited bag, and 
the gill-openings are before the lanceolate acute pectorals and a little lower. The pectorals 
contain eleven rays ; the dorsal commences immediately behind them, and like the anal, which 
is highest anteriorly, terminates suddenly so as to leave a very short naked tip of the tail. 
The rays of the fins are pretty conspieuous. 

The colour of the specimen, after maceration in spirits, is darkish wood-brown above the 
lateral line, and whitish beneath, without any defined spotting. Length 13 inches. Distance 
between tip of snout and anus, 58 inches: length of the pectoral, 0°55 inch; and height of the 
body, 0°4 inch. This species possesses some of the characters ascribed to Oph. rostratus of 
M‘Clelland, but as he knows it merely from a drawing of Buchanan-Hamilton’s, and conse- 
quently has not said anything of the dentition, we cannot compare them. It is different from 
those which he has figured in the Calcutta Journal, and also from Oph. boro (Ham. Buch.), 
which has two rows of blunt teeth on the jaws and mesial line of palate, with three in a tri- 
angle at the tip of the upper jaw. 


Hab. Canton. 


OPHIsURUS HARANCHA, Buchanan-Hamilton, Ganges, p. 20? M’Clelland, 
Calc. Journ. v. p. 211. pl. 12. f.4.? con. Hardw. Malac. 302.? Gray, 
Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. 95. f. 2. 


The British Museum possesses a specimen of the harancha, which was presented to General 
Hardwicke by Buchanan-Hamilton, and also a Chinese Ophisurus procured at Canton by Mr. 
Reeves, which differ from each other so slightly that I hesitate to name them as distinct until 
more recent specimens have been compared. We have had no assistance in the discrimina- 
tion of these two specimens either from colour or anatomical structure. 

' The body of the Chinese fish is nearly cylindrical, and the fish tapers only in the com- 
pressed end of the tail. It seems to have rather a smaller head than the Indian specimen 
and a shorter cleft of the mouth, and exhibits a row of prominent pores on the lateral line, 
which are not evident in the latter. Both have pores along the upper lip, round the eye and 
onthe snout. The fins in both are pale, and their origins and terminations easily made out. 


The dorsal commences farther back than the tip of the pectorals, and almost meets the anal at 


the end of the tail, but the extreme tip of the tail is naked. Teeth stoutly subulate and short 
in two rows on the fore part of both jaws, but wider apart in the lower jaw: in one row on the 
limbs of the jaws. Three or four near the symphysis of the upper jaw are a little taller than the 
rest. They stand in two rows on the fore part of the mesial line of the palate, and in only 
one row posteriorly. 

The Chinese specimen, after a long continuance in spirits, has a dilute wood-brown colour, 
and when examined through a lens, appears to be mottled with whitish specks mixed with a 
smaller number of black ones. The whitish specks exist on the belly, but the black ones are 
wanting there, hence the resulting tint is lighter. The Chinese specimen in the Br. Mus. is 
nearly 12 inches long; one in the Cambridge Philosophical Institution measures 142 inches, 
and the Indian one is 17% inches. 

‘Hab. Canton. India. 
| Oxs, Ophisurus boro (Ham. Buch.; Gray, Hardw. Ill. pl. 95. f. 1. Icon. Hardw. Malac. 
a) of which there is an authenticated Indian specimen in the British Museum, bequeathed 
‘toi by General Hardwicke, has two or three rows of fiat round teeth on the jaws and mid- 
‘le line of the palate, with three teeth of the same form placed in a triangle at the tip of the 
upper jaw. The dorsal commences farther forward than that of harancha. The same museum 


814. - REPORT—1845. ge HWP uo 


possesses also a specimen of Ophisurus hijala, Buch. Ham. Icon. Hardw. Mal. 300, noted as 
having been taken in a salt-water lake. 


Opuisurus? vimineEus, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 107. pl. 52. 

f. 16-20. 

This Ophiswrus differs much from the blunt-toothed species and resembles the Sphagebran- 
ché in its acute, elongated snout. Another species of an orange colour and slightly speckled 
on the back inhabits the Sooloo archipelago on the north side of Borneo. A drawing of it, 
made by Assistant-Surgeon Arthur Adams of the Samarang, exists in the British Museum. 

Hab. China. Specimen in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection. 


Fam. Murznipa, M‘Clelland. 


Mur2na IsincLeENnA, Richardson, Ichth. Voy. of Sulphur, p. 108. pl. 48. 
f.1. Icon. Reeves, 237; Hardw. Mal. 305. Chinese name, Tsing teen 
chuy, “Blue spotted club” (Birch); Ching teem chuy, ‘ Blue spotted mu- 
rena” (Reeves). Genus, Murena, Thunberg; Gymnothorax, Bloch. 
Cuv. Rég. An. ii. p.351. Div. 1. dentibus uno ordine. 


Hab. Canton. Mr. Reeves has deposited two specimens in the British Museum. 


Mur2NA ? Temm. et Schl. (Murenophis). 

A specimen labelled thus exists in the British Museum. It is 22 inches long, is finely 
mottled and clouded, and has a single row of sharp subulate teeth on the jaws. 

Hab. Japan. 


Mur2@NA VARIEGATA, Temm. et Schl. (Murenophis). 


A Murena, so named by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ exists in the British Museum. 
It much resembles M. thyrsoidea, but differs in its dentition, viz. in having a single row of 
conical, compressed and very acute teeth on each jaw, and two rows of minute ones on the 
roof of the mouth. The specimen is 18 inches long. 


Hab. Japan. 


Mur#na REEVESII, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 109. pl. 48. f. 2. 
Icon. Reeves, 68; Hardw. 304. Chinese name, Lda chuy, “ Wax club” 
(Birch) ; La chuey, “ Waxen eel” (Reeves). (Div. incerta.) 


Hab. Canton. No specimen. 


Murena tTHuyrsoipEA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 111. pl. 49. 
f.1. Icon. Reeves, 220; Hardw. 304. Lower figure. Chinese name, 
Hwa chuy, “Flowery club” (Birch); Ta chuy, “ Flowered chuy” (Reeves). 
Genus, Strophidon, M‘Clelland. 

The British Museum possesses two of Mr. Reeves’s specimens. 
Hab. Canton. 


Ozs. Murena tessellata, Ichth. of Sulph. p. 109. pl. 55. f. 5-8, being part of Sir Edward 
Belcher’s collection, and M. pavonina, ibid. p. 110. pl. 53. f. 1-6, may be inhabitants of the 
Chinese seas, but the place of their capture was not recorded. 


Mur2na cErRtNo-NiGRA, Icon. Reeves, nullo numero, non Hardw. Length 

of drawing 73 inches. Div. incerta. 

This drawing apparently represents a Murena with very low fins. The general colour is 
a light wax-yellow with greenish tints and many blackish spots. A row of larger, round and 
nearly equidistant spots runs along the middle of the body, and on the top of the back and 
margins of the tail the spots assume the form of very short oblique bars. The throat and 
belly are tinged with carmine. Upper jaw obtuse and projecting slightly beyond the lower 
one. Nostrils not represented as tubular. 


Hab. Canton. 
Fam. SPHAGEBRANCHIDA, Miiller. 


MorinGua LuMBRICOIDEA, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulph. p. 113. 
pl. 56. f. 7-11. Genus, Moringua, Gray, Zool. Mise. p. 9. 


Hab. China. Specimen in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection 10 inches long. 


ae 


’ 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 315 


Morinct'Aa ——? Temm. et Schl. 


The British Museum possesses a Japanese Moringua of which we do not know the specific 
name, as the lable originally attached to it had been transposed before it was purchased by 
the museum. It differs from M. lumbricoidea in its more slender, elongated body, narrower 
fins and longer under-jaw. The rays are perceptible round the end of the tail only, the rest 
being concealed by the thickness of the membrane. The teeth are similar to those of lum- 
bricoidea. Though the specimen is 264 inches long, it is no thicker than a lumbricoidea only 
ten inches in length. The genus seems to be the same with Ptyobranchus of J. M‘Clelland, 
but his Indian species all differ in the shape of the fins. 


Hab. Japan. 


IcuTHYOPHIS viTTATUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 114. 
pl. 53. f.’7,9. Genus, Ichthyophis, Lesson. 


We are ignorant of the internal structure of this fish, but from the posterior position of the 
anus it is probably to be referred to the Sphagebranchide of Miiller (Ophicardides, M’Clelland). 
A stuffed skin exists in the Haslar Museum, which was brought from China by Commissioner 
Elliot. 


Hab. China. 


ApreRICHTHYS QUADRATUS, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 115. 
pl. 52. f.8-15 (Sphagebranchus). Genus, Apterichthys, Dumeril; Cecilia, 
Lacép. Cuv. Régn. An. ii. p. 353. 


Hab. China. Specimen in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection. 


Ampuipnous cINEREUS, M‘Clelland (Pneumabranchus), Calc. Journ. Nat. 
Hist. iv. p. 411. pl. 25. f. 3. Genus, Amphipnous, Muller, Archiv. p. 15, 
1840. 

Hab. China. Chusan. Ning poo. 


MonorrTervs Lzvis, Lacépéde ( Unibranchapertura), v. p.658. Richard- 
son, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p.116. Monoptere javanais, Lacép. p. ? 


A specimen obtained at Hong Kong by R. A. Bankier, Esq. was presented by him to the 
museum at Haslar Hospital. 


Hab. China. Hong Kong. Malay archipelago? 


MonopTervus cinereus, Richardson, Ichth. of Voy. of Sulphur, p. 117. 
pl. 52. f. 1-6. synon. exclus. 


On consulting Mr. M‘Clelland’s paper in the 18th number of the Calcutta Journal, I find 
that,"misled by the close similarity of the outline of Pneumabranchus cinereus in the fourth 
volume of the above-mentioned journal to that of this Chinese fish, I erred in considering 
them to be the same species. This fish has a naked skin, while the bodies of his Pneuma- 
branchi (Amphipnous, Miller, 1840) are covered with imbricated scales. 


Hab. China. Chusan. Woosung. 


Monorrervus MARMoRATUS, Temm. et Schl. ( Unibranchapertura). 


The British Museum possesses an example of this species which was procured by Dr. Cantor 
at Chusan. It is 17} inches long, the part behind the anus measuring 3°45, and being con- 
sequently proportionally a little shorter than the tail of either levis or cinereus, The head is 
decidedly larger than in either of these species, and when measured to the posterior corner of 
the gill-opening, rather exceeds a tenth of the whole fish. A deep furrow runs along the middle 
of the back, which is narrower than the belly from the head to opposite the anus, and the 
action of the muscles produces a furrow coincident with the lateral line, which disappears 
when the parts are stretched. The belly is rounded. The lateral line in the middle of the 
height is composed of a series of very fine grooves, and is darker than the neighbouring parts. 
The tail is edged above and below by a very narrow translucent seam of pale skin entirely 
destitute of rays. 

The ground colour, after maceration in spirits, is wood-brown, thickly speckled on the 
head, back and sides with dark umber-brown. On the top of the back the umber-brown specks 
aré atranged so as to produce three lines, one occupying the mesial groove, and the other two 
the ridges on each side. On the sides the specks produce two series of short curves which 
meet at the lateral line in an angle and seem to correspond with the fasciculi of muscular 


= 


316 ede -REPORT—1845. Thatial ae iia Ges, 


fibres, The specks however are not confined to these lines. The belly is without specks, 
put is marked by fine oblique brown lines which meet on the mesial line beneath, in an acute 
angle, and thus produce a series of chevrons reaching from the gill-opening to the anus. 

I had given a specific name to Dr. Cantor’s specimen, which was altered to marmoratus, on 
a Monopterus so named by the authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ having reached the British 
Museum. This fish is 23 inches in length, and the vent is rather farther back than in the 
Chinese example, being only 3-2 inches distant from the point of the tail. Three rays ap- 
peared very obscurely in the extreme tip of the tail. 


Hab. Chusan. 


Monorrerus? HELVoLUs. Icon. Reeves, t. nullo numero; Hardw. 312. 

The figure represents a fish with a depressed head, a blunt snout, no nasal tubes, and the 
general form of the preceding Monopteri. The position of the anal aperture is not indicated. 
The colour is rich reddish-orange, like that of the Cyprinus auratus, varied only by a series 
of black dots along the lateral line. Eye small, silvery, and placed rather high. 


Hab. Canton. 


OpHICARDIA XANTHOGNATHA, Richardson (Monopterus), Ichth. Voy. 
Sulph. p. 118. pl. 52. f.'7. Icon. Reeves, 221; Hardw. Malac. 311. 
Chinese name, Hwang sae shen (Birch); Wang sae shen, “ Yellow-jawed 
eel” (Reeves). Genus, Ophicardia, M Clelland. 

We have seen no specimen of this fish, and we were unable at the time of the publication 
of the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage of the Sulphur,’ to place in it its proper genus; but having 
since received Mr. M‘Clelland’s important paper on the Apodal fishes of Bengal, and com- 
pared his outline figure and account of Ophicardia phayriana with Mr. Reeves’s drawing, we 
have no doubt of both being members of one genus. In the Chinese fish the mouth is cleft 
rather farther past the eye, and this is the chief external difference between it and phayriana. 


Hab. Canton. 


ADDENDA. 


The preceding report was drawn up before any portion of the Ichthyology 
of the ‘Fauna Japonica’ had reached this country, but as the successive 
decades of that important work came out, the new scientific names therein 
published have been substituted for those which I had previously imposed, 
the descriptions of such species have been struck out, and the Japanese fish 
which had not been detected on the coasts of China were added. I have 
also availed myself of the specimens of Japanese fish which the British Mu- 
seum has from time to time received from Germany, and have adopted the 
names on their several labels. But notwithstanding every exertion to avoid 
the introduction of synonymous appellations, this evil cannot be entirely 
averted, in cases like the present, when several works on the same subjects 
are coming out simultaneously. In some instances the names proposed by 
English ichthyologists have the priority over those used in the ‘ Fauna Ja- 
ponica,’ the authors of this work having probably had no opportunity of 
consulting the papers of Dr. Cantor and of John M‘Clelland, Esq., of the 
Bengal Medical Service, published in India. There is also some interference 
of names between the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ and the ‘ Ichthyology of the Voyage 
of the Sulphur,’ composed of three fasciculi, of which the first one was pub- 
lished in April 1844, and the third in October 1845. I may add also that 
the genus Hoplegnathus proposed by me in March 1841, and published in 
the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London in 1842, is identical 
with the Scarodon of the ‘Fauna Japonica.’ The tenth decade of this latter 


work was brought to this country in March 1846, by its publisher, when the’ 


seventh sheet of the Report was in the press, and it is therefore necessary to 
make such corrections and additions to the previous sheets as are requisite 


j ‘from the decades of the ‘ Fauna’ which reached us after the previous sheets 
were printed off. 
nt Page 194. 


CARCHARIAS MELANOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 
. A Japanese specimen in the British Museum. 
Hab. Sea of Japan, in addition to habitats previously given. 


Page 195. 


PRIsTIOPHORUS CIRRHATUS, Lath. Linn. Trans. ii. pl. 26 et 27. (Pristis), 
Mill. et Henlé, seite 98. Squalus tentaculatus, Shaw, Nat. Misc. 630. 
Sq. anisodon, Lacép. iv. p. 679. 

The British Museum possesses various specimens from Australia, which may be divided 
into two groups; one having a more slender beak and the barbels placed midway between 
the base and tip, and the other having a wider beak, with the barbels nearer the base. There 
is a Japanese specimen also in the museum. 


Hab. Seas of Japan and Australia, 
Page 198. 
PTEROPLATEA JAPONICA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 


_ The British Museum possesses two foetal specimens from Japan which measure 53 inches 
across the disc, 3 along it, and 4% including the tail. They seem to differ very little from 
Pteroplatea micrura: 

_ Hab. Sea of Japan. 


TETRODON PaciLinotus, Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. Rad. D.13; A. 11; 
C. 81; P. 15. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 8 inches long.) 


This Tetrodon is marked much like T. albo-plumbeus, but the spines extend further along 
_ the back to the tail, and there are some slight differences in the courses of the porous lines. It 
is probable nevertheless that it is the same species with albo-plumbeus, since there are two other 
_ Japanese specimens in the British Museum, which are intermediate between the two in the 
_ extent of the spiny surface and in other minute characters. This being the case renders it 
_ probable that the small specimen which we have reckoned to be a variety of ocellatus, under 
the name of var. guttulata, ought also to be referred to allo-plumbeus. 


_ Hab. Sea of Japan. 


‘Terropon RUBRIPES, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.16; A. 13; 
OC, 91; P. 17. (Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan, 19 inches long.) 
ab. Sea of Japan. 


(Temnonox LATERNA), Zetrodon pardalis, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 
(Spec. Brit. Mus. 13 inches long. Rad. D.11; A. 11; C.9; P.17. 


__ The specimen shows more spots than are exhibited in Mr. Reeves’s drawing, and the nasal 
_cirrhus is scarcely so much developed, but there is no reason to doubt the identity of laterna 
and pardalis. The skin is smooth throughout, but pits slightly on the belly in drying. 

D4 Hab. Japan and China. Pulo Condore. 


% SeTRODON XANTHOPTERUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D.16; A. 
- ‘14; C. 91; P. 18. (Spee. Brit. Mus. 144 inches long.) 
4 ‘Hab. Sea of Japan. 


‘Terrovon stictinotus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 16; A.14; 
a 92; P. 15. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 15 inches long.) 
“Hab. Sea of Japan. 


FRODON STRIATUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 11; A. 10; 
1s 94; P. 11. (Spec. Br. Mus. 53 inches long, 33 in diameter.) 


‘has the characters ascribed by Linnzus to hispidus; and it has much resem- 


318 REPORT—1845. 000 | 
blance to 7. dineatus of Bl. t. 141, in the lines on the belly, but the dorsal stripes are replaced. | 
by spots. It is entirely and coarsely hispid, except the lips and trunk of the tail. 

Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Page 200. 


OsTRACION BREVICORNIS, Temm. et Schl. F.J.Sieb. Rad. D.10; A.11; 
C. 91; P. 11. (Spec. Brit. Mus. 32 inches long.) 
Of the division of auritus. Does it differ from aculeatus of Houttuyn ? 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


BAutsres LiveaTus, Bl Schn. p. 466.t. 87; Temm. et Schl. FiJi Sieh 


The British Museum possesses one of Biirger’s Japanese specimens, and there is an indi- 
vidual in excellent condition in Sir Edward Belcher’s collection, This was not introduced 
into our list, from the place of its capture not having been noted, but the existence of the 
species in the Japanese seas leaves little doubt of Belcher’s specimen having been obtained on 
the coast of China, where the bulk of his collection was made. 


Hab. Seas of Japan and China, and the Indian ocean. 
Page 202. 


MonACANTHUS CIRRHIFER, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 1|-33 ad 
35; A. 33; C.12; P. 14. (Three Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan.) 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Monacantuus ostoncus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. Rad. D. 1|-33; 
A. 32; C.12; P. 13. (Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan, 7 inches long.) 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


ALEUTERIUS CINEREUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. is Al. berardi of the pre- 
ceding list. (Spec. Brit. Mus. from Japan.) 
Hab. Seas of Japan, China, and New Guinea. 


Page 205. 


Goszrus FLAVIMANUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 141. pl.'74. f.1. “Rad. 
D. 8-15; A.12; C.18; P.16; V.5.” (l.c.) Length from 8 to 12 
inches. 

Hab. Mouths of rivers in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. 


Gozius BRUNNEUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 142. pl. 74.1.2. “ Rad. 
D. 6|-10; A. 8; C.18; P. 20; V.1]5.” (2. ¢.) Length 4 or 5 inches. 
This is perhaps identical with our G. platycephalus. 

Hab. Mouths of rivers in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan, 


Gosius oLivacgeus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 143. pl. 74. f. 3. “ Rad. 
D. 6|-10; A.8; C. 14; P. 18; V. 5.” (1. ¢.) Length 5 inches. 
Hab. Japan. 


Gozius virco, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 143. pl. 74. £4. “ Rad. B.4; 
D. 8|-26 ad 28; A. 1126; C. 20; P. 22; V.5.” (e.) 
Hab. Mouth of the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. 


Gosius uasTa, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 144. pl. 76. f. 1. Rad. D. 
Q|-1|19; A. 17; C. 172%; P.19; V. 1|5. (Spec. in Brit. Mus. from Japan, © 
measuring 93 inches.) 

This fish is more elongated and has a lower dorsal and longer caudal than our G. omma- 
iurus, but in other respects approaches very near to it. There are more scales scattered on 
the cheek, and the jointless rays at the base of the caudal are more numerous and more con-~ 
spicuous, ‘hese are the principal differences elicited by a comparison of specimens, The 


ON THE ICHTHYOLOGY OF THE SEAS OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 319 


‘porous lines on the cheek and jaws and the clusters of scales on the gill-cover and temples 
are the same in both, The caudal fin of the specimen is an inch and a half long. 
Hab. Japan. 


Page 207. 


Sicyp1um opscuruM, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p. 144. pl. 76. f.1. “ Rad. 
D. 6|-11; A. 10 vel 11; C.16; P.16; V. 10.” (Z.¢.) Length 4 inches. 


Hab. Rivers in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. 


AmBLyopus LAcEPEDII, Temm, et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p, 145. pl. 75, f. 2. 
“ Rad. B.5; D. 6/42; A. 1/41; C.15; P. 32; V.12.” (l.c.) Length 
15 inches. 

This species differs in the length of the caudal, the height of the other fins, and in- colour 


from Amblyopus rugosus and anguillaris, described in p. 207 of the Report. In the numbers 
__ of the rays it approaches the species noticed in the foot note to that page. 


Hab. In the mud of bays on the coast of Japan. 


_ PERIOPHTHALMUS MODESTUS, Temm. et Schl. F, J. Sieb. p, 147. pl. 76. f. 2. 
Length 3 inches. 

This fish has fewer rays in the first dorsal than the one similarly named by Cantor in his 

Report on the Fauna of Chusan, p. 29 (vide ante, p. 208), but his brief description offers no 


other discrepancy. The authors of the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ do not appear to have been aware 
of the previous employment of the specific name modestus. 


| 

t 

Hab. Salt ponds and shallow water on the coast of Japan. 

. Boleophthalmus boddaertii, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 148. pl. 76. f.3. The information 


given in the ‘ Fauna Japonica’ enables us to increase our list of the places of capture of this 
fish, by the addition of the seas of Japan, Java and Borneo (vide Report, p. 208). 


Page 209. 


ELzorris opscurA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 149. pl. 77. f. 1, 2, 3. 
“ Rad. D.7|-9 vel 10; A. 8 vel 9; C.15; P.15; V.5.” (Z¢.) Length 
one foot. 


The British Museum possesses two small specimens from Japan, measuring respectively 43 
and 73 inches. 


Hab. Rivers which fall into the bay of Nagasaki, Japan. 


ELEOTRIS OXYCEPHALA, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 150. pl. 77. fig. 4, 5. 
“ Rad. D. 6|-9; A.9; C.16; P.17; V. 5.” (.¢.) Length 72 inches. 


The description of this species corresponds in many particulars with the characters of El. 
cantherius, but as the head only is represented in the plate, we cannot determine whether the 
general resemblance is sufficiently close to justify the suppression of one of the specific names. 
_ Mr. Reeves’s drawing does not exhibit the gibbosity of the snout, occasioned by the inter- 
_ maxillary pedicles which is shown in the figure in the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ and the colours 
noticed in the description in the latter work being those of the specimen after long maceration 
_ in spirits do not agree very closely with the Chinese drawing. 

_ Hab. Japan. 


Page 210. 


~ Caxrionymus Loncicaupatus (Temm. et Schl. F.J. Sieb. p-151. pl.78. f.1) 


Is evidently the fish that we have described and figured as the female of C. reevesii in the 
Ichthyology of the Sulphur’s Voyage, published in April 1844. 


M elias 


_ CALLionymus Artivetis, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 79. f. 1. 


_ This is a different species from any that is noticed in the body of the Report. The letter- 
press relating to it has not reached us, 


Hab. Sea of Japan. 


320 : REPORT—1845. Raat s LS 


Page 215. 


SEBASTES VENTRICOSUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. p. 48. pl. 20. f. 1, 2. 
(Spec. Brit. Mus. 9 inches long). 


This species was accidentally omitted in the body of the list. 
Hab. Sea of Japan. 


Page 258. 


CRENILABRUS FLAGELLIFER, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 86. f. 2. 


Notwithstanding some differences in profile and in the illumination of the figures, is very pro- 
bably the same with the Ctenolabrus rubellio of the Report, the blues and reds of the La- 
bride being, as we have already mentioned, interchangeable after the death of the fish. 


CrrruiLaprus, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. pl. 86. f. 3. (Letter-press not 
yet published). 
Hab. Japan. 
Page 311. 


Fam. GApDIDz. 


BROTULA IMBERBIS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. 
The British Museum possesses a specimen which is 5} inches long. 


LEPIDOLEPRUS JAPONICUS, Temm. et Schl. F. J. Sieb. 


Snout apiculated and acute; scales less strongly armed than those of the other species. 
The British Museum possesses two heads. 
Hab. Japan. 


Haslar Hospital, April 1846. 


ERRATA. 


P. 187, near the bottom, for Scomberida, read Scombriside. 

197, for TRYGoNIDz, read TRYGONISIDZ. 

199, for OstINOPTERYGII, M‘Leay, read OssEt. 

235, line 9, for a South Australian Serranus, read the Plectropoma dentex of South 
Australia. 

277, add to the references following PLATESSA CHINENSIS, Icon. Descriptions of Animals, 
fig. 104 & 105, pages 133 & 134. 

286, second line from the bottom, for des, read de. 

287, line 13, for Macropterote, read Macropteronote. x 


rd 


7 


PERIODICAL PHA NOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 321. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. OwEn, Prof. E. Fores, 

Dr. Lanxestser, Mr. R. Tayztor, Mr. Tuompson, Mr. Bau, 
Prof. Autpman, Mr. H. E. Srricxianp, and Mr. Basineton, 
appointed for the purpose of Reporting on the Registration of Pe- 
riodical Phenomena of Animals and Vegetables. 


Tue duty assigned to your Committee being to consider and report on the 
best means of concurring in the system of simultaneous observation of the 
Periodical Pheenomena of Organized Beings adopted by the Belgian and other 
continental naturalists, as proposed on their behalf at the Meeting of the 
Association at Plymouth, by M. Quetelet of Brussels, the Committee have 
judged it best, as a preparatory measure, to recommend to the Section D. 
(Zoology and Botany) to cause to be translated, and circulated among such 
naturalists as might be willing to give their assistance, the Instructions pub- 
lished and acted upon for a few years past by the continental naturalists 
above mentioned. 
The translation having been revised and enlarged with the aid of the Rev. 
L. Jenyns and M. de Selys-Longchamps, it is proposed by the Committee, 
' that copies should be circulated where they may be useful, in order to invite 
and facilitate the co-operation of observers in various departments of natural 
history. 


} 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE OBSERVATION OF PERIODICAL 


PHENOMENA. 
Royal Academy, Brussels. 
_ Wuitsrt the earth performs its annual orbit, a series of phenomena is un- 
_ folded upon its surface which the periodical return of the seasons regularly 
brings back in the same order. These phenomena, taken individually, have 
engaged the attention of observers in all times; but to study them as a whole, 
and to aim at ascertaining the laws of dependence and relation that exist be- 
_ tween them, have been generally neglected*. The phases of the existence 
: of the minutest plant-louse, of the paltriest insect, are bound up with the 
phases of the existence of the plant that nourishes it; this plant itself, in its 
_ gradual development, is in some sort the product of all the anterior modifica- 
j tions of the soil and atmosphere. That would be a most interesting study 
which should embrace at once all periodical phenomena, both diwrnal and 


annual ; it would form of itself alone a science as extended as instructive. 


~~ 


* There are doubtless few naturalists who have not collected some observations upon 
_ periodical phenomena; but the greater part of their labours, from their being isolated, would 
he nearly useless for the object which-we propose to accomplish. The various calendars and 
dials of Flora have been framed upon local observations, or such as, being made at different 
epochs and under circumstances entirely dissimilar, could not be compared with one another 
‘Ror present that degree of exactness which science demands at the present day. The great 
_Linnzus was fully aware of the utility to be derived from simultaneous researches on the 
calendar of Flora, and considered that, if made in different countries, a comparison of them 
; would be followed by advantages as novel as unexpected. It is, then, this idea of the cele- 
_ brated Swedish naturalist that we would wish to see realized, The United States of America 
_ seem to be the country which has most fixed its attention upon such a system of simulta- 
4 heous observations: the annual reports of the governors of the University of New York, 
_ printed at Albany, regularly contain observations from thirty places on the flowering and 
_ fructification of certain plants, on the arrival and departure of birds of passage, and on other 
“natural epochs. 
_ It would not be possible to specify here all the observations of this kind which have hereto- 
_ fore been undertaken ; even those made in Belgium by M. Kickx, sen. for 1811 (Flora Brux.) 
and by Messrs. Pollaert and Dekin (Alman. du départem. de la Dyle, an. xii.), or those of our 
_ habitual correspondents, Baron d’ Hombres Firmas (Rec. de Mém. et d’ Obs,, &c., Nismes,1838), 
Dr. Th. Forster (The Perenn. Calend., Lond, 1824), &c. 


mm 1845. x 


322 REPORT—1845. 


It is principally by the stmultaneity of observations made on a great number 
of points, that these researches are capable of attaining a high degree of im- 
portance. A single plant observed with care, would itself yield us information 
of the greatest interest. Synchronic lines might be traced on the face of the 
globe for its leafing, flowering, fructification, &c. The lilac, for example, 
Syringa vulgaris, flowers in the neighbourhood of Brussels on the Ist of 
May ; a line may be conceived on the surface of the earth upon which the 
flowering of this shrub takes place at the same date, as also lines on which 
its flowering is earlier or later by ten, twenty, or thirty days. Will those 
lines then be equidistant? will they have analogies with the isothermal 
lines? what will be the dependencies that will exist between them ?* so also 
as to the isanthesic lines or lines of simultaneous flowering, will these have a 
parallelism with the lines relative to the leafing, or to other clearly-marked 
phases in the development of the individual? We may conceive, for example, 
that whilst the lilac is beginning to bloom at Brussels on the 1st of May, 
there also exists a series of places northwards where this shrub is then only 
putting forth its leaves; has the line, then, which passes through these places 
any relations with the tsanthesic line which answers to the same date? It 
may also be asked whether the places that have the leafing on the same 
day, will likewise have the same day of flowering and fructification: it will 
thus be seen, keeping to even the simplest data, how many curious approxi- 
mations may be deduced from a system of simultaneous observations esta- 
blished on a large scale. The phenomena relating to the animal kingdom, 
those especially connected with the migrations of birds of passage, will afford 
results not less remarkable. \ 

Periodical phenomena may be divided into two great classes: the one be- 
long to the science of physics and natural history ; the others belong rather 
to the domain of statistics, and concern man living in the social state; for 
society itself, with all its tendencies to withdraw itself as much as possible 
from natural laws, has not been able to escape from this periodicity of which 
we are treating. 

The natural periodical pheenomena are in general independent of the social 
periodical phenomena ; but this does not hold good of these latter with regard 
to the former. It would therefore be a first step taken upon this ground so 
little explored, and which seems to promise so much to the labours of those 
who know how to cultivate it, to have commenced the simultaneous observa- 
tion of all the periodical phenomena connected with physics and natural 
history. 

These last phenomena are themselves divisible into several classes, and 
the study of them presupposes a considerable acquaintance with the meteoro- 
logical phenomena on which they principally depend. It is moreover not 
without reason that meteorology should take the lead, and commence this 
series of continued researches to which those observers who aspire truly to 
follow nature in all her laws of organization and development will have now 
to devote themselves. 

But meteorology, in spite of its persevering labours, has not hitherto been 
able to ascertain more than the mean state of the different scientific elements 
relating to the atmosphere, and the limits within which these elements can 
vary according to climate and season. It is requisite that it should continue 
its progress at the same time with the investigation now proposed; and in 
order to guide our judgement as to the observed results, it should show us, 


* Examples of similar researches have been given by Messrs. von Humboldt, Schouw, &e. — 
as to the boundary lines for the culture of the vine, olive, &c, in their relations with isother- 
mal lines, : r 


> 
i 
TAX 
“ 


ele 


PERIODICAL PHENOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 323 


‘at each step, whether the atmospheric influences are in a normal state, or 

whether they manifest any anomalies. 
The desire of devoting myself to the study of periodic phenomena upon a 
rather extensive scale, led me to request several men of science both at home 
and abroad to aid me with their views and observations*. The favourable 
reception given to my requests has allowed me to believe that I was not de- 
ceived as to the importance of the proposed researches; I likewise saw that 
it would be possible to compare our climate with those of the neighbouring 
countries, by direct and simultaneous observations, and to obtain, for Belgium 
in particular, valuable data which at present we do not possess. 

However, to proceed in a useful manner, it is necessary above all things 
that the observations should be made on the same plan, and it was not with- 
out reason that the men of science to whom I applied, requested instructions 
as to the objects to be observed, and the course to be taken in the observa- 
tions so as to render them comparable, an essential condition for the attain- 
ment of the proposed object. The following instructions have been drawn up 
to meet this demand, from suggestions furnished by MM. Cantraine, De Selys- 
Longchamps, Dumortier, Kickx, Martens, Mowen, Spring, Wesmael, &c, » 

There is one important remark to make, that should not be lost sight of, 
viz. that we should agree upon certain observations which should be made in 
preference, and essentially bear on the same scientific points in the several 
countries in which the observations are made, The field to be explored is 
so immense, that unless some rallying-points are adopted, the different ob- 
servers will run a great risk of not concurring, and thus almost losing their 
labour. For instance, when we point out some. plants or animals which it 
will be more especially desirable to observe, we do not wish to underrate the 
_ utility of observations made on other species; but this will be in order to 
obtain points of comparison, or standards around which other observations will 
_ easily arrange themselves. Our appeal may probably receive attention only 
from isolated observers, and it is impossible for them to comply with all the 
_ demands which we make respecting periodical phenomena; but if they are 
' desirous of undertaking those labours of detail to which we shall confine our 
_ instructions, they will at least learn what should be their starting-points so as 
_ to keep within the limits of the system generally adopted. 


f 
if 


* The observations on flowering were commenced in 1839, in the garden of the Royal Ob- 
' Servatory at Brussels. The results obtained in 1839 and 1840 were printed at the end of the 
" observations on the meteorology, magnetism, and temperatures of the earth in 1840, in vol. 
iy. and xv. of the ‘ Mémoires de l’Académie Royale.’ In 1841, the simultaneous observa- 
tions of MM. Kickx, Cantraine, Fr. Donkelaer, Martens, Morren, V. Deville, De Selys-Long- 
‘champs, Robyns, Dr. Gastone, Van Beneden, Galeotti, Spring, Schwann, &c. commenced, 
‘This system of observation was further extended in 1842 and 1843, and has been carried 
pend the frontiers of Belgium. The new observers are MM. de Spoelberg and Debroe 
at Louvain, Fredericq and Spae at Ghent, M*Leod at Ostend, Vincent at Brussels, De 
“Martius at Munich, De Caisne at Paris, the Baron d’Hombres Firmas, jun. at Alais, B. Vala 
at Marseilles, Brayais at Lyons, Couch in Cornwall, Blackwall in Wales, De Pierre and Wart- 
" mann at Lausanne, M. Achille Costa at Naples, Scherer, Camille Rondani and Colla at Parma, 
_ Van Hall at Groningen and the Horticultural Society of Utrecht, who desired to form the 
central point for the collection of observations made in the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
which the learned Counsellor von Martius has been so obliging as to do for Bavaria and Ger- 
“many in general. The new assistance which has been promised in different parts of the globe, 
_ give reason to hope that we shall soon be able to deduce the most valuable results from so ex- 
_ tensive an association. Among the learned bodies which have promised us their support, we 
_ May mention especially the Association of Natural History of Switzerland, the Royal Botanical 
~ Society of Ratisbon, the National Institute of Washington, the Philosophical Society of Phila- 
 delphia ; but we ought especially to congratulate ourselves that one of the most illustrious coun- 
_trymen of Linnzus, M. Berzelius, has spoken favourably of our scientific crusade in the Aca- 
 demy of Stockholm, where its formation was originally proposed, about a century ago. - 


ie 


324 ' REPORT—1845. 


Mererorotocy AND Paysics or THE GLoBE.—Those who are desirous of 
studying thoroughly the meteorology and physics of the globe, and carefully 
appreciating all the periodical changes which these two branches of our 
knowledge present, should have recourse to the special report which has been 
published on this subject by a committee of the Royal Society of London*. 
But the observations specified are so numerous and fatiguing, they require the 
operation of so many persons, that it has been hardly possible to find more 
than four or five observatories in Europe in which they are carried out to 
their full extent. In fact it has been undertaken to make observations every 
two hours, night and day; and even, at a certain period in each month, to 
observe the magnetic instruments continuously for twenty-four hours}. For- 
tunately for our plan, such laborious observations are not necessary as far as 
natural history is concerned; our object is to direct attention much more to 
the annual than the diurnal variations, which may in their turn become the 
object of special and simultaneous study. 

The appeal which we now make being addressed especially to naturalists, 
we would restrict our demands to researches which are directly and essen- 
tially connected with the modifications presented by the three kingdoms under 
the influence of the seasons, and avoid fatiguing observers by requiring too 
much from them. 

The thermometer should occupy the first place among instruments to be 
consulted ; and the temperature of the air and earth should be simultaneously 
determined. The thermometer, exposed to the air, at the distance of some 
feet above the soil, should face the north in the shade, so that it may not be 
influenced by reflexion from the adjacent walls. It would be sufficient to note 
its indication each day at a certain hour; 9 o’clock a.m. would be the best. 
It would be necessary, moreover, to ascertain daily its minimum and maxi- 
mum, by means of a thermometer fitted for the purpose. The temperature 
of the earth, especially of those layers in which the roots of trees are imbed- 
ded, deserves special attention. It would be very interesting daily to trace 
the progress of three or four thermometers, the bulbs of which were equi- 
distant in a vertical line: the bulb of the first should be just beneath the 
surface of the soil, and that of the last at a depth of 23 to 30 inches. Pecu- 
liar thermometers, the stems of which project above the surface of the earth, 
and whose bulbs are rather large compared with the size of the tube, are 
constructed for these observations. These instruments should be placed in 
a soil similar to that in which the plants under observation grow, and which 
presents an unbroken surface, sheltered from the direct action of the sun. 
It would, moreover, be interesting to observe, as is done in the garden of the 
Observatory at Brussels, two series of thermometers, one exposed to and the 
other sheltered from the direct heat of the sun. The time for observation, as 
in the thermometer exposed to the air, should be 9 o’clock in the morning. 

The barometer should also be observed at least once a day, and at a fixed 
hour. Care should be taken to note its maxima and minima; and each ba- 
rometric observation should be accompanied by the indication of the thermo- 
meter attached to the instrument. 


The hygrometer also yields valuable indications; but its place may ke ad- 


* Report of the Committee of Physics, including Meteorology, &c., 8vo. London, R. and 
J. E. Taylor, 1840. The instructions for different voyages, published by the Royal Academy — 
of Sciences at Paris, particularly those which M. Arago has inserted in the Annuaire du Bureau 
des Longitudes’ for 1836, may also be consulted with advantage; we can also recommend the 
new meteorological work published by M. Lamont at Munich, and entitled ‘Annalen fiir Me- 
teorologie und Erdmagnetismus.’ 


+ These observations have been continued at the Royal Observatory at Brussels since 1841, _ 
i 


PERIODICAL PHH NOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 325 


-vantageously supplied by the psychrometer, which is less liable to get out of 
order, and the indications of which are much more correct. 

We do not detail the precautions requisite for these observations, for 
which we merely refer to the ordinary treatises on physics. 

The force and direction of the winds should be carefully registered; as 
also the state of the sky. To indicate the degree of serenity, a decimal frac- 
tion may be employed; a perfectly serene sky being represented by unity, 
and one completely overcast by zero. By this mode of notation the inter- 
mediate states can be expressed in 10ths. 

The quantities of water falling, either as rain, hail or snow, should be col- 
lected by the aid of udometers, either immediately after their fall or at fixed 
times every 24 hours. 

The stormy, misty, &c. days should be noted. As to the state of the 
clouds, Howard’s system of notation may be advantageously employed. 

For those who are enabled to devote greater attention to the physical 
phenomena, we would recommend the observation of the electrical states 
of the air, of terrestrial magnetism, falling stars, aurore boreales, and earth- 
quakes; as also the temperature of springs, of plants and animals, as well as 
the analysis of waters and the air. But the latter is now in progress under 
the direction of M. Dumas, and we may expect the best results from labours 
directed by so practised-.a chemist. ‘The appreciation of the quantity of 
light and heat emanating from the sun, at different periods of the year and 
at various times of the day, has but little engaged the attention of philoso- 
phers, and deserves more notice. 

Lastly, to these living at the sea-side, the times and heights of the tides 
would be interesting subjects of observation. 


VEGETABLE Kincpom.—Observations relative to the vegetable kingdom 
may be regarded in two points of view, according as they bear upon the 
annual period or the diurnal period of plants. The annual period is that 
space of time comprised between two successive returns of the leaves, the 
flowers and the fruit; the diurnal period is the return of that hour of the day 
at which certain species of flowers open; for as all plants have fixed periods 
for their leafing and flowering, so in like manner certain species of plants open 

__ and close at certain hours of the day, and always at the same hours in the same 

_ place. The results presented by these phenomena are then of the greatest 

interest, not only to meteorology, but also to botanical geography. 

; In the study of them the principal object which ought to be aimed at is to 
_ vender the observations comparable, so that the results obtained on any given 
__ point may be compared with those of other countries. The essential point 

_. therefore does not consist in the large number of plants submitted to exami- 

nation, but in the choice of the species and the identity of the comparable 
conditions. 

\ It is with a view to the attainment of this object, that the following instruc- 
__ tions have been drawn up :— 

1. Observation for the annual period.—The first point in these observa~ 

_ tions is to discard annuals: in fact, these plants come up frequently at very 

various periods, according to the time at which they were sown, so that the 
indications furnished by them would not be comparable*. 

This consideration should also lead us to discard the use of biennials, be- 

~ Cause those which come up but slowly and towards autumn are necessarily 


__\' * M. Bergsma, president of the Horticultural Society of Utrecht, has however truly re- 
marked, that annuals might be usefully employed, provided precaution be taken to use in 


_ every case the same seeds and to sow them on the same days. 


\ 


326 REPORT-——1845. Uf 


behind those which come up in the spring. We admit of no exceptions 
except as to the autumnal cerealia, such as rye, wheat, or winter barley, 
which are always sown about the same time, and the phenomena of the ve- 
getation and flowering of which form the most important point in annual 
observations, from their relating to plants so extensively cultivated. The 
period of their being sown and that of the appearance of the ear should be 
noted. 

From what we have said it is evident that the plants to be examined should 
be perennials or woody. The latter are especially important, because they 
are more subjected to the double combination of atmospheric and terrestrial 
modifications ; and again, because they are better adapted than perennials for 
observations on the foliation. 

It is of importance that the plants destined for daily observation should 
have been planted at least a year; for it is well known that vegetables trans- 
planted in the spring present too much uncertainty in the periods of their 
foliation and flowering, these periods being then subordinate to the formation 
of the roots. 

In the choice of plants for observation we must avoid those which, flow- 
ering through all the year, have formed their buds before winter, such as the 
dandelion, chickweed and common groundsel, because these plants have no 
determinate period, and the time of their flowering in early spring is irregular. 

All those cultivated plants which yield varieties by culture must be equally 
avoided, as Tulipa Gesneriana, the rose-tree, the pear-tree, the cherry-tree, 
the large-leaved lime-tree; experience shows, that amongst varieties produced 
in this manner from seed-beds, some flower frequently fifteen days before the 
others. To be satisfied of the comparative value of the flowering of these 
plants, it would be’ necessary to observe everywhere the same variety, which 
is often impossible. 

Such plants as are too nearly allied in respect of species, and difficult 
clearly to distinguish, should also. be avoided : without attention to this, ob- 
servers might be employing different species, which would prevent the ge- 
neral operation from being comparative. ; 

Finally, all those flowers must be discarded, the zstivation of which does 
not admit of our accurately noting the exact moment of expansion: such as 
Calycanthus, Illecebrum, Aquilegia, &c. 

The table of species marked out for the daily observations has been formed 
from these considerations. In the construction of it our object has been to 
obtain results which might be useful at the same time to meteorology, to 
botany and to agriculture. With this view, we have aimed at representing all 
the families of the European plants, excepting those which do not contain 
plants fit for cultivation; this consideration is of great interest with regard to 
botanical geography. We have also introduced into it some North American 
genera cultivated in Europe, as the Catalpa, Tradescantia, Menispermum, &c., 
in order that this list may be rendered comparable with that of observations 
made in the United States of America. In each family we have selected in 
preference the most common and diffused species, and amongst them such 
species as have the flowers largest and best-developed. Finally, we have 
selected flowers so as to present some species which blossom in each month of 
the year. Amongst these plants are some which we especially recommend 
to the attention of observers, such as rye, wheat, the lilac, the box, &c.: 
these are distinguished by italics. 

The period at which rye, barley and winter wheat come into ear should 
be carefully. examined, this point being of great importance in agriculture. 
In the district of Tournay it is a farmer’s axiom that April is never seen to 


PERIODICAL PHZANOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 327 


go out without corn in the ear ; it is curious to determine at what period these 
cerealia put forth the ear in the various parts of Belgium and Europe. 

According to the request of a large number of observers, we have classed 
the plants recommended to their attention in alphabetical order. The list 
has been increased by the addition of some new plants; but on the other 
hand, the Academy has resolved not to include in its publication any plants 
but those selected for the observers. To admit all observations indiscrimi- 
nately would be to encumber the Memoirs of the Academy, and to render 
comparisons almost impossible; whilst, by the arrangement we have adopted, 
an analysis of the lists may readily be made, and we shall be able to publish 
with each plant the dates relating to it in each locality. 

Having detailed the views by which we have been guided in drawing up 
the table for annual observations, it remains for us to speak of the dyties of 
the observer. 

Linnzus, who first understood all that was to be deduced from the appli- 
eation of meteorology to the vegetable kingdom, pointed out four periods 
for observation, viz. the foliation, the flowering, the fructification, and the 
fall of the leaf. Other authors have gone further; they have multiplied the 
details. In experiments intended to assume a general character, this ap- 
pears to us neither necessary nor useful; for by heaping up detail upon de- 
tail, these observations cease to be comparable, and thus lose their principal 
utility. Even in the data of Linnzus, there are some which are only applicable 
to a few vegetables. For instance, the foliation and defoliation can hardly 
be determined except on woody plants. It thus appears to us that we must 
confine ourselves to the four data we have pointed out, paying special atten- 
tion to the most important of all, that which alone would in case of necessity 
suffice, viz. the flowering. We leave to each observer the care of noting 
_any peculiarities which may appear to him worthy of notice. 

In the order of observations, two methods may be employed; we may 
either note the plants in their wild state or in their cultivated state. We 
think that the former does not present sufficient facilities, and is subject to too 
much uncertainty, for the observer would be compelled to traverse daily very 
different regions, at great distances apart, and would never be sure of making 
a second observation on the same plant that he had first examined. Where 
in Europe can we find two localities in which the same species of perennial 
plants are to be met with upon a space sufficiently limited for making the 
daily observations? It is impossible for the naturalist to observe daily the 
fields, the woods and the meadows of his country; he must then confine 
himself to approximations. Now that which is essential is, that the daily 
observation of the plants fixed on for comparison should be made in similar 
positions. From this consideration, we are of opinion that these observa- 
tions should be made on individuals planted in an airy garden. The plants 
should neither be sheltered nor exposed to a south wall. As regards trees, 
they should be selected in open fields, but not in woods, which always afford 
very unequal shelter. 

As to the indication of the periods, they should be made, for the foliation, 
when the first leaves burst the buds and become visible; and for the 
flowering, when the anthers are visible; the same will hold good for the 
flowers of the Composite. The period for noting the foliation may offer 
difficulties, from its presenting different phases, which, especially in spring, 
may cause considerable differences. It is requisite, therefore, to have a fixed 
period easily ascertained by every one. We propose to select the moment 
when, from the advance of the vernation, the upper face of the outer leaves 
becomes exposed to the action of the atmosphere and commences its vital 
functions. The fructification should be noted at the time of the dehiscence 


328 : _ REPORT—1845. 


of the pericarp in dehiscent fruits, and these form the largest number ; the in- 
dehiscent fruits should be noted when they have evidently arrived at ma- | 
turity. Lastly, the defoliation should be noted when the greater part of the 
leaves of the year have fallen off, it being fully understood that what relates 
to leaves can only apply to the woody plants, excluding moreover the ever- 
greens, the defoliation of which is successive. 

To the preceding indications, the observers would do well to append those 
of all such phenomena as they might consider of interest; such are the mo- 
difications which occur in the odours and colours of flowers or leaves, &c.*; 
it would be especially desirable that they should annex the daily indications 
of the mean temperatures, or what is still better, the maximum and mini- 
mum temperature of each day. 

2. Observations for the diurnal period —Independently of the annotations 
of each day, which form the calendar of Flora, it is of much interest to re- 
gister in each locality the hour at which certain plants expand and shut up 
which are endowed with the faculty of performing these functions at a de- 
terminate hour. But with regard to this, it may be thought too tedious to 
require the results for every day ; it is proposed therefore to limit them to the 
equinoxes and the summer solstice. 

In the formation of the table which relates to these plants, we need take 
no notice of the views that have guided us in constructing the table for the 
observation of the annual phenomena. It will be conceived, that it is in- 
different whether the plant submitted to horary observation be annual or not, 
whether in the open earth or the orangery, &c.; all that is requisite is that 
the plant be healthy and exposed to the open air. 

We recommend especially the dandelion, Leontodon taraxacum, which, 
flowering throughout the year, will furnish a subject for curious observations. 

(See below the tables of plants to be observed.) 


From the commencement of 1840, observations on the flowering of plants 
have been combined with the meteorological observations at the observatory 
of Prague+; these observations, made by M. Fritsch, relate to the flowering, 
considered under five phases: the commencement of the flowering, the semi- 
flowering, full flowering, the semi-defloration, and the defloration, We have 
not thought it necessary to enter into these details in what concerns the ge- 
neral system of observations. 

To keep account of the exposure of the plants as far as possible, it is indi- 
cated at Prague by the letters N, E, S, O, whether this exposure is more 
particularly to the north, east, south or west. The signs — and + indicate, 
moreover, whether the plants grow in the shade, or in the full sun. We 
might adopt a similar notation; the absence of any sign would express an in- 
termediate state. 


Anima Kincpom.—The department of science to which our attention is 
directed, rests upon the physiological principle that every organic being, 
whether an animal or plant, is essentially dependent on atmospheric air, as 
well for its development as for the preservation of its existence; and that 
both its development and the exercise of its functions and habits are checked 
or modified by the modifications of this same atmospheric air. Thus we 
observe that epidemic and endemic maladies predominate in certain sea- 


* For the detail of the observations, see the instructions given by M. Spring in the ninth 
yol. of the ‘ Bulletins de Académie,’ p. 124, &c 

+ The magnetic and meteorological observations of Prague are made upon a very large scale, 
under the direction of M. Kreil, and deserve, in several respects, to serve as a model for in- 
vestigations of this kind —Magnetische und Meteorologische Beobachtungen zu Prag. Three 
quarto volumes have at present appeared. 


PERIODICAL PHANOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 329 


_ sons and certain years; that the offspring of the common hare is not always 
equally well developed ; that several Rodentia increase in one year in a certain 
locality, whilst the following year barely the normal number isto be found there; 
the stag and the roebuck shed their antlers at a period which is not invaria- 
bly the same each year: to cite a few more examples only, readily compre- 
hended, do we not see the common partridge bring up its numerous family 
with various success; the swallow, the martin, and the nightingale arrive in 
our countries, and leave them, at an earlier or later period of the year? the 
caterpillar and the common cockchafer alarm us sometimes by their num- 
bers in our plantations? Our object should be, to observe the degree of con- 
nexion subsisting between the animal, the plant, and the atmospheric air,— 
to show, by continued and accurate observations, the influence to which these 
beings are subjected from the medium in which they live, and to attempt, 
by this method, to explain in a positive manner such phenomena as those 
we have mentioned above. In animals (in the wild state), the period of 
coupling, or the season of love, that of birth, that of moulting, whether 
double or single, that of migration, that of becoming torpid and of awaking, 
that of the first appearance, the rarity or the remarkable abundance of any 
species, are the points which should be observed and indicated with exactness, 
conjointly with meteorological observations. Unity of time and place, two 
_ indispensable conditions, should exist between these two kinds of observa- 
tions, because it is from the data afforded by these observations that general 
consequences are to be deduced. 

Each observer should form a table of his observations, and enter in it 
in technical terms, as far as possible, the animals which he has observed. 
It is the result drawn from these partial tables that will form the starting- 
point of the inductions or corollaries serving to establish some of nature’s 
laws. It will be seen therefore that these tables should be made up with 
the greatest exactness. It cannot be denied that many difficulties attend 
such researches, but it must not be lost sight of that the first attempts in 
every science are always difficult, especially when they require the co-opera- 
tion of a Jarge number of persons. 

In order to render the mode of the semultaneous observations uniform, 
we shall now enumerate some of the principal points to which we consider 
we ought to call the especial attention of observers, reminding them that 
the most common species, and such as exist in the greatest number of coun- 
tries, must for several reasons inspire the greatest interest, and that the most 
important observations will be such as are made in the country. 

Mammalia.—-1. Appearance and retreat of the bats. 

2. Frequency or rarity of some Insectivora ( Talpa europea, mole ; Sorex, 
{ shrew mouse; of some Rodentia of the genera Mus and Arvicola). 

f 3. Commencement and termination of the lethargic sleep of the dormouse ° 
(Myoxus). 

4. Moulting of the genus Mustela of the Carnivora. Appearance and re- 
tirement of the badger (Meles taxus, after its hybernation). 

Reptiles.—Retirement, reappearance and pairing of the Batrachia (frogs, 
tree-frogs, toads, salamanders and efts). 

Mollusea.—The period at which the land and fresh-water gasteropods quit 
their retreat, the former to creep on the soil, the latter to swim on the surface 
of the water. 

That at which cases of poisoning by muscles occur*. 

_Insects.— Appearance of the following species. For thése see the amended 
List at the end of this Report, as recommended by the Committee. 


q _ * In the preceding remarks we have followed the indications of Professor Cantraine. 
» 


—— 


eee 


ee ee |e 


330 REPORT—1845. 


Fishes.—1. To point out, at stations situated on rivers— _ 

The period of spring at which the species of the genus Clupea, denominated 
allis, Clupea alosa, L., the sardine, and shad, C. finta (in Flemish meyvisch) 
ascend. 

The same with salmon and salmon-trout, Salmo salar, and S. trutia, L. 

The same for the sturgeon, Acipenser, L. 

2. As regards the fish which never leave the sea, to observe in the sea-ports 
or on the coasts, the periods at which the following arrive :— 

The earliest herrings, Clupea harengus, L. 

The earliest mackerel, Scomber scombrus, L., and some other quite common 
migrating fish. 

Birds.—As regards birds, we think we cannot do better than republish an 
extract of the notice of M. de Selys-Longchamps, presented to the Zoological 
Section of the British Association at its last meeting in Plymouth :— 

“ Zoology and botany should be first interrogated, to enable us to ascertain 
each year to what degree the variations in the meteorological constitution is 
capable of advancing or retarding the appearance of certain animals or the 
foliation and flowering of plants. 

“The Belgian naturalists have seen in how great.a degree these observa- 
tions, with the precise dates, and repeated during several years, will render 
more exact the means sought to be established in local faunas and floras, nay, 
even in the general fauna of Europe..... aye 

“It is with the view of insuring the possibility of these comparisons which 
I consider useful for ornithology, that I would earnestly invite naturalists to 
concentrate their observations upon a certain number of species which are 
diffused throughout Europe, or nearly so. I have thought it best, for this 
purpose, to select terrestrial in preference to aquatic species, because their 
migrations are extended more regularly over all regions, and the determina- 
tion of them is easier, insomuch that whilst living in a town we can make ob- 
servations by means of common sportsmen, all these birds having a vernacular 
name in the different European dialects. I am far from denying the utility of 
similar observations made upon the migrations of aquatic birds ; but, I repeat, 
that I believe, during the first years, for want of a sufficient number of stations, 
we should have difficulty in collecting data for the deduction of general results 
upon these species, which are only found ordinarily in large marshes or on 
the sea-coast. 

“T propose then, setting out from 1842, to study the precise date of the 
migrations of about forty species, which may be divided into four sections :— 

1. Those birds (as the swallow and nightingale) which come and-pass the 
summer and breed with us; 

2. Such (like the crane) as are regular in their passage, but which merely 
pass, without remaining ; 

3. Those birds (as the gray crow and the siskin) which sojourn in our 
country throughout the winter and disappear in the fine season ; 

4. Such birds (as the waxwing and the stormy petrel) the passage of which 
is accidental at indeterminate periods. I have departed from the principles 
mentioned in selecting this latter class, but I thought it would be important 
to direct attention to two or three species the causes of whose appearance 
are unknown, as the waxwing, or are closely connected with the occurrence 
of sea tempests, as the Procellaria pelagica. 

“The first division will, I believe, consist of the same species for all Europe ; 
but it will be different with the other three: in one country, for instance Hol- 
land, the stork will be in the first division, whilst elsewhere it will belong to 
the second, as in Belgium. The same will hold good with the third and 
fourth, according to the more or less northern latitude at which the observa- 


) 
| 


PERIODICAL PHZ NOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 331 


P tions are made; and it is just these corrections which will, I hope, serve to 
' show the utility of the work which we are desirous of seeing undertaken in 
the greatest possible number of localities.” 


Birds selected for the observations. (See this List at the end, as amended by 
the Committee for the use of English Observers.) 


M. de Selys thinks the determination of the period of departure needs less 
to be insisted upon, being aware of the great difficulty attending it; how- 
- ever, exceptions should be made, especially'in the case of swallows, quails, 

wagtails (Mot. alba), and the crow. 

To the observations on the arrival and departure of birds, we may advan- 
tageously append those which M. Cantraine proposes :— 

Of the period at which ‘crows, starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris, L.) form into 
flocks, or pair off; 

Of the period at which the magpie (Corvus pica, L.) commences its nest ; 

Of the period of moulting ; 

Of the period at which the sparrow (Fringilla domestica, L.) selects a 
companion, a time remarkable for scenes of quarreling, which are often more 
readily distinguished by the ear than the eye. The period at which it begins 
to build should also be noticed. 

The thrush Whe: musicus), the field-fare (Turdus pilaris) and the 
missel thrush ( Twrdus viscivorus) deserve particular attention, inasmuch as 
they are regular birds of passage throughout the greater part of Europe. 

_ These birds are also the more readily observed, as, being in request for the 
table, they are found in all the markets. 

As M. Cantraine has observed, “ we should point out, as far as possible, 
the local circumstances which may cause any species to prolong its stay in 
any particular place. Thus, on the 9th of October 1841, swallows were still 
in immense numbers in the vicinity of the north and south stations on the 
Brussels railroad, whereas they had quitted Ghent about the 17th of Septem- 
ber, and but few individuals were to be seen at Ath on the 25th of that month. 
Should not this long stay be attributed to a more elevated temperature, 
caused by the locomotive engines stationed there, as well as to a greater 
abundance of food, the consequence of this?” 

The naturalists of the south of Europe will not allow the arrival and de- 
parture of the flamingo (Phenicopterus antiquorum), nor of some species of 
 sea-gulls (Larus melanocephalus, &c.), nor of the tunny (Scomber thynnus), 
_ to escape their attention. A. QuETELET. 
Brussels, December 1, 1843. 

_ N.B. Such persons as are desirous of taking a part in these researches, are 
_ requested to address their results to Mr. noe the Assistant Secretary of 
_ the British Association, to the care of Messrs. R. & J. E. Taylor, Red Lion 

- Court, Fleet Street. 


List of Plants to be observed for the periods of Foliation and Defoliation. 


_ Acer campestre, L. Amygdalus persica, Z.(@,Ma- Carpinus betulus, Z, 

_ +—  pseudo-platanus, Z. deleine). —— orientalis, Z. 
_ ——saccharinum, L. Aristolochia sipho, Z. Celtis cordata, Desf. 

_ — tataricum, L. Betula alba, L. orientalis, Z. 
_ Aisculus hippocastanum, L. alnus, J. Cercis siliquastrum, Z, 

— lutea, Pers. Berberis vulgaris, Z. Chionanthus virginica, Z. 
_ — pavia, L. Bignonia catalpa, L, Corchorus japonicus, Z. 
_ —— macrostachys, Mich. radicans, Z. » Corylus ayellana, Z. 


"i Amygdalus communis, Z. Carpinus americana, Mich, | —— colurna, ZL. 


q wes 


332 


Corylus tubulosa, Willd. 
Cratzgus coccinea, L. 
— monogyna, Jacq. 
— oxyacantha, L. 
Cytisus laburnum, ZL. 
— sessilifolius, Z. 
Euonymus europzus, LZ.’ 
— latifolius, Mill. 

— verrucosus, Scop. 
Fagus castanea, L. 
sylvatica, L. 
Fraxinus excelsior, Z. 
— juglandifolia, Lam. 
ornus, Z, 

Ginkgo biloba. 

Gleditschia inermis, L. 
—— horrida, Willd. 
triacanthos, L. 
Gymnocladus canadensis, Lam. 
Halesia tetraptera, L. 
Hippophaé rhamnoides, L. 
Hydrangea arborescens, L. 
Juglans regia, L. 

—— nigra, L. 

Lonicera periclymenum, L. 
— symphoricarpos, L. 
— tatarica, L 

— xylosteum, ZL. 
Lyriodendron tulipifera, Z. 
Magnolia tripetala, L. 
— yulan, Desf. 


REPORT—1845, 


Mespilus germanica, Z. 

Morus nigra, L. 

Philadelphus coronarius, L. 

— latifolius, Schrad. 

Platanus acerifolia, Willd. 

occidentalis, Z. 

Populus alba, L. 

—— balsamifera, Z. 

tremula, Z. 

Prunus armeniaca, L. (6. abri- 
cotier), 

— cerasus, L.(6. bigar.noir). 

—— domest. (6.gr.dam. viol.) 

padus, L. 

Ptelia trifoliata, Z. 

Pyrus communis (6. dergamot). 

japonica, LZ. 

— malus (6. calvill. d’été). 

spectabilis, dit. 

Quercus pedunculata, Willd. 

sessiliflora, Smith. 

Rhamuus catharticus, L. 

—— frangula, LZ 

Rhus coriaria, Z. 

— cotinus, LZ. 

—— typhina, Z. 

Ribes alpinum, L. 

— grossularia, L. 

nigrum, LZ 

rubrum, LZ. 

Robinia pseudo-acacia, L. 


Robinia viscosa, Vent. 
Rosa centifolia, D. 
gallica, L. 

Rubus idzus. 

odoratus, L. 

Salix alba, Z. 

Sambucus ebulus, LZ. 
—— nigra, L. 

—— racemosa. 

Sorbus aucuparia, L. 
— domestica, LZ. 
Spirza bella, Sims. 

— hypericifolia, L. 
— levigata, L 
Staphylea pennata, L. 
— trifolia, L. 

Syringa persica, L. 

— rothomagensis, Hort. 
vulgaris, D. 

Tilia americana, LZ. 

—— parvifolia, Hoffin. 
—— platyphylla, Vent. 
Ulmus campestris, Z. 
Vaccinium myrtillus, Z. 
Viburnum lantana, Z. 
—— opulus, L. ji. simpl. 
— _, L. fi. plen. 
Vitex agnus-castus, L. 
incisa, Lam. 

Vitis vinifera (6. chass. dore). 


List of Plants to be observed for the periods of Flowering and Ripening of 


Acanthis mollis, Z 

Acer campestre, L. 
pseudo-platanus, L. 
—— saccharinum, L. 
— tataricum, Z. 
Achillea biserrata, Borst. 
— millefolium, Z. 
Aconitum napellus, L. 
Esculus hippocastanum, L. 
— Lutea, Pers. 

— macrostachys, Mich. 
—_ payia, L. 

Ajuga reptans, L. 

Alcea rosea, L. 

Allium ursinum, Z. 
Alisma plantago, L. 
Althea officinalis, Z. 
Amygdalus communis, L. 


— persica, L. (6. Madeleine). 


Anchusa sempervirens, L. 
Andromeda polifolia, Z 
—— acuminata, Ait. 
racemosa, L. 
Anemone nemorosa, L. 
—— hepatica, L. 
ranunculoides, Z. 
Angelica archangelica, L. 
Antirrhinum majus, Z. 


the Fruit. 


Arbutus uva-ursi, L. 
Aristolochia clematites, Z. 
sipho, L. 

Arum maculatum, Z. 
Asarum europeum, L. 
Asclepias tuberosa, LZ. 
incarnata, L. 

— syriaca, L. 

—— vincetoxicum, ZL. 
Asperula odorata, Z. 
—— taurina, LZ. 

Aster dumosus, Z. 

—— nove anglie, L. 
paniculatus, Willd. 
Astragalus onobrychis, L. 
Astrantia major, Z. 
Atropa belladonna, LZ. 
Avena sativa, L. 

Bellis perennis, L. 
Berberis vulgaris, L. 
Betula alba, Z 

alnus, Z. 

Bignonia Catalpa, L. 
radicans, L. 
Bryonia alba, L. 

dioica, Jacq. 


Buphthalmum cordifolium, WV. 


Buxus sempervirens, L. 


Apocynum androsemifolium,Z. Campanula persicifolia, L. 


Arabis caucasica, Willd. 


Carduus marianus, LZ. 


Cathe americana, Mich. 
— betulus, Z. 
—— orientalis, Z. 
Cassia marylandica, L. 
Ceanothus americanus, L. 
Celtis cordata, Desf. 
orientalis, Z 
Cercis siliquastrum, LZ. 
Chrysanthemum _ leucanthe- 
mun, LZ. 
Chelidonium majus, Z. 
Chenopodium bonus Henri- 
cus, L. 
Chionanthus virginica, L. 
Chrysocoma linosyris, L. 
Clethra alnifolia, Z 
Colchicum autumnale, Z. 
Colutea arborescens, L. 
Convallaria bifolia, Z. 
majalis, L. 
Convolvulus arvensis, L. 
sepium, L. 
Corchorus japonicus, Z. 
Coreopsis tinctoria, Nutt. 
tripteris, Z. 
Cornus mascula, Z. 
sanguinea, L. 
Coronilla emerus, L. 
Corydalis digitata, Pers. 
Corylus avellana, LZ. 


Bec iooncas PHENOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 333 


Corylus colurna, L. 

_ ——tubulosa, Willd. 
Cratzgus coccinea, L. 
—— oxyacantha, L. 
—— monogyna, Jacq. 
Crocus mesiacus, Curt. 
— sativus, Sm. 

— vernus, Sw. 
Cyclamen europxum, L. 
— hederefolium, Jit. 
Cynara scolymus, ZL. 
Cytisus laburnum, L. 
— sessilifolius, L. 
Daphne laureola, L. 
—— mezereun, L. 


Iberis sempervirens, Z. 
Tris florentina, LZ. 
germanica, L. 
Juglans nigra, L. 

regia, L. 

Kalmia latifolia, Z. 
Koelreuteria paniculata, Z. 
Lamium album, Z. 
Leucojum estivum, L. 
vernun, Z. 
Ligustrum vulgare, L. 
Lilium candidum, ZL. 

— flavum, L. 

Linum perenne, L. 
Liriodendron tulipifera, Z. 


Dianthus caryop. L.(v.grenad.) Lonicera periclymenum, L. 


Dictamnus albus, Z. 
c , jl. purpureo. 
Digitalis purpurea, L, 
Echinops spherocephalus, L. 
Epilobium spicatum, Lam. 
Erica tetralix, Z. 

— vulgaris, L. 

Erythrina crista-galli, L. 
Escholtzia californica, Chmss. 
Euonymus europzus, L, 
— latifolius, Mzil. 

—— verrucosus, Scop. 
Fagus castanea, L. 

—— sylvatica, L. 

Fragaria vesca, L.(6.hortensis). 
Fraxinus excelsior, Z. 

—— juglandifolia, Lam. 
ornus, LZ. 

Fritillaria imperialis, L. 
Galanthus nivalis, Z. 
Gentiana asclepiadea, L. 
— cruciata, L. 

Geranium pratense, L. 
Gladiolus communis, L. 
Glechoma hederaceum, LZ. 
Gleditschia horrida, Willd. 
— inermis, LZ. 

— triacanthos, L. 
Gymnocladus canadensis, Lam. 
Hallesia tetraptera, L. 
Hedera helix, Z. 

Hedysarum onobrychis, L. 
Helenium autumnale, LZ. 
Helleborus feetidus, L. 

— hiemalis, L. 

—— niger, L. 

— viridis, Z. 

Helianthus tuberosus, L. 
Hemerocallis cerulea, dndrs. 
— flava, L. 

— fulva, L. 

Hieracium aurantiacum, L. 
Hippophaé rhamnoides, L. 
Hordeum hexastichum, L. 
— vulgare, L. 

Hibiscus syriacus, L. 
Hydrangea arborescens, L. 
—— hortensis, Sm. 
Hydrocharis morsus-ranz, L, 
Hypericum perforatum, Z. 


— symphoricarpos, L. 

— tatarica, L. 

—— xylosteum, ZL. 

Lupinus polyphyllus, Dougl. 

Lychnis chalcedonica, L. 

Lysimachia nemorum, L. 

Lythrum salicaria, L. 

Magnolia tripetala, L. 

yulan, L. 

Malope trifida, Z. 

Malva sylvestris, Z. 

Melissa officinalis, Z. 

Mellitis melissophyllum, L. 

Menispermum canadense, L. 

Mentha piperita, Z. 

Mespilus germanica, L. 

Mitella grandiflora, Pursch. 

Morus nigra, L. 

Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, L. 

Nepeta cataria, L. 

Nympheea alba, L. 

— lutea, L. 

Orchis latifolia, L. 

Orobus vernus, L. 

Oxalis acetosella, Z. 

—— stricta, L. 

Papaver bracteatum, L. 

—— orientale, L. 

Paris quadrifolia, L. 

Philadelphus coronarius, LZ. 

— latifolius, Schrad. 

Phlox divaricata, Z. 

—— setacea, L. 

Physalis alkekengi, Z. 

Plantago major, L. 

Platanus acerifolia, Willd. 

— occidentalis, Z. 

Polemonium czruleum, Z. 

Polygonum bistorta, Z. 

Populus alba, L. 

—— balsamifera, L. 

— tremula, Z. 

Primula elatior, Z. 

Prunus armeniaca, L. (6. abri- 
cotin). 

cerasus (6. digarr. noir). 

— domest. (£.gr.dam.viol.). 

— padus, L. 

Ptelia trifoliata, Z. 

Pulmonaria officinalis, Z. 


Pulmonaria virginica, L. 

Pyrus communis (Jergamotte). 

— cydonia, L. 

japonica, L. 

—— malus (calville d’hiver). 

spectabilis, Ait. 

Quercus pedunculata, Willd. 

sessiliflora, Smith. 

Ranunculus acris, L. (7. plen.). 

—- ficaria, Z. 

lingua, Z. 

Rhamunus catharticus, L. 

— frangula, L. 

Rheum undulatum, Z. 

Rhododendron ferrugineum, L. 
— ponticum, Z. 

Rhus coriaria, LZ. 

— cotinus, Z. 

—- typhina, L. 

Ribes alpinum, Z. 

grossularia, L. (fr.virid.). 

(f. rubent.). 

—— nigrum, Z. 

—— rubrum, LZ. 

— — fruct. alb. 

Robinia pseudo-acacia, L. 

— viscosa, Vent. 

Rosa centifolia, Z. 

—— gallica, L. 

Rosmarinus officinalis, Z. 

Rubia tinctorum, Z. 

Rubus ideus, Z. 

— odoratus, L. 

Ruta graveolens, L. 

Salix alba, Z. 

Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. 

Salvia officinalis, Z. 

Sambucus ebulus, Z. 

— nigra, L. 

—— racemosa. 

Sanguinaria canadensis, L. 

Satureja montana, L. 

Saxifraga crassifolia, Z. 

Scabiosa arvensis, L. 

—— succisa, LZ. 

Scrophularia nodosa, L. 

Secale cereale, LZ. 

Sedum acre, L. 

— album, Z. 

telephium, Z. 

Solanum dulcamara, Z. 

Sorbus aucuparia, ZL, 

domestica, Z. 


— 


‘ —— hybrida, Z. 


Spartium scoparium, LZ. 
Spirea bella, Sims. 

—— filipendula, Z. 
— hypericifolia, L. 
— levigata, L. 
Staphylea pinnata, ZL. 
trifolia, LZ. 

Statice armeria, Z. 
limonium, Z. 
Symphytum officinale, Z. 
Syringa persica, L. 

—— rothomagensis, Hort. 


334 REPORT—1845. aoimes 


Syringa vulgaris, Z, Triticum sativum, L.«. estivum. Viburnum lantana, L. 


Taxus baccata, L. —— —, B. hybern, —— opulus, ji. simpli, 
Tiarella cordifolia, Z. Tussilago fragrans, L. —,, fl. plen. 
Thymus serpyllum, L. —— petasites, L. Vinca minor, L, 
—— vulgaris, L, Ulmus campestris, L, Viola odorata, L, 
Tilia americana, Z. Vaccinium myrtillus, Z. Vitex agnus-castus, L. 
—— microphylla, Vent. Veratrum album, L, — incisa, Lam, 
platyphylla, Vent. Verbena officinalis, Z. Vitis vinifera, Z, (8. ehasselas 
Tradescantia virginica, L, Veronica gentianoides, L. doré). 


Trifolium pratense, L, spicata, Z. Waldsteinia geoides, Kit. 


— sativum, L, 


List of Plants to be observed at the Vernal and Autumnal Equinoxes and 
Summer Solstice, for the hours of opening and closing their Flowers. 


Anagallis arvensis, L. Hemerocallis fulva, Z. (nothera biennis, Z. 
Arenaria purpurea, Pers. Lactuca sativa, L. Ornithogalum umbellatum, LZ. 
Calendula officinalis, Leontodon taraxacum, L. Picridium tingitanum, Desf. 
arvensis, L. Malva sylvestris, L. Portulaca oleracea sativa, LZ. 
Campanula speculum, L. Mesembryanthemum crystal- Sonchus oleraceus, Z. 
Cichorium endivia, L. linum, ZL. Trapa natans, LZ. 
Convolvulus tricolor, Z, coccineum, Haw. Tigridia pavonia, L. 

Crepis rubra, Z. —— pomeridianum, ZL. Tradescantia virginica, Z. 
Datura stramonium, L. Mirabilis longiflora, Z. Tragopogon pratensis, Z. 
— ceratocaula, Jacq. —— jalapa, L. —— porrifolius, Z. 
Dianthus prolifer, Z. Nymphea alba, Z. ; 


LISTS FOR THE ANIMAL KINGDOM *. 


MAMMALS. 


Meles taxus (Badger), appearance and retreat, 

Mustela erminea (Stoat), periods of moult. 

Myoxus avellanarius (Dormouse), commencement and termination of winter sleep, 
Vespertilio pipistrellus (Batt), first appearance and disappearance. 


BIRDS. 
Regular Summer migrants, of which the first appearance is to be observed. 
Caprimulgus europzeus (Goat-sucker). Saxicola cenanthe (Ji’heatear). 
Columba turtur (Turtle-dove), — rubetra (Whinchat). 
Crex pratensis (Land-rail), Sylvia atricapilia (Blackeap Warbler), 
Cuculus canorus (Cuckoo). —— cinerea (Whitethroat). 
Cypselus apus (Swift). —— curruca (Lesser Whitethroat), 
Hirundo riparia (Bank Martin). hortensis (Garden Warbler), 
— rustica (Swallow). — luscinia (Nightingale). 
— urbica (House Martin). arundinacea (Reed Warbler). 
Motacilla yarrellii (Pied Wagtatl{). —— pheenicurus (Redstart), 
Muscicapa grisola (Spotted Flycatcher). trochilus (Willow Warbler). 
Perdix coturnix (Quail). Yunx torquilla (Wryneck). 


* These lists contain some species not in those originally proposed in M. Quetelet’s 
memoir. This is at the suggestion of M. Edm. De Selys-Longchamps and the Rey. L. 
Jenyns, the former of whom assisted M. Quetelet in the first instance in drawing the lists 
up, especially that of birds. These gentlemen met and reconsidered the subject at the 
period of the Meeting of the British Association at Cambridge in June 1845, and the fol- 
lowing are the revised lists which they propose to be adopted. In this instance they are 
particularly arranged with a view to English observers ; some of the species of birds origi- 
nally named being extremely rare or accidental in this country, if they occur at all; and others, 
which are regular migrants on many parts of the continent, being stationary in Britain 
throughout the year. 

N.B. All the lists are arranged in alphabetical order. 

+ Care must be taken precisely to determine the species of Bat observed. 

+ This species is stationary in the south of England, but in some of the northern coun- 


ties as well as in Scotland is migratory. 


4 
: 
i 
: 
. 


_ PERIODICAL PHZNOMENA OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. 335 


Rare, or only occasional, Summer migrants *. 


Emberiza hortulana (Ortolan Bunting). Oriolus galbula (Golden Oriole), 
Lanius rufus (Woodchat Shrike). Sylvia tithys (Black Redstart). 
Motacilla flava, Temm. (Gray-headed Wagtail). Upupa epops (Hoopoet). 
Muscicapa luctuosa, Temm. (Pied Flycatcher). 


Regular Winter migrants. 


Anser segetum (Bean Goose). Fringilla spinus (Siskin). 
Corvus cornix (Hooded Crow). Scolopax rusticola (Woodcock), 
Cygnus ferus (Hooper or Wild Swan). Turdus pilaris (Meldfare). 


Fringilla montifringilla (Mountain Finch), ' 


Occasional Winter migrant. 


Bombycilla garrula (Bohemian Waxwing). 


Of accidental occurrence. 
Procellaria leachii (Fork-tailed Petrelt). Procellaria pelagica (Stormy Petrelt). 


Species to be observed for the periods of departure §. 


Cypselus apus (Swift). Hirundo rustica (Swallow ||). 
Hirundo riparia (Bank Martin). —— urbica (House Martin ||). 


Species to. be observed for the periods of collecting into flocks and pairing 
off in the Spring. 


Fringilla cannabina (Common Linnet). Sturnus vulgaris (Starling), 


Species to be observed for the periods of commencing song or note, 


Columba palumbus (Ring-dove). Parus major (Great Titmouse), 
Emberiza citrinella ( Yellow-hammer). Turdus merula (Blackbird). 
Fringilla cannabina (Linnet). —— musicus (Thrush). 

— chloris (Greenjinch). — visciyorus (Missel-thrush). 


— celebs (Chafiinch). 


Species to be observed for the periods of building. 


Corvus frugilegus (Rook). Fringilla domestica (House Sparrow), 
— pica (Magpie). 


* It was thought desirable to make a separate list of these species, all of which are in- 
cluded amongst the regular migrating birds selected for observation in M. Quetelet’s ori- 
ginal list, but which in this country are either very local, or of only accidental occurrence. 
halle, or whenever observers haye an opportunity of noticing them, the dates should be 
preserved. 

+ This species generally occurs in this country in the autumn, or at least not till after the 
breeding-season. 

+ Both these species are particularly inserted in M. Quetelet’s list, it being thought that 
their occasional appearance inland is generally more or less connected with tempestuous 
weather. Their occurrence, however, would not seem to be confined to any particular 
season. 

__§ It would be desirable to note, wherever it can be done, the exact period of departure 
of any of the species in the foregoing lists of summer and winter migrants; but as it is in 


‘general difficult to determine this, it is only especially recommended in the case of the 


Swallow tribe. t 

|| In the case of these species it will be well to notice the period at which the great bulk 
take their departure, as well as the date of the last individual’s being seen. It will also be 
proper to notice the exact time of swallows and martins congregating, which takes place for 
a longer or shorter period before they depart. 


336 REPORT—1845. 


REPTILES. 


Natrix torquata (Common Snake). 
Zootoca vivipara (Common Lizard 


Bufo vulgaris (Common Toad). 
Rana temporaria (Common Frog). Ditto ; also period of spawning. 
Triton palustris (Warty Eft). 


) } rirst appearance. 


FISH *. 
Acipenser sturio (Sturgeon). 7 
Clupea alosa (Allis). 
finta (Shad). Period of ascending rivers. 


Salmo salar (Common Salmon). 

trutta (Salmon Trout). 

Clupea harengus (Common Herring). 
Scomber vulgaris (Common Mackerel). 


} vist arrival on the coast. 


4 MOLLUSKS. 


Helix aspersa. 
nemoralis. 


} First appearance. 


INSECTS. 


First appearance of the following species. 


( Coleoptera.) (Hymenoptera.) (Diptera.) 
Geotrupes stercorarius. Anthophora retusa. Bibio hortulanus. 
Lytta vesicatoria tT. Apis mellifica. — marci. 

Meloé proscarabeeus. Bombus||. Bombylius medius. 

Melolontha vulgaris. Formicall. Culex pipiens. 

— solstitialis. Vespa vulgaris. Eristalis tenax. 

Peecilus cupreus. ; Hematopota pluvialis. 

Telephorus rusticus. (Lepidoptera.) Mesembrina meridiana. 

Timarcha tenebricosa. Catocala nupta. Rhyphus fenestralis. 
Gonepteryx rhamni. Stomoxys calcitrans. 

(Orthoptera.) Hegharshea janira. Tipula oleracea. 
Acrida viridissimat. Plusia gamma. Trichocera hiemalis. 
Locusta§. Polyommatus alexis. Xylota pipiens. 

Pontia brassicz. 

(Neuropters.) cardamines. 
ZEschna maculatissima. —— napi. 
Calepteryx virgo. rape. 
Ephemera vulgata. Vanessa io. 
Libellula depressa. polychloros. 
Panorpa communis. — urtice. 
Sialis lutarius. 


* The observations on this class of animals are especially recommended to such natural- 
ists as are situated in the neighbourhood of large rivers, or on the sea-coast. 

+ This species is inserted as being in M. Quetelet’s original list: in England it is rare, 
and not often met with. 

+ In this species the commencement of the stridulous cry of the male should be especially 
noted. 

§ As the species of this genus strongly resemble one another, and appear much about the 
same period of the summer, it will be sufficient to notice the first appearance of the genus only. 

Note.—It should be borne in mind that the names dcrida and Locusta are differently 
applied by the continental entomologists; the genus here termed dcrida being with them 
Locusta, and Locusta their Acridium. 

\| Note here, as in the case of Locusta, the first appearance of the genus only. Under 
Formica, mark, besides the first coming abroad in the early part of the year, the period of 
the summer or autumn when the winged ants migrate. 


;: 


4 y ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS. 337 


Fifth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. BE. Srrickuanp, Esq., 
Prof. Dauseny, Prof. Henstow, and Prof. LinpuEy, appointed 
to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds. 


THESE experiments have been commenced as in previous years, in accord- 
ance with the specified instructions. 

The Committee have this year expended 9/. 15s. 10d. in the purchase of 
seeds and incidental expenses (including Curator’s salary). 

Seeds of 23 genera have been added to the Seminarium at Oxford, of 
which 1 was contributed by H. E. Strickland, Esq., 4 were gathered in the 
Oxford Botanic Garden, and 18 were purchased of Mr. Charlwood. . 

The increasing difficulty of procuring a sufficient quantity of seeds of ge- 
nera not previously subjected to experiment, induces the Committee again 
earnestly to solicit contributions of seeds, either of a recent or of any known 
date, from all persons interested in the inquiry who may have such at their 
disposal. To be addressed to the Curator, W. H. Baxter, Botanic Garden, 
Oxford. 


The following is a list of the seeds distributed this season :— 


No. of Seeds of each d 
Species which vege- | Time of vegetating 


in days at 
No. tated at y' 


adwhtl Remarks, 


Name and Date when gathered, 


Ox- |p; Chis-| Ox- | 1; \Chis- 
i haa oc EN SP ag iwick. 


— ee ee ee 


1837. 
1. Daucus Carota ............ 
1842. 


2. Aconitum Napellus ...... 

8. Adonis autumnalis......... 

4, Amaranthus caudatus .. 

5. Anagallis arvensis ......... 

6. Buffonia annua .........000) LOO |....00] seceervee | 16 foeecea] coseesaes 1 
7. Buphthalmum cordifolium] 100 | 11 |......... Sete 

8. Bupleurum rotundifolium 

9. Conium maculatum ...... 

10. Cytisus Laburnum......... 
11. Dipsacus laciniatus ...... 

12. Elsholtzia cristata ......... 1 . 
13. Erysimum Peroffskianum. 1° Oxford 


variegated. 


14. Helianthus indicus on slight 
15. Heracleum elegans heat. 
16. Hyoscyamus niger 
17. Iberis umbellata............ E 
|} 18. Iris sibirica................6. " - PPS 8 aE 
| 19. Lathyrus heterophyllus... 
| 20. Leonurus Cardiaca......... 
21. Malcomia maritima ...... 
| 22. Malope grandiflora......... 
23. Momordica Elaterium ....) 25 |....06] ...sseeee | LB |o..sce] concer 
24. Nepeta Cataria ............ 
25. Nicandra physaloides...... 
26. Nigella nana 
27. Orobus niger ores : 
28, Stenactis speciosa .........) 100 | 3 )......... 
| 29. Tetragonolobus purpureus| 25 
| 30. Trigonellafenum-grecum| 50 
| 31. Tropzolum majus ......... 5 


: § At Oxford 
32. Cucurbita .......cccccsceees 15 : 5 ais leak AL. 


aeeeeel weeeeneee | Af jeeeses| sovestaes 


se esee!] coeseseee 


seevereee | SY | SL | covevccee 


seneeecee 


erewesces| LU Jeacees| coeeeeses | Ut [sonees| neteccses 


Pesce rene te eeeenes 


«1845. Z 


FN 


338 REPORT—1845. 


No. of Seeds of each 


Species which vege- | Time of vegetating 
3 tated at in days at 
Name and Date when gathered. | sown, | —>=———____|__, Remarks. 
ford | ERC | for [HME wk 
crenata a A | | ats | SASS} <n? | ——— 
1842 (continued). 
35. Medicago maculata ...... 62 | 14 38 25 
36. Calandrinia speciosa ...... 75 | 4 8 |30 
37. Callichroa platyglossa . 60 | 6 8 |30 
38. Collomia coccinea ......... 55D |... 14 (85 
39. Coreopsis atrosanguinea... 82) 7 41 35 
40. Cotoneaster rotundifolia . 1) el secs 40 
41. Crategus macracantha ... AA Sasiienesess 40 
42, punctata ......... Sli |kabwas| psiocesves 45 
43. Cynoglossum glochidatum 42 | 8 47 (30 ! 
44, Digitalis lutea..........00+. Be | 9 las 25 
45. Eutoca viscida ............ 7G] OD) | ccs. esce. 21 
46. Glaucium rubrum ......... AT |.cecce] eoseweeee 21 
47. Godetia Lindleyana ...... FAN IDE sce ceeees 18 
48. Gladiolus psittacinus...... VW] |) BB, |iecce ene 40 
49, Impatiens glanduligera ... a Seen a ba 
50. Lupinus succulentus ...... 2 5 1 
51. Nolana atriplicifolia ...... 49| 5| 10 |21y|J At Oxtord 
52. Oxyura chrysanthemoides| 100 | 22 9 | 36} 5 10 (21 he te 
53. Papaver amcenum ........- 100 | 17 6 |24| 8| 15 {18 Phe 
54. Phacelia tanacetifolia ...| 100 | 27 13 | 82 | 10 11 (30 
55. Potentilla nepalensis ...... ci ee aautesna a4 tae feeeceee se a 
56. Sphenogyne speciosa...... O | 3D | cscs... Sul itexsweaee 5 : 
57. Acacia eat ges eee 100 | 9 PEM sb I 7 ll (45 It is be t 
58. Alstroemeria pelegrina ...| 20 | 1 |......... 4 V'A0'| castecats ho Aer 
BO)? Beta allen ge d...55--.sanv-2 200 dee 
60. Carpinus Betula............ TOO i ciliccceesspp|-deees|vesees| ienevenann||eamana Be ah iis 
61. Catalpa cordifolia ......... 50 an ‘thi y 
62. Cercis canadensis .......+. 50| 1 1 2 | 40 4l (45 ape ey 
63. Cerinthe major ............ 50/36] 26 |17| 8] 14 (21 i oF 
64, Cichorium Endivia ...... 150 | 72} 78 |110| 6 8 |21 aera 
65. Cobza scandens............ Bil ransen| esessee de SB |asaresl cnceesene 21 Seeds of 
66. Cuphea procumbens ...... 50 | 10 3 | 32] 6 36 30 halk 8 
67. Dolichos lignosus ......... 25 | 25 17 |19| 8| 34 (35 ‘i y ab 
68. Galinsogea trilobata ...... 100|27| 31 |42| 6] 15 {35 ans “ rs 
69. Tlex.Aquifolium ..........+. 100 pray ie 
70. Juniperus communis ...... 100 | pica] cosccecee [ececee[econee| seseeeee [eseeee t hoe ae 
71. Liriodendron Tulipiferum| 50 he aed aiet 
72. Loasa nitida, .......00.00... 100 | 3 31 | 18 | 12 16 |30 slight heat. 
73. Magnolia, sp. ........-+.00+ GP Akeal ime sa5-c5e ERiALOI gs vice [teesnetane 45 ‘At Oxford 1 ve- 
74, Martynia proboscidea ...| 20 | 8 |... Daly OMe tccaseen 35 irene lsd 
75. Mesembryanthemum cry- ei cecal 
stallinum ....0...s.00e0ee0s 100 | 30 |......... US: tal ae a 21 till 60 days. 
76. Mirabilis Jalapa............ 25 | 8 ll ll} 5 15 |30 At Oxford, é 
77. Morus nigra ....s.10+...00 100 | 22| 9 | 28} 20|........ AB als saueeks 
78. Ricinus communis......... a lk Sulpcesc ake Scat Rial Purl (<as'ewmane 20 heat. 
79. Rudbeckia amplexicaulis .| 150 | 10 1 | 44} 12 15 (35 
80. Scorpiurus sulcatus ...... 25 | 10 7 5 | 8 16 |20 
81. Tetragonia expansa ...... 15] 3 8 | 11 | 20 18 =(|21 
82. Ulex europza............... 100 | 20 30 | 63 | 14 18 Fe 
83. Quercus Robur ............ BO ecca}inenessines Dpilices cel\eacee mae ] 
84, Phoenix Dactylifera ...... Ba its Ra Ree bee DAT || seewntans 40 es ers eH 
1844. Placed at Ox- 
85. Ammobium alatum ...... 200 | 62 8 | 61] 5 15 {18 / = on slight 
86. Asparagus officinalis ...... 150 | 93 36 {122 | 20 21 (33 ~ 
87. Alstroemeria aurantia...... LOO) Valen vennes 1] |..0...| vecesseee 30 
88. Argemone alba .......+.... 100 | 33 12 | 68} 10 20 {16 
89. Bryonia dioica ............ 100 |...... Qa Fi i\ewcsns 9 |20 


ON THE REDUCTION OF STARS. 339 


No. of Seeds of each | ,.. ; 
Species which vege- | Time of vegetating 
tated at in days at 


Name and Date when gathered. b Se Remarks. 


Ox- |yy; Chis- 
. | ford. ee wick. 


1844 (continued). 
90. Carthamus tinctorius 
. Carum Carui 
. Catananche cerulea 
. Crambe maritima 
. Chenopodium Botrys 
. Eschscholtzia californica . 


. Helleborus foetidus 


. Linaria Prezii 

. Malva mauritiana 

- Madia splendens 

. Scorzonera hispanica 

. Saponaria annua 

. Solanum ovigerum 

. Sium Sisarum 

. Sanvitalia procumbens ... 
. Tragopogon porrifolins ... 
. Vesicaria grandiflora 


28 
17 \"e Oxford 


21 
30 
18 


on slight 
heat. 


med 


wo } 
AAMAS AL MAA AOD 


— Si 


Wituiam H. Baxter, Curator. C. B. DauBeEny. 
June 12, 1845. H. E. StRicKLAND, 


APPENDIX. 
On the Reduction of Stars in the ‘ Histoire Céleste’ of Lalande and the 
q ‘Celum Australe Stelliferum’ of Lacaille. 


} Tue Committee appointed at the York Meeting of the British Association 
in 1844, and consisting of Sir J. Herschel, the Astronomer Royal, and 
Lieutenant W. S. Stratford, R.N., to continue the reduction of the stars in the 
Histoire Céleste’ of Lalande and the ‘Ccelum Australe Stelliferum’ of La- 


| 

duced. 

__ 2. That the press-work has proceeded as far as sheet 2 T, ending with 
No. 26240 of the Catalogue. 

3. That the whole will be ready for publication before the next meeting 
of the Association. 

| 4, That the whole of Lacaille’s Stars have been reduced. 


_ §. That the Catalogue is printed, and there remain to be prepared the 
_ Preface and Notes, both of which have been delayed by the lamented decease 
_ of Professor Henderson. 

6. That this Catalogue will also be ready for publication before the 


bs ren in 1846. 
: e 


340 REPORT—1845. 


7. That the balance of the Government grant of 1000/. for printing these 


Catalogues was at the previous meeting............e0-+-- + £934 2s. 
Out of which there has been paid to the printers, on account 300 0 
Leaving a balance of ...... Fe ae wT a PE ts Re £634 2 


the whole of which will be required before the next meeting. 
8. That the appointment of a Committee, to continue the printing of these 
works, is necessary. 
Nautical Almanac Office, W. S. STRATFORD. 
June 16th, 1845. 


On the Catalogue of Stars of the British Association. 


Tue Committee appointed at the York Meeting of the British Association 
in 1844, and consisting of the Rev. Dr. Robinson, the Rev. James Challis, 
and Lieutenant W. S. Stratford, R.N., for the purpose of continuing the 
publication of the British Association’s Catalogue of Stars, with the sum of 
615/. at their disposal, report,— 
1. That the Catalogue is completed and ready for publication. 
2. That the following Works and MSS. relating to the formation of the 
Catalogue have been deposited at the Kew Observatory :— 
Taylor’s Madras Observations, 4: vols. 4to. (two copies). 
Brisbane’s Catalogue, 1 vol. 4to. (two copies). 
Johnson’s Catalogue and Henderson’s Catalogue, in 1 vol. 4to. 
(two copies). 
Groombridge’s Catalogue, 1 vol. 4to. 
Wrottesley’s Catalogue, 1 vol. 4to. 
Mayer’s Catalogue by Baily, 1 vol. 4to. 
Sundry Calculations, 1 vol. 8vo. 
MSS. Calculations, 24: vols. 4to. 
MSS. Synonyms, notes, &c., 24 vols. 
MS. copy of the Catalogue, 1 vol. 
3. That the whole of the expenses incurred in the production of the Cata- 
logue (500 copies) have been paid, and that no further grant will be needed. 
4. Thatior the Geant of 002507 ..005. 3. s2. £615 O O 
There has been expended agreeably to the ac- 
counts sent herewith— 


Or Press=WOrk: 2 ons» og «2. ate steers» £40 0 O 
Printing and paper ..........-- 0.0. 511 15 O 
MMGINE NIE. ce oavis » + wan cy eee DF Ae 11 14 6 
—-——. £563 9 6 
Weaving? a aad O65 AG ow 5 ose. oar oe as > viajar £51 10 6 
5. That the entire cost of the Catalogue has been— 
Pre ormaGhae es Hes esc s yb in oS erctate se ncemiepaes £4 0 0 
Pre PGIOEOE PONIES, ic os wup.0, 0:0 'ma ies ve + Spt poeat unate Se 64 0 O 
De RL CTNATIOBS re ole uss. cdn jo. hats a Sat as che fee ane ai 537 16 6 
4, Printing and paper ..........--sceesseeeeee 51115 O 
Fe (REREWORK ic oe oa hw hones of hire } Ses ei Ti . 2 
Ge PEM OU a ino halos 0 2/3. 9 ns aie 448 <4 places cos, | (ee ce 
etal ope (asqld okt ok Seas eel se ea iv. cele 6". O 
Which is equivalent to nearly 2/. 8s. for each copy. 
Nautical Almanac Office, W. S. STRATFORD. 


June 16th, 1845. 


ON THE KEW OBSERVATIONS. 341 


On the Kew Observations. By FRancis RONALDS, Esq. 


Mr. Francis Rona.ps, on presenting the Annual Journal of Electro-meteo- 
rological Observations made at the Kew Observatory, confined himself al- 
most exclusively to an enumeration of its different heads. 

The introductory portion begins with the description of a little variation 
in the cap of the principal conductor, which variation might possibly (he 
said) affect slightly its electrical indications. 

He secondly described (for the possible safety and convenience of future 
observers) a method of raising and lowering the principal conductor. 

Thirdly, the result of his experience as to the best method of maintaining 
the little collecting flame (of Volta) in a fit condition, &c., in strong gales, &c. 

Fourthly. Three registering electrometers, the principle of which consists 
in causing the hand or arm of a clock connected with the principal conductor 
to charge electrometers contained in air-tight vessels, together with chloride 
of calcium, and to leave the electrometers thus charged entirely separated 
from any other body than their supports. 

Fifthly. A pluvio-electrometer, which is a large copper dish properly in- 
sulated on a warmed glass column (as usual) upon the roof, and connected 
with electrometers in the interior of the Observatory. This apparatus has 
exhibited strong signs of positive electrization at moments when the principal 
conductor was charged negatively (the latter much more highly, of course). 
The phenomenon occurred when a storm was imminent, but before any rain 
had fallen, and the result had been expected. 

Sixthly. A simple modification of the Coulomb electrometer, which renders 
this excellent instrument capable of employment in all states of the air (as 
to humidity): in using it, the usual kind of tedious manipulation is in a very 
great degree diminished. The principal alteration consists in placing the vi- 
brating (or moveable) needle in perfect metallic contact with the fixed needle. 
[ There are other improvements. ] 

Seventhly. A few details concerning improvements of his Balance Anemo- 
meter. 

The Journal itself is preceded by some necessary explanations, &c., which 
show that the regular number of observations of many instruments per diem 
has been greatly enlarged since the Ist of January (1845). The registering 
electrometers enable the observer to add the hours of 12, 2 and 4 to the other 
hours of observation, and thus to complete two-hourly observations of atmo- 
spheric electricity for the whole day. 

Under the head of experiments, &c., are detailed a few on the electrical 
insulation, at two different heights, of two conductors, whose upper extre- 
_ mities had the same height above the earth. The object was to obtain a 
few useful data for other ubservers of atmospheric electricity. 

And another on a rather extraordinary case of electrization without insu- 
lation (in the usual sense of the word): it was a case of the St. Elmo fire 


_ probably. 


Provisional Reports and Notices of Progress were read on the following 
Subjects :-— 


Investigation of the Marine Zoology of Britain by means of the Dredge. 


By Prof. E. Forbes. 
On Marine Animals of Cornwall. By C. W. Peach. 


342 REPORT—1845. 


On the undescribed Species of Anoplura. By H. Denny. 
On the Varieties of the Human Race. By Dr. Hodgkin. 
On Subterranean Temperature in Ireland. By Prof. Oldham. 
On the Statistics of Sickness and Mortality at York. By T. Laycock, M.D. 
On the Microscopic Structure of Shells. By W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. 


NOTICES 
AND : 
ABSTRACTS OF COMMUNICATIONS 
TO THE 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, 


AT THE 


CAMBRIDGE MEETING, JUNE 1845. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


Tue Eprrors of the following Notices consider themselves responsible only 
for the fidelity with which the views of the Authors are abstracted. 


CONTENTS. 


——— 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS OF MISCELLANEOUS 
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. ~ 


Page 
Rey. T. Jarrett on Algebraic Equivalence....... seeeseoes itseaavacddcossecsarnese ae ee 
Professor Youne on Imaginary Zeros, &c...... snccuasauanseascee cree didacecaseaee Rasa 
Rey. C. Graves on Triplets......... Reseacdenacecere ratisese eos taceass ncaa vaeeretes ageeer es 
Mr. Grorce Boots on the Equation of Laplace’s Functions ........0...essceeee- 2 
Mr. H. Wepewoop on the Premises of Geometry...... Sam eecle seen Sear tend 2 
Sir Writram R. Hamitron’s Exposition of a System of Quaternions ......... 3 
Mr. F. Basurortu’s Description of a Machine for finding the Numerical Roots 
of Equations, and tracing a variety of useful Curves ......scc.scesccecesssecencees 3 
Mr. Toomas Wrieur Hitt on a System of Numerical Notation ......... see i! 
Ear of Rosss on the Nebula 25 Herschel, or 61 of Messier’s Catalogue......... 4 
Professor SrevELty on the Projection of a Star on the Dark Limb of the Moon 
just before its Occultation ............ deaneasan spacex(gtentacivacseancnenssuscee Deaeanand 5 
Professor Henry on the Heat of the Solar Spots .........s..ssceseeessceccuscees Saat Shel 
M. Boceustawsx1’s Description of a Universal Stand applicable to the Use of 
Astronomical Telescopes ...... papsccenenaseas Boknesemtsdauvaveteewaceuscnuscndaensa des 6 
Professor Powe. on certain Points in the Elliptic Polarization of Light by 
Metallic Reflexion ...........ssseeesseees Bcnnoceusees octdcesencans «daa -2ceosSbes eccnecne 6 
Sir Davip Brewster on a New Polarity of Light, with an Examination of 
Mr. Airy’s Explanation of it on the Undulatory Theory...... tecadat stants ese amcantiey nt 
”s Notice of Two New Properties of the Retina ........... 28 
Professor CuHatuts on the Aberration of Light ............ nnatanyscenaed baie sbideh’eaer: el 
Mr. G. G. Sroxes on the Aberration of Light .............cceceeceeee a are p aon ee 
Professor ANDERSON on the Caustics produced by two Mirrors in Rotation... 9 
Sir Davip Brewster on the Rotation of Minute Crystals in the Cavities of 
BUGLE) .5.c0cc+050000 peeceeas eae veer nee Saba deer AAS AS SEE Ee 9 
on the Condition of Topaz subsequent to the formation of 
certain Classes of Cavities Within it .........cccsscseccsenseeeeeseetes agence abe seasee 9 
Rey. S. EarnsHaw on the Rings which surround the Image of a Star formed 
by the Object-glass of a Telescope .....0...+++e+- wceccapovascccccsonsncesens acchoctrc 10 
Sir Davip Brewsrer’s Improvement in the Method of taking Positive Talbo- 
_ types (Calotypes) .........00 Peicnctte Races seeaee sported aha th netoneee sdarassee 10 
_ Mr. Wit1am Tuomson on the Elementary Laws of Statical Electricity ..... . il 
_ Rev. H. Luoyp’s Remarks on the Periodicity of Magnetic Disturbances......... 12 
_ Mr. J. A. Broun on the Results of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observa- 
tions at General Sir Thomas M. Brisbane’s Observatory, at Makerstoun, in the 
15 


‘year LSAQ revvrervccrececcececvecececscseveceereeseesvereveesececcrcesccereeetensasesseesece 


iv CONTENTS. 


Rev. WrixiaMm Scoressy on a large Magnetic Machine .........sssssssseeeseeeees 
Mr. JosepH York Otrver on the Baron de Bode’s Insulated Compass......... 
Mr. E. J. Dent on a Method of suspending a Ship’s Compass......... sadbssdodeas 


Mr. S. M. Saxsy on the Connection between Magnetic Variation with certain 
peculiarities of the Earth’s Structure ........sessesressesseeseeeeenees senda Peet hes ; 


Rey. Taomas Knox on the amount of Rain which had fallen, with the different 
winds, at Toomavara, in the County of Limerick, during five consecutive years 


Mr. Henry Lawson on a Thermometer Stand......cscsscesesscsevececssceccecceccs 
Mr. James Tuomas Gopparp on a neW Anemometer.......+.. cAincenapumcepeese 


Rev. T. Ranxin’s Meteorological Observations made in 1844 at Huggate, Wold, 
Yorkshire, .<ccs.0s Saas eee cree ccavestatkoenoenes An ptt haere SEN ane caupeswceses 


— Additional Thermometrical Observations in a deep well at 
Piugeate cc ccscccccqse ress Sopapste re areas tosis gis ao'saquda tuani'ls sy exbeas cccvescsgageaneces 


Sir Davip Brewster on Fog-rings observed in America.,...cseessseeeeeees cesenes 
Mr. J. R. Crowr’s Tables of Meteorological Observations for the year 1844... 


Mr. J. F. Coxn’s Description of the Lightning and Thunder of the 16th of 
August 1844, which took place at Alten, in Norwegian Lapland ..............- 


M. Covutvier Gravier’s Researches on Shooting Stars.......ssccseseeseeee Beate 


Mr. Ricuarp Epmonps on Remarkable Lunar Periodicities in Earthquakes, 
extraordinary Oscillations of the Sea, and great Atmospherical Changes...... 


Rey. Grorce Fisunr on the Nature and Origin of the Aurora Borealis......... 


Lieut.-Colonel Everest on the Measurement of Two Arcs of the Meridian in 
Indien eae. wes Wis AY Gb. Madsedd Hi zac aaeie er a era ee PAY: devel dvacaneer eine 


Mr. Luxe Howarp on a Lunar Meteorological Cycle ......ccccsssscssescesecenees 
Mr. Eaton Hopexrnson on the Strength of Stone Columns .........cssseeeeeees 


CHEMISTRY. 


M. Boutieny’s Experiments on the Spheroidal State of Bodies, and its Appli- 
cation to Steam-Boilers, and on the Freezing of Water in red-hot Vessels... 


Professor GRAHAM on a New Property of Gases............ ddesse cue sededeegeesecesens 
Dr. Mruier on the Action of Gases on the Prismatic Spectrum ......s..cceeerees 


Mr. Rosrert Hunt’s Contributions to Actino-Chemistry.—On the Chemical 
Changes produced by the Solar Rays, and the Influence of Actinism in dis- 
turbing Electrical Forces ......++++- pases aeeadee visi Meee ee aR 


M. Spiitreersber on the Manufacture of a Coloured Glass...........+0+« dedseeavs 
Professor Grovsz on Recent Experiments on the Gas Voltaic Battery ........+00 
Mr. C. V, WaLker on the Voltaic Reduction of Alloys... .sesessacereerrateseneare 


Mr. W. G. Anmstrona’s Description of a Colossal Hydro-Electric Machine, 
with a Notice of some Phenomena attending the production of Electricity 


Dy Steaks cass; aatesviegh sagrr apes saeashestuerensttveathice AS Fe Gate oo vdadeeeudavabeet 
Mr. James P. Jouxz on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat......... seeeeeegsenense 
Dr. Lyon Prayrarr on Atomic Volumes ...,. sandthikals 1aas* PPT ithe re 


Mr. Grorce Kemp’s Outlines of a Natural System of Organic Chemistry...... 
Mr. Epwarp Sotty on Gutta Percha, a new yariety of Caoutchouc.......+++++ 
Professor Tuomas TitLey and Dr. Dovexas Maciagan’s Notice of the Oil 


of ASBALECUIGA: cacaccennannnanennnansssameanad@Mniierkslaehansasndid scenes semidn ti eaeaeeee 


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CONTENTS. 


Professor Davseny on the Chemical Principles involved in the Rotation of Crops 
Professor Jounston on the Chemical Principles of Rotation of Crops........s05. 


Mr. J. Taomas Way on the Analysis of the Ashes of Plants........... epclweccestee 
Professor Jounston’s Observations on the Ashes of Plants ........ccscssesescncece 
Mr. J. P. Norton on the Ashes of Oats...cssscsccsessesssescsscesseeesseserecssesences 
Mr. F. C. Wricutson on the Ashes of Narcotic Plants ...ccsccsssscscseseectecess 
Mr. Wixturam SHarp on the Ashes of Wheat....sscsccsseccececseecetecesseces asipeeot 
Mr. E. G, Sco weitzer’s Analysis of three species of FUCUS......cses.seseseceseees 
Mr. J. P. Norton on the Composition of Slate Rocks and the Soils formed 

from them .c.cccccsccesees Se viivaecetuseuvs TM rite Lie Lut ee: “PR ehadb.ceweate 
Professor Lizpie on Mineral Manure .........ssecsceeceeeees COTM ATH Sei sabbeakd 
Dr. CANTER 0 Malacca Guano ..........ccccececceecceceenceees Sodan ceeansaeceteet ‘ 


Mr. Tuomas J. Pearsaxu on Masses of Salt discovered in the lowest portions 
MP WeUANO OF Cie ISTANG OM ECHABUC .1..cenccsececsusccastcvaseccesees ous cautcseus classe 


GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Rev. Professor Sepe¢wick on the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge, 
including the Formations between the Chalk Escarpment and the Great Bed- 
ford Level ......ss.sss00+ Ele daven cus saws Gens schassetsueescey Sou geabnn gncieaeso ee rane sutetet Se 

M. Ferpinanp Oswatp on the occurrence of Silurian Rocks at, the Villages 


of Ober and Neu Schmollen, near Breslau, in Silesia, and covering an area of 
about eight square English miles ..............ccssscsecscscesceccececeecesesessccscecs 


Professor GOprERt’s Tabular View of Fossil Plants ..............se00e0 Ben eeeeence 
Dr. Buckuanp on the Agency of Land Snails in forming holes and trackways 
in Compact Limestone ....,.........ceceeeens Eatesneoeuier tovnssctrepeetets etna tears 
Mr. S. P. Prarrt on the Coal Deposits of the Asturias ..........- peaceedt une et 
Mr. A. C. Ramsay on the Denudation of South Wales and the adjacent 
Counties ............ Siweees stias Rakisene sete cnceratt.Gocaccsetcatne Radieeren ets peakbewtecsne 
Dr. Dizrrensacu on the Geology of New Zealand ............0 sbeUsteck sumesevue 
Sir R. Scpomsurex on the Lake Parima, the El Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh 
and the Geography of Guiana. ..............+ MEO ey bes sukap amen pasis cache 
Mr. H. E. Srrickianpn’s Notice and Drawings of the Footprints of various 
Animals on the New Red Sandstone of Corncockle Muir ........... mmntnon ps diay 
Professor Henstow on Nodules, apparently Coprolitic, from the Red Crag, 
London Clay, and Greensand ............2+002- wou geeecdeessandecsaecs.scastapanurs aoe 
Rev. Dr. Buckianp on the Mechanical Action of Animals on Hard and Soft 
Substances during the Progress of Stratification .........secsssssseceseces Saeaeeeehe 


Extract of a Letter from Mr. Hopkins respecting Traces resembling Ornithich- 


MULGOR f) Rud bOMCRECS use. SCLELUARL cous toducked. sete ds Ce sbsdte dead 4b cbadi BBE TSS. vate 


Dr. Fauconsr on some New Additions among the Mammalia to the Fossil 


Fauna of India, from Perim Island, in the Gulf of Cambay «........ssssseeeee ‘ 
Mr. E. W. Binnery’s Remarks on Fossil Trees at St. Helen’s, Lancashire, which 
exhibit Stigmariz as their Roots ...........0 Se smb fNemeb tease ssvesavephecWeocks 


Mr. James Suir on the Subsidence of the Land at Puzzuoli ........sesssscsesese 


Professor AnsTEp on the Methods of Working and Ventilating the Coal-mines 
of the North of England, with reference to the Accidents that occur in such 
Mines from the Explosion of Firedamp ...ssseceseeeeesees daducuabiguclacewewsedeons 


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vl CONTENTS. 


Mr. E. Hatu’s Notice of the Toadstones of Derbyshire ssseccreesssersneenseesunes 


Mr. Epwarp CuarLEsworrs on the Fossil Bodies regarded by M. Agassiz as 
the Teeth of a Fish, and upon which he has founded his supposed Gs 


Sphenonchus sevsssesereeseesserseeseeceeceeecseceecaenseennees as havemadearacnnee ae 
Mr. Turner’s Notice of Fossil Fish from Antigua ....cescccssesesseeaees sesh «Sate 
Mr. Francis WuisHaw on amethod of exhibiting, at one view, the results of a 

given Geological Survey sssssssssesssesececcecanaesseroeseuanes Ostincandg i dadcl-Anresic 
Mr. J. W. Satter’s Remarks on the Structure and Relations of Cornulites, and 

other allied Silurian Fossils ........... cssescssseeees DAS A RRS oe eee tao 
’s Notice of some important Additions to the Fossils of the 

Gilnrian WVOCKS* aevecieeesdeccseacancsace Saab alee Rech Dok cae Ri IU See was 
Mr. H. E. Srrickuanp on the results of recent Researches into the Fossil In- 

sects of the Secondary Formations of Britain .........ccsssecscseeseveeeeeeeeees weve 


Professor E. Forsss and Lieut. Spratt on a remarkable Phenomenon pre- 
sented by the Fossils in the Freshwater Tertiary of the Island of Cos......... 


Baron von WALTERSHAUSEN’S Abstract of a Paper on the Physico-Geographi- 
cal Description of Mount Etna. ...........ssscsscssecsscersersesnscensconsseseenseennses 


Mr. Epwarp CHARLESWoRTH on the Occurrence of the Mosasaurus in the 
Essex Chalk, and on the Discovery of Flint within the Pulp-cavities of its 
FRB REELED come a sideasnaaa hanes aduawasacbalcacu te sed clon cis ois catseteplabtaneee seleOh sia saiaceianiae eee 


Mr. Carter’s Notice of the Jaws of an Ichthyosaurus from the Chalk in the 
neighbourhood of Cambridge  ....sssesssssscrsessceereseecnnneeeteecerseaneeeteeenens 


Rey. J. G. Cummine on Posidonian Schist amidst Trappzan Beds, and on 
Traces of Drift-ice in the South of the Isle Of Man .....sssssceecneeeeeenee Sebiae s 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 
Mr. Wriitam Oerxsy on the Scientific Principles on which Classification in 
the higher Departments of Zoology should be based ........ssssssssseeeeereeeeees 
Dr. Fauconer on the Fossil Elephantine Animals of India ...........+.ssessseeee 


M. Srexys pr Lonecuamps on the Genus 4rvicola; on the Libellulide of Eu. 
rope ; on Hybrids of the Genus Anser ..........csssesecsseeereeseeeeenetceseeeeeeeee 


Dr. Macpona.p on the Unity of Organization as exhibited in the Skeleton of 


INITHAIS) aazeonebacessweesnnestdelscasarea¥a Cds tng enahee Wes @irainne sates Bodiaecdasweniseds 
Mr. Joun Buackwatt on Periodical Birds observed in the Years 1844 and 1845 
near Llanrwst, Denbighshire, North Wales............+.. RECAP iaSacvannate 
Mr. Joszru Bonomi on a Gigantic Bird sculptured on the Tomb of an Officer 
of the Household of Pharaoh  ............csssccssevecsctonecsescscscnsnseneesces aise sais 
Mr. W. C. Trevetyan on the Discovery of Guano in the Faroe Islands ...... 
Mr. J. O. Westwoon’s Remarks on Entomology ........cessesseeerseresees RETR AAS 
Mr. Rosert Baxu on Noises produced by one of the Notonectid@ .......s+0e0 


Messrs. ALDER and Hancocx on a new Genus of Mollusca Nudibranchiata ... 
Mr. Cuarztes WiLi1am Peacu on the Marine Fauna of Cornwall..... ......... 


Professor E. Forses’s Notice of Additions to the Marine Fauna of Britain, dis- 
covered by Robert M‘Andrew, Esq. since the last Meeting of the Association. 


Rev. J. B. Reape on the Cilia and Ciliary Currents of the Oyster .........+.+... 


Professor E. Forszs on the Distribution of Endemic Plants, more especially 
those of the’British Islands, considered with regard to Geological Changes... 


Mr. A. Henrrey on the Development of Vegetable Cells ....... contac sesanane ds 


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CONTENTS. 
Professor E. Sotty on the Influence of Galvanic Electricity on the Germination 
Of Seeds. .....scseecrereveee Sea eu iy este sega Mpcn che sor aureaecs Siena sedis ss teidlsnie de 


Mr. Epwin LANKESTER on the Germination of Plants .......-e.sccseeceeee eins ce 


—_- on the Phytelephas Macrocarpa (Vegetable Ivory or 
Tagua Plant) ......... Winvivialrecoussitubustatce wuldabas suis eciede steeds dis «allel wd Bvajidedestios 


Sir R. Schomsurex’s Description of the Murichi, or Ita Palm, of Guiana 

Professor ALLMAN’s Description of the Fruit of some of the Hepatice ......... 
on a Monstrosity occurring in Saxifraga Geum ......0.-...00. 
Mr. J. Bauu on Practica! Means for the Advancement of Systematic Botany... 


—— on the Specific Characters of Plants, considered in Morphological 
ICM aria see Gus coat ve sees sin cncccetes scutes nas cade (neces decascwaseeulatedesueen eens 


Dr. Royzez on the Geographical Distribution of Plants in British India ......... 
Professor ANDREWs’s Notes on the Irish Species of Robertsonian Saxifrages ... 
Dr. R. G. Laruam on the Increase of the Ergot upon GrasseS  ....se.eeseeeeee bs 
Rey. L. Jenyns on the Turf of the Cambridgeshire Fens .......scssessseeeceseesees 


Mr. A. Goapsy on Fizeau’s Process of Etching Daguerréotype Plates, and its 
Application to Objects of Natural History .........cccecsesecseseceeteeeeseeeseeee 


Mr. JoszepH Bonomi on an Apparatus for Measuring and Registering two di- 
mensions of the Human Frame, the Height of the Bedy, and the Space from 
the extremity of the Fingers of one Hand, to the extremity of the Fingers of 


the other, the arms being extended horizontally ...............44 sesso isernseriaes 
Dr. R. G. Latuam on the Ethnography of America .........sessssecsseeeeneeseeeees 
- on the Ethnography of the Chinese and Indo-Chinese Na- 
RISES tensile efcpendteh totetcseaataecoens Senta eR cale PS slsniss ae aden aee kines 


——_—_—_————— on the present state of Philological evidence as to the Unity 
of the Human Race ..... BEbe ena taga sae anedaretacrcckeecesaedaced scaesecancadettans S 


Mr. E. Batrour on the Migratory Tribes of Central India ............cesseseeeeee 
Dr. Marttn on the Moral and Intellectual Character of the New Zealanders .. 
Bee ENVER ING: OF CLEMMISID jiesvwera-venaenostearerssebiterosvsescsedsvceseressendaasaatlds ve 
Professor Dan1EeLt on the Natives of Old Calebar, Africa ............ aebepeitas ft 
Marquis di Sprnero on the Egyptians and Americans ..........sssesesesccnseuseees 
Dr. Buack on certain Traces of Roman Colonization in Lancashire .........045 


Mr. Brenr’s Tables illustrative of the Height, Weight and Strength of Man... 


Mr. J. M. Kemsxe on Dr. Kombst’s Ethnographic Map of Great Britain and 
RE CEAUE IIa ee Od. side sa A Ennis ds donate dda ty psudaaes sddaop ss deaede Gahan vallidavede 


Rey. R. Wrix1ams on Local and Hereditary Difference of Complexion in Great 
Britain, with some Incidental Notice of the Cimbri ..........esesscssseeccseseeee 


Rey. T. Ranxin on the Ancient Tumuli in the Yorkshire Wolds  ...,.....seseee 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 
Dr. Fisuer’s Results of Researches on the Scrofulous Tubercle which had re- 
ference to its Vascularity ........:sccssseceseeeeerccecseeessetencesceesecseteenesceeeens 


Mr. James F. Duncan on a peculiar form of Epidemic affecting the Teeth and 
’ Gums of young Children, observed in Dublin in the Winter of 1844-45 ...... 


Mr. H. B. Lesson on the Influence of Galvanism on Endosmose and Exosmose . 


_ Mr. Cuartes Brooke on a new mode of Suture, applicable to Plastic Opera- 


BRRIOWSS > cccdecdcdsssedsecscee sane ae saated aehas wide thovenaire Ri acivedtetneescocteetesteeas was 


Viil CONTENTS. 


Page 
Dr. Tomas Laycock on the Communicating Fibres of the Brain in reference 
to! Thought and) Aotion «sis ciscsivisecsvancecicnccdswesccseevsbasocseocts <oseabee® cssese 84 
Mr. T. S. Wexts. A Drawing, representing the appearance of the Surface of 
the Heart in a case of Purpura hemorrhagicd vvecsicscoseeceeesceececeresensees eyes 2) 
Dr. Fowuer on the State of the Deaf and Dumb .,,......eecseseseeeeeees Sebesessene!: (BS 
Mr. Srsson’s Notice of an Apparatus for delineating correctly the relative po- 
sition and size of the Viscera, either in the Healthy Condition or changed by 
Disease  ..sececeees Beseeec eae stn aente ce case ess suas cotacscaeeerpeee eee aatengtaaanet as 85 
Dr. Macponatp on Cranial Vertebra ......eseseesessecees wesebascevserenmmedanwastes 85 
Dr. Brooxe’s Notice of an Instrument to assist in the discovery of Foreign 
Bodies by Auscultation .......s0....6. tavecscdeteseeysereds cidvevcacecsevs cnePeneeacusnas 86 
STATISTICS. 
Mr. J. Heywoop on the University Statistics of Germany . éabe8ceebaxetend| OG 
— on the Comparative Number of Degrees nit at Cambridge 
in the Seventeenth and Nineteenth Centuries ............ einpePaSANass aniseed crecee 86 


Mr. R. Vary on the Trade and Navigation of Norway ...cccsessssessereeeseesnes 87 
Dr. TaurNAm on the Liability to Insanity at different Ages .s...ssssseeeesesens 87 
Mr. G.R.Porter’s Sketch of the Progress and present Extent of Savings’ Banks 


TIT-ENE WMNLED ISIN POBIN 5ns,.csiccvocysocetoccscetr op oqstasasecdbakes overeat bus eueeemetneeas 87 
Mr. J. Fiercuer’s Statistical and Historical Account of the Ancient System 

of Public Charities in London ............cesssee008 Gostnscceeresehe sete cn eee a ee 88 
Sir Joun Bortrav’s Result of Inquiries into the State of the Agricultural La- - 

bourers in the County of Norfolk  .........s.eseeseeeeeeeees seateceecesy eitiiesstes 89 
Mr. W. Nitxp on the Police Statistics of Manchester ............ seaeceenetti paces 89 


M. Juxien’s Plan for the Formation of a Society to collect the Statistics of all 
Civilized Countries, and opening a communication between all persons en- 


paged ‘in Statistical Inquities \ \vssiud.s.tecsteasscecsd dices Wisedetsweseaveceinead OO 
Dr. Stark on the Statistics of Small-pox ........sseeseeees saishehdbadoscaccebaseawce 0 
Mr. Kenrick on the Statistics of Merthyr Tydvil  ....s.ss0s045 sessbveetasiecsoacse | 90 
Dr. Tuomas Laycock on the Vital Statistics of America .......sseesssseeseeeveenes 90 
Rev. Mr. Boys on the Choice of Sites for Colonial Towns .....sessesseesesssesees 90 
Dr. ALEXANDER Watt on the Iron Trade in Scotland .........sssecseeeeeeeseeeesss. 90 
Mr. G. R. Portsr’s Facts respecting the Iron Trade ......... ects seigotksteshioesh Oe 


Mr. J. Frercuer on the System of Colonization practised by the Irish Society . 91 


Prof. Pryme on the different methods employed to estimate the Amount of 
Population ..........00e0+ ditusberwabess. tet sateceees Uascensscebscotceseocecsol¥dnendeenaas oO 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Mr. Ricuarp GREENE on Nasmyth’s Steam Hammer for Pile-driving ......... 92 


Mr. Witrram Farrpairn on Railway Gradients ..........60 ae $iondssaarineens 93 

Rev. James Booru on a new Method of converting Rectilinear into eaek ss 
MOOD & sa5cosnes obesaaessvth insane needy sae ratsvart tsenancvoteces earveiewsece seerecseseesres 94 

TeX, wcyenccapsdcrscecesererersgecttasesesect sencbadaeu, Sencessasnearanis poco nedqvecsnave vovene 95 


List of Members to whom Books are supplied gratis. 


NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS 
OF 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 


On Algebraic Equivalence. By the Rev. T. Jarrett, Professor of Arabic 
in the University of Cambridge. 


Many algebraic series, when applied to particular cases, have been found to in- 
volve numerical absurdities. Attempts have been made to explain these contradic- 
tions by means of metaphysical refinements, but in most cases without success. 
The object of the paper was to remind mathematicians that the series in question 
arise, in most cases, from a succession of operations, in each of which a portion of 
the result is neglected, and that’ the accumulated effect of these omissions shows 
itself in a numerical absurdity in particular cases. The writer took the binomial 
theorem as an instance, and showed in what way the demonstration would most 
naturally proceed, from the simple case of the index being positive and integral, to 
the cases of a negative integer, and of fractions both positive and negative. This was 
done by means of a notation* which expresses any series by its general term, and by 
means of which the operations of multiplication and involution can be as readily 
_ performed on a series as on a single term. ‘The result arrived at was, that no de- 
' pendence ought to be placed on, nor any use made of, the binomial theorem without 
the express limitation that either the index must be an integer, or that the second 
_ term must be less than the first. 
_ Many eminent mathematicians have explained the above-mentioned numerical 
absurdities, by making a distinction between algebraic and arithmetical equality, as 
founded on an assumed difference between symbolical and arithmetical algebra, and 
_ resulting in a separation between equivalence and equality. The writer called in 
_ question the justice of this distinction, and asked for information on a point so im- 
portant in estimating the truth and value of analytical investigations. 


q 
4 
z On Imaginary Zeros, c. By Professor Youne. 


The principal object of this paper was to remove certain contradictions involved in 
the prevalent theories of conjugate points, and to supply correct principles for their 
‘determination. These principles are thus announced :—1. Let the equation be solved 
for one of the variables; then, if any pair of values for x and y, which satisfy this 
ae equation, differ from real values only by the entrance of an imaginary zero— 
in whichever direction that zero he reached—those real values will be the coordinates 
of a conjugate point. 2. If it be inconvenient to solve the equation for one of the 
_ variables, we may take a differential coefficient of any order whatever: then, if a 
‘pair of values for x and y render this coefficient imaginary, and at the same time 
Satisfy the rational equation of the curve, those values will belong to a conjugate 
_ point. 
: The author further shows that it is equally correct to regard a conjugate point 
as an evanescent oval, or as a real point through which an imaginary curve passes : 
in the former view the differential coefficient, at the point, is indeterminate and real ; 
in the latter view it is determinate and imaginary. 


* A full account of this notation, with numerous applications to pure analysis, will be 
_ found in the writer’s ‘ Essay on Algebraic Development.’ 
— 1845. ° B 
x 


a 


2 REPORT—1845. 


On Triplets. By the Rev. C. Graves, M.R.J.A., Professor of Mathematics 
in the University of Dublin. 


An abstract of this communication will be found in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal 
Trish Academy,’ vol. iii. parti. 


On the Equation of Laplace’s Functions. By Grorce Boo.e. 


The method by which the integral was obtained is the one developed in a paper 
on a General Method in Analysis, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 
the past year, and I may be allowed to express my opinion, founded on a very care- 
ful examination of the subject, in which I have obtained no less than six distinct 
forms of the integral, that this is the only way in which we can obtain asymmetrical 
solution free from integral signs. 

The equation of Laplace is 


a URS § ERAT ee ny, bs 
du & dp ioe tt et De=s 
and the integral in question 
eer ( oe) 
& 


where 
d 1\a ov-1 ov-1 
f— aFndlt és 
F(é yao {q@tey'y ihn ) + enn —; )}. 


w and x denoting arbitrary functions. This integral consists of two particular ones, 
and I have proved that when the arbitrary functions which they involve are so as- 
sumed as to produce together real forms for ~, the results are the same as would be 
got by confining ourselves to one solution, and equating separately to 0 the real and 
the imaginary portions. This seems to be an usual, perhaps it is a general property of 
differential equations which involve in their solution the imaginary unit ./— 1; and 
it is important, because it shows that a particular integral taken with this license of 
interpretation becomes a general one. 


By giving to the arbitrary functions the general form ¢ ¢<” @¥—-11 ote OV—-1 ond 
prefixing = to the result, I have obtained the following real form of solution, 


u= {af (u)+bf (—#)} cosrQ; 


with a similar one in multiple sines, a and 0 being arbitrary, and 


dl be _ 
f@ == any a y eer ty)” r. 


The summation is quite unlimited with respect to r, that is, » may be positive or 
negative, integral or fractional. In all cases the coefficient of cos r@ is a finite 
function of ~, which is an unexpected result. 

In the case of Laplace’s functions, the summation extends from 0 to 2, including 
only integer values of r. On determining the constants, we get’ 


P =A,+ 2 (Aicos? + A,cos2 @..+ Ancosn 9), 

where in general 
f (w)F (H) 

~2..8r 1.2.3.8 
and f («) is as above. I think it is evident that in deducing these functions from 
the general integral of the equation which they satisfy, we not only employ the na-— 
tural and direct method of analysis, but also gain something in the final result, as 
respects simplicity of form and elegance of expression. 


Ar;= 1 


On the Premises of Geometry. By H. Wepcawoon, M.A. 
The conception of geometrical figure, as traced out by the motion of a point, ne- 
cessarily supposes in the student the capacity of comparing the direction of that mo-— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3 


tion at successive instants of time, and of distinguishing, at a second point in the 
course pursued, a direction identical with a given direction at a former point. He 
will accordingly be able to form a conception of the path traced out by the genera- 
ting point moving continuously in a single constant direction, or returning again to 
the same constant direction after having quitted it, and moved for awhile in a path 
of any other description, and he might thus originally acquire the notion, in the for- 
mer case, of a straight line; in the latter, of parallel straight lines. 

Again, the possibility of drawing a straight line direct to any given point in space, 
involving (as it does) the identification of points determined by different paths di- 
verging from a common starting-point, supposes in the student the capacity of esti- 
mating the distance virtually advanced in the direction of given coordinates whilst 
actually moving in a path of any description. Hence the fundamental standard of 
position expressed in the following definition. Certain points are said to coincide or 
occupy the same position when the whole space by which respectively they are separated 


- from a point antecedently known is identical in respect both of distance and direction. 


— 


_—- 


—S 


= 


ee a 


In the conception of superficial figure the inclination-at each successive point 
(measured by the direction of the resistance, supposing the surface to be that of a 
hard body) is analogous to the direction in the case of linear figure. The superficial 
figure corresponding to a straight line will accordingly be a surface opposing (when 
solid) at every point an absolute resistance to pressure in a certain constant direc- 
tion, and the fundamental definition of a plane will be a surface passing through every 
point which can be reached from a given point under the condition of a total negation 
of motion in a certain constant direction. 


Exposition of a System of Quaternions. By Sir Witt1AM R. Hamitton, 


In this system letters did not mean quantities but directions, and the operations 
analogous to addition, multiplication, &c., had neither the same meaning, nor were 
they governed by the rules of these operations in common algebra. It was to an 
explanation of their meaning and exemplifications of the application of this calculus, 
and the facility which it afforded of arriving very simply at results of difficult attain- 
ment by the ordinary methods, that Sir W. Hamilton confined himself in this com- 
munication. Sir W. Hamilton said that he wished to have placed on the records 
the following conjecture as to a future application of quaternions: is there not an 
analogy between the fundamental pair of equations, 77 =k, ji = — k, and the facts 
of opposite currents of electricity corresponding to opposite rotations? 


_ A description of a Machine for finding the Numerical Roots of Equations, 


and tracing a variety of useful Curves. By ¥. Basurortu, B.A., Fellow 
of St. John's College, Cambridge.’ 


The machine described is capable of tracing curves whose equations are of the form 


e@=acos (mb + a) +6 cos-(nd+ 8) +c cos (r§+ vy) +&c. &c., 
or e=Zacos (md+ a), 


where abc....mnr.... are integers or fractions. 


It may be applied to the solution of equations in the following manner. Suppose 
that the proposed equation is 


Pot” + Pwo... +Py=0,- 2. + + (@) 


_ where pop, . - - - pn and represent known numerical quantities. For all values of 


2 not beyond + 1 and — 1, we may make 


x = cos 6. 
Substituting in («.), we get 
pp cos” 6+ p, cos” A+ ...... Shp SSO pS hat Gey 
and expanding cos” 6, cos”—'§...... in series of cosines of multiples of 4, we get 


an equation of the form 


Ain go cos nb+ 9, Cos (M—1)O+..064- +9, =0. - « (y) 
B2 


4 REPORT—1845. 


If now about a point we describe a circle with radius a, and also about the same 
point trace the curve 


e=at {gq cosnb+q,cosm—1O0+......+%}, ear C=) 


and read off the values of 4 when this curve cuts the circle, 7. e. when e = a, we thus 
get all the values of 4 that satisfy the equation, 


J cosnd+q,cosm—16+...... +4, =0, 


or which satisfy (6.); and taking the cosines of these angles, we get the values of a 
not beyond the limits + 1 and — 1 which satisfy «. 


To find the remainder of the real roots of (#.), we may write - for x, and find the 


values of y between + 1 and — 1; and inverting these, we find the values of x which 
satisfy («.) that lie beyond the limits + 1 and — 1. 

This solution, in fact, depends on a ready method of trying all values of 2 between 
+ 1 and — 1, and selecting those which satisfy the equation. 

It may be observed, that 


as @ changes from 0 to x, « or cos 6 changes from + 1 to —1; 
ANd!as 8) ~ jenes )ieke Vato) Vary v@Or'CO8O) wes ¢ eesy = Litoteeia 


and therefore it is evident, from the form of (6.), that the curve (0.) will have an axis, 
and for every root of (#.) we shall have two readings. If the readings give the same 
value of a, this will probably be the true value ; if different, they will most probably 
be limits, as in one case 2 is in the course of being gradually diminished from + 1 
to — 1, and in the other of being increased from —1 to +1. 

We have also a means of estimating the probable correctness of a root furnished 
by the several angles at which the curve cuts the circle. _ ‘By the help of this engine 
we may also trace curves of the form 


e= 2b cos m {cos [cos (r+ «) + a! + al} 


On a System of Numerical Notation. By Tuomas Wricat Hitt. 


This was proposed to be founded upon the number 16, and those derived from it 
by successive division by 2,—such as 8, 4, 2,1. By the combinations of these all 
numbers were to be formed, and by attaching letters as the marks or names for the 
elementary numbers, a system of nomenclature was obtained. The plan also pro- 
vided figures and names for them essentially negative, and thus fit for promiscuous 
incorporation with positive numerals on whatever scale of notation. 


On the Nebula 25 Herschel, or 61 of Messier’s Catalogue. 
By the Eanrt or Rosse. 


Lord Rosse exhibited to the Section what he called his working plan of this nebula, 
and explained his method. He first laid down, by an accurate scale, the great fea- 
tures of the nebula as seen in his smallest telescope, which, being mounted equa- 
torially, enabled him to take accurate measurements ; he then filled in the other 
parts, which could not be distinguished in that telescope, by the aid of the great 
telescope; but as the equatorial mounting of this latter was not yet complete, he 
could not lay these smaller portions down with rigorous accuracy; yet as he had 
repeatedly gone over them, and verified them with much care, though by estimation, 
he did not think the drawing would be found to need much future correction. 


———_--——- 


Sir J. Herschel exhibited a model of the globe of the moon in relief, expressing 
the forms and elevations of its mountains as seen in a good telescope. This beau- 
tiful and exquisite work he stated to be the performance of a Hanoverian lady, 
Madame Witte; modelled by her from actual observation through an excellent 
Fraunhofer telescope, i in a small observatory at the top of her own dwelling-house ; 
the selenographical positions and general contours of the principal craters and other 


" 
. 
i 
: 
1 


eee es 


ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5 


leading features being first laid down on the smooth surface from Messrs. Beer and 
Maedler’s micrometrical measures and charts. The diameter of the model is 12 inches 
8% lines (Rheinland measure), or one 10,000,000th part of the moon’s actual dia- 
meter. The scale of heights is, however, necessarily enlarged to double this amount, 
as otherwise the relief would be too low for distinctness. The material is a compo- 
sition of mastic and wax, and the whole is worked out in such perfection of detail as 
to represent every visible crater and mountain peak, nay, even the minuter lines of 
elevation which streak the so-called seas, &c. in their true forms and conventional 
proportions. In consequence, when properly illuminated, and placed at thirty or 
forty feet distance, and viewed through a good telescope, the artificial is scarcely 
distinguishable from the real moon. ‘The delicacy and precision cf the work can 


‘only be appreciated by a microscopic examination. In fact, the whole model is 


stated by Madame Witte to have been executed with the aid of magnifying glasses. 
Sir J. Herschel accompanied his explanation of this model with several remarks on 
the physical constitution of the moon in respect of climate, atmosphere, moisture, 
&c., and compared its surface with the chart of part of Mount Etna, lent him for 
that purpose by Baron von Waltershausen, and with a drawing of his own of one of 
the principal craters as seen in his 20-feet reflector, placing the volcanic character 
of the ring mountains beyond all doubt. By the aid of a large chart by Messrs. 
Beer and Maedler, several of these, such as Aristarchus, Tycho, Kepler, Coperni- 


- cus, &c., were pointed out and their peculiarities described, their places on the model 


being fixed by the aid of brass circles, representing the moon’s equator and meri- 
dians. This work, it is understood, will be submitted to the inspection of the 
Astronomical Society, on the resumption of their meetings in November. Speaking 
of the climate of the moon, Sir J. Herschei considered as probable the attainment 
of a very high temperature (far above that of boiling water) by its surface, after ex- 
posure to unmitigated and continual sunshine during nearly a whole fortnight. The 
moon therefore, when at the full, and for a few days after, must be, in some small de- 
gree, asource of heat to the earth ; but this heat, being of the nature rather of culinary 
than of solar heat (as emanating from a body below the temperature of ignition), 
will never reach the earth’s surface, being arrested and absorbed in the upper strata 
of an atmosphere where its whole effect will necessarily be expended in the conver- 
sion of visible cloud into transparent vapour. The phenomenon of the rapid dissi- 
pation of cloud (in moderate weather) soon after the appearance of the full moon 
(or of a moon so nearly full as to appear round to the unassisted eye), which he 
stated himself to have observed on so many occasions as to be fully convinced of 
the reality of a strong tendency in that direction, seemed to him explicable only on 
this principle*. 


On the Projection of a Star on the Dark Limb of the Moon just before its 
Occultation. By Professor Strvetuy. 


This the Professor considered to be a result of diffraction. Sir Isaac Newton 
having observed the shadow of a hair placed in a strong beam of sunlight to be 
broader than the hair itself, was led to investigate the course of a ray as it passed 
by the edge of a body, like the edge of a knife placed across a hole in the window- 
shutter, through which a sunbeam is admitted. Beyond a certain distance the rays 
proceeded in their usual straight courses; at that distance they were bent towards 
the edge; but the courses of the nearest rays were bent away from the edge, so as 
to form curves convex towards it. The undulatory theory enables us to trace these 
curves, and they are known to be of the nature of the hyperbola, with asymptotic 
branches extending onwards from the diffracting edge. Prof. Stevelly conceived the 
dark limb of the moon to be such a diffracting edge to the slender beam of light which 
reached us from a fixed star; and that as the curve was, at the last moment the light 
was allowed to pass, convex towards the moon, the portion of the ray which last 
enters our eye before the star disappears, being the direction in which we should 
then see the star, if produced backwards, would meet the moon on her dark surface. 


* On the conclusion of Sir J. Herschel’s explanation, Baron von Waltershausen entered 
into further particulars of the nature of the volcanic phenomena on the surface of Etna, as 
represented in the elaborate chart above alluded to, of the environs of Nicolosi, and pointed 
out many particulars of resemblance to the lunar volcanoes. 


6 REPORT—1845. 


On the Heat of the Solar Spots. 
By Professor Henry, of Princeton College, New Jersey. 


Sir D. Brewster read an extract of a letter which he had just received from Prof. 
Henry, who had recently been engaged in a series of experiments on the heat of the 
sun, as observed by means of a thermo-electrical apparatus applied to an image of 
the luminary thrown on a screen from a telescope in a dark room. He found that 
the solar spots were perceptibly colder than the surrounding light surface. Prof. 
Henry also converted the same apparatus into a telescope, by placing the thermo- 
pile instead of the eye-glass of a reflecting telescope. The heat of the smallest 
cloud on the verge of the horizon was instantaneously perceptible, and that of a 
breeze four or five miles off could also be readily perceived. 


Description of a Universal Stand applicable to the Use of Astronomical Tele- 
scopes. By M. Bocusuawski. Communicated by the Rev. Prof. Cuaxus. 


A solid cylindrical axis, which in its normal position is vertical, carries at its 
upper extremity the two supports of a horizontal axis, at one extremity of which is a 
graduated circle A, and at the other, the telescope haying its direction of collimation 
perpendicular to this axis. The solid cylinder turns in a hollow cylinder of double 
the length of the telescope, and having at its upper end another graduated circle B. 
The hollow cylinder rests at about its middle on two supports, which stand on a 
circular base adjustible by foot screws. It is also capable of motion about a hori- 
zontal axis, and carries at its lower end a counterpoise to the weight of the telescope 
and circles, and a graduated arc, by means of which its axis may be set to any re- 
quired elevation. The instrument may consequently be either a portable transit, or 
a transit-circle, or an altitude and azimuth instrument, A being the altitude and B 
the azimuth circle, or, lastly, an equatorial, in which case A is the declination circle 
and B the hour circle. The telescope is in no case in a position in which observa- 
tion is impracticable. ee, Se 
On certain Points in the Elliptic Polarization of Light by Metallic Reflexion. 

By the Rev. Professor Powstt, M.A., F.R.S. 


The object of this communication was supplementary to one given last year (see 
Sectional Proceedings, 1844), since which time the author has continued his re- 
searches into some parts of the subject not before adverted to. 

The original plane of polarization being inclined 45° to that of incidence on the 
metal, in the lower degrees of ellipticity, i. e. at lesser incidences, the dislocated 
rings preserve the distinction of the dark and bright systems ; which they lose when 
the vibrations are absolutely circular: also at the position of the analyser interme- 
diate to the rectangular positions, the coloured arcs assumed a peculiar distorted 
appearance. 

A generalization of the formula, employed in the author’s paper, Phil. Trans. 
1843, so as to include all positions of the polarizer and analyser, and assuming the 
component vibrations with general or unequal coefficients, is necessary for explain- 
ng the last-mentioned phenomenon; while the former supplies the best means of 
directly observing the change in the virtual plane of polarization of the reflected ray, 
by means of the position necessary to be given to the analyser to restore the same 
system of rings: as e. g. that for dark branches. 

These changes in general are analogous to, but not the same as, those in the re- 
flexion from transparent bodies examined by Fresnel. But at the incidence for the 
maximum, as well as at that nearest the perpendicular, they are the same. 

At small incidences, in his former communication*, the author mentioned that he 
had been led to suppose an anomaly in this respect, the arc appearing to deviate 
from 45°. But more recent and careful repetitions have shown that the results are 
really conformable to the law in this case. 

He has carried on a considerable series of observations of the change of plane at 
different incidences, and for various metals, &c. In regard to the maximum ellipti- 


* See British Association Report, 1844, Sectional Proceedings, p. 7. 


q 
i 
d 
‘ 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7 


city, he has traced a relation to the constant arcs of restoration after two metallic 
reflexions, determined by Sir D. Brewster (Phil. Trans. 1830). 

The change of plane cannot yet be explained by theory; though the empirical 
formulas of Prof. MacCullagh appear to give a good representation of it, when the 
data for steel resulting from that investigation are introduced into the author’s for- 
mula. 


—- 


On a New Polarity of Light, with an Examination of Mr. Airy’s Explanation 
of it on the Undulatory Theory. By Sir Daviv Brewster, F.RS LL. & E., 
M.R.I.A. 


Notwithstanding the great power of the undulatory theory in explaining phz- 
nomena, and its occasional success in predicting them, I have never been able to 
consider it as a representation of that interesting assemblage of facts which consti- 
tute physical optics. When a theory of high pretensions, and remarkable for its 
powers of accommodation, is found incapable of explaining whole classes of well-ob- 
served and distinctly marked phenomena, those who have discovered or studied these 
phznomena may be excused for withholding from it their assent, and for not wholly 
abandoning older, though Jess popular views, which were sanctioned by such 
authorities as those of Newton and Laplace. It has fallen to my lot to lay before the 
public several of the facts to which I refer; but as it is not the object of this notice 
to discuss the general merits of the undulatory theory, I shall mention only two of 
those classes of facts which the undulatory theory has failed to explain. The first 
of these, which was communicated to the Royal Society about fifteen years ago, em- 
braces the phenomena of transverse fringes which cross the fringes produced by 
grooved surfaces, and produce, both in common and homogeneous light, a series of 
phenomena equally beautiful and singular. In these phenomena we witness the 
extraordinary fact, that a stripe of polished metal is incapable, at various angles of 
incidence, of reflecting a single ray of homogeneous light; while, at intermediate 
angles of incidence, it reflects that light freely. The undulatory theory has never 
ventured to explain these phenomena, and I feel confident that they are beyond its 
power; and hence the phenomena-themselves have excited no notice, and have 
shared the fate of all such intractable discoveries as refuse submission to the prevail- 
ing theory of the day. Thesecond group of phenomena which the undulatory theory 
is equally incapable of explaining, present themselves in looking at a perfect solar 
Spectrum, or a diffraction spectrum, through the edge of a thin plate of glass, quartz, 
or mica. If we cover one-half of the pupil of the eye with such a plate, and thus 
view the spectrum so that the rays which pass by the edge of the plate may interfere 


‘with those which pass through it, then if the plate is on the same side as the violet 


space, the spectrum is seen crossed with numerous black and nearly equidistant bands, 
parallel to Fraunhofer’s fixed lines, and, generally speaking, increasing with the thin- 
ness of the plate; but if the plate is on the same side as the red space, no bands 
whatever are seen, though all the other conditions of their production are the same. 
When the transparent plate is very thin the fringes of thin plates are produced, 
whether we cover the half or the whole of the pupil; but these have nothing to do 
with the phenomenon under consideration. The singular fact of the fringes being 
seen only in one position of the plate appeared to me to indicate a new polarity in the 
simple elements of light. I therefore communicated it to the British Association at 
Liverpool, in 1836; and in 1837 I submitted to the same body additional observa- 
tions, which excited some discussion. The singular phenomena contained in these 
notices, though pressed upon the attention of the supporters of the undulatory 
theory, remained unexplained for more than ¢hree years. They at last attracted the 
regard of Prof. Airy, in October 1839, when that distinguished mathematician re- 
peated my experiments; and in 1840 he made them the subject of an elaborate me- 
moir, constituting the Bakerian Lecture of that year, entitled, ‘On the Theoretical 
Explanation of an apparent New Polarity in Light.’ [Sir D. Brewster read the parts 
of Prof. Airy’s paper which could be readily understood by the Section.] Previous 
to the publication of this ingenious paper, Prof. Airy gave an account of it at the 
meeting of the British Association in Glasgow, in 1839. On that occasion I made 
a few observations upon it; but specially marking the fact, that whereas Prof. Airy’s 


8 REPORT—1845, 


explanation referred solely to very faint bands seen when the spectrum was out of 
focus, I had seen the bands perfectly distinct, and most vivid and intensely black, 
when the spectrum was in focus. The explanation, therefore, given in this memoir 
had nothing to do with the bands which I had discovered and described. Prof. Airy 
was accordingly led to resume the investigation; and he has published the results 
of it in a Supplement to his first paper, which appeared in the Philosophical Trans- 
actions for 1840. The following is the account which he gives of the results which 
he obtained :— ; 

“In the Second Part,” says Prof. Airy, ‘‘ of the Transactions for 1840, the Royal 
Society has published a memoir by me, explaining on the undulatory theory of 
light the apparent new polarity discovered by Sir D. Brewster, which explanation 
is based on the assumption that the spectrum is viewed out of focus; an assumption 
which corresponded to the circumstances of my own observations, and to those of some 
other persons. Since the publication of that memoir, I have been assured by Sir D. 
Brewster that the phenomenon was most certainly observed with great distinctness, 
when the spectrum was viewed so accurately in focus that many of Fraunhofer’s 
finer lines could be seen. This observation appeared to be contradictory to those of 
Mr. Talbot, cited by me in p. 226 of my memoir, as well astomy own. With the view 
of removing the obscurity that still appeared to embarrass this subject, I have con- 
tinued the theoretical investigations for that case which was omitted in the former 
memoir, namely, when the spectrum is viewed in focus, or when a=0; and I have 
arrived at a result which appears completely to reconcile the seemingly conflicting 
statements.””—Phil. Trans. 1841, p. 1. : 

Now, in the investigations which this paper contains, and which Prof. Airy con- 
siders satisfactory, there are two points which require special attention. The first of 
these is the assumption, necessary for the explanation, that even when any single 
point of the spectrum is seen accurately in focus, it forms a diffused image on the 
retina, the extent of the diffusion being exceedingly less than the interval between the 
bands. The supposition appears to me quite untenable, and one which cannot for 


a moment be admitted. The second point relates to the expression of a which 


Prof. Airy obtains for the interval between the bands; from which it follows, that 
this interval is inversely as the radius of the pupil, or the area of the object-glass. 
But the intervals have no such relation, and Prof. Airy does not say that such a re- 
lation was ever noticed in any of his experiments. I have made the experiment re- 
peatedly and carefully, and can state with confidence that the fringes do not vary 
with the diameter of the pupil or the apertures of the object-glass. Their interval re- 
mains the same, whether we look through a pin-hole or with the pupil in its fullest 
expansion ; and it is equally invariable when the aperture of the object-glass is made 
to vary from a quarter of an inch to four inches. Hence it follows that the system 
of bands to which Mr. Airy’s theory is applicable has no existence in nature; that 
the phenomena which I discovered are still unexplained by the undulatory theory, 
and may still be regarded as indicative of a new species of polarity, till they are 
brought under the dominion of some general principle. Since the publication of the 
two memoirs of Prof. Airy, I have devoted much time to the examination and mea- 
surement of the bands under consideration, and I have been led to the observation 
of many new and complex phenomena. [Sir D. Brewster read an account of these 
new phenomena.] I am still, however, as ignorant as ever of the cause of the sin- 
gular property to which this notice relates, though I have succeeded in tracing the 
phenomena to the true class of interferences to which they belong. 


Notice of Two New Properties of the Retina. 
By Siy Davip Brewster, F.R.S.L. §& E., Hon. M.RLA. 


One of these properties related to the inferior sensibility of the retina at that part 
of it which corresponds to the Foramen centrale of Soemmering, and which opens 
itself only when the eyes are directed to a faintly illuminated surface. The other 
property of the retina appeared after the observer’s eye had been impressed with the 
luminous stripes seen by looking out of a railway carriage in rapid motion at the 
stones, or other white bodies lying near the rails. When the eye is quickly shut 


9 
: 
; 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. i) 


under this impression, a motion is perceived in a direction transverse to the real im- 
pression on the retina; and there is the appearance of lines complementary in the 
same transverse direction. 


On the Aberration of Light. By the Rev. Professor Cuatuts, M.A. 


The phenomenon of aberration was explained by assuming the direction of vision 
to be always coincident with the direction of the propagation of light. A star, ac- 
cording to this supposition, is seen in its proper direction, while an object which 
moves with the spectator is seen in a direction which, with respect to the earth’s mo- 
tion, is behind its true place. Astronomical observation does not determine whether 
aberration affects the apparent position of the wire of the telescope, or of the star. 
Assuming the position of the star to be changed, it follows from this view, that the 
star must be considered to be in advance of its true place as regards the direction of 
the earth’s motion, and this result is in accordance with the principle on which cor- 
rections for aberration are applied in astronomical calculations. 


—— 


On the Aberration of Light. By G. G. Stoxrs, M.A. 


In this paper the author adopts the undulatory theory of light. He supposes that 
the luminiferous ether is displaced by the motion of the earth and planets through 
it, in a manner similar to that in which ordinary fluids are displaced by solids moving 
through them, though not necessarily according to the same laws. He supposes 
that the ether close to the surface of the earth is at rest relatively to that surface, 
being entangled in the earth’s atmosphere. Consequently, experiments on reflexion, 
refraction, and interference, made with the light coming from any particular star, 
will lead to the same result at whatever time of year they are made, conformably 
with experiment. He supposes that light is propagated through the ether in motion 
in the same way that sound is propagated through air in motion; that is to say, he 
supposes that the displacement of a small portion of a wave’s front in a very short 
time is compounded of the displacement which would exist if the zther were at rest, 
and of the displacement of the ether itself, so that in general the direction of a 
normal to that portion of the wave’s front is changed by the motion of the ether. 
The law of aberration which results from this supposition is complicated, so long as 
we suppose the.motion of the zther arbitrary; but if we suppose its motion such 


| thatudx + vdy + wdZz is an exact differential, where u,v, w are the resolved parts 


along the rectangular axes of x, y, 2, of the velocity of the particle of ether whose 
coordinates are x, y, 2, then the law of aberration which is derived from the theory 
coincides with the law which is the result of observation (Philosophical Magazine, 
July 1845). 


On the Caustics produced by two Mirrors in Rotation. By Prof. AnpERson, 


Prof. Anderson exhibited the curves traced on the ceiling by the reflected light 
from the two revolving mirrors placed in a beam of sunlight, and pointed out mathe- 


" matical rules for tracing the curves for the several angles at which the mirrors might 
be set, and the angle which the beam of sunlight makes with the plane of rotation. 


On the Rotation of Minute Crystals in the Cavities of Topaz. 
By Sir Daviw Brewster, F.R.S. L. § E., Hon. M.R.LA. 


This paper is printed in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xvi. part i. p. 19. 


On the Condition of Topaz subsequent to the formation of certain Classes of 
Cavities within it. By Sir Davin Brewster, /.R.S. L. § E., M.R.LA. 


This paper is printed in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xvi. part i. p, 7-9. 


’ 


10 REPORT—1845. 


On the Rings which surround the Image of a Star formed by the Object-glass 
of a Telescope. By the Rev. S. Earnsuaw. 


The object is to draw the attention of persons, who take an interest in optical 
phenomena and their theoretical explication, to the fact, that the rings which are 
ordinarily seen round the image of a’star are not the whole of the phenomenon opti- 
cally due to the experiment. Ifa point of sunlight be substituted for the star, ad- 
ditional parts become visible, which before were not appreciable by the eye on account 
of the feebleness of the light emitted by the star. If the experiment-be varied (as was 
done by Fraunhofer and Sir John Herschel) by placing an annular aperture before 
the object-glass, two remarkable changes take place; viz. a great increase in the 
number of rings seen round the central spot, and the spreading of a diffused light 
over the field of view. ‘The diffusion is not uniform, but the brightness decreases 
from the centre to a minimum, then increases to a maximum; then it decreases to 
a minimum, and so on. The black rings occur at tolerably equal intervals, within 
the part comprehended by the first ring of minimum brightness just spoken of. The 
two circumstances which attend the substitution of an annular aperture for a com- 
plete circular aperture were pointed out as phenomena for which the undulatory 
theory has hitherto been unable to account, though the attempt has been made by 
one who has been perhaps more successful than any other person in applying the 
methods and principles of that theory to observed phenomena. 

A reference was also made to Fraunhofer’s experiments with annularvapertures, 
for the purpose of remarking that, on account of the narrowness of his annuli and 
the low power of his telescope, it was not possible for him to observe some part of 
the phenomenon seen by Sir John Herschel ; while, on account of the feebleness of 
starlight, the latter experimenter was not able to see the whole as a single pheno- 
menon, but was induced, by the imperfection of the image presented by his telescope, 
to refer the two portions which he did see to distinct causes. There can be no doubt 
however upon the mind of an observer, who employs sunlight, that the rings and 
halos are parts of a certain phenomenon, the whole of which is due to one cause; 
and as such must be both included in the explanation of theory, before the theory 
can be said to have succeeded. ‘The author considers that its not having been able 
to include these two parts in one investigation, is a sufficient proof that either the 
investigation is defective, or the theory in some of its details erroneous. 


An Improvement in the Method of taking Positive T. albotypes (Calotypes). 
By Sir Davin Brewster, F.R.S. L. §& E., Hon. M.R.LA. 


In the method now in use the face of the negative Talbotype is placed directly 
upon the side of the paper which has been brushed over with a solution of nitrate, 
or ammonia-nitrate, of silver, and which is to receive the positive picture. Instrong 
sunlight the picture is thus taken very quickly; but there is a roughness in the 
shades, owing to the formation of black specks, which destroys the softness of the 
picture, and in portraits gives a disagreeable harshness to the human face. In 
order to remove this defect, the author first interposed thin plates of glass, with their 
surfaces sometimes ground and sometimes polished; but, though the divergency or 
diffusion of the light, passing through the negative picture, produced great softness 
in the positive, yet the outlines were too indistinct, though the Talbotypes looked very 
well, when placed at adistance. He then tried the effect of interposing a sheet of 
writing paper, without the water-mark and of uniform texture. The result of this 
experiment fully answered his expectations. The diffusion of’ the light thus occa- 
sioned shaded off, as it were, all the sharp lines and points, and gave a high degree 
of softness to the picture. The effect was even improved by interposing two sheets 
of clean paper; and, with a very bright meridian sun, he found that three sheets 
may be used with advantage. A similar effect may be obtained, ina smaller degree, 
by placing the back of the negative upon the positive paper, so as to cause the light 
to traverse the thickness of the negative, and this may be combined with one or more 
sheets of clean paper. This, of course, will be appropriate only with portraits; and 
it has the advantage (sometimes required) of making the figure look another way. 
To those who see the experiments above described for the first time, the effect is 


—< 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. il 


almost magical. When the negative is removed, we see only a blank sheet of 


white paper; and our surprise is very great when, upon lifting this sheet, we dis- 


_ cover beneath it a perfect picture, which seems as it were to have passed through 


the opake and impervious screen. Sir D. Brewster exhibited specimens of portraits 
produced in this manner, and also specimens produced by the transmission of light 
through two perfectly coincident negatives of different degrees of strength; together 
with specimens of positives produced by placing the positive paper between two 
perfectly coincident negatives, and acted upon by light incident on both sides of the 
picture. Sir D. Brewster mentioned some unexpected theoretical results which these 
experiments indicated, but which required further investigation. 


On the Elementary Laws of Statical Electricity. 
By Wii.1aM Tuomson, B.A., St. Peter's College. 


The author, after noticing the labours of Coulomb, Poisson, and Green, on this 
subject, observes that of late years some eminent experimentalists, and especially 
Harris and Faraday, have begun to doubt, to a certain extent, the truth of Cou- 
lomb’s laws, and have entered upon the investigation of various phenomena which 
appeared to be incompatible with them. The principal subject of this paper is an 
attempt to show that almost all the results adduced in their memoirs, which refer 
to electricity in equilibrium, are necessary consequences of the mathematical theory, 
and that none are at variance with it. 

In the first part of the paper a number of laws of a very simple nature, arrived 
at by Harris, are shown to be approximate results of Coulomb’s theory. There is, 
however, one part of Mr. Harris’s investigations, that which refers to the “ striking 
distance” or to the insulating power of the atmosphere, which, though it does not 
bear directly upon the laws of statical electricity, is yet of great importance in enabling 
us to fix upon an absolute standard of electrical density or intensity. The result 
which Mr. Harris arrives at is, that the intensity necessary to produce a spark de- 
pends solely upon the density of the air, being otherwise independent of the pressure 
and temperature. 

In the second part of the paper Faraday’s researches on electro-statical induction 
are considered, and it is attempted to show that the theory there developed is one of 


two elementary methods of viewing the phenomena of statical electricity, or in fact 


generally, of attraction varying inversely as the square of the distance. Either of 
these views, one of which has presented itself to Coulomb, and the other to Faraday, 
may be made the foundation of the present mathematical theory, and therefore, as 
far as this is concerned, they may be adopted indifferently. It must be admitted, 
however, that for simplicity of conception the elementary laws of Coulomb have 
great advantage, and from them, by very simple analysis, given first by Green, we 
arrive at the elementary laws of Faraday, as theorems. 

Faraday’s memoir also contains the account of an investigation which brings to 
light a very remarkable electrical action, which he terms that of dielectrics, hitherto 
entirely unknown (if we except the observation of Nicholson, that the dissimulating 
power of a Leyden phial depends on the kind of glass of which it is made, as well as 
on the thickness). In the present paper a short account of the results of these re- 
searches of Faraday is given, and their relation with the general theory explained. 
The laws of the dielectric action have not yet been fully determined by experiment, 
but it seems probable that it may be perfectly assimilated to that of soft iron when 
under the influence of magnetic bodies. An extensive and rigorous series of expe- 
riments and measurements would however be required to establish this or any other 
hypothesis on the subject, but still the idea might be adopted to indicate the na- 
ture of the experiments from which it would receive its most decided test. 

There are, besides, some rerharkable questions relative to the physical state of 
dielectrics, which present themselves as objects for experimental inquiry. Thus it 
may be conceived that a dielectric in motion might present properties analogous to 
those discovered by Arago in magnetism, and exhibited in his experiment of the re- 
volving disc. As however a very distinct element, that of electrical currents, enters 
in the latter case in a way which could probably have no analogy in the former, it 
could hardly be expected that any remarkable agreement of the phenomena pre 
sented by the bodies in motion should be found to exist. 


a 


12 ; REPORT—1845. 


Another question, which can only be decided by experiment, is whether a trans- 
parent dielectric in a highly polarized state affects light transmitted in the same 
manner as a uniaxal crystal*. All analogy would certainly lead us at least to look 
for such an action in a plate of glass of which the particles are kept ina constrained 
state by means of opposite electrical charges on the two faces, especially when we 
consider that the constraint may be elevated to such an extent as to make the sub- 
stance be on the point of cracking. 

Before concluding this abstract, it may perhaps be permitted to call attention to 

another object of experimental research. All the measurements of Coulomb have 
been made solely for the purpose of comparing electrical forces with one another, 
but to complete the theory, we should have the means of comparing electrical forces 
with weights, to which every other kind of force is ultimately referred. For this 
purpose a standard intensity must be chosen, and the diminution of atmospheric pres- 
sure at a point of conducting surface, possessing this intensity, either determined 
by direct measurement, or deduced from experiments in which the repulsion between 
bodies charged to a given intensity is measured by weights. 
. The standard intensity is furnished by the result of Mr. Harris mentioned above, 
and might be taken as the intensity immediately before a spark, in a given state of | 
the atmosphere. The series of experiments necessary to complete the investigation 
would be of an extremely delicate nature, and might be long and laborious; but if 
the result were arrived at, and if the laws of action of dielectrics were thoroughly 
known, the experimental elements of the theory would be complete. 


Remarks on the Periodicity of Magnetic Disturbances. 
By the Rev. H. Luoyn, F.R.S., MRA. 


When we examine, for the first time, the chart of the changes of one of the 
magnetic elements during a day of disturbance, we do not hesitate to pronounce 
that the causes which produce these changes, so apparently capricious, belong to 
the class which, from our ignorance of their laws, we are accustomed to denominate 
“accidental ”’ or “‘ irregular.’”’ Experience, however, has shown that these pheno- 
mena, and therefore also the forces which produce them, are subject to laws, which 
require multiplied observations alone for their development. A few months of 
systematic observation is sufficient to show that these apparently abnormal move- 
ments of the magnet recur more frequently at certain hours of the day than at others. 
Prof. Kreil seems to have been the first to notify this remarkable fact. In a letter 
addressed to M. Kupffer, dated in January 1839, he observes, that ‘‘all hours of 
the day do not appear to be equally favourable to the development of this phzno- 
menon ;”’ that disturbances begin “much more frequently in the evening than in 
the morning hours,”’ and “ hardly ever begin in the latter hours of the forenoon.” 
In a letter addressed to Col. Sabine, dated in July 1840, Prof. Kreil has entered 
more minutely into the question, with the light of the observations of an additional 
year. He there observes, that “the least disturbance takes place in the declination 
from 8 to 10 a.m., and the greatest from 8 to 10 p.m.;”’ that “the declination is 
increased by the disturbances of the forenoon and middle of the day, and diminished 
by those occurring in the evening hours ;” that the effect of disturbances upon the 
horizontal intensity is, in general, a diminution of that element, this diminution 
being however more considerable ‘‘ during the hours of the night and morning, than 
in the forenoon and afternoon.” 

A more elaborate examination of this question has been since made by Col. Sabine, 
in the discussion of the results of the first two years’ observations, made at the Mag- 
netic Observatory of Toronto, under the direction of Lieut. Riddell. The mode of 
examination is, for the most part, the same as that of Prof. Kreil, namely, to sepa- 
rate the individual results, which differ from the monthly mean, corresponding to the 
same hour, by a quantity exceeding a certain arbitrary limit; to treat them as the 
effects of perturbing causes ; and to examine the frequency of their occurrence at the 


* Since this paper was read the author has found that Mr. Faraday had previously pro- 
posed and examined experimentally the question here suggested, arriving only at negative 
results. See ‘Experimental Researches,’ § 955, 


‘ 
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. pes 


several hours of regular observation. By this mode of examination Col. Sabine has 
been led to the result—a result partly agreeing with, and partly differing from that de- 
duced by Prof. Kreil—that “ the causes which produce easterly deflections have their 
maximum frequency of effect at ten hours, and those which occasion the westerly de- 
flections their maximum at twenty hours. The minimum of both occurs nearly at 
the same hour, viz. about two or four hours.”” Analogous conclusions are deduced 
respecting the disturbances of the horizontal intensity. These disturbances, which 
are on the whole subtractive, have their minimum at 4 p.m., the hour of maximum 
intensity; their maximum, on the other hand, occurs about the time of the nocturnal 
minimum of the intensity, or from ten to sixteen hours. Col. Sabine then proceeds 
to compare the monthly means at the several hours of observation, as deduced from 
the whole body of the observations, and as deduced from the remaining observations, 
when the excessive deflections already referred to are laid aside. Of the propriety 
of this separation, and of the results thence deduced, Dr. Lloyd said that he would 
not now speak, as the remarks which he had to offer had no immediate connexion 
with that question. With respect to an annual period in these remarkable pheno- 
mena, Prof. Kreil and Col. Sabine have arrived at different conclusions. ~According 
to Prof. Kreil, “‘the perturbations are much more frequent in the winter than in 
the summer months ;” and that, not merely because the cause which produces the 
regular diurnal change is then more feeble, but also because (according to Prof. Kreil) 
the disturbing forces are then actually of greater intensity. According to Col. Sabine, 
*«the disturbances [of declination] appear to be distributed throughout the year with- 
out any marked inequality either as to number or direction,” except that their num- 
ber appears to preponderate somewhat in the month of October. With respect to 
the horizontal intensity, Col. Sabine appears to agree with Prof. Kreil, and to find 
that the number of observed disturbances 6f that element is greater in the winter than 
in the summer months. 
Having thus stated the conclusions which have been hitherto drawn, in connexion 
with this subject, Dr. Lloyd proceeded to lay before the Section the results to which 
he had himself arrived, by a different mode of investigation, as applied to the obser- 
vations made in the magnetical observatory of Dublin. 
The problem which he proposed to himself had for its object to determine the law 
of probability of disturbances, as dependent upon the hour of the day, and upon the 
season of the year—a question the solution of which will be seen to be of very great 
_ importance with reference to any physical theory of the phenomenon. The methods 
hitherto applied, although they indicate in a general manner the times of greater and 
less disturbance, do not solve this question. In the investigations of Prof, Kreil 
_ and Col. Sabine, no account is taken except of disturbances exceeding a certain 
; arbitrary limit ; and, with respect to these, the results are not combined in such a 
_ manner as to give the law in question. The deduction of this law, although some- 
_ what laborious, is nevertheless simple in principle. We have only to take the differ- 
ences between each individual result and the monthly mean corresponding to the same 
_ hour, and to combine these in the same manner as the errors of observation (to which 
_ they are analogous) are combined in the calculus of probabilities. Thus, the square 
root of the mean of the sum of the squares of these differences is a quantity ana- 

logous to the mean error, in the partial observations of a constant quantity ; and the 
_ probable disturbance at any hour is inferred from this, by multiplying it by a constant 
_ factor. The values of this function (which Dr. Lloyd proposed to call the mean dis- 
_ turbance) have been deduced for the several hours of observation in each month. 
_ The corresponding values for the entire year are deduced from those of the separate 
_ months, by a repetition of the same process ; they are given, reduced to minutes of 
are, in the following table :— 


1 3 5 7 9 | 11 | 13 | 15 | 17 | 19 | 21 | 23 


2'-16)2!-09)2!-09/2!-45|3"46)4'-10/2"812!-5219!-16]1'94\1'"87|1!-94 


. 


. 


‘The mean daily disturbance, deduced in a similar manner from the mean disturbance 
_ corresponding to the several hours, is 256. It will be at once seen, from the mere 


q 


14 REPORT—1845. 


inspection of these numbers, or, still better, by projecting them in a curve, that 
the mean disturbance follows a law of remarkable regularity, as depending upon the 
hour of the day. During the day, i. e. from 18 to 6 hours, it is nearly constant. 
At 6 hours, i. e. at the time of mean sunset, it begins to increase; it arrives at a 
maximum a, little after 10 hours; it then decreases with the same regularity, and is 
reduced to its constant day value, at about 18 hours, i. e. at sunrise. The maximum 
value at night is about double of the constant day value. 

The function whose values have been hitherto considered is independent of the 
direction of the disturbance. If, however, we take the sum of the squares of the 
easterly and westerly deviations separately, it is found that the easterly disturbance 
preponderates during the night, and the westerly during the day, the former being 
much more considerable than the latter, and the difference reaching a maximum 
about 10 hours. 

It thus appears that the tendency to disturbance observes a regular period, both in 
magnitude and direction, connected with the diurnal movement. In order to perceive 
their relation to the regular diurnal variations, it will be necessary to regard the latter 
in a somewhat different point of view from that in which they have been usually 
considered. From the very small amount of the regular change of declination, which 
takes place during the night, and from the manifest connexion of the day movement 
with the position of the sun, Dr. Lloyd said, that he was led to consider the position 
of the magnet during the night as its normal position, from which it was made to 
deviate during the day by the influence of the sun. In this point of view, the re- 
gular diurnal progression may be described, in its main features, as a westerly devia- 
tion of the north end of the magnet, commencing about an hour after sunrise, reach- 
ing its maximum a little after 1 p.m., and thence diminishing until a few hours after 
sunset, when the magnet returns nearly to its normal position. Now the mean 
disturbance, it will be remarked, observes a period nearly the reverse of this, both in 
magnitude and direction ; its value being nearly constant during the day, while it is 
largely developed during the night, in a direction opposed to that of the regular day 
movement. From these remarkable relations, which hold also between the changes, 
regular and irregular, of the horizontal intensity, it seems evident that the two 
classes of phenomena are physically connected. Without entering into the question 
of the mode of this connexion, Dr. Lloyd said that he regarded the disturbance of the 
two elements (in part at least) as an irregular reaction from the regular day move- 
ment, and dependent upon it both for its periodical character and for its amount. 
If this hypothesis be a just one, it will of course follow that the magnitude of the 
mean disturbance will vary in some direct proportion to the daily range, and should 
therefore be greater in summer than in winter. Now this (which is contrary to the 
results deduced by Prof. Kreil and Col. Sabine, with reference to the frequency of 
disturbances exceeding a certain limit) appears to be the fact. If we calculate the 
mean disturbance of the declination for the several quarters of the year, we fiad it to 


be as follows :— 
Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. 


2"66 3!-02 2!-52 180. 


From these results, it appears that the mean disturbance observes an annual as well 
as a diurnal period; its maximum occurring in summer, its minimum in winter, while 
in spring and autumn its values are nearly equal. This important relation appears 
to confirm, in a remarkable manner, the views above given. 

It by no means necessarily follows, from the results above stated, that the perio- 
dical character necessarily belongs to all disturbances. It may be that there are two 
classes of disturbances, the results of distinct physical causes, of which one observes 
a period, while the other is wholly irregular; for it is obvious that on such an hy- 
pothesis, the period of the former would necessarily be impressed upon the resultant 
disturbance, and that the latter would have no effect in effacing it, provided the ob- 
servations from which it was inferred were sufficiently numerous. There are many 
circumstances which seem to render this supposition highly probable; and if it be 
established, the next step in the investigation will be to distinguish these two kinds 
of disturbances by their external characters, and to resolve the complex resultant, 
where they happen to be combined, into its more simple elements. Dr. Lloyd stated 
that he had commenced a series of observations in Dublin, upon a plan which seemed 


Pn Ne a ee ee ee ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15 


likely to’ conduct to the solution of this problem—a problem which must be solved 
before we can ascend with certainty to the physical causes of the phenomena. 


On the Results of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at General 


Sir Thomas M. Brisbane’s Observatory, at Makerstoun, in the year 1842. 
By J. A. Broun. 


The following are the points of chief importance in the paper. From acomparison 
of five months, ifi 1841, with the corresponding five months of 1842, the yearly 
movement of the north end of the declination magnet is about five minutes towards 
the east. The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic intensity increases, and 
the vertical component. diminishes considerably in the year; the diminution of 
magnetic dip being about five minutes. A new method has been adopted in order 
to obtain the temperature corrections for the bifilar and balance magnets; it is 
described in the sixteenth volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- 
burgh. It was mentioned that very consistent results had been obtained by dif- 
ferent methods of comparison of the uswal observations for the positions and tem- 
peratures of the magnets. When the observations of the balance magnetometer are 
corrected by this method, the diurnal range of the vertical intensity has been found, 
like that for the horizontal intensity and declination, to increase regularly from the 
winter months to the summer months. The annual period of the horizontal inten- 
sity, as deduced from thecorrected observations of the bifilar magnetometer for 1842, is 
striking ; a minimum of intensity occurs before or about each equinox, and a maxi- 
mum before or about each solstice. The observations at Toronto in Canada, in 1842, 
when corrected by the same method, indicate exactly the same periods, The monthly 
means for Makerstoun and Toronto were projected in curves, which were exhibited ; 
the two curves were almost identical, the increase of horizontal intensity being 
greatest in the end of the year at Makerstoun. ‘The gorrected observations of the 
balance magnetometer confirm in some sense the results from the bifilar, inasmuch 
as they also show the same annual periods of maxima and minima for the vertical 
intensity. As a severe test of the accuracy of the instruments and the methods 
adopted, the results for the magnetic dip deduced from the two force magnetometers 
were compared, both as to diurnal and yearly change of dip, with the results obtained 
from the inclinemeter, and they were found to agree very nearly. From the meteoro- 
logical observations, it was found that the range of the monthly means of the pres- 
sure of dry air was nearly the same as for the moist air. The mean of the three- 
monthly maxima and minima of temperature for each quarter of the year, was found 
to differ only by a fractional part of a degree from the mean of all the daily maxima 
and minima for the same period. The mean of the monthly maxima and minima of 
atmospheric pressure is less than the mean pressure for the whole year. This, it is 
conceived, has been found to hold always true, at least for places within the latitudes 
50° and 60° north; the reverse probably takes place in lower latitudes—it does so 
at Pekin; in 1841, the means of the monthly maxima and minima being in almost 
every month above the mean pressure. The curve of the relative humidity of the 
atmosphere for the year, deduced from the observations of the psychrometer, was 
shown to agree completely in its inflexions with the curve of the mean quantity of 
clouds covering the sky, this quantity being merely estimated. ‘ 


On a large Magnetic Machine. 
By the Rey. Witu1aM Scorzssy, D.D.,F.R.S.L. § E., Cor. Mem. Inst. France. 


The principal part of the machine consists of two cases, or fasciculi of magnetic 
bars, of unusually large dimensions, on principles developed in the author’s recent 
work, entitled ‘ Magnetical Investigations,’ which principles may be thus summarily 
stated :—1. That magnetic bars designed for large combinations may be conveniently 
constructed of various pieces. 2. That the separation of a long bar, say of three or 
four feet, into several portions, is not disadvantageous in regard to power ; and that the 
resulting power is similar, whether, in the combining of several series of short bars, 
the elementary bars be of the same or of unequal lengths. 3. That the relative 


‘powers of magnets, whether single or compound, when different in mass, but pro- 


‘ 


16 REPORT—1845. 


portional in all their dimensions, are not in the ratio of the masses, the large masses 
being less strong proportionally than the smaller. 4. That whilst magnets of large 
dimensions are less powerful with respect to their masses than small magnets to 
which they are exactly proportional in all their dimensions ; and whilst the increase 
of the dimensions continually deteriorates from the energy due to the mass; yet 
magnets may be combined in such proportional dimensions with a constant increase 
of power ad infinitum. From this last result, it follows that magnets indefinitely 
small must be indefinitely strong; and may indicate that the mutually attractive 
forces of the ultimate magnetic elements may be as strong as that’ by which the me- 
tallic elements are themselves combined. It must also be kept in mind that the 
steel should be perfectly hard; and the elementary plates of the magnet should be 
made of steel, converted out of one or other of the very best qualities of foreign iron. 
All the conditions, with the exception of thinness, were attended to in the large 
magnet constructed by Dr. Scoresby. A magnet on this principle, of the size of the 
lower mast of.a first-rate ship of war (which might be constructed of plates of very 
hard cast iron), would produce a deviation of nearly 1! at the distance of a mile, and 
a sensible effect much beyond that. The two fasciculi of Dr. Scoresby’s magnetical 
machine were about 4 feet in length each, 43 inches in breadth, and about 6 inches 
in depth. Nearly 600 running feet of steel, in 504 bars, were originally provided, 
weighing altogether 750 lbs.; but many were rejected, not being found hard enough 
to stand the magnetic test. The attractive force, though not a favourable arrange- 
ment for sustaining weight, was sufficient to carry 400 lbs. The inductive energy 
on iron bars or keys, held at 6 to 12 inches distance, was extraordinary, sufficient to 
sustain a chain of six keys of considerable size. With a deal board of 0-4 inch in- 
terposed betwixt the magnet and the conductor, a weight of 15 lbs. was sustained. 
The following electrical effects were produced by Dr. Scoresby’s magnet with a 
very imperfect armature. It decomposed water rapidly, producing about one cubic 
inch of the gases a minute; with about sixty-five yards of coiled wire, the effer- 
vescence seemed as violent as during the action of dilute sulphuric acid on zinc. 
Copper was deposited from a solution of sulphate of copper at the rate of about 1°2 
grains per minute. Shocks were powerful, and scintillations were thrown out; and 
sparks were visible in daylight, and emitted audible sounds when the armature re- 
volved so slowly as once in sixteen seconds.: 


On the Baron de Bode’s Insulated Compass. By Joszrpn York Otiver. 


The object was to insulate the compass from the action of the iron of the ship. 
The contrivance was this: a double glass bowi, the intermediate space being filled 
with mercury, was made to act as the bowl of the ordinary compass. It was hung 
in gymbals, and surrounded by lead for protection. The author remarked on the 
utility of employing a similar apparatus for securing chronometers from the local 
attraction of the iron on shipboard. 


On a Method of suspending a Ship's Compass. By E. J. Dent, F.R.A.S. 


An account of this instrument was communicated to the Association at its last 
meeting in York. Mr. Dent now read extracts from a report of the working of this 
compass during six months at sea, as ordered by the Lords of the Admiralty, to 
the effect that his compass was found ‘‘to be extremely sensitive, moving exactly 
and admirably with the ship’s head, when the helm was put hard-a-port and hard- 
a-starboard; while the other compasses with which it was compared were always 
in arrear.”” 


On the Connection between Magnetic Variation with certain peculiarities of the 
Earth's Structure. By S. M. Saxsy. 

Mr. Saxby was of opinion that it will be found, on examining the direction of the 
various mountain ridges of the globe, that there is a remarkable angular coincidence 
between such line of direction and the local curve of equal magnetic variation, the 
one crossing the other at angles of from 65° to 70°. ’ 


— 


TRANSACPIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 17 


On the amount of Rain which had fallen, with the different winds, at T'ooma- 
~ vara, in the County of Limerick, during five consecutive years. By the 
Rev. Tuomas Knox, M.R.J.A. 


The Rev. H. Lloyd said that he had already brought before the Section, at a former 
meeting, the results of these observations, while in progress ; he had now the plea- 
sure, at Mr. Knox’s desire, of submitting to its notice the conclusions derived from 
the entire and completed series of five years’ uninterrupted observation. After ex- 
plaining briefly the principle of the instrument, by which the amount of rain with 
different winds’ is measured by Mr. Knox, and the mode in which the results are 
graphically represented, he proceeded to read the following remarks, in the words of 
the author himself :— 

««There are one or two points to which I wish to draw attention. First of all, 
taking the average monthly rain at three inches, the first six months of the year are 
below the average, the other six months above it. November and July are by far 
the two wettest months in the year, and in each the greatest amount of rain is from 
S.W. April is much the driest month, and there is nearly as much rain in it from 
the northern portion of the compass as from the southern. 

“‘ With regard to the gross amount which fell from each point in the entire year, 
that which fell from S., 8.W. and W., is much above the average; from the other 
points it is below it. If the polygon which characterizes the yearly rain be divided 
by a line running N.E. and 8.W., then the rain at equal intervals on either side of 
this line is equal, to all but a fraction of aninch. ‘This is the more remarkable, as 
these two points had been fixed on by Professor Dove, in his paper on the Winds, 
as being the points of greatest and least barometric pressure; that is to say, the 
wind being supposed at S.W., any shift of it either towards S. or W. produces a rise 
of the barometer, and also any shift on either side of N.E. a corresponding fall. 
Now, in the rain, the greatest amount is from $.W., corresponding with the least 
height of the barometer : the least is from N.E., where also the barometer is highest ; _ 
‘and on either side of this line it varies regularly. For instance, the amounts from 
|W. and S. are nearly equal, and both less than that from S.W.: N.W. and S.E, are 
also equal, but still less ; and so on. ; 

«There is one particular in which this separation of the gross amount of rain into 
the eight portions, as brought by different winds, may be useful, viz. in ascertaining 
the respective specific gravities, and the amount of saline matter, brought from each 
‘direction. This may be useful in regard to agricultural matters. For instance, we 
‘could easily suppose a case of two portions of land, not many miles asunder, but on 
‘different sides of a high range of hills, getting very different amounts of salt, from - 
‘one being exposed to, and the other sheltered from that wind in which the greatest 
‘amount was found. But by this mode of collecting the rain, an accurate mode of 
“estimating this is within our reach. To this question, namely, the amounts of solid 
‘and gaseous matter brought in the rain from each direction, 1 hope on a future oc- 
sion to turn my attention.” 

_ The Tables which accompany this communication give the amount of the rain 
corresponding to each wind, for each separate month in the five years. The follow- 
ng are the yearly mean results, deduced from the whole series :— 


Mg -8.W. We NWN NE. OE. SE. Total, 
6548 10°639 6°034 2°789 2°352 2°172 2°251 3°173 35°958 


‘On a Thermometer Stand. By Henry Lawson, L.R.S. 


__ The Meteorological Thermometer Stand, which was regularly used at the author’s 
observatory in Bath, was stated to possess the following requisites :—It can be placed 
On any open eligible spot. Its four sides can and must be placed to face the cardinal 
‘points; commanding, therefore, a true north and south aspect. It can be visited on 
ery side, and be free from all surrounding objects. The instruments or thermo- 
Meters used can be read off with great facility; and the whole will be at a known 
distance from the ground. The instruments placed on the south face will have the . 
‘meridian sun ; and those on the north face will be always in the shade, in conse- 
Bre. of the projecting wings. It can be employed by any meteorologist wherever 
1845. c 
e 


yn 


a 


» 


18 REPORT—1845. 


resident. It is of a determinate form, height and size. It is not costly, and may be 
constructed by any intelligent carpenter. By the general adoption of this stand, in- 
struments placed upon it will be all observed under similar circumstances, and can 
be compared with far less chance of error than has hitherto been the case. A model 
was exhibited, and a working plan and description distributed. 


On a New Anemometer. By James THomas Gopparp. 


The author described some further improvements which he had made in the con- 
struction of his anemometer, and called attention to the investigations in which it 
would be of service, and to the most suitable localities for the employment of it. 


Meteorological Observations made in 1844 at Huggate, Wold, Yorkshire. 
By the Rev. T. Ranxin. 


Mr. Rankin exhibited Tables. The chief results were— 
The elevation was about 700 feet above the level of the sea. The greatest monthly 


SO 


range of the barometer WAS --+++.+.ssceeeeeseeeeeeeeeenee neers staiceetelnte’ 0°850 
Greatest daily range ......ssssseeceseeseeeeeeeeeeenseeeeeecersaneneseeeenenes .. 0°290 
The highest barometer, February 24th .....sssscsseseseeeeeeees ae cencutded 29°950 
The lowest, May 15th .......scsssecseeeseeeeeveeeecenseeeeeranetseseseeceanees 28°240 
The highest thermometer, July 25th ........-ssseeseeeeeseeeeeeuneeeeenees 74° 
The lowest, February 23rd .......csseesessecescnscateneeceesaeseucsensenecess 20° 
Greatest monthly range of thermometer (May)........esss0e ceseeeeeueee 34° 
Greatest daily range, May Qth......+sessseseeeeesseeceeeeeteeseeseesseseeees 29° 


The deficiency of rain for the year was 10 inches. In the month of December, 
Millington Springs, in the adjoining parish, and which flow from the top of a bed 
of clay lying below a chalk rock above 200 feet thick, were as low as in the summer 
of 1826. 


Additional Fhermometrical Observations in a deep well at Huggate. 
By the Rev. T. Ranxin. 


The well is 348 feet in depth. 


December 9th, 1844...top of well ...... 38 degrees, at 4 P.M. 
be 150 feet deep... 42 5 
pe 300 feet deep... 45 PF 
rf water at bottom 43 HY 
March 11th, 1845 ... top of well...... 32 degrees, at 6 P.M. 
oe 150 feet down... 38 re 
a 300 feetdown... 44 3 
ne WATED ...c.ccccee 43 Y 
April 5th, 1845 ....... top of well...... 50 degrees, at 22 P.M. * 
nA 100 feet deep... 45 id ; 
aa 200 feet deep... 45 is 
3 300 feet deep... 43 rf 
Bs Water ..cocsecccee 42 53 
April 23rd, 1845......6. top of well...... 59 degrees, at 2 P.M. 
is 100 feet deep... 55 oF 


>? 


ced 


200 feet deep... 
300 feet deep... 


50 » 
47 ” 


3 WALCT. «cgccavisese 45 re 
June 3rd, 1845 top of well...... 70 degrees, at 1 P.M. 
oe 100 feet down... 65 ve 
o 150 feet down... 60 = 
YP 200 feet down... 55 a3 
Pe 300 feet down... 52 ve 
Hy WEED, 0¢edcsueeses 46 Fy 
The average of these five was—of the shaft ......+.:+reesee 47°08 


bed 


: TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19 


On Fog-rings observed in America. 
By Sir Daviv Brewster, F.R.S.L. §& £., Hon. M.RI.A. 


This notice was communicated to Sir D. Brewster by Sir John P. Boileau. It 
relates to a fog-bow which had been seen in January 1808, by Sir George Rose, 
when off the Montgomery Reach, in the Potomac, in Virginia. Larly in the morn- 
ing a milk-white fog came on, so thick that the captain of the packet found it neces- 
sary to anchor, not knowing where he was. About half-past eleven he came up to 
Sir George, and remarked that they should have all clear soon, ‘‘ for the fog-eater 
was come.” The captain explained himself by pointing to the head of the vessel, 
where there was visible a ring of thicker white fog than that in which they were en- 
veloped, apparently about sixty feet in diameter, the belt of the ring appearing about 
two feet broad. Within this ring was another, two feet in diameter, suspended in 
its centre, and with prismatic colours. It lasted about 20! or 30’, after which the 
fog cleared away. There was a severe frost on the following day. 


Tables of Meteorological Observations for the Year 1844, made by J. R. Crowe, 
Esq., the British Consul-Generab of Norway at Christiana. Latitude 
59° 54! 1" North, Longitude 10° 45' 0" East. 


(Communicated by Dr. Lee.) [These Tables are a continuation of others made 
in the year 1843, and presented to the British Association at York, and noticed in 
the volume of the Proceedings of the Association for 1844, at p. 27 of the abstracts 
of communications to the Section of Mathematics and Physics. ] 

They consist of observations of the thermometer and barometer made on every day 
in the year, at 7a.M., 9 a.m., 2P.M., 4 P.M. and 10 P.m., with the means of each 
column for each month, and the mean temperature calculated for each month, and 
the quantity of rain in cubic inches. 

Also tables of the prevailing winds for each month, the sixteen directions of the 
winds being noted for 9 a.m., 2 p.m. and 4 p.m. on each day, and the totals for each 
month. In February, the state of the wind is also given at 4 p.m. in addition. 

The daily calculations for December are not complete; those for the 11th to the 
20th inclusive are wanting. But the barometrical and thermometrical means for 

_ the whole month at the five above-mentioned hours are given, and the tables of the 
_ prevailing winds are calculated for 7 a.m., 9 a.M., 2P.M. and 4 P.M. 


The following notice was also communicated by Dr. Lee :— 


_ A Description of the Lightning and Thunder of the 16th of August 1844, 
_ whieh took place at Alten, im Norwegian Lapland, by J. F. Coin, Esq. 
N. Latitude 69° 59' + and Longitude 23° + East. 


_ Mr. Cole is the gentleman who, in 1844, presented a paper on the Aurora Borealis, 
as seen frequently at Alten; also a paper on a sudden fall of rain, with a clear sky, 
_ at Alten; also a paper, or table, on the Forces and Directions of the Winds, the 
, Barometer and Thermometer, &c. &c. 
4 Dr. Lee remarked, on presenting these two papers, that although of inferior value 
‘ compared to many which have been presented to the Section, still that they were 
' Hot without some interest, as being a continuation of the series of papers which had 
arrived from Norway and Lapland in 1844, and which are likely to be continued in 
_ future years. 
_ Any observations from Alten are interesting, on account of its high northern 
_ latitude, and being the most northern town in the world, and where it might be highly 
_ advantageous for science that a magnetic observatory should be established, and 
_ which might be done at present with facility, as there is a British mining company 
_ established at Alten, and several of the young men in the employ of the company, 
both English and Norwegians, already have a public library and an astronomical and 
meteorological observatory, and devote their leisure time to these studies, and with 
_ due encouragement and assistance, the work of a magnetic observatory would be 
materially assisted by them. 
_ Either Alten or Hammarfest (which is near it) would be a desirable spot. for a 
os cg 


20 REPORT—1845. 


magnetic observatory, and as our distinguished secretary Colonel Sabine has swung 
the pendulum during his important voyage in the northern seas at Hammarfest, 
Dr. Lee states that his superior opinion on this subject could be consulted with 
advantage. 

Also, on account of the northern position of Alten or Hammarfest, observations on 
refraction might be made with great advantage, and some results obtained from them 
which would be highly beneficial to astronomy. 

Alten is also the region of auroras; they abound in that latitude, and their con- 
nexion with magnetism might be traced with more advantage at Alten than at any 
other place. 

During the visit of the King of Sweden and Norway to Christiana in the winter 
of 1844, his Majesty is said to have expressed his readiness to give every patronage 
in his power to the arts and sciences in Scandinavia, and he has already authorised 
Baron Wrede and Professor Selander, the Astronomer Royal of Stockholm, to make 
arrangements during the summer of 1845, for the measuring of an arc of latitude 
from Tornea in the gulf of Bothnia to the North Cape during the summer of 1846, 
and Baron Wrede is now engaged on that grand work. 

This is an additional reason for the establishment of a magnetic observatory at 
Alten, under the patronage of the British Association, in the spring of the year 1846. 

Dr. Lee expressed his wish, that the friends of the Association would authorize 
the committee to establish a series of magnetic observatories at Edinburgh, Inverness, 
Thurso, the Shetland Isles, Drontheim in Norway, and Alten in Lapland, in order 
that regular tables of observations might be produced from them for the benefit of 
the Association. 


Researches on Shooting Stars. By M. Coutvier Gravirr. 


The observations were made at Rheims and at Paris, and were continued without 
intermission from July 1841 to February 1845 inclusive. The mean number seen 
in an hour followed a remarkable law of progression throughout the year. The 
hourly mean number for January was 3°6, for February 3°6, for March 3°7, for 
April 3°7, for May 3°8, for June 3°2, for July 7°0, for August 8°5, for September 6°8, 
for October 9, for November 9°5, for December 7°9; thus during the first six months 
the hourly number is nearly the same each month, while in the next six months 
there is a progressive increase, first until August, and then until October or Novem- 
ber, periods at which the hourly number is more than double those of the other six 
months, which well agrees with the facts proved in those countries as to August and 
November. The second part of the memoir contains tabulated results of the hourly 
variations of the shooting stars observed from six in the evening to six in the morn- 
ing, which also observed a remarkable progression from 3°3, the hourly mean number 
observed between 6 and 7 P.m., to 8°2, the hourly mean of those seen between 5 and 
6 a.m. This result was illustrated by curves, in which a very obvious law of hourly 
progression was to be observed. 


On Remarkable Lunar Periodicities in Earthquakes, extraordinary Oscillations 
of the Sea, and great Atmospherical Changes. By Ricuarp Epmonps, jun. 


The following nine days remarkable for earthquakes, extraordinary oscillations of 
the sea, or very unusual states of the atmosphere, occurred near the moon’s first 
quarters, at successive intervals of about four lunations each. 

1842, November 9.—Earthquake at Montreal and other parts of Canada*, when 
“the waters of the St. Lawrence were violently agitated.”’ This was the day before 
the moon’s first quarter. On the 11th, the day after it, the barometer at Penzance 
was 29°00, lower than for 247 days before and 13 days afterwards. 

1843, March 10.—Earthquake at Manchester{; barometer at Chiswick§ on the 
preceding days 30°380, higher|| than for 49 days before and 179 days after. 


* The newspapers are the authorities unless others are mentioned. 

+ Kept at the Penzance Public Library. + British Association Report, 1843, p. 121. 

§ At the Gardens of the Horticultural Society. 

|| On the day of the great earthquake of Lisbon, the barometer at Penzance was higher 
than it had been for ¢iree years before.—Borlase’s Natural Listory of Cornwall, p. 53. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21 


~ July 5.—Extraordinary oscillation of the sea in Penzance*, Plymouth, Scotland, 
&c., and a great thunderstorm+ throughout the island. Barometer at Penzance at 
the time of the oscillation there 29°50, lower than for twenty-five days before and 
forty-seven days after. Thermometer at Chiswick.88°, at Brighton 78°, the maxima 
for the year at those places. 

October 30.—Similar oscillations of the sea at Penzance and Plymouth}. Ba- 
rometer at Penzance at the time of the oscillation 29°00, which, except the minimum 
of the 27th, was lower than for 223 days before and 115 days after. 

1844, February 26.—Barometer at Chiswick 28624, lower than for 409 days be- 
fore and ever since. At Penzance it was 28°50, having fallen nearly two inches in 
thirty-six hours. 

June 23.—An unusually severe and protracted thunderstorm this evening through- 
out Cornwall and in Dumfries-shire, and on the following morning at Boston and 
Liverpool, at which latter place ‘‘ pebbles and small eels descended in the streets §.”” 
Thermometer at Chiswick on the 23rd, 91°; highest for the year except one day in 
July. In the weekly meteorological report from the Greenwich Observatory, it is 
stated as an extraordinary fact, that “at 1 o’clock p.m. (of the 23rd) a thermometer 
placed on a small piece of raw wool in the sun’s rays, rose in seven minutes to 155°, 
and was still rising when the thermometer was taken away.” 

October 18.—The town of Buffalo on Lake Erie almost destroyed by a hurricane. 
This was the day of the moon’s first quarter, and almost exactly twenty-four luna- 
tions after the earthquake in that neighbourhood already mentioned. At Chiswick 
this day the maximum of the thermometer was less by 3° than for several months 
before, and the barometer on the 16th was at a minimum of 28°940, lower than since 
the 26th of February. 

1845, February 12.—The greatest cold experienced in England probably during 
the present century. Thermometer at Blackheath, at half past 7 a.m., 334° below 
the freezing-point ; at Chiswick 35° below that point. Barometer at the latter place 
30°409, higher than for nine months before, except on the 21st of December. 

June 13.—Extraordinary oscillation of the sea in Kent||, and a “terrific” thun- 
derstorm at Chatham. The temperature very high in all parts of England; ther- 
mometer at Penzance being 77°, higher than on any other day of the year hitherto]. 

Not one of the phenomena for which the above nine days are remarkable, was 
forty-eight hours from the moon’s first change or quarter. Three of the days 
were each at the moon’s first quarter nearest the solstice ; of these the first and last 
were distinguished for extraordinary oscillations of the sea, while all were remark- 
able for great thunderstorms and unusually warm weather**. 

The author’s attention was drawn to the interval of four lunations by having re- 
marked++ that interval, or 118 days, between the two oscillations of the sea, at and 


* The author, who witnessed this oscillation in Mounts-bay, has given a minute desctiption 
of it in the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, p. 114, and con- 
siders that such phenomena result from submarine shocks or vibrations of the earth, which, 
after being transmitted through the sea, more rapidly than sound through air, exhaust them- 
selves on reaching the shore, in a succession of long waves or tide-like oscillations. See also 
Jameson's Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for April 1845, pp. 271-279. 

+ Mr. Milne has described this storm and the oscillations of the sea observed in different 
parts of Great Britain, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv. 
pp. 609-638. 

+ Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, p. 120. 

§ Literary Gazette, p. 420. 

|| This was observed at Folkstone at 4 P.m., and is thus described in the newspapers :— 
“The tide then flowing changed to ebbing three different and continuous times, causing 
much agitation of the sea at the harbour’s mouth. This had been preceded by a heavy and 
brief whirlwind from the S.E. The rise of the water appeared to be about three feet, and 
its sudden receding produced the agitation.” 

4 Higher than on any other day of the year except the 9th and 10th of September, 
exactly three lunations afterwards, when it was 77° and 78°. 

** So also in 1842, the hottest day of the hottest June in Boston in Lincolnshire since 
1826, was the 14th, the day before the moon’s first quarter, the thermometer at Chiswick 


_ being then 88°, the same as on the 5th July 1843. 


+f Transactions of Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, p. 120. 


22 REPORT—1845. 


after the great earthquake of 1755, and 119 days* between those at and after the 
great earthquake of 1761. 

But while such remarkable days have occurred at intervals of four lunations, others 
were mentioned as having taken place at intervals of either single lunations or some 
multiple of a lunation+; and the great earthquakes throughout Mexico on the 9th 
of March and the 7th of April last, are almost exactly one lunation from each other. 
So also, in reference to the six known} shocks of the earth and extraordinary oscilla- 
tions of the sea in Cornwall during the last century, the interval between any two of 
them is almost exactly some multiple of a lunation, The same observation applies 
to the six which have occurred in the present century, except that of the 20th of 
October 1837. With this single exception they have all happened at or near the 
moon’s first quarters. 

From the facts above noticed, it would appear that an earthquake or any very 
disturbed or extraordinary state of the atmosphere, is generally preceded or followed 
either by other earthquakes or by unusual states of the atmosphere occurring at 
intervals of single lunations, or of some multiple of a lunation ; and that the phe- 
nomena which happen at intervals of four lunations, are more striking than those at 
the shorter periods. There seems reason therefore for supposing that earthquakes and 
great atmospherical changes are in many, if not most instances, occasioned princi- 
pally by the action of the moon. 


On the Nature and Origin of the Aurora Borealis, 
By the Rev. Gzorce Fisuer, M.A., F.R.S. 


The following is an abstract of this paper, and the results which the author has 
endeavoured to establish :— 

That the principal displays of the aurora occur in the vicinity of the edge or mar- 
gin of the frozen sea, and occasionally at those places in more temperate climates, 
where humid vapours are accumulated, and by the operation of certain causes, such 
as tides, winds, &c., are brought suddenly within the influence of a cold and dry 
atmosphere, and thereby subject to congelation. That the aurora is an electrical 
phenomenon, and arises from the positive electricity developed by the congelation of 
these vapours, and the consequent induced negative electricity of the upper and 
surrounding portions of dry atmosphere. It is the accompanying indication of the 
restoration of the electrical equilibrium, which equilibrium is restored by the inter- 
vention and conducting power of minute frozen particles, which particles are rendered 
luminous by the transmission of the electricity, and thereby give rise to the various 
appearances of the phenomena. 

From the author’s observations at Winter island and at the island of Igloolik 
(the two winter stations of Capt. Parry’s second expedition to the polar regions, 
which expedition he accompanied as astronomer), he was led to the conclusion that 
those places at which the aurora took its rise, were chiefly confined to the edge or 
margin of the frozen sea. He observed at each of these places, that in the early 
part of the winter, before the sea around was frozen over, the aurora was of a ge- 
neral and diffused character, and extended through the zenith in every direction. 
As the winter advanced and the edge of the ice in consequence became more remote, 
so the aurora diminished in splendour, assumed a low-arch appearance, and was 
seen only in the direction of the open-water, fringing the upper surfaces of dark- 
masses of vapours, known by the name of ‘ Sea-blink,” which hung over and were 
apparently in contact with the exposed surface of the sea, He gives additional evi- 
dence as to this particular locality of the phenomenon from the observations of 
Captains Sir John Franklin, Beechey, Biscoe, and others; and he observes, that its 


7 


* On the last of these 119 days, when the second oscillation occurred in Mounts-bay in 
1761, a very violent thunderstorm happened there in the evening, distant thunder having 
been heard occasionally all the day, and the weather very sultry and calm.—PAil, Trans., 
vol. lii. p. 507. 

+ These haye since been inserted in Jameson’s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for 
October 1845, pp. 386-389. 

+ The dates are given in the Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, 1843, 
p- 111, and 1844, p. 209. 


Sse 


¥ 


: 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23 


usual height above the surface of the earth is very inconsiderable in high latitudes, 
since it has been observed at one place in the zenith, forming a confused mass of 
flashes and beams; and at another, not many miles distant, having the appearance 
of a low illumined ‘arch i in the direction of the former place. 

The sudden deposition of extremely minute frozen particles, when auroral displays 
took place near to the zenith, was several times observed by the author; and it ap- 
pears that the same singular fact has been alluded to by Lieut. Hood and also by 
Dr. Richardson, but more especially by Professor Joslyn of New York, in Silliman’s 
Journal, Oct. 1838, who concludes, from numerous observations made in North Ame- 
rica, that ‘‘ the aurora is an electrical phenomenon,—that it is intimately connected 
with the elements of the clouds, and with these elements only, when they are gene- 
rated in air intensely cold, as well as nearly saturated with humidity,—that it requires 
for its development a cold adequate to the crystallization of aqueous vapours,—that 
crystals of snow, more minute and simple than those which produce halos, are 
always present in the atmosphere above the region of ordinary clouds during the 
appearance of this metedr,—that those seasons of the year, and those hours of the 
night when the aurora most frequently occurs, are favourable both to the presence 
and congelation of aqueous vapours in the atmosphere.”’ The author remarks upon 
the singular agreement between these results of Professor Joslyn and those commu- 
nicated by himself four years before, in an unpublished paper to the Royal Society. 
He considers, however, that perhaps the strongest proof of the important agency of 
these particles in an auroral display, is to be derived from the fact, that the auroral 
light can be distinctly traced to those localities where humid vapours are known to 
be undergoing rapid congelation, and where such particles must in consequence 
abound; and that in the usual arch- formation, whatever may be the nature of the 
light, yet the auroral fringe clearly arises from the illumination of the frozen parti- 
cles which are formed from the exterior portion of the vapours, being under the in- 
fluence of the cold atmosphere immediately above them. From the circumstance 
that congelation is a known source of electrical development, he infers that strong 
evidence is thereby afforded of the nature as well as the locality of the aurora. 

Although he considers sufficient evidence was obtained as to the direction and 
situation of the open-water during the winter season, from the usual indications of 
the sea-blink, and also from the information obtained from the Esquimaux, yet a 
singular confirmation in this respect was afforded by the circumstance, that the re- 
fraction due to the star Sirius, which was usually observed through a low aurora in 
the south-east direction at the island of Igloolik during the second winter, was ge- 
nerally about 1' less than the corresponding refraction of the same star when ob- 
served at equal altitudes and temperature towards the south-west ; in which latter 
direction the visual ray passed over land covered with ice and snow, thereby indi- 
cating a diminished density of the lower stratum of atmosphere in the former direc- 
tion, in which the aurora was seen, from its being under the influence of the compa- 
ratively higher temperature of an exposed surface of the sea. 

The author remarks, that when a display of aurora commenced with the arch- 
formation, the upper stratum of vapour, which formed the exterior limit or upper 
edge of the arch, was usually of a very dense and dark appearance, apparently highly 
charged with humidity, and exhibited by the contrast the auroral fringe immediately 
above it with splendid effect ; but that the lower portion, being of a higher temperature, 
from being nearer to the exposed surface of the water, became frequently so dilated 
and transparent as to render stars visible within the arch. 

To form an estimate of the prodigious extent to which congelation goes on during 
the winter season near the margin of the frozen sea, and at those places within it, 
where, by reason of the spring tides, the ice is continually broken and separated 
from the land, and the water in consequence suddenly exposed to the action of the 
low temperatures which then prevail, he observes, that a difference of more than 
70° Fahr. continually occurs between the temperature of the exposed surface-water 
and that of the atmosphere above it, and that the latter in consequence becomes im- 
mediately impregnated with extremely minute frozen particles, known by the name 
of “ Frost-smoke,” which, when seen at a distance, has a white silvery appear- 


ance. 
_ The immense mass of vapours which are known to accumulate near the edge of 


~ 


24 REPORT—1845. - 


the ice are invariably confined at this period of the year to very low altitudes above 
the surface of the earth, so as never to form clouds in the usual acceptation of the 
term; but as the season advances and the temperature increases, the aurora occurs 
less frequently; the vapours become entirely detached from the sea, rise to a greater 
height in the atmosphere, and begin to acquire the ordinary appearance of clouds. 
The aurora is no longer confined to their upper surfaces, but a faint auroral light is 
usually seen to fringe the whole of their circumferences, until the vapours are dissi- 
pated by congelation. The author conceives the alternate opening and closing of the 
ice, by which means different portions of vapours are detached from the surface of 
the sea consecutively, give rise to the appearance of different concentric arches of 
aurora, which are occasionally seen. 

As extreme dryness is the peculiar character of the higher atmosphere consequent 
upon low temperatures (which is a state most favourable for electrical induction), 
he concludes that this portion of the atmosphere acquires an opposite state of elec- 
tricity to that below; and since there are no means, such as exist in more temperate 
latitudes, of effecting the restoration of the electrical equilibrium thus disturbed by 
congelation ; and moreover, since within the tropics the aurora is never seen, and 
thunder and lightning are of almost daily occurrence, the latter phenomenon 
indicates the means which nature employs for the maintenance of the equilibrium 
nearer the equator ; and on the other hand, the aurora points out the mode by which 
the same end is silently effected in the cloudless atmosphere of a polar winter, and 
other places where it occasionally occurs, by the interposition and conducting power 
of the frozen particles that are then and there formed; that as these particles are 
generated in the same -proportion as the electricity is developed, so the means of 
restoring the equilibrium are at all times adequate for the purpose. 

He considers the formation of vertical streamers to arise from the illumination of 
columns of these particles in performing the office of restoring the electrical equili- 
brium between the upper and lower strata of atmosphere ; that their vertical ascen~ 
sion is due to the electrical attraction caused by the strata being in opposite states 
of electricity by induction, and in accordance with this he observed that when the 
streamers were projected from an auroral arch, the fringe of light upon the latter 
usually became extinct, or very much diminished in intensity. That the particles 
are subsequently distributed by the winds in various directions, and give rise by 
their illumination to the different places and appearances which constitute a diffused 
aurora, which is usually terminated by a deposition of the particles when they have 
performed their office. 

He found by repeated trials, which were suggested to him by the late Sir Humphry 
Davy at a committee of the Royal Society held previous to the sailing of the expe- 
dition, that ice is an electrical conductor at very low, as well as at mean tempera~ 
tures. The experiments were made with various electrometers, and the friction 
made with silk, woollen cloth, &c., but without producing the least electrical indi- 
cation, although, from the perfect dryness of the atmosphere at low temperatures, 
the electrometers were extremely sensible of the slightest approach of an excited 
electric. A similar conclusion was obtained by completing, by means of ice, the 
connexion in M. Orsteds galvanic apparatus. Mr. Fisher also observes, that the 
conducting power of the frozen particles floating in the atmosphere defeated every 
attempt to determine the state of the atmospherical electricity, by means of the ap- 
paratus suspended from the royal mast-head of the ship, during the time they were 
frozen up each winter, by reason of their deposition upon the insulating glass rods 
of the copper chain used for the purpose; and he has reason to think, had the in- 
sulation been perfect, some very interesting results would have been obtained. 

Taking this view of the subject, the author considers that there exists an irregular belt 
or zone of congelation, circumscribing the pole of each hemisphere, in different parts 
of which displays of aurora more or less occur, according to the amount of the re- 
quired conditions of low temperatures and humidity; and that those parts of the zones 
which cross the northern Atlantic, or in other words, the winter limits of the frozen 
sea which extend from the American to the northern coast of Europe, will be most 
favourable to the production of the aurora, from the circumstance of there being 
there the greatest supply of humidity. This, he observes, is confirmed by observa- 
tion, and is further corroborated by the fact, that gales of wind from the south, which 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25 


ere 


_ bring to the ice portions of atmosphere saturated with moisture from sea-weed, most 
frequently accompany these auroral displays. 

Having endeavoured to trace the aurora to these localities, he concludes his paper 
by identifying these auroral zones with the existence of electrical currents and their 
application to the theory of terrestrial magnetism. He considers that these zones 
will not approach nearer to either pole of the earth than the margin of the fixed ice, 
from the absence of humidity in the atmosphere over the fixed ice; but that they 
will extend themselves indefinitely towards the equator, and also in height above the 
surface of the earth. And since the general configuration or curvature of the zones 
must obviously approximate to that of the isothermal lines, which latter are known 
to accord in a very remarkable way with the magnetic curves, he thinks there are 
good grounds for concluding that Ampére’s theory is founded in truth, and that these 
currents circulate within the zones from east to west; the exciting cause of the cir- 
culation of the currents in this direction being probably the action of the sun, as 
each portion of the zones is brought consecutively by the diurnal rotation of the 
earth within the solar influence ; the magnetic needle being thereby induced to place 
itself at right angles to the direction of the currents. It will follow also, that the 
electrical development in each zone will be greater in winter than in the summer of 
the corresponding hemisphere ; and that the magnetic force will also be a maximum 
in the winter time, which is found to be the case. 

He suggests, that upon the same principle the force,soliciting the horizontal mag- 
netic needle will be a minimum during that period of the day when the solar influ- 
ence is most effective in diminishing the electrical development in that part of the 
zone which is situated in the direction of the magnetic meridian ; that the diurnal 
deflection of the north end of the needle (as observed in Europe) towards the west 
in the morning, and the contrary motion in the afternoon, may be also thus recon- 
ciled; and, finally, that the aurora will produce a similar effect by restoring the 
electrical equilibrium, and cause a diminution of the magnetic intensity of the hori- 
zontal needle when a display happens in or near the direction of the magnetic meri- 
dian, and also a corresponding deflection in declination from that part of the zone 
where the phenomenon occurs. These conclusions the author has reason to believe 
are confirmed by observations. 


On the Measurement of T'wo Arcs of the Meridian in India, the middle point 
being in latitude 24° 7' 11", the southern extremity in latitude 18° 3' 15", 
and the northern in latitude 29° 30' 49". By Lieut.-Colonel Everegsr, 
F.R.S., §c., late Surveyor-General of India. 


| Colonel Everest described the apparatus employed in the measurement of three 
, 
. 


bases connected with this work, as also the instruments used in determining the 
celestial arcs of amplitude and in the terrestrial operations, and exhibited engravings 
illustrative thereof. 


i On a Lunar Meteorological Cycle. By Luxe Howarp, F.R.S. 
Mr. Howard reports that the facts of the last two years compel him to modify 
3 his anticipations as to the extent to which the lunar cycle will enable him or others 
_ to become “ weather prophets.”” But he says the deferred heat (to be expected from 
_ the corresponding period of the cycle in 1825 to 1828) may prove to be only de- 
_ feated cold; and the absence of so great an elevation of the mean temperature now, 
_ may spare us a repetition for many seasons to come of the cold which occurred be- 
_ tween the years 1835 and 1840. To show, however, that causes exist for these 
_ periodical alternations of warmth and cold, much more extended in their effects than 
_ any which are peculiar to our own climate, he proceeds in detail to place in review 
_ together the annual mean temperature for eighteen years (ending with 1823) at 
Geneva and London. It will be seen that the two cities differ little in their climatic 
or annual mean; the more southern latitude of the former being counteracted by its 
greater elevation above the sea. See Plate IV. 


4 
: 


iz, & 


26 REPORT—1845. 


Years, ro) ° ° 
1806 Geneva. Reaum. +8°73 Fahr. 51°645 London 50°734 
1807 eA rr 7°78 » 49°505 x 48°367 
1808 ae ee 6°68 » 47°030 ae 48°633 
1809 > $5 7°54 » 48°965 ie 49°546 
1810 i es 8°57 ay DLEZB25 ee 49°507 
1811 af a 8°89 on 922 0025 33 51°190 
1812 ” ” 7°10 ” 47°975 2» 47°743 
1813 os ve 7°48 » 48°830 ys 49°762 
1814 Ja oa 7°34 » 48°515 ss 46°967 
1815 ‘s9 a 8°03 » §0°0675 a 49°630 
' 1816 ae ii 7°09 » 47°9525 eA 46°572 
1817 » 3 8°11 SAPP es 47°834 
1818 ae or 7°96 >», 49°910 ai 50°028 
1819 a ss 8°21 » 80°4725 oo 50°030 
1820 xs iy 7°63 » 49°1675 3 47°950 
1821 a a 8°28 2» §0°630 ee 49°810 
1822 ao aa 8°28 >», 50°630 ae 51°405 
1823 ” ” 6°50 rT} 46°625 ” 48°331 
+7:789 49°525 49°113 
Mean of first nine years,..... 7°790 49°161 
Mean of second nine years... 7°777 49°065 


On the Strength of Stone Columns. By Eaton Hovexinsoy, F.R.S. 


This paper contained the results of some experiments to determine the force ne- 
cessary to crush small columns of stone. The columns were of different heights, 
varying from 1 inch to 40 inches; they were square uniform prisms, the sides of 
the bases of which were 1 inch and 14 inch, and the crushing weight was applied 
in the direction of the strata. All the columns were cut out of the same block of 
stone, which was very uniform, and is of the strongest kind used for architectural 
purposes in the neighbourhood of Manchester. It is from the Peel Delph, Little- 
borough, Lancashire, on the confines of Yorkshire, The columns were cut, as near 
to the prescribed size as was practicable, by the mason, and were afterwards squared 
up with great care. They were crushed, by means of a powerful lever, between 
two flat surfaces of hardened steel, which from the nature of the apparatus were 
necessarily parallel. The apparatus was similar to that used in the author’s pre- 
vious experiments on the strength of pillars, and the only difference in these expe- 
riments from the preceding ones was, that a thin sheet of lead was placed over and 
under the specimen to equalize the pressure. 

From the experiments on the two series of pillars, it appears that there is a falling 
off in strength in all columns from the shortest to the longest; but that the dimi- 
nution is so small, when the height of the column is not greater than about 12 times 
the side of its square, that the strength may be considered as uniform; the mean 
being 10,000 lbs. per square inch or upwards. 

From the experiments on the columns 1 inch square, it appears that when the 
height is 15 times the side of the square, the aeronutle is slightly reduced; when the 
height is 24 tinies the base, the falling off is from 138 to 96 nearly; when it is 30 
times the base, the strength is reduced from 138 to 75; and when it is 40 times 
the base, the strength is reduced to 52, or to little more than one-third. These num- 
bers will be modified to some extent by the experiments in progress. 

In all columns shorter than 30 times the side of the square, fracture took place by 
one of the ends failing, showing the ends to be the weakest part; and the increased 
weakness of the longer columns over that of the shorter ones seemed to arise from 
the former being deflected more than the latter, and therefore exposing a smaller 
part of the ends to the crushing force. The cause of failure is the tendency of rigid 
materials to form wedges with sharp ends, these wedges splitting the body up in a 
manner which is always pretty nearly the same, Some attempts to explain this 
matter theoretically were made by Coulomb. As long columns always give way 


] TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27 


‘first at the ends, showing that part to be the weakest, we might economize the ma- 

_ terial by making the areas of the ends larger than that of the middle, increasing the 
strength from the middle both ways towards the ends. If the areas of the ends be 
to the area in the middle as the strength of a short column is to that of a long one, 
we should haye for a column, whose height was 24 times the breadth, the area of 
the ends and middle as 13,766 to 9595 nearly. This however would make the ends 
somewhat too strong, since the weakness of long columns arises from their flexure, 
and increasing the ends would diminish that flexure. 

Another mode of increasing the strength of the ends would be that of preventing 
flexure by increasing the dimensions of the middle. 

From the experiments, it would appear that the Grecian columns, which seldom had 
their length more than about 10 times the diameter, were nearly of the form capable 
of bearing the greatest weight when their shafts were uniform; and that columns, 
tapering from the bottom to the top, were only capable of bearing weights due to 
the smallest part of their section, though the larger end might serve to prevent la- 
teral thrusts. This last remark applies too to the Egyptian columns, the strength 
of the column being only that of the smallest part of the section. 

From the two series of experiments, it appeared that the strength of a short column 
is nearly in proportion to the area of the section, though the strength of the larger 
one is somewhat less than in that proportion. 


CHEMISTRY. 


Experiments on the Spheroidal State of Bodies, and its Application to Steam- 
Boilers, and on the Freezing of Water in red-hot Vessels, By M. Bourieny. 
(d’ Evreux.) 


_ M. Boutigny, who made his communication in the French language, first pro- 
_ eeeded to show that a drop of water projected upon a red-hot plate does not touch it; 
_ but that a repulsive action is exerted between the plate and the fluid, which keeps the 
_ latter in a state of rapid vibration. At a white heat, this repulsion acts with the 
_ greatest energy, whilst at a brown-red heat it ceases and the ordinary process of eva- 
_ poration takes place. The temperature of the water whilst in the spheroidal state is 
found to be only 96°, and this temperature is maiatained so long as the heat of the 

_ plate is kept up. To bring the water to the boiling-point (212°), it is therefore ne- 
} cessary to cool the plate. These phenomena are explained by M. Boutigny on the 
_ supposition that the sphere of water has a perfect reflecting surface, and consequently 
_ that the heat of the incandescent plate is reflected back upon it; and some experi- 
_ ments have been made, which show that this is the case, the plate becoming visibly 
_ redder over those parts on which the vibrating globule played. Several experiments 
were made in proof of this necessary cooling to produce ebullition. The red-hot 

plate, with its spheroidal drop, was removed from the spirit-lamp, and after a minute 
_ or two the water began to boil, and was rapidly dissipated in steam. Ammonia and 
_ wether were shown, although so exceedingly volatile, to act in the same manner; the 
_ ether, however, being decomposed whilst in the vibratory condition, in the same man- 
_ neras it is by the action of platina wire, forming a peculiar acid. Iodine put upon the 
heated plate became fluid, and revolved in the same manner as other fluids, no vapours 
_ escaping whilst the high temperature of the metal was maintained; but when allowed 
to cool to the point of dull redness, it was immediately dissipated in violet vapours. 

_ The nitrate of ammonia, when fused on the glowing hot plate, vibrated with great energy; 
_ but on cooling the capsule, the salt entered into vivid combustion. The repulsive 
_ action was shown by plunging a lump of silver at a glowing red heat into a glass of 
_ water. As long as its bright redness was maintained, there was no ebullition; but as. 
; ‘it slowly cooled, boiling tock place. In this experiment, it appeared as if the glow- 
ing metal formed around itself an atmosphere; and the contiguous surfaces of the 


28 REPORT—1845. 


water appeared like a silver plate. The application of the principles involved in these 
phenomena to the tempering of metals was then explained. If a metal to be tem- 
pered is in a highly incandescent state, the necessary hardening will not take place on 
plunging it into water. It is therefore necessary that a certain temperature should 
be observed. Experiments were made to show that the repulsive power of the sphe- 
roidal fluid existed, not merely between it and the hot plate, but between it and other 
fluids. ther and water thus repelled each other, and water rested on and rolled 
over turpentine. The bursting of steam-boilers came next under consideration; and 
it was shown that many serious explosions may be referred to the phenomena under 
consideration. In a great many cases, the explosions have occurred during the cool- 
ing of the boilers after the withdrawal of the fire. An experiment was shown in proof 
of the view entertained by M. Boutigny. A sphere of copper, fitted with a safety- 
valve, was heated, and a little water being put into it, it was securely corked up, and 
withdrawn from the lamp. As long as the metal remained red, everything was quiet; 
but upon cooling, the cork was blown out with explosive violence. The concluding 
experiment excited great interest—the production of ice in a vessel at a glowing red 
heat. It was successfully performed by M. Boutigny, in the following manner :— 
A deep platina capsule was brought to a glowing red heat, and at the same moment 
water and liquid sulphureous acid, which had been preserved in the liquid state by 
a freezing mixture, were poured into the vessel. ‘he rapid evaporation of the vola- 
tile sulphureous acid, which enters into ebullition at the freezing-point, produced such 
an intense degree of cold, that a large lump of ice was immediately formed, and being 
thrown out of the red-hot vessel, handed round for examination. 


On a New Property of Gases. By Professor Grauam, M.4A., F.R.S. L. § E. 


After explaining the law which regulated the diffusion of gases, and stating the 
fact, that the lighter gases diffused themselves much more speedily than the more 
dense ones,—the velocity of their diffusion being equal to the square root of their 
densities,—he proceeded to relate his experiments on the passage of gases into a 
vacuuin. To this passage the term Effusion has been applied. The velocity of air 
being 1-, the velocity of oxygen was found to be 0-9500 by experiment, and by caleu- 
lation 0°9487. Carbonic acid being much heavier than air, gave the number 0°821, 
the theoretical number being 0°812. Carburetted hydrogen gave 0°1322 as the velo- 
city of its effusion, the theoretical number being 1°341. Hydrogen gave as the velo- 
city of effusion 3°613 by experiment, which was nearly the amount given by theory 
(0°379). ‘The interference of friction, even of minute orifices, was then described, 
and shown to admit of easy correction. Some useful applications were mentioned ; 
asin the manufacture of coal-gas, where it is desirable to ascertain the quality, as well 
as the quantity of gas manufactured. As the gas will pass the orifice on its way to 
a vacuum the quicker the lighter it is, and the more slowly as it increases in density, 
andas the superior carburetted hydrogen is heaviest, it would be easy to construct an 
instrument to register this velocity, and thus mark at once the required quality and 
quantity of gas. It was also proposed that an instrument might be used in mines to 
detect the presence of light carburetted hydrogen (fire-damp). The passage of gases 
under pressure through porous bodies was termed by Prof. Graham, Transpiration. 
The mode adopted in experiment was, to take a glass receiver, open at the top, which 
was closed with a plate of stucco. This was placed on an air-pump, and the air ex- 
hausted by the pump, the velocity with which the air passed through the stucco being 
marked by the mercurial gauge of the pump. The transpiration of atmospheric air 
was found to be more rapid than that of oxygen. Carbonic acid is found to be more 
transpirable than oxygen, or even, under low pressure, than atmospheric air. The 
transpiration of hydrogen is one-third more rapid than that of oxygen. The appli- 
cability of this process of experimenting to the explanation of exosmose and endosmose 
action in the passage of fluids through porous bodies was pointed out. 


On the Action of Gases on the Prismatic Spectrum. By Dr. Mitizr. 


Referring, in the first instance, to the experiments of Sir D. Brewster on the 
changes produced en the fixed lines of the prismatic spectrum by varieus absorptive 


. TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29 


: media, Dr. Miller proceeded to explain his method of examining the subject. The 
light, being admitted by a longitudinal slit in a plate of metal, one half of this slit 


_ was covered with a vessel containing the gaseous medium, the other half transmitted 


ordinary light ; the image of the slit, after falling on a prism of Munich glass, was 
observed by a telescope. It was found that the dark lines of the spectrum materially 
changed their positions as different coloured gases were used ; and that, by subjecting 
the spectrum to the absorptive influences of chlorine, nitrous acid vapour, the vapours 
of iodine, bromine, perchloride, manganese, &c., numerous dark bands, not previously 
observed, were brought into view. Several of the oxides of chlorine were examined, 
and it was found that the chlorous acid, peroxide of oxide of chlorine and euchlorine 
all gave the same series of lines. The spectra produced by coloured flames were also 
examined, and many curious conditions observed. Dr. Miller had sought to ascertain 
if any relation could be found between the chemical characters of the bodies under 
examination and their properties of exhibiting Fraunhofer’s lines; but as yet no such 
relation could be detected. 


Contributions to Actino-Chemistry.—On the Chemical Changes produced by 
the Solar Rays, and the Influence of Actinism in disturbing Electrical Forces. 
By Roserr Hunt. 


He detailed a great number of experiments which supported his views, that a cer- 
tain class of chemical compounds possessed the property of fixing the chemical prin- 
ciple of light. The result of the researches of the author, since the York meeting, 
was that in all cases chemical action was either accelerated or retarded by the influ- 
ence of the actinic force, whatever it may be. It was evident that the peculiar elec- 
trical condition of the compound regulated the disposing power of the actinic rays ; 
but it was not yet determined if any constant relation was maintained between the 
electrical state and the action of this chemical power. The author found in all cases, 
that weak electrical currents which were sufficient to precipitate the metals from so- 
lutions in the dark, were not capable of doing so when they were exposed to sunshine, 
or even diffused daylight. The power of this principle in producing molecular dis- 
turbance was also mentioned, and many additional experiments were described, 


On the Manufacture of a Coloured Glass. By M. SpuirreEerser. 


I have the honour to present herewith small pieces of white glass, which are quite 


_ transparent, but contain however a portion of gold, which was added to the grit as 


chlorate of gold *, and which gives to this glass the curious quality to become red by 
slightly re-heating it over the alcohol lamp; a greater heat changes the colour, 


_ and the gold is restored to its characteristic tint, which quality has been long known, 


and employed by the crystal glass manufacturer. It is now the question, ix what 
state the gold is contained in the glass, when not at all coloured, and when coloured. 
In my opinion, the gold is in the white glass in the most oxidated state, analogous 


_ to the state of the lead in the white crystal glass, but, by re-heating, it loses a part 


’ 
: 


of the oxygen, and becomes more and more reduced. 
According to the opinion of other German philosophers, the gold is contained even 


in the white glass in the metallic state, but in a state of the greatest diffusion; and in 


_ the coloured condition in a state of less and less diffusion. 1 am not of this opinion, 
[ . . . 1 . 

_ because I have, by melting the red glass with a blowpipe supplied with oxygen gas, 
"made it again colourless, but only to a very small extent; and it is not very clear, I 


think, that the change of colour of this glass is the result of different states of deoxida- 
tion of the gold in it. But it is very curious that the glass does not become red by 


its first melting, and I can give no reasov for this phenomenon. In the Annals of 
M. Poggendorff I have noticed it last year; but I think that this phenomenon would 
be also interesting for a further optical investigation. 


* The composition of this glass is,— 
40 grains of .., sand. 
2D) aadaseesecasese SUDA. 
Dieacwasteecwatcet CUALK= 
ANA 0°52 ceccecsesseesee Gold, 


30 REPORT—1845. | 


On Recent Experiments on the Gas Voltaic Battery. By Professor Grove. 


No previous description of the gas battery having been communicated to the Asso- 
ciation, Prof. Grove entered into an explanation of the action of hydrogen gas upon 
spongy platina, and gave a description of the first gas battery constructed with pla- 
tina wire sealed into glass tubes in pairs,—hydrogen being’ put into one tube, and 
oxygen into the other. An arrangement of this kind being connected with a volta- 
meter, it was found that exactly the same quantity of gases was eliminated in the 
tubes of that instrument as combined in the tubes of the battery. Experiments have 
been made by Prof. Grove with a view of ascertaining if other gases might be used 
in the battery, and it was discovered that a great variety of gases might be so used ; 
and he then pointed out how perfectly any eudiometric analyses might be carried on 
with the gas battery, provided some attention was paid to a few sources of error. A 
form of the instrument as hitherto constructed by Prof. Grove was described, for 
the purpose of avoiding the absorption of atmospheric air by the fluid in the cells of 
the battery. A more recent construction of the battery was next described, in which 
many other applications of the voltaic battery are attained, being a combination in 
which several pairs of gas tubes are connected in one compact body. A main ad- 
vantage arising from this battery is the really constant condition of it; once charged, 
it appears that the action will go on for years, requiring nothing more than occasion- 
ally, at long intervals, adding a little zinc to the acidulated solution in one cell, for 
the purpose of supplying the loss of hydrogen in the tubes. The results of experi- 
ment have shown, that the most invariable action may be calculated on for years; 
and that, by this instrument, researches requiring for a long period the constant flow 
of a galvanic current may be most effectually carried out. Some experiments on the 
combination of phosphorus and sulphur with oxygen in the battery were then de- 
tailed; by which it was found that any inflammable body capable of volatilization 
gave a galvanic action with oxygen in the other tube. Camphor, alcohol, zther, 
and other bodies proved the generality of this effect. It was then stated, that 
throughout these researches it had been found that chemical action and voltaic action 


were convertible into each other. 


On the Voltaic Reduction of Alloys. By C. V. Watxer. 


This communication was intended to explain the methods by which the author has 
succeeded in throwing down metallic alloys from compound solutions by the action of 
galvanic electricity. The process adopted is to prepare a strong solution of cyanide 
of potassium, and commence electrolyzing it by means of a copper anode ; as soon as 
copper begins to be dissolved, the copper anode is removed, and its place supplied with 
one of zinc; after the action has continued for some little time, brass will be liberated 
on the cathode. The solution is now ready for use, and is operated upon by two or 
three Daniell’s cells, and with a brass anode. By similar means alloys of gold and 
copper, or gold and silver, may be deposited. The author reasons, that true brass is 
a definite chemical compound; and states, it appears possible that the anode, which 
is a brass of commerce, is a true alloy, plus an excess of zinc; that the solution it pro- 
duces is a mixed solution, which consists of the potassio-cyanide of brass and the po- 
tassio-cyanide of zinc. ‘This solution is very readily decomposable; it is therefore 
necessary to prepare it a short time previously to its use. Many specimens were exhi- 
bited of copper and other metals coated with brass. The author makes some remarks 
on the theory of the action; and concludes by stating that it will be quite possible to 
determine, within certain limits, the character of the alloy that shall present itself, 
and that we may be enabled to throw down gold and silver according to standard. 


Description of a Colossal Hydro-Electric Machine, mith a Notice of some 
Phenomena attending the production of Electricity by Steam. By W. G. 
ARMSTRONG. 


The machine described by the author, and which has recently been sent out to the 
United States of America, resembles the machine at the Polytechnic Institution in 


external dimensions, but is more powerful. ; 
As an illustration of the power of this machine, Mr, Armstrong stated that it had 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31 


fully charged a battery containing thirty-three square feet of coated surface upwards 
of sixty times in a minute. He also mentioned that by interrupting the electric cur- 
rent and causing it to pass through the thin wire coil of Colladon’s apparatus for induc- 
tive effects, he had obtained a secondary current in the thick wire coil, answering in all 
re$pects to an alternating voltaic current, and sufficient to occasion a permanent though 
slight scintillation of two pieces of steel attached to opposite ends of the wire, and 
rubbed against each other. 

Mr. Armstrong reiterated his conviction that the excitation of electricity in the 
hydro-electric machine was due to the friction sustained by particles of water in pass- 
ing through the escape aperture, for by no other explanation was it possible to account 
for the prodigious influence which is exercised by the form of the escape orifice,—by 
the material against which the current is rubbed,—by the presence of water in the 
issuing steam,—and by the condition of such water with respect to extraneous sub- 
stances contained in it. 

He adverted tu Professor Faraday’s experiment of reversing the electricity of the 
boiler and steam-cloud by introducing oil of turpentine into the steam passages, which 
effect had been attributed by Faraday to the particles of water becoming invested with 
a film of turpentine; but Mr. Armstrong stated that there were many soluble sub- 
stances which were equally effective in reversing the electricity, and so sensitive were 
the electric properties of the water to the influence of foreign substances, that even 
the inappreciable quantity of extraneous matter which the water appeared to acquire 
by contact with condensing pipes of different materials was sufficient to affect the 
excitation of the electricity. 


On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. By James P. Joutz. 


The author gave the results of some new experiments, in order to confirm the 
views he had already derived from experiments on the heat evolved by magneto- 
electricity, and from experiments on the changes of temperature produced by the 
condensation and rarefaction of elastic fluids. He exhibited to the Section an ap- 
paratus consisting of a can of peculiar construction filled with water. A sort of paddle- 
wheel was placed in the can, to which motion could be communicated by means of 
weights thrown over two pulleys working in contrary directions. He stated, that the 
force spent in revolving the paddle-wheel produced a certain increment in the tem- 
perature of the water, and hence he drew the conclusion, that when the temperature 
of a lb. of water is increased by one degree of Fahrenheit’s scale, an amount of vis 
viva is communicated to it equal to that acquired by a weight of 890 lbs. after falling 
from an altitude of one foot. 


On Atomic Volumes. By Dr. Lyon Prayrarr. 


Outlines of a Natural System of Organic Chemistry. 
By Grorce Kemp, M.D., F.C.P.S. 


The object of the following paper is to furnish what has hitherto been a desidera- 
tum,—an arrangement of organic bodies with reference to their natural affinities, and 
which, being based on the operations which are observable in living organized bodies, 
will, it is hoped, furnish the student with a means of grouping the results of his la- 
bours, and the philosopher with safe materials for developing those general laws, to 
which every organized being owes its capability of replacing its own ever-wasting 
structure, and reproducing a form analogous to itself. 

Assuming, then, that all organic bodies of which nitrogen forms no part have been 
originally derived from starch, and that those, on the other hand, in which nitrogen 
is an essential element proceed from proteine, we have at once two general classes, 
which we may denominate amylogenic and proteunogenic. 


Class I. Amytocenre Boptes. 


Order 1. Products which result from the direct operation of natural causes. 
Order 2. Bodies produced by the application of artificial agents. 
Order 1. Genus 1, Formula for amylon merely modified by the addition or subtrac- 


ae REPORT—1845, 


tion of the elements of water, included between the limits C,, Hs Og and C,, Hy, 0,4, 
as lignine, inuline, &c. &c. 

Order 1. Genus 2. Formula being that for amylon, minus a certain number of equi- 
valents of oxygen, and all being allied to fatty matters. 

Order 2. Genus 1. Products effected by contact with bodies in which the ultimate 
elements are in the act of assuming new arrangements. 

Order 2. Genus 2. Products effected by heat. (Pyrogenic bodies.) 

Order 2. Genus 3, Products effected by oxidizing agents, 


: Class II. Proreunocenic Bopits. 

Order 1. Results of organization. 

Order 2, Artificial products. 

Order 1. Genus 1. Variable in the quantity of inorganic matter they contain; as al- 
bumen and fibrine. 

Order 1. Genus 2. Variable in the quantity of oxygen which they contain, the carbon 
and nitrogen remaining constant; as the middle coat of arteries and mucus. 

Order 1. Genus 8. Bodies in which all the organic elements assume a new proportion 
to each other, but which may be considered as compounds of proteine and a non- 
nitrogenized body included in Class 1. Order 1. 

Order 2. Genus 1. Products resulting from the disturbance of the molecular equili- 
brium of proteine compounds when deprived of vitality, the action being much 
promoted by moderate increase of temperature and moisture. (Eremacasis of 
Liebig.) 

Order a Genus 2. Products effected by a high temperature. (Pyrogenic bodies.) 

Order 2. Genus 3. Results of the action of oxidizing agents; these are very nume- 
rous. 

The author believes that no difficulty will occur in referring any organic body to 
one or other of the above divisions, and proceeds to give, as an instance of the appli- 
cation of the system, the interpretation of the analysis of the food of the milch cow, 


On Gutta Percha, a nem variety of Caoutchouc. By Epwarp Sotty, F.R.S. 


Within the last two or three years, a very remarkable substance has been trans- 
mitted to this country from Sincapore under the name of Gutta Percha; it was first 
sent over by Dr. Montgomerie, who received the gold medal of the Society for the 
Encouragement of Arts, &c., for its introduction into this country as a new and hitherto 
unknown substance likely to be useful for several purposes in the arts. He was how- 
ever unable to ascertain the tree from which it is procured, or indeed any more of its 
history than that it is obtained in large quantities by cutting down the trees which 
yield it, and that it is employed by the natives to make the handles of knives and 
other tools, being preferred by them for this purpose even to buffalo’s horn. Mr. 
Solly described Gutta Percha as being a white or dirty pinkish-coloured solid, having 
little or no smell, insoluble in water and consequently tasteless, having a silky fibrous 
texture, and feeling smooth and almost greasy to the fingers; at the same time that 
it presents considerable resistance to any substance which is rubbed or drawn across 
it, thus enabling it to be grasped or held with great firmness in the hand. 

At temperatures below 50° it is hard, tough, and in thin pieces flexible, a good deal 
resembling horn in its physical characters. From 50° to 70° it becomes more flexible 
and slightly elastic, still however retaining its remarkable stiffness and toughness. 
When forcibly extended it shows very little power of contraction, requiring consider- 
able force to extend it, and retaining the form which has been given to it after the 
force which was applied is discontinued. At a temperature between 140° and 160° it 
becomes soft and remarkably plastic, its tenacity being at the same time greatly 
diminished. In this state two or more pieces may be joined together with the greatest 
facility (far greater than is the case with caoutchouc), and in a manner which may 
almost be compared to bees’-wax, inasmuch as whether the pieces are clean or dirty 
they unite on the slightest pressure and form a perfect joint. 

When in the soft and plastic state, Gutta Percha may be pressed or moulded into 
any required shape; as it cools it gradually re-acquires its former tough and rigid 
nature. The casts which are obtained in this manner from coins, medals, &c., are 
remarkably sharp and perfect. Gutta Percha at ordinary temperature is divided by 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33 


a knife with great difficulty, behaving like cold hard caoutchouc; its division is much fa- 
cilitated by the use of a wet knife, Its specific gravity is greater than that of caoutchouc, 
being 0°9791, whilst the latter is about 0:9355. Kept for some time at a temperature 
of near 200° it gradually parts with a small quantity of moisture, and becomes dark- 
coloured and translucent: it however assumes its original appearance again if steeped 
for some time in water. Exposed to a higher temperature, it melts, is decomposed, 
and finally burns with a very smoky flame like caoutchouc. Analysis shows it to be 
a hydrocarbon, identical in composition with ordinary caoutchouc. Ordinary solvents 
exert little or no action on Gutta Percha; water, alcohol, oils, alkaline solutions, mu- 
riatic and acetic acids produce né effect whatever. Strong sulphuric acid slowly chars 
it, concentrated nitric acid gradually oxidizes it, and ther, essential oils and coal-tar 
naphtha in time soften and partially dissolve it. The most perfect solvent appeared to 
be oil of turpentine, which formed a clear transparent solution, from which the pure 
Gutta Percha was readily obtained on evaporating the oil of turpentine. 

The physical properties of this substance are such as to place it amongst the sub- 
stitutes for leather, and will probably render it a valuable article of import. Its 
chemical properties show it to be a variety of caoutchoue. 


Notice of the Oil of Assafcetida. By Tuomas Tittzy, Professor of Chemistry in 
the Queen’s College, Birmingham, and Doveras Mactaean, M.D., FERS EE. 


The authors describe the analytical processes which they followed, and state the 
numerical results. They prove that the oil of assafcetida contains, and is chiefly com- - 
posed of, the sulphuret of aliyl and an oil heavier than water, also containing sul- 
phur. They conclude by the following summary :— 

It has been shown by the investigations of other chemists and ourselves, that the 
class of ‘substances used as condiments of the onion order of flavour, though produced 
in different zones and by different natural orders, contains the same organic radical 
united to sulphur of plants or sulpho-cyanogen. 

The oil of garlic, from a liliaceous plant; the oil of mustard, a compound of allyl 
with sulpho-cyanogen from the Cruciferze; the oil of assafcetida, so much used in 
India for a condiment, from the Umbelliferze, all contain the same organic radical, 
and form a parallel case to the tea, the coffee, and the Paraguay tea-plants, which also 
contain the same substance, theine, and which are used for similar purposes. The 
authors are still continuing this investigation. 


On the Chemical Principles involved in the Rotation of Crops. 
By Professor Dauseny, F.R.S. 


_ Professor Daubeny made some remarks on the chemical principles involved in the 
f¥otation of crops, stating the conclusions which he had deduced from a series of ex- 
periments carried on within the Botanic Garden at Oxford, and intended to ascertain 
the rate of diminution in the produce of several plots of ground that had been sown 

for ten years, either continuously with the same, or successively with different crops, 

in either case without the addition of manure throughout the course of the trials. He 
stated, that although, as might have been anticipated, a diminution in the latter years’ 

“produce took place both in the permanent and in the shifting crops, and although a 

smaller average amount was obtained in the former than in the latter, yet that after the 

expiration of the whole period the ground still continued unexhausted; and that an 

“analysis of it showed it still to contain sufficient of the phosphates to supply materials 

for nineteen crops of barley, suificient of potass for fifteen, and sufficient of soda for 

forty-five. The actual diminution of produce during the latter years he therefore attri- 
buted to the circumstance of these ingredients not being in a soluble condition, it 
being found, that from the soil so long drawn upon, water impregnated with carbonic 

“acid took up much less of the above ingredients than it did from the same that haa 
Rot been so cropped and but recently manured. The greater diminution in the per- 
manent than in the shifting crop he attributed to the circumstance of the latter being 

supplied with a larger amount of organic matter, derived from the fallow crop inter- 

ealated, owing to which the plants would be more fully developed, through the influ- 

‘ence of the carbonic acid and ammonia, which would be imparted to them during the 


1845. D 


34 REPORT—1845. 


decomposition of the humus. He pointed out, how the mere introduction of healthy 
plants into a soil might aid in rendering the phosphates and alkaline salts, locked up 
within the latter, more speedily soluble, and hence inferred that a larger amount of 
these substances might be extracted where the plants were stimulated into activity by 
the presence of decomposing organic matter. He also was led to inquire whether, in 
the event of a scantier supply of one of the alkalies or of the earths than was common, 
a plant would substitute ad libitum another which might be presented to it in greater 
abundance. To determine this, he obtained from Mr. Way, late assistant to Professor 
Graham, an analysis of three samples of six different kinds of crop, viz. potatoes, 
barley, turnips, hemp, flax, and beans; one sample being that cultivated for ten suc- 
cessive years in the same ground without manure; the second from a similar plot 
which had grown different crops for the same period without manure; the third from 
a plot in a contiguous part of the garden which had been recently manured. From 
the results obtained, it would appear that the aggregate amount of bases, in the three 
samples, was about the same; but the proportion of these bases one to the other varied 
considerably, a circumstance at first sight appearing to confirm the theory of substi- 
tution. ‘The author, however, conceives, that this may be explained by supposing a 
different degree of developmentof the several parts or proximate principles in the respec- 
tive samples, as he finds a great discrepancy in the amount of phosphoric acid present 
in gluten and in starch, and thinks it probable that the same diversity may extend to 
other of the principles contained in each plant. ‘That potass is better adapted for the 
organization of a plant than soda, seems to follow from the circumstance, that whilst 
the soil usually contained an excess of soda, the plant always was most rich in potass, 
The author, therefore, in accordance with the views of Liebig, throws out as a con- 
jecture, that the soda found in the ash may be that circulating through the vegetable 
tissue, and contained in the sap, whilst the potass is actually assimilated, and consti- 
tutes a part of the vegetable tissue. ‘Ihe former, as Liebig supposes, may be useful 
in conveying carbonic acid to the plant, but cannot be substituted for potass, at least 
without injury to its healthy condition. It appears also, from the analyses referred 
to, that land-plants have not the power of decomposing common salt; so that this 
substance cannot, as has been supposed, be serviceable to vegetation by affording a 
supply of alkali. We may also infer, that it does not follow, because a soil is benefited 
by manuring, that it is destitute of the ingredients which the manure supplies, since it 
may happen that these ingredients are present in the soil in an insoluble, and there- 
fore not in an available condition. Chemical and mechanical means may no doubt be 
effectual in bringing into a soluble condition the phosphates and alkaline salts thus 
locked up within the soil, but as this is brought about by Nature herself, we might 
often spare ourselves the necessity of resorting to such means, if we would only re- 
solve not to counteract her beneficial agency, by suffering to run to waste the various 
excrementitious matters which she has placed at our disposal. The analyses given, 
from their great discrepancy with those of Sprengel, may also show the importance of 
that investigation of the constituents of the ashes of plants, which is now about to be 
undertaken under the auspices of the Royal Agricultural Society. ‘The author also 
conceived that the line of research which he had pursued might be useful, in illus- 
trating that system of scientific book-keeping which he had proposed at a former 
meeting of the Association, at once as an useful exercise to the agricultural student, 
and as a means of introducing greater precision into the conduct of our experiments 
on such subjects. ' 


On the Chemical Principles of Rotation of Crops. By Professor Jounston. 


On the Analysis of the Ashes of Plants. 
By J. Tuomas Way, Professor of Chemistry, Royal Agricultural College. 


The method here described was that pursued by the author in the analyses which 
are detailed in Dr. Daubeny’s paper “On the Rotation of Crops,” (see p.33). It 
is founded on that of Will and Fresenius (Chemical Memoirs, part ix.), but differs 
in several essential particulars, more especially in the estimation of the phosphoric 
acid. 

Two hundred grs. of the prepared ash are dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The so- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35 


lution is evaporated to dryness to separate sand and charcoal and the silica of the ash. 
The silica is dissolved out from the former impurities by dilute solution of caustic alkali, 
_ and estimated in the usual manner. The sand and charcoal are also weighed. The 
solution of the ash is now divided by measure into four equal portions. From one 
portion peroxide of iron, lime and magnesia are obtained. In a second quantity the 
phosphoric acidis estimated. In athird the alkalies, potash and soda are found, and 
the fourth is reserved. 

Estimation of Peroxide of Iron, Lime and Magnesia.—The determination of the 
oxide of iron is indirect; it is obtained by throwing it down in combination with the 
phosphoric acid of the ash. To the acid solution (partly neutralized by ammonia) 
acetate of ammonia is added in the cold, phosphate of iron precipitates, is collected 
and weighed; 100 parts contain 56-08 parts of peroxide of iron. The filtered liquid 
affords lime by treatment with oxalate of ammonia (the acetic acid reraaining in ex- 
cess), and magnesia by the subsequent addition of phosphate of soda and ammonia. 

Second portion. Estimation of Phosphoric Acid.—The estimation of the phosphoric 
acid is also indirect. A portion of clean iron wire is weighed out and dissolved in 
nitric acid. The solution is added to that of the ash, and the whole is partially neu- 
tralized by ammonia. Acetate of ammonia is added, and the liquid is brought to the 
boiling-point. A precipitate of phosphate and peroxide of iron (which is of a buff- 
brown colour, provided the iron is in proper excess) is obtained. ‘his is collected, 
burnt and weighed; the phosphoric acid is calculated by subtracting the weight of 
_ peroxide of iron originally present in the ash, and that to which the metallic iron added 
is equivalent ; it sometimes happens that a little iron remains in the liquid; this must 
be thrown down by ammonia, collected separately on a small filter, and its weight 
added to that of the former precipitate previous to the calculation. 

The alkalies are obtained (from the third portion of liquid) precisely as recom- 
mended by Will and Fresenius. For the estimation of the chlorine and sulphuric 
_ acid, a separate portion of ash is dissolved in nitric acid, and precipitated successively 
by nitrate of barytes and nitrate of silver. 

In the statement of the analyses, the chlorine is always apportioned to the sodium 
of the soda found, or in default of this to its equivalent quantity of potassium. (See 
_ Dr. Daubeny’s paper.) From the constant use of this process during a period of six 
_ months spent in the analysis of the ashes of plants, the author recommends it as by 
_ far the most easy of execution and satisfactory in its results of any at present em- 


_ ployed. 


4 


OS en a 


i ee 


Observations on the Ashes of Plants. By Professor Jounston. 


On the Ashes of Oats. By J. P. Norton (Connecticut, United States). 


_ _ The following are the results of numerous analyses made during the past year by 
the author :— 
_ 1. The quantity of ash varies in different parts of the same plant. I have divided 
_ the plant into seven portions,—the grain, the husk, the straw at three different heights, 
_ the leaf, and the chaff. I give the extremes of my trials with numerous samples. In 
_ the grain the per-centage ranges from 1°81 to 2°32; in the husk from 5:27 to 7-11; 
in the top straw from 4:95 to 9°22; in the middle straw from 4-23 to 7-89; in the 
bottom straw from 5:18 to 9:76; in the leaf from 7:19 to 14°59; in the chaff from 
6°71 to 18:59. I do not give these as the true extremes, but merely as the extremes 
_ of my trials. I have not found that regular gradation from top to bottom which has 
__ been observed in wheat and rye; there seems to be no general rule. These ashes 
are of course all calculated dry, and no per-centage ever considered to be ascertained 
~ until three or four trials agreed. 
_ _ 2. The quality of the ash varies in the several parts of the same plant. This is 
_ shown by instances from a table of the composition of one of the samples which I have 
_ analysed. ‘The ash from the grain contains 49°24 per cent. of phosphoric acid, 31°15 
of potash and soda, 13-93 salts of lime and magnesia, 0°80 of soluble silica, 0°93 of 
‘insoluble silica, &c. The ash from the husk has very little phosphoric acid, but 11:61 
_ of sulphuric acid; potash and soda 7:41; lime and magnesia 2°33; while the soluble 
_ Silica is 5°46, and the insoluble 68°39. 
ey D2 


36 ' REPORT—1845. 


Equally striking differences are observed in the other parts. In the top straw were 
38°56 per cent. of salts soluble in water; in the middle straw 53°56; in the bottom 
straw 77°46. As the soluble salts increase from the top downwards, so the silica in- 
creases from the bottom upwards. The per-centage of soluble and insoluble silica in 
the bottom straw is 17-28 ; in the middle 40°48; in the top 48°44. The leaf is in its 
composition not very unlike the top straw. In the chaff, phosphoric acid again ap- 
pears in the watery solution, seldom present in that solution from the ash of the straw 
or leaf, and the per-centage of soluble silica is very great. 

3. The quality of ash varies in the same parts in different samples. This even- 
extends to the same variety of oats. I compare two samples of Hopeton oats, one 
grown in Northumberland and the other in Fife. There are differences in every part, 
but I will illustrate my point by the straw. In the top, middle and bottom straw, 
respectively, of the Northumberland sample, the proportions of salts soluble in water 
are 41:96, 53°22, 77°46; while in the same divisions of that from Fife they are 71-70, 
84:03, 90:26. There is a corresponding difference in the silica, increasing upwards 
as before. The same excess of soluble salts prevails through the whole of this 
sample. 

These examples illustrate the proposed points, and show the necessity of further 
investigation. This is all that I proposed to do in the present incomplete state of my 
researches. 


On the Ashes of Narcotic Plants. By F. C. Wricutson. 


The great problem of chemistry of the present day in its application to agriculture 
is, to determine the conditions necessary for a soil to produce the largest amount of 
any given crop of animal food—of food for man or beast. The solution to this ques- 
tion will in some measure be found when we have ascertained the proportions of 
mineral constituents required by plants of culture for attaining full perfection. The 
analysis of these plants alone, however, is not sufficient; we must have analyses of 
the weeds growing upon soils, of plants unfit for the sustenance of animals; for it is 
shown that they rob the farmer, not only of a large amount of mineral manure, but 
also of considerable quantities of that valuable ingredient, ammonia; and we shall 
not have obtained the data necessary for an improved and rational system of culture 
until we include in our ash-analyses a considerable number of weeds and useless 
plants, especially those of the most destructive kind. Some of them are well known 
to the farmer to be of serious injury to his erops mechanically ; with respect to their 
abstracting important constituents of the soil, their injurious effects cannot be ques- 
tioned. ‘These plants contain more than 8 per cent. chlorine, and from 30 to 50 per 
cent. alkalies in their ashes. The dried leaves contained between 6 and 8 per cent. 
of nitrogen. 


On the Ashes of Wheat. By Wit1am Suarp, F.R.S. 


Mr. Sharp noticed that the amount of the ashes of wheat was given by Professor 
Johnston from Sprengel as 1-177 per cent., whereas Sprengel himself (p. 446. vol. ii. 
of his ‘ Chemie ftir Landwirthe ’) states it to be 1:777; Dr. Daubeny, on the other 
hand, gives Sprengel’s analysis as 2137, both of which alterations are made on the 
supposition of a misprint in Sprengel’s book. This led Mr. Sharp to undertake some 
experiments in order to ascertain the truth; and about a hundred experiments were 
performed, with great care, on varieties of red and white wheat, grown on different 
soils and climates in England, Germany, Sweden, Poland, Holland and Saxony. The 
results gave answers to the following questions :—I1st. What is the average amount 
of inorganic matter in the grain of wheat? This varies within the limits of 1°5 and 
1:75 per cent. 2nd. Does the quantity of inorganic matter bear any relative propor- 
tion to the specific gravity of the grain, that is, to its weight per bushel? ‘The ex- 
periments show that a steady inverse ratio is maintained between the proportionate 
weight per bushel and the amount of ashes. Wheat weighing 64 lbs. per bushel yields 
1*5 per cent. ; aud this amount gradually increases till wheat weighing 58 lbs. per 
bushel gives 1°75 per cent. of incombustible matter. 3rd. How much inorganic matter 
is removed from the soil of an acre of land by the grain of a crop of wheat? The 
answer to this practical question is one pound per bushel, From these experiments the 


ht 


Ag 


¥ 


——- 


i iT a a 


ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37 


farmer may learn with certainty, that if his fields produce five quarters of wheat per 
acre, that grain carries along with it to the market forty pounds weight of the earthy 
material of each acre of ground. It must be obvious that if this be not restored in 
“quantity and quality, in the shape of manure, his fields must be correspondingly 
impoverished. 

Several substances, particularly nitric acid, were tried in order to ascertain if any 
chemical preparation could be added to the specimens experimented upon, before or 
during the combustion, which would facilitate the otherwise tedious process ; but they 
all failed to give satisfactory results. The per-centage left by nitric acid was always 
less, but not uniformly less than it ought to have been. 


- 


Analysis of three species of Fucus. By E. G, Scuwe1rzer. 


The author described his method of analysis, and remarks, if we refer to the table 
of analyses there will be perceived a marked difference in the proportions of the va- 
rious ingredients, particularly between those of the Laminaria and those of the two 
other Fuci, which difference may offer no small advantage to agriculture. We have in 
the Laminaria saccharina the alkaline carbonates predominating, whereas in the two 
other Fuci, the sulphates. The preponderating quantity of potassa over that of soda 
in the Laminaria is remarkable ; it contains 22-4 per cent. of potassa to 18°8 per cent. of 
soda, whilst Fucus vesiculosus has 17:4 per cent. of potassa to 27-4 per cent. of soda, and 
Fucus serratus 15 per cent. of potassa to 25 per cent. of soda. But sea-water contains only 
in 1000 parts 0°76 chloride of potassium to 27:05 of chloride of sodium ; it is there- 
fore obvious that by the influence of vitality the potassa must have been powerfully 
attracted and assimilated ; asimilar fact is more particularly evinced in the quantity of 
iodine, of which the Laminaria contains 3:6 per cent., and the sea-water scarcely one- 
millionth part of its own weight. However, all the ingredients contained in sea-plants 
must have been derived from the sea-water, and though phosphoric acid is not dis- 
cernible in the residue from the evaporation of the quantity of water usually employed 
in quantitative analysis, nevertheless there can be no donbt that it exists in it, and 

“would be found if larger quantities of water were subjected to analysis. 

An experiment was performed to ascertain if iodine is exhaled from the Laminaria 
saccharina when exposed to the rays of the sun. Several pounds of this sea-weed 
were introduced into a large glass vessel, closed by a cork, from which was suspended 
a small vessel containing a weak solution of nitrate of silver and a slip of paper with 
amylum paste. This apparatus was for six weeks subjected to the direct influence of 
a summer’s sun (but so that the rays did not fall upon the tests), yet no turbidity in 
the silver solution, nor any reaction upon the amylum paste was visible. But I have 
to notice the fact that the plant began slightly to ferment, and that the glass vessel was 
filled with alcoholic vapours. - It has been asserted that the saccharine matter in this 
Fucus is only mannite, but we know that mannite does not undergo fermentation, it 
must therefore contain another substance, from which the vinous fermentation pro- 
ceeds. This will form a subject for future inquiry. The slimy fluid of the Laminaria 
in its fresh state is perfectly neutral, but when exposed to the air it soon indicates an 
acid reaction. Eight ounces of this Fucus were mixed with pure water and distilled, 
but neither in the distilled fluid was iodine indicated, nor was a slip of paper with 
amylum paste, kept during distillation before the tube that conducted the vapours, 


' acted upon. The distilled fluid contained no essential oil, but was strongly impreg- 
: 


nated with the peculiar odour belonging to sea-plauts, which odour seems therefore 
not to be derived from the presence of iodine, or if so, the olfactory nerves must be a 


superior test to those employed. I have omitted to state that the above Fuci indi- 


cated but faint traces of bromine in 50 grs. of ashes, 


38 REPORT—1845. 


Table of Analyses of three of the most common Fuci. 


I. Results as obtained from 100 parts of Ash. 


Ingredients. Laminaria Fucus Fucus 

saccharina. | vesiculosus. | serratus. 
Potassatctivorcctes ves cststavestersevesbes sa 22°456 17-409 14°925 
HOdawcrtscccccecoereaks sess a¥eunhes aeeiedaes 1:667 5688 5:597 
Lime ...... consults «ie Me castes weeeeice 10:042 7°368 9-076 
Magnesia ...csscecsscsseae: seeseeseesanees 7374 6°786 7-076 
Chloride of sodium ...... Generettesscaes 30°579 34°839 36:083 
Todide of sodium .....,..seeneesesseseees 4:257 0-129 0-249 
Phosphate of peroxide of iron ......... 0-683 0°350 0°599 
Phosphoric acid......ssssesecsecseeseeeres 3-474 2:273 2-100 
Sulphuric acid ........seceeeeee BI oe: 9-611 23°353 17°101 
Carbonic achdvecsancreercerececnes cee scene 9-737 1-220 6:°375 
SICA yee taste vocctnr rate S oseckagaasans6or 0°526 0-278 0°374 
Charcoal and sand ........ Fe RO. 0°341 0-111 0:225 
"ROGAN eee tes ces cccnes 100°747 99-804 99:780 

II. The above results in 100 parts of Ash, deducting Carbonic Acid, Charcoal 

and Sand. 

POtASED oh adeden eacestiossetncs cece seme ton 24-768 17:679 16:017 
WIGU A wages donee vaneaneatsecwengat=cnschee 1:839 5°776 6:006 

Lime ...... eeshEn ame Nast seine snaeampieassis cr 11-076 7482 9°744 . 
Magnesia ..+..++++. eanaaents war uct cnmeSeay 8-133 6892 7:594 
Chloride of SodiUM  wecosscssecesesececes 33°722 35°380 38°724 
Iodide of sodium ..... ipadbehss FP neni tee 4:695 0°130 0-267 
Phosphate of peroxide of iron ,........ 0:753 0°356 0°642 
Phosphoric acid.......+-...+++ LAS 3°832 2°308 2°253 
Sulphurie Achy vacsevecstsadensesessany se 10°601 23°715 18°352 
DINICH, Sea saseaesndetas srmcniees tustaneue stents 0:581 0-282 0°401 
Total ...... ae Susaslen 100°000 100:000 100°000 


9°785 20°560 25'830 


Per-centage of ashes derived from 
Fuens dried at 212° F............. 


On the Composition of Slate Rocks, and the Soils formed from them. 
By J. P. Norton (Connecticut). 


The analyses were undertaken at the suggestion of Prof. Johnston, with a view of 
determining how far rocks of the same formation varied in different strata as to their 
chemical composition. ‘The specimens were seven in number, collected in Wigton- 
shire, 

In slate No. 1, the quantity of carbonate of lime was very great, 12°50 per cent., 
it being intersected with small veins of it; in No. 2, it was 0-40; in No. 3, 8°75; in 
No. 4, 0°45; in No. 5, 0°39; in No. 6, 0°30; in No.7, 0°34. The magnesia is more 
uniformly in considerable quantity :—No. 1, 3°80; No.4, 2:15; No.5, 1°66; No.7, 
3:09. ‘he proportion of soluble iron and alumina is generally large :—No. 2, 19°5; 
No. 3, 18°75; No.6, 12°13.; the others are smaller, Thus much for the portion so- 
luble in acid. In the insoluble portion, the same substances were always present, 
but the lime generally in sma!l quantity; in No. 1 alone was it more than 1 per 
cent. The magnesia, on the other hand, frequently increased, being in No. 1, 2°30; 
No.5, 2°90; No. 6, 3°04; gNo. 7, ‘279. ‘This was also the case with the iron and alu- 
mina. In No. 2 it was 15:3; in No. 4, 9:45; in No. 5, 21°49; in No. 6, 39°41; in © 
No. 7, 13°61. With these great variations, from 9 to nearly 40, the silica of course 


a 


f 
i 
H 
j 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39 


also varies: in No. 1, about 60; in No.3, 45°6; No.4, 75°79; No. 5, 67°59; No. 6, 
37°82; No. 7, 72:05. 

T would now direct attention to some characteristics of the soils derived from the 
decomposition of these slates. Directing our attention to carbonate of lime, that which 
is immediately available, we see a range from 12°50 to 0:83 per cent: then to car- 
bonate of magnesia, there is in one 3:06, and another 0°35. So as to iron and alu- 
mina; in one there is 19°5, in another 4:82. These, with from 1 to 8 per cent. of 
alkaline matter, constitute the soluble portion from which the plant is directly to de- 
rive its support. 

Tn No, 1, then, we have a soil rich in carbonate of lime, with a proper portion of mag- 
nesia and alkalies, its only defect being the large quantity of iron, No.3 has nearly the 
same characteristics, though the lime is much smaller in quantity. In No. 7 there 
is but 0°34 of carbonate of lime, 0:35 of carbonate of magnesia; while in No. 6 there is 
3°33 carbonate of lime, 3:09 carbonate of magnesia, and 12°13 of iron and alumina. 
This soil would obviously in its natural state be very unproductive.. That quantity 
of magnesia might be injurious without lime, and much of the iron was protoxide. 
There is little to hope from the decomposition of the insoluble portion either, for it 
has only 0:17 of carbonate of lime; while there is 3-06 carbonate of magnesia, and 
39°40 of iron and alumina. This is the worst example, though Nos. 5 and 2 are not 
many degrees better. 

These seven slates, then, all picked up within a small extent of country, afford 
seven different soils, varying from very good to very bad. 

The physical state of this section of Wigtonshire is to a great extent unimproved, 
the land being excessively cold and wet; leaving this out of view, however, or rather 
supposing drainage complete the excess of iron, we may see in the variation of the 
per-centage of lime an explanation of many conflicting opinions that prevail respect- 
ing its use as a manure. 


On Mineral Manure. By Professor Lizzic. 4 verbal communication by 
Ernest Dierrensacu, M.D. (of Berlin.) 


After alluding to the varying conditions of soils under the circumstances of geolo- 
gical and geographical position, Dr. Dieffenbach proceeded to point out the advantages 
of using such a compound that it should meet these circumstances ; for instance, that 
for a moist climate it would be necessary so to prepare the saline manure that, al- 
though slowly decomposing to meet the requirements of vegetation, it should not be 
so soluble as to be washed out of the soil by the rains. This is proposed to be effected 
by Prof. Liebig; and having ascertained the mineral constituents removed from the 
soil, it will be the object of the manufacturer to supply their place in the mineral 
manure. It was then pointed out that the manures required for wheat, oats, legumi- 
nous plants and the potatoe must necessarily be different; and the object in view in 
the manufacture of this saline manure is to prepare it with the essential constituents 
for particular crops. 


On Malacca Guano. By Dr. Canter. 

This communication described a peculiar substance, of which recently samples have 
been sent to England. It was stated to be inferior to both the African and the Peru- 
vian, and curiously enough to consist almost entirely of the legs and other indigestible 
parts of beetles. 


On Masses of Salt discovered in the lowest portions of Guano on the Island of 
Ichaboe. By Tuomas J. PEARSALL. 

The salt was transparent and colourless, very soluble in water, and contained phos- 
phoric acid, soda and ammonia, and a trace of some organic matter, which became 
carbonaceous at a high temperature. The salt therefore appears to be a microcosmic 
salt, phosphate of soda, ammonia, and water of crystallization. 


Contributions to the Chemistry of Diabetes. By Joun Percy, M.D. 


In this paper the author communicates the results of nine ultimate analyses of 
human feces, viz. two of the feces in health, six in diabetes, and one in jaundice. 


40 REPORT—1845. 


Proximate analyses of the feeces of the following cases are also given. In 100 parts 
of the dried residue of the feces of a man in perfect health and living on an ordinary 
mixed diet, there were— 


Substances soluble in zether (brownish yellow fat)... 11°95 


hy alcohol of *830 ...... Pato: 10°74 
i water (brown resinous matter) 11°61 
Organic matter insoluble in the above menstrua...,.. 49°33 
Salts soluble in water..........ceeeeee- Sitesserccecnstettece 4-76 
Salts insoluble in water......... epi sceed ee aeoeraee ~) AGE 


In 100 parts of the dried faeces of a man (Flint) labouring under confirmed diabetes 
and living almost entirely on animal food, there were found— 


Substances soluble in cether ...sceccscsccessecceeeeeeecens 22:00 
ns alcohbl!* 223,235; Sreevcceseavee 11-13 
a WALOD Neuere ccoustteescsecoeseskeeene 12:02 
Organic matter insoluble in the above menstrua...... 45°49 
IARI Soha es eetetbeca rene cae cdot weit ETOAC ees 9°36 


On a subsequent examination, the dried feces of this individual yielded 51-55 per 
cent. of fat. ‘The results of his ultimate analyses are given in the following table :— 


Man in 
health. | Manin | Child. Man. Man. Man. Man. Man, | Girl with 
Ordinary | training. | Diabetes.| Diabetes.) Diabetes.| Diabetes.) Diabetes.| Diabetes.| Jaundice, 


diet. 

ms 2. CON as Sar ia a =p a Soe ders 6 vali ae 
Gale. 46:20 | 49-79 | 43:86 | 54-35 | 60-34} 53-09 | 45°81 | 45-97 | 51-51 
ge 672| 7-06| 696| 7:57| 925| 7:97] 7:59| 7271] 7-29 
N&O...} 30-71 | 28-64 | 29-09 | 28-72 | 17-18 | 21:34 | 25-42 | 24-66 | 29-10 
Ash..ie. 16-37 | 14:51 | 2009 | 9:36 | 13:23} 17-60} 2118 | 22-10] 12-10 


100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 


Table of Composition, exclusive of Ash. 


Boil pied Bae coh 4, iid i a AE AMG em 
ae 55-24 | 58-24 | 54-88 | 59-96| 6953 | 6443 | 5811 | 59-01 | 58-60 
qe: 303 | $25|/ 870| $35} 1066| 967] 962! 933| $39 
N&o..| 3673 | 3351 | 36-42] 31-69 | 19-81 | 25:90! 3227| 31-66] 3341 


100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 


GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


On the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge, including the Formations 
between the Chalk Escarpment and the Great Bedford Level. By the Rev. 
Professor Sepewick, fc. 


Tue author first called attention to the map of the immediate neighbourhood, and 
pointed out the great irregularity of the chalk escarpment. There is indeed a pretty 
well-defined terrace, composed of chalk with flint, running eight or ten miles to the 
east of Cambridge, and seen in the hills near Royston and Newmarket; but several 
miles in advance of this terrace are great spurs of the lower chalk, one of which 
forms the well-known ridge of the Gogmagog hills. Some of these formations or 


ple a Ne ina. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 41 


spurs of lower chalk have, by faults and denudations, been cut off from the general 
mass and thus form a series of obscure outliers, the exact limits of which it is ex- 
tremely difficult to define, in consequence of the featureless nature of the country 
and the great beds of drifted clay and gravel which cover many parts of the more 
regular formations. A small patch of chalk near Castle hill, and the chalk quarries 
near Madingley, worked under a thick covering of drifted brown clay, are given as 
examples. To the west of this irregular escarpment or boundary of the chalk, the 
following formations break out in a regular descending order:—1. Upper green- 
sand; 2. Galt; 3. Lower greensand; 4. Kimmeridge clay; 5. Coral rag; 6. Ox- 
ford clay, which forms the subsoil of the great Bedford Level. 

1. Upper Greensand.—This appears, as far as regards its thickness, in a very de- 
generate form. The portion to which the term greensand is strictly applicable is 
only a few inches thick, and above it there is sometimes an ambiguous deposit of a 
few feet which forms a passage into the lower chalk. It is not true, as has formerly 
been stated, that the chalk marl forms a passage into the galt; for the upper green- 
sand, without a single exception, makes a natural break between them. As the 
elialk formation is generally pervious to water and the galt always impervious, it 
necessarily follows that copious springs are thrown out by the greensand bed. The 
springs at Cherry Hinton, the Nine-springs at the foot of the Gogmagog hills, and 
those of Coton and Madingley, are given as examples; and if a curved line be drawn 
through the principal springs of the neighbourhood, it will give a good approxima- 
tion to the true line of outcrop of the lower greensand. Thus it appears, by reference 
to the map, that Cambridge is situate on the galt in a bay formed by two irregular 
spurs of the lower chalk. Though the greensand is thus degenerate, its fossils are 
numerous and extremely characteristic. Well known species of Hxogyra and Tere- 
bratula are in great abundance; characteristic greensand Ammonites are not rare ; 
Hippurites occur occasionally ; sharks’ teeth and fish palates of several families are 
abundant. Many fragments of the head-bones of several species of Chimera occur 
here and there, and paddle-bones and teeth of a Plesiosaurus have been found abun- 
dantly near Barnwell, though mutilated and ill-preserved. But the most abundant 
fossils are the well-known black nodules which resemble coprolites, but have none 
of the structure of those bodies, being generally almost amorphous. They contain 
however a large per-centage of phosphate of lime. The author does not consider 
that their origin is yet well made out. The greensand, though partly incoherent and of 
such inconsiderable thickness, yet appears to have protected the upper surface of the 
galt from denudation ; for it spreads out over a considerable area to the west of the 
chalk, forming the upper surface of the galt where that formation rises into the dry _ 
lands that skirt the neighbouring marshes, 

2. Galt.—This formation, as has been proved by repeated borings for Artesian 
wells, is more than 150 feet thick. None of the borings, though apparently com- 
mencing at the top of the formation, reach 200 feet. As this formation occupies 
a country almost at a dead level, and partially covered by marsh lands and gravel, 
its superficial extent cannot be accurately represented. Its western limits are how- 
ever, here and there, well-defined by the outcrop of the lower greensand. The fos- 


' sils from this formation are derived from the upper part of it, as seen in the brick- 


pits near Cambridge, and they agree very closely, so far as they go, with the fossils 
of the Folkstone clay. Hamites, Crioceratites, and shells of the genus Inoceramus, 
&c. abound. A few shells of the genus Plicatula appear to be of the same species 
with those found in the lower beds of the neighbouring chalk marl. 

3. Lower Greensand and Sandstone.—This formation is well seen at Denny Abbey, 
on the road to Ely. To the east of that place it is, for many miles, concealed under 
the marshes and makes no escarpment; but it is probably continuous, as it breaks 
out in greater force, forming an under terrace to the chalk escarpment of Norfolk, 
and, as is well known, may be traced to the sea at Hunstanton Cliff. It is seen 
near Cottenham, Rampton and Willingham (as represented on a map). It then 
crosses the Huntingdon road about the seventh milestone, buried however under a 
great thickness of the brown clay (Till). Again, it breaks out at Elsworth, and ina 
denudation between Caxton and Bourne, and at Great Gransden. Beyond the last- 
named place it increases in thickness and blends itself with the sand-hills of Bed- 
fordshire. In the range above given it is perhaps, on the average, not more than 


42 REPORT—1845. 


twenty feet thick. It is composed of beds of sand and hard sandstone, sometimes 

slightly calcareous, and is generally of a yellowish or rusty-brown colour, resembling 

the upper beds of the formation seen on the south coast of England. Its fossils are 

few in number and obscure, being composed of ferruginous mineralized fragments _ 
of dicotyledonous wood, of fragments of shells, and bones of fishes. Good charac- 

teristic fossil fishes have however been found in the formation near Lynn. As it is 

pervious to water, is imbedded between two impervious strata of clay, and crops 

out (on the confines of Huntingdonshire and Bedfordshire) at a higher level than 

the surface of the galt at Cambridge, it readily affords a supply of water to the 

Artesian wells, as appears by the accompanying section*. 

The most remarkable exhibition of the lower greensand is seen in an outlying 
ridge (surrounded by low fen-lands and forming the true Isle of Ely) extending from 
Ely to Kilrow, west of Haddenham. The ridge cannot be accounted for by the re- 
gular rise of the strata towards the west, combined with a subsequent denudation ; 
but has been produced by a fault elevating the ridge above the mean level of the 
surrounding fens. This has been satisfactorily proved by the recent cuttings for the 
railroad, which expose the chalk mar] in situ at the base of the hill composed of Kim- 
meridge clay and lower greensand. This chalk, to be on its true geological level, 
ought to be about 150 feet above the top of the ridge. It is presumed, therefore, 
that there is on the south-east side of the ridge a fault or upcast of about 150 feet, 
as appears by the accompanying sections. 

1st section exhibited at the brown-clay pits at Ross Hill on the N.E. side of Ely. 

S.E. N.W. 


a. Brown-clay with large boulders. 4. Lower chalk, shaken and slightly contorted. 
c. Lower greensand. d, Kimmeridge clay. 


2nd section, below the preceding, laid bare by the cuttings of the new railroad. 
S.W. N.E. 


a. Brown-clay. 6. Chalk marl or lower chalk. d. Kimmeridge clay. 


In this section, which is at a lower level, the lower greensand does not appear. 

The author thinks from the appearance of the sections that the fault took place 
immediately before the deposit of the brown clay. 

4. Kimmeridge clay.—This deposit is best seen in the great clay-pits near Ely. It 


* West byS. Sand-pits near Gamlingay. Cambridge. 


a, Overlying brown clay (Till). 6, Chalk marl, ce. Upper greensand. d. Galt. 
e. Lower greensand. jf. Kimmeridge and Oxford clay. Thickness unknown. 


The bore-holes at Cambridge through d. of the section admit the ascent of the water which 
enters, at a higher level, by the outcrop of the sand e. 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43 


is full of characteristic fossils, such as Ostrea deltoidea, Gryphea virgula, Ichthyodo- 
rulites, reptiles’ bones, &c. In other places, however (e. g. at Great Gransden and 
Elsworth), the lower greensand appears to overlap the Kimmeridge clay and rests 
immediately on a clay full of Oxford clay fossils, such as Gryphea dilatata, &c. 
In this respect the relations of the lower greensand to the inferior formations is only 
analogous to what is so often seen on the south coast of England. 

5. Coral Rag or Middle Oolite.—It is well known that this formation, of a great 
thickness on the south coast of England, gradually thins off in its range towards the 
north, and comes to an edge in Buckinghamshire. In its further range towards the 
north-east, for more than 100 miles, it almost entirely disappears, and» the Oxford 
clay and Kimmeridge clay are brought together without the intervention of any 
stone bands to break the uniformity of the surface. The consequence is, that they 
form a great plain occupying a part of Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, and Lincolnshire. 
To this remark there is one striking exception ; for at Upware, about eight miles be- 
low Cambridge, a low ridge, extending about a mile in length and a few hundred 
yards in breadth, rises out of the fen-lands. It is formed by a saddle of most cha- 
racteristic coral rag, with many characteristic fossils. The author conjectures that 
this elevation was effected by the same disturbing forces which produced the great 
fault, above noticed, at Ely. This deposit is not exposed to its base, but cannot, it 
is thought, be more than fifteen or twenty feet thick, and it is certain that it does 
not form a continuous band concealed under the fens, as several wells have been sunk 
(between Cambridge and Lynn) through the Kimmeridge clay into the Oxford clay 
without passing through any beds which bore a resemblance to the coral rag. 

The accompanying section will explain the above short description. 


Section from the chalk hills, near Burwell to the great outlying ridge of lower 
greensand near Haddenham. 


Hills E. of River Chalk Hills 
N.W. Haddenham. Cam. Upware. near Burwell. S.E. 


1 


6. Lower chalk. ec. Upper greensand. . Galt. 
Jf. Kimmeridge clay. g. Coral rag. h. Oxford clay. 


e. Lower greensand, 


On the right-hand side of the section, c d ef are buried under the marsh land. 
But to the west of the Cam f (Kimmeridge clay) is worked in several pits; and 4 
(Oxford clay) breaks out on the north-west side of Haddenham ridge; but on that 
side no trace of the coral rag has been discovered. 

6. Oxford Clay.—This formation occupies by far the largest portion of the great 
Bedford Level, and is of very great but unknown thickness. Its western boundary 
is defined by the outcrop of the great oolite, and does not belong to the geology of 
the neighbourhood of Cambridge. Its eastern boundary is very ill defined, often 
passing under marsh lands where the subsoil is concealed from the view. At Great 
Gransden and Elsworth, as stated above, it breaks out from beneath the lower green- 
sand. All the low lands between Coningtor and St. Ives are composed of it. The 
fen lands extending from Cottenham to Ely are on the Kimmeridge clay; and in 
consequence of the wpcast fault, which has produced the great outlier of Ely and 
Haddenham, the Oxford clay is thrown more towards the north-west, so that its 
upper beds crop out on the north-west side of the ridge, as appears in the preceding 
section. 

Such are the principal facts connected with the stratification of the country near 
Cambridge, and the localities where they are best exhibited may be examined a day’s 
excursion from Cambridge. 


Irregular overlying Deposits, not now in progress of formation and unconnected with 
the present action of the Surface Waters. 


1. Great Brown Clay.—This seems very closely to resemble the ¢ill of Scotland, 


44. REPORT—1845. 


but no proof has yet been given that it is of the same date or exactly of the same 
origin, and therefore the author gives it its local and provincial name. It is of con- 
siderable but very irregular thickness, of which 200 feet may be stated as about the 
maximum for the country near Cambridge. In general its thickness is much less, 
The higher table-lands on the confines of Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire and Hunt- 
ingdonshire, are almost entirely composed of it; but it is found also at lower levels, 
and sometimes immediately under the marsh lands. It contains innumerable peb- 
bles and fragments of chalk, and multitudes of septaria and other stony concretions 
drifted out of the great fen-clay. Entangled in its mass are occasionally found blocks 
of greensand, several tons in weight, and driven several miles from the parent rock, 
The author affirms his conviction that ninety-nine parts out of a hundred of the 
whole mass are derived from the country of the great fen-clay. Icebergs may, during 
the period, have transported boulders from a great distance, and dropped them among 
the superficial deposits of the country. But no conceivable action of icebergs could 
have scooped out the great hollow of the fens and spread the materials, far and wide, 
over all the higher lands on the south-east side of the great level. ‘The brown clay 
has been pushed bodily onward by the propelling force of water, the propelling force 
having been probably brought into action by some sudden elevation and change of 
level between land and water, of which the faults above noticed may give a partial 
evidence. In this neighbourhood there are no old local freshwater deposits above the 
brown clay like those which have been noticed on the coast of Norfolk, 

2. Flint Gravel.—This generally occupies the low country, and is too well-known 
to need description in this sketch. Its level is however by no means constant, and 
as it sometimes contains blocks of stone brought from a great distance, the author 
refers it to the ill-defined period when the great erratic blocks were transported over 
so many parts of England. That it was mainly produced by the action of the sea 
during changes of level, cannot admit of doubt; but in a few places (e.g. near Barn- 
well) its finer sandy beds contain many well-preserved specimens both of land and 
freshwater shells, most of which are of existing species. It is conjectured that these 
shells may have been chiefly derived from old freshwater deposits (like those of Nor- 
folk) which existed, here and there, on the surface of the brown clay, at the time 
the flint gravel was in progress of formation. The facts at any rate are interesting ; 
and in the finer beds of gravel near Barnwell, these shells are found associated with 
drifted mammals’ bones of many species, most of which are extinct, e. g. Mammoth, 
Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, gigantic Bos, Equus, &c. This association of fossils 
is described in a paper by the Rev. T. B. Brodie, in the ‘Cambridge Transactions,’ 
and the same fact was noticed twenty-five years since in a communication by 


J. Okes, Esq. 
Modern Deposits connected with the present Drainage of the Country. 


The towns and villages upon the great level are generally built on hummocks of 
the brown clay, or on patches of the flint gravel, which raise them out of the reach 
of the floods by which the lower fen-lands are occasionally submerged. ‘The out- 
crop of the lower greensand gives a swelling surface of dry land, so that its range 
through the marshes may sometimes be traced by a line of villages and steeples, In 
like manner the great outlier of lower greensand (the true Isle of Ely, which Wil- 
liam the Conqueror could only reach by an artificial causeway across the marsh of 
the Kimmeridge clay) is marked by the towers of Ely Cathedral and the steeples of 
Wilburton and Haddenham. With the exception of these elevations, all the country 
above described to the west of the chalk, is at a nearly dead level. Immediately 
under the vegetable soil are found silt of various kinds, remains of ancient forests, 
and bog-earth occasionally of considerable thickness. In some places the deposit is 
simple, in others complex, indicating many successive changes in the condition of 
drainage. Among these marsh lands are many traces of works by the hands of 
man. But the most interesting remains are those which occur at the base of the 
series, on the immediate surface of the older deposits, and they give an indication of 
the condition of the country before the turf-bogs dammed up the old water-courses, 
or the labours of man interfered with their distribution. Among these remains the 
author only notices such as are found in the Cambridge collection, and to the in- 
spection of which the Association was invited. Among these are the following :— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45 


Bear, Wolf, Wild Boar, Beaver, Roe-buck, Red-deer, and the long-faced and straight- 
horned gigantic Bos. The first two species are rare; the last five are found in con- 
siderable abundance. To this list might be added the bones of many species still 
flourishing in the immediate neighbourhood. In the overlying marshes are occa- 
sionally found many organic remains of living species and many curious remains of 
ancient workmanship; but their description came not within the objects of the 
communication. 

The author exbibited a map of the Bedford Level for the purpose of explaining 
some of the remarkable changes in the drainage of country during the last seven hun- 
dred years. The older historical facts were chiefly derived from the descriptions and 
charts of Dugdale and Badeslade, and they are briefly enumerated in the following 
appendix to the paper. 

APPENDIX. 


Changes in the River Drainage of the Bedford Level, produced by the silting up of 
the old water-courses, and the consequent accumulation of Turf-bog and Marsh Lands, 
&c. 

The parts of the great level immediately bordering on the sea, from the mouth of 
the Lynn river to the northern extremity of the Wash of Lincolnshire, chiefly consist 
of marsh lands gained from the sea, partly by artificial embankments (some of very 
ancient date), and partly by the natural encroachments of the increasing delta. But 
as under such conditions the outfall of the several rivers was liable to silt up, and the 
rivers themselves to shift their channels, it followed that many of the lower districts 
in the interior of the great level must have been liable to continued inundations from 
back-water. The consequence was, the formation of extensive tracts of fen-land and 
turf-bog through all the lower levels in the interior of the country. The following facts 
are chiefly derived from Dugdale, ‘On the History of Imbanking and Drayninge,’ 
and from Badeslade, ‘On the Navigation of King’s- Lynn and of Cambridge,’ and are 
given in this place for the purpose of showing how much the whole surface of a 
delta may be changed, by alluvial accumulations, in course of a few hundred years. 
In the early periods within the reach of authentic records (which go back more than 
600 years, no notice being here taken of the old embankments made by the Romans), 
the drainage of the great level was effected in the following manner :— 

1. By the channel of the Witham, which had then nearly the same course which 
it has at the present time. 

2. By the Welland river, which, after descending by Stamford, Crowland and 
Spalding, united with the waters of the Glen in the estuary north of Holland fen. 

3. By the Nene, which after passing Wansford and Peterborough, descended by 
Whittlesea-meer, Ugg-meer and Ramsey-meer to Benwick, at which place it was 
joined by the Old West-water, one of the branches of the Great Ouse*. From Ben- 
wick it flowed on the north side of March and Doddington to Upwell, where it was 
joined by the Welney river, then the principal channel of the Great Ouse; and from 
Upwell the united waters proceeded directly to Wisbeach, anciently called Ousebeach, 
and fell into the estuary. 

4. By the Great Ouse, which, after passing Huntingdon and St. Ives, descended 
to Erith (a village at the south-west end of the old and new Bedford rivers), where 
it divided into two channels. One of them, called the Old West-water, ran to Ben- 
wick, as before stated, and there united with the waters of the Nene. The other 
channel, now called the Old Ouse (sometimes erroneously marked as the Old West- 
water), descended by Cottenham fen, and was joined by the Cam a few miles above 
Ely. The Old Ouse, after passing Ely, was joined by the Mildenhall river, and it 
then passed, by the way of Littleport and Welney, to Upwell, where, as before stated, 
it joined the waters of the Nene, and so descended to the sea at Wisbeach. 

5. By the Little Ouse (once a very inconsiderable river), which (after passing 
Brandon and being joined by some small tributary streams from the chalk hills of 


* The Old West-water was given off by the Ouse at Erith (near the south-west end of the 
old and new Bedford rivers), and ran to Benwick, not far from Ramsey-meer. It was filled 
up and had almost entirely disappeared so early as 1618, as is stated in the old sutveys, and 
it is never traced on any modern maps. The term Old West-water cannot therefore be cor« 
rectly applied to the old course of the Ouse from Erith down Cottenham fen to Ely. 


46 ° : REPORT—1845. 


Norfolk) fell into the sea at Lynn.—In the preceding account all the old artificial 
drains, and several minute bifurcations of the rivers, after they reached the great 
alluvial delta, are intentionally omitted. 

As early as the 12th century the accumulations of alluvial silt near the mouths of 
the Welland and Nene, caused a great back-water which overspread some of the 
lower portions of the Bedford Level. The formation of great tracts of peat-bog was 
the necessary consequence, by which the levels of the fen-lands were changed, and 
the river courses still further interrupted; and as early as the 13th century the out- 
fall of the waters through some of the old channels had almost entirely failed. Mean- 
time the bed of the Little Ouse, not having been exposed to the same accidents, was 
much below the level of the great alluvial delta that extended to the mouths of the 
other rivers above mentioned. A great drain was therefore cut from Littleport Chair 
to Rebeck, making the first direct communication between the Great and Little Ouse. 
The effect was just what might have been anticipated. Not only the waters of the 
Great Ouse, but the back-waters which had been pent up at a higher level in the 
interior of the delta, descended with irresistible force through this new drain into 
the channel of the Little Ouse, and so escaped into the sea at Lynn. About this 
time the outfall below Spalding had so completely failed, that the waters of the 
Welland found their way through the Catswater into the Nene; and a reverse direc- 
tion having been given to all the main currents, in consequence of a channel being 
thus opened below the level of the ancient outfall at Wisbeach, all the back-waters of 
the Welland, and all the united waters of the Nene, now flowed into the Great Ouse 
through the Old West-water, through the Welney branch, and through all the great 
cross-drains of the neighbouring country, and were then conveyed by the new cut into 
the Little Ouse and so entered the sea at Lynn. In this way, for many years after- 
wards, nearly all the waters of the great level, to the south of the Witham, had their 
outlet at Lynn; and the Little Ouse (now confounded with the Great Ouse), which 
had formerly run between banks not more than twelve perches asunder, became, in 
consequence of the changes above mentioned, more than a mile wide. Many attempts 
were made to prevent this unnatural discharge of nearly all the waters of the Bed- 
ford Level by one channel at Lynn (formerly called, as before stated, the Little Ouse). 
Thus, in 1292 several dams were constructed across the Upwell channel to prevent 
the back-waters of the Nene from joining the Ouse. But they produced such ruin- 
ous effects on many tracts of fen-lands, some of them bordering on the upper parts 
of the Ouse itself, that in 1332 they were destroyed under the direction of a parlia- 
mentary commission ; and for many years afterwards the great drainage of the delta 
was effected in the manner above described. Notwithstanding the very indirect na- 
ture of this drainage, which conveyed the greater part of the waters of the Welland, 
the Nene and the Ouse into the sea by the Lynn channel, the fens appear, during 
many subsequent years, to have been in a good condition, a fact which can only be 
explained by the low level of the new outfall. In course of time however the new 
channels began to silt up, and new works became necessary to prevent the ruinous 
effects of the consequent back-water. In 1490 the discharge of the Ouse was par- 
tially relieved by a cut (called Morton’s Leam) from Peterborough to Guyhirn and 
Wisbeach. It was intended to convey the waters of the Nene to their ancient out- 
fall at Wisbeach ; but it was never entirely effective till the year 1638, when Ver- 
muyden (under the direction of King Charles I.) erected high banks on each side of 
the Leam, and opened out a better channel to the sea. Since then the Nene has 
continued to flow, by its ancient out-fall, into the sea below Wisbeach. About the 
same time other great works were undertaken and were continued in succession by 
two Earls of Bedford. Two great cuts were made from Erith to Salter’s Lode, a 
distance of about twenty miles, and were completed in 1648. By these channels 
(now called the old and new Bedford rivers) the waters of the Ouse, instead of their 
former devious course by Cottenham and Ely, were conveyed, by two unbending lines, 
down the great fen on the north-west side of the Ely and Haddenham outlier before 
mentioned ; and from Ely to Salter’s Lode (near Denver) the old channel of the Ouse 
now carried only the waters of the Cam and its tributaries. These new works, how- 
ever beneficial in other respects, appear from the first to have injured the low lands 
bordering on the Cam, and the old channel of the Ouse between Ely and Salter’s 
Lode; for the new straight channels of the Ouse were not cut down to the level 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47 


of the old channel at Salter’s Lode; and the floods from the upper parts of the Ouse 
commonly reached this spot, through the straight artificial channels, much sooner 
than the floods of the Cam. A new and unlooked-for evil was the consequence; the 
banks of the Cam were continually liable to floods from the back-waters of the Ouse. 
One great flood of the Ouse, in 1720, is said to have backed up the Cam from Sal- 
ter’s Lode, for twenty days, and to have silted up one part of the old channel below 
Ely to the thickness of three or four feet. Ruinous effects of this kind were pre- 
vented by the erection of various sluices, of which Denver sluice was most effective. 
But although affording a cure for an immediate evil, and necessary to the internal 
navigation of the Great Level, they have ultimately contributed to the very evil they 
were intended to remedy ; for partly by their agency the whole bed of the Cam (as 
well as of the old Ouse below Ely) was gradually silted up to a much higher level, 
injurious to all the neighbouring fen-lands. The causes which produced these re- 
markable changes continued to operate, and from time to time compelled the execu- 
tion of new works. By way of conclusion, those works which have been effected 
within the last thirty or forty years may be briefly noticed :-— 

1. All the fen-lands, in the interior of every part of the great Bedford Level, are 
so far above the mean level of the sea, that they might be effectually drained by 
artificial cuts to low-water mark ; and the drainage might then be maintained per- 
manently and effectually without the enormous expense of water-mills and other 
artificial means. This has been partially effected by great works near the mouth of 
the Witham, and by other similar works to the north of Morton’s Leam, which 
give a natural and uniform descent to the waters of Thorney fen and a part of South- 
Holland fen. 

2. Within the same period a new channel has been cut for the Nene below Wis- 
beach, and by an artificial embankment the upper part of the estuary has been gained 
from the sea. Since then the lower part of the estuary has continued to warp up to 
a higher level, and other artificial encroachments upon the sea are now in progress. 
Had the bed of the Nene been lowered as far as Guyhirn, many thousand acres of 
unreclaimed fen (including Whittlesea-meer) might have been drained by a direct cut 
to that place. At present there is a violent rapid which conveys the waters of the 
upper level to the level of the new river course below Wisbeach. In consequence 
of this most injurious condition of the Nene, works are now in progress for the 
drainage of Whittlesea-meer and the neighbouring fens by a longer and more indi- 
rect cut to the lower part of the Ouse near Lynn. 

3. A great delta had been formed above Lynn during the time that the waters of 
the Bedford Level were discharged (as above described) by the mouth of what was 
once called the Little Ouse. This delta gave a slow discharge to the great land- 
floods and caused much back-water. The artificial cut, called the Eau Brink, has ina 
great measure abated this evil. Many large tracts of fen-lands (on the Cam and the 
Ouse), which were once poisoned by stagnant water, are now well-drained and made 
productive by a top-dressing of clay; and floods, which formerly hung on these 
lands for many weeks, now disappear in a few days. 

Local improvements, from the lowering of the river courses and the introduction 
of steam-power, are not here noticed. Many of them are but local expedients to 
meet an existing evil, which could not recur were a more uniform and systematic 
drainage of the Great Level ever carried into effect. Enough has been stated in this 
Appendix to explain the appearance of forest-trees and other indications of dry land 
in many places of the Great Level, now sunk under many feet of bog-earth and allu- 
vial silt: aud if such remarkable effects have been thus produced by the accumula- 
tions of alluvial matter and the growth of fen-land in the course of six or seven hun- 
dred years, we may be well assured that the whole form of the neighbouring coast 
must have been greatly changed in more ancient times by the same causes acting 
without interruption and with less modification from the works of man. 


On the occurrence of Silurian rocks at the villages of Ober and Neu Schmollen, 
near Breslau, in Silesia, and covering an area of about eight square English 
miles. By M.Ferpinanp Oswatp of Oels, in a letter to Mr. Murcuison, 


Mr. Murchisun considered this an interesting discovery, as throughout Germany 


48 REPORT—1845. 


the older palwozoic rocks belonged almost exclusively to the carboniferous or Devo- 
nian systems, and the country around Prague was the only one from which Silurian 
fossils had been derived. It was a question whether this was really a little island of 
Silurian rocks in situ, or whether it was only a part of the drift of that region, which 
often contained Silurian rocks derived from Scandinavia and Russia. In Mr. Oswald’s 
copious list of fossils were mentioued Jd/enus crassicauda, Spheronites, and other chas 
racteristic lower Silurian fossils, together with almost all the best-marked corals of 
Wenlock and Dudley, a remarkable and unexpected mixture of the fossils of two 
different members of the same series. 


’ 


Tabular view of Fossil Plants. By Professor Goreurt of Breslau. 
Communicated by Mr. Murcuison. 


Mr. Murchison announced the general results obtained by M. Gdppert from the 
formation of a tabular view of the fossil plants which had been discovered up to the 
present time all over the globe. Mr. Murchison stated, that Professor Goppert’s 
general résumé of the fossil flora of the globe would be borne out by detailed proofs 
about to be given in a general synopsis of well-known fossil species, animal and ve- 
getable, now preparing by Bronn, Géppert and Herman von Meyer, and in which 
these distinguished naturalists follow toa great extent the same plan as that published 
by Mr. Morris in his ‘Catalogue of British Fossils.’ The number of fossil plants known 
to M. Adolphe Brongniart in 1836, was 527. In the new list they amounted to 1792; 
and as in the $0,000 plants now known to exist in different parts of the globe, a large 
proportion consists of fucoids and fungi and other tribes, which would disappear in 
the process of fossilization, it would be seen that the total number of known fossil 
species bore a more considerable proportion to those now existing than was com- 
monly admitted. Their numerical distribution in the different rocks is stated by 
M. Géppert to be as follows :— 


Palzozcic*...... SL ecseivee aa ieee ae 
Carboniferous ....... Pe cane tte eaten Perea ORG 
Permiani ......seceees Swacdven vid sanceaeel Hepes (OG 
MPPIAUSIGro tacit venerencere teens esctes ARB A PE Ns 67 
Oolitic....... sete deans Pr fal a Oy wae Hey BR 731 
WeedldGH?: .cccocatcccurecatedees Le cetera LO 


GREUAGEOUS® 2 /Reccsccvesdiocsasscctivestetevnce ODE 
Tertiary ccvsctheccctscpicccsdctctosecvcsswneses WOE 
WITIRMOWINS veccccceccduasevsscccaserceccucdecwna'y LE 


a 


Total vrccveees Taste LFIZ 


From this table it appeared, that the carboniferous group contained more than 
half the known species of fossil plants, a remarkable circumstance when it was con- 
sidered that the great herbivorous land quadrupeds had no ascertained existence bes 
fore the tertiary period. 


On the Agency of Land Snails in forming holes and trackways in Compact 
Limestone. By Dr. Bucktann. 


This notice was a continuation of one made at the Plymouth meeting, in which 
the author ascribed certain perforations discovered by him on the under side of 
ledges of limestone rock at Tenby, Boulogne and Plymouth, to the agency of pro- 
jecting the acid secretions of land snails, which resorted to these rocks daily for 
‘shelter. The additional instances now described were discovered by Dr. Buckland 


* I beg to observe, that the plants here alluded to under the term paleozoic, are all (with 
the exception of a few fucoids) found in the rocks called Devonian, which lie immediately 
at the base of the carboniferous system; no well-characterized land plants having yet been 
observed in the Silurian or oldest palzeozoic rocks. Some, indeed, of the so-called palezozoic 
plants of M. Géppert may, I suspect, belong to what English geologists term the “ lower 
limestone (carboniferous) shale,’’ which has very generally been merged with the grauwacke 
of German geologists. I need scarcely remark, that the word “ palzozoic”’ is not here used 
according to the sense in which most modern geologists would employ it, viz. as embracing — 
the Silurian, Devonian, carboniferous and Permian deposits.—A. I. Murchison. 


=, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49 


in Cumberland during a visit made in 1842, with Mr. Hopkins; at Cannington Park 
in Somersetshire, by Mr. W. Baker of Bridgewater ; in the stringcourses of the Ro- 
man castle at Richborough, made of Kentish rag; _in the roof of a cromlech of dolo- 
mite at St. Nicholas, near Cardiff, and in the rock work in Mr. Dillwyn’s garden of 
mountain limestone brought from Gower. Dr. Buckland exhibited specimens of 
limestone reck from several localities, showing perforations occupied by snails, and 
grooves or furrows leading to the perforations, and he insisted that these were unlike 
those produced by any marine animal, or by atmospheric causes. The perforated 
rocks were stated to be only found in districts affording a rich vegetation, and were 
always met with at the junction of a slate region, with one entirely composed of lime- 
stone, and near luxuriant herbage. Dr. Buckland attached great importance to the 
perforations at Richborough Castle, which, he said, afforded a measure of the time 
necessary for such opergtions; the deepest holes he had seen in limestone rocks 
rarely exceeded three sabes, and he considered it probable that these had occupied 
as many thousand years in their formation; the holes were only found in the hardest 
limestone rocks, because in softer limestones they would be obliterated by atmo- 
spheric action. 


On the Coal Deposits of the Asturias. By 8. P. Pratt, FE.R.S. 


Mr. Pratt gave a general account of a section taken from the neighbourhood of 
Leon in a north-west direction to the coast passing through Oviedo. The strata 
rise from beneath tertiary deposits which cover the plains of Leon and Castile, at an 
angle of 30°, which soon becomes nearly vertical, dipping north by west. They con- 
sist of numerous alternations of grit and shale with thin beds of Jimestone, and con- 
tain within about three miles of their rise a bed of good coal, nearly nine feet thick. 
Between this point and the summit of the Pass, a distance of five leagues, several 
extensive faults occur, by which the dip is more than once reversed, and several large 
mountain masses of limestone appear, underlying the grits, &c.; this limestone con- 
tains numerous fossils which indicate a period older than the mountain limestone, 
although several species are found intermixed, which can scarcely be separated from it. 
Hard grits and shales, highly inclined, succeed, and form the higher parts of the Pass, 
extending about a league beyond it to the north, after which coal plants are found 
abundantly in the grits and shales; no coal however is seen until near Pola de Lena 
situate about four leagues from the top of the Pass; from hence following the road 
to Oviedo, in a distance of ten miles, more than seventy seams of good workable coal 
are crossed ; near the upper part of the series a bed of conglomerate occurs, formed 
of rolled masses of grit, limestone, and coal; another such deposit, probably ex- 
ceeding 1500 feet in thickness, appears near the lowest part of the series, in which 
the coal boulders are more abundant, varying from the size of an egg to a foot in dia- 
meter, and possess the same character with the coal of the associated beds; one good 
coal-seam uccurs in the conglomerate, and two or three below it. The coal deposits 
are terminated by a narrow valley, beyond which the limestone rises from beneath 
them toa considerable elevation; a depression of the surface soon after occurs, form- 
ing a plain of cretaceous deposits of the Hippurite period, upon which the city of 
Oviedo stands, and which extends for twenty or thirty miles east and west. Beyond 
Oviedo to the north, the limestone again rises, and coal deposits appear between this 

oint and the coast ; in one of these the coal forms beds of from three to seven feet, 
interstratified with the limestone, which, with the shales that occur in it, contains an 
abundance of fossils, chiefly shells and corals, with but few traces of plants, whilst 
those before mentioned in the series south of Oviedo, were chiefly Calamites, Sigillarie, 
and Lepidodendra. Another of these deposits, containing the same fossils, crops 
out on the sea-shore near the.port of Aviles, which is to form the termination of the 


_ North of Spain Railroad to Madrid. It appears therefore that, besides extensive coal- 


beds corresponding with those of England and other countries, this province pos- 


 Sesses a considerable deposit belonging to an earlier period, which was probably the 


_ source of the boulders occurring in the conglomerate of the upper series. Connected 
_ with the coal, and always below it, are several beds of hematite, one of which is ex- 


traordinary, the pure unmixed ore being fifty feet thick, and extending for a consider- 


able distance; it appears from its mineralogical character to have been a mechanical 
or aqueous deposit. 


1845. E 


50 REPORT—1845. 


On the Denudation of South Wales and the adjacent Counties. 
By A. C. Ramsay, F.G.S. 


* 


On the Geology of New Zealand. By Dr. Dizrrensacn. 


New Zealand forms a group of mountainous islands nearly as large as England and 
Wales, and its geological structure is rendered difficult of discovery by the primitive 
forests that fringe the coast, or, where these have been destroyed, by impenetrable 
thickets of the esculent fern. The fundamental rock is everywhere clay-slate, fre- 
quently containing greenstone dykes, as at Port Nicholson, Queen Charlotte’s Sound 
and Cloudy Bay; in the neighbourhood of the dykes the clay-slate sometimes assumes 
the character of a roofing-slate. On the banks of the rivers Eritonga and Waibo are 
terraces, or horizontal plateaux, fifty feet high, formed of boulders of the oldest trap- 
rocks, and similar terraces are seen on the sea coast round Cape Palliser, fifty or sixty 
feet above the sea. Anthracite cdal crops out in the small harbour of Wangarrie on the 
west coast of Middle Island, and there is a thin seam of anthracite in the hard gray 
sandstone on the east coast of the Northern Island. Limestone is described as oc- 
curring in the harbours of Kauria and Waingaroa on the west coast of the Northern 
Island ; it is crystalline, and contains fossils of the genera Pecten, Ostrea, Terebratula 
and Spatangus. Limestone is also found on the river Kaipara in the Bay of Islands, and 
copper pyrites has been obtained from the great Barrier Island, where it forms veins 
in the clay-slate. The coasts are in many places fringed with recent horizontal sedi- 
mentary deposits, consisting of loam, with fragments of wood and tree-ferns, blades 
of the Typha, &c.; and on the Northern Island the coast is often formed of volcanic 
conglomerate, containing magnetic iron sand near Cape Egmont, and Turritelle and 
oyster shells at the harbour of Parenga; near Tauranga, it is composed of decom- 
posing tufa, containing lignite and shells of Pectunculus, Natica, Pyrula and Ancil- 
laria. The small rocky islands of trachyte, lying off the coast of Northern Island, 
also bear marks of wave-action to the height of 100 feet above the present sea level. 
On the western coast of this island formations of sand are now accumulating, driven 
over the forests by the prevalent westerly gales. The interior of the Northern Island 
affords but a scanty vegetation, and the surface is everywhere covered with ordinary 
volcanic productions, derived from the lofty central group of mountains, some of 
which are extinct, others still active voleanoes; the lava appears to have been prin- 
cipally erupted from the base of the craters. The highest of these craters are Ton- 
gariro, 6000 feet in elevation, according to Mr. Bidwell, and Mount Egmont about 
9000 feet, by Dr. Dieffenbach’s thermometrical observations. There are also many 
lakes which appear to occupy ancient craters. The mountain chains of the Middle 
island are supposed to consist of primary rocks; quartzose sandstone and gray- 
wacke are met with at the height of 3000 feet; the lofty pyramidal summits are co- 
vered with snow, and deep narrow valleys separate the various ridges, and radiate 
from the central cones. Dr. Dieffenbach enumerates many localities at which he 
observed mineral springs, particularly between the Bay of Islands and Hokianga, 
where their temperature varied from 124° to 154°, and having an alkaline taste ; 
the surface was covered with sublimations of sulphur. Along the delta of the Waikato, 
hot springs rise from the escarpments of the hills, forming deposits like those of 
Iceland and St. Michael, Azores, containing 75 per cent. of silica. There is also a 
cold silicifying spring near Cape Maria. 

Dr. Dieffenbach has examined into all the traditions respecting the existence of 
the Moa, or great bird of New Zealand, and concludes that it has never been seen 
alive by any natives of New Zealand ; the rivers in which its bones have been found 
flow between banks from thirty to sixty feet high, and-as they are continually chan- 
ging their course the remains of the Moa may have been derived from tertiary fluvia- 
tile strata. 


On the Lake Parima, the El Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh, and the M4 
Geography of Guiana, By Sir R. Scuompurex. : 


The author commenced by alluding to the ill-fated expeditions at the close of the — 
16th and commencement of the 17th centuries, in search of the El Dorade and its — 


—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51 


reputed riches... Manoa, the capital of El Dorado, was said to be built on a large 
lake, which Hondius first represented in his map of Guiana as 200 leagues long and 
forty broad, assigning as its locality the isthmus between the Rupununi and Rio 
Branco ; subsequent geographers retained the Laguna Parima, or Mar Blanco, but 
varied its locality; and although Humboldt, by reasoning founded upon personal 
experience and the inspection of every document relating to the country, asserted 
that such a lake could have no real existence, yet within the last few years maps 
have been published upon which the lake still figures. At the time Humboldt pub- 
lished his Atlas, the regions north of the Amazon, three times as large as Spain, were 
unknown. I[t was this country which the author had been engaged in exploring since 
1835, and the large maps which illustrated his paper proved the correctness of Hum- 
boldt’s judgement. The fable of the “ Mar Blanco” had doubtless arisen from the an- 
nual inundations of the vast savannahs between the Rupununi and Rio Branco and the 
Pacaraima Mountains and the thick forests of Essequibo, covering an extent of 14,000 
square miles. These might once have formed an inland lake, but not within the histo- 
ric period. The author then gave a sketch of the geography of Guiana, which, 
although the largest British colony in South America, was so little known as to be 
sometimes spoken of as an island. The province is bounded in its widest extent by 
the rivers Amazon and Orinoco, and comprises an area of 690,000 square miles ; the 
Casiquiare canal connects the Orinoco with the Rio Negro and the Amazon; so that, 
in this way, the province may be circumnavigated. The fertility of the country is 
surprising to those accustomed only to the vegetation of the temperate zone; but 
the author gives it as his opinion, that no natives of the north of Europe could endure 
the climate as labourers in the open air. The rivers of Guiana, aided by short over- 
land portages, aftord inland communication with Monte Video at the mouth of the 
La Plata, with Cuzio, Lima, and Santa Fé de Bogota. The Parime and Pacaraima 
Mountains separate the fertile plains of the Lower Orinoco from those of the Rio 
Negro and the Amazon; the loftiest summits are in the most southern ranges, and 
in those most northerly. Maravacca, near the Orinoco, rises to 11,000 feet, and 
Roraima, the culminating point of the Pacaraima Mountains, is 8000 feet above the 
sea; they are composed of the older red sandstone, and exhibit mural cliffs 1000 and 
1600 feet high. From the walls of the latter mountains the river Kamaiba precipi- 
tates itself, in a cascade of nearly 1500 feet, surpassing the Cascade de Gavarnie in 
the Pyrenees, which is 1266 feet. In the neighbourhood of these mural mountains, 
porphyry, jasper and rock crystals are found. 


Notice and Drawings of the Footprints of various Animals on the New Red 
Sandstone of Corncockle Muir. By H. E. Srrickxuanp, F.G.S. 


On Nodules, apparently Coprolitic, from the Red Crag, London Clay, 
and Greensand. By Professor Henstow. 


The supply of phosphate of lime used in agriculture, and hitherto obtained from 
bones, having of late years become insufficient, Dr. Daubeny had been induced to 
visit Spain, in order to learn whether this deficiency could be supplied from the de- 
posit of phosphorite in Estremadura. From his report, there appeared to be diffi- 
culty attending the project ; but so important was it deemed, that a second expedi- 
tion had been made for the sake of further investigation. In October 1843, Prof. 
Henslow had called attention to the occurrence of phosphate of lime in pebbly beds 
‘of the red crag at Felixstow, in Suffolk; these nodules, though extremely hard, pre~ 
sented external indications of an animal origin, and yielded, upon analysis, 56 per 


cent. of phosphate of lime. Mr, Brown of Stanway, had subsequently obtained 


several analyses of these pebbles, and also of similar nodules obtained from the London 
clay in the vicinity of Euston-square, and found the same amount of phosphate of 
lime, viz. 50 or 60 per cent. in each. The crag pebbles occasionally contain re- 
mains of small crabs and fish like those in the London clay, leading Mr. Brown to 
the conclusion that they were derived from the destruction of certain beds of that 


_ ‘series. The crag nodules were so abundant, that a gentleman had obtained two tons 
_ “of them—which, after being prepared, were found upon analysis to contain 53 per 


52 REPORT—1845. 


cent. phosphate of lime; 13 phosphate of iron, and the remainder carbonate of lime 
and volatile matter. The stratum of greensand, with similar nodules, had been de- 
scribed by Mr. Sedgwick ; although never more than a foot thick, it occurred near 
the surface over many square miles in the vicinity of Cambridge; and the pebbles it 
contained yielded 61 per cent. of earthy phosphates and 24 of carbonate of lime, the 
rest being insoluble. These were also considered to be possibly coprolitie by Mr. 
Henslow; they frequently contained vertebrxe and teeth of fishes, crab-sheils, and 
other substances, apparently half-digested. In illustration of the origin of such ex- 
tensive layers of coprolitic matter in the marine formations, Mr. Henslow read a 
notice respecting the Appearance of Sharks on the Coast of Norway. 


On the Mechanical Action of Animals on Hard and Soft Substances during 
the Progress of Stratification. By the Rev. Dr. Bucktanp. 


Dr. Buckland remarked, that remains of animals which perforate rocks and or- 
ganized substances for their shelter and abode were almost unknown in the older 
strata, but that many instances occurred in the secondary period of extensive rock 
surfaces covered with the holes of boring shells and worms. A familiar example oc- 
curred at Vallis near Frome, where the mountain limestone, covered by the inferior 
oolite, was penetrated by the bivalve mollusks and annelids. A similar instance oc- 
curs at Marquise near Boulogne ; and it is not uncommon to find thick shells and 
fragments of saurian bone perforated or incrusted by parasitic animals. Similar ope- 
rations might be observed on our own coasts at the present time, some of the animals 
apparently making holes cnly by the accidental circumstance of living on one spot 
for a long time, as in the case of the limpet and Echinus savatilis; others, like the 
Pholas and Lithodomus, requiring it as a necessary condition of their existence. 


Extract of a Letter from Mr. Hopkins respecting Traces resembling 
Ornithichnites. 
This letter, dated “ Bogota, November 15, 1844,” contained a drawing and de- 
scription of certain tridactylous footprints observed by the writer on the soft sandy 
banks of the river Magdalena in Mexico. 


On some New Additions among the Mammalia to the Fossil Fauna of India, 
from Perim Island, in the Gulf of Cambay. By Dr. Fatconer. 


Remarks on Fossil T'rees at St. Helen’s, Lancashire, which exhibit Stigmarie 
as their Roots. By E. W. Bryyey, F.G.S. 


The fossil trees described in this memoir were discovered two years ago, standing 
upright in a bed of indurated clay, called the “ Warren,” and a notice of them was 
given, by Mr. Binney, at the meeting at Cork. Subsequently, Mr. Binney had ob- 
tained a more complete examination of the first and largest of the trees, anda fourth 
had also been discovered. 


On the Subsidence of the Land at Puzzuoli. By Jamus Suiru, F.G.S. 


When the writer visited the temple of Jupiter Serapis at Puzzuoli, in March 1819, 
its floor was elevated about six inches above the level of the sea; but on the 11th 
of May in the present year, it was covered to the depth of eighteen inches at low 
water, and twenty-eight and a half at high tide; the sea being calm at the time. 
The custode of the building told Mr. Smith that this change was progressive, amount- 
ing to one English inch and a quarter per annum. The cicerone, too, who had ex- 
ercised his profession for thirty years, said he knew a difference of at least three feet 
six inches in the height of the sea upon the piers of the bridge of Caligula, giving 
the same amount of subsidence yearly. There were, besides, many similar proofs in 
the partly submerged houses and causeways of Puzzuoli. The author adds some 
notices of the evidence of both gradual and sudden elevations having at different 
times affected Puzzuoli. 


eh Saar 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53 


On the Methods of Working and Ventilating the Coal-mines of the North of 
“England, with reference to the Accidents that occur in such Mines from the 
“Explosion of Firedamp. By Professor Anstrep, M.A., F.R.S., Vice- 
tel Gray OCs 


\The object of this communication was partly to explain the methods of working 
‘coal adopted in the Newcastle coal-field, and partly to suggest certain methods 
which, in the author’s opinion, were calculated to diminish the risk of accidents 
arising from the explosion of firedamp, without interfering with the ceconomical 
working of the mines. 
In the district in question, the extent of coal worked by one company and from a 
single pair of shafts is very considerable, amounting, in fact, in some cases, to as much 
as 1000 acres. The depth of the sinkings is enormous, being rarely less than 150 
fathoms, and sometimes upwards of 300. The competition amongst the various 
proprietors is very great, and the expense of sinking such deep shafts, often through 
untried ground and with a vast body of water pouring in from quicksands, is so 
enormous, that there seems no hope of adding very considerably to the number of 
the shafts in each mine; ner does the author consider that to increase this number 
beyond certain limits would diminish to any extent the danger of explosion. 
The coal in the north of England and elsewhere is well known to give off during 
working a considerable quantity of light carburetted hydrogen, and occasionally, it is 
supposed, a smal] quantity of olefiant and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and when the 
gases thus given off are mixed with a certain quantity of ordinary atmospheric air, 
they become highly explosive. 
The ordinary processes of ventilation, effected by placing a furnace at the bottom 
of one shaft, or one compartment of a shaft, and thus causing a current of air to 
descend another shaft, and move with a regulated rapidity through all the work- 
ings, were described by the author as sufficient for the carrying off the gases thus 
liberated under ordinary circumstances; but besides these there are occasionally 
met with sudden and violent puffs of gas, called blowers, proceeding either from 
faults or from cavities in the coal, and against them no process of ventilation is a 
sufficient safeguard. Owing also to the nature of the associated strata, and the 
great depth of the workings, it happens that when workings have been carried on to 
any extent under ground, a considerable portion of the district left empty by the 
extraction of the coal is partially filled by the broken roof, which, however, not 
occupying the space entirely, affords cavities, sometimes of great size, into which the 
lighter inflammable gases naturally collect, and there become slowly mixed with at- 
mospheric air. Such cavities therefore are often full of explosive mixture, ready to 
take fire at any instant, and occasionally, owing to a change in the pressure of the 
air, or from other causes, the explosive mixture actually emerges into those pas- 
sages in which open lights are used and causes accidents. Each of these spaces, 
filled with rubbish, and thus forming a magazine of foul air, is called, technically, a 
oaf. 
f Referring to the explanation of the nature and action of the goaf, as given in the 
“Report on the Haswell Explosion’ by Messrs. Lyell and Faraday, the author ex- 
pressed his opinion that in the north of England there is not such a degree of 
regularity in the mechanical limits and condition of this goaf as would admit of any 
separate system of ventilation or gas-draining for such parts of a mine, and he also 
urged that the rise side of the goaf was by no means always the place of danger, or 
the origin of accidents in the greater number of instances, 
__ The author then suggested the following methods to be generally introduced in 
working coal mines :— . 
1. Lhe having at least two shafts in each colliery.—This is absolutely essential, and, 
though generally acted on, requires to be enforced in every instance, since in case of 
an accident in a mine with only a single shaft, it is extremely probable that the par- 
_titions at the bottom will be blown away, and thus all those persons employed in 
_ parts which the explosion has not reached will almost necessarily perish, since the 
_ventilation is instantly stopped by the accident, or only the poisonous air called 
_ ofter-damp circulates through the workings. Besides this there are many accidents 

to which a pit is liable, such as the falling in of brick-work, &c., which, by pre» 


54 REPORT—1845. 


venting the necessary communication, may cause the death of the men under ground 
if there is no way of escape. 

2. The working panels of moderate and regulated dimensions, so that no air-course 
shall be of greater length than a given distance.—It is well known that in the method 
formerly in use of coursing the air through all the main passages of a mine, there 
were often instances in which the air had to pass through from fifty to seventy miles, 
or even more, between the downcast and upcast shafts. Since it has been found 
that the quantity of air introduced by a shaft of given magnitude can be very much 
increased by dividing the underground current into several currents, each taking a 
different direction, the length of the air-courses in well-managed mines has been 
greatly reduced, and is now rarely more than three or four miles. The advantage 
of this is manifest; but although the principle is generally acknowledged, there is 
good reason to believe that many collieries are worked without regard to such im- 
proved methods. Besides the greater quantity of air actually introduced by thus 
splitting the current, the destruction of life consequent upon an explosion may be 
also much diminished thereby, provided the detached portions of work called panels 
are of moderate size, and do not so communicate with one another as to render it 
impossible to escape from any one to the pit bottom without passing through air 
affected by the condition of the rest. 

The author added, with reference to these two methods, that they were already 
adopted to a very great extent in the well-regulated collieries of the Newcastle coal- 
field, and rather needed to be enforced in some cases of exception than be looked 
upon as expressing any new views. 

Passing on then to the case of the great explosion in the Haswell colliery on the 
28th September 1844, the author pointed out that of the whole number of sufferers 
on that occasion, not less than thirty might have been saved had there been a free 
separate communication to the bottom of the downcast shaft from a panel adjoining 
that in which it is presumed the accident happened. Since accidents must happen 
occasionally, it is manifestly extremely important that their fatal results should be as 
far as possible limited to the actual spot in which they occur, and not involve, as 
they have frequently done, the lives of those at work in distant parts of the pit. 
It is therefore proposed that 

3. An air-drift should be cut from each separate panel communicating with the 
bottom of the downeast shaft. ‘The driving a gallery through coal is not looked on as 
any expense in working, since the coal extracted pays for the work done, and this 
method is therefore suggested as a practical, inexpensive, and efficient method of 
avoiding at least some of the fatal results when an explosion does take place. 

But the author does not consider that the working of the pillars and the vicinity of 
the goaf is by any means the most usual cause of such emissions of gas as lead to explo- 
sions, and he quoted the example of a recent explosion in the Killingworth colliery, 
which took place on the 16th of April, as an instance in point. Then, and in many other 
explosions on record, the immediate cause of danger arose from a sudden outburst 
of gas in workings where the coal had only been recently laid bare, and where a small 
fault was met with. These outbursts of gas, called, locally, blowers, are sudden, and 
often instantaneous, giving no warning whatever of their approach, and therefore 
not to be guarded against. The ventilation, as now effected, being generally suf- 
ficient for all purposes, it could not, the author believes, be so far increased as to 
prevent accidents from these eruptions of gas, while, on the contrary, it might happen 
that by a more rapid admixture with pure air and quicker transmission of the explo- 
sive current through a great part of the air-course, greater damage might arise than 
even now, when flame was reached and the gas became fired, In such cases, and in 
all mines where any quantity of gas is expelled by blowers, the author considers that 
there is-only one means of safety to be adopted, namely, 

A. The exclusive use of the Davy lamp in all underground workings in fiery mines. 

“ This is a measure which at present has scarcely been adopted in full in any mine, 
but which is certainly well worthy of consideration. There may be mentioned, I 
am aware, two very different objections to its use, but I have good reason to believe 
that neither of them is very valid, and I am therefore anxious to press most earnestly 
on the consideration of all those engaged in coal-mining operations the importance 
of this plan. It will be said, on one hand, that the expense is too great, and that the men 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55 


object; and, on the other hand, that the Davy is by no means a perfect instrument. 
To the first objection I can refer in reply to the experience of more than one of the 
best-regulated collieries of the north of England, where a vast number of Davys are 
in daily use: about 130 of these instruments being employed in the Wallsend pit, 
and in others a still larger number. The workmen also on the whole prefer to work 
at the same wages with the rest with the comparatively obscure light and the greater 
danger, because the coal is somewhat more tender. To the other objection, that the 
Davy is useless, I can only say, that with regard to all cases of explosive mixture that 
have been fairly met with underground, and all rates of motion hitherto attempted, 
the united experience of wastemen and viewers for the last thirty years cannot but 
be considered of some value, and is unanimously, as far as I can learn, on the side 
of its great practical value. I have trusted my own life to these instruments, and 
would do so again without the slightest hesitation, provided of course that proper 
care is employed. The instrument is simple, easily kept in order, and what is per- 
haps of yet more importance, easily and quickly examined ; and if, as is done in well- 
regulated pits, the gauze of every lamp was examined and locked before being de- 
livered to the men, I cannot believe that an accident could happen except by such 
a falling of the roof as would injure the gauze, and this would also destroy every 
other contrivance hitherto imagined for giving safe light. 

“Tn conclusion, I am anxious to express my own firm conviction that no great im- 
provement can take place in coal-working generally without some external interfe- 
rence. The coal trade is now hardly remunerative; it is a struggle in which every 
one endeavours to bring into the market saleable coal at a low price, and a struggle 
obliging those concerned to compete with the utmost energy. Such a state of things 
is not likely to admit of any great improvement of the kind here advocated, since 
the supply of labour is greater than the demand, and few proprietors will be found 
to risk money where the return is so doubtful. But the interests at stake are not 
only those of monied men ; the lives of thousands and the well-being of the popula- 
tion of large districts are also involved, and it is the duty of government to watch 
over and protect these. This can be done properly only by a most careful super- 
intendence over all those engaged in the employment. It ought to be considered 
absolutely necessary that ventilaticn should be conducted in every individual mine 
on the best principles, and that in each the safety of the pitman should be secured 
by insisting on every reasonable means of preventing accidents being equally adopted 
by all. But this can only be done by the interference of government, and even the 
full necessity of it can only be learnt by a strict and careful investigation, since it 
would be impossible to ascertain otherwise how far the greater number of the col- 
lieries (amounting in the Newcastle district to nearly 200) are properly conducted 
or not. 

* My object has been to show that much may be done by simple, practical and in- 
expensive methods to diminish the loss of life in collieries arising from noxious 

es, Experiments however are still greatly needed, not only in picked mines, where 
the ventilation is as good as under the circumstances it can be, but also in the nu- 
merous other pits little heard of, but still employing an important proportion of the 
whole colliery population. These experiments should be made with a view to the 
solution of various questions not at present fully determined, among which I would 
instance—(1) the actual nature of the gas given off by the ceal where the singing noise 
is chiefly heard ; (2) the real extent to which splitting the air may be carried with a 
view to shortening the air-courses ; (3) the extent of the ventilation at the floor, the 
walls and the roof of a mine when an ordinary current is passing along the middle, 
I mention these, but they are only a few among many points hitherto undecided in 
coal-working, and yet bearing most importantly on the subject of ventilation ; but I 
might greatly extend the list, and I feel quite certain that when the attention of com- 
tent chemists and practical geologists is directed not only to the goaf, which I must 
consider, from documentary evidence, as among the least important subjects of inves- 
tigation, but also to the whole coal when first worked, and the small hitches and faults 
so abundant in every coal-field, there will be accumulated a heap of evidence bearing 
on these points and leading ultimately to some important practical result. At present 
I can only suggest the methods which have struck me as at once reasonable and use- 
ful,—I mean the not working too large an area of coal from one pair of shafts; never 


56 REPORT—1845.. 


working at all with less than a pair; working the panels or districts of coal perfectly 
distinct from one another, and each communicating by its own drift with the upcast ; 
and the working in fiery mines only with the safety-lamp and with no open lights 
whatever. These are all points which are in the strictest sense of the words, practi- 
cal and ceconomical. They would not entirely prevent the occurrence of accidents; 
nor do I believe that any human means can ever do so, for so long-as men ate care- 
less and ignorant, so long will this carelessness and ignorance produce its usual effects ; 
but they would, 1 am convinced, diminish greatly the frequency of accidents, while 
they would diminish also, in some measure, their extent ; and these are certainly 
objects, the attainment of which would be in the highest degree important and 
advantageous.” 


Notice of the Toadstones of Derbyshire. By E. Hatt. 


On the Fossil Bodies regarded by M. Agassiz as the Teeth of a Fish, and 
upon which he has founded his supposed genus Sphenonchus. By Epwarp 
Cuartesworth, £.G.8. 


The object of this communication was to call attention to the history of the fossil 
bodies from the lias and newer secondary rocks, upon the character of which M. 
Agassiz proposes to establish a new genus, under the supposition that they are teeth ; 
but he adduces no facts in support of this view, nor does he attempt to invalidate 
the previously published evidence in favour of their being dermal spines, Mr, 
Charlesworth considers that an Ichthyolite in the possession of Mr. K. T. Higgins of 
Clifton, in addition to other evidence which he has collected upcn the subject, is 
‘conclusive as to the fact of these fossil bodies being spines, and not teeth. 

Mr. Charlesworth then made some observations on the occurrence of otolites in 
the London clay and coralline crag. 


Notice of Fossil Fish from Antigua. By Mr. Turner. 


A method of exhibiting, at one vien, the results of a given Geological Survey. 
By Francis Wuisuaw, Civil Engineer, Secretary of the Society of Arts. 


The author, after noticing Mr. Sopwith’s system of modelling, thus describes his 
own process. The modeller, having before him a plan of the district of country to 
be represented, with all the necessary sections and levels (the plan and sections 
being drawn to suitable scales), provides a base or foundation of wood about three 
quarters of an inch larger all round than the plan of the district to be modelled: 
this foundation must be well-clamped to prevent it from warping. It must then be 
prepared to receive a coating of papier maché, or other suitable material, to be 
moulded into the proper shape, corresponding with the lower stratum or strata to 
be represented in the model. Longitudinal and cross sections, showing accurately 
the strata, having been already prepared, slips of glass are to be provided correspond- 
ing in shape with the various sections, which are to be traced on the glass, painted, 
and burnt in in the usual manner, The various sections of glass are to be let into 
grooves cut in the foundation, and cemented thereto, and the vertical edges of the 
several pieces of glass, when meeting together, are to be cemented by means of 
marine glue. When the vertical glass sections are all fixed in their relative posi- 
tions, it is necessary to provide a lid or cover for the whole, which I have thought 
may also be made of glass, but at any rate wood will answer; if of glass, the surface 
of the country will be made of the same material, the rivers, buildings, &c. being 
coloured and burnt in according to the taste of the modeller ; but if woud is used, it 
must be superposed by papier maché or other suitable material, already used by 
modellers, and the mountainous parts, rivers, churches and other buildings, repre- 
sented in the usual manner. In the lower part of the cover grooves must be formed, 
answering to the different glass sections, so as to cover in the whole in a compact 
form ; ivory or metal scales, to measure distances and depths, will complete the con- 
trivance. 


i 


— 


2 ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57 


Sorte Remarks on the Structure and Relations of Cornulites, and other allied 
eat ~ Silurian Fossils. By J. W. Sater, A.L.S. 


The anomalous nature of the fossils in question having ‘ed to great diversity of 
opinion with regard to their place in the system, the author endeavours to trace out 
their affinity from the internal structure. The Cornulites serpularius, Schl., ranges 
through the Silurian rocks of Gothland, Britain and North America, and is most 
abundant in the Wenlock limestone. Its general form is that of an elongate, knotted, 
thick tube, four or five inches long, appearing like a pile of conical cups, placed one 
in the other, the highest at the small end of the shell. The interior cast has a similar 
appearance. The shells, in the young state, grow in pairs attached to corals and 
other bodies: they are covered with a thin coat, finely striated lengthwise; beneath 
this the edges of the cups or nodes appear covered with concave pits; two or three 
raised lines run along various portions of the inner surface. 

The step-like form of the nodes or varices gives it some resemblance to the stems 
of Crinoidea, to which family Kichwald and Hisinger have referred it; and Dr. Vol- 
borth of Berlin has published a memoir identifying our fossil with the tapering, 
jointed stems of Echinocrinus, which it imitates in form and in the ornamented 
surface. In ordinary testaceous mollusks, the laminz of growth, and consequently 
the varices, are conical, with their bases towards the aperture of the shell, and it is 
the apparently reversed position in this case which appears to have misled naturalists, 
But in truth the growth is not reversed; a longitudinal section shows that at each 
varix the laminz are more distant than on the sides of the cups, and also bullated 
or puckered up, leaving cells in the interstices ; it is just such a form as would result 
from the periodical advances of an animal with a large inversely conical head in its 
shell. The mantle would corrugate in the space left behind it, and the shelly matter 
grow on this as a mould. Instances of this occur in the septa of Cirrus, Serpula? 
polythalamia, and the large interlaminar spaces in the shells of Ostrea, Spondylus, &c. 
Its analogy with corals, to which a most excellent naturalist, J. D.C. Sowerby, has 
referred it with doubt, seems incomplete: if it be regarded as a single polype, there 
are no internal plates or rays, or if the separate cells be those of polypes, they are 
without ostiolz, or if they had them, they must have opened exteriorly, where they 
are covered by a striated film. On the whole, it bears much more analogy to the 
Serpuline, in the attachment of the young shell and its gregarious habits. 

The other group noticed is that of the Tentaculites of Schlotheim, of equal or 
greater range in the Silurian system, and consisting of several species. They have 
many points in common with Cornulites, but their exterior is more symmetrical; a 
section longitudinally will show the thickened and inverted cup-shaped nodes on the 
cast; but the laminz are not undulated at these parts, and the greater thickness there 
is all that indicates a looser texture ; observations with the microscope will determine 
this point. The unjointed tube sufficiently separates them from the Crinoidea, as 
does also their conical terete form. Schlotheim, who first described both them and 
the Cornulites, refers them to that family, supposing they formed a coronet of brachia. 
Goldfuss has also assigned them to Cyathocrinites pinnatus as auxiliary side-arms, 
It is possible they might be straight mollusca like Dentalium, but neither in their ex- 
terior or internal characters do they resemble that genus; and they have so many 
points in‘common with Cornulites, that, if this be accepted as belonging to the Ser- 
pulina, they must be admitted also as free members of the same family. They are 
certainly never attached; and it would be a curious, though not a solitary fact in 
palzontology, that the earliest forms of a genus should exhibit a complex structure, 
and. a variation from the general type of their successors. Systematic zoologists will 
determine whether the structures indicated claim distinction for the Cornulitide as 
a separate family, a subsection of the Serpuling, and whether they should be divided 
into the free and attached groups. 

Notice of some important additions to the Fossils of the Silurian Rocks. 

be By J. W.Satrer, 4.L.8. 


68 REPORT—1845,. 


On the results of recent Researches into the Fossil Insects of the Secondary 
Formations of Britain. By H. E, Srricxtanp, M.d., F.G.S. 


Fossil insects were, till recently, very little known in the secondary rocks of Britain, 
and the only examples were those from the Stonesfield slate, one from the lias, and 
a few from the coal measures. The very large additions to our knowledge of fossil 
entomology, made by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, have been derived from two principal 
grant, the Wealden and the lias. In the Wealden no less than seventy-four insect 

orms have been described and figured by Mr. Westwood from Mr. Brodie’s speci- 
mens. These are generally remarkable for their small size, from which, and frum 
their zoological characters, Mr. Westwcod infers that they belong to a temperate 
climate. The gigantic beetles, locusts and Cicade of our modern tropics are here 
wanting, and the specimens consist, with very few exceptions, of small Curculionidae, 
Tipule, Libellule and Aphides, such as swarm at this moment in European climates. 

This then is a very remarkable fact, when taken in connection with the gigantic 
reptiles and remarkable forms of vegetable life which occur in the Wealden forma- 
tion, and which by analogy we must refer to a tropical climate. We must either 
suppose, what is scarcely conceivable, that insects of European forms could co-exist 
with tree-ferns and other tropical productions, or what is perhaps more probable, 
that the insects ofa cooler climate floated down some vast river into the great Wealden 
zestuary, just as the insects of Upper Canada or the Rocky Mountains might be car- 
ried by the Mississippi, in the present day, into juxtaposition with the alligators and 
palm-trees of the Gulf of Mexico. A similar anomaly is presented by the insects, 
first discovered by Mr. Brodie, and afterwards collected by Mr. Hope, the author, and 
others, in the lower lias of Gloucestershire and the adjacent counties, Of many 
hundred specimens examined by Mr. Westwood, the whole present indications of a 
temperate climate, a conclusion wholly opposed to that which we are accustomed 
to draw from the vertebrate and molluscous fauna of the same epoch. We must 
here, as in the case of the Wealden insects, reconcile this apparent discrepancy by 
supposing that the insects were drifted from cooler climates to the spots where we 
now find them. There are probably no organic bodies of such delicate structures 
which are capable of floating to so great distances as insects ; their extreme lightness, 
and the strong materials of which their corneous parts consist, would enable them to 
float down rivers and to be diffused far and wide over the sea, there to be imbedded 
with truly marine products. In conformity with this view, we find that the insects 
of the Wealden, and still more co of the lias, consist chiefly of Coleoptera and other 
strongly compacted forms, that they most commonly present only detached portions 
of the entire insect, and such portions (chiefly wings and wing-cases) as are the most 
compact and durable. There is therefore no doubt that these insect remains have 
been drifted from the land into the sea, in other words, from higher ground to lower; 
and we have only to suppose that the original habitat of these insects was sufficiently 
elevated to supply them with a cool or temperate climate, and the whole difficulty 
is removed. 

Another very unexpected result of the examination, by a skilful entomolcgist, of 
these fossil insects, is the remarkable affinity which they present to existing forms ; 
even in so ancient a deposit as the lias, we find no insects of decidedly new types of 
organization ; they are in almost every instance referrible to families, and frequently 
to geneta, which belong to the existing fauna. In one instance only has Mr. West- 
wood vetitured to propose a new generic name, and it is remarkable that the pecu- 
liar form so indicated is common both to the Wealden and the lias. It would aps 
peat, therefore, that from the time of the lias to the present day, the class Insecta 
has undergone a far less amount of alteration, either by the extinction of old forms 
or the introduction of new, than any other large group of the animal or vegetable 
kingdom with which we are acquainted. It was indeed well known that the different 
classes of the animal kingdom vary greatly in what we may call their amount of 
durability ; that the higher groups of vertebrata, for instance, present a rapid suc- 
cession of forms as we descend the chronological scale, while certain mollusccus and 
infusorial structures are continued with little or no change during vast geological 
periods; but perhaps there is no other instance of so remarkable a persistency of 
character in a whole class of animals, as that which is presented to us in comparing 
the insects of the lias and Wealden with those of the existing fauna, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59 


On aremarkable Phenomenon presented by the Fossils in the Freshwater Ter- 
tiary of the Island of Cos. By Professor E. Forsss and Lieut. Spratt, R.N. 


In the island of Cos there is an extensive deposit of freshwater tertiary strata, ap- 
parently agreeing in age with the freshwater tertiaries of Lycia, which the authors had 
shown to be of an age subsequent to the miocene, and certainly of older date than the 
newer pliocene period, as these freshwater beds are anterior to and form the uncon- 
formable walls of a well-defined marine formation, containing numerous newer plio- 
cene fossils, In the freshwater strata are found abundant and well-preserved shells 
of the genera Paludina, Neritina, Melanopsis, Melania, Valvataand Unio. Examples 
of the first three of these genera are most numerous, and are found throughout the 


"vertical extent of the formation, distributed in three successive series of horizons, 


a 
pal 


In each of these horizons is a species of Paludina and of Neritina, and in each of the 
two lower ones are two species of Melanopsis. The lowermost species of each genus 
are smooth, those of the centre partially plicated, and those of the upper part 
strongly and regularly ribbed. The forms of the examples of these several genera 
in the several zones are so very distinct and well-marked, that at first examination it 
would appear that each series of horizons was characterized by a Paludina, Neritina 
and Melanopsis of its own and representative of each other. If the species are re- 
garded as distinct, either such conclusion must be come to, involving the supposition 
of a succession of creations and extinctions during the (geologically) short period in 
which the lake existed, or a transmutation of species must be maintained. 

The authors propose the following solution of this geological problem without 
having recourse to such extreme suppositions. In the uppermost part of these beds 
there is evidence of the influx of the sea converting the fresh into brackish water. 
The Cardium edule occurs there. Finding that the smooth shells of several existing 
mollusca under such conditions become distorted and plicated, they are inclined to 
refer the appearances described to such a cause, and to regard these three Paluding 
as one species: so also with the other genera. Referring to the facts made known 
by Mr. Forbes, that races of mollusca cannot remain for more than a limited time 
on the same horizontal area, though they may reappear when the ground is suffi- 
ciently changed, (their embryos, which have been swimming free under a rudimentary 
and pterupodous state, in the meantime developing themselves on the new ground,) 
the authors hold that, by the time the ground was renewed for the development of 
the progeny, of the lowermost of the Paludine for instance, the composition of the 
water had changed so far as to affect, though not destroy, their form during their 
development; and that this was again and still more the case when the germs of 


_ the middle Paludine, &c. assumed the last form under which the several species 


appeared, 


Abstract of a Paper on the Physico-Geographical Description of Mount Etna. 


By Baron von WALTERSHAUSEN. 
Baron von Waltershausen began his researches in the year 1835, accompanied by 


_ Professor Listing of Gottingen, and continued them on his second journey during the 
years 1838 to 1843 with M. Peters of Flensburg and M. Cavallari of Palermo. 
_ The fruits of his labours are in the course of being published under the title, ‘ The 
_ Etna and its Revolutions.’ A large atlas will accompany this work, with an intro-~ 


duction written both in German and French. The principal object will be to give 
an exact representation of the mathematical, physical and geographical relations of 
Mount Etna, including an accurate historical survey of all the different eruptions, 
beginning from the earliest times up to the year 1843, The atlas, engraved by M, 
Cavallari, of which the first section has just been published, will contain a topogra- 
phical and geological map of this volcano on the scale of 1 in 50,000, besides a large 
number of views, sections and other interesting details: The author hopes to be 
able to give a complete theory of the formation of the mountain and the revolutions 
it has undergone in the course of time, and to have arrived, by comparison with other 
voleanoes of Southern Europe (Vesuvius, the Liparian Islands), to results applicable 
to voleanoes in general. It may, perhaps, be stated that in this work, which the 
author considers as the principal labour of his life, the first attempt will be made to 
put the observation of geological phanomena on a mathematical foundation, 


60 REPORT—1845. > 


On the Occurrence of the Mosasaurus in the Essex Chalk, and on the Discovery 
of Flint within the Pulp-cavities of its Teeth. By Epwarp Cuarteswortu, 
F.G.S. ; 


This communication relates to the Saurian teeth figured in the ‘ Odontography’ of 
Professor Owen under the generic name Leiodon, and to a fragment of a jaw of this 
reptile in Mr. Charlesworth’s possession from one of the chalk quarries on the banks 
of the Thames. Mr. Charlesworth contends that there are no grounds to warrant 
the establishment of the genus Leiodon. He refers the teeth described under that 
name to the genus Mosasaurus, and proposes the specific name stenodon (narrow- 
toothed) to distinguish the English fossil from its congener, the Mosasaurus Hoffmanni. 
A section of the jaw made at right angles to its long axis, and through one of the 
conical bases upon which the teeth are implanted, exposed a piece of black flint, 
filling the extension of the pulp-cavity into the substance of the jaw. Two more of 
the pulp-cavities, upon being laid open, exhibited the same phenomenon; in one 
case the flint filling the entire cavity, so as to occupy the hollow of the tooth itself; 
but no deposit of flinty matter had taken place in the bony material of the jaw. 
Mr. Charlesworth considers that the discovery of flint under these remarkable cir- 
cumstances is strong presumptive evidence in favour of its having been deposited 
from an aqueous solution, and is opposed to the respective theories adyanced by M. 
Ehrenberg and Mr. Bowerbank to explain the formation of flints in chalk. 


Notice of the Jaws of an Ichthyosaurus from the Chalk in the neighbourhood 
ris / 4 of Cambridge. By Mr./Carrer. 


The author supposed these remains would constitute a new species, the teeth 
differing in a very remarkable manner from those of any [chthyosaurus which he had 
been able to examine, or of which he could find published descriptions. ‘The dental 
groove of the lower jaw is placed in a different plane from that of the upper, and 
the apposition of the upper and lower ranges of teeth is effected by the roots of the 
lower teeth developing themselves in a curved direction. Considering it probable 
that this peculiarity is characteristic of the species, he proposes to give it the name 
campylodon, from the Greek word kampulos, ‘ bowed or bent.’ 

Mr. Carter has also discovered teeth and vertebrae of the same species in the 
upper greensand near Cambridge. 


On Posidonian Schist amidst Trappean Beds, and on Traces of Drift-ice in 
the South of the Isle of Man. By the Rev. J. G. Cummine, M.A., of © 
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and Vice-Principal of King William's Col- 
lege, Isle of Man. 


The steps of St. Paul’s cathedral, presented by the venerable Bishop Thomas 
Wilson, are the produce of certain quarries at Poolvash in the Isle of Man. 

The bed from which they were taken is an impure schistose black limestcne, cha- 
racterized by very fine and perfect Posidonie. 1t is remarkably interposed between 
beds of regularly stratified trap-tuff, and though the order of superposition shows it 
to be of later date than the light-coloured limestone of Poolvash; in mineralogical 
and paleontological character it presents a return to the lowest limestone of this 
basin. 

The first object of this paper is to trace out the condition of this area at the period 
of this deposit ; and the second, to notice some of the more remarkable changes which 
have since passed over it. : 

The elevation at different periods of the schists and other older rocks which con- 
stitute the mountain-chain of the island, running irregularly nearly north-north-east 
and south-south-west from the Calf of Man to Maughold Head, has formed on the 
south-western side around Castletown a semi-elliptical basin, the extremity of the 
major axis being Coshnahawin in the north-east, and Perwick Bay near Port le 
Murray in the south-west. These schists seem to be lower Silurian, but, containing — 
only a few fucoids (as far as seen hitherto), their exact age is uncertain. q 

Resting unconformably upon them, we have the old red conglomerate, which is — 


Pe ee ee ee ee 


- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61 


never developed to'a thickness greater than fifty feet in the south of theisland. This 
conglomerate ‘seems to pass regularly into the superior dark limestone by a gradual 
abstraction of the larger quartz pebbles and the substitution of a brownish carbona- 
ceous paste in place of the previous ochreous and gritty matrix. The characteristic 
fossils of these lower dark limestones are Orthis Sharpei, Leptena papilionacea, Phillip- 
sia Kellii, a Creseis and Posidonia, with abundance of the larger corals and Producte. 
Some sudden change, however, appears after a time to have taken place in the 
physical condition of the basin, probably by an elevation of the sea-bottom, for the 
dark limestones are at once replaced by a series of light-coloured beds without shale, 
and abundantly charged with fossils which coincide with those of the lower scar 
limestone of Yorkshire, the dark limestone fossils resembling those of the lowest 
Northumbrian shales and of Hook Point in the south of Ireland. These light- 
coloured limestones attain a thickness of rather more than fifty feet. There is evi- 
dence again of another very sudden change having taken place in this area owing to 
a disturbance, accompanied with an outpouring of trap, along a line from the Stack 
of Scarlet to the hill above Balladoole ; and subsequently, for some time, deposits 
of volcanic ash were constantly being accumulated in this area, and along with them 
the regular carboniferous deposits of this period were developed. This formed a 
trappzan limestone; and when at one particular period a quiescence of the volcanic 
eruptions took place, the bed of Posidonia schist which forms the marble quarry at 
Poolvash was deposited. 

Another eruption broke up this bed, carrying along with it fragments which are 
mingled with the trap, so as to form a breccia; and subsequently the whole mass 
appears to have been subjected to considerable heat, and has suffered disturbance, 
being traversed by trap-dykes which intersect the area in directions generally north- 
west and south-east. 

The author then noticed some remarkable bosses on the surface of this area, both 
in Poolvash Bay and elsewhere. The origin of them he attributed to the intrusion 
of trap amidst the old red conglomerate betwixt the schists and the tough lime- 
stones, 

_ He then observed that the greater part of this southern basin of the Isle of Man 
was covered up by masses of boulder-clay and by an accumulation of diluvium ; and 
he proceeded to some notice of the direction in which the materials appear to have . 
been moved into the locality where they now are. He directed attention to two 
slabs obtained from Poolvash Bay and Scarlet strongly marked with parallel groovings 
and scratches, in directions east-north-east and west-south-west, and he accounted 
for them by observing that at the period of this formation the present Isle of Man 


“was divided into three islands, and that most probably, through the channels between 


them, currents would run, as at the present time, between the Calf of Man and the 
main island. Icebergs drifting along through the southern channel, and carrying 
with them hard pebbles and blocks of the harder limestones, in passing over their 
basset edge, which lies to the north-east of Castletown Bay, would score and polish 
every more eminent flat surface exposed in the channel as those at Poolvash and 
Scarlet. The shales would form abundantly the clay of the period. By a compari- 
son of the contained rocks, he showed that the drift-current came from the east- 
north-east ‘and not from the west-south-west. ‘The overspreading diluvium appears 


_ to have come in quite a different direction, viz. from the north-west, bringing down 
_ rolled blocks of granite of South Barrule. It contains also, amongst other travelled 
_ rocks, chalk-flints, which must be referred for their origin to the north of Ireland. 


62 REPORT—1845. — 


ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


On the Scientific Principles on which Classification in the higher Departments 
of Zoology should be based. By Wiu11am Ocitsy, F.L.S. 


Tue dental system was no doubt a valuable means of diagnosis, and this depended 
upon the fact that it had a relation to the stomach, and other viscera intended for the 
digestion of food. Just in the same way, the extremities of the mammalia, more par- 
ticularly the fore-arm, are the exponents of the habits, mental power, and ceconomy 
of animals. The fore-arm is the seat of the function of locomotion, of manipulation 
and touch. According to the real position of an animal in the scale of organization 
will be the character of its fore-arm. This position was illustrated by examples from 
the various families of mammalia. He thought that in our usual systems of zoology 
a too exclusive regard had been given to the structure and form of the teeth, 


On the Fossil Elephantine Animals of India. By Dr. Fatconer. 


In this communication, which was illustrated by diagrams of the crania, the author 
gave the results of the investigations by Captain Cautley and himself regarding the 
fossil Mastodons and Elephants of India, and endeavoured, by a series of teeth sec- 
tions, to show that there was a gradual and continuous passage in the structure of the 
teeth between the Mastodon and the Elephant, the forms which have been included 
under the name of Mastodon Elephantoides by Clift, and an undescribed Indian spe- 
cies, constituting the intermediate links. 


On the Genus Arvicola; on the Libellulidee of Europe ; on Hybrids of the 
Genus Anser. By M. Setys pe Lonecuamps, 


On the Unity of Organization as exhibited in the Skeleton of Animals, 
By Dr, Macponatp. 


All animals, even the simplest, are possessed of a central as well as peripheral or- 
ganism, varying in density as we ascend the scale, and are capable of increase by a 
repetition of segments having the primary elementary characters, As the form be- 
comes lengthened, the central portion also elongates till we have a long axis or central 
stem. This Caulis centralis in the vertebralia is the axis formed by the bodies of the 
vertebrae, which is too often improperly called the backbone. In the vertebralia the 
Caulis centralis has developed on its posterior or neural aspect a lamina on each side 
of the mesian lines, and those in the adult forms of the higher mammals are com- 
pletely ossified together in the spinous process, and also to the bodies of the vertebra. 

The author proposes to distinguish three parts or divisions in each lamina, most 
easily traced in the membranal lamine. 

I. Protomeral.—Single (simplex), orbicular, or when elongated, the shaft having 
convex or round extremities, Brachium, Femur, 

II. Deutomeral_—Generally double (duplex) ; the shaft having concave extremities, 
and its proximal extremity more or less elongated into an olecranon. 

Ill. Zritomeral.—Manifold (multiplex), terminal, orbicular ; as in the carpus and 
tarsus and digital termination. 


Mons. Selys de Longchamps explained in French, at some length, the object which 
the Academy of Brussels had had in view in obtaining accurate dates for the appear- 
ance, pairing, building, &c. of birds, the migration of fishes, the budding, flowering, 
&c, of plants. By connecting these with meteorological phenomena, we might arrive 
at an expression of the cause of the phenomena observed. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63 
| Periodical Birds observed in the Years 1844 and 1845 near Llanrwst, Den- 
bighshire, North Wales. By Joun Buacxwatt, F.L.S. 


Birds. Appeared. Disappeared. 


House Martin, Hirundo urbica ..cccccccececeenees ‘ 
Swallow, Hirundo rustica .......0.s.c00. Rents Tana T EIS y 


Redwing, Turdus iliacus 

Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola 

Mountain Finch, Fringilla montifringilla 
Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris 

Siskin, Fringilla spinus ... 


Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba......c.cccscsseeeeesees 

Sand Martin, Hirundo riparia 

Wheat-ear, Sawicola wnanthe......ccccccccceceves gacues 

Yellow Wren, Sylvia trochilus ......c.ccceeeescsees ves 

Tree Pipit, Anthus arboreus ... .csccsecseseeneeee sacar 

Common Sandpiper, Zofanus hypoleucos 

Swallow, Hirundo rustica .i.cccccccceccccecesecnce acre 

Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus 

Black-cap, Sylvia atricapilla....... by sadseue opeke sata, 

Wood Wren, Sylvia sibilatrix .......- SLigastmlbeeisewa ds 

White-throat, Sylvia cinerea 

Redstart, Sylvia phoenicurus ...c00....s000 

Pied Flycatcher, Muscicapa luctuosa 

House Martin, Airundo urbica ......eeceee 

Whinchat, Savicola rubetra .......5 «+. sassnenag ne Bhar 
_ | Pettychaps, Sylvia hortensis ........+ serdsaaiteasatnras 

Land Rail, Gallinula crex 

Swift, Cypselus murarius 

Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio 

Sedge Warbler, Sylvia phragmitis 

Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa grisola 

Goatsucker, Caprimulgus europaeus ...s.r.s.eeseeeeee 


Ona Gigantic Bird sculptured on the Tomb of an Officer of the Household of 
Bil Pharaoh. By Josrru Bonomi. 
: 


The author having referred to the large nests discovered by Cook and Flinders on 
the coast of New Holland, and to those discovered by Mr. James Burton on the west 
coast of the Red Sea, at Gebel Ezzeit, adds the following remarks :—Among the most 
ancient records of the primeval civilization of the human race that have come down 
to us, there is described, in tHe language the most universally intelligible, a gigantic 
stork bearing, with respect to a man of ordinary dimensions, the proportions exhibited 

in the drawing before you, which is faithfully copied from the criginal document. It 

_ is a bird of white plumage, straight and large beak, long feathers in the tail; the male 

bird has a tuft at the back of the head, and another at the breast: its habits appa- 

_ rently gregarious. ‘This very remarkable painted basso-relievo is seulptured on the 

_ wall, in the tomb of an officer of the household of Pharaoh Shufu (the Suphis of the 
Greeks), a monarch of the fourth dynasty, who reigned over Egypt, while yet a great 

part of the Delta was intersected by lakes overgrown with the papyrus,—while yet 

_ the smaller ramifications of the parent stream were inhabited by the crocodile and 

_ hippopotamus,—while yet, as it would seem, that favoured land had not been visited 

by calamity, nor the arts of peace disturbed by war; so the sculpture in these tombs 

intimate, for there is neither horse nor instrument of war in any one of these tombs. 
_ At that period, the period of the building of the Great Pyramid, which, according to 


cs oss 


64 REPORT—1845.. 05 8" 


some writers on Egyptian matters, was in the year 2100 2.c., which omgood authority 
is the 240th year of the Deluge, this gigantic stork was an inhabitant of the delta or 
its immediate vicinity; for, as these very interesting documents relate, it was occa- 
sionally entrapped by the peasantry of the delta, and brought with other wild animals 
as matters of curiosity to the great landholders or farmers of the products of the Nile, 
—of which circumstance this painted sculpture is a representation, the catching of fish 
and birds, which in these days occupied a large portion of the inhabitants. The birds 
and fish were salted. That this document gives no exaggerated account of the bird 
may be presumed from the just proportion that the quadrupeds, in the same picture, 
bear to the men who are leading them; and, from the absence of any representation 
of these birds in the less ancient monuments of Egypt, it may also be reasonably con- 
jectured they disappeared soon after the period of the erection of these tombs. With 
respect to the relation these facts bear to each other, I beg to remark that the colossal 
nests of Captains Cook and Flinders, and also those of Mr. James Burton, were all on 
the sea-shore, and all of those about an equal distance from the equator. But whe- 
ther the Egyptian birds, as described in those very ancient sculptures, bear any analogy 
to those recorded in the last pages of the great stone-book of nature (the new red 
sandstone formation), or whether they bear analogy to any of the species determined 
by Professor Owen from the New Zealand fossils, [ am not qualified to say, nor is it 
indeed the object of this paper to discuss, the intention of which is rather to bring 
together these facts, and to associate them with that recorded at Gezah, in order to 
call the attention of those who have opportunity of making further research into this 
interesting matter. 


On the Discovery of Guano in the Faroe Islands. 
By W. C. Trevetyan, M.A., F.G.S. 


This guano occurs principally on the shelves, commonly from eight to twenty feet 
wide, which are formed by the disintegration of the softer beds in the lofty precipices, 
often rising to the height of more than 1000, and in one instance above 2000 feet. 
Of such places, sheltered by the projecting rocks above, the sea-fowl take advantage, 
and considerable deposits of guano are found there, often the collection of many years. 
In some instances, when it accumulated so much as, from its slope towards the 
sea, to make an insecure resting-place for the eggs, the Faroese, who did not know its 
value, but to whom the birds, both on account of their feathers and for food, were of 
great importance, shovelled it off into the sea. Now, however, they have learnt at 
least its commercial worth, and collect it carefully,—in many places at considerable 
risk, the collectors being let down by ropes to the ledges, whence they lower the guano 
into boats below. A few tons of it have been exported to Lynn, Norfolk. 


— 


Remarks on Entomology. By J. O. Wxstwoop, F.L.S. 


After shortly noticing the general ceconomy of the hive-bee as to the production of 
queens and the swarming of casts, he contended, from the analogy between the cir- 
cumstances connected with the latter event and those which accompany the swarming 
of ants, gnats, white ants, may-flies, &c.,—1st, that the swarming of insects has for its 
principal object the union of the sexes; 2nd, that, from analogy with other insects 
subject to swarming, it might be inferred that the hive bee does not differ in this re- 
spect from other swarming species; and hence 8rdly, that it is the newly-hatched, and 
not the old queen, which leads off the swarm. 


On Noises produced by one of the Notonectide. 
By Roserr Batt, M.R.1.A. 


Mr. Ball noticed the fact of one of the Notonectide, ( Corixa striata, Curtis,) emitting 
loud and powerful sounds somewhat like those of a cricket. These sounds were given 
out while the animal was about two inches and a half under water, and so loud as to be 
distinctly audible in an adjoining room through the closed door. The first observation 
of this fact was made about two years since by Miss M. Ball, who has since frequently. 
verified the original observation. ' Mr. Ball stated that he had himself heard on the 


= 


. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘65 


15th of June instant this remarkable sound. It is probable the sound is only emitted 
by*the male: it‘has as yet only been heard in the months of May and June. 


On a New Genus of Mollusca Nudibranchiata. 
By Messrs. AupER and Hancock. 


This new genus is founded on the Tritonia arborescens of authors and its allies, 
which are, distinguished from the true Tritoniz (Z. Hombergii, &c.) by the form of 
their tentacula, and the free, arborescent nature of their branchiz. ‘Uhese characters 
alone induced the authors to consider them generically distinct, before they had an 
opportunity of examining their internal structure, in which such important differences 
in the digestive organs were exhibited as to show that this‘new genus, for which the 
name of Dendronotus is proposed, should be removed from the family Tritoniade to 
that of Eolidide, to be placed first in order, as the connecting link between these two 
families. 

The paper was illustrated by drawings from the work by Messrs. Alder and Han- 


— 


- cock on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca, just published by the Ray Society, 


Mr. W. Thompson read a letter from Mr. Alder, dated Salcombe, June 17, 1845, 
in which the writer stated that he had lately obtained in Torbay at least ten, and 
perhaps twelve new species of Mollusca nudibranchiata, to add to the British Fauna, 
They consist of four species of Doris, five or six of Zolis, and an animal of an entirely 
new genus, approaching nearest to 7ritonia. A singular species of mollusk obtained 
at the same time, resembling in general appearance the genus Pelta of Quatrefages, 
was noticed in detail. 


A letter was read by the Secretary from Captain Portlock, replying to the remarks 
made at York by Professor E. Forbes on the results of his dredging at Corfu. The 
account then read he had not wished to be considered a complete report, but as an 
indication of progress. In conclusion, Captain Portlock stated, that ‘in dredging, a 
conclusion from a very limited range of research is as dangerous as similar conclusions 
have been in geological inquiries. For example, a hasty deduction from the appear- 
ance of an animal at a particular depth of water is evidently imperfect, as the nature 
of the bottom and the description of the marine vegetation are more likely to modify 
such appearances, I see, for example, that Professor Bell quotes the discovery of 
Eurynome aspera by Professor Forbes in the deep water of the Egean as a proof that 
the species is essentially a deep-water one, both in the Mediterranean and the Northern 
Seas. Here, however, I have found it just at the verge of the rocks where sea-weeds 
prevail, and therefore in comparatively shallow waters, i. e. from ten to sixteen fathoms. 
Other northern species, such as Ebalia Pennantii, Acheus Crouchii (if I am right in 
my identification of them), I have found under similar circumstances; and I am, 
therefore, the more inclined to ascribe their existence to the local peculiarities of vege- 


_ tation than to the depth.” 


_ Professor Forbes exhibited a specimen of a Medusa, caught by Mr. M‘Andrew, and 
preserved in Goadby’s solution, and pointed out the importance of this means of pre- 
serving those soft animals. We know less of the Medusz than of any other family of 
animals, from the difficulty of preserving them, 


— —— 


On the Marine Fauna of Cornwall. By Cuartzes Wittiam Pracu. 


He introduced Natica intricata of Couch, Anatifa levis, A, suleata, A. fascicularis, 
and Pollicipes scalpellum, observing upon their habits, particularly the latter, showing 
that, notwithstanding it had been considered as solitary, he had found it in bunches 
of twelve or more in all stages of growth, and attached to the stems of the older ones, 
He then presented specimens of the Cineras vittata of Leach, which he took from the 
bottom of a vessel, timber laden, discharging at Plymouth from Africa, and then com- 
mented on the fact, that though this shell was a native of a warm climate, and was 
introduced into this country in the midst of the most severe winter experienced for 


1845. F 


a 


66 REPORT—1845, 


years, it lived and throve well; and he was desirous of recording the fact of the time 
of its introduction, if at any time it should become general on our shores... He ex- 
hibited also what he considered a new dlcyonium, and proceeded to notice the immense 
myriads of Acalephida and purse-like forms which had been so abundant on the coast 
of Cornwall as to discolour the sea for miles. He spoke of the extreme sensibility 
of these animals, their luminosity and habits. There was also a notice of a new 
sponge from Cornwall. The paper was illustrated by specimens and drawings. 


— 


Notice of Additions to the Marine Fauna of Britain, discovered by Robert 
M‘Andrew, Esq. since the last Meeting of the Association. By Prof. 
E. Forsss. 


The animals described in this communication are,—Ist, a new species of Chemnitzia, 
C. rufescens, taken off Arran in from thirty to forty fathoms, and at Oban on sand in 
fifteen fathoms water. It has nine convex whorls, ribbed longitudinally and striated 
spirally ; brown, with darker bands, and white at the base. It measures ths of an 
inch in length. 2nd. The beautiful and curious Pecten pes-felis, hitherto known as 
an inhabitant of the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Mr. M‘Andrew took a small but 
well-marked living specimen in thirty fathoms in Loch Fine. 3rd. The beautiful 
coral named Turbinolia milletiana, hitherto known only as a fossil of the English and 
French miocene tertiaries. A living specimen was taken on sand in thirty fathoms 
on the coast of the Scilly Isles, and a dead one in forty-five fathoms off the Land’s 
End. The beautiful zoophyte Funicularia quadrangularis, first announced as British 
at York last year, has been again taken in the Hebrides, and well-preserved specimens 
above three feet in length were exhibited at the Section. 

A small Rissoa, apparently new, was also laid before the meeting, and is remark- 
able for having been taken in water as deep as 100 fathoms on the west coast of 
Scotland. 


On the Cilia and Ciliary Currents of the Oyster. 
By the Rev. J. B. Reavez, M.A., F.R.S. 


The author stated, that in a microscopic investigation of Infusoria, which had for 
some years occupied his attention, he had been led particularly to notice the beautiful 
contrivance by which many species, when not exerting their powers of locomotion, 
are supplied with food. When they are examined under the microscope by such an 
arrangement of transmitted light as makes the Infusoria luminous points on a per~ 
fectly dark field, it is immediately seen that the action of the cilia attached to their © J 
tentacula produces a strong current in the water, and hereby a countless number of J 
minute living organisms is brought within the influence of the cilia, and a sufficient 
supply is selected for food. Thus, with respect to Infusoria, it is a known fact, that 
the absence of the prehensile organs possessed by larger creatures is compensated by 
this delicate but efficient ciliary apparatus. It is also a fact equally well known, that 
the lips of the oyster, which surround the orifice of the alimentary canal, are, in the 
same manner, fringed with cilia; and that these cilia of the oyster, as of Infusoria, 
equally cause currents in the water. But it has never been suggested and proved by 
any naturalist that the proper office of the cilia of oysters is to bring to these acepha- 
lous mollusks that food which they have no power to follow or to seize. Such, how- 
ever, without doubt, is the case; and, accordingly, an examination of the contents of © 
the stomachs of oysters discovers to us'their infusorial food; and, after undergoing the 
process of digestion in the stomach, the siliceous shields of these Infusoria, deprived 
of their organic and carbonaceous integuments, are ejected as effete matter. Ina 

aper communicated last year to the Microscopical Society of London, on animals of 
the chalk still found in a living state in the stomachs of oysters, these Infusovia were 
described and enumerated. ‘The apparent identity existing between these recent 
living Infusoria and the fossil, makes the inquiry of considerable interest to the geolo- 
gist; for the addition of this connecting link to the chain of organized beings extends — 
a continuous line of the same organic structure from the secondary formation to the 
tertiary, and seems to preclude the supposition, that below the tertiary formation are | 
no recent species. Whether or not this conclusion be admitted, it is a fact, ascers — 
tained by pursuing this inquiry, that the oysters and other bivalves, which are innu-— 


a een 


Cress. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67 


merable in the Kimmeridge clay, lived, like recent oysters, upon Infusoria; and 
consequently the conclusion is unavoidable, that the Kimmeridge clay, like the chalk, 
contains a considerable per-centage of these minute and indestructible bodies which 
the microscope discovers in it, and is not the mere comminuted detritus of more 
ancient and unorganized materials. With these facts established, we may still further 
conclude, from analogy, that a similar ciliary apparatus, and similar infusorial food 
were common to the still earlier bivalves in the seas of the transition formation; and 
we may then ask, What right have we, in the absence of a careful microscopic exami- 
nation of still earlier rocks, to deny the possibility of any portion of their mass being 
due to the agency of siliceous Infusoria? 


On the Distribution of Endemic Plants, more especially those of the British 
Islands, considered with regard to Geological Changes. By Professor E. 
Forses. 


The hypothesis of the descent of all the individuals of a species either from a first 
pair or from a first individual, and the consequent theory of specific centres being 
assumed, the isolation of assemblages of individuals from those centres, and the ex- 
istence of endemic or very local plants, remain to be accounted for. Natural trans- 
port, the agency of the sea, rivers and winds, and carriage by animals, or through 
the agency of man, are means, in the majority of cases, insufficient. It is usual to 
say, that the. presence of many plants is determined by soil or climate, as the case 
may be; but if such plants be found in areas disconnected from their centres by con- 
siderable intervals, some other cause than the mere influence of soil or climate must 
be sought to account for their presence. This cause the author proposes to seek in 
an ancient connexion of the outposts or isolated areas with the original centres, and 
the subsequent isolation of the former through geological changes and events, espe- 
cially those dependent on the elevation and depression of land. Selecting the flora 
of the British Isles for a first illustration of this view, Professor Forbes calls atten- 
tion to the fact, well-known to botanists, of certain species of flowering plants being 
found indigenous in portions of that area at a great distance from the nearest assem- 
‘blage of individuals of the same species in countries beyond it. Thus many plants 
peculiar in the British flora to the west of Ireland have the nearest portion of their 
specific centres in the north-west of Spain; others, confined with us to the south-west 
promontory of England, are, beyond our shores, found in the Channel Isles and the 
opposite coast of France; the vegetation of the south-east of England is that of the 
opposite part of the continent; and the alpine vegetation of Wales and the Scottish 
‘highlands is intimately related to that of the Norwegian Alps. The great mass of the 
British flora has its most intimate relations with that of western Germany. The vege- 
tation of the British Islands may be said to be composed of five floras :—Ist, a west 
Pyrenean, confined to the west of Ireland, and mostly to the mountains of that district; 
2nd, a flora related to that of the south-west of France, extending from the Channel, 
Isles, across Devon and Cornwall, to the south-east and part of the south-west of Ireland; 
3rd, a flora ‘common to the north of France and south-east of England, and especially 
developed in the chalk districts; 4th, an Alpine flora, developed in the mountains of 
Wales, north of England and Scotland; and 5th, a Germanic flora, extending over. 
the greater part of Great Britain and Ireland, mingling with the other floras, and 
‘diminishing, though slightly, as we proceed westwards, indicating its easterly origin and 
‘relation to the characteristic flora of northern and western Germany. Interspersed 
‘among the members of the last-named flora, are a very few specific centres peculiar to 
the British Isles. The author numbers these floras according to magnitude as to 


_ species, and also, in his opinion, according to their relative age and periods of intro- 


duction into the area of the British Islands. His conclusions on this point are the 


following :-— 


//1. The oldest of the floras now composing the vegetation of the British Isles is that 


_ of the mountains of the west of Ireland. ‘Though an alpine flora, it is southernmost 


‘in character, and quite distinct as a system from the floras of the Scottish and Welsl 


_ alps. Its very southern character, its limitation, and its extreme isolation are evi= 


-dences of its antiquity, pointing to a period when a great mountain barrier extended 


across the mouth ofthe Bay of Biscay from Spain to Ireland. ‘ 


EQ 


68 - - REPORT—1845. 


2. The distribution of the second flora, next in point of probable date, depended 
on the extension of a barrier, the traces of which still remain, from the west of France 
to the south-west of Britain, and thence to Ireland. 

3. The distribution of the third flora depended on the connexion of the coasts of 
France and England towards the eastern part of the Channel. Of the former exist- 
ence of this union no geologist doubts. 

4, The distribution of the fourth, or alpine flora of Scotland and Wales, was ef- 
fected during the glacial period, when the mountain summits of Britain were low 
islands, or members of chains of islands, extending to the area of Norway through a 
glacial sea, and clothed with an arctic vegetation, which, in the gradual upheaval of 
the land and consequent change of climate, became limited to the summits of the 
new-formed and still existing mountains. 

5, The distribution of the fifth, or Germanic flora, depended on the upheaval of 
the bed of the glacial sea, and the consequent connexion of Ireland with England, 
and of England with Germany, by great plains, the fragments of which still exist, 
and upon which lived the great elk and other quadrupeds now extinct. 

The breaking up or submergence of the first barrier led to the destruction of the 
second; that of the second to that of the third; but the well-marked epoch of the 
Germanic flora indicates the subsequent formation of the Straits of Dover and of the 
Trish Sea, as now existing. 

To determine the probable geological epoch of the first or west-Irish flora,—a frag- 
ment perhaps with that of north-western Spain, of the vegetation of the true Atlantic, 
—we must seek among fossil plants for a starting-point in time. This we get in the 
flora of the London clay or eocene, which is tropical in character, and far anterior to 
the oldest of the existing floras. The geographical relations of the miocene sea, indi- 
cated by the fossils of the coralline crag, give an afterdate certainly to the second and 
third of the above floras, if not to the first. The epoch of the red or middle crag was 
probably coeval with the incoming of the second flora; that of the mammaliferous 
crag with the third. The date of the fourth is too evident to be questioned ; and the 
author regards the glacial region in which it flourished as a local climate, of which no 
true traces, so far as animal life is concerned, exist southwards of the second and third 
barriers. This was the newer pliocene epoch. The period of the fifth flora was that 
of the post-tertiary, when the present aspect of things was organized. 

Adopting such a view of the relations of these floras in time, the greatest difficul- 
ties in the way of changes of the earth’s surface and destruction of barriers—deep sea 
being now found where land (probably high land) was—are removed when we find that 
those greater changes must have happened during the epoch immediately subsequent 
to the miocene period; for we have undoubted evidence that elsewhere, during that 
epoch, the miocene sea-bed was raised 6000 feet in the chain of the Taurus, and the 
barriers forming the westward boundary of the Asiatic eocene lakes so completely 
annihilated, that a sea several hundred fathoms deep now replaces them. The 
changes required for the events which the author would connect with the peculiar 
distribution of the British flora need not have been greater than these. 

Prof. Forbes maintains that the peculiar distribution of endemic animals, especially 
of the terrestrial mollusca, bears him out in these views. He proposes to pursue the 
subject in detail, with reference both to animal and vegetable life, in connexion with 
the researches of the geological survey. 


On the Development of Vegetable Cells. By A. Henrrey, F.L.S. 


After noticing the opinions of MM. Mirbel, Schleiden, Mohl and Nageli, he stated 
the conclusions to which he had been conducted by observations, viz.—1. That there 
is no such thing as the interruption of continuity between the liber and alburnum, 
called the cambium layer. 2. That the potentiality of the black granules described 
by Schleiden is not proved, and that the utricle first developed from the so-called 
cytoblast is not the permanent cell, but the primordial utricle of Mohl, the existence 
of which in growing tissues seems to be universal. 3. That this primordial utricle is 
not a layer of mucilage, as stated by Nageli, but a true membrane. The author re- 
gards the nucleolus, or central spot of Schleiden’s cytoblast, as the germinal point, and 
as situated on the wall of the primordial utricle. When a new cell is to be formed 


' 
» 


E>. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69 


the, nucleolus, divides into two, and a corresponding construction of the primordial 
utvicle'takes place until:it separates into two, a layer of permanent cell-wall substance 
being, meanwhile, secreted in this fold from the circumference to the centre, till a 
complete septum is formed. | The lateral walls grow by extension, being moulded on 
the growing primordial utricle within them. In the nascent cell, the primordial utricle 
is filled with granular matter, which, during the subsequent growth of the cell, re- 
Mains aggregated round the nucleolus, and thus gives rise to the appearances whence 
Schleiden derived his theory of development from a cytoblast. 


On the Influence of Galvanic Electricity on the Germination of Seeds. 
By Professor E. Soury, F.R.S. 


He commenced by describing the old experiments of Sir H. Davy, in which seeds 
placed in the vicinity of the positive pole of a voltaic pile, germinated sooner than 
those near the negative pole, an effect which might be attributed to the oxygen evolved 
at the positive pole, which of course would accelerate germination, whilst the hydrogen 
set free at the negative extremity would retard it.» These experiments did not in any 
way prove that germination was stimulated by electricity; but judging from the known 
powers of electricity, it would be reasonable to expect that like light and heat, it would 
exert marked influence on the growth of vegetables, in fact, act as a stimulus. 

In a series of experiments, in which the seeds of barley, wheat, rye, turnips and 
radish were exposed to the influence of a feeble current of electricity, the plants came 
up sooner and were healthier than others that had not been electrified. On the other 
hand, a number of experiments on other seeds had given opposite results, proving 
either that the germination of some seeds was retarded whilst that of others was 
facilitated by electricity, or that the effects observed in both cases were accidental. 
Out of a series of fifty-five experiments on different seeds, twenty appeared in 
favour of electricity, ten against it, and twenty-five showed no effect whatever; and 
in carefully counting the whole number of seeds up in the entire series, there were 
found-1250 of the electrified, and 1253 of the non-electrified. In conclusion, Prof. 
Solly stated that he felt doubtful whether the effects observed were really due to the 
influence of electricity. 


On the Germination of Plants. By Evwiy Lanxester, M.D., F.R.S. 


The phenomena that take place during what is called germination, are,—1, ab- 
sorption of oxygen from the atmosphere; 2, a disengagement of carbonic acid; 3, 
a disengagement of ammonia; 4, conversion of starch into dextrine, gum, sugar, &c.; 
5, increase in bulk—growth of the embryo. The most commonly adopted theory of 
germination explained the above phenomena, as being necessarily connected with the 
last fact mentioned in the above series, the growth of the embryo. It was in fact sup- 

osed that the absorption of oxygen and the disengagement of carbonic acid gas was 
an act of life, a necessary process of the act of germination, and germination and 
vegetation were regarded as antagonising processes, the one being an oxidating, the 
other a deoxidating process, whilst the albumen was regarded as a sole source of 
nourishment; the author proposed to regard the phenomena of germination differ- 
ently. It is obvious that the only essential process of germination is the growth of 
the young plant or embryo. The process of development of the embryo from primi- 
tive cytoblasts developing its tissues, is precisely the same as that of every other part 
of the plant, and from an identity of structure, an identity of function might be in- 
ferred. But the ordinary theory of germination gave a different function to the 


 tissues'of the embryo. The author considered this unnecessary. He believed that 


Q 


__ the absorption of oxygen, the disengagement of carbonic acid gas and ammonia arose 


entirely from the decomposition of the starch and protein contained in the albumen or 
‘perisperm of the seed, and that the growing cells of the embryo appropriated the 
‘carbonic acid and ammonia with water, just in the same way as all other cells in the 
vegetable kingdom, This theory he conceived was not only more consistent with the 
phenomena of germination observed in plants containing large quantities of starch 
in their perisperm, but also consistent with a large class of facts which were opposed 
‘to the ordinary view, of which the following were brought forward :—1l, In many 
‘plants no perisperm was developed, and the conditions required for germination were 


70 REPORT—1845. 


precisely those for vegetation, 2. Many plants with hard perisperms, as the Phyte- 
lephas macrocarpa, the Phoenix dactylifera, and species of Bactris, Cocos and Astro- 
caryum, germinate without consuming any appreciable quantity of tbe perisperm. 
3. The quantity of carbonic acid obtained by Saussure varied not according to the 
number, but according to the mass of the seeds, proving that it arose from the decom- 
position of the starch as a chemical process, and not from the growth of the embryo 
as a process of life, 4. De Saussure found that the relation between the oxygen con- 
sumed and the carbonic acid gas given out, was different in different plants for the 
same quantity of the latter, which ought to be constant if the theory of oxidation or 
combustion during germination be true. 5, Boussingault found that the changes 
supposed to be peculiar to germination went on in the perisperm after the young 
plant had developed its radicle and plumule, and was capable of an independent exist- 
ence. 6. The changes which take place in the chemical composition of the perisperm 
of the seed during germination can be artificially produced by mixing starch, diastase, 
&c. together and exposing them to the action of the atmosphere. This theory modi- 
fies the view of the use of the albumen or perisperm. It is not deposited essentially 
for the nourishment of the young plant. In some cases it is an organ of support, and 
bears the same relation to the embryo as the wood of a branch to the buds upon it. 
Viewing it morphologically, it might be considered the analogue of the tegmenta of 
the buds; as they consisted of aborted leaves, so the albumen or perisperm consisted 
of embryos aborted in their earliest stages of development. 


On the Phytelephas Macrocarpa (Vegetable Ivory or Tagua Plant). 
By E. Lanxester, M.D., F.R.S, 


The author brought this plant under the notice of the Section, as he was enabled 
to present a drawing of a young plant, which was now growing in the garden of 
Messrs. Loddiges of Hackney. A fruit also of this plant existed in the British Mu- 
seum, of which a drawing was exhibited. This plant had been placed in the natural 
order Typhine by Bonpland and Humboldt; with Pandanee by Brown; with Cy- 
clanthacee by Lindley. The fruit is of the size of a man’s head, and the tree is called 
by the Spaniards Negro-head. A remarkable point in the ceconomy of this plant 
was, that the horny albumen of the seed appeared to undergo no change during 
the process of germination. In the plant at Loddiges’, which was now five years old, 
the seed still remained on the surface of the soil, apparently as hard as ever, In 
germination, the young embryo was carried down by a rhizoma an inch or more Jong 
into the earth, and commenced growing at that point. 

The perisperms of other palms, as the species of Bactris, of Cocos, and of the 
Phenix dactylifera, also undergo but little change during germination. The peri- 
sperm of a species of Astrocaryum in British Guiana is stated by Sir Robert Schom- 
burgk to be as hard as that of Phytelephas. The structure of the tissue of the seed 
is remarkable. The walls of the cells are very thick, and in their early stages porous ; 
the pores between the cells are at last closed, and the pores form club-shaped cavities 
leading out of the cells. Cooper, in his illustration of the microscopic structure of 
these cells, has drawn a line running between these club-shaped cayities, but this arises 
from a tube lying underneath, and has no connection with the termination of the 
pores, The cells by the resorption of their walls become converted into tubes, , The 
tubes under the microscope appear to contain globules of oil, Chemical analyses of 
the seeds had been made by Payen, Connell and Baumhauer. A more accurate ana- 
lysis was made, at the author’s request, by Dr. Percy of Birmingham. The result of 
this analysis was as follows :— 

Carbon, ressecrrerevevcensceseenss 4439 
Hydrogen ..jesesserererereeees 6°63 
Oxygen srerercenssntepercsreeee FCO 
NIGVOGON sali rvasdechsosarannes cits cle 

100-00 

In drying 12-64 per cent. of water was dissipated. The ash contained sulphuric, 
hydrochloric, phosphoric and carbonic acids in combination with potassa, lime and 
oxide of iron. The phosphoric acid was partly combined with the potassa. The iron 
was probably introduced in filing the perisperm for chemical examination. 


_ 


ee ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71 


yo 6) Deseription of the Murichi, or Ita Palm, of Guiana. 


vate! By Sir R. ScuomsBurex. 


_The author referred to the early accounts which naturalists in Europe received of 
this beautiful palm, of which Sir Walter Raleigh appears to have brought the first 
fruits to Europe. Clusius, in his ‘ Exotic Flora,’ describes it as “ fructus elegantissi- 
mus squamosus. similis palme-pini,” and Father Gumilla, Gili, and the older au- 
thors on Guiana extol it in consequence of the various uses the aborigines of Guiana 
make of it. It serves at different stages of its growth as a vegetable and furnishes a 
cabbage equal to the Palmetto; at the maturity of its fruits, they are eaten as well in 
their natural state as prepared into a drink, which, when drunk copiously, proves ine- 
briating. It is remarkable, that when much use is made of the fruit it communicates 
to the linen a yellow colour after perspiration. The trunk is tapped and a fluid flows 
from it which possesses much saccharine matter. Of the greatest delicacy however 
is the saccharine liquor extracted from the unexpanded flower, which affords a liquor 
resembling champagne in its briskness. The Indians prepare from the pith of its 
trunk a flour resembling that of the Sagas farinifera, which the Warrau Indians call 
Ari*. Mixed as a pap, it is considered to be an excellent remedy for dysentery. 
The fan-shaped leaves are used as a thatch for covering houses, and the stump of 
one of those leaves serves as a broom to sweep them with. The Indians of the Savan- 
nalis and mountainous tracts use the base of the half-sheathing leaves for the pre- 
pavation of sandals. The midribs of the young branches are cut in thin slices, and 
after having been dried they are connected together with withes, and serve as a sail 
for the Indian's canoe or as a mat to sleep upon. They are used by the travelling 
entomologist as a substitute for cork to fix insects upon, or to those who are provided. 
with strong beards as razor-strops. Of the greatest use are however the fibres of the 
young leaves, which are manufactured into thread and ropes, and they are of such a 
tenacity that the greater number of Indian tribes fabricate their beds and hammocks 
ofthem. The inhabitants of the Rio Negro make a trade of it, and a fine hammock is 
sold trom ten to twelve milreis. Even in its decay the mauritia is of use, and affords a 
delicacy to the Indians, which likewise many colonists do not refuse, namely, the 
Jarvee of a large beetle; the Curculio palmarum is found in large numbers in the pith 
when the trunk is near its decay, and, when boiled or roasted, resembles in taste 
beef-marrow. ’ 

This useful tree, which extends from the Llanos of Cumana to the western tributa- 
ries of the Rio Negro and the mouth of the Amazon, or over an area of 550,000 square 
miles, was appropriately called by Father Gumilla arbol de la vida, the tree of life; 
and it is related at the Orinoco, that oneof the kings of Spain hearing of this won- 
drous tree, which at once furnished bed, bread and wine, attempted its introduction 
into the mother country. The author wished to correct finally those who have writ- 
ten on this tree in two points. It is, first, described as a tree scarcely thirty feet 
high, while it reaches sometimes a height of’ 120 feet, and its average size in Guiana 
is not less than fifty feet; and next to this it is asserted, that they are not to be found 
at a greater height than 800 feet, while the author has met them in numerous groups 
and of a luxuriant growth at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet above the sea, growing 
as usual in groups and in swampy soil. 


Deseription of the Fruit of some of the Hepatice. By Professor Atrman. 


In this communication the author demonstrated the existence in the sporangia of 
Marchantia and Jungermannia of precisely the same form of fibro-cellular tissue which 
is found ‘in the lining membrane of the anthers of flowering plants. This structure 
he believed to constitute a beautiful hygroscopic apparatus, through whose agency the 
dehiscence of the fruit is effected. ' 

Prof, Allman observed, that in Warchantia conica, at the period of maturation, the 
pedicel of the sporangium becomes suddenly increased in size, being all at once 
gorged with juices, and by acting against the top of the receptacle, forces the sporan- 

ium through the margin of this latter structure, and thus brings the peculiar tissue 


of which it is composed into a condition which enables it to be acted on by the hy- 


* The flour which they procure from the arrow-root is called Ari-ard, and our denomi- 
nation arrow-root is most likely derived from the Indian word. 


72 a REPORT-—1845. 


groscopic powers of the atmosphere, when dehiscence immediately takes:placevand 
allows of the escape of the spores and elaters. The origin of the elaters Dr. Allman 
was inclined to refer to a metamorphosis of certain cells of the same nature as those 
which constituted the walls of the sporangium. 


On a Monstrosity occurring in Saxifraga Geum. 
By Professor Atuman, M.R.L.A. 


This monstrosity was discovered by William Andrews, Esq., on the mountains of 
Kerry, about three years ago. Mr. Andrews has cultivated it in his garden, and finds 
its characters remarkably persistent, remaining from year to year in the same plant, 
and being even capable of perpetuation by seed. 

The three external verticels are normal, but between the stamens and pistil there 
is developed a series of adventitious carpels crowded upon the margin of a cup-like 
production which surrounds the lower half of the pistil. 

These adventitious carpels are characterized by the anomalous fact of having their 
backs turned towards the axis of the flower. They bear numerous ovules, which, as 
the margins of the carpels never unite, are always exposed, and present the appear- 
ance of a gland-like ring surrounding the pistil. The ovules belonging to the adven~ 
titious carpels acquire a very considerable degree of development, becoming com- 
pletely anatropous like those contained within the normal ovary, and a distinct primine, 
secundine and nucleus, with a well-marked vascular raphe, can plainly be seen. 

Dr. Allman explained the singular character of this monstrosity by supposing the 
existence of a series of secondary axes which are given off in a whorl between the 
stamens and the primary axis of the flower. These secondary axes terminate each in 
its flower, which however is reduced nearly to the lowest possible condition of deve- 
lopment, the three outer whorls being absent, and all those pistillary carpels which 
would, if present, have their faces turned to the primary axis, being also in a state of 
complete abortion. The secondary axes then adhere with each other and with the 
normal pistil, so as to form the cup just described, and the existing carpels of the 
secondary axes necessary have their backs turned to the normal pistil, being refer- 
able to these axes and not to the primary axis of the flower. 


Professor Henslow exhibited a specimen of Papaver orientale, in which the fila- 
ments of the stamens were converted into bodies bearing ovules. 


On Practical Means for the Advancement of Systematic Botany. 
By J. Bart, M.R.LA. 


In the present state of systematic botany we require more accurate and extensive 
observations and experiments with respect to the variations of the forms of plants than 
have yet been made, and that the forms of descriptive botany should be modified so 
as to exhibit the whole of the forms contained in the larger groups and their mutual 
relations in a more philosophical manner. 

The great impediment to the progress of natural history has been the want of union 
between observers and thinkers, those who study the details of the science and those 
who speculate on its general aspects and theory; in order to facilitate and forward 
their union, it seems desirable that botanists of both classes should agree upon a well- 
considered series of observations and experiments which should be conducted in a 
public botanic garden, where the requisite precautions as to securing the accurate ob- 
servance of the conditions agreed upon, the preservation of specimens, and the keep- 
ing a proper register, might be adopted and enforced; and, finally, where the expe- 
riments would not be exposed to the interruptions and other accidents which threaten 
individual observers. 

If, for instance, two groups of plants were selected, in one of which the individual 
forms approximate very nearly to each other, and in the other the species appear well- 
characterised by constant characters, and a number of individuals of each of a series 
of forms were exposed to the action of all the causes which we know to be capable of 
modifying the development of vegetable form, the best means being taken for isolating 


a 


A a gr ee 


) 
i 
4 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73 


the action of each of these causes, so that it may be compared with that of the ordi- 
nary: action of the causes influencing the plant in its natural condition, if this process 
were repeated: upon the progeny of the original plants, and upon their offspring in 
continued succession, so as to imitate as far as we can the actual influences which take 
effect in nature, and the whole series of experiments were continued for a long period ; 
twenty, thirty, perhaps fifty years would scarce be sufficient; then, I think, those who 
shall succeed us, to whom we bequeathe the results, will be enabled far more safely 
than we can to establish a theory as to the nature of the relations of individual forms 
amongst plants. 

Even those who conceive the hypothesis of the descent of all the individuals of a 
species from a common original to be an essential point in natural history, cannot 
afford to dispense with such a course of inquiry ; for admitting the hypothesis, there is 
yet no practical test afforded by which to recognise the members of the species in 
groups where these are subject to great variation, nor can such a test be supplied in 
any other manner. Still more, those who believe it to be unphilosophical and in no 
way necessary to assume the truth of an hypothesis supported merely as the one in 
question is by @ priori considerations, whatever probability we may choose to assign 
to it, will desire that a body of facts bearing so directly on the question should here- 
after be forthcoming. 

It might also be desirable that a few members of the Section should associate for 
the purpose of collecting and arranging such well-established facts respecting the va- 
Fiations of plants as observed either in the natural state or in cultivation, as now lie 
scattered through botanical works, or may hereafter be supplied by observers, with a 
view to illustrating the value of specific characters in various groups. 

As to the modifications proposed in the forms of descriptive botany, it appears to 
ine that it should be an essential point in the character of a genus to assign, not merely 
the points of structure in which all the species of the genus agree, but also those which, 
varying from one species to another within the genus, yet remain constant throughout 
the subordinate varieties of these species, thus supplying what we call the specific 
characters within the group. An attempt of this kind, however imperfect, would at 
once ensure an accumulation of important facts, and by embodying these into our 
systematic arrangement, would prepare the way for important generalisations. An 
immediate result would be, that we should hereafter less frequently find one supposed 
species of a genus rejected because its characters had been proved to be variable, while 
another species of the same genus is admitted, though possessing exactly the same and 
no better distinctive characters. 

The other modification which I propose has a similar tendency with the last. It 
will not be considered improbable to assert as I do, from the study of several com- 
plicated groups, that in species of the same genus, the varieties of any single species, 
considered as diverging from a common typical form, recur in a similar cycle through- 
out all the species of that genus; and if, as is usual, we indicate varieties by letters of 
the alphabet, it seems natural to ask, that in describing a given group, the same letter 
should always indicate the same corresponding variety, each letter receiving from the 
first a fixed signification. I am inclined to go one step further than this. It is now 
admitted that there are two very distinct classes of varieties; the first, properly so 
called, represent the initial variations produced by modifying causes; they appear 
amongst the offspring of one parent plant, and usually return to the primary form as 
soon as the modifying action ceases, either in their own persons or in those of their 
descendants; the second, conveniently named sub-species, are permanent, and only 
after several successive generations do they return to the typical form, if indeed they 


_ be capable of so returning, which is scarcely yet established. Now, I assert, there is 


evidence to show that if we take the cycle of varieties displayed amongst the offspring 
of the original or typical plant, we shall find a cycle of sub-species, sometimes of course 
incomplete, exhibiting the same tendencies to variation of form in a more marked 


‘manner, while in each sub-species the same cycle of varieties is again repeated. Now 


if it be admitted that this law may hold good throughout, there will be no objection 
to designating the varieties each successively by a small letter, and each correspond- 
ing sub-species by a large letter of the same kind. It is needless to point out how a 
range of facts would thus be admitted into our systematic arrangements. 


errs 
Gassis 
~ 


44 siti REPORT—1845. 


Onthe Specifie Characters of Plants, considered in Morphological Connewion. 
By J. Bart, M.RIA. 


Bearing in mind the two fundamental principles of the unity of primitive structure 
throughout all the organs of vegetation, and on the other hand, the connexion be- 
tween function and structure, as the latter is actually modified in nature, it has ever 
appeared to me a highly probable if not necessary conclusion, that where, in exami- 
ning a group of vegetable forms, we find in proceeding from one individual to another 
differences of structure in various organs, these varieties are mutually connected to- 
gether by fixed laws, so that a variation in one organ shall invariably accompany the 
variation of another, not by a mere accidental relation, but one which we may hope 
to trace and to establish. The main difficulty of introducing into botany this method, 
which has been so successfully employed in comparative anatomy by paleontologists, 
is, that the latter have been guided and directed by a knowledge of the functions of the 
seyeral organs whose’ structural relations they would discover, while in botany, where 
we have so slight a knowledge of the special functions of the various appendages, we 
must, if we would at all ascertain their structural relations, seek them in a careful induc- 
tion from an extensive series of observations ; thus only may we hope to reconstruct a - 
lost plant from some single leaf or portion of its inflorescence. The first step will na- 
turally be made in finding the relations between those organs in which the primary 
function has been the least altered, as between the leaf, the bracts, sepals or corolla, 
rather than with those of the stamens or pericarp, where the primitive organ has been 
altogether metamorphosed for the purpose of fulfilling a completely different purpose 
in the vegetable economy. Accordingly we do in fact find in many natural orders 
examples of this law. I might derive some illustrations from the Composite, but for 
the present shall only refer to a small group of Graminez, the whole of which order 
is well-adapted for this purpose. 

The group in question contains three European species of Polypogon, namely, 
P, monspeliensis, Dsf,, P, maritimus, R. & S,, and P. subspathaceus, Lois., in which the 
accordance between the variations of the leaf with unrolled sheath and those of the 
exterior glume is very remarkable. 


On the Geographical Distribution of Plants in British India 
By Dr, Royuz. : 

This paper contained an outline of the varied vegetation of India, occupying, as it 
does, almost the extremes of heat and cold, as well as those of dryness and moisture, 
The materials of this paper were chiefly supplied from the author's own observations. 
The number of species in India he estimated at 10,000, belonging to 200 families. 
The latter part of the paper was occupied with a description of the vegetation of the 
lakes. Plants are in them excessively abundant, and eventually fill them up with 
their debris. The author thought that the deposits of vegetable matter in these lakes 
threw much light on the formation of coal. 


Notes on the Irish Species of Robertsonian Sazifrages. 
By Professor ANDREWS. 


_ The author having studied the Irish Saxifrages, and compared them with those of 
the Pyrenees, had come to a different conclusion from Mr, Babington, and believed 
that there were only two true species in Jreland, the Saxifraga umbrosa and the S. 
Geum, ‘The other species described by Mr, Babington in his ‘ Manual,’ he regarded 
as varieties of one or other of these forms, ’ 


Capt, L. L, Y. S. Ibbetson exhibited a collection of electrotyped plants. Most of 
the specimens belonged to the family Orchidaceae, but there were many specimens of 
other plants, and some fungi, with their forms beautifully preserved. 

The process by which they were prepared was the ordinary electrotyping process ; 
but various expedients were had recourse to, according to the nature of the plant. 
Some difficulty was experienced in sinking the plant in the solution of copper. This 
was always least in plants which were brought from hot-houses. The parts of the 
plants on the surface were perfectly preserved, and many of them retained their 
specific characters, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75 


© On the Increase of the Ergot upon Grasses. By R.G. Larnam, M.D. 


The increase of the Ergot upon grasses is real; not merely apparent, and referable 
fo a greater amount of observations. Eight years ago, having found a single specimen 
upon the Alopecurus pratensis, the author sought for it carefully, autumn after autumn, 
but in vain, until 1842, Since then it has been abundant; being found on a variety 
of species, and over large areas. Of the eighteen species on which he has found it, 
it is commonest on the Lolium perenne, rarest on the Hordeum murinum, It was 
found last year for the first time on a water-grass, viz. the Glycerium fluitans, The 
Phieums and Fescues are very subject to it; so is the Dactylis glomerata; in other 
words, some’ of the best pasture grasses. The Cynosurus cristatus is remarkably free 
from it. aS BERGA 

On the Turf of the Cambridgeshire Fens. 
By the Rev. L. Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 

The remarks made by the author in this communication related principally to the 
fens in the neighbourhood of Swaffham Bulbeck, and to Iselham fen. It was stated 
that the Cambridgeshire turf was not formed of Sphagnum, like the peat found in 
many of the mosses in England and Scotland, but owed its origin to decomposed 
aquatic plants of yarious species associated with the remains of trees. This circum- 
stance appears to have given rise to two kinds of turf, which are distinguished by the 
Ba geers in the above districts by the names of ypper and lower, ‘The upper turf 
is much more compact and heavy than the lower, and generally of a darker colour, 
though sometimes with a peculiar reddish tinge: this is the best turf for common 
fires, and burns to a white ash, The lower turf is lighter and lighter-coloured, and 
its texture becomes more loose and spongy the lower it is dug: this is the best for 
ovens (though now the only turf used in some places from the scarcity of the other 
kind), and burns toa red ash, These two kinds of turf appear to pass gradually one 
into the other, the lower consisting almost entirely of the bark, wood, roots, and 
branches of former forests, above which the upper has been formed afterwards, and 
deposited in successive layers. The thickness of the whole bed is very variable. In 
Swaffham Bulbeck fen it runs, perhaps, in general from two to five feet. In Iselham 
fen the deposit of upper turf (which is also much more heavy and compact in that 
locality) is considerably thicker: the men there sometimes dig eight turf deep, each 
being fifteen inches in length; this however is an exception to the rule, and seldom 
met with. 

The trees which are met with at the bottom of the moor, and which rest imme- 
diately on the clay, consist chiefly of oak, yew, hazel and willow, It is said that in 
Iselham fen they occasionally find the fir and the vine also. The stems of the larger 
oaks are sound at heart and black throughout, though with the surface somewhat 
decayed, and presenting an appearance as if charred, But many of the smaller trees, 
or portions of them, are quite spongy, and may be cut as readily with the knife as soft 
cheese: these are not unfrequently found penetrated through and through by the rhi- 
zoma of the common reed (Arundo phragmites) now growing in the fen. 

The two sorts of turf aboye distinguished are not always found together, The 
upper exists without the lower in localities in which there are no buried trees to have 
given rise to the latter; but wherever the lower is found, the upper has always existed 
aboye it formerly, though now the upper has been so much removed in some districts 
by digging that the lower alone remains, As the upper turf is due to the decay of 
aquatic plants in a soil saturated with water, there would be nothing to prevent its 
growth at the present day if the condition of the fen remained unchanged; but in 
fact, from repeated drainage, the fen is now much too dry in most places to allow of 
the turf growing to a sufficient extent to compensate for the large quantity dug for 
fuel. It is the opinion of the turf-diggers at Iselham that formerly the turf grew 
- about twenty inches in sixteen years (twenty inches being the length of a full-sized 
turf when first cut). ‘lhe lower turf, consisting entirely of the remains of trees 
which grew in the spots in which they are now found before the fen was formed, it is 
evident, can never be renewed when removed. Hence the time is not far distant when, 
in some localities, the supply of turf for fuel must fail altogether, 

The principal plants observed first to show themselves in pits from which turf has 
been dug, and which appear to assist greatly in its formation, are the Chara hispida 


76 REPORT—1845. 55 : 


and C. gracilis, Utricularia vulgaris, Nymphea alba, Potamogeton: (various) species); 
Sagittaria sagittifolia, and Alisma ranunculoides. The Chara and. Utricularia espe- 
cially seem well-adapted for causing a rapid accumulation of vegetable remains by the 
constant decaying of their stems at bottom, while their upper extremities continue to 
make fresh shoots. After, however, the accumulation has proceeded to a certain ex- 
tent, the pits are so far lessened in depth that at the present day the water no longer 
stagnates there in summer. A different kind of vegetation in consequence then takes 
place. The above plants make way for various species of Junci, Carices, and other 
grasses, which tend rapidly to fill the pits up, but which, growing above the level to 
which the fen is now saturated with water, are not subjected to the conditions under 
which alone the formation of turf is possible. 


On Fizeau’s Process of Etching Daguerréotype Plates, and its Application to 
Objects of Natural History, By A. Goapsy. 


In a Daguerréotype portrait, the black parts of the plate consist of silver, the white 
of mercury, and the intermediate tint of a mixture of the two, the degree of darkness 
or light depending upon the excess either of the silver or of the mercury. In con- 
verting a Daguerréotype into an engraved plate, it is necessary to etch away the dark 
parts and to leave the white untouched. This is done by immersing the plate in.a 
fluid, consisting of dilute nitric acid, nitrous acid, chloride of sodium, and nitrate of 
potash. The nitric acid is so far diluted, that no decomposition can take place until 
the mixture is heated, when the chloride of sodium and nitrate of potash are decom- 
posed, and chlorine and nitrous acid are evolved. These attack and remove the silver 
of the dark portions of the plate, but have no effect on the mercury, so that the lights 
or the picture, being the mercurialized portions of the plate, constitute the etching 
ground, and effectually defend such portions. of the Daguerréotype from the influence 
of the corroding fluid. After a time, those portions of the plate that have been acted 
upon by the chlorine, &c. become covered with a protecting coat of the chloride of 
silver: this must be removed by dilute liquid ammonia, when the biting may be con- 
tinued by a fresh supply of the mixed acid. Grease and foreign matter must be 
removed by repeated washings in dilute acid and alkali, and by boiling in caustic 
potash. These cleansing operations must be repeated after every biting, after washing 
out the chloride of silver by the ammonia. The plate being thus bitten, but in a 
slight degree, is to be inked after the ordinary manner of engravers, and allowed to 
dry ; the surface of the plate is then to be thoroughly polished, the ink still remaining 
in the corroded portions of the plate. It is now to be gilded by the electrotype, those 
parts alone receiving the gold that have been previously polished. The ink is then 
to be dissolved out of the hollows by potash: the parts that are gilded now constitute 
the etching-ground, instead of the mercury, and the biting may be henceforth con- 
tinued by nitric acid, in the customary usage of engravers. The plate thus etched 
generally requires to be finished by the hand of the engraver, who has the advantage 
of a perfect, although faint picture to work upon. The amount of labour which he 
must bestow will depend upon the goodness of the Daguerréotype and the success of 
the etching. M. Claudet has fully established the successful application of this pro- 
cess to the purposes of illustrating natural history, by copying from nature and en- 
graving several delicate and difficult dissections of the lower animals, particularly the 
nervous system of Aplysia and Tritonia (the latter much magnified), and the nutri- 
mental organs in situ of a caterpillar. [These preparations, together with the en- 
gravings of them, were submitted to the examination of the members. ] 


On an Apparatus for Measuring and Registering two dimensions of the Human 
Frame, the Height of the Body and the Space from the extremity of the 
Fingers of one Hand, to the extremity of the Fingers of the other, the arms 
being extended horizontally. By JoszruH Bonomi. 

The adoption of the measurements proposed, the author contends, will furnish a 


more accurate means of identification than the method now in use, and at the same 
time give important data for ethnological inquiry. The apparatus consists of two 


Fe ee eee 


— 


_ 1 sa Gi: a 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 07 


graduated scales, each fitted with a sliding gnomon. Taking the corner of the room 
as‘a convenient perpendicular, the scales are fixed against the wall at a certain di- 
stance from the floor and corner of the room and at certain angles. 


On the Ethnography of America. By R. G. Latuam, M.D. 


_ It is considered that the line of demarcation drawn between the Esquimaux lan- 
guages and those of the rest of America is too broad and definite. The same remark 
applies to the Esquimaux tongues and those of Asia. By exaggerating these distinc- 
tions the primé facie view of the Indian population of America has been disturbed. 
Further complications have also been introduced, by insisting upen the general gram- 
matical analogy between the American languages as a point of contrast to the dif- 
ference in their glossarial details. There is however for the whole of America, North 
and South, a glossarial as well as a grammatical affinity. 

The Esquimaux, Athabascan, Colooch, Oregon, Californian and Mexican groups 
run so much into each other that no definite line of separation can be drawn. 
These, dealt with en masse, have general affinities with the Algonkin and Iroquois 
groups. Isolated tongues, like the Blackfoot, Riccaree, Uchee, &c., have miscella- 
neous affinities with the American tongues in general, and contain Esquimaux words 
proportionate to the extent of their vocabularies. The North and South American 
tongues pass into each other. No Scuth American tongue is isolated in the way 
that the Basque is isolated in Europe. Even the Warow and Fuegian have words 
common to the other groups, and to the Esquimaux. 

On the side of Asia the languages most akin to the Esquimaux are the Curule, 
Corean and Japanese ; after these the Kamskadale, Koriack and Jukageer. Still, the 
affinity (although undoubted) is less close on the Asiatic than the American side. The 
difference between the American numerals is explicable on the following hypothesis. 
Where we count by pure abstract terms like one, two, three, &c., there is a greater 
uniformity fer the numerals than for other words; whilst in those ruder languages, 
where we count by common names, as pair, couple, leash, the numerals differ where 
the rest of the language coincides. 


On the Ethnography of the Chinese and Indo-Chinese Nations. 
By R. G. Laruam, M.D. 


The distinction between the languages of Thibet and China, as exhibited by Klap- 
roth, must be only provisional. Over and above the grammatical analogy there is 
an absolute glossarial affinity. Of the languages of the transgangetic peninsula the 
same may be asserted. Where languages are monosyllabic slight changes make 
palpable differences. The vocabularies of Brown, for more than a score of the Bur- 
mese and Siamese tongues, have provided us with data for ethnographical compari- 
sons. © By dealing with these collectively, we find in one dialect words which had 
beem lost in others. The Chinese, Thibet, Bhootan, Burmese, Siamese, and all the 
so-called monosyllabic languages hitherto known, are allied to each other. The'ge- 
neral affinities of the Indo-Chinese tongues are remarkable. With Marsden’s and 
Sir Stamford Raffles’s tables on the one side, and those of Brown and Klaproth on 
the other, it can be shown that a vast number of Malay roots are monosyllabic. The 
Malay languages are monosyllabic ones, with the superaddition of inflections evolved 
out of composition, and euphonic processes highly developed. 

The next class of tongues akin to the monosyllabic is that of Caucasus. The 
numerous languages of this class have long been reduced to four groups; the Geor- 
gian, the Lesgian, the Circassian, the Mizdzhegi. That these four are fundamentally 
One, may be seen from Klaproth’s tables, whose classification seems only provisional, 
These tongues, dealt with en masse, have their affinities with the monosyllabic 
tengues. As with the Malay language, the monosyllabic character is modified by 
the evolution of agglutinational and inflectional processes, but not much by euphonic 
processes. An original continuity of language, displaced at present by the Turkish 
and Mongol, is thus assumed for parts between Caucasus and Thibet. 


ows 
ve 


78 REPORT—1845. 


On the present state of Philological Evidence as to the Unity of the Human Race. 
By R. G. Laruam, M.D. , 


The languages of America are radically one, compared both with one another, and 
with those of the north-east of Asia, viz. the Kamskadale, Koriack, Curile, Corean, 
Japanese. The particular language of the Othomi inhabitants of Mexico, which 

‘has been considered as monosyllabic and isolated in character, forms no exception 
to the previous statement. 

A monosyllabic basis of separate words is provisionally assumed as the fundamental 
element out of which inflections are evolved by agglutination and amalgamation. 
This makes it possible that poly-synthetic tongues, like the American, may be repre- 
sented in their earlier stage by monosyllabic tongues like the Chinese. Glossarial 
investigations confirm both these views. There is a radical unity for the different 
Siberian groups of the Asia Polyglotta, e.g. Yukageer, Yenesean, Samoeide, &c., and 
a fortiori, for the Turk, Mongol, and Manchoo groups. Each and all of these have 
affinities with the monosyllabic tongues, and through these with the Malay and 
Caucasian, 

Polynesia presents the first appearance of isolation, in the languages of New 
Guinea, Australia, &c., i. e. the Negrito tongues. The philological evidence of their 
being akin, either to the Malay or Tamul languages, is at present indefinite and in- 
conclusive. 

Southern India, and the Indian hill-ranges, present the first appearance of isola- 
tion in the languages of Continental Asia. Although unplaced they can scarcely be 
called isolate. 

The African languages have a fundamental unity; philological processes and ex- 
tended comparisons being sufficient to account for the apparent peculiarities of the 
Caffrarian tongues. 

Europe presents unplaced languages in the Basque and Albanian—unplaced, but 
not therefore isolate. The higher groups that should contain divisions like the Se- 
mitic and Indo-European, &c., have yet to be evolved. These, along with positions 
for the Basque, Albanian, and Tamul languages, and affinities for the Negrito and 
African languages in general, are the present desiderata. The philological unity 
of those portions of the human race of which the languages are known, although 
highly probable, has yet to be exhibited in a definite and conclusive form. 


On the Migratory Tribes of Central India. By E. Batrour. 


It has not been ascertained how many wandering tribes there are: the author 
confined himself to the description of the manners and habits of seven. Although 
in many respects they are similar to each other, still there are differences which have 
interest in an ethnological point of view. 


Dr. King exhibited, on the part of Mr. John Brown, a drawing of a specimen of 
gold casting as illustrative of the state of art of the inhabitants of New Grenada prior 
to the conquest. It represented the human figure sitting. The original was of fine 
gold, and weighed 1 oz. 18 dwt. 18 grs. 


a 


On the Moral and Intellectual Character of the New Zealanders. 
By Dr. Martin. 


_ The New Zealander may be classed in that stage of man’s progression when the 
indications of sense are not altogether corrected by reflection and intellect; when 
passion is somewhat tempered, but nct controlled by moral and religious feeling ; 
when hatred is stronger than benevolence, and self-love is unrestrained by consci- 
entiousness ; when, in fact, the mere intellectual perception of self-interest is the 
chief regulator of the conduct. As far as mere perceptive faculties are concerned, 
the New Zealander may be said to be inferior to Europeans, but superior to many 
other uncivilized people. The New Zealander is a paradox in every light in which 
we regard his moral character. Religion, veneration, or superstition, are the strongest 
feelings, and yet they are, in most cases, unaccompanied by conscientiousness, which 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79 


is'so essential to the formation of a moral and religious character. He has laws 
which define conduct, but they are founded on self-interest, superstition or vanity. 
Truth and moral feeling cannot be traced as elements in any part of his conduct or 


customs, His excessive vanity and want of truthfulness make him boastful, and 


tend to give an exaggerated character to all his statements. Individual quarrels or 
combats are of rare occurrence; while the most extraordinary disregard for life will 
be found to exist without courage. Notwithstanding the general character of the New 
Zealander for benevolence, he is destitute of natural affection as a feeling: neither 
the parent nor the child cherish towards each cther any of that strong regard which 
is natural to, and frequent among Europeans. His social morality is low, the 
absence of virtue not being considered even a disgrace, much less a crime. 


— 


On Cretinism. By Dr. Twintne. 


Dr. Twining first described its forms and degrees. Marsden saw goitre in the 
valleys of the Ural, Baikal and Caucasian mountains; Forbes in the Himalaya, and 
M‘Clelland in the Shore Valley. Sir G. Staunton saw cretins in the narrow valleys 
of Tartary, and that they lead a mere animal life, acting alcne from the impulse of 
their senses. In Africa there are only two parts known where goitre occurs. Leo 
Africanus saw goitre in the high mountains of Atlas in Morocco, and Mungo ‘Park 
among the Kong mountains in Bambara. Of cretinism in America we have fuller 
accounts. Richardson saw goitre and cretins on the banks of the Saskatchewan, 
and near the sources of the Elann and Friedeu rivers. Prof. Bartun states goitre to 
be prevalent at Oneida among the Americans and the Dutch settlers, and in all the 
State of New York, near the Mohawk river. It occurs also in Lower Canada, in 
marshy districts. In South America goitre occurs independently of cretinism iit 
Nicaragua and Sante Fé. Humboldt saw the most frightful cases of goitre on the 
Magdalena river, and chiefly higher, to the elevation of 6000 feet above the sea, on 
the high plain of Bogota, and states that the copper-coloured natives were generally 
free from goitre. It occurs also in Quito and the Onachiffa Valley near Lima, under 
various atmospheric influences, and on the Corderillas. In the Villarica Valley, in 
Brazil, 4000 feet above the sea, goitre is frequent, not only in man but animals, as 
the goat; and many villages are filled with cretins. Prof. Poffig states that in the 
Andes in Chili, on the east side, in some races he did not see a case of goitre; and 
yet in the white inhabitants, who live exactly as the natives, it prevails in a great 
degree. On the Andes, between Santa Rosa and Mendoza, the peasants dwell on 
the west side as high as 7000 feet above the sea, and on the east to 6000 feet, and 
are free from gcitre, but lower, at 3500 feet, goitre is endemic. The nature of the 
formation seems to have no direct influence as a cause of cretinism, as cretins are 
found on all. It would seem that where the springs come from the limestone, goitre 
is most frequently endemic; but as in many villages where goitre and cretinism pre« 
vail there is no lime, it cannot be the sole cause. Dr. Twining concluded by ex« 
pressing a hope that the many travellers there assembled would, when investigating 
the geology or the races of the high mountain chains, not forget the state of the in- 
habitants of the valleys with regard to cretinism. That cretins can become healthy 
and intelligent has been proved by Dr. Guggenbiihl, in the success that his benevo- 
lent exertions at the Hospital for cretin children, on the Abenberg, near Inter- 
lachen, have met with; but it can only be by the united efforts of many that.a scien- 
tific account of cretinism can be attained. In order to facilitate such inquiries, Dr. 
Twining suggested the following method: first, to. state the name of the place, its 
situation and elevation:above the sea, and the race} secondly, the geological forma- 
tion, springs and climate; thirdly, the state of the houses and the habits—whether 
goitre only prevails, or is accompanied by cretinism. 


On the Natives of Old Calebar, Africa. By Professor Dantett. 


_ The natives, although of Eboe extraction, present some physical deviations that 
serve to distinguish them from other tribes of a similar derivation. The natives of 
the Bonny Mun,.who are purely of Eboe descent, and therefore less mixed with the 
people of other nations, may be taken as the typical illustration to institute compa- 


. 


80 REPORT—1845. 


risons. They are generally of a short stature, slight form, and light yellow skin. The 
trunk and other portions of the body are in conformity with this physical configuration, 
being somewhat robust and symmetrical in mould, with a tendency to great muscular 
development. The hair of the head of girls is invariably shaved off, with the excep- 
tion of a small tuft, and is not suffered to grow until they are married; it is then 
twisted into a number of plaits decorated with beads. Portions of their frame, and 
particularly the face, are tattooed in circular figures, and the anterior surface of the 
arm, in men as well as women, is ornamented with round smooth cicatrices of the 
size of a shilling. The government of this people is a monarchical despotism, rather 
mild in its general character. They destroy their criminals by poisoning, drowning 
and decapitation. A simple contract between the parties constitutes the law of 
marriage; and prior to their residing finally together, they sit in state for several 
days, well-attended and in gaudy attire. Polygamy exists amongst them in full force. 
Adultery is atoned for by a dreadful death. Among their funeral rites is that of im- 
molation, on an enormous scale, of men, women and children; and so fearful in 
former times was the observance of this custom, that many towns narrowly escaped 
depopulation. 


Dr. King reported that in the Journal of General Miller, Consul-General for the 
Pacific, which had been forwarded to him, light was thrown upon the manners and 
habits of the South Sea Islanders, and upon many of the complicated or debated 
problems connected with the population and its intermixture with the Red man of 
America; upon human sacrifice, cannibalism and infanticide ; and upon the effect of 
isolation and savage solitude upon runaways from ships and from convict labour. 
Lengthened extracts from General Miller’s Journal, upon these several points, were 
read, 


On the Egyptians and Americans. By the Marquis di Spinzto. 


On certain Traces of Roman Colonization in Lancashire. By Dr. Buack. 


From historical notices and inferences, conjoined with the affinities mentioned to 
have existed between the social institutions and languages of the Saxon conquerors 
and other contemporary emigrants and those of our Briton-Frisians, Dr. Black con- 
cludes that the latter would mostly remain in the country, become amalgamated in 
spirit, action and habits with the newly imported tribes from Germany, rather than 
seek to keep up a forced conventional polity with their old neighbours, the Britons. 
They would indeed soon become incorporated with the Saxons; take with them 
their fate as a nation; and from their numbers in the south of Lancashire, would 
probably constitute the greatest portion of the population. That many of the inha- 
bitants of this district, especially in the inland and rural parts, have long, and to this 
day, shown a distinctive variety of form, feature and vernacular dialect from those in 
the other parts of England, has been remarked by not a few observers. And the 
man of Heaton and the dark-eyed Lancashire witch still maintain—the one for the 
picturesque in manners and speech, and the other for her characteristic beauty— 
their wide-spread distinction among the hardy sons and fair daughters of England. 


Tables illustrative of the Height, Weight and Strength of Man, 
By Mr. Brent, 
It appears that there are in 100 Englishmen of all classes:— 


5 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 9 in. (middle height) ...... 40 
5 ft. 3 in. to 5 ft. 6 in, (short) ...........ceceeee 26 
5 ft. Oin. to 5 ft. 3 in. (very short).........00. 4 
— 30 short. 


100 


‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘81 
oat Mine w ns ati ah 
won ae vie Lappers In 100 persons In 100 Amateur In 100 Cornish 
puree ; Workhouse. deceased. Rowers Wrestlers. 
“atta f || Wee ce i 4:1 emerge Pra eh oaralt te te oc 63 
~. |Middling ...... 26|Middling ,,.... 37|Middling ..,... 6 Middling pra 30 
Short............ 67|\Short.........ec. A4/Short .......ceeee DiShort ........0008 
100| | 100 100 100 


-From a calculation of the weight of the Venus di Medicis at different heights, from 
4 ft.6 in. to 6 ft. 9 in., her weight, supposing her height to have been 5 ft., and her 
dress of the ordinary kind, would be 8 stone 9 lb.—being in the same class with the 
Discoboli. From a calculation of strength in different classes from slender to ex- 
aggerated, the Hercules Farnese being in the exaggerated, the Gladiator being in the 
middle class, taking the strength of a slender man at 100, that of the Gladiator 
would equal 173; the Hercules Farnese 362 at the same height. 


On Dr. Kombst’s Ethnographic Map of Great Britain and Ireland. 
By J. M. Kempxe, M.A. 


On Local and Hereditary Difference of Complexion in Great Britain, with 
some Incidental Notice of the Cimbri. By the Rev. R. Witutams. 


Mr. Williams commented on the fact, that in two districts of our island, the same 
strongly-marked variety of complexion exists which was observed by Tacitus seven- 
teen centuries ago. The primary agent of change was climate; which influenced 
first the skin, next the hair and eyes, and lastly, with the co-operation, perhaps, of 
other agents, changed the configuration of the skull. Next to our own climate, that 
of our ancestors, or the effect of race, was to be considered. It had been attempted 
to explain the xanthous complexion of the Scotch Lowlanders by supposing them 
originally Gothic, and the darker hues of the S.W. Silurians by calling in the aid of 
Iberian intermixture. The last was wrong; for as the language of the Welsh con- 
tained no Basque element, their physiology could not have been influenced by 
Biscayans, The former idea had been partially refuted by Chalmers ; and looking to 
the names of the Pictish kings, of places in the Lowlands, comparing the Welsh Aber 
with the Gaelic Suver, observing the intelligibility of Aneirin’s poems among the 
Britons of the Clyde and those of South Wales, we must conclude that the whole 
western side of the island, from Glasgow to Cornwall, was inhabited by a people 
throughout akin, if nut absolutely identical. Neither wasit true that the Celts could 
be classed as dark, and the Teutons as xanthous. All ancient authors, and especially 
Strabo, made the Celts also xanthous. Strabo even thought their usages alike, and 
their blood akin to the Germans. [le called the Britons of greater stature and less 
yellow-haired than the Gauls. On the whole, this singular phenomenon of a people 
homoio, if not homo-glottous, yet differing physiologically so much as the Caledonians 


and Silurians, and their respective successors at this day, might be referred to the® 
_ well-ascertained custom of the Celts of migrating in two large divisions, as in the 


case of Brennus, &c. One division, leaving the Caspian, entered Europe by the 
Euxine, and the other by the Mediterranean ; one acquired the characteristics of a 


_ Northern, the others retained those of an Oriental people. Mr. Williams proceeded 
_ to show, by tracing various names, that the whole people from Glasgow to Cornwall 


called themselves Cimbri, or Cymry. This people comprehended the Belgz, and 
(excepting only a Teuton inlet from the succeeding tide of population which forced 
itself along the Rhine) they must have extended from Denmark and the mouth of 


the Elbe across Belgic Gaul and England to Wales. It was very important to observe 


that they were not hybrid, but yet formed, in blood and in language, as in geographi- 
cal position, the connecting link between the Irish Celts who preceded, and the 


_ Goths who came after them. Adelung’s idea of the Cumraic containing a Gothic 


1845. G 


82 REPORT—1845. 


infusion arose from the old fallacy of the Celts and Goths being radically alien; 
whereas one family of languages extended from the Caspian Sea to Ireland and Por- 
tugal on the west, and to the extreme of India on the east. Certain peculiarities in 
the Celtic and Cumraic arose from the very early date at which they successively 
broke off from the pre-Sanscrit stock. 


Sir R. Schomburgk gave a verbal account of the superstitious and astronomical 
knowledge of the Indians of Guiana, which agreed with the same kind of knowledge 
current amongst the rest of the uncivilized portion of the globe. 


On the Ancient T'umuli in the Yorkshire Wolds. By the Rev. T. Ranxin. 


MEDICAL SCIENCE. 


Results of Researches on the Scrofulous Tubercle* which had reference to its 
. Vascularity. By Dr. Fisuer. 

Att the cases which the author brought forward were illustrated by coloured drawings. 
He treated of two kinds of tubercle: the one developed in the subserous cellular tissue, 
as for instance between the lamine of the mesentery, or between the peritoneum and 
the muscular coat of the intestine ; the other formed at the expense of the parenchyma 
of an organ, as for instance the lung, a lymphatic gland, &c. In the first case, ac- 
cording to Dr. Fisher’s observations, the morbid product would seem, at a certain 
period of its development, to become surrounded by blood-vessels comparatively large 
in calibre, and apparently of a new order, which converge towards the tubercle, some- 
what after the fashion in which the spokes of a wheel are directed towards its nave. 
In the second case, where, for instance, the tubercle is seated in the lung, the nutri- 
tive vessels of that organ, i. e, the bronchial arteries, would appear to assume around 
the morbid product an increase not only in size, but also in number. The semi- 
transparent form of tubercle, especially as it is found in lymphatic glands, would ap- 
pear to be the one most richly endowed with vessels: the latter are much less fre- 
quently met with in the opake caseous form; still, in several instances, vessels arti- 
ficially injected were shown to enter the caseous tubercle, towards the centre of which 
they appeared to tend. 
On a peculiar form of Epidemic affecting the Teeth and Gums of young: 

Children, observed in Dublin in the Winter of 1844-45. By James F, 

Duncan, A.M, MB, FCP. in Ireland, §e. 


This peculiar disease was observed among the children of the North Dublin Union 
Workhouse, an institution containing nearly 2000 inmates of all classes, and averaging 
usually from sixty to eighty infants under two years of age, to which the author has 
been physician since its opening, five years ago. Until last winter he had never ob- 
served anything approaching in character to the present affection, of which he met 
with eight or nine cases. The attack was ushered in by considerable fever, and after 
an interval of some days the gums were found to be partially ulcerated at the inser- 
tion of the teeth, the fangs being exposed; they became also swollen, red and spongy, 
and exhibited a considerable tendency to bleed, insomuch that heemoptoe occasionally 
resulted from this cause. The disease was very severe, and in most cases, either dis 
rectly or in consequence of a relapse, terminated fatally. It seemed to be essentially 
only a part of a deeper-seated affection, namely, an enteritis of'a most extensive and 
severe kind. Its importance however, in a pathological point of view, arose from the 
liability to confound it with that ulceration of the gums which is the consequence of 
the administration of mercury. In some of these cases no mercury whatever had 


* The presence of this tubercle in the lungs is the chief cause of the pulmonary symptoms 
in consumption. Dr. Fisher read a paper before the Cambridge Philosophical Society on 
this subject in 1835. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83 


been used, and in none was the quantity sufficient to account for its occurrence. The 
importance of distinguishing the two affections must be obvious to every one. The 


_ diagnosis rests principally on the ulceration being partial and not general over the 


_ action of a condensing and exhausting syringe, and proba 


whole gums, as is the case in mercurial action, in the accompanying ptyalism being 
moderate in quantity, in the foetor of the breath being destitute of the peculiar odour 
of the mineral impregnation, and in the tendency to hemorrhage. This last seems 
to connect it rather with Purpura hemorrhagica than with the former affection. The 
sanguineous discharges were not confined to the gums, but extended also to the rectum 
and intestines; and the author related a remarkable case of two children, one of whom 
had the affection of the mouth and the other Purpura hemorrhagica. But the im~ 
portance of the diagnosis is still further shown from the circumstance that in this 
disease mercurial remedies can be administered, not only without risk, but even with 
advantage. The treatment found of greatest benefit was not local but constitutional. 
The former seemed to exercise very little impression even upon the parts to which it 
was applied; the latter alone was productive of relief. Acidulated infusions of bark 
and calumba were particularly serviceable, but the application of a tolerably large 
blister over the abdomen after it had been stimulated by the mustard poultice, and 
left on for about an hour, was more effectual in checking the accompanying diarrhcea, 
lowering the fever and improving the general condition of the patient than anything 
else. 


On the Influence of Galvanism on Endosmose and Exosmose. 
By H. B. Lerson, M.A., M.D. 


“Whether endosmose and exosmose are dependent on electricity, capillary attraction 
or chemical affinity, or on some mechanical condition having relation to the magnitude 
of the particles of the fluids, subjected to its influence and to the pores of the membrane 
through which they pass, has not at present been satisfactorily determined. 

The first idea of Dutrochet, that electricity was the more immediate cause*, is now 
generally abandoned; nor can we be surprised that Dutrochet himself should have 
felt some misgivings on the subject, if we refer to the experiments of Porrett and him- 
self, on which that opinion was founded. 

The author entered into an examination of these experiments, and then proceeded 
to explain those in which he is at present engaged. After adverting to the fact now 
familiar to most persons accustomed to the use of the sustaining galvanic battery, viz. 
that the liquid on the one side of the porous diaphragm was considerably increased 
or elevated by the action of the battery, the author explained that such increase could 
not depend, as had been supposed, upon any mere variation of the specific gravity of 
the fluids, inasmuch as that the height attained by the liquid, as exhibited in the 
arrangement of an experiment then exhibited, was much greater than could be due 
to any alteration of specific gravity, and amounted in some of the author’s experi- 
ments to several feet. ‘The author then alluded to his experiments, as proving that 
endosmose and exosmose were greatly promoted by electricity, more especially ob- 
serving that sulphuric acid, a substance mentioned by Dutrochet as inimical to the 
influence of endosmose, was in the experiment before them rendered amenable thereto, 
The author also observed, that although endosmose and exosmose may be induced 
without any galvanic influence, and are not therefore absolutely dependent upon it, 
still, inasmuch as the action took place more readily under the influence of the cur- 
rent, and almost ceased when the current was) interrupted, we must conclude that 
endosmose and exosmose are powerfully promoted by it. . 

The great amount of force or motion generated by the action of endosmose and 
exosmose was then observed. Endosmose and exosmose continually going on in so 
many parts of the animal ceconomy may be regarded as ee nye to the continued 

ly contribute to promote 
the action of the heart, as stated by the author some years ago in a thesis upon the 
blood, read by him at Oxford. 


_ The author then adverted to the relative alkaline and acid state of the fluids secreted 


from the surfaces of different membranes, as presenting conditions favourable to the 


production of galvanic currents, The author also adverted to the experiments of 


»*  Ainsi ’endosmose et l’exosmose dépendent enti@rement de |’électrité.”—L’ Agent im- 


_ médiat du Mouvement Vital, 1826. 


G2 


84 REPORT—1845 


Matteucci, Galvani and others, as showing that the elements necessary, for the pro- 
duction of electric currents exist in animals even where there is no special organiza~ 
tion, as in the torpedo, &e. 

The author concluded by adverting to the importance of further investigation in 
relation to this subject, since the healthy performance of all the important functions 
of the anima! ceconomy are dependent upon it. 


On a new mode of Suture, applicable to Plastie Operations. 
By Cuarces Brooks, M.B., F.R.C.S.E. 


The inconvenience frequently experienced by surgeons in the application of the 
ordinary modes of suture is that of the stitches cutting through, and therefore failing 
to keep in contact the parts to be united. In this, the improvement consists in placing 
two smooth, flat glass beads on the ends of the ligature and securing them by knots, 
by which the parts may be held together as long as may be required without any 
tendency to produce irritation or ulceration. The mode of application may be thus 
explained :—A piece of ligature silk with a knot on one end is doubled, and the loop 
passed through a bead. A needle of suitable form, having a notch near the point, is 
then passed through the sides of the fissure to be united; the loop of the ligature is 
then placed in the notch and the needle retracted, bringing the loop with it. A second 
bead is then placed on the loop, which is afterwards divided; the two threads being 
now separate, a knot is tied on the end of that one which has no knot at the other end, 
and by drawing the two free ends of the threads, the parts intervening may be brought 
into close contact, and may be maintained in that position by placing knots on the 
free ends, close to the beads, and thus preventing the latter from receding from each 
other; at the same time the portions of integument intervening between the beads 
are not subjected to any pressure whatever. : 

For external application of the suture, a needle slightly curved at the point is most 
suitable. For internal application, when the direction of the edges to be united co- 
incides with that of the handle of the instrument, as in a longitudinal fissure in the 
vagina, a spirally-curved needle is requisite: when the direction of the edges is 
nearly perpendicular to that of the instrument, as in the posterior part of a cleft 
palate, or a transverse fissure in the vagina, a moveable needle is most suitable. The 
principal difficulty attending the internal application of the bead suture, has been the 
placing the last knots close to the beads, to prevent their receding from each other : 
this may however be effected by a small conoidal roller at the extremity of a handle, 
on which the loop forming the knot is placed, and carried on to any required point ; 
it is then tightened by a little fork attached to this instrument, wide enough to receive 
the thread only.. By these means any number of knots may with facility be placed 
on the same thread close to each other, when entirely out of reach of the fingers. 

In order to render the description of the operation complete, it must be remarked, 
that in the application of external sutures, as in cases of hare-lip, it is generally found 
desirable to pare the edges with the scalpel, and union by first intention will probably 
be obtained: in internal sutures, the edges will be much more easily and evenly 
pared by lightly touching them with potassa fusa, and the needle immediately ap- 
plied, without waiting for the separation of the superficial slough. To the latter mode 
of treatment it may be objected, that union can thus be obtained by granulation only ; 
this is not however an objection of any validity, as it is the peculiar property of this 
suture to hold the parts in contact until sufficient time has elapsed to render the union 
by granulation complete. A detail of the cases illustrating the advantages of the bead 
suture will be more suitable for a purely medical publication. 


On the Communicating Fibres of the Brain in reference to Thought and 
Action. By Tuomas Laycock, M.D. 


Dr. Laycock stated, that he considered those views correct which looked on the brain 
as an extensive periphery of nervous matter, analogous to that on the surface of the 
body. On this periphery sensorial changes are excited, first, by incident excitor im- 
pressions derived from without—the external periphery; secondly, by impressions — 
derived from other portions of the brain—the internal periphery. There was thus a 
set of intercommunicating fibrils between all parts of each symmetrical half of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85 


‘brain‘and spinal cord. Dr: Laycock showed that this intercommunication actually 
took place in the ganglia of the spinal:cord, an impression being diffused through all 
parts of the ganglia. _ Dr. Laycock showed that this view of the internal mechanism 
‘of the brain explains those cases of paralysis in which the muscles act normally under 
‘certain conditions, as, for example, when an individual cannot speak what he thinks, 
but is able to read aloud, or repeat what is spoken. Dr. Laycock was of opinion that 
in such an example there was no interruption of continuity between the auditory and 
optic nerves and that part of the brain which subserves to language, nor between the 
latter and the anterior or motor tract of the medulla oblongata; but that the cause of 
the vocal paralysis experienced when the individual attempted to express his thoughts, 
was an interruption of continuity of the fibrils communicating between the portions of 
the brain, or internal periphery, subservient to thought and that subservient to lan- 


guage. 


A Drawing, representing the appearance of the Surface of the Heart in a case 
of Purpura hemorrhagica, presented by T. S. WELLS, Assistant Surgeon, 
Naval Hospital, Malta. 


The subject of the disease was a strong, able seaman, aged twenty-seven, who died 
eight days after the first symptoms presented themselves. The author presented the 
drawing as exhibiting a morbid change extremely rare, and seldom noticed by pa- 
thologists, Dr. Himmelstein, a physician in the Russian naval service, being the only 
author known to the writer of the paper who has remarked changes at all similar. 


On the State of the Deaf and Dumb. By Dr. Fowurr. 


Dr. Fowler communicated some further particulars relative to the case of the woman 
who was blind, deaf and dumb, in Rotherhithe workhouse. Her faculties have much 
improved by education; she is now occupied by employments and surrounded by en- 
joyments, which a few years ago appeared to, be utterly impossible under her peculiar 
deprivation. Dr. F., in continuation, made a few observations on the mental faculties 
‘of animals in reference to those of man; the chief inferiority he described as the 
_absence, in animals, of all ideas of relation and the combinations resulting from it. 


j 


Notice of an Apparatus for delineating correctly the relative position and size 
of the Viscera, either in the Healthy Condition or changed by Disease. By 
io Mr. Srgson. : 


This apparatus consisted of a square frame, covered by transparent lace or muslin, 
which will permanently bear chalk-marks. By taking the outlines of the objects to 
‘be sketched (deformities, well-marked conditions of thoracic or abdominal viscera, &c.) 
‘on the surface looking perpendicularly at the object, a correct outline is easily pro- 
duced even by those who are not artists; this sketch can be readily transferred to 
‘paper by pressure, and if necessary may be reduced by the application of the penta- 
“graph. Mr. Sibson gave an illustration of its use by making sketches from the living 
body, and entered into numerous pathological details to show the importance of fre- 
“quent delineation to ascertain the progress of internal and external disease during 
_ treatment. > 
RQ 


PS BE OO Ee 


On Cranial Vertebre. By Dr. Macponatp. 


_ . The author commenced by enforcing the value and necessity of the study of what 
_ had been termed Transcendental Anatomy. After alluding to the labours of the 
foreign and British investigators of the subject, Dr. Macdonald laid down the elemen- 
tary parts forming a vertebra, which he stated to be, first, a body forming part of the 
_  ¢aulis centralis of the vertebral column ; secondly, the posterior laminz, which meeting 
on the mesial plane form the arch of the vertebral canal, having the spinous processes 
_-more or less developed : each lamina is again subdivided into three elementary divi- 
__»sions, which. he denominates protomeral, deutomeral, and tritomeral; besides these 
__ there are, thirdly, anterior lamin connected with the caulis centralis, exemplified in 


aa ait 


86 REPORT—1845. 


the ribs and part of the pelvis, and also in the bones of the face. Retaining these 
divisions of each vertebra, the author described the cranial vertebra as three pairs 
arising from the spine: first, the occipital; secondly, the sphenoidal; thirdly, the in- 
grasioethmo-frontal; by attentively examining the component lamine of these verte- 
brz, he identified all the usually described portions of the cranium. The facial bones he 
resolved. into two pairs of vertebre: first, the superciliary ; secondly, the adnasal. By 

‘a minute demonstration the author endeavoured to establish the details of his system 
which he contended was applicable to all the zoological classes, and as well-marked, 
in the insect tribe as in the mammalia. 


Notice of an Instrument to assist in the discovery of Foreign Bodies by Aus- 
cultation. By Dr. Brooke. 


It consisted of a catheter or sound, with a circular sounding-board, six inches in 
diameter, attached perpendicularly at its extremity, which increases the sensation 
derived from the contact of its other end against a small calculus or fragment after 
lithotripsy, which might otherwise escape detection, and lay the foundation of future 
disease. The effect of the sounding-board was demonstrated. A sound produced by 
the contact of a small fragment in a small bag, which could scarcely be heard by the 
holder of the instrument without the sounding-board, became perfectly audible on its 
application. 


Dr. Leeson presented and described an apparatus for minute injection. 


Dr. Thurnam gave a short notice of a case of Spina bifida, the preparation of which 
he exhibited to the Section; it demonstrated the exact condition of the bones and 
ligaments of that portion of the vertebral column where the deficiency from arrest of 
development occurred. 


STATISTICS. 


On the University Statistics of Germany. By J. Hexwoon, F.R.S, 


Tne details of these statistics were collected by Dr. Perry, who resided in the Uni- 
versity town of Bonn on the Rhine, and who has taken the degree of Dr. of Philo- 
sophy at Gottingen. He stated, that in round numbers, there are 1500 professors 
in the German universities, and about 15,000 students. Dr. Perry ascribes the origin 
of duelling among the German students to their being permitted to wear swords as a 
badge of gentility; but the duels are generally of a harmless nature. Large num- 
bers of students are attracted to particular universities in Germany by the lectures 
of eminent professors, and when a vacancy occurs in a chair of importance, the new 
teacher is often chosen on account of his reputation and success in some other uni- 
versity, so that he owes his fresh appointment to his own merit, independent of local 
influence. 


_—— 


On the Comparative Number of Degrees taken at Cambridge in the Seventeenth 
and Nineteenth Centuries. By J. Heyvwoop, F.R.S. 


The comparison showed, that notwithstanding the general increase of wealth and 
population in Great Britain during the last 200 years, the number of degrees taken 
at Cambridge had not increased in a corresponding proportion. Thus, in 1620 there 
were 270 B.A. degrees conferred, and in 1820 only 183; in 1630 there were 291 
B.A. degrees taken, and in 1830, 324; in 1640 there were 240, and in 1840, only 
339. Nearly one-third of the students leave the university without taking a degree. 
Conversation ensued, and it was suggested that the more mature age at which stu- 
dents now enter was one cause why graduations have not increased in proportion to 
the population. Prof, Pryme observed that this might also arise from the compa- 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87. 


ative cheapness and style of living in ancient times. Mr. Heywood also presented 
a table of the comparative number of students in Trinity College, Cambridge, who go 
into lay pursuits and into the church, Of 1443 students admitted in ten years, from 
1831 to 1840 inclusive, only 413 took out testimonials for deacons’ orders, from 
which it follows that about two-thirds of the students of Trinity College are intended 


to be laymen, f 
On the Trade and Navigation of Norway. By R. Vaury. 


[This was the abstract of a Report made to the Government by J. B. Crowe, Esq., Consul 
General for Norway. ] 


The chief exports are wood, fish, and minerals. The wood consists of deals cut in 
twelve-feet lengths, and balks either round or square. Proprietors of forests are 
under no restrictions as to felling; they generally cut down the trees in autumn or 
winter, and convey them to a river to be floated down thestream. The reproduction 
of the timber is believed to be equal to the consumption. Formerly England was the 
chief market for Norwegian produce, and had in return the almost exclusive trade in 
manufactures ; but since the establishment of discriminating duties in favour of Cana- 
dian timber the English trade has fallen, and the consumption of English manufac- 
tures greatly decreased. Hamburg and the German States have become markets for 
Norwegian produce, and the manufactures of Germany have superseded those of 
England. The annual average quantities of timber exported in the seven years from 
1835 to 1841 were 618,769 loads of 50 cubic feet, which, with firewood, hoops, and 
other less valuable timber, may be deemed worth 435,000/. The fisheries rank next 
in importance to the forest, ‘and afford the chief occupation to Norwegian industry. 
The exports consist of stockfish, round and split, clip-fish, salted cod, and halibut, 
Jiver and shark oil, and live lobsters. Stockfish is chiefly exported to the Catholic 
countries of southern Europe. The exports fluctuate from the varying nature of the 
fishing trade, but in 1841 they were,—stockfish, 14,196 tons ; clip-fish, 11,285 tons ; 
herrings, 608,086 barrels ; cod-roes, 20,21 7 barrels; liver and shark oils,41,715 barrels ; 
and 552,272 lobsters. Salmon for several years has ceased to be an article of export, 
The disappearance of this fish is attributed to the swarms of sharks which have re- 
cently taken possession of the banks off the coast, These were first observed in 
1841, and in 1842 eight vessels were fitted out for the new fishery, and captured no 
less than 20,000 sharks, without any apparent diminution of the supply. The quantity 
of oil obtained was about 1000 barrels. The mineral trade is not of much importance, 
but there is something curious in the fur trade, principally carried on with Russia. 
The greater part of the skins sold by the Norwegians are obtained from the Hamburg 
merchants, who buy them in London from the Hudson’s Bay Company; the Nor- 
wegians convey them to Finmark, and from thence they are taken to Moscow and 
sold to the caravan traders for the purpose of being bartered with the Chinese for 
tea at Kiachta! The Norwegian shipping is on the increase, principally owing to 
the laws which require masters of vessels to give proof of their knowledge and skill 
by. undergoing a strict examination, 


On the Liability to Insanity at different Ages. By Dr. Taurnam. 


The general conclusion was, that the liability to insanity does not, as is generally 
supposed, increase with years, but that it is greatest between the ages of twenty and 
forty, and that it subsequently gradually diminishes. The author also adduced facts 
which appeared to warrant the conclusion, that in some countries and communities 
the liability to mental disorders is greatest between the ages of twenty and thirty; 
whilst it is usually highest during the decennial period from thirty to forty years, 


Sketch of the Progress and present Extent of Savings Banks in the United 
bes Kingdom. By G. R. Porter, F.R.S. 


_ After a few preliminary remarks on their political and moral value, he stated that 
these institutions owed their origin to Miss Priscilla Wakefield, who in 18()4 induced 
six gentlemen residing at Tottenham to receive deposits from labourers and servants, 
paying 5 per cent, as interest. Four years later eight persons, half of whom were 


88 REPORT—1845. 


ladies, took upon themselves the same responsibility at Bath, The first savings 
bank regularly organized was formed at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire ; its success led to 
many imitations, so that before any legislative provision had been made for their 
management, there were seventy savings banks in England, four in Wales, and four 
in Ireland. In 1817 an act was passed to encourage banks of savings in England and 
Ireland, but it was not extended to Scotland until 1835. Tabular statements of the 
progress of these banks illustrated their great success, but we shall only take for 
comparison the returns of two years, 1830 and 1844 :— 


ENGLAND. | WALES. IRELAND, | Unitep Kincpom. 


Years. 


Depositors. 


Amount. / Depositors. | Amount. 


Depositors. | Amount. || Depositors. ] Amount. 


1830 367,812 
1844 832,290 


412,217 113,507,565 


| 
12,287,606 | 10,204 314,903 34,201 905,056 
| 18,690 599,796 91,243 —_|2,749,017 | 1,012,047 |29,504,861 


25,112,865 


The deposits are found to be greatest in the years when provisions are cheap and 
abundant. Instead of giving the absolute numbers we shall quote the centesimal 
proportions of the different classes of contributors. 


England. | Wales. | Ireland. | Scotland. United 


Kingdom. 
Not exceeding £20 56°68 52°53 46°09 76°24 57°00 
8 50 25°46 31°01 36°94 17°82 26°08 
ne 100 11°28 11:10 11°76 4:72 10°86 
BS 150 3°94 “ii? 3°35 0°93 3°67 
3 200 2°28 1°63 1°75 0°29 2°08 
Exceeding... £200 0°36 0°21 0r11 es 0°31 


The average balances to the credit of each depositer in 1844 were, in England 301., 
Wales 32/., Ireland 301., Scotland 147., and United Kingdom 29/7. Tables were then 
given of the operations of the banks in the several counties. Next to Middlesex, 
Devonshire exhibited the greatest amount of deposits in proportion to the population, 
and this satisfactory result was attributed to the admirable management of the Exeter 
Savings Bank. Lancashire exhibited a very low amount of deposits, but this was 
explained by the fact that operatives find a more profitable investment for their 
money. Some fears were expressed of the effect of the reduction in the rate of in- 
terest ; and the tables of classification of depositors formed by the Exeter and. the 
Manchester Savings Banks were produced and recommended for imitation. 


Statistical and Historical Account of the Ancient System of Public Charities in 
London. By J. Fretcuer, Bart., F.R.S. 


He stated that the necessity of systematic provision for the relief of the poor began 
to be felt after the suppression of the monasteries and the hospitals governed by 
monastic rule. In 1544 the site of St. Bartholomew was granted to the Corporation 
of London, but no provision was made for its endowment and government until 1548 ; 
and thus some provision was made for the relief of the sick and infirm. _Christ’s 
Hospital, for the education of destitute children, was founded in 1553, and about the 
same time St. Thomas’s Hospital was established for the same purpose as that of 
St. Bartholomew. The next measure was to provide a place for vagrants and un- 
employed labourers. The petition sent by the Corporation to the King’s Council 
stated, “it was too evident to all men that beggary and thievery did abound, and we, 
remembering how many statutes from time to time have been made for the redress 
of the same, and little amendment hath hitherto followed, thought to search the cause 
hereof, and after due examination had we evidently perceived that the cause of all 
this misery and beggary was idleness; and the means and semedy to cure the same 
must be its contrary, which is labour ; and it hath been a speech used of all men to 
say unto the idle, Work! Work! even as though they would have said, the mean to 
reform beggary is to fall to work.” In consequence of this petition Bridewell was 
established, and thus public charity was organized for three great objects—the relief 
of the sick, the education of the young, and the employment of the able-bodied 


al cl 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89 


labourer,’ The hospitals were supported by assessments levied on the citizens and 


. the’companies. By the charter of Edward the Sixth the government of these insti- 


tutions was given to the Corporation of the City of London, but the chief power was 
seized by the Court of Aldermen. Mr. Fletcher then explained the causes that placed 
these institutions in the hands of self-elect governors, between whom and the corpo- 
tation a kind of compromise was effected by Act of Parliament in 1782. But this 
Act only provides for the election of forty-eight governors annually by the Common 
Council, twelve for each hospital, Bethlehem being reckoned with Bridewell; and 
as these form but a small minority among the total number of governors, the anoma- 
lous ‘self-elect constitution of these bodies continues to the present day. Mr. Fletcher 
then entered into an elaborate detail of the various efforts that have been made to 
Suppress mendicancy by penal enactments, some of which were so severe as to vest 
an arbitrary power of transportation in any two governors of Bridewell. In 1708, the 
London Workhouse, though of earlier origin, was first brought into full operation ; but 
it fell into a state of inefficiency and was abolished. Mr. Fletcher then contrasted 
the system of relief attempted by the Royal or Corporation Hospitals with the present 
pauper administration of London, and showed how widely the hospitals had deviated 
in practice from the principles at which their founders aimed. 


Result of Inquiries into the State of the Agricultural Labourers in the County of 
Norfolk. By Sir Joun Bortzau, Bart., F.R.S. 


Out of 680 parishes to which queries had been addressed, 426 sent returns. These 
parishes contain 664,487 acres, of which 471,399 are arable. The total number of 
labourers usually employed thereon is 23,058 labourers, of which 18,277 are above 
20 years of age, and 4781 above 14 and under 20 years of age, Hence the average 
of labourers of all kinds to land of all kinds is 35 to 100 acres. The average of la- 
bourers of all kinds to arable land is nearly 5 to 100 acres. Labourers above 20 to 
100 acres of all kinds 23 to 100 acres. Labourers above 20 years of age to arable 
land is 33 to 100 acres. Hence it was concluded that there was no surplus supply 
of labour in the country, and that the land, if judiciously cultivated, would provide 
‘employment for the entire population. 


On the Police Statistics of Manchester. By W. Niexp. 


This paper comprised a series of tables, forming the Statistical Returns of the 
Police of Manchester in the year 1844, with the observations of Mr. Willis, Chief 
Constable. The total number of apprehensions from the Ist of January to the 31st 
of December 1844 has amounted to 10,702, being a considerable decrease in the 
number apprehended, as compared with previous years, and exhibiting much fewer 
apprehensions during the past year than during any year since the establishment of 
a day and night police force. The decrease may be, in some measure, attributed to 
the more’ prosperous state of trade, which, as compared with previous years, has ex- 
‘isted during the period to which the present returns relate. At the same time, as it 
is a fact’ well-known to the police, that there is always a large class of persons who 
never work, and another class who (although employed, and in the receipt of good 
wages) are in the habit of committing, or attempting to commit, felonies after their 
hour's of labour, there can be no doubt that the decrease in the number of apprehen- 
‘sions is not to be altogether attributed to the state of trade, but must be partly 
‘ascribed to the increased efficiency of the police, which has tended in a great measure 
to prevent the commission of crime. As respects the summary convictions in the 
“year 1843, out of 12,147 apprehensions, there were 298] summary convictions and 
758 committals for trial; whilst in 1844, out of 10,702 apprehensions, there were 
‘3961 summary convictions and 691 committals for trial; or an actual increase in 
the past year of nearly 1000 convictions, although the number of apprehensions has 
been less by 1445 individuals. The increase in the number of summary convictions 
‘may, in a measure, be attributed to the provisions contained in the New Police Act, 
which came into operation on the 4th of July 1844, which enables the Justices to 
‘punish by fine or imprisonment parties found drunk in the streets, and which power 


‘hasbeen frequently exercised. The number of apprehensions for drunkenness is 


90 REPORT—1845. 


4156 (being 42 less than in the previous year), and from the persons of this class the 
sum of 1392/, 10s. 10d. has been taken and restored when discharged, The return 
also shows, that out of a gross amount of 76587. 6s. 11d. reported to have been stolen 
during the year, the sum of 3040. 14s, 3d. has been recovered by the police; and 
that out of a sum amounting to 1801/. 8s. 1d, reported to have been accidentally lost, 
the police have been instrumental in recovering 1]26/. 6s. 3d. The only other 
table which it may be necessary to notice is that which shows that curing the past 
year 2798 premises have been found open and insecure by the police during the 
night ; of this number, 1433 consisted of warehouses and shops, containing property, 
in which no parties resided, or were left in charge; 649 of houses, shops, and ware- 
houses, containing property, and in which parties did reside; and 538 of empty 
houses. The same table also shows that the police have, during the past year, re- 
stored to their friends 2637 children found apparently lost in the streets, 


Plan for the Formation of a Society to collect the Statistics of all Civilized 
Countries, and opening a communication between all persons engaged in 
Statistical Inquiries. By M. Juuien. 


~ 


On the Statistics of Small-pox. By Dr. Srarx. 


On the Statistics of Merthyr Tydvil, By Mr. Kenrick. 


The mass of the population of Merthyr has been brought into this wild district by 
the establishment of large ironworks belonging to Messrs, Crawshay, Guest, Hill and 
Thompson. The total population in 1841 was 32,968; houses, 6145—nearly 52 
persons to a house, and nearly three persons toa sleeping-room, In consequence of 
the number of unmarried men who come from Cardiganshire, Pembrokeshire, and 
other adjoining counties, to take advantage of the high wages which are given at the 
ironworks, the males much exceed the females ; the former being in the ratio of 6 to 5 
of the latter. Though so near the boundary of an English county, there are only 
about 4000 English out of a population of 33,000; and there are 11,000, or one-third, 
who cannot speak English intelligibly, and would not understand an English sermon. 
Only 1313 children attend the day schools, while there are 6857 children who are 
of a proper age to receive instruction. Perhaps the number at schools does not ex- 
ceed each day 1200 children. Most of the places of worship have Sunday schools 
belonging to them, where, te a certain extent, the deficiency of public day schools is 
supplied, but the teaching is confined to reading. There is a great neglect of drain- 
age in Merthyr: many of the streets are unpaved, and in bad weather the people 
have to wade through a stratum of mud from six to twelve inches deep. There 
are many cellars and miserable hovels that ave not fit for men to dwell in. There 
are many streets without the conveniences which are necessary for the health and 
comfort of civilized beings. There are no proper infant schools, no good juvenile 
schools, two only middling ; most of the teachers being illiterate, two of thenr not 
able to write. There is ng taste for literature among the working classes, very few 
of them having books on general subjects. There is a considerable proportion of 
the people who never attend a place of worship, and whose enjoyments are low and 

degrading. 


On the Vital Statistics of America, By Tuomas Laycocx, M.D. 


The duration of life is greater in England thanin America, greater in the Northern 
than in the Midland States, and greater in the Midland than in the Southern States. 


On the Choice of Sites for Colonial Towns. By the Rev. Mr. Boys. 


_ 


On the Iron Trade in Scotland. By Dr. Atexanper Warr. 
Dr. Watt has lately had occasion to collect full information relative to the iron 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91 


trade of Scotland from the most authentic sources, and also of the quantity of coals 
raised in the county of Lanark, and has arranged the information received on these 
subjects in two separate tables. 
»~On looking at the table constructed by Mr. Jessop for the iron trade, or for the 
iron produced by the blast furnaces in Scotland for the year ending October 1840, 
Dr, Watt finds that the increase in the annual quantity of pig iron smelted in that 
country in April 1845, amounts to 374 per cent, And there is every appearance that 
before another year expires a proportionate increase will be made in the amount of 
iron produced in Scotland. 

There are 2,047,000 tons of coal raised annually in Lanarkshire. The following 
is the manner in which that quantity is distributed for consumption :— 

Tons. 

It is known that the pig and malleable iron works annually consume about 1,000,000 

And that families and public works in Glasgow consume not less than ....,. 700,000 

The quantity of coal shipped at the harbour for the year ending April 1844, 


WAS ..eceeee VavanccvacscracUnses scr The sae<lAMsahEARSAAGSSOTACRaRAaaniaan *s2*¢926 aaaia se 120,000 
Quantity sent to Greenock by railway is ............64. Ma vadonisahiidnecuen a «tee riaa® 29,000 
Quantity sent by canal to the river Clyde «............00. canvass UNM sat oa o's 70,000 
Quantity consumed by steam-vessels carrying passengers and goods on the 

Clyde, to and from all quarters, is about ............ Movenedesomuenseronecasices 64,000 
Quantity consumed by the Clyde shipping company’s luggage- and tug-boats 10,000 
Quantity shipped at Port Eglinton per the Paisley canal....... Haren pccrArias 20 11,000 
Quantity consumed in the country arOUNd .,sycseasccessessercccrespeseeseesanses 43,000 

2,047,000 


Facts respecting the Iron Trade. By G. R, Porrszn, F.R.S. 


Sir J. Guest, of Dowlais Works, in evidence before Import Duties Committee, 
1840, stated that— 
Tons. 
The iron made at the beginning of this century amounted to... 150,000 
TeayA BOG vaheis cas ehesissiercsdasevceecavectscssetaccebsbeccsadectivecsscese) DOQ;000 


Tr LEDS noe Lees cen sevonsvevesescccnssnecesesdvovcecsacsesssnocsevessaegeos | | 402,000 
TeASL BRE lwas cs cheshyvassvsips speavhacsohagessinsisnacdpess osleed ceddacnensgneh)) BOd QO 
TDL GZS. Wastes cndaccanes devas Gets cvadneacrnanscercccnneasthpooeue sree 703,000 
Tra 1550 ndnceppapasestansepenrsdsegbesospenessssegpesicpessrapeesssessnsy= 19000,000 


.. 1,200,000 
So it ghd tA UG lead ME a ae a sessrseveseeee 1,500,000 


Mr. Porter further said, that Mr. Jessop, of the Butterley Works, estimated the 
annual produce in Great Britain, exclusive of Ireland, in 1840, at 1,396,400 tons, and 
that the quantity of coal used for smelting that quantity was 4,877,000 tons, besides 
2,000,000 tons for converting into wrought iron, To illustrate the importance of 
iron steamers, he could state that the Aaron Manby iron steam-boat, built in 1820, 
at the Horsley Iron-works, has been in use ever since, and the repairs to her hull 
have not altogether cost 50/. in those twenty-five years. A small iron steam-boat has 
been plying upon the Shannon since 1825. She is still in good condition. The 
number of iron steam-boats launched since 1830 is more than 150. Thesteam navy 
of the East India Company consists, in a great part, of iron—25 now in use in India. 


On the System of Colonization practised by the Irish Society. 
By J. Fiuercuer. 


On the different Methods employed to estimate the Amount of Population. 
By Prof. Pryme. 


These were worthy of being investigated ; because, in relation to history, some one 
or other of these methods was the only means available for interpreting facts. He 
enumerated many records of different countries and ages, to show that statistical in- 
formation, as a foundation for economic science, had been sought, though errors had 
been committed as to the right mode of attainment. There were four different bases 


. 


92 REPORT—1845. 


of calculation laid down, on each of which statistical criticism found cause for objec- 
tion and correction. 1. Taking the number of houses, and an average to each house : 
the fallacy of result from this mode was illustrated by reference to various countries, 
at their various stages in the progress of civilization, and by the different ‘habits of 
persons in the same district of the same country which affected the average number 
of persons in each house. 2. The estimate of population from the records of deaths, 
births, and marriages was still more fallacious, Among other illustrations, he men- 
tioned his having known of five marriages between six people, with only three chil- 
dren as a result; and such perturbating influences are frequent. 3. Comparing a 
certain part of the population,—as, for instance, those capable of bearing arms, an 
element often occurring in history; to which he believed that more value was to be 
attached than any of the preceding methods. 4. Actual enumeration; of course the 
the most perfect method, but one requiring a more complete machinery than had been 
hitherto applied, 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
On Nasmyth’s Steam Hammer for Pile-driving. By Ricuarv Greene, M.D. 


Turs machine consists of a steam cylinder, closed at the bottom, but with openings 
in the top to allow the passage of air: a piston works in it, having its rod passing 
through a steam-tight aperture in the bottom, To this piston-rod the monkey or 
driver, which weighs 23 tons, is attached, and is thus suspended. The machine is 
worked by high-pressure steam, which, being admitted at the bottom of the cylinder 
by the induction-pipe, raises the piston, and with it the monkey attached to it. The 
instant it arrives at the height required it closes the induction-pipe, and opening 
the eduction-pipe (also at the bottom of the cylinder), the steam escapes, and the 
piston with the monkey attached to its rod falis freely upon the head of the pile. 
A large heavy cap of iron, with a hole to allow the bead of the pile to pass through, 
slides between two upright standards and guides the direction of the pile. The mon- 
key and cylinder also follow the course of the pile, guided by the same uprights, be- 
tween which they slide. 

Dr.’Greene then added, on the authority of the inventor, the following report of the 
performance of the machine :— 

In the first trial with a part of the machine at the manufactory, it drove a pile 
fourteen inches square and eighteen feet in length, fifteen feet into the ground with 
twenty blows of the monkey, the machine then working seventy strokes a minute 
(the ground was a coarse gravel imbedded in a strong tenacious clay), and performed 
this work in seventeen seconds. The entire machine is now in full action at Devon- 
port for the embankment to be erected there to keep out the sea, and forms an im- 
mense wet dock to contain the royal steam navy. ‘he operations required to be 
performé@ on each pile from the time it is floated alongside of the stage, until it is 
imbedded in the solid foundation of slate-rock, occupy only 45 minutes. ‘The great 
stage which carries the machine, boiler, workmen, and everything necessary, trots 
along on its railway like a wheelbarrow. Having driven one pile it moves onward, 
the space of the diameter of another; it picks the pile up out of the water, hoists it 
high in the air, drops it into its exact place, then covers it with the great iron cap, 
which follows it as it sinks into the ground: then thump goes the monkey on its head, 
jumping away seventy-five jumps a minute. At the first stroke the pile sunk six feet, 
its advance gradually diminishing, until in the hard ground above the solid slate-rock 
it was reduced to nine inches. 

Nothing can better prove the superiority of the principle of this invention, of em- 
ploying a heavy weight moving with small velocity, instead of a light weight moving 
with great velocity, than the state of the heads of the piles as driven by the two 
methods. 

Dr. Greene called attention to a sketch of two heads of piles. One was fifty-six feet 
long, driven by a monkey of 12 cwt., falling from a great height, and making only one 
blow in five minutes, and requiring twenty hours to drive it; this, though protected 


, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 93 


by a hoop of iron, was so split and shattered on the head that it would require to be re- 
headed to. drive.it any further. The other, although sixty-six feet long, was not even 
supported by an iron hoop, and the head is as smooth as if it were dressed off with a 
snew plane. It was driven with a hammer of 50 cwt., and only three feet fall, making 
seventy-five blows a minute, and was put in its place and finished in 44 minutes. 

/ In, addition to other great advantages of driving by a heavy weight over that of 
driving by a light weight, is the immense saving of labour, or whatever moving power 
is employed. 

Dr. Greene advocates the use of this new powerful agent in the contemplated har- 
bours.of refuge which are to be formed along our coasts, and in the recovery of vast 
tracts of land from the sea. : 

[Since the first communication was received, in consequence of the men becoming 
more familiar with the manner of working the machine, some of the huge piles have 
actually been raised from the raft, put in their places, and driven to the required 
depth in two minutes; the operation seldom occupying more than four minutes. | 


On Railway Gradients. By Wittiam FairBairn. 


The author stated that the object of this communication was simply a notice of ex- 
periments then in progress to determine the power of adhesion of the locomotive en- 
gine in the first instance, and the force of traction necessary to work gradients in the 
second. After a brief statement of the progress made in the development of different 
lines of communication and the improvements effected in the locomotive engine, the 
paper went on to state the facilities with which even steep gradients were now sur- 
mounted by the enlarged powers of the engine, more particularly when compared with 
those in use at the commencement and subsequent extension of railway traffic. 

The author proceeded to examine, — 

_ist. The resistance due to friction on the machinery or working parts of the en- 

ne. 

2nd. The resistance of the engine considered as a carriage. 

5rd. The resistance of the waggons, carriages, &c. composing a train; and, 

Lastly, the resistance of the air. 

In treating of these separate heads, the writer instanced the experiments of the 
Comte de Pambour, Dr. Lardner, and Mr. Woods. According to those authorities, 
the resistances were variously stated; first by Pambour, who makes the friction of 
the waggons and steam-engine, when considered as a carriage, equal to 5-76 Ibs. per 
ton, and for the friction of the working parts of the engine 7 lbs. per ton. On this 
assumption the resistance would be 5-76 + 7 = 12-76, or about 13 lbs. per ton for 
the sum of the friction due to the engine (considered as a carriage) on the one hand, 
and the whole of its constituent parts taken collectively on the other. 

_, As respects the resistance of the air, the author gave results from similar experi- 
ments, and haying assumed a velocity of 33 miles an hour, he found a mean resist- 
ance of 2°92, or nearly 3 Ibs. on every square foot of surface exposed to the action of 
the air. Mr, Woods in some recent experiments makes the resistance on a calm day 
(at the same velocity) 3th of the whole weight, which, compared with others, gives 
a total resistance (including friction) of 25 lbs. per ton. This sum was considered a 
fair ayerage of the experiments; and assuming 25 Ibs. as the maximum resistance to 
every ton of a railway train, the author laid before the Section a table of gradients, of 
‘which the following is an abstract :— 
' Gradients. Resistance in Ibs. per ton. 

in 20 onsebwebsene 137-00 

sorrdiiniad osbt vai lige 81-00 

» 60 sesesecesnce 62°33 

poi BOS I -edhiolsas 53-00 

je BOOsivolwe. lecue, dl 47-40 
Seenscsecses 43°66 
0408s | ih Shaiget 40-71 
3, 160 Sescesesscee 39:00 
” 180 steeneceeees 37°44 
» 200 sadecdaeleces 36°20 


el lll oll ne dt ll 
vy 
. 
_ 
1) 
So 


94 REPORT—1845. 


In addition to the resistances, force of traction, &c. already described, the author 
briefly detailed several experiments made on the Hunts Bank Incline with two loco- 
motive engines belonging to the Manchester and Leeds Railway Company. Both 
engines had 14-inch cylinders, and 4 feet 8 inches driving-wheels. The first, with all 
the six wheels coupled, took a gross load of 82 tons 2 cwt. up a gradient of 1 in 60 for 
a distance of 1144 yards, and 1 in 46 for a distance of about 900 yards; and the 
whole distance of 2054 yards was accomplished in 6 minutes. 

By the second engine, with only four wheels coupled, the same load was carried 
and the same distance performed in 5 minutes and 30 seconds, being at the rate of 
nearly 12 miles an hour. : 

From these experiments, and others which are still in progress, it is inferred that a 
great saving may be effected in the first outlay and construction of railways; and in- 
stead of spending large sums in tunnels, cuttings and embankments (in order to attain 
easy gradients), it will ensure much greater ceconomy, and prove more conducive to 
the public interests, leaving out of the question the merits of the atmospheric principle, 
to increase the powers of the locomotive engine, and work lines with gradients vary- 
ing from 1 in 100 to 1 in 30. 


On a new Method of converting Rectilinear into Rotatory Motion. By the 
Rev. James Boorn, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Vice-Principal of, and 
Professor of Mathematics in the Liverpool Collegiate Institution. 


The geometrical property on which this motion is founded is one long known and 
of great simplicity. Let a right line of constant length move so as to have its extre- 
mities always in contact with two fixed lines at right angles to each other, the middle 
point of this constant right line will describe a circle, The author then institutes a 
comparison between this method, which he terms the sliding crank, and the common 
crank, as applied to the direct action engine, and shows that in the latter, if # be the 
distance from the bottom of the cylinder through which the piston has ascended, 
while the shaft has been revolving through the angle 6, 2@ and c being the length of 
the stroke and of the connecting-rod respectively, we shall have the equation, 


2 4 6 
:= Bani Po sint? 6+ Qe sintd+R @  sin® 6, &e., 
2 c c3 é 
P QR being numerical coefficients; while in the sliding crank the relation between 
2, a and @ isa = 2 asin” £. Now these equations become identical, by supposing ¢, 


the connecting-rod, indefinitely great; hence it follows that the motion of the sliding- 
crank is identical with that of a common crank, whose connecting-rod moves parallel 
to itself, the most perfect theoretical form of the latter. He then discusses the fric- 
tion on the slides, and proceeds to show that, when the engine is producing its maai- 
mum dynamical effect, the friction is insensible, and concludes by pointing out the ad- 
vantages which this method possesses on the ground of compactness, the space occu- 
pied by the machinery being very small; so that, while in the direct action-engine the 
distance between the shaft and the top of the cylinder is equal to one-half the stroke 
+ the length of the connecting-rod, in this construction the distance is one-half the 
stroke simply,—a property of much importance where room is an object of conside- 
ration. 


[ 9 J 


INDEX I. 


TO 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 


OBSECTS and rules of the Association, v. 

Officers and Council, viii. 

Places of meeting, with officers, from com- 
mencement, ix. 

Council from commencement, x. 

Treasurer’s account, Xi. 

Officers of sectional committees, xiv. 

Corresponding members, xv. 

Recommendations adopted by the general 
committee at the Cambridge meeting in 
June 1845, involving applications to Go- 
vernment and public institutions, xv. 

Resolutions adopted by the magnetic con- 
ference, xv. 

Recommendations for reports and researches 
not involving grants of money, xvii. 

Recommendations of special researches in 
science involving grants of money, xviii. 

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated to 
scientific objects, Xx. 

General statement of sums which have been 
paid on account of grants for scientific 
purposes, xxi. 

Extracts from resolutions of the general com- 
‘mittee, xxiv. 

Arrangement of general evening meetings, 


EXVs, 5. 
Address by Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., 
Xxvil. 


Airy (G. B.) on the continuance of magnetic 
“and meteorological observations, 52. 

Allman (Prof.) on the periodical phenomena 
of animals and vegetables, 321. 

Animal kingdom, on observing phenomena 
relative to the, 325. 

—, lists for the, 334. 

Antimony, influence of tartrate of, when in- 
jected into the veins, 83. 

Apodes, 312. 


i _ Arctic expedition, on the new, 1. 
Astronomer Royal, the, on magnetical and 


‘meteorological observations, 1. 

os 1 el on the part which ozone acts in 
the, 98. 

Atmospheric waves, on, 112. 


Babington (C. G.) on the periodical pheeno- 
mena of animals and vegetables, 321. 

Ball (Mr.) on the periodical phenomena of 
animals and vegetables, 321. 

Barbiers, les, 235. 

Birds, list of, selected for observation of pe- 
riodical phenomena, 334. 

Birt (William Radcliff), second report on at- 
mospheric waves, 112. - 

Blake (J.) on the physiological action of me- 
dicines, 82, 

satan (Dr. Von) on the comet of 1843; 


Bombay, on the meteorology of, 73. 

Brisbane (Sir T. M.) on the continuance of 
magnetical and meteorological observa- 
tions, 33. 

Broun (J. A.) on the continuance of mag- 
netic and meteorological observations, 34. 

Bunsen (Prof.) on the gases evolved from 
iron furnaces, with reference to the theory 
of the smelting of iron, 142. 


Cambridge, magnetic and imeteorological 
conference at, 1, 13. 

Carangi, 275. 

Cartilaginei, 193. ~ 

Cepolidz, 277. 

China, on the ichthyology of the seas of, 187. 

Citule, 276. 

Comet of 1848, on the, 86. 

Ctenobranchii, 203. 

Cyclopodi, 203. 

Cyprinide, 287. 


Daubeny (Prof.), fifth report on the vitality 
of seeds, 337. 

Defoliation, list of plants to be observed for 
the periods of, 331. 

Devon and Exeter savings’ bank, analysis of 
depositors, from 1827-33, 139. 

Dove (Prof.) on the continuance of magne- 
tical and meteorological observations, 24. 

——. on the Toronto observations, 57. 


Elliott (Lieut.) on the meteorological and 
magnetical observations at Singapore, 5. 
Ely (the Dean of) on magnetical and meteo- 

rological observations, 1. 


‘96 


England, present condition of savings’ banks 
in, 135. 

Erman (Dr. Adolph) on the continuance of 
magnetical and meteorological observa- 
tions, 38. 

Erman (Paul) on the influence of. friction 
upon thermo-electricity, 102. 

Eudiometer, experiments with the, 150. 


Fish, list of, selected for observation of pe- 
riodical phenomena, 336. 

Flowering, list of plants to be observed for 
the periods of, 332. 

Foliation, list of plants to be observed for 
the periods of, 331. 

Forbes (Prof. E.) on the periodical phzno- 
mena of animals and vegetables, 321. 

Friction, on the influence of, upon thermo- 
electricity, 102. 

Fruit, list of plants to be observed for the 
periods of ripening of the, 332. 

Furnaces, on the gases evolved from iron, 
148. 

—, theory of the hot-blast, 168. 

Furnace-gases, on the application of, to prac- 
tical purposes, 179. 


Gas, on the, evolved from iron furnaces, 143. 

——,, estimation of olefiant, 170. 

——,, on the application of furnace, to prac- 
tical purposes, 179. 

Gauss (Ch. F.) on the continuance of mag- 
netical and meteorological observations, 
42, 64. 

Greenwich observations, list of observatories, 
institutions and individuals, entitled to re- 
ceive a copy of the, 6. 


Henslow (Prof.), fifth report on the vitality 
of seeds, 337. 

Herschel (Sir J., Bart.) on the continuance 
of magnetical and meteorological obser- 
vations, 1, 13, 67. 

Heterosomata, 277. 

Hot-blast furnaces, theory of the, 168. 

Humboldt (Baron A. yon) on the continuance 
of magnetical and meteorological observa- 
tions, 64. 

Hunt (Robert) on the actinograph, 90, 


Ichthyology of the seas of Japan and China, 
on the, 187 ; addenda, 316. 

Insects, list of, selected for observation of 
periodical phzenomena, 336. 

Treland, present condition of savings’ banks 
in, 136. 

i furnaces, on the gases evolved from, 

3. 


Japan and China, on the ichthyology of the 
seas of, 187. 


Kreil (M.) on the continuance of magnetical 
and meteorological observations, 45 


INDEX I. 


Kuppfer (M.) on the continuance of magne- 
tical and meteorological observations, 18. 


Lamont (Dr.) on the continuance of magne- 
tical and meteorological observations, 22. 

— on the Toronto observations, 63. 

Lankester (Dr.) on the periodical pheeno- 
mena of animals and vegetables, 321. 

Lindley (Prof.), fifth report on the vitality of 
seeds, 337. 

Lloyd (Dr.) on the continuance of magneti- 
cal and meteorological observations, 1, 
35. 

Loomis (Prof.) on the continuance of mag- 
petical and / meteorological observations, 

Lophobranchii, 202. 

Ludlow (Lieut.) on the magnetical and me- 
teorological observations at Madras, 5. 


Madras, on magnetical and meteorological 
observations made at, 5. 

Magnetic conference, resolutions of the, pre- 
sented to Her Majesty’s government, 67 ; 
report of the committee accompanying the 
same, 69. 

Nagpane observations, on the publication 
of, 3. 

——, list of, in the possession of the Royal 
Society, 8. 

Magnetic surveys, on, 3. 

Magnetical and meteorological observations, 
seventh report of the committee on, 1. 

, letters from foreign correspondents and 
others, relating to the continuance of, 3, 
5,13, 14, 18, 20, 22, 24, 31, 33, 35, 37, 38, 
42, 45, 52, 53, 57, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67. 

—, on the publication of the, of Girard 
College and Washington, U.S., 5. 

—, at Geneva, Prague, and Greenwich, 5. 

——, in the observatory at Madras, 5. 

——, at Singapore, 5. 

, approaching conclusion of the present 

system of the establishments, 9. 

, problems solved and to be solved, 12. 

——, particular suggestions deserving con- 
sideration, 12. 

, resolutions of the magnetic conference 

at Cambridge, 67. 

, report of the committee on, 69, 

Mammals, list of, selected for observation of 
periodical phzenomena, 834. 

Manchester and Salford bank for sayings, 
table showing class of depositors, with 
balance due to each on 20th November 
1843, 140; in 1844, 141. 

Medicines, on the physiological action of, $2. 

Merous, 230. 

Meteorological observations, on new stations 
for, 2. 

, list of, in the possession of the Royal 
Society, 8. 

Meteorological instruments, on the self-re- 
gistering, employed in the observatory at 
Senftenberg, 108. 


a 


INDEX I. 


‘Meteorology of Bombay, on the, 73. 

—— of the globe, on the periodical changes 
of the, 324. 

Mollusks, list of, selected for observation of 
“periodical phenomena, 336. 

Munich, barometric maxima and minima of 
the atmospHere at, during the transit of a 
supposed normal wave, 118. 


Northampton (the Marquis of) on the con- 
tinuance of magnetical and meteorological 
observations, 67. 


. Olefiant gas, estimation of, 170. 


— 


Owen (Prof.) on the periodical phenomena 
of animals and vegetables, 321. 

Ozone, on, 91. 

, on the part which it acts in the atmo- 

sphere, 98. 


Palladium, influence of chloride of, when in- 
jected into the veins, 83. 

Peacock (The Very Rev. G.) on the con- 
tinuance of magnetical and meteorological 
observations, 66. 

Peel (Sir R., Bart.), letters to, from the Mar- 
quis of Northampton and Sir J. Herschel, 
on the continuance of magnetical and me- 
‘teorological observations, 67. 

Perches de mer, 234. 

Percina, 210. 

Periodopharyngei, 247, 

Pharyngognathi, 255. 

Phillips (John) on the continuance of mag- 
on and meteorological observations, 

Physies of the globe, on the periodical 

changes of the, 324. 

Plants, list of, to be observed for the periods 
of foliation and defoliation, 331. 

» for the periods of flowering and ripen- 
ing of the fruit, 332. 

———,; to be observed at the vernal and au- 
tumnal equinoxes, and summer solstices, 
for the hours of opening and closing their 
‘flowers, 334. 

Playfair (Dr. Lyon) on the gases evolved 

’ from iron furnaces, with reference to the 
theory of smelting of iron, 142. 

Plectognathi, 199. 


_ Porter (G. R.) on the progress and present 


extent of savings’ banks in the United 
~ Kingdom, 129. 
Prague, barometric maxima and minima at, 
aoe 0 0 eae 


Quetelet (M.) on the continuance of magneti- 
cal and meteorological observations, 31. 
—— on the observation of the periodical 

phzenomena of organized beings, 321. 


po OP 
Raiz, 195. 
_ Redfield (W.C.) on the continuance of mag- 


' netical and meteorological observations, 
65. 


1845, 


97 


Reptiles, list of, selected for observation of 
periodical phenomena, 336. 

Richardson (Dr. John) on the ichthyology 
of the seas of China and Japan, 187. 

Royal Society, magnetical and meteorological 
observations in the possession of the, 8. 


Sabine (Colonel) on magnetical and meteoro- 
logical observations, 1. 

——, on the continuance of magnetical and 
meteorological observations, 53. 

, on some points in the meteorology of 
Bombay, 73. 

Savings’ banks, on the progress and present 
extent of, in the United Kingdom, 129. 
-——, analysis of depositors in the Devon and 

Exeter, from 1827 to 1833, 139. 
Schénbein (Prof.) on ozone, 91. 
Scombrisina, 266. 

Scotland, present condition of savings’ banks 

in, 137. 

Seeds, fifth report on the vitality of, 337. 
Senftenberg (Baron) on the self-registering 
meteorological instruments employed in 

the observatory at Senftenberg, 108, 
Serrans propres, 234, 

Siluride, 281. 
Singapore, on magnetic and meteorological 

observations made at, 5. 

Squali, 193. 
Strickland (H. E.) on the periodical phano- 

mena of animals and vegetables, 32). 
——,, fifth report on the vitality of seeds, 

337. 

Sturiones, 198. 


Taylor (R.) on the periodical phenomena of 
animals and vegetables, 321. 

Thermo-electricity, on the influence of fric- 
tion upon, 102. 

Thompson (Mr.) on the periodical pheno- 
mena of animals and vegetables, 321. 

Toronto observations, on the, 57. 

Trinity College (the Master of ) on magnetical 
and meteorological observations, 1. 


United Kingdom, on the progress and present 
extent of savings’ banks in the, 129. 


Vegetable kingdom, on observing phenomena 
relative to the, 321, 325. 

Veins, influence of tartrate of antimony and 
chloride of palladium when introduced. 
into the, 83. 


Wales, present condition of savings’ banks 
in, 136. 

Waves, atmospheric, 112. 

——,, altitudes of, equally distant from the 
axes, 116. 

——, directions of, 117. 

—., barometric maxima and minima ob- 
served at Munich, during the transit of a 
supposed normal, 118. 

——, on the normal, 120. 


: 


98 INDEX II. 


Waves, recurrence of symmetrical, 121. Waves, order of succession of the crests “of, 
, ordinates of the mean normal curve, 128. Ree ee 
122, ; | Weber (Prof. Wilhelm) on the continuance 
, investigation of secondary, 124. of magnetic and meteorological observa- 
Oat barometric differences of, 125, 126, tions, 14. a 
127. 
——, elements of, 127. | Xyphiide, 276. 


INDEX I. 


TO 


MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE 
SECTIONS. 


Aci, phosphoric, in ashes of plants, 35. Ansted (Prof.) on working and_ ventilating 
Actinism, influence of, in disturbing electri- the coal-mines of the north of England;) 
cal forces, 29. with reference to the accidents that occur 
Actino-chemistry, on, 29. in such mines from the explosion of fire- 

Agassiz (M.) on the fossil bodies regarded damp, 53. ; 

_by, as the teeth of a fish, 56. Antigua, on fossil fish from, 56. 

Agricultural labourers, on the state of the, in | Armstrong (W. G.) on a colossal hydro-elec- 
the county of Norfolk, 89. tric machine, with a notice of some phe- 

Ajiry’s (Prof.) examination of theoretical ex- nomena attending the production of elec- 
planation of a new polarity in light, 7. tricity by steam, 30. 

Alder (Mr.) on a new genus of Mollusca Nu- | Arvicola, on the genus, 62. 
dibranchiata, 65. Assafcetida, on the oil of, 33. 

Algebraic equivalents, on, 1. Ashes of plants, on the, 34, 35, 36. 

Allman (Prof.), description of the fruit of | Asturias, on the coal deposits of the, 49. 
some of the Hepatice, 71. Atmospherical changes, on great, 20. 

, ona monstrosity occurring in Saxifraga | Aurora borealis, on the nature and origin of 

Geum, 72. the, 22. 

Alloys, on the voltaic reduction of, 30. Auscultation, on an instrument to assist in 

Alten, description of the lightning and thun- the discovery of foreign bodies by, 80. 
der at, on August 16, 1844, 19. 

America, on fog-rings observed in, 19. Balfour (E.) on the migratory tribes of cen- 

——, on the ethnography of, 77. tral India, 78. 

, Vital statistics of, 90. Ball (J.) on practical means for the advance- 
Americans, on the, 80. ment of systematic botany, 72. 
Amylogenic bodies, 31. —— on the specific characters of plants, 
Analyses, ashes of plants, 34, 35, 36; oats, considered in morphological connexion, 74. 

35; narcotic plants, 836; wheat, 36; fuci, | Ball (Robert) on noises produced by one of 
37, 38. the Notonectide, 64. 

Anderson (Prof.) on the caustics produced | Bashforth (F.) on a machine for finding the 
by two mirrors in rotation, 9. numerical reots of equations, and tracing 

Andrews (Prof.) on the Irish species of Ro- a variety of useful curves, 3. 
bertsonian Saxifrages, 74. Bedford level, changes in the river drainage 

Anemometer, on a new, 18. of the, 45. 

Animals, on the mechanical action of, on hard | Binney (E. W.) on fossil trees at St. Helen’s, 
and soft substances during the progress of Lancashire, which exhibit Stigmaria as 
stratification, 52. their roots, 52. 1 

--—, on the fossil elephantine, of India, | Bird sculptured on the tomb of an, officer of 
62. . the household of Pharaoh, on a gigantie;) 


Anser, on hybrids of the genus, 62. |) 6a. 


Birds obseryed .in the years 1844-44, near 


“Llanrwst, Denbighshire, on the periodical, 


Aiel: 

wince (De) on certain traces of Roman co- 
lonization in Lancashire, 80. 

Blackwall (John), periodical birds observed 
in the years 1844-45, near Llanrwst, Den- 
bighshire, 63. 

Bode’s (Baron de) insulated compass, 16. 

Boguslawski (M.) on a stand applicable to 
the use of astronomical telescopes, 6. 

Boileau (Sir John, Bart.) on the state of the 
agricultural labourers in the county of Nor- 
folk, 89. 

Bonomi (Joseph) on a gigantic bird sculp- 
tured on the tomb of an officer of the 
household of Pharaoh, 63. 

on an apparatus for measuring and re- 
gistering two dimensions of the human 
frame, 76. 

Boole (George) on the equation of Laplace’s 
functions, 2. 

Booth (Rev. James) on a new method of 
converting rectilinear into rotatory motion, 


Botany, 62. 

, on practical means for the advancement 
sof systematic, 72. 

Boutigny (M.) on the spheroidal state of bo- 
dies, and its application to steam-boilers, 
‘and on the freezing of water in red-hot 
vessels, 27. 

Boys (Rev. M.) on the choice of sites for co- 
Jonial’ towns, 90. 

Buckland (Rev: Dr.) on the agency of land 
‘snails in forming holes and trackways in 
compact limestone, 48. 

on the mechanical action of animals on 
hard and soft substances during the pro- 
gress of stratification, 52. 

Brain, on the communicating fibres of the, 
in reference to thought and action, 84. 


4 Brent (Mr.)on the hejght, weight andstrength 


of man, 80. ! 
Brewster (Sir David) on a new polarity of 


{ 
light, with an examination of Mr. Airy’s 
4 
: 


explanation of it on the undulatory theory, 
BAD i c 


> 
. 


—— on two new properties of the retina, 8. 
—~'on the rotation of minute crystals in 
the cavities of topaz, 9. 
“on the condition of topaz subsequent to 
- the! formation of certain classes of cavities 
‘within it, 9. 
—— on an improved method of taking po- 
» sitive Talbotypes (Calotypes), 10. 
_ + — on fog-rings observed in America, 19. 
_ Brisbane (iieut.-Gen. Sir Thomas M., Bart), 
*yesults of the magnetic and meteorological 
observations at his observatory in 1842, 
“15. 
Britain, on the fossil insects of the secondary 
___ formations of, 58. 
_ — ++) on additions to the marine fauna of, 66. 
f Brooke (Charles) on a new mode of suture, 
__ applicable to plastic operations, 84. 
k 


‘ 
4 


INDEX II, 


99.. 


- 


Brooke (Dr.) on an instrument to assist in 
the discovery of foreign bodies by aus- 
cultation, 56. 

Broun (J. A.) on the results of the magnetic 
and meteorological observations at Sir T. 
M. Brisbane’s observatory in 1842, 15. 

Brown (John) on a gold casting illustrating 
the state of art in New Granada prior to 
the conquest, 78. 


Calebar, on the natives of old, 79. 

Calotypes, on an improvement in the method 
of taking, 10. 

Cambridge, on the geology of the neighbour- 
hood of, 40. 

——, modern deposits connected with the 
drainage of the country in the neighbour- 
hood of, 44. 

——,, on the jaws of the ichthyosaurus from 
the chalk near, 60. 

——,, on the comparative number of degrees 
in at, in the 17th and 19th centuries, 

Cambridgeshire fens, on the turf of the, 75. 

Canter (Dr.) on Malacca guano, 39. 

Caoutchouc, on a new variety of, 32. 

Carter (Mr.) on the jaws of an ichthyosau- 
rus from the chalk in the neighbourhood 
of Cambridge, 60. 

Chalk, on the jaws of the ichthyosaurus from 
the, near Cambridge, 60. 

——,, on the occurrence of the mososaurus in’ 
the Essex, 60. 

Challis (Rev. Prof.) on the aberration of 
light, 9. 

Charities, statistical and historical account of 
the ancient system of public, in London, 

Charlesworth (Edward) on the fossil bodies 
yegarded by M. Agassiz as the teeth of a 
fish, and upon which he has founded his 
supposed genus Sphenonchus, 56. 

on the occurrence of the mososaurus. in 
the Essex chalk, and on the discovery of . 
flint within the pulp-cavities of its teeth,60. 

Chemistry, 27. 

-——, on a natural system of organic, 31. 

Chinese and Indo-Chinese nation, ethnogra-’ 
phy of the, 77. 

Christiania, meteorological observations for 
1844, made at, 19. 

Cilia and ciliary currents of the oyster, on 
the, 66. sit 

Cimbri, on the, 81. 

Clay, on the great brown, of the neighhour- 
hood of Cambridge, 43. 

—, on nodules from the London, 57. 

Coal deposits of the Asturias, on the, 49. 

Coal-mines of the north of Engiand, on 
working and ventilating the, 53. 

Cole (J. F.), description of the lightning and 
thunder on August 16, 1844, at Alten, 19, 

Colonization in Lancashire, on certain traces 
of Roman, 80. 

——,, on the system of, practised by the Irish 
Society, 91. 


HQ 


100 


Gam pists ona method of suspending aship’s, 

——, on Baron de Bode’s insulated, 16. 

Complexion, on local and hereditary differ- 
ence of, in Great Britain, 81. 

Coral rag of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, 
on the, 43. 

Corfu, on dredging at, 65. 

Cornulites, on the structure and relations of, 

Cornwall, on the marine fauna of, 65. 

Cos, on a remarkable phenomenon presented 
by the fossils in the freshwater tertiary of 
the island of, 59. 

Crag, on nodules from the red, 51. 

Cretinism, on, 79. 

Crops, on the chemical principles involved in 
the rotation of, 33, 34. 

Crowe (J.R.), meteorological observations for 
the year 1844 at Christiania, 19. 

Crystals, on the rotation of minute, in the 
cavities of topaz, 9. 

Cumming (Rev. J. G.) on posidonian schist 
amidst trappean beds, and on traces of 
drift-ice in the south of the Isle of Man, 
60. 

Cycle, on alunar meteorological, 25. 


Daguerréotype plates, on Fizeau’s process of 
etching, 76 / 
Daniell (Prof.) on the natives of old Calebar, 
Africa, 79. 
Daubeny (Prof.) on the chemical principles 
involved in the rotation of crops, 33. 
Deaf and dumb, on the state of the, 85. 
Dent (E. J.) on a method of suspending a 
ship’s compass, 16. 
Derbyshire, on the toadstones of, 56. 
Diabetes, on the chemistry of, 39. 
Dieffenbach (Dr. Ernest) on mineral manure, 


— on the geology of New Zealand, 50. 

Drift-ice in the south of the Isle of Man, 60. 

Duncan (James F.) on a peculiar form of epi- 
demic affecting the teeth and gums of 
young children, observed in Dublin in the 
winter of 1844-45, 82. 


Earnshaw (Rey. S.) on the rings which sur- 
round the image of-a star formed by the 
object-glass of a telescope, 10. 

Earth’s structure, on the connexion between 
magnetic variation with certain peculiari- 
ties of the, 16. 

Earthquakes, on remarkable lunar periodici- 
ties in, 20. 

Edmonds (Richard, Jun.) on remarkable lu- 
nar periodicities in earthquakes, extraor- 
dinary oscillations of the sea, and great 
atmospherical changes, 20. 

Egyptians, on the, 80. 

E] Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh, on the, 50. 

Electrical forces, influence of actinism in dis- 
turbing, 29. 

Electricity, on the elementary laws of, 11. 

—, on the production of, by steam, 30. 


INDEX II. 


Electricity, om the influence of galvanic; on 


the germination of seeds; 69) 990°" 


Electrotyped plants, on, 74. 11) esdr0F 
Elephantine animals of India, on the fossil, 


62. 

Endemic plants, on the distribution of, 67. 

Endosmose, on the influence of ‘galvanism 
on, 83. 

Entomology, remarks on, 64. 

Epidemic, on a peculiar form of, affecting 
the teeth and gums of young children, 82. 

Equations, on a machine for finding the nu- 
merical roots of, 3. 

ae on the increase of the, upon grasses, 


Etching Daguerréotype plates, on Fizeau’s 
process of, and its application to objects 
of natural history, 76. 

Ethnographic map of Great Britain and Ire- 
land, on Dr. Kombst’s, 81. 

Ethnography of the Chinese and Indo-Chi- 
nese nations, 77. 

of America, 77. 

Etna, on the physico-geographical descrip- 
tion of Mount, 59. 

Everest (Lieut.-Col.) on the measurement of 
two ares of the meridian in India, 25. 


Exosmose, on the influence of galvanism on, 
83. 


Fairbairn (William) on railway gradients, 93. 
Falconer (Dr.) on some new additions among 
the mammailia to the fossil fauna of India, 
a Perim Island, in the Gulf of Cambay, 


on the fossil elephantine animals of 

India, 62. 

Faroe Islands, on the discovery of guano in 

the, 64. ‘ 

Fauna of India, on some new additions among 

the mammalia to the fossil, 52. 

— of Cornwall, on the marine, 65. 

- of Britain, on additions to the marine, 

6. 

Fens, on the turf of the Cambridgeshire, 75. 

Firedamp, on accidents which occur in coal- 

mines from the explosion of, 53. 

Fish, on the fossil bodies regarded by M. 

Agassiz as the teeth of a, 56. 

——, on fossil, from Antigua, 56, 

Fisher (Dr.) on the scrofulous tubercle with 

reference to its vascularity, 82. 

Fisher (Rey. Geo.) on the nature and origin 

of the aurora borealis, 22. 

Fizeau’s process of etching Daguerréotype 

plates, on, 76. av 

Fletcher (J.), statistical and’ historical ac- 

count of the ancient system of public cha- 

rities in London, 88. 

—— on the system of colonization practised 
by the Irish Society, 91. 

Flint-gravel of the neighbourhood of Cam- 
bridge, on the, 44. 

Flint, on the discovery of, within the pulp- 
cavities of the teeth of the mososaurus, 60. 

Fog-rings observed in’ America, 19. 


a ‘ 


INDEX II. 


Footprints:of various animals on the new red 
sandstone of Corncockle Munir, 51. 
Forbes (Prof.) on aremarkable phenomenon 


.ypréesented. by, the:fossils in the freshwater 


tertiary of the island of Cos, 59. 

— = on preserving the medusz, 65. 

-—— on additions to the marine fauna of Bri- 
tain, 66. 

on the distribution of endemic plants, 
» more especially those of the British islands, 
“-considered. with regard to geological 
«changes, 67. 

Fossil plants, tabular view of, 48. 

Fossil trees at St. Helen’s, Lancashire, on, 52. 

Fossils, of the Silurian rocks, on some im- 
aportant additions to the, 57. 

——, onthe structure and relations of Silu- 
rian, 57. 

——,on aremarkable phen$menon presented 
by the, in the freshwater tertiary of the 

island of Cos, 59. 

Fowler (Dr.) on the state of the deaf and 
dumb, 85. 

Freshwater tertiary of the island of Cos, on 
a remarkable phenomenon presented by 
the, 59. 

Fucus, on three species of, 37. 


Galt of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, on 
- the, 41. 

‘Galvanic electricity, on the influence of, on 
-vothe germination, of seeds, 69. 


“Galvanism, on the infiuence of, on endosmose 


- and exosmose, 83. 
Etec, on a new property of, 28. 


\-——;0n,the action of, on the prismatic spec- 


trum, 28. 


»Gas, voltaic battery, on experiments on the, 


30. 


»Geography, physical, 40. 


Geological suryey, on exhibiting at one view 
the results of a given, 36. 

Geology, 40. = 

— of New Zealand, 50. 


Geometry, on the premises of, 2 


Glass, on the manufacture of a coloured, 29. 
Goadby (A.) on Fizeau’s process of etching 


_\/ Daguerréotype plates, and its application 


to objects of natural history, 76. 
Goddard (James. Thomas) on a new anemo- 


+ meter, 18. 


eopert (Prof.), tabular view of fossil plants, 
gini LE 


Graham (Prof. ) on a hew property of gases, 


> aati (Rev. Prof. C.) on triplets, 2. 


_Gravier (M. Coulvier) on shooting stars, 20. 


Grasses, onthe inerease of the ergot.upon, 
5 


¥ \Great Britain, on local and hereditary differ- 


ence of complexion in, $1. 


_ Greene (Dr. Richard) on. Nasmyth’s  steam- 


hammer for pile-driving, 92. 
Greensand of the neighbourhood of Cam- 
o® bridge, on the, 41. 
—,, on nodules from, the, 51. 


107 


Grove (Prof.) on recent experiments’ on ‘the 
gas voltaic battery, 30. 

Guano, Malacca; 39. 

, on masses of salt discovered in the tow 

a portions of, in the island ‘of Ichaboe, 


on the discovery of, in the Faroe islands, 
64, 


- Guiana, on the geography of, 50. 


——, on the superstitious and astronomical 
knowledge of the Indians of Guiana; 82. 
Gums of young children, on a peculiar form 

of epidemic affecting the, 82. 
Gutta percha, on, 32. 


re Ales ) on the toadstones of Derbyshire, 


Pamilion (Sir W. R.), exposition of a system 
of quaternions, 3. 

Hancock (Mr.) on a new genus of Mollusca 
nudibranchiata, 65. 

Heart, on the appearance of the surface of 
the, i in a case of Purpura hemorrhagica, 
$5. 

er on the mechanical | equivalent’ of, 


Henfrey (A.) on the development ‘of vege- 
table cells, 68. 


Henry (Prof.) on the heat of the solar spots, 
6. 


Henslow (Prof.) on nodules, apparently ‘eo- 
prolitic, from the red crag, London’ wl, 
and greensand, 51. st 

on Papaver orientale; 72. 

Herschel (Sir J.) on a model of the globe of 
the moon in relief, 4. 

Hepatice, description of the fruit of some of 
the, 71 

Heywood (J.) on the university statistics of 
Germany, 86. 

on the comparative number of degrees 
taken at Cambridge in the 17th and 19th 
centuries, 86. 

Hill (T. W.) on a system of numerical nota- 
tion, 4 

Hodgkinson (Eaton) on the strength of 
stone columns, 26. 

Hopkins (Mr.) on traces resembling orni- 
thichnites, 52. 

Howard (Luke) on a lunar meteorological 
cycle, 25. 

Huggate, meteorological observations made 
in 1844, at, 18. 

—, thermometrical observations in a deep 
well at, 18. 

Human frame, on an apparatus for measu- 
ring and registering two dimensions of the, 


Human race, on the present state of philolo- 
gical evidence as to the unity of the, 


Hunt (Robert) on actino-chemistry—on the 
chemical changes produced by the ‘solar 
rays, and the influence of actinism in dis- 
turbing electrical forces, 29. 

Hydro-electric machine, on a colossal, 30. 


102 


Ibbetson (Capt. L. L. V.S.) on electrotyped 
plants, 74. 

Ichaboe, on masses of salt discovered in the 
lowest portions of the island of, 39. 

Ichthyosaurus from the chalk in the neigh- 
hourhood of Cambridge, 60. 

India, on the measurement of two ares of the 
meridian in, 25. 

——,on some new additions among the 
mammalia to the fossil fauna of, 52. 

——,, on the fossil elephantine animals of, 62. 

, on the geographical distribution of 

plants in British, 74. 

, on the migratory tribes of central, 78. 

Injection, on an apparatus for minute, 86. 

Insanity, on the liability to, at different ages, 
87. 

Insects, fossil, of the secondary formations of 
Britain, 58. 

Trish Society, on the system of colonization 
practised by the, 91. 

Tron, peroxide of, in ashes of plants, 39. 

, on the trade in Scotland, 90. 

——, facts respecting the, 91. 

Isle of Man, on traces of drift-ice in the south 
side of the, 60. 

Ita palm of Guiana, description of the, 71. 

Ivory, on the vegetable, 70. 


Jarrett (Rev. Prof.) on algebraic equivalence,1. 

Jenyns (Rey. L.) on the turf of the Cam- 
bridgeshire fens, 75. 

Johnston (Prof.) on the chemical principles 
of the rotation of crops, 34. 

on the ashes of plants, 35. 

Joule (James P.) on the mechanical equiva- 
lent of heat, 31. 

Julien (M.) on the formation of a society to 
collect the statistics of all civilized coun- 
tries, 90. 


Kenrick (Mr.) on the statistics of Merthyr 
Tydvil, 90. 

Kemble (J. M.) on Dr. Kombst’s ethnogra- 
phic map of Great Britain and Ireland, 81. 

Kemp (Dr. George) on a natural system of 
organic chemistry, 31. 

Kimmeridge clay of the neighbourhood of 
Cambridge, on the, 42. 

King (Dr.) on the manners and habits of the 
South Sea Islanders, 80. 

Knox (Rev. Thomas) on the amount of rain 
which had fallen, with the different winds, 
at Toomavara, during five consecutive 
years, 17. 

Kombst’s (Dr.) ethnographical map of Great 
Britain and Ireland, 81. 


Laneashire, on certain traces of Roman colo- 
nization in, 80. 

Land, on the subsidence of the, at Puzzuoli, 

2. 

Lankester (Edwin) on the germination of 
plants, 69. 

on the Phytelephas macrocarpa (vege- 

- table ivory, or Tagua plant), 70. 


INDEX Il, 


Laplace’s functions, on the equation| of, 2s. !/ 
Latham (Dr. R.. G.) on: the increase..of. the 
ergot upon grasses, 79. ‘ieursdiel 
on the ethnography of the Chinese and 
Indo-Chinese nations, 77. he. me 
on the ethnography of America, 77; 
on the present state of philological evi- 
aaa as to the unity of the human race, 


et (Henry) on a thermometer stand,’ 

Laycoek (Dr. Thomas) on the communica- 
ting fibres of the brain in reference to 
thought and action, 84. ; 

on the vital statistics of America, 90; 

Leeson (Dr. H. B.) on the influence: of ‘gal- 
vanism on endosmose and exosmose, 83. 

on an apparatus for minute injection, 


Libellulide of.Europe, on the, 62. 

Liebig (Prof.) on mineral manure, 39. 

Light, on the elliptic polarization of, by me- 
tallic reflexion, 6. 

, on a new polarity of, 7. 

—, on the aberration of, 9. 

Lightning, description of the, at Alten, om 
August 16, 1844, 19. 

Lime, peroxide of, in ashes of plants, 35. 

Limestone, on the agency of land’ snails ia 
nepe holes and trackways im compact, 

Lloyd (Rev. H.) on the periodicity of mag- 
netic disturbances, 12. 

London, statistical and historical account of 
the ancient system of public charities in, 88. 

Longchamps (M. Selys de) on the genus Ar- 
vicola; on the Libellulid of Europe; on 
hybrids of the genus Anser, 62. BY. 

on obtaining accurate dates for the ap-~ 
pearance, &c. of birds, the migration of 
fishes, the budding, &c. of plants, 62. 

Luuar periodicities in earthquakes, 20. 


Macdonald (Dr.) on the unity of organization: 
as exhibited in the skeleton of animals, 62. 

on cranial vertebra, 85. fi 

Maclagan (Dr.) on the oil of assafcetida, 33: 

Machine for finding the numerical roots of 
equations, description of a, 3. 

Magnesia, peroxide of, in ashes of plants, 35. 

Magnetical and meteorological observations, 
on the results of the, at Sir J. M. Brisbane’s 
observatory, in 1842, 15. 

Magnetic disturbances, on the periodicity of, 
12. 

Magnetic machine, on a large, 15. 

Magnetic variation, on the connexion be- 
tween, with certain peculiarities of the 
earth’s structure, 16, 

Malacca guane, 29. 

Mammalia, on some new additions among the, 
to the fossil fauna of India, 52. 

Man, on the height, weight and strength of, 
80 / 


Manchester, on the police statistics of, 89 


| Manure, on mineral, 39. ’ 


 Notonectide, on noises produced by 


INDEX TI. 


Martin’ (Dr.)' om the moral and’ intellectual 
eharacter of the New Zealanders, 78. 

Mathematics, 1. 

MAndrew (Robert) on Medusz, 65. 

on additions to the marine fauna of 
Britain, 66. 

Mechanical science, 92. 

Medical science, 82. 

Medusz, on preserving the, 69. 

Merthyr Tydvil, on the statistics of, 90. 

Messier’s Catalogue, on the nebula 61 of, 4, 

Metallic reflexion, on points in the elliptic 

“polarization of light by, 6. 

Meteorological cycle, on a lunar, 25. 

Meteorological observations, made in 1844 
at Huggate, 18. 

——, made at Christiania, in 1844, 19. 

Miller (Dr.) on the action of gases on the 
prismatic spectrum, 28. 

Mineral manure, on, 39. 

Mines, ou working and ventilating the coal, 
of the north of England, 53. 

Mirrors, on the caustics produced by two, in 
rotation, 9. 

Mollusca nudibranchiata, on a new genus of, 


Moon, on a model of the globe of the, in re- 
lief, 4. 
——, on the projection of a star on the dark 
_limb of the, 5, 
Morphological connexion, on the specific cha- 
racters of plants, considered in, 74. 
Mososaurus, on the occurrence of the, in the 
‘Essex chalk, and on the discovery of flint 
within the pulp-cavities of its teeth, 60. 
Murichi, description of the, 71. 


Narcotic plants, on the ashes of, 36. 

Nasmyth’s steam-hammer for pile-driving, on, 
92s0: 

Natural history, on the application of Fizeau’s 
process of etching objects of, 76. 

Nebula 25 Herschel, on the, 4. 

Neu Schmollen, on the occurrence of Silurian 
rocks'at, 47. 

New Granada, ona gold casting illustrating 
the state of art in, prior to the conquest, 78. 

_ New red sandstone of Corncockle Muir, on 

_ the foot-prints of various animals on the, 
Bl zi: 

New Zealand, on the geology of, 50. 

New Zealanders, on the moral and intellec- 

rd tual character of the, 78. 

_ Nield (W.) on the’ police statistics of Man- 

chester, 89. 

_ Nodules from the red crag, London clay, 

__-and greensand, 51. 

Norfolk; on the state of the agricultural la- 
bourers in the county of, 89. 

Norton (J. P.) on the ashes of oats, 35. 

—— on the composition of slate rocks, and 

the soils formed from them, 38. 

_ Norway, on the trade and navigation of, $7. 

_ Notation, on a system of numerical, 4. 

one of | 

the, 64. | 


103 


Oats, on the ashes of, 35. 

Ober, in Silesia, on the occurrence of Silurian 
rocks at, 47. 

Ogilby (William) on the scientific principles 
on which classification in the higher de- 
partments of Zoology should be based, 62. 

Oil of assafcetida, 33. 

Oliver (Joseph York) on the Baron de Bode’s 
insulated compass, 16, 

Oolite of the neighbourhood of Cambridge, 
on the middle, 43. 

Organic chemistry, on a natural system of, 31. 

Ornithichnites, on traces resembling, 52. 

Oswald (M. Ferdinand) on the occurrence of 
Silurian rocks at Ober and Neu Schmollen, 
near Breslau, in Silesia, 47. 

Oyster, on the cilia and ciliary currents of 
the, 66 

Oxford clay of the neighbourhood of Cam- 

e bridge, on the, 43. 


Papaver orientale, on, 72. 

Parima, on the lake, 50. 

Peach (C. W.) on the marine fauna of Corn- 
wall, 65. 

Pearsall (Thomas J.) on masses of salt dis- 
covered in the lowest portions of guano on 
the island of Ichaboe, 39. 

Percy (Dr. John) on the chemistry of dia- 
betes, 39. 

Perim Island, on some new additions among 
the mammalia to the fossil fauna of India, 
from, 52. iy 

Philological evidence, on the present state 
of, as to the unity of the human race, 78. 

Physics, 1. 

Phytelephas macrocarpa, on the, 70. 

Pile-driving, on Nasmyth’s steam-hammer 
for, 92. 

Plants, on the ashes of, 34, 35, 36. . 

, tabular view of fossil, 48. 

——,, on the distribution of endemic, 67. 

——,, on the germination of, 69. 

—-, on the specific characters of, 74. 

——, on the geographical distribution of, in 
British India, 74. 

——,, on electrotyped, 74. 

Plastic operations, on a new mode of suture 
applicable to; 84. 

Playfair (Dr. Lyon) on atomic volumes, 31, 

Polarization of light, on points in the elliptic, 
by metallic reflexion, 6. 

Police statistics of Manchester, on the, 89. 

Population, on the different methods em- 
ployed to estimate the amount of, 91. 

Porter (G. R.) on the progress and present 
state of savings’ banks in the United King. 
dom, 87. 

on the iron trade, 91. 

Portlock (Capt.) on dredging at Corfu, 65. 

Posidonian schist amidst trappean beds, on, 


Powell (Rev. Prof.) on points in the elliptic 
polarization of light by metallic reflexion, 6. 

Pratt (S. P.) on the coal deposits of the 
Asturias, 49. 


104 


Proteunogenic bodies, 31. 

Pryme (Prof.) on the different methods em- 
ployed to estimate the amount of popula- 
tion, 91. 

Purpura hemorrhagica, on the appearance of 
the surface of the heart in a case of, 85. 
Puzzuoli, on the subsidence of the land at, 

52. 


Quaternions, exposition of a system of, 3. 


Railway gradients, on, 93. 
Rain, on the amount of, which had fallen at 
Toomavara during five consecutive years, 


Raleigh (Sir Walter), on the El Dorado of, 
50 


Ramsay (A. C.) on the denudation of South 
Wales and the adjacent counties, 50. 

Rankin (Rev. T.), meteorological observations 
made in 1844, at Huggate, Wold, York- 
shire, 18. 

on the ancient tumuli in the Yorkshire 
Wolds, 82. 

Reade (Rev. J.B.) on the cilia and ciliary 
currents of the oyster, 66. 

Rectilinear motion, on a method of convert- 
ing into rotatory, 94. 

Retina, on two new properties of the, 8. 

Robertsonian saxifrages, on the Irish species 
of, 74. 

Rocks, on the composition of slate, 38. 

Roman colonization, on certain traces of, in 
Lancashire, 80. 

Rosse (the Earl of) on the nebula 25 Her- 
schel, or 61 of Messier’s catalogue, 4. 

Rotatory motion, on a new method of con- 
verting rectilinear into, 94. 

Royle (Dr.) on the geographical distribution 
of plants in British India, 74. 


Salt, on masses of, discovered in the lowest 
portions of guano on the island of Icha- 
boe, 39. 

Salter (J. W.) on some important additions 
to the fossils of the Silurian rocks, 57. 

on the structure and relations of Cor- 
nulites, and other allied Silurian fossils, 
57. 

Sandstone of the neighbourhood of Cam- 
bridge, on the, 41. 

Savings’ banks, on the progress and present 
state of, in the United Kingdom, 87. 

Saxby (S. M.) on the connexion between 
magnetic variation with certain peculiari- 
ties of the earth’s structure, 16. 

Saxifraga Geum, on a monstrosity occurring 
in, 72. 

Saxifrages, on the Irish species of Robertso- 
nian, 74. 

oa on posidonian, amidst trappean beds, 
6 


Schomburgk (Sir R.) on the lake Parima, the 
El Dorado of Sir Walter Raleigh, and the 
geography of Guiana, 50. 


INDEX II. 


Schomburgk (Sir R.) on the Murichi, or Ita 
Palm of Guiana, 71. 

—— on the superstitious and astronomical 
knowledge of the Indians of Guiana, 82. 
Schweitzer (E. G.) on three species of fucus, 

Scotland, on the iron trade in, 90. 

Scoresby (Rey. William) on a large magnetic 
machine, 15. 

Scrofulous tubercle, on the, with reference to 
its vascularity, 82. 

Sea, on extraordinary oscillations of the, 20. 

Sedgwick (the Rey. Prof.) on the geology of 
the neighbourhood of Cambridge, inclu- 
ding the formations between the chalk 
ree a and the great Bedford level, 


Seeds, on the influence of galvanic electricity 
on the germination of, 69. 

Sharp (William) on the ashes of wheat, 36. 

Sibson (Mr.) on an apparatus for delineating 
correctly the relative position and size of 
the viscera, either in the healthy condition 
or changed by disease, 85. 

Silurian rocks, on the occurrence of, at the 
villages of Ober and Neu Schmollen, in 
Silesia, 47. 

7 fossils, on the structure and relations of, 


—— rocks, on some important additions to 
the fossils of the, 57. 

Skeleton of animals, on the unity of organi- 
zation as exhibited in the, 62. 

Slate rocks, on the composition of, 38. 

Small-pox, on the statistics of, 90. 

Smith (James) on the subsidence of the land 
at Puzzuoli, 52. 

Snails, land, on the agency of, in forming 
hole and trackways in compact limestone, 
48. 

Solar spots, on the heat of the, 6. 

Solar rays, on the chemical changes produced 
by the, 29. 

Solly (Prof.) on Gutta Percha, a new variety 
of caoutchouc, 32. 

on the influence of galvanic electricity 
on the germination of seeds, 69. 

South Sea Islanders, on the habits and man- 
ners of the, 80. 

Spectrum, on the action of gases on the pris- 
matic, 28, 

Sphenonchus, on the supposed genus, 56. 

Spina bifida, on a case of, 86. 

Spineto (Marquis di) on the Egyptians and 
Americans, 80. 

Splittgerber (M.) on the manufacture of a 
coloured glass, 29. 

Spratt (Lieut.) on aremarkable phenomenon 
presented by the fossils in the freshwater 
tertiary of the island of Cos, 59. 

Star, on the projection of a, on the dark 
limb of the moon, 5. 

——,, on shooting, 20. 

Stark (Dr.) on the statistics of small-pox, 90. 

Statistics, 86. 


—_— fs ee 


ape Tet in es a 


rs 


eo 


atten PY 


a PP ee 


eS 


INDEX II. 


Steam-boilers, on the spheroidal state of 
bodies, and its application to, 27. 

Steam-hammer for pile-driving, on Nas- 
_myth’s, 92. 

Steam, on the production of electricity by, 
30. 

Stevelly (Prof.) on the projection of a star 

on the dark limb of the moon just before 
its occultation, 5. 

St. Helen’s, Lancashire, on fossil trees at, 52. 

Stigmariz, on fossil trees which exhibit, as 
their roots, 52. 

Stokes (G. G.) on the aberration of light, 9. 

Stone columns, on the strength of, 26. 

Strickland (H. E.) on the foot-prints of va- 
rious animals on the new red sandstone of 
Corncockle Muir, 51. 

— on the results of recent researches into 
the fossil insects of the secondary forma- 
tions of Britain, 58. 

Suture, on a new mode of, applicable to pla- 
stic operations, 84. 


Tagua plant, on the, 70. 

Talbotypes, on an improvement in the me- 
thod of taking, 10. 

Teeth of young children, on a peculiar form 
of epidemic affecting the, 82. 

Telescopes, on a stand applicable to the use 
of astronomical, 6. 

——., on the rings which surround the image 
of a star formed by the object-glass of a, 
10. 

Thermometer-stand, on a, 17. 

Thermometrical observations in a deep well 
at Huggate, 18. 

Thompson (W.) on new species of Mollusca 
nudibranchiata, 65. 

Thomson (William) on the elementary laws 
of statical electricity, 11. 

Thunder, description of the, at Alten, on 

ugust 16, 1844, 19. 

Thurnam (Dr.) on a case of Spina bifida, 86. 

a liability to insanity at different 

ages. 

Tilley (Prof,) on the oil of assafcetida, 33. 

Toadstones of Derbyshire, on the, 56. 

‘oomavara, on the amount of rain which 
a sips, fallen at, during five consecutive years, 

Towns, on the choice of sites for colonial, 90. 

Topaz, on the rotation of minute erystals i in 
_the cayities of, 9. 

—— on the condition of, 9. 


Biren ness, on posidonian schist amidst, 
60. : 


Trevelyan (W.C.) on the discovery of guano 
in the Faroe islands, 64. 
Tribes, on the migratory, of central India, 78. 


105 


Triplets, on, 2. 

Tumuli in the Yorkshire Wolds, on the an- 
cient, 82. 

Turf of the Cambridgeshire fens, on the, 75. 

Turner (Mr.) on fossil fish from Antigua, 56. 

Twining (Dr.) on cretinism, 79. 


Valpy (R.) on the trade and navigation of 
Norway, 87. 

Vegetable cells, on the development of, 68. 

Vertebrz, on cranial, 85. 

Viscera, on an apparatus for delineating cor- 
rectly the relative position and size of the, 


Vital statistics of America, 90. 
Voltaic battery, on experiments on the gas, 
30. 


Volumes, on atomic, 31. 


Wales, South, on the denudation of, and the 
adjacent counties, 50. 

Walker (C. V.) on the voltaic reduction of 
alloys, 30. 

Waltershausen (Baron Von) on the physico- 
ao description of Mount Etna, 


Watt (Dr. Alexander) on the iron trade in 
Scotland, 90. 

Way (Prof. j on the analysis of the ashes of 
plants, 34. 

ete RPOd (H.) on the premises of geometry, 


Walt (T. S.) on the appearance of the sur- 
face of the heart in a case of Purpura he- 
morrhagica, 85. 

Westwood (J. O.) remarks on entomology, 
64 


Wheat, on the ashes of, 36. 

Whishaw (Francis) on exhibiting at one view 
the results of a given geological survey, 56. 

Williams (Rev. R.) on local and hereditary 
difference of complexion in Great Britain, 
with some incidental notice of the Cimbri, 
81. 

Witte’s (Madame) model of the globe of the 
moon, 4. 

Wolds, on the ancient tumuli of the York- 
shire, 82. 

Wrightson (F. C.) on the ashes of narcotic 
plants, 36. 


Yorkshire Wolds, on the ancient tumuli of 
the, 82. 
Young (Prof.) on imaginary zeros, &c., 1. 


Zoology, 62. 
—_—, on the scientific principles on which 
classification in the higher departments of, 
should be based, 62. 


Te THE END. 


1845. 


LONDON: 


PRINT<D BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 


RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science to whom Copies of this Volume are supplied gratuitously, 
in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the General Committee. 


[See pp. v. & vi.] 


*,* Itis requested that any inaccuracy in the names and designations of the Members may be communicated 


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Andrews, Thomas, M.D., Professor of Che- 
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Minehead, Somerset. 

Fitzwilliam, Charles William, Earl, F.R.S., 
F.8.A., F.G.S., PRAS., F.R.G.S., Presi- 
dent of the Yorkshire Philosophical So- 
ciety; Mortimer House, Grosvenor Place, 
London; and Wentworth House near Ro- 
therham, Yorkshire. 

Fleming, Colonel James, Kinlochlaich, Appin, 
Argyleshire. 

Fleming, William M., Barochan, Renfrew- 
shire. 

Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester. 

Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Manches- 
ter. , 

Forbes, James David, Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, 
Sec.R.S.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. M.C.P.S., 
Instit. Reg. Sc. Paris. Corresp.; Edinburgh, 


4 MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Forbes, John, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12, Old 
Burlington Street, London. 

Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling. 

Forster, Robert, A.B., Springfield, Dungan- 
non, Ireland. 

Forster, William, Ballynure, Clones, Ireland. 

Foster, Charles Finch, Mill Lane, Cambridge. 

Foster, H. S., Brooklands, Cambridge. 

Foster, John, M.A., Clapham, London. 

Fowler, Robert, 19, Merrion Square South, 
Dublin. 

Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthal near Truro. 

Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth. 

Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles, Mal- 
ton, Yorkshire. 

Fullarton, Allan, Greenock. 


Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A., 21, 
Woburn Square, London. 

Galbraith, J. A., Dublin. 

Gee, Alfred S., Dinting Vale near Manches- 
ter. 

Gibbins, William, Falmouth. 

Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden. 

Gilbert, John Davies, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Eastbourne, Sussex. 

Goff, William. 

Goodman, John, Salford, Lancashire. 

Gordon, James, 46, Park Street, Bristol. 

Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., Dela- 
mont, Killyleigh, Downshire. 

Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, A.B., Box- 
moor, Herts. 

Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering. 

Greme, James, Garvoch, Perth. 

Graham, Thomas, M.A., Professor of Chemis- 
try in University College, London, Presi- 
dent of the Chemical Society of London, 
F.RS. L.&E., F.G.S., Hon. Memb. Na- 
tional Inst. Washington, U.S. et Acad. Reg. 
Sc. Berolin. et Monach. Corresp.; 9, Tor- 
rington Square, London. 

Grahame, Captain Duncan, Irvine, Scotland. 

Grattan, Joseph, Shoreditch, London. 

Graves, Rev. Charles, M.A., Professor of 
Mathematics in the University of Dublin, 
M.R.LA., 2, Trinity College, Dublin. 

Graves, Rey. Richard Hastings, D.D., Bri- 
gown Glebe, Mitchelstown, Co. Cork. 

Gray, D., M.A., Professor of Natural Philo- 
sophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen. 

Gray, John, Greenock. 

Gray, John, 29, Leicester Street, Hull. 

Gray, John Edward, F.R.S.,F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 
Soc. Imp. Hist. Nat. Mosc. Acadd. Lync. 
Rome, Sc. Nat. Philad. et Hist. Nat. Bos- 
ton., Socius; British Museum. 

Gray, William, jun.,F.G.S. (Local Treasurer), 
Minster Yard, York. 

Greenaway, Edward, 9, River Terrace, City 
Road, London. 

Greswell, Rev. Rich., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 
Beaumont Street, Oxford. 

Griffin, John Joseph, Glasgow. 

Griffith, Richard, M.R.1.A., F.G.S., Fitzwil- 
liam Place, Dublin. 


Grooby, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.A.S., Swin- 
don, Wilts. 
Gutch, John James, 88, Micklegate, York. 


Habershon, Joseph, jun., The Holmes, Ro- 
therham, Yorkshire. 

Hailstone, Samuel, F.L.S., Horton Hall, 
Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex. 

Hallam, Henry, M.A., Trust. Brit. Mus., 
F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 
Instit. Reg. Sc. Paris. Socius ; 24, Wilton 
Crescent, Knightsbridge, London. 

Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Peru. 

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D., Astro- 
nomer Royal of Ireland, and Andrews’ Pro- 
fessor of Astronomy in the University of 
Dublin, M.R.I.A., F.R.A.S., Hon.M.C.P.S. 
Observatory, Dublin. 

Hamilton, William John, M.P., Sec. G.S., 
F.R.G.S., 14, Chesham Place, Belgrave 
Square, London. 

Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock. 

Harcourt, Rev. William V. Vernon, M.A., 
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S.,, Weldrake 
near York. 

Hare, Charles John, M.B., M.L., 9, Langham 
Place, London. 

Harley, John, Wain Worn, Pontypool. 

Harris, Alfred, Manningham Lodge near 
Bradford. 

Harris, George William, 2, Gloucester Place, 
Regent’s Park, London. 

Harris, Henry, Heaton Hall near Bradford. 

Harter, William, Broughton, Manchester. 

Hartley, Jesse, Trentham Street, Liverpool. 

Harvey, Joseph C., Youghal, Co. Cork. 

Hatton, James, Richmond House, Higher 
Broughton, Manchester. 

Haughton, William, 28, City Quay, Dublin. 

Hawkins, John Isaac, 26, Judd Place West, 
New Road, London. 

Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S., 15, Great Ormond 
Street, London. 

Hawkshaw, John, F.G.S., Islington House, 
Salford, Manchester. 

Haworth, George, Rochdale, Lancashire. 

Hawthorn, Robert, C.E., Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Henry, Alexander, Portland St., Manchester. 

Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire. 

Henslow, Rev. John Stevens, M.A., Professor 
of Botany in the University of Cambridge, 
and Examiner in Botany in the University 
of London, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.C.P.S., Hit- 
cham, Bildeston, Suffolk. 

Herbert, Thomas, Nottingham. 

Herbert, Very Rev. William, Dean of Man- 
chester ; Manchester. 

Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S., 9, 
Hyde Park Gardens, London; and Clare- 
mont, Manchester. 4 

Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S., Acresfield, Manchester. 

Heywood, Robert, Bolton. 

Higson, Peter, Clifton near Bolton. 


eS eer 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 5 


Hill, Rey. Edward; M.A., F.G.S., Christ 
Church, Oxford. 

Hill, Henry, 13, Orchard Street, Portman 
‘Square, London. 

Hill, Rowland, F.R.A.S., 1, Orme Square, 
Bayswater. 

Hill, Thomas, Rose Cottage, Oughtrington, 
Lymm near Warrington. 

Hill, Thomas Wright, F.R.A.S., Bruce Castle, 
Tottenham. 

Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnwick, Northumberland. 

Hoare, Rev. George Tooker, Godstone, Surrey. 

Hoblyn, Thomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., White 
Barnes, Buntingford, Herts. 

Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D., F.R.G.S., 9, Lower 
Brook Street, London. 

Hodgkinson, Eaton, F.R.S., F.G.S., 14, Cres- 
cent, Salford, Manchester. . 

Hodgson, Adam, Everton, Liverpool. 

Holden, Moses, 13, Jordan Street, Preston. 

Holditch, Rev. Hamnett, M.A., F.C.P.S., 
Caius College, Cambridge. 

Holland, P. H., 86, Grosvenor Street, Man- 
chester. 

Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.D.S., 50, Harcourt 
Street, Dublin. 

Hopkins, William, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 

_ F.G.S., Sec.C.P.S., Cambridge. 

Horner, Leonard, President of the Geological 

» Society of London, V.P.F.R.S.E., Soc. Se. 
Harlem. Socius ; 2, Bedford Place, Russell 

.. Square, London. 

Horsfield, George, Stanley Street, Red Bank, 
Manchester. 

Houldsworth, Henry, Newton Street, Man- 

_ chester. 

Hoyle, John, 10, Brown Street, Manchester. 

Hudson, Henry, M.D., M.R.1.A., 24, Ste- 
phen’s Green, Dublin. 

Hull, William Darley, F.G.S., Fairburn, Ros- 
trevor, Ireland. 

Hulse, Edward, All Souls’ College, Oxford. 

Hunter, Adam, M.D., Leeds. 

Hutchison, Graham, 16, Blythswood Square, 

» Glasgow. 

Hutton, Robert, M.R.I.A., V.P.G.S., Putney 
Park, Surrey. 

Hutton, William, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Local Trea- 

_surer), Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


Ibbetson, Levett Landen Boscawen, F.G.S., 
22; Upper’ Phillimore Place, Kensington, 
London. ; 


gs Inglis, James, M.D., Halifax, Yorkshire. 


Ingram, Thomas Wells, 85, Bradford Street, 
Birmingham. 


Jackson, James Eyre, Tullydory, Blackwater 


~ Town, Armagh. 


. Jacob, John, M.D., Maryborough. 
Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., 


Jardine Hall, Applegarth, by Lockerby, 


_- Dumfriesshire. 


Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of Di- 
vinity and Ecclesiastical History in the 
University of Durham ; Durham. 


Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, M.A,, F.L.S., F.G.S., 
F.C.P.S., Swaffham-Bulbeck, Cambridge- 
shire. 

Jerram, Rey. S. John, M.A., Witney, Oxford- 
shire. 

Jerrard, George Birch, B.A., Examiner in 
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in 
the University of London; Long Stratten, 
Norfolk. 

Johnson, Thomas, Mosley Street, Manchester. 

Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stirling- 
shire. 

Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde, Bart., 
M.P., M.A., F.G.S., 27, Grosvenor Square, 
London ; and Hackness Hall, Scarborough. 

Jones, Christopher Hird, 2, Castle Street, 
Liverpool. 

Jones, Major Edward, Plympton near Ply- 
mouth. 

Jones, Josiah, 2, Castle Street, Liverpool. 

Jones, Robert, 59, Pembroke Place, Liver- 
pool. 

Joule, Benjamin, jun., New Bailey Street, 
Salford, Manchester. 

Joule, James Prescott, New Bailey Street, 
Salford, Manchester. 

Jubb, Abraham, Halifax. 


Kay, John Robinson, Boss Lane House, Bury, 
Lancashire. 

Keleher, William, Cork Library, Cork. 

Kelsall, Henry, Rochdale, Lancashire. 

Kenrick, George S., West Bromwich near 
Birmingham. 

Kenrick, Samuel, Handsworth Hall near Bir- 
mingham. 

Kerr, Archibald, Glasgow. 

Kerr, Robert, jun., Glasgow. 

Knowles, Edward R. J., 23, George Street, 
Ryde, Isle of Wight. 

Knowles, William, 15, Park Place, Clifton, 
Bristol. 

Knox, C. G. Esq., Old Square, Lincoln’s Inn. 


Lacy, Henry C.,jun., Queen’s College, Ox- 
ford. 


Langton, William, Manchester. 

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L., Trust. 
Brit. Mus., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.H.S., F.R.A.S., 
52, Berkeley Square, London; and Bowood 
Park, Wiltshire. 

Larcom, Captain Thomas A., R.E., F.R.S., 
M.R.LA., F.R.G.S., Ordnance Survey Of- 
fice, Phoenix Park, Dublin. 

La Touche, David Charles, M.R.I.A., Castle 
Street, Dublin. 

Lawson, Andrew, M.P., Boroughbridge, 
Yorkshire. 

Leah, Henry, Byerley Hall near Bradford, 
Yorkshire. 

Leatham, Charles Albert, Wakefield. 

Leather, John Towlerton, Leventhorpe House 
near Leeds. 

Lee, Rev. James Prince, M.A., F.G.S., 
E.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., King Edward’s School, 
Birmingham. 


6 MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 

- F.R.G.S., 5, College, Doctors’ Commons, 
London; and Hartwell House near Ayles- 
bury, Buckinghamshire. 

Leeson, H. B., M.A., M.D., F.C.P.S., M.R.I., 
St. Thomas’s Hospital, and Greenwich. 

Lefroy, Lieut., R.A., Woolwich. 

Legh, George Cornwall, M.P., F.G.S., High 
Legh, Cheshire. 

Leinster, Augustus Frederick, Duke of, 
M.R.LA., F.H.S., F.Z.S., 6, Carlton House 
Terrace, London ; and Carton House, May- 
nooth. 

Lemon, SirCharles, Bart., M.P.,F.R.S., F.G.S., 
F.H.S., F.R.G.S., 46, Charles Street, Berke- 
ley Square, London; and Carclew near 
Falmouth. 

Lewis, Captain Thomas Locke, R.E., F.R.S., 
F.R.G.S., Ibsley Cottage near Exeter. 

Liddell, Andrew, Glasgow. 

Lindsay, Henry L., C.E., Armagh. 

Lingard, John R., Stockport, Cheshire, 

Lister, Joseph Jackson, F.R.S., 5, Tokenhouse 
Yard, London ; and Upton, Essex. 

Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S., Newbold Ter- 
race, Leamington, Warwickshire. 

Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey, D.D., Trinity Col- 
lege, Dublin, F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Dublin. 
Lloyd, William Horton, F.L.S., F.S.A., 
F.R.G.S., 1, Park Square West, Regent’s 

Park, London. 

Lockey, Rev. Francis, Swanswick near Bath. 

Loftus, William Kennett, F.G.S., Caius Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Logan, William Edmond, F.G.S., Hart Lo- 
gan’s, Esq., 4, York Gate, London. 

Lubbock, Sir John William, Bart., M.A., 
V.P.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., 23, St. James’s 
Place, London; and High Elms, Farn- 
borough, Kent. 

Lucas, William, The Mills, near Sheffield. 

Lutwidge, Charles, M.A., F.C.P.S., R. W. 8. 
Lutwidge’s, Esq., Old Square, Lincoln’s 
Inn, London. 

Lyell, Charles, jun., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., 
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 16, Hart Street, Blooms- 
bury, London. 


McAll, Rev. Edward, Rector of Brighstone, 
Newport, Isle of Wight. 

McAndrew, Robert, 84, Upper Parliament 
Street, Liverpool. 

MacBrayne, Robert, Barony Glebe, Glasgow. 

M‘Connel, James, Manchester. 

MacCullagh, James, LL.D., Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in the University of 
Dublin, F.R.S., M.R.LA., Trinity College, 
Dublin. 

McCulloch, George, 16, Clayland’s Road, 
Clapham Road, London. 

MacDonnell, Rev. Richard, D.D., M.R.LA., 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

M‘Ewan, John, Glasgow. 

Mackenzie, Sir Francis A., Bart., Kinellan 
by Dingwall, Scotland. 

Malcolm, Frederick, 8, Leadenhall St.,London, 


Marshall, James Garth, M.A., F.G.S., Head- 
ingley near Leeds. 

Martineau, Rev. James, 12, Mason Street, 
Edge Hill, Liverpool. 

Mason, Thomas, York. 

Mather, Daniel, 58, Mount Pleasant, Liver- 


pool. 

Mather, John, 58, Mount Pleasant, Liver- 

pool. 

Maxwell, Robert Percival, Finnebrogue, 
Downpatrick, Ireland. 

Mayne, Rev. Charles, M.R.LA., 22, Upper 
Merrion Street, Dublin. 

Meadows, James, Green Hill, Greenheys, 
Manchester. 

Meynell, Thomas, jun., F.L,S., Gillygate, 
York. 

Miller, Patrick, M.D., Exeter. 

Miller, William Allen, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.P.S., 
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, 
London. 

Mills, John Robert, Bootham, York. 

Milne, David, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S,, Edin- 
burgh. 

Moore, John Carrick, F.G.S., 37, Hertford 
Street, Mayfair, London. 

More, John Shank, Professor of the Law of 
Scotland in the University of Edinburgh, 
F.R.S.E., Edinburgh. 

Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A., Crambe, 
Yorkshire. 

Murchison, Sir Rod. Impey, G.C.S., M.A., 
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.1A., F.L.S., V.P.G.S., 
V.P.R.G.S., Hon.M.C.P.S., Inst. Reg. Se. 
Paris. et Acad. Reg. Taurin. Corresp., et 
Soc. Imp. Sc. Nat. Hist. Mosq. Socius; 16, 
Belgrave Square, London. 

Murray, John, C.E., Pier House, Sunderland. 

Murray, William, Polmaise, Stirling. 

Muspratt, James Sheridan, Ph.D., Seaforth 
Hall near Liverpool. 


Napier, Johnstone, Dinting Vale near Man- 
chester. 

Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead-upon- 
Tyne. 

Newman, Francis William, 4, Cavendish 
Place, Chorlton-upon-Medlock near Man- 
chester. 

Newman, William, Darley Hall near Barns- 
ley, Yorkshire. 

Newman, William Lewin, F.R.A.S., St. He- 
len’s Square, York. 

Nicholls, John Ashton, Ancoat’s Crescent, 
Manchester. 

Nicholson, C., Cowan Head, Kendal. 

Nicholson, John A., M.D., M.R.I.A., Balrath, 
Kells, Co. Meath. 

Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar- 
quis of, President of the Royal Society, 
Trust. Brit. Mus., F.S.A., Hon, M.R.LA., 
F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Vice Patron 
C.P.S., 145, Piccadilly, London; and Castle 
Ashby, Northamptonshire. 

Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G., 
LL.D., Chancellor of the University of 


soo el ted 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 7 


Cambridge, F.R.S., F,S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S., Patron C.P.S., Northumberland 
House, Strand, London; Alnwick Castle, 
Northumberland. 

Norwich, Edward Stanley, D.D., Lord Bishop 
of, President of the Linnean Society, F.R.S., 
Hon.M.R.1.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 38, Brook 
Street, Grosvenor Square, London; and 
the Palace, Norwich. 


O’Reardon, John, M.D., 35, York Street, 
Dublin. 

Orpen, Charles Edward H., M.D., M.R.L.A., 
34, Hamilton Square, Woodside, Birken- 
head, Cheshire. 

Osler, A. Follett, Birmingham. 

Ossalinski, Count, Chestnut Hill, Ambleside, 
Westmoreland. 

Outram, Benjamin Fonseca, M.D., F.R.S., 
F.G.S.,F,R.G.S.,1, Hanover Square, London. 

Owen, Jeremiah, H. M. Dockyard, Ports- 
mouth. 

Oxford,Samuel Wilberforce,D.D.,Lord Bishop 
of, F.R.S., F.G.S., the Palace, Wheatley, 
Oxon. 


Palmer, William, St. Giles’s, Oxford. 

Parker, Charles Stewart, Liverpool. 

Pasley, Major-General Charles William, C,B., 
Royal Engineers, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S., Board of Trade, White- 
hall, and 12, Norfolk Crescent, Hyde Park, 
London. 

Patterson, Robert, 3, College Square North, 
Belfast. 


"Pattinson, Hugh Lee, F.G.S., Millfield Ter- 


race, Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 

Pearsall, Thomas John, Assistant Secretary 
and Curator to the Literary and Philoso- 
phical Society, Hull, 

Peckover, Algernon, Wisbeach, Cambridge- 
shire. 

Peckover, Daniel, Woodhall near Bradford, 
Yorkshire. 

Peckoyer, William, F.S.A., Wisbeach, Cam- 
bridgeshire. ‘ 

Pedler, Lieut.-Colonel Philip Warren, Mut- 
ley House near Plymouth. 

Peel, George, Higher Ardwick Lodge, Man- 
chester. 

Peile, Williamson, F.G.S., Lowther Street, 

| Whitehaven. 

Perigal, Frederick, 33, Torrington Square, 
London. 


Peters, Edward, Temple Row, Birmingham. 


Philips, Mark, M.P., Park near Manchester. 

Phillips, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA,, Soc. 
Ces. Nat. Cur. Mosq. Socius, &c. (Assist- 
Ant GENERAL SEcRETARY), St. Mary’s 
Lodge, York. 

Philpott, Rev. Henry, F.C.P.S., B.D., Master 
of Catharine Hall, Cambridge. 

Pike, Ebenezer, Besborough, Cork. 

Pitt, George, 4, Great Portland Street, London. 

Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.D.,4, Bedford 
Place, Clapham Rise, London. 


Pontey, Alexander, Plymouth. 

Poppelwell, Matthew, Rosella Place, Tyne- 
mouth. 

Porter, George Richardson, F.R.S., M.R.A.S., 
Instit. Reg. Sc. Paris. Corresp.; Board of 
Trade, Whitehall, London. 

Porter, Henry John, Tandragee Castle, Co. 
Armagh. 

Portlock, Captain Joseph Ellison, Royal En- 
gineers, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
F.R.G.S., Corfu. 

Powell, Rev. Baden, M.A., Savilian Professor 
of Geometry in the University of Oxford, 
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Oxford. 

Pratt, Samuel Peace, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
55, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London; and 
Lansdowne Place West, Bath. 

Prestwich, Joseph, jun., F.G.S., 20, Mark 
Lane, London. 

Pretious, Thomas, Royal Dockyard, Pem- 
broke. 

Prince, Rev. John Charles, 63, St. Anne 
Street, Liverpool. 

Pritchard, Andrew, 162, Fleet Street, London. 

Prower, Rey. J.M., M.A., Swindon, Wiltshire. 

Pumphrey, Charles, New Town Row, Bir- 
mingham. 


Radford, William, M.D., Sidmouth, 

Ramsay, William, M.A., F.S.S., Professor of 
Humanity in the University of Glasgow 
(Local Treasurer), The College, Glasgow. 

Rance, Henry, Cambridge. 

Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D., Bootham, 
York. 

Rawlins, John, Birmingham. 

Rawson, Thomas William, Saville Lodge, 
Halifax. 

Read, William Henry Rudston, M.A., F.L.S., 
¥.H.S., Hayton near Pocklington, York- 
shire. 

Reade, Rev. Joseph Bancroft, M.A., F.R.S., 
Stone Vicarage, Aylesbury. 

Renny, H.I.., M.R.I.A., Dublin. 

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., 
F.R.G.S., Acad. Sc. Nat. Philad., Georg. 
Paris. Corresp.—Socc. Hist. Nat. Montreal, 
Lit. et Phil. Quebec, Hist. Nat. Boston, 
Socius Honor.; Haslar Hospital, Gosport. 

Riddell, Lieut. Charles J. B., R.A., F.R.S., 
Woolwich. 

Roberts, Richard, Manchester. 

Robinson, John, Shamrock Lodge, Athlone, 
Treland. 

Robson, Rev. John, D.D., Glasgow. 

Rogers, Rev. Canon, M.A., Redruth, Cornwall. 

Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.G.S., 
F.R.A.S., V.P.S.A., F.R.G.S., 18, Upper 
Bedford Place, London. 

Ross, Captain Sir James Clark, R.N., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Soc. Reg. Se. 
Hafn. Socius; Aston House, Aston Abbots, 
Aylesbury. 

Rothwell, Peter, Bolton. 

Roughton, William, jun., Kettering, North- 
amptonshire. 


8 MEMBERS TO WHOM 


Rowland, John, Railway Station, and King- 
ston Street, Hull. 

Rowntree, Joseph, Pavement, York. 

Rowntree, Joseph, Scarborough. 

Royle, John Forbes, M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., 
F.G.S., Professor of Materia Medica and 
Therapeutics in King’s College, London ; 
4, Bulstrode Street, Manchester Square, 
London. 

Rushout, Captain George (1st Life Guards), 
EG.S., The Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, 
London. 

Russell, James (Local Treasurer), Birming- 
ham. 

Ryland, Arthur, Birmingham. 


Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, Royal Artille- 
ry, Foreign Secretary R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
Acadd. Imp. Se. Petrop., Reg. Sc. Taur., 
Brux., Norv. Phil. et @con. Siles. Socius : 
Soce. Reg. Sc. Gotting., Mem. National 
Inst. Washington U-S., et Geogr. Paris., 
Corresp., (GENERAL SECRETARY), Wool- 
wich. 

Sanders, William, F.G.S. (Local Treasurer), 
Park Street, Bristol. 
Satterthwaite, Michael, 
Street, Manchester. 
Schemman, J.C. (Hamburgh), at L. Thorn- 

ton’s, Esq., Camp Hill, Birmingham. 

Schlick, Le Chevalier, Member of the Im- 
perial Academies of Milan, Venice, &c., at 
Rev. Charles Hassell’s, Fox Earth’s, near 
Newcastle-under-Lyne, Staffordshire. 

Schofield, Robert, Rochdale, Lancashire. 

Scholes, T. Seddon, Bank, Cannon Street, 
Manchester. 

Scholfield, Edward, M.D., Doncaster. 

Scoresby, Rey. William, D.D., Vicar of Brad- 
field, F.R.S. L. & E., Corresponding Mem- 
ber of the Institute of France, Member of 
the Historical Society, New York; Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., Woodwardian 
Professor of Geology in the University of 
Cambridge, and Prebendary of Norwich, 
F.R.S., Hon. M.R.1.A., F.G.S., F.R.AS., 
F.R.G.S., F.C.P.8., Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge. 

Semple, Robert, Richmond Lodge, Waver- 
tree, Liverpool. 

Shaen, William, Crix, Witham, Essex. 

Shanks, James, C.E., 23, Garseube Place, 
Glasgow. 

Sharp, William, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
Humber Bank House, Hull. 

Sherrard, David Henry, 84, Upper Dorset 
Street, Dublin. 

Sillar, Zechariah, M.D., Rainford near Liver- 
pool. 

Simpson, Samuel, Lancaster. 

Simpson, Thomas, M.D., Minster Yard, 
York. 

Sirr, Rev. Joseph D’Arcy, D.D., M.R.LA., 
Kilcoleman Parsonage, Claremorris, Co. 
Mayo. 


M.D., Grosvenor 


Slater, William, Princess Street, Manchester. 

Sleeman, Philip, Windsor Terrace, Ply- 
mouth. 

Smales, R. H., Kingston-bottom. 

Smethurst, Rev. Robert, Green Hill, Pilking- 
ton near Manchester. 

Smith, Rev. George Sidney, D.D., Professor 
of Biblical Greek in the University of 
Dublin, M.R.1.A., Trinity College, Dublin. 

Smith, John, Welton Garth near Hull. 

Smith, Rev. John Pye, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Homerton, Middlesex. 

Smith, Rey. Philip, B.A., Cheshunt College, 
Herts. 

Smith, Robert Mackay, Windsor Street, Edin- 
burgh. 

Solly, Edward, F.R.S., F.L.S., 38, Bedford 
Row, London. 

Solly, Samuel Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., 
F.G.S., Surge Hill, King’s Langley, Herts. 

Sopwith, Thomas, F.G.S., Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 

Spence, Joseph, Pavement, York. 

Spineto, The Marquis, Cambridge. 

Squire, Lovell, Falmouth. 

Stanger, William, M.D., Cape of Good Hope. 

Stratford, William Samuel, Lieut. R.N., Su- 
perintendent of the Nautical Almanac, 
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., 6, Notting-Hill Square, 
Kensington. 

Strickland, Arthur, Bridlington Quay, York- 
shire. 

Strickland, Charles, Loughglyn, Ireland. 

Sutcliffe, William, 4, Belmont, Bath. 

Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel William Henry, F.R.S., 
Hon. M.R.I.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.ASS., 
47, Albion Street, Hyde Park, London. 


Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A., Manchester. 

Taylor, James, Todmorden Hall, Lancashire. 

Taylor, John, Strensham Court, Worcester- 
shire. 

Taylor, John, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Gene- 
RAL TREASURER), 2, Duke Street, Adel- 
phi; and Sheffield House, Church Street, 
Kensington, London. 

Taylor, John, jun., F.G.S., Coed Da, near 
Mold, Flintshire. 

Taylor, Richard, F.G.S., Wood, Penryn, Corn- 
wall. 

Taylor, Captain Joseph Needham, R.N., 61, 
Moorgate Street, London. 

Taylor, Richard, F.S.A., Assist. Sec. L.S., 
M.R.A.S., F.G.S.~ F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 6, 
Charterhouse Square, London. 

Tennant, James, Professor of Mineralogy in 
King’s College, London, F.G.S., 149, 
Strand, London. 

Thicknesse, Ralph, jun., Beech Hill, near 
Wigan. 

Thodey, Winwood, 4, Poultry, London. 

Thompson, Corden, M.D., Sheffield. 

Thompson, John, Little Stonegate, York. 

Thomson, Edmund Peel, Manchester. 

Thomson, James, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., 
Primrose, Clitheroe, Lancashire. 


BOOKS ARE SUPPLIED GRATIS. 9 


Thomson, James Gibson, Edinburgh. 

Thornton, Samuel, Camp Hill, Birmingham. 

Thorp, The Venerable Thomas, B.D., Arch- 
deacon of Bristol, F.G.S., F.C.P. S., Tri- 
nity College, Cambridge. 

Tidswell, Benjamin K., 65, King Street, 
Manchester. 

Tinné, John A., F.R.G.S., Briarly Aigburth, 
Liverpool. 

Tobin, Sir John, Knt., Liscard Hall, Cheshire. 

Townsend, Richard E., Springfield, Norwood. 

Townsend, R. W., Derry Ross, Carbery, Co. 
Cork. 

Trevelyan, Arthur, Wallington, Northumber- 
land. 

Turnbull, Rev. Thomas Smith, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.P.S., Caius College, 
Cambridge. 

Turner, Samuel, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. 
(Local Treasurer), Liverpool. 

Tweedy, William Mansell, Truro, Cornwall. 

Tyrconnel, John Delaval, Earl of, F.G.S., 
F.H.S., Kiplin Park, near Catterick, 
Yorkshire. 


Vallack, Rev. Benj. W.S., St. Budeaux near 
Plymouth. 

Vance, Robert, 5, Gardiner’s Row, ee 

Vivian, H. Hussey, Swansea. 


Walker, John, Weaste House, Pendleton, 
Manchester. 

Walker, Joseph N., F.L.S., Allerton Hall. 

Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., Reader in Ex- 
perimental Philosophy in the University 
of Oxford, F.R.S., Wadham Coliege, Ox- 
ford. 

Walker, Thomas, 3, Cannon Street, Manches- 
ter. 

Wallace, Rev. Robert, F.G.S., 2, Cavendish 
Place, Grosvenor Square, Manchester. 

Warburton, Henry, M.A., M.P.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S., 45, Cadogan Place, Sloane Street, 
London. 

Ward, William Sykes, Leath Lodge, Leeds. 

Ware, Samuel Hibbert, M.D., F.R.S.E., Hale 
Barns Green, near Altringham, Cheshire. 

Warren, Richard B., Q.C., 35, Leeson Street, 
Dublin. 


‘Waterhouse, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 


Halifax, Yorkshire. 

Watson, Henry Hough, Bolton-le-Moor. 

Way, J. T., Royal Agricultural College, Ci- 
rencester. 

Weaver, Thomas, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.S., 
16, Stafford Row, Pimlico, London; and 
Woodlands, Wrington, Somersetshire. 

Webb, Rev. Thomas William, M.A., Tretire 
near Ross, Herefordshire. 

West, William, F.R.S., Highfield House near 
Leeds. 


Westhead, Joshua Procter, York House, Man- 
chester. 

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., Master of 
Trinity College, and Professor of Moral 
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, 
F.R.S., Hon.M.R.LA., F.S.A., F.G.S., 
FRAS., F.R.G.S., F.C. P. S., Cambridge. 

Whiteside, Tames, Q.C., MR.LA., 2, Mount- 
joy Square, Dublin. 

Whitworth, Joseph, Manchester. 

Whyatt, George, jun., Openshaw, Manchester. 

Whyte, Thomas, Edinburgh. 

Wickenden, Joseph, F.G.S., Birmingham. 

Wilberforce, The Venerable Archdeacon Ro- 
bert I., Burton Agnes, Driffield, Yorkshire. 

Willert, Paul Ferdinand, Manchester. 

Williams, Rev. David, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Blea- 
don, near Wells, Somersetshire. 

Williams, William, 6, Rood Lane, London. 

Williamson, Rey. William, B.D., F.C.P.S., 
Clare Hall, Cambridge. 

Wills, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Wilson, Alexander, F.R.S., 34, Bryanstone 
Square, London. 

Wilson, Rev. James, D.D., M.R.I.A., 10 
Warrington Street, Dublin. 

Wilson, John, Dundyvan, Glasgow. 

Wilson, John, Bootham, York. 

Wilson, Thomas, Crimbles House, Leeds. 

Wilson, William, Troon near Glasgow. 

Winsor, F. A., 57, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Lon- 
don. 

Winterbottom, James Edward, M.A., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., East Woodhay, Hants. 

Wollaston, V., B.A., F.C.P.S., Jesus College, 
Cambridge. 

Wood,Charles, M.P.,Garraby Park, Yorkshire. 

Wood, John, St. Saviourgate, York. 

Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., F.C.P.S., 
St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

Woodhead, G., Mottram near Manchester. 

Woods, Edward, 7, Church Street, Edgehill, 
Liverpool. 

Woollcombe, Henry, F.S.A. (Local Trea- 
surer), Crescent, Plymouth. 

Wormald, Richard, jun., 6, Broad Street 
Buildings, City, London. 

Wright, Robert Francis, Hinton Blewett, ‘So- 
mersetshire. 


Yarborough, George Cooke, Camp’s Mount, 
Doncaster. 

Yates, Joseph Brooks, F.S.A., F.R.G.S., West 
Dingle near Liverpool. 

Yates, R. Vaughan, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Yorke, Henry G. Redhead, M.P., 1, Eaton 
Square, London. 

Yorke, Lt.-Colonel Philip, 89, Eaton Place, 
Belgrave Square, London. 

Younge, Robert, M.D., Greystones near 
Sheffield. 


10 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 


Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem- 
broke College, Cambridge. 

Allen, L. B., Dulwich Common near London. 

Allman, George J., M.B., M.R.I.A., Professor 
of BotanyinTrinity College, Dublin, Dublin. 

Anderson, Adam, LL.D., Professor of Natu- 
ral Philosophy in the University of St. 
Andrew’s. 

Ashworth, Rev. J. A., Brazennose College, 
Oxford. 

Atkinson, John, Daisy Bank, Victoria Park, 
Manchester. 


Back, Captain Sir George, R.N., United Ser- 
vice Club, London. 

Bakewell, Frederick, Hampstead, London. 

Bentley, John Flowers, Stamford,Lincolnshire. 

Bevan, William, M.D., 5, Apworth Terrace, 
Upper Leeson Street, Dublin. 

Blakesley, Rev. Joseph Williams, M.A., Tri- 
nity College, Cambridge. 

Booth, Rev. James, LL.D., M.R.1.A., Vice- 
Principal of, and Professor of Mathematics 
in the Liverpool Collegiate Institution. 

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., LL.D., Principal 
of St. Leonard’s College, F.R.S. L. & E., 
Hon. M.R.1LA., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Hon. 
M.C.P.S., Instit. Reg. Sc. Paris.—Soc. Reg. 
Sc. Gotting. Socius ; St. Leonard’s College, 
St. Andrew’s, Scotland. 

Browne, Rey. Robert W., Professor of Clas- 
sical Literature in King’s College, London. 

Bunbury, Charles James Fox, F.L.S., Milden- 
hall, Suffolk. 

Bunbury, Edward Herbert, M.A., F.G.S., 
F.R.G.S,, 15, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London. 

Busk, George, Croom’s Hill, Greenwich. 

Butterfield, James Moore, 45, Mount, York. 


Campbell, Colin, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

Carter, James, Cambridge. 

Carter, George Barker, Lord Street, Liverpool. 

Carpenter, William B., M.D., F.R.S., Fullerian 
Professor of Physiology in the Royal Insti- 
tutiop of Great Britain; Ripley, Surrey. 

Charles, Rev. S., Denham, Suffolk. 

Chatfield, Henry, Devonport. 

Clark, Hamlet, Corpus Christi College, Cam- 
bridge. 

Clerke, Major Thomas Henry Shadwell, K.H., 
R.E.,F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 4, Brompton 
Grove, London. 

Cocker, John, M.A., St. Peter’s College, 
Cambridge. 

Cookson, Rev. H. W., M.A., St. Peter’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Cumming, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.BP.S., 
Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Cambridge. 


Daukes, Henry, Caius College, Cambridge. 
Dawbarn, Robert, Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire. 


mivtihtiyt William, Wisbeach, Cambridge- 

shire. 

Denny, Henry, Philosophical and Literary 
Society, Leeds. 


Everest, Lt.-Colonel George, Hon.E.I.C.S., 
F.R.S.,F.G.8., 16, Bury Street, St. James’s, 
London. 


Falconer, Hugh, A.M., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., 
F.G.S., 23, Norfolk Street, Strand, London. 

Felkin, William, F.L.S., Nottingham Park, 
Nottingham. 

Fitton, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., 53, Upper Harley Street, Caven- 
dish Square, London. 

Foster, Ebenezer, Trumpington near Cam- 
bridge. 

Foster, Ebenezer, jun., Lensefield Cottage, 
Cambridge. 

Foster, John Nathaniel, Biggleswade. 

Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., Sa- 
lisbury. 

Frere, Rey. John Alex., M.A., Trinity College, 
Cambridge. 


Greene, Richard, M.D., Dunkette House, Co. 
Kilkenny, 

Greenough, G.B., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., 
Hon.M.C.P.S., Grove House, Regent’s Park, 
London. 


Hailstone, Rey. John, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
F.G.S., Trumpington near Cambridge. 

saa Elias, Castleton, Bakewell, Derby- 
shire. 

Harris, Henry Hemington, Park Lodge, Cam- 
bridge. 

Haviland, John, M.D., F.C.P.8., Regius Pro- 
fessor of Physic in the University of Cam- 
bridge. 

Henfrey, Arthur, F.L.S., 1, Denmark Ter- 
race, Camberwell, London. 

Henry, Thomas H., Brick Lane, London. 

Hoffman, G. H., Margate. 

Hope, Rey. F. W., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., 56, 
Upper Seymour Street, London. 

Hughes, Hughes, F.S.A., F.L.S., Alderman of 
the City of London, 12, King’s Bench Walk, 
Temple. 

Fmapee Edward, 12, King’s Square, Bris- 
tol. 

Hunt, Robert, Keeper of Mining Records in 
the Museum of Economic Geology, Craig’s 
Court, Charing Cross, London. 


Irwin, Thomas, Audit Office, Somerset Place, 
London. 


Jerdan, William, F.S.A., M.R.S.L., 7, Wel- 
lington Street, Strand, London. 
Johnson, George, M.D., Stockport. 


‘ 
§ 
. 
: 


ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 11 


Kemble, John M., M.A., F.C.P.S., Berkeley 

Chambers, Bruton Street, London. 
Kingsley, Rev. W. T., M.A., F.C.P.S., Sidney 
_ College, Cambridge. 


Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.L.S., 22, Old Bur- 
lington Street, London. 

Latham, Robert Gordon, M.D., 29, Upper 
Southwick Street, London. 

Lawson, Henry, F.R.S., Lansdowne Crescent, 
Bath. 

Lees, Dr. Fr.R., Burmantofts Hall, Leeds. 

Legard, William, Starston, Harleston, Norfolk. 

heme Rey. Thomas T., M.A., Bridstow near 

SS. 


Milward, Alfred, 4, Lansdowne Place, Clifton, 
Bristol. 

Morris, Edward, M.D., Hereford. 

Myers, Rev. Thomas, M.A., Trinity Vicarage, 
Micklegate, York. 


Neild, Arthur, Mayfield near Manchester. 
Neild, William, Mayfield near Manchester. 


Oldham, Thomas, M.R.I.A., F.G.S., Professor 
of Geology in the University of Dublin. 


Paget, George E., M.D., Treas. C.P.S., Caius 
College, Cambridge. 

Parker, John William, jun., West Strand, 
London. 

Penfold, Rev. James, M.A., Christ’s College, 
Cambridge. 

Percy, John, M.D., Birmingham. 

Phelps, Rev. Robert, D.D., Vice-Chancellor 
of the University of Cambridge. 

Pringle, Captain J. W., 45, Pall Mall, Lon- 
don. 


Ramsay, Andrew C., F.G.S., Museum of Eco- 
nomic Geology, Craig’s Court, Charing 
‘Cross, London. 

Ramsay, William, Glasgow. 

Rankin, Rev. Thomas, M.A., York. 

Romilly, Rev. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S., Trinity 
College, Cambridge. 

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S., Kew, Surrey. 

Roscow, Tattersall Thomas, Downing College, 
Cambridge. 


; ‘Sadler, Michael F., St. John’s College, Cam- 


bridge. 


Saull, William Devonshire, F.S.A., F.G.S., 
F.R.A.S., 15, Aldersgate Street, London.” 
Shaw, John, M.D., F.G.S., Boston, Lincoln- 

shire. 

Shillinglaw, John, Assistant Secretary and 
Librarian to the Royal Geographical So- 
ciety, Waterloo Place, Pall Mall, London. 

Skrine, Julian, Cambridge. 

Smith, Horatio, Strangeways Hall near Man- 
chester. 

Smith, Rev. J. J.,M.A., F.C.P.S., Caius Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Stanley, Captain Owen, R.N.,F.R.S., Norwich. 

Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in the Royal Belfast Academi- 
cal Institution, Belfast. 

Stokes, Rey. William H., M.A., F.C.P.S., Caius 
College, Cambridge. 

Strickland, Henry Eustatius, The Lodge, 
Tewkesbury. 

Swinburne, Henry, C.E., 24, Gt. George 
Street, Westminster. 


Talbot, William H., Wrightington Hall near 
Wigan. 

Thacker, Arthur, Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Thackeray, Frederic, M.D., F.C.P.S., Emma- 
nuel College, Cambridge. 

Thackeray, Martin, 88, Gloucester Place, 
Portman Square, London. 

Thomas, Edward, 25, Hanover Square, Lon- 
don. 

Thomson, James, LL.D., Professor of Ma- 
thematics in the University, Glasgow. 

Thorpe, Disney, Cheltenham. 

Thorpe, Rev. William, B.A., Womersley, Pon- 
tefract. 

Towler, George Vincent, 28, Theobald’s Road, 
London. 

Twining, William, M.D., Bedford Place, 
Russell Square, London. 


Watson, Rev, John Hewlett, M.A., Wadham 
College, Oxford. 

Watt, Alexander, St. Mungo Street, Glasgow, 

Wedgwood, Hensleigh, M.A., 16, Gower 
Street, London. 

Williams, Rev. Rowland, M.A., King’s Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 

Woolfield, Thomas Robinson. 

Wylie, John, M.D., Madras Army, 


Yates, John Ashton, Bryanstone Square, 
London, 


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Contents :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esg., on the 
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State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electricity ;—Sir David 
Brewster, on the Progress of Optics ;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present State of Mineralogy ; 
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Printing for the Use of the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, Esq., on the Discussions of Observations 
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PROCEEDINGS or toe EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 
10s. 


Contents :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan- 
nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared 
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;— W. Snow Harris, Esq., Account of the Progress 
and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major Edward Sabine, on the 
Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., on the 
Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants ;—R. Mallet, Esq., First 
Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought 


Iron ;—R. Mallet, Esq., on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on In- 
organic and Organic Substances. he 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tne NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 9s. 


Contents :—Reyv. Baden Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Re- 
fractive Indices, for the Standard rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on 
the Application of the Sum assigned for Tide Circulations to Mr. Whewell, in a Letter from 
T. G. Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, Esq., on some Galvanic Experiments to determine the 
Existence or Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those 
of the Mountain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir 
David Brewster, Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept 
in Scotland at the expense of the British Association ;—Report on the subject of a series of Re- 
solutions adopted by the British Association at their Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle;— 
Richard Owen, Esq., Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Edward Forbes, Esq., Report on the 
Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., Third 
Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth Dockyard, 
Devonport. 

’ Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. . 


PROCEEDINGS or tut TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 10s. 


Contents :—Rey. Baden Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to 
Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first vo- 
lume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—James D. 
Forbes. Esq., Supplementary Report on Meteorology ;—W. Snow Harris Esq., Report on 
Professor Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on ‘“‘ The Motions 
and Sounds of the Heart,” by the London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 
—Professor Schénbein, an Account of Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—Robert Mallet, 
Esq., Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, 
and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Robert Were Fox, 
Esq., Report on some Observations on Subterranean Temperature ;—A, Follett Osler, Esq., 
Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839 and 1840, by the 
Self-registering Anemometer erected atthe Philosophical Institution, Birmingham;—Sir David 
Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept at In- 
verness and Kingussie, at the expense of the British Association, from Noy. 1st, 1838 to Nov. 
Ist, 1839 ;—William Thompson, Esq., Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;— 
Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and 
Air-Tubes ;—Rey. J. S. Henslow, Report of the Committee appointed to try Experiments on 
the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major Edward Sahine’s 
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 
1841, 9s. 


Contents :—Rev. Philip Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Experi-« 
mental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on 
Poisons ;—Mr. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Brist8] Tides, under the direction of the Rev. 
W. Whewell ;—D. Ross, Report on the Discussion of Leith Tide Observations, under the di- 
rection of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. 8. Harris, Esq., upon the working of Whewell’s Ane- 
mometer at Plymouth during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the pur- 
pose of superintending the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the system of 
Simultaneous Observations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Commit- 
tees appointed to provide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr, 
M‘Cord;—Report of a Committee to superintend the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ; 
—Report of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee 
for obtaining Instruments and Registers to record Shocks of Earthquakes in Scotland and Ire- 
land ;—Report of the Committee for making experiments on the Preservation of Vegetative 
Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Condition of the 
Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents in Balloons or other- 
wise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experiments, and to draw up Directions for 
Observers in such circumstances ;—Richard Owen, Esq., Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;— 
Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—Dionysius Lardner, 
LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway 


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Constants ;—Edward Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the 
Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tuzr TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 
1842, 7s. 


Contents :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British 
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;— 
John Richardson, M.D., Report on the present state of the Ichthyology of, New Zealand ;— 
W. Snow Harris, Report on the Progress of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;— 
Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of 
Seeds ;—C. Vignolles, Esq., Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the 
Committee for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., 
Abstract of Professor Liebig’s Report on ‘‘ Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pa- 
thology ;” Richard Owen, Esq., Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I. ;—Robert 
Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of 
Plants ;—Louis Agassiz, Report on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sand- 
stone ;— William Fairbairn, Esq., Appendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties 
of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast ;—David Milne, Esq., Report of the Com- 
mittee appointed at the Meeting of the British Association held at Plymouth in 1841, for re- 
gistering Shocks of Earthquakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee appointed at the 
Tenth Meeting of the Association for the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-En- 
gines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting Engine at 
different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the Form of Ships ; 
—Report of a Committee appointed “ to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of 
Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis” ;—Report of a Committee on 
the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress 
in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 
1843, 8s. 


Contents :—Robert Mallet, Esq., Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, 
whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought 
Iron and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the 
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- 
tions ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction 
of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on 
Steam-engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the 
Vitality of Seeds;—J. S. Russell, Esq., Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the. 
Frith of Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Esq., Notice of a Report of the 
Committee on the Form of Ships ;—J. Blake, Esq., Report on the Physiological Action of Me- 
dicines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to print and circulate a Report on Zoological 
Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee appointed in 1842, for registering the Shocks of 
Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to them desirable ; 
—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons ;—Professor 
Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Committee for the Translation and 
Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Tes- 
tacea ;—Edward Forbes, Esq., Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aigean Sea, and 
on their distribution, considered as bearing on Geology ;—M. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of 
British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the Order of the Geological Formations ;—Richard Owen, 
Esq., Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the ex- 
cavation made at the junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at 
Collyhurst, near Manchester ;—W. Thompson, Esq., Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. 
Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted 
to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen- 
dations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, 


20s. 


Contents :—W. Carpenter, M.D. F.R.S., on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Joshua 
Alder and Albany Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—Robert Hunt, 


Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants; 
—Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the No- 
menclature of the Stars ;—Lieut.-Colonel Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S., on the Meteorology © 
of Toronto in Canada;—John Blackwall, F.L.S., Report on some recent Researches into the 
Structure, Functions and Cconomy of the Araneidea made in Great Britain ;—the Earl of 
Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;—the Rev. William Vernon Har- 
court, F.R.S., Report on a Gas Furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applica- 
tions of High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering Earthquake 
Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee appointed at the Tenth Meeting of the Asso- 
ciation for Experiments on Steam-Engines ;—Report of the Committee to investigate the Va- 
rieties of the Human Race;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their 
Experiments on theVitality of Seeds ;—William Fairbairn, Esq., on the Consumption of Fuel 
and the prevention of Smoke ;—Francis Ronalds, Esq., F.R.S., Report concerning the Observa- 
tory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct 
the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on the influence of Fucoidal Plants upon 
the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and particularly the Metamorphosis 
of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.G.S., Report on the recent Pro- 
gress and present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Esq., M.R.I.A., Report of Committee 
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof Owen, 
F.R.S., Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils 
indicative of the former existence in that Continent of large Marsupial Representatives of 
the Order Pachydermata ;—W. Snow Harris, Esq., F.R.S., Report on the working of Whewell 
and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report 
on Atmospheric Waves ;—L. Agassiz, Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, 
with translation ;—J. Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.E., Report on Waves ;—Provisional 
Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Indivi- 
duals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda- 
tions of the Association and its Committees. 


LITHOGRAPHED SIGNATURES of the MEMBERS who met at Cambridge in 1833, 
with the Proceedings of the Public Meetings. 4to. Price 4s. (To Members, 3s.) 


Vee ee re a ore ae 


PUL. Report of the Brit! Assoc” for 1645. ; 


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