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REPORT
TWENTIETH MEETING
OF THE _^ !
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT EDINBURGH IN JULY AND AUGUST 1850.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1851.
PRINTED BY R[CHARD TAYLOR,
RED LION COUKT, FLEET STREET.
CONTENTS.
Page
Obj'ects and Rules of the Association v
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement viii
Table of Council from commencement x
Treasurer's Account xii
Officers and Council xiv
Officers of Sectional Committees xv
Corresponding Members xvi
Report of Council to the General Committee xvi
Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science xxi
Synopsis of Money Grants xxiv
Arrangement of the General Meetings xxx
Address of the President xxxi
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phaenomena. By Robert
Mallet, C.E., M.R.l.A 1
On Observations of Luminous Meteors ; continued from the Reports
of the British Association for 1849. By the Rev. Baden Powell,
M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in
the University of Oxford ^^
On the Structure and History of the British Annelida. By Thomas
Williams, M.D., Swansea 133
IV CONTENTS.
Page
Results of Meteorological Observations taken at St. Michael's from the
1st of January 1840 to the 31st of December, IS^Q. By Thomas
Carew Hunt 133
On the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the
Solar Radiations. By Robert Hunt 137
Tenth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. E. Strickland, Prof.
Daubeny, Prof. HenslOw and Prof. Lindley, appointed to con-
tinue their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds 160
Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India. By Major-General John
Briggs, F.R.S., Vice-President of the Ethnological Society of
London 169
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew,
from September 12, 1849 to July 31, 1850. By Francis Ronalds,
Esq., F.R.S., Honorary Superintendent 176
Report on the Investigation of British Marine Zoology by means of the
Dredge. Part I. The Infra-littoral Distribution of Marine Inver-
tebrata on the Southern, Western and Northern Coasts of Great
Britain. By Edward Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in King's
College, London, and Palaeontologist of the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom 193
Notes on the Distribution and Range in depth of Mollusca and other
Marine Animals observed on the coasts of Spain, Portugal, Barbary,
Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849. By Robert MacAndrew, Esq.,
F.L.S ' 264
On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa.
By Professor Allman, M.D., F.R.C.S.I., M.R.I.A 305
Registration of the Periodical Phaenomena of Plants and Animals 338
Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse of
the Sun on July 28, 1851 359
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
The Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are, — To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry, — to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
RULES.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.
All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
Meeting.
COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.
Life Members shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association.
Annual Subscribers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year. Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
future years the.privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
One Pound. Tliey are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously tiie Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
VI RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Tlie Association consists of the following classes : —
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in-
termission of Annual Payment.]
4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment.]
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members') price,
according to the following specification, viz. : —
1. Gratis, — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscripiion, or, since 1845 a
further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com-
position.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. /4t reduced or Members' Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication
Price. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.
Annual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip-
tion.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only.]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, ant/ o/ 7y/ijc/i more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to
Mr. R. Taylor, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
MEETINGS.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi-
cers of the Association.
GENERAL COMMITTEE.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons : —
1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au-
thors of Reports in tlie Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who have commimicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. VU
3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether not exceed-
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.
4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.
5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
• are specially nominated in writing for the meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.
6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are ex
officio members of the General Committee for the time being.
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.
The Commiitees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.
Tlie Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.
LOCAL COMMITTEES.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
aj)pointed by the Meeting.
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MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.
II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who
have served on the Council in former years.
General of the Geological Survey of the
United Kingdom.
Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.S.
Drinkwater, J. E., Esq.
Durham, Edward Maltby, D.D., Lord Bishop
of, F.R.S.
Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Acland, Professor H. W., B.M., F.R.S.
Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S.
Adare, Edwin, Viscount, M.P., F.R.S.
Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem-
broke Hall, Cambridge.
Airy, G. B.,D.C.L., F.R.S. ,AstronomerRoyal.
Alison, Professor W. P., M.D., F.R.S. E.
Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S.
Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S.
Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L.
Babbage, Charles, Esq., F.R.S.
Babington, C. C, Esq., F.L.S.
Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S.
Balfour, Professor John H., M.D.
Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S.
Bengough, George, Esq.
Bentham, George, Esq., F.L.S.
Bigge, Charles, Esq.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S.
Boyle, Right Hon. David, Lord Justice-Ge-
neral, F.R.S.E.
Brand, William, Esq.
Brewster.Sir David, K.H.,D.C.L.,LL.D.,F.R.S.
Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.
Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S., President of
the Linnean Society.
Brunei, Sir M. L, F.R.S.
Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., Dean of
Westminster, F.R.S.
Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., F.R.S.,
Chancellor of the University of London.
Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T.
Carlisle, George William Frederick, Earl of,
F.G.S.
Carson, Rev. Joseph.
Cathcart, Lieut.-General, Earl of, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.E.
Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D., late Professor of
Divinity, Edinburgh.
Chance, James, Esq.
Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Christie, Profes.sor S. H., M.A., Sec. R.S.
Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S.
Clark, Rev. Professor, M.D., F.R.S. (Cam-
bridge).
Clark, Henry, M.D.
Clark, G. T., Esq.
Clear, William, Esq.
Clerke, Major Shadwell, K.H., R.E., F.R.S.
CUft, William, Esq., F.R.S.
Colquhoun, J. C, Esq., M.P.
Conybeare, Very Rev. W.D., Dean of LlandafF,
M.A., F.R.S.
Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S.
Currie, William Wallace, Esq.
Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S.
Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Darwin, (Charles, Esq., F.R.S.
Daubeny, Professor Charles G. B., M.D.,
F.K.S.
De la Beche, Sir Henry T., F.R.S., Director-
Egerton, Sir Philip de M. Grey, Bart., F.R.S.
Eliot, Lord, M.P.
EUesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S.
Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L.
Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Fitzwilliara, Charles William, Earl, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Fleming, W., M.D.
Fletcher, Bell, M.D.
Forbes, Charles, Esq.
Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R.S.
Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E.
Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S.
Gassiot, J. P., Esq., F.R.S.
Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Graham, Professor Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.
Gray, John E., Esq., F.R.S.
Gray, Jonathan, Esq.
Gray, William, jun., Esq., F.G.S.
Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F.R.S.
Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S.
Grove, W. R., Esq., F.R.S.
Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Hamilton, W. J., Esq., Sec.G.S.
Hamilton, Sir William R., Astronomer Royal
of Ireland, M.R.I.A.
Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.
Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S.
Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.
Hstrrowby, The Earl of.
Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S.
Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S.
Henry, W. C, M.D., F.R.S.
Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. William, late
Dean of Manchester, LL.D., F.L.S.
Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart.,D.C.L., F.R.S.
Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.
Heywood, James, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S.
Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.
Hodgkin'ion, Professor Eaton, F.R.S.
Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S.
Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.
Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.
Hopkin.s William, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A.
Button, Robert, Esq., F.G.S.
Hutton, William, Esq , F.G.S.
Ibbetson, Capt. L. L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,
F.G.S.
Inglis, Sir Robert H.,Bart.,D.C.L.,M.P.,F.R.S.
Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S.
Jeffreys, John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq.
Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S.
Jerrard, H. B., Esq.
Johnston, Right Hon. William, Lord Provost
of Edinburgh.
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.
XI
Johnston, Professor J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.
Keleher, William, Esq.
Kelland, Rev. Professor P., M.A.
Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Lardner, Rev. Dr.
Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S.
Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin-
cipal of the University of Edinburgh.
Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S.
Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, Speaker
of the House of Commons.
Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Liddell, Andrew, Esq.
Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Listowel, The Earl of.
Lloyd, Rev. Bartholomew, D.D., late Provost
of Trinity College, Dublin.
Lloyd, Rev. Professor, D.D., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin, F.R.S.
Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
Luby, Rev. Thomas.
Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A , F.R.S.
MacCullagh, Professor, D.C.L., M.R.I. A.
Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal.
MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S.
MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.
Malcolm, Vice Admiral Sir Charles, K.C.B.
Manchester, James Prince Lee, D.D., Lord
Bishop of.
Meynell, Thomas, Jun., Esq., F.L.S.
Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S.
Moillet, J. L., Esq.
Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.
Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq.
Moody, T. H. C, Esq.
Moody, T. F., Esq.
Morley, The Earl of.
Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.
M-junt-Edgecumbe, Ernest Augustus, Earl of.
Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.S., F.R.S.
Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Nicol, D., M.D.
Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D.
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G., M.A.,
F.R.S.
Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, V.P.R.S.
Norwich, Edward Stanley, D.D., F.R.S., late
Lord Bishop of.
Ormerod, G. W., Esq., F.G.S.
Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D,
Orpen, J. H., LL.D.
Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S.
Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Osier, Follett, Esq.
Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P.
Peacock, Very Rev. George, D.D., Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
Peel, Rt. Hon. Sir Robert, Bart., M.P.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Pendarves, E., Esq., F.R.S.
Phillips, Professor John, F.R.S.
Porter, G. R., Esq.
Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S.
Prichard, J. C, M.D., F.R.S.
Ramsay, Professor W., M.A.
Reid, Lieut.-Col. William, F.R.S.
Rennie, George, Esq., V.P.R.S.
Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S.
Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S.
Ritchie, Rev. Prafessor, LL.D., F.R.S.
Robinson, Rev. J., D.D.
Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., M.R.I.A.
Robison, Sir John, late Sec.R.S.Edin.
Roche, James, Esq.
Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S.
Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S.
Roseberv, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ross, Capt. Sir James C, R.N., F.R.S.
Rosse, William, Earl of, M.R.I.A., President
of the Royal Society.
Royle, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S.
Russell, James, Esq.
Russell, J. Scott, Esq.
Sabine, Lieut.-Colonel Edward, R.A., Treas.
R.S.
Saunders, William, Esq., F.G.S.
Sandon, Lord.
Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S.
Sedgwick, Rev. Professor Adam, M.A.,F.R.S.
Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E.
Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S.
Spence, Wrlliam, Esq., F.R.S.
Staunton, Sir George T., Bart., M.P., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
St. David's. Connop Thirlwall, D.D., Lord
Bishop of.
Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D.
Strang, John, Esq.
Strickland, H. E., Esq., F.G.S.
Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel W. H., F.R.S.
Symonds, B. P., D.D., late Vice-Chancellor of
the University of Oxford.
Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Tayler, Rev. J. J.
Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S.
Taylor, Richard, Jun., Esq., F.G.S.
Thompson, William, Esq., F.L.S.
Tindal, Captain, R.N.
Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E.
Traill, J. S., M.D.
Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S.
Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S,
Turner, Rev. W.
Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S.
Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S.
Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S.
Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S.
Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Warlurton, Henry, Esq., M.A., M.P., F.R.S.
Washington, Captain, R.N.
West, William, Esq., F.R.S.
Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.
Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S.
Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Williams, Professor Charles J. B.,M.D.,F.R.S.
Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Wills, William.
Winchester, John, Marquis of.
Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A.
Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., F.R.S.
Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S.
Yarbovough, The Earl of, D.C.L.
Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
THE GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT from 13th of September
receipts'.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
To balance brought on from last account 360 7
Life Compositions at Birmingham and since 130
Annual Subscriptions at Birmingham and since 206 1
Associates' at Birmingham 447
Ladies' Tickets at Birmingham 237
Book Compositions 25
Dividends on Stock (.£3500 three per cent. Consols) 101 18 10
From Sale of Publications : —
Of volume 1 8 1
2 15 3
3 1 17
4 8 1
5 1 9 7
6 3 12 7
7 1 7
8 1 13 3
9 2 16
10 19 7
11 ., 1 14 10
12 Ill 2
13 1 17
14 7 10 8
15 5 12 9
16 12 1 3
17 47 II
18 4 16 6
British Association's Catalogue of Stars 84 17 5
Lalande's Catalogue of Stars 7 13 11
Lacaille's Catalogue of Stars 8 1
Dove's Isothermal Lines 22 19
Lithograph Signatures 6
— 214 6
£1721 12 10
JAMES HEYWOOD,
J. W. GILBAllT, [Auditors.
C. MALCOLM.
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
184!9 (at Birmingham) to 31st of July 1850 (at Edinburgh).
PAYMENTS.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
For Sundry Printing, Advertising, Expenses of Meeting at Bir-
mingham, and Sundry Disbursements made by the Treasurer
and Local Treasurers 308 12 4
Printing, &c. the 17th vol 290 11 10
Engraving for 18th vol 22 1 11
Salaries, Assistant General Secretary and Accountant 350
Maintaining the Establishment at Kew Observatory : —
Balance of Grant of 1848 44 13 2 ^
Part of Grant of 1849 211 4 10
255 18
Transit of Earthquake Waves . 50
Periodical Phsenomena of Animals and Vegetables : —
Balance of Grant of 1848 5
Grantofl849 10
15
Meteorological Instruments for the Azore Islands 25
Balance in the Banker's hands 383 14
Ditto in General Treasurer's and Local Treasurers' hands,.. 20 14 9
404
£1721 12 lO
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1850-51.
Trustees (permanent). — Sir Roderick Impey Murcliison, G.C.S*.S., F.R.S.
John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. The Very Rev, George Peacock, D.D., Dean
of Ely, F.R.S.
President.— Sn David Brewster, K.H..D.C.L.,LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E,
rice-Presidents. — Tlie Rt. Hon. The Lord Provost of Edinburgh. The
Earl of Cathcart, K.C.B., F.R.S.E. The Earl of Rosebery, K.T., D.C.L.
F.R.S. Right Hon. David Boyle, Lord Justice-General, F.R.S.E.
General Sir Thomas M. Brisbane, Bart., K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Pres. R.S.E. The Very Rev. John Lee, D.D., V.P.R.S.E., Principal of the
University of Edinburgh. W. P. Alison, M.D., V.P.R.S.E,, Prof, of the
Practice of Physic in theUniversity of Edinburgh. James D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh,
President Elect.— George Biddell Airy, Esq., M,A,, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Astronomer Royal.
Vice-Presidents Elect. — Right Hon. Lord Rendlesham, M.P. The Bishop
of Norwich. Rev. Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology in
the University of Cambridge. Rev. John Stevens Henslow, M.A., F.L.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Sir John P. Boileau,
Bart., F.R.S. Sir William F. F. Middleton, Bart. J. C. Cobbold, Esq.,
M.P. T. B. Western, Esq.
General Secretaries. — Lieut. -Col. Sabine, R.A., V.P. & Treas. R.S.,
Woolwich. J. Forbes Royle, M.D., F.R.S., Prof, of Botany in King's Col-
lege, London.
Assistant General Secretary. — John Phillips, Esq., F.R.S., York.
General Treasurer. — John Taylor, Esq., F,R.S., 6 Queen Street Place,
Upper Thames Street, London.
Local Treasurer. — John Biddle Alexander, Esq,
Local Secretaries. — Charles May, Esq. Dillwyn Sims, Esq. George A.
Biddell, Esq. George Ransome, Esq.
Council. — The Duke of Argyll. Sir H. T, De la Beche. Dr. Daubeny.
Sir P. De Grey Egerton, Bart. Prof. E. Forbes. Dr. Faraday. Prof.
Graham. W. R. Grove, Esq, John P. Gassiot, Esq. Rev. W. V. Har-
court. William Hopkins, Esq. Robert Hutton, Esq. Sir W. Jardine,
Bart. Sir C. Lemon, Bart. Sir Charles Lyell. Rev. Dr. Lloyd. Sir C.
Malcolm. Professor Owen. G. R. Porter, Esq. Sir John Richardson.
Rev. Dr. Robinson. Lord Rosse. Col. Sykes. Prof. Wheatstone. Rev. Dr.
Whewell. Lord Wrottesley.
Local Treasurers. — W. Gray, Esq., York, C, C, Babington, Esq., Cam-
bridge. William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. J, H. Orpen, LL.D., Dublin,
Professor Ramsay, Glasgow, William Sanders, Esq., Bristol. G, W. Orme-
rod, Esq., Manchester. James Russell, Esq., Birmingham, J. Sadleir Moody,
Esq., Southampton. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., Swansea, J. B, Alexander,
Esq., Ipswich.
Auditors James Hey wood, Esq. J. W, Gilbart, Eyq, Sir C. Malcolm.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XV
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
EDINBURGH MEETING.
SECTION A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.-?rokssov James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E.
Vice.Presidents.-The Rigl.t Rev. Bishop Terrot. Professor W. Thomson,
F.R.S.E. Lord VVroitesIey, F.R.S. „ P «, , y^ J
Secretaries.-Prokssor Stevelly, LL.D. Professor G. G. Stokes. W.J.
Macquorn Rankine, Esq. Professor Smyth, Sec. R.b.b.
SECTION B.— CHEMICAL SCIENCE, INCLUDING ITS APPLICATION TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.
President.— Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. &c. ii F R q F Pro-
Fice-Presidents.-Dr. Gregory, Sec. R.S.E. Dr. Trail^ F-J-S-E-' ^ °
fessor of Medical Jurisprudence, Edinburgh Dr. Fyfe, \^^f-\l'f'p\'^^
of Chemistry, King's College. Aberdeen. Dr. Daubeny. h .R.S., Reg. Frot.
^tc,^eratl-R. Hunt, Esq. Dr. George Wilson. F.R.S.E. Dr. Thomas
Anderson, F.R.S.E.
SECTION C— GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
President.-S\r Roderick I. Murchison, g-C.St.S F.R.S.
Vice.Presidents.-Vro?es.or Jameson, F.R.S L. & E. Sn Phil.p de ^rey
Egerton, Bart.. M.P., F.R.S. Charles Maclaren, Esq., F.R.S.E.
Professor Sedgwick, F.R.S. ^ . Keith
^-^cretoHe^.-Professor Nicol, F.G.S. Hugh Miller, Esq. A. Keith
Johnston, Esq.
SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
President. — Professor Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. ,,_,., , ^^ ^
ncePresidents.-Sir John G. Dalyell. Bart. Sir John Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S. R.K.Greville, LL.D., F.R.S.E. G. Bentham Esq., F.L.S.
l;.;e*anes._E.Lankester. M.D.. F.R.S. Professor J. H.Bennett. M.D..
F.R.S.E. Douglas Maclagan, M.D., F.R.S.E.
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTION.
Pre5irfe«<.-Vice.Admiral Sir Charles Malcolm, K.C^.
Vice-Presidents.-Pro{essoT J. Y. Simpson, M.D. Dr. R. 0. Latham.
F.R.S. Rev. Dr. Edward Hincks. Major Rawhnson, f.K.&.
Secretary. — Daniel Wilson, Esq.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTION.
President.— Prokssor Bennett, M.D., F-^S.E. Thomson
Vice.Presidents.-Vrokssov Owen, F.R.S. Professor Allen Thomson.
M.D.. F.R.S. L. & E. Professor Carpenter, M.D., f.K.S.
SECTION F. — STATISTICS.
President.-The Very Rev. John Lee. D.D., V.P.R.S.E., Principal of the
University of Edinburgh.
REPORT — 1850.
Vice-Presidents. — Rev. Dr. Gordon. Dr. Henry Marshall, F.R.S.E. Pro-
fessor William P. Alison, M.D., F.R.S.E. G. R. Porter, Esq., F.R.S.
Secretaries. — Professor Hancock, LL,D., M.R.I. A. James Stark, M.D.,
F.R.S.E. Joseph Fletcher, Esq.
SECTION O. MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President. — Rev. Dr. Robinson, M.R.I. A.
Vice-Presidents. — George Buchanan, Esq. Professor Gordon. Thomas
Grainger, Esq. John Scott Russell, Esq., F.R.S.
Secretaries. — Dr. Lees and David Stevenson, Esq.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts.
M. Arago, Paris.
Dr. A. D. Bache, Philadelphia.
Professor H. von Boguslawski, Bres-
lau.
Monsieur Boutigny (d'Evreux), Paris.
Professor Braschmann, Moscow.
Chevalier Bunsen.
Charles Buonaparte, Prince of Canino.
M. De la Rive, Geneva.
Professor Dove, Berlin.
Professor Dumas, Paris.
Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris.
Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin.
Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe.
Professor Encke, Berlin.
Dr. A. Erman, Berlin.
Professor Esmark, Christiania.
Professor G. Forchhammer, Copen-
hagen.
M. Frisian!, Milan.
Professor Henry, Washington, United
States.
Baron Alexander von Humboldt,
Berlin.
M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg.
Professor Jacobi, Konigsberg.
Professor Kreil, Prague.
M.'Kupffer, St. Petersburg.
Dr. Langberg, Christiania.
M. Leverrier, Paris.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps, Liege.
Dr. Lamont, Munich.
Baron von Liebig, Giessen.
Professor Link, Berlin.
Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin.
Professor Matteucci, Pisa.
Professor von Middendorff, St. Pe-
tersburg.
Professor Nilsson, Sweden.
Dr. ffirsted, Copenhagen. •
Chevalier Plana, Turin.
M. Quetelet, Brussels.
Professor Pliicker, Bonn.
Professor C. Ritter, Berlin.
Professor H. D.Rogers, Philadelphia.
Professor W. B. Rogers, Virginia.
Professor H. Rose, Berlin.
Professor Schumacher, Altona.
Baron Senftenberg, Bohemia.
Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm.
M. Struve of St. Petersburg.
Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm.
Dr. Van der Hoven, Leyden.
Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen,
Goiha.
Professor Wartmann, Lausanne.
Report of the Proceedings of the Council in 1849-50, as presented
TO THE General Committee at Edinburgh, Wednesday, July 31,
1850.
With reference to the subjects referred to the Council by the General
Committee assembled in Birmingham, theCouncil have to report as follows : —
1. In respect to the proposed Recommendation to Her Majesty's Go-
vernment, to establish a Reflecting Telescope of large optical power at a
suitable station for the systematic observation of the Nebulae of the South-
ern Hemisphere, the Council having communicated with the President and
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XVll
Council of the Royal Society, had the satisfaction of being informed of the
entire agreement of that body in the importance attached by the British
Association to the active use of a large Reflector in the Southern Hemi-
sphere, and of their readiness to concur in a recommendation to that effect
to Her Majesty's Government. The Council have further to report, that
the following Memorial has been drawn up by the Rev. Dr. Robinson,
President of the British Association, with the concurrence of the Earl of
Rosse, President of the Royal Society, and has been presented to Lord
John Russell.
Copy of the Memorial to Lord John Russell.
" My Lord, — At the last Meeting of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, that Assembly came to a resolution which has been
adopted by the Royal Society, and which therefore I am directed, conjointly
with the President of that illustrious body, to lay before your Lordship.
" The purpose is, that the Government be requested to establish, in some
fitting part of Her Majesty's dominions, a powerful reflecting telescope (not
less than 3 feet aperture), and to appoint an Observer charged with the duty
of employing it in a review of the Nebulae of the Southern Hemisphere.
" In evidence of the high importance of such an investigation, it is suffi-
cient to refer to the way in which its proposal was welcomed by the British
Association. That assembly, comprising upwards of 1500 persons, among
whom were found almost every British name of scientific renown, and of
whom all are more or less devoted to the pursuit of phj-sical knowledge, may
not unfairly be considered an exponent of the national mind on such an occa-
sion ; and I have never seen it admit any similar resolution with a more en-
thusiastic approval.
" For the department of Nebular Astronomy is that which at present has
the most powerful hold on public attention, and stands most in need of public
assistance. Others are worked out by the pen and in the closet, or by instru-
ments of easy attainment, and in establishments already fully organized : the
only results which they can now yield are uninteresting except to a few, and
are valued by the mass only from an instinctive perception of the glory which
they confer on human intellect. But it is far otherwise with this ; the myste-
rious forms on which it is employed are at present objectsof universal curiosity,
from their position (outworks as it were of the universe), their evident analogy
to the system of which we are a part, and which we may hope to study in
them, and the Dynamic questions which the marvellous arrangements of
many of them suggest. I may add, that in its origin it is almost exclusively
ours ; the fame which will reward its completion should be ours also. The
history may be very briefly given. About sixty-eight Nebulae had been ill
seen and worse described, when the elder Herschel was led to explore them
by the encouragement and aid of his sovereign George UL To those pre-
viously known, he not only added 2500 more, but by classing them, by clear
and methodical description, and directing attention to the relations which
connect them with other portions of the universe, he gave this branch of
astronomy its powerful vitality. His no less distinguished son, following his
example with even greater success, has not merely extended the list of northern
nebulae to an amount which would have ennobled any other name, but has
given the whole work complete precision by an accurate determination of the
position of all contained in his own and his father's lists, thus placing them
fully within the reach of subsequent observers. Not content with this, he
transported to the other hemisphere those instruments which had rendered
1850. c
Xviii REPORT — 1850.
Buch good service in our own, and has thus enriched astronomy with 1600
more equally well observed, but beyond the reach of European astronomers.
" Yet powerful as those instruments were, a much nearer approach to the
extreme limit of useful optical power has been made by Lord Rosse : it was •
therefore to be expected that his telescope would add considerably to our
knowledge of the Nebulae, and this has been fully realized. It was in fact a
communication of some results obtained by him which directed the attention
of the British Association to this subject, and excited a desire of having the
same work performed for the southern sky which he is accomplishing in our
own. That work implies a minute re-examination of at least all the brighter
Nebulae of Sir John Herschel's catalogues ; embodied in drawings, based on
micrometer measures, and so correct that each of them may be referred to
without doubt by future astronomers as an authentic record of the original's
appearance at a given epoch. Of such drawings we at present possess very
few : most of the sketches given by the Herschels are stated by them to be
made merely by eye ; and even those that were more accurately taken by
them are found to require amendment when compared with the appearances
in more powerful telescopes.
" A task of this kind can only be wrought out by severe and long-con-
tinued labour ; and the instrumental means required are such as very few in-
dividuals can obtain by their private resources. Even in Europe there are
but three telescopes known to exist which are capable of making any great
additions to the discoveries of the Herschels ; and those three are in the
British Islands. This field of research is therefore still exclusively our own ;
and I trust your Lordship will share my feeling, that the nation's honour will
be sullied if we let it be preoccupied in its most interesting portion by the
energy and liberality of any other people.
" In submitting to your Lordship this request of the British Association, I
feel it my duty to give with it some approximative estimate of the sum which
might be required for its accomplishment.
" First, as to the instrument : it has been proved by the experience of Lord
Rosse, Mr. Lassels and others, that one of sufficient power can be constructed
with certainty and at no overwhelming cost. I have made inquiries of an
artist (with whose abilities in this line I am practically acquainted), and have
come to the conclusion that a telescope similar to the smaller of Lord Rosse's
3 feet aperture and 27 feet focal length might be constructed for £2000.
This would include an equatorial mounting ; clock-work to make the telescope
travel with a star ; apparatus for supporting the observer ; and a machine for
polishing the speculum, when that operation may be required. If a second
speculum were supplied (which seems almost essential in case of accident), it
■would add about £500 more. Of course some latitude must be allowed in
this, but it need not be wide ; the work could not be completed in less than
a year, possibly would employ two. As telescopes so gigantic are erected in
the open air, no outlay would be necessary for any building except the
Observer's dwelling.
" Secondly, the Observer need not possess very high mathematical attain*
ments ; acute sight, and skill as a draughtsman, being his most important re-
quisites ; and his staff need not consist of more than two or three labourers,
one of whom should be a practical mechanic.
" I am quite aware that there are some persons who will consider the sum
that I have named above, and the moderate annual expenditure which would
be required for a few years, a very unprofitable waste of public money, I
feel also assured that your Lordship is not of their number; no man can be
who has ever drunk of the fountain of knowledge, or added to the domain of
REPORT OP THE COUNCIL. XIX
intellect. I feel confident that the public itself is not with them, and that it
would resent as an insult the imputation of valuing at a mere market price the
only true elements of personal dignity or national glory. If the spirit of the
age be such that the most despotic sovereigns of Europe feel that they cannot
avoid the necessity of encouraging physical science, much more does it belong
to the rulers of the freest and most enlightened nation of the world ; and it
is due to your Lordship and your colleagues to say that we have always found
you to carry out in the fullest extent the requirements of science.
"In hopes that in this instance also our appeal may not be in vain,
" I have the honour to be
" Your Lordship's obedient Servant,
" T. R. Robinson,
" President of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science."
" The Right Hon. The Lord John Russell."
2. In consequence of the Resolution passed by the General Committee
relative to the correction of the levels of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland,
the President communicated with the Rev. Dr. Lloyd, President of the
Royal Irish Academy. The President and Council of the Royal Irish
Academy have addressed the Master- General of the Ordnance, recom-
mending that the correction should be made, and have received a favour-
able reply.
y. In respect to the proposed application to the Master- General of the
Ordnance to have the British Arc of the Meridian published in its full
extent, the Council have had the satisfaction of learning that the President
and Council of the Royal Society entirely agreed with the British Asso-
ciation in their estimate of the importance of the proposed publication, and
that with the concurrence of the Marquis of Anglesey, Master-General of
the Ordnance, an application has been made by the President of the Royal
Society to Lord John Russell, to place the necessary funds at the disposal
of the Ordnance Department, and that the application has been favourably
received by Lord John Russell on the part of Her Majesty's Government.
4. The Sub-Committee who were appointed to organise a Committee of
Members of the Association, who are also Members of the Legislature, for
the purpose of watching over the interests of Science, request permission
to submit their plan of proceeding to the Committee of Recommendations,
in order that it may come before the General Committee.
5. In pursuance of the authority granted by the General Committee to
the Council to make arrangements for the proper distribution of the un-
sold Copies of the Volumes of Reports of the British Association, the
Council appointed a Select Committee to consider and report on the sub-
ject. A first report of the Committee has been received and will be taken
into early consideration.
6. For the more effectual discharge of the trust reposed in them of
general superintendence of the Observatory at Kew, the Council named a
Committee, consisting of Members of their own body, who at their request
undertook the duty of frequent visitation, and of special superintendence
over the experiments and observations to be made there. The Council
have great satisfaction in stating that the gentlemen who undertook the
duties of this Committee have discharged them with remarkable assiduity,
and that they have been assisted at their Meetings by the attendance of
other Members of the Council who participate in the desire of rendering
Kew an effective and important establishment. The Council have received
XX REPORT — 1850.
from the Committee the subjoined Report on the present state and pro-
spects of the Observatory.
Report of the Keio Committee. — " The grant made by the General Com-
mittee for maintaining the establishment at Kew Observatory during the
present year being in a considerable degree founded on the results actually
secured, and others likely to be obtained by the electrical observations which
have been instituted there, the Committee for superintending the Observatory
have kept the prosecution and extension of these experiments steadily in view.
" Ever since 1843 a series of measures of the intensity of atmospheric elec-
tricity has been accumulated at Kew. By direction of the General Com-
mittee in 184-8, Mr. Birt was engaged on the discussion of these, and his
Report is published in the Transactions of the Association for IS^Q. By
this investigation the seeming irregularity of these phaenomena has been in
some degree elucidated, and results having a general and systematic value
obtained. For example, during the twenty-four hours the electrical tension
of the atmosphere acquires two maxima, viz, about 10 a.m. and 10 p.m., and
suffers two minima, viz, about 4 a.m. and 4 p.m., these being also nearly the
hours of harometrical maxima and minima. Moreover, in the course of the
twelve months, there is distinctly a periodicity of electrical tension ; the maxi-
mum for the year being in the depth of winter, and the minimum in the
height of summer. Mr. Birt has shown the relation of the curve which re-
presents the annual movement of the electrical tension to that which describes
the humidity of the air.
" To the experiments from which these and other interesting relations have
arisen, the Committee has been enabled to add a new series of observations
on electrical frecpumcij, by which not the intensity of the atmospheric charge,
but the rate at which the instrument receives it will become known. These
observations were begun under Mr. Ronalds's direction in March 1850, and
were continued for three weeks ; but unfortunately the state of Mr. Birt's
health has not only stopped the observations, but deprived the Observatory
of the further services of that gentleman.
" The Committee will be able to supply the deficiency thus occasioned,
and conduct these and other researches in a satisfactory manner, if the General
Committee shall think fit to empower them, by the appointment of Mr. Welsh,
late Assistant in the Observatory oflSir Thomas Brisbane, a gentleman of
whose qualifications for the duties of Observer at Kew, the Committee have
ample testimony.
"In originally accepting the charge of this Observatory (1842), the Asso-
ciation was influenced by the facilities which it would afibrd for the prosecu-
tion of experimental inquiries in the physical sciences, for which its locality
is peculiarly suitable, and at the close of the first year the Council had esta-
blished the following registers in addition to the electrical observations al-
ready noticed : —
" An ordinary meteorological record with standard instruments ; and had
made arrangements with Professor Wheatstone for the completion of a self-
registering meteorological instrument on a new construction.
" The advantage to be derived from self-recording instruments by meteo-
rology and magnetism has been often expressed by votes of the Association
from an early period of its career. The establishment of Kew Observatory
brought these ideas into practical operation. That Observatory has given to
science self-recording instruments for electrical, magnetical, and meteorolo-
gical phaenomena, already of great value, and certainly capable of great further
improvement. Mr. Ronalds, whose valuable services have been given gra-
tuitously to the Observatory from nearly its foundation, is still intent on im-
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXI
proving these instruments ; and lately, by employing the new invention of gela-
tine paper, he has not only been able to copy exactly the line which is traced
on the plate by light, but further to print other copies for distribution. Mr.
Ronalds's Report of the Proceedings at Kew during the past year, which is
prepared for reading in the Physical Section, will make known other facts
illustrative of the state of the Observatory. Kreil's Barometrograph, which
was received in 1845, has been put in working order. Electrical, magnetical,
and meteorological phsenomena are those for which the apparatus now collected
at Kew is specially adapted, and it is in a condition to admit of their being
regularl}"^ and constantly registered — in a great degree by self-recording in-
struments. But to provide for the constant and regular registration of all
these phsenomena would be quite incompatible with the limited funds at the
disposal of the Association, and inconsistent with the general intention of the
establishment — which is an Experimental Observatory, devoted to open out
new physical inquiries, and to make trial of new modes of inquiry, but only
in a few selected cases to preserve continuous records of passing phsenomena.
"It is on this view of the character of the Observatory that the Committee
found their opinion, that it may be maintained in a state of efficiency, and
kept always ready to take its proper share in the Advancement of Science, by
means of a moderate annual grant from the Association. They have further
the satisfaction to report, that the progress of the Observatory in its peculiar
field of research is likely to be materially aided by funds provided from
another source, the Royal Society having allotted £100 for the purchase of
new instruments to be tried at Kew, out of the sum placed at their disposal
by Her Majesty's Government."
7. The Council have been informed by Sir John Burgoyne, Inspector-
General of Fortifications, that the publication of the Mountjoy Meteorolo-
gical Observations will be at once proceeded with in compliance with the
directions of the Marquis of Anglesey, Master-General of the Ordnance.
8. The Council have added the following names to the list of the Cor-
responding Members of the British Association, viz.
Professor Gustav Magnus of Berlin.
Professor W. B. Rogers of Virginia.
Recommendations adopted by the General Committee at the
Edinburgh Meeting in August 1850.
Involving Application to Government or Public Institutions.
That a Committee, consisting of the President, the Duke of Argyll, Sir
R. I. Murchison, Professor Forbes, and the Marquis of Breadalbane, be
appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty's Government the
completion of the Geographical Survey of Scotland, as recommended by the
I British Association, at their former meeting in Edinburgh in 1834.
That application be made to the Admiralty for the Publication of the
Reports of their Committee on Metals.
That a Committee be appointed by the Council, for the purpose of waiting
upon Her Majesty's Government to request that some means be taken to en-
sure to the Science of Natural History an effective representation in the
Trusteeship of the British Museum.
That the Council of the Association be requested to communicate with
the Council of the Royal Society, and also with the Government, if neces-
xxii Heport — 1850.
sary, respecting the possibility of relieving the Association from the expense
of maintaining the establishment at Kew.
That Her Majesty's Government be requested to institute a Statistical
Survey relative to the Extent and Prevalence of Infantile Idiocy as a mea-
sure greatly conducive to the public welfare.
Involving Grants of Money.
That the Establishment at Kew Observatory be continued (at the disposal
of the Council for that purpose), with £300.
That Professor J. D. Forbes be requested to institute a Series of Experi-
ments, for the purpose of testing the results of the Mathematical Theory of
Heat ; that Professor Kelland be requested to co-operate with him ; and that
£50 be placed at the disposal of Prof. Forbes for the purpose.
That the Committee for superintending the Publication of the Tabular
Forms in reference to Periodical Phsenomenaof Animals and Plants, be con-
tinued, with £5 at their disposal.
That Professor E. Forbes and Mr. Bell be requested to continue their as-
sistance to Dr. Thomas Williams in his researches on the Annelida, with £10
at their disposal.
That the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds be requested to continue
their attention to that subject, with £1 1 at their disposal.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Hunt, Dr. G. Wilson, and Dr.
Gladstone, be requested to investigate the influence of the solar radiations
or chemical combinations, electrical phEenomena, and the vital powers of
plants groM'ing under different atmospheric conditions, with £50 at their
disposal.
That Dr. Smith be requested to continue his investigation on the Air and
Water of Towns, with £10 at his disposal.
That, as the printed Queries formerly circulated for the purpose of ob-
taining Ethnological data are now out of print, a new and revised Edition of
them be issued by Sir Charles Malcolm and Dr. Hodgkin, with £12 at their
disposal for the purpose.
Rules.
That the subject of Geography be separated from Geology, and combined
with Ethnology, to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the Geo-
graphical and Ethnological Section.
That in future no Section shall omit to meet on account of Excursions,
unless it be specially so determined in each case by the Sectional Committee.
That for the future the names of officers and members of Committees not
attending the Meetings of the Association be not published.
Notice was given of an intention to propose at the next Meeting, that the
sum now paid for lAfe Composition and Book Subscription (viz. aClO) be
divided into two sums of £5 and £5, the former sum being a necessary
payment by all who compound for Annual Subscription ; the latter an op-
tional payment as a special Book Subscription.
Reports requested.
Professor Stokes. — On the General Theory of Vibratory Motions in Elastic
Media.
Professor Willis. — On Acoustics.
Mr. G. Buchanan. — On the Strength of Materials .
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. XXUl
Mr. Thomas Stevenson. — On the various modes of constructing Sea Walls,
and the actual state of knowledge as to their power of resisting the forces to
which they are exposed.
Mr. J. Whitworth. — On his Experiments for the purpose of constructing
Accurate Standards of Measure.
Dr. Hugh Cleghorn, Professor Royle, Messrs. R. Baird Smith, and R.
Strachey, H.E.I.C.S. — On the probable effects, in an oeconomical and physic-
cal point of view, of the Destruction of Tropical Forests.
Researches, ^c.
That the Committee on the influence of Carbonic Acid on the growth of
Ferns be requested to continue their investigations.
That Dr. Percy and Professor Miller be requested to continue their re-
searches on Crystalline Slags.
That the Committee on Shooting Stars and Auroral Phsenomena be reap-
pointed.
That the Committee on the Instrumental Measurement of Earthquake
Waves be reappointed.
That the Committee of superintendence of the Kew Observatory be con-
tinued.
Miscellaneous.
That the Committee of Members of Legislature, who are also Members
of the British Association, who were requested to watch over the interests of
Science, and to inspect the various measures which might from time to time
be introduced into Parliament, likely to affect such interests, be reappointed,
and that the further steps to be taken in this matter be referred to the
Council.
That the Presidents of the several Sections be requested, with such assist-
ance from the Members as they may find desirable, to revise the recommen-
dations which have from time to time been adopted in reference to the
branches of Science which are taken into consideration by those Sections
respectively, and to communicate thereon with the Assistant General Secre-
tary previous to the next Meeting.
That a Committee, consisting of Sir John Herschel, The Astronomer
Royal, Prof. Forbes and Prof. Powell, with power to add to their number,
be empowered to communicate with the Astronomers of Pulkowa on the
observations to be made at the next approaching total Eclipse of the Sun,
July 28, 1851, and to draw up suggestions for the guidance of observers
generally.
That the Memorial of M. Kupffer be printed for circulation among the
officers.
It appearing that two recommendations for Reports, viz. On the Anatomy
and Physiology of the Nervous System, and on the History and Advances
of Vegetable Physiology, which had been adopted by the Committee of Sec-
tion D, had not been presented to the Committee of Recommendations, it
was directed that these be communicated to the Council at its next Meeting :
the following are the terms of these Resolutions : —
" That Professors Sharpey, Goodsir and Allen Thompson, and Dr. Laycock,
with power to add to their number, be requested to prepare for the next
Meeting of the Association a Report on the History of, and Advances in our
knowledge of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, from the
date of the last Report on this subject.
"That Dr. Lindley, Arthur Henfrey, F.L.S., and Dr. Lankester, with
Xxiv REPORT — 1850.
power to add to their number, be requested to prepare for the next Meeting
of the Association a Report on the Advances in our knowledge of Vegetable
Phy<ioIogy» from the date of the last Report on this subject."
That two Botanical Works, presented by Professor Parlatore, be deposited
in the Library of the University of Edinburgh.
That the Tables of the distribution (in depth) of Marine Animals, by
Mr. M'Andrew, be printed in extenso in the Volume of Reports of this
Meeting of the Association.
That Major General Briggs's paper On the Aboriginal Tribes of India be
printed entire in the next Volume of Transactions.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General, Committee at the Edinburgh Meeting in August 1850, with
the Name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee,
is entitled to draw for the Money.
Kew Observatory, £ s. d.
At the disposal of the Council for defraying Expenses 300
Mathematical and Physical Science.
Forbes, Prof. J. D. — Experiments for the purpose of testing the
results of the Mathematical Theory of Heat 50
Chemical Science.
Hunt, Mr. R.— Influence of the Solar Radiations or Chemical
Combinations, Electrical Phasnomena, and the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different atmospheric conditions. . 50
Smith, Dr. — Investigations on the Air and Water of Towns.. . 10
Natural History.
Strickland, H. E.— Vitality of Seeds 11
Lankesteu, Dr. — Periodical Phaenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables 5
Forbes, Prof. E. — Report on British Annelida 10
Ethnology,
Malcolm, Sir Charles. — Printed Queries for obtaining Eth-
nological Data 12
Grants £448
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XXV
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for
Scientific Purposes.
1834.
Tide Discussions
JO
1835.
Tide Discussions 62
BritishFossil Ichthyolog y 105
£167
1836.
Tide Discussions .... 163
BritishFossillchthyology 105
Thermometric Observa-
tions, &c 50
Experiments on long-
continued Heat .... 17 1
Rain Gauges 9 13
Refraction Experiments 15
Lunar Nutation 60
Thermometers 15 6
£434 14
1837.
Tide Discussions 284 1
Chemical Constants .. 24 13 6
Lunar Nutation 70
Observations on Waves. 100 12
Tides at Bristol 150
Meteorology and Subter-
ranean Temperature . 89 5
VitrificationExperiments 150
Heart Experiments .... 8 4 6
Barometric Observations 30
Barometers 11 18 6
£918 14 6
1838.
Tide Discussions 29
British Fossil Fishes . . 100
MeteorologicalObserva-
tions and Anemometer
(construction) 100
Cast Iron (strength of) . 60
Animal and Vegetable
Substances (preserva-
tion of) 19 1 10
Carried forward £308 1 10
75
3
6
6
50
5
3
£ s. d.
Brought forward 308 110
Railway Constants .... 41 12 10
Bristol Tides 50
Growth of Plants . . .
Mud in Rivers . . .. .
Education Committee
Heart Experiments. .
Land and Sea Level
Subterranean Tempera-
ture 8 6
Steam- vessels 100
Meteorological Commit-
tee 31 9 5
Thermometers 16 4
£956 12 2
267 8 7
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology ...
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth . . 63
Mechanism of Waves . . 144
Bristol Tides S5
Meteorology and Subter-
ranean Temperature .
VitrificationExperiments
Cast Iron Experiments .
Railway Constants ....
Land and Sea Level . .
Steam- Vessels' Engines. 100
Stars in Histoire Celeste 331
Stars in Lacaille 11
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue G
Animal Secretions .... 10
Steam-engines in Corn-
wall 50
Atmospheric Air 16
Cast and Wrought Iron. 40
Heat on Organic Bodies 3
Gases on Solar Spec-
trum
Hourly Meteorological
Observations, Inver-
ness and Kingussie . .
Fossil Reptiles 118
Mining Statistics 50
110
10
2
18 6
21
9
100
28
274
11
4 7
7 2
1 4
49
18 6
16 6
10
1
22
7 8
2 9
£1595 11
XXVI
£
184.0.
Bristol Tides 100
Subterranean Tempera-
ture < 13
Heart Experiments. ... IS
Lungs Experiments . . 8
Tide Discussions 50
Land and Sea Level . . 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 24:2
Stars (Lacaille) 4
Stars (Catalogue) .... 264
Atmospheric Air 15
Water on Iron 10
Heat on Organic Bodies 7
MeteorologicalObserva-
tions 52
Foreign Scientific Me-
moirs 112
Working Population . . 100
School Statistics 50
Forms of Vessels .... 184
Chemical and Electrical
Phaenomena 40
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth . . 80
Magnetical Observations 185
£1546
REPORT
s.
d.
13
6
19
13
11
1
10
15
15
17 6
7
13 !)
16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves. 30
Meteorologyand Subter-
ranean Temperature . 8 8
Actinoraeters 10
Earthquake Shocks .. 17 7
Acrid Poisons 6
Veins and Absorbents. . 3
Mud in Rivers 5
Marine Zoology 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps 20
Mountain Barometers. . 6 18 6
Stars (Histoire Celeste). 185
Stars (Lacaille) 79 5
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17 19 6
Stars (Catalogue of) . . 40
Water on Iron 50
MeteorologicalObserva-
tions at Inverness . . 20
Meteorological Observa-
tions (reduction of).. 25
Carried forward £5S9 10 8
-1850.
£ «. rf.
Brought forward 539 10 8
Fossil Reptiles 50
Foreign Memoirs .... 62
Railway Sections .... 38 1 6
Forms of Vessels 193 12
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth . . 55
Magnetical Observations 61 18 8
Fishes of the Old Red
Sandstone 100
Tides at Leith 50
Anemometer at Edin-
burgh 69 110
Tabulating Observations 9 6 3
Races of Men 5
Radiate Animals 2
£1235 10 11
1842.
Dynamometric Instru-
ments 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannise .. 52 12
Tides at Bristol 59 8
Gases on Light 30 14 7
Chronometers 26 17 6
Marine Zoology 1 5
British Fossil Mammalia 100
Statistics of Education. . 20
Marine Steam-vessels'
Engines 28
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 59
Stars (British Associa-
tion Catalogue of) ..110
Railway Sections 161 10
British Belemnites .... 60
Fossil Reptiles (publica-
tion of Report) 210
Forms of Vessels 180
Galvanic Experiments on
Rocks 5 8 6
Meteorological Experi-
ments at Plymouth.. 68
Constant Indicator and
Dynamometric Instru-
ments 90
Force of Wind 10
LightonGrowthof Seeds 8
Vital Statistics 50
Vegetative Power of
Seeds 8 1 11
Carried forward £1442 8 8
GENERAL STATEMENT.
xxvii
£ s.
Brought forward 14'42 8
Questions on Human
Race 7
9
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomen-
clature of Stars .... 2
Reduction of Stars, Bri-
tish Association Cata-
logue 25
Anomalous Tides, Frith
of Forth 120
Hourly Meteorological
Observations at Kin-
gussie and Inverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth . . 55
Whe well's Meteorolo-
gical Anemometer at
Plymouth 10
Meteorological Observa-
tions, Osier's Anemo-
meter at Plymouth . . 20
Reduction of Meteorolo-
gical Observations . . 30
Meteorological Instru-
ments and Gratuities 39 6
Construction of Anemo-
meter at Inverness .. 56 12 2
Magnetic Co-operation . 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder
for Kew Observatory 50
Action of Gases on Light 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew
Observatory, Wages,
Repairs, Furniture and
Sundries 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive
Balloons 81 8
Oxidation of the Rails
of Railways 20
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles .... 40
Coloured Drawings of
Railway Sections. .. . 147 18 3
Registration of Earth-
quake Shocks 30
Report on Zoological
Nomenclature 10
Carried forward £977 6 7
£
5.
d.
Brought forward 977
6
7
Uncovering Lower Red
Sandstone near Man-
chester
4
4
6
Vegetative Power of
5
10
3
8
Marine Testacea (Habits
of)
Marine Zoology
10
Marine Zoology
2
14
11
Preparation of Report
on British Fossil Mam-
malia
100
20
Physiological operations
of Medicinal Agents
Vital Statistics
36
5
8
Additional Experiments
on theForms of Vessels
70
Additional Experiments
on theForms of Vessels
100
Reduction of Observa-
tions on the Forms of
Vessels
100
Morin's Instrument and
Constant Indicator . .
69
14
10
Experiments on the
Strength of Materials
60
£1565
10
_2
1844.
Meteorological O bser va-
tions at Kingussie and
Inverness 12
CompletirjgObservations
at Plymouth 35
Magnetic and Meteoro-
logical Co-operation. . 25 8 4
Publication of the Bri-
tish Association Cata-
logue of Stars 35
Observations on Tides
on the East Coast of
Scotland _ 100
Revision of the Nomen-
clature of Stars.. 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment in Kew Ob-
servatory 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Ob-
servatory 56 7 3
Carried forward £384 2 4
XXVIU
REPORT 1850.
s.
2
d.
4
17
6
11
10
Brought forward 384
Influence of Light on
Plants 10
SubterraneousTempera-
ture in Ireland 5
Coloured Drawings of
Railway Sections. .. . 15
Investigation of Fossil
Fishes of the Lower
Tertiary Strata 100
Registering the Shocks
of Earthquakes, 1842 23
Researches into the
Structure of Fossil
Shells 20
Radiata and Mollusca of
the Mgean and Red
Seas 1842 100
Geographical distribu-
tions of Marine Zo-
ology 1842 10
Marine Zoology of De-
von and Cornwall . . 10
Marine Zoology of Corfu 10
Experiments on the Vi-
tality of Seeds 9
Experiments on the Vi-
tality of Seeds. . 1842 8
Researches on Exotic
Anoplura 15
Experiments on the
Strength of Materials 100
CompletingExperiments
on the Forms of Ships 100
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10
Investigations on the in-
ternal Constitution of
Metals 50
Constant Indicator and
Morin's Instrument,
1842 10
3
7 3
3 6
£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue
of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observa-
tions at Inverness .. 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteoro-
logical Co-operation IG 16 8
Carried forward £399 10 1
25
50
£ s. d
Brought forward 899 10 I
Meteorological Instru-
ments at Edinburgh 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemome-
trical Observations at
Plymouth 25
Electrical Experiments
at Kew Observatory 43 17 8
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment in Kew Ob-
servatory 149 15
For Kreil's Barometro-
graph
Gases from Iron Fur-
naces
Experiments on the Ac-
tinograph 15
Microscopic Structure of
Shells 20
Exotic Anoplura.. 1843 10
Vitality of Seeds.. 1843 2 7
Vitality of Seeds.. 1844 7
Marine Zoology of Corn-
wall 10
Physiological Action of
Medicines 20
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York ..2000
Registration of Earth-
quake Shocks . .184 3 15 14 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Ca-
talogue of Stars, 1844 211 15
Fossil Fishes of the Lon-
don Clay 100
Computation of theGaus-
sian Constants for 1839 50
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment at Kew Ob-
servatory 146 16 7
Experiments on the
Strength of Materials 60
Researches in Asphyxia 6 16 2
Examination of Fossil
Shells 10
Vitality of Seeds.. 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds.. 1845 7 12 3
Marine Zoology of Corn-
wall 10
Carried forward £605 15 10
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XXlX
Brought forward
Marine Zoology of Bri-
tain
Exotic Anoplura. .1844'
Expenses attending Ane-
mometers
Anemometers' Repairs .
Researches on Atmo-
spheric Waves ....
Captive Balloons . . 1 844
Varieties of the Human
Race 1844
Statisticsof Sickness and
Mortality at York . .
£
s.
d.
605
15
10
10
25
11
7
6
2
3
6
3
3
3
8
19
8
7 6 3
12
£685 16
1847.
Computation of theGaus-
sian Constants fori 839 50
Habits of Marine Animals 10
Physiological Action of
Medicines 20
Marine Zoology of Corn-
wall , .. 10
Researches on Atmo-
spheric Waves 6 9 3
Vitality of Seeds 4 7 7
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment at Kew Ob-
servatory 107 8 6
£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment at Kewr Ob-
servatory 171 15 11
Carried forward £171 15 11
£ s. d.
Brought forward 171 15 11
Researches on Atmo-
spheric Waves .... 310 9
Vitality of Seeds .... 9 15
Completion of Catalogues
of Stars 70
On Colouring Matters . 5
On Growth of Plants . . 15
£^75 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations
at Kew Observatory 50
Maintaining Establish-
ment at ditto 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds 5
On Growth of Plants. . 5
Registration of Periodi-
cal Phaenomena .... 10
Bill on account of Ane-
mometrical Observa-
tions 13 9
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Esta-
blishment at Kew Ob-
servatory 255 18
Transit of Earthquake
Waves 50
Periodical Phaenomena 15
Meteorological Instru-
strument, Azores . . 25
£345 18
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which
remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the As-
sociation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report
that the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames
Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to
time be required.
XXX REPORT — 1850.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
General Meetings {in the Music Hall).
On Wednesday, July 31st, at 8 p.m., the late President, The Rev. T. R.
Robinson, D.D., M.R.I. A., resigned his Office to Sir David Brewster, K.H.,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E., who took the Chair at the General
Meeting, and delivered an Address, for which see p. xxxi.
On Thursday, August 1st, Professor Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E., delivered a
Discourse on the Passage of the Blood through the minute Vessels of Ani-
mals, in connection with Nutrition.
On Monday, August 5th, Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. &c., delivered a Discourse
on the Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
On Wednesday, August 7th, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting of
the Association was held, when the Proceedings of the General Committee,
and the grants of money for scientific purposes were explained to the
Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Ipswich in 1851*.
* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, the 2nd of July.
ADDRESS
BY
SIR DAVID BREWSTER, K.H. D.C.L.
F.R.S.L. & V.P.R.S. Edinb.
ASSOCIATE OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.
Gentlemen, — The kind and flattering expressions with which Dr. Robinson
has been pleased to introduce me to this Chair, and to characterise my sci-
enti6c labours, however coloured they are by the warmth of friendship, cannot
but be gratifying even at an age when praise ceases to administer to vanity
or to stimulate to ambition. The appreciation of intellectual labour by
those who have laboured intellectually, if not its highest, is at least one of
its high rewards. When 1 consider the mental power of my distinguished
friend, the value of his original researches, the vast extent of his acquire-
ments, and the eloquence which has so often instructed and delighted us at
our annual reunions, I feel how unfit I am to occupy his place, and how
little I am qualified to discharge many of those duties which are incident to
the Chair of this Association. It is some satisfaction, however, that you are
all aware of the extent of my incapacity, and that you have been pleased
to accept of that which I can both promise and perform — to occupy any post
of labour, either at the impelling or the working arm of this gigantic lever
of science.
On the return of the British Association to the metropolis of Scotland, I
am naturally reminded of the small band of pilgrims who, in 1831, carried
the seeds of this Institution into the more genial soil of our sister land — of
the zeal and talent with which it was fostered and organized by the Philo-
sophical Society of York— of the hospitality which it enjoyed from the
Primate of England— of the invaluable aid which it received from the uni-
versities and scientific societies of the south — and of the ardent support
with which it was honoured by some of the most accomplished of our
nobility. From its cradle at York, the infant Association was ushered into
the gorgeous halls of Oxford and Cambridge — the seats of ancient wisdom
and the foci of modern science. University honours were liberally extended
to its more active members ; and, thus decorated, our Institution was eagerly
XXxii REPORT — 1850.
welcomed into the lich marts of our commerce, and into the active localities
of our manufacturing industry. Europe and America speedily recognized
the importance of our rising Association, and deputies from every civilized
nation hastened to our annual congress, assisted at our sectional meetings,
and have even contributed to our Transactions valuable reports on different
branches of science.
It may be interesting to those who are here for the first time to learn the
names of some of those distinguished individuals by whose exertions and
talents this Association has attained its present magnitude and position ; and
1 feel as if it were peculiarly my duty to do honour to their zeal and their
labours. Sir John Robison, Professor Johnston, and Professor J. D. Forbes,
were the earliest friends and promoters of the British Association. They
went to York to assist in its establishment, and they found there the very
men who were qualified to foster and organise it. The Rev. Mr. Vernon
Harcourt, whose name cannot be mentioned here without the expression of
our admiration and gratitude, had provided laws for its government, and,
along with Mr. Phillips, the oldest and most valuable of our office-bearers,
had made all those arrangements by which its success was ensured- Headed
by Sir Roderick Murcliison, one of the very earliest and most active ad-
vocates of the Association, there assembled at York about 200 of the friends
of science. Dalton, Pritchard, Greenough, Scoresby, William Smith, Sir
Thomas Brisbane, Dr. Daubeny, Dr. B. Lloyd Provost of Trinity College
Dublin, Professor Potter, Lord Fitzwilliam, and Lord Morpeth, took an
active part in its proceedings ; and so great was the interest which they ex-
cited, that Dr. Daubeny ventured to invite the Association to hold its second
meeting at Oxford. Here it received the valuable co-operation of Dr.
Buckland, Professor Powell, and the other distinguished men who adorn
that seat of literature and science. Cambridge sent us her constellation of
philosophers — bright with stars of the first magnitude — Whewell, Peacock,
Sedgwick, Airy, Herschel, Babbage, Lubbock, Challis, Kelland, and Hopkins;
while the metropolitan institutions were represented by Colonel Sabine,
one of our General Secretaries, Mr. Taylor, our Treasurer, Sir Charles
Lyell, Colonel Sykes, Mr. Brown, Mr. Faraday, Professors Owen and
Wheatstone, Dr. Mantell, Lord Northampton, Lord Wrottesley, Sir Philip
Egerton, and Sir Charles Lemon. From Leiand we received the distin-
guished aid of Lord Rosse, Lord Enniskillen, Lord Adare*, Dr. Robinson,
Dr. Lloyd, Sir William Hamilton, and Professor Maccullagh ; and men of
immortal names were attracted from the continents of Europe and America
— Arago, Bessel, Struve, Liebig, Jacobi, Le Verrier, Encke, Erman, Kupffer,
Ehrenberg, Matteucci, Rogers, Bache, and Agassiz. The young members
of the Association, to whom we owe much, and from whom we expect more,
will excuse me for not making an individual reference to their labours. Their
day of honour will come when our brief pilgrimage has closed. To them
we bequeath a matured institution, and we trust that they will leave it to a
succeeding race with all the life which it now breathes, and with all the
glory which now surrounds it.
It has been the custom of some of my predecessors in this Chair, to give a
brief account of the progress of the sciences during the preceding year ;
but, however interesting might be such a narrative, it would be beyond the
power of any individual to do justice to so extensive a theme, even if your
time would permit, and your patience endure it.^ I shall miike no apology,
* Now the Earl of Dunraven.
ADDRESS. XXXUl
however, for calling your attention to a few of those topics, within my own
narrow sphere of study, which, from their prominence and general interest,
may be entitled to your attention.
I begin with Astronomy, a study which has made great progress under the
patronage of this Association ; a subje'jt, too, possessing a charm above all
other subjects, and more connected than any with the deepest interests —
past, present, and to come — of every rational being. It is upon a planet
that we live and breathe. lis surface is the arena of our contentions, our
pleasures, and our sorrows. Ii is to obtain a portion of its alluvial crust
that man wastes the flower of his days, and prostrates the energies of his
mind, and risks the happiness of his soul ; and it is over, or beneath, its
verdant turf that his ashes are to be scattered, or his bones to be laid. It
is from the interior, too — from the inner life of the earth, that man derives
the materials of civilization — his coal, his iron, and his gold. And deeper
still, as geologists have proved — and none with more power than the geolo-
gists around me — we hnd in the bosom of the earth, written on blocks of
marble, the history of primaeval times, of worlds of life created, and worlds
of life destroyed. We find there, in hieroglyphics as intelligible as those
which Major Rawlinson has deciphered on the slabs of Nineveh, the remains
of forests which waved in luxuriance over its plains — the very bones of huge
reptiles that took shelter under their foliage, and of gigantic quadrupeds
that trod uncontrolled its plains — the lawgivers and the executioners of that
mysterious community with which it pleased the Almighty to people his
infant world. But though man is but a recent occupant of the earth an
upstart in the vast chronology of animal life — his interest in the paradise
so carefully prepared for him is not the less exciting and profound. For
him it was made : he was to be the lord of the new creation, and to him
it especially belongs to investigate the wonders it displays, and to learn the
lesson which it reads.
But, while our interests are thus closely connected with the surface and
the interior of the earth, interests of a higher kind are associated with it as
a body of the system to which we belong. The object of geology is to
unfold the history and explain the structure of a planet ; and that history
and that structure may, within certain limits, be the history and the structure
of all the other planets of the system — perhaps of all the other planets of
the universe. The laws of matter must be the same wherever matter is
found. The heat which warms our globe radiates upon the most distant of
the planets ; and the light which twinkles in the remotest star, is, in its phy-
sical, and doubtless in its chemical properties, the same that cheers and
enlivens our own system ; and if men of ordinary capacity possessed that
knowledge which is within their reach, and had that faith in science which
its truths inspire, they would see in every planet around them, and in every
star above them, the home of immortal natures — of beings that suffer and
of beings that rejoice — of souls that are saved, and of souls that are lost.
Geology is therefore the first chapter of astronomy. It describes that
portion of the solar system which is nearest and dearest to us — the cosmo-
politan observatory, so to speak, from which the astronomer is to survey the
sidereal universe, where revolving worlds, and systems of worlds, summon
him to investigate and adore. There, too, he obtains the great base line of
the earth's radius to measure the distances and magnitudes of the starry
host, and thus to penetrate by the force of reason into those infinitely di-
stant regions where the imagination dare not venture to follow him. But
astronomy, though thus sprung from the earth, seeks and finds, like Astraea,
1850. d
XXxiv REPORT — 1850.
a more congenial sphere above. Wliatever cheers and enlivens our terrestrial
paradise is derived from the orbs around us. Without the light and the heat of
our sun. and without the uniform movements of our system, we should have
neither climates nor seasons. Darkness would blind, and famine destroy
everything that lives. Without influences from above, our ships would drift
upon the ocean, the sport of wind and wave, and would have less certainty
of reaching their destination than balloons floating in the air, and subject to
the caprice of the elements.
But, while a knowledge of astronomy is essential to the very existence of
social life, it is instinct with moral influences of the highest order. In the
study of our own globe, we learn that it has been rent and upheaved by
tremendous forces — here sinking into ocean depths, and there rising into gi-
gantic elevations. Even now, geologists are measuring the rise and fall of its
elastic crust ; and men who have no faith in science often learn her great
truths to their cost, when they see the liquid fire rushing upon them from the
volcano, or stand above the yawning crevice in which the earthquake threatens
to overwhelm them. Who can say that there is a limit to agencies like these ?
Who could dare to assert that they may not concentrate their yet divided
energies, and rend in pieces the planet which imprisons them ? Within the
bounds of our own system, and in the vicinity of our own earth, between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there is a wide space, which, according to the
law of planetary distances, ought to contain a planet. Kepler predicted that
a planet would be found there ; and, strange to say, the astronomers of our
own times discovered at the beginning of the present century four small
planets — Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta — occupying the very place in our
system where the anticipated planet ought to have been found. Ceres, the
first of these, was discovered by Piazzi, at Palermo, in 1801 ; Pallas, the
second of them, by Dr. Olbers of Bremen, in 1802; Juno, the third, by
Mr. Harding, in 1804; and Vesta, the fourth, by Dr. Olbers, in 1807,
After the discovery of the third, Dr. Olbers suggested the idea that they
were the fragments of a planet that had been burst in pieces ; and, con-
sidering that they must all have diverged from one point in the original orbit,
and ought to return to the opposite point, he examined those parts of the
heavens, and thus discovered the planet Vesta.
But though this principle had been long in the possession of astronomers,
nearly forty years elapsed before any other planetary fragment was dis-
covered. At last, in 1845, Mr. Hencke, of Driessen, in Prussia, discovered
the fragment called Astra;a, and in 1847 another called Hebe. In the same
year our countryman, Mr. Hind, discovered other two. Iris and Flora. In
1848, Mr. Graham, an Irish astronomer, discovered a ninth fragment called
Metis. In 1849, Mr. Gasparis of Naples discovered another which he calls
Hygeia ; and, within the last two months, the same astronomer has discovered
the eleventh fragment, to which he has given the name of Parthenope*. If
these eleven small planets are really, as they doubtless are, the remains of a
larger one, the size of the original planet must have been considerable.
Iris, 1847, August 13, Hind.
Flora, 1847, Oct. 18, Hind.
Metis, 1848, April 25, Graham.
Hygeia, 1849, April 12, Gasparis.
Parthenope, 1850, May 11, Gasparis.
Victoria, 1850, Sept. 13, Hind.
It is remarkable that eight of these twelve planets were discovered by astronomers, each of
whom discovered two, Mr. Hind has now discovered three.
Ceres,
1801,
Jan. 1,
Piazzi.
Pallas,
1802,
March 28,
Olbers.
Juno,
1804,
Sept. 1,
Harding
Vesta,
1807,
March 29,
Olbers.
Astraea,
1845,
Dec. 8,
Hencke.
Hebe,
1847,
July 1,
Hencke.
ADDRESS.
What its size was would seem to be a problem beyond the grasp of reason.
But human i^enius has been permitted to triumph over greater ditficulties.
The planet Neptune was discovered by Adams and Le Verrier, before a ray
of its light had entered the human eye; and, by a law of the solar system
recently announced to the world, we can determine the original magnitude
of the broken planet long after it has been shivered into fragments ; and we
might have determined it even after a single fragment had proved its exist-
ence. This law we owe to Mr. Daniel Kirkwood of Pottsville, a humble
American, who, like the illustrious Kepler, struggled to find something new
among the arithmetical relations of the planetary elements. Between every
two adjacent planets there is a point where their attractions are equal. If
we call the distance of this point from the sun the radius of a planet's sphere
of attraction, then Mr. Kirkwood's law is, that in every planet the square
of the leniTth of its year, reckoned in days, varies as the cube of the radius
of its sphere of attraction. This law has been verified by more than one
American astronomer ; and there can be no doubt, as one of them expresses
it, that it is at least a physical fact in the mechanism of our system. This
law requires, like that of Bode, the existence of a planet between Mars and
Jupiter; and it follows from the law tliat the broken planet must have been
a little larger than Mars, or about 5000 miles in diameter, and that the length
of its day must iiave been about 57-^ hours. The American astronomers
regard this law as amounting lo a demonstration of the nebular hypothesis
of Laplace ; but we venture to say that this opinion will not be adopted by
the astronomers of England.
Among the more recent discoveries within the bounds of our own system,
I cannot omit to mention those of our distinguislied countryman, Mr. Lassell
of Liverpool. By means of a fine twenty feet reflector, constructed by
himself, he detected the only satellite of Neptune which has yet been dis-
covered, and more recently an eighth satellite circulating round Saturn — a
discovery which was made on the very same day, by Mr. Bond, Director of
the Observatory of Cambridge in the United Stales. Mr. Lassell has still
more recently, and under a singularly favourable state of the atmosphere,
examined the very minute, but extremely black shadow of the ring of Saturn,
upon the body of the planet. He observed the line of shadow to be notched,
as it were, and almost broken up into a line of dots, thus indicating mountains
upon the plane of the ring — mountains, doubtless, raised by the same in-
ternal forces, and answering the same ends, as those of our own globe.
In passing from our solar system to the frontier of the sidereal universe
around us, we traverse a gulf of inconceivable extent. If we represent the
radius of the solar system, or of Neptune's orbit (which is 2900 millions of
miles), by a line two miles long, the interval between our system, or the orbit
of Neptune, and the nearest fixed star, will be greater tlian the whole cir-
cumference of our globe — or equal to a length of 27,600 miles. The pa-
rallax of the nearest fixed star being supposed to be one second, its distance
from the sun will be nearly 412,370 times the radius of the earth's orbit, or
13,740 times that of Neptune, whicii is 30 times as far from the sun as the
earth. And yet to that distant zone has the genius of man traced the
Creator's arm, — working the wonders of his power, and diffusing the gifts of
his love — the heat and the light of suns — the necessary elements of physical
and intellectual life.
It is by means of the gigantic telescope of Lord Kosse that we have be-
come acquainted with the form and character of those great assemblages of
stars which compose the sidereal universe. Drawings and descriptions of
d2
XXXvi REPORT 1850.
the more remarkable of these nebulae, as resolved by this noble instrument,
were communicated by Dr. Robinson to the last Meeting of the Association,
and it is with peculiar satisfaction that 1 am able to state that many import-
ant discoveries have been made by Lord Rosse and his assistant, Mr.
Stoney, during the last year. In many of the nebulae, the peculiarities of
structure are very remarkable, and, as Lord Rosse observes, " seem even to
indicate the presence of dynamical laws almost within our grasp." The
spiral arrangement so strongly developed in some of the nebulae, is trace-
able more or less distinctly in many; but, "more frequently," to use Lord
Rosse's own words, " there is a nearer approach to a kind of irregular, in-
terrupted, annular disposition of the luminous material, than to the regularity
observed in others;" but his Lordship is of opinion that these nebulae are
systems of a very similar nature, seen more or less perfectly, and variously
placed with reference to the line of sight. In re-examining the more re-
markable of these objects. Lord Rosse intends to view them with the full
light of his six-feet speculum, undiminished by the second reflexion of the
small mirror. By thus adopting what is called the/roK< view, he will doubt-
less, as he himself expects, discover many new features in these interesting
objects.
It is to the influence of Lord Rosse's example that we are indebted for
the fine reflecting telescope ot Mr. Lassell, of which I have already spoken;
and it is to it, also, that we owe another telescope, which, though yet un-
known to science, I am bound in this place especially to notice. I allude to
the reflector recently constructed by Mr. James Nasmyth, a native of Edin-
burgh, already distinguished by his mechanical inventions and his observations
on the moon's surface, and one of a family well known to us all, and occu-
pying a high place among the artists of Scotland. This instrument has its
great speculum twenty feet in focal length, and twenty inches in diameter ;
but it differs from all other telescopes in the remarkable facility with which
it can be used. Its tube moves vertically upon hollow trunnions, through
which the astronomer, seated in a little observatory, with only a horizontal
motion, can view at his ease every part of the heavens. Hitherto, the astro-
nomer has been obliged to seat himself at the upper end of his Newtonian
telescope ; and if no other observer will acknowledge the awkwardness and
insecurity of his position, I can myself vouch for its danger, having fallen
from the very top of Mr Ramage's twenty-feet telescope, when it was directed
to a point not very far from the zenith.
Though but slightly connected with astronomy, I cannot omit calling your
attention to the great improvements — 1 may call them discoveries — which
have been recently made in Photography. I need not inform this meeting
that the art of taking photographic negative pictures upon paper was the
invention of Mr. Fox Talbot, a distinguished member of this Association.
The superiority of the Talbotype to the Daguerreotype is well known.
In the latter, the pictures are reverted and incapable of being multiplied,
while in the Taibotype there is no reversion, and a single negative will
supply a thousand copies, so that books may now be illustrated with pictures
drawn by the sun. The difficulty of procuring good paper for the negative
is so great, that a, better material has been eagerly sought for; and M.
Niepce, an accomplished officer in the French service, has successfully sub-
stituted for paper a film of albumen, or the white of an egg, spread upon
glass. This new process has been brought to such perfection in this city by
Messrs. Ross and Thomson, that Talbotypes taken by them, and lately
exhibited by myself to the National Institute of France, and to M. Niepce,
were universally regarded as the finest that had yet been executed. Another
process, in which gelatine is substituted for albumen, has been invented and
successfully practised by M. Poitevin, a E'rench officer of engineers; and by
an ingenious method which has been minutely described in the weekly pro-
ceedings of the Institute of France, M. Edmund Becquerel has succeeded
in transferring to a Daguerreotype plate the prismatic spectrum, with all
its brilliant colours, and also, though in an inferior degree, the colours of the
landscape. These colours, however, are very fugacious ; and, though no
method of fixing them has yet been discovered, we cannot doubt that the
diflSculty will be surmounted, and that we shall yet see all the colours of the
natural world transferred by their own rays to surfaces both of silver and
paper.
But the most important fact in photography which I have now to mention
is the singular acceleration of the process discovered by M. Niepce, which
enables him to take the picture of a landscape illuminated by diffused light,
in a single second, or at most in two seconds. This acceleration is produced
by adding from iO to 45 grains of honey to the white of each egg according
to its size. By this process, he obtained a picture of the sun on albumen so
instantaneously, as to confirm the remarkable discovery, previously made by
M. Arago, by means of a silver plate, that the rays which proceed from the
central parts of the sun's disc have a higher photogenic action than those
which issue from its margin. This interesting discovery of M. Arago is
one of a series on photometry which that distinguished philosopher is now
occupied in publishing. Threatened with a calamity which the civilized
world will deplore — the loss of that sight which has detected so many brilliant
phsenomena, and penetrated so deeply the mysteries of the material world
— he is now completing, with the aid of other eyes than his own, those
splendid researches which will immortalise his own name and add to the
scientific glory of his country.
From these brief notices of the progress of science, I must now call your
attention to two important objects with which the British Association has
been occupied since its last meeting. It has been long known, both from
theory and in practice, tiiat the imperfect transparency of the earth's atmo-
sphere, and the inequal refraction which arises from differences of temperature,
combine to set a limit to the use of high magnifying powers in our telescopes.
Hitherto, however, the application of such high powers was checked by the
imperfections of the instruments themselves ; and it is only since the con-
struction of Lord Rosse's telescope that astronomers have found that, in
our damp and variable climate, it is but during a few days of the year that
telescopes of such magnitude can give sufficiently distinct vision with the
high magnifying powers which they are capable of bearing. Even in a
cloudless sky, when the stars are sparkling in the firmament, the astronomer
is baffled by influences which are invisible ; and while new planets and new
satellites are being discovered by instruments comparatively small, the gi<.
gantic Polyphemus lies slumbering in his cave, blinded by thermal currents,
more irresistible than the firebrand of Ulysses.
As the astronomer, however, cannot command a tempest to clear his at-
mosphere, nor a thunder-storrn to purify it, his only alternative is to remove
his telescope to some southern climate, where no clouds disturb the serenity
of the firmament, and no changes of temperature distract the emanations of
the stars. A fact has been recently mentioned, which entitles us to antici-
pate great results from such a measure. The Marquis of Ormonde is said
to have seen from Mount Etna, with his naked eye, the satellites of Jupiter.
xxxviii REi'ORT — 1850.
If this be true, wliat discoveries may we not expect, even in Europe, from
a fine telescope working above the grosser strata of our atmosphere ? This
noble experiment of carrying a large reflector to a southern climate has been
but once made in tiie history of science. Sir John Herscliel transported
his telescopes and his family to the south of Africa, and during a voluntary
exile of four years' duration, he enriched astronomy with many splendid
discoveries. Such a sacrifice, however, is not likely to be made again ; and
we must therefore look to the aid of Government for the realization of a
])roject which every civilized people will applaud, and which, by adding to
the conquests of science, will add to the glory of our country. At the
Birmingham meeting of the Association, its attention was called to this sub-
ject ; and, being convinced that great advantages would a.crue to science
from the active use of a large reflecting telescope in the southern hemisphere,
it was resolved to petition Government for a grant of nsoney for that pur-
pose. The Royal Society readily agreed to second this application ; and, as
no request from the British Association has ever been refused, whatever
Government was in power, we have every reason to expect a favourable
answer to an able memorial from the pen of Dr. Robinson, which has just
been submitted to the minister.
A recent and noble act of liberality to science on the part of the Govern-
ment justifies this expectation. It is, I believe, not yet generally known that
Lord John Russell has granted £1000 a-year to the Royal .Society for pro-
moting scientific objects. The Council of that distinguished body has been
very solicitous to make this grant effective in promoting scientific objects ;
and I am persuaded that the measures they have adopted are well-fitted to
justify the liberality of the Government. One of the most important of
these has been to place £100 at the disposal of the Committee of the Kew
Observatory. This establishment, which has for several years been sup-
ported by the British Association, was given to us by the Government as a
depository for our books and instruments, and as a locality well-iitted for
carrying on electrical, majinetical, and meteorological observations. During
the last six years, the Observatory has been under the honorary superin-
tendence of Mr. Ronalds, who is well known to the scientific world by his
ingenious photographic methods of constructing self-registering magnetical
and meteorological apparatus. On the joint application of the Marquis of
Northampton and Sir John Herschel, as members of the Association, her
Majesty's Government have granted to Mr. Ronalds a pecuniary recompense
of £250 for these inventions ; and I am glad to be able to state, that Mr.
Brooke has also received from them a suitable reward for inventions of a
similar kind.
Under the fostering care of the British Association, the most valuable
electrical observations have been made at Kew, and Mr. Ronalds has con-
tinued, from year to year, to make those improvements upon his apparatus
which experience never fails to suggest ; but I regret to say, that in conse-
quence of our diminished resources, the Association, at its meeting in 1848,
came to the resolutionofdiscontinuingthe observations at Kew — appropriating,
at the same time, an adequate sum for completing those which were in pro-
gress, and for reducing and discussing the five years' electrical observations
which had been published in our annual reports. I trust, however, that
means will yet be found to maintain the Observatory in full activity, and to
carry out the original objects contemplated by the Committee. Having had
an opportunity of visiting this establishment a few weeks ago, after having
inspected two of the best conducted observatories on the Continent, where
i
the same class of observations is made, I have no hesitation in speaking in
the highest terms of the value of Mr. Ronalds' labours, and in recom-
mending the institution which he so liberally superintends to the continued
protection of the Association, and to the continued liberality of the Royal
Society,
From the facts which I have already mentioned, and from many others to
which I might have referred, the members of the Association will observe
with no common pleasure, that the Government of this country has, during
the last twenty years, been extending its patronage of science and the
arts. That this change was effected by the interference of the British Asso-
ciation, and by the writings and personal exertions of its members, could,
were it necessary, be easily proved. But though men of all shades of
political feeling have applauded the growing wisdom and liberality of the
state, and though various individuals are entitled to share in the applause,
yet there is one statesman, alas ! too early and too painfully torn from
the affections of his country, whom the science of England must ever regard
as its warmest friend and its greatest benefactor. To him we owe new
institutions for -advancing science, and new colleges for extending edu-
cation ; and had Providence permitted him to follow out, in the serene
evening of life, and in the maturity of his powerful intellect, the views
which he had cherished amid the distractions of political strife, he would
have rivalled the Colbert of another age, and would have completed that
systematic organization of science, and literature, and art, which has been
the pride and the glory of another land. These are not the words of idle
eulogy, or the expressions of a groundless expectation. Sir Robert Peel
had entertained the idea of attaching to the Royal Society a number of ac-
tive members, who should devote themselves wholly to scientific pursuits ;
and I had the satisfaction of communicating to him, through a mutual friend,
the remarkable fact, that I had found among the MSS. of Sir Isaac Newton
a written scheme of improving the Royal Society, precisely similar to that
which he contemplated. Had this idea been realized, it would have been
but the first instalment of a debt long due to science and the nation ; and it
would have fallen to the lot of some more fortunate statesman to achieve
a glorious name by its complete dischaige.
It has always been one of the leading objects of the British Association,
and it is now the only one of them which has not been wholly accompHshed,
"to obtain a more general attention to the objects of science, and a removal
of any disadvantages of a public kind which impedes its progress." Al-
though this object is not very definitely expressed, yet Mr. Harcourt, in
moving its adoption, included under it the revision of the law of patents, and
the direct national encouragement of science, two subjects to which I shall
briefly direct your attention.
In 1831, when the Association commenced its labours, the patent laws
were a blot on the legislation of Great Britain ; and though some of their
more obnoxious provisions have since that time been modified or removed,
they are a blot still, less deep in its dye, but equally a stain upon the cha-
racter of the nation. The protection which is given by statute to every
other property in literature and the fine arts, is not accorded to property in
scientific inventions and discoveries. A man of genius completes an inven-
tion, and, after incurring great expense, and spending years of anxiety and
labour, he is ready to give the benefit of it to the public. Perhaps it is an
invention to save life — the life boat ; to shorten space and lengthen time —
the railway ; to guide the commerce of the world through the trackless ocean
Xl REPORT — 1850.
— the manner's compass; to extend the industry, increase the power, and fill
the coffers of the state — the steam-engine ; to civilise our species, to raise
it from the depths of ignorance and crime to knowledge and to virtue — the
printing-press. But, whatever it may be, a grateful country has granted
to the inventor the sole benefit of its use for fourteen years. That which
the statute freely gives, however, law and custom as freely take away, or
render void. Fees, varying from £200 to £500, are demanded from the
inventor ; and the gift, thus so highly estimated by the giver, bears the great
seal of England. The inventor must now describe his invention with legal
precision. If he errs in the slightest point — if his description is not sufficiently
intelligible — if the smallest portion of his invention has been used before — or
if he has incautiously allowed his secret to be made known to two, or even
to one individual — his patent will be invaded by remorseless pirates, who
are ever on the watch for insecure inventions, and he will be driven into a
court of law, where an adverse decision will be the ruin of his family and
his fortunes. Impoverished by oflacial exactions, or ruined by legal costs,
the hapless inventor, if he escapes the asylum or the workhouse, is obliged
to seek, in some foreign land, the just reward of his industry and genius.
Should a patent escape unscathed from the fiery ordeal through which it has
to pass, it often happens that the patentee has not been remunerated during
the fourteen years of his term. In this case, the state is willing to extend
his right for five or seven years more; but he can obtain this extension only
by the expensive and uncertain process of an act of Parliament — a boon
which is seldom asked, and which, through rival influence, has often been
withheld.
Such was the patent law twenty years ago ; but since that time it has re-
ceived some important ameliorations; and though the British Association
did not interfere as a body, yet some of its members applied energetically
on the subject to some of the more influential individuals in Lord Grey's
Government, and the result of this was, two acts of Parliament, passed in
1835 and 1839, entitled "Acts for Amending the Lavj touching Letters
Patent for Inventions." Without referring to another important act for re-
gistering designs, which had the effect of withdrawing from the grasp of
the patent laws a great number of useful inventions, dependmg principally
on form, I shall notice only the valuable provisions of the two acts above
mentioned — acts which we owe solely to the wisdom of Lord Brougham.
By the first of these acts, the patentee is permitted to disclaim any part
either of the title of his invention or of the specification of it, or to make
anv alteration on the title or specification. The same act gives the Privy
Council the power of confirming any patent, or of granting a new one, when
a patent had been taken out for an invention which the patentee believed to
be new, but which was found to have been known before, though not pub-
licly and generally used. By the same act, too, the power of extending
letters patent was taken from Parliament and given to the Privy Council,
who have, on different occasions, exercised it with judgement and discrimi-
nation. By the second act, of 1839, this last privilege was made more
attainable by the patentee. These are doubtless valuable improvements
which inventors will gratefully remember ; but till the enormous fees, which
are still exacted, are either partly or wholly abolished, and a real privilege
given under the great seal, the genius of this country will never be able to
compete with that of foreign lands, where patents are cheaply obtained and
better protected. In proof of the justness of these views, it is gratifying
to notice, that, within these few days, it has been announced in Parliament
ADDRKSS.
xU
that the new Attorney-General has accepted his office on the express con-
dition that the large fees which he derives from patents shall be subject to
revision.
The other object contcnnplated by the British Association —the organi-
zation of science as a national institution — is one of a higher order, and not
limited to individual or even to EngHsh interests. It concerns the civilised
world : — not confined to time, it concerns eternity. While the tongue of
the Almighty, as Kepler expresses it, is speakincr to us in his Word, his
finger is writing to us in his works ; and to acquire a knowledge of these
works is an essential portion of the great duty of man. Truth secular
cannot be separated from truth divine ; and if a priesthood has in all ages
been ordained to teach and exemplify the one, and to maintain, in ages of
darkness and corruption, the vestal fire upon the sacred altar, shall not an
intellectual priesthood be organized to develope the glorious truths which
time and space embosom — to cast the glance of reason into the dark interior
of our globe, teeming with what was once life — to make the dull eye of man
sensitive to the planet which twinkles I'rom afar, as well as to the luminary
which shines from above — and to incorporate with our inner life those won-
ders of the external world which appeal with e(]ual power to the affections
and to the reason of immortal natures? If the God of Love is most appro-
priately worshiped in the Christian Temple, the God of Nature may be
equally honoured in the Temple of science. Even from its lofty minarets the
philosopher may summon the fiiitlifu! to prayer ; and the priest and the sage
may exchange altars without the compromise of faith or of knowledge.
Influenced, no doubt, by views like these, Mr. Harcourt has cited, in
support of this object of the Association, the opinion of a philosojiher,
whose memory is dear to Scotland, and whose judgement on any great ques-
tion will be everywhere received with respect and attention: — I refer to
Professor Piayfair, the distinguished successor, in our Metropolitan Univer-
sity, of the Gregorys, the Maclaurins, and the Stewarts of former days,
who, in his able dissertation " On the Progress of the Mathematical and
Physical Sciences," thus speaks of the National Institute of France : —
" This institution has been of considerable advantage to science. To de-
tach a number of ingenious men from everything but scientific pursuits —
to deliver them alike from the embarrassments of poverty or the temptations
of wealth — to give them a place and station in society the most respectable
and independent — is to remove every imjiediment, and to add every stimulus to
exertion. To this institution, accordingly, operating upon a people of great
genius and indefatigable activity of mind, we are to ascribe that superiority
in the mathematical sciences which, in the last seventy years, has been so
conspicuous*."
This just eulogy on the National Institute of France, in reference to
abstract mathematics, may be safely extended to every branch of theoretical
and practical science ; and I have no hesitation in saying, after having' re-
cently seen the Academy of Sciences at its weekly labours, that it is the
noblest and most effective institution that ever was organized for the pro-
motion of science. Owing to the prevalence of scientific knowledge among
all classes of the French population, and to their admirable system of ele-
mentary instruction, the advancement of science, the dilTusion of knowledge,
and the extension of education, are objects dear to every class of the people.
The soldier as well as the citizen — the Socialist, the Republican, the Royalist
• Encyclopaedia Britannica, Diss, 3d, sec. 5, p. 500.
1850. e
Xlii REPORT — 1850.
—all look up to the National Institute as a mighty obelisk erected to science,
to be respected, and loved, and defended by all. We have seen it standing,
unshaken and active, amid all the revolutions and convulsions which have
so long agitated that noble hut distracted country — a common centre of
afiection, to which antagonist opinions, and rival interests, and dissevered
hearts, have peacefully converged. It thus becomes an institution of order,
calculated to send back to its contending friends a message of union and
peace, and to replace in stable equilibrium the tottering institutions of the
state.
It was, doubtless, with views like these that the great Colbert established
the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and that the powerful and sagacious
monarchs on the Continent of Europe have imitated his example. They
have established in their respective capitals similar institutions — they have
sustained them with liberal endowments — they have conferred rank and
honours on their more eminent members ; and there are now in this assem-
bly distinguished foreigners who have well earned the rewards and distinc-
tions they have received. It is, therefore, Gentlemen, no extravagant opinion,
that institutions which have thus thriven in other countries should thrive in
ours— that insulated societies, which elsewhere flourish in combination,
should, when cc;nfined, flourish among us — and that men, ordained by the
state to the undivided functions of science, should do more and better work
than those who snatch an hour or two from their daily toil, or from their
nightly rest.
In a great nation like ours, where the higher interests and objects of the
state are necessarily organized, it is a singular anomaly that the intellectual
interests of the country should, in a great measure, be left to voluntary sup-
port and individual zeal — an anomaly, that could have arisen only from
the ignorance or supineness of ever-changing administrations, and from the
intelligence and liberality of a commercial people— an anomaly, too, that
could have been continued only by the excellence of the institutions they
had founded. In the history of no civilized people can we find private
establishments so generously tbstered, so energetically conducted, and so suc-
cessful in their objects, as the Royal Societies of London, Edinburgh, and
Dublin, and the Astronomical, Geological, Zoological, and Linnaean Societies
of the metropolis. They are institutions that do honour to the nation, and
they will ever be gratefully remembered in the history of science. But they
are nevertheless defective in their constitution, limited in their operation, and
incapable, from their very nature, of developing, and directing, and rewarding
the indigenous talent of the country. They are simply subscription socie-
ties, which pay for the publication of their own Transactions, and adjudicate
medals entrusted to them by the beneficence of others. They are not bound
to the exercise of any other function, and they are under no obligation to
do the scientific work of the state, or to promote any of those national ob-
jects which are entrusted to the organized institutions of other lands.
Their President and Council are necessarily resident in London ; and the
talent and genius of the provinces are excluded from their administration.
From tliis remark we must except the distinguished philosophers of Cam-
bridge and Oxford, who, from their proximity to the capital, have been the
brightest ornaments of our metropolitan institutions, and without whose aid
they never could have attained their present pre-eminence.
It is, therefore, in the more remote parts of the empire that the influence
of a national institution would be more immediately felt, and nowhere more
powerfully than in this its northern portion. Our English friends are, we
ADDRESS. xliii
believe, little aware of the obstructions which oppose the progress of science
in Scotland. In our five universities, there is not a single fellowship to stimu-
late the genius and rouse the ambition of the student. The church, the law,
and the medical profession liold out no rewards to the cultivators of mathe-
matical and physical science ; and were a youthful Newton or Laplace to
issue from any of our universities, his best friends would advise him to
renounce the divine giit, and to seek in professional toil the well-earned
competency which can alone secure him a just position in the social scale,
and an enviable felicity in the domestic circle. Did this truth require any
evidence in its support, we find it in the notorious fact, that our colleges
cannot furnish professors to fill their own important offices ; and the time is
not distant when all our chairs in mathematics, natural philosophy, and even
natural history, will be occupied by professors educated in the Enghsh uni-
versities. But were a Royal Academy or Institute, like that of France,
established on the basis of our existing institutions, and a class of resident
members enabled to devote themselves wholly to science, the youth of
Scotland would instantly start for the prize, and would speedily achieve
their full share in the liberality of the state. Our universities would then
breathe a more vital air. Our science would put forth new energies, and
our literature might rise to the high level at which it stands in our sister
land.
But it is to the nation that the greatest advantages would accrue. With
gigantic manufacturing establishments, depending for their perfection and
success on mechanics and chemistry — with a royal and commercial marine
almost covering the ocean — with steam-ships on every sea — with a system
of agriculture leaning upon science as its mainstay — with a net-work of
railways, demanding for their improvement, and for the safety of the tra-
veller, and for the remuneration of their public-spirited projectors, the highest
efforts of mechanical skill — the time has now arrived for summonin.of to the
service of the state all the theoretical and practical wisdom of the country
— for rousing what is dormant, combining what is insulated, and uniting in
one great institution the living talent which is in active but undirected and
unbefriended exercise around us.
In thus pleading for the most important of the objects of the British As-
sociation, I feel that I am not pleading for a cause that is hopeless. The
change has not only commenced, but has made considerable progress. Our
scientific institutions have already, to a certain extent, become national ones.
Apartments belonging to the nation have been liberally granted to them.
Royal medals have been founded, and large sums from the public purse de-
voted to the objects which they contemplate. The Museum of (Economic
Geology, indeed, is itself a complete section of a Royal Institute, oivinCT a
scientific position to six eminent philosophers, all of whom are distinouished
members of the British Association: — and in every branch of science and
literature, the liberality of the Crown has been extended to numerous indi-
viduals, whose names would have been enrolled among the members of a
National Institution. The cause, therefore, is so far advanced ; and every
act of liberality to eminent men, and every grant of money for scientific
and literary pinposes, is a distinct step towards its triumph. Our private
institutions have in reality assumed the transition phase, and it requires only
an electric spark from some sagacious and patriotic statesman to combine in
one noble phalanx the scattered elements of our intellectual greatness, and
guide to lofty achievements and glorious triumphs, the talent and genius of
the nation.
xliv REPOET— 1850.
But when such an institution has heen completed, the duties of the state
to science are not exhausted. It has appreciated knowledge but in its
abstract and utilitarian phase. For the peace and happine.ss of society, it
would be of little avail were the great truths of the material world confined
to the educated and the wise. The organization of science, thus limited,
would cease to be a blessing. Knowledge, secular and divine, the double
current of the intellectual life-blood of man, must not merely descend
through the great arteries of the social frame : it must be taken up by the
minutest capillaries before it can nourisli and purify society. Knowledge
is at once the manna and the medicine of our moral being. When crime is
the bane, knowledge is the antidote. Society may escape from the pesti-
lence, and survive the famine ; but the demon of ignorance, with his grim
adjutants of vice and riot, will pursue her into her most peaceful haunts,
destroying her institutions, and converting into a wilderness the paradise of
social and domestic liie. The state has, therefore, a solemn duly to per-
form. As it punishes crime, it is bomid to devise means for its prevention.
As it subjects us to laws, it must teaci) us to read them ; and while it thus
teaches, it must teach also the ennobling truths which display the power
and the wisdom of the great Lawgiver — thus diffusing knowledge while it
is extending education, and thus making liien contented, and happy, and
humble, while it makes them quiet and obedient subjects.
It is a great problem yet to be solved, to determine what will be the state
of society when man's physical powers are highly exalted, and his physical
condition highly ameliorated, without any corresponding change in his
moral liabits and position. There is much reason to fear that every great
advance in material civilization requires some moral and compensatory an-
tagonism ; but however this may be, the very indeterminate character of the
problem is a warning to the rulers of nations to prepare for the contingency
by a system of national instruction, wliicii shall either reconcile or disregard
those hostile influences under which the people are now perishing for lack
of knowledge.
REPORTS
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Mrst Report on the Facts of Em'thquake Phenomena.
By Robert Mallet, C.E., M.R.I.A.
.Those striking phsenomena of nature which are of comparatively rare and
uncertain occurrence, have ever been the longest held bound in the darkness
of superstition, the last to receive the light of truthful investigation.
In following down the long'^age of man's discovery of nature, we shall see
that it is only in its latest lines that storms and tempests, hail and lightning,
comets, meteors, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, have been emancipated
from the superstition (not confined alone to the vulgar) which viewed them
not as occasional manifestations of the laws of one Creator, always acting
and always fit and worthy of our highest efforts to discover and elucidate,
but as the peculiar weapons given into the hands, and subject alone to the
depraved and capricious wills of the powers of evil, by whose malignant aid
the witch or the sorcerer should ride the tempest or blast the crop, the
nations be stirred up to war, the fall of the great ones of the earth be por-
tended, or monarchs perplexed with fear of change.
Thus, says Butler, in his 'Analogy of Religion,' cap. iv., "We know, in-
deed, several of the general laws of matter, and a great part of the behaviour
of living agents is reducible to general laws, but we know nothing, in a man-
ner, by what laws storms and tempests, earthquakes, famine and pestilence
become the instruments of destruction to mankind. - - - These laws are so
wholly unknown to us, that we call the events which come to pass by them
accidental - - though all reasonable men - - conclude that the things which
have this appearance are the result of general laws, and may be reduced to
them."
Long since the comet has ceased to be a portent, and its recurrent period
may be predicted. The lightning flash has been identified with and con-
trolled into the electric carrier of our mandates, and we have begun to com-
prehend the chain of causation concerned in tempests, tornadoes and hail-
storms. Last of all, the earthquake is but just emerging from the gloom of
vulgar superstition and learned neglect into the light of physical truth, and
is about to take its place as one of the phaenomena of acknowledged cosmical
laws, whose conditions shall be capable of complete interpretation, although
perhaps from the number of these (as is the case throughout geology) we may
be for ever incompetent to predict the occurrence of the phaenomenon.
Such having been the past state of human knowledge as to earthquakes,
an extensive research into the narratives and histories of these events soon
convinces one, that in the absence on the part of past authors of any true
1850. B
2 REPORT — 1850.
guiding hypothesis, of any distinct idea of what an earthquake really is, of
any notion of what facts might have been of scientific importance to observe,
and what were merely highly striking or alarming, but only secondary ac-
cidental circumstances due to changes of surface, or the complication (never
attempted to be disentangled) of all these with the facts of closely adjacent
volcanic eruption, — in the want of all these, as well as of any calmness or
unexaggerative observation during such alarming visitations, few facts of the
character and precision requisite to render them of value to science can be col-
lected with certainty. The true observation of earthquake phaenomena is
yet to be commenced and the required facts are to be collected, the most im-
portant of them by methods not dreamed of until very recently.
In collating the multitudinous and vague accounts of earthquakes, there-
fore, I have been compelled to reject vast numbers of statements, either for
want of the necessary conditions to scientific value, or of suflicient authen-
ticity (as when given, not as an eye-witness, but upon common hearsay by
the narrator), or of the facts given having any real bearing upon the scien-
tific question.
The staple of earthquake stories, in fact, consists of gossip made up of the
most unusual, violent or odd accidents that befel men, animals or structures,
rather than of the phaenomenon itself. Very few of these narratives state
even the precise direction or duration of the shock, and the chief value of a
complete discussed catalogue of earthquakes, from such accounts as we have,
would be to present some indications as to the nature of their diffusion over the
earth's surface, and of their distribution in time ; such catalogues have been
prepared for limited districts by M. Perrey, by Von Hoff", and by some few
others, and a much more extensive one will form a future part of this Report.
In the succeeding Report, I have not thought it necessary to refer to author-
ities except in cases of rarely noticed and important facts ; in other instances
the references might be innumerable.
As it is impossible to observe facts to any good purpose, so is it equally
impracticable to select them from the records of others for any useful scien-
tific end vvitliout some guiding hypothesis ; in this respect I have been guided
by that theory of earthquake dynamics, which I have enunciated*, and which
defines an earthquake to be " the transit of a wave of elastic compression in
any direction from vertically upwards to horizontally in any azimuth, through
the surface and crust of the earth from any centre of impulse, or from more
than one, and which may be attended vi ith tidal and sound waves dependent
upon the impulse, and upon circumstances of position as to sea and land."
It is unnecessary, I would hope, for me to add, that I have not selected the
following facts to suit any theory, but have impartially taken note of all that
I could find that appeared of importance to science, whether at first sight
making for or against my own views. Let me add, that in this course of ex-
tensive research through earthquake narrations, I have not met with a
single fact recorded that was not resoluble upon my theory, or equally irre-
soluble upon any, and of doubtful credence.
Before proceeding it may be desirable to take a very brief survey of the
several other theories (if such they may be called) which have been at dif-
ferent times promulgated, in a word, of the literature generally of earth-
quakes, omitting those views now palpably absurd, such as the ancient Mon-
golian and Hindoo notion, that the earth rests upon a huge frog, which, when
he scratches his head, produces an earthquake, &c.
As the best and most rapid mode of doing this, I shall give in the order of
time, and as nearly as possible in each author's own words, the peculiar
* Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. xxi. part 1.
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 3
views and statements made by the successive writers upon our subject,
making few remarks bj' the way. I have deemed it worth while to transcribe
Aristotle and Pliny's statements of the facts of earthquakes as observed in
and before their days, more fully than perhaps some may think their views
deserve; this however I have done, because it is not unimportant to compare
now, the observations as to fact of those confessedly accurate observers, in
very ancient periods, with our own latest ones, upon phoenomena presumedly,
and as proved to be by the comparison, the same.
I omit the earliest Greek notices of earthquakes, and take the matter up
with Aristotle, through whose works, and even those portions usually sup-
posed spurious, as the book " De Plantis," many passages occur touching
upon our subject. His main views, however, are contained in the following
extracts : —
" Tiepl Be aeia-fiov koX Ktvriaeui<i jrj'i fiera ravra XeKTeov r) yap alria
rod Trddov; i^o/Mevr) tovtov tov yevov; icrTLV. "Eari Se rd ye Trapei-
\7)f/,fieva fJ'e')(pt tov vvv ')(p6vov rpia koI irapd Tpicov. Ava^ay6pa<; re
yap 6 KXa^o/xevio^ koI irporepo'i ^ Ava^i/J.evr)<; 6 MtA.?;<ri09 dire^rjvavTO,
KoX TOVToav varepo^ Ar]fi6Kpi,T0<i 6 ^A^Sr}pLTr]<;. ^ Ava^ay6pa<i fiev ovv
(f>r)al TOV aldepa Tre^VKOTa ^epeaOau dvco, e/jUTTLTTTOVTa B eh to, /caTco
TTJ'i 7^9 Kal TO, KoTka Kivelv avTrjV to, [juev yap dvco avvaXrjXicjidat Sid
TOv<; ofji^povi, iirel ipvaei ye irdaav 6fMoi(o<; elvai a-ojx^rjv, co? ovto? tov
fiev dv(o TOV Be /caT&) Trj<; oX.??? a(f>aipa^, koI dvco p^ev tovtov ovto? tov
fiopiov icf)' ov Tvy')(dvop,ev oi/covvTe'i, KdTCo Be OaTcpov. ITpo? p,ev ovv
TavT7]v Trjv ahiav ovdev taco<; Bet \eyeiv ws \iav aTrXw? elprjp^evrjv to
T6 yap dvco Ka\ KaTco vop^i^euv ovtco<; e^eiv wcrre /xrj ttjOO? ttjv yrjv irdvrrj
<f>epe(Tdai tu ^dpo^ e^ovra tSw acop^aTcov, dvco Be ra Kov^a Kat, to Trvp,
€vr}0e<i, Kal ravd' 6pcavTa<i tov opi^ovTa ttjv olKOvp^evrjv, octtjv rip,ei<;
icrp,ev, erepov del yi,yv6fievov p,eOiaTap,evcov, &)? ovar]<; KvpTr]<; Kal acf)ai-
poetBotx;' Kal to Xeyetv fiev &>? Bid to p,eyedo<; eirl tov depo<i p,evec,
a€i€a$ai Be cpdaKeiv TVVTop,ev'r}V KaTcodev dvco Bl oX,?^?. IIpo? Be rov-
roif ovdev diroBiBcocn tcov avfi^acvovTcov irepl tov? creiapovi' ome ydp
')(5spab ovre wpai ai Tvyovcrai, fieTe')(^ovai tovtov tov irddovi. A7)p,6-
KpiTO<} Be (f)r)at ifkripr) rrjv yrjv vBaTO<; ovaav, Kal ttoXv Be-^o/xevrjv erepov
ofi/3piov vBcop, viro TOVTOV Ktvelcrdai,' TrAe/ovo? re ydp yevofievov Bid to
fiT] Bvvacrdat Be^ea-Qai Ta? Koi\La<; d7ro^ta^6/j,evov iroielv tov aeicrpboVi
Kal ^paivofjbevrjv Kal eXKovcrav el<} tou? Kevov<; tottou? e'/c tcov TrXrjpe-
trrepcov to pbera^dWov epjiriiTTOv Kivelv. 'Ava^t/ji,ev7]<; Be c^rjat, /Spe^^o-
fjbivtjv Tr)v yqv Kal ^rjpatvofjievTjv prjyvvcrOaL, Kal inro tovtcov tcov d-rrop-
prjyvvfxevcov koXcovcov ip^TniTTOVTCov crelecrOaL' Bio Kal yiyvecjQat toj)?
aeicTp,ov<i ev re TOt? av'yjjiol<; Kal rrrdXiv eV Tat? vtrepop.^piai'i' ev re ydp
Tot? au^/iot9, wcnrep eiprjrai, ^7)paivop,iv'r)V prjyvvcrdai, Kal vtto twv
vBdrcov virepvypaivofjievTjv BiaTTiTTTeiv. "EBei Be tovtov avfju^alvovro^
VTrovocnovcrav TroXXaT^ou c^alvecxOai ttjv yrjv. "En Be Bid tIv aiTiav
irepl Toirovi Tivd<i ttoXXAki^; yiverai tovto to ttcWo^ ovBefiia Biacpe-
povTa<i virep^oXfi Toiavry Trapd tou? dX}\.ov<; ; KaiToi i'^prjv, "OX&j? Be
rot? ouTO)? vTToXa/x/Bdvovcriv dvayKalov tJttov del tou? aeia/j,ov<; cpdvac
yiyvecrdai, Kal TiXo<; iravaacrOai irore aeiofj.evrjv to ydp aaTTOfievov
TOiauTijv 'e')(et cpvaiv. "Q,aT el tovt dBvvaTOV, BrjXov oti dBuvarov Kal
TavTrjv elvai rfjv alriav.
b2
4 REPORT — 1850.
*' 'AXX' iireiBr) (ftavepav on, dvayKu^ov Kol airb vypov koI utto ^rjpov
yiryv€(T6ai avaOvfMiaaiv, wairep etTro/Ltev iv roi? Trporepov, avdyKij rov-
Tcov v'irap')(0VT(t)v yijveadat toli? a-ei<Tfiov<;. "T7rdp')(^6t jdp rj 777 kuO
avTr]v fxev ^r)pd, Bui 8e tov<; 6/j,/3pov<; e')(ovaa iv avrf} voriSa TroWrjv,
b>aO VTTO T€ Tov TjXiov KOL Tov €v avTrj TTfpo? dep/xaivofx,ev'rj<; TToXu fiev
e^(o TToXi) 8' ivToii jivea-dac to Trvevfia' Kal rovro ore fxev cruveve? e^o)
pel irdv, ore S' eXaw Trdv, eviore 8e Kal fiepi^erai,. Et Si] tout dBuva-
rov aXXu><; e^etv, to /xeTci tovto aKeTrreov av etrj ottolov KcvrjTiKcoTaTov
dv elrj Twv aoofjudrcov dvdyKr] yap to eVt TrKelcrTov re 7r€^VKb<i levai koI
acpoSpoTaTov /xaXicna toiovtov elvai, ^(fioBporarov /xev ovv e^ dvdyKr)<!
TO Ta^tcTTa (pepo/jbevov Tvirret, yap /xaXia-ra Bid to Ta^09" eVl TrXelarov
Be Tre^vKe Buevat to Bid TravTo? levai p-dXiaTa Bvvdp,€vov, toiovtov Bk
TO XeTTToiaTOv. "£laT elirep -rj tov 7rve6/jiaTO<; ^ucrt9 ToiavTT], fidXiaTa
TMV aco/xaTwv to irvevfJia kivtjtikov' Kal yap to irvp OTav fieTa irvev-
/AaTO? fj, yuyv6Tai <pX6^ Kal (pepeTai Tapj^ew?. Ovk dv ovv vBcop ovB^
yrj a'lTiov eir), dXXd 'Kvevfia tt)? Kivrjaewi, OTav eaco tu^t; pvev to e^o)
dva6vfj,id)/M€vov. Aio yiryvovTai vrjve/jiia 01 TrXeiaToi Kal fjieyicrToi twv
aeiafjLwV cruve;^^? yap ova-a r) dvadv/j,iaai<i dKoXovOei a)? eVt to ttoXv
Trj op/iir] T»7? dp')(ri<i, w(TTe r) ecxo d/xa tj e^co op/xa Trdcra. To S" e'vioi/y
yivecrdai Kal 'rrvev/xaTO<; ovto? ovBev dXoyov opwfjiev yap ivloTe dfia
nrXeiovi 7rveovTa<; dvefxov;, mv OTav et? t^v yrjv opfirjar) ddTepov, ecrrai
7rvevfxaT0<; ovto? o (Tei(rfji6<;. 'EXaTTOu? B' ovtoi to /xeyeOoi; yiyvovTai
Bid TO Birjprjadai ttjv dp')(r]v Kal Tr]v aiTiav avTotv. Kat vuacto? 8' oi
TrXeiov; Kal fiei^ov; yiyvovTai twv aeitTfjiSiv, oi Be tj}? r]fjiepa<i irepl /xe-
(77) fi^p Lav' vrjve/iKOTaTov yap eaTiv o)? eVt to ttoXv t?}? r)fiepa<i V fie-
atjfi^pia (o yap ■tjXio'i OTav /xdXicTTa KpaT-^, KaTaKXelei ttjv dvadv/xiaaiv
et? Trjv yrjV KpaTel Be fxdXicrTa Trepl TrjV /xecrrj/x^piav) Kal ai vu/CTe? Bh
TMV rj/xepcov vrjve/xcoTepai Bid tt]v dirovaiav ttjv tov rjXiov mctt et(Tco
7t7veTat TrdXiv r) pvai<?, (ocxirep dfxTTCOTi<i, et? TovvavTiov t^? e^wdev
TrXTjfi/xvpiBo'y, Kai Trpo? opdpov /jidXiaTa' TrjviKavTa yap Kal Ta Trvey-
fiaTa Tricj^vKev dpj(ea6ai irvelv. 'Eav ovv etam TV')(rj fxeTa/SdXXovaa r)
dp')(r] avTwv oyaTrep EuptTTO?, Bid to 7r\?'}^o? Icr-^vpoTepov iroiel tov
aeKTjxov. "Eti Be irepl tottou? TotouTOU? ol lO'j^ypoTaToi yivovTai tmv
creicTfXMV, oirov 17 ddXaaaa pocoBrj<; rj rj ')((opa (T0fX(f)r} Kal v7ravTpo<;. Aib
Kal rrepl 'EWj/o^ttovtov Kal irepl 'A^aiav Kal ^iKeXiav, Kal Tr/? Eu-
l3oia<i Trepl tovtov; tou? tottou?' Bokci yap BiavXcovi^eiv vtro Trjv yrjv 17
ddXaTTa. Ato Kal Ta depfxd Ta irepl AiBe-^ov dirb ToiavTr)<; atrta?
yeyovev. Hepl Be tow? eipT]p,€vov<i tottou? ol a-eia-fxol yivovTai fidXiaTa
Bid TTJV (TTevoTTjTa' TO ydp irvevfia yevofievov acpoBpbv Bid to irXrjdoii
Trj<; daXdTTr}<i ttoAX?}? '7rpoa(f)epo/xevri<; diroydeiTai irdXiv et? Trjv yrjV, to
ye Tre^f/co? diroirvelv diro Ti]<; 77}?. At' Te %wpat ocrai <70fi<f)ov<i e-^^ovat
Tou? KaTft) TOTTOi;?, TToXv Be')(p fjievai irvev/xa creiovTai /xaXXov. Kal
€apo<; Be Kal /xeTOTrcopov /xdXiaTa Kal ev e7rofM^piai<; Kal av')(jJiol<; yivov-
Tai Bid TTjv avTrjv aiTiav at ydp wpai avTai irvev/xaTcoBea-TaTai' to ydp
6epo<; Kal 6 'yeifioiv, to /xev Bid tov irdyov, to Be Bid Tr)v dXeav iroiel
TTjv dKivrjcTiav' to /xev ydp dyav •>^v')(p6v, to 8' dyav ^rjpov ecrTiv. Kai
ev /i.ev Tot? av')^jxoi<i Trveu/xaTw^?/? 6 dr^p' tovto ydp avTo eaTiv 6
av')(jjio<;, OTav irXeicov r) dva6vp,iaai<; t) ^rjpd yiyvrjTai Trj<; vypd<;' ev Be
Tat? V7r€po/ji/3piai<i TrXetw Te Trotet t^v e'vTo? dvaOv/xiaaiv, Kal tw iv-
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 5
aTToXafi^dvea-Oat iv (XTevcoTepoi<i roTrot? koI aTro/Sid^eadat et? eXdrTO)
Toirov T^v ToiavTtjv diroKpicnv, Tr\r)povfj,evoov tcov KotXicov vSaro^, orav
dp^r)Tai, Kparelv Bid to ttoXv ei? oXcyov 7n\r]07]vai tottov, lcr')(ypu)<i Kivel
pi(ov 6 dve/xo^ Kal irpoairiTTTOiv. Ael yap voelv on axT'jrep iv tw> aco/xaTi
•fjfiwv Kal Tp6fJ,(ov Kal a^vyfimv aiTLOv qotiv r) rov TrvevfiaTO^ evairo-
Xafjb^avoixevT) Svva/u^is, ovtco Kal iv rfj yfj to irvevfia irapaTrXijaia TTOtetv,
Kal Tov fiev TCOV aetcrficov olov Tpo/uuov eivai rov 8 olov a(f)vyfj,6v, Kal Ka-
ddirep avfi^aivec TToXAa/ct? fierd rrjv ovprjauv Zid rov aco/j,aro<; {ylverat
yap axTTrep rpo/xo'i Tt? dvrifMeOiarafievov rov '7Tvev/u,aro<i e^codev earn
ddpoov), roLavra yiveaOai, Kal rrepl rr]v yrjv. "Oar]v S' ep^et to rrvevfia
Bvvafiiv, ov fiovov e« rutv ev ra> dipt hel dewpelv yLyvoyuivwv [ivravda
fjuev yap Bid to fieyeOo'i v7roXd/3oi Ti? dv roiavra Bvvacrdai rroieiv) dXkd
Kal iv T0t9 crcofiacn Tot? rwv ^a)cov' oi re. yap rkravoi Kal oi aTraa/xol
TTveu/^aTO? fiiv elai Kivrjcrei^, roaavrriv S' e^ovaiv la')(pv ware 7roXKov<i
afia ireipcofjuevovi drrol^id^eadai /mtj Bvvaadai Kparelv t^9 Kivi]aeai^ rwv
appwarovvrcov. To auTO Bel voelv yivofievov Kal iv ry yfj, d)<i eiKdaat
TT/ao? fxiKpov fjiel^ov. 'Z'rjp-ela Be rovrcov Kal 7rpo<i rr}v rj/xerepav atadr^cTiv
iTo\ka')(ov yeyovev ijBr] yap aei(r/j,6<; iv tottoi? rial yivofievo^ ov irpo-
Tepov e\7]^e, rrplv iKpj'j^a'i ei<; rov iiirep 797? roirov ^avepai<; warrep iK-
ye^la<i i^ijXdev 6 Kivijaa'i dve/xo<;, olov Kal rrepl 'Hpa/cXetav iyevero rrjv
ev Tw Tiovra vewarl, Kal irporepov rrepl rrjv 'lepdv vrjaov' avrrj S" iarl
fiia TCOV AioXov Ka\ovfj,evcov vqawv. 'Ev ravrr) ydp i^ava>Bei ti t^?
7^?, Kal dv^ei oXov Xo(jicoB7j<i 07/C09 p,erd yfrocpov Te'Xo? Be payevro^
i^rj\6e TTvevfia troKv, Kal rov <^e-^aXov Kav rr]v re(l>pav dvfJKe, Kal rrjv
T€ Anrapaicov 7r6X.1v ovaav ov Troppco rrdaav Karerecjipcoae, Kal et? eVi'a?
TCOV eV IraXia TroXewv rfkOev Kal vvv en orrov ro dvacjiuarj/xa rovro
iyevero, BrjXov iariv. Kat ydp Br) rod yiyvofievov Trvpo<; iv rfj yy rav-
r'Tjv oirjreov elvai ryv airlav, orav KOTrrofxevov iKTrpyaOfj rrpwrov et?
fiiKpd Kepfianadevro^ rov depo<i. TeKp,y]piov B' iarl rov pelv vivo ryv
yrjv rd irvevfiara Kal ro yiyvo/xevov rrepl ravraf Ta? v^aovi' orav ydp
avefio<; fMeXXy Trvevaeladai v6ro<i, irpotrrjfJiaLvei irporepov y-^ovai ydp oi
TOTTOi i^ &v yiverai rd dva(f}vai']p,ara, Bid ro ryv ddXarrav piev rrpoco-
deladai i^By iroppwOev, viro Be ravrrj<; ro iK t^9 7^9 dvacfivaoy/jievov
dircadeladai irdXiv eiaco, yirep iirepyerai y ddXarra ravrr). Tloiel Be
■y^o^ov avev aeiafMov Bid re rrjv evpv')(wpiav rcov tottcov [vTrep'X^elrai ydp
elf ro aT^ave9 e^co) Kal Bi 6Xoy6rr]ra rov d7rco6ov/j,evov depo'i. "Etj to
yir^veadai rov ijXiov d'^XvcoXr] Kal dfjiavporepov dvev v€<pov'i, Kal irpo
TCOV 6p6picov aeiafKOV iviore vyvepbiav re Kal Kpvo<; ia)(yp6v, ay/jielov tj}?
eipr]p,evrj<i alrias ianv. Tov Te ydp ifXiov d')(Xvd>B7} Kal dfiavpbv dvay-
Kalov elvai, inrovoarelv dp-)(pp,evov rov Trvevfiaro'i et9 t^v yrjv, rov Bia-
XvovTos rov depa Kal BiaKpivovrof,Kal 7rpo<; ryv eo),Kal rrepl rov<i opdpovi,
vyvefiiav re Kal '\|ru^09. T^v jjiev ydp vyvefiiav dvayKalov 0)9 eVt to ttoXu
avfji^aiveiv, KaOdirep eipyrai Kal irporepov, olov p,erappoia<i e'iaco yivo-
/iev^9 ToO 7rveu^aT09' Kal fidXXov irpo tcov fMei^ovcov aeiafxwv fxi] Biaairco-
fievov ydp ro fj,ev e^(o, ro 8' ivro'i, dXX' ddpoov <pep6fj,evov dvayKalov
ia')(yeiv p,dXXov. To Be (^V')(pf avfj,/3aivei Bid ro rrjv dvadvfMiaaiv eiaco
irepirpiireadai, ^vaei depp-yv ovaav KaO' avryjv. Ov BoKovai S' oldve/jioi
eivai depfiol Bid ro Kivelv rov depa irXyprj ^frv^pd<; ovra Kai iroXXi]^
dr/MiBoff (oairep ro irvevfia to Bid rov arofjiarof (^vacofievov. Kat ydp
6 REPORT — 1850.
TovTO iyyvdev /j.ev eVrt Oepfjuov, wcrirep Kol orav ad^cofieV aWa Bi
oXiyoTi^ra ovk 6/j,oio}<; eTrlSrjXov. YloppwOev hk '^v')(^pov, Sta rrjv avrrjv
atriav rot? avifio(,<i. ^FjTnXeiTrovarj'i ovv ei9 rr/v 7?)v t»}? T0iavT7]<i hv-
vd/j,e(a<;, avviovaa 8id vypoTijTa rj aT/xtScoS?;? diToppor) rroiei to -^^vj^o^,
iv 019 crv/x/3aLV6L T07roi<? ylveadai rovro to Tra^o?' to S' a^iTO amov «at
Tou elcoOoTO^ ivlore yuyveaOat a-r]/j,€iov irpo rcov aeKT/jL&v rj yap fieO^
rjfiepav, ■>) fjiiKpbv fierd 8vafjbd<;, al6pia<; ova7]<;, ve^eXiov Xctttov ^alveTai
BiaTelvov, Kol p^aKpbv, olov ypa/ji/juri<; /iijAro? evdvrrjTi BtrjKpt^ay/Mevov, tov
Trvey/ittTO? ci7ro/j,apaivofMevou Bid rvv fjuerdaracriv. To 8' ojjloiov (tv/m-
^aivet Koi iv rfj OaXdrTrj Trepl tou? alyiaXoix;' orav p,ev yap KVfxaivovaa
eK/SdWr), a(f}6Bpa Tra^etat kuI aKoXial ylvovrai al pr)yfjiive<;' orav Be
yaXijvr) f), Bid to /j.ucpdv iroieiaOai rijv eKKpiaiv Xcmal elat Kal evdeiai,
"Oirep ovv rj OdXarra iroiei irepl rrjv yi)v, tovto to Trvevfia irepl rrjv iv
Tw depi a^Xuv, wcr^' orav yevrjTai vTjve/aia, TrdfiTrav evdelav icai XeTTTrjv
KaTaXehreadai, wairep p7]y/j,iva ovaav depo<; rr)v ve^iXrjv. Atd TavTa
Be Kal Trepl Ta? e«;A.ei'\j!ret? ivioTe tj'}? creX-)]V'r]<; avfji^alvei ylyveadai aeia-
jxov' OTav yap 7]Br) ttXtjo-iov f) rj dvTi(j)pa^i^, Kal /lli^ttco fiev r/ TrdfJbTrav
diroXeXoiiro'i to 0&)9, Kal to diro tov ifKiov depfiov iK tov depo<;, tjBtj S'
aTTOfiapaivofjievov, V7]vep,ia yiverai, avrifiediaTafxevov tov irvev/xaTO^ ei?
t^v yr/v, TToiel tov (xeiapiov irpo rwv iKXeiy^recov. TivovTUi yap Kal
dve/xoi irpo twv iKXei-\fr6cov iroXXdKi'i, dKp6vv')(pi fjuev Trpb tmv fieaovvK-
TLiov iKXeiyjrecov, fieaovvKTioi Be Trpb twv ewcov. ^vfi^aivei Be tovto,
Bid TO d/xavpovaOai to Oepfxbv rb avro t?)? o-eX,7;v^9, otuv TrXrjaiov t^Bt]
yiyvrjrai rj cfjopd iv w yevopbevwv earai rj eKXeiyfri';. ^ Aviefi,evov ovv w
/caT6i^€T0 6 drjp Kal r/pep^ei, TrdXiv KiveiTai Kal yiyverai Trvev/jia t^?
eKXel^jreo}'; TrpcoiaiTepov. "Orav S' tVp^upo? yevrjTai a-eiafib<;, ovk evOv'i,
ovS" elaaTra^ TraveTai aeiaa^, dXXd to irpcoTov fiev f^e'^pt Trepl TCTTa-
pdKOVTa TTpoeiai TroXXdKi<; rj/j,epa^, varepov Be Kal icj) ev, Kal eTrt Bvo
err} iTriar)fxaLvei Kard Tov<i avTOv<; tottou?. Amov Be tov //.ev /u,eyedov<;
TO TrXrj$0'i TOV Trvev/xaT0<;, Kal twv tottcov rd <7^7;/LiaTa Bi wv dv pvfj'
fi ydp dv avTirvTrrjar), Kal f^r) paBico^ BieXOr], p^dXicTTa Te aeiet, Kal
iyKaTaXeiTreadai dvayKaiov iv Tal<; eva^copiai<;, olov vBcop ov Bvvdfievov
Bie^eX6elv. Aib KadaTrep iv o-co/xari o'l a^vy/xol ovk i^aicpviri TravovTai,
ovBe Ta')(ea><;, aXX' e'/c TrpocTaywyri<i d/j,a KUTafMapaivofMevov tov Trd6ov<;,
Kal r) dp'^r) dcjy "^9 rj dvadvfji,iaa-i<i iyeveTo, Kal 77 opfir) tov Trvevfj,aT0<y
BrjXov oTi OVK ev6v'; aTraaav dvdXcoae ti]v vXrjv, i^ ■^^ iTroirjae tov
dvefjbov, ov KaXovfjiev aeiap^bv. "Ea)9 dv ovv dvaXtoOfj rd vTzbXoiTra
TovTwv, drdyKT) aeieiv' '^pe/xaiTepov Be Kal fjie-)(^pi tovtov, ecof dv eXaTTOv
rj TO dvadvjjbico/jievov, rj ware Bvvaadai Kivetv e7rt8r?A.ct)9. JJoiei Be Kal
Toix; yjrocfiov'; tov<; vtto Tifv yrjv yivop,evov<i to Trvevfjia, Kal tov? Trpb twv
aeiapiMV. Ka.t dvev Be aeicr/jiMV, r^Brj ttov ye^ovaciv vtto yrjv Mcnrep
ydp Kal paTTi^o/tievo? 6 arjp TravToBaTTOv^ d^irjae ■\lro^ov<;, ovTca Kal
TVTTTcov avT6<i' ovdev ydp Bia^epei' to ydp tvtttov afxa Kai avTo tvtt-
TeTai Trdv. ITpoepT^eTat 8' 6 ■\{r6(l>o<; t')J<; Ktvijcye(o<; Bid to XeTTTO/nepea-
repov elvat, Kal fidXXov Bid TravTO'i levat tov Trv€Vfu,aTO<; tov "^ocpov.
"Orav S" 'iXarrov 97 rj ware Kivrjaai rrjv yrjv Bia XeTTTOTrjTa, Bid fiev to
paBico<; BirjOelaOai ov Bvvarai Kivelv Bid Be to TrpoaTriTrreiv dTepeol^
oyKois Kal KoiXoi<; Kal TravTo8aTroi<; (T')(fjfjbaai, TravTo8aTrd<; d<f>iricr€
^ft)va9" wctt' ivioTe BoKelv, oVep Xeyovaiv oi TepaToXoyovvTe<i, fiVKaadao
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 7
TTjv yrjv. "HSt) Se koX vSara aveppdyr] yir/vofievcov aeoarficov' aX)C ov
oia TOVTO aiTtov to vSoyp t/)? Kivrjaem'i, aXV av y e'^ iimroKr]'; t]
Karmdev ^cd^rjrai to Trvevfia, iicelvo to klvovv iarlv, wairep rS>v
KVfiaTtov 01 ave/j,oi, a\X' ou rd Kv/juara twv dvi/xcov icniv atria' eVet
Kal rrfv yrjv outw? dv ti<; alrtwro tov irdOov;' dvarpeveTat yap a-eco/iievT),
Kavdirep vScop (77 yap eKvyai^; avdrpe'^L^) rt^ eaTiv)' aW alna ravra
fiev dfiipw ft)? vXt] (Trda-)^ei yap, aXV ov iroiel)' to Se Trvev/iia to? dp'X^i]'
OTTOV 8' dfia KVfjba aeiafim yeyovev, acrcov, orav ivavria yiyvrjTai, rd
TTvevfiara. Touto 8e yiyverai, orav to cretoi/ rT]v yrjv 7rvev/j,a (f)epo-
fjtevqv VTT dWov Trvevfiaro'i rfjv 6d\acra-r)v, aTTwaai, fiev oXcd? fit)
Svv7}rar irpowOovv 8e Kal a-varreWov eh ravrov avvadpoCa-rj TToXKrjv'
Tore ydp dvayKalov r^rrrjOevro'i rovrov rov 7rv€vp^aro<; ddpoav d)dov/j,evr]V
viro rov ivavriov 7rvev/iaro<; i/cprjyvvaOai Kal rroielv rov KaraKXvcrfiov.
'Kyivero Be rovro Kal rrepl A.')(aLav e^co fiev ydp rjv p-oto?, e'/ce? Se
/Sopiaf. Ni^ve/Ata? Be yevofievTj^, Kal pvevro^ etaw rov dve/xov, iyevero
to, re Kvfjua Kal 6 aeia-fib'i dfia' Kal /j,dWov Bid ro rrjv 6d\arrav firj
SiBovai Biairvoijv rw vrro rr)v yrjv Q}p/j,T]/j,iva) rrvevixari, aXX, avrij>pdrreiv.
^Airo^ia^ofjieva ydp dWrfXa, to fiev rrvevfjia rov creiafiov eiroirjcrev, rj
Be viroaracnii rov KVfiaro<i rov KaraxXvar/xov. KaTa fj,€po<i Be yiyvovrai
01 aeia-fjiol t^? yrj<;, Kal TroWaKi^ eirl fiiKpov roirov oi S' dvefioi ov
Kard fiepo<;. K.ard fiepo<i fiev, orav at dvaOvfiida-ei^ ai Kara rov
roTTov avrbv Kal rov yeirvicovra avveXdcocriv eh ev' (ocnrep Kai rovt
avjQioix; e<f>afj,ev ylyvecrOai, Kal rd<i u7re/30/x/3pta? rd<; Kard /Mepo<}. Kal
ol fiev (xeicTfiol yiyvovrai Bid rovrov rov rpoirov ol K avefioi, ov. Ta
fiev ydp ev r^ yfj rrjv dp')(r]v e')(ei, wcrr e^' ev aTrao-a? opfidv 6 S' rjXio'i
ovy ofioiaf Bvvarar rd<; Be fierecopov; fidWov, ware pelv, orav ap^^rjv
Xa^Qxriv diro rfj^ rov rfkiov <f)opd^ rfBrj Kara rd<; Bia^opa<; rwv tottcuv,
i(f) ev. "Orav fiev ovv y rroXv to rrvevfia, Kivei rr)v yrjv, wairep dv 6
Tp6fio<}, cttI ifKdro'i fiev, yiyverai S" oktyaKif Kal Kara riva<; tottou?,
olov 6 (r<l)vyfid<i, dvco Kal Karadev' Bib Kal eXarrovdKi<; creiet rovrov rov
rpoTTOV ov ydp paBiov ovrco iroXKrjv crvveXdeiv apx^jV eirl firJK0<i yap
iroWarrXaaia rfj<; drrb rov ^ddovf, r) BiaKpicri^. "Ottov 8' dv yevrjrao
TOiovTO<; aeia-fioii, eTrnroXdl^ei rrXrjdo^ XiOcov, Mcnrep ratv ev roh XiKvoi^
dva^parofievmv. Towtov ydp rov rpoirov yevofievov aeicrfiov ra rrept,
^iirvXov dverparrrf Kal ro ^Xeypaiov KaXovfievov ireBiov, Kai ra irepi,
rrfV AiyvcrrtKTfv '^copav. 'Ev Be rah vr](TOi<i rah rrovriai'i yjrrov
yvyverai aei<rfi6<;, rwv rrpocryeiwv. To ydp irXrjOo'i t^? daXdrrr]^
Kara^^^v^ei rd<i dvadvfiidaei<i, Kal KotXvei ra> /3dpei, Kai airo^ia^erai.
"En Be pet, Kal ov aeierai Kparovfievr) vrrb twv rrvevfiaTcov. Kal Bid
TO TToXuv eireyeiv roirov, ovk eh ravrrjv, dXX^ e« ravrr}<i at, dva6vfiiaaei<i
y'vyvovrai, Kai ravrai<; dKoXovdovaiv ai e« rrj<i yrj<;. At S" iyyv<; tj)?
■ffireipov vqaoi fiopiov elai rrj<; yireipov. To ydp fiera^ii Bia fiiKporrjra
ovBefiiav e^ei Bvvafiiv Ta? Be irovrUtf ovk ecrri Kivrjaai dvev rrj<;
6aXarrr]<i oXt]^, v(}> ^? rrepiexofievai rvyxdvovaiv. Tiepi fiev ovv
aeiafiSiV, Kal rh V <}>va-i<; avrwv, Kal Bid riv airiav yiyvovrai, Kai rrepi
rS)V dXXoiv r(bv arvfi^aivovrmv rrepl avroV<;, eiprjrai crxeBov irepi twv
fieyioTOiv." — 'AptaTOTe\ou<?, Trepl MerecopoXoyiKwv, B, KetfyaXaia rj
Kal & .
" TloWawt? Be Kal o-u77ev€9 irvevfia evKparov ev yfj irape^madev eh
€ REPORT — 1850.
fixr)(lov<i arjpa'yya'; avTfj<;, e^eBpov yevofievov ck twv olKeiav tottcov,
•TToWd fJ'epr) avveKpdSavev. TloWa/ci? 8e iroXv yevofxevov e^coOev
iyKareiX'^dr) toI<; TavTr)<; KocXcofiaai, koI aTroKkeocrOev i^oBov fMera 0ia<i
avri)v avveriva^e, ^tjtovv e^oSov eavrw, Kal aTreipydaaTO rrddo'i tovto,
Kokelv elw6ap,€v (Teia/juov twv Be (xetafj,(av, ol /xev et? ifkayia aeiovTa
Kar o^eca^ ycovia^, iiriKkivrai KaXovvraf oi Be avco pnnovvTe<i, koX
KaTW Kar 6p6d<i y(ovia<i, /SpdaTat' ol Be avv7]^i]aet^ 7roiovvTe<i el<; ra
KoiXa, '^aa/JbariaC ol Be ^acr/Aara dvoiryovTe<i, koI yfjv dvappr)yvvvT€<;,
prjKrai KoXovvrai. Tovtcov Be, ol p,ev,Kal irvevfia 7rpoaava/3dWovaiv'
01 Be, 7rerpa<i' ol Be, Trrfkov ol Be, 7rr]yd<; (^alvovcL Ta9 irpOTepov ovk
ov(Ta<i' Ttve? Be, dvaTpeTrovre'i Kara fjbiav Trpocoaiv, ou? Kokovcrcv wara?'
ol Be dva7rdX\ovTe<;, Kal rat? eh eKdrepov eyKklaeat koX dvaTrdXaeai
BiopOovvreii del to aeiop-evov, 7raXfx,aTtat Xeyovrat, rpo/xM Tra^o? ofioiov
atrepya^ofievQi." — ^ ApcaToreXov;, irepl K.6ap,ov, Ke^aXaiov S' *.
Such are Aristotle's facts and opinions. The main difficulty of mastering
his views, consists in the interpretation we put upon the word nvevpa. It is
very difficult to discover whether by it he means, simply the wind, or some
" universal life of the world," the expansive efforts of elastic gases, or merely
some unknown force beneath, that which Humboldt calls " the reaction of
the interior of a planet upon its exterior." I incline to adopt the latter view.
The doctrines of the eloquent Seneca are next in ancient importance; they
have been well said by Humboldt to contain the germ of almost everything
that has been advanced in modern times as to volcanic action in its large sense.
" Ideoque antequam terra moveatur, solet mugitus audiri, ventis in abdito
tumultuantibus : nee enim aliter posset, ut ait noster Virgilius,
'Sub pedibus mugire solum, et juga celsa moveri,'
nisi hoc esset ventorum opus. Vices deinde hujus pugnae sunt; desinit ca-
lidi congregatio, ac rursus eruptio. Tunc frigida compescuntur et succe-
dunt, mox futura potentlora. Dum ergo alterna vis cursat, et ultro citroque
spiritus commeat, terra concutitur." — Senec. Natur. Qiicest., lib. vi. 13.
" Quidam ita existimant. Terra multis locis perforata est, nee tantum
primes illos aditus habet, quos velut spiramenta ab initio sui recepit, sed
multos illic casus imposuit. Allcubi diduxit, quidquid superne terreni erat,
aqua: alia torrentes exedere, ilia aestibus magnis dirupta patuere. Per haec
intervalla intrat spiritus : quem si inclusit mare, et altius adegit, nee fluctus
retro abire permisit, tunc ille exitu simul redituque praecluso, volutatur. Et
quia in rectum non potest tendere, quod illi naturale est, in sublime se in-
tendit, et terram prementem diverberat.
" Etiam nunc dicendum est, quod plerisque auctoribus placet, et in quod
fortasse fiet discessio. Non esse terram sine spiritu, palam est. Non tantum
illo dico, quo se tenet, ac partes sui jungit, qui inest etiam saxis mortuisque
corporibus; sed illo dico vitali, et vegeto, et alente omnia. Hunc nisi ha-
beret, quoraodo tot arbustis spiritum infunderet, non aliunde viventibus, et
tot satis? Quemadmodum tam diversas radices, aliter atque aliter in se
mersas foveret, quasdam summa receptas parte, quasdam altius tractas, nisi
niultuni haberet animse, tam uiulta, tam varia generantis, et haustu atque
alimento suo educantis ? Levibus adhuc argumentis ago. Totum hoc coelum,
quod igneus aether, mundi summa pars, claudil, omnes hse stellai, quarum
inveniri non potest numerus, omnis hie ccelestium ccetus, et, ut alia preeter-
* See note at end.
ON THE FACTS OF BARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 9
earn, hie tarn prope a nobis agens cursum sol, omni terrarum arabitu non
semel major, alimentum ex terrene trahunt, et inter se partiuntur; nee uUo
alio seilicet, quam halitu terrarum sustinentur. Hoe illis alimentum, hie
pactus est. Non posset autem tam niulta, tantaque, et seipsa majora,
terra niitrire, nisi plena esset animse, quam per diem et noctem ab om-
nibus partibus suis fundit. Fieri enim non potest, ut non multum illi
Bupersit, ex qua tantura petitur ae sumitur ; et ad tempus quidem, quod
exeat, naseitur. Nee enim esset perennis illi copia sutfecturi in tot coe-
lestia spiritus, nisi invioem ista excurrerent, et in aliud alia solverentur.
Sed tamen necesse est abundet ae plena sit, et ex condito proferat. Non
est ergo dubium, quin multum spiritus interlateat, et caBca sub terra spatia
aer latus obtineat. Quod si verum est, necesse est id saepe moveatur, quod
re raobilissima plenum est. Numquid enim dubium esse potest cuiquam,
quin nihil sit tam inquietum quam aer, tam versabile et agitatione gaudens?"
— Natur. QucEst, lib. vi. 15, 16.
" Maxima ergo causa est, propter quam terra moveatur, spiritus natura
citus, et locum e loco mutans. Hie quamdiu non impellitur, et in vacanti
spatio latet, jacet innoxius, nee circumjectis molestus est. Ubi ilium extrin-
secus superveniens causa solicitat, compellitque et in arctum agit, scilicet ad-
hue cedit tantum, et vagatur. Ubi exemta discedendi facultas est, et undique
obsistitur, tunc,
' magno cum murmure montis
Circum claustra fremunt,'
quae diu pulsata convellit ae jactat; eo acrior, quo cum valentiore mora luc-
tatus est." — Natur. Qucest., lib. vi. 18.
After Seneca we may at once transcribe the views of Pliny : —
" Haustu aquae e puteo praesensisse ae praedixisse ibi terras niotum
Et haec quidem arbitrio cujusque existimanda relinquantur ; ventos in causa
esse non dubium reor.
" Neque enim unquam intremiscunt terras nisi sopito mari, cceloque adeo
tranquillo ut volatus avium non pendeant, subtracto omni spiritu qui vehit :
pec unquam nisi post ventos, condito scilicet in venas et cava ejus occulta
flatu. Neque aliud est in terra tremor quam in nube tonitruum; nee hiatus
aliud quam cum fulmen erumpit : incluso spiritu luctante et ad libertatem
exire nitente.
" Varie itaque quatitur, et mira eduntur opera alibi prostratis mcenibus, alibi
hiatu profundo haustis, alibi egestis molibus, alibi emissis amnibus: nonnun-
quam etiam ignibus, calidisve fontibus, alibi averso fluminum cursu. Pro-
cedit vero, comitaturque terribilis sonus, alias murmur, similius mugitibus,
aut clamori humano, armorumve pulsantium fragori: pro qualitate ma-
terias excipieiitis formaque vel eavernarum vel cuniculi per quem meat, exi-
lius, grassante in angusto eodem rauco in recurvis, resultante in duris, fer-
yente in humidis, fluctuante in stagnantibus, item fremente contra solida.
Itaque et sine motu ssepe editur souus. Nee simplici modo quatitur, sed
tremit vibratque. Hiatus vero alias remanet, ostendens quae sorbuit, alias
oceultat ore compresso, rursusque ita inducto solo, ut nulla vestigia extent,
urbibus plerumque devoratis, agrorumque tractu hausto. Maritima autem
maxime quatiuntur. Nee montuosa tali malo carent. Exploratum est niihi
Alpes, Apenninuraque saepius tremuisse Ideo Gallias et i^gyptus
minime quatiuntur, quoniam hie aestatis causa obstat, illie hyemis
. " Navigantes quoque sentiunt non dubia conjectura, sine flatu intumes-
cente fluctu subito aut quatiente icti. Intremunt vero et in navibus posita
aeque quam in asdificiis crepituque prasnuntiant : quin et volucres non
impavidas sedentes. Est et in coelo signum prasceditque motu futuro,
10 REPORT — 1850.
aut interdiu, aut paulo post occasura sereno ceu tenuis linea nubis in Ion-
gum porrectae spatium. Est et in puteis turbidior aqua nee sine odoris
taedio.
" Sicut in iisdem est remedium quale et crebri specus praebent : conceptum
enini spiritum exhalant, quod in certis notatur oppidis quae minus quatiuntur,
crebris ad eluviem cuniculis cavata. Multoqne sunt tutiora in iisdem illis
quEe pendent : sicut Neapoli in Italia intelligitur, parte ejus quae solida est
ad tales casus obnoxia.
" Intissimi sunt aedificiorum fornices, anguli quoque parietum, postesque,
alterno pulsu renitente. Et latere terreno facti parietes niinore noxa qua-
tiuntur. Magna differentia est et in ipso genere motus ; pluribus siquidem
modis quatitur. Intissimum est cum vibrat crispante aedificiorum crepitu :
et cum intnmescit assurgens, alternoque motu residet: innoxium et cum
concurrentia tecta contrario ictu arietant : quoniam alter motus alteri reni-
titnr. Undantis inclinatio et fluctus more quaedara volutatio infesta est : aut
cum in unam partem totus se motus impellit.
"Desinunt autem tremores, cum ventus eniersit : sin vero duravere non
ante quadraginta dies sistuntur: plerumque et tardius, utpote cum quidam
annuo et biennii spatio duraverint.
" Factum est et hoc semel, quod equidem in Etruscse disciplinai volumini-
bus inveni, ingens terrarum portentum Namque montes duo inter se
concurrerunt, crepitu maximo assultantcs, recedentesque inter eos flamma
fumoque in coelum exeunte interdiu Eo concursu villas omnes elisae:
animalia permulta quae intra fuerant exanimata sunt Non minus
mirum ostentuni et nostra cognovit aetas, anno Neronis principis supremo
pratis oleisque intercedente via publica in contrarias sedes trans-
gressis in agro Marrucino
"Fiunt simul cum terrae motu et inundationes maris, eodem videlicet
spiritu infusi ac terrae residentis sinu recepti
" Eadem nascentium causa terrarum est, cum idem ille spiritus, attoUendo
potens solo non valuit erumpere. Nascuntur enim nee fluminum tantum in-
vectu, sicut Echinades insulae ab Acheloo amne congestae, majorque pars
JEgypti a Nilo, in quam a Pharo insula noctis et diei cursum fuisse Homero
credimus ; sed et recessu maris, sicut eidem de Circeiis.
"Quod et accidisse in Arabraciae portu decem raillium passuum inter-
vallo et Atheniensium quinque millium ad Piraeeum menioratur, et Ephesi
ubi quondam aedem Dianae alluebat. Herodoto quidem si credimus, mare
fuit supra Memphini usque ad j^thiopum montes: itemque a planis Arabiae.
Mare et circa Ilium, et tota Teuthrania quoque campos intulerit Maeander.
Nascuntur et alio modo terrae ac repente in aliquo mari emergunt velut
paria secura faciente natura, quaeque hauserit hiatus alio loco reddente."—
Plin. Nat. Hist., lib. xi. 81, 89.
And thus we may pass from classic times to the middle age of earthquake
history.
Multitudes of tracts, pamphlets and books, of the fifteenth, sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, exist on our subject, most of them recording some par-
ticular earthquake, and straightway founding a theory thereupon; but others
there are giving good resumes of all past knowledge of the subject, and a
few of remarkable interest from the singularity or originality of their views.
A mere list of these books would fill many pages ; and as in a second part
of this Report I hope to present as perfect a bibliography as possible of earth-
quakes, so I shall only notice here such of these works as having come under
my notice, appear to be of more than ordinary interest, still proceeding in
order of time.
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 11
Liberti Fromondi, Coll. Louvainiensi Proff., was the author of a work on
meteorology, ' Meteorologicorum Libri sex' (4to, Antwerp, 1527). The last
chapter of his fourth book is dedicated to a good resume of all the ancient
knowledge of earthquakes, divided under the heads of —
1. Quae causa efficiens terrae motus.
2. Species terrse motus.
3. Quae loca obnoxia terrje motibus.
4. De magnitudine et duratione terrae motus.
5. Quae anni terapora maxime sentiunt terrae motus.
6. Quae signa antecedentia terrse motus.
7. EfFectus terras motus.
8. Timor numinis causa finalis terrae motus.
9. Comparatio cuniculorum nostrorum militarium cum terrae motu.
As to the first cause, after noticing the old Greek notions of Neptune,
^Yivvoaiyaiov kcu Seio-ix^oca, and several others of a mythological character,
he agrees with Aristotle : —
" Sententla Aristotelis et verissima est, spiritum subterraneum causam esse
terrae motus effectricem. Probatur, quia quoties terra pulsu pertunditur
aut dehiscit, evolant halitus aliqui, saepe pestilentes, ignis etiam aliquando et
cineres : ergo ille fuit qui terrain rupit et earn sufFodiendo concussit. Idem
patebit post ex omnibus terrae motus affectibus." — p. 197.
This passage is remarkable, as showing the sense in which "spiritus terrae,"
■TTvevixa, as used by Aristotle, is interpreted by Fromondi, i.e. as our volcanic
force of elevation in Humboldt's extended sense, " the reaction of the interior
upon the exterior of our planet."
As to the species of earthquakes (art. 2), Fromondi thus classifies : —
" Auctor libri de mundo et ex eo D. Damascenus, septem species acci-
dentarias terrae motus fecit, i. e.
1. Epiclintae sen inclinatores.
2. Brastae seu efFervescentes.
3. Chasmatiae.
4. Rhectae (viam effringunt).
5. Ostae (uno impulsu).
6. Palmatiae (vibrant).
7. Mycetiae (cum mugitu).
" Aristoteles tamen duabus speciebus, pulsu et tremore, contentus fuit, sed
tertiam inclinationem optime Seneca adjecit.
" Pulsus est motus quo terra, instar arteriae animalis, diastole et systole
vicissini erigitur et subsidit, vel generalius est qui terram succutit, unde a
Seneca vocatur succussio. Tremor enim concutit et vibrat : inclinatio vero
in unam solam partem totum onus suspendit septem autem alige spe-
cies a diversitate eff'ectuum sumptae sunt et ad tres istas possunt revocari." .
p. 201.
Of the Rhectae, Fromondi says : —
" Ceterum pulsus Rhectes et effractor, omnium sine dubio est pernicio-
cissimus, deinde langa et undans inclinatio quae parietes et fastigia aedificio-
rum extra fundamenti perpendiculum suspendit. Brevis autem et crispans
tremor partem inclinatam statim contrario motu in sedem restituit, praevenit-
que lapsum, unde Plinius, lib. ii. cap. 82, 'Latere etiam facti parietes minore
noxa quatiuntur,' inquit." — p. 202.
As to the places subject to earthquakes : — Egypt, he says, was very free
from them, and so was Belgium, especially its southern and Dutch por-
12 REPORT— 1850.
tioris ; but he quotes from 'Gemma Cosmocritica,' lib. ii. cap. 1, an account
of two earthquakes in Flanders in the years 1554 and 1569. — p. 204.
On the magnitude and duration of earthquakes he gives several facts: —
About the year 369, under Valentinian, and in 1116, nearly the whole world
was shaken, and in 1601 Asia, Hungary, Germany, Italy, Gaul: " uno fere
momento feruntur tremuisse." — p. 205.
Of the duration he judiciously says, " incerta etiam est et inconstans."
The earthquake of 1601 was forty days, that in Italy of 1538 fifteen days ac-
cording to Fallopius, and again in 1570, one lasted for two whole years, accord-
ing to Fabricius of Padua. Averroes says Spain shook for three whole years
in his time. Aristotle says forty days was a usual time: " Scepe solennes
fuisse." It is remarkable that this early author well distinguishes between
the total duration of the earthquake and the time of and intermittence be-
tween the several shocks — a distinction so much neglected by modern nar«
rators. Fromondi enumerates several presages of earthquakes, and then
classifies their effects into nine species in cap. 7 ; but his division is bad,
mixing up primary, secondary, and doublj"^ secondary effects without di-
stinction.
Passing chapter 8th as not bearing on physical questions, the chapter
9th is perhaps the most remarkable in Fromondi's book. In this he seeks
to show the strong analogy that subsists between the effects of mines charged
with gunpowder, and even of bombshells, when exploded, with those of
earthquakes; and he gives a curious diagram to illustrate his views (p. 219,
Antwerp Edit.), which however he does much more forcibly by referring to
the effects observed at the blowing up of the bridge over the Scheldt at
Antwerp by the Duke of Parma, by means of a lighter full of powder floated
in under it and so exploded, and the blow of which was felt over great part
of Holland ; and again by those observed in 1546, on occasion of the blow-
ing up by a stroke of lightning of a tower at Malines, containing much gun-
powder, when part of the town walls were shaken down by the blow, and the
Avater so emptied out of the neighbouring river that the fish were found at a
distance on dry land.
' Del. Terraemoto dialogo del. Signor Lucio Maggio, Gentilhuomo Bo-
lognese.' 4to, Bolog. 1571. A curious book with much observation, and a
digest of all the ancient and then current opinions. Lib. i. gives a discussion
of all the conceivable causes of earthquakes.
In lib. iii. he enunciates eleven signs or presages of earthquakes, viz.
1. Stillness of the air. 2. Gloom and obscurity of the sun, haze, &c.
3. Eclipse of the sun. 4. Unusual conduct of animals. 5. Muddiness of
wells. 6 and 7. Motions and swellings, or odours of the sea without any wind.
8. Various sounds in the earth and air. 9. The appearance of columns of
smoke or of exhalations in the air. 10. Comets. 11. Certain appearances
of the sun on the night preceding the earthquake. These were partly
the learned, partly the popular notions of his time in Italy, and continue
nearly unaltered as matters of popular belief in that country to the present
day.
One of the most remarkable tracts or works on earthquakes M'hich I have
discovered is that " Francisci Travagini, super observationibus a se partis,
tempore ultimorum terrsemotuum, ac potissimum Ragusiani : Physica disqui-
sitio, seu giri terrte diurni indicium." 4to, Lug. Bat. 1679 ; and also a Vene-
tian edition of 1683 : a copy exists in the British Museum. It seems to be
about the earliest attempt to found a physical theory of earthquake motion,
and presents a singular instance of that coasting along very close to a truth
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 13
which is yet never attained, of which the history of all observational science
is full.
The author begins by stating that a horrible earthquake had occurred on
the 6th of April, 1667, which had almost thrown down the whole of Ragusa,
and then proceeds in a very clear way to relate the observations which he
had made during its occurrence, while at Venice, the earthquake having
shaken the whole of Romagna, &c. He then describes the motions of the
earth, " moveri multiplicatis vibrationibus, ab occidente ad orientem et
reciproce ;" then the wave motions of the water in the Venetian canals, no-
ticing the relations of the directions in length of these channels to that of
the shock, the waves running along the canals, whose lengths were from west
to east, and from bank to bank, or across all others. He then describes the
directions in which belfries and other buildings were shaken ; then the mo-
tions of pendulous bodies, as church lamps, and describes his own sensations
as like those of a man in a boat in motion which had struck some obstacle.
From all his observations he concludes, " Ecce igitur, mi lector, ex obser-
vatione communi in eodem terrsemotu, quasi tres gradationes seu facies;
prima qua motus illi est mixtus ex succussatione atque ex laterali ilia vibra-
tione, ita tamen ut lateralis ista vibratio minor sit succussatione, quod accedit
60 loco ubi maxime dessevit causa movens.
" Altera qua motus iste etiamnum mixtus minore praefert succussationem,
quam vibrationem, quod contingit in locis remotioribus abs causa movente,
ubi plus minusve desidit ilia succussatio pro ratione, majoris aut niinoris suae
remotionis causa movente.
" Tertia denique, ubi sola lateralis ilia vibratio percipitur, quod contingit
in locis remotissimis ab ilia causa movente, quae tamen sint intra sphaeram
activitatis illius, cujusmodi erat Venetia nostra respectu motus Ragusaei."
Having found that all the lateral vibrations were from west to east and the
contrary, he proceeds further to inquire into the physical conditions that
will satisfy the above complex motions, and without troubling himself much
to inquire as to the nature of the first mover, but merely glancing at the
opinions commonly held up to his time, he at once assumes any force what-
ever to break through the crust of the earth.
" Ex natura inquam cum semper tempore terraemotu aliquid videatur ali-
cubi foras prorumpere certe quicquid illud sit ut sic foras prorumpat debet
revera terram supra stantem succutere, sed nihil omnino quod prorumpendo
debeat sic lateraliter eandem vibrare : enimvero ita si foret sequeretur totum
terrae globum eodem motu tunc sic vibrari et ex aequo vibi'ari super axem
suum, quod experientia ipsa arguit falsitatis manifestissimae."
In illustration of this he gives the following figure : " Terra sit A, loco ubi
sunt vel sulphura vel nitrum, vel aquas bullientes,
&c., sit B. Sentiatur motus corporis exiturientis
a D per B usque ad E. Si motus iste esset
etiam vibrationis lateralis a B ad D, necessario
deberet etiam terra vibrari a D in F, et ab F in
E ob solidam continuitatem totius globi, secun-
dum omnes suae partes."
This last expression is a very remarkable one ;
it is the first glimpse, as it were, that I can find in
any author, of a true conception of pulse forces
moving in solids, a notion that none of the ancient
authors on earthquakes seem ever to have approached ; all of them insisting
upon the cavernous and perforated interior of the globe being the condition
essential to the transmission of earthquakes.
14
REPORT — 1850.
He then proceeds to a diagram explanatory of the Ragusan earthquake :
" Verum ut magis sibi constet haec nostra opinio, ac solidius firmetur, ipsi
diligentius hie consideremus singulares omnes illos affectus qui supradictis
materiis dum terram movent atque exitum suum moliuntur possunt adscribi
quocumque modo debeant prorumpere : statuo igitur hanc figuram. ABCF
sit hypogaeum seu locus
subterraneus in quo
materia ejusmodi reclu-
ditur. Ragusium sit in
D, Venetiae in E, Nea-
polis in I — Pars terrae
concussae sit in E, D,
O, I hoc supposito — vi-
detur certe quod spiri-
tus ille exituriens de-
beat quaquaversura
sphaerice agere ac dif-
fundi nempe ab A ad
C, ad B et ad F, ita
tanien ut hand dubie
longe violentius feratur
in altum secundum li-
neam perpendicularem ad B quam per lineas obliquas AC et AF, cum de
spirituum ejusmodi natura sit potissimum ut perpendiculariter in altum de-
ferantur : atque adeo sua succussione deferent terram BD versus G, ut con-
tigit Ragusii, ubi et exhalationes et flammae et odores ac similia visa sunt
expirare."
Travagini then proceeds further to develope the conditions according to
Avhich the pulses (succussationes) will travel to the outward points of his
diagram. He finds the vast mass of matter moved in the directions AH,
AO, by the smaller force in these directions, a difficulty in his way ; and by
another diagram (which I copy as an illustration of the peculiar mode of
treatment of the author) he proposes to show the effect of distance upon the
pulses and their mode of propagation : —
A
^
" Certura enim quod iterates dicti mallei ictus omnia vibrabuntur versus
illam partem ad quam ictus illi adiguntur, et quod tamen ipsa tabula nulla-
tenus usquam discessit a loco suo aut divelletur ab aliis tabulis contiguis."
He then proceeds to show by another pair of diagrams, how that upward and
downward pulses of the earth's crust may produce a lateral swing in bodies
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PH^ENGMENA. 15
fixed upon it. Thus he says, let A represent the earth, whose surface,
c
DBI, is thrown up by some force so as to assume the form between D and
I of DCI ; further, let there be two rods, DC, DB, jointed at D, which shall
represent one-half of the elevated portion of the earth's crust, viz. DC, DB
in the former figure. Now, he says, if motion towards and away from the
rod A be given to the rod DC, round the point D, then will the pendulums
fixed to the rod DC swing laterally.
The question of partial elevations by earthquakes, and their presumed
effects upon the length of the day at the place, are then discussed. The au-
thor then proceeds to show how that, by the repetition of insensible pulses,
motion may at last become sensible at a given point ; from this, and from
the (unhappy) assumption that all earthquakes vibrate from west to east and
the contrary, which he admits to be an essential condition upon which his
final conclusion depends, he proceeds to make out an imaginary theory to
account for all earthquakes as being related to a sudden or partial cessation of
the earth's rotation, according to the Copernican view, taking care, however,
to put in a precautionary clause, " Salva quam ecclesiasticis statutis debeo
reverentia." On this conclusion we need make no remark, but in the au-
thor's own words, from his Epistle Dedicatory, " Nempe quod cum isti tunc
crederent motum ilium esse in suo capite, qui tamen fere erat in terra ipsa ;
ego e contrario gyrum ilium quem mihi videor in terra conspicere, totum in
capite meo perpetior."
Although thus finally led off from all that is true in his subject and to
an absurd conclusion, the work of Travagini is a truly remarkable one, from
the peculiar inductive and experimental manner in which he treats a subject
previously never regarded but as matter of the vaguest guessing, and from
his appearing to be the first who obtained some imperfect glimpse of earth-
quake motions being due to pulses, or wave forces, in solids.
Hooke's discourses of earthquakes were delivered before the Royal
Society about 1690, and were published in his posthumous works, by
R. Waller, Sec. R.S., in 1705, fol. Though called a discourse of earth-
quakes, these lectures are, in fact, a sort of system of physical geology, in
which the forces, forms, conditions and effects of elevation of land are largely
considered, but in which the ingenious author loses sight perfectly of what
an earthquake is, and systematically confounds all sources, sorts and degrees
of elevatory forces and their effects, with the transient action and secondary
effects of earthquakes as rightly defined. These lectures are a repertory of
much valuable information and thought to the geologist, but add little
indeed to the subject of their title. Hooke divides the effects of earthquakes
into four sorts ; viz
The first sort or genus.
1st species.— The raising a considerable part of a country which before
16 REPORT 1850.
lay level with the sea, many feet, nay sometimes many fathoms above
its former height.
2nd species. — The raising of a considerable part of the bottom of the
sea, and making it lie above the surface of the water, by which means
divers islands have been generated and produced.
3rd species. — Raising considerable mountains out of a plain or level
country.
4th species. — The raising of the parts of the earth by the throwing on
of a great access of new earth, and for burying the former surface
under a covering of new earth many fathoms thick.
The second sort or genus,
1st species. — A sinking of some part of the earth's surface lying a good
way inland, and converting it into a lake of almost unmeasurable
depth.
2nd species. — The sinking of a considerable part of the plain land near
to the sea below its former level, so that the adjoining sea comes in
and overflows it.
3rd species. — A sinking of the parts of the bottom of the sea much
lower, and creating therein vast vorages and abysses.
4th species. — A making bare or uncovering divers parts of the earth
which were before a good way below the surface, and this either by
suddenly throwing away these upper parts by some subterraneous
motion, or else by washing them away by some kind of eruption of
waters from unusual places vomited out by some earthquake.
The third sort or genus.
Species 1. — Are the subversions, conversions, and transpositions of the
parts of the earth.
The fourth sort or genus.
Species 1. — Are liquefaction, baking, calcining, petrifaction, transfor-
mation, sublimation, distillation, &c.
So much will serve for a sample of Hooke, who in fact uses earthquake in
a sense commensurate with all geological action on the earth's surface; and
it is perhaps rather in this sense, than in its strict one, that he comes to the
true conclusion that " there is no country almost in the world but has been
some time or other shaken by earthquakes." — p. 311.
He even gives an undue importance to his own sense of the word. Thus
he supposes that elevations by earthquakes may have changed the centre of
gravity of the earth and the length of the year.
One sentence will suffice to give a notion of Woodward's views : —
" This subterranean heat or fire being in any part of the earth stopt by
some accidental glut or obstruction in the passages through which it used to
ascend, and being preternaturally assembled in great quantity into one place,
causes a great rarefaction and intumescence of the water of the abyss, putting
it into very great commotions ; and making the like effort upon the earth
expanded upon the face of the abyss, occasions that agitation and concussion
which we call an earthquake." — Woodward, Nat. Hist., 1695.
' The Earth twice shaken wonderfully, or an analogical Discourse of Earth-
quakes,' by J. D. R. 4to, Lond. 1693-94, said to be by Rouffional, a French
Protestant minister, a curious and learned tract, with ten corollaries discussed.
He previously inquires, — Cap. 1. How many sorts of earthquakes there are.
Cap. 2. What was the nearest natural cause of this earthquake. Cap. 3.
ON THE PACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 17
An earthquake hath not properly an end, yet its chief ends are sickness,
inundation and sterility. Cap. 4. An examination of how earthquakes differ
and agree in form and second causes, and in regard to aspects oi' the planets.
The ten corollaries are —
1. Whether it be true, as Pliny affirms, that France and Egypt are sel-
dom shaken, by reason of the heat and cold, &c.
2. Why rivers decrease by earthquakes.
3. Why those places lying on or encompassed by sea and rivers are ob-
noxious to earthquakes.
4. What credit may be given to Plato of the island Atlantis drowned by
an earthquake.
5. Whether exterior wind entering the earth from above be able to move it.
6. Whether subterraneous exhalations are generated by the sun's beams.
7. Whether some more solemn times of earthquakes are to be appointed
for any certain reason. In this he discusses Aristotle's opinion of the
Equinoxes, and quotes ' Agricola de Metal.' p. 29, against him.
8. Why birds are frightened by an earthquake.
9. Whether vaults in houses are safest from earthquakes.
10. If the late earthquake be so ended that the same countries through
which it went are secure from its iteration. He decides in the negative,
giving a long list of authorities for earthquakes occurring repeatedly in
the same places, with short intervals and continuing for long periods.
In the year 1693, John Flamsteed published a letter, in which, after de-
tailini; with a sort of method, some of the facts observed, he proposes a
physical theory of earthquakes. His views, however, are abundantly vague
and obscure ; he supposes some setherial explosive matter to exist in the
atmosphere, by the occasional firing of which, the shock is given to buildings,
ships, &c. Nothing but the name of the illustrious author would make this
pamphlet deserve notice.
There is a curious book by Hdttinger (Hottingeri Dissertationes de Terras
Motu), partly scientific, partly theological. The title of one dissertation
(the fourth) will give an idea of the book : —
" Unde Terras motus immittantur, sintne fortuna pure naturales an Ger;-
Xaroi."
Amontons (Mem. Acad, des Sciences, 1703) endeavoured to prove that
atmospheric air might be expanded by heat to a suflScient degree of pressure,
when confined under the earth, to produce volcanic effects, and those of
earthquakes. Stukeley's arguments, against this and all other views, that
assume the direct expansion of elastic fluids as the immediate cause of earth-
quakes, derived from a consideration of the vast areas shaken at once by the
latter, are worthy of perusal, though not free from error, and intended to
sustain his own views of their electrical origin only.
That electricity Ln some unknown undescribed and incomprehensible way
was the direct cause of earthquakes, was specially pleaded for by Stukeley,
Percival, Beccaria, Priestley and several others, whose imaginations, filled
with the power and grandeur of the electrical phaenomena, which their expe-
riments perpetually brought before them, and adapting in a loose and con-
fused way some of the electrical phaenomena that are constantly observed to
accompany the secondary effects of great earthquakes, referred the whole to
the agency of their favourite force, and were satisfied.
Their precise works and words need not be quoted.
The Rev. John Mitchell, Fellow of Queen's College, Cambridge, published
a paper on earthquakes, in the 51st volume of the Philosophical Transactions,
in 1760, which, up to a very recent date, was by far the most important and
1850. c
18 REPORT— 1850.
remarkable work upon the subject, though very much overlooked. His
principal views are best given in his own words.
He commences by refuting the notion, that there is any necessary con-
nection between the air, or the weatiier, or state of moon and tide and earth-
quakes.
And assuming then that they have an origin under ground, he enunciates
the following propositions, sustaining eacli with its appropriate facts: —
1st. The same places are subject to returns of earthquakes, not only at
small intervals for some time after any considerable one has hap-
pened, but also at greater intervals for some ages.
2nd. Those places that are in the neighbourhood of burning mountains
are always subject to frequent earthquakes, and the eruptions of those
mountains, when violent, are generally attended with them.
3rd. The motion of the earth in earthquakes is partly tremulous and
partly propagated by waves, which succeed one another, sometimes at
larger and sometimes at smaller distances ; and this latter motion ia
generally propagated much further than the former.
4th. It is observed in places wliich are subject to frequent earthquakes,
that they generally come to one and the same place, from the same
point of the compass. I may add also, that the velocity with which
they proceed (as far as one can collect it from the accounts) is the
same, but the velocity of earthquakes of different countries is very
different.
5th. A great earthquake (such as the Lisbon one) has been succeeded
by several local ones since, the extent of which has been much less.
From a discussion then of the known facts of volcanoes, he concludes,
" That in all probability the fires of volcanoes produce earthquakes. That,
however, the vibrations, &c. felt close to volcanic foci, either at their first
formation or after, are not of the precise nature of earthquakes, or at least,
differ in degree from them: and that —
" The greater earthquakes seem rather to be occasioned by other fires that
lie deeper in the same tract of country, and the eruptions of volcanoes which
happen at the same time with earthquakes, may with more probability be
ascribed to those earthquakes, than the earthquakes to the eruptions, when-
ever, at least, the earthquakes are of any considerable extent."
He then proceeds to give, considering the time he wrote, a wonderfully
large and accurate view of the general conformation of the superficial crust
of the earth, its arrangement into strata and beds, their relative position and
co-ordination at distant places as to horizon, the nature of faults, dykes, &c.,
and from all he concludes that " from the want of correspondence in the
fissures of the upper and lower strata, as well as on account of those strata
which are little or not at all shattered, it will come to pass that the earth
cannot easily be separated in a direction perpendicular to the horizon if we
take any considerable portion of it together ; but in the horizontal direction,
as there is little or no adhesion between one stratum and another, it may be
separated without difficulty."
After this he endeavours to show that the explosive power of volcanoes ii
due to pent-up vapour or steam, produced by the contact of water with
masses of incandescent matter in the earth ; that the alternate repose and
activity of their action may be accounted for on this hypothesis, and that the
expansive force is adequate to the phaenomena, &c. ; and having established
this mechanism, he proceeds to announce the precise mode of formation and
of propagation of the wave, in which he conceives earthquake motion to
consist : he says, " As a small quantity of vapour almost instantly generated
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 19
at some considerable depth below the surface of the earth will produce a
vibratory motion, so a very large quantity (whether it be generated almost
instantly or in any small portion of time) will produce a wave-like motion:
the manner in which this wave-like motion will be propagated, may in some
measure be represented by the following experiment: —
" Suppose a large cloth or carpet (spread upon a floor) to be raised at one
edge, and then suddenly brought down again to the floor, the air under it,
being by this means propelled, will pass along till it escapes at the opposite
side, raising the cloth in a wave all the way as it goes. In like manner a
large quantity of vapour may be conceived to raise the earth in a wave as it
passes along between the strata, which it may easily separate in a horizon-
tal direction, there being, as I have said before, little or no cohesion between
one stratum and another ; the part of the earth which is first raised being
bent from its natural form will endeavour to restore itself by its elasticity,
and the parts next to it beginning to have their weight supported by the
vapour, which will insinuate itself under them, will be raised in their turn,
till it either finds some vent, or is again condensed by the cold into water,
and by that means prevented from proceeding any further."
Several successive waves, he. then proposes to show, might be thus gene-
rated, and their height will be greater the nearer they are to the point of
their origin.
In the third part of the paper he endeavours more minutely to describe
the mechanism of the focus, as to how the water gains access ; why the roof
should fall in, &c., and applies some of the facts or fancies to the recorded
secondary conditions of earthquakes, and to the fluctuations of the sea,
which result from them. And in the seventh section, he shows, that by in-
vestigating the point of departure of various great sea-waves, when observed at
distant points of arrival, after any great earthquake, whose origin is (as he
supposes that of all great earthquakes to be) under the sea, we may find
the point vertically over the focus of original disturbance. This he does as
respects the great Lisbon earthquake, and shows a most remarkable percep-
tion of the nature of the motion of waves of translation, far more than the state
of exact knowledge of the subject at the time would have made us suppose
possible. Lastly, he inquires whether it be then possible to determine any-
thing as to the depth of the focus of disturbance below the surface, but
thinks it can be only guessed at ; but that, if we could carefully observe and
reckon the thickness of upturned strata at some great volcanoes, we should
arrive at; it.
Such is Mitchell's paper, which I have analysed at some length, from itS
importance. It contains much that is useful, mixed with the leading fallacy
as to the nature of the earthquake wave of shock.
Two other works on the facts Of earthquakes require to be mentioned,
viz. — ' The History and Philosophy of Earthquakes,' and ' Memoires Histo-
riques et Physiques sur les Tremblemens de Terre,' par Mons. Bertrand, a
la Haye, 1757.
In the former, the facts of ten great earthquakes are recorded, and in
the latter, those of Switzerland, and all such others as the author could col-
lect.
Bouguer, in his ' Voyage en Peru,' whither he accompanied the French
academicians to measure an arc of the meridian, conceives volcanoes and
earthquakes as one and the same, and " due to gaseous inflammations and
explosions. The weakest shocks are those from the earth already shaken ;
the strongest, those caused immediately by the inflammation, which are ana-
logous to the roarings of the volcanoes, and which are repeated more or less
c2
20 REPORT 1850.
frequently, according to the facility with which the materials take fire, and
also as their volume has relation with the extent of the spaces in which they
are enclosed." His views are nearly identical with those of Don Ulloa, but
are more clearly expressed by the latter, who says —
" The bursting of a new volcano causes a violent earthquake ; this tremu-
lous motion, which we properly call an earthquake, does not so usually
happen in case of a second eruption, when an aperture has been before
made, or at least the motion is comparatively small." " Volcanoes owe their
origin to sulphurous, nitrous, and other combustible substances in the bowels
of the earth ; these, mixed and turned into a paste, with subterraneous waters,
ferment and take fire (this was Lemeri's view) ; by dilating the contiguous
wind or air its volume is so increased, as to produce the same effect as gun-
powder fired in a narrow space." " The subterraneous noise proceeds from
the ignition of the airs on exploding."
Dolomieu's theories, as to the Calabrian earthquake of 1783, are not very
different. " Interior waters, increased by those from the surface, may have
run into the focus of ^Etna : they would in consequence be converted into
very expansive vapour, and stril^e against every obstacle to their dilatation."
He has previously shown that Calabria itself is not a volcanic country ; he
therefore proceeds : —
" Provided these should have met with channels conducting them to the
cavities below Calabria, they would have been capable of occasioning all
those convulsions of which 1 have given a description."
Sir W. Hamilton concludes from all his examinations of the Calabrian
earthquakes, that " some great chemical operation of the nature of the vol-
canic sort was the cause." (Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxiii.)
Thus the older writers fix their regards wholly upon the presumed focus
or origin of the explosion, as Dolomieu calls it, but none, except Mitchell,
attempt to show any distinct train of causes by which the forces here origi-
nating, in a centre of volcanic activity, are transferred and become opera-
tive at vast distances and in lands not subject to volcanic action. Nor, it
must be confessed, have modern authors, even Humboldt, been much more
successful in this, or in shaping to themselves a distinct idea of what the
nature of the earthquake shock itself is. The words — " a trembling," " a
vibration," " a concussion," " a movement," " an undulation," are to be found
scattered through the narratives of earthquakes, but even amongst scientific
authors these records refer merely to the effect upon their senses, of the
motions of the earth's surface, and not to any definite or precise idea, either
of the origin or the mode of propagation of the shock.
Humboldt in his latest work, the ' Cosmos,' as well as in his ' Personal
Narrative,' does not express himself with clearness upon earthquake move-
ments. He seems disposed at one place to adopt the theory of Mitchell im-
plicitly ; yet at another, one fancies he has some notion of the earth-shock
being a wave of elastic compression, and therefore propagated in a totally
different manner from that of the subteraneous lava tidal wave, moving the
solid crust above it, in which Mitchell's theory consists : his clearest expres-
sion of view is perhaps in the following sentence : — " The filling up of fissures
■with crystalline matter interferes by degrees with the free escape of vapours,
which confined become operative through their tension in three ways
— concussively, explosively, or suddenly up and down, and as first observed
in a large portion of Sweden, lifiingly or continuously, and only in a long
period of time perceptibly altering the level of the sea and land." Here he
confounds as thoroughly as the ancient authors, the direct effects in perma-
nent elevation of land by volcanic or other action from beneath, with the
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 21
transient effects of the earthquake which may result from such actions.
He does not attempt to assign the law of motion of any one of the several
orders or sorts of earthquake waves. The shocks, he says, are either hori-
zontal and vertical, or rotatory and vorticose in direction ; the two former,
he says, are always observed together — the latter is rare ; several secondary
effects of earthquake action, such as twisting of buildings or their parts,
landslips, &c. he gives an erroneous account of.
But this is rather anticipating as to date : before concluding, however, the
remarks that I am called upon to make upon the views of Humboldt, I would
wish to add that they are made with the fullest appreciation of that almost
universal and yet searching genius, that derives its resources from, and il-
lustrates nearly every portion of creation.
Bakewell, who wrote his 'Introduction to Geology' as early as 1813, gives
in his lOth chapter an account of earthquakes, which, for his day, is lumi-
nous and good. He briefly and correctly describes the principal phaenomena;
traces a distinct connection between volcanic and earthquake effects ;
proposes the sudden evolution of steam by contact of water with igneous
matter at great depths as the immediate cause of both ; conceives the horrid
noises as due to the rending of rocks or strata, and seems to have had some
obscure notion that the internal heat of our planet might be independent of
any form of combustion.
In 1835, a copious and exceedingly strange work, the ' Theorie des Vol-
cans,' par le Compte A. de Bylandt Palstercamp, appeared at Paris, 3 vols.
Svo, with fol. atlas.
We have here nothing to do with the author's singular attempt to build up
a theory of volcanic action, indeed almost a cosmogony, from considerations
derived from the relations and reactions on our planet, of light, heat, elec-
tricity and magnetism. With all its wildness and incoherence it carries per-
haps a dim fore-shadowing of truth.
In his first volume, p. 373 to 392, he devotes a section to the consideration
of earthquakes, as derivative effects of volcanoes. This, like indeed every
other part of the book, bears the peculiarity of containing some truths, or
quasi truths, much in advance of the author's day, mixed with a great deal of
absolute error.
He clearly recognises earthquakes as merely one class of effects due to
volcanic action ; but although he uses the word vibration, &c., and has even
arrived at some of the phaenomena resulting from wave motion clearly enough,
it is obvious that he has formed no clear idea of pulses transmitted through
elastic media in virtue of the elasticity of the solids themselves ; his vibrations,
and their origin, are nearly analogous to those of Mitchell. Shocks or
blows transmitted through and from cavities under the earth, suddenly filled
or emptied of aeriform fluids, which actually lift up and again drop down the
walls of these cavities in rising and falling, originate and constitute Bylandt's
shock. So far, therefore, he is not beyond his predecessors. But further: — ■
" Etablissons d'abord comme principe que les effets des tremblemens de
terre sont toujours contradictoires aux causes qui les produisent, et diriges
dans le sens inverse, et que les raemes causes produisent des effets contra-
dictoires dans les lieux opposes." " Les causes des tremblemens de terre
resident toujours dans I'interieure de la terre et a une certaine profondeur.
Or en elevant une perpendiculaire du fond de cette profondeur et en trans-
mettant le mouvement du point le plus bas au plus eleve, I'effet sera celui
d'un pendule, c'est-a-dire contradictoire entre les deux extremites.
" Lorsqu'on a senti a la surface une vibration ou oscillation dans la direc-
22 REPORT 1850.
tion du nord au sud, il fallait replier la cause vers sa veritable direction qui
etait du sud au nord."
He divides earthquake movements into three classes — " en verticmix ou
directs, en horizontaux ou indirects, et en circulaires ou accidentels, comme ni
tenant a aucune cause, ni a aucun systeme regulier."
After explaining that by the first he means direct upward and downward
motion over the volcanic centx-e, "et proviennent du goufleraent de la matiere,"
he proceeds to the horizontal motions : —
" Ce mouvement ondulatoire ressemble aux vagues de la mer, et ne dure,
comme tous les tremblemens de terre, que peu d'instans; du moment ou
I'elevation s'est fait, elle s'abaisse de suite, et ne reste jamais permanente.
Un tremblement de terre quelque violent qu'il soit ne peut elever le terrain
que par ondulation de 4 a 5 pieds au plus."
He here, and in the succeeding passage, clearly recognizes the difference so
usually overlooked, betvveen the transient elevation, and as immediate de-
pression of surface due to the passage of the earthquake shock, and the per-
manent elevation produced directly by volcanic action from beneath.
He seems to have had small knowledge of the facts of great sea-waves ;
and seems (p. 378) to consider them sufficiently explained by " the contra-
dictory effects " in producing a surge, of severe shocks taking place under
the sea bottom.
Although horizontal shocks are indirect and only " la consequence d'une
cause directe ou de son contrecoup," he considers they produce more
formidable effects than the direct or vertical ones ; but he does not get at
the true cause : he says, " cela depend des corps conducteurs et de la forma-
tion du sol, car il existe dans I'interieur de la terre d'immenses cavernes sur
lesquelles la croute superficielle n'est pour ainsi dire quesuspendue ;" and a
violent direct shock, he thinks may throw these fragile crusts down at a
distance, and bury cities, &c.
And as to the third class, or " secousses accidentelles," he is of opinion
that they are due only to the occasional and capricious falling in of such
cavities, and are in fact not properly a part of earthquake phaenomena at all
— an easy way of disposing of the question.
One of the most remarkable of the author's conclusions is, that, — " La
distance a laquelle les tremblemens de terre etendent leur chocs, depend
en premier lieu de la profondeur du foyer dans lequel la commotion s'est
developpee, en second lieu de la liaison des conducteurs du mouvement dans
I'interieur de la terre."
It is to be borne in mind that his "conducteurs" are not solid vibratory
bodies, but always hollow tubes or ducts in the interior of the cavernous
earth.
in page 385, in a passage too long for transcript, Bylandt well insists upon
the impossibility of earthquakes being properly considered as causes or
means of geologic elevation, but simply effects and symptoms of the action
elsewhere of the great elevatory forces acting slowly from beneath.
He proceeds: — " Maisapres avoir compare les tremblemens de terre entre
eux, definissons les mathematiquement, et eprouvons que les effets des tremble-
mens de terre, sont entre eux en raison inverse du carre de dista?ice de chaque
point de la surface au centre du foyer." Those who desire to know the
author's demonstration of this, and that the effects of earthquake shocks are in
the opposite direction to the shocks themselves (owing to the inertia of
the bodies overthrown), must refer to the work itself, and to the very curious
atlas of plates and diagrams accompanying it. One of Bylandt's diagrams,
ON THE FACTS OF EABTHaUAKE PHENOMENA.
23
however, is so strange a mingling of the false and the true, that it is worth
transcription.
Volcanic focus.
The title given to this diagram, in which, it is to be observed, the lines
divergent from the centre do not merely represent lines of force, but channels
of subterraneous volcanic communication, is, " Les effets des tremblemens
de terre sont entr'eux en raison inverse du quarre des distances de chaque
point de la surface au centre du foyer et leur produits seront contradictoires,
dans les lieux opposes," that is, the towers at both sides will fall inwards. —
(Bylandt, planche 7.)
Dr. Young, in his lectures upon Natural Philosophy, casually notices the
probability that earthquake motions are vibratory, and are analogous to those
of sound, &c. This view, however, was first put, I believe, in a definite form
by Gay-Lussac, at the termination of an exceedingly able paper on the
chemical theories of volcanoes, in the ' Annales de Chimie:' he says —
" Un tremblement de terre comme I'a tres bien dit le Dr. Young est ana-
logue a un tremblement d' air, c'est une tres fort onde sonore, excite dans la
masse solide de la terre par une commotion quelconque, qui s'y propage avec
la meme vitesse que le son s'y propagerait. Ce qui surprend dans ce grand
et terrible phenomene de la nature c'est I'etendue immense a laquelle il se
fait sentir les ravages qu'il produit et la puissance de la cause qu'il faut lui
iupposer.
" Mais on n'a pas assez fait attention au branlement facile de toutes les
particules d'une masse solide. Le choc produit par la tete d'une epingle,
a I'un des bouts d'une longue poutre, fait vibrer toutes ses fibres, et se transmet
distinctemeut a I'autre bout a une oreille attentive. Le mouvement d'une
voiture sur le pave ebranle les plus vastes edifices et se communique a
travers des masses considerables, comme dans les carrieres profondes au
(Jessous de Paris. Qu' y aurait il done d'etonnant qu'une commotion tres
forte dans les entrailles de la terre la fit trembler dans un rayon de plusieurs
centaines de lieues ? D'apres la loi de transmission du mouvement dans les
corps elastiques lacouche extreme ne trouvant pas a transmettre son mouve-
ment a d'autres couches, tend a se detacher de la masse ebranlee; de la
meme maniere que dans une file de billes, dont la premiere est frappee dans
le sens des contacts, la derniere seule se detache et prend du mouvement.
C'est ainsi que je consols les effets des tremblemens a la surface de la terre,
et comment j'expliquerais leur grand diversite en prenant d'ailleurs en con-
sideration, avec M. De Humboldt, la nature du sol et les solutions de conti-
nuite que peuvent s'y trouver.
" En un mot, les tremblemens de terre ne sont que la propagation d'une
commotion a travers la masse de la terre, tellement, independante des cavites
aouterraines, qu'elle s'etendrait d'autant plus loin que la terre serait plus
homogene." — Annul, de Chim. vol. xxii. p. 4-28, 429.
In Von Hoff's ' Geschichte der Veranderungen der Erdoberflache,' 5 Theil,
Gotha, 1822 to 1841, much information as to earthquakes is to be found;
24 iiEPORT — 1850.
the author Iiowever limits himself almost whoUj' to the descriptive character
which a history of the earth's superficial changes alone requires, and says
little of theory, and as 1 shall have large occasion to refer to him hereafter in
reference to earthquake catalogues, the present notice of his work may here
suffice.
Hoffman and Kries may also be noticed as German authors on earthquakes.
In 184'.'5, the Professors H. D. and W. B. Rogers of America commu-
nicated a paper to the British Association of rather an elaborate character
upon the phaenomena and theory of earthquakes. They adopt Mitchell's
view, and suppose the earth-wave an actual fold of the solid crust, produced
by a lava-wave of translation on the surface of the molten matter beneath.
They infer from two great earthquakes that this moves at from 27 to 30
miles per minute, either in nearly straight or in curved lines, according to
the form and position of the focus or points of volcanic action.
The sea-waves of earthquakes they suppose to be broad undulations of
the Avater moving in the same direction with the pulsation of the crust
and corresponding in breadth with that of the undulations of the earth's
crust ; yet these, say they, moved at the rate of 3| miles per minute, in the
case of the New England earthquake of 1756, and of 5 miles per minute in
that of Lisbon ; a striking inconsistency with the velocity previously assigned
to the earth -wave.
The tremor or vibratory jar accompanying the great shock or earth-wave,
they suppose arises from the crushing of the strata through which the shock
passes.
In 184-4 appeared Mr. Scott Russell's full report upon sea and other waves,
the laws developed in which as to the motions of waves of translation had an
important effect upon the immediately subsequent advance towards a com-
plete and true theory of earthquake phaenomena.
In February 1846, the author's paper upon the dynamics of earthquakes
was read to the Royal Irish Academy, and published in vol. xxi. part 1 of
the Transactions of that Academy, in which the first attempt was made to
establish upon strict physical bases a theory that should embrace and account
for all the recorded plicEnomena of earthquakes, both on land and sea. How
far he has succeeded in this, futurity must decide.
In June 1847, Mr. Hopkins produced his report on the theories of ele-
vation and earthquakes (Trans. Brit. Assoc). The principal features of
this paper are, a digest of his previously published mathematical papers
on the formation of fissures, &c. by elevations and depressions; a popular
resume of the acknowledged laws of formation and propagation of elastic and
fluid waves, and the partially placing in a mathematical dress the author's
theory of earthquake motions as developed in the paper last alluded to ; to
this is to be added a demonstration of a method for finding analytically the
depth of the centre of disturbance, from observations made with a seismometer,
such as that described by the author. (Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. xxi.)
I have thus brought the literature of earthquakes down to the present
time ; in doing so I would not be misunderstood as attempting a complete ac-
count thereof, but such merely as is sufficient to mark the progress of human
knowledge of our subject ; I have therefore omitted to notice the able resumes
of such literature given by Sir C. Lyell (Prin. Geol. chap. 28 to 33), and by
several otiier authors. Neither have I at all adverted to the works of authors
writing specially of volcanoes, as, although connected with our subject, not
properly belonging to it.
I now proceed to the more immediate subject of this Report.
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHJBNOMENA. 25
In commencing a Report upon the facts of earthquakes, it would be de-
sirable, if possible, first to discuss and state the distribution of their occur-
rence both in time and in space upon the earth : for either of these, however,
complete data are not yet in existence ; no catalogue of eai-thquakes has ever
yet been compiled which endeavours to embrace in number and condi-
tion those recorded even since the invention o( printing. The completest
catalogue that could be compiled would not give much more than the places
convulsed and the dates of the occurrence approximately; yet such would
not be without important use, and I have accordingly made considerable
progress in the laborious task of having such a catalogue prepared, and
trust to be enabled to give the results of its completion and discussion in a
second part of the present Report at a future meeting. Meanwhile I may
state (provisionally) that
1st. Earthquakes occur over all parts of the earth's surface, both
on land and under the ocean.
Egypt was one of the countries long believed to be free from earthquakes,
from which no doubt, like many other parts of the world, it enjoyed during
a long historical period a considerable immunity. But that even Egypt has
been absolutely exempt from earthquakes, seems disproved by the scattering
of the gigantic ruins of the Memnonium, bearing all the marks of having
been thus overthrown, and by the distinct testimony of Strabo, that one
of the two colossal figures of the plain of Thebes was commonly said in his
time to have been overthrown by an earthquake : —
" eyravdu Be Svo'iv KoXocrerwv ovrwv fiovoXidwv aX\{]X-<t)v ir\r)aiov, 6 fiey
iTiiJ^erai, tov S' erepov to. avio fiepr) to. awo ttjs KadeSpas irexTWKe aeiaiiov
yeyridei'Tos, i'ls (paai." — Strab. Her. Geogr. lib. xvii.
The question of earthquakes occurring in Egypt is set at rest however by
Bishop Pocock the traveller, who tells us in his 'Description of Egypt,'p. 195,
" It has hardly been known that they had any earthquakes in Egypt, but
in January 1740 they had three great shocks, which threw down mosques
and several houses."
2nd. They occur in all time, at all seasons, and at all hours of
day and night.
So that were we able to survey this planet's history in all time, we should
find no portion of its crust which had not at some period or other been
convulsed by earthquakes ; and could we have intelligence constantly from
over its entire surface, we should find that no day passed free from one or
many of these phaenomena.
Seneca, in a passage as remarkable for its truth as for the dignity of its
expression, affirms his belief in the universal dominion of change, and of
earthquakes over all the earth : —
" Omnia ejusdem sortis sunt, etsi nondum mota tamen mobilia; erramus
enim si uUam terrarum partem exceptam immunemque ab hoc periculo
credimus : omnes sub eadem jacent lege, nihil ita ut immobile esset natura
concepit: alia temporibus aliis cadunt; et quemadmodum in urbibus magnis
nunc haec domus, nunc ilia suspenditur, ita in hoc orbe terrarum, nunc haec
pars facit vitium, nunc ilia. Tyrus aliquando infamis ruinis fuit. Asia duo-
decim urbes simul perdidit. Anno priore Achaiam et Macedoniam quse-
cunque est ista vis mali quae incurrit nunc Campaniam laesit. Circuit fatum,
et siquid diu prasteriit repetit. Quaedam rarius solicitat, ssepius qusedam :
nihil immune esse et innoxium sinit. Non homines tantum, qui brevis et
caduca res nascitur ; urbes orseque terrarum et litora et ipsum mare in ser-
26 REPORT — 1850.
vitutem fati venit. Quo ergo nobis permansura promittimus bona fortunae,
et felicitatem (cujus ex omnibus rebus humanis velocissima est levitas) habi-
turam in aliquo pondus et moram credinius? Perpetua sibi omnia promit-
tentibus in menteni non venit, id ipsuni supra quod stanius stabile non esse.
Neque enim Campaniae istud aut Achaioe, sed oranis soli vitium est, male
cohoerere, et ex causis plurimis resolvi, et summa manere, partibus ruere." —
Qucest. Nat. lib. vi.
3rd. There seems at present no sufficient ground for affirming
that one portion of the earth's duration has been more subject
to their occurrence than another ;
4th. Or that one portion of the earth's crust has always been
more subject to earthquakes than another.
4th bis. But some portions of the earth's crust appear to have
sustained a sort of periodicity in their visitation by earthquakes
— long periods of repose being followed by shorter, but still
long periods of agitation.
Thus Antioeh affords perhaps the most remarkable instance, having for a
long period been shaken nearly every year during the Roman empire, then
having a period of repose of nearly 300 years, and then again becoming very
subject to these convulsions.
5th. But those portions of the earth's surface which lie in or
around the great present lines or centres of volcanic action do
appear at present to be most subject to earthquakes.
6th. And earthquakes are most prevalent and most violent in
some relation to the activity and intensity of the volcanic ac-
tion, at these lines or centres, at given times.
There appears to be beyond question the closest sympathy within all vol-
canic areas \i.e. areas where active volcanoes are found and surrounded with
formations due to their former and present action), between the activity of
the volcanic vents and the shocks of earthquakes.
Thus, in 1816, slight earthquakes at Scaccia in Sicily preluded the eleva-
tion of the new island Julia.
When Monte Nuovo was thrown up in 1538, on the day and night before
above twenty shocks were felt.
When Monte Rossi was formed by iEtna in 1669, and when the enormous
fissure of twelve miles in length at once opened up the bowels of the volcano,
an earthquake shook down Nicolosi and damaged Catania. The eruptions
of 1811 and 1819 were also attended with earthquakes.
In Iceland earthquake^long preluded the great eruption of Skaptar Jokul,
and reached their maximum violence on the day of the eruption, 11 th of June,
1783.
At Lancerote in the Canaries, violent earthquakes preceded and followed
the eruptions, near the shore, of 1824. Santorin in the Greek Archipelago,
was separated from Therasia by an ejuption in the year before Christ 236,
which, according to Pliny, was attended with earthquakes ; and several more
recent submarine eruptions, near it, have been also accompanied with earth-
quakes.
In a w ord, every great eruption, in whatever part of tlie world it has been ob-
served, and whether from a volcanic vent on land, or formed beneath the sea,
is accompanied by earthquake shocks of greater or less violence and duration.
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 2'j
But conversely, not only are eruptions thus accompanied by earthquakes,
but earthquakes, though not always, are on almost all great occasions accom-
panied by eruptions or perturbations of established volcanic action. For ex-
ample, during the great Calabrian earthquake Stromboli was noticed to be
less active than it had been for years before, and at Messina, " the com-
mandant of the citadel saw the sea at a quarter of a mile from the fortress
rise up and boil in a most extraordinary manner, accompanied with a horrid
noise, while all the rest of the water in the Faro was tranquil " (Sir W.
Hamilton) ; and afterwards there was shoal water at the spot where before
it had been deep.
In the great Chilian earthquake of 1820, at the moment the shock was
felt at Valdivia, in lat. 39° 50' S., two volcanoes near it burst at once into
eruption for a few seconds, and then again became quiescent. (M. Place,
Quart. Journ. vol. xvii.)
At Concepcion, volcanoes broke out from beneath the sea at the time the
great sea-wave rolled in (or probably before it?).
Hot springs have frequently sympathized with earthquakes at great di-
stances, as those at Tcepliz, which ran dry, and then again flowed discoloured
with iron rust during the great Lisbon shocks. No one is ignorant of the
melting of the chain cable of the Volage man-of-war at anchor during an
earthquake off the coast of South America ; and instances might be multi-
plied almost without limit of similar events during the period of earthquakes
which have not been begun with visible eruptions from neighbouring vents.
Thus the close connection of volcanic action and of earthquake movements
must be viewed as abundantly established.
There appear to be over the earth's surface at least twenty eruptions per
annum, and probably quite as many considerable earthquakes. Several in-
stances are on record of earthquakes having at once ceased on the opening
up of volcanic vents near or more distant. Thus Strabo (lib. i. p, 85) re-
lates, that the shocks of the island of Euboea ceased as soon as a crevasse
formed in the Lelantine plain, which discharged " a river of fiery mud," i. e.
of lava. That such vents are efficient at enormous distances from the shaken
country is well evidenced ; it is only, in other words, that earthquake shocks
are transmitted from their centres to vast distances.
There are not data to enable us now to affirm what portions of the earth's
surface are now or have been at given epochs least affected by earthquakes,
nor does it follow that those most remote from volcanic active centres will
be those least subject to earthquakes ; on the contrary, there is reason to
suppose that the intervening formations, in the nature and depth of their
rocks or loose materials, have much influence upon this. It is certain that
7th. Many portions of the earth's surface, which are not now
active volcanic centres, nor very closely adjacent thereto, nor
yet the centres of extinct volcanic action, are subject to fre-
quent earthquakes.
Thus earthquake shocks have been felt even in the loosest alluvial depo-
sits of Holland, around Middleburg and Flushing, in the great Prussian
plain, and at Cutch, in the low-lying Delta of the Indus.
8th. Regions which are the centres now of extinct volcanic ac-
tion do not appear more subject to earthquakes than other
regions whose formations are altogether non-volcanic.
9th. Although regions of active volcanic action are those also of
most frequent earthquake movements, yet the most violent
28 REPORT— 1850.
earthquakes do not appear to be those whose theatre of action
is closest to the volcanic vents themselves : on the contrary,
the most violent recorded earthquakes appear to have con-
vulsed regions lying some degrees away from the nearest
volcano in action.
10th. And in general tlie most violent recorded earthquakes
have occurred within a certain undetermined radius round
active volcanic centres, not far inland or in the heart of con-
tinents, but upon the sea-coasts, or near them.
Some doubt however hangs over this last, as some very ancient earthquakes
of tremendous intensity appear to have occurred in central and northern Asia.
Whether the proximity of the sea also is directly concerned or not is unde-
termined : it seems probable that all the great lines or centres of active vol-
canic action are near the sea-coast, and that their propinquity determines that
of the earthquake.
10th bis. It seems to be the opinion of Humboldt, that the area
of shaken country also sometimes enlarges in consequence of
a previous violent earthquake.
Thus, " It is only since the destruction of Cumana in 1Y97> that every
shock of the southern coast is felt in the mica-slate of the peninsula of Ma-
niguarez." — (Cosmos.) The centre of disturbance also shifts its position
during long-continued earthquakes. Thus, in the Calabrian earthquake it
moved twice northward eight or nine leagues, and in the New Madrid earth-
quakes of 1811 to 1813, the progress northward in the basins of the Mis-
sissippi, the Ohio and the Arkansas was remarked.
This opinion, however, is hard to give unquestioned credence to, if we
bear in mind that earthquake shocks are not communicated through tubes or
vents, torn in any Avay or already existing under ground, but are best pro-
pagated and go furthest where the ground through which they pass is most
solid, dense and homogeneous.
11th. Earthquake shocks have been felt on the ocean at vast
distances from any land, and in some cases the shock has been
nearly vertical and occurring in places where the depth of
water was profound, and where no phaenomenon on the sur-
face of the ocean indicated any volcanic action then active
beneath.
On this we may remark, however, that the most formidable volcanic ac-
tivity, greater probably than we have any experience of on the dry land, may
possibly exist constantly or occasionally in the bed of the deep ocean, and
yet no trace of it beyond a transient earthquake shock be known to those
floating over the surface. At a depth of tive miles of sea water we can well
imagine that lava poured out would be rapidly cooled, that steam formed
would be condensed long before it reached the surface, that rocks projected
upwards into so dense a resisting medium would fall back long before they
reached even the sun's light, and that pumice or other light and porous pro-
ducts of volcanoes on land or in shallow water may have no existence under
such prodigious pressure.
Great confusion prevails amongst earthquake narrators as to the use of the
word sJwck. We find constant mention made of the " shook lasting several
I
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 29
minutes ;" " the shock continued nearly an hour," and other such vague ex-
pressions. The abuse of language here consists in almost every author using
the words, duration of the shock, as synonymous with the whole period of
motion, comprehended from any one commencement to the next great pause
during the occurrence of the whole earthquake. To be able at all clearly to
comprehend these narratives, it is necessary to bear in mind that the word,
shock, is properly limited to the single motion due to a single impulse ; that
this motion occupies an extremely short time in passing a given station, and
that when " the shock lasting some minutes," &c. is spoken of, it means that
for some minutes there was a succession of these motions with short or
variable intervals between them ; i. e. a great number of shocks in quick suc-
cession. Hence we find that
12th. The earth- wave or shock is a motion of great velocity and
occurring during a very short moment of time at any given
spot.
It varies indefinitely however in force and in extent of motion ; sometimes
it amounts to a concussion like the blowing up of a mine at a great depth
under one's feet; at other times it is a mere vibration scarcely to be felt, like
that produced by a carriage running over a distant pavement ; yet these are
but degrees of the same thing. So again the rapidity with which the shocks
succeed each other varies. Sometimes a single powerful shock is felt alone,
or but two or three are felt in pretty rapid succession, and then a period of
complete or of comparative tranquillity occurs, during which the shocks are
so reduced in power as to require attention to perceive them ; and in this
case they often recur with such rapidity as to convey to the observer the
idea of a vibration or continuous jar, and this often along with the roll of the
greater wave-like shock.
It has been ascertained that sixteen vibrations per second, or 960 in a
minute, is about the limit at which the ear distinguishes between a continuous
sound or tone, and a regularly recurring noise or jar. I am not aware that
any information exists as to the relative sensibility to recurrent vibrations of
the ear, and of the nerves of feeling generally ; but assuming them to be about
the same, it follows, that when the number of shocks per second is about six-
teen, nothing will be felt but a continuous vibration or jar by an earthquake
observer, whilst below this number the separate vibrations or shocks can
be distinguished. This view, I conceive, clears up one very puzzling cir-
cumstance hitherto looked upon as deducible from most earthquake narra-
tives, namely, that there are two distinct sorts of shocks, the explosive and the
vibratory, or three, as Humboldt makes out, by adding the vorticose to the
number. It appears just to conclude from all narratives rightly interpreted,
that there is but one order of earth-wave or shock, namely, the normal
wave, and possibly small transversal vibrations transmitted along with it, and
these capable of reflexion, dispersion, change of velocity, &c. ; but that
the rate of succession and the individual intensity of each shock vary in-
definitely.
13th. The total duration of motion at a given spot varies indefi-
nitely, or between limits which have not been ascertained.
It appears to be established that in the greatest earthquakes, the most
violent shocks are very few in number, sometimes only one, usually not more
than three or four, and that to these the great mischief is due, so that in a
few seconds a vast country is laid waste and its cities and towns overturned,
as in the great Calabrian earthquake of 1 783 ; that these great shocks recur
30 REPORT — 1850.
at intervals wholly irregular, but that in the intervals between (and preceding
and following) these, there is occasionally a more or less continuous recur-
rence of smaller shocks ; these also have tlieir irregular periods of greater and
of less repose ; so that on the whole the earthquake is often, as to time, like an
occasional cannonade during a continuous but irregular rattle of musketry.
The small rapid shocks are usually in close precession and succession to
the great ones, and coexist with them. Tims, Don Palaccio Faxar, in his de-
scription of the earthquake at Caraccas, of March 26, 1812, says, "The
weather being fine, a hollow roar like that of a cannon was heard and was
followed by the shock, which lasted about 17 seconds; this was succeeded
by a shock lasting 20 seconds ; and after 14 seconds' interval by a third of
15 seconds* duration. Total durationU minute and 15 seconds with a motion
from W. to E." (Quart. Journ. vol. ii. p. 4-02.)
The total duration of motion (i. e. of violent rising and transverse undula-
tion) of the great earthquake of Caraccas (March 26, 1812), was estimated
by some at 50 seconds, by others at 1 minute 12 seconds. — Humboldt, Per.
Nar. vol. iv. p. 17.
Again, as to the New Zealand earthquake of 19th October ISiS, " At five
in the morning a sharp shock. The extreme force of the shock lasted rather
less than a minute; there was considerable motion for 3^ minutes, and the vi-
bration lasted for 8 minutes from the commencement of the shock." — West.
Rev. July 1849.
The Syrian earthquake of 1759 also lasted altogether about 8 minuted
(Dr. Russell, Phil. Trans. 1760), but a continuance of very small shocks at
intervals, or of very small and rapidly recurring shocks, has been often ob-
served for long periods of time. Thus, in the Andes, the earth has quaked
incessantly for days together; and on the eastern slopes of the Alps of
Mont Cenis, about Fenestrella and Pignerol in 1808, in North America, at
New Madrid and Little Prairie, north of Cincinnati after 181 1, and at Aleppo
in 1822, shocks were felt hour by hour for several months ; so also at Comrie
in Scotland, at longer intervals, they have long been felt ; and at Zante, in the
Greek Archipelago, slight shocks, at all hours, are almost continual, as long as
the present inhabitants recollect.
Humboldt is of opinion that this prolonged continuance of slight shocks
only occurs in districts remote from anj' active volcano. This however does
not appear to be borne out by the observations made in New Zealand. In
the earthquake there of October 1848, the shocks continued nearly five weeks
before they became insensible, the district being one immediately adjacent to
active volcanoes. There were during the larger portion of the time at least
one thousand shocks per day. (West. Rev. July 1849.)
The recurrence of slight shocks at nearly regular intervals, and having an
apparent connection with the recurrent projections from closely adjacent vol-
canoes, has been observed ; thus, Humboldt remarked shocks on Vesuvius and
on Pichincha, which were regularly periodic, and from 20 to 30 seconds be-
fore each projection of ashes and vapour.
14th. The absolute area convulsed at one earthquake epoch,
varies vrithin indeterminate limits, and is related apparently
in its extent to the maximum force of the shocks.
Instances are recorded of very violent single shocks having been felt which
were limited to very small areas, and here usually the direction of the shock
has been nearly vertically upwards. This has been most remarkable in ob-
servations made at sea; and slight shocks, however numerous, do not appear
to actuate large areas, but in the greater earthquakes the total space shaken
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 31
ia enormous; thus, in the great Lisbon earthquake of November 1755, an
area of the earth's crust more than four times the surface of all Europe was
shaken.
It was felt in the Alps, on the shores of Sweden, in the West Indies, on the
lakes of Canada, in Ireland, in Thuringia and in Northern Germany ; at
Toepliz (where the hot springs ran drj'), and at the Lesser Antilles, the usual
tide of two feet or so was one of twenty feet.
Thus, taking the area shaken at 3300 miles long and 2700 miles wide, which
is equal to 7,500,000 square miles, and supposing the motion only extended
to an average depth of twenty miles, there must have been 150 millions cubic
miles of solid matter put in motion, a mass which conveys to the imagination
some notion of the enormous power of the originating impulses. Yet let it
be remembered that the whole of this mass was never in motion at once, but
merely a comparatively small crest or wall of its particles put in motion,
which transferred their moving force again to those beyond.
The earthquake in Syria in 1759, extended, says Sir C. Lyell, over a space
df ten thousand square leagues, and for three months continuously this vast
area was shaken.
Hamilton thinks the main force of the great Calabrian earthquake was
comprised within a circle of 44 miles diameter, or 1520 miles area, but that
its shocks were felt throughout a circle of 144 miles diameter or over an area
of country of 16,286 square miles.
M. Place (Quart. Journ. vol, xvii.) says of the earthquake of 1820, the
principal force was exerted in a circle of about 50 miles diameter, the centre
a little N.E. of Valparaiso ; persons N. of that felt the shocks from the S.W.,
those to the S. of it from the N.E. The earthquake was felt from Copiabo
in the north to Valdivia in the south, distant 900 miles, and convulsed not
leas than 100,000 square miles.
Sometimes however the area shaken even by a very violent shock is ex-
tremely limited ; thus the city of Coquimbo was destroyed in great part by a
shock in 1820, which produced no alarm and did no mischief in any other
part of the country, according to M. Place (Quart. Journ. vol. xvii.). The
shock here probably in every case is a vertical one, from directly beneath,
and at a small depth as regards centre of impulse.
15 th. The shock or earth-wave is a true undulation of the solid
crust of the earth.
" The sand in the streets of Port Royal rose like waves of a troubled sea,"
says the recounter of the great Jamaica earthquake of 1692.
The amount of undulations, and the rapidity with which these succeed each
other, differ, but the great mass of earthquake observers concur in descri-
bing a distinct undulation of the surface of the ground. In the greatest
shocks this undulation has been often visible to the eye, as in the great
Jamaica earthquake, where the passage of the wave was said to be rendered
visible by the opening and immediate closing in again of fissures (this how-
ever need.s confirmation). It is indirectly rendered evident by the tops of
trees bending over first to one side and then to the opposite, and by various
other motions described as communicated to solids and liquids.
Whenever the undulation of the surface has been described as most distinct,
the direction of the shock has been also described by being nearly horizontal ;
where, on the other hand, the shock has been felt as coming up from beneath,
the undulation of the surface has escaped observation or not existed.
In the smaller shocks, whatever their direction may have been, the undu-
lation of the surface has not been observed, that is to say, was not directly
observable ; but it has been inferred from observations made as to the oscilla-
32 REPORT — 1850.
tions communicated to fluids, pendulums, &c. ; and there is no reason from
any recorded facts for supposing that the small jarring and rapidly recurrent
shocks are less undulations than the greater ones, though the former may
mutually interfere and be incapable of recognition as undulations directly by
the unaided senses.
16th. The undulation which constitutes the earth-wave or shock
has a real motion of translation.
The shock travels over the shaken country visiting it in succession (where
the direction is nearly horizontal, which is by far the most usual case) ; this is
generally obvious, and the cases of simultaneous shock over large areas are
rare.
" The motion evidently moves along a line " (i. e. horizontally and parallel
to itself), " and at the same time moves upwards so as to produce an undu-
lating motion. Any one who has been in the habit of swimming in the sea
during a considerable swell, must have felt something of this; the wave
comes on and moves the swimmer's body forwards, but not so much as it
moves it upwards when under the full influence of the wave." Such is the
graphic account of the describer of the New Zealand earthquake of 1848.
—(West. Rev. July 1849.)
Thus also at Messina, in the great Calabrian earthquake, the shock was
seen to commence at one end of the Faro, and in rapid succession to overturn
the houses and buildings of the city, advancing along to the other end, " like
a succession of mines rapidly sprung beneath."
So in the earthquake of Lisbon, the distances travelled by the shock were
so immense that the ordinary measures of time became sufficient to point out
roughly the intervals of its successive arrival at distant places ; and from such
observations Mitchell has constructed a table, by which, with wonderful ac-
curacy for his time, he has calculated both the time of transit of the shock and
of the great sea-wave which subsequently broke upon so many different shores.
But such calculations cannot be precise, because we do not know the exact
direction of motion of the shock, which is probably never perfectly horizontal
at any given spot.
17th. The direction of translation of the earth- wave or shock
varies from vertically upwards, to horizontally, or nearly hori-
zontally in any azimuth.
This is evident from all earthquake narrations; but in carefully discussing
these I conceive the following propositions will be found borne out : —
a. In shocks felt after having traversed a long distance, i. e. at long
distances from the point of impulse, the shock is usually, if not always
nearly horizontal.
b. In great earthquakes within a considerable radius, and in all within a
certain range of the centre of impulse, the direction of the shocks is
sensibly inclined more or less upwards.
c. In some of the greatest and most destructive recorded shocks, the di-
rection of the movement has been nearly vertically upwards, as in the
great shocks of Calabria and at Riobamba in South America.
d. The direction of successive shocks often varies during the continuance
of the same earthquake. Thus during the Calabrian earthquake, the point
from which most of the shocks seemed to come moved northwards, by
a distance of eight or ten leagues, at each of two epochs, 5th and 7th
of February and 28th of March.
e. It sometimes happens that two shocks, moving in diffierent directions,
arrive at the one spot in close succession, or almost together. In this
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 33
case, it has been stated that one shock is observed moving nearly horizon-
tally, and the other nearly vertically, or very much inclined to the horizon.
f. There is no good evidence of two shocks arriving together, or nearly so,
at one point, both horizontally, and from different points of the horizon.
Such an occurrence has been often inferred from phsenomena admitting
of another solution (as we shall see when speaking of vorticose move-
ments); but there is no a priori reason why, from two distant centres
of impulse, horizontal shocks should not be felt at once; and this seems
to have been remarked by Humboldt in Asia.
18th. The motion of translation of the earth-wave or shock is
rectilinear and not curvilinear.
All observers concur in stating, that the general direction of motion of the
shock, whether horizontal, inclined or vertical, is rectilinear. Such is the
testimony of the unaided senses. It is also the conclusion to be drawn from
the motions observed as given by the shock when more or less horizontal,
to fluids in bowls or tubs, to pendulums, to candelabra in churches, to
furniture, &c. ; and from the motions directly given to men, who have felt
themselves "jerked upwards," as in New Zealand (West. Review, July 1849) ;
or to articles thrown on to others, as a barrel standing close to a mass of jars,
and caused to leap up upon them, as at New Zealand ; or to a ship's mast, un-
shipped by a shock from beneath at sea.
But from a misinterpretation of some such phsenomena, authors of the
highest ability have affirmed, that there are other shocks which are not recti-
linear in their motion of translation, but consist in a vorticose or twisting motion
of the ground, a rapid rotation in fact of any given point round some distant
centre. The Italians distinguish popularly three sorts of shocks, the orizontale,
the oscillatorio and the vorticoso. The twisting of the Calabrian obelisks has
been given as the most convincing proof of this; and Humboldt (Cosmos) says,
" Circular or rotatory concussions are the rarest, but they are the most dan-
gerous of all. The twisting round of the steeple of the church at Inverness,
Scotland, on the 13th of August, in the year 1816, as related in Tilloch's
Magazine, vol. xlviii. p. 150, though a little known or noticed instance, is a far
more remarkable one than that of the oft-recited obelisks. Twisting round of
walls without throwing them down, plantations of trees which had previously
stood in parallel rows deflected, the directions of the ridges of fields covered
with grain altered, were observed at Riobamba, Feb. 4, 1797, and in Calabria,
Feb. 5 and March 28, 1783." He adds, " With the latter phsenomenon of rota-
tion, or the transposition of fields and cultivated plots of ground, of which one
has occasionally taken the place of another, there is connected a translatory
motion, or mutual penetration of several strata. When taking the plan of the
ruined city of Riobamba, I was shown a place where the whole furniture of one
dwelling-house had been found under the ruins of another. The loose earth
of the surface had run in streams like a fluid, of which it must be conceived
that it was first directed downwards, then horizontally, and finally upwards."
I maintain that there is no evidence whatever, from any observed facts,
for assuming any vorticose motion of the shock, or any other than a recti-
linear one. The case of tlie Calabrian obelisks and of the church of La
Merceda at Valparaiso, I believe it is admitted that I have disposed of in my
paper on the Dynamics of Earthquakes, read to the Royal Irish Academy in
Feb. 1846, and shown that rectilinear motion is sufficient to account for all
such cases of twisting. In the cases above adduced by Humboldt, he has
fallen into the greater error of mistaking the secondary eflTects of landslips,
and THEIR twistings of the land, for those of vorticose motion, as I shall more
particularly explain when treating of the secondary effects of earthquakes.
1850. D
34
REPORT — 1850.
Lastlj', the observer of the New Zealand earthquake of ] 848 records, that
certain vessels of milk had a movement of rotation given to the fluid they
contained, so as to accumulate the cream in the centre. (Westminster Re-
view, July 1849, p. 402.) He appears only to infer rotation from the accu-
mulation of the cream in the centre. This accumulation might take place
from oscillation in one plane only in a shallow milk vessel; but admitting
at once the rotation, there is no ground for concluding vorticose motion in
the shock from this. Indeed this observer himself goes much nearer it when
he says, " Some of the shocks had a cross motion," &c. It is not easy to say
what this exactly means ; but one can readily see, that if oscillation be given to
a fluid in a circular vessel, first in one plane, and then, while this continues, in
another plane forming an angle with the previous one, by a subsequent shock
whose direction was different, rotation will be at once communicated to the
fluid ; and this I believe to have been the solution of this case.
M. Place records, and the same has been done by others, that in some of
the South American earthquakes a conical cavity was found worked out in
the ground, around the base of the trunks of palms and large trees. This
would appear at first sight like a vorticose twisting round and round of the
stem, so as to work out this hollow ; and such a twisting actually took place
no doubt; but any inverted pendulum with an elastic stem, such as a tree is,
the centre of gravity of whose head does not coincide with
the vertical plane passing through the centre of elastic eflbrt
of the stem, will thus rotate from a single impulse given in
one right line; and it is the tendency to do this that con-
stitutes the vice of all inverted pendulums as seismometers.
While, however, I consider it proved that there is no
evidence whatever for any other mode of propagation or
translation of the earth-wave or shock than that of a right
line in any given direction towards the earth's surface,
or parallel to it, I am prepared to admit that upon
this very principle it is possible for a most violent
wrenching or twisting motion to be given to any spot
of tolerably large size upon the surface of the earth.
If, for exau\ple, from a centre of impulse at a great
depth below the centre of a surface comprehended by
a circle of, say a mile in radius, and in a direction to meet the extremity of
any given radius, a shock be transmitted, and that by rapid and continuous
change in the nature and direction of the impulse, a quick succession of
such shocks be transferred round the whole circumference of this circle, so
as to describe by their path a cone in the solid earth, whose apex is the centre of
impulse, and whose base is the circle on the surface before defined, then as
each portion of this circle is lifted in rapid succession, it is manifest that all
upon and within it, and by connection of parts all for a distance, gradually
disappearing around it, will be shaken by a violent wrenching motion, which
will make every body upon the surface describe an irregular conical figure
in space also.
But while it is thus worth while to show that such a complex movement
may result from simple rectilinear wave motion, I have been able to find no
record that gives the least presumption of any such phaenomena having ac-
tually occurred, when the facts are rightly interpreted in accordance with
admitted mechanical laws.
Let it be noticed however here, that there are, a priori, strict grounds of
exact science for believing, that in all great shocks of earthquake, besides the
transmission of the great wave in the normal direction from the point of
original impulse, there will necessarily be transmitted one, if not two sets of
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 35
transversal waves, of much less dimensions, and whose time of arrival at a
given distant point from the origin, will be somewhat later than that of the
normal wave; and where the normal is transmitted in a direction horizontal,
or nearly so, these transversal secondary waves will be felt as a short tremor,
or shaking up and down, and crosswise to the line of translation of the normal
wave, and almost at the same time with it. (See Poisson, Mem. Acad. Scien.,
1816, 1817, 1823.)
This combination of motion is clearly described by Aristotle ; and when
experienced by alarmed persons, unused to precise observation, may well
give rise to the extraordinary and perplexing accounts of the nature of the
movements which abound in earthquake narratives.
19th. The earth-wave or shock has in all cases a true wave form
upon the surface of the earth, and when its direction of trans-
lation is quam proxime horizontally along the earth's surface,
the crest of the wave advances along a given line and parallel
to itself.
For this more perfect evidence is desirable. In the case where the shock
comes up vertically, or nearly so, from beneath, we have evidence that the
demolition of buildings, &c. has been greatest where the shock has been felt
most vertical, as under the town of Oppido in the great Calabrian earth-
quake, and that all around this the destruction became less and less as the
direction of the shock was more inclined, yet not diminishing with a very
strict regularity.
Now as in such a case the mere change of direction of shock from vertical
to inclined would have the directly opposite tendency, if taken alone, as the
inclined shocks all around would, if eqnal in extent of movement, throw
down buildings, &c. more effectually than a vertical one (as is evident), the
change in destructive power must have been due to another cause, namely
to the actual amount of motion having been greater at the centre under
Oppido than in circles receding around it. Hence we conclude that the
greatest amount of motion was at the centre, where the shock was vertical
at Oppido, and that here the crest of the wave was raised the highest ; that,
in fact, at the moment of the shock the whole surface was momentarily raised
into a very flattened dome-shaped wave (the height of the dome being of
course extremely small as compared with its diameter), and again dropped
down to its former configuration of surface as the wave passed outwards at
all sides.
Whatever differences may be due in such cases to differences in terrene
formation, this must never be overlooked, namely, that supposing a shock
transmitted through a perfectly homogeneous mass from a deep centre of
effort, and the pulses passing outwards in all directions in spherical shells,
there will be a circle, upon the earth's surface, somewhere at a determinate
horizontal distance from the central point vertically over the centre of effort,
in which the upsetting or overturning power of a shock of given intensity
will be greater than at any point within or without this circle ; within, be-
--■-6'-"
u2
36 RKPOBT — 1850.
cause here the direction of shock is more vertical, and therefore less calcu-
lated to overturn buildings, &c. ; and without, because the power of the
shock, though there more horizontal, has become weakened by distance of
transmission. Thus let a be the centre of effort, b, b' the extreme limits of
shock, o,c the vertical passing through the centre of effort, then some points,
e, e', on the earth's surface, b, e, c, b, will lie in a circle, where the shock will be
more potent in overthrowing buildings than in any other within or without.
But when the surface of observation lies much further away from the
centre of impulse, so that the shock advances along the surface, apparently
horizontally, then there is more distinct evidence that its advancing crest is
linear. Thus in the Calabrian earthquake, observers remarked many build-
ings, or even whole villages, overthrown at the same moment along a distant
line of country ; and this demolition appeared to progress in a similar way
over the country. Similar facts are recorded by Prof. Rogers of American
earthquakes. (Trans. Brit. Ass. for 184'3-4'4.)
There is every a priori reason to suppose, that the crest of such a wave,
being the intersection at the surface of the spherical shell of elastic com-
pression produced by the original impulse of whatever sort beneath, moves
upon the earth's surface outwards, from the point immediately above its deep
centre of impulse, in lines parallel to themselves, and which are large circles,
or several intersecting large circles, or possibly occasionally ellipses, and with
the dimensions of the wave itself continually decreasing, but with unaltered
velocity of transit, save in so far as this is effected by changes in the character
of the formations through which it passes. This has not yet been proved by
any direct observation, and it remains still to be found what is the curve or
form assumed by the crest of the nearly horizontal travelling earth-wave or
shock. But to this we shall more particularly allude when referring to the
desiderata of our knowledge of earthquakes. To those lines along which
the shock is simultaneously felt in passing outwards from the origin, I have
proposed to give the name oi coseismal lines.
20th. The earth-wave or shock has determined dimensions in
height and breadth, or in altitude and in amplitude, and these
are dependent upon the force of the original impulse, the
nature of the materials through which it passes, and the
distance it has travelled.
Here also much evidence remains to be collected. Thus much, however,
we know, that in some ratio the shock is greater, in other words, the wave is
larger, as the originating impulse is more powerful. The absolute dimensions
of the wave have never yet been correctly ascertained, nor is this possible
without the aid of well-constructed instruments. All that we know is, that
these dimensions vary from waves whose altitude and amplitude are but a
small fraction of an inch, to those whose motions were such and so great, as
to throw down the heaviest buildings; to detach vast landslips and whole
mountain-sides of rock, or even, as affirmed of the great stroke at Riobamba,
to throw the bodies of human beings many feet into the air. [This latter
case, however, though recorded on the authority of Humboldt, not from his
own observation, however, but from testimony given to him, seems much to
need confirmation.]
From all these, however, and generally from the narratives of the effects
of all great earthquakes, there is good ground for believing that the altitude
and amplitude of the great wave of shock may amount to many feet in either
dimension. I have in a former publication (Admiralty Manual, ' Earth-
ON THE PACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 3?
quake Phaenoraena '), stated that " the wave or shock, travelling at the rate
of perhaps thirty miles per minute, often takes ten or twenty seconds to pass
a given point; and hence that its amplitude must occasionally be many miles."
The fact of one shock taking ten or twenty seconds to pass a given point,
however, is only derived from the narratives of great earthquakes, and from
the extremely loose use by authors of the word shock, as confounded with
whole period of motion, possibly consisting of many rapidly successive shocks
(as already adverted to) : this conclusion as to dimension of the wave requires
to be taken with caution.
21st. The velocity of transit of the earth- wave or shock has never
been correctly ascertained for any one locality or occasion.
A loose approximation was made by Mitchell to the speed of transit of the
shock in the Lisbon earthquake, from which he deduces a mean v,elocity of
about twenty miles a minute, or 1760 feet per second.
Humboldt states the velocity ('Cosmos') to be from five to seven geogra-
phical (German) miles per minute, which is about twenty or twenty-eight
statute English miles per minute, and by others various vague and insufficiently
supported statements of its velocity have been made ; but the truth is, the real
velocity has never yet in any one instance been even approximately ascer-
tained. No mean velocity, such as those given by Mitchell and Humboldt,
CAN be true, for if it be granted that the shock is a wave due to the elasticity
of the materials through which it travels, then the velocity must vary as these
alter, and be dependent on their density and moduli of elasticity.
This we do know, however, that its velocity is extreme in passing through
some formations, and very great in all. " The ground," says M. Place, speak°
ing of the great Chili earthquake, " rose and fell with inconceivable rapidity
like a mine sprung beneath one's feet." Such are his words ; and Dolo-
mieu quotes almost the same as the experience of those who had felt the
Calabrian shock at Messina. Thus the shock from below upwards upon a
British ship at sea, eleven leagues from Manilla, as recorded by De Guignes
in 1796, in his account of the Philippine Islands, was so sharp and sudden
as to unship and splinter the mainmast ; and the Winchelsea, a British ship
from Bengal to England, was similarly struck on the 10th of February 1823,
in lat. 52° N. and long. 85° 33' E. ; and Dr. Percival states, that in the earth-
quake felt in Lancashire in September 1777, " a passage-boat upon the
Bridgewater Canal was stopped in its course as if it had struck upon a cable
or other obstacle" (Ann. Reg. vol. xx. p. 79) ; and ships have been repeat-
edly strained so as to leak by such a shock at sea. The velocity of the
shock in sea-water is probably about 4700 feet per second. Stones have
been observed j(??'o;ecifec? out of walls to a considerable distance by the shock,
tearing themselves from the mortar-bed ; and, what is more direct proof of
great velocity, bodies of great stiffness and small inertia have been bent or
twisted, as for instance, an iron cross and a rod bearing the arms of Hun-
gary, which were both bent by an earthquake at Pesth in the last century,
but my authority for which I have been unable to recover. A somewhat
similar case is recorded by Professor Ferrara (Silliman's Journal for 1826).
" On the 5th of March 1823," he says, " the vane on the top of the palace-
gate at Catania, upon which he bent his eyes, was bowed in a direction from
N.E. to S.W., and remained so bent 20° from the plumb-line until it fell."
" A tall slender palm-tree he saw do the same."
Few better proofs can be found of the amazing force and velocity of the
lateral shock than the overthrow of the Rhodian Colossus — a bronze figure,
steadied by being filled with stone as to its lower limbs, and cramped with
lead into the solid masonry of the mole. " Ante omnes autem in admira-
38
RE POUT — 1850.
tione fuit Soils Colossus Rliodi septuaginta cubitorum altitudinis fuit.
Hoc simulacrum post quinquagesimum sextum annum terrse motu prostra-
tum, sed jacens quoque miraculo est spectantur intus magnae molis
saxa, quorum pondere stabiliverat constituens." — Plin. Nat. HistA.xwiv. 18.
It was thus overthrown, accoriting to Eusebius, in the second year of the
139th Olympiad, or 221 years before the Christian eera.
In coherent formations, or rocky strata, there seems a priori ground to
suppose that the velocity of the earth-wave is not less than 10,000 feet per
second, but it may be much less in loose and incoherent material.
I trust in a future Report to be able to give the results of some actual
admeasurements of the velocity of earth-waves in various formations, co-
herent and incoherent, the experiments for which are now in pi'ogress.
22nd. The direction and velocity of translation of the earth-
wave or shock change occasionally in passing from the boun-
daries of one formation to those of another.
This part of the subject demands much additional careful observation.
It has been long remarked, that buildings have been variously affected in
the same earthquake in different localities, which varied in the nature of
their subjacent formations, or in their levels or elevations.
The change in destructive effect from the same shock has generally been
most evident along the lines of boundary separating different formations.
And along such junctions, shocks have been described as succeeding each
other in opposite directions, but with a difference in force, with scarcely any
interval in time betwixt them, and the second shock being the weaker one.
Thus in the New Zealand earthquake of 1848 most of the shocks came from
the North or N.N.E., but very few of the shocks appear to have come
from the opposite direction, i. e. S.E. and S.S.E. " May these," says the nar-
rator, " be a sort of subsidence from the southward after some upheaving from
the northward ? " He appears, however, to infer the directions from the move-
ments of furniture only. The Lisbon shock was felt all over Spain, except
in Catalonia, Aragon and Valentia ; it is difficult to see why these should
be excepted ; but the difficulty may arise (assuming the fact) only from our
ignorance of the nature of the intervening formations. (Encyc. Londinensis,
in verb.)
Dolomieu, in his dissertation on the Great Calabrian Earthquake, says, the
shocks sustained by the houses and villages situated upon the hills on the
solid rock, were less felt and did less damage than those which occurred in
the plain.
It is to be recollected that the general formation of Calabria, from the axis
of mountains towards the sea, as described by Dolomieu, may be roughly
represented by the following section : —
ti. Grnnite.
«', Slates.
b. Decomposed granite.
c. Sand, or scarcely coherent sandstone.
d. Clay of great depth.
e. Alluvium ; black rich earth.
ON THE FACTS OF EABTHQUAKK PHiENOMENA. 39
There is no volcanic rock of any sort, he affirms, in any part of Calabria
visited by the earthquake of 1783-
The great jjlain consists of a vast collection, as it were, of small table-
lands, separated by deep ravines, having steep escarpments cut into the clay
and sand or sandstone by the action of the rivers and torrents. These ravines
are often 500 to 600 feet in depth below the table-land, which is highly cul-
tivated above them, and the sides of these ravines are of the dense clay or
scarcely coherent sandstone. All these slope up and abut against the sides
of the Apennines, which form the axial line of the country.
This somewhat tedious account is necessary to make the remarks here-
after to be made as to the secondary effects of earthquakes intelligible.
The centre of effort in this earthquake was under the great plain, and pro-
bably about under where once stood the village of Oppido, but at an unknown,
depth.
The observations made amount to no more than this ; that the shocks did
less mischief to structures on the granite or slate rocks of the hills than they
did to those on the plain of clay, &-c. ; that the destructive effects of the
shocks were very great along the line of junction of these, at the bases of the
hills (from which some of the philosophers of that time concluded that the
earthquake came from the mountains), and that along this line, shocks in
close succession were felt, not only horizontally and vertically, but also in
opposite directions.
Now we may a priori account for these facts, on the principle that the
velocity of the shock or earth-wave depending on the density and modulus of
elasticity of the formation through which it passes, and its velocity being
greatest in those whose elasticity is highest, while its range of motion is most
limited in the same ; therefore the shock here was of less velocity in the plain
than in the rocky hills; but had in the former a longer range of oscillation,
and hence did most mischief in the plain. Along the line or plane of junc-
tion of two formations of different elasticities, &c., the earth-wave will change
its course and also its velocity (like light in passing from one medium to
another); and here the wave will be divided, part of it will be refracted, and
part will be reflected (or total reflexion may take place if the angle of inci-
dence be suitable at the plane of junction); and the latter portion of the
wave will in such case double back upon itself, and give rise to a shock in
the opposite direction to the first one. Hence along such a line of junction
the destructive effects will be very great. Although the direction of transit
of part of the shock is changed by thus passing from one formation to an-
other, and its force also modified, yet it often happens that such changes do
not arrest much of its main progress or effects.
Even large ranges of mountains abutting on plains of soft material are
shaken through and through, and the shock is transferred beyond them. Thus
the shock at Lahore in India of 1832, passed through the chain of Hindu-
Cutch to the Upper Oxus, and even to Bokhara; and in South America they
pass through " the littoral chains of Venezuela and the Sierra Parime."
(Humboldt, ' Cosmos.')
Such differences in effects of shock due to situation have been repeatedly
observed. Humboldt says that at Quito, which stands at the foot of the
active volcano of Rura Pichincha, 8950 feet above the sea, and contains large
and lofty buildings, with spires and domes, he has been often surprised at
the severity of the shocks which he has felt, and which nevertheless but
rarely rent the walls ; whilst in the plains of Peru much weaker oscillations
injured even lowly houses built of cane ; and many other instances might be
quoted. To myself the explanation of the facts which theory gives appears,
40
REPORT 1850.
I confess, here sufficient ; but the observations made so far, of the facts them-
selves are too loose and inapposite to say that as yet theory has here been
tested by the fact. This truth must never be left out of view, that there are
two elements in the problem of destructibility to buildings, columns, &c.
in the case of every shock, viz. 1st, its absolute range of motion and velocity;
and, 2nd, the direction of its motion, which may be such as to be incapable
to overthrow a given building, however great its range and velocity ; gene-
rally it will probably be hereafter found that, ccBteris paribus, shocks in a
direction nearly but not quite horizontal, with large range and moderate
velocity, do the most mischief to all ordinary buildings of masonry.
Another circumstance must be borne in mind also in considering the facts
recorded of the Calabrian earthquake, which modified materially the dif-
ference in effect upon the plain and in the hills.
Let the above be a rude section of the country shaken, of which we have
already given the general geology. Let p be assumed as the place of the
centre of impulse at any depth under the great plain, below the bed of soft
material, and either between it and the first hard rock, or within the masses
subjacent ; in this case it is evident the arrows a, b will be the directions of
emergence of the shock in the plain, but the arrows c and d will be those of
emergence of the same shock in the hills, and buildings situated at m and *
along their slopes will be principally exposed to the waves c„ and d„, given
off at right angles to the normal wave c and d, and therefore less shaken ;
while buildings at the remote side of the mountains,/, will receive the full
violence of the shock. Dolomieu attributes much of the difference of de-
structive effect on the hills and on the plains to the " motion of the concus-
sions in the latter being more irregular, being modified by communication
through the medium of a soil yielding more or less to the force which
convulsed it, and consequently transmitting it unequally. In the mountains,
on the contrary, notwithstanding that the agitation of the surface was pretty
considerable, they were less destructive. The rocks on which the towns were
built communicated to them a more regular motion, being better conductors ;
the soil after each oscillation resumed its position, and the edifices preserved
their fixity." " So," he continues, " a glass full of water will bear a great
vibration without a drop being spilt, while it is emptied by the least irregular
shake." It is very difficult to see what he precisely meant by this, but it is
evident that a solid foundation of rock will favour the preservation of build-
ings, rather than a yielding one of clay, under shocks otherwise the same.
The great earthquake of the Caraccas (March 1812) is stated by Hum-
boldt to have been everywhere more violent in the Cordilleras of gneiss and
mica-slate, or immediately at their foot, than in the plains, and this difference
was peculiarly striking in the plains of Varinas and of Casanara. In the
valley of Aragua the commotions were very weak, and at Coro, situated
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 41
upon the coast between towns at either side which suffered much, no shock
at all was felt. These differences, says Humboldt, in the direction and pro-
pagation of the shock are probably owing to the peculiar arrangement of
the stony strata. (Per. Nar, vol.iv. p. 19.)
Again, it is manifest that in estimating the demolishing effects of any
shock upon buildings, very much depends upon the direction in which the
shock acts upon the building with reference to its particular form and struc-
ture, and as this was not sufficiently known or attended to by former ob-
servers, fresh information remains to be collected by competent persons as
to this part of our subject.
This concludes the first branch of our subject, viz. all that relates directly
to the earth-wave or shock ; and we now proceed to the sound-waves, which
are more or less connected with it.
23rd. Earthquakes occur which are accompanied by various
sounds, having a subterraneous origin, and which may either
precede, or accompany, or succeed, the occurrence of shocks,
or precede, accompany, and succeed, the shocks of some of
them; and again, earthquakes occur, even of the greatest
violence, unaccompanied by any sound whatever.
The intensity of the sound is by no means in proportion to the violence of
the earthquake. One of the most tremendous earthquakes on record, that of
Riobamba, occurred, according to Humboldt, unaccompanied with any
noise whatever.
The kind of sound has been very variously described, so variously as to
induce the belief that there are different sounds on different occasions.
Humboldt says (' Cosmos '), " It is either rolling, or rustling, or clanking, like
chains being moved, or like near thunder, or clear and ringing as if obsidian
or some other vitrified masses were struck in subterraneous cavities." One
cannot but imagine that in the latter similitude the ear has borrowed its
impression from the preconceived view of the author's mind.
Professor Krashenikoff, of St. Petersburg, in his description of Kamschatka,
as translated by Dumaresque (1760), says, " Earthquakes happen here several
times in the year. The most violent that was observed, was in the beginning
of February 1759, which, during a westerly wind, lasted exactly six minutes ;
and before it a noise was heard and a strong wind under ground, with a hissing
which went from north to south." By some the sound has been directly
compared to that of quenching a mass of red-hot iron in water. There was
a shock of earthquake at Coningsby in Lincolnshire, in England, on the 6th
of February 1817, and also at Holderness near it, when it was heard " like
waggons running away upon a road ; and so forcible was the illusion, that
waggoners on the roads actually drew up their teams to let the supposed
runaway waggon pass them safely. While this was heard at Coningsby, they
heard also at intervals of about a second of time, sharp and loud noises like
the discharges of gunshots ; and all gradually died away to a grumbling noise,
which shifted from the east to the south." (Quart. Journal, vol.xviii.)
Hollow bellowings is a common expression with narrators. The describer
of the New Zealand earthquake of 1848 (West. Rev., p. 397, for July 1849)
says, " The earth is in a continual state of tremulousness, and the dull sound
of the earthquake is continually heard. This sound has been much ex-
aggerated ; it is something like the sound of a railway train rumbling through
a tunnel, I mean as heard by a person outside and near the mouth. I have
also heard nearly a similar sound made by a very large steam ship chimney,
42 REPORT 1850.
except that the earthquake sound is less sonorous. It has been compared
with distant thunder and with distant guns, but it is more rumbling in its
nature ; in short, it admits of no exact comparison. I have noted that when
the shocks occur during a heavy gale, this dull rumbling sound is not per-
ceptible : it is overcome by the nearer noise of the wind."
The allusion to the steam ship chimney here relates to a peculiar and
most powerful sound, a true m.usical tone, which is produced occasionally
when there are powerful blazing fires under the boilers, with a strong draft,
and the furnace-doors are partially shut, in which case the funnel acts as a
great organ pipe, to which the furnace-doors play the parts of reeds, and
the draft of the fire that of bellows. The note here is about the lowest that
the organ is capable of sustaining.
I have myself met a gentleman who had for a long time resided in the
convulsed districts of South America, and whose occupation as a mining
engineer gave him large opportunities of observation, and who compared the
noise most usual to that of steam blowing off into cold water : a low irre-
gular rumble, accompanied with still more irregular, sharp detonations, such
as we may hear frequently in travelling by railway, when steam is blown
from the engine boiler into the tender to heat the cold water therein ; the note
however being in the case of earthquakes far graver than in this instance.
In the Caraccas earthquake (April 1812), the explosions of the volcano
of the island of St. Vincent were heard at the Rio Apura, like the discharge
of the heaviest artillery ; the distance in a straight line being 210 nautical
leagues, of 20 to a degree, a distance as great as from Mount Vesuvius to
Paris. (Humboldt's Per. Nar., vol. iv. p. 27.)
Yet the " Bramidos," however awful and loud, may be derived from a very
slight original stroke or grinding together of rock surfaces, the volume of
sound being multiplied by the vast surface of the earth from which at nearly
the same instant it is transmitted to the air and thence to the hearer. Thus,
for example, the large blocks of stone on the Breakwater of Plymouth, or
on the piers of Kingstown Harbour, Ireland, are some of them so circum-
stanced, as to oscillate slightly like logan-stones, and to strike together under
water by the motion of the waves, with, however, a force and range of mo-
tion so slight, that, when left dry at low water, and moved thus by band, the
blow is quite inaudible at a few feet distance ; nevertheless, when so moved
by the swell under water, the noise and crash sound quite formidable, and
would at first lead the hearer to suppose the whole structure was washing
away from beneath him, when thus heard on a calm clear day with a swelling
sea.
There is a deep mountain tarn in Ireland, Lough Bray, one boundary of
which is a steep mural precipice under water; when a stone of a ievi pounds
weight is dropped gently from a boat at this side of the lake, the crash of
its descent under water, as it falls over the face of the precipitous rocks which
emerge from the dark waters, conveys a most awful impression. So also the
ticking of a watch, inaudible even to the holder when held in the hand,
becomes distinctly heard across a large room when laid on a table. The
signals in use by a blow given to the side of a diving-bell, and clearly trans-
mitted through some fathoms of water, are also in point.
The intensity of the sound heard at a given station will depend in some
degree upon the same circumstance that will determine its time of occurrence
with relation to the shock, and it will also much depend upon the sonoricity
of the media (formations) through which it passes to be heard. Thus, what-
ever may be the original impulse producing the noise, whether fracturing of
ox THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PH.EXOMENA. 43
strata, falling in of rocks, grinding of masses over each other, or the reper-
cussion produced by steam, evolved by the heat of molten matter under the
earth or sea, and again suddenly condensed by being driven into contact
with cold water; in any of these cases if the centre of impulse producing the
noise, be distant from that producing the shock, or if the two waves, e. e. tliat
of sound and of shock, arrive to the ear through different media, they will
arrive at different moments. So if the impulse be extended along a line of
impact passing away from the listener, he will hear a prolonged sound from
a single blow, producing perhaps but a single shock. The general rule,
however, a priori, is that the sound-wave and the earth-wave of shock travel
at the same speed through the same formations, and if they arise from one
common impulse will generally reach the ear and observer at the same mo-
ment ; and accordingly this is by far the most usual case recorded ; but
innumerable perturbations and complications of this may and do take place,
many of which I have remarked upon in my paper on the Dynamics of
Earthquakes (Trans. R. I. Acad.), and for brevity here I pass them over as
easily predicted by those versed in acoustics.
In most earthquakes perhaps, certainly in very many, a sound is heard
before the great shock, and usually a vibratory jar felt also. The earth-
quake of Tiffliz, in Georgia, of 29th of January 1818, was so. (Quart. Journ.
vol. vii.)
Count Mercate, in his account of the earthquake of 20th of December
1820, at Zante, says the sound was heard before the shock was felt. (Quart.
Journ. vol. xviii.)
Hamilton says of the Calabrian earthquake, " All agreed that every shock
seemed to come with a rumbling noise from the westward, beginnincr with
the horizontal' and ending with the vorticose motion." (Phil. Trans, vol.
Ixxii.) This does not apply to the great shock of the 5th of February, " which
was from below upwards."
In the Chili earthquake of 1822-23, the explosive sound and great shocks
seem to have arrived simultaneously. (Mrs. Graham, Geol. Trans, vols. i. ii.
ser. 2. p. 413.)
Dolomieu says, the Calabrian shocks " were preceded by a loud subterra-
neous noise like thunder, which was renewed every shock," speaking not
however of the great upward shocks. " This great shock," he says (5 Feb.),
" occurred without the prelude of any slighter shocks, without any notice
whatever, as suddenly as the blowing up of a mine." " Some however
pretend that a muffled interior noise was heard almost at the same
moment."
The great Lisbon earthquake " began with a noise like the rumbling of
carriages, which grew gradually louder until it equalled the loudest artillery,
and then the first great shock occurred." (Phil. Trans, vol. xlvi. xllx. Iviii.)
In some very great earthquakes it should be remarked that a very loud
. noise has been heard a very considerable lapse of time after the shock.
Thus at Quito and Ibarra the great noise (el gran ruido) was heard eighteen
or twenty minutes after the shock. At Lima and Callao, in the great
earthquake of October ITiS, the subterraneous peal of thunder was heard
at Truxillo fifteen minutes after the shock. These great noises could scarcely
have been due to the same impulse that produced the original shock, but
more probably to a subsequent one, whose shock was delivered in a different
direction to the first, and hence not felt at the places where the sound was
heard, which may have reached them indirectly and through the air.
The time of transit of the sound-wave will manifestly differ, whether it
reach the ear through the sea or through the solid land ; in the former case
44 REPORT 1850.
its rate ■will be about 4700 feet per second, and in air about 1140, and at
the following rates for the rocks or formations, given below : —
Lias limestone SG^O i'eet per second.
Coal -measure sandstone ....5248 „
Oolite 5723 „
Primary limestone 6696 „
Carboniferous limestone .... 7075 „
Hard slates 12757 „
For granite and igneous rocks we have as yet no data, but the rate will be
greater than in any of the preceding.
Another remarkable fact observed as to sound is, that in some great earth-
quakes sounds have continued to be produced at comparatively regular
intervals for long periods after the shock, but unaccompanied with any sen-
sible motion of the ground. Boussingault informs us, that, after the earth-
quake of New Granada in 1827, noises like the discharge of cannon were
heard in the whole of the valley of Cauca for a long period, at nearly regular
intervals of thirty seconds, and several other instances of the same sort are
recorded ; these, like the slight noises in Perthshire at present, I should be
disposed to attribute to the periodic fracturing in cooling of newly-formed
igneous rock below or near the country where they are heard.
As there are shocks of earthquakes without any sound, so there are sub-
terraneous sounds heard often without any shocks. Thus in Caraccas, on
the plains of Calabozo, and on the banks of the Apure, a branch of the
Orinoco, over a region of 9200 square miles, Humboldt informs us there was
heard on the 30th of April ] 8 12 an extraordinary thundering noise without any
shock, while the volcano of St. Vincent, in the Lesser Antilles, at a distance
of 632 miles to N.E., was pouring out lava ; this, he adds, was as if an erup-
tion of Vesuvius was heard in the south of France. In the great eruption of
Cotopaxi in 1744, subterraneous noises like those of cannon were heard in
Honda on the Magdelana River. The crater of Cotopaxi is 18,000 feet
above Honda, and separated from it by the colossal mountain chain of Quito,
Pasto and Popayan, full of valleys and rents, and in distance 436 miles apart.
The sound, he says, was certainly not propagated through the air, but through
the earth, and at a great depth. During the violent earthquake of New
Granada of Feb. 1835, subterraneous thunder was simultaneously heard at
Popayan, Bagota, Santa Marta, and Caraccas (where it continued for seven
hours without any movement of the ground) ; also in Hayti, Jamaica, and on
the lake of Nicaragua.
The subterraneous noises of Mexico, which continued without any trace
of earthquake at Guanaxuato, for more than a month from midnight of Janu-
ary 9, 1784-, and are known there as the bramidos y truenos subterraneos,
described as if thunder-clouds lay beneath the feet of the inhabitants, from
which issued slow rolling sounds and short quick claps of thunder, — belong to
this order also ; and there can be little doubt but that Pliny formed his notion
of earthquake theory from such sounds, when he says, "Nequealiud est in terra
tremor, quam in nube tonitrum, nee hiatus aliud quam cum fulmen erumpit,
incluso spiritu luctante et ad libertatem exire nitente." — Plin. lib. ii. 79.
After recording many of these singular phaenomeua, Humboldt (' Cosmos')
sums up oddly enough in these words : — " Thus do chasms in the interior of
the earth open and close, and the sonorous waves either reach us or are in-
terrupted in their progress," — apparently forgetting for the moment that the
sounds must be conveyed more siirely and more rapidly through the solid
crust of the earth than through any fissure. These sounds, without shock,
must be attributed to impulses given in such directions, and with such a re-
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 45
gulated force as is sufficient to affect the air, from some quarter near the
hearer, most probably by the vibration of great tabular or mural surfaces of
rock, but insufficient to shake the ground under his feet; or sometimes to the
impulse of shock, being principally directed by circumstances of formation
in one direction, while only enough of the original impulse is enabled to
pass in others towards the hearer to affect his sense of sound, without his
feeling a shock. Where the resonant surfaces are so vast as in these cases,
extending over a whole surface of rocky country, a very slight vibration
will produce an overwhelming sound, of which some familiar illustrations
have been already given.
In every case it should be borne in mind, that from a distant horizontal
centre of impulse, or rather from a point vertically above it, two sets of sound-
waves must arrive to the hearer from each shock capable of being heard at
all, viz. one coming through the earth rapidly and directly, and the other
emerging first vertically upward through the earth to the surface immediately
above the centre of impulse, and transferred thence laterally through the air
at the usual rate ; hence any single blow delivered in the depth of the earth's
crust will be heard, if heard at all, at a distance, not as a single, but as a pro-
longed rumbling sound, or as two distinct sounds.
We now pass on to the consideration of the effects of earthquakes upon the
ocean or sea when their centre of impulse is beneath it.
24th. Where the centre of impulse of an earthquake is under the
sea, and within a certain distance (usually a comparatively small
one) of the land, the sea at about the moment that the shock is
felt by an observer on the shore is seen to swell and to retire
from the beach slightly, and at a certain interval of time after
the shock (dependent upon the distance of the centre of im-
pulse), a great sea-wave of translation rolls in upon the shore.
The originating impulse of earthquakes being either 1st under the sea, or
2nd on dry land, gives rise to some difference in the nature and succession
of the phfenomena constituting the who\e phase of one complete shock. Thus
considered, d priori, if the origin be inland, we may, if stationed on the beach,
have the following succession of waves for one complete phase of shock : —
1. The earth- wave of shock, accompanied and perhaps preceded and fol-
lowed by sound-waves through the earth.
2. The sound-waves through the air.
3. The forced sea-zvave, as I have denominated the small wave produced
on the beach at the moment that the earth-wave of shock either plunges
beneath the sea, or vice versa, emerges from it when the origin is under
the ocean.
If the origin be under the ocean, then the succession for one complete
phase of shock will be —
1. The earth-waves of shock and sound together, or nearly so.
2. The forced sea-wave lost upon the beach.
3. The sound-wave through the sea.
4. Sound waves (possibly) through the air.
5. The great sea-wave of translation, which rolling in upon shore with
immense velocity and violence, completes the catastrophe.
Some of these may be wanting in given instances, or the order of the
sound-waves may be sligiitly different from causes already adverted to, but
the above-named order of theoretic succession represents nearly that which
has been recorded of most great earthquakes.
In the records of many of these, the peculiar wave phaenomenon occurring
46 REPORT — 1850.
on the beach, to which I have given the name of the forced sea-ivave (Dy-
namics of Earthquakes, Trans. Roj'. Ir. Acad.), is mentioned.
Thus Darwin ('Journal of a Naturalist') says, "In almost every severe
earthquake the neighbouring waters of the sea are said to have been greatly
agitated; the disturbance seems generally, as in the case of Concepcion, to
have been of two kinds: first, at the instant of the shock the water swells
high up on the beach with a gentle motion, and then as quickly retires ;
secondly, some time afterwards the whole body of the sea retires from the
coast and then returns in waves of overwhelming force." " During most
great earthquakes, and especially in those on the west coast of America, it is
certain that the first movement of the waters has been a retirement."
Some authors have attempted to account for this by assuming that the
water retains its level, while the land is suddenly elevated or thrown up
out of it and again dropped down to its former level ; but Darwin well
says, " surely the waters close to land, even of a steep coast, would here
partake of the motion of the land." Darwin views this secession of the
water as due to the first action of the great sea-wave formed or forming far
out at sea. I have, on the other hand, endeavoured to show that it is due
to the traversing along under the sea of the crest of the earth-wave of shock,
which moves so fast as to force up a low broad unbroken ridge of water
vertically over it, which is imperceptible while the earth-wave is moving
under deep water, but becomes visible as it approaches the shallow shore ;
and the effect of the sudden coming in to land, of this earth-wave, carrying
the forced sea-wave as it were on its back, is, that at the moment they part
company upon the beach, the beach itself is for the instant elevated to the
height of the earth-wave and as instantly dropped again, so that slipping from
under the sea, the earth-wave gives to the sea for the moment the appearance
of having retired and again advanced to its former level. (See Dynamics of
Earthquakes, p. 18, 20.) In this Report upon the facts of Earthquakes, it
would be out of place to do more than refer to my memoir above alluded to
for more detailed speculations of the subject.
Combinations analogous to those which f suppose produce the forced sea-
wave, will also account for those strange movements of distant lakes, islands,
rivers, &c. recorded as occurring in connexion with distant great earthquakes.
Thus may be produced the oscillations often observed in inland lakes far
removed from the convulsed centre, as in the highland lakes of Scotland, on
occasion of the great Lisbon earthquake, and of the South Carolina earth-
quake of 1811, when the course of the Mississippi was temporarily arrested
below New Madrid; or as in the Calabrian earthquake, where the course of
the river Metramo was thus momentarily stopped, and then began again
to run ; in the latter cases the crest of the earth-wave, bearing aforcedivave of
water over it, having run up stream like a moving subaqueous or partial
dam across the river.
But a far more striking phsenomenon is the great sea-avave which
so often rolls in upon land at the conclusion of great earthquakes.
This has never been observed to take place in any earthquake whose
centre of impulse was inland, however violent. Thus in the Calabrian earth-
quake there was no great sea-wave, for the great wave that swept the mole
of Messina and drowned the Prince of Scilla and many thousands of his
people, was produced by the sudden fall into deep water of an enormous
mass of rocky mountain close at hand, detached by a shock. On the other
hand, wherever the origin has been at sea, and especially in the great South
American and in the Lisbon earthquakes, an immense rolling wave has come
in shore some time after the shock has been felt, and this has travelled in
ON THE PACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 47
from the offing : the height of these waves has never been accurately mea-
sured ; that of the Lisbon earthquake, at Cadiz, was said to have been 60 feet,
and about 18 feet at Funchal in Madeira.
These waves have been repeatedly observed, and from a remote antiquity,
as by Thucydides ; and in South America some of the shores, or even lands
comparatively remote from the shore, still present traces of their violent pas-
sage in times very remote, with the same circumstances as at the present day.
They are described as rolling in one long unbroken ridge of water with
a steep impending front, and not breaking until after they had rolled some
distance inland, overwhelming and sweeping away everything in their rapid
and impetuous course. Darwin says, " It is remarkable that while Talcahuano
and Callao near Lima, both situated at the head of large shallow bays, have
suffered severely during every earthquake from great waves, Valparaiso,
seated close to the edge of profoundly deep water, has never been over-
whelmed, though so often shaken by the severest shocks."
A good account of the great earthquake of Talcahuano and of the great
sea-waves thereof, will be found in the London Geogr. Journ. vol. vi. p. 319;
the inundation of the sea, the author says, was similar to that recorded
by Thucydides (iii. 89).
The incoming of the great sea-wave, if in water of moderate depth and on a
sloping beach, is immediately preceded by a slight recession of the water at
the shore.
The first great wave is often succeeded at intervals by others growing less
and less ; in the Lisbon earthquake there were eighteen such waves on the
shore at Tangier.
I must again refer to ray ' Dynamics of Earthquakes,' (Trans. Roy. Irish
Acad.) for discussion of the theory of these great sea- waves. I have endea-
voured to show that they are produced by the actual disturbance of the sea-
bottom, directly over the point of original impulse ; that a wave is here gene-
rated like that produced by dropping a stone into a pond, and is transmitted
in constantly enlarging circles, or at least in closed curved figures. This wave
translates itself outward in all directions, with a speed dependent upon the
depth of the water over which it is passing, and at last reaches the shore, or
perhaps many distant shores, its line of motion being widely different at
those points, perhaps, from that in which the shock was felt there. Its di-
mensions depend upon the force of the original impulse and the extent of
sea-bottom simultaneously exposed to it, and the depth of the water and its
force, time of breaking, &c. upon the form of the shores, depth of water close
inland, and so forth. The view I have taken accounts for all the facts that
have been recorded, satisfactorily to the demands of the science of tidal and
fluid wave motion ; but I am thus brief upon this part of the subject because
there are extremely few facts as to the dimensions, direction of motion,
time of arrival, or other circumstances of great sea-waves that have as yet
been observed at all with accuracy.
Navigators have often remarked and been placed in peril by, a peculiar sort
of inshore waves called "rollers" coming upon them suddenly and most unex-
pectedly : I just notice these here, as it remains as yet uncertain whether these
are nodal waves produced by the junction of several smaller waves far out on
the ocean surface after storms, or be in some way connected with our subject.
It seems probable that in the great ocean such vast nodal waves or rollers
are frequently produced and propagated to great distances from the regions
of storm where they originate, and may simulate many of the phsenomena of
earthquake great sea-waves.
A good account of these will be found in Captain Owen's narrative of the
48 REPORT — 1850.
surveying voyages of the Leven and Barracouta, on tlie east coast of Africa,
in 1821 and following years, vol. i. p. 288. One of the ships was nearly
wrecked off Quilimani by one of these rollers, " which burst with fury on
the decks, bearing everything before it, nearly swamping the ship, and
throwing her on her beam ends."
Capt. Owen says, " The roller moves as a precipitous hill of water from
10 to 50 feet in height, overwhelming everything in its course. They are
observed on all the sliores of the Atlantic south of 30° N. lat., sometimes
rising in a perfect calm, probably I'rom past gales in distant parts ; but their
true cause is not yet known." — Owen, Voyages, p. 288.
We now pass to some remarks upon tiie secondary effects produced by the
proper phenomena of earthquakes, viz. by those which we have already
treated of.
Again let it be observed, that most authors have very confused notions as to
the essentially different nature of earthquakes and of permanent elevations or
depressions of land. An earthquake, however great, is incapable of producing
any permanent elevation or depression of land whatever ; its functions of ele-
vation and depression are limited solely to the sudden rise and as immediate
fall, of that limited portion of the surface through which the great wave is
actually passing, momentarily. Hence, it is inexact, or rather untrue, to class
earthquakes as amongst the causes of permanent elevation or depression of
the land. But as earthquakes are unquestionably closely connected with vol-
canic forces, and with those nearly identical forces upon which permanent
elevations and depressions without eruption depend, so there are few earth-
quakes of any magnitude that are not accompanied by permanent eleva-
tions and depressions of the land. These and the earthquake have a common
origin, and are to be regarded as each the symptom of the other; but while
the elevation or depression of the land may cause the earthquake, or rather
be the immediately forerunning event to the earthquake, the earthquake can
never cause the permanent elevation or depression of the land. I dwell upon
this because it is important to our future progress in earthquake knowledge,
that we should form a clear conception of what it is, and how far its limits
extend, and clearly distinguish these from both the permanent elevations and
depressions, often of vast extent, that accompany their occurrence due to the
great elevatory forces of the interior of our planet, and also from all those
secondary, or doubly secondary pheenomena, which change the face of the
country shaken, but which are only contingent and accidental effects of the
earthquake, and which vary with the local conditions of the country in which
they occur. The confusion resulting from having lost sight wholly of this
distinction is well seen in the extracts I have given from Hooke's discourses
of earthquakes in a preceding part of this Report.
In reading over the narratives of earthquakes at large, we are constantly told
of mountains being removed from one place to another, of valleys being oblite-
rated, of the course of rivers being altered, springs and fountains spouting up,
fissures and chasms of vast depth and extent being formed, with smoke and
flames issuing from them, lakes formed where none were before, and so forth;
all of which are said in a word to have been produced by the earthquake.
For example: — "Terras quoque motus profundunt sorbentque aquas;
sicut circa Pheneum Arcadia; quinquies accidisse constat. Sic et in Coryco
monte amnis erupit posteaque cceptus est coli. Ilia mutatio mira ubi causa
nulla evidens apparet ; sicut in Magnesia calidas factas frigidas : salis non
mutatursapore. Et in Caria, ubi Neptuni templum est, amnis qui fueratante
dulcis mutatus in salera est
" Rhodiorum fons in Chersoneso none anno purgamenta egerit. Mutantur
ON THE PACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 49
et colores aquarum, sicut Babylone lacus sestate rubras habet diebus XI.
Et Borysthenes sestatis temporibus caeruleus fertur, quanquam omnium
aquarum tenuissimus: ideoque innatans Hypani. In quo et illud mirabile,
Austris flantibus superiorem Hypanim fieri." — Plin. Nat. Hist., lib. xxxi. 30.
Again : — " Saepe motu terrarum itinera finminum turbantur et ruina in-
terscindit aquas, quae retentae novos exitus queerunt, et aliquo impetu faciunt
aut ipsius quassatione terras aliunde alio transieruntur quod accidisse
ait Theophrastus in Coryco monte, in quo post terrarum tremorem nova vis
fontium emersit." — Senec. Nat. Qucest., 1. iii. 1 1 .
It will be necessary to go somewhat into detail, not only to record some
of these facts, but to show how they depend upon the accidental features of
country as affected by earthquake motion.
These phaenomena were presented in great variety and upon a peculiarly
grand scale in the great Calabrian earthquake ; and we are chiefly indebted
to Sir William Hamilton, in his account of them addressed to the Royal
Society of London, for first pointing out the true relation that they bore to
the earthquake itself.
The general geological features of the Calabrian plain which have been
already given, the great tabular surface of clay, sand, and soft decomposed
rock, divided by deep ravines and river courses, must be now borne in mind by
the reader. The following then are some of the principal secondary phaeno-
mena that were there observed, and which are more or less common to all
earthquakes on land.
1st. Vast landslips take place.
The shock transferred horizontally through the plain (either as the normal
or wave at right angles to this), on reaching the steep escarpments of the
valleys, shook down enormous masses of these ; the deep clay banks above split
into fissures, extending to a great depth, and the weight of superincumbent
stuff often forced out the base of the escarpment into the middle of the ravine
or valley, so that the upper part of the bank fell nearly perpendicularly (in
some cases 500 feet), and was deposited with all its trees and crops growing
upon it at the bottom. In other cases, where the escarpments were less steep,
landslips in the more ordinary form took place, and the upper lands slid down
over a rough inclined plane of previous ruin, sometimes leaving nought but a
chaos of upturned trees and crops, with mud and soil and sand at the bottom ;
and at others, where the thickness of the mass detached was greater, or the sur-
face over which it was launched was more uniform, landing the whole upper
surface safely down some hundred feet, with even houses, standing firm on the
surface and all the crops uninjured : people descended unhurt on such sin-
gular and mighty vehicles ; but often the surface over which the slip was
launched was not a plane, but curved or twisted, so as to change the direction
of motion of the moving mass ; and here the mass was sometimes broken to
pieces, but at others its surface was only twisted and distorted in rude copy
of thai over which it had passed and on which it came to rest. Thus, straight
rows of elm-trees and of olives became curved, furrows straight from the
plough became twisted and contorted.
Childrey, ' Britannia Baconica,' gives several instances taken from Cam-
den's pages, of the effects of great landslips in altering the form and directions
of furrows, hedge-rows, landmarks, &c., and one especially of twenty-six acres
of land which so moved in Herefordshire in 1571. (Hooke, Dis. of Earth-
quakes, p. 309.) Another great English landslip is recorded in Baker's ' Chro-
nicle,' p, 419, near Kynaston, in Herefordshire. These are the phaenomena
that Humboldt appears to have mistaken for evidences of vorticose shocks.
1850. E
50 REPORT 1850.
Again, these landslips often took place from both sides of a straight valley
at the same moment, or from two projecting headlands at opposite sides, one
higher up the valley than the other (whep in the latter case the shock passed
the valley, not directly across, but diagonally), and then the vast debris
meeting in the bottom of the ravine, by the mutual reaction of one side
against the other, forced up a huge mass in the middle, often to half the height
nearly of the table-land at each side, i. e. to 250 feet above the bottom of the
valley, and thus a so-called hill or mountain was formed in the valley. Thus,
near Terra Nuova, when the whole town of MoUochi di Sotto v^s detached
with many vineyards, and descended into the ravine on whose bank it before
stood, "some water-mills that were on the river having been jammed between
two such masses as these were lifted up by them in the middle of the valley,
and are now seen on an elevated situation many feet above the level of the
river." (Hamilton, Calabrian Earthquake, Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxii.) And in the
plains also wonderful effects of the propagation of pressure to vast distances
by superincumbent weight are recorded by Hamilton, Spallanzani and Dolo-
mieu. Thus, says the latter, " In the deep valleys of the rivers Tricucio, Birbo
and BoscJinio, sand and clay ran like lava, or as if carried away by water ; in
other places considerable portions of mountains ran for several miles in their
way to the valleys, without falling to pieces or even changing their shape."
Hamilton says that the loose underlying sand formation, when wetted by the
danmiing up of the rivers, &c., became a sort of fluid rollers, upon which the
most enormous masses were moved ; in one place, two portions of land, each
about a mile long by half as much wide, with all their cultivation, were thus
moved bodily down a valley, a distance of more than a mile ; and a mountain
mass of sand and clay was moved (or at least was affirmed to have been
moved) nearly four miles.
2ncl. New lakes and river-courses are formed, and old ones
obliterated.
In many places the valleys dammed across by these landslips arrested the
course of the rivers passing through them, and formed lakes of great size and
profound depth. In some places these dams were so stanch from their
clayey material, that the lakes, brimful, overflowed the table-land at the sides
of the valley, and traced out new river-courses on the plain, which again
fell into the old course further down, the new course rapidly eroding the soft
alluvial plain, and preparing to form in course of time a new ravine as deep
as that that had been dammed so suddenly. These lakes became putrid from
the masses of vegetable and animal matter brought into them, and had to
be drained at once by public measures to avoid pestilence. But in many cases
the dams, unable to resist the pressure of the rising waters above them, burst
at length, and the debacle totally altered the form and features of the valley for
miles below, overspreading everything with a rounded and fluent mass of
mud and slime, imbedding vast numbers of trees and vegetables, animals and
men, to become the organic remains of the post-tertiaries to our own remote
posterity, should the present ceconomy of the earth last long enough.
How ■well does Hamilton remark of all this ! — " What causes a confusion
in all accounts of this (and he might have added of all earthquakes) is the
not having sufficiently explained the nature and peculiarities of the soil and
situation. They tell you that a town has been thrown a mile from where it
stood, but without mentioning one word of a ravine on the edge of which it
stood (a.> at Terra Nuova) ; that woods and corn-fields have been removed
in the same manner, when, in truth, it is but upon a large scale what we see
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 51
every day upon a smaller, where the sides of hollow ways, having been
undermined by rain-waters, are detached into the bottom by their own
weight ; " or he might have added, shaken down by anything causing vibra-
tion, as the passage of a waggon or cart.
3rd. New valleys are also hollowed out.
Not only are they hollowed out gradually, as above, by the erosion of newly-
formed river-courses, but they are made at once by the slipping of vast
masses of soil. Thus, along the bases of the hills, says Dolomieu, referring
to those above the great plain along the whole length of the chain, the soil,
which adhered to the granite of the bases of the mountains, Caulone, Esope
Sagra, and Aspramonte, slid over the solid nucleus, the inclination of which
is steep, and descended, leaving almost uninterruptedly from St. George to
beyond Christina, a distance along the base of the hills of nearly ten miles, a
chasm between the solid granite nucleus and the sandy soil of the plain. Thus
a valley was formed of great length in a moment, pai-allel to the mountain
sides and below them ; but this cut off the drainage of the mountain slopes
from the plain, and hence in after years the ridge of debris forming one side
of the valley would become cut through and traversed by streams and torrents
descending to the plain, dividing it into isolated masses of hills, and soon de-
stroying all recognition of its singular mode of formation.
A ravine was measured by Grimaldi, which was formed nearly a mile long,
105 feet wide, and 30 feet deep, in the district of Plaisano ; another was
produced at Cerzulle, three quarters of a mile long, 150 feet wide, and 100
feet deep ; and one at La Fortuna about a quarter of a mile long, 30 feet
wide, and 225 feet deep ; and various others are mentioned which it is need-
less to detail here.
Without enlarging the list, " what is said will be sufficient to demonstrate,"
says Dolomieu, "that the singular circumstances attendant on the earthquake
were the natural effects of a violent shock acting on a sandy ground pre-
viously opened and torn by torrents." " The general effect was, that of
heaping together the soil, establishing slopes where there were before steep
escarpments, disconnecting masses that had bases insufficient for their bulk,
or only supported by lateral adherence, and of filling interior cavities."
These landslips, had they occurred in land reposing upon hard rock, such
as clayslate or granite, and more especially if the deep beds of clay already
contained pebbles and boulders of hard stone, would in their progress have
furrowed and grooved the subjacent rocks, and left thereon permanent traces
of their movements, that would have presented to a geologist, thousands of
years after, all the aspects of ice or glacier action, and where no other grounds
to suspect earthquake origin existed, would probably have been set down to
these causes.
Let us remark here the vast difference in effects that these secondary phae-
Qomena will give rise to in a low flat country of soft or incoherent material
in its formations, and in one of hard, rigid and highly elastic rock, severed
by valleys and rising into mountain crests. How different would be the
effects in our own country of a great earthquake that should shake at once
the London basin, and all the eastern side and south of England, and the
.Isle of Wight with the mountains of North Wales, and the Grampians!
What vast landslips should we record of the southern cliffs of the Isle of
Wight, how utterly would its surface and geology be changed in a day;
what changes on the face of the cultivated banks of the Severn, the Thames,
the Medway, to say nothing of our brick-built cities I Yet how different from
the effects in Snowdonia and the Grampians ! Here, or in any such regions
e2
52 REPORT — 1850.
of hard and elastic rocks, vast crevasses may be rent into the mountain
masses, huge blocks may be detached at the instant of the shock (as at
Messina, and as seen from the deck of the Volage, when a mighty cliff de-
tached itself, and plunging at once into deep water disappeared), and may
fall into the valleys, and be shattered into fragments, vast, angular and with-
out order, such as we see filling the commencement of the pass of the
Spliichen above Chiavenna. But the mountain torrents still find their way
through or over such debris, the dams formed are not water-tight, their ma-
terials are too huge, and interlock too much, to be moved by debacle any
great distances ; the whole iron frame of the country is too elastic and too
strong to be very greatly altered, and the earthquake leaves but compara-
tively slight traces of its destroying hand, save upon the frail habitations of
man, and upon his best and largest works.
4tli. Fissures of various sizes are formed in the earth's crust.
These are directly formed in the solid rock. Sir Hans Sloane describes the
rocks in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica as greatly shattered in 1687 by the
earthquake.
Mrs. Graham describes the granite rock of the beach at the promontory
of Quintero in Chili, after the earthquake of 1822, as found rent by sharp
recent clefts, very distinguishable from the older ones, but running in the
same direction. Many of these could be traced to a distance of a mile and a
half across the neighbouring promontory, where in some instances the earth
parted, and left the base of the hill exposed. (Geol. Trans., vol. i. 2nd series,
p. 4.15.)
Hot springs frequently are found issuing from such clefts in igneous rock.
Thus Humboldt tells us that the " Aguas calientes de las Trincheras burst
out from a granite rock, split into regular fragments" (Cosmos) ; and many
other similar instances may be found recorded.
Most, if not all writers on this subject have tacitly assumed however that
all fissures formed during earthquakes are due to the direct action of the
shock ; and some accounts, such as tiiat of the great Jamaica earthquake of
1692, affirmed " that the ground undulated like a rolling sea, and that fissures
opened as the undulations passed, two or three hundred of which might be
seen open at once ; that these opened and closed again rapidly, as the un-
dulation rose and fell ; and that people were even caught and bitten in two
by these Titanic mouths ; that some, thus swallowed up, were again cast out."
Assuming this narrative veracious, I for some time believed the opening
and closing of fissures by the direct passage of the earth-wave to be possible
in incoherent formations. On further consideration of the subject, however,
I am disposed to reject this solitary and truly wonderful Jamaica narrative,
for the present at least; and judging from a connected view of all the other
narratives of earthquakes, to state my strong impression, that fissures, at least
those of any magnitude, any that are more than rents or cracks in rock or
masonry or other coherent bodies, are never produced during earthquakes
directly by the transit of the shock, but are solely the result of secondary
actions, and due either —
1. To landslips, more or less complete.
2. To subsidences in the ground, due to subterranean action at great
depths, of the true elevatory and depressory character, and producing
lateral slips by resolution of motion.
3. To elevations of the ground produced in the same way, and producing
similar effects.
4. To the action of water, either forced up from beneath, or removing
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHftUAKE PHiENOMENA. 53
land or softening it by lateral action, as in newly-formed rivers and
lakes, and thus producing slips.
The following are some of my reasons for this conclusion. The limits of
elasticity of none of the soft materials of which plains of clay, &c. consist, and
indeed of none of the incoherent formations that we are acquainted with, are
sufficiently great to permit of the formation of fissures of the width and size
upon record. The fissures that have been carefully observed have always
been found parallel to great escarpments or to lands that have slipped ; thus
all the observers of the Calabrian earthquake concur in stating that the great
fissures were parallel to the faces of the steep banks of the ravines or valleys,
and more numerous the nearer they approached them ; and those curious
radiating fissures at Jerocarne, which are alluded to and figured by Sir
Charles Lyell, are probably no exception, but most likely arose from the
ground having fallen away in all directions around, which it would do if cir-
cumstanced as an insulated mass, surrounded wholly or on three sides by the
usual deep gorges with precipitous sides, of the Calabrian plain. I cannot
possibly attribute such " fissures, like cracks in a broken pane of glass," to
either subsidence or elevation of such a mass of deep soil, which was never-
theless imperceptible to the eye. Bishop Pocock, in the third book of his
' Travels in Thrace and Greece,' states that " cracks were formed of six inches
wide, by an earthquake which occurred at Zeitoun, but that it is situated on
the south side or slope of a hill at the foot of a high mountain." So that
here there was a supported and an unsupported side to the embankment upon
which the town stood. The fissures formed by the first shock of Calabria
were greatly widened by subsequent ones ; now this would not be the effect
of direct action of the earth-wave, an elastic wave ; but it would be just that
of slow separation, due to subsiding away, from any cause which left gravita-
tion to act ; in fact, in a common slip upon a railway embankment may be
seen in little, if the soil be favourable, all the phaenomena recorded of earth-
quake fissures in incoherent material. The first great fissures are produced
when the slip occurs ; others are formed in its mass after it has assumed a
state of comparative repose. These, like the crevasses of a glacier, are all
transverse to its general line of motion, just as they are in the earthquake
transverse to the line of motion of the shock, or may be ; but every new vi-
bration, every passing train widens the mouths of these fissures, until the
whole mass of the slip has gained its position of final repose.
Again, some of the widest of these chasms, recorded as fissures, are of
comparatively very small depth in relation to their width. Thus one at
San Fili, the government Calabrian Commissioner, Grimaldi, found was half a
mile long, two and a half feet in breadth at the surface, and only twenty-
five feet deep ; and the deepest fissure I can find any record of, does not ex-
ceed five hundred feet, and this does not seem to have been measured, and
is probably exaggerated. Now as the wave of elastic compression and ex-
tension, or shock, traversed miles in depth of the earth's crust at these places,
it is inconceivable that these fissures, if produced by its passage, should not
correspond with it in depth, or at least much more nearly than these com-
paratively shallow dimensions represent.
Moreover, many of these fissures were crescent-shaped, as that near
Soriano, and figured in the government account of the earthquake, and the
curve wais extremely short and excentric ; it is difficult to conceive such a form
of fissure produced h^ fracture, i.e. by a shock of any sort or degree of vio-
lence ; while the excessively irregular figure of some others of the fissures,
as that at Polistena (also figured), makes them quite as irresoluble on the
fracture theory ; and indeed the gradual closing in of all these fissures by
the slow subsidence of the soil, as noticed by the Government Commission
54 REPORT 1850.
of the Neapolitan Academy, and also by Sir W. Hamilton, is alone sufficient
to show that the elasticity of the formation in which they occurred was far
too small to permit their formation hy fracture.
Of the extent of these subsidences at the time of the earthquake various
instances have been recorded, such as the cylindrical lining of the well of the
convent at Terra Nuova, being left projecting out of the soil like a tower, nine
feet above the surface, and the lateral motion of the mass of soil in which it
was dug, also evidenced by the whole well having got an inclined position
from the vertical. That these subsidences produced often hollows of a cup
form is not wonderful.
In conclusion, I conceive the formation of all fissures, where effecting soft
or incoherent formations, to be due to varieties of subsidence due to one
form or another of landslips or land removal by water; that they may be
and are produced in hard rock, and in buildings, &c., directly by the transit
of the shock, I also conceive there is no doubt of, and this leads me next to
a singular fact often recorded, viz.
5th. At the moment the fissures open in the earth, fire and
smoke (apparently) have been observed to issue.
On this matter much new and exact observation would be most desirable.
The narratives generally affirm that flame made its appearance momentarily
at the mouth of the fissure, and that a volume of smoke, or some say dust,
was vomited forth and hung for some time above the mouth.
That some earthquakes have been observed from points situated so directly
above and so close to the focus of volcanic action beneath, as to make all this
quite possible in its most literal sense, cannot be doubted, when we call to
mind the Volage's chain cable having been made incandescent, and even
partly melted, as she swung by it at anchor on the coast of South America ;
or Captain Tilland's narrative in the Philosophical Transactions for 1811, of
the submarine volcano, which he actually saw rise, upon the surface of the
sea, near the island of St. Michael's, when laying to, within a few cables'
length of the spot. Within four hours after the first visible commotion, the
summit of the crater was 20 feet high above water, and 400 or 500 diameter;
and before he left, it had raised itself to 80 yards in height. Volumes of
steam were discharged, the sea was violently agitated as though boiling, light-
ning-flashes were emitted from the clouds above, and water-spouts formed in
various places around showed the violent disturbance of electric equilibrium.
A continuous noise like musketry mingled with discharges of cannon stunned
the ear, and the shocks of earthquake felt were sufficient to shake down part
of a cliff upon which some observers stood. Many such recoi'ds show how
closely men may sometimes approach the " Atri janua Ditis," and live in the
midst, as it were; of the smoke and fervent heat of the unknown regions
within ; but when the occurrence of flame and smoke is recorded of fissures
in non-volcanic lands, and in territories suffering from earthquakes whose
origin is manifestly far away, as in the Lisbon one for example, some different
solution must be sought for.
The following suggests itself as at least worthy of future investigation.
The experiments of Becquerel and other electricians have shown, that when
fractui'e in a solid takes place, a powerful electrical disturbance is the con-
sequence. This will be great in proportion as the surface and mass fractured
are themselves large. When therefore a fracture of a mile long and of many
feet in depth is formed, whether by subsidation and slipping, or in any other
way in soft material, and yet far more when one of those greater fractures in
hard rock takes place, such as have been described when a whole mountain
mass has been rent in two at a blow, the disturbance of electric equilibrium
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 55
may be expected to exceed that of a heavy thunder-storm, and may, quoad
this particular part of earthquake phaenomena, realize the dreams of the older
philosophers, who thought an earthquake was a thunder-storm under ground.
In this then I believe is to be found the usual source of the flame or flash,
seen suddenly to appear and vanish at the mouth of the rent, and the iden-
tification of the supposed flame or flash with electricity in an analogous case,
was made by Sir W.Hamilton, who alludes to its violent disturbance always
in the cloud above the crater of a volcano in eruption, though he suggests
no origin for such disturbance in the case of fissures opening, from which he
had satisfied himself by subsequent examination, that there was no evidence
of flame or volcanic exhalations of any sort having issued from their mouths.
And as to the smoke which has even been described by some authors as dust,
I fancy it has been none other in almost all cases, if not in all.
Eye-witnesses of the falling of towns and cities by earthquakes describe
the volume of dust that rises from the shattered buildings as instantly ob-
scuring the scene of desolation from view ; thus Catania in 1692 disappeared
in an instant in a cloud of dust ; and any one who has seen a large blast fired
in a quarry of hard rock will remember the dust that rises through and over
the falling and shattered masses. There can thus be no doubt that the rend-
ing of a mountain mass of rock must be attended with similar volumes of
dust, and that the same must attend the fracture of earthy materials, such
as the clay of the plains of Calabria or that of Lisbon, which from the dry-
ness and heat of both climates must be for many feet down in a friable con-
dition. But there is another cause yet for the cloud of steam, or dust and
steam, even when the walls of the fissure may be perfectly wet. By the
sudden yawning of one of these vast chasms a void space is instantly opened,
into which of course the surrounding atmosphere immediately rushes ; a
partial vacuum is thus for the moment produced just above the mouth of the
crevasse ; the great mass of air suddenly rarified or expanded has its capacity
for heat increased, its sensible temperature is therefore as suddenly lowered,
and a deposition of vapour, in form of a great cloud, takes place above the
crevasse, which is greater or less in proportion as the dew-point is higher or
lower at the time and place.
Conversely, if the crevasse be wet and suddenly opened to a considerable
depth, the temperature of its sides and of the water dripping from them being
that due to the depth, and therefore above that of the air at the surface,
will instantly fill it with steam or vapour; this will rise and mingle with the
air above in the form of steam clouds at every breath of wind that enters
the chasm and disturbs its repose, will be slowly driven out by the descent
of the colder surrounding air of the surface, or may be wholly expelled if
the crevasse close again, as it often does ; and these sources of change of
state in the air and vaporization of water, «jr condensation thereof, are them-
selves powerful causes of electrical disturbance.
Whether therefore the formation through which a fissure or crevasse is
cloven during an earthquake be hard or soft, dry or wet, on the mountain or
in the plains, whetlier it be due directly to the earth-wave or shock, or se-
condarily to subsidence or slipping, I conceive that there is abundant evidence
of sufficient meteorological and electrical disturbance to account for the
(clouds of steam or supposed smoke, flashes or sudden flame, and dust, so often
mentioned as occurring far from volcanic active centres.
Smoke in the true and ordinary sense of this word, it may be remarked
in passing, has never been observed by any competent authority actually
issuing from even any volcanic vent. The gaseous products are almost
wholly vapour of water, holding some acids, as SO- and CI-I-H, in suspension.
56 REPORT — 1850.
and various solids in the form of fine dust or sand ; but bodies in that pecu-
li.ir intermediate state between mechanical suspension as sand, and chemical
diffusion as vapour, such as constitutes common carbonaceous smoke, and
whose peculiar characteristic it is to deposit a portion of its mass as a soot
or sublimate of some sort, and the remainder to float for days or weeks
permanently in the air in an uncondensed and unprecipitable state, do not
seem ever to issue from the interior of true volcanic vents ; so that there is
a priori the strongest improbability of smoke having ever been really been
to issue from an earthquake fissure.
Compare the younger Pliny's account of the eruption in which his uncle
perished, where his graphic account of the thick darkness that in a moment
overwhelmed them in absolute obscurity and almost choked them, cannot
be mistaken for smoke, though he calls it " a thick cloud."
6th. Water often spouts from fissures, wells and springs, or
bursts up in unexpected spots from the ground at the mo-
ment of the shock ; and it also is rolled out of the mouth of
great fissures or crevasses, often in a turbid and discoloured
state, and sometimes for a considerable time after the earth-
quake.
These pbsenoraena, various and singular as they are, and apparently per-
plexing, as we find them recorded in earthquake narratives, all arrange
themselves into order and become of simple solution when once we have got
the key to the whole, which is this : — They are all cases of reaction, in which
the inertia of masses of water lodged in the earth is brought into play by the
passage of the shock, through its solid parts, or they are secondary effects of
those cases of slippage and subsidence, which, as we have already shown, are
themselves secondary effects of the shock.
This will be most rapidly made clear by a few instances.
In the Jamaica earthquakes of 1687 and 1692, Sir Hans Sloane informs
us, that " of all wells, from one fathom in depth to six or seven, the water
flew out at the top with a vehement motion," i. e. at the moment of the shock,
which was here a vertical one. The sudden motion of the transmitted wave
(the earth-wave) is, to use Humboldt's words ('Cosmos'), "increased at the
surface in conformity with the general laws of mechanics, according to which,
when motion is communicated in elastic bodies, the outermost free-lying stra-
tum tends to detach itself from the others ;" like the last of a train of billiard
balls, whicii alone flies off, when the first is struck ; or to illustrate the fact
(not this principle), if one hold a cylindrical tumbler (the well) nearly full of
water, and suddenly raise it up a couple of feet vertically and there suddenly
arrest it, the water will in great p^rt leap out of the glass.
The water of springs and natural wells is contained in the earth chiefly in
two forms ; it either lies in plates or bands of fluid in the crevices of rock
formations, which are mostly either vertical or inclined to the horizon, and
are usually of great length and depth and of constricted width, or the water
lies in beds of sand and gravel, lying stretched out over large spaces, fol-
lov'jiipf sometimes the contour of the surface, and at others cropping out here
and tliere, where tiie springs themselves bubble out to the surface; or
again they lie in the vacuities which have been washed out between the
beds of stratified rocks ; or lastly, in the caverns and sinuous apertures that
have been dissolved out of calcareous rocks, as about Trieste and in
Ireland, &c.
Now, in the first case, when the earth-wave passes nearly horizontally
ON THE PACTS OF EARTHftUAKE PHENOMENA. 57
through a formation of rock, bearing vertical or inclined plates of water, each
of these will be powerfully compressed at the moment of the passage of the
shock, for it is by the compression of the water only, that the shock itself can
be transmitted onwards to the rock beyond the plate of water; and as fluids
transmit in all directions equally, any pressure communicated to them in one,
so the water in each such plate will press upwards at the moment of the
shock, and will fly upwards, because in this direction resistance is least ; and
as the pressure, though but for an instant, and even often acting through a
very restricted range, yet acts on an enormous surface, namely, on perhaps
the whole length and depth of the water plate, each amounting to miles, at
the same instant, its total eff"ect, quoad the volume of water displaced, is very
great, for it is as though a piston of very short stroke but of enormous surface
suddenly expelled water through a comparatively very small aperture. But
furthermore, the spouting fluid has acquired a certain velocity which it does
not lose at once, and has further an elasticity of its own, as well as the solid
walls that compress it ; hence it spouts higher, and a rather greater volume
of water is expelled from the fissure than is due merely to the (diminution of
its capacity by the passage of the shock and to the speed with which this is
effected. Shocks in a vertical direction will affect such plates of water, if
vertical or nearly so, precisely in the way already described for open cylin-
drical wells.
Proceeding now to the casein which the water lies in a water-bearing bed or
in several, of sand or gravel, overlaid by rock or by clay, or any other im-
pervious material : if the direction of shock be horizontal, as before, the
water in such reservoirs will, by its inertia, oscillate first in the opposite di-
rection to that of the shock, and then again in the same direction as the
shock moves ; and if in either of these directions its bed crop out to the
surface, or it can find vent to it any other way, it may suddenly emerge in
vast volumes, and from the principle just alluded to, of quaquaverse pressure,
such pourings out of water are not confined narrowly, to the line of direction
of shock or its opposite, but may occur at any angle to it, laterally, or up-
wards, or downwards.
But let us now take the case in which a country underlaid by such a
water-bearing bed or beds is exposed to a vertical shock or one nearly
vertical. Here, on the principles already stated, every open well, or natural
fissure or duct communicating with the water-bed through the impervious
strata above, will spout out volumes of water ; and if there be considerable
tracts over which there are no such artificial or natural vents, or whose
combined areas are insufficient to ease off the sudden pressure of the water
upwards, it may break through the retentive stratum above, whether of rock
or of clay, &c., at the points of least resistance, and there spout out where
water had never been known before, and may bear with it volumes of gravel,
sand, and mud from the beds below.
Now these were just the conditions of the great Calabrian plain, and of that
of Lisbon and of Port Royal. In Calabria, as we have seen, a vast deposit
of clay forms the surface of the plain, described by Dolomieu as consisting of
" a stratum of vegetable earth, argillaceous, black or reddish, very strong,
very tenacious, and from four to five feet in thickness," beneath which lie
various formations resulting from the decomposition of granite, and under
this " a white micaceous clay rather unctuous and ductile ;" and beneath all,
the deep bed of sand and scarcely coherent sandstone, which he informs us
is a water-bearing stratum in most places, and to which he says " the roots
of the trees penetrate to a great depth in search of the humidity always
contained in the lower part of the sand."
Sir William Hamilton also describes the "swampy plain of Rosarno" as
58 BEPORT — 1850.
" consisting of clay," and the higher grounds reposing on the sides of the hills
above it (i.e. the understratum), as "of a gritty sand."
Now the great shocks of Calabria, three in number, were almost vertical,
and spoutings of M'ater, botli out of wells and crevices, and out of spots
where before there was neither aperture nor water, were numerous. And
these conditions give me the means of explaining the very curious circum-
stance of tlie satid-cones and circular hollows found in the plain of Rosarno,
as described by the Calabrian Government Commissioners, and also figured
and described by Sir C. Lyell (Principles of Geol. p. 465). They say, " in
the plain of Rosarno were found numerous circular hollows, for the most
part about the size of a coach-wheel, but some larger and some smaller ; these,
like wells, were full of water within a foot or so of the surface ; on digging
down, they were found to be funnel-shaped cavities in the clay, full of sand,
and some which were dry presented nothing but an inverted cone of sand in
the clay-bed, concave in the centre on the top, and rippled oft' at the edges.
Eye-witnesses had seen these hollows suddenly formed by the spouting up
of water mixed with sand during the earthquake, which was thrown to a
considerable height. In the great Chilian earthquake of 1820, M. Place
describes similar sand-cones as formed on the banks of the river Concon,
fifteen miles from Valparaiso, each, he says, with a crater-like cone in the
inside ; and he describes the plain there as clay with a substrate of sand."
(Quart. Journ. vol. xvii.) And Mrs. Graham, in her description of the
Chilian earthquake of 1822-23, says, " In all the small valleys the earth of
the gardens was rent and quantities of water and sand forced up through
the cracks to the surface. In the alluvial valley of Veiia a la Mar, the whole
plain was covered with cones of earth about four feet high, occasioned by
the water and sand which had been forced up through funnel-shaped hollows
beneath them, the wliole surface being thus reduced to the consistence of a
quicksand." (Geol. Trans. Vol. i. 2ud ser. p. 414.) Similar sand-cones, under
similar conditions, are recorded in the ' Philosophical Magazine,' vol. ix.
p. 72, as having been formed during an earthquake at the Cape of Good Hope
on December 5, 1809.
Thus this phasnomenon is seen not to be an isolated or peculiar one, but
common to several earthquake-shaken countries resting on water-bearing
sand beds. Sir W. Hamilton "thinks the phaenomenon easily explained;"
thus, "the impulse having come from the bottom upwards, the surface of
the plain suddenly rising, the rivers which are not deep would naturally dis-
appear, and the plain returning with violence to its former level, the rivers
must naturally have returned and overflowed, at the same time that the
sudden depression of the boggy grounds would as naturally force out the
water that lay hid under their surface." He says he observed that "where
this sort of phEenomenon had been exhibited the ground was always low and
rushy." His explanation is scarcely intelligible, and certainly not true. I
am not aware that any other writer has attempted a rigid explanation of the
spoutings of water and sand, &c. in earthquakes, but from what has preceded,
I think I may lay claim to having, for the first time, done so; and we may
now see that the Calabrian sand-cones were simply the ajutages through
which in the lowest places, and where the swampy clay offered the least resist-
ance; the bed of water, reposing in the great sand-formation beneath, broke
forth at the moments of vertical shock, sweeping up more or less of the sand,
along' with the water.
The form of these cones, as figured in section by Sir Charles Lyell, is pre-
cisely that which an issuing fluid would shape to itself. We may readily see
now what prodigious secondary effects in dislocation and removal of masses^
such violent and sudden hydrostatic pressure brought to bear under a large
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 59
surface of undulating country and of soft material may produce, and what
Bhattering and breaking up into blocks, it may be capable of when acting
thus from beneath upon countries consisting of stratified rock in a tolerably
level and unbroken bed.
Lastly, from crevices formed during an earthquake, water has been ob-
served to pour out in vast volumes for a considerable time after their for-
mation, at which moment they were dry, and within them the water slowly
welled up at first.
This case is not to be confounded with the obvious one of a crevasse having
some underground communication with a higher source, then opened to it
as a mouthpiece, for the first time, and the explanation of which is obvious ;
but the following seems to be its solution : the crevasse, if formed in deep
clay, as in Calabria, or Lisbon, or Jamaica, and rent down to a water-bearing
stratum at its lowest parts, will have the base of its sheer sides soon sapped
by the water at bottom and by that dripping from its walls, and there beginning
to slip, its sides will gradually bulge inwards, first at the bottom, and this rising
upwards slowly, the whole chasm will close in and gradually eject and press
out over its lips, the whole of the water it had before contained, though this
may have at first stood fathoms below the surface ; and as the whole capacity
of some of the crevasses we have seen is immense, and the closing up gradual,
a large stream may thus be kept running from many of them for a long
period.
This gradual closing in (and no doubt from this combination of circum-
stances) was remarked in many of the great crevasses of the Calabrian plain ;
the enormous force with which the sides closed together, was remarked
with wonder by those who dug out the remains of buried habitations, and
found beams and masonry, furniture, utensils, and bodies of men and animals
pressed together and compacted into one undistinguishable mass ; but such
a result will excite no wonder in those who have had an opportunity of
carefully examining the phaenomena and effects of any great landslip, or even
slip of heavy embankment, or of the effects of the " creep and crush" in
our deep coal pits.
To such a subsidence taking place suddenly, no doubt, was due the dreadful
disappearance of the quay of Lisbon in 1755, which became suddenly perched
as it were upon the very brink of a vast crevasse, formed under the waters of
the Tagus, which rapidly softening the blue clay upon which Mr. Sharp
(Geol. Proceed. 1838, p. 36) informs us the lower part of the city is founded,
soon caused the banks of the rent to yield under its overwater load ; and to
a similar cause must the sinking of the quay or mole at Messina be ascribed,
which was built upon a submarine bank of clay and sand, sloping rapidly off
into profoundly deep M'ater close by. The water poured out from these
spouting apertures or from large crevasses, has often been described as im-
pregnated with foreign matters ; these have chiefly been described as " hepa-
tic, or sulphureous, or bituminous," and have mostly been recorded as coming
from the overflow of crevasses some time after the earthquake; of course
Water-bearing beds full of soluble mineral matter will eject more or less of
these with their fluid contents ; but when such crevasses affect deep inco-
herent formations containing sulphurets and organic matter together, rapid
decompositions will give rise to all those horrible evolutions of foul water
and poisonous gases that have been recorded so often, and especially in the
Jamaica earthquake of 1692.
If, for example, such wet crevasses as we have been considering vVere to be
Opened in the deep carboniferous formations of Westphalia or Lower Saxony,
or even in some of our own coal-measures, with what rapidity the coal and
60 REPORT 1850.
pyrites of the latter, and the strange mixture of pyrites and vegetable matter,
which Mitscherlich describes as used in Saxony for making copperas from,
and which only needs to be dug out and moistened to heat and decompose
spontaneously, would give rise to black and foetid water, saturated with
sulphates, evolving torrents of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, and
mingled with red mud of oxides of iron ! Again, should such crevasses
affect a country such as that of the salt formation of Cheshire, and stretch
also into some of the neighbouring coal-measures, what rapid and important
chemical action would result from all the above, brought into contact with
saturated solutions of common salt, with gypsum, with limestone and with
clays dissolving into a paste at the first approach of moisture ! What enormous
evolutions also of carburetted hydrogen from the coal-beds would the sudden
relief of superincumbent pressure give vent to I
Before proceeding to another branch of our subject, it will be proper here
just to notice some few unusual and ill-ascertained phcrnomena, of which the
facts are doubtful or incomplete, and for which no perfect explanation can
be offered : —
1st. Fixed objects are said in a few instances to have been inverted; thus
by the " sbalzo " or leap into the air, fixed pavement is affirmed by the
Neapolitan academicians to have been thrown upM'ards, and found after-
wards in its own place, but with the stones inverted.
2nd. In the midst of the universal ruin and prostration of a whole town or
village, a single edifice, and often one not remarkable for strength or
for humility, has stood quite uninjured. Thus at Radicina, in Calabria,
a single small square house of one story remained standing, all the rest
of the town being prostrated ; similar events have been noticed in South
America, where —
3rd. " Nodal points or lines " occur, namely, isolated portions of country
which constantly escape the shocks which convulse the parts all round
them ; these portions are so well known, Humboldt says, that the Peru-
vians say " the rocks form a bridge," " rocas que hacen puente " in
Spanish.
4th. Shocks felt in deep mines, as in the Marienberg in the Saxon Erzge-
birge, not felt at all at the surface, and e converse, shocks at the surface
not felt at all underground, as at Fahlun and Presberg in Nov. J 823.
It would be easy to speculate on the probable causes of such phaenomena,
on the known grounds of reflexion, refraction and total reflexion of elastic
waves at certain angles, but the facts themselves are too doubtful to make it
at all useful. But we must leave this subject, fertile as it is in consequences,
having, as I trust, developed the nature of secondary effects from the earth-
wave itself, sufficiently for the purposes of this Report, and proceed to a few
remarks upon the secondary consequences of the great sea-wave.
7th. The great sea-wave, when it comes ashore, after the earth-
quake, produces all the effects on land of. a great debacle.
It does not appear needful to enlarge much upon this, as everything re-
mains to be done in the way of accurate collection of facts, of which M'e
have very few, principally due to Mr. Darwin, to W. Parish (seeGeol. Soc.)
and to Virlet (Bull, de la Soc. Geol. de France, tom. iii. p. 103), who has re-
corded some curious facts as to the effects of a great sea-wave that broke
over Santorin and the island of Sikino, seven leagues off, after the earthquake
of September 1650.
Mr. Parish, in a memoir presented to the Geological Society of London in
November 1835, has collected all the historical notices of great sea- waves
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE rH^NOMENA. 61
which he was then able to discover accompanying earthquakes on the coasts
of Chili and Peru ; in 1590 the sea rose over Chili for some leagues, leaving
ships, dry far inland ; in 1605 such a great wave swept away the greater part
of Areca. In 1687 Caliao was similarly overwhelmed, and ships were carried
from the roadstead a league into the country ; the shock of this earthquake was
felt by Wafer 150 leagues from the coast out at sea. He also saw at Santa,
three miles from Caliao, three rotting ships in a valley, where they had been
carried inland over a low intervening hill in 1687. In 1746, Caliao was
again swept away, and vast heaps of gravel and sand left where it stood;
large ships were thrown far inland by this wave. Lima has suffered in the
same way with Cavallos, Guanape, Chan^ay and Guara, and the valleys of
Barranea, Sape and Patevilca; when Penco was thus destroyed in 1751, a
similar but less wave reached Juan Fernandez and overwhelmed houses
along the shore.
Mr. Alison (Pro, Geol. Trans. 1835) describes similar waves of the earth-
quake of Chili of Feb. 1835 ; but it is unfortunate that no precise levellings or
sections were made of the land swept over in any of these cases, or observa-
tions of gravel boulders, &c. moved, which would have been highly important.
This dearth of facts is the more to be regretted, because our theoretical
knowledge is more perfect of liquid waves than of those of elasticity, as
respects this our subject, and observations of the effects in denudation, trans-
port, and effects on vegetable and animal life, producible by their agency,
would have important bearing upon other extensive regions of geology ;
and when facts and observations as to the precise effects produced by great
sea- waves shall hereafter have been collected, it may provide geologists with
a new instrument of investigation by which to trace upon many distant shores
the evidences of ancient earthquakes, whose (rt"igin was below the ocean^.
and of which no other record remains capable of being investigated.
In examining the many meagre notices of earthquakes which I have
had occasion to collate in reference to this Report, I have been struck in
several instances with notices of sudden recessions, and as sudden subse-
quent unusually high risings of the sea, in various places where there was no
account of any accompanying earthquake, either there or anywhere else at
the same time.
Thus of the Thames at London in 1762, and in 1767, of the sea at Malaga
and at Leghorn in 1774, and in several other tidal rivers and estuaries, small
but unusual fluctuations have been recorded ; some of these occurred in great
earthquake years, but there are no recorded shocks occurring anywhere at the
times given for these fluctuations.
I am disposed therefore not to attribute such to earthquake shocks at all,
but to the sudden slippage under water of large masses of submarine banks
of sand or mud. Where such banks accumulate in large masses, often, indeed
generally, with one steep side next deep water, the progress of accumula-
tion upon the top is equilibrated either by slow and gradual subsidation of the
whole mass, or by sudden and partial slippages into deep water of portions
of the mass ; such a circumstance occurring upon a very moderate scale
would be sufficient in a narrow estuary to produce a wave of translation
liable to be mistaken for the effect of an earthquake.
In thus examining in a more detailed and systematic manner than has
previously been done, the secondary effects of earthquakes, I have been
able, I trust, to cause the geologist to bear constantly in mind the broad
distinction between the great cosmical forces of permanent elevation
and depression, one of the secondary efforts of whose paroxj'smal efforts
is the production of earthquakes, and the secondary effects of earthquakes
m REPORT 1850.
themselves. The distinction is most important to the clear conception of
both. While to the former is reserved the mighty task of perpetually yet so
gradually (as on the whole not to interfere with the inhabitants of our globe)
lifting fresh land from beneath the ocean bed and dropping others below its
waves, so that the earth, which has already " waxed old as doth a garment,"
shall be renewed again and "changed like a vesture," and its fitness for the
support of man and animals ever preserved, the geologist becomes convinced
that as the volcano is itself but insignificant in all its results taken by them-
selves, when compared with the totality of the mighty cosmical law of which
it is at once the superficial index, and also the most striking evidence; so the
earthquake, great and formidable as are its effects upon man and upon his
works, is as nothing when compared with the enormous forces in whose throes
it receives its birth.
Yet as in our estimations of the united effects through time of the sum
of all the forces acting upon the surface of our planet, we are compelled to take
large account of those directly due to volcanic foci, active and extinct, so
the secondary phoenomena that we have pointed out and endeavoured to
systematize, produced by the transient yet violent passage, of the earthquake
shock, cannot be neglected in their continual and reiterated effects upon our
earth, but should form an element in all our attempts to estimate and explain
the past revolutions of its surface.
So far as our knowledge yet enables us to judge, the office of earthquakes,
the general resultant geological effect of their secondary action, is not one of
elevation but of depression, of degradation and of leveling, although always
probably preceded and accompanied by the proper forces of elevation to whose
action it is referable.
Perhaps the most remarkable of the secondary effects of earthquakes to a
remotely future supposable posterity, may be the prodigious mass of organic
remains of men and animals mingled with many of the least perishable of
man's works which will be found entombed in our existing, most recent, or
at least most superficial formations, when these may have become depressed,
heated, consolidated and altered in texture and re-elevated to become the
pleistocenes of future races of mankind. To estimate the numbers of men
only that have perished by eartiiquakes within the period of history is im-
possible ; thousands have repeatedly been in a few moments entombed ;
60,000 persons at Lisbon, 10,000 at Morocco, 40,000 in Calabria, 50,000 in
Syria, and probably 120,000 in the same country in the time of Tiberius and
Justin Elder, a.d. 19 and 526.
In the reign of Justinian earthquakes shook the whole Roman world re-
peatedly ; Constantinople shook for forty days ; an impulsive and vibratory
motion was felt, enormous chasms opened, huge and heavy bodies were dis-
charged into the air, and the sea advanced and retreated beyond its usual
margins ; a part of Libanus was thrown into the sea and became a mole for
Botrys in Phoenicia. At Antioch 250,000 persons perished. May 20, a.d.
526, and at Berytus all the students of civil law there collected, July, a.d.
551. (See Procopius, Agathias, and Theophanes, as quoted by Gibbon.)
On the 21st of July 365, in the second year of Valentinian, a fearful
earthquake shook almost the Avhole Roman w orld ; and the retreat and sub-
sequent rolling in of the great sea-wave of the Mediterranean is described
as tremendous, sweeping two miles inland and carrying ships over the tops
of houses, so that at Alexandria 50,000 persons lost their lives. (See Liba-
nius, Sozomen, Cedrenus and others, as quoted by Gibbon.) In the earth-
quake of Messina, 1692, 74,000 persons are said to have perished, some
accounts raising thenumber to 100,000 (Practical Reflections on Earthquakes,
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHaUAKE PHiENOMENA. 63
by John Shower, 1750, 8vo). In the year 602 a second earthquake of the
country about Antioch slew 60,000 persons, (Cluverius.)
In the earthquake in the province of Quito of 1797, notwithstanding the
thinness of the population, 40,000 natives are stated by Humboldt to have
been buried in crevasses or under the ruins of buildings, or drowned in lakes
or ponds temporarily formed. (Per. Nar. vol. ii. p. 237.)
Such are the numbers to be met with in narratives ; and if we suppose but
one great earthquake in three years over the whole earth, and that this in-
volves the entombment of only 10,000 human beings, and that such has been
the economy of our system for the last 4000 years, we shall have a number
representing above 13,000,000 of men thus suddenly swallowed up, with
countless bodies of animals of every lower class. Sir Charles Lyell then
with good reason suggests that even in our own time we may yet find the
remains of men and of their habitations and implements thus buried deep and
embalmed as it were, by earthquakes that occurred in the days of Moses and
the Ptolemies.
But such entombments extend also largely to the vegetable world ; masses
of vegetable matter, entangled beds of broken branches and leaves and single
trees, with all their peculiar insect and other inhabitants, have with man thus
found a common grave. And at the present moment, short as has been the
lapse of time, were excavations carefully made in the deep clay and sand of
the Calabrian plain, there can be no doubt but that evidence would be dis-
covered throwing much light upon the nature of those obscure processes by
which vegetable and animal forms are mineralized and preserved, and that
we should already find many of the trunks of trees buried in the sand,
converted into brown coal or lignite, and thus presenting us with an ex-
planation of that puzzling fact we so often see in the sandstones of our own
coal-measures, as for instance at Gascube Quarry near Glasgow, where in the
midst of perfectly clear undiscoloured beds of sandstone of enormous thick-
ness, we now and then find a trunk of a single tree buried and fossilized, but
bearing no traceable relation, either to the direction of the beds in which it
is found, or to any conceivable process of their deposition. How readily may
such facts be brought to bear upon the heterogeneous gathering together of
multitudes of forms, such as those of the- fish of Monte Bolca, at one spotl
and again, reflectively, the occurrence of such remains thus thrown together,
may become the indices to us, of the loci of ancient earthquakes, as erratic
blocks are assumed to be of ancient ice. Nor must the effects of great sea-
waves, in entombing beneath the sea in littoral deposits, the various natural
and artificial productions of the land, be overlooked. " The great sea wave,"
says Caldcleugh, " in its reflux brings everything to sea along with it." (Phil.
Trans. 1836, p. 21.)
Large however as thus would seem to be the gross effects of earthquake
action upon the organic world, they are probably insignificant in comparison
with the aggregate entombment even of man alone, due to the every-day
progress of accidental events ; and shipwrecks alone will probably disclose a
vaster mortality, "when the sea shall give up her dead," than all that have
perished by earthquake and its effects.
It only remains now for me to make a few observations upon the assumed and
presumable connections between astronomical and meteorological
PHENOMENA AND earthquakes; and first as to the former. Numerical
discussions of earthquake catalogues have been made by several persons, as
the Abbe Scina of Palermo, Von HoflT, Merian, Hoff'man, Cotte and Perrey,
for the purpose of discovering their frequency at any one particular period
of the year, or during the lapse of some centuries ; but always upon insuf-
64 REPORT — 1850.
ficient bases, generally confined to some one district, so that none of their
conclusions can be received as certain, or even very probable yet.
The three last of these authors come to the conclusion, that in the tropics
at least, the periods of the equinox are rich in earthquakes.
" Ideoque post austros noxii praecipue terrae niotus. Noctu Auster, interdiu
Aquilo vehementior Et autumno ac vere terrae crebrius
moventur, sicut fiunt fulmina Item noctu saepius quam
interdiu ; maxime auteni motus existunt matutini vespertinique : sed propinqua
luce crebri, interdiu autem circa meridiem. Fiunt et Solis Lunaeque defectu,
quoniam tempestates tunc sopiuntur. Praecipue vero cum sequitur imbrem
aestus, inibresve aestuni." — Plin. Hist. Nat., 1. ii. 49, 84. These, like many
of the opinions of the ancient learned upon similar questions, are but the ex
cathedra repetition of popular and ill-founded notions.
Perrey's large catalogue (Mem. Cour. des Scav. Etran. de Belgique, tom.
xix.) applies to central Europe or to the basins of the Rhine, Rhone, Danube,
and to France and Belgium, only, and extends from the9tli to the 19th cen-
turies.
As we purpose returning to this part of our subject upon an extended base,
it is scarcely worth while here to extract his tables, merely stating that his
general result shows a preponderance of earthquakes in the winter, i. e. in the
months of January, February and March, for the whole, which seems again con-
firmed by the discussion alone, of the results of the I7th, 18th and 19th centu-
ries, during which the accounts are more to be relied on than at remoter dates.
Perrey's Table, in which he seeks to deduce the resultant direction of
all shocks in a given region, and the intensity oi the shock, on the assumption
that this intensity is proportional to the number or reiteration of shocks at a
given point from one direction, is probably of doubtful value, from the more
than uncertain hypothesis on which it rests.
Ow the Influence of the Season of the Year and Time of Day upon Earth-
quakes. — Von Hoif remarks, " As we have already noticed, a dependence of
the earthquake upon the time of year has occasionally been supposed to have
been remarked. In the equinoctial regions earthquakes have been thought to
occur more frequently during the rainy season than at any other time of
year. Sometimes they have been supposed to be peculiar rather to the pe-
riod of the equinoxes, sometimes to the winter months ; with many other
similar opinions. Indeed examples are not wanting which appear to favour
such views ; as for instance, the observation, that of all the earthquakes
which occurred in Sicily from 1792 to 1831 (Hoffman in PoggendorfF's An-
nalen, b. xxiv. s. 52), double as many took place in March as in any of the
other months. Still however an almost more profound obscurity hangs over
the question, whether earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are more peculiar
to one time of the year or day than to another, than over the consideration
of the other connections of these phaenomena with those of the atmosphere.
This subject has also been treated of in an elaborate manner in another
paper on the causes of earthquakes (Memoire couronnee, Utrecht, 1820-28,
and enlarged, Leipzig, 1827-28) by Herr Kries, who has brought forward
instances in no small number, which prove that earthquakes, even of the
most violent kind, have occurred at every time of day and in every season
of the year."
" I myself (says Von HofF) have in another place (Poggendorff's Annalen,
b. xxxiv. (110) s. 99 f.) made the experiment of collecting and arranging
all the instances of earthquakes which occurred during ten years, in order
to find whether any one time of the day or year presented a greater
number of these phaenomena than the others. The result of these re-
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 65
searches however seems to be, that with respect to this relation of earth-
quakes also, no law can be laid down. We must con&ider it as an
established fact, that both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions may occur at
any time of the day or year, since experience has shown this with respect to
almost every time. The only question which remains on the subject is,
whether we can ascribe to any one or other season or time, a greater ten-
dency to produce or favour the production of such phsenomena. A mere
collection of facts, even though embracing a long period of time, would of
itself hardly supply an answer to this question ; since, in order to draw to-
lerably accurate conclusions from such a collection, many other circum-
stances would have to be taken into consideration. We ought not to content
ourselves with collecting and arranging a mere successive list of these phae-
nomena, but on the contrary, we should compare with one another only the
most considerable, and those which occurred in the same climate, with other
precautions of a similar nature. That, however, the motions (Bewegungen)
which are always going on, in the inner portions of the earth, are at certain
times much more energetic and more continuous than at others, numerous
examples testify. There have been periods of many years in which these
motions remained continuously violent and widely spread, as from 1666 to
1694, 1749 to 1768, &c. ; and others in which for several years they seldom
manifested themselves. On the whole, however, if it be probable that the
idea of any influence exercised by the atmosphere upon the volcanic process
should be considered as overturned, the opinion of the influence of the time
of day or year upon the occurrence of earthquakes, &c. will retain but little
probability." (Von Hoff, Gesch. Verand. Erdober, Th. iv.)
Seneca, ' Quaest. Nat.' vi. c. 1 ; a writer in the ' Annal. de Chim.' vol. xlii.
p. 416 ; Cotte, in ' Journ. de Phys.' for 1807, p. 161 ; and Hofl'man, ' Hin-
terlassene Werke,' Theil 11, have discussed the question as to whether earth-
quakes are more frequent at one season than at another. Kant, in his ' Phys.
Geogr.,' vol. ii. p. 199, thinks they occur chiefly in the spring and fall of the
year. Smith, in his 'Memoirs of Sicily,' p. 6, states, that thirteen earthquakes
occurred there betwixt the 10th of January and the 28th of the succeeding
March. Shaw, in his 'Travels in Barbary,' p. 152, comes to the conclusion
that they are most frequent there at the end of summer and in autumn. All
these however are observations on far too narrow a basis.
Hoffman, ' Hinterlassene Werke,' xi. 357, and Kries, ' Ursachen des Erd-
beben,' p. 8, have given a large catalogue of earthquakes during the Christian
epoch. Arago, in 'Annal. de Chim.' xlii. p. 409, has discussed the earth-
quakes of forty years at Palermo. Pouqueville has given a list of sixty-three
earthquakes at Joannina from 1807 to 1825. Cotte gives a list of 338
earthquakes in the 'Journ. de Phys.' for 1807. Hoffman has compared
these with the forty years' earthquakes of Palermo (Poggen. Annal. xxiv. 52,
and xxxiv. 104), and Von Hoff" (whose great 'Chronik der Erdbeben' has
never yet been fully discussed) has compared all these with those for the
years 1821 to 1830, occurring in the northern hemisphere. And Meriau
(' Uberdie in Basil Wahrgenommenen Erdbeben') has given a list of those oc-
curring at Basil. All these the author of the able article Erdbeben (L. F.
Kamtz) in the ' AUgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste,'
von Ersch und Gruber, Theil 36, has arranged in the following table by
mouths, adding the sum in another column : —
1850.
66
REPORT — 1850.
Month.
Cotte.
Hoffman.
Merian.
VonHoff.
Total.
January
February ....
March
April
May
June
July
August
September ...
October
November .. .
December .. .
24
25
23
26
16
28
42
34
25
38
22
35
4
5
13
4
1
6
4
6
6
2
4
2
12
14
6
5
11
3
7
8
12
11
14
15
31
36
31
29
33
33
20
31
24
41
26
34
71
80
73
64
61
70
73
79
67
92
66
86
And discussing these by the common seasons, the result shows, in —
Winter 237
Spring 198
Summer 222
Autumn 225
These approach so near to equality, that upon this limited induction there
is no ground for supposing one season more plentiful in earthquakes than
another.
This branch of the subject however cannot be deemed complete until
from the largest possible catalogue of earthquakes, extending over the whole
historical period, a similar deduction with suitable precautions shall have
been made.
A singular work, now very scarce, was published in 1729, by a professor
at Lima, entitled ' L'Horloge Astronomique des Tremblemens de Terre,' in
which he undertakes, from a discussion of 108 earthquakes occurring in
his own time, to predict that of their recurrence ; the period of tide and
state of the moon are the immediately influencing causes, according to him,
as well as the moon's place in the zodiac ; the critical time is confined to six
hours and some minutes of the horary circle, within which the moon is on
the meridian of the place ; and he says he has confirmed his results by 143
observations in 1729, and 70 in the subsequent year, which proved correct.
Mr. Edmonds, in the Cornwall Polytechnic Journal, has also endeavoured
to connect the occurrence of earthquakes with the period of the moon ; he
shows that several of the most disastrous have occurred the day after the first
quarter.
I mention these latter authors, not as attaching any importance to their
conclusions, but as showing to those who will consult the originals, the
wrong direction in which such researches have been made.
As respects observed direct connexion with meteorological phaenomena,
the following comprises most of the information to be had : —
1 St. The Weather generally.
Although in numberless accounts we read of peculiar appearances before
the earthquake, as red lurid skies, red and blue suns, &c., and during the
continuance of earthquakes, of strange appearances and threatening portents
in the sky, yet, judging from all the narratives of the best observers, there
seems to be no ground for supposing that there is an^ connexion between
ON THE PACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 6?
the state of weather or appearance of air and sky immediately before earth-
quakes.
In the south of Europe a general belief prevailed that calms, oppressive
heats and a misty atmosphere, were the usual preludes of earthquake. Ha-
milton says he found it a general observation in Calabria, " that before a
sheck the clouds seemed to be fixed and motionless, and that immediately
after a heavy shower of rain (during the earthquake), a shock quickly fol-
lowed." And in the Philippine Islands, De Guignes informs us that " a calm,
the sky gray and cloudy, the atmosphere heated and heavy, occasional gusts
of wind, and at intervals gentle showers of rain, are the prognostics by which
earthquakes are anticipated there." After recording a number- of vague
opinions held by the South Americans, as to the weather prognostics of
earthquakes, Humboldt says, " These are however very uncertain, and when
the whole of the meteorological variations at the times when the globe has
been most agitated are called to mind, it is found that violent shocks take
place equally in dry and in wet weather, when the coolest winds blow, or
during a dead and suffocating calm." (Humboldt, Per. Nar. vol. ii. p. 223.)
Again, the veteran philosopher says that " even in Italy this belief is dying
away;" and expresses his own conviction, strengthened by that of those who
have lived long in the great shaken countries of South America, that earth-
quakes are independent of the weather or appearance of the heavens imme-
diately before the shock. He says he has felt earthquakes when the air was
clear and a fresh east wind blowing, and also when there was rain and
thunder-storms ; and this has been very recently confirmed by the continuous
observations made at New Zealand during the earthquake of 1848, which
began in a gale of wind.
On the relation of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions generally to the
condition and phaenomena of the atmosphere. Von Hoff remarks ; " The
question, whether any relation or causal connexion exists between the various
movements of the earth and those occurring in the atmosphere, has for a
long time remained unanswered. The intimate connexion which subsists
between the earth and its atmosphere, and which manifests itself in so many
phaenomena, has always induced people to presuppose a similar connexion
between earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and the condition of the atmo-
sphere. They believed that the influence of the latter might be engaged in the
volcanic process, and that, on the other hand, earthquakes and volcanic erup-
tions might produce some effect on the condition of the atmosphere. The
proof of the first of these opinions, it has been thought, was to be found in
great falls of the barometer, in remarkable calms, in dry mists, and unusual
gray or red colouring of the sky, and especially in great heat.
" Amongst the effects supposed to be produced by the earthquake on the
atmosphere, were reckoned tempestuous winds, thunder-storms, meteors, cold-
ness of the air, severe winters, heavy rain, miasmata, producing diseases and
affecting vegetation. A very remarkable instance of the latter is quoted,
namely, that in Peru ; after the earthquake of 1687, wheat and barley would
not thrive at all, though formerly the country was remarkably favourable for
them.
" There can be no doubt that an answer to the question, whether a con-
nexion exists between these phaenomena of fixed terrestrial bodies and the
condition of the atmosphere, is of the greatest importance to a thorough
knowledge of both. But from the multifarious conditions which have here
to be taken into consideration, from their complication, and from the diffi-
culty of distinguishing, amongst many recurring at the same time, between
the indifferent and those which are really important, an extended series of
y 2
68 iiEPORT — 1850.
successive observations, made with the utmost care and circumspection, will
be required, in order even to approacli the object which is aimed at in re-
searches of this sort." (Von Hoff, Gesch, Erdober, Th. iv.)
2nd. Effects on Artimals.
Hamilton saj-s that during shocks, horses and oxen extended their legs
widely to avoid being thrown down (an evidence of the velocity of the
shocii), and that hogs, oxen, horses and mules, as also geese, appeared to
be painfully aware of the approach of the earthquake of Calabria ; and the
neighing of a horse, the braying of an ass, or the cackling of a goose, even
when he was making his survey, drove the people out of their temporary
sheds in expectation of a shock.
All birds appear sensible of its approach, but geese, swine, and dogs more
remarkably than any other animals ; the geese quit the waters before the
earthquake and will not return to it. Can it be that with their heads immersed
they are able to hear the first distant mutterings, while these are yet inaudible
to those who hear through the air, and not as in their case through a liquid ?
Von Hoff notices " a presentiment (vorgefiihl) which it was thought
had been remarked in particular species of animals shortly before an earth-
quake. Even men have sometimes, a short time before such occurrences,
felt a tendency to headache, giddiness (vertigo), and an inclination to
vomit.
" It has been remarked, that at such times domestic animals showed a
decided uneasiness, dogs howled mournfully, horses neighed in an unusual
manner, and poultry flew restlessly about. These latter phaenomena might
easily be produced by mephitic vapours, which often ascend to the surface
of the earth before the breaking forth of the earthquake."
The Cirricelli, (possibly our Sand-eels,) a little deep-water fish, like our
white bait, which usually lies buried in the sand, Hamilton says, " came up
to the surface with many others, and were caught in multitudes ;" this might
arise either from actual heat of the sea-bottom and water close to it, or from
its being fouled by the commotion or by exhalations into it ; or they may
have been startled by the vibrations, as trout are when one stamps violently
on a river bank.
There is unquestionable evidence of earthquake shocks (and not of great
intensity) producing nausea and vomiting in men and women ; sometimes,
as in a school at Philadelphia, numbers were so afl'ected, at the same instant
awakened from sleep by the shock ; whether this arise from sudden dread
produced by the unusual and fearful visitation, or be analogous to sea sick-
ness, has not yet been determined.
These few particulars constitute nearly all that has been observed of this
point of our subject.
Srd. The Barometer.
There does not seem to be any ground for supposing that the period of
occurrence of earthquakes is marked by any very remarkable rise or fall of
the barometer just before, nor certainly by any remarkable fluctuations
during the continuance ; on this the New Zealand observations are pecu-
liarly important, as during the days from the 7th to the 15th of October,
before the earthquake, the range of the barometer was fiom 28*97 to 29'25;
and during the remainder of that month, whilst there were continual shocks,
its limits were from 28*37 to 29*58 ; and during the immediate subsequent
period of eighteen days in November, free from shocks, the barometer re-
mained steadily at about 29\ inches ; the limits of variation being from
29-53 to 2910 only.
Humboldt (Relat. Hist.) has shown that the horary oscillations are not
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE I'H^NGMENA. 69
affected during or after earthquakes in South America; and Erman has
shown the same for Asia.
At the moment of the t\yo first shocks of the earthquake of Cumana of
1799, Humboldt says there was a strong electrical explosion at a great
height, and a few minutes before a violent blast of wind, succeeded by rain.
The barometer was a little lower than usual, but the progress of the horary
oscillations was in no way interrupted; the shock took place just at the mo-
ment the height was a minimum. (Per. Nar. vol. iii. p. 319.)
Cotte thinks the barometer rises during earthquakes. Hoffman (Pog-
gen. Annal. xxiv. 56) says it fell at Palermo.
It has been asserted, that at Cape Francois a water barometer fell 2^ inches
at the moment of the shock of 1770 ; this would correspond to about one-
fifth of an inch of mercury. No general or well-authenticated facts of falls
or rises of the barometer on such occasions could be traced however by
Humboldt, and if there be any, he is disposed to attribute them to evolutions
of gaseous matter from the shaken earth. (Per. Nar. vol. ii. p. 225.)
It however must be borne in mind, that at the moment of shock, if it have
any vertical element of motion whatever, some motion must be produced by
mere inertia, in the mercurial column, and this fact does not seem hitherto
to have met any attention from earthquake observers.
Von Hoff says, " Since the condition of the barometer on the occurrence
of an earthquake has been attentively observed, before, during, and after the
shock, both at the place where the earthquake took place and at others more
or less distant from it, these observations seem to convince us that no fixed
rule with respect to the behaviour of the barometer during an earthquake has
been up to the present time proved." There are examples of falls of the baro-
meter before or during earthquakes, and there are also instances of the mer-
curial column rising during similar occurrences, as well as others where
perfect absence of motion prevailed during very violent shocks. The same
observations have been made w.ith respect to volcanic eruptions. We are
indebted to Herr Kries (De Nexu inter Terrse Motus, &c. et Statum Atmo-
sphaerae,' Mem. cour. Leipsic, 1832) for an excellent memoir on these baro-
metrical changes, supported by numerous examples. As the view given by
him does not come down further than the year 1826, we add here some ex-
amples of more modern date, and also some not in Kries's collection.
Examples of Falls of the Barometer preceding Earthquakes.
1720, 1st July. — A great fall of the barometer tivo days before the earth-
quake in the Erzgebirge.
1744, 3rd June. — Before the earthquake in North America, the mercury fell
3 lines.
1826, 23rd 3\xae.—At the moment of the shock at Trient, there was a fall of
1 inch 3 lines.
1828, 29th January. — Immediately after the shock in the Swabian Alps, the
barometer fell 3 lines.
1828, 8th February. — At the same place, on the day following the earth-
quake, there was a fall of 3 lines.
1828, 23rd February. — Before the earthquake in Belgium, there was a very
great fall of the barometer through the whole of Germany and even
further. It rose however during the shock.
1828, 22nd March. — On the repeated shock, a much more widely-spread
low position of the mercury.
1830, 9th September. — On the occasion of the earthquake in the Swabian
70 REPORT — 1850.
Alps, the barometer fell 6 lines immediately after the shock, and in the
evening of the same day rose again 4 lines.
1834, 15th October During the earthquake in Hungary the barometer
fell 1 inch, as also in Vienna.
On the other hand, in the following examples the mercury had a high po-
sition or ascended : —
1683, 28th September. — During the earthquake at Oxford.
1822, 19th February. — During that in Savoy.
1825, 23rd December. — At Strasburg.
1828, 2nd February. — At the time of the very violent earthquake in Ischia.
1830, 23rd September. — In the Swabian Alps, the barometer reached its
lowest position in this month, 6 lines below the average. From the
22nd to the 23rd (the day of the earthquake, and consequently before
the shock), it suddenly rose 4- lines, and on the following day fell slowly.
1834, 2nd February. — In Silesia.
In the following instances the barometer remained perfectly quiet :—
1826, 26th March. — At Kremsraiinster.
1829, 26th November. — During the widely-extended, earthquake in Transyl-
vania and Russia.
1829, 30th November At Innspruck.
1834, 22nd March.— In Mexico.
1835, 20th February. — During the extremely violent earthquake in Chili.
1836, 9th May.— In Dalmatia.
Here therefore we find twelve instances in which, on the occurrence of
earthquakes, the barometer did not fall, against nine cases in which it did.
The number of these examples is doubtless very small as contrasted with
that of the earthquakes which occurred in the period of time from which
they are selected ; but they are the only ones which we have found in that
period, since in the accounts of the numerous remaining ones, nothing is
noticed with respect to the position of the barometer before, during, or after
the earthquake. Here also they are very much divided, and in this respect
can prove nothing, or at least can only confirm the fact, that, as already
mentioned, no more sufficient foundation as yet exists upon which to base a
law with respect to the behaviour of the barometer during earthquakes.
This is also proved by a very instructive comparative view of the position of
the barometer in fifty-seven earthquakes which have been observed at Pa-
lermo from 1792 to 1831, which we owe to Frederick Hoffman (Poggen-
dorff's Annal. Physik und Chimie, bd. xxiv. (100), s. 49-64), whom we
have already had occasion to make honourable mention of.
4th. The TJiermometer.
I can find few observations of this recorded. Those of the New Zealand
earthquake show no remarkable fluctuations of temperature either before or
during the earthquake. The range during the days from the 7th to the
15th of October, before the earthquake, was from 42° to 52° morning, and
48° to 62° night; and during the remainder of the same month of continual
earthquake, its range was from 45° to 62° morning, and 48° to 66° at night ;
while for the eighteen first days of November, the range in the morning was
from 48° to 64°, and in the evening from 56° to 73°. (West. Rev. July
1848.)
During the earthquake which took place in Piedmont in the year 1808,
the thermometer experienced a slight fall on the occurrence of each shock.
Von Hoff remarks, " Observations have as yet failed to lead us to any
rule, as to whether changes in the degree of warmth of the atmosphere
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PH^ENOMENA. Jl
have any connexion, whether close or not, with earthquakes and eruptions of
volcanoes. It has certainly been sometimes remarked that great heat has
preceded an earthquake, but there have been fully as many examples where
very violent earthquakes have occurred at all degrees of atmospheric tem-
perature, and at all seasons of the year; so that heat preceding an earth-
quake can by no means be considered as a regularly occurring phaenomenon ;
which likewise in the Avork of Herr Kries, already quoted, is clearly proved.
" It must also be admitted, on the other hand, that changes in atmospheric
temperature may be a consequence of earthquakes, since there are undoubted
instances where, after violent and widely-spread earthquakes, such changes
in the condition of the atmosphere, and especially in its temperature, have
manifested themselves, which may with probability be ascribed to the forces
which produced the earthquake, at least until some other cause for them be
observed.
" On the whole, it is more probable that earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and the whole of the fiery process carried on beneath the surface of the earth,
may exercise some influence on the atmosphere, than that the foregoing
phsenomena occurring in the atmosphere, react upon this process, which
belongs to the earth and manifests itself in such an energetic manner. In
all relations between this earth and its atmosphere, the former is to be con-
sidered as the principal (principale), and the latter only as its appendage
(accessorium). The atmosphere is the child of the earth and is supported
by it. Its influences do not extend beyond the actual surface of the earth,
but the internal operations (einwirkungen) of the latter appear solely to de-
termine the condition of the atmosphere, with the exception of the influence
which the sun and moon exercise upon it, which however with respect to
terrestrial bodies, at least as far as relates to meteorological phaenomena, is
only superficial. Of the great cosmical influences, as attraction and such
like, M'e naturally do not speak here."
On these observations of Von HoflT I would remark, that when we consider
the powerful effects in heating or cooling of the air which the earth's surface is
capable of, as manifested to our senses, in the oppressive feel and closeness,
&c. of an overcast or clouded summer night, when free radiation is greatly
impeded, or conversely, of the dew produced by the free radiation of the earth's
heat outwards, we readily perceive what great meteorological changes, in fog,
heat, vapour, rain, meteors, &c., may be producible by the local overheating
by only a fraction of a degree of a vast supravolcanic district of the earth
before, or during, or after an earthquake ; and thus violent perturbations of
season and weather, followed by pestilences and failures of crops, cease to be
wonderful, as doubly secondary efl^ects of earthquakes, especially within the
tropics, where the natural limits of every sort are so wide and so suddenly
passed into.
" It follows," says Dolomieu, " that the atmosphere is not so immediately
connected with the interior movements of the earth as has been so inces-
santly maintained, and it is probable that the tempests (in the Calabrian
earthquake) experienced in the Strait of Messina and in other parts of the
coast, may have been due to other causes." Perhaps so, but certain it is
that the earth acts far more energetically upon the atmosphere than the latter
can ever react upon the earth as respects earthquakes.
If several, or even but a few, surprising pheenomena once manifest them-
selves at the same time (or still more if this occur several times), or follow
close upon each other, the world is only too much disposed to look for a
connexion, or even a relation of cause and effect between them, so as to make
them forget the more commonly occurring events which accompany these
72 REPORT — 1850.
phaenoniena. Hence, perhaps, but a few instances in which earthquakes
followed great heat, sufficed to produce amongst the Greeks and Romans
the opinion that earthquakes occurred more rarely in the cold season of the
year than in the warm. How little this opinion of the older naturalists is
founded in reality, may be gathered from the fact that directly the contrary is
asserted and believed by those of more modern date, namely, that a greater
number of earthquakes happen in winter than in summer. In different coun-
tries also different opinions have been entertained on this subject, which per-
liaps always arose from some few, but great, and therefore striking phae-
nomena.
5 th. The Rain-gauge.
Torrents of rain have often been noticed as falling during earthquakes,
and they have also often begun in heavy rain, and sometimes have been
concluded with rain, and this has in each case often been accompanied
with thunder, lightning and wind ; but, on the other hand, so many earth-
quakes have occurred with serene skies, before, during, and after the shocks,
that we must conclude there is no necessary connexion established be-
tween them. I can find no numerical observations as to rain, in relation
to our subject, recorded.
As secondary effects after earthquakes, disturbances in the usual fall of
rain may be almost certainly anticipated in a degree greater as we approach
the volcanic centre ; but this branch of seisrao-meteorology is as yet un-
touched.
6th. 77i€ Electrometer.
Eandi observed a Volta-electrometer much agitated during the long-con-
tinued earthquake movements of Pignorol in 1808 (Journ. de Phys., t. xlvii.
p. 291.) ; but even were these experiments more copious and refined, it by no
means follows that agitations of instruments, at all times in activity, and
whose extraordinary activity at any moment may depend upon a passing
cloud, have any necessary connection with earthquakes.
" Thunder-storms," says Von Hoff, " have undoubtedly on some occasions
burst forth at the same time with earthquakes. Examples of this are to be
found in his Chronicle in the years 365, 1138, 1570, 1627, 1680, 1704,
1711, 1715, 1720, 1752, 1821, 1824, 1828. But how many earthquakes
took place during this lapse of time without the occurrence of storms, and
what innumerable storms to the production of which no earthquake contri-
buted!" (Gesch. Veran. Erdober, Th. iv.)
On the theory of probabilities only, it would be strange were it not so,
amidst the numbers of earthquakes of which some record exists.
But here again we are without any facts (to be truly so called) as respects
regions visited by earthquakes far beyond the range of the volcanic centres;
within these, or in proportion as they are approached, of course this, like
other atmospheric perturbations, may be expected.
7th. The Magnetometer.
Humboldt found, in the great earthquake of Cumana (4th Nov. 1799),
the declination and magnetic intensity unaffected, but to his surprise the dip
was diminished by 48 minutes. He had no ground to suppose an error.
With this solitary exception, in all the otiier earthquakes he experienced
on the high lands of Quito and Lima, all the magnetic elements remained
unaffected. (Relat. Hist., t. i. pp. 515, 517.)
These movements are of course totally different to those which have been
observed by Arago, Biot, and repeatedly at Dublin by Dr. Lloyd, in their
magnetic observatories, viz. oscillations suddenly affecting the magnetometers,
and most probably due to the transmission of very small impulses from
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 73
a distance through the earth, and having their origin in very distant earth-
quakes. Such raust have been the cause of the simultaneous movements
of the magnetometers of Arago at the Observatoire, and of Biot at the Col-
lege de France some years since. Indeed it was found that at the moment
a slight shock had been felt in Switzerland and southern France. Capocci,
Director of the Observatory at Naples, relates that at the eruption of Vesu-
vius of Jan. 1st, 1839, the declination-needle was moved. (Poggend. Annal.,
b. 1. p. 192; Coraptes Rendus, t. ix. p. 735.) It is questionable, however,
in all such cases, whether the motion be due to magnetism or to pulses com-
municated to the needle through the shaken ground ; and hence special in-
struments would be desirable, formed to make the distinction.
"In many instances," says Von HofF, "in which an opportunity of ob-
serving the magnetic needle during an earthquake has presented itself, an
alteration in its direction for the time has been observed. The usual peri-
odical oscillations (Abweichungs-Schwingungen) are quicker, or take place
in a different direction, or are altogether interrupted. It is only in very
modern times that great and regular attention has been devoted to the
observation of the magnetic needle ; consequently good observations of it
made during earthquakes are as yet but few in number. The suddenness
and unexpectedness of earthquake phsenomena certainly render it difficult to
obtain accurate observations made at the place where the earthquake occurs,
if even the necessary preparations for such observations should be ready,
which is to be expected from very few places. The greatest care and the
most perfect and accurate instruments also are required for magnetical ob-
servations made at the place of the earthquake ; the more especially since
the shock itself, in proportion to its violence, may mechanically put the
needle in motion, which motion is quite independent of that produced by
magnetism.
" More remarkable however are the changes in the direction of the dip- and
variation-needles, which take place at a distance from the place where the
earthquake was observed, and at a place where the shock itself is not per-
ceptible; as, for instance, in Paris, on the 19th of February and 31st of May
1822, simultaneously with an earthquake which occurred in Savoy and some
of the southern parts of France. If this observation should be established
by others carefully made, the existence could not be denied of a connexion
between terrestrial vulcanism (Erd-vulcanismus) and terrestrial magnetism."
(Gesch. Veran. Erdober, Th. iv.) It may be here remarked, that without
self-registering seismometers and magnetometers, any correct or sustained
observation of a connexion between these forces is impracticable.
8th. The Wind.
" The opinion, that surprising calms precede earthquakes, is also sup-
ported by some evidence, as in the earthquakes of 1704 in England, 1754<
in Asia Minor, 1759 at Aleppo, and several others noted. But, on the
other hand, earthquakes are sometimes preceded by high wind and tem-
pestuous weather; and with respect to this also no law can be laid down.
Violent storms, which raged at the same time with earthquakes, are men-
tioned as having occurred in the year 359 in Asia Minor; in 1703 at
Rome; J 827, 30th of November; 1828, 21st and 23rd of March; 1829,
13th of April. Storms burst forth immediately after earthquakes, in 893 in
India; 1703, at Abruzzo ; 1824, 26th of October; 1829, 23rd of April;
1833, 9th of October; 1836, 18th of November; 1837, 24th of January.
The few instances here adduced, laboriously sought for out of such a long
period of time, during which innumerable earthquakes occurred, at least
74 REPORT — 1850.
prove nothing in favour of a constant law with respect to any connexion
between these phaenomena." Such is Von HofF'8 view. (Gesch. Veran.
Erdober, Th. iv.)
9th. Meteors.
" A somewhat nearer connexion may be supposed to exist between earth-
quakes and phaenomena of this kind. These meteors belong to a class of
phaenomena proportionally seldom displayed by the atmosphere ; yet they
have been tolerably frequently observed to occur at the same time with
earthquakes. To this class belong the so-called globes of fire, and other
extraordinary lights and illuminations (Entziindungen) in the regions of the
air, which cannot be considered as belonging to the ordinary methods of
electrical discharge."
Such meteors have been observed to occur contemporaneously with earth-
quakes in the years 95 B.C., and a.d. 893, 1001, 1325, 1640, 1674, 1683,
1703, 1737, 1752, 1756, 1810, 1820, 1821, 1822, 1824, 1828, 1829, 1831,
1833 and 1835.
Humboldt states, that just before the great earthquake of Riobamba, a
great shower of meteors was seen at Quito (4th of Feb. 1797); that he was
informed at Cumana, that just before the earthquake of 1766 a similar dis-
play had been seen; and on the 11th of November 1799, he and Bonpland
witnessed such a phaenomenon in close connexion as to time with the earth-
quake which then afflicted Cumana. (Per. Nar., vol. iii. p. 331 ; Cosmos^
notes 44, 45.)
10th. The Aurora.
This phasnomenon, now so well ascertained to be in direct sympathy with
terrestrial magnetism, has been often observed before and after earthquakes;
I have found no instance in which it was remarked during an earthquake-
shock, but it might then easily escape observation.
On the 19th and 20th of October 1848, during the New Zealand earth-
quake, the aurora was very bright in the south-east (the direction nearly
towards which the shock travelled) ; but there was nothing to show any con-
nexion, in this or in any other case, with the forces concerned directly in the
shock.
If there be any real reaction upon the magnetometer for declination here-
after discovehed, as due to volcanic action, and not traceable to secondary,
electrical or other disturbance close to active vents (and nothing can
be more possible than that the sudden movement beneath of great masses of
fluid igneous rock, usually rich in iron, shall be found to have such reaction),
then it may dlso be found that the aurora, that most airy and evanescent of
all visible meteors, may have some direct, though probably slight relation to
the most tremendous agency that the mechanism of our planet possesses.
11th. Other Atttiospheric Pkcenomena.
Under this head Von Hoff has placed together some curious facts. " I
have already mentioned," says he, " that it seems to me more probable, that
the changes going on in the interior of the earth exercise some influence on
the atmosphere, than thai the latter should in any way influence that process
which seems to have its seat deep in the inner portions of the earth. As the
globes of fire before spoken of may have their origin in peculiar gaseous
exhalations, so it seems probable that other changes in the condition of the
atmosphere may be produced by these terrestrial forces. Indeed, alterations
in the ordinary state of the atmosphere have not unfrequently been remarked,
which ought not too boldly to be ascribed to the influence of the earthquake.
We have already noticed the observation, that the earthquake in Peru, in the
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKK PHiENOMENA. 75
year 1687, for a long time prevented the success of certain crops. There
have also been strange colourings of the heavens and unusual fogs noticed
as occurring at the same time with earthquakes; such as the unusual colour
of the sky at Lisbon on the 1st of November 1755, and the dry fog (Nebel),
which was so thick as to produce darkness, during the earthquake in Cala-
bria in 1783. Since observations upon phaenomena of this kind, made in
modern times, deserve more confidence than those which are preserved in
the older accounts, I do not consider it altogether superfluous to quote some
instances in modern times of remarkable conditions of the atmosphere existing
during earthquakes: —
" 1824', 12th August.— In Tuscany. The sun appeared as it were veiled, and
was more like the moon.
" 1824, 30th November. — In Martinique. After the earthquake, the tempe-
rature of the air (which before had been very high) fell very con-
siderably.
" 1825, 19th January. — At St. Maura. Extremely heavy showers succeeded
the earthquake, and lasted for several days.
" 1826, 23rd November. — In the Tyrol. The violent wind which had existed
before the earthquake, ceased during its continuance, and rose again
after its termination.
" 1827, 1st February. — In Naples. On the day of the earthquake, the air,
which before had been very cold, suddenly became pleasantly warm.
" 1827, 3rd June In Martinique. Rain immediately succeeded the earth-
quake, although none had fallen for sixty-six days before.
" 1828. — In Peru. The most unusual and extremely violent rain, lasting four
days, succeeded the earthquake in the district which had been most
severely visited by it, namely at Truxillo, Lambeyeque, Chiclaya, Puira,
and in the desert of Sechua.
" 1830, 8th February. — At Agram. A fog, having a very bad smell, spread
itself abroad, and lasted for three hours.
" 1831, 3rd December At Martinique. Heavy showers of rain fell after.
the earthquake.
" 1832, 18th October. — In Saxony. After the earthquake, the thick yellow
fog, which had existed there for several days, suddenly dissipated itself,
and the air, which before had been harsh, became mild.
" 1834, 4th October. — At Bologna. After the earthquake, the air became
suddenly cold.
" 1835, 27th October In the Pyrenees. During the earthquake there rose
clouds of hot air, which gave out a distinct smell of sulphur." (Von
Hoff, Gesch. Veran. Erdober, Th. iv.)
Further observations on this whole branch of our subject are imperatively
called for. Meanwhile we have provisionally concluded, with great proba-
bility, that earthquakes occur in all times, seasons and weathers, and have no
very immediate relation with meteorology, in the epochs just before and
during their occurrence.
But it is a very difi"erent question how far their occurrence or frequency
may be influenced, — 1st, by the climate; and 2nd, by the meteorological
conditions prevailing in a given large district for a considerable time before
their occurrence ; and again, a totally different inquiry is, what are the im-
mediate and remote reactions of earthquakes upon the climate and meteoro-
logy of the country affected.
It cannot be too often insisted on that earthquakes are not motive agents
of elevation and depression on the globe, for we find this confusion perpe-
tually, even in the highest authorities, such as Sir Charles Lyell, who fre-
76 REPORT — 1850.
quently alludes to " their upheaving or depressing force," and to land
elevated by them (Principles of Geol. pp. 4-31, 433, 435, 439, 689); but
whatever be the ultimate nature of the elevatory and depressive forces to
which earthquakes are due wlien in action, these forces manifest themselves
to us in the reaction of the inner portions of our planet, acting through their
exalted temperatures upon its outer crust. The term volcanic^re has been
so long used, and so loosely, and become so habitual, that its abuse has pro-
duced in almost every mind, a conception of chemical interchange of ele-
ments, of fire in its popular sense, in which something enters into combination
with something else and burns with a true combustion (like that of a metal
in chlorine, or of coal or wood in the air), as a true representation of
the heat of the inner portions of the earth, the external manifestations of
which we behold in the volcano. Yet nothing probably can be further
from the truth ; the main phaenomena of volcanic action, so far as we
know them, are those of ignition, up to liquefaction of solid bodies incapable
of any combustion; nor is there any evidence of this ignition being produced
or maintained by the consumption of a fuel, i.e. by chemical combination,
in which a body, or \)&vt of a body, before solid, becomes gaseous.
For as the explosive energy shown in volcanic eruptions is but the by-
play, and not of the same nature with the enormous and quietly-acting force
by whose (hydrostatic) action from beneath the great elevations are effected,
so are the local evidences of combustion at the crater of the volcano, but the
by-play also, and not of the nature of that rise of temperature up to ignition
Avithout the consumption of a fuel, which is the main phaenomenon.
In a word, let us not be dazzled by the glare of the volcano itself, grand,
and to us vast, as may seem its forces and their phaenomena, so as to confound
these, the true combustions, gaseous explosions, and all the other superficial
actions at the crater, with the mighty and quietly-acting forces deep below,
of which these are all but symptoms, and perhaps as slight ones, as some
cutaneous disorders are of deep-seated and all-pervading inflammatory
action in the human frame.
This error is not fallen into by the greater observers amongst continental
cosmologists : hear Von Hoff (Gesch. Veran. Erdober, Th. iv.) : —
" In the great mountain-chains of Europe there exists at present no vol-
canic energy. It seems to have ended by the great act of the upheaving of
these mountains, and since then to have been turned into other channels.
" The same seems to be true, at least for the most part, with respect to
the mountains of i^sia. Only some portions of the Andes are remarkable as
being continually affected by volcanic eruptions. Such are parts of Chili,
Quito, and Guatemala. Here we cannot avoid making the remark, that the
Andes pass along and close to the great Pacific ocean, whereas the great chains
of mountains of Europe and Asia constitute the inmost centre of great conti-
nents, whose whole condition of surface has been determined by them. This
is especially true with respect to Asia, and perhaps this want of volcanic
openings has been the reason of the upheaval of such a large extent of land.
" These volcanic springs are the outlets for the violent efforts of the sub-
terranean vulcanismal processes ; and it is remarkable that in countries where
there are these outlets, and especially where they exist in large numbers, the
inner forces never increase sufficiently in strength to upheave large tracts of
land, or to alter the character of the sea-bottom, whilst in places where
these outlets for the vapours and gases produced by the subterranean pro-
cesses are wanting, their concentrated force is able to upheave whole coun-
tries. Hence probably the neighbourhood of the sea to the most active vol-
canoes, of which by far the greater number are found on coasts and islands.
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PH^ENOMENA. 77
The opinion, that active volcanoes are only the outlets for these internal
workings, or as it were, the chimneys, not of particular fires scattered here
and there, but of enormous volcanic furnaces existing in the depths beneath,
has of late been distinctly enunciated by the most eminent geologists and
observers of volcanic phsenomena."
Again, hear Humboldt: — "It is only by considering these various rela-
tions under a general point of view, and following them on a large extent of
the surface of the globe, through formations of rocks the most different, that
we are led to abandon the supposition of trifling local causes, strata of
pyrites, or of coal set on fire." (Per, Nar. vol. iv. p. 47.)
Steffens, on the other hand, in his 'Geognostich. Geologische Aufsetze,'
p. 325, finds in such combustibles " the condition, sine qua non" of volcanic
action ; and it is strange how the same crude notion of the necessity for a
combustible besets almost every author down to the present day, forgetful
that cosmical fire needs no fuel, that the perpetual evolution of heat from
the interior of a planet (without anything being burnt away) is no more
wonderful, than (nay, is only in analogy with) the perpetual evolution of
light and heat from the fixed stars and sun, which no one supposes to be
flaming fires. See on this Humboldt in his ' Pers. Nar.' vol, i. p. 257.
The whole question of the chemical reactions, conjecturable as occurring
within the active volcanic foci, has been ably discussed by Gay-Lussac, in his
' Reflections sur Volcans,' in Annales de Chim. et de Phys. tom. xxii. p. 415,
which paper contains the germ of nearly everything that has been since ad-
vanced upon the subject, clearly and succinctly given.
Thus, then, ignorant as we are of all within the outer surface or skin of
our globe (and of how much of its exterior, for the ocean shrouds two-thirds
of it from our eyes !), we are compelled to see the close connexion of these
mighty heating powers in which ignition is present on the vastest scale, yet
without combustion, with the forces of terrestrial electricity and magnetisrn ;
forces which are those alone, that within range of our observation are mu-
tually convertible, and both convertible into heat.
Currents of both we know are ever passing with variable activity through
enormous volumes of the earth's crust, the different parts of which possess
very difi^erent conducting powers. Can it be that these currents, constrained
to pass through narrow and bad conductors, at vast depths, in some formations,
ignite them in their progress? Will it be found that the great lines of vol-
canic activity (as dreamed of by Bylandt) are in some way connected with
those of terrestrial magnetism ? are possibly normals to the surface curves
of equal magnetic intensity ? A glance at one of Gauss's magnetic maps,
and at another of the great bands of active volcanoes on our planet, almost
forces the mind into such conjectures.
If, then, as seems at least possible, there be a direct connexion (still more,
if this be one of cause and effect) between volcanic action and those forces of
electricity and magnetism whose cosmical relations we are just beginning to
get glimpses of; and if, again, these are modified and possibly determined in
their extent and laws of action by the astronomic motions of the earth, and
by its variable reception of heat from the sun, and dissipation thereof again
in the celestial spaces ; it must result that the volcano and the earthquake are
not independent of the laws which determine climate and regulate the vicis-
situdes, and the limits of perturbation, of the seasons.
It is perhaps the most wonderful circumstance in the history of our globe,
that its mightiest agencies interdepend, upon a balance so precise, that per-
turbations in any one of the forces, so small as to appear to us at first sight
perfectly insignificant, would, if continued or not corrected, be sufficient
totally to alter or disarrange the vast machine. We can prove this in some
78 REPORT — 1850.
degree in the exacter branches of cosmical science ; we can show it to be so
as respects the establishment of the tides, of the great currents of the ocean
and of the atmosphere, of the relations of land and water to climate, and of
the astronomical conditions of our planet to its mean temperature ; but as
yet we can only guess from their analogy, as to what and how great may be
the total effect, of perturbations of climate, and season, and weather, within
the limits known to us, upon the molecular forces acting beneath the surface
of the earth, upon which the great agency of elevation depends, and with it
the volcano and the earthquake.
But again, we may view it thus : granting that perturbations of climate,
season and weather, may not be the appointed agents in determining the
local play of the all-present force of elevation, may it not be that their dis-
turbance may be the sufficient and immediately anterior cause, of their being
brought into play within a given region, where before they were in equili-
brium, but nearly ready to break forth ; the last drop as it were to cause the
cup to flow over ?
To take (in our ignorance) a rude example ; suppose a widely-extended tract
of sea-bottom, beneath one portion of which, or of adjacent land, the ignited
or fluid materials of the inner earth have approached the surface by thin-
ning of the solid crust, or in a word, by any such play of forces as have
been well imagined by Mr. Babbage and Sir J. Herschel. Let this portion
be under the dry land ; and suppose the ordinary rise and fall of tide at the
place to be 15 feet or so, that by any of the combined causes which are
known to affect the local establishment of tides this becomes a 20-foot tide,
and that at the same time a rise of 2 inches of the barometer takes place
over the sea, and a corresponding fall over the land. The conspiring
effect of all this would be equivalent to a tide of about 80 feet in total
rise, brought at once to bear upon the already thinned crust of sea-
bottom ; this, taking the specific gravity of fluid and porous lava at about
2*0, being equal to a bed of this of 40 feet in thickness, or to a dead
pressure of nearly 20 tons per square yard, and acting over hundreds of
square miles of surface, it is conceivable that the combination of circum-
stances might at once bring on an active eruption and earthquake, felt far
away upon the land, which otherwise had reposed in safety on its molten
base. Compare Von Buch, ' Descript. des lies Canar.', Tp. 334, and Hoffman,
in Poggendorff"s Annalen, band xxiv. s. 8.
Nor yet may the changes in the organic world of life upon the earth be
without influence upon these, the most formidable forces that exhibit them-
selves in nature. Who has yet determined, for example, what meteorological
effect is produced, by the wonderful change that takes place during the year
in the vegetable covering, upon the surface of the plains of the Pampas,
where over thousands of square miles of country covered with scorched and
embrowned grass and lowly herbage, a forest of gigantic thistles grows up,
and in a few weeks makes the plain impassable for man or beast, and the
earth no longer reached by the sun's rays? What may be the co-exercitive
effect within the tropics of the changes of the vegetable world at the com-
mencement and end of the rainy season, at the vernal and autumnal equi-
noxes, and at the changes of the monsoons, at which times popular belief
has long asserted within the tropics some connexion with earthquake ? and
long-held popular belief usually contains some deformed truth, misinter-
preted and overlaid with a mass of error, but yet a truth within.
On this branch of our subject we literally know nothing; and in the obser-
vations upon it just concluded, 1 have been anxious rather to suggest the
directions in which future investigation may run, than to advance any con-
nected speculations where there is at present no certain basis for them.
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 'J9
But before quitting the region of conjecture, I would add a few words upon
the probable nature of that force, or mode of application of that force, upon
which the earthquake shock, the actual stroke, depends. We have seen
sufficiently that this force must be an impulse, it must be of the nature of a
blow, percussive ; hence it is not produced by the direct action of the elevatory
force itself, which acts slowly, liftingly (erhobenlich), as Humboldt says, and
hydrostatically. It may result occasionally from fractures, produced by the
steady pressure of this evenly acting agency, yet these cannot be the usual
or principal action, but only subordinate-
Now the almost universal succession of phaenomena recorded in earth-
quakes is, first a trembling, then a severe shock, or several in quick suc-
cession, and then a trembling, gradually but rapidly becoming insensible.
It would be possible to fill page after page with accounts of earthquake
shocks, which all ring the changes, on a tremor beginning gently and in-
creasing rapidly, then one or more violent shocks, like blows, and afterwards
a trembling again, gradually dying away, rarely indeed the shock first.
Thqs to take one example for all, from Dr. Patrick Russell's account of the
earthquake in Syria, on 25th November 1759: — "About half-an-hour after
seven at night the earthquake came on ; the motion at first was gently tre-
mulous, increasing by degrees until the vibrations became more distinct and
at the same time so strong as to shake the walls of the house with consi-
derable violence ; they again became more gentle, and thus changed alter-
nately several times during the shock, which lasted in all about two minutes."
In general the average of nunierous narratives seems to give from three
or four to fifteen seconds as the duration of the great shocks ; from two to
ten or fifteen minutes for that of the powerful vibratory shakings; and an
unlimited, or at least uncertain time, for slighter tremors afterwards. What
sort of impulse then will be competent to account for this general order of
succession ? I believe it will be foupd either in the sudden bringing into
contact under pressure of large ignited surfaces with cold water, or the
blowing, through and into, cold water, of volumes of ^team under pressure,
and this steam suddenly condensed therein.
When an irruptjon of igneous matter takes place beneath the sea-bottom,
the first action must be to open up large clefts or fissures in its rocky ma-
terial, or to lift and remove its incoherent portions, such as mud, gravel, &c.
The first portions of water that gain access thus to the ignited surfaces,
repelled by their heat, are brought into that peculiar state which Boutigny
and others have called spheroidal. While in this condition their intestine
motion may be great, but little steam is generated ; and while this is the
case, no impulses will ever be conveyed to a distance, but only those trem-
blings or vibrations which precede the shock, and which wjth wonderful
ftcuteness Aristotle calls ftpatrrai, ebullitions like those of a boiling caldron ;
but no sooner has the surface of lava become cooled to the point at which
repulsion ceases, and the water, altering its state, comes into close contact
with the heating surfaces, than a vast volurpe of steam is evolved explosively,
and, blown ofi' into the deep and cold water of the sea, is as instantly con-
densed ; and thus a blow or impulse (or several of these), of the most tre-
mendous sort, is given at the volcanic focus, and being transferred outwardly
in all directions, is transmitted as the earthquake shock ; but the surfaces
of ignited material, now cooled down below the point at which steam can
be generated rapidly, merely keep up a gentler ebullition, which is trans-
mitted as the trembling after the shock, dying away as the mass grows cold,
or again repeating all the phases, as the surfaces again become heated by
conduction from the fervid magazine in the interior of the lava mass.
Of course this may be endlessly varied. The first great blow may break
80 REPORT — 1850.
up and shatter the bottom, and scatter the molten matter, or may provide
the conditions for successive shocks; but the above seems to account for the
general facts.
Again, if the eruption occur under land communicating with the sea by-
rents and fissures, and steam be generated therein, or be blown continuously
for a longer or shorter time from them into the sea-water, its unequal and
per saltum condensation under pressure, will produce all that trembling and
repercussion, which, transmitted, will form the earthquake. The phsenomena of
fluids in the spheroidal state, first systematized by Boutigny, though observed
in part long before, seem to remove the great difficulty that Gay-Lussac
found in admitting the possibility, of access of sea-water to volcanic vents,
viz. that it could not gain access against a pressure capable of sustaining co-
lumns of fluid lava 7000 or 8000 feet deep. Let us now remember that
water and white-hot lava might be stirred up together in a huge caldron,
as one would shake oil and water together, and there would be no repulsion,
no explosions, until the lava had cooled down nearly to blackness, when the
whole mass would be suddenly and with explosion shattered into fragments
from the steam evolved in all its cells. Compare Dolomieu, ' Descr. Calab.
Earthquake.'
I do not regard these views as wholly conjectural. I conceive the facts
known are sufficient to enable us to say, that they are a true, though pro-
bably most incomplete statement of the operations in nature; and it is
remarkable, that not only that most accurate observer, Aristotle, was struck
with the similarity of the sound and trembling motion to the ebullition of
steam in water, but we have seen a long-practised observer compare his
experience of South American earthquake sounds and shocks to the blowing
of steam through the tender of a locomotive engine ; and that some have
compared the first noise of the coming shock to that of a large piece of red-
hot iron quenched in cold water; while Mrs. Maria Graham, in her account
of the earthquake at Chili, in 1822 (Geol. Trans. 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 414),
says she felt "a general tremor and a sound like that of vapour bursting
out, similar to the tremor and sound which she remembered to have observed
at each jet of fire while standing on the cone of Vesuvius during the erup-
tion of 1818."
Briefly, then, it seems to me, that, however modified, the immediate im-
pulses producing earth-waves of shock are due —
1st. To the sudden formation of steam from water previously in a state of
repulsion from the heating surfaces, (spheroidal state) and which may
or may not be again suddenly condensed under pressure of sea-water.
2nd. To the evolution of steam through fissures, and its irregular and
per saltum condensation under pressure of sea-water.
3rd. To great fractures and dislocations in the rocky crust, suddenly
produced by pressure acting on it from beneath, or in any other
direction.
4th. Occasionally, but rarely, to the recoil from mighty explosive eflTects
at volcanic foci, as when a mass of rock weighing 200 tons was shot
from the crater of Cotopaxi to the distance of nine miles (Humboldt),
or when nearly one-half of the crater of Vesuvius was blown away.
In such cases the shock from recoil must have been far greater than upon
any occasions when powder magazines have been blown up. Yet during the
last century, when a powder-mill at Walthani- abbey exploded, the inha-
bitants of districts so far removed as not to know the true nature of the case,
felt the shock, and had their furniture and houses, &c. so shaken, as to conclude
that it was the shock of an earthquake due to natural causes. (Annual Reg.)
And numerous instances will be found in the pages of the ' Gent. Mag.' of
ON THE FACTS OP EARTHaUAftE PHENOMENA. 81
explosions of powder being first recorded as earthquakes, and, subsequently,
the shock ascribed to the true cause ; for example, the blowing up of the
Amphion frigate at Portsmouth about the end of last century, was taken for
an earthquake over all the south of England. On occasion of the explosion
of the powder-mills at Hounslow this year, 1850, it was stated in the papers
that the shocks, corresponding in number to the explosions (three in all),
were distinctly felt at Sussex, a distance of between 50 and 60 miles from
Hounslow ; and at Petworth, ^O miles off, the people ran out of their houses,
supposing it to be an earthquake ; yet here the weight of powder fired was not
very large. The same circumstances were remarked when the great Spanish
powder magazine was purposely blown up during Sir John Moore's retreat,
said to have contained 1500 barrels of powder; it was felt as an undulation
of the ground for miles away ; and again, in a less degree, when early in last
century one of the great lintel stones of Stonehenge fell down upon the
ground, it was felt all over Wiltshire, and thought at first to have been an
earthquake. In fact all these were earthquakes, though not originating in
natural causes*.
Finally, it remains to make a few remarks upon the directions in which it
is desirable that earthquake inquiries should be in future extended, and what
are the chief desiderata of the subject. In the article drawn up for the Ad-
miralty Scientific Manual, and published in that volume, on the observation
of earthquake phaenomena, the general character and classification of earth-
quake observations will be found, and to this I refer.
But altogether the most valuable and important additions that this branch
of physics can now receive, must come —
1st. From a large and careful determination of the moduli of elasticity
of rocks and of the other substances forming our geological forma-
tions, and of the changes due to increase of temperature, upon such
moduli.
2nd. From systematic and connected observations of the direction, di-
mensions, and other conditions of earthquake shocks or waves by self-
registering instruments suitably placed in countries which are subject
to very frequent shocks.
3rd. From the co-ordination and comparison of such self-registered ob-
servations, with those of self-registering meteorological and magnetic
instruments.
These observations must be continued for a considerable period, and those
at distant points of observation must be in connexion as to time, &c. The
island of Zante, as being almost hourly shaken by earthquakes, almost all of
which are of a manageable degree of force, and capable of exact registration,
would be an excellent station for a first trial of such instruments, in con-
nexion with some other Mediterranean station; but when a complete self-
registering seismometer shall have been constructed, it would be most de-
sirable that every astronomical and magnetic observatory on the globe
should be furnished with one, and this kept constantly in action, and its indi-
cations systematically recorded in connexion with those of meteorology,
electricity, &c.
I have' to regret that in the latest edition of his work on volcanoes. Dr.
Daubeny has discouraged the employment of such instruments, by an ob-
* While these sheets have been passing through the press, an explosion of Eome tons of
gunpowder, effected at Seaford on the south coast of England, for the purpose of removing
seaward a large mass of chalk cliff, produced so real an earthquake, that a chimney was
thrown down in an adjacent village, and houses shook at a distance of three miles, yet no
sound or shock was transmitted through the air. — See ' Times,' Sept. 1850.
1850. G
82 REPORT — 1850.
jection to that which I have proposed, namely the supposed difficulty of keep-
ing a galvanic battery constantly in action to ensure that of the seismometer.
One would have tliought that the thousands of miles of electric telegraph
now kept in hourly activity, would have shown the groundlessness of such
an objection.
The observations heretofore made with seismometers, constructed on the
solid pendulum principle, are worthless, by tiie nature of tlie instrument, even
if they were not much too few and too ill-connected to be of any service.
A seismometer must give the direction of emergence of the earth-wave at the
station, the time occupied by the passage of the wave, and the form of its
crest, i.e. its altitude and amplitude. The transit velocity at the station
must for the present be assumed as that due to the modulus of elasticity of
the formation upon which the instrument stands.
Upon this subject I would refer to my memoir on a self-registering seis-
mometer, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad, for 184-0.
It has been objected to the value of determinations of elastic moduli as
respects our subject, that they will only give us information as to the purely
superficial substances of tiie earth's crust. This is however not a valid ob-
jection. The Belgian coal-measures dip as far below the sea-level as Chim-
borazo rises above it, so tliat it is in our power to get measures of the
elasticity of formations extending in actual depth to j-i-y of the earth's radius,
and by obtaining a series of moduli for the same rock, descending in depth,
to get the law of its variation, and so to arrive at conclusions as to rocks
which we can never see or examine by tlie senses ; and again, it is not phi-
losophic to refuse to investigate to the depth we may, because we are limited
to a certain depth ; to refuse the aid, as Locke says, of the sounding-line,
because we cannot always strike the bottom with it.
To be truly serviceable however to the physical geologist, the elastic mo-
dulus of any given rock should be ascertained in the three directions as it
lies in situ, of dej)th, breadth, and length. Those desirous of entering more
fully into this part of the matter, I refer to the Rev. W. Haughton's Memoirs
on Elastic wave Motions (Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. 1849).
Direct experiments for admeasurement of the transit rate of elastic waves
in the solids of the earth's crust, and especially through its loose and inco-
herent formations, clay, gravel, sand, &c., are of great value to this inquiry,
and may be made by the explosion of small quantities of gunpowder in a
suitable manner.
These investigations, involving expensive instruments and the devotion of
much time and conjoint labour, can only be attempted with the aids and
support that bodies such as the British Association can bestow ; and probably
no laranch of cosmical science would better reward efforts judiciously made
to advance it, a reward which would not be confined to geology, but would
enrich many other departments of physics and natural science.
I have now concluded the Report upon the facts of earthquakes, so far as
time and other avocations would permit, but I do not view the subject as
completed.
In a second part of the present Report, therefore, I hope, with permission
of the British Association, to present-—
1st. A complete catalogue or chronology of earthquakes from the earliest
times to the present day, discussed with reference to time and to distri-
bution over the eartli's surface.
2nd. Earthquake maps founded upon this discussion.
3rd. As complete a bibliography of earthquake literature as I have been
able to collect.
ON THE PACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 83
^th. An account of my own experimental admeasurements, now in pro-
gress, of the rate of earthquake-wave transit through some of the rocky
and incoherent formations of the earth's surface.
Sth. An account of the progress made in the construction of a self-regis-
tering seismometer, with the aid of the British Association.
NOTE (page 8).
The obscurity of some passages in the original and the extreme difficulty
of grasping the meaning of the author almost throughout, with other reasons,
have made it appear desirable to subjoin a veiy literal translation of the
passages of Aristotle quoted in the text.
The Greek seems unquestionably corrupt in two or three instances. The
text is from the Oxford Edition of 1837, in 9 vols. 8vo, an amended reprint
from Becher.
" The shakings and movements of the earth are next to be spoken of. For the
cause of this affection of the earth is closely connected with what we have been
treating of (namely, the wind).
" Three theories on the subject have been handed down to us by three different
persons ; namely, Anaxagoras of Klazoraene, before him Anaximenes the Milesian,
and later than these Democritus of Abdera.
" Anaxagoras says that the aether by nature rises upward, but that when it falls
into hollow places in the lower parts of the earth, it moves it (the earth) ; because
the parts above are cemented or closed up by rain, all parts being by nature equally
spongy or full of cavities, both those which are above (where we live) and those
which are below. Of this opinion it may perhaps be unnecessary to say anything,
as being foolish ; for it is absurd to suppose that things would thus exist above and
beneath, and that the parts of bodies which have weight would not on every side be
borne to the earth, and those which are light, and fire rise ; especially since we see
the surface of the earth to be convex and spherical, the horizon constantly changing
as we change our place, at least as far as we know. And it is also foolish to assert
on the one hand that it remains in the air on account of its great size, and on the
other to say that it is shaken when struck from beneath upwards. And besides
these objections, it is to be remarked that he has not treated of the attendant cir-
cumstances of earthquakes, for neither every time or place is subject to these coii-
vuisions.
" But Democritus says, that the earth being full of water, and receiving much
also by means of rain, is moved by this. For when the water increases in bulk, be-
cause the cavities cannot contain it, in its struggles it causes an earthquake. And
when the earth becomes partially dried up, the water being drawn from the full
reservoirs into those which are empty, in passing from one to the other, by its
movements it causes an earthquake also.
" Anaximenes, however, says that the earth when parched up and again moistened,
cracks; and by the masses thus broken off falling on it, is shaken; wherefore
earthquakes occur in droughts and again in times of rain ; in droughts, because, as
we have said, it cracks when highly dried, and then when moistened over again it
cracks and falls to pieces. Were this the case, however, the earth ought to appear
in many places subsiding. Why then is it that hitherto many places have been
very, subject to these convulsions which do not present any such remarkable differ-
ences from others ? Yet such ought to be the case. And moreover those who think
thus must assert that earthquakes constantly become less and less, and at last cease
altogether. For the continual condensation of the earth would cause this. Where-
fore if this be not the fact, it is plain that this is not the correct explanation."
g2
84 REPORT — 1850.
" But since it is manifest that exhalations must arise both from moist and dry
places, when this is the case, earthquakes must necessarily occur. For the earth itself
is by nature dry, but receiving much moisture on account of rain, when it is heated
both by the sun and also by the fire which burns within itself, a great quantity of
vapour must be produced both inside and outside of itself, and sometimes the
whole of this flows uniformly inwards, sometimes outwards, and sometimes it is
divided.
" If this then be necessarily so, the next point to consider is, what kind of bodies
is most easily moved. But it is inevitable that what can go the greatest distance
and what is most vehement should be specially of this nature. Therefore the most
vehement is of necessity that which is borne along most rapidly, for it strikes with
greatest violence on account of its velocity. For that naturally moves over the
greatest space which can most easily move through everything, and such is the pro-
perty of that which is most subtle. Wherefore since this is the nature of wind, it
of all bodies is the most mobile. For fire, when it occurs along with wind, causes
flame, and is rapidly borne along. Therefore neither water nor earth is the cause of
earthquakes, but the exhalation of wind, when having flowed inwardly it has
chanced to be exhaled outwardly.
" Therefore the greater number of earthquakes and the most violent ones have
taken place during calms ; for the exhalation being uniform, follows for the most part
the impetus of its commencement, wherefore either all flows inwards together or all
outwards. But that some earthquakes should take place during a wind is nothing un-
reasonable, since we sometimes see several winds blowing at the same time, of which,
if one be borne into the earth, there will be an earthquake while the wind is still
blowing. But these are of less magnitude, since their origin and cause are divided.
" But earthquakes are also more numerous and greater in the night, and, of those
in tlie day, about the middle of the day. For the middle of the day is in general
the calmest part of it. [For when the sun has most power it keeps the exhalations
bound in the earth, and it has most power in the middle of the day.] And the
nights are even calmer than the days, on account of the absence of the sun, so that
then the flow of wind is again inward, as if a regurgitation in an opposite direction
to that in which the effusion took place ; and this especially towards dawn, when
the winds usually begin to blow. If therefore the origin (or direction r) of them
shall be changed within, as at Euripus, on account of their great mass the earth-
quake will be the more violent.
" Earthquakes also seem to have been most violent about such places as are loose
and full of cavities, and where the sea has many tides. Such are the places about
the Hellespont, and Achaia, and Sicilia, and Eubcea, for about these places the sea
seems to flow beneath the earth on account of the narrowness of the passage. For
the same reason the hot baths near CEdipus were formed.
" Near all these places which we have mentioned the earthquakes are very violent
on account of the narrowness ; for the wind being rendered violent on account of
the great mass of the sea, which is borne to the land in great quantity, is repelled
again back upon the earth, though naturally it should blow out from the earth.
And thus those countries, the earth below which is spongy and therefore capable
of containing much vapour, are more violently shaken.
" In spring and autumn also the greatest earthquakes take place, both during
drought and rain ; but the winter and summer, the one by its cold, and the other
by its droughts, produce immobility, for the one is too cold, and the other too dry.
But even in droughts the air contains vapour (jTvevfiaTa>hr)s ea-rl), for this is a drought
when more dry than moist exhalations are produced. But during rain the wind
causes a greater amount of exhalation within, and by this kind of secretion (djrd-
Kpia-Lv) being intercepted in narrower places, and the same mass being driven into a
smaller space, the hollow places of the earth being full of water ; when it begins to
have power, on account of a great mass being forced into a small space, the wind
moving and striking produces violent motion.
" For it is necessary to be understood, that as in our bodies the force of the wind
which is intercepted is the cause of tremors and throbbings, so also the wind pro-
duces similar effects in the earth, and one earthquake appears like a tremor and
another hke a throb. And as it often happens after a discharge of water (for then a
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 85
certain tremor is produced through the body, when a quantity of wind is necessarily
transferred in a mass fiom without inwards), so also it happens with the earth.
" Such strength has the wind that we need not look for it only in the effects which
it produces in the atmosphere (for there, on account of its great magnitude, any one
would presuppose that it could do such great things), but also in the bodies of ani-
mals. For spasms and convulsions are some of the other motions produced bj' wind,
and such strength have they, that many people, at once trying to restrain the move-
ments of the person afflicted, are unable to do so.
" So also we must suppose it happens in the earth, to compare a great thing with
a small.
" Several signs of it also have taken place under our own observation. For in
several places, when an earthquake has taken place, it has not stopped until the
wind which caused it burst forth like a storm upon the part of the earth above. This
happened in the earthquake which took place lately about Heracleia in Pontus, and
formerly in the island Hiera, which is one of those called the yEolian Isles. For
in this island a part of the earth swelled, and rose like a hill, the motion being ac-
companied by noise, until at length rending, much wind came forth, and threw up
cinders and fine ashes, which burnt the whole city of the Jjiparasi, which was not
far off, and reached even to some of the cities of Italy ; and where the swelling took
place is visible to the present daj'. For this is to be supposed to be the cause of this
fire produced in the earth, that when cut off it burned, the air being first divided into
small particles (? Greek) .
" But an infallible sign that winds flow beneath the earth, is afforded by that
which takes place with respect to these islands. For when the south wind is about
to blow, it is known beforehand by particular signs, for noises are heard at those
places from which the eruptions take place ; because the sea being forced forwards
already from a distance is again repelled from the land where it happens to come
upon it, by the eruptive force. But it produces a sound without a shock on account
of the great size of the place (for the sea is poured into an immense space without),
and also the small quantity of the repelling air.
" Besides these signs, the sun becoming dull and obscure though without clouds,
and calms and great cold before earthquakes happening in the morning, are signs of
the cause we have been speaking of. For it is a necessary consequence of the wind
(which dissolves and separates the air) beginning to return into the earth, that the
sun should be obscured and gloomy, and that in the morning, towards dawn, there
should be much cold and calmness. For it is necessary that the calmness should
for the most part happen when the wind returns inwards, as we have said before,
and more so before the greater earthquakes, for then that which is within and that
which is without are not separated, but the whole being borne along, it necessarily
produces great effects.
" But the cold happens, because the exhalation, which is in itself of a warm na-
ture, now goes inwards. But the winds do not seem to be warm, because they move
the air which is full of cold vapour, in the same way as the air which is breathed
through our mouths. For that which is near is warm, as when we exhale, but on
account of its small quantity it is not equally manifest ; but that which is at a di-
stance is cold, for the same reason as the winds. Such force therefore being wanting
in the earth, the vaporous emanations coming together, on account of the moisture,
produce cold in the places which are thus affected.
" The same is the reason of a phaenomenon which generally occurs before an
earthquake, namely, that either during the day or a little after sunset, the weather
being quite serene, a little cloud appears, narrow and stretched out to a great length,
and quite straight, the wind being weak on account of its change of place. For the
same takes place in the sea round the coast ; for when rising in large waves it is
flung in upon the shore, deep and irregular ripple-marks are produced, but when
it is calm, less effects are produced, and these are small and straight. What then
the sea does on the coast, the wind does on the cloud which is in the air, so that
when there is a calm the cloud is left altogether straight and narrow, being as it
were a ripple-mark in the air.
" For the same reason also earthquakes often happen about the time of eclipses
of the moon. For when now the interposition is near, and the light and heat derived
86 REPORT — 1850.
from the sun are not entirely removed from the air, but just decreasing, a calm
takes place, the wind returning again into the earth, which causes the earthquake
before the eclipse. For winds also often happen before eclipses, blowing in the
beginning of the night before those which take place in the middle of the night, and
in the middle of the night before those which happen in the morning. This occurs
because the heat diminishes which is derived (rom the moon, when now the path
((popa) is near in which the eclipse takes place. That therefore being removed which
detained the air and rendered it calm, the wind is again put in motion, and blows
previous to the eclipse. But when a violent earthquake has taken place, the shocks do
not cease suddenly and at once, but in the first instance they often continue for forty
days, aud after that are in force for one or even two years in the same place. But the
cause of the greatness of the earthquake is the great amount of wind and the con-
figuration of the places through which it flows, for where it is repelled and cannot
easily pass through, there it produces the greatest shocks, being retained in narrow
places like water, not being able to pass through. Wherefore, as in the body throb-
bing pulsations do not cease suddenly and immediately, but gradually, as the malady
spends itself, so also it is with the beginning of the exhalation and the original im-
petus of the wind ; for it is manifest that the material is not at once consumed from
which the wind is produced which we call an earthquake.
" Until therefore the remains of this be consumed, the shocks must necessarily
continue, but continually becoming less and less until the exhalation is too slight to
produce any perceptible shock.
" But the wind also produces those noises under ground which are heard before
earthquakes. And in some places subterranean noises are heard unaccompanied by
earthquakes, for as the air by being struck produces every kind of sound, so it does
also when it is itself the striking agent, for it makes no difference, since when it strikes
against any object, it is itself stricken. But the sound comes before the shock be-
cause it consists of more subtle parts, and can therefore penetrate through every-
thing better than wind.
" But when it is unable to move the earth, it is on account of its subtlety, which
enables it to pass through without moving it. But when it strikes against bodies
whether solid or hollow or of whatever figure, it produces every species of sound, so
that the earth often appears, as those who utter portents say, to bellow.
" Water also is often thrown out during earthquakes. But we are not to conclude
from this that water is the cause of earthquakes, for whether it be on the surface or
below, the wind it is which supplies the force, which is the moving power, as the
winds are of the waves, and not the waves the cause of the winds. Since else any
one might attribute this convulsion to the earth itself, for when shaken it is over-
turned like water (for pouring out is a sort of overturning) . But both these causes are
causes as matter is (passive not active causes), but the wind is as an inceptive cause.
" But when a wave occurs at the same time with an earthquake, it is owing to
two winds acting in opposite directions. But this happens when the wind which is
agitating the earth cannot altogether repel the sea which is borne along by another
wind, but propelling and driving it together, it collects a large body of water. Then
when this wind is overcome, it necessarily follows that a great impetus is given to
the opposing wind, and a deluge is produced. And this took place in Achaia, for
without the south wind was blowing, but there the north ; but a calm taking place,
and the wind flowing inwards, a wave was produced, and an earthquake at the same
time, and the rather because the sea did not give an outlet to the wind acting under
the eaith, but opposed an obstacle to its egress. For of the two forces in action,
the wind produced the earthquake, and the remains (iinocrTaa-is t) of the wave the
inundation.
" Earthquakes arc covfined to particular parts of the earth, and often to a small
part ; but the. irinds are not so. But they are so when t/ie exhalations vMch are in the
place itself and the neighhoiiring jilace, Jioio together, since the rains and droughts are
so too, as we have before said, and the earthquakes take place in this manner, the winds
do not. For these have their origin in the earth, so thai they all flow toget/ier into one.
But the sun has not a similar power, but the lofty exhalations rather so as to flow into
one, when they receive an impetus from the path ((popa) of the sun (? Greek).
" When a great deal of wind is present, it shakes the earth, producing a sort of
ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHiENOMENA. 87
tremor sideways, but it occasionally and in some few places happens that it appears
like a violent throbbing from below upwards. This seldom occurs, for it is not easy
for much motive power to be collected in this way, for there is a much greater evo-
lution of this sideways than upwards. When such an earthquake takes place, a
multitude of stones are thrown up as if shaken up in a sieve. It was by an earth-
quake of this sort that the parts about Sipylos were overthrown, and the plain called
Phlegreean, and the Ligurian country.
" But in islands far out to sea, earthquakes are less felt than in those which are
near shore. For the great mass of the sea cools the exhalations and keeps them
down by its force and weight. And besides, the sea is in constant motion, and is
not shaken, overcome by the winds. And because it occupies a great space, the ex-
halations are not produced into, but out of this, and those which are produced in
the earth follow these.
" But those islands which are close to the main land are in fact part of it, for the
intervening water on account of its small size has no force. But islands far at sea
cannot be moved but with the whole sea which surrounds them.
" Concerning earthquakes therefore, and their nature, and causes, and all other
circumstances concerning them, we have here treated of the principal things." —
Arist. Meteor., Lib. II. cap. 7-8.
" It often happens, however, that a similar wind, hidden in the earth, when these
(i. e. means of exit) are absent, when it has insinuated itself into hollow places and
dark passages in the earth, as if breaking out from its proper resting-places, pro-
duces a vibratory motion in many places round.
" And it often happens that when much wind from without has got into these hol-
lows, all means of exit being cutoff, in turning itself within it shakes the earth with
immense force, in vain seeking a place of exit, from which arises that convulsion of
nature which we call an earthquake,
" But those earthquakes which shake the earth obUquely at an acute angle are
called ' Epiclintse,' as acting in a transverse direction.
" But those which toss the earth up and down at a right angle are called
' Brastas,' from their likeness to the motion of boiling water.
" But when the sinking of the ground leaves hollows in its subsidence, they are
called ' Chasmatias,' from their gaping.
" But those which produce chasms by an eruption are called ' Rhectae,' that is
breakers forth. Now some of these in their eruption carry forth blasts of wind,
others stones, others mud. There are some also which produce springs where
before they did not exist.
"Those are called ' Ostse' which with one thrust overturn what they move.
" But those which with much shaking, and inclining, and vibrating to either side,
always throw the objects they shake upright again, are called ' Palmatix,' that is
vibratory, as producing an atfection very like a tremor." — Arist., De Miindo. cap. 4.
A mere regard for the verbal construction of the preceding passages
would, on the whole, lead the reader (especially if unaided by reference to the
Greek) to the conclusion, tiiat Aristotle meant to convey that wind simply
in some form or another, was the efficient cause of earthquakes; after care-
ful consideration, however, I am still disposed to adhere to the view given
in the foregoing report, and to believe that in so far as he had in reality any
distinct idea, it was that of some intangible, imponderable force or agent
present in the earth and above it, acting upon the winds, and acted on by
them, though not the winds themselves, and giving rise in such reactions to
earthquakes and volcanoes. Perhaps from the want of any distinct ideas as
to atmology, and its relations to those forces which we call molecular, and
having no clear metaphysics of spirit and matter, an abuse of words is found
in the Greek physical writers, which often renders them (as throughout the
above passages) almost unintelligible. The word -nyev^ia was used to express
pure spirit, and the wind (compare John's Gospel, cap. 3, ver. 8), as well as
condensable vapours, and this alike by the philosopher and by the vulgar.
88 REPORT — 1850.
Letter to the Assistant General Secretary to the British Association.
Dublin, July 22, 1850.
My dear Sir, — As the working member of the Committee appointed at last
meeting of the Association for the instrumental admeasurement of earthquake
waves, I have to report as follows : — A sum of £50 was placed at the disposal
of this Committee, the entire amount of which has been devoted to the com-
pletion of a self-registering seismometer, upon my construction. In this con-
siderable progress lias been made, and we hope to present it in action at the
next meeting of the Association after the present one, it being found imprac-
ticable to have it completed in time for the Edinburgh meeting.
When so finished and found, as we trust, to answer its purpose, it would
be most desirable that a second instrument at least should be constructed, and
that both should be sent out and kept at work in whatever earthquake di-
strict might appear most favourably circumstanced for registration.
The island of Zante and some other one or more moderately distant stations
in the Levant, would seem to offer great inducements to fix on tiiem. I have
reason to know that competent persons could be found at Zante to undertake
the task of superintending the instruments and recording their indications.
After such a conjoint arrangement for self-registering observations of the
peculiarly manageable and almost constant shocks felt at Zante and its sur-
rounding regions, should have been in operation for a year or so, we might
expect to arrive at some very definite knowledge as to the position and the
depth beloiv the surface of the centre of those frequent impulses, in other
words, probably, of the actual depth of the great volcanic focus of the Me-
diterranean basin.
The whole sum of £50 has been drawn, and the whole, with the exception
of a small sum, remains as yet to the credit of the Committee, but will very
soon be required for payment.
Should a second instrument hereafter be constructed a further grant will
be necessary.
Previous to the appointment of this Committee at the last meeting, I had
arranged and in part proceeded with a series of experiments for the experi-
mental admeasurement of the rate of transit of waves of impulse (analogous
to those of earthquakes) produced artificially in various coherent and inco-
herent formations of the earth's crust, and at first proposed that the expense
of these experiments should be defrayed from the grant made to this Com-
mittee at Birmingham ; but finding that the cost of the seismometer for self-
registration would, as a first instrument, involving alterations, &c., absorb
nearly the whole grant, if not the whole, and that the expense of these transit
experiments would be very considerable, I proposed to the other members of
the Committee that the whole grant should be devoted to the seismometer,
and that I would complete the experiments on rate of wave transit, as I had
commenced, from my own resources.
I have already completed that class of those experiments that regard the
rate of impulse wave transit in incoherent formations, and with very interest-
ing and unexpected results, and am now proceeding with those in coherent
or rocky formations. The impulses in the former case were produced by the
explosion of rather large quantities of gunpowder. In the latter it will pro-
bably be found most convenient to resort to a blow delivered by the fall of
a heavy body.
I propose giving an account of these experiments as a portion of a second
report on th^ facts of earthquakes, should I be directed by the British Asso-
ciation, at its approaching meeting, to prepare such report. In this would also
be embodied the extended catalogue of earthquakes, and discussion of same
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 89
by curve-diagrams and maps, which I have in progress, and which I expect to
be the most complete ever tabulated — about two thousand earthquakes, new to
any previous catalogue, have been already collected, arranged and tabulated.
The bibliographical catalogue of works relating to earthquakes has also
been brought to a very forward state, and through the assistance of friends
abroad I have been enabled to obtain complete excerpts of the seismological
books existing in several of the most important foreign libraries ; when finish-
ed, therefore, I expect this will form a better index to future students of this
interesting branch of physical geology than they have before had access to.
I am indebted to Dr. Robinson for some valuable suggestions as respects
my experimental determination of wave transits above adverted to, and to
my eldest son, William Mallet, for much laborious aid in the preparation of
those catalogues; but these and other such obligations received from other
friends will best be fully acknowledged hereafter.
I would beg the favour (as I am myself unable to be present at the Edin-
burgh meeting) of your presenting this in the proper quarter, as the provi-
sional report upon the above matters, in order that the views of the Associa-
tion may be ascertained upon the question of a second report, &c.
Believe me truly yours, Robert Mallet.
On Observations of Lu'minou$ Meteors ; continued from the Reports of
the British Association for 1849. By the Rev. Baden Powell,
M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in
the University of Oxford.
In continuing my report to the British Association for the year elapsed since
the last Meeting, on observations of Luminous Meteors made in various parts
of the world, I have been aided by the contributions of many friends, among
whom Mr. Lowe, as on former occasions, has been pre-eminent in the number
of observations he has kindly communicated. From other quarters I have
not received so many as last year, though Dr. Buist has favoured me with a
considerable number from India. I have also been enabled to prefix a notice
of some older observations which in some instances throw light on those in
former reports.
The arrangement of the tables is nearly the same as before, with a slight
extension in their form, which it is hoped will add to their perspicuity. The
time is usually only common clock time, and therefore open to much uncer-
tainty, unless otherwise expressed ; but in all Mr. Lowe's observations it is
Greenwich mean time.
I. List of a few Meteors prior to the date of the commencement of the
Catalogue for 1849-50.
(i.) 18^8 or 1829. At Allport, Derbyshire, about the end of August or
beginning of September, at 3 p.m., a bright light was seen to traverse the sky,
slowly when it exploded, with a loud noise ; pieces fell in a field of mown
grass, where persons at work picked them up. A specimen was picked up
and preserved by B. Staley, Esq.
It was analysed by Dr. R. A. Smith. It contains oxide of iron, making
its specific gravity about 2; also free sulphur, which appears in minute
crystals visible to the naked eye as a fine dust as soon as a fresh surface is
exposed. Its composition is in these respects totally unlike any other meteorite.
It contains also charcoal, which might perhaps be acquired from matter
among which it fell. The analysis by Dr. R. A. Smith is as follows: —
90 REPORT — 1850.
" It contained 22*32 per cent, of sulphur in small crystals, i^S-59 of carbon
and 34'09 of oxide of iron, in which number is included a fraction of a per
cent, of silica. It did not contain phosphates, sulphurets or earths."
Communicated by Dr. R. A. Smith, Manchester.
(ii.) Observations of Luminous Meteors prior to Aug. 184'9. Commu-
nicated by Dr. D. P. Thomson. Extracted from his Introduction to
Meteorology, 18i9.
1837. Sept. 21, 1^ iS"" p.m Cast a shadow; seen at Paris, (p. 305.)
184 1. Dec. 21. — Twice the apparent diameter of moon, and exceedingly
effulgent; the tail was variegated, and the body burst in a blaze of light;
seen at Glasgow and near to Stirling at the same time. (lb.)
18'13. Feb. 5, about 8 p.m. — Passed over Notts, resembling a large mass
of fire of a blood-red coloui-, and assumed various shapes ; its course was
from N.W. ; its apparent height trifling, and its velocity about fifty-five miles
per minute. (lb.)
1846. June 20, about H^ 30"" p.m. — Witnessed at Marieux near Autun,
Saone et Loire ; it was of a violet colour, and seemed a yard in circumference.
It continued visible about a minute, and descended perpendicularly to tlie
horizon, giving off five other balls, each nearly one-fourth the size of the
parent mass, which nevertheless preserved its original volume; before disap-
pearing it burst into sparks, spreading i'ar and wide. (lb., Evening Mail.)
1846. Aug. 1, about \0^ 30'" p.m.— At Cassel, at an altitude of about
80°, near to the meridian ; it burst with a sibilant sound, leaving behind a train
of sparks. (lb.)
1846. Sept. 15. — A bolis appearing as large as an orange, with a train
some yards in length, crossed Wrenbury, Cheshire, about 10 p.m. (p. 305).
The observer was my brother, Mr. William Thomson, surgeon, Wrenbury,
near Nantwich.
1847. Oct. 17} at 6^ 5°' p.m. — A very fine bolis was observed by my friend
the Rev. Charles Aldis, crossing from S.W. to N.E. at Wrenbury, with a long
train and a faint whizzing noise ; another of very large diameter was seen
near to midnight on the 23rd of November of the same yeai-, at Birkenhead.
" The finest bolis which the autlior ever witnessed occurred on the 2nd of
February 1848, about 9 p.m. [near Wrenbury, Cheshire]. The night was
calm and beautiful, — three hours before he had been testing a reflecting tele-
scope upon the ring of Saturn [then a difficult object]. Returning from a
professional visit, his attention was drawn to the south by a sudden and
brilliant light not far from [the belt of] Orion. It was a fireball slowly de-
scending at an angle of nearly 20°. Its light was more intense than that of
Jupiter, which was then shining in great splendour, and it had a decided ap-
parent diameter. The body of the meteor was coloured grass-green, and it
was partially bordered with crimson, in a crescentic form in the direction of
the white and tapering tail. The bolis disappeared without sparks, falling
seemingly to the ground between the observer and the wood of Combermere
Abbey, nearly a mile oft'. Before sunrise the sky was overcast ; the follow-
ing day was bleak and windy, and rain soon followed." (p. 3C6.)
1848. March 8. — A luminous meteor shot across the clouded sky at Bath
from the S.W.; the nucleus seemed larger than a cricket-ball, and the tail
appeared about three-fourths of a yard in length. (lb. p. 306.)
Query. — Might not this be the same which was seen by Mr. Symonds near
to Oxford, at P 45"^ on the 9th ?
1849. Jan. 9. — A bolis crossed the sky at Edinburgh, seemingly one-third
the moon's diameter; passed slowly to the south. (MS. Edin. Advertiser.)
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
91
(iii.) Other Meteors up to August 1849.
1846. — " I never saw more meteors than this winter. From October 17th to
December 17th they appeared in great numbers almost every clear night, some
as large as Jupiter. The most remarkable were between October 17th and 26th,
and on November 10th, 11th, and 12th." (J. F. Miller, Whitehaven.)
1847. August. Whitehaven, J. F. Miller, Esq. — Multitudes of shooting
stars, and several larger meteors, almost every clear night between the 2nd
and 20th. (MS.)
1847. Oct. 24. — A very large bright meteor fell during a grand display of
aurora borealis. (Darlington, Durham, by J. Graham, Esq.)
1848. Jcin.27.— Several very brilliant meteors. (Uckfield. C.L.Prince,Esq.)
These four communicated by E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Date.
1815.
Feb. 18
1822.
Aug. 7
1825.
Nov. 3
Nov. 22 ..
1832.
June 23 ..
July24....
Nov. 18 .
1833.
March 18.
1841.
Sept. 10 .
1842.
April 11 .
1843.
July 26....
1848.
Sept. 4....
Sept. 7.
Oct. 29
1849.
July 27
Aug. 25
Hour.
h m
5 27 p.m.
4 a.m.
3-^ p.m.
8 45 p.m.
(m.t.)
6 30 p.m.
7 p.m.
8 30 p.m.
Description.
Explosion ; meteorite
fell.
Meteorite
Elongated fire-ball . .
Brilliant meteor like a
comet.
Three fireballs united
into one.
Innumerable meteors ...
Very brilliant in N.B....
Meteorite fell
10
p.m.
Aug. 12, 13,14
A very singular lumi
nous streak dissolved
in train of sparks.
Large fireball, from N.
to S. ; course deviated
at right angles ; burst
into fragments.
Large fireball , from W. to
E.; horizontaljthenfeU.
Bright nieteorwith large
train of red sparks
visible about 5 sees. ;
fell perpendicularly
from an alt. about 70'"
A splendid meteor
= 2 ? , followed by
train of stars ; path
marked byadark cloud
Great numbers of me-
teors observed, and
their tracks laid down
on a map ; all a|)
peared to originate in
Pegasus.
Place.
Dooraila, India.
Kadonah
Captain Bird
Calcutta
Ibid
Colonel Blacker
Delhi
Meerut
Bulrampore and
Asia
Madras.
Calcutta
Wrottesley,
near Wolver-
hampton.
Poona
Bombay and
Poona.
Porebunder, In-
dia.
Obsen-er.
Mr. Taylor
Capt. Shortrede
Various ob-
servers.
Capt. Abbot.
Assistant to Lord
Wrottesley.
Correspondent
to Bombay
Times.
Id.
West of Chester- A Correspondent
field.
Reference.
Bombay Times. See
App., No. 22.
lb. App., No. 23.
lb. App., No. 24.
lb. App., No. 25.
lb. App., No. 26.
lb. App., No. 27.
lb. App., No. 28.
lb. App., No. 29.
lb. App., No. 30.
lb. App., No. 31.
lb. App., No. 32.
See Appendix,
No.l.
Bombay Times. See
App., No. 33.
lb. App., No. 34.
lb. App., No. 35.
Derby Courier. See
Appendix, No. 2.
Midhurst, Sussex M. Bulard Comptes Rendus,
No. 10, p. 269.
See also App.
No. 3.
92
REPORT — 1850.
II. Catalogue of Luminous Meteors
Date.
Hour.
Magnitude or
brightness.
Colour.
Train or explosion.
Velocity or
duration.
1849.
Oct. 8.
9.
10.
12.
13...
14.
20...
h m
10 53 p.m.
9 45 p.m.
11 55 p.m.
12 17 p.m.
9 58 p.m.
10 8 p.m.
10 12 p.m.
10 13 p.m.
10 30 p.m.
9 29 p.m.
9 35 p.m.
6 20 p.m.
6 35 p.m.
SmaU
= 4th mag.
3rd mag.
Blue
Blue
Blue
No tail Rapid
No tail 'Rapid.
Sparks I
= 4th mag
= lst mag. ; round,
well-defined disc.
= 4th mag.
Blue
Orange-red.
Sparks Rapid.
Train of bright sparks ... Rapid .
= 4th mag.
Yellow
Blue ..
= 4th mag ■
= 4th; as bright.
Yellow
Blue ..
8 2 p.m.
8 7 p.m.
8 30 p.m.
= 5th mag.
= 3rd mag.
= lst mag.
= 4th mag.
= 2nd mag
Orange
YeUow
Yellow
Yellow
No tail.
No tail.
Sparks .
Sparks .
No taU .
No tail.
No tail.
Sparks .
Very brilliant
31...
Nov. 1...
2..
3 00 p.m. ...
No meteor visible
11 00 p.m. ..
5 10 p.m. ..
5 30 p.m. ..
5 33 p.m. ..
(g.m.t.)
6 5 p.m. ..
7 33 p.m. ...
(g.m.t.)
Bright ,
Large ; round .
With train
Globe meteor = ^
the moon.
of Orange-red . .
Rapid .
Rapid.
Rapid .
Rapid .
Rapid .
Rapid .
Rapid.
Rapid.
=
3 or 4 seconds ..
For the 1st half of course
separate sparks ex-
tending through 10°,
thence without any.
Nearly 20 seconds
About 8 seconds
Very slow ; visi-
ble 30 seconds
Small
Blue
Larger than ? when
at S, and twice as
bright.
Orange-red
With sparks.
Moderate
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 93
(continued from the Report of ISid).
Direction.
General remarks.
Place.
Observer.
Reference.
^6 Draconis to u Herculis
Highfield House,
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
M.S. com. to Prof.
Nottingham.
Powell.
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
Downward through S , inclining
1 toN.
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
^om * to a Urs. Maj
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
iirom X to ^7 Ceti
Ibid
Id
?rom Delphinus -p down ;
slightly inclined to E.
Ibid
Id
?rom 29 Vulpec. through 12
Vulpec. and 113 and 109 Her-
Ibid
Id
Ibid,
culis.
horn y Equulei through 3
Aquarii.
Sagitt. to 1° S.of & Serpentis...
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
Emitting blue stars
in its track.
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
through £ Lyrae over 15'
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
^om 5° above (p Aquilae to N. of
T Aquilae.
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
from 5° N. of Capella, and at
same alt. -L down.
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
L. down from Vega through 9>
to y Herculis.
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
Ibid
Id
Ibid.
Ibid.
MS. letter from Dr.
Ibid
Id
Jt. 45°; nearly 1 hour pre-
Appearance like a
Hai-twell, Ayles-
Mr. Horton
ceding a Aquilae.
bar of light; then
explosion at one
end.
bury.
Lee to Mr. Birt.
See Appendix,
No. 6.
Sound heaid; me-
teorite fell and
Farm of H. Post,
county of Ca-
Mr. H. Post
Phil. Mag., March
1850, p. 241.
splintered a tree ;
baras, Char-
buried 1 3 inches
lotte, N. Caro-
deep.
lina.
)escended obliquely from N.,
diverged suddenly to W. on
Castle Lecky,
Londonderry.
Mr. Webb
Astronomical Soc.
Notices, X. 24.
approaching a dense cloud.
Vom altitude 45°, obliquely, to
Velocity decreased ;
Near and N. of
W. W. Smyth,
Letter to Prof.
N.W. through about 30°
no explosion.
Mold, Flint-
shire.
Esq.
Powell. See
Appendix, No. 4.
'rom E. to W., considerably
Seemed to decrease
12 miles N.N.E.
Mr. Hill
See Appendix, No.5.
below Polaris.
as it advanced.
of Swansea.
■rom between /J and -^ Lyrae to
[n a slight curve
Highfield House,
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
MS. list.
within 6° of W.N.W. horizon.
inclining towards
Nottingham ;
and A. S. H.
N.
seen also at
Kegworth and
at Beeston ;
between
Bramcote and
Nottingham.
Lowe, Esq.,
M. Durand,
R. Felkin, Esq.,
C.Wright, jun.,
Esq.
let ween yPegasi and \i ; nearly
Brightness vanish;
Observatory,
W. R. Birt, Esq.
Letter to Prof.
horizontal towards S. ; disap-
onceortwice near-
Richmond
Powell. See
peared W. of Pegasi.
ly extinguished.
Park.
Appendix, No. 6.
Vom 39 Andromedae to 1° N. of
A.uroral glare
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
MS. Ust.
y Cassiopeiae.
94
REPORT — 1850.
Date.
Hour.
1849.
Nov. 5
12
13
15
Dec. 4
19
h m
6 8 p.m.
6 10 p.m.
(g.m.t.)
6 20 p.m.
(g.m.t.)
6 30 p.m.
9 p.m.
6 18 p.m.
] 44 p.m.
9 20 p.m.
9 21 p.m.
6 20 p.m.
10 37 p.m.
From
10 30 p.m.
to
12 30 p.m.
From
10 30 p.m.
to
12 15 p.m.
10 23 12'
10 29 p.m.
10 31 p.m.
10 31 p.m.
11 40 p.m.
Magnitude or
brightness.
Colour.
Head composed of 7
or 8 small balls.
Bluish
= 1st mag
Brightness = Ij.
Bright circular de-
fined disc.
= 4 times ? ; I'ght
= full moon.
1st mag
11 30 p.m.
10 35 p.m.
10 36 p.m.
10 38 p.m.
5 10 p.m.
Red
Greenish white
=3rd mag.
= 2nd mag.
=3rd mag. .
= 2nd mag. .
= 4th mag
)8 meteors ; 1 = ? ;
1= J^; 15 = 1st mag.;
31 = 2nd mag.
69 meteors; 1 = $ ;
9 = 1st mag.;
20 = 2nd mag.;
25 = 3rd mag.
Afireball
Small
Small
Globular ; three times
as large and four
times as bright as
Appeared to increase
as it descended to
mag. =4 limes ^
= 3rd mag
Vivid train of sparks which
seemed attracted to-
gether in masses.
Train of red light ; explo
sion.
Leaving remarkable thin
lines of red light
through whole path
Towards end threw out
train of sparks 10° long ;
visible 3 or 4 sees, after
meteor.
Burst with loud explosion
Orange
Blue ...
Yellow
Blue ..
Blue
Yellow
Orange-red ...
Greenish white
Yellow
Train or explosion.
5 seconds; train re-
mained about 2
minutes.
Moderate
Continuous streak or tail . .
Streamers
Sparks over 1°
= 4th mag.
= 4th mag.
= 2 ?
Shower of sparks ; no
noise.
Leaving a continuous lu-
minous streak in its track
Leaving a streak.
Velocity or
duration.
Rapidly .
Rapid.
Rapid .
Rapid .
Rapid.
Rather rapid .
Rapid
8 sees.
Rapid .
Over 4° ; rapid .
Rapid
Rapid
Remarkably slow ;
visible 2 mins.
30 sees.
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 95
Direction.
From 3° above « Urs. Mag. to
8° above j3 Bootis.
From near Pleiades and close to
a Arietis, [to 10° above Del-
phinus (from alt. 13°, azim.
N. 68° E. to alt. 60°, azim.
S. 8° W.), Glaisher.
From azim. N. 7°, W. alt. 30°,
to azim. N. 59° , W. alt. 38°.
From 14 Draconis to h Herculis
In Pleiades; about 20° alt.;
from W. to E.
Mr. Glaisher sug
gests this maybe
the same as last.
The air full of
small meteors at
present."
Prom E. to W.,
■ down ; from slightly W. of
« Urs. Maj.
Through 5° ; from t Ceti at an
incl. of about 7° to horizon
towards S.
E!rom below « Aurigae ; incl. at
45° downwards.
Just under <?, through 1°..
From 54, 55, 56 Persei to Ca-
pella.
From 1° below Capella through
3°.
CVom Camelopardalis to Urs
Maj.
From /3 Aurigae to » Gemin. ...
General remarks.
Place.
Stone, near
Aylesbury.
Chester
M.V.Fasel
R. L. Jones, Esq.
Stone
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Bombay
Asseerghur
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Ibid
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Breslau.
From under CapeUa towards S
Under Pleiades
Horizontal from between t and
Eridani ; ^ nearer the former ;
: about 1° beneath «• and ;j;
Ceti ; fading away near ai
Piscium.
From zenith to S.W. ; exploded
at alt. 20° nearly.
From 4° below <J ; in direction
of Orion's belt.
From H. I. Camelopardalis to
y Persei.
From between y and | Draconis
-J- down.
From a Draconis; slightly above
X Draconis to just above Ca
pella.
Dimmed the hght
of stars.
Ibid.
Highfield House
Nottingham.
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Observer.
M.V.Fasel
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id ,
Id
Prof. Bogus-
lawski and
Assistants.
Id
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Reference.
Phil. Mag.
Feb. 1850, 115.
Communication to
J. Glaisher, Esq..
Phil. Mag.
May 1850, p.381.
lb. Feb. 1850.
MS. list. See
Appendix, No. 7.
Bombay Times,
Nov. 3-16, 1849,
See Appendix,
No. 8.
lb. See Appendix,
No. 9.
MS. list.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Comptes Rendus,
Nov. 26, 1849.
Phil. Mag. Jan.
1850, p. 75.
Id
Id
S. Watson, Esq.
& F. E. Swann,
Esq.
Near Shorapore.
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid
Beeston, near
Nottingham, &
at Whitehaven
CoiTespondent
to Bombay
Times.
E. J. Lowe, Esq
M. J. E. Durand,
J. F. MiUer,
. Esq.
Ibid.
MS. list.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Mr. Lowe's MS.
list.
See Appendix,
No. 36.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
96
REPORT — 1850.
Date.
1849
Dec. 19
30
1850.
Jan. 30
Feb. 3
4
6
10
Hour.
h m
5 15 p.m.
(g.m.t.)
Nl <?
10 16 p.m.
7 58 30»
6 36 30'
7 30 p.m.
(g.m.t.)
5 21 p.m.
5 45 p.m.
6 23 p.m.
6 50 p.m.
8 48 p.m.
9 30 p.m.
8 10 p.m.
8 55 p.m.
8 15 p.m.
8 20 p.m.
7 p.m.
6 30 p.m.
&at 11
11 15 p.m.
8 30 p.m.
8 46 5^
8 46 50'
= 2nd magnitude, but
brighter than 1st.
Size = 4th magnitude ;
brightness = 3rd
mag.
Size= If. ; brighter
than ^ at ,?; cir-
cular disc.
At first small, but in-
creased to brighter
than Aldebaran.
Magnitude or
brightness.
Bright nucleus = 2 <J ;
another estimate
= 4 2A.
Orange-red
Blue
Fine red.
2nd mag.
Brilliant ...
Rather red.
Globe about 4' diam.
Bolide brighter than
S at brightest.
Several small, and one
Much larger than 2/.
Smaller than J/.
= 4th mag
=2nd mag
= lst mag
= 4th mag
Large, =moon
Many shooting stars .
Brilliant, =^moon.
=- Sirius, but brighter
= Rigel
Colour.
A few separate sparks.
Reddish .
YeUow
Yellow
Orange
Red..
Blue
Train or explosion.
Train increased in length
as meteor advanced;
length established from
30' to 5° ; no explosion.
Train
No streamers
Uniformly through
65° in 30 sees.
Through 76° in 15
sees.
Slow ; 4° in 1 sec.
Rapid; ^sec........
Scintillated like a rocket
before disappearing ; no
explosion ; left a con-
siderable train.
No streak
H sec.
2 1 sees.
Bright train ; no noise
Oblong form
No train
Slight train .
Train
No tail
Some with streaks
Tail = 4 times diam. of
head.
Tail
Leaving white streak
Velocity or
duration.
Instantaneous
Rapid
About 35 sees.
Slow
Quick
Rapid .
Instantaneous
Rapid .
Rapid.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OV LUMINOUS METEORS. 97
Direction.
General remarks.
Place.
Observer.
Reference.
Alt. 10°; N.W.byN.; horizon-
tally towards E. ; disappear-
ed N. by E.
From W. to N.; alt. 15°; burst
at alt. G°.
From near C. H. 117 Leonis
Min. to 5 Leonis.
From direction of Cassiopeia;
from /3 Lyrse to 108 Herculis.
From 1 Tauri through x and 94
Ceti.
From near ■v^ Persei to 30' be-
yond Aldel)aran.
From Pleiades to a. Ceti
Separatedintothree
or four fragments
falling horizon-
tally.
Separated in two
parts which mo-
ved on together ;
these again each
separated into
fragments.
Mr. Carrington
and several
Observers.
Prof. Forbes and
numerous other
Observers.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Id.
Id.
W. II. Leeson,
Esq.
Rev. K. Swann...
Rev. G. King ...
Rev. C. Lowndes
M. Liais
Letter from Prof.
Chevallier to
Durham paper.
See App. No. 10.
Proceedings of the
Roval Society of
Edinburgh,1850.
ii. 309. See Ap-
pendix, No. 10.
MS. list.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Phil. Mag.
Ib:d.
Comptes Rendus,
1850, No. 8,
p. 208.
MS. letter to Prof.
Powell.
MS. list.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Bombay Times,
March 13, 1850.
See App. No. 11.
Mr. Lowe's list.
Phil. Mag. May
1850, 363.
Bombay Times,
March 13, 1850.
See App. No. 12.
MS. list.
Ibid.
Edinburgh ;
through parts
of Ireland and
Scotland, from
N.E. to S.W.
300 miles long,
140 broad.
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Ibid
Vanished suddenly.
Ibid
Castle Doning-
ton, Leicester-
shire.
Ibid
Burst in fragments ;
visible some sees.
Burst and emitted
knotted streak of
red light 5° or 6°
long.
Nearly vertical ...
S.W. of Andromeda ; moved N.
by E.; inclination 20" to
vertical.
From about ^ distance from a to
yUrs. Maj. ; passed E. of y;
\ disappeared at alt. = «.
[
Tlirough 12° between Procyon
and j3.
Through about 20° from N.W.
Hartwell
Cherbourg, 380
metres W., 60
metres N. of
Cherbourg
Church.
Ileadington Hill,
Oxford.
Ibid
Mr. W.Ray
Id.
Id.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Id
' of Cassiopeia to 20° alt. N.W.
byN.
.Below Sirius; disappeared about
' 20° above S. horizon.
From H. 17 Camelopardi to
/Cassiopeia;.
From 19Monocerotis to9 Argus.
Ibid
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Ibid
From Rigel to y Can. Maj
Ibid
Id
Procvon to Sirius
Ibid
Id
From alt. 40° in E. to alt. 2-5° in
N.E.
Chiefly in Ursa Major and Ursa
Minor.
From Aries to Orion
Vanished
At sea,
lat. 24° 53' N.
long.66=16'E.
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Hartwell
A Correspond-
ent.
M. J. E. Durand.
Rev. C. Lowndes
A Correspond-
ent.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Id
From alt. 8° S.S.W. to alt. 2°.
Procyon to y Canis Maj
At sea,
lat. 24° 18' N.
long. 66° 30' E.
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Ibid
|Froml7MonocerotistoyOrionis
IS-TO.
H
98
REPORT 1850.
Date.
1850,
Feb. 11
Hour.
Magnitude or
brightness.
h m
5 p.m. Brilliant nucleus .
Colour.
Reddish .
Train or explosion.
Tail blue
Velocity or
duration.
Slow
Accounts of the great meteor of February 11 were collected by Mr. J.
a large part of England, in the Phil. Mag., March and April 1850.
tabular form as the preceding : —
Feb. 11
10 41 p.m.
(g.m.t.)
Various estimates from
= moon to about i ;
very bright and in-
creasing in bril-
liancy till disap-
pearance.
Various
contrary
accounts ;
changeable.
Long train, emitting sparks
according to some, not
so according to others ;
report afterwards at in
tervals of from 1 to 5
From 10, 41, 16, to
10, 41, 27 at
Greenwich =11
sees. ; others es-
timated from 2 to)
40 sees.
Mr. Glaisher institutes calculations on the data furnished which give the
Height at 1st appearance 84 miles, nearly over a point
Height at disappearance 19 miles, nearly H mile S.
Height of luminous sparks at disappearance 10 miles.
Real velocity 30 miles per second.
In addition to the accounts cited by Mr. Glaisher, the
Feb. 1110 50.' p.m.
11 42 p.m.
10 50 p.m.
At first like a star
Large ; brilliant
Round ; gradually ex-
panding.
Nucleus bril-
liant red.
Greenish
Train bluish ; outer edge
with rainbow tints ; n0|
report.
Descended with a stream
of light of various co-
lours ; explosion like di-
stant thunder.
A succession of sparks ; no
explosion.
Succession of
colours —
green, red,
violet.
10 40 p.m. Bright light followed
by a distant report
after 2 min.
10 30 p.m. Brilliant
Small globe increasing
as it advanced, by
successive jerks or
bursts till it be-
comes nearly
= moon ; intensely
brieht.
Head intensely
blue.
Slow; visible abou
5 sees.
Disappeared with sparks
Train darting out sparks
disappeared without
noise, throwing off
bright fragments.
A report afterwards
Rapid.
Rapid; 2 or 3 sees.,
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 99
horn W. to E., slightly in
dined, at a mean altitude of
about 20°.
Direction.
General remarks.
Place.
i Atmosphere elec-
tric ; thunder
heard.
[Holy Moorside,
Derby.
Observer.
A Correspond-
ent.
Reference.
Derby Courier.
Glaisher of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, from various observers, over
The following is a brief summary of the main results thrown into the same
Numerous parts
of England :
extreme points
Penzance,
Brighton,
Durham.
Correspondents
to Mr. Glaisher
Phil.Mag.vol.xxxvi,
pp. 221 and 249
See Appendix,
No. 18.
following ultimate results : —
13 miles N.E. of Montgomery.
18° E. of Biggleswade.
Real diameter from 1800 to 2000 feet.
Path, Parabolic.
following have been furnished from other quarters : —
•om W. to E. by N., horizontal Undulatory or jerk-
ing motion
rom W. to E. ; path curved...
•liquelv from W. to E.; mean
alt. about 20°.
SouthgateHouse,
near Chester-
field.
Renshavr Street,
Hulme, Man-
chester.
Hollovpay, Isling-
ton.
Seemed to roll Kennington
over and disap- Lane,
pear." Lambeth.
Light illuminated a
room vrith fire,
candles, and
blinds down.
Hartwell Rec-
tory.
Wrottesley,
Wolverhamp-
ton.
P. C. Maxwell,
Esq., and H.J
Bowdou, Esq.
A Correspond-
ent.
F. Barnard, Esq.
W. F. Whitmore,
Esq.
Derby Courier. See
Times, Feb. 13.
See App. No. 13.
Ibid. See Appen
dix, No. 15.
Letter to Prof.
Powell. See Ap-
pendix, No. 16.
Times, Feb. 13. See
Appendix, No.
14.
Rev. C. Lowndes Mr. Lowe's MS.
Lord Wrottesley
and others.
New Coll., Lane, Mrs. Baden
Oxford. Powell.
Mean estimate of 5 Oxford ,
observers; inter-
val between dis-
appearance and
report 2 min.
Communication
to Mr. R.
Wheeler.
Letter to Prof.
Powell.
See Appendix,
No. 19.
Letter to Prof.
Powell.
h2
100
REPOET — 1850.
Date.
Hour.
1850. h m
Feb. 1110 30 p.m.
10 48 p.m.
13
Magnitude or
brightness.
Several globes follow
iug in a luminous
train.
7 45 p.m.
7 47 p.m.
8 p.m.
8 1 30'
8 p.m.
9 45 p.m.
Very small
= 4th mag.
Small
8 32 p.m.
11 50 p.m.
11 47 p.m.
Colour.
= 3r(l mag ; defined
disc.
Small
= ^ moon ; dazzling
brightness ; pear-
shaped.
Several small
= lst mag
Train or explosion.
Velocity or
duration.
White Train
Yellow No tail
Deep red
Deep red
Gave out sparks
Bluish white .
Orangcred.
Bright, = moon ; be-
came pear-shaped ;
round end below
11 57 p.m.
2610 32 15^
Mai-. 4
6
7 20 p.m.
9 p.m.
9 15 30'
9 25 p.m.
9 40 p.m.
8 47 p.m.
7 25 p.m.
9 12 p.m.
6 55 p.m.
9 48 p.m
8 59 50'
9 3 40'
Large
Bright blue, =3rd
mag. ; defined disc.
= Sirius
Small, =3rd mag.
= lst mag
Larger than % and
brighter.
Blue
Deep orange
Red
Mo noise
Separate stars
Explosion with no noise.
Rapid .
Mean .
Slow
iVbout H sec.
Rapid .
Anterior part remained
round ; back separated
into luminous fragments
and streaks ; no report.
3 or 4 sees.
Train with falling sparks,
most numerous about
the middle part.
Tail
Continuous stream of light
= 4th mag
Brilliant, = "4 .
Small, = 2nd or 3rd
ning.
Small
Blue
Continuous train of light.
Train of blue light extend-
ing 5°
10 sees.
About 15 sees.
About 1 sec.
Rapid
Slow, 2 or 3 sees.
Hardly 1 see..
Slow.
About 1 sec
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 101
Direction.
General remarks.
Place.
Observer.
Reference.
2° above Procyon, just above
the head of Hydra, ending
near 15 Sextantis.
Beeston, Not-
tingham.
A drawing taken
immediately and
an engraving ex-
ecuted.
Paddington ,
Mr. Butler.
Mr. Wyatt.
Mr. Lowe's list.
See Appendix,
No. 17.
Communicated to
Prof. Powell.
Horizontally from 42 to H. 35
Ursa Major.
From £ to below / Cassiopeise
through Polai'is.
from « to ;t; Orionis
Phrough 2° from 25Monocerotis
upwards towards zenith, at
inclination about 70°.
)bliquely downwards ; disap
peared before reaching hori-
zon, from about 15° alt. in E.
Gave the appear-
iance of a small
ball at no great
height.
'rem I Draconis to a Cephei.
rewards S.E
n S.S.E. by S. ; alt. 15° per-
pendicularly down.
from W, of Crater to S. ;
ploded near horizon.
'erpendicularly down from 30'
E. of a Hydras, and same alt.
over 15°.
Crossed Orion
horn RA. 15°, N.P.D. 20°,
through 5° from E. to W,
i'rom /3 Comae Beren. to just
I under S Leonis.
'Vom H. 35 to <s Cassiopeiae. . . .
I'rom a Draconis through c Urs
\ Maj. to 6 Urs. Maj.
i^rom E. of 2/ towards N
I'rom a Urs. Maj. to « Hydrse,
! through llegiilus.
'hrough 1° perpendicularly
down from a. Cephei.
'rom above Sirius to 15° S. ...
'rom i Cancri through 30' ...
'rom 30' to E. of y Leonis, to
nearly 2° below Regulus ...
'Vom y Urs. Maj. to near Cor
Caroli.
Highfield House
Notliugham.
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid.
Ibid.
Hincksey, near
Oxford.
Highfield House.
Ibid
Aylesbury
Albany Road,
Camberwell.
Stone, Aylesbury,
Highfield House
Nottingham.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Id.
Id.
Aylesbury.
Surat
Castle Doning-
ton.
Highfield House,
Ibid
Aylesbury
Ibid.
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Aylesbury
Ibid
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Ibid
A. Locker, Esq.,
Pemb. Coll.
E. J.Lowe, Esq
Id
A Correspondent,
J. Wallis, Esq.
Rev. J. B. Read
and Mr. Dell,
Aylesbury.
E. J. Lowe, Esq,
T. Dell, Esq. ..
A Correspondent
W. H. Leeson,
Esq.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Id
T. Dell, Esq. ...
Id
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
T. Dell, Esq. ...
Id
E. J. Lowe, Esq,
Id.
MS. list.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
MS. communica-
tion,
JIS. list.
Ibid.
Oxford Journal,
March 2.
Phil. Mag.
vol. xxxvi.
p. 318.
Phil. Mag. May
1S50, p. 363.
MS. list.
Phil. Mag. May
1850.
Bombay Times,
Mar. 13, 1850.
See App. No. 20
Communicated by
Mr. Lowe.
MS. list.
Ibid.
Phil. Mag. May
1850.
Ibid.
MS. list.
Phil. Mag. ibid.
ibid.
MS.
Ibid.
102
REPORT — 1850.
Date.
Hour.
Magnitude or
Brightness.
Colour.
Train or explosion.
Velocity or
duration.
1850.
Mar. 24
28
31
April 2
May 1
30
June 1
h m
9 3 40'
Almost at the same
instant ; another
smaller.
8 45 p.m.
9 5 p.m.
8 30 p.m.
10 31 p.m.
10 33 p.m.
11 10 p.m.
10 38 p.m.
Red
Small
5th mag. ..
= 2nd mas
Small
= 2ud mac
10 30 p.m. Defined globe meteor
= 2j: , but duller
July
10 30 p.m.
10 45 p.m.
Evening ..
Between
9 & 10 p.ra
9 15 p.m.
8 20 p.m.
9 26 p.m.
8 45 p.m.
8 54 2^-42
Grantham
mean time
(disappear-
ance).
Train of blue light
Blue
Pale yellow
White.
Blue ..
Yellow
Red
Small, ill-defined,
= 3rd mag.
3rd mag
Lightning-flashes termi-
nating in sr/uiires and
balls of fire, whence
again streamers flew
out, sometimes in
straight lines and occa-
sionally in spirals.
Globular, = moon ;
much more bril-
liant.
Brighter than gas-
flames, as if lumi-
nous balls formed
. out of each other
successively.
= J at brightest.
Increasing brightness
from just visible in
twilight to 3 times
% in size and 6
times brighter ; ill-
defined.
Bright
Blue
Blue
Very brilliant ; = <?
at brightest.
Pale blue
Rapid.
Small tail.
No tail.
White.
No streamers
Train of gradually decrea
sing brightness.
Curvilinear luminous track
Slow ..
Rapid . .
Rapid..
H sec.
i sec; rapid.
^ sec.'; rapid.
Several minutes.
At first without sparks ;
afterwards separated
into sparks and dis-
appeared.
Burst, leaving a train 1°
in length.
Rapid .
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 103
Direction.
General remarks.
Place.
Observer.
Reference.
Prom nearly same point, but
inclined slightly downwards.
From a Pegasus to y Androra.
From y Virginis to 3° or 4°E.
Under J/, j downwards
Nearly perpendicular ; inclining
slightly to N. from 4' Dra
conis over 1°.
From Spica 5° in direction of
2 Corvi.
Perpendicularly from 5° S. of 2/.
Horizontally towards S. from
« Lyrae.
From y through ip Cassiopeiae
across the face of Perseus,
disappearing 3° E. of a Persei.
From a Cygni through Lacerta .
From A. through » Draconis
From S.W. to N.E. ; lost behind
hills.
In S.E. nearly perpendicular ;
diappeared at alt. 10° or 12°
Nearly perpendicularly down
inclining to E. fi'om half-way
bewteen x and 3 Antinoi to
2° E. of » Capricorni.
Down towards E. horizon .
From alt. between 50° and 55° ;
perpendicularly down for
about 25° ; direction from
8° or 10° N. of E. ; too much
light to see stars.
Explosion heard \
min. after disap-
pearance.
Highfield House,
Nottingham.
Aylesbury
Ibid
Hartwell House
Observatory.
Highfield House,
Nottingham
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
T. Dell, Esq.
Id
E. J. Lowe, Esq.
Ibid.,
Ibid..
Ibid..
Ibid.,
Ibid.
Ibid
Wingerworth,
Derbyshire.
Havre
Rouen
Haverhill .
Bee>ton Railway
Station, Not
tiuarham.
Oxford .
At Boston "left a
smoke behind,
aud a crackling
noise was heard;"
no smoke nor
noise at Gran-
tham.
Grantham and at
Boston.
Id.
A. S. H. Lowe,
Esq.
Mrs. E. J. Lowe
E. J. Lowe, Esq
Id
Id
Id
A Correspondent
Id.
Id.
W. W. Boreham,
Esq.,r.R.A.S.
E. J. Lowe, Esq,
and Mrs. Lowe.
.T. W. Jeans, Esq.
MS.
[1850
Phil. Mag. May
Ibid.
MS. List.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Derbyshire Courier,
June 8, 1850.
Journal des Debats
9th June, 1850.
SeeApp. No. 21
Ibid.
Letter to
Prof. Powell.
MS. list.
Communicated to
Prof. Powell.
Communicated by
Mr. Lowe.
104
REPORT — 1850.
APPENDIX,
Containing details from the original Records of Observations, commtmicated
to Professor Powell, referred to in the foregoing Catalogue.
No. 1. — Note communicated by Lord Wrottesley to Prof. PoM-ell from the
Assistant at the Wrottesley Observatory.
" September 4, 1848.
" Standing with my back to the south, at the west end of the Observatory,
there came a flash of light from the south which completely illuminated the
shrubs and the gi'ound around me. I immediately turned round and there
saw a beautiful pale yellow streak, about half an hour west of the star
a Aquilae, the vertex of the streak being about the same altitude as that star,
and in length about 25°, perpendicular to the horizon ; I saw this streak
about 10% when it began gradually to dissolve (commencing at the vertex)
into a beautiful train of large sparks of a fiery red, and disappeared in about
S' after. On going into the Observatory to note the time, I found it exactly
gh 4.5m p_^j_ xne&n time. This must have been the train of a meteor, and from
the flash it emitted (which v^as equal to the most vivid flash of lightning I
ever saw), it must have been one of an extraordinary size. The night Avas
beautifully clear, large dusky clouds very low in the S.W. horizon. — R. P."
No. 2. — From the Derbyshire Courier, August 25, 1849: —
" Meteor On Monday evening, August 20, 1849, about ten o'clock, a
splendid meteor was seen to the west of Chesterfield. It was about twice the
apparent magnitude and brilliancy of Venus, and moved slowly in an almost
horizontal line from north to south, leaving a train of small stars in its track
which speedily disajipeared. In a few moments afterwards a long dark cloud
marked its path"
No. 3. — M. CouLviER Gravier 071 Shooting Stars, ^c— Comptes Rendus,
1849, No. 7, p. 179.
The number of meteors, as we have always remarked, has been very small
in the first half of the year ; but since the commencement of July, the num-
ber has progressively increased, and the maximum has been about the 10th
of August.
The following shows the increase for the year, taking the observations for
the horary number at midnight: —
1849.
July
August
10.
11.
13.
14.
15.
20.
21.
22.
26.
27.
28.
6.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Horary number
at midnight
}»
8
10
7
10
13
13
12
26
28
33
50
60
107
120
80
/ftiV?.— N0.2I, p.601.
" The maximum of August rises this year to 120 meteors in a hour, and
its duration is about fifteen days. The maximum of November rises to forty
meteors per hour, and lasts about thirteen (lays.
" The maximum of August happens invariably about the 10th, while that
of November may happen from the 15th of October to the 5th of December.
This year it has been observed from the 15th to the 17th of October. Thus
the maximum, which we always expect on the 12th of November, took place
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 105
twenty-four days earlier, so that the 12th of November had only thirteen or
fourteen meteors for the horary number.
" This state of the phsenomena is not peculiar to 1849. Since 1841, and
especially since 1845, the maxima of August and November, as we\l as the
maxima of less importance in February and May, have always an ascending
and descending progress more or less marked and gradual ; these appearances
never being sudden, as is the case with those periodic returns which come at
fixed days and leave no trace behind of their appearance."
The meteors of October 15-17 are also mentioned by A. Von Humboldt,
Comptes Rendus, November 26, 1849. See Phil. Mag. January 1850, p. 75.
To which he adds the following interesting remarks : —
" I think that many apparent anomalies are explained if we admit that the
stream (of cosmical matter) is of a certain magnitude, — a variable magnitude ;
and that the asteroids in the annular zone are unequally distanced and agglo-
merated. Have we not seen the comet of Biela divide into two comets since
December 19, 1845, each having its tail, advancing parallel at twenty minutes
distance from one another? Cosmical nebulae that have so little mass, such
as comets, fireballs and shooting stars, must be subject to undergo many
transformations in form, direction and velocity."
No. 4.— Letter from W. W. Smyth, Esq., M.A., Mining Geologist to the
Geological Survey, to Professor Powell.
" Holywell, Flintshire, Nov. 19, 1849.
" On the 2nd of November I was walking westward along the hill of Gwy-
sanan, the residence of Mrs. Davies Cooke, north of Mold; the sun had just
sunk behind the mountains of the Clwydian range, which were in front of me,
and the sky was so light and brilliant that I could see no stars for some time
afterwards: it was ten minutes after five, when my eye was attracted by an
intensely bright white speck falling from a point about 45° above the hori-
zon in a north-westerly direction. As it fell its velocity appeared to decrease,
and when, after I had watched it through 30°, it disappeared near a light
cirrostratus cloud, I think as much as twenty seconds must have elapsed
from the moment of my first seeing it. Indeed, towards the conclusion of its
course it seemed to be almost floating, as one may see one of the coloured
lights of a rocket, almost stationary in the air. Its vivid brightness was so re-
markable, that I remained some minutes on the spot, actually trembling from
excitement, and expecting to hear a detonation or some sound indicative of
its not very distant fall. In this I was disappointed ; but shall be curious to
learn whether it happened to be observed by any one else.
" Very truly yours,
" Warington W. Smyth."
No. 5.— Letter from W. R. Grove, Esq., F.R.S. &c., to Prof. Powell.
"London, Nov. 17, 1849.
*****" The following extract from a letter of a correspondent of
mine near Swansea may be interesting to you. He writes, ' Have you seen
or heard of a remarkable meteor that passed over the earth on Friday evening
the 2nd of November? The following is a description of it: — Time, half-
past five, evening ; direction from east to west, and to the north of the ob-
server at this place ; duration about eight seconds ; colour bright red ; size
about 6 inches diameter, with a tail 3 feet long ; the body appeared to diminish
as it went along.'
" The place whence this was seen is twelve miles fi'om Swansea, in a direc-
106 REPORT 1850.
tion N.N.E. * * * * My correspondent (Mr. Hill of Swansea) * * * * says
it was considerably below the Polar star ; the weather was cloudy ; but he
concludes it was near the lowermost conspicuous stars in Ursa Major. It
appears his account was gathered from dift'erent observers.
" Yours very truly,
"W' R. Grove."
No. 6.— Letter from W. R. Birt, Esq. to Prof. Powell.
" Observatory, Old Deer Park, Richmond, Surrey, Dec. 5, 1849.
" My dear Sir, — On the evening of my arrival here I observed a shooting
star, which in its features bore very materially on the stars h, Nos. 4 and 5 in
ray former communication*. I annex a copy of my original memorandum
made at the time.
" ' Nov. 2,1849, e"" 5'" by estimation. — Observed a shooting star pass about
two-thirds of the distance between Saturn and y Pegasi ; nearest the star and
above Saturn the direction was nearly horizontal towards the south. I par-
ticularly observed that this star did not present the same brilliancy throughout
its course, being once or twice nkarly extinguished, but not entirely so, so that
the identity of the star ivas preserved. It disappeared some distance west of
y Pegasi. Colour and magnitude blue, small, and very variable in its
brilliancy.'
" Dr. Lee has communicated to me the following very interesting observa-
tion of a shooting star, by Mr. Horton, his assistant. I give you it verbatim,
as I received it : —
" ' October 20th, 1849. — Observed a very brilliant shooting star, which was
visible three or four seconds, almost due west, about half-way between the
horizon and the zenith at 8*^ 30'" p.m. When first seen it appeared thus \
it afterwards burst, and at that moment the whole appeared as follows
" In a memorandum added by Dr. Lee is the following remark: — ' It was
about an hour preceding the star a Aquilae.'
"I have been very unfortunate in observing these interesting bodies since
I have been here. On the 14th of November, in the evening, I looked occa-
sionally for them, but saw only two. My son, who was on the roof with me
at the same time, saw six. From all the information I have received, it ap-
pears that while they have not been abundant at the November epoch, the
character of periodicity has been maintained.
" I have the honour to be, my dear Sir,
" Yours very respectfully,
" Rev. Prof. Powell." " W. R. Birt."
No. 7. — Extract from Mr. Lowe's MS. communication.
" Nov. 5th, 6^ 20"\ — The meteor fell at a tolerable pace, leaving a thin
pencil of red light in the sky in the whole extent of its path, which was 50°
in len<'th. This pencil of light lasted visible five minutes, becoming gradu-
ally fainter, and altering from a straight line, in 2'" 30% to that of a series of
waves, thus :— -.^'~s_/-^'~^'~-'-n-''\-^^'---''---/'^-/\>'"^ , and in another mi-
nute these became twice the width \_y'A,.,/'X,_/A._/''"N,./~V-/'^
The width of the line of light when first formed was=to that of Vega, but now,
from the apex of the one wave to that of the opposite wave, it was 35' (or
* See Report, British Association, 1849, p. 50.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 107
larger than the diameter of the sun). It begun to disappear from each end
of its path (i. e. when first and last seen), the middle remaining visible the
longest.
" On this meteor, which seems to be the same observed by Mr. Jones and
Mr. Fasel, Mr. Glaisher makes the following remarks : —
'■Jones. — Altitude when first seen 13° and in azimuth 68° E. of N.
„ at explosion.. 60° „ 8° W. of S.
' Fasel— „ when first seen 30° „ 7° W. of N.
„ at explosion. . 38° „ 5'^° W. of N.
" ' The path of the meteor was from E.N.E. to W.S.W., and contrary to the
order of the planetary motions. The intersections of azimuths at explosion
indicates the meteor to have been vertical over a spot fifteen miles from
Montgomery and N.E. of it. Its distance from the earth about eighty miles.'
(Glaisher Phil. Mag., May 1850.)"
No. 8.— From the Bombay Times, Nov. 17th, 1849.
" A beautiful uaeteor was seen at half-past six on Thursday evening (8th
inst.) rushing from west nearly due east. As seen from the Esplanade, it
appeared to disappear over Butcher's Island : it was in the constellation of
the Pleiades, then about 20° above the horizon. It was of a bright greenish
white colour — disc circular and perfectly well-defined — about four times the
sizeandbrilliancy of the planet Venus when at its brightest. When near the end
of its career, it threw out a mass of red fragments or spark?, and left a train of
these behind it about 10° in length, visible for three or four seconds after the
disappearance of the meteor itself, which seemed to vanish at once, without
altering its form or size. The air at present is full of the smaller-sized
meteors, for which October and November are remarkable."
No. 9. — " About half-past nine the previous evening (Nov. 7th) one of the
most magnificent fireballs ever witnessed was observed rushing towards the
east. Seen from Mazagon, it seemed to burst over Elephanta, and descend in
a perfect stream of blazing fragments. All night long the air was filled with
shooting stars of lesser magnitude, but after one such as that alluded to, they
seemed scarcely worthy of attention." — Ibid. Nov. H.
^^ Meteor at Asseerghur . — A beautiful meteor was seen at Afeseerghtir about
nine o'clock on the evenins^ of the 9th ult. It travelled rapidly from east to
west : the natives describe it to have been the size of a small water-ghurree,
from which we should infer that it must have appeared at least four times as
large as the planet Venus at her brightest. It lighted up the whole sky for
some seconds, as if the full moon had been shining. It burst with a loud ex-
plosion, the sound being heard over the whole neighbourhood like that of a
heavy gun at sea. B3 some it was supposed an explosion had occurred at
Berhampore ; by others, that a mass of rock had fallen. We have not as yet
heard of any fragments having been picked up."
No. 10. — Letter from Prof. Chevallier to Prof. Powell.
"Durham, Jan. 11, 1850.
" My dear Sir, — With respect to the meteor seen here on the 19th of De-
cember last, the account which I have gathered from four intelligent persons,
one of them Mr. Carrington, the observer at Durham Observatory, is as
follows ; —
"• The meteor appeared at 5^ 15" Greenwich mean time, December 19th,
1849, in the N.W. by W. quarter, at an altitude of about 10°. The altitude
108 REPORT — 1850.
is estimated from the position of the meteor with reference to the star in the
tail of Ursa Major, the meteor appearing to have half the altitude of those
stars.'
" Its size was estimated by Mr. Carrington as twice that of Mars, as now
seen in opposition, both in magnitude and brightness. Another person con-
sidered it to be six times larger than Jupiter.
" Its motion was parallel to the horizon from N.W. by W. to about N.E. :
its progress was quite steady and uniform, continuing for twenty or thirty
seconds of time.
" Tiie bright head was followed by a tail, the length of which is estimated
variously. Mr. Carrington considers it to have been 20' or 25': the other
observers estimate it at from 6 to 10 diameters of the moon, or from 3° to 5°.
Before the meteor disappeared, its head broke up into three or four fragments,
which followed one another horizontally till the whole gradually disappeared.
No sound was noticed after the disappearance of the meteor.
"I have written to several parts of Great Britain and Ireland, with a view
of comparing observations of the meteor made elsewhere; but I have not
heard of its being seen anywhere but at Edinburgh.
" By a letter dated January 8th, from M. Piazzi Smyth, I find that it was
seen at Edinburgh by Mr, James Stirling, C.E., who perceived it pass across
the opening of a street, and has since measured the altitude of the part of the
house where the body disappeared. He found it about 8° 20', and is quite
sure it could not have been 9°.
" Professor Forbes and Professor Kelland also saw it ; and Prof. Forbes
published an account of it in the 'Edinburgh Courant' of December 20.
" The altitudes of the meteor, as seen at Durham and Edinburgh, are
sufficiently consistent on the supposition that the meteor had but very small
parallax; and Mr. P. Smyth informs me that the same conclusion follows
from several accounts which Prof. Forbes has collected from various pai'ts of
the country.
" As you are the centre to which all information of this kind converges,
you Mill probably have already received intelligence of this meteor.
" About a quarter of an hour before its appearance (that is about 5 p.m.)
a bright falling star passed downwards vertically near the Pleiades.
" Believe me, yours very truly,
" Prof. B. Powell. " Temple Chevallier.
" P.S. — Since writing this, I have found a copy of the printed account,
which I enclose.
"'Brilliant Meteor seen at Diirham, ISiQ. — In the evening of Decem-
ber 19, at 5^ 15"" mean Greenwich time, an unusually bright meteor was
seen at Durham, in the northern part of the sky. By a comparison of
three different accounts, it appears that the meteor was first observed in
the north-west by west quarter, and moved slowly in a horizontal direc-
tion from west to east, disappearing nearly north by east, thus moving
through 65° in about half a minute. Its altitude, obtained by referring
the meteor to the tail stars of the Great Bear, was about 10°, half the
altitude of those stars. The head was estimated by one observer, accustomed
to notice the heavens, to be twice the brightness and twice the apparent size
of Mars, as now seen in opposition ; and by another observer to be four times
as large and bright as Jupiter. The meteor had a tail nearly straight, which
became sensibly longer as the meteor advanced. The length «;f the tail was
estimated by one of the observers to be less than the diameter of the moon,
about 20' or 25' : another estimated it at six, and another at ten diameters
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 109
of the moon. Such differences of impression are likely to arise in a case
where a sudden phenomenon talies place, under circumstances in which the
iudsement cannot be corrected by even rough measurement, or by subsequent
examination. It is probable that the tail of this meteor may have been at
least four or five diameters of the moon, or about 2° or 3 in length. Beiore
the meteor disappeared, the head broke up into three or four fragments,
which continued to follow one anotlier horizontally, and then the whole very
gradually disappeared. Tiiere was no sound heard as of any explosion. It
would be desirable to obtain accounts of this meteor as seen m other places,
and especially in places further north, with a view of determining its altitude.
Account of a remarkable Meteor, seen December 19, 1849.
By Professor J. D. Forbes.
[From the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ii. No. 39.]
On the evening of the 19th December 1849, whilst walking near the
southern part of Edinburgh, about fifteen minutes past five, Greenwich time
(as 1 afterwards estimated), I observed a meteor, fully brighter than Venus
at her average brilliancy, moving from W. towards N., parallel to the horizon,
elevated 15° above it, and followed by a distinct luminous train. This angle
was subsequently taken by estiraatioh by daylight, with the aid ol a theodo-
lite ; and the compass-bearing of the meteor, when first seen, asceitained m
the same way, must have been 47° W. of N. When it bore 29 E. of mag-
netic north, it was observed to have divided into two, the one part following
the other at some distance; and I soon after lost sight of it in the obscurity
of the smoke of the town. When it split, its altitude was estimated at 6 . It
thus described an arc of no less than 76°, in doing which it occupied, as 1
roughly estimated, about fifteen seconds, or possibly more.
Having sent a short notice of the appearance of the meteor to the Courant
newspaper, I received from many quarters accounts of its having been seen
under circumstances remarkably similar to those just described. I believe
that nearly forty communications on the subject have reached me from places
included between Longford, in the centre of Ireland, to near Bervie,m Kin-
cardineshire, a distance of above 300 miles, in a direction nearly N.E. and
S W., whilst in a perpendicular direction, or from N.W. to S.E., the range ot
observation has been comparatively small ; for I have received no information
from beyond Renfrew in the one direction, and Durham in the other, being
about 149 miles distant in a straight line. The meteor was seen at Longford,
in Ireland, 74 miles west of Dublin, but not in Dublin itself. It was seen at
Belfast, between Carlisle and Gretna at Stewarton in Ayrshire, at Johnstone,
at Paisley, Renfrew, and by many persons in Glasgow and the neighbour-
hood. It was also generally seen in Edinburgh, in East Lothian, near Mel-
rose, and at Durham, as already mentioned. Further north, I have received
accounts from Crail, St. Andrews, Dundee, Perth, and Johnshaven to the
north of Montrose. • • • u
The greater number of these communications concur in estimating the
direction of the motion of the meteor to have been from S.W. to N.E.,
although, as might be expected, thev vary excessively as to its distance and
magnitude; being described by some persons as only 50 or 100 yards off,
and as large as the moon; by others, as a ball of 9 inciies in diameter, or the
size of a large egg. One person only professes to have heard a sound. The
time during which it was seen was variously estimated. At Longford, by
Mr Curtis, 20 seconds ; at Glasgow, by Mr. Stevenson, at 20 seconds ; at
Johnstone, by Mr. Cunningham, 15 seconds; at Perth, 15 or 20 seconds;
110 REPORT— 1850.
at Durham, by Mr. Carrington, 30 seconds ; at St. Andrews, 15 seconds ac-
cording to one observer, and 1 8 to 21 seconds according to another; at
Johnshaven, ^ths of a minute. The liour of the appearance of the meteor,
in most of the descriptions, is stated at between 5^ 10" and 5^ 16'".
The arc of tiie horizon which it was seen to traverse depended, of course,
on the point where the meteor first caught the observer's eye. At Granton,
it was traced by Professor Kelland through 125° of azimuth ; at Perth, 130° ;
at St. Andrews, 74°; at Edinburgh, 76°; at Durham, 65° ; at Glasgow, from
60° to 70°. The division of the head or nucleus into several parts, and, first
of all (in most cases), into two, has been noticed with remarkably slight
variation ; consequently, the explosion of the meteor marks a well-determined
point in its path. The separation was specially noticed at Edinburgh, Gran-
ton, Glasgow, Renfrew, Melrose, Haddington, Johnshaven, Perth, Durham
and St. Andrews.
In a ma,jority of cases a luminous train was observed ; and I am confident
that the existence of this train, which has been estimated from 2° to 3° long,
cannot be questioned. Dr. Adamson, however, especially remarked that no
train was to be seen at St. Andrews.
On revising the whole accounts, it does not appear that any of them
can be relied upon for ascertaining the position of the meteor in space,
except the observations of Mr. Carrington of the Durham Observatory ; of
Professor Kelland, Mr. Stirling and myself, at Edinburgh ; of Dr. Adamson
and anotlier observer, communicated by Professor Fischer of St. Andrews ;
of a young gentleman at Perth, communicated by Thomas Miller, Esq., Rec-
tor of the Perth Academy; and of A. D. Stevenson, Esq., and W. Gourlie,
Esq., jun., at Glasgow. My inquiries were chiefly directed to the two fol-
lowing points: Jii'st, the angular elevation of the meteor in the N.W. quarter
of the heavens, where it is admitted by all that its path appeared almost ho-
rizontal ; secondli/, to the bearing of the meteor at the instant of explosion.
At Durham, Mr. Carrington saw the meteor first when the bearing was
true N.W., the altitude (by theodolite) was then 10°, or not exceeding 11°;
when it burst, it was due N. (true), and continued to move 10° or 12° further
before it disappeared. Professor Chevallier, who obligingly communicated
these results, states that the meteor appeared rather to rise as it approached
the north, but with a doubt. This supposition, however, appears inadmissible,
from the unanimity of the other accounts.
At Granton, near Edinburgh, Professor Kelland caught sight of the
meteor a little to the N. of the moon, and several diameters below it. This
corresponds, by after estimation, with a theodolite, to 75° W. of magnetic
N., and an altitude of 12°. Professor Kelland thinks that it rather rose after-
wards. It split into two at 20° E. of magnetic N., having then an altitude of
only 5° ; it continued for a considerable time bright, then began to fade, as
if by the effect of distance, and also to separate into several parts ; it was
finally lost sight of 50° E. of magnetic N. (this bearing is well-ascertained),
with an altitude estimated at only half a degree. The position and circum-
stances of these observations, made at an elevated station above the Frith of
Forth, were eminently favourable.
Mr. J. Stirling, civil engineer, looking up North Hanover Street, Edin-
burgh, saw the meteor separate into two parts ; the bearing he afterwards
estimated at 25° E. of magnetic N. (the probable error not exceeding 1°),
and the altitude at 8° 30', certainly not exceeding 9°.
I think we may conclude, that at Edinburgh the meteor attained a maxi-
mum elevation of 15° (that mentioned in the commencement of this paper),
since it no doubt rose after Professor Kelland first saw it to the S. of the true
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. Ill
W., with an altitude of only 12°. The course of the meteor was evidently
such as to be nearest the spectator when in the true N.W. or W.N.W.
The place of the meteor when it burst stands thus : —
Kelland, N. 20° E. (mag.) Alt. 5°.
Stirling, N. 25° E. Alt. 8° 30'.
Forbes, N. 29° E. Alt. 6°.
The average is almost 25° E. of N., or about 1° W. of the true meridian,
the variation being nearly 26°. The mean of the three observations of alti-
tude would be 6° 30' ; but admitting Mr. Stirling's to be entitled to the
greatest confidence, we may suppose it 7°, or possibly a little more.
At St. Andrews, the meteor was seen by Dr. Adamson, when riding in a
northerly direction, on the Largo road. Professor Fischer was so kind as to
accompany him afterwards to the spot, and to reduce his observations Avith
all the accuracy of which they were capable. It was first noticed when bear-
ing 8|° W. of magnetic N., and disappeared at 42|^° E. of N. ; the altitude
was conjecturally stated as between 14° and 18^°, and it appeared to move
horizontally, but rather declining towards the N.
After describing three-fourths of its course, it split into two parts, which
went on close together for a little, then brolie into four or five, became dull
red, and rapidly disappeared ; the separate pieces travelling on together until
the last.
Another intelligent observer near St.Andrews, whose evidence was taken
by Mr. Fischer, first saw the meteor 29f ° W. of magnetic N., and estimated
the point where the meteor burst at 44° E. of N.; but this last number coin-
cides so closely with Dr. Adamson's estimate of the point of final disappear-
ance, that it is perhaps allowable to suppose, that this second observer had
mixed up these two events in his description. Dr. Adamson's statement, that
one-fourth of the arc which he saw was described after the meteor had split,
would give an azimuth at that moment of almost 30° E. of N. magnetic, or
4° E. of N. true, as Mr. Fischer determined the magnetic declination to be
about 25° 46'. The altitude of the meteor, as seen by this observer, appears
not to have exceeded 15° (the same as at Edinburgh) ; which number we
shall therefore adopt.
At Perth, the passage of the meteor was seen from the North Inch, by a
young gentleman of intelligence, whose observations were reduced to num-
bers by Mr. Miller, Rector of the Perth Academy, who was so good as to
accompany him to the spot, and take the angles with a theodolite. Its bear-
ing, when first seen, was 46° S. of W. true ; its angular altitude was at that
time only 3° 30'. This is by far the most southern azimuth which has been
observed. Its bearing, when it disappeared, was 6° W. of N., but it was then
lost in a cloud. If 1 understand right, it had by this time separated into
fragments. Its apparent altitude in tiie middle of its course was about 17° 30'.
These observations, extending over an arc of 130°, taken along with Professor
Kelland's, clearly demonstrate that the meteor appeared M-ith a very low alti-
tude in the S.W. quarter of the heavens, and disappeared in a similar way in
the N.N.E., attaining its greatest elevation about W.N.W. (true).
At Glasgow the meteor was very generally and well seen. Mr. William
Gourlie, jun., saw it move fi-om S.W. to N.N.E., over an arc of 60° or 70°,
and divide into two, when it bore 40° E. of magnetic N. He estimates its
greatest elevation at S0°, and that it decreased to between 15° and 17°, or
even less, at tlie time of its separation : he adds, that he is not much ac-
customed to such observations. Mr. A.D. Stevenson, living in South Port-
land Street, Glasgow, saw the meteor moving along at a height just suf-
112
REPORT 1850.
ficient to clear the chimney-tops, on the west side of the street; an elevation
which he afterwards estimated, as he states, with considerable accuracy at 28°.
I have received further and more minute accounts of the appearance of the
meteor from Mr. Stevenson, who has been most kind and intelligent in his
communications; and my friend Mr. James Peddie has verified the accuracy
of Mr. Stevenson's observations beyond the possibility of mistake. It ap-
pears that the meteor passed quite clear of a stack of chimneys on the oppo-
site side of the street, which would give it a well-defined minimum altitude
of 25° 41' ; but Mr. Stevenson is of opinion that it rose more than 2° higher,
or to not less than 28° (perhaps even to 28° 21'); when it was highest, its
bearing was 59^° W. of N. (magnetic), and it disappeared from his view when
it bore 40° 27' E. of magnetic N. It ivas then decidedly single. Now this bear-
ing coincides with that at which Mr. Gourlie observed it to become double;
and, consequently, the limit towards the N. of this event is severely defined.
The following table contains the most definite of these observations, and
the azimuths are all reduced to the true meridian : —
Greatest
altitude.
True azimuth
when first seen.
True azimuth of
disappearanee.
Arc
observed.
True azimuth of
first explosion.
Altitude at
first explosion.
Durham ...
10° 30'
N. 45° W.
N. 12° E.
57°
N.
Edinburgh
15°
W. 11° S.
N. 24° E.
125°
N. 1° W.
7°
St. Andrews
15°
N. 55° W.
N. 16° E,
71°
N. 4° E.
Perth
Glasgow ...
17° 30'
28°
W. 47° S.
N. 7° W.
(in a cloud)
130°
100°?
p
N. H^E.
15°
Remarks on the Observations.
1. On the whole, these observations are not consistent, and cannot (I
conceive) be cleared up without additional and accurate ones, which it may
now be too late to procure. The central group of stations, Edinburgh, Perth
and St. Andrews, are sufficiently accordant, and indicate that the path of the
meteor must have been nearly parallel to a line passing through the first and
last of those places, or in a direction N. 27° E. (true) ; which accords well
with the observations at most of the individual stations, and particularly with
the vanishing direction in Professor Kelland's remarkable observation at
Gran ton.
2. The Durham observation is compatible with the above-mentioned
group within the limits of error. By the combination of Durham and Edin-
burgh (the base line perpendicular to the assumed direction of the meteor's
motion being 95 miles), I calculated that the meteor passed vertically nearly
over the island of St. Kilda, with an absolute elevation of about 88 miles.
But this solution seems absolutely excluded by observations at Glasgow which
admit of no question, and which I have spared no pains in verifying. Had
the position of the meteor been such as I have first assumed, it could not
possibly have been seen over even the roofs of the houses from the station
occupied by Mr. Stevenson, much less over the chimney-tops. The bearing,
at the moment of explosion at Glasgow, also singularly enough corroborates
sufficiently well the comparatively small elevation (about twenty miles above
the earth) which the combination of Edinburgh and Glasgow gives ; and this
bearing we have seen to have been also accurately defined by the physical
obstacles bounding the observer's view ; it would have given a parallax of 15°,
subtended by the perpendicular on the meteor's path, referred to Glasgow
and Edinburgh respectively. Now, if this calculation were anything like
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 113
correct, the Perth observation is entirely wrong ; and the meteor could not
have risen about 6° above the horizon of Durham, instead of 10° or 11° as
estimated. I am unable in any degree to explain these conflicting results.
3. The observations of Professor Kelland at Granton, and those at Perth,
through the great azimuths of 123° and 130°, described by the meteor with
such remarkable deliberation of motion, lead, when analysed, to the very
same results which presented themselves to the mind of the spectator intui-
tively; namely, that the motion must have been sensibly rectilinear, equable
and parallel to the horizon at Edinburgh. Assuming that the greatest alti-
tude at Edinburgh was 15°, and the bearing then N. 63° V/. (true), we may
calculate that the altitude should have been on this hypothesis, when first
seen by Professor Kelland, 11°47', instead of 12° as observed ; at explosion,
6° 59' (7° observed), and at its final disappearance 0° 47' (instead of 0° 30'
observed). Again, at Perth, the observed altitude, when first seen, was 3^°,
and the calculated altitude 5° 3', taking the maximum altitude at 17i°. The
coincidence is, on the whole, remarkable, though it would be rash to push it
to an extreme, as an error of some degrees may exist in the assumption of
the direction of the meteor's course. Some later observations, received from
Mr. Curtis at Longford, and a consideration of the effects of perspective at
Perth and Edinburgh, incline me to admit that the path might make an angle
3° or 4° greater with the meridian than I have above supposed. These con-
clusions are independent of the actual distance or parallax of the meteor;
which, as I have said, cannot be determined without further observations,
which I should be glad to receive from any quarter, but more particularly
from Ireland, and from the centre and N.W. of Scotland. If correct, they
entitle us to infer that the meteor in question was most probably a body mo-
ving in space, in a path little curved, and not revolving round the earth.
No. 11.— From the Bombay Times, March 13, 1850.
" ' Palinurus,' at sea, February 21st, 1850.— The following memorandum of
meteors lately seen, I hope may prove interesting to you : — Feb. 7th, latitude
24° 53' N., longitude 66° 16' E. at 7 p.m., a large meteor, about ^th the dia-
meter of the moon, appeared to the eastward, about 40° elevation, and vanished
to the north-eastward, about 25° elevation."
No. \2.—Ibid.
" February 10th, latitude 24° 18' N., longitude 66° 30' E., at 8-30 p.m., a
large meteor, at least ^th the diameter of the moon, appeared, elevated 8°
S.S.W., and disappeared again instantly about 2° to the southward. This
meteor displayed a most brilliant light, and had a clearly defined short tail,
not more than four times the diameter of its body in length."
No. 13 — Meteor of February 11. The following details may be of interest
in addition to the particulars given in the table.
[From the Derbyshire Courier.]
" Southgate House, Feb. 14, 1850,
" Sir, — In looking over this morning's ' Times,' there appear two letters,
one dated from Oxford, the other from Lambeth, mentioning the appearance
-of a most extraordinary body in the heavens, which took place between ten
and eleven o'clock on Monday last, the eleventh inst. On the same evening,
Mr. Henry John B. Bowdon and myself were returning home from Mount St.
Mary's, which place we left shortly after ten o'clock, and just before we arrived
at home, it being a particularly dark night, the entire atmosphere of a sudden
1850. 1
114 REPORT 1850.
became illuminated with the most brilliant light. Astonished at the cir-
cumstance, we all at the same instant looked out of the carriage window, and
beheld a most brilliant substance descending towards the ground. It ap-
peared not more than fiftj'^ or sixty yards from us. The head of the light
appeared of the most splendid and brilliant red colour, whilst the tail was of
a pale bluish tinge. It had veiy much the appearance of a sky-rocket, though
much larger and brighter. Just before reaching the earth it seemed to ex-
plode, though we could hear no noise. This took place about twenty minutes
or a quarter before eleven o'clock on Monday night.
" If you think this curious appearance, which has shown itself at nearly
the same time in places so distant from each other, worthy of a place in your
columns, it is much at your service.
" I remain, Sir, your obedient Servant,
" Peter C. Maxwell."
No. 14. — The following account is most remarkable with respect to the
mode of disappearance of the meteor.
[From the same Journal.]
" Mr. Whitmore of Kennington Lane, Lambeth, says, ' On Monday night,
at about a quarter or ten minutes to eleven o'clock, a very beautiful shooting
meteor of dazzling appearance was visible in the heavens, taking, as it seemed
to me, a direction bearing west to east. The night in the early part of it had
been rainy, with a fair amount of wind, from the westvvard and southward
(as during the day), but at the time of the above luminous appearance it had
partially cleared off, and the stars were visible, with only a few light clouds,
which served materially to heighten the effect when illuminated. The course
the light described was a fine curve, commencing with a small feathery ap-
pearance, gradually expanding in width and radiance as it proceeded, and its
duration was of soxiie seconds. At first it occurred to me it was a trial rocket
of some description, as it dropped precisely as they do when near exploding,
but it afterwards lighted up still more brilliantly, and resumed its course with
increased splendour, leaving in its track a long train of intense light. It ap-
peared rounded or bulbed at its head or point of combustion, and went off to
an elongated taper, as some of the comets have been represented. Its alti-
tude I should judge was not great, as its edges were distinct, and one slight
wave in its progress was to me very discernible. As it brightened it displayed
the most lovely colours, which could be distinctly traced to the radial colours
produced by the sun — at one period green, violet (deep), pale red, &c., and
their effects through the thin stratum of clouds which were in its path were
most gorgeous. Before vanishing it appeared to roll over, like to something
molten, and contracting all its light at once, suddenly disappeared. It was
perfectly silent, although my expectation was that from its extent and bril-
liancy a report might possibly be produced.' "
No. \5. — " The following is from Manchester, which also differs from the
others in some respects : — In passing along Renshaw Street, Hulme, on Monday
night, at ten to eleven o'clock, I saw the most singular phsenomena that I ever
heard of, in the form of a meteor. I observed what appeared to be a bright
star, situate about E. by S., when suddenly it fell straight downwards, leaving
a stream of fire of the most beautiful colours — crimson, purple and green. The
light was so great from it, that it cast my shadow along the ground, as clear
as at noonday. It appeared to burst in the air like a rocket, and made a
noise like distant thunder, accompanied by a thick cloud all around the light.
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 115
Several parties who saw the light, but not the meteor, supposed that it was
caused by vivid sheet lightning, until I undeceived them."
No. 16. — These appearances are further illustrated by the very graphic
description contained in the following letter to the author from Mr. F.
Barnard : —
8 Cross Street, Islington, London, Feb. 12, 1850.
« Sir, — Since the month of May 18-t8, when I sent you a short account of
a meteor I had seen, I have had no opportunity of repeating any similar ob-
servation until last night, when, in common with many others, 1 had the
good fortune to see the phaenomenon of most extraordinary size and brilliancy.
The circumstances were as follows : — At eighteen minutes to eleven, my sister
and self were walking in a southerly direction through Holloway, when we
■were startled by a greenish white light that suddenly lit up the whole scene
in front of us. At first I thought it was lightning ; the quantity of light flung
round seemed equal to that from a vivid blaze of lightning, but it continued
with a slight glimmer. This was all conceived before I turned round and
beheld a large and intensely bright meteor traversing the sky, almost from
west to east, perhaps a trifle to north. The most remarkable feature besides
its light, was its duration and slowness. It appeared almost to struggle loith
the atmosphere — if it vms within our atmosphere — ivith an undulatory motion,
just as the electric fluid is zigzaged by atmospheric resistance, so this meteor
appeared to be alternately impeded on this side and on that. It meandered,
it trickled through the sky ; and as it moved, gave ofl^' a succession of balls or
sparks which stretched out in a tail of some length, and vanished as rapidly
as the nucleus proceeded. In fact, it might well have been mistaken for a
rocket, but that it was lofty, horizontal and silent.
" This was somewhat of its appearance, though it is difficult to form a de-
finite image of such an object. The time that it was visible was, I think,
about four, perhaps five seconds. I find that either itself or its light has been
seen by a great many ; indeed I suppose more have seen it than have not, and
from various parts of the metropolis. You cannot fail, I think, to hear of it
from numerous correspondents ; but from many accounts the trtith is ex-
tracted. So this comes from. Sir,
" Yours very respectfully,
" To Rev, Baden Powell." " Frank Barnard."
No. 17. — Mr. Lowe has favoured me v»ith the following details (besides
those inserted in the Catalogue).
" February 11th, 10|^— Tail and all together = size of ^ ; much brighter
than ([ ; colour yellow, with yellow light for tail, ex-
cepting round the edge of the tail, where was a purple
light. When it disappeared, it broke up like a rocket
into separate stars and almost instantly disappeared,
leaving a slight stain at the spot for about half a
second. The edge of meteor was well-defined. ***** I regret I did
not see it, though I watched until within a minute of its taking place ; but a
dense cloud rising rapidly, I left off obs^erving, unluckily too soon, as it oc-
curred before the cloud came over. The cloud discharged much snow. It
was seen in Nottingham by G. Allcock, jun., Esq., and at Beeston, by theRev.
J.Wolley."
No. 18. — Mr. Glaisher has collected a large number of details of the ob-
servations made on this meteor. The following are a few particulars, both
I 2
116 REPORT 1850.
from that paper and other sources, bearing on the physical characters of the
meteor. [The numerals refer to those in Mr. Glaisher's paper.J
(iii.) It had a train, besides which it threw off" sparks literallj'.
(xx.) Before disappearance it emitted numerous sparks from the end of
the tail.
(xxxv.) At first it was of the size of an ordinary meteor ; it increased as it
went on.
(xxxvi.) The tail was conical from the head, throwing out sparks before
disappearance; it had a wavy motion.
(xli.) Fireballs in profusion fell from the tail.
(xliii.) It burst at alt. 30°, but did not disappear till it had descended to
25° ; at 2° or 3° above 30° it separated into six bodies, which spread very
little laterally.
Mr. Glaisher thinks (p. 271) from the violence of the report that it must
have been the bursting of a solid body by expansion of an elastic fluid. Some
fragments may probably have fallen near Biggleswade (Bedfordshire). It
seems certain it must have come from regions beyond the influence of our
vapours : this circumstance, its extreme velocity, and intensity of light, are
more conformable to the nature of a solid than a gaseous body.
One of the most remarkable observations is that of Mr. Hind, who says,
(x.) " the appearance of its light was such, that in my idea no doubt can be
entertained but that it was of electrical origin ; it moved precisely in the
direction in wiiich the wind was blowing at the time."
No. 19. — At Oxford, Mrs. Baden Powell described the appearance as of a
small globe advancing, and rapidly expanding by three or four successive
jerks or bursts, at each burst remaining stationary for an instant, and thus
forming successively larger globes — intensely bright and blue, all the while
emitting a stream of sparks on each side, till the final globe was nearly as
large as the moon, which dissipated into brilliant globules, shot off" in all
directions, and appearing to fall. It was compared by another person present
to an umbrella pushed onwards, and alternately opened and shut rapidly.
The subjoined sketch gives an idea of this peculiar appearance, it being
understood that the globes here represented were in reality seen in succession.
This peculiarity bears a close resemblance to that represented in Mr.
Wyatt's engraving. Also in the accounts collected by Mr. Glaisher several
of the observers allude to what was apparently the same appearance. Thus
(xxvi.) " A bar of light with sparks issuing on every side, advanced with
a jerking motion."
(vi.) After explosion it was followed by three globes in the same direction.
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, ll?
(viii.) The Astronomer Royal saw a brilliant body, followed by two others
close behind it.
(xxi.) " Like an enormous flaming umbrella opened and shut alternately."
No. 20.— From the Bombay Times, March 13, 1850.
" Surat, 7th March, 1850.— I send you the following, believing it will in-
terest you. On Wednesday evening, 6th, at nine o'clock, a beautiful meteor
burst suddenly into sight in a quarter of the heavens to which my eye was at
the instant directed, viz. R.A. 15°, N. P.D. 20° (very nearly). It remained
in sight but a moment, and was in brilliancy, size and colour like Sirius ; and
its appearance and disappearance were quite startling from their suddenness.
It passed over about 5° of the heavens irom east to west, leaving behind it a
train of dull red sparks of the same length, strikingly resembling a comb, the
teeth pointing downwards towards the horizon. The train descended very
slowly, and the teeth, as it were, gradually shot out from each, and down-
wards, increasing in length as they approached the centre, until the train as-
sumed the form of the Roman letter V, the angle being composed of large
egg-shaped drops, like molten iron, and the intermediate space between the
lines forming the letter, filled with parallel vertical lines of sparks. This ap-
pearance gradually faded from the sight (without altering in shape), very like
the colour disappearing from a piece of heated iron as it cools. It had de-
scended about 5°, when it finally disappeared : it remained in sight full fifteen
seconds, I counted fifteen slowly, and did not begin to count till a second or
two after the disappearance of the meteor. If the accepted theory is correct,
perhaps I shall not be wrong in assuming that the meteor must have cut a
chord of an arc through the verge of our atmosphere, the outer surface being
fused and thrown off in its passage, the principal body continuing its course
through space beyond the limits of the atmosphere, the attraction of some
other body acting more powerfully upon it than that of the earth, which, by
the way, it is difficult to conceive. — Ursa Minor."
No. 21. — From the Journal des Debats, June 1850.
" On ecrit du Havre, le 6 juin :
' " Hier, entre neuf et dix heures du soir, un meteore lumineux a ete observe
dans le firmament au dessus de notre ville. II affectait la forme d'un globe de
feu du diametre de la lune dans son plein, mais brillait d'un eclat beaucoup plus
vif. Apres avoir suivi la direction du sud-ouest au nord-est, laissant apres
lui une trainee lumineuse d'une longueur de trente metres environ, dont la
clarte allait graduellement s'effa9ant, il a disparu, au bout de quelques mi-
nutes, derriere les hauteurs qui dominent la ville.
" Le meme phenomene s'est produit presque simultanement a Rouen et au
Havre. Voici ce qu'on lit a ce sujet dans le 'Journal de Rouen :'
" Hier soir, vers neuf heures un quart, un brilliant meteore a tout a coup
projete sur notre ville une viva lumiere, qui I'a entierement eclairee pendant
quelques secondes.
" La journee, qui avait ete tres belle, pouvait cependant faire craindre un
orage, tant la chaleur etait forte et tant I'air ^tait rarefie. Chacun ressentait
cet alourdissement general de tout le corps, suite du pen de densite de I'at-
mosphere trop dilatee par un soleil ardent.
" A la fin du jour, quelques nuages parurent ^a et la ; bientot ils se reuni-
rent vers le Boulingrin, mais pour se dissiper tres promptement. A neuf
heures un quart, le ciel etait pur et I'obscurit^ assez pen sensible, lorsqu'un
globe de feu eclata sans bruit dans I'atmosphere. II semblait etre a la dis-
tance de terre qu'atteignent habituellement les fusees a etoiles.
118 REPORT — 1850.
" Ce m^teore repandait une magnifique clarte, plus vive que celle du gaz
de I'eclairage, et d'une coloration s'approchant de la couleur aurore. A peine
eut-il annonce sa presence, qu'il decrivit dans le ciel une courbe lumineuse
s'etendant de Test a I'ouest. Cette courbe se forma de la maniere suivante :
de la premiere boule de feu, grosse comme un ceuf, sortit une autre boule qui
se detaclia sous la forme d'une larnie ; de cette iarme, subitement arrondie, il
s'en detacha une seconde, de cette seconde une troisieme, et de la troisieme
une quatrieme ; puis, de ces sortes de larmes qui s'etaient successivement
6teintes a mesure qu'elies s'etaient engendrees, la derniere disparut, et la nuit
reprit son empire. Une demi-minute apres, un unique coup de tonnerre se
fit entendre. Rien autre chose n'est venu troubler I'atmosphere, qui toute
la nuit a ete des plus calmes,"
No. 22. — The following details have been communicated by Dr. Buist of
Bombay.
Meteoric Stone presented to the East India Company s Museum. — The fol-
lowing is an authentic account of a meteoric stone which was lately brought
from India by Lieut.-Col. Penington, and presented to the Hon. E.I. Com-
pany, who have deposited it in their museum.
Extract of a letter from Capt. G. Bird, first assistant in the Political De-
partment to Major-Gen. Sir D. Ochterlony, Bart., K.G., C.B., to Major
Penington.
"Loodianah, 5th April, 1815.
" My dear Major, — I lost no time, after my receipt of your letter, to take
the measures for obtaining the information you desire relative to the meteor-
olite which lately fell near the village of Dooralla. Accounts of this extra-
ordinary phaenomenon had spread over the whole of the Seikh country; and
for more than a month before your letter reached me, the account of its fall,
connected with a great number of wonders, had been reported to me, and
that the people from all the neighbouring villages had assembled at Dooralla
to pay their devotions to it, but now, after a very full inquiry, I feel quite
satisfied that you may rest confident in the accuracy of the following state-
ment. On the 18th of February last, about noon, some people who were at work
in a field about half a mile distant from the village of Dooralla, were suddenly
alarmed by the explosion of what they conceived to be a large cannon, * the
report being louder than that of any other gun they had ever heard,' which
report was succeeded by a rushing noise, like that of a cannon-ball in its
greatest force. When looking towards the quarter whence the noise pro-
ceeded, they perceived a large black body in the air, apparently moving
directly towards them, but passing with inconceivable velocity, buried itself in
the earth, at the distance of about sixty paces from the spot where they stood.
As soon as they could recover from the terror with which this terrific vision had
appalled them, they ran towards the village, where they found the people no less
terrified than themselves, who, though not having seen the stone, imagined
that a marauding party was approaching, and, as but too frequently happens,
would sack their village. VV'hen the brahmins of the village wex'e told what
had really happened, they determined to proceed, and were followed by all
the people to the spot where the stone fell, having with them instruments for
digging it out. On their arrival at the place, they found the surface broken
and the fresh earth and sand thrown about to a considerable distance, and at
the depth of rather more than five feet, in a soil of mingled sand and loam,
they found the stone which they cannot doubt was what actually fell, being
altogether unlike anything known in that part of the country. The brahmins,
taking immediate charge of the stone, conveyed it to the village, where they
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 119
commenced a Poosa, and covering it with wreaths of flowers, set on foot a
subscription for the purpose of erecting a small temple over it, not doubting
from the respect paid to it by the Hindoos, to turn it to a profitable account.
As I said before, it fell on the 18th of February, about mid-day, in a field
near the village of Dooralla, which lies about lat. 308° 20', long. 76° 41',
within the territory belonging to the Pattialah Rajah, sixteen or seventeen
miles from Umballah and eighty from Loodianah. The day was very clear
and serene, and as usual at that season of the year, not a cloud was to be
seen, nor was there in the temperature of the air anything to engage their
attention ; the thermometer of course may be stated at about 68° in the shade.
The report was heard in all the circumjacent towns and villages, to the di-
stance of twenty coss, or twenty-five miles from Dooralla. The Pattialah
Rajah's Vakeel being in attendance here when your letter reached me, I de-
sired him to express my wish to the Rajah to have this stone, and as it
appears that he had been led to consider it rather as a messenger of ill omen,
he gave immediate orders for its conveyance to Loodianah, but with positive
injunctions that it should not approach Pattialah, his place of residence. It
arrived here yesterday, escorted by a party of brahmins and some Seikh horse.
It weighs rather more than twenty-five pounds, and is covered with a pellicle
thinner than a wafer, of a black sulphureous crust, though it emits no smell
of sulphur that I can discover; but, having been wreathed with flowers while
in possession of the brahmins, the odour originally emitted may by these be
concealed. It is an ill-shapen triangle, and from one of J;he corners a piece
has been broken off, either in its fall or by the instruments when taking it
out of the ground. This fracture discloses a view of the interior, in which
iron pyrites and nickel are distinctly visible. Since its arrival, all the brah-
mins in the neighbourhood have assembled at my tents to pay their adoration
to it, and no Hindoo ventures to approach but with closed hands in apparent
devotion, so awful a matter is it in their eyes. I shall avail myself of the
first escort that leaves Loodianah, to forward it to you." — Original Commu-
nication.
An uncommon phaenomenon appeared on the evening of the 14th, be-
tween seven and eight o'clock, which has produced a curious sensation
amongst the inhabitants of this settlement. A meteoric globe of fire of about
the size of a full moon, when seen in the horizon, approached from the south-
east, and passed over the town in a north-west direction, at a height not much
above the tallest trees. It was followed by a rattling broken noise, somewhat
resembling that of thunder, produced, we suppose, by the bursting of the
ball, which took place at some distance from the town. The oldest people
in Malacca say they never witnessed such a thing before, and many, not
knowing its real nature, consider it a portentous omen for evil. Some very
sagely prophesy that there will be war ; others that rice will be dearer ;
and others again aver that the world will soon be at an end ; the Malays say
that it is an Antoo Api, or fire spirit, sent to destroy some wicked man's
house ; and others that it is the serpent of the sun which has got loose and
is going its peregrinations. We understand that a Chinaman, who had been
sickly for some time previously, was so terrified by the appearance, that he
sunk down in a fit and instantly expired. — Malacca Obs., May 20.
A correspondent of the ' Englishman,' at Dinagepore, gives an account of
a fall of meteoric stones at that station. The fall occurred at noon, and was
accompanied by a rumbling noise, similar to that which precedes an earth-
quake, with this difference, that the noise was from above. Some of the
stones were of considerable size, the largest weighing about four pounds.
They were all much alike in appearance, with a thin black crust over them,
120 REPORT — 1850.
as if they had been intensely heated. The sky was perfectly clear at the
time of the fall.
No. 23. — Meteoric Stone wliichfell near Agra on the 1th August, 1822. —
At a late meeting of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a large meteoric
stone was placed on the library table, with a particular account of its fall, in
the Persian language. This was translated by Dr. Wilkins. The stone fell
in the night of the 7th of August, 1822, near the village of Kadonah, in the
district of Agra. It descended with much noise as of cannon and of the
wind, awakening those who were asleep, and alarming a watchman who heard
it fall. On making a search in the morning the stone was found warm, and
with a little smoke arising from it. It is to be subjected to examination.
No. 24. — Meteor of 3rd November 1825, observed at Calcutta. — Colonel
Blacker's third communication gives an account of a singular meteor, having
the appearance of an elongated ball of fire, which he observed on the 3rd of
November, a little after sunset, when on the road between the custom-house
and the court-hall. Its colour was pale, for the daylight was still strong, and
its larger diameter appeared greater, and its smaller less than the semi-
diameter of the moon. Its direction was from east to west, its track nearly
horizontal, and altitude about thirty degrees. Col. B. regrets not having heard
of any other observation of this phasnonicnou at a greater distance, whereby
he might have estimated its absolute height. As, however, it did not appa-
rently move with the velocity of ordinary meteors, it was probably at a great
distance, and consequently of great size. So long as Col. Blacker beheld it,
which was for five or six seconds, its motion was steady, its light equable, and
its size and figure permanent. It latterly, however, left a train of sparks,
soon after which it disappeared suddenly, without the attendant circumstance
of any repoi't audible in Col. Blacker's situation. Col. Blacker concludes his
paper with some interesting observations on luminous meteors, and considers
them of perpetual occurrence, although daylight, clouds and misty weather,
so often exclude them from our view. Of their number no conception can
be formed by the unassisted eye, but some conjecture may be formed of their
extent from the fact mentioned by our author, that in using his astronomical
telescope he has often seen what are called falling stars, shooting through the
field of view, when they were not visible to the naked eye ; and when it is
considered that the glass only embraced one twenty-five thousandth part of
the celestial hemisphere, it will be apparent that these phajnomena must be
infinitely numerous, in order to occur so frequently in so small a space. — Cal-
cutta Government Gazette.
No. 25. — Meteor of 22nd November 1825, observed at Calcutta. — A re-
markable meteor was visible on Friday night S.W. of the comet and near it.
It appeared in shape at first like a ball of fire, which assumed the form of a
vividly brilliant comet. This continued beautifully and powerfully luminous
for some minutes, but gradually waxed fainter and fainter, until at length it
totally disappeared. — India Gazette, Dec. 5.
]>q^o. 26. — Meteors of 23rd June and 2^th July 1832, observed at Delhi and
Meerut. — Delhi, 28th July 1832. An extraordinary large meteor, or rather
three balls of fire, at first arose out of the E.S.E. horizon on the 23rd of last
month, and after rising to the elevation of about fifteen degrees, joined into
one, forming a large ball of brilliant fire, nearly as big as a full moon in the me-
ridian, and passed over an arc of the heavens of about 115° before it vanished
in the W.N.W. The light was very brilliant. This took place about ten
o'clock at night, and I suppose but few persons witnessed it. — India Gazette.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. i-.121
No. 27. — Another, almost equally big, passed over Meerut a few nights
ago, and disappeared with a brilliant and dazzling light in the W.N.W.
N.B. The first meteor passed over the city of Delhi, and its greatest altitude
was about 70°. It passed to the north of the Juma Musjid. — India Gazette.
No. 28. — Meteors of 18th November 1832, observed at Bulrampore and
Agra. — The 'India Gazette' contains extracts from two letters, one from
Bulrampore, in the Jungle Mehauls, the other from'Agra, communicating
accounts of a very remarkable atmospherical phsenomenon.
" Camp Bulrampore, 13tli Nov.
" During our march this morning the sky presented a most brilliant spec-
tacle. Innumerable meteors were flying in every direction, and some of them
the most beautiful I ever saw. They appeared to burst finer than the finest
sky rockets, leaving a long line of various-coloured light in the heavens be-
hind them, which remained several minutes and vanished gradually. I never
saw anything like it before, and I should think it not a common thing in
India, for I have travelled frequently at different hours of the night, and
never before witnessed a similar phsenomenon."
" Agra, 18th November.
" Some nights ago there was a most extraordinary appeai'ance in the hea-
vens. The sky was all one blaze, owing to the number of falling stars."
The same phasnonienon was seen at the same time at the three presidencies.
No. 29.— Meteor of 18th 3Iarch 1833, observed at Madras.—'' On the even-
ing of the 18th inst., at 5^ 27™ mean time, a meteor of great brilliancy and
magnitude made its appearance towards the N.E., in the constellation Cor
Caroli, from whence, pursuing a north-westerly direction for about 3°, through
the constellation Hercules, it disappeared at an altitude of 35°. The time it
remained visible did not exceed two or three seconds. Listening attentively,
at about 6| minutes after the disappearance a report was distinctly heard,
which very evidently proceeded from the bursting of the meteor; the di-
stance resulting from this interval is in round numbers about 81 miles.
"Madras Observatory, 20th Mar. 1833." "T. G. Taylor, H.C.'s Astronomer."
No. 30. Meteors of 10th September 1841, observed at Calcutta. — About
two in the morning on Friday last, innumerable meteors of surprising beauty
were perceptible in the heavens. Vast myriads of shooting stars were seen
darting through the air in a S.S.W. direction, leaving a long and brilliant
train of light. The whole atmosphere was illuminated, and at one period the
light was so great, as to have enabled a person to read the smallest print with
the utmost facility. This magnificent spectacle was visible during a period
of ten or twelve minutes. — Englishman, Sept. 1 3.
No. 31. — Account of a luminous meteor seen at Charka, lat. 24° 06',
long. 81° 02', on the morning of the 11th April 1842, by Capt. Shortrede,
First Assistant G. T. Survey.
" A little before four o'clock this morning I saw a meteor of a singular ap-
pearance, of which the following is an account: —
" I was lying awake outside my tent, and about a minute or two before had
closed my eyes, intending to have a short sleep before marching, when my
attention was roused by some brilliant light before me. On opening my eyes,
I saw a meteor having very much the appearance of a rocket : it was situated
in the constellation Scorpio, having its middle about 10° to the westward of
Antares, and pointing towards the constellation Corvus, the lower star of
which was about 4° above the horizon. The meteor was about 10° or 20°
long, and equally bright throughcmt except at the upper end, where it was
122 REPORT — 1850-
rather faint. It continued in tiie same position and of the same brightness
for between two and three minutes as well as I could judge, and then gra-
dually became fainter and fainter, till it lost its brilliancy altogether ; and
as it began to fade, it began also to become crooked and to move towards
the west. It became gradually more crooked, and continued to fade till
it became like a thin smoke, and at last vanished away at about 3° or 4;°
from the place where I first saw it. I listened attentively, but heard no noise.
From the time I first saw it till its brilliancy ceased, was probably about five
minutes, and in about three minutes more it ceased to be any longer remark-
able. I was then at Charka, in lat. 24° 06' and long. 81° 20'."
" Dewra, 11th April, 1842."
No. 32. — An account of a remarkable aerolite which fell at the village of
Maniegaon, near Eidulabad in Khandeesh. Communicated, with a specimen,
to the Asiatic Society by Capt. James Abbott, B.A., late Resident, Nimaur.
A chemical examination of the above aerolite, and remarks, by Henry
Piddington, Curator, Geological and Mineralogical Department of the Mu-
seum of Q^conomic Geology.
At the meeting of October IS^^, Capt. Abbott communicated to the So-
ciety the following documents, with two small specimens of the aerolite.
" Capt. J. Abbott, Artillery, Dum Dum, to the Secretary of the Asiatic
Society, Calcutta.
" Dum Dum, Sept. 16th, 1844.
" Sir, — In July 1843, I received at Mundlaisir, from the Komarder (or
native collector) at Asseer, a report of the fall, in that part of the country, of
a meteoric stone, together with a few grains, said to be particles of the same.
1 immediately despatched a karkoon to the spot, to ascertain the truth or
falsify of the statement, and to collect specimens of the supposed aerolite.
These accompany my letter. They differ so much from the structure of
every reputed aerolite I have previously met with, that I should be inclined
to doubt the veracity of the reporters, could I discover any other reason for
questioning it. I have never heard any other instance of an aerolite in that
neighbourhood. The fact is implicitly credited in the neighbourhood of
Eidulabad, where it is said to have occurred. These specimens appear to
me to resemble masses of friable rock of the quartz family which I have met
with in iMalwa. But it is evident that a mass of texture so loose could
never have borne unshattered the propelling agency of fire, nor has any vol-
cano existed within the memory of man in Nimaur or Mahiswah, nor, I
believe, in Khaundes, although fable declares Oojyne to have been buried
beneath a shower of mud, and Mahiswah to have been destroyed by the mis-
chievous malice of a demon. The depositions of the observers I have trans-
lated and appended. The spot was beyond, my district, or I would myself
have visited it. It is probable that the collector of Khaundes may have
reported it to the Bombay Society.
" This report, and the note upon granite in the Nerbudda, were prepared
many montlis ago, but restricted leisure and many concurring events, pre-
vented their being forwarded." "J. Abbott, Capt. Artillery."
Fall of a Meteoric Stone in Khaundes. — Deposition taken by a karkoon,
despatched from Asseer by Capt. James Abbott, to collect information
upon the subject.
"Oonar, Puttail, and Ghubbahjee, Chowdry, of village Maniegaon, per-
gunnah Eidulabad, Tuppeh Sowdah, Illaquh Dliooliah in Khaundes, depose as
follows :
" Taken July 26th, 1843. On Mittee Asarr, Soodie Teei, Goraur ke din.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 123
We were in our house. At lialf-past three o'clock p.m., whether from heaven
or elsewhere, a prodigious ball (ghybee golah) fell. The noise it made was
very great, it might be heard twenty miles round. We heard it with our
own ears, and in fear and trembling ran outside to look, as running out we
found that it had fallen outside the village on the southern asjject, and that
in falling it had been shattered to pieces, some of which had been scattered
far. We put our hands upon that which lay together; it felt cool; shortly-
after it became rather warm. When first we saw it, the pieces were black ;
after a day's interval the colour changed to blue, and now the fragments
are white.
" Question. When the ball fell, was any flash perceptible, or was the heaven
darkened ? Who saw it fall ? How large was it ? And who heard the noise
at the distance of twenty miles ?
" Answer. We sato nothing. When the ball fell, we heard the noise and ran
to see what had caused it. The spot on which it fell was hollowed by the
shock a span and a half in diameter, and three fingers' breadth in depth. The
ball was about the size of a kedgeree pot (ghurrah, i. e. about ten inches in
diameter) ; the people of Edulabad and of other parts heard the noise in
the clouds, at least so they say. The ball being shattered, people came and
carried away the pieces. The remainder was sent to the Sowdah Komardar,
and by him to Dhooliah. What remains I give you*.
" True and literal translation. " J. Abbott, Capt.,
" Mundlaisir, Angust 1843." Pol. Asst., in Nimaur."
"Note. — Afew grains of this aerolitewere first sent me by letter from Asseer.
I despatched a karkoon immediately to the spot, to make inquiries and collect
as much of the fragments as possible, supposing that he would have cause
to believe the report well-founded. The greater part of what he collected
accompanies this report. It agrees exactly with the grains first sent me. —
J. Abbott."
At Capt. Abbott's suggestion, the collector of Khandeish, J. Bell, Esq.,
Bomb. C. S. was written to, and he has kindly forwarded us a few small frag'
ments more, with the following letter and deposition.
" To W. W. Bell, Esq., Collector of Khandeish.
" Sir, — With reference to your Mahratta Yad of the 5th ultimo, with en-
closure from the Secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, requesting me to
transmit any information along with specimens procurable of an aerolite that
fell in the month of July 1843, in the vicinity of the village of Manegaumof
this talooka, I have the honour to transmit translation of a deposition given
before me, by a couple of individuals who were spectators of the fall of the
aerolite in question, along with five small specimens of the same, all that I
have been able to procure after much search ; these however I trust will be
suflScient to indicate the nature of the meteorolite.
"I beg to return your enclosure, and to remain. Sir, your most obedient
Servant," " C. Inverakity, Acting 1st Assist. Col."
" Camp, Circuit at Rawere, Talooka Joada, Jan. 1st, 1845."
Translation of a deposition given in Mahratta, by Goba WuUud Nagojee
Chowdrie, and Hunmunta ud Dama Naik Solie, inhabitants of the village
of Manegaum, pergunnah Edulabad, turaf Jaoda, of the Khandeish Collec-
torate, who were spectators of tiie fall of an aerolite in the vicinity of their
village, in the month of July ISiS.
" On the day the aerolite fell we were both seated, about three o'clock of
•* The supposed and the actual circumstances are in this expression oddly involved ; we
consider that the natives employed this language, and that the author of the letter gives their
literal words. — Ed.
124 REPORT— 1850.
the afternoon, on the outskirts of the village, in a shed belonging to Ranoo
Patel. There was at the time no rain, but heavy clouds towards the north-
ward ; there had been several claps of thunder for about two hours previously,
and some lightning. Suddenly, while we were seated in the shed, several
heavy claps of thunder occurred in quick succession, accompanied with
lightning, on which we both went out to look around us, when in the middle
of a heavy clap, we saw a stone fall to the ground in a slanting direction
from north to south, preceded by a flash of lightning. It fell about fifty
paces distant from us ; on going up to it we found that it had indented itself
some four or five inches in the ground ; it was broken in pieces, and as far
as we could judge, appeared to be about fifteen inches long and five in dia-
meter, of an oblong shape, somewhat similar to the chouthe grain measure;
it was of a black vitreous colour outside, and of a grayish yellow inside ; it
was then of a mouldy* texture, and hardened to the consistence of the pre-
sent specimens afterwards. Only one stone fell. No rain had fallen for
eight days previously, nor did it until four days after the fall of the stone. It
had been warm all day before, but not much more so than usual. From
midday until the time the stone fell (3 p.m.) it was very cloudy towards the
northward ; after its fall, the thunder ceased and the clouds cleared away.
No stone of a similar description had ever fallen near our village before.
The pieces of the stone were immediately after carried off by the country
people. Our village is situated on the banks of the small river the Poorna ;
there are no hills in its vicinity, the nearest being three coss (or six miles) ofl^".
The above is a true statement, dated at Rawere, talooka Jaoda, on the 17th
December, 184'4'. (Signed) " Goba ud Nagojee Choworie.
" HUNMUNTA UD DaMA NaIK."
" True translation of the deposition given before me on the above date.
" C. J. Inverarity, Acting 1st Assist Col."
Chemical Examination. — The specimens were referred to me for exa-
mination, of which this is my report.
The specimens are mainly composed of an earthy grayish white pul-
verulent mass, slightly tinged with a bluish gray in some parts. It is
excessively friable, and both crumbles and soils the fingers even when most
delicately handled. In the earthy mass are thickly imbedded light greenish
glassy particles of olivine, single and in nests, resembling green mica or
felspar; the appearance in some parts being almost that of an earthy variety
of lepidolite. On the side of one piece of Capt. Abbott's specimens is a
bright black crust, thickly but minutely mammillated. When this is touched
with the file, it leaves a rusty mark, but gives no metallic trace. This crust
is exceedingly thin and splinters off", and in one place a mass of the olivine
in it is melted to a green bead. It is too fragile, and our specimens too
small to attempt obtaining sparks from it. Two of Mr. Bell's fragments also
have small portions of crust yet adhering to them.
Internally, and by the magnifier, a few bright white metallic points are
discoverable, and in one or two places small nests of it : there are also a few
of a brown kind. We have one fragment of an aerolite which fell in 1808,
at Moradabad, which is pulverulent, but not so much so as the present spe-
cimen by a great deal. The present specimen is in this respect almost unique ;
as the only one I now recollect to have read of as very pulverulent, is the
one from Benares, mentioned in the Philosophical Transactions.
The aerolite of Moradabad is studded over with rusty specks from the
* So in MSS. Perhaps muddy, i. e. soft, earthy texture, was meant ? — H. P.
1
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 125
oxidation of the iron. All our other aerolites are of a compact texture. I
may note here, that we now possess in our collection ten specimens, com-
prising six varieties of aerolites, and four of meteoric iron from Siberia,
Brazil and India. One of the Society's aerolites is also well entitled to be
called meteoric iron, as it consists mainly of that metal (and no doubt nickel)
rather than an aerolite, by which we usually designate the more earthy-
looking stones.
The magnetism of the Kandes aerolite is nowhere apparent except at the
patch of pyrites (magnetic pyrites?) on the piece which has the crust, but
here it is strong and distinct.
From its extreme friability I have not ventured to take its specific gravity,
which is about 4 or 4'5, 1 judge, for it might crumble to pieces in the water,
and is too rough and tender to admit of varnishing. Specific gravity how-
ever is an indication of no value in these heterogeneous compounds.
The green crystals, when examined separately, eff'ect a somewhat rhom-
boidal or cubical form, but none are clearly defined. Their colour is a
bright, clear, and very light grass-green.
List of Meteorolites in the Collection of the Asiatic Society, Jan. 1, 1845.
1. Fell at Rloradabad, 1808, Capt. Herring. One piece of this is rather
friable, three pieces.
2. Dr. Tytler's aerolite at Allahabad, three large pieces.
3. Aerolite fell about 40 miles to the west of Umbala, between the Jumna
and Punja, 1822-23. Obtained by Capt. Murray; given by Mr. J. Bird to
Mr. Cracroft.
4. Fell at Bitour and Shapoor, 75 miles N.W. of Allahabad, 30th No-
vember 1822.
5. Fell at Mhow Ghazeepore, February 1827, R. Barlow.
6. Fell at Manegaon in Khandeish, July 1843, Capt. J. Abbott, B.A., and
J. Bell, Esq., Bombay, C. S., Collector of Khandeish.
Meteoric Iron, or Stones having a large proportion of it.
1. Meteoric stone, containing iron and nickel, fell at Panganoor in 1811.
Mr. Ross of Cuddahpah.
2. Meteoric iron ; Siberia, Pallas.
3. Meteoric iron ; Sergipe, Brazil, Mornay and Wollaston.
4. Lightning stone of Nepal ; not examined, but may be meteoric.
Blowpipe Examination. — The grass-green crystals above described. Per
se infusible, but take a rusty brown appearance, as of semi -fusion or oxidation
on the exterior, remaining still translucent. On platina ivire, with borax and
phosphate of soda, fuses at first in part only (a lump remaining), giving a
light clear olive glass ; adding more of the flux, it finally dissolves with various
shades of olive and grass-green according to the proportions of assay and
flux. A minute crystal in muriatic acid does not soften, gelatinise, or colour
it by several days' digestion. These are doubtless meteoric olivine.
The white friable part, taken as free as possible from the gray specks and
entirely so from the green crystals. In the forceps slightly oxidates to a rusty
appearance at the outer part, but does not fuse.
Onplatina wire and loith soda. Fuses to a dirty olive-coloured bead, which
in the reducing fiame gives metallic iron with some earthy residuum. With
nitrate of cobalt only a dull rusty colour. Hence the absence of alumina,
except perhaps in very minute proportion.
The metallic-looking vein was assayed in various manners for nickel, but
no trace of it could be elicited, the vein being apparently pure pyrites.
126 REPORT — 1850.
Nickel may nevertheless exist, though in small proportions, and we cannot
venture on consuming more of these precious fragments, since tlie fused crust,
the olivine, and the white matrix are chemical evidence enough of the me-
teoric origin of the stone.
The whole of the dust which had collected in the paper being carefully
collected, was assayed both by the blowpipe and via humida for chromium,
but no traces were detected. As said of niciitl however above, so also of
this substance, it may exist in minute proportion, tliough not detectable in
such extremely small assays.
No. 33. — On the 7th of September, about half-past six p.m., a large fireball
was seen at Poona to shoot from nearly north to south ; it then made a
sudden sweep, and jiroceeded nearly at right angles to its previous path.
After being visible for five or six seconds, it split into a number of large
fragments which rapidly descended towards the earth ; and these again broke
up into lesser fragments, till they appeared to descend in a shower of sparks.
Before the first bursting, the meteor was of exceeding brightness, of an in-
tense blue colour, and at the instant of explosion it changed into red ; it
seemed to light up the whole heavens, though the moon was siiining, so as
to render the lesser stars visible. The last meteor of the sort we remember
at Bombay was seen in the sky in the middle of October 1844. Now is
the season when a display of luminous meteors in all parts of the heavens
may be looked for, tiie earth appearing in August and November to track a
part of its orbit through which a current of these things rushes along. —
Bombay Times, November 1, 1848.
No. 34. — Meteor of 29th October 1848, observed at Poona and Bombay. —
On Sunday evening, about seven o'clock, a magnificent fireball was seen to
shoot across the air from nearly west to east, when its horizontal motion
suddenly ceased, and it seemed to drop perpendicularly into the sea betwixt
Mazagon and Sewree. At the time of its explosion — for such we may take
that of its change of direction to have been, — its illuminating power was
equivalent to that of an ordinary -sized blue light ; it dazzled the eyes of those
near it and who looked at it directly ; and though the evening was at the
time perfectly dark, the most minute objects in the landscape were for ten or
fifteen minutes made visible by it. It appeared to become extinguished some
three or four hundred feet before touching the water. It left a long trail of
light behind it, which was visible for the space of nearly half a minute.
No. 35. — Meteor ofTith July 1849, observed at Porebunder. — Porebunder,
2nd August 1849. On the night of the 27th of July, about half-past eight
o'clock, a very bright meteor shot out from the northern sky. When first
seen, its elevation was about 70°, and it fell nearly perpendicularly. Its fall
was not very rapid, it being distinctly visible for about five seconds when it
burst, leaving a large train of bright red spots to mark its track. The light
was so bright as to attract the attention of persons whose faces were towards
the south. At the time of its appearance the weather was calm and cloudy,
a slight air now and then from the west, and scud flying rapidly from the
same point. An hour afterwards heavy rain set in, which has continued
almost without intermission ever since. The whole country in the neigh-
bourhood is under water. Several houses have fallen down in the town, but
no serious injury has accrued therefrom. Such a quantity of rain has not
fallen in the Zillah for the last five years.
No. 36. — Meteor of l^th December 1849, observed near Shorapore. — Camp
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 127
Bohnal, near Shorapore, December 14th. You are desirous of intelligence
of meteors, and therefore I mention that the night before last, about half-past
eleven (I had no watch with nie), I observed a very brilliant meteor pass ra-
pidly from the zenith, and fall in a south-west direction, exploding when
within about 20" of the horizon, in a shower of brilliant sparks ; I cannot
speak accurately as to its size, which appeared to increase as it descended,
but it was at least four times as large as Venus at her brightest, and gave out
light enough to dim the light of the stars in the direction of which it passed.
I have no doubt, if there had not been many torches burning near me at the
time, that its light would have been strong on the ground. I could hear no
noise on its explosion. The colour of the meteor was a greenish white.
No. 37. — The following additional extracts from correspondence on me-
teors observed in India, and inserted in the Catalogue of 1849, have been
recently forwarded by Dr. Buist.
Meteor of March 19, 1849.
"Poona, 22nd March.
(1.) " Sir, — None of the Bombay accounts sent you of the aerolite which
fell on the 19th are sufficiently explicit. Most of your correspondents must
have seen it crossing tlieir meridian ; can none of them estimate its angular
height at that moment ? I am not very well acquainted with your localities,
but the meteor would seem to have been north of you, and at no great ele-
vation. Supposing it to have had a meridian altitude of 20% and combining
this with the data we sent you two or three days ago, you will find that it
must have been about thirty miles high (perhaps ten when it burst), and taking
its apparent diameter at 4', must have measured nearly 200 yards across — an
enormous mass, sufficient to furnish, on exploding, a very large r-hower of
meteoric stones. It appeared to pass over about 30° of the heavens in some-
thing less than two seconds ; and this, at the distance at which it must have
been, if the data we have here assumed are anything near the truth, will give
a real velocity of thirty miles per second.
" The theory of these bodies, which considers them as moving through
space, and becoming hot and luminous on entering our atmosphere, from the
rapid compression of the air, would seem to be pretty consistent with all this.
" P.S. — I will just add a word or two concerning the probable errors of
these estimates. The height and velocity are certainly if anything under-
stated, while on the contrarj', the volume assigned is not unlikely to be con-
siderably in excess, since the apparent magnitude may have been partly an
optical deception, or may have been that subtended — not by the meteor
itself, but by its luminous envelope."
******
(2.) " I saw it on the lyth, at about 6'30 p.m., away in the S.W., high up
in the heavens, falling with great velocity towards the earth, but directed to
the N.E. It was intensely brilliant, of a bluish white colour, like a Roman
candle, bursting into a sparkling sliower of a dull red colour. We heard no
sound after it burst here, but at Aurungabad, some considerable time after-
wards, a sound of distant thunder was distinctly audible. Everybody differs
as to the time; some minutes — say three — elapsed ; that will take us just
about to the region of fireballs, for assuming 1125 as the rate sound travels
per second, three times that will reach about to the crepuscular atmosphere,
the nursery of these meteoric bodies. At Aurungabad its course appeared
northward, passing over the heads of the good folks there, and bursting
about twenty miles to the north of the station. — W. H. B."
" Boldanah, 1st April, 1849."
128 REPORT — 1850.
(3.) " Sir, — On the evening of the 19th ult., between six and seven, I
observed the meteor alluded to in the Times oi 23rd and 26th March. I
wixs in latitude 21° 58' (by observation next day,) and longitude 76° (taken
from a map). The meteor was, as well as I can judge, S.W. by S. Ii was
very brilliant. The longitude I could not work out exactly, not having the
necessary tables. — L. H. E."
" Mundlaisir, April 5th, 1849."
(4.) "Sir, — Your correspondent of the 21st inst. desires information about
* a supposed meteor.' It may be gratifying to him to know, that we were
favoured, back here in the country, with one of whose personal identity we
could have no doubt. It appeared six miles east of Ahmednuggur, in the
vicinity of a hill known here by the name of ' Shaha Donger.' The fall of a
more splendid meteor I never had the pleasure to witness. Myself riding
eastward, its line of direction declined towards the same point, the meteor
appearing at right angles on my left. It first invited my attention by throw-
ing across my pathway a brilliant light, seeming for the instant to light up
the whole horizon. Instantly glancing to the north, the stranger appeared
in full view, a beautiful globe of fire, apparently sixty to eighty yards high,
and some three inches in diameter, with a long tail of bluish and red light.
At the height of twenty to twenty-five yards it burst, and fragments of a
brighter red were visible an instant longer."
(5.) " Sir,— In your issue of Wednesday last I observe a correspondent
notices a meteor he had seen in Bombay about half-past six p.m., on the pre-
ceding Monday. As you appear anxious for further information on the sub-
ject, I send you the following, though I know not if it be worth much. On
the same evening, and about a quarter before seven (of our time), I saw from
hence a meteor, answering in so many respects that described by your cor-
respondent, as to leave no doubt on my mind but that it was the same as
attracted his attention. To my eye the meteor appeared in size rather less
than a man's fist; its brilliancy was excessive, and it was surrounded by a
colour more yellow I think than green. The flakes it threw off were very
large, and strewed its path, so as to form a long and most luminous tail. I
note the following particulars : — commencement of course at a height of
about 50° ; end of height 20° ; direction of height nearly perpendicular ;
direction from Asseer about S.S.W. If I mistake not, your correspondent
makes its direction from Bombay to have been about easterly : by a glance
at a map I should therefore suppose the meteor would be vertical over some
spot between Jooneer and Kandahalla. — A. W."
" Asseerghur, March 26, 1839."
(6.) " The proximity of the hill enabled me to determine its distance to
be within 300 yards, the meteor being distinctly visible after passing below
the summit. "The coincidence which will perhaps most interest your corre-
spondent is the fact of its appearance at thirty-five minutes past six on Mon^
day evening (19th in»t.). — W."
"Ahmednuggur, March 24, 1849."
(7.) A Mahabuleshwar correspondent says, the meteor seen there on the
19th ultimo, presented nearly the same appearance at Malcolm Peth as at
Bombay.
(8.) " Sir, — The same appearance as that described by your correspondent
E. in your paper of the 21st, was observed by myself and others from this
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS I\[ETEORS. 129
place on the evening of Monday tlie 19tli, about the same hour mentioned
by him, and in a soutii-nesterly direction. — W. R. M."
"Fortress of Asseerghur, March 28, 1849."
(9.) " Sir, — I suppose you have had enough of the meteor of the 19th
instant, but I cannot forbear writing to let you know that it was seen at
Ahmednuggur also at the time mentioned by the other observers. 1 was
driving, at the time, about a quarter of a mile distant on the west side of the
fort, Avhen I observed the meteor towards the N.E. It did not occur to me
that it was anything more than a rocket thrown up Irom tiic native town, and
I was sure it had fallen between myself and the fort. I have been much in-
terested in the accounts sent by your correspondents from such distant places
as Sholapoor and Surat, most of them supposing, as we did here, that it was
not very distant. Were proper measures taken for simultaneous observation
of such meteors at different places, it would be easy to ascertain by a little
calculation the height at which they begin to appear and at which they burst,
and the velocity with which they move, /fhe apparent velocity of this meteor
being so great, while at the same time it v as so distant, its real velocity must
have been great indeed, more nearly approaching that of electricity than that
of any solid body whose velocity has hitherro been calculated. — B."
"Ahmednuggur, JIarch 31, 1849."
(10.) " Sir, — The accounts received by you from different stations re-
garding the appearance and supposed course of the magnificent meteor of
Monday evening, the 19th instant, induce me to add my evidence, with the
view of assisting in the determination of the true course of the luminous ob-
ject. About 6| P.M. I happened to be seated in the open air, facing due
south, and the 'shades of evening' were fast closing over head, when I ob-
served a meteor, which, apparently commencing its course at a point bearing
about S.S.W. and about 30° above the horizon, darted in a Rightly descend-
ing line, and with different degrees of brilliancy, towards a point bearing about
S.S.E. and about 15° or 20° above the horizon ; and there burst without any
perceptible noise into spark-like fragments, flame-coloured, which immediately
disappeared. The colour of the meteor, when most brilliant, appeared to me
not unlike that of the ordinary 'blue light.' The observer at Aurungabad
(near which place the meteor appears to have burst) does not mention the
apparent length of the course of tlie luminous body. If this was not very
great, nor the apparent motion of the meteor very rapid, it seems to me not
improbable that the course of the meteor was seen at Aurungabad fore-
shortened as it were ; and, taking into consideration the various accounts, I
am disposed to think that a line drawn from the Malsej Ghaut (or a point
half-way between Nasik and Jooneer) in the direction of EUora, would
pretty well represent the course of the meteor ; and it is not unlikely that
fragments of the aerolite may be yet found near the caves. — H. W. B. B."
" Malligaum, March 30, 1849."
Meteor of April 4, 1849, observed at Delhi. — A very brilliant meteor, of
a deep red colour, was observed at Delhi, on Wednesday evening, at a quarter
past seven. Its progress was extremely slow, from N.W. to S.E., and the
inclination small. It seemed to have become extinct for an instant, and then
assumed greater brilliancy before its final disappearance. The elevation at
which it was noticed cannot have been more than 28° or 30°. — Delhi Ga-
zette, April 7.
Meteor of April 10, 1849, observed at Ahmednuggur. — Ahmednuggur,
April 11, 1849 You may be interested to hear that another meteor was
seen here last night nearly about the same time, and in a similar direction,
1850. K
130 REPORT 1850.
as the mcieor of the 19th ultimo. It was observed at a quarter before seven
o'clock, and was of a dark yellow colour. When first seen it was just below
Deneb in the Lion, and of course about due east from us; and having
fallen through an arc of the heavens of 20° or 30°, disappeared at an altitude
of 10° or 15°. Its apparent diameter was about the same as that of Venus at
present. I would also remark that the meteor of the 19th ultimo started
from near the same region of the heavens (perhaps more to the north, in the
vicinity of Berenice's hair), and having fallen nearly perpendicularly towards
the earth, burst at an altitude of 15° or 20°. Its light was a brilliant white
silvery light, and its apparent diameter, as observed here, was two or three
times that of Venus. I also observed three other meteors in the course of
last evening ; one about half-past seven o'clock seemed to commence in the
vicinity of the constellation Corvus, and after traversing an arc of 20° or more,
disappeared in the vicinity of the large star in the southern part of the ship,
about 20° west from the Southern Cross. Its motion was very slow, and it
left a bright path behind it.
Meteor of April 13, 1S4-9. — " Sii", — On opening your paper of this morning
I was astonished at not seeing any mention made of another very brilliant
meteor that burst last night. At about a quarter past nine o'clock last night,
a light all of a sudden, as brilliant as that of the moon, shone for a second or
two. Wondering from where this appeared, I looked round, and saw it just
as it was dv/indling away. The direction that it burst was south-east. This
is the tJiird meteor seen within three months."
" Bombay, April 14, 1849."
A meteor of surpassing brilliancy was observed here on Friday evening,
13th inst., at about three minutes to nine o'clock. Our informant was walk-
ing in a westerly direction, when the atmosphere, which had been somewhat
dull and heavy, was suddenly illuminated by an intense light immediately
behind him; turning instantly round he perceived it emanated from a bril-
liant meteor of a bluish colour and about the size of an egg. It first appeared
due east, and proceeded towards the horizon in a southern direction. It was
in sight about three seconds, and was first seen at near 30° altitude, and be-
came lost to view at about 8°. — Poona Chronicle, April 20.
Meteor of May 6, 18i9, observed at Kurrachee. — Kurrachee, May 7, 1849.
— As you ask for notices regarding meteors, here is one for you. Yester-
day evening (May 6th), at 6'4<5, a meteor fell here. When first observed, it
was at an elevation of about 25° or 30°, and appeared to be falling from the
zenith to a point of the horizon a little to the eastward of north, where it
vanished at an elevation of about 5°, without any appearance of explosion,
and I should say that it fell below my horizon in a perfect state. I cannot
say that 1 savv it from the commencement of its course, as I was observing
something tlse at the moment intently when it attracted my notice at the
elevation above-mentioned, it had the appearance of a clear ball of fire, with
a slight green tinge, and was considerably larger than Venus when at her
brightest. Had it occurred an hour later, it would have presented a splendid
appearance ; but as the sun had oidy just set, it was still broad daylight. The
day had been hot and sultry, but at the time alluded to there was a cool breeze
from the N.W., with a clear sky.
Meteor of June '2,5, 1849, observed at Kurrachee. — A Correspondent gives
a somewhat more minute account of the meteor seen through Lower Scinde
on the 25th of .June than that extracted from the 'Kurrachee Advertiser' in
our last, or given I'rom the same source in our present issue. It was observed
by our friend about ten o'clock at night, just before it broke out. It seemed
A CATALOGUE OP OBSERVATIONS OP LUMINOUS METEORS. 131
to be proceeding from south to north, and appeared to explode about 60°
above the horizon. It broke into a multitude of bright red fragments, which
vanished from sight shortly after the explosion. About five minutes after
this a report was heard like that of a heavy piece or ordnance fii'ed at a di-
stance, and we have no doubt that this was the sound of the bursting meteor,
the fragments of which may yet be found. We hope our friends at Hydra-
bad and Sukkur will inform us whether it was seen by any of them. There
were no stars visible in the direction of its path at the time when it was first
seen, and no immediate means therefore of comparing it with any celestial
object; so brilliant was it that it filled the room with light. The following
is a list of the meteors for 1849, witli the particulars of whose appearance
we have been favoured: — 24th February, Madras; 19th March, the gi-eat
meteor seen off the sea-coast of Goozerat, at Bombay, Khandalla, Poona,
Ahmednuggur, Mundlaisir, Malligaum, Asserghur, Jaulnah, &c. ; 23rd
March, Bombay and Khandalla; 4th April, Delhi; 10th April, Ahmeduug-
gur, one large and two small meteors; 1 3th April, Bombay, Poona, and
Hingolee; 30th April, Poona; 2nd May, Bombay; 6th May, Kurrachee;
25th June, Kurrachee. The meteors of the 19th March and 25th June are
the only two that were heard to explode ; there is every reason to believe
that the former of these was burnt to ashes and fell to the ground in the
shape of dust. Tlie atmosphere all over the Saugor and Nerbudda territo-
ries was throughout the last week of March so filled with fine dust that the
sun could be looked at, especially at near noon, with tiie naked eye.
A most brilliant meteor appeared about half-past nine o'clock on the night
of the 25th instant. We did not ourselves see it, having been within doors,
but the light thrown out was plainly perceptible for some five or six seconds.
About fifty or sixty seconds after its disappearance, a report like that of a
distant heavy gun was distinctly heard. — Kurrachee Advertiser, June 27.
No. 38. — The following interesting repiarks on periodic meteors are ex-
tracted from Prof. Silliman's Journal, vol. xxxi. p. 386: —
For six years in succession there has been observed, on or about the 13th
of November of each year, a remarkable exhibition of shooting stars, which
has received the name of the " Meteoric Siiower."
In 1831 the phaenoraenon was observed in the State of Ohio*, and in the
Mediterranean, off the coast of Spain f. In 1832 the shower appeared in a
more imposing form, and was seen at Mocha, in Arabia;}:, in the middle of
the Atlantic Ocean §, near Orenburg, in Russia ||, and at Pernambuco, in
South America^. The magnificent meteoric shower of 1833 is too well
known to require the recital of any particulars. Of the recurrence of the
phaenomenon at the corresponding period in 1834 and in 1835, evidence has
been presented to the public in previous numbers of this journal. (See vols,
xxvii. pp. 339 and 417 ; xxix. 168.) I now feel authorized to assert, that
meteoric showers reappeared on the morning of the \Sth November 1836-
It has been supposed by some, that the appearance of an extraordinary
number of shooting-stars, at several anniversaries since the great phaenome-
non of November 1833, can be accounted for by the fact, that a general
expectation of such an event has been excited, and that many persons have
been on tlie watch for it. Having, however, been much in the habit of ob-
serving phaenomena of tliis kind, I can truly say, that those exhibitions of
shooting-stars which have for several years occurred on the 13th or 14th of
* Amer. Journal of Science, vol. xxviii. p. 419. f Bibliotheque Universelle, Sept. 1835.
J Amer. Journ. xxvi. p. 136. § Edin. New Phil. Journ. July 183G.
II Amer. Journ. xxvi. p. 349. ^ New York, America, Nov. 15, 1836.
k2
132 REPORT— 1850.
November, are characterized by several peculiarities, vhich clearly distinguish
them from ordinary shooting-stars. Such peculiarities are the following:—
1. The mimber of meteors, though exceedingly variable, is much greater
than usual, especially of the larger and brighter kinds.
2. An uncommonly large proportion leave luminous trains.
3. Tiie meteors, with few exceptions, all appear io proceed from a common
centre, the position of which has been uniformly in nearly the same point in
the heavens, viz. in some part of the constellation Leo.
4. The principal exhibition has at all times, and at all places, occurred
betv.een midnigiit and sunrise, and the maximttm from three to four o'clock.
In all these particulars, the meteoric showers of 1834, 1835 and 1836, hav«
resembled that of 1833 ; while no person, so far as I have heard, has observed
the same combination of circumstances on any other occasion within the same
period. I have not supposed it necessary, in order to establish the identity
of these later meteoric showers with that of 1833, that they should be of the
same magnitude with that. A sm.all eclipse I have considered a phaenome-
non of the same kind with a large one ; and, conformably to this analogy, I
have regarded an eclipse of the sun, first exhibiting itself as a slight indenta-
tion of the solar lindj, but increasing in magnitude at every recurrence, until
it ijecomcs total, and afterwards, at each return, but partially covering the
solar disc, until the moon passes quite clear of the sun, as affording no bad
illustration of what probably takes place in regard to these meteoric showers.
The fact that the Aurora Borealis appears unusually frequent and magnifi-
cent for a few successive years, and then for a long time is scarcely seen at
all, was proved by iMairan a hundred years ago*. There is much reason to
suspect a like periodical character in the phsenomenon in question, which
first arrested attention in 1831, became more remarkable in 1832, arrived at
its maximum in 1833, and has since grown less and less at each annual return.
Some seem to suppose tliat we are now warranted in expecting a similar ex-
hibition of meteors on the morning of every future anniversary; but this, I
think, is not to be expected. It is perhaps more probable, that its recurrence,
unless in a very diminished degree, will scarcely be witnessed again by the
present generation. The shower, however, at its late return, was more stri-
king than I had anticipated ; and it must be acknowledged to be adventurous
to enter the region of predication respecting the future exhibitions of a phee-
iiomenon, whose origin and whose laws we so imperfectly understand.
Accounts of observations before us show, that the meteoric shower was
seen in most of the Atlantic States, from Maine to South Carolina.
From these accounts compai'ed, we are led to conclude that the meteoric
showers increased in intensity from north to south, that of South Carolina
having been the most considerable of all, so far as accounts have reached us.
Does not the recurrence of this ])hBenomenon for six successive years, at
the same po'iod of the year, plainly show its connexion with the progress of
the earth in its orbit? and does not the fact that the greatest display occurs
everywhere in places differing widely in longitude at the same hour of the day,
as plainly indicate its connexion with the motion of the earth on its axis?
The supposition of a body in space, consisting of an immense collection of
meteors sti'etching across the earth's orbit obliquely, so that the earth passes
imder it in its annual progress, while places on its surface lying westward of
each otlier are successively brought, by the diurnal revolution, to the point
of nearest approach, will satisfy both these conditions.
* Traitc Phys. et Hist, de I'Aurore Borcale. Par M. de Maiian. Memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Sciences for 1731.
RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIOXS. 133
On the Stmcture and History of the British Annelida.
By Thomas Williams, M.B., Sivansea.
At the meeting of the British Association, held at Swansea, I was appointed,
in conjunction witli Prof. E. Forbes and Thomas Bell, to collect into a report
the undigested materials relating to the organization and habits ol the British
Annelida, which may be distributed throughout the scientific periodicals oi
this country. To this most interesting department of natural history, a cur-
sory inquiry soon satisfied me, that the older English writers had contributed
little or nothing, and that, with the honourable exception of the papers pub-
lished from time to time byDr. Johnston of Berwick, in the 'Annals of Natural
History,' the subject on which a systematic and digested report was required
by the British Association constituted the least cultivated branch of the zoo-
logy of this country. It became evident, therefore, that a repovt, composed
only of such scanty and insufl[icient materials, would be little worthy of the
Transactions of the Association : I accordingly turned the whole ot my atten-
tion to the collection of new species, and to the elucidation of the anatomy
and physiology of the subject. It is already in my power to state to the As-
sociation, that I have made numerous additions to the list of British species,
and that on the subject of the organization of the known species, I have suc-
ceeded in elucidating the anatomy of the branchial, cucu ating and ali-
mentary systems. To render the description of these parts intelligible, it would
be necessary, in this preliminary report, to introduce numerous diagrams,
which would materially add to the expenses already incurred. I have, how-
ever, prepared a few of those original illustrations which will accompany he
finished report, and which are now presented to the Section through the
kindness of Prof. Edward Forbes.
Swansea, July 23, ISoO.
Results of Meteorological Observations taken at St.MichaeVsfrom the
\st of January 1840 to the ^\st of December, 1849.
British Consulate, St. Michael's, May 1, 1850.
Sir -I be- leave to inform you that the three barometers and thermometers
sent out to me by LieutenaM-Colonel Reid, in application of the grant re-
fmeSto in your letter of October the 3rd,184.9. have arrived here and that
I have forwa^rded two of them to the Vice-Consuls at Flcn-es and Fayal, ij-
erving thi third for presentation to the Vice-Consul at Terceira it he can
make ft convenient to keep a record of his meteorological observations.
I have the honour to be, sir.
Your most obedient humble Servant,
Thomas Carkw Hunt.
John Phillips, Esq., Assistant General Secretary
of the British Association for the Advancemenl of Science.
The Tables of Results follow on pp. 134. to 136.
134
REPORT 1850.
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CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 137
On the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the
Solar Radiations. By Robert Hunt.
The present state of our knowledge of the phsenomena of chemical changes
produced by the influence of the solar radiations, is very imperfect. But
though we have scarcely advanced beyond the threshold of this new line of
research, we are enabled to contemplate a large number of strilving facts sur-
rounding the very entrance of this fresh field for experimental investigation.
It was thought advisable to gather these facts, which have been hitherto
scattered through numerous Transactions of the learned societies and scien-
tific periodicals of these islands, of Europe and of America, into a Report, but
which should shov/ all that has hitherto been accomplished in this branch of
inquiry. This task having been committed to my hands by the British Asso-
ciation at the recommendation of the Committee of the Chemical Section, I
have now much pleasure in submitting the result of my labours to the con-
sideration of this Meeting.
I find it necessary to state the progress of the investigation on those re-
markable phsenomena, of chemical changes produced by the sun's rays, for
the purpose of reviving a consideration of many very curious facts, which have
been recorded, but which, from the circumstance that the attention of men
of science was directed more earnestly into other channels, at Ihe time of
their publication, appeal' to have escaped attention. In stating, however, the
earlier researches, I shall be as brief as possible, since many of them stand
merely isolated facts which require new investigations to connect them with
the subject in the improved form which it now wears, under the more advan-
tageous lights which have been thrown upon it by the refinements of modern
science.
"We find, from time to time, in the writings of the elder chemists, faint in-
dications that the changes produced by sunshine in many substances had not
entirely escaped their attention ; but it is not until the commencement of the
eighteenth century that we have an exact record of any observations of these
phsenomena.
Petit in 1722 noticed that solutions of nitrate of potash and muriate of
ammonia crystallized more readily in the light than they did in darkness*.
Scheele about 1777 appears to have been led to an examination of the con-
ditions under which nitrate of silver was blackened by solar influence ; and
with that refined system of research which distinguishes every inquiry of
this Swedish chemist, he employed the prismatic sjDectrum, and observed for
the first time, that the nitrate and chloride of silver were blackened by the
rays at the blue, or most refrangible end, while no change was detected by
him under the influence of the rays at the red or least refrangible end of the
spectrumf .
Senebier repeated these experiments, and he states that he found chloride
of silver darkened in the violet ray in fifteen seconds to a shade which required
the action of the red ray for twenty minutes J. He also experimented on the
influence of light in bleaching wax.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1798 will be found a memoir by Count
Rumford, entitled, 'An Inquiry concerning the Chemical Properties that have
* Sur la Vegetation des Sels. Mem. de Paris, 1722. In 1788, Chaptal published,
' Observations sur I'influence de I'air et de la lumiere dans la vegetation des sels.' Me-
moires de I'Acad. Roy. des Sc. de Toulouse, vol. iii. ; and in the Journal de Phys., vol.
xx.xiv. DizE in 1789. Dize deals with the same subject in a paper entitled, ' Sur la cris-
tallisation des sels par Taction de la lumiere.'
t Scheele, Traite de I'Air et du Feu. J Senebier sur la Lumiere, vol. iii. p. 199
138 REPORT — 1850.
been attributed to Light.' In this paper a number of experiments are brought
forward to prove that all the effects produced upon metallic solutions by bright
sunshine can be obtained by a prolonged exposure to a temperature of 210°
Fahrenheit. We are now, however, in a position to show that the chemical
effects produced by rays of dark heat are of a very different character from
those usually attributed to light. Mr. Robert Harrup. in a communication to
Nicholson's Journal in 1802, refuted the experiment of Count Rumford, show-
ing that several salts of mercury were reduced by light alone, and not heat.
In 1801 Ritter of Jena* demonstrated the existence of rays beyond the
spectrum which have no luminous power, but which exhibited very active che-
mical agencies. Hitter stated that the red rays had the power of restoring
darkened muriate of silver to its original colour, and he infers therefore the
existence of two sets of invisible rays, the least refrangible favouring oxygena-
tion, while the most refrangible on the contrary deoxidize. Similar results to
these have since been obtained by Sir John Herschel, and more recently still
by M. Claudct. Bockman about the same time observed that the two ends
of the spectrum acted differently on phosphorus f.
Desmortiers in 1801 published a paper in Gilbert's Annals, entitled ' Re-
cherches sur la Decoloration spontanee du Bleu de Prusse', subsequently
translated into Nicholson's Journal, in which he has mentioned the influences
of the solar rays in producing the change.
About the same time Dr. WoUaston I examined the chemical action of the
rays of the spectrum, and arrived at nearly the same results as Ritter. He
states, " This and other effects usually attributed to light are not in fact
owing to any of the rays usually perceived."
Attention having been directed by Dr. Priestley in 1779 to the influence of
light on plants, numerous inquirers were started on this track, and the valuable
researches of Senebier, Ingenhousz, DeCandoUe, Saussure and Ritter§ were
the result. These are already too well known to require anything beyond
this incidental notice; but in ISOl Labillardiere communicated to the Phi-
lomathic Society his discovery that light was necessary to the development
of pores in plants, and subsequently we find Victor Michellotti of Turin, in a
paper, ' Experiments and Observations on the Vitality and Life of Germs||,'
stating " that light has a decided action on those germs which are exposed to
it, that this action is prejudicial to them, and it manifests its action by re-
tarding their expansion if the light be weak, or a reflected light ; or by the
total extinction of their life, if it be very intense, as that which comes directly
from the sun."
M. Macaire Prinsep again states, " that sheltering leaves from the action
of light prevents their change of colour in the autumn ; that if the entire leaf
■was placed in the dark, it fell off green ; if only a part, the rest of the paren-
chyma changed colour, and the covered portion retained its original colour^."
Those appear to be the more important researclies in connexion with this
particular section of the inquiry, until the correction of the statements of
Saussure were published by Dr. Daubeny, who satisfactorily proved that
* Nicholson's Journal, August 1804. f Voigt's Maazgine, vol. iv.
X Philosophical Transactions, 1802, p. 379.
§ Senebier. Experiences sur I'Action de la Lumiere Solaire dans la Vegetation. Paris,
1788.
Ingenhousz. Experiences sur les Vcgetaux. Phil. Trans. 1782.
Decandolle. Memoires des Savans fitrangers, vol. i.
Saussure. Recherches Chimiques sur la Vegetation. Annales de Chimie, vol. 1.
Ritter. Geh'.en, Journ. der Chein., vol. vi.
II Journal de Physique, Ventose, an 9.
^ Memoires de ia Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, torn, iv, p. 1.
I
CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 139
Light, the luminous power as distinguished from the chemical power, was the
most active in producing the decomposition of carbonic acid by the leaves of
plants* ; and these results were confirmed by my own researches published in
the Reports of the British Associationt- Although these influences upon living
organisms are directly connected with the chemical influences of the solar
rays, the phsenomena being of a very complicated character, and requiring a
very enlarged series of researches, it is thought advisable to confine attention
mainly, in this Report, to the chemical changes produced upon disorganized
matter.
In 1803 Wedgwood, who was assisted by Sir Humphry Davy in some part of
bis experiments, published in the 'Journal of the Royal Institution,' vol. i. 'An
account of a method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making profiles
by the agency of light upon the nitrate of silver.' In this communication
we have the earliest indications of the photographic processes which have
within a few years been brought to a great degree of perfection. " Nothing,"
says Davy, " but a method of preventing the unshaded parts of the delineation
from being coloured by exposure to the day, is wanting to render the process
as useful as it is elegant."
An experiment on the dark rays of Ritter, by Dr. Young, included in his
Bakerian Lecture :j: is a very important one. Dr. Young, after referring to the
experiments of Ritter and Wollaston, goes on to say, " In order to complete
the comparison of their properties (the chemical rays) with those of visible
light, I was desirous of examining the eff'ect of their reflection from a thin plate
of air, capable of producing the well-known rings of colours. For this pur-
pose I formed an image of the rings, by means of the .solar microscope, with
the apparatus which I have described in tlie Journals of the Royal Institution ;
and I threw this image on paper dipped in a solution of nitrate of silver,
placed at the distance of about nine inches from the microscope. In the
course of an hour, portions of three dark rings were very distinctly visible,
much smaller tlian the brightest rings of the coloured image, and coinciding
very nearly, in their dimensions, witli the rings of violet light, that appeared
upon the interposition of violet glass. I thought the dark rings were a little
smaller than the violet rings, but the diff^eixnce was not sufficiently great to
be accurately ascertained : it might be as much as -gL- or -^-^ of the diameters,
but not greater. It is the less surprising that the diff^erence should be so
small, as the dimensions of the coloured rings do not by any means vary at
the violet end of the spectrum so rapidly as at the red end. The experiment
in its present state is sufiiciezit to complete the analogy of the invisible with
the visible rays, and to show that they are equally liable to the general law,
which is the principal subject of this paper," tliat is, the interference of light.
M. B. G. Sage, in the 'Journal de Physique, 1802,' mentions a fact ob-
served by him, that " the realgar which is sublimated at the Solfaterra under
the form of octahedral crystals, known under the name of ruby of arsenic,
effloresces by the light ;" and that ordinary native realgar from Japan changes
to orpiment by exposure to sunshine §,
In 1806 Vogel exposed fat carefully protected from the influence of the air
to light, and found that it became in a short time of a yellow colour, and ac-
quired a high degree of rancidity. Vogel subsequently discovered that phos-
phorus and ammonia exposed to the sun's rays were rapidly converted into
phosphureted hydrogen, and a black powder, phosphuret of ammonia. He
* Philosophical Transactions, 1836. t Report of Seventeenth Meeting, 1847, p. 17«
t Experiments and Calculations relative to Physical Optics, Phil. Traus., 1804.
§ Philosophical Magazine, vol. xiii.
140 REPOBT 1850.
also noticed that the red rays produced no change on a solution of corrosive
sublimate (bichloride of mercury) in ether, but that the blue rays rapidly de-
composed it*. Dr. Davy much more recently repeated a similar set of expe-
riments to those of Vogel. He found that corrosive sublimate was not
changed by exposure ; but that the Liquor Hydrarg. Oxymur. of the London
Pharmacopoeia quickly underwent decomposition in the sunshine, depositing
calomel.
Seebeck in, and subsequently to 1810, made some important additions to
our knowledge of the influences of the solar radiations, the most striking of
his statements being the production of colour on chloride of silver ; the violet
rays rendering it brown, the blue producing a shade of blue, the yellow pre-
serving it M'hite, and the red constantly giving a red colour to that salt. Sir
Henry Englefield about the same time was enabled to show that the phos-
phorescence of Canton's phosphorus was greatly exalted by the blue rays.
Dr. Wollaston's experiments on the tincture of gum guaiacum also tended
to prove the peculiar diiferences in the most and the least refrangible rays.
Cards moistened with this tincture acquired a green colour in the violet and
blue rays, and the original yellow colour was rapidly restored in the red rays.
Gay Lussac and Thenard, being engaged in some investigations on chlorine,
on which elementary body Davy was at the same time experimenting, ob-
served that hydrogen and chlorine did not combine in the dark, but that they
combined with great rapidity, and often with exjjlosion, in the sunshine, and
slowly in diffused light. Seebeck collected chlorine over hot water, and com-
bining it with hydrogen, placed different portions of it in a yellowish red
bell glass and in a blue one. In the blue glass combination took place im-
mediately the mixture was exposed to daylight, but without explosion. The
mixture in the red glass was exposed for twenty minutes without any change ;
but it was found that the chlorine had undergone some alteration, probably a
similar one to that noticed by Dr. Draper, which I shall have shortly to
describe. If the gases were placed in a white glass and exposed to sunshine,
they exploded ; but if the gas had been previously exposed to the action of
the solar radiations in the yellow red glass, it combined with hydrogen in
the white glass in the brightest sunshine without any explosion.
Berzelius noticed some peculiar conditions in the action of the solar rays
upon the salts of gold ; and Fischer pursued some i-esearches on the influence
of the prismatic rays on horn silver f.
The most important series of researches however were those of Berard in
1812, which Avere examined and reported on by BerthoUet, Chaptal andBiot.
These philosophers write, " He (M. Berard) found that the chemical intensity
was greatest at the violet end of the spectrum, and that it extended, as Ritter
and Wollaston had observed, a little beyond that extremity. When he left
substances exposed for a certain time to the action of each ray, he observed
sensible effects, though with an intensity continually decreasing in the indigo
and blue rays. Hence we must consider it as extremely probable, that if he
had been able to employ reactions still more sensible he would have observed
analogous effects, but still more feeble, even in the other rays. To show
clearly the great disproportion which exists in this respect between the ener-
gies of different rays, M. Berard concentrated, by means of a lens, all that
part of the spectrum which extends from the green to the extreme violet ;
and he concentrated, by means of another lens, all that portion which extends
from the green to the extremity of the red. This last pencil formed a white
* Ann. de Chimie, vol. Ixxv. p. 225.
t Philosophical Magazine, vol. vii. Second Series, p. 462.
CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 141
po{7it SO brilliant that the eyes were scarcely able to endure if ; yet the muriate
of silver remained exposed more than two hours to this brilliant point of light
without undergoing any sensible alteration. On the other hand, when exposed
to the other pencil, which was much less bright and less hot, it was blackened
in less than six minutes*." This is the earliest intimation we have of any
indication that the luminous and chemical powers may be due to dissimilar
agencies. On this, the Commissioners remark : — " If we wish to consider
solar light as composed of thi'ee distinct substances, one of which occasions
light, another heat, and the third chemical combinations ; it will follow that
each of these substances is separable by the prism into an infinity of different
modifications, like light itself; since we find by experiment, that each of
the three properties, chemical, colorific and calorific, is spread, though un-
equally, over a certain extent of the spectrum. Hence we must suppose, on
that hypothesis, that there exists three spectrums one above another ; namely
n calorific, a colorific and a chemical spectrum. We must likewise admit that
each of the substances which compose the three spectrums, and even each
molecule of unequal refrangibility which constitutes these substances, is en-
dowed, like the molecules of visible light, with the property of being polar-
ized by reflection, and of escaping from reflection in the same positions as
the luminous molecules, &c." Some other objections to M. Berard's views
are then urged. The experiment, already named, by Dr. Young on the che-
mical action of the dark rings, and analogous ones, to be yet noticed, by
M. Edmund Becquerel and Professor Miller, go to show, that whether the
chemical agency is due to the same principle which produces light or not, it
certainly obej's nearly all the same general laws.
It was stated by Arago and others, that M. Charles, an experimentalist of
some celebrity, had a process by which he was enabled to produce portraits
by the aid of light. He died however without disclosing his secret ; and even
the Abbe Moigno, always anxious to claim for France the honour of any
discovery, admits tliat Charles left "no authentic document to attest his dis-
covery ; " and he consequently gives to Wedgwood the merit of being the
originator of photography. M. Niepce, of Chalons on the Saone, communi-
cated to our Pvoyal Society, in 1827, an account of his experiments, upon
which it would appear he had been engaged since 1814. This memoir was
not printed by the Royal Society, owing to the circumstance that M. Niepce
refused to publish the secret of the process by which he produced the pictures
he then exhibited, some of which are now in the possession of Mr. Robert
Brown of the British Museum.
^. The discovery of Niepce appears to have been, that the luminous rays have the
property of solidifying several resinous substances, thus rendering the parts
which had been exposed less soluble than those which have been preserved in
shadow. He appears to have also observed, that resins thus changed by the
influence of sunshine returned to their original state when kept for a short time
in the dark. We have not however any exact statement of the researches of
Niepce, which appear to have been extensive, but devoted principally to the
production of what he called heliographic pictures. In 1829 Niepce associated
himself with Daguerre, to whom we owe the iodized silver plate and the disco-
very of that peculiar condition induced by the solar rays, which regulates the
deposit of mercurial vapour ; the distinguishing feature of the well-known Da-
guerreotype process. In addition to this, Niepce discovered that silver plates
could be rendered sensitive to solar agency by being washed " with a decoction
of the herb Shepherd's purse (Thlaspi Bursa-pastoris) , fumes of phosphorus, and
* Annales de Chimie, vol. Ixxxv. p. 309.
142 REPORT — 1850.
particularly of sulphur, as acting on silver in the same way as iodine ; and that
caloric produced the same effect hy oxidizing the metal, _/or/rom this cause
proceeded in all these instances this extreme sensibility to light."
Mr. Henry Fox Talbot commenced his experiments in photography in 1834;
and in 1839, about six montlis prior to the publication of Daguerre's process,
he published ' Some Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or the pro-
cess by which natural objects may be made to delineate themselves without
the aid of the artist's pencil.' Mr. Talbot, pursuing his inquiries, discovered
his extremely sensitive process, the " calotype," which consists in exalting
the sensibility of iodide of silver hy the action of gallic acid.
From the period of the announcement of the discovery of Daguerre in 1 839,
the inquiry into the phacnomena connected with the chemical action of the
solar radiations assumed a more inductive character ; and having no longer to
record isolated discoveries made at far distant intervals, the historical arrange-
ment will now be abandoned for a more philosophical examination of the
subject.
All the observations which had been made on the influence of the prismatic
rays upon the salts of silver and other bodies, point to a very remarkable dif-
ference in the action of the several rays ; and this class of observations being
more completely carried out by living philosophers, among whom Sir John
Herschel demands the most distinguished notice, a still larger number of
curious facts were elicited.
It is the peculiar habit of our minds to endeavour to explain new phseno-
mena by received theories, and thus, I fear too often, to create imaginary re-
semblances Avhere no real analogies exist. In this way it has, I think, been too
hastily decided that the varieties of action observed in the colorific rays of the
spectrum in relation to chemical change are due to varying undulations and to
the phsenomena of wave interferences. The amount of mathematical skill
which has been brought to bear on the wave theory of light, has placed it in
a most popular position ; but, without for one moment attempting an objec-
tion to any part of this theory as it explains luminous phsenomena, it cannot
be too strongly insisted on, for it is too often forgotten, that excepting Dr.
Young's experiment already quoted, no attempt has ever been made by any
mathematician to associate the chemical agency of the solar rays with the
theory of luminous undulations. Speculations there have been, but all these
have been ventured on without any attempt at analysis. This is particularly
mentioned to show that the entire subject remains open for examination, and
that this examination should be prosecuted without reference to any precon-
ceived hypotheses.
Sir John Herschel* remarks on "the high probability at least that the
chemical energy is distributed throughout the spectrum in such a way as to
be by no means a mere function of the I'efrangibility, but to stand in relation
to other physical qualities, both of the ray, and of the analysing medium, and
that relation by no means the same as that which determines the absorptive
action of the latter on the colorific rays."
Without stopping to consider the question of the colours of the bands con-
stituting the spectrum, it being perfectly indifferent to this subject whether
we adopt the seven rays of unequal refrangibility of Sir Isaac Newton or the
views arrived at by the refined researches of Sir David Brewster, which reduce
the chromatic phsenomena to three, — I shall at once pass to the chemical agency
exercised along different lines of the spectrum. It is however necessary that
* On the Chemical Action of the Uavs of the Solar Spectrum, &c. Philosophical Transac-
tions, 1840, pt. 1.
CHEMICAL ACTION OP THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 143
we should regard the spectrum, from the extreme red ray at one end of the
spectrum to the lavender or gray ray at the other*, as representing the extent
of luminous power, which has its maximum in the yellow ray and its minima
at the outer limits of the extreme red and the lavender rays, since we have not
been enabled to trace any luminous effects beyond these points. It is conve-
nient to employ these coloured rays to mark points of action and of inaction ;
but it ajipears important that we should dispossess our minds of the idea that
chemical change, or the contrary, takes place by virtue of any function of a
particular coloured ray.
It had been already noticed by Berard, that the mean luminous rays, even
when condensed by a lens, produced no chemical change on chloride of silver.
Sir John Herschel was the first to observe that the rays at the red end of the
spectrum protected chloride of silver from that change which is induced even
beyond the spectrum by the diffused light which always accompanies the pris-
matic image ; that whereas papers prepared for photographic purposes were
darkened more or less over every other part ; over the space " on which the
full red of the spectrum had fallen, there was an appearance of whiteness, a
sort of white prolongation of, or appendage to, the dark photographic impres-
sion." It is thus proved that the red end of the spectrum is not inactive ; it
is not, that any sort of polai'ity exists in the spectrum : we have a positive
evidence, an action as energetic as that of the blue end of the spectrum, but
exerted in an opposite direction. If paper is blackened by exposure to the
violet end of the spectrum, or by the influence of diffused light, and subse-
quently exposed to the action of the red rays, it becomes of " a fuU and fiery
red" over the entire space upon which those rays fall. A similar result, but
not so decided, is produced by the radiations which permeate a ruby glass
coloured with oxide of gold.
It has lately been shown by M. Claudet that on the Daguerreotype plate
these red rays restored the sensibility of the iodized silver after it had been
acted upon by the more refrangible chemical raysf . The powerful action of
the red end of the spectrum was further proved by Sir John Herschel, who
employed two prisms and threw the red rays of one spectrum upon the
violet rays of another. " The blackening power of the more refrangible raj^s
* It is important that tlie condition of the prismatic spectrum sliould be distinctly com-
prehended : for a complete examination of the subject I nmst refer to the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1822 ; and to Sir John Herschel's Treatise on Light, Ency-
clopasdia Metropolitana ; Sir Da^nd Brewster's Optics, Lardner's Cyclopaedia ; and numerous
memoirs in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. To state in brief the facts
as presented to us, upon examining the Newtonian spectrum of seven colours — red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, — we must at once perceive that those seven are com-
pounds of but three colours — red, blue and yellow. By the combination of these all the
others can be produced, but not by any combination of the other rays. By examining the
spectrum with coloured media we can detect extensions of these priraaiy colo\ns, and fair
evidence is afforded that these colorific bands overlap eacli other. Now, if we look at the
spectrum through a cobalt blue glass, a colour unseen by the naked eye becomes visible, the
extreme red ray. This is evidently the result of a mixture of blue and red. By throwing
the spectrum upon turmeric paper a prolongation of the luminous portion beyond the violet
is seen, to which Sir John Herschel gave the name of the lavender ray. Thus nine instead
of seven bands present themselves. Now, if we examine all the conditions of these colours,
we shall find that the yellow ray blends with the blue, and produces green ; then, that the blue
becomes more and more decided, passing on to blackness in the indigo ; but that red reap-
pearing at that, the most refrangible end, produces by mixing with blue the violet, and yellow
blending with the violet produces the neutral lavender or gray ray. On the other side, yellow
mixing witli red produces orange, and then the red growing in intensity and purity, again
blends witli blue at the least refrangible end of the spectrum to produce the crimson ray or
extreme red.
t Philosophical Magazine, 1850.
144 REPORT — 1850.
seemed to be suspended over all that portion on which the less refrangible fell,
and the shades of green and sombre blue which the latter would have im-
pressed on xchite paper, were produced on that portion, which, but for their
action, would have been merely blackened."
It was, however, subsequently proved by the same excellent experimental-
ist, that if a paper, blackening under the influence of the red rays of the spec-
trum, was repeatedly drenched with the solution of the iodine salts, the black-
ening eventually gave way, and was succeeded by a very feeble degree of
bleaching. This bleaching appears to be distinctly due to thermic action, as
it can be jn-oduced to an equal degree by the influence of heat alone. The
action of the spectrum on this variety of paper may be divided into four
parts : —
1st, bleaching by the most refrangible rays ; 2ndly, blackening by the least
refrangible rays ; then, Srdly, bleaching by the same rays of low refrangibility ;
and, 4thly, an actual darkening to a pale brown, by the more active chemical
rays.
If paper blackened by exposure is washed with a solution of iodide of po-
tassium and exposed to sunshine, it is rapidly bleached. This forms the basis
of a process for obtaining positive pictures which appears to have been noticed
nearly about the same time by Dr. Fyfe, Lassaigne and myself. Dr. Fyfe, I be-
lieve, being the first to publish his process. If, however, this paper is exposed
to the prismatic spectrum, it will, at the same time as it is bleaching under
the influence of the most refrangible rays, blacken under that of the least re-
frangible ; the iodine under the action of the chemical (actinic) rays com-
bining and forming an iodide of silver, while under the operation of the calo-
rific rays and others associated with them, an actual exaltation of the oxida-
tion of the silver salt results.
Here we have evidence of two sets of rays of widelj' different refrangibility,
and consequently of dissimilar lengths of undulation, producing equally ener-
getic chemical changes, but of an opposite character. This might have been
predicated by what we already knew of the action of the red and blue ends of
the spectrum ; but the experiment mentioned by Sir John Herschel, in which,
under the combined influence of these two sets of rays acting upon one spot,
an eff^ect was produced which did not belong to either of them when separated,
could not have been expected, and has not been explained upon any of the
theories of light.
A very interesting modification of the above phsenomena maj' be produced
by the use of coloured media. If an engraving is placed upon a piece of
darkened photographic paper Avashed over with a solution of iodide of potas-
sium, and it is then exposed to sunshine, a positive copy of the engi-aving, as
has been already explained, results. Now, if we place a piece of blue glass
over one portion, and a ruby glass over another, the bleaching process goes
on with great energy under the blue, and the blackening with equal intensitj'-
under the red ; and we obtain a positive and negative copy of the engraving
at the same time on the same piece of paper.
It has been proved by the experiments of Sir J. Herschel that this black-
ening power is exerted by rays beyond the extreme red ray, where no lumi-
nous influence can be detected. This result is particularly shown ujjon papers
prepared with acetate of lead, chloride of platinum, and washed when under
the influence of the light with hydriodate of potash.
When experimenting with photographic papers prepared with the tartrate
of potash and soda (Rochelle salts). Sir John Herschel observed that a pro-
tected line presented itself on every side of the spectrum. " If the light was
CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 145
allowed to continue its action, there was observed to come on suddenly a new
and much more intense impression of darkness confined in length to the blue
and violet rays, and, what is most remarkable, confined in breadth to the mid-
dle of the sun's image, so far at least as to leave a border of a lead-coloured
spectrum, traceable not only round the clear and well-defined convexity of the
dark interior spectrum, at the least refrangible end, but also laterally along
both its edges."
At the same time, ignorant of these refined researches of Sir John Herschel,
I observed similar results upon a Daguerreotype plate : the record of these
observations will be found in the Philosophical Magazine (vol. xvi. 3rd Series,
p. 2G7), the same number containing the abstract of the Memoir of Sir John
Herschel, read before the Royal Society, which first made me acquainted with
his observations. It was most distinctly stated that there was " a real differ-
ence between the chemical agencies of those rays which issue from the cen-
tral portion of the sun's disc, and those which emanating from its borders have
undergone the absorptive action of a much greater depth of its atmosphere."
Therefore the first observation of this is not due to M. Arago, who has only
very recently noticed the fact in his ' Memoirs on Photometry.' It must not,
however, from any evidence yet afforded us, be supposed that the peculiar
protecting influence of the extreme red ray, and the similar influences of the
lateral edges of the spectrum, are of precisely the same order. It would rather
appear that the least refrangible rays have a function arising from a combina-
tion of chemical and calorific power which is distinct from anything exhibited
by the other radiations.
We have now to consider the remarkable fact, that nearly all bodies sus-
ceptible of receiving any impression from the ordinary red rays assume more
or less a red colour. This was noticed very early by Daguerre and Talbot,
and it has been confirmed by every subsequent experimentalist. The cause of
this production of colour is not very evident ; but -we must regard it as due
to the new molecular arrangement produced by the chemical changes effected
by these radiations. From time to time we hear of the productions of co-
loured images of prismatic spectra, and lately M. Edmund Becquerel has
created some sensation by exhibiting such images, and also copies of highly
coloured drawings.
This is not a novelty in photographic phenomena. Herschel, in 1839,
obtained a coloured spectrum upon a paper prepared with two washes of a
solution of nitrate of silver and a wash of muriate of soda applied between each.
This was described as " coloured with sombre, but unequivocal tints imitating
those of the spectrum itself." In the same year I found that papers prepared
■ with muriate of hary tes and nitrate of silver, would, after having been allowed
tc darken, if placed under diflPerent coloured media, assume, to a certain extent,
t\.z ccictirs cf the rays permeating them. " After a week's exposure to dif-
fused light, it became bright red under the red glass, a dirty yellow under the
yellow, a dark green under the green, and a light olive under the blue=^."
Again, in 1844, I was fortunate enough to obtain very decided evidences of
colour upon papers prepared with the fluoride of potassium and nitrate of
silver f.
M. Edmund Becquerel, investigating the conditions of the spectrum -with
particular reference to its influences on the Daguerreotype plate, was led to
regard the spectrum as consisting of two remarkable divisions, which he calls
rayons excitateurs and rayons continuateurs ; the least refrangible rays being
supposed to continue the action set up by the chemical or most refrangible
* Philosophical Transactions for 1840, pt. J, p. 43. t Researches on Light, p. 106.
146 REPORT — 1850.
rays. For example, a Daguerreotype plate being impressed in the camera
with its dormant, invisible image, is placed under the influence of radiations
■which are deprived of their actinism, and yet the image is slowly and steadily
developed. On this curious question the papers of M. Claudet should also
be consulted. M. E. Becquerel's classification of the effects observed, which
is as follows, is good : —
1st series. Bodies exhibiting a physical modification without any change
in composition.
2nd series. Elements combined under solar influence.
3rd series. Combination destroyed in part or entirely by the influence of
solar rays.
If a careful examination is made of spectra chemically formed, it will
be found that scarcely one of those impressed upon papers prepared with
inorganic matter exhibit any influence over the space covered by the yel-
low ray ; that is, the most luminous portion of the prismatic spectrum pro-
duces no chemical change upon them. This is only a confirmation of the
observation of Berard previously mentioned. As the sensibility of the pho-
tographic preparation is increased, we find the resulting chemical impression
considerably lengthened : it is not only extended to a greater distance beyond
the utmost extent of the luminous image, but chemical change becomes evi-
dent more nearly up to the centre of the yellow ray, — the point of maximum
illuminating power. In no case however has any decided effect been observed
up to this point. I have been disposed to refer this to a power of light an-
tagonistic to that of chemical action. But it must not be disguised, that the
phoenomenon appears to be explicable also upon some view of interference,
although this is by no means reducible to any satisfactory condition in the
present state of our knowledge. It has been proved by experiments with
coloured media, which have been employed to analyse the prismatic spectrum,
that every luminous ray may he made to protect chloride of silver from chemical
change. Thus lines of blue, yellow and red rays, with their interblending
tints (after having been filtered by a glass stained with oxide of silver), have
been thrown upon highly sensitive photographic papers, which have been at
the same time under the influence of diffused light ; and it has been found,
that although every part of the paper, except that portion covered by the spec-
trum, has been deeply darkened, the whole of this line has been protected
and preserved perfectly white*. We have usually been accustomed to speak
of the chemical agency of the solar radiations, as belonging in their varieties
to some particular coloured ray. Thus the yellow ray has been regarded as
the least chemical, and the blue as the most energetically so. Evidence how-
ever has been afforded to show that the blue ray may be deprived of its
chemical power, and we shall i^resently see that some forms of chemical
change are in a peculiar manner determined hy the raj^s emanating from the
yellow band. Therefore, without in any way interfering with any theoiy of
luminous action, we can no longer regard the colour of a particular ray as
an indication of its power to produce chemical change. Colour is a peculiar
function of light, not directly connected with any chemical piiEenomena.
It becomes important to ascertain the effects of transparent media on these
chemical radiations. It was shown by Malagutti that certain colourless
transparent media possessed a power, in virtue of which the chemical action
of the rays permeating them was very frequently exalted f. This subject has
also been investigated by M. Biot and M. Edmund Becquerel, who have
* British Association Reports, 1848, Swansea. Lecture bv R. Hunt, Royal Institution,
Atheuncum, 1849, No. 1122, p. 438.
f Annal, de Cliimie, vol. Ixxii. 5.
CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 147
equally remarked the differences produced on actinic power by colourless
screens.
The exalting or depressing power of certain media was also particularly
examined by Sir John Herschel, who observed very early in the progress of
his inquiries, that if a piece of thin post-paper, merely washed with nitrate
of silver, was exposed to clear sunshine, partly covered by and strongly
pressed into contact with glass, and partly projecting beyond it, the portion
under the glass was very much more affected than the part exposed, it being
often blackened, in the same time, to a tone which would require at least three
times the exposure uncovered. In practice photographers have availed them-
selves of this, and it is usual to place the prepared paper in the camera behind
a plate of glass.
The philosophy of this is ill understood : it has been thought to be due to
the circumstance, that the most transparent glass abstracts a portion of light,
and thus leaves the actinic power more free to act on the sensitive material.
The entire question demands a more attentive examination than it has hitherto
received. The peculiar action of coloured media is more accurately defined;
and as a knowledge of the influences exerted will have its value in guiding
new observers, the more decided and peculiar cases of obstruction to the ac-
tinic radiations must be given. It cannot however be too strongly impressed,
that every variety of glass or fluid media employed should be submitted to
prismatic examination, since the colour alone is not a guide to the quality of
the radiations permeating a particular medium.
Supposing the effect of exposure of a standard photographic preparation to
the direct solar radiations in a given time to be represented by 100, the action
produced by the interposition of coloured media is relatively shown in the
other numbers. Although many specimens of blue glass show an exalting
effect, and consequently should be represented by a number in excess, it is
thought advisable to regard them as equal to unshaded exposure.
Glasses,
Exposure to unshaded sunshine + 100
Ruby glass coloured with oxide of gold which insulates perfectly
the red rays — 25
Brown red coloured with copper, which admits the permeation of
all the rays below the orange, and a faint line of blue .... — + 30
Orange glass coloured with iron, cutting off the violet, indigo, and
nearly all the blue rays — 10
Lemon-yellow glass, probably coloured with iron, reducing the
spectrum to three patches of blue, red and yellow — 8
Yellow glass stained with oxide of silver — 3
Green glass, — a deep pure green produced by oxide of copper . . -f 74
Blue glass, cobalt, obliterating all the mean luminous rays, and
exhibiting the extreme red in great purity + 100
Fluids.
Red. — Carmine dissolved in ammonia ; — cutting off all the rays above
the red, except when in very thin layers it admits a small line of
the violet — 20
Orange yellow. — Solution of bichromate of potash with a little sul-
phuric acid ; giving but a trace of the blue rays, all the least re-
frangible being well-defined — 7
Lemon yellow. — Quadro-sulphuret of lime of Dalton; — cutting off all
the prismatic rays above the inner limits of the blue 5
L 2
148 REPORT— 1850.
Green. — Muriate of copper and iron ; — blue, green, yellow and orange
rays permeate freely + 64
Blue. — Ammonia, sulphate of copper ; — obliterating all the rays below
the green + 100
When the mark + is affixed to a number it indicates that the kind of
action detected is positive, or belongs to the so-called chemical rays (actinism);
on the contrary, when — is employed, the action detected belongs to that
class which is associated with the least refrangible rays, or is of a negative
order. Thus, when the ruby-glass is employed, the chloridated photographic
paper is very slowly changed to a red, as under the red rays ; but in the case
of the brown-red glass, an action, both positive and negative, is detected :
the resulting colour is a gray ; but if the spectrum is passed through such a
medium, the impression is made at the two extremities of the spectrum -|- by
the small portion of the blue ray which passes and — by the ordinary red ray.
From these notices it will be seen to how large an extent we can succeed in
separating the phaenomena of the solar radiations from each other. Under
one set of conditions, we can command a large amount of light, which possesses
no positive chemical power ; while under another set, we can cut off nearly
all the light, and admit freely the full amount of the chemical rays (actinism).
Again, it must be remembered that we can, as Melloni pointed out*, sei)a-
rate the luminous and calorific radiations very readily from each other. By
the use of a green glass stained with oxide of copper, for example, a very
large amount of the calorific rays are obstructed ; and I have found that a very
slight tint of green is quite sufficient to stop those radiations which have been
distinguished by Sir John Herschel as parathermic rays, and to which in all
probability the browning of the autumnal leaves is due. From a series of
experiments undertaken at the request of the Commissioners of Woods and
Forests, I was induced to advise that a glass, stained slightly green with the
oxide of copper, should be employed for glazing the Palm House in the Royal
Botanical Gardens at Kew. This advice was acted upon ; and as far as the
opportunities of observing enable us to form an opinion, nothing can be more
satisfactory f.
A peculiar difference is found in the action of the solar spectrum on vege-
table colours. This branch of the inquiry has particularly engaged the atten-
tion of Sir John Herschel, and, notwithstanding the interesting nature of the
inquiry, it appears to have been pursued by but one other experimentalist,
Mrs. Somerviile.
It is proved that the chemical action of the solar rays upon all vegetable
juices is confined within the limits of the luminous radiations, no change
having been detected over those dark spaces which are purely chemical and
calorific.
In the instance of gum guaiacum, it was observed by Dr. WoUaston, that
paper \yashed with its tincture was changed to a blue or green by the most
refrangible rays, and restored again to its original yellow colour by the least
refrangible, which he regarded as due to the heat of those rays. M. Biot
has shown that that portion of the resin soluble in water was not affected by
the sun's rays. These experiments have been confirmed by Herschel, who has
however proved, contrary to the opinion of Wollaston, that the return of the
colour was not due to heat alone ; since beyond the luminous rays, where the
calorific effect is at a maximum, no such change is produced. " Obscure
* Bibliotheqiie Universelle de Geneve, No. 70, for October 1841.
t On the Coloured Glass employed in glazing the New Palm House in the Royal Botanic
Garden at Kew (Report of the British Association for 1847).
CHEMICAL ACTION OP THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 149
terrestrial heat is shown to be capuhle of assisting and being: assisted in operatino-
this peculiar change, by those rays of the spectrum, whether luminous or
thermic, which occupy its red, yellow and green regions ; while on the other
hand it receives no such assistance from the purely thermic rays beyond the
spectrum, acting under precisely similar circumstances, and in an equal state of
condensation." The action of the solar rays is jjositive, that is to say, vege-
table colour is destroyed ; but in most cases it is susceptible of restoration by
chemical agents. When vegetable colours have been removed — bleached —
by th» action of bleaching agents, they may be restored by the action of the
sun's rays. If exposed to the action of the prismatic spectrum, it will be
found that the restoration of colour is operated by rays complementary to those
which destroy it in the natural state of the paper; " the violet rays being the
most active, the blue almost equally so ; the green little, and the yellow, orange
and most refrangible red not at all*."
Although the restoration of vegetable colours is occasioned by rays within
the limits of the luminous spectrum, it must be remembered that the green,
yellow and orange rays — those having the most illuminating power, — are, in
nearly all cases, inactive. The effects would appear to be due to the com-
bined influences of the light and of the chemical agency, whatever it may be.
But even under this view a peculiar difficulty presents itself; we find for ex-
ample the blue rays, or the actinic power associated with that colour, destroy-
ing a vegetable colour ; and then, having used a chemical agent, — as sul-
phurous acid — to destroy that colour, it can be restored by the action of the
orange or red rays. The peculiar variations in the scale of action which we
find in almost every different substance exposed to solar influence, presents
the greatest difficulty to any theoretical view of the physical constitution of the
sunbeam.
Mrs. Somerville has pointed out some very remarkable actions of the
spectrum on vegetable juices f. The colouring matters examined by this.
lady were derived from the
Pomegranate. Scarlet Geranium.
Globe amaranthus. Scarlet Balsam.
Plumbago auriculata. Dahlia.
Beet root. Scarlet Zinnia.
Rose Verbena. "Walnut.
Nasturtium. Fig.
These were sometimes employed pure, in other cases they were united with
common salt, some acid, or carbonate of soda. The differences produced were
singular, presenting, as in the case of the silver salts, a variation in the scale of
action in every case. The maximum amount of action was observed, however,
to lie between the yellow and the green rays, and seldom extending beyond the
blue ; showing that those radiations which exert the most energetic action on
metallic compounds have little or no influence on the products of the vegetable
Avorld. In nearly all cases a pecuhar effect was observed at the least refran-
gible end of the spectrum. Coloured spots were produced, which appear to
correspond to the rays named by Sir John Herschel, the Parathermic rays ;
and at the same time, as the evidences of heat were clear from the drying of
the paper, it became apparent that some peculiar chemical change was being
induced. At present, however, there is nothing determined as to the real
agency producing this set of phsenomena. Allusion having been made more
* Herschel, Philosophical Transactions, Part 2 for 1842, p. 192.
t On the Action of the Rays of the Spectram on Vegetable Juices (Philosophical Trans-
actions, 1846, p. 111).
150 BEPOET — 1850.
than once to a set of rays acting in some respects like heat, and at the same
time exhibiting chemical power, it appears necessary that the mode of ascer-
taining the positions of the points of maximum calorific power should be de-
scribed.
Paper being blackened or strongly coloured, is stretched on a fi-ame, so
placed that a well-defined luminous spectrum is thrown iipon its uncoloured
side. This is then washed over with alcohol or ether, and the points of greatest
heat are shown by the rapid evaporation which takes place. After a few
minutes a whitish spot begins to appear considerably below the red ray^which
increases in breadth until it equals that of the luminous spectrum, and in
length till it forms a long appendage exterior to the spectrum, and extends
moreover within it and beyond the mean yellow ray. By applying a second
wash of alcohol or aether, thermographic spots are produced still lower than
the first heat spot, which show a very remarkable and unexpected extension of
calorific radiations. The want of continuity in the calorific spectrum is its
most striking phaenomenon ; it consists of four distinct patches, extending to
a distance below the luminous rays equal to the whole length of the spectrum,
and a prolongation through the luminous rays up to the end of the violet rays.
The parathermic rays can scarcely be said to have a defined place amid the
calorific radiations, but they are usually most strongly manifested in the red
rays. In this part of the Report it appears likely to prove useful, if we give
a list which shall as correctly as possible exhibit most of those bodies which
have been shown to be susceptible of chemical change under the influence
of the solar radiations, distinguishing the date of observation as far as it can be
ascertained, and the name of the earliest observer. Although every care has
been taken in examining authorities, it is not improbable that some errors of
dates will occur, — but it is hoped they maj' be few and trivial, — the date of
publication always being given as correctly as it can be ascertained.
Silver.
Nitrate of Ritter 1801
(photographically employed) Wedgwood and Davy 1802
with organic matter J. F. Herschel 1839
with salts of lead J. F. Herschel 1839
Chloride of C. W. Scheele 1777
(photographically employed) { SoT""^; ." [ .' .' .' '. '. [ [ ITsl
darkened, and hydriodic salts Fyfe, Lassaigne 1839
Iodide of (photographically used) {njan^'^: ! : ! : ! : .' ! ! ! .' 1^840
with ferrocyanate of potash Hunt 1841
with gallic acid (Calotype) Talbot 1841
with protosulphate of iron (Ferrotype) Hunt 1844
with iodide of iron (Catalysotype) . , Woods 1844
Bromide of Bayard 1840
Fluoride of Channing 1842
Fluorotype Hunt 1844
Oxide of Davy 1803
with ammonia Uncertain.
Phosphate of Fyfe 1839
Tartrate — Urate — Oxalate — Borate, &c. . . Herschel 1840
Benzoates of Hunt 1844
P'ormiates of Do 1844
Fulminates of Do 1842
CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 151
Silver Plate. iqqq
With vapour of iodine (Daguerreotype). ... Daguerre l»rfy
With vapour of bromine Goddard 1840
With chlorine and iodine Ciaudet . . . . : 1840
With vapour of sulphur Niepce 1820
With vapour of phosphorus Niepce 18^0
Gold. fRumford 1798
Chloride of |Herschel ' 1840
Etherlal solution of Rumford 1798
Etherial solution of, with percyanide of po-
• tassium • ■ •• ■ Hunt 1844
Etherial solution of, with protocyanide of
potassium Do 1844
Chromate of ^°- ^ ' \ iclo
Plate of gold and iodine vapour Goddard 1842
Platinum.
Chloride of Herschel 1840
Chloride of, in ether Herschel 1840
Chloride of, with lime Herschel 1832
Iodide of Herschel 1840
Bromide of . Hunt -. 1844
Percyanate of ■ • • Do 1844
Mercury.
Protoxide of Uncertain.
Peroxide of Guibourt.
Carbonate of Hunt 1844
Chromate of Do 1843
Deutiodide of Do 1843
Nitrate of Herschel 1840
Protonitrate of Herschel 1840
Chloride of BouUay 1803
Bichloride of Vogel 1806
Iron.
Protosulphate of.
Persulphate of.
Ammonia citrate of.
Tartrate of.
Attention was first called to the very
* peculiar changes produced in the iron
salts bv • ■ ■ Sir John Herschel. . . . 1845
' \"''^„"'. ^, N fScheele 1786
Cyanic compounds of (Prussian blue) . | Dgsmortiers 1801
Ferrocyanates of Fischer 1795
Iodide of Hunt 1844
Oxalate of Do 1844
Chromate of Do 1844
Several of the above combined with mercury Herschel 1843
Copper.
Chromate of (Chromatype) Hunt 1843
dissolved in ammonia Do 1844
}'
152 REPORT — 1850.
Copper.
Sulphate of. Hunt 1844
Carbonate of Do 1844
Iodide of Do 1844
Copper-plate iodized Talbot 1841
Manganese.
Permanganate of potash Frommherz 1824
Deutoxide and cyanate of potassium Hunt 1844
Muriate of Do 1844
Lead.
Oxide of (the puce-coloured) Davy 1 802
Red lead and cyanide of potassium Hunt 1844
Acetate of lead Do 1844
Nickel.
Nitrate of
with ferroprussiates ^Do 1844
Iodide of
Tin.
Purple of cassius Uncertain.
Cobalt Hunt 1844
Arsenic sulphuret of Sage 1803
Arsenical salts of "^
Antimony |
Bismuth >Hunt 1844
Cadmium j
Rhodium J
Chromium.
Bichromate of potash Mungo Ponton 1838
-with iodide of starch E. Becquerel 1840
Metallic chromates (Chromatype) Hunt 1843
Chlorine and Hydrogen Gay-Lussac & Thenard 1809
Chlorine (tithonized) Draper 1842
. • and ether Cahours 1810
Glass, manganese, reddened Faraday 1823
Cyanogen, solution of Pelouseand Richardson 1838
Methyle Cahours 1846
r Petit 1722
Crystallization of salts influenced by light< Chaptal 1788
LDize 1789
„, , r Schulze 1727
P^^^P^"'""^ JRitter 1801
in nitrogen Beckman 1 800
Phosphorus and ammonia Vogel 1806
Nitric acid decomposed by light Scheele 1786
Fat matter Vogel 1806
Development of pores in plants Labillardiere ■ 1801
Vitality of germs Michellotti 1803
Resinous bodies (Heliography) Niepce 1814
Asphaltum Niepce 1814
Resin of oil of lavender Niepce and Daguerre. . 1830
Guaiacum Wollaston 1803
CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 153
Resinous bodies (Heliography) .
Bitumens all decomposed Daguerre 1839
All residua of essential oils Daguerre 1839
Flowers, colours of, expressed, and spread
upon paper Herschel 1842
Yellow wax bleached Senebier 1791
TLicetas 1646
j Kircher 1646
Phosphorescent influences of solar rays . . < Canton 1768
! Biot 1840
[^E. Becquerel 1839
Vegetation in stagnant water Morren 1841
Influence of light on electrical phaenomena . E. Becquerel 1839
Magnetism induced hj Solar Rays.
Affirmative. Negative.
Morichini 1812-13 Configliachi 1813
Moscati 1812-13 Firmas 1819
Grotlhuss 1812-13 Berard 1819
es..'pa 1816 Seebeck 1829
Ridolfi 1816 Riess and Moser 1829
Playfair 1817 Berzelius 1829
Christie 1826 Matteucci 1829
Baumgartner 1826 Kastner 1832
Somerville : 1826 Haser
Mark Watt 1827
Barlocci 1829
Zantedeschi 1829
Moleyns 1842
Knox, G. J. & T 1840
This array of names will show the exceeding degree of uncertainty which
hangs about the supposed magnetic results ; and, notwithstanding the ela-
borate experiments of Riess and Moser*, it does not appear safe, as they
require of us " to reject totally a discovery which for seventeen years has at
different times disturbed science."
Memoirs, 8tc. embracing hifluences of Light on Organic Bodies.
Experiments upon the influence of light on plants. ... B. C. Meese. . 1775
Experiments on ditto Priestley .... 1 779
r 1782
Experiments on vegetation Ingenhousz < 1784
t 1786
f 1782
Physico-chemical memoirs Senebier . . < t «qo
Observations on Ingenhousz's experiments De la Ville . . 1783
The effects of light on certain plants Tessier 1783
On the influence of light Berthollet 1786
f 179*^
On vegetable nutrition Hassenfratz < „_^
On the green colour of vegetables exposed to light. . . . Humboldt . . 1792
Experiments on germination Lefeboure . . 1799
* Edinburgh Journal of Science, N. S. No. 4, p. 225.
154 REPORT 1850.
Experiments relative to the influence of light on some
vegetables DecandoUe . . 1 801
On the vegetation of plants Woodhouse . . 1801
Chemical researches on vegetation Saussure .... 1803
Foxglove leaves in dry powder.
Hemlock ditto
Henbane ditto
Aconite ditto
Jalap root ditto .
posure to light. First particu-
larly noticed in the Journal of
the Pharmaceutical Society, 1 846.
Ordinary observation has shovi^n
that all these preparations lose
colour, and are much deteriorated
««io|j .u^i, uiii.^^ I j^ their medicinal values by ex-
Ipecacuanha ditto ' ^ T , ^ T-.- ^ \.-
CascariUa bark ditto P"'"^"^ ^^ ^'-^^- ^''^^ ^^^^icu-
Valerian root ditto
Rhubarb root ditto
Ginger root ditto
Uber Pflanzencrregbarkeit im AUgemeinen und Beson-
deren Ritter 1808
Recherches sur la respiration des plantes exposees a la
lumiere du soleil Ruhland .... 1816
On the action of light on plants, and of plants upon the
atmosphere Daubeny .... 1836
On the action of light upon the colour of the river
sponge J. Hogg .... 1838
Experiments and observations on light which has per-
meated coloured media, and on the chemical action
of the solar spectrum Hunt 1840
Influence de la lumiere sur les i*acines Payer 1843
On the action of yellow light in producing the green
colour, and indigo light the movements of plants . . P. Gardner . . 1844
On the influence of light on plants Hunt 1844
Note on the decomposition of carbonic acid by the
leaves of plants under the influence of yellow light. . Draper 1844
Influence des rayons solaires sur la vegetation Zantedeschi . . 1844
Ueber die Respiration der Pflanzenblatter Grischow .... 1845
Ueber die Nahrungsstofi"e, aus denen die Pflanzen in
Lichte das Sauerstoffgas ausscheiden C. H. Schultz 1845
Tendance de certaines racines a fuir ou rechercher la
lumiere Durand .... 1845
Quelques experiences sur la respiration des plantes . . Matteucci. . . . 1846
Reports of British Association Hunt 1846
Directions of plants as influenced by light Maccaire .... 1847
Report. Influences of the solar rays on the growth of
plants. British Association Hunt 1847
As the last Report comprehends the principal points of interest in con-
nexion with the influences of the solar radiations on vitality, and we have
now aff^orded the means of referring to the inquiries of those numerous au-
thors who have examined this part of the subject, it is thought unnecessary
to dwell on this important subject in the present Report.
From the extensive list which has been given, it will be seen that the action
of the solar radiations, — so far from being confined, as it was formerly thought
to be, to a few peculiar chemical compounds, which, existing in a state of
exceedinglj' nice equilibrium, were liable to have their affinity disturbed by
the operation of any external force, — is so extensive, that scarcely any body in
CHEMICAL. ACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 155
nature, organic or inorganic, is independent of the solar influences, although
their scales of sensibility to them are widely different.
There are a few remarkable chemical facts recorded, which prove j'^et further
how very extensive is the operation of the actinic force, and point at the same
time to a line of inquiry, which is only now beginning to engage attention.
Dumas was the first to point out, that when crystallizable acetic acid
C^ H' O^ + HO is exposed to sunshine in an atmosphere of dry chlorine, it is
gradually decomposed, and that an equal volume of chlorine completely takes
the place of the hydrogen, a new acid composed of C 4 CI 3 3 + HO
(chloracetic acid) resulting*.
Auguste Cahours has shown that some very striking effects are pro-
duced by sunshine on the combination of chlorine and some ethers of the
methylic seriesf. " La preparation de I'oxalate et du formate de methylene
perchlores est des plus simples : il suffit, en effet, de placer ces produits bien
purs et bien sees dans des flagons remplis de chlore desseche, puis d'exposer
ces derniers a la radiation solaire directe. Dans les premiers moments, I'at-
taque est excessivement vive, mais elle se ralentit a mesure que la chlorura-
tion fait des progr^s ; on reconnait que I'operation est terminee, lorsque, apr^s
une exposition de plusieurs jours a un soleil assez vif, la teinte de I'atmo-
sphere du flagon ne s'affaiblit plus."
At the meeting of the British Association at Cork, Dr. Draper of New York
communicated the very remarkable fact, that chlorine which has been exposed
to daylight or sunshine possesses qualities which are not possessed by chlo-
rine made and kept in the dark. It acquires from that exposure the property
of speedily uniting with hydrogen, under circumstances in which the combi-
nation with ordinary chlorine is effected with very great slowness. Dr. Draper
found that if a flask of chlorine and hydrogen was placed in an atmosphere
of chlorine, and then exposed to sunshine, no formation of hydrochloric
acid took place. The agent producing the combination had been stopped by
the yellow atmosphere of the chlorine surrounding the flash. It was now found
that if this chlorine which had stopped the chemical agent, was itself mixed
with hydrogen, it combined, under the influence of the weakest light, with an
energy which unsolarized chlorine did not exhibit. Hence Dr. Draper inferred,
" that those rays are absorbed by ponderable bodies, and that they become
latent after the manner of heat |." He also concludes, that the indigo rays are
the most active in effecting the formation of hydrochloric acid, and that the in-
digo rays are absorbed by the solarized chlorine. That remarkable changes do
take place under the influence of sunshine in elementary bodies is further shown
by the experiments of Berzelius on phosphorus §. This chemist has proved
that when phosphorus, dissolved in ether, oil, or hydrogen gas, is exposed to
sunshine, it undergoes a peculiar modification, and separates under the form
of red phosphorus ; and that in the Torricellian vacuum it sublimes in red
scales.
I have also shown 1| that a solution of protosulphate of iron in distilled
water, (freed of, and carefully kept from the air,) exposed to sunshine, acquires
a property of precipitating gold and silver from its solutions with much greater
rapidity than a similar solution kept in the dark. In the same paper I have
given some experiments, proving that with certain compounds precipitation
* Sur les Tj^pes Chimiques, Ann. de Ch. et Ph. Ixxiii. 77.
f Recherches relatives a Taction finale du chlore sur quelques ethers composes de la serie
methylique sous I'influence de la radiation solaire. Comptes Rendus, xxiii. 1070.
J On Tithonized Chlorine. Philosophical Magazine, July 1844.
§ Traite, torn. i. 258.
II Contributions to Actino-Chemistry. Phil. Mag. 1845,
156 REPORT— 1850.
goes on much more rapidly in light than in darkness, and that peculiar
chemical changes take place in virtue of some solar force.
These phsenomena stand at present as isolated facts, and serve only to
show how extensive a field of inquiry is indicated, into which the experimen-
talist has scarcely ventured. I am not prepared at present to support the
view which I once entertained, in common with Dr. Draper and others, that
the results obtained afford evidence of the absorption of any solar radiation.
We know so little of the constitution of molecules, and of the peculiar powers
grouped under the name of molecular forces, and variously referred to as ca-
pillarity, endosmose, catalysis, allotropic and epipolic forces, that it is neces-
saiy to pause in our consideration of this intricate question.
The subject of this Report has been investigated with considerable caution
by M. Edmund Becquerel*. His conclusions in general do not widely differ
from those of the other investigators already named ; but from these and a
subsequent series of investigations on the dark lines of the chemical spectrum,
M. Becquerel expresses his conviction that all chemical change is the result
of light — luminous power. — " Je ci'ois qu'on pent conclure de I'ensemble des
faits que j'ai reunis dans ce travail, que les phenomenes lumineux chimiques
et phosphorogeniques proviennent d'un seul et meme agent, dont Taction est
modifiee suivant la nature de la matiere sensible exposee a son influence et
la genre de modification dont cette substance est susceptible." The fact
noticed by E. Becquerel, and also by Professor Miller and Dr. Draper, that
the chemical spectrum has the same inactive or dark lines as the luminous
spectrum, has been thought by some to be conclusive as to the identity of
the chemical and luminous rays ; but although it certainly proves that the
agency in both cases obeys a similar law of motion, or is subject to the same
wave interference, it does not appear necessarily to follow that the two phse-
nomena, so broadly distinguished in their effects, are the result of a precisely
similar cause.
It has been already stated that M. Edmund Becquerel distinguishes the
most chemically active rays as exciting rays, and the least refrangible rays of
the spectrum as continuing rays, since he finds that the chemical change
commenced by one set of rays is capable of being continued by the other set.
Shortly after this announcement, M. Gaudin found that the red, orange and
yellow rays not only continue the action on iodized plates, but that they de-
velope without mercury an image having the same appearance as that pro-
duced by mercurial vapour.
This class of phsenomena has been also investigated by M.Claudet, so M'ell
known for the success with which he has prosecuted Daguerreotype portrait-
uref. Tliis experimentalist states, as the result of his inquiries, that upon
silver plates, prepared simply with iodine, all the rays " have the property of
decomposing the iodide of silver in a longer or shorter time, as they have that
of producing the affinity for mercury on the bromo-iodide of silver ; with the
difference, that on the former compound the sei^arate actions of the several
rays continue each other, and that on the second compound these separate
actions destroy each other. We can understand, that in the first case, all
the rays are capable of operating the same decomposition ; and that in the
second, the aflSnity for mercury, when imparted by one ray, is destroyed by
another."
The phEcnomena of phosphorescence have attracted much attention, and
* Des EfFets produit sur les Corps par les Rayons Solaires. Ann. Ch. et Ph. vol. is. N. S.
p. 257.
+ Researches on the Theory of the principal Phaenomena of Photography in the Daguer-
reotj^ie Process. Phil. Mag. November 1849.
CHEMICAL ACTION OP THE SOLAR RADIATIONS. 157
in many of the instances, that electricity is an active exciting agent appears
proved ; but in the phosphorescence, produced by the solar rays, we have
effects which can scarcely be referred so easily to electrical effect.
If sulphuret of calcium (Canton's phosphorus) or the sulphuret of barium
( the Bolognian stone) are exposed to sunshine they become luminous in the
dark. If a paper covered with either of these substances is rendered luminous
by exposure to sunshine, and is put under the influence of the solar spectrum,
two very dissimilar actions occur ; over that portion of the spectrum where
the chemical rays exert their maximum power the phosphorescence is greatly
increased, but that portion on which the least refrangible rays fall, is com-
pletely darkened. If the phosphorescent body is rendered luminous by the
action of the actinic radiations, this phosphorescence is immediately destroyed
by the momentary action of the calorific rays of the red spaces of the spec-
trum. This latter effect is not a mere formation of heat, since by the agency
of artificial heat we can increase the amount of phosphorescence which is
excited by the rays at the chemical end of the spectrum. Seebeck appears
to have been the first to notice this peculiar property of the red rays.
In 1839 Edmund Becquerel first directed attention to the electricity deve-
loped during the chemical action excited by solar agency. Plates of platina,
being placed in acidulated water, were connected with a delicate galvano-
meter ; and the needle, after the first disturbance having come to rest at zero,
the spectral radiations, commencing with the red, were thrown upon one of
the plates. Neither the red, orange, yellow or green rays produced any
action ; the blue and indigo induced a slight disturbance ; but the violet rays
and the dark rays beyond the violet gave very decided indications of action
by the deflections of the galvanometer. These experiments were repeated by
me with many modifications*. I never obtained any deflections of the gaU
vanometric needles by any rays below the green ; we must therefore conclude
that electro-chemical action is due to the most refrangible rays. At the York
meeting of the British Association I produced some experiments, showing
that certain electro-chemical decompositions which took place in the dark,
giving rise to delicate metallic precipitates, were entirely prevented by expo-
sure to sunshine. It is my intention to prosecute this line of inquiry with
all care at the earliest opportunity.
In Poggendorff's 'Annalen' for 1842, M. Ludv/ig Moser announced the
discovery of some very remarkable phssnomena which he attributed to light.
These are, " If a surface has been touched in any particular parts by any
body, it acquires the property of precipitating all vapours which adhere to it,
or which combine chemically with it, on these spots, differently to what it
does on the other untouched parts." Dr. Draper desci-ibed som.e similar
phaenomena in 1840. In three papers, whicli have been translated and
published in the ' Scientific Memoirs,' Moser has stated all the results which
he obtained : the deductions from these were, that light was susceptible of
becoming latent, and that it was continually being radiated as " invisible
light" from all bodies, different bodies giving off rays of different refrangibi-
lity. After a very searching examination of all the phsenomena, I arrived at
conclusions widely differing from those of Moser, and I was induced to refer
them all to the influence of calorific radiations f. M. Fizeau| states his
belief that the effects observed are the result of organic matter being trans-
ferred from one surface to another, and Professor Grove has expressed him-
self favourable to the same view. I believe, however, that invisible heat
* Researches on Light, by Robert Hunt, p. 213.
t On Thermography. Phil. Mag. Dec. 1842. J Comptes Rendus, Nov. 1842.
158 KEPORT 1850.
radiation is capable of producing a sensible action on surfaces rendered per-
fectly free from organic matter. Those interested in this branch of inquiry
are referred to the ' Scientific Memoirs,' since the subject can scarcely be said
to belong to this Report.
I have purposely avoided any special notice of the photographic processes
which have been discovered during the progress of the investigations we have
been considering. Herschel, Talbot, Woods, Fyfe, Ponton, the writer of this
Report, and others, in our own country, have introduced new processes ; and
Dao-uerre, Becquerel, Lassaigne, Fizeau, Everard, Niepce, &c. on the continent
have enriched our store. Improvements in the Daguerreotype have been
effected by Goddard, Claudet and others, until they have brought the silver
plates to a state of sensil)ility which is almost marvelous. We have recently
been surprised with an announcement, that by the agency of fluorine the pro-
cesses on paper are rendered instantaneous, particularly on the calotype variety.
In justice to myself, I must however claim to have pubhshed, in 1844*, a pro-
cess called by me " the Fluorotype," which corresponds with the process now
introduced in France, and which enabled me, with a non -achromatic meniscus
lens, to procure " good images in the camera in half a minute." If the differ-
ences between the lenses employed be taken into account, it will be found
that the result I then obtained was equal to that of which the discoverer of the
new process (?) now boasts.
It will be evident that the question which assumes the most prominence
in our consideration of these remarkable phsenomena is that of the identity
or otherwise of light and actinism.
Fresnel has stated that the chemical eifects produced by the influence of
light are owing to a mechanical action exerted by the molecules of aether on
the atoms of bodies, so as to cause them to assume new states of equilibrium
dependent on the nature and on the velocity of the vibrations to which they
are subjected.
Arago saysf, it is by no means proved that the photogenic modifications of
sensitive surfaces result from the action of solar light itself. These modifica-
tions are perhaps engendered by invisible radiations mixed with light properly
so called, proceeding with it, and being similarly refracted.
These views fairly represent the condition in which ihe argument stands,
and a yet more extensive set of experiments appears to be necessary before
we can decide the question. It appears however important that we should
dismiss, as completely as possible, from our minds, all preconceived hypo-
theses. The phaenomena were all unknown when the theories of emission
and of undulation were framed and accepted in explanation of luminous effects ;
and it will only retard the discovery of the truth, if we prosecute our researches
over this new ground, with a determination to bend all our new facts to a
theory which was framed to explain totally dissimilar phsenomena.
We may sum up the amount of our knowledge of the chemical influences
of the solar radiations as follows : —
1. The rays, having diff'erent illuminating or colorific powers^ exhibit
different degrees and kinds of chemical action.
2. The most luminous rays exhibit the least chemical action upon all in-
organic matter. The least luminous and the non-luminous manifest very
powerful chemical action on the same substances.
3. The most luminous rays influence all substances having an organic
origin, particularly exciting vital power.
4. Thus, under modifications, chemical power is traced to every part of the
* Researches on Light, p. 106. t Comptes Rendus, 1843.
EXPERIMENTS ON SOME SPECIES OF FERNS. 159
prismatic spectrum ; but in some cases this action is positive, exciting ; in
others negative, depressing.
5. Tlie most luminous rays are proved to prevent all chemical change upon
inorganic bodies exposed, at the same time, to the influence of the chemical
rays.
6. Hence actinism, regarded at present merely as a phaenomenon differ-
ent from light, stands in direct antagonism to light.
7. Heat radiations produce chemical change in virtue of some combined
action not yet understood.
8. Actinism is necessary for the healthful germination of seed ; light is
required to excite the plant to decompose carbonic acid ; caloric is required
in developing and carrying out the reproductive functions of the plant.
9. Phosphorescence is due to actinism, and not to light.
10. Electrical phsenomena are quickened by actinism, and retarded by light.
Numerous other points ' of minor importance will present themselves on
studying the facts described. Without venturing to obtrude my own views,
I now leave the subject for that full investigation which it will, I trust, re-
ceive, as promising beyond all others to enlighten us on those curious phse-
nomena which appear to link together the organic and the inorganic worlds.
Dr. Daubeny reported that some little progress had been made by him
during the present season in the inquiry which was commenced last year, as
stated in the Reports of the British Association, vol. xviii. p. 56. The object
he last had in view was to ascertain whether such an addition to the amount
of carbonic acid in common air, as that which had been shown by the ex-
periments of the preceding year to be compatible with the health of ferns,
would tend to promote their growth and luxuriance in a greater degree, than
the proportion of the gas normally contained in the atmosphere did under
similar circumstances.
He therefore had placed three species of ferns, viz. Pteris longifolin,
Pteris serrulata and Nephrodium molle, under a jar, the air of which vvas
impregnated with about five per cent, of carbonic acid gas, which amount was
kept up by occasional additions throughout the whole period during which
the experiments were continued ; whilst three other ferns of the same kinds
were kept under a similar jar containing common air without any such
addition.
After the expiration of eleven weeks the two sets of ferns presented in
their general aspect no material difference, although whatever superiority
there might be, appeared to be on the side of the plants which had grown
in air containing only the normal amount of carbonic acid.
In another set of experiments, however, in which two similar sets of ferns
were watered, the one with rain water, tlie other with water impregnated
with carbonic acid gas, those under the latter treatment appeared, after a
time, decidedly more vigorous than the former.
160
REl'OBT — 1850.
Tenth Report of a Committee, consisting of H. E. Strickland, Esq.,
Prof. Daubeny, Prof. Henslow, and Prof. Lindley, appointed
to continue their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds.
The seeds which were collected in 1842 have been sown for the third time
this season, and tlie results are registered in the accompanying Table, and
also in the General Summary of the results of these experiments since IS^l,
which is annexed.
Besides those named in the General Summary, there have been small
quantities of many kinds submitted to a single sowing ; but as in most cases
the probable age at which they ceased to germinate could not be traced,
they have been omitted. This observation applies more especially to those
registered in vol. xiii. pp. 96-99, vol. xv. pp. 22-24, and vol. xvi. p. 147, of
these Reports, where, by glancing at the numbers of each kind sown, it will
be seen, that a just result could not be arrived at from so slight a test. Those
kinds hoM'ever which germinated at any known period have been inserted,
merely to show that vitality had not altogether ceased at such ages.
We are again indebted to Miss Molesworth of Cobham, Surrej', for many
packets of seeds from which we selected six kinds, being all that were avail-
able for our purpose ; the remaining kinds having been either already tested,
or, if new seeds, were in such small quantities, as would not admit of their
beino- distributed in conformity with the specified instructions.
The seeds sent to Cambridge last year were not sown till the present sea-
son, the results of which have been received and i-egistered in the General
Summary.
Name and Date when gathered.
1842.
Aconitum Napellus
Adonis autumnalis
Amaraiithus caudatus
Anagallis arvensis
BiiflFonia annua
Buphthalmum coidifolium.
Bupleurum rotundifoliura .
Coniiim maculatum
Cytisus Laburnum
Dipsacus laciniatus
Elslioltzia cristata
Erysimum Peroifskianum .
Helianthus indicus
Heracleum elegans
Hyoscyamus niger
Iberis umbellata
Iris sibirica
Latbyrus heterophyllus ....
Leonurus Cardiaca
Malcolmia maritima
Malope graudiflora
Momordica Elaterium ....
Nepeta Cataria
Nicandra physaloides
Nigellanana
No.
sown.
No. of Seeds of each
Species which vege-
tated at
100
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
50
50
100
100
25
50
100
100
50
50
100
100
100
25
100
100
50
Ox-
ford.
74
Cam-
bridge.
Chis-
wick.
Time of vegetating
in days at
Cam-
bridge.
Chis-
wick.
10
20
ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS.
161
Name and Date when gathered.
1842.
26. Orobus niger
27. Steaactis speciosa
28. Tetragouolobus purpureus
29. Trigonella foenum-graecum
30. Tropaeoluni majus
31. Cucurbita Pepo, var
32. Gilia achilleaefoiia
33. Capsicum
34. Medicago maculata
35. Calandrinia speciosa
36. Callichroa platyglossa
37. Collomia coccinea
38. Coreopsis atrosanguinea
39. Cotoneaster rotundifolia
40. Crataegus macracantha
41. „ punctata
42. Cynoglossum glochidatum
43. Digitalis lutea
44. Eutoca viscida
45. Glauciuiu rubrum
46. Godetia Lindleyana
47. Gladiolus psittacinus
48. Impatiens glanduligera
49. Lupinus succuleiitus
50. Nolana atriplicifolia
51. Oxyura chrysanthemoides
52. Papaver arnoenum
53. Phacelia tanacetifolia
54. Potentilla nepalensis
55. Sphenogyne speciosa
56. Acacia pseud-acacia
57. Alstrcemeria pelegrina
58. Betula alba
59. Carpinus Betula
60. Catalpa cordifolia
61. Cercis canadensis
62. Cerinthe major
63. Cichorium Endivia
64. Cobsea scandens
65. Cuphea procumbens
66. Dolichos lignosus
67. Galinsogea trilobata
68. Ilex AquifoUa
69. Juniperus communis
70. Liriodendron Tulipiferum
71. Loasa nitida
72. Magnolia, sp
73. Martynia proboscidea
74. Mesembryantberaum crystallinum
75. Mirabilis Jalapa
76. Morus nigra
77. Ricinus communis
78. Rudbeckia amplexicaulis
79. Scorpiunis sulcatus
80. Tetragonia expansa
81. Ulex europsea
82. Quercus Robur
83. PhcenLx Dactylifera
No.
sown.
50
100
25
50
25
15
100
25
100
100
100
100
100
20
50
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
50
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
20
200
100
50
50
50
150
6
50
25
100
100
100
50
100
15
20
100
25
100
15
150
25
15
100
10
3
No. of Seeds of each
Species which vege-
tated at
Ox-
ford.
12
Cam-
bridge.
11
48
40
17
Chis-
wick
11
72
Time of vegetating
in days at
Ox- Cam- Chis-
ford. bridge, wick.
10
17
12
12
1850.
162
REPORT — 1850.
Name and Date when gathered.
No.
sown.
No. of Seeds of each
Species which vege-
tated at
Time of vegetating
in days at
Remarks.
Ox-
ford.
Cam-
3ridge.
Chis-
wick.
Ox-
ford.
Cam-
bridge.
Chis-
wick.
1844.
35
50
50
50
50
50
50
20
3
r Sown
only
X at
Ox-
[ ford.
1845.
88 Fedia dentata
Upwards of 50 years old.
General Summary of the Experiments from 1841 to 1850 inclusive.
1. Graminace^.
1. Zea, Cobbeifs wheat ..
Zea Mays
2. Phalaris canariensis
3. Panicum Miliaceum
4. Avena sativa
5. Triticum sestivum ,
„ Mummy wheat
6. Secale Cereale
7. Hordeum vulgare
2. Palmace^.
8. Phoenix Dactylifera .
3. Amaryllidace^.
9. Alstroemeria pelegrina
,, aurantia ..
4. Iridace.e.
10. Sisyrinchium bermudianum
11 . Iris sibirica
sp.
1846
1848
1844
1849
1850
1849
1850
1844
1849
1850
1844
1844
1849
1850
1844
1844
1850
1848
1844
1849
1850
1844
1844
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1847
1848
1845
1850
1848
12
127
147
19
nil.
178
100
237
37
nil.
210
163
nil.
nil.
139
140
nil.
4
167
nil.
nil.
236
nil.
nil.
27
300
300
200
400
200
300
200
300*
300
300*
300t
600
300
300+
60
75
14,
15,
23,
24,
25,
4. Iridace^, continued.
Tigridia Pavonia ,
Gladiolus psittacinus
5. Liliace^.
Allium fragrans
,, senescens
Camassia esculenta
Ornithogalum pyrenaicum
Asphodelus luteus
Asparagus officinalis —
6. PiNACEiE.
Pinus Pinea
Juniperus communis
j» "
7. Betulace^.
Betula alba
AJnus glutinosa
8. Cannabinace^.
Cannabis sativa
i> )>
9. Morace^.
Morus nigra
10. Euphorbiace^.
Euphorbia Lathyris
Croton, sp
Ricinus communis
11. C0RYLACE.a;.
Fagus sylvatica
Carpinus Betula
1846
1845
1850
1846
1842
1847
1848
1842
1847
1850
1846
1847
1846
1845
1850
1845
1848
1844
1849
1850
1845
1850
1846
1842
1844
1845
1850
1848
1845
300
300
300
450
60
300
150
450
19
100
300
150
* Preserved (in waxed cloth). f Preserved (in open jar). J Preserved (in waxed cloth).
ON THE VITAIilTY OP SEEDS.
163
11. CoRYLACE^, continued
Quercus Robur
12. CUCURBITACE^.
Momordica Elaterium
Cucurbita Cucuzza
„ di Spagna
Green Egyptian Melon . .
Marari
Mellone di Acqua
„ di Pane Bianca
Valencian Melon
Early Cantalupe Melon,.
Melon from Lisbon
Melon
Melon from Cassabak ..
Cucurbita, sp.
Bryonia dioica
13. Passiflorace^.
Passiflora Herbertiana . .
Tacsonia pinnatistipula
14. VlOLACE^.
Viola lutea
15. Crucifer^.
Matthiola annua
Cheiranthus, sp
Turritis retrofracta
Arabis hirsuta
„ lucida
Koniga maritima
Lunaria biennis
Vesicaria grandiflora
Iberis umbellata
Biscutella erigerifolia
Malcomia maritima ...
Hesperis matronalis
Erysimum Peroflfskianum .
9. Lepidium sativum.
Ethionema saxatile
Isatis tinctoria ,
Brassica Napus
Rapa oleifera
oleracea
1845
1850
1845
1850
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1845
1850
1847
1842
1842
1846
1846
1846
1842
1848
1842
1846
1846
1847
1848
1845
1850
1846
1845
1850
1846
1845
1850
1844
1849
1850
1848
1848
1844
1849
1850
1844
1849
1850
1846
1844
2
20
50
11
50
11
4
37
19
5
nU.
nil.
99
236
38
nil.
36
nil.
170
114
nil.
11
150
71
178
nil.
66
82
195
19
1
15
15
323
4
nil.
335
15
5
85
11
30
13 75
40
20
40
29
90
50
50
72
20
150
15
5
45
45
300
450
600
80
200
600
300
100
200
300
300
300
300
300
200
100
100
100
450
300
900
600
300
100
150
56. Heliophila araboides....
57. Schizopetalon Walkeri .
16. Capparidace^.
58. Cleome spinosa
17. Byttneriace^.
59. Hermannia, sp
18. Trop^olacejE.
60. Tropaeolum majus
,, peregnnum
61. Limnanthes Uouglasii ..
19. Malvace^.
62. Malope grandiflora
15. Crucifer^, continued
52. Brassica oleracea
53. Diplotaxis tenuifolia .
54. Crarabe maritima ....
55. Bunias orientalis ....
63. Kitaibelia vitifolia
64. Lavatera trimestris
65. Malva mauritiana . .
,, moschata .
66. Hibiscus, sp
67. Gossypium, sp
68. Sida, sp
20. TlLlACE^.
69. Corchonis, sp
70. Triumfetta, sp
21. HYPERICACEJi:.
71. Hypericum hirsutum ..
,, Kalmianum
22. Magnoliace^.
72. Magnolia, sp
73. Liriodendron Tulipiferum .
23. Ranunculace^s.
74. Clematis erecta
75. Thalictrum minus
76. Anemone coronaria
77. Adonis autumnalis
78. Ranunculus caucasieus .
79. Nigeila nana
80. Aquilegia sibirica
81. Helleborus foetidus
82. Delphinium intermedium.
1844
1849
1850
1846
1847
1849
1850
1846
1848
1846
1844
1845
1850
1848
1848
1845
1850
1848
1848
1847
1846
1846
1844
1844
1846
1844
1844
1844
1846
1842
1845
1850
1845
1850
1842
1849
1850
1849
1850
1845
1850
1849
1850
1845
1850
1850
1847
1848
40
nil.
nil.
4
6
57
2
165
30
61
52
nil.
15
nil.
127
10
23
50
281
18
6
17
3
2
75
2
30
94
nU.
4
nil.
nil.
nil.
nil.
nil.
nil.
nil.
nil.
79
7
nil.
nil.
40
nil.
nil.
nU.
nU.
* (In waxed cloth.)
M 2
164
REPORT — 1850.
23. Rancnculace-e, conii
32. Delphinium flexuosura
83. Aconitum Napellus
84. Paeonia, mixed vars.
24. Papaverace.*.
85. Argemone alba
,, grandiflora
. Papaver somniferura...
„ orientale
„ amccnum
87. Glaucium rubniin .
88. Eschscholtzia californica ...
89. Chrvseis crocea
sp.
25. FCMARIACE.E.
90. Hypecoum procumbens
91.Fumaria spicata
26. BERBERIDACE.a:.
92. Mahoiiia Aquifolia.
27. Anacardiacejl.
93. Rhus, sp
28. Xaxthoxylace^.
94. Ailantus glandulosa
29. Linage.*.
95. Linum perenne
„ usitatissimum . .
30. Balsaminace.e.
96. Balsamina hortensis ....
97. Impatiens glanduligera.
31. Geraniace.^.
98. Pelargonium, sp
32. CARYOPHYLLACE.E.
99. BufFonia annua
100. Dianthus barbatus .
„ chinensis .
101. Saponaria annua
102. Gypsophila elegans.
103. Silene quadridentata
„ pendnla
„ inflata
,, Armeria alba
104. Yiscaria oculata
105. Phamaceum, sp
33. PORTULACACE^.
106. Talinum cihat um ...
nued
1842
1847
1848
1845
1850
1844
1849
1850
1847
1848
1846
1842
1845
1850
1845
1850
184/
1842
1847
1842
1842
1848
1842
1844
1848
1848
1846
1844
1849
1850
1846
1845
1850
1844
1845
1850
1846
1846
1847
1846
1842
1848
1848
1846
1848
1848
1844
1846
10
nil.
nil.
1
13
nil.
nil.
nil.
159
nil.
73
nil.
47
nil.
47
nil.
124
4
nil.
nil.
nil.
5
nil.
200
30)
300
150
300
300
600
100
300
50
150
100
200
450
300
150
150
150
62
300
300
150
450
600
500
100
200
150
100
450
100
33. PORTULACACE^, COtlH
107. Calandrinia grandiflora
speciosa
34. POLYGONACE.E.
108. Polygonum fagopyrum
109. Ruraex obtusifolium
sp.
35. Nyctaginaceje.
110. Mirabilis Jalapa
36. Phytolaccaceje.
111. Phytolacca decaudra .
37. Amarantace^.
112. Amaranthus caudatus .
38. Chenopodiace-e.
113. Chenopodium Botrys ..
„ Quinoa..
188 600
114. Beta vulgaris
39. Saururace.s:.
115. Saururus, sp
40. Mesembryace.*.
116. Mesembryantheraum cry-
stallinum
41. Tetragoxiace.e.
117. Tetragonia expansa....
42. Proteace^.
118. Leucadendron, sp. ..
43. Leguminos.^.
119. Podalyria, sp
120. Pultensea, sp
121. Lupinus succulentus
,, rivularis
grandifobus
„ polyphyllus
„ lucidus
122. Crotalaria, sp
123. Aspalathus, sp
124. Ulex europaea
125. Spartium Scoparium
126. Cytisus albus
,, Laburnum ...
127. Tetragonolobus purpureus.
128. Trifolium repens
nued
1848
1842
1847
1845
1850
1844
1849
1850
1846
1846
1845
1850
1846
1845
1850
1848
1847
1849
1850
1848
1844
1845
18.50
1845
1850
1844
1844
1844
1845
1850
1842
1847
1842
184
1842
1847
1844
1844
1845
1850
1848
1848
1845
1850
1845
1850
1844
nil.
39
nU.
171
18
25
7
nil.
162
13
30
nil.
21
178
1
nil.
nil.
171
14
155
94
1112
22
nU.
19
113
2
85
nil.
1
nil.
nil.
1
1
nU.
4
1
113
27
38
24
21
2
40
nU.
22
ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS.
165
43 . Leguminos.«, contin
Trifolium giganticum ..
sp
Melilotus Cierulea
„ leucantha ..
„ macrorhiza . .
Trigonella foennm-graecum
Medicago tnaculata
Ononis angustifolia- .
Indigofera, sp
Psoralea bituminosa
sp
Galega sibirica. . . ,
.. sp ■
Sutherlandia, sp.,
Colntea, sp ,..
Pisum sativum...
Fullard's German
Marrow Fat
.. sp
Ervum, sp. .
Vicia sativa .
141.
„ lutea
i» »»
„ grandiflora.
Faba vulgaris ....
„ Augusta Beans
Canada Beam
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
Lathyrus annuus
„ sativus
„ heterophyUus
Orobus niger
Scorpiuras sulcatus
Coronilla, sp
iBschynomene, sp.
ued.
1846
1849
1850
1846
1846
1846
1849
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1842
1844
1849
1850
1844
1846
1844
1844
1844
1844
1849
1850
1846
1846
1846
1846
1844
1846
1849
1850
1844
1846
1848
1848
1846
1844
1849
1850
1846
1846
1846
1846
1846
1848
1848
1845
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1844
1844
38
nil.
5
149
60
36
180
69
89
nil.
71
113
1
28
46
7
107
9
16
5
1
94
15
nil.
4
100
36
90
87
82
8
nil.
115
27
91
18
70
71
40
14
24
30
5
42
16
21
6
105
63
18
12
22
17
28
100
150
300
100
100
500
250
150
300
300
100
175
100
50
200
110
100
100
75
150
100
4
150
50
100
150
100
100
150*
100
100
25
150
75
50
25
50
30
5
50
16
25
6
150
150
150
150
75
25
100
43. Leguminos.35, contin
146. iEschynomene, sp
147. Hallia, sp
148. Hedysarum, sp
sp
149. Clitoria, sp
150. Erythrina, sp
151. Phaseolus multiflorus
sp.
152. Dolichos lignosus
sp.
153. Caesalpinia, sp
154. Cassia Canarina ..
" sp
? „ sp
155. Tamarindus, sp. ..
156. Cercis canadensis
157. Gleditschia triacanthos
158. Mimosa, sp
1 59. Adenanthera, sp
160. Acacia pseud-acacia ..,
44. POMACEJE.
161. Cotoneaster rotundifolia.
162. Crataegus macracantha .
,, punctata
45. ROSACE^E.
163. Potentilla nepalensis
164. Geum, sp.
sp.
46. Lythrace,«.
165. Cuphea procurabens
47. Rhamnace^ij:.
166. Trichocephalum, sp.
167. Phylica, sp
168. Cryptandra, sp
48. AaUIKOLIACE^.
169. Hex Aquifolium
49. SOLANACE^.
170. Petunia odorata
171. Datura Stramonium
ued.
1844
1844
1844
1844
1844
1844
1844
1849
1850
1844
1845
1850
1844
1846
1844
1846
1844
1846
1844
1845
1850
1848
1844
1844
1845
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1845
1842
1850
1842
1842
1847
1845
1850
1844
1844
1844
1845
1850
1848
1844
1850
1849
1850
1
14
3
9
2
1
47
1
nil.
25
61
25
2
36
2
1
86
4
1
4
nil.
nil.
5
4
30
nil.
10
nil.
4
nil.
3
nil.
52
nil.
nil.
nil.
nil.
3
45
nil.
2
1
9
nU.
nil.
nil.
109
20
30
nil.
* (In waxed cloth.)
166
REPORT — 1850.
Name. Sown ^
8=
7
4
143
142
33
nil.
! nil.
) 76
> 31
} 41
J 64
i nil.
5 69
3 214
B 1
i nil.
9 nil.
7 nil.
3121
3 78
7 nil.
3 3
8 nil.
2 62
3 84
8 nil.
3122
4 50
8 nU.
3130
3 nil.
7
3 nil.
3 89
8158
3150
8 nil.
3 79
8 nil.
3 135
2 3
3 45
8 nil.
3 44
8 nil
7 nil
2 3
3 43
8 2
Z
500
500
500
300
75
100
73
150
300
300
600
400
600
300
18
200
300
300
150
450
300
300
300
150
300
100
300
300
100
300
300
Name. Sown i
1
1
1
49. SoLANACE.'E, contini
led.
845 3
L850 8
1845 3
1850 i
1845 ;
1850 i
1847 :
1846 f
1847 5
1846 .
1845
1850
1845
1844
1849
1850
1850
1842
1846
1846
1842
1845
1850
1842
1845
1850
1845
1846
1850
1846
1848
1848
1845
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1846
.1848
.1845
1850
.1845
. 1850
. 1842
. 1848
. 1845
.1850
58. Labiate, continued.
198. Dracocephalum denticula-
847 3
1845 2
1850 f
1849 :
1850 A
1848 ;
1846 .
1845
1850
1848
1845
1848
1846
1844
1849
1850
1848
1848
1848
1847
1844
1849
1850
1848
1848
1844
1849
1850
1842
1842
1845
1850
1849
1850
1846
1846
1850
1845
1850
1848
1846
1846
1846
1845
1850
1846
11845
24 '
78 .
5
1 nil.
1 nil.
$ nil.
5 102
5 10
i nU.
3 3
3 nil.
3 6
3 240
3126
8 nil.
9 nil.
3 5
3 6
3 3
3 1
3 475
8 nil.
9 nil.
3 9
2 nil.
3 578
8 1
9 nil.
6 nil.
6 3
3 46
8 nil.
3 nil.
4 nU.
3110
3 17
5 3
3 60
8 nil.
3 nil.
3135
3 120
3 161
3 18
8 nil.
3114
3 26
>60
500
500
300
60
300
150
600
1500
300
100
100
600
900
25
900
600
1000
300
300
300
50
150
600
600
600
300
300
300
173.Nicaudra physaloides
200. Betonica hirsuta
59. Verbenaceje.
176. Lycopersicum esculeutum.
50. ASCLEPIADACE/E.
177. Asclepias verticillata
51. CONVOLVULACE^.
60. Selaginace^.
202. Hebenstreitia tenuifolia ...
61. Pedaxiace.*.
203. Martynia proboscidea
62. BlGNONIACE*.
204. Eccremocarpus scaber ...
205. Catalpa cordifolia
52. POLEMONIACEJE.
63. SCROPHULARIACE-*.
206. Browallia data
" "
207. Scbizanthus pinnatus
208. Verbascum Thapsus
j> »
" "
181. Leptosiphon androsacea...
182. Polemonium caeruleum ...
„ gracile
,, Spartea
,, Prezii
53. Hydrophyllace^.
184. Nemophila atomaria
" "
„ calycinum ...
212. Scrophularia vernalis
213. Collinsia heterophylla
214. Pentsteraon, 8 sps
186. Phacelia tanacetifolia
»> »»
54. Plantaginace^.
215. Mimulus moschatus
55. Primulace^.
188. Androsace macrocarpa ...
217. Veronica peregrina
56. NOLANACE^.
190. Nolana atriplicifolia
57. B0RAGINACE.E.
64. Campanulace.*;.
218. Campanula Medium
65. VALERIANACEiE.
219. Valeriana officinalis
220. Fedia dentata
66. DlPSACACE^.
192. Echium grandiflorum
193. Amsinckia angustifolia ..
194. Cynoglossum glochidatum
58. Labiat.e.
67. CoMPOSIT,-E.
223. Ageratum mexicanum ..
224. Aster tenella
225. Callistemma hortensis ..
196. Horminum pyrenaicum ..
227. Kaulfussia amelloides
228. Buphthalmum cordifoliun
" "
ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS.
167
67. CoMPosiTJE, continued
228. Buphthalmum cordifolium
229. Zinnia elegans
„ multiflora
„ grandiflora
230. Rudbeckia amplexicaulis...
231. Calliopsis tinctoria
232. Coreopsis atrosanguinea
„ Drummondii
233. Helianthus indicus
234. Bidens diversifolia
235. Tagetes patula
„ lucida
236. Gaillardia aristata
237. Helenium Doiiglasii ...
238. Callichroa platyglossa...
239. Galinsogea trilobata . . .
240. Sphenogyne speciosa ...
241. Oxyura chrysanthemoides.
242. Madia splendens
243 . Cladanthus arabicus
244. Lasthenia glabrata
„ califomica
245. Chrysanthemum corona
rium
246. Athanasia, sp
24 7. Ammobiuin alatum
248. Senecio Doronicum . . ..,
249. Xeranthemum anauum . .
250. Calendula maritima
„ officinaUs
,, pluvialis
251. Arctotis, sp
252. Centaurea depressa
253. Kentrophyllum tauricum .
254. Carthamus tinctorius
255. Onopordon tauricum
„ acanthium ..
256. Arctium Lappa
257. Rhagadiolus stellatus
258. Catauanche ccerulea
1850
1848
1846
1848
1845
1850
1846
1845
1850
1848
1845
1850
1846
1848
1848
1848
1848
1846
1845
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1845
1850
1842
1847
1847
1846
1844
1848
1844
1849
1850
1848
1844
1847
18S0
1846
1848
1848
1848
1844
1849
1850
1844
1846
1848
1847
1846
1846
1846
1849
1850
1847
nil.
nil.
37
2
55
nil.
3
138
nil.
nil.
68
nil.
124
20
nil.
5
nil.
186
92
nil.
100
nil.
75
nil.
67
nil.
nil.
1
nil.
175
363
53
270
4
nil.
122
16
1
nil.
64
nil.
26
53
401
nil.
nil.
48
49
11
44
22
40
64
34
31
94
450
300
450
150
300
75
450
200
450
600
300
300
300
300
225
600
600
100
600*
400
450
25
600
600
100
200
600
100
300
25
300
150
100
300
100
50
600
262.
263.
264.
67. CoMPOSiTJE, continued
Cichoriura Endivia
Tragopogon porrifoKum . . .
Arnopogon Dalechampii..
Scorzonera hispanica
Picris echioides
Lactuca sativa
Borkhausia foetida
„ rubra
68. ONAGRACEyE.
CEnothera tenella
,, tetraptera
sp
Godetia Lindleyana
if ft
lepida
Clarkia elegans
Eucharidinum concinnum
Lopezia racemosa
69. Myrtace^.
Eucalyptus, sp
70. LOASACE^.
Loasa lateritia
,, nitida
Bartonia aurea
71. Umbellifer^.
Petroselinum sativum
>i >f
Carum Carui
Slum Sisarum
Bupleurum rotundifolium
CEnanthe Crocata
iEthusa cynapiodes
Foeniculum dulce
Ligusticum Levisticum ..
282. Angelica ArchangeUca ..,
1845
1850
1848
1847
1848
1849
1850
1847
1848
1844
1849
1850
1848
1846
1848
1850
1848
1842
1847
1845
1850
1842
1847
1842
1847
1848
1846
1848
1844
1846
1845
1850
1846
1844
1849
1850
1844
1847
1849
1850
1847
1845
1850
1846
1844
1849
1850
1849
1850
1844
1849
1850
1846
260
139
32
138
10
10
nil.
32
73
1
nil.
nU.
35
196
1
nil.
nO.
nil.
1
90
nil.
15
nil.
1
1
nil.
256
268
1
112
52
nil.
160
42
1
nil.
nU.
2
2
nil.
nil.
67
nil.
65
3
1
nil.
84
4
35
2
nil.
47
* (In open jar.)
168
REPORT — 1850.
Name.
Sown
ill
s
H
1
1
Name.
Sown
in
i
<
8
10
3
3
8
•a
S
^
37
nil.
95
144
nil.
2
nil.
Z
900
180
300
150
71. Umbellifer.«, con/in
ued.
1844
1849
1850
1845
1850
1844
1849
1850
3
8
9
3
8
3
8
9
20
nil.
nil.
17
nil.
79
1
nil.
300
150
300
200
71. UMBELIIFER.E, eon/m
ued.
1845
1847
1848
1845
1850
" "
286. Scandix brachycarpa
287. Conium maculatum
)> )>
288. Smyrnium Olusatrum
1842 5
184710
1846 3
*' "
66 |300 1
" "
1 1
From the above Table we extract the following examples of Plants whose
seeds have germinated at considerable ages.
I. At from 10 to 19 years inclusive.
Cassia canaiina.
Geum, sp.
Oxyura chrysantliemoide.s
CEnotliera, sp.
Clarkia elegans.
Allium fragrans
Camassia esculenta.
Piuus pinea.
Cucurbita cucuzza.
Lupinus grandifolius
Galega sibirica.
II. At from 20 to 29 years inclusive.
Croton, sp. Hedysarum, sp.
Malva, sp. Clitoria, sp.
Hibiscus, sp. Pliaseolus, sp.
Sida, sp. Dolichos, sp.
Coicliorus, sp. Caesalpinia, sp.
Triumfetta, sp. Cassia, sp.
Pultengea, sp. Tamarindus, sp.
Crotalaria, sp. Adenanthera, sp.
Galega, sp. Cryptandra, sp.
iEschynomene, sp. Eucalyptus, sp.
III, At from 30 to 39 years inclusive.
IV. At from 4-0 to 49 years mclusive.
Colutea, sp. Coronilla, sp.
It will be seen by the above summary, that seeds of no less than 288 ge-
nera, which illustrate 71 natural families, including too nearly all the kinds
cultivated for culinary and other domestic purposes, have been collected, and
to a certain extent tested.
Many of the kinds show a considerable decrease in the comparative num-
bers which vegetate after their periodical sowings, and a few kinds have ap-
parently already ceased to germinate ; but some years must yet elapse before
the subject can be sufficiently investigated to enable us to submit what we
should consider a decided and satisfactory statement, respecting the limits
assigned to the vegetative powers of the seeds in different genera.
Examples of seeds belonging to any of the natural families not enumerated
in the above Table, will be very acceptable, and may be addressed to Mr.
W. H. Baxter, Botanic Garden, Oxford.
A
ON THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF INDIA. 169
On the Aboriginal Tribes of India. By Major- General John Briggs,
F.R.S., Vice-President of the Ethnological Society of London.
On the occasion of the meeting of this Association at Oxford, I was pressed
to read a paper on the Aboriginal tribes of India. At that period my in-
quiries were incomplete, and I was unable to trace them to any separate
stock, though it appeared clear they were in almost every respect distinct
from the mass of the population consisting of Hindus of the Bramanical per-
suasion. Since that period I have extended my researches, and have given
two or three lectures on the same subject at the meetings of the Ethnological
Society in London.
The Hindus are universally acknowledged to be of that branch of the human
family denominated by Blumenbach Caucasian, and they believe they in-
vaded India from the north-west. They were at one time further adva'nced
in literature, in philosophy, in the science of mathematics, in anatomy, in
surgery, in medicine in all its branches, in legislation, and even in purity of
religious doctrines than their contemporaries in other regions of the globe.
This description will be readily admitted if it can be shown that the Vedas,
or holy scriptures of this people, date, as is asserted, fourteen centuries before
our own sera ; and that the commentaries on a code of civil and criminal law
(of a more ancient date) were written about twenty-seven centuries ago. At
that period, it appears, from the latter work, that the Hindus had not yet pe-
netrated further south than the twenty-second parallel of north latitude,
beyond which (the work states) there tlien existed " extensive forests, in-
habited by a wild and impure race speaking barbarous tongues."
Here we find an aboriginal race clearly alluded to, and subsequent in-
quiries and monumental remains prove that they were a numerous people,
having established forms of government though living in a very simple and
rude state of society.
My investigations lead me to believe that these abnormal tribes, probably
of one common stock, had previously occupied the whole of the extensive re-
gion of India, in successive incursions made from some other remote country.
Though the religious tenets and civil institutions of these aborigines were
alike, yet two separate hordes subsisted by different means. The one ob-
tained their food by the chase, dwelling in or near the forests abounding
with game; the other occupying the open plains, subsisted on the milk of
their cattle (cows and buifaloes), and fed on the flesh of their flocks of
sheep.
These two classes Avere eternally at war, and the same aversion and innate
hostility agamst each other exist at the present day. At the time the Hiudias
entered India both classes of this race appear to have been spread over the
whole surface of the country, under the several denominations of Minas,
Mers, Bhils, Dhiro Kolies, Mhars, Mangs or Mans, Beders, Dhers, Gowlies,
Carumba, Cherumars, Morawa, CoUary, PuUy, Pariah, Yenedy, Chenchv,
Barka, lallary.Gond, Kond, Sawara, Banderwa, Cheru, Bengy, Kooki,Garro,
Kassia, Hajin, Bhar, Dhanuk, Dhome, with many others of which I have not
sufficient details.
Among these tribes the etymologist may without difficulty trace the names
of many of the territorial divisions which have been assigned to several por-
tions of India by the Hindus.
n/r J**"^ Kolwan, from the Koles ; Bhilwan and Bhilwara, from the Bhils •
Mhar-rashtra, by contraction Mharatta, from the Mhars ; Man Desa, from
the Mans or Mangs; the city of Beder, from the Beders; Gondwara, from
the Gonds; Oria-Desa or Orissa, from the Orias ; Kolwan and Koliwara,
170 REPORT 1850.
from the Koles ; Bengala, from the Bengies ; Behar, from the Bhars ; Merwar
or Marwar, from the Mers ; as also the forts of Ajmere, Jessahnere, Com-
behnere, so called after chieftains of the Mer race, and Ahirwara from the
Ahirs.
At what precise period the Hindu invasion from the west first occurred it
is impossible to say, but the geography of India indicates at once, that that
race necessarily came through Afghanistan and the Punjab, ere it turned the
borders of the Great Desert and penetrated in the direction of Dehli.
One of the ancient Hindu works left to us, indicates that at a very remote
period a great war broke out between the Sovereign Princes of the Punjab
and those of the Plain, including Hastnapoor, since called Dehli, and the
latter people, aided by the Princes of Mathura and others, maintained on the
field of Panipeet a long and desperate conflict.
There is every reason to believe that the Hindu race gradually overspread
the territory of Upper India east and west, between the Himalaya mountains
and the Great Desert, without penetrating to the south for many centuries ;
that it enslaved the aboriginal races as it subdued them, compelling them to
till their own lands as serfs, and took from the latter the whole produce,
except what was actually required as food for the tillers of the soil.
The Hindu race introduced into India municipal institutions wherever they
formed townships. To each of these were attached a certain number of
families of the aboriginal tribes, as villains or praedial servants of the com-
munity. The Hindus brought with them also the Sanscrit language, not in
its present highly refined state, but as a colloquial tongue. Hence it comes
that the language of the aborigines has in many parts gradually disappeared.
The historical as well as the religious works of the Hindus, of a compara-
tively modern date, together with monumental remains existing in sculptured
edifices and rock caves, all tend to show that no portion of the Peninsula of
India was subdued by them anterior to the fifth century of the Christian aera.
About that time it is supposed that the Peninsula became gradually over-
spread by the Bramanical race. They seem to have entered in two direc-
tions; the one from Guzerat, gradually extending over Khandeish and Berar
till they reached to the forests which fringe the banks of the river Wurda,
where it meets with the Godavery ; the other invasion, according to tradition,
occurred about the same time. It passed from the valley of the Ganges and
penetrated southward along the line of coast of the Bay of Bengal, keeping
within the range of mountains on the east and the Ocean, till after reaching
the embouchures of the Godavery and the Kistna, the invaders spread out
over the plain and proceeded southward. It has been assumed that about the
same period, the Bhudists, a peculiar sect of Hindus, reached the shores of
Ceylon and Southern India from the opposite coast, and thence proceeding
northward spread their religious doctrines among the aborigines. About
the ninth or tenth century the Bhudists and Bramans appear to have met
from opposite directions, which led to deadly conflicts, and ended in the
Bramans putting down the Bhudist tenets.
We have historical proof that the island of Bombay was not subjugated
to the Hindu rule till the fourteenth century ; and that in the beginning of
the next century the Mahommedans found princes of the aboriginal race
occupying in force several strongholds not far from Poona. The town and
district of Sorapoor, lying between Hydrabad and the Western Mountains, is
still held by an aboriginal chief with a portion of his tribe ; and within the
memorv of man the kingdom of Mysore contained several principalities of
the Becier race. Further south, the Morawas and Collars obtained celebrity
in modern times by their adhesion to one or other of the European belligerent
ON THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF INDIA. l7l
powers (France and England), and evinced fidelity and even devotion to the
cause of the party which each espoused. Further north we find the vast re-
gion of Gondwana still peopled almost entirely by the aboriginal race, which
extends throughout the hilly districts of Orissa in the direction of the valley
of the Ganges. The territory of Gondwana appears never to have been re-
duced to the condition of a Hindu state, but has preserved through successive
ages its institutions, its laws, and its religion intact.
In the more northern part of India there are recorded instances of princi-
palities of the aboriginal tribes which have resisted with great resolution and
sometimes with success the efforts of the Hindus and Mahommedans to sub-
due them, but at present there is hardly one in existence which retains any-
thing like independence in the plains ; indeed there are not many of any im-
portance throughout all India, even in the hills.
I have described the ancient Hindus as having attained, at a very remote
period, a high degree of perfection in literature and in science. They were
not less remarkable for their civil institutions. At whatever period they
settled in the northern regions of Upper India, there is no doubt that (in
common with the greater part of the Caucasian family, of which they must be
deemed a branch) they established throughout the territory they occupied,
municipal institutions in each village and township, by means of which, the
inhabitants managed their own aff"airs. Besides this peculiarity of govern-
ment, the Hindus adopted the practice of dividing their municipalities into
castes, which could neither eat together nor intermarry. These consisted of
four principal divisions, from each of which are minor ramifications.
The four castes comprise, —
1st. The military, from which are sprung sovereigns and princes, as well
as warriors.
2nd. The priesthood, derived entirely from Bramans.
3rd. The mercantile and mechanical tribes or families.
4th. The cultivator or landholder.
As has been stated, these castes never intermarried, and thus kept themselves
free from any admixture with any other race.
The Hindus burn their dead. They abstain from eating the flesh of
horned cattle, and from tasting ardent spirits. They believe in the transmi-
gration of souls, give themselves up wholly to the guidance of the Bramanical
priesthood, and are taught to worship their ancient heroes as demigods, who
are supposed to plead with the supreme God for those who in humility ask
in repentance.
The aboriginal races, one and all, differ in every respect from the Hindus.
Their government is strictly patriarchal; all crimes are punished and disputes
settled by the award of the elders or heads of tribes assembled. They have no
prejudices against animal food of any kind, whether the animal be slaughtered,
or die a natural death. They have no municipalities ; have no laws of caste :
they bury instead of burning their dead. They have no regular priests, but
select them for the moment, as necessity requires, out of the lay body.
These are chosen usually from those believed to possess the power of magic.
They have no other knowledge of a future state than what they occasionally
pick up from their intercourse with Hindus or with other people. Instead
of offering up thankgivings with a grateful heart for all the blessings they
may enjoy, they confine their prayers to requests from the divinity to gratifj'
their desires, supply their wants, and avert evil. For these purposes they
ofi'er up bloody sacrifices. In those parts still unsubdued, such as a great
part of Gondwana and the contiguous tracts of Goomser and Bustar, and
in some portion of the country lying farther eastward among the Assam
172 REPORT — 1850.
Hills, they continue to make human sacrifices, a practice to which these races
have been prone, according to Hindu records, from the earliest ages.
Their offerings are made to the god of the elements, of floods and of the
soil ; they propitiate the goddesses of contagious and epidemic diseases. They
also worship power in every shape to avert danger ; hence all beasts of
prey, such as tigers, bears and leopards, venomous serpents and other rep-
tiles; as also the elephant and the rhinoceros in a wild state.
Their domestic habits and institutions have a strong affinity to those of
the great Tartar family ; they may serve as a specimen of the whole race.
They employ whipping as a remedy for tertian fever and ague, as practised
among tiie Turkish hordes in Persia ; and it is also adopted as a remedy for
violent insanity, for they consider persons so afflicted to be possessed of an
evil spirit, whom they thus endeavour to expel.
In some parts both men and women bore their ears and wear heavy rings
to extend the lower lobe. Unlike the Hindu women, they wear no bodice
to support tlie breasts, instead of which, in many cases they gracefully throw
the end of a muslin cloth ten or twelve yards long, as it comes from the loom,
round the body, and which is tastefully arranged so as to cover the person.
Their weapons are the sword, the bow and arrow, the javelin, and almost
universally a bill-hook, which is worn in a belt over the right hip.
The virtues of this race consist in dauntless courage, fidelity and loyalty to
their superiors and chiefs, and probity towards those with whom they may
have entered into engagements. They have great regard to truth, and ex-
ercise hospitality, and are generous in their dealings with each other, as well
as with strangers.
In Rajputana such is the consideration they obtain from the Hindu princes,
that the latter submit to the form of being placed on the throne by an
aboriginal chieftain, from whom each receives on his succession a recogni-
tion of his sovereignty by the impression of a spot of blood fresh drawn from
the foot of one of the ancient race.
This act ensures devotion and loyalty ; these are never withheld unless in
case of some acts of wanton oppression on the part of the sovereign, which
calls forth resistance and open war. Such are the virtues of the aboriginal
tribes.
Among their vices may be reckoned drunkenness on all occasions of do-
mestic or national festivity. Those who dwell in the forests and mountains
chiefly subsist (where they can succeed) by plundering or levying tribute on
the inhabitants in the open plains, on the plea of the latter having dispossessed
them of their native soil. In their pursuit of this object they seldom commit
murder, if it can be avoided; but they sometimes practise cruelty on their
prisoners in order to extort confessions of concealed wealth, or to deprive
them of the means of escape in the absence of guards, which is effected in
the latter case by burning the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands of
their captives.
Captain Newbold of the Madras army, who has written on the Chenchies
of the Nalla Malla or Black Mountains, represents those he saw as having
long bushy hair, thick lips, high cheek bones, and small but piercing eyes.
Sir Richard Jenkins and Colonel Agnew confirm this description in speaking
of theGonds; and I believe no instance will be found of those residing entirely
on the hills having the aquiline nose or the delicacy of feature of the Cauca-
sian family. In this respect they partake rather of the Tartar or Thibetan
physiognomy than of the Hindu.
The remote period of their settlement in India, and the possibility of an
occasional intermixture with the Hindus, may in some cases have somewhat
ON THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF INDIA. 173
changed their physiognomy from that of their ancestors, so as to render it
doubtful whether or not they are derived from that branch of the human
family, though in their habits and institutions they certainly bear a strong
affinity to the Tartar branch.
It remains now to say something of their language. It is not disputed
that when the Hindus came to India from the westward, they brought with
them that language now recognised as Indo-Germanic, and Avhich pervades
almost all the spoken languages of Europe, extending from the banks of the
Ganges westward to the shores of the Atlantic.
There is the strongest reason to believe that the Hindus occupied the con-
tinent of India, north of 22 degrees of north latitude, for twenty centuries in
succession before they invaded the south. Hence our ablest Oriental phi-
lologists have divided the various dialects in India into two classes called
the Northern and the Southern groups, viz. the Hindi, Bhirji, Guzeratti,
Mharatti, Bengali and Oria, constitute the northern group, which consists of
six languages; and the Gondi, Telugu or Telingi, Canari and Tamili, con-
stitute the southern group, which consists of four languages.
Each of these may be subdivided into local dialects, differing from each
other as much, and even more so than those of portions of the same countries
in Europe ; but it is not my intention to enter here upon an examination of
these dialects.
In the languages of the northern group (especially the Hindi), Sir William
Jones and Mr. T. H. Colebrooke after much pains found that nearly nine-
tenths of the words have a Sanscrit origin. This great abundance of Sanscrit
diminishes as we proceed southwards ; and the language at the extreme point
of the Peninsula, and that spoken on the Niigherry hills, scarcely contains any
Sanscrit words at all but those of science and abstract metaphysical terms.
The Rev. Dr. Stevenson of Bombay, one of the closest investigators of the
Hindu institutions and languages, and who is well-versed both in the San-
scrit and in the vernacular tongues of the South, has discovered in the
Mharatti (which is apparently a Sanscrit dialect) numerous words belonging
to the southern group. For the purpose of these inquiries he consulted the
following dictionaries compiled by Europeans, viz. —
1. Dr. Hunter's Hindu published in 1808
2. Campbell's Telugu or Teliugi. . „ 1821
3. Marshrcan's Bengali „ 1828
4.. Cloughs's Cingali(of Ceylon).. „ 1830
5. Molesworth's Mhratti „ 1831
6. Reeves's Canari „ 1832
7. Rolter's Tamili „ ] 83*
8. Guzeratti Vocabulary
Dr. Stevenson carefully compared all these dictionaries one with another;
and he made out tables placing words of similar sound and meaning in juxta-
position, by M'hich he traced several hundred vocables to be identical, though
the nations using them are at the present day unknown to each other, and
living hundreds of miles apart; but not one of these identical words was of
Sanscrit origin.
To Dr. Reinhold Rost of Berlin I am deeply indebted for the aid which
he has aff'orded me in my philological investigations, from his accurate know-
ledge of the Sanscrit and some of the languages of Southern India. He ad-
mits the propriety of classing the languages of India into the northern and
southern groups, and allows that the former contain a very large proportion
of Sanscrit words with a certain admixture of words of the southern group.
He remarks that the palatial sounds of the letters r, d,j) t are confined to
174 REPORT 1850.
India, and cannot, as stated by Dr. Stevenson, be pronounced without diffi-
culty by any but by a native of the province in which the language containing
them is spoken. These sounds are unknown in Sanscrit.
He is disposed to think that the Sanscrit of the languages spoken in the
northern group owes its present grammatical construction to the gradual
adoption of the forms of speecii of the abnormal nations, this construction
being universal throughout India, even among tiie Hill tribes, and so different
from the rules of Sanscrit construction, that it is impossible to conceive the
one to be derived from the other. The similarity of words and formation of
sentences in the language of the Todas on the Nilgirry Hills, and that of the
Gonds on the Nerbudda, is very remarkable; and it is stated on good autho-
rity that some American missionaries who had long resided in Mysore could
understand and make tliemselves understood when they spoke the Canarese
language among the Gonds at Amarkantak. The identitj' of the Gond lan-
guage with those of the South of India has been proved by myself in com-
paring 350 words of Gondi, Telingi, Mharatti, Marwari, and Guzeratti to-
gether, and of these scarcely one word occurs that is not coniraon to one
or more of those languages.
The peculiarity of construction of all these languages diffei'ing from the
Sanscrit, consists, — 1st. In the termination and in the conjugation of the verbs.
2nd. In the preposition of the Sanscrit, and the languages derived from it,
becoming in India a postposition. 3rd. In the several meanings of the plural;
being inclusive and exclusive, such as. We — including the person spoken to
and the speaker that is — You and I, only ; while another plural form signifies
We ourselves, only and not you. 4th. Different words are used as adjectives,
in their application to animate and inanimate objects. 5th. The passive voice
of verbs is formed by auxiliaries, such as to suffer, to fall, to get, to take, to
eat. 6th. In the languages of India each sentence is divided into two parts,
viz. the subject and the verb ; the latter is invariably placed at the end of
the sentence. In the same way, remarks Dr. Rost, the affirmative branch of
a sentence is preceded by the negative ; the eff"ect by the cause ; the infer-
ence by the reason, and the consequence by the condition, — all of which in-
dicates a radical form and construction essentially different from the Sanscrit.
Dr. Stevenson winds up his dissertation on this subject by arriving at the
same conclusion, viz. " that Bramanical influence has modified grammatical
structure, and introduced into the northern group of Indian languages some
affixes for those in former use, especially in the inflexion of nouns, need not
be denied, but the general structure of all of them has remained unaff'ected.
There is as little analogy in the construction of a Hindu or Mharatti sentence
to the syntax of the Sanscrit, as there is in that of an English or French
sentence to that of the Latin."
The next question, then, is to consider to what great class these Indian
languages belong. We are naturally disposed to place them in the position
indicated by the physiology of the people, and in support of this conclusion
we have the following testimony. The peculiarity of the plural which has
been pointed out belongs to the Manchou and Mongolian tongues, and also to
the Malayan, an offset of the same family. " The peculiarity of str>icture of
the Indian languages belongs equally," says Dr. Rost, "to those of Northern
Asia. Of this the position of the pronoun affords proof; also the same use
of an affix to supply the place of the inflexions in the Sanscrit and its deri-
vatives the Greek and Latin. The Mongolians and the Indians use special
personal pronouns to denote respect ; they also use a distinct relative parti-
ciple in lieu of a relative pronoun.
" In short," observes Dr. Rost, "the same rigorous structure of sentences
ON THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OP INDIA. l75
pervades the whole class of Indian languages and those of Upper Asia, and
which cannot be better explained than it has been by Gablenz in his ' Gram-
raaire Mandchou,' p. 276. ' On y place toutes les expressions modificatives
avant celles auxqucUes elles s'appliquent ; ainsi I'adjectif avant le substantif;
le regi avant le mot qu'il regit ; le regime direct et indirect avant le verbe ;
I'expression modificative avant I'expression modifiee ; la proposition incidente,
conditionelle, circonstantiale, hypothetique, et causale avant la proposition
principale.' "
Almost all these peculiarities diflPering from the Sanscrit construction are
participated in by the languages of Thibet and Burma, which Dr. Rost con-
siders to be the connecting link between the languages throughout India and
the Chinese.
In confirmation of the opinions of Rost and Gablenz, I find Professor
Westergard of Copenhagen, in writing to a friend in London so late as Sep-
tember 1846, observes, " I never entertained any doubt of these [the Indian]
languages being of Scythian descent, a term which I adopt from Rask for the
stock of languages usually called Tartar, and which I prefer as a more general
name to be adopted in speaking of the Fins, the Mongols, and the Deckan or
southern languages of India." Professor Rask, alluded to by Professor
Westergard, who passed some years in the South of India, was an excellent
Sanscrit scholar, and was also well acquainted with the Tamili, writes in
like manner : — " I am of opinion, that not only are many words of the
southern group of languages (in India) common to those of Upper Asia, but
that the construction of the whole of them differs essentially from the San-
scrit, and is based on the languages of Northern Asia."
The supposition, that all the aborigines are derived from the stock of
Northern Asia, meets with strong additional confirmation when we find a
very prevalent opinion to that effect confirmed by tradition, as in the ancient
poems of Chand and others of the bards of Rajputana, who describe the
Gujers and the Jats as of the Tacshac or Scythian race, in common with the
Gackers since converted to Mahomraedism, which are spoken of as the
bravest of the opponents of Mahmud of Ghizny, in the tenth and eleventh
century, in the Punjab, and on the banks of the Indus. When the remote
period of the Hindu invasion is considered, which cannot bj'^ any possibility
be less than thirty-two centuries ago, — when there are so many proofs from
tradition and history that they found India peopled by races of hunters and
herdsmen, — when we find these races still existing in every part of India, and
living in a state of prsedial slavery in towns as a portion of each village com-
munity, and in the hills claiming the right of the soil though dispossessed of it,
— we cannot fail to recognise the fact of their being a wholly distinct people
from the Hindus. To establish with any degree of certainty, however, their
origin, may well be deemed a diflScult task. In my endeavour to do so, I
have, I think, shown that the whole of those who have been described as
aborigines must belong to one great family ; that they in many respects re-
semble the character of the great Scythian horde ; that they are also found to
partakeof the featuresof the same race, and that all the Indian languages differ-
ing in construction from the Sanscrit (the language of the Hindus), assimilate
not only in grammatical form, but also in words with the Tartar tongue.
While writing this paper I have met with a singular coincidence of lan-
guage and physiological character in the remarks of Dr. James Bird, the
President of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland. That gentleman read some time since a paper before
the Ethnological Society, on the affinity of the language of the Gonds, the
purest of all the aborigines of India, and the mountaineers east of the Hima-
1850. N
176 REPORT — 1850.
laya chain, giving rise to the Ganges and to the Bramaputra river, and which
are denominated Bhutia. Of these Dr. Bird remarks, the connexion of this
race with the Nomadic Tartar tribes possessing the central region of Upper
Asia may perhaps account for that mixture of Sabeism wliich prevails in the
relio'ious worship of the Gouds, and is characteristic of tlie superstitious
system of belief existing among the ^Mongolian tribes. Mr. Bradley, who has
taken some pains on this subject, traces also a close connexion between the lan-
guage of the Gonds and that of the Burmas, called by Mr. IMarsden Oraug
6e«o?fas,signifying literally the aboriginesof the Malayan or Malacca peninsula.
The result of all my inquiries ou tlie several aboriginal tribes of India
leads me to the following conclusions : — First, that they are of a stock essen-
tially differing in almost every character of a race from the Caucasian Hindu.
That the whole have a common origin ; and though they may have come, as
they probably did at different times, both from the east and from the north,
they are all derived from the same great Tartar horde, and undoubtedly in-
habited India anterior to the invnsion of that ancient and venerable people
the Hindus. The latter, proceeding eastward from Persia, extended over the
barbarous nations of India, and introduced their laws, their civil institutions,
and their language, at the same time enslaving the aborigines wherever they
settled. The exclusive rules of caste forbade the intermixture of the two
races, and this circumstance alone suffices to account for the separation
having continued to exist for so lengthened a period.
While the Hindu branch of the Caucasian family proceeded eastward,
other portions of the same race spread themselves westward and became the
progenitors of the present European race. They subjected those they sub-
dued to the yoke of slavery as serfs of the soil ; they brought with them the
Sanscrit or Indo-Germanic tongue, and to them Europe owes the introduction
of that system of municipal administration which is the only true foundation
of free institutions and constitutional government.
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew,
from September 12, 1849 to July 31, 1850. By Francis Ronalds,
Esq., F.R.S., Honorary Superintendent.
At the conclusion of my last Report (for 184-8-49), various proposals were
made for the prosecution of new experiments and observations, and for the
continuance of others already instituted at Kew : and the General Committee
of the British Association, at the Birmingham meeting in September 1849,
resolved that "Sir John Herschel having reported that the Meteorological
Observations made at Kew are peculiarly valuable, and likely to produce the
most important results, the sum of £250 be voted for the continuance of that
establishment for the ensuing year," &c.*
Endeavours have accordinjily been made, not only to cause this sum, added
to about £50, the residue of the former year's grant, to go as far as possible
toward the attainment of the principal objects contemplated, but, at the same
time, to promote the views of Her Majesty's Government in the establishment
of a convenient and exact system of self-registering magnetical and other
meteorological instruments in the colonial observatories under the superin-
tendence of our highly distinguished Honorary Secretary Colonel Sabine.
* Vide Report for 1849, p. xx. The olservations here alluded to were principally those
on atmospheric electricity.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. l77
It would be seen (on reference to some of the following details) that
several of the proposed experiments have resulted in the construction of a
new magnetograph ; in considerable improvements upon others ; in an im-
provement upon the barometrograph ; in a convenient method of producing
engraved copies of photographic curves, &c., procured by the self-register-
ing instruments ; in a few minor contrivances, &c. of other kinds ; and
finally, in an attempt to institute a series of observations on the frequency
of atmospheric electricity, intended as preliminary to the formation of a
system, and an apparatus which should permit the self-registration of this
species of observations.
In the Kew Report for ISiS-i*, p. 141, are tabulated a very few of my
observations on the subject of frequency made at Kew in that year ; and the
apparatus then employed, consisting of two atmospheric conductors, is shortly
described. I believe that they were the first experiments of the kind whicJEi
have been published since Beccaria's extremely interesting observations at
Turin about 1750 (which were effected by means of apparatus having very
imperfect insulating power), and I think that the above-named apparatus, of
two conductors, <S:c., is somewhat better suited to the purpose than one rod
which I now employ ; but the funds and localities at Kew do not at present
permit the use of the former. These ieyf experiments, however, taken in
conjunction with Beccaria's, with my own old experiments (at Highbury
Terrace, and at Hammersmith, Upper Mall, not published), and with what
little has been done at Kew this year, have tended to increase in my estima-
tion the importance of carrying out such researches effectively. Their
results may form a link in the chain of phaenomena connecting the static
with the dynamic electricity of the atmosphere ; for it is only when frequency
is great that galvanometers manifest a current. If atmospheric electricity
exerts a7iy agency on animal life, &c., is it not this condition (of frequency)
which has prime influence ?
These considerations, joined to the circumstance of frequency having been
already in some measure a subject of inquiry at the Royal Greenwich, and
even at the Bombay Observatories (with apparatus of the kind which I use),
naturally create very great regret that the indisposition of the observer who
was engaged at Kew during a part of this year, caused the series of observa-
tions on frequency to be so limited as it will be found to have been.
We shall, I trust, fully compensate for the deficiency under Mr. Welsh's
able exertions next year.
I now proceed, as usual, to matters regarding — ^first, the Building, Instru-
ments, &c., of the Observatory ; secondly, to some remarks concerning ob-
servations; and thirdly, to an account of what has been done in the way of
experiment since the last general meeting of the Association.
I. The Building, Instruments, &c.
The exterior of the premises has required very little repair. The addi-
tion of a rail, &c. has been made to the former arrangements on the Dome
for the greater security and convenience of the observer whilst attaching the
lantern to the top of the principal conductor.
In the interior, some painting, plastering, papering, &c. have been executed
(in the basement). A few book-shelves have 'been added to those in the
North Hall, for the reception of books presented to the Association, and for
the stock of the Association's Reports, &c.
A small upper apartment has been appropriated to the mechanic or pho-
tographist as a sleeping-room.
The South Upper Room (or laboratory) has been supplied with a good
lathe, turning tools, various chucks and necessary appendages ; also with a
n2
178 , REPORT — 1850.
vice-bench, &c., in order to render it efficient for experimental purposes, and
to avoid tlie great delay and expense occasioned by having to send to London
for many articles which can be constructed here.
The Principal Conductor on, and in, the Dome is in an efficient state, but
should be dismounted and cleansed, &c. The slight inclination spoken of in
ray last Report lias been remedied.
The Volta- Electrometers in the Dome have been repaired.
The Galvanometer (Goujon's) appears to have lost a little in sensibility,
the needles being no longer perfectly astatic.
Tiie Discharger, the Gold-leaf Electroscope, the Distinguisher, and the
three Niyht-registering Electrometers are etfective.
Tlie pair of portable Volta Electrometers, and the Peltiers or rather
Ermans Electrometer, are in working order.
The Electrograph (at tlie central window of the upper south room) has
been somewhat damaged by a violent storm. It is intended to repair it, re-
move it to tlie dome, and connect it with the principal conductor there after
the preliminary observations on frequency have been accomplished.
The Wind- Vane has been restored.
The Rain and Vapour- Gauge, and the Balance Anemometer, have been
properly examined and adjusted at the requisite intervals.
The Standard Thermometer, and the Wet-Btdb Hygrometer, have been
removed from their position at the north window of the Quadrant Room,
and mounted on a thermometer stand.
The Ordinary Barometer has been (again) compared with the Royal
Society's Instrument.
The Kreil's Barometrograph has been repaired, and a few curves have
been drawn by it.
The Photo-Barometrograph has been removed from the Transit Room to
the Quadrant Room, and has had a little alteration made in it for the purpose
of rendering it applicable to either the Daguerreotype or the Talbotype pro-
cesses. It still requires further alterations and improvements.
The Declination Mugnetograph (in the Transit Room), described in the
Phil. Trans, part 1 for 184'7, has had some alterations made in it similar to
those made in the Photo-Barometrograph.
A Horizontal-Force Magnetograph has been added to our collection, from
apparatus sent fromW'ooIwich, with my photographic self-registering arrange-
ments. This instrument is in most respects similar to that described in my
last Report, and sent to Toronto ; the differences will be alluded to and easily
understood when the experiments, &c. for the construction of the vertical-
force instrument sent to Toronto are described below.
Also some apparatus of an improved kind, used in the Daguerreotyjie
process.
An instrument for dividing right lines (necessary for the scales, &c. of all
self-registering instruments), and a new kind of compasses or dividers, will be
described under the head of " Experiments," as they are not yet considered
to be complete.
The Storm-clock is in proper working order, and greatly facilitates obser-
vations on frequency. [As it is applicable extensively to meteorological, and
even some astronomical observations, it should perhaps have the more general
appellation oi" Observer s Clock."']
The description of this instrument in our Journal for ISM- 4-5 not having
been printed, the following short account of it may not perhaps be deemed
unnecessary : —
A (in Plate III. fig. 1) is a strong deal table firmly secured upon the stage
in the Electrical Observatory. B is an inclined writing-board solidly attached
;-vs.-i*»i
Mr. Ronald's Report.— To face p. 179.
FREaUENCY PAPER. No. 1.
May 12. 17" l/™ P 650
. 12-5
. 17-5 P
. 25
. 27-5
. 30
. 35
. 37-5
5
. 42-5
. 45
. 47"5
. 50
• 55
• 57-5
, 62-5
. 65
XO
, tJ7'5 11"' 15'
Cirro cumuli in zenith.
• ti7-5
P
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 179
to A, and C is the clock-case, rf' is the long pendulum within C, and rf* its
very heavy bob. d^ is a lever which enters C through a slit, and whose ful-
crum is at 6?* : a spring (not shown) forces the nearest end of d^ upwards
when it is not stopped in the horizontal position, d^ is a little stop fixed
upon rf3. c?6 js a rod attached, by a pivot, through a slit to d^, and passing
through a hole in a piece of wood (not shown) attaciied to A. This part of
the instrument is so constructed, that when the clock is not in motion d" is in
a higher position than that shown, and the extremity of the then inclined pen-
dulum </' is placed by the observer against its nearest side, preventing vibra-
tion ; but when it is to be set in motion, d^ is brought into the position shown
by depressing the handle at the top of cZ". d^ is a gut-line proceeding from
the barrel of the clock contained in C, passing over B, round a pulley at an
angle of A, and sustaining a weight, d^, which gives motion to the clock-work.
d^ is another line sustaining the winding-up weight, d'''\ which line passes
round another pulley (unseen) under B, and entering C is attached to and
winds round the barrel of the clock in the contrary direction to d^.
The continuity of rf^ is interrupted by a small steel wire, upon which turns,
or hangs freely, a little pointed brass plate rf'*, pressing very lightly on B.
When the clock is at rest f/''* is adjusted to the upper part of a " Frequency
Paper" fixed (by drawing pins) upon B, and the whole is ready for use.
When an observation is to be commenced, the time (by our chronometer) is
written exactly opposite to the point of the index c?'* (which has been placed at
the top of the paper by pulling down the weight c?"^); the conductor is then
discharged, and thependulum started (by pressingdownrfs)at the same moment.
As the charge of the conductor advanctis towards irs former intensity (or
any other approximative maximum intensity), marks are made opposite to the
index from time to time at convenient intervals ; and the various tensions are
noted down at those intervals near the marks until a maximum has been
arrived at by estimation (i. e. when no increase of tension seems to be going
on, or when a decrease has actually begun). The observation now ceases,
and the fiducial edge of a scale, accurately divided into spaces corresponding
with the rate of our chronometer, is applied to the above-mentioned first and
last marks or "notes of tension," and occasionally to other of the marks. Or, in
order to estimate as accurately as possible by these means the time of a maxi-
mum, the observation is carried on even beyond the apparent first maximum.
A copy of one of the "Frequency Papers" is annexed which has been
employed for procuring the " Frequency Observation of Atmospheric Elec-
tricity," where it may be seen that on May 12th, 17'' 17', the charge of the
conductor was positive and =65 divisions of the Electrometer, and that the
Frequency (at about 11 minutes afterwards) was =11' 15" (the charge had
increased to 67*5 divisions).
The remaining apparatus and instruments of various kinds belonging to
the Association, or on loan to it, do not seem to require particular notice
here. They are carefully preserved.
II. Observations.
The only observations (or experiments) worth notice here, on the fre-
quency of atmospheric electricity which have been made at Kew this year
(by means of apparatus particularly described in the Society's Reports for
184!3-4'4), commenced on the 12th of May and terminated on the 1st of
June. The plan of procedure adopted was intended as merely preliminary,
and in order to arrive at certain data for choosing the preferable mode of
instituting a regular series of such observations (self-registering or ordinary).
The instructions given to the observer were as follow : —
" The pillar lamp, and the lamp of the lantern belonging to the electrical
180 REPORT 1850.
apparatus in the Electrical Observatory having been filled with good olive
oil, and provided with wicks of the usual uniform size, which have not been
used more than three or four days, to be at sunrise of every day, excepting
Sundays and Wednesdays, lighted and placed in their usual positions for
observations.
" At one hour after sunrise, or as near to that time as possible, an obser-
vation of the barometer, its attached thermometer, the standard thermometer,
the wet-bulb hygrometer, the balance anemometer, and the wind-vane, to-
gether with remarks on the state of the sky, to be made and entered in the
appropriate columns and page of the printed form headed ' Electro- Meteoro-
logical Observations,' &c., noting also the time of these observations, &c.
having been commenced.
" As soon as possible after these entries have been effected, a note of the
kind and tension of electricity to be made and recorded, with the time, on a
paper, called a ^Frequency Paper^ and immediately afterwards the principal
conductor to be discharged suddenly and allowed to assume a new charge.
" A series of notes of tetision, with the times, to be then commenced for
the purpose of ascertaining (as nearly as the conditions below stated and
other circumstances will permit) the length of time which may elapse between
the moment of allowing the new charge to commence and the moment of
that new charge arriving at a maximum tension. These notes of tension and
times to be also set down upon the above-named frequency paper (or papers),
together with any variation in the kind (positive or negative) of charge which
may have occurred.
" The primary observation of kind and tension to be copied into the
columns headed ' kind ' and ' periodical ebservations ' respectively ; and the
length of time which may elapse (as above) for obtaining a maximum ten-
sion, in the column headed 'frequency' of the above-mentioned printed
form or journal.
" If a maximum tension should occur at any time after the expiration of
half an hour, and within one hour, from the moment of allowing the above-
mentioned new charge to commence, then fresh observations of the baro-
meter and of the above-named other meteorological instruments, with remarks
on the state of the sky, to be made as nearly as possible at the time of the
maximum. This second set of observations of the barometer, &c. to be
also entered in the printed form as before, with the times of these observa-
tions having been commenced.
" If a maximum tension should not occur before the lapse of one hour
after the moment of allowing the above-mentioned new charge to commence,
the series of notes of tension (which serve for endeavouring to attain the
frequency observation correctly) to be discontinued ; and the circumstance
to be noted in the ' frequency paper' and the printed form as above.
" The lamps of the electrical apparatus to be kept burning and ready for
observations from tlie time of being lighted until one hour after sunset. The
charcoal stove (Joyce's) to be lighted and kept burning whenever the hygro-
meter indicates a damp state of the atmosphere, in order to preserve a suflS-
cient insulating power in the distinguisher, &c.
" At one hour after meridian, or as near to that time as possible, and at
sunset, the frequency observation, accompanied by observations of the baro-
meter and other above-mentioned meteorological instruments, and remarks
on the state of the sky, to be repeated. An observation of the rain and
vapour-gauge to be also made at sunset (only), and the whole to be entered
as before. The rain and vapour-gauge to be set at or near to this time.
" The frequency papers, the electro-meteorological journal, and the chro-
nometer, to be kept usually ou a table at the south end of the Transit Room.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 181
" The mode of procedure here spoken of is chiefly applicable to serene
weather, including fogs, mists, &c. If rain or snow, impending or more
distant clouds, or sudden changes from a positive to a negative state of charge
should occasion difficulties or impossibilities of observing frequency, these
circumstances to be noted in the electro-meteorological journal and frequency
paper."
III. Experiments.
The first subject of consideration, as respects instrumental experiments,
after the last annual meeting, was a better mode of mounting the standard
thermometer and wet-bulb hygrometer.
In October, a revolving stand, on the Greenwich plan, was erected at the
north entrance of the building ; but objections exist to this, and in fact to all
" thermometer-stands" hitherto invented. Either the sun or the wind has
injurious influences, which it should seem are hardly to be got rid of. I trust,
however, the method will be improved under the suggestions of Col. Sykes.
In November 1849 some work and preparations were executed here for
the vertical-force magnetograph {vide Plates I. & II.), alluded to in my last
Report as being in an advanced state for the Toronto Observatory. In De-
cember some principal parts of it arrived from Mr. Ross and Mr. Newman,
and its completion was proceeded with.
A successful attempt to improve this sort of apparatus was that of fitting
a sliding plate to the frame containing the Daguerreotype plate, in such
manner that it completely excluded light from the latter, whilst it was not
in its place in the instrument, but allowed the focus to act upon it when
properly placed there. This contrivance (a modification of one commonly
practised by photographists) precludes entirely the necessity of operating
upon the plate or paper in a dark room before the mercurializing part of the
operation is performed.
An improvement in the mouth-piece permits a much greater facility and
accuracy of adjustment in the breadth of the slit than had been before
attained', a matter of some importance, when the delicate and rapid changes
of the magnet's position are required to be registered. A chain was substituted
for a gut-line for suspending the sliding-frame, which somewhat improves
the accuracy of the magnetic curve produced on the contained metallic plate
or paper. A little frame, containing ground glass, was added, in order to
save time and trouble in examining the image of the slit in the shield. A
screen, placed temporarily in the place of the fixed shield, was used with
advantage for dividing the aberration of the lenses between the central and
the outer parts of the range of the said image. This screen was provided
with a series of slits, in lieu of the one sUt only of the fixed usual shield.
An improvement applicable to this and all photo-registering instruments of
similar construction was adopted, consisting in a sliding shutter, which, by a
simple, small, rotatory movement, given by the fingers to an arbor passing
through the clock-plates, is opened in order to expose the Daguerreotype
plate to the focus of light, and at the same moment to set the clock in mo-
tion, and vice versa.
In order that the new arrangements may be clearly comprehended, and
trouble saved in recurring to former descriptions, it will be convenient to
place the whole apparatus before the eye as finally constructed.
Description of the Vertical-Force Magnetograph.
Similar letters jefer to similar or analogous parts ingthe figures of this Ih-
strument, as well as of the horizontal-force magnetograph described at page 80
of the British Association's Report for 1849.
182 REPORT — 1850.
The figures 1 and 2 of Plate I. are drawn to one-eighth of the real size ;
fio'ures 3, 4, 5 and 6, to one-fourth of the size. Tlie figures of Plate II. to
one-quarter of the real size.
V, figs. 1 and % Plate II., is the magnet box (in section), of mahogany, not
coatedj'as before, with gold paper, provided with a squared tube, T, of cast
brass, which opens into A.
A is the camera box (of mahogany).
a' is the usual solid brass casting, forming (in part) one of the ends of
A.
B is a fifteen-inch magnet belonging to a vertical-force balance magneto-
meter of Dr. Lloyd's construction.
i-, a piece screwed upon the upper edge of B.
6\ a pair of very light, sliding brass tubes attached to If; and capable of
vertical adjustment (for length).
6^, a weight adjustable on a screw attached to the lower edge of B, for
poising ¥, &c. properly.
6', the moveable shield, composed of very light sheet-brass, flat, and having
its upper edge curved to a radius of 12 inches, and attached to b"^. It has a
very narrow slit at the centre of its upper edge.
O is a diaphragm plate, whose aperture is about an inch long (horizontally),
and a quarter of an inch wide ; it is supported by two angular plates (as o^)
restino- upon X, and attached (with means of adjustment) to g^ by screws
passtng through slits.
o\ the fixed shield attached to O by means of a little bolt, washers and
nut, 0-. It is capable of adjustments for horizontality, height, &c. At about
three-eio-hths of an inch from its centre is a slit, somewhat larger than the
slit in &'. The lower edge of this shield stands at about a twentieth of an
inch lower than the upper edge of 6', and at about the same quantity from
its interior plane.
C is the shutter apparatus.
c' is a plate screwed upon A, and having an aperture about equal to and
corresponding with an aperture and little plate of glass in A. It is provided
with grooved pieces, between which slides freely c'-.
c^ is a plate having an aperture (c^) equal to that of c' and A, but cor-
responding with the latter only when it has slid into its lowest position.
c* is a small line attached at one end to c-, passed over a pulley, c^ under
another pulley, c", and fixed to a lever, c? (fig. 7, Plate I.), within the clock
case K, which lever is attached to the apparatus used for stopping and start-
ing the clock (vide k% Plate IL of the Report of the British Association for
18i9).
The object of this arrangement (C, &c.) is to admit light into A at the
moment of starting the clock, and to exclude light therefrom at the moment
of stopping it.
D (Plate I. fig. 1) is a modification of Count llumford's polyflame lamp,
having three flat wicks and rack-work to raise them.
d\ its high, squared copper chimney, with a narrow glass plate opposite to
the best part of the flame.
E (Plate II. fig. 1 ) is the mouth-piece, in section, consisting of two angular
pieces and of two little plates attached to them, forming the lips and aper-
ture e', which aperture can be diminished or increased at pleasure, with great
and requisite accuracy ; for,
,e^ is a plate screwed upon a}.
V e^ (fig. 3) are two screws, which, freely sliding through e« and screwing
into the upper portion of E, are employed to elevate that portion.
e* is another screw, screwing through e'^ and pressing occasionally upon
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 183
the upper portion of E. This is employed to move it downwards (when the
mouth is to be more nearly closed e^ e^ must, of course, be released before e*
is screwed downwards, and vice versa).
A narrow vertical slit is cut in the lower lips of E, as shown in fig. 3, and
a horizontal aperture of about 3 inches long, and about a quarter of an inch
broad, (not shown) is cut through a' for the passage of light to c'.
F is the slider-case for receiving the sliding-frame,
f-, a perfectly true ruler of brass attached vertically to «' by means of
three screws passing through it, through three little pillars and through three
oblong slits in a', &c., which admit of its vertical adjustment.
/^ is a roller spring attached to a', and acting upon H laterally, pressing
it gently againsty"-.
f^ is a pair of similar springs acting upon H in front, and pressing a plate
belonging to it (to be presently described) against E.
G is the lens tube containing two groups of achromatic lenses (by Ross),
and of curvature specially adapted to the purpose. The range of the image
of the slit in the moveable shield is four times greater than the range of the
slit itself (vide fig, 2. Plate I.).
g^ is apparatus of sliding plates, &c., for support and due centring of G.
g'^ is apparatus of stud, pinion, milled-headed key, &c., for moving the
rod g^ which is attached to the stud at g*, and serves for adjustment to
focus (of G).
H is the sliding-frame suspended in F. h* is a door closed by means of
three little turn buckles, h^. Upon its interior side are fixed three springs,
h', for retaining the Daguerreotype plate ?/ (or a glass plate, if Talbotype
paper is used) in its proper place.
h" are the three friction rollers.
h^, a hook with a little peg in it, which attaches it to a clock chain,
A^ is a brass plate capable of sliding freely in a groove in H.
When both h'' and H rest on the bottom of E, /t" covers entirely y (of
course not touching it); and the height of /«^ is such that when placed in F
properly its upper edge always stands at about one-twentieth of an inch below
the opening of the mouth at E, as shown by the dotted line ; but when H is
drawn upward (carrying V with it and leaving ¥ still resting on the bottom
of E), portions of V ai'e successively exposed to the action of light passing
from the lamp (or daylight) through the slit in 6', the lenses in G and the
aperture e'.
At the upper end of h* a narrow aperture and a piece of finely ground
glass is placed opposite to it and above 7/, for the purpose of receiving the
image (before the clock is started), and the microscope,/^ (fig, 1, Plate L),
is used in examining the image on the ground glass for focus and colour.
I is the pulley on the hour-arbor (or barrel arbor) of the time-piece. Its
diameter is somewhat less than ■i inches. It moves H upwards at the rate
of an inch per hour: but a pulley of half that diameter may be substituted
for it, and the time-scale thus diminished to half an inch p6r hour if required.
i' is the clock chain by which H is suspended from I ; and
i^ is a counterpoise to H, &c.
K (fig. 1. Plate I.) is the time-piece,
A^ (fig, 7.) is the back view of the lever and fork, &c, above mentioned,
attached to an arbor passing through the clock plates, and furnished with a
milled-headed nut (not shown in front), and by a spring and detent, k, by
means of which the fork can be made to stop or to release the pendulum at
any given second,
K' is the frame supporting K & F {vide Plate I. of former Report).
k^, brass tubular braces.
184 REPORT — 1850.
P" & Ps (fig. 1. Plate 1.), are stone pillars whose common centres are in
the mean magnetic meridian (about).
Q Q are two of four brass tubular columns.
q' and q- are screws and nuts which enter and clamp those four columns to
two marble slabs.
R is the lower slab of black marble resting on P'*.
fi j.« are bolts and nuts which firmly secure the magnet support upon R.
S is the support of and apparatus for raising and lowering the magnet of
Dr. Lloj'd's construction, but without the cross wires, &c.
s\ the base.
s°, four leveling screws.
5*, pieces carrying the agate pallets.
s^, frame-work moveable by means of a key, &c., for raising the magnet
off from its pallets.
T, a squared brass tube passing through V into A.
X is the upper black marble slab carrying A, G, a', K', &c.*
Some minor improvements have been made in the apparatus used for the
preparation, Sec. of the Daguerreotype plates, viz. on the polishing board,
Plate I. fig. S ; the buifs, fig. 4 ; the coating boxes, fig. 5 ; and the burning-
offand fixing stand, fig. 6.
The Polishing Board.
A (fig. 3. Plate I.) is the mahogany board.
a' a' are screws which attached it to a firm table.
B is a piece of mahogany attached to A by means of two screws.
b^ 6' are the two screws which pass through it and screw into A.
b- b- are two pins fixed firmly in B but sliding stiffly in A.
b^ is a rim (or edging) of thin sheet brass attached to A and projecting
upwards a little less than the thickness of a photo-plate.
b* is a similar edging of sheet brass attached to B.
The surfaces of ^' and b* are always in exactly the same plane, and the
photo-plate may be firmly held between them by using the screws i' 6'.
The Buffs.
A (fig. 4.) is a deal board 1 inch thick in the middle and f inch at each
end. Its lower surface is bellied (in the manner of a large file), and covered
first with flannel and then with thick plush cotton velvet. It is rubbed across
the plate. Its handle («') is glued and screwed firmly upon it.
The Coating Boxes.
A (fig. 5.) is the deal box.
a' a' are the usual openings in its sides.
a^ is the door which carries the usual mirror (on its interior face).
a' a^ are strips of mahogany with screws and washers which fix them upon
the edges of A but allow them to be approached towards, or withdrawn
from each other a little, in order that any sliding-frame, as H, may fit exactly
between them.
a* is a little projecting piece to support the glass plate below mentioned.
B is the glass cistern fitted into A, and containing crystals of iodine, distri-
buted on the bottom.
i' is the glass plate cover of B resting on its upper edges and projecting
beyond A.
H is the sliding-frame containing the photographic plate (or paper) and
* This vertical -force magnetograph was shipped for Toronto on the 23rd of March, and
Captain Lefroy, the Director of the Royal Observatory of Toronto, has acknowledged the
arrival of it as well as of the horizontal-force magnetograph. I understand that he has
mounted and successfully worked this latter instrument.
ON THE KEW OBSERVATORY. 185
its sliding plate ¥ (vide fig. 1. Plate II.), with a little handle for withdraw-
ing it in order to expose the photo-plate to the action of the iodine, &c.
The Burning-off and Fixing Stand.
A (fig, 6.) is a heavy mahogany board.
a', a milled-headed screw passing through A and projecting (about half
an inch) below it.
a* cS two little brass feet projecting (about the same quantity) below.
B is another heavy mahogany board.
6', another screw similar to a' and pressing on A.
5*, one of two feet similar to a^ a-, also resting on A.
C C, two tubular pillars fixed upon B.
c' c', two wires attached perpendicularly to caps on C C, which caps can
turn on their axes.
V is a photo-plate resting on c' c'.
The axes of a^ a"- are in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the axes of
i^ b"^. This stand allows of much more rapid adjustment for horizontality
than the usual stand having three adjusting screws.
About the end of the month of February last, I think, Sir John Herschel
proposed a very ingenious method of procuring surfaces in relief (as in wood
engravings) on gelatine paper, which should exactly coincide with impressions
procured on the gelatine by photographic means, in order that they might be
employed in printing.
On hearing of this, I suggested to Colonel Sabine the expediency of en-
graving gelatine paper as if it were actually copper, with the figures of the
magnetic and other curves on our Daguerreotype plates, by using the gela-
tine as tracing-paper commonly is used for the purpose of copying drawings,
&c., and also of employing such engraved gelatine as copper plates are em-
ployed for printing any required number of copies of such magnetic and
other curves.
The experiment succeeded on the first trial.
Specimens are preserved in our Journal of gelatine paper thus engraved,
and of declination, horizontal force, and barometric curves as printed from
the gelatine.
The ordinate board has been slightly modified to render it useful in this
process.
The method of Sir John Herschel, however, will certainly be found far
preferable to this, when chemical difficulties have been conquered, as I sin-
cerely hope they will be.
In order to correct certain errors of the clock's rate — errors arising from
expansion, &c., — it has been found necessary sometimes to divide the time-
scale belonging to the curves produced into equal parts. An instrument,
correct in principle at least, and which I hope to render an accurate and
generally applicable mathematical instrument, has been experimented upon-
Its principle of action is that of a well-known instrument called the " Lazy-
back," and will be instantly understood by reference to Plate III. figs. 2 and 3
(the perpendicular rods &ie Jixed to the lower joints, but slide through the
upper ones).
It is evident that the points of this instrument cannot be brought very
close to each other : if, therefore, minute divisions of a scale are required,
the first large division may be subdivided by means of a pair of parallel
dividers (figs. 4 and 5), which, it may be readily seen, is an instrument
constructed on similar principles to the above, but allowing the points to
touch each other. The first large division having been so subdivided, the
192 REPORT— 1850.
first instrument (figs. 2 and 3) may be evidently so applied as to divide with
accuracy, facility and dispatch, each of the other large divisions into the same
subdivisions " without stepping."
In the early part of the year many experiments were made on electrotyped
and other kinds of plates. It was found that the former were preferable.
About the end of April Mr. Ross's portion of the horizontal-force magneto-
graph already alluded to arrived, and claimed our attention and labours. It
was placed on the corbels in the Quadrant Room, which had been occupied
by its predecessor the vertical-force magnetograph sent to Toronto. No
material variation was introduced differing from those already described re-
lative to the vertical-force instrument, excepting such as were required for
its special object. It was so arranged, that it might be, with very slight
variations, used either for a declination or horizontal-force magnet. Ihe
gold-paper covering of the magnet-case is dispensed with, yet this magnet
seems to be as quietly disposed as the former horizontal-force instrument.
Increased diligence has been used for promoting accuracy, &c.
In concluding this Report, I will only allude slightly to a little correspond-
ence which I have had M'ith gentlemen who seem obligingly disposed to
second my views as to the establishment of electrical observatories, both in
this country and in distant parts of the globe, and have proposed to them a
portable modification of mine at Kew, which would, I believe, be found
efficient in promoting a more extensive range of inquiry into the interesting
subject of Atmospheric Electricity.
Report on the Investigation of British Marhie Zoology by means of
the Dredge. Pax-t I. The Infra-littoral Distribution of Marine In-
vertebrata on the Southern, Western, and Northern Coasts of Great
Britain. By Edward Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in
King's College, London, and Palceontologist of the Geological Survey
of the United Kingdom.
At the Meeting of the British Association at Birmingham in 1839, a Com-
mittee was appointed for the investigation of the Marine Zoology of the
British seas, by means of the dredge ; and at the joint recommendation of
the Natural History and Geological Sections, a sum of money was granted
towards its expenses. Ever since that time the Committee has been annually
reappointed, with grants of various amounts placed at its disposal. At each
meeting, a provisional report, stating the nature and success of the researches
conducted during the interval, has been presented. A considerable mass of
valuable materials having been collected, it is now proposed in this Report to
present the results in connexion, in such a form as may be useful to science.
The extent and value of the data will sufficiently prove the expediency of
the researches.
For some years past much attention has been paid to marine zoology by
the naturalists of Europe and America. Among the inhabitants of the sea,
are many creatures whose organization is as attractive to the physiologist as
the singularity of their shapes to the students of external conformation.
Many of them were apparent anomalies in their respective classes, and of
doubtful position in the animal series. To throw light on the general history
of animal tissues, and on the various modifications of vital organs, to fill up
gaps in the scale of being as known to zoologists, to ascertain whether in the
depths of the ocean there are not still remaining the analogues and homologues
of apparently lost species, and the representatives of unknown or conjectural
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 193
types, it was most desirable that a more searching investigation should be
conducted into the number, kinds, and distribution of the inhabitants of the
ocean. No single tract had been scientifically explored, and the dredger was
in most instances a distinct person from the naturalist by whom he was em-
ployed.
The chief purpose for which the dredge had been employed on our coast,
was for the procuring of specimens of shells of the Mollusca. Consequently
our knowledge of the extent of the marine molluscous fauna of Britain, and
of the distribution of the testaceous species in our seas, was much in advance
of that of other departments of marine zoology ; but even this could be but
partially depended on. It was formerly too much the aim of British natu-
ralists and collectors, to endeavour to swell the catalogue of British animals, —
the former, from a mistaken patriotism, the latter not always with such dis-
interested motives; consequently the catalogues of our fauna, especially of the
marine mollusca, became enriched by numerous species, very doubtful natives
of our coasts. Some of these did not excite surprise, their true distribution
being then unknown : others led to hopes of the finding in our seas species
of a far more southern type than really inhabit them ; and all went to
destroy the authority of our lists, and to confound the calculations of the in-
vestigators of the laws of geographical distribution, and of the relations of
living animals to fossil. The only hope of purging catalogues so vitiated,
and at the same time of extending them in those departments to which but
little attention had been directed, lay in the establishment of a new series of
researches more rigidly precise than had ever before been attempted, and set
on foot solely with regard to the determination of the true state of our sub-
marine fauna.
It was for this object mainly the "Dredging" Committee was formed.
Their first act was to print blank formulas, in which the information obtained
might be registered at the time and place where procured. Each form con-
sists of a ruled sheet, with a heading for the registration of particulars of
date of the operation, of the locality/ where conducted, of the depth of the sea
in the place where the dredge was sunk, of the distaiice from the shore at
which the observation was made, of the ground, i. e. the nature of the sea
bottom in the place examined, and of the region under which the portion of
the sea-bed explored might be classed. Below the heading are ranged the
names of the species procured, opposite cclu!r,ns stating the number of living
individuals taken, the number of dead specimens, and any observations which
might be suggested by the condition of the specimens, or the manner in which
they were associated together.
A great mass of these papers has now been accumulated, and are in the
possession of the reporter. The time has come when they can be tabulated
and reduced to an uniform language with advantage to science. Until very
lately this could not have been done. British marine invertebrate zoology
has advanced with gigantic strides since the year the Committee was esta-
blished. Within the last ten years, the nomenclature and characterization of
the species of British Mollusca, Crustacea, Echinodermata, Acalephce, and
Zoophyta, have undergone complete and thorough revision. Much has been
done too among the Annellidous tribes*. Indeed, at the present moment no
*_The following works are used as text-books for these reports: — Yarrell's History of
British Fishes ; Forbes and Hanley's History of British Mollusca ; Bell's Histor>- of British
Crustacea ; Baird's Monograph of British Entomostraca ; Forbes's History of British Echi-
nodermata ; Forbes's Monograph of British Medusae ; Johnston's History of British Zoo-
phytes, 2nd Edition ; Johnston's History of British Sponges. All these works, with the ex-
1850. o
194 REPORT 1850.
marine fauna in the world has been investigated with anything like the care
devoted to that of the British seas.
Nevertheless much remains to be done. All parts of the British and Irish
shores have been more or less explored, but not all in an equally systematic
manner. On the eastern coasts, the registration of the depths of marine
animals has been carefully attended to by Mr. Alder, Lieut. Thomas, R.N.,
Mr. Albany Hancock, Mr. Howse, and Mr. King ; whilst Dr. Johnston, Sir
John Dalyell, Dr. Fleming, Mr. Bean, Mr. Embleton, Professors Goodsir and
Macgillivray, the late lamented Dr. J. Reid, and many other able observers,
have devoted themselves to the examination of the marine invertebrata.
From the north-eastern coast of Scotland, many valuable dredging papers
have been filled up by Mr. MacAndrevv, and a considerable accumulation of
valuable data for tabulating the depths of the Testacea in the southern part
of the German ocean, were accumulated by the late Capt. Owen Stanley, R.N.,
and are in possession of the reporter. Around the shores of Ireland, a valu-
able mass of data has been collected by Mr. W. Thompson of Belfast, Dr.
Robert Ball, Mr. Patterson, Professors Harvey, AUman, and McCoy, Mr.
Hyndman, Dr. Farran, Mr. Humphreys, and Mr. Warren, all Irish natural-
ists, and added to by Mr. Barlee, Mr. Jeffreys, Mr. Hassell, Mr. MacAndrew,
and myself. Both from the eastern coasts of Britain, and the whole range
of the Irish coast, more well-filled tabulated forms are still wanting ; conse-
quently I have thought it advisable in the first instance to report on the re-
sults of dredging on the western, southern and northern shores of Great
Britain, from which data have been collected very fully and systematically,
and more than 140 forms of " Dredging papers " fully filled up. With one
exception (by Mr. Hyndman), these have been recorded on the spot at the
time of the operation, by Mr. MacAndrew and myself, jointly or separately.
Numerous isolated records of depths of particular species within this area
are embodied in the following tables from the observations of Mr. Jeffreys,
Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, Mr. Barlee, Mr. Alder, Mr. Hanley, Mr. Clark of
Bath, and Captain Otter, R.N. ; and for the Orkney Isles, a most valuable
record of depths has been drawn up by Lieut. Thomas, R.N., during his
survey of those islands. The obligations of science to the officers engaged
in the Hydrographical Survey of the British seas cannot be too strongly ex-
pressed.
In order to reduce the contents of these papers, and to embody the isolated
observations in a useful form, I have tabulated the data in two series of
tables. One includes all the depths at which the species of testaceous MoUusca
and Radiata were taken during these operations, the species themselves being
ranged in systematic order. The nature of the ground upon which they were
found is in every registered case recorded, and also whether the individuals
were taken alive or dead.
In a second series of tables, all the fully-registered dredging forms are
tabulated and analysed, with a record of the year of observation, the
distance from shore, the depth, the nature of the sea-bed, the number of
species of Univalve testacea taken alive and dead, the same of Bivalve testa-
cea, and the number of Echinodermata, a statement of the species taken
most abundantly, of the rare forms found, and of any peculiarities in the
assemblage of creatures observed in the particular locality.
ception of the first, have been published since the Meeting of the British Association at
Birmingham in 1839, and much of their most valuable materials have been collected in con-
sequence of the researches set on foot at that meeting.
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 195
The above sets of tables ooncern mainly the Testacea and Eehinodermata.
A statement of the results of the search for plants and for animals of other
classes and orders is given in a less formal manner in supplementary para-
graphs.
To show the range of the several species of Testacea and Eehinodermata
as perfectly as possible, the lists of English and Scottish species are drawn
up separately. Each are moreover grouped under provinces, these provinces
being not merely sections of the coast chosen for convenience, but areas pre-
senting peculiar zoological features of their own, dependent on causes which
are briefly discussed in the general observations oflFered in the latter part of
this Report.
The English provinces which have contributed materials to this Report are
five: — 1st, the coasts of Hants and Dorset; 2nd, the coasts of Cornwall and
Devon ; 3rd, South Wales and the British Channel ; 4th, North Wales and
the neighbouring sea ; and 5th, the sea around the Isle of Man.
The Scottish provinces (western and northern) are also five: — 1st, the
Clyde region ; 2nd, the Inner Hebrides ; yrd, the Outer Hebrides and the
sea off Sutherlandshire ; 4th, the Orkney Islands; and 3th, the Zetland
Islands.
As all these provinces, English and Scotch, have been personally explored
by myself, I am enabled, in tabulating the contents of the dredging papers
and the isolated observations on depth embodied in the list of species, to
judge with greater accuracy than I otherwise could have done of the value
and bearing of the data, and to venture with greater confidence on the general
considerations which follow.
The reader must bear in mind constantly that the object of the following
papers and tables is not to give a complete enumeration of the animals in-
habiting each province, but to present an authentic series of accurate obser-
vations on the distribution of such species as can only be procured by the aid
of the dredge.
o2
196
iiEPORT — 1850.
6C
C
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&c
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) Trochus tumidus, Eraarginula MuUeri, Buccinum und
laris, Hiatella arctica, Tapes virginea ; alive and dead.
) Pecten opercularis, Venus virginea, Hiatella arctica, N
eea virginea. Chiton asellus ; also in lesser numbers. Pet
us and sinuosus, Trochus ziziphinus, Fusus antiquus, gra
tum, Fissurella reticulata. Corallines. Nudibranchs.
) Same as above. Wurex erinaceus, Velutina Iseviga
ricus, and Trophon Barafius, more plentiful ; four speci
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) Ostrea edulis, Syndosmya alba. In this dredge were
atella vulgataand Littorina littorea, also a single Helix
alani, and inhabited by a living Pagurus. Corallines,
edge brought up at the same depth great quantities of
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ON
BRITISH
MARINE ZOOLOGY.
197
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Donax trunculus, alive and dead ; and dead valves of Tellina solidula and ^
la, Syndosmya alba and prismatica, and Solen ensis. Two more dredges
B taken at four and eight miles off Ormeshead, with the same products in
lar proportion.
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iarse and incrusted with Pomatoceros tricuspia
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ff Point Linas, An-
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ff Point Linas, An-
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ff Point Linas, An-
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orth of Point Linas,
Anglesey.
he mud slimy and
gray, and mingled
with dead Modio-
lae and gravel,
outh-west part of
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198
REPORT — 1850.
.
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12
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a-
[odiola modiolus. Crenella discrepans and marmora
ula nucleus, Trochus ziziphinus and tumidus, alive ; a
sinuosus and opercularis, and Trophon Bamfius. Ba
ans.
as in neats of stones and byssus. A rolled fragment
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Comatula. Compound Ascidians.
Solen pellucidus, abundant.
Scalaria dathratulus. Northern limit of Calyptrea sinensis.
(Ab.) Mactra elliptica, Venus ovata, Pectunculuspilosus. Troch
and tumidus, and Murex erinaceus ; alive and dead shells of Di
tundata, Rissoa parva and Turritella tcrcbra.
83
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(Ab.) Pecten varius, R
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Range.
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ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY.
205
3-30
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207
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ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY.
209
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211
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213
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217
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REPORT 1850.
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219
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220
REPORT — 1850.
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i
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— .3 S"
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arbonis,
serrulati
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r to this assemblage ; also
taken.
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221
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223
1-20
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lit.
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REPORT 1850.
IS 525
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22:
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226
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227
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228
REPORT 1850.
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fathoms.
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229
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P3
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231
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232
REPORT
-
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ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY.
239
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ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 241
Record of Classes and Tribes partially observed.
The enumeration of species in each dredging paper is complete so far as
the Testaceous MoUusca are concerned, and usually, also, the Echinodermata.
Other tribes of animals, as well as plants, in consequence, in most cases, of the
impossibilitj' of determining all the species at the time, and partly from the
great amount of labour required to register completely the tribes above
noted, did not receive the same degree of attention. In most instances they
were, however, carefully collected ; and in the works of Bell and Johnston
especially, many records of depths and localities will be found which were
derived from specimens collected and transmitted to those eminent naturalists
during the course of these researches. In the majority of the dredging
papers, there are, however, memoranda of various extent, noting the more
remarkable instances of every tribe found, and often their comparative
abundance. These I shall now proceed to abstract.
MoUusca Nudibranchiata.
The small number of these beautiful creatures recorded in the dredging
papers is not to be attributed to their having been unobserved, but rather
to their absence from the ground usually examined. The majority of species
inhabited the shallower parts of the Laminarian zone, and very numerous
forms are littoral — hence living without the region assigned for this inquiry.
In the magnificent work of Alder and Hancock on the British Nudibranchia,
published by the Ray Society, the distribution and localities of this tribe have
been most carefully attended to.
Those noted in the papers are, —
Melibcea coronata, Dorset, in 15-20 f. s. gr.
fragilis, Isle of Man, 20-25 sh. Cornwall, 25 sh. s. Dorset,
20-25 s.
Tritonia, sp., Dorset, in 15-20 gr.
■ Hombergi, Isle of Man, in 25 sh.
plebeia, Isle of Man, in 28 sh.
EolidicB, Isle of Man, in 18-25 f. Clyde, in 20 f. Zetland, in 7 f.
Polycera, Hebrides, in 4-5 f.
Idalia, Zetland, in 35 f. s.
MoUusca Cephalopoda.
Cephalopods are difficult to take with the dredge on account of the
rapidity of their motions. The following instances are recorded : —
Sepiola, 15-20 f. gr. and 40 m. Hebrides; and its spawn, in 25 s. s.
Cornwall.
Octopus, 30 f. gr. Hebrides, and 25 f. sh. Isle of Man.
MoUusca Ascidia.
These are rarely recorded in detail, because the difficulty of determining
the species in the present state of our knowledge of the tribe is very great.
Such records however as are given are important : —
Cynthia microcosmus is recorded from 10 f. s. m. and 25 f. st. s. in
the Hebrides.
echinata, from 50 f. m. in the Hebrides, and 80 f. sand in Zet-
land, where it also occurs among weed in 7 f.
, a new species from 30 f. gr. Croulin Island.
aggregata, from 7-12 f. st. gr. Dartmouth.
tesseUata and morus, Devon, in 20-25 f. Localities for other
members of this genus may be found in the ' British MoUusca,'
vol. i. part 1 and 2.
1850. R
242 REPORT — 1850.
Ascidia grossularia, Devon, in 12 f. Clyde, in 30 gr, 40 m. He-
brides, in 20 gr. , ^^
pnmum, Devon, 20-25 f. Hebrides, 25 gr. ra. and 30 gr.
. intestinalis, Dorset, in 15-20 gr. Hebrides, in 30-4-0 sh. Ork-
neys, in 7 w. T 1 /^T • 1 c 1 Q
commwiis, Dorset, in 7 w. and 15-20 gr. Isle o Man, in 15-18
m. Clyde, in 30 gr. Hebrides, in 15 w., 25 gr. n., 30 gr., 30-40
sb., 50 m.
scabra ?, Dorset, in 15-20 gr.
vitrea, Clyde, in 30 gr. Hebrides, in 30-40 sh., 25 gr. m. Ork-
neys, in 35-40 sh.
rosea, Hebrides, in 30 gr. Zetlands, in 4-7 w.
m«j;j«, Orkneys, in 7-18 weed. ^ , j . o^ ,r>
3Iolgula tubtdaris, Clyde, in 9 and 18 m. Zetlands, m 20 s., 40 gr.,
60 and 80 m. s. Hebrides also.
oculata.
Pelonaia glabra, in 9 m. Clyde.
Syntethys hebridicus, 30 f. Croulin Island.
Compound Ascidians in all depths of the Laminarian zone, rarely lower.
Mollusca Bryozoa.
So many of the specimens of these curious pseudo-zoophytes procured
during these researches uere transmitted to Dr. Johnston for publication in
his most valuable ' History of British Zoophytes,' that the few memoranda
made in the dredging papers of the more striking species at the ime ot
capture, can give but little insight into their distribution. The following
notes of depth may serve as contributions to future histories ot them.
Diastopora obelia, 14 f. st. Anglesey ; 40 f. Clyde district.
Tubulipora patina, 20, 27 f. Cornwall ; 50 f. gr. Zetland.
truncata, 50, 80 f. st. Zetland. „ ^, >
serpens, 15-20 gr. Dorset ; 20-25 and 27 sh. Cornwall. Clyde,
40. Zetland, 7 w., 50 gr.
hispida, Clyde, 40.
Idmonea atlantica, Zetland, 50 gr., 80 s.
Ptistulipora proboscidea, Zetland, 50 gr.
defiexa, Cornwall, 20-25 sh. s.
Alecto major, Clyde, 40.
Crisia, sp., Dorset, 12 s. gr., 15-20 gr. Anglesey, 14 st., 30 gr. Clyde,
40. Zetland, 50 gr.
Hiiypothoa, sp., Cornwall, 20-25 sh. s. Anglesey, 14 st. Zetland, 40
gr., 50 21'.
Cellepora pumicosa, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Devon, 20-25 gr. s. Corn-
vall, 20-25 sh. s. Anglesey, 7 st., 30 gr. Isle of Man, 18 n., 25
sh. Clyde, 40 sh. Hebrides, 10 s. m., 28 gr. s. Zetland, 50 gr.
ramulosa, Dorset, 25 gr. Clvde, 40 sh. Zetland, 50 gr., 80 m. s.
skenei, Dorset, 18-20 gr. Cornwall, 20-25 sh. s. Zetland, 25
sh., 80 m. s. r, , J
cervicomis, Hebrides, 15-20 st., 25 gr. n., 30 st. Zetlands,
50 <^r.
Lepralia, sp., Dorset, 15-2:) gr. Devon, 12 s. gr. Cornwall, 20-25
sh., 27 s. Devon, 20-25 gr. s. Isle of Man, 15-18 n. &c.
Flustra foliacea, Dorset, 15-20 gr., 25 gr. Anglesey, 12 st., 30 gr.
Isle of Man, 15-18 n. Clyde, 40 st. Hebrides, 15-20 st. Zet-
land, 50 gr.
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 243
Flustra truncata ?, Dorset, 1.5-20 gr. Devon, 7-12 st. gr. Clyde, 40
sh. Hebrides, 20 gr., S5 gr., 15-20 st. Orkneys, 35-40 st.
avicularis ?, Dorset, 15-20 gr.
Murrayana, Hebrides, 15-20 st. Zetland, 50 gr.
• coriacea, Isle of Man, 25 sh.
Membranipora pilosa, 7 gr.
Escharafoliacea, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Cornwall, 20-25, 27 sh.
bidentatu, Cornwall, 20-25 sh.
Retepora Beaniana, Hebrides, 50 m. Zetlands, 50 gr., 70 s., 80 sh.
iiahcornanafarcimioides, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Devon, 12 st. Devon
20-25 gr.s. Cornwall, 20-25. Isle of Man, 25 sh. Clyde, 40 sh!
Hebrides, 15-20 s. Outer Hebrides, 20 m. s. Zetlands, 50 er.
Alcyomdmm, Dorset, 12 s. gr. Anglesey, 20. Orkneys, 35-40 s.
Zetlands, 20 s.
Sertularia lendigera, Dorset, 7 m. Anglesev, 7 sh. s., 12 st.
Beania mirabilis, Cornwall, 20-28.
CTttStdCBCl
In Professor Bell's ' History of British Crustacea,' numerous localities
derived from the dredging expeditions which furnished the matter for this
Keport are inserted. And in the volume of the British Association Reports
tor the Meeting at Southampton in 1846, there is an abstract of a paper read
by Professor Bell, in the Natural History Section, containing an account of
the Crustacea procured by Mr. MacAndrew and the reporter durin.- their
voyages. These need not be here repeated. A kw notes of localities con-
tained in the papers themselves, may, however, be indicated with advantage
atenorhynchus phalangium, Anglesey, 7-9^-12 gr. s. Dorset, 12 m
15-20 gr. Hebrides, 15 m. Isle of Man, 25 sh. '
Inachiis Dorsettensis, Dorset, 7 m., 12 m., 15-20 gr. Anglesev 7-12
gr. Isle of Man, 25 sh. 6 J' '
Pi^a tetraodon or Gibbsii, Isle of Man, 25 sh.
Hyas araneus, Dorset, 12 m.
• coarctatus, Isle of Man, 28 sh.
Eurynome aspera, Dorset, 1 2 ra., 1 5-20 gr. Isle of Man, 25 st. Loch
ryne.
Pilumnus hirtellus, Dorset, 7 w., 15-20 gr. Isle of Man, 18, 25 sh.
^mela denticulata ?, Dorset, 12 m., 15-20 gr. Cornwall, 25 sh.
25"sh^^" ^'"''^*' ^^"^^ ^^' ^°™^^^' 20-25 sh. Isle of Man,
Pinnotheres, Isle of Man, 18, 25 sh., &c.
J^balm sp., Dorset 12 m., 15-20 gr. Devon, 10 s., 27 s. Anglesey,
12 s. Isle of Man, 25 sh. Mull, 25 st. m. ^ ^
^lecyclus heterodon, Cornwall, 20-28 n.
Pagurus Forbesii ?, Dorset, 20-25.
• lavis'i, Dorset, 20-25.
Prideauxii, Clyde, 25, 30. Isle of Man, 25.
wf nl^^r.^^fl''"^' ^' ^^' ^2 S'- ^^''^^ 15-20 gr. Corn.
wall, 20-25 sh. Devon, 27 s. Orkneys, 5-8. Shetland, 50 gr.,
Porcelhnahnffieornis, Dorset, 7-12 s., 15-20 gr. Anglesey, 7, 12 gr.
Cralathea strtffosa, Dorset, 20 n. ^
r:Z'J'^''^''fl'^"^r^-^^^'- Cornwall, 20-28 sh. Zetland, 50 gr.
Calocarts MacAndrew, Loch Fjne, 100 m. Mull, 30 mud. ^
CroTiffon vulgaris, Anglesea, 7 w.
Pandalus annulicomis, Dorset, 7'w., 15-20 gr. Anglesey 7.
r2
244 REPORT — 1850.
Arcturus, sp., Hebrides, 15 ra.
Pycnogonum, large species, Zetlands, 50 gr.
Cypridina AlacAndrei, Hebrides, 70 f.
Brenda, Zetland, 80 f.
Cirripedes.
Until Mr. Darwin's researches on the Cirripedes be published, there can
be no certainty in the determination of the species of this difficult group.
The leading forms, however, are usually noted in the dredging papers.
Balanus scoticus, Anglesey, 25 gr. Isle of Man, 25 sh. Clyde, 15 gr.
Bcdanus sulcaUis, Dorset, 7 w,, 12. Cornwall, 28 sh. Milford, 8 w.
Anglesey, 9i, 12 gr. Isle of Man, 18 n., 28 sh. Clyde District,
15 gr., i50 gr., 20 sh. Zetlands, 25 st. Hebrides, 10 s. m., 15-20
St., 15 sh., 25 gr. s., 30, 35 gr., 90 st. Outer Hebrides, 18 s. gr.,
15-20 gr.
Clitia verruca, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Devon, 7-12 s. gr. Anglesey, 30
gr. Isle of Man, 25 st. Hebrides, 15 w., 15-20 w. gr., 25 gr. s.,
90 gr. s. Zetlands, 50 gr.
Adna anglica, Cornwall, 12 gr., 25 sh. s.
Scalpellum vulgare, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Cornwall, 27. Devon, 20-25.
Isle of Man, 25 sh.
Annelida.
This department of tlie British Fauna is the one requiring most elucidation.
The researches of Dr. Johnston have done much, and those of Dr. Williams
promise much ; but until we have some available manual of species, the pro-
gress will not be sufficient to bring it up to a level with the other sections of
British marine zoology. The entries of worms in the dredging papers are,
except for the more striking species, only occasional.
Michelia trilineata, Clyde dist. 20 st. Hebrides, 25 gr. n.
Planaria rosea, Anglesey, 12 gr. Zetland, 60 s., 80 m. s.
, sp., Dorset, 12 m.
Pontobdella muricata, Isle of Man, 28 sh.
Trophonia Goodsiri, Zetlands, 7 w.
Pectinaria helgica, Anglesey, 7 w. Clyde, 30 gr., 50 m. Hebrides,
90 gr. s. Stornoway, 18 s. m. Zetland, 50 gr., 80 m. s., 80 s.
(large species), Hebrides, 15 ra.
Sabellaria alveolata, Anglesey, 12 s., 14 gr., 25, 30. Hebrides, 8 s.
Clyde district, 15, 20 sh,"
Terebella conchilega, Cornwall, 20-25 sh. Devon, 20-25 s. Hebrides,
15 w. Zetlands, 50 gr.
• compressa, Cornwall, 20-25. Devon, 20-25 s. Zetlands, 50 gr.
60 s., 80 m. s.
(convoluted sp.), Hebrides, 12-14 st. m.
Pomatoceros Iricuspis, Dorset, 7 w., 15-20 gr. Devon, 20-25 s., 27
s. Anglesej', 12 st., 14 s., 20 gr., ^5 gr. Isle of Man, 28 sh.
Clyde district, 5-10 n., 20 sh. Hebrides, 15 w., 25 s. gr., 18 n.,
30-40 sh., 90 gr. Zetland, 50 gr., 60 gr., 70 s.
J5'2(pow?a<?<s, sp., Dorset, 7 w., 15-20 gr. Cornwall, 27. Devon, 25-27.
Clyde district, 30 gr., 20 sh. Hebrides, 15 w%, 15-20 s., 25 gr. s.,
90 gr. Zetlands, 50 gr., 60 s., 70 s.
Serpula vermicidaria, and tubidaria, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Anglesey, 25
gr., 12 s. Isle of Man, 25 sh. Clyde district, 5-10 n., 18 m., 20
St., 30 gr. Hebrides, 30-40 sh., 28 s., 15 m., 18 n., 90 gr. Zet-
lands, 50 gr.
Spirorbis, Dorset, 15-20 gr. &c.
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 245
Placostegus vitreus, Clyde district, 30 gr., 40 st. Hebrides, 15-20 st.,
25 St., 25 gr. m., 30 st., 30-iO sh., 90 gr. Zetlands, 50 st.
Filograna implexa. Isle of Man, 28 sli. Hebrides, 25 gr. m. Zet-
lands, 80 s.
Ditrupa subulata, Zetland, 50 gr., 60 s.
Onuphis tubicola, Clyde, 20 sh. Stornoway, 1 8 gr. Zetlands, 50 gr.
60 s., 80 m. s.
Siphostoma? (Lancelet-like worm), Clyde district, 9 m., 6 m., 60 m.
Zetlands, 50 gr.
Aphrodite aculeata. Isle of Man, 18 n. Hebrides, 15 w.
histrix ?, Dorset, 12 m. South Wales, 10 ni. Isle of Man, 25 sh.
, sp., Hebrides, 15 w., 25 gr. m.
Polynoe, sp., Anglesey, 12 s. Dorset, 7 w. Clyde, 50 m.
Zoophyta.
This department is in the same position as some of the preceding, so far
as our lists are concerned, but the accumulation of authentic localities in Dr.
Johnston's History is such as fully to remedy any deficiencies. In the sup-
plement of that work, a most valuable paper on the distribution of Zoophytes
in depth, on the north and east coasts of Britain, by Lieut. Thomas, R.N.,
should be consulted and taken in connection with the following record of
localities.
Hydractinia echinata, South Wales, 10 gr. Anglesey, 12 s. gr. Isle
of Man, 25 sh.
Eudendrium rameum, Clyde, 20 sh.
Tubularia indivisa, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Clyde, 40 st., 7 m. Hebrides,
30 m., 40 m. Zetlands, 50 gr.
larynx, Anglesey, 12.
Corymorpha nutans, Orkneys, 10 f. Zetlands.
Halecium lialecinum, Dorset, 15-20 gr.
Sertulariapolyzonias, Anglesey, 12 gr. Devon, 7-12 gr. Clyde, 40 sh.
rosacea, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Hebrides, 90 gr. s., 15, 20 gr. m.
Zetlands, 50 gr.
pinaster, Clyde district, 40 sh.
abietina, Devon, 10-12 gr. Anglesej', 12 f. gr. Clyde, 40 sh.
Hebrides, 12-14 s. m., 15-20 st. Orkneys, 35-40 sh. Zetlands,
50 gr.
argentea, Dorset, 1.5-20 gr. Anglesev, 7 gr., 12 s., 20 gr., 20 ra.,
30 gr. Isle of Man, 25 sh. Zetlands, "80 s.
cupressina, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Devon, 7-12 m. s.
Thuiaria articulata, Clyde, 40 sh. Isle of Man, 25 sh.
Antennularia antennina, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Cornwall, 27 st. Devon,
20-25 s.
ramosa, Anglesey, 12 gr. Isle of Man, 15-18 n., 25 sh. Clyde,
40 sh. Hebrides, 25 s. st., 25 gr. m., 20 gr., 15-20 gr. m. Stor-
noway, 18 n. Zetlands, 50 gr.
Plumularia falcata, Devon, 7-12 st. Anglesey, 7 s. s., 12, 14 st., 20
gr. Clyde, 40 sh. Zetlands, 50 gr., SO m. s.
cristata, Hebrides, 10 m., 20 gr., 15-20 sh., 30 gr. Dorset, 15-20
gr. Cornwall, 20-25. Devon, 27 s.
catherina, Clyde, 40 sh. Isle of Man, 25 sh.
myriophyllum, Cornwall, 20-25 sh. Dorset, 15-20 gr. Isle of
Man, 25 sh. Clyde, 40 sh. Hebrides, 12-14 st. m., 15 m., 15-20
sh., 90 gr.
Lamnedea, sp., Dorset, 15-20 gr.
246 REPORT — 1850.
Campanularia volubilis ?, Dorset, 15-20 n. Clyde, 4-0 eh.
verticillata, Clyde, 15 m.
dumosa, Devon, 20-25 sh. Isle of Man, 25 sh. Hebrides, 25
sh. Zetlands, 50 gr.
Pennatula phosphorea, Clyde, 9 m. Hebrides, 15 m. Zetlands, 80 m. s.
Virgularia mirabilis, Clyde, 9 m. Zetlands, 70-80 s. Hebrides, 28 m.
Pavonaria quadrangularis, Hebrides, 12-14' st. m., 15 m., 20-30 m.
Gorgonia verrucosa^ Cornwall, 20-25 sh.
pinnata, Hebrides, 30 st.
Alci/onium digitatnm^DoTset, 15-20 gr., 21 sh. Depon, 7-124. Corn-
wall, 20-25 sh. Anglesey, 12 gr. Isle of Man, 18 n., 25 sh.
Clyde, 30 gr, Hebrides, 25 st.
Sarcodich/on catenate, Clyde, 20 st. Hebrides, 20 st, 15-20 sh., 25
gr. n., 25 st., 20-30 st.
agglomerata (new), Hebrides, 30 st.
Turbinolia miUetiana, Cornwall, 20-28.
Caryophyllia Smithii, Cornwall, 20-25 sh., 27 gr. Hebrides, 7 s., 10
s., 25 gr. s., 40 gr., 30 st. Outer Hebrides, 18 n., 15-20 gr.
Zetlands, 50 gr., 70-80 s.
Zoanthus Couchii, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Cornwall, 20-25 st. Devon,
20-25 gr. Outer Hebrides, 18 n.
Capnea sanguinea, 18 n. Isle of Man.
Adamsia maculata, Anglesey, 12 gr. Isle of Man, 15-18 n., 25 sh.
Hebrides, 15-20 st. Outer Hebrides, 25 s.
Actinea vermicularis, Zetlands, 50, 80 sh.
crassicomis, Anglesey, 16 st., 20 m. Isle of Man, 18 n.
bellis, Isle of Man, 18 n.
dianthus, Anglesey, 12 s. gr.
other species, Anglesey, 7 s. Dorset, 7 ni.
Iluanthos scoticus, Clyde region, 4 m.
Lticemaria fascicularis, Zetlands, 4-7 w.
Amorphozoa.
Halichondria oculata, Dorset, 7 w.
cervicornis, Zetland, 80 st.
infundibuliformis, Clyde district, 40 st.
ventilabrum, Hebrides, 30, 40 st.
sttberea, Dorset, 15-20 gr. Isle of Man. 25 sh. Hebrides, 10 s. m.
Jicus, Isle of Man, 25 sh.
> hispida, Cornwall, 20-25 sh.
Cliona celata, Anglesey, 12 s. South Wales, 12 gr. Isle of Man, 18,
25 St. Hebrides, 1 8 n. and ra.
Spongia pulchella, Isle of Man, 25 st.
Grantia ciliata, Devon, 7-12 m. st. Cornwall, 20-25 st. Anglesey,
9i gr. Isle of Man, 15-18 n. Hebrides, 25 gr. s. ? Zetlands,
50 gr.
Duseidea fragilis, Isle of Man, 25 sh.
Plants.
The greater part of these dredgings are beyond the region of the majority
of algae. Between and 10 fathoms, numerous fuci were taken, olivaceous
species prevailing in the lesser depths, red ones in the greater. Delesseria
and Desmarestia are the genera of which species were met with at most
considerable depths, i.e. at 15 and 18 fathoms (Hebrides). A straggling
Jjamifiaria was once taken as deep as 18 fathoms in the Zetlands. Beyond
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 24/
15 fathoms, and between that depth and 20 fathoms, we have the region of
NuUipora. Below 20 fathoms, unless it be an occasional straggling Nullipora,
no decided algae were met with.
Traces of Vertebrata and land animals. — Had we no other evidence of the
inhabitants of the sea than that afforded by the contents of the dredge, we
might be tempted to infer a great rarity, almost amounting to an absence, of
vertebrate marine animals within our area. Possibly such an inference
would be quite as warrantable as the negative conclusions assumed from
comparable observations by many palaeontologists and geologists, who some-
times go so far as to infer an entire absence of terrestrial creatures during
some of the more ancient geological epochs, because no traces of them can
be found in sedimentary strata of marine origin, and announce the laws
which regulated the order of creation of animated beings accordingly.
During the 145 detailed observations which form the bases of this Report,
fishes were taken by the dredge not half-a-dozen times, and in three instances
the fish taken was one of the rarest and most curious of British vertebrata,
the Amphioxus lanceolatus. Although always carefully looked for and noted,
the bones of fishes were never observed among the contents of the dredge
above three times, and in two of those instances (at a depth of 4-0 and 50
fathoms mud in the western coast of Scotland) the remains consisted of
otolites only, reminding us of similar relics in the crag of the east of
England. Of terrestrial vertebrata I have never seen a trace ; and though
no small number of the human race have diffused their bodies over our sea-
bed, no human bone has occurred to me in dredging ; when very near shore
and in the immediate neighbourhood of a town, broken bottles and old shoes
have strewn the sea-bed, affording unquestionable evidence of the presence of
man on the neighbouring shores. Doubtless by dredging close to towns, in
harbours and in estuaries, like the Mersey, where there are great cities on the
banks, numerous relics of such a description, as well as the bones of animals,
might be taken, but immediate proximity to towns is avoided by the dredger.
On one occasion, recorded in the dredging papers from the Anglesey
coast, the shell of a common snail (Helix aspersa) was dredged at some
distance from shore in the entrance of the Menai Straits. It was covered
by Balani and SerpulcB, and inhabited by a hermit crab. Naturalists
familiar with the active movements of the Paguri, can readily conceive to
what a distance a land shell may be transported under such circumstances,
and at length become imbedded along with the remains of creatures of very
different origin and habits.
Fossil remains taken in the dredge. — In no instance have we taken the re-
mains of fossil vertebrata when dredging on the western shores of Britain,
but many times have met with fossil testacea. These are of the pleistocene
epoch, and often it requires a practised eye to distinguish between them and
the dead shells of existing moUusca associated with them ; indeed there are
some species, as Astarte crebricostata, Natica grcenlandica, Panopcea nor-
vegica, Tellina proxima and Scalaria granlandica enumerated in the pre-
ceding pages, which, whilst from various considerations we hold the weight
of evidence to be in favour of their presence as living species in our seas, are
yet under suspicion, and are not admitted by all British conchologists. In
several localities among the Hebrides, especially in the Kyles of Bute, and in
the sea between Raza and Applecross, quantities of pleistocene fossils may
be dredged ; at the former place, Panopcea norvegica is common, as pointed
out by Mr. Smith ; and in the latter there occur numerous fossil valves of
Pecten islandicus and danicus, the large sulcated variety of Saxicava nigosOy
Astarte elliptical Leda truncata and oblonga, and very lately Leda thracice-
248 REPORT — 1850.
formis : of these, Pecten danicus and Astarte elliptica are living inhabitants
of the Scottish seas, the latter in places still abundant, the former very rarelj'
taken alive, though the dead shells occur in such vast quantities, that we
cannot but regard it as a species which has lived on since the glacial epoch,
though gradually becoming reduced in numbers, and now very nearly ex-
tinct. These shells often occur at considerable depths, and almost always
on a bottom of dark pleistocene sand. Pecten islandicus is enumerated in
Hebridian and Zetland dredging papers from depths of 30, 40, 50 and 90
fathoms. That this remarkable species is extinct in our seas we can scarcely
doubt, but I have good reasons for surmising that its extinction has taken place
at a period considerably later than that of several of its glacial companions.
The colours of this Pecten, as well as of some other pleistocene fossils, are
beautifully preserved, and the general aspect of the shells is very deceptive.
Occasionally, fossils of older date, but in such a condition of petrifaction
as can lead to no mistake respecting their origin, are brought up in the
dredge. Thus Mr. Mac Andrew has dredged the loose joints of Liassic pen-
tacrinites off the Shiant Islands, and we have seen Oolitic testacea dredged in
the sound between Scalpa and Raza.
General Considerations.
Numerical distribution of species in depth. — Of the species of Testaceous
MoUusca enumerated in the preceding tables, I have assigned a range to 188
in the Scottish, and 183 in the English sections. Of the 188 Scottish sub-
Kttoral species, whose i-ange in depth I venture to state, 96 are Gasteropo-
dous Testacea, and 92 Acephala. Of these, 17 univalves and 11 bivalves
inhabit the region between low-water mark and 15 fathoms, i. e. the Lanii-
narian zone ; 8 univalves and 7 bivalves extend their range from within the
Laminarian zone to a depth between 1 5 and 30 fathoms ; 26 univalves and
11 bivalves from the Laminarian zone to between 30 and 60 fathoms ; and
25 univalves and 53 bivalves, from the Laminarian zone to a depth between
60 and 100 fathoms : 3 univalves and 4 bivalves are confined in their range
between 15 and 30 fathoms, i. e. to the Coralline zone ; 1 univalve to between
30 and 60 fathoms; 4 univalves and 1 bivalve to between 30 and 100
fathoms; and 1 univalve and 1 bivalve to between 60 and 100 fathoms.
Of the 183 in the English tables, 19 univalves and as many bivalves are
from the Laminarian zone only ; 45 univalves and 46 bivalves range from
some point within the Laminarian zone to between 20 and 30 fathoms ; 16
univalves and 28 bivalves extend their range from the same region to between
30 and 60 fathoms.
It is evident that the capacity of bivalves to enjoy a great bathymetrical
range exceeds considerably that of univalves. This power of enduring many
conditions of depth, implies the power of adapting themselves to varying cir-
cumstances, which cannot be supposed to exist without considerable varia-
tion in the features of the individuals of such wide-ranging species. The
rules which should guide us in determining the selection of diagnostic cha-
racters from the shells of Acephalous mollusks, must consequently be less
strict than those which should determine our selection of characters for the
majority of Gasteropoda, and in the determination of fossil species this should
constantly be borne in mind. The difi'erence of power to range presented
by univalves as compared with bivalves, has a further important bearing on
palaeontological inquiries, for it would indicate the probability of our not
unfrequently finding geological formations connected together by the fossils
of the one class of mollusca, whilst those of the other are altogether distinct,
even in strata proximate in time. It is possible also, that by a careful de-
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 249
termination of the relative proportions of bivalves to univalves in ancient
sea-beds, all mineral indications of the nature of the sea-bed being at the
same time noted, we may get at an additional clue to the determination of
the depth of the ancient sea in which such animals lived.
The distribution of the sub-littoral forms of testacea, as shown by our
dredging papers, may be illustrated by the following examples : —
Certain species are common to the Laminarian, Coralline and Deep-sea
Coral Zones, as —
Psammobia ferroensis. Turritella communis.
Syndosmya intermedia. Cerithium reticulatum.
Venus striatula. Natica Alderi.
Venus cassina. Natica montacuti.
Venus ovata. Nassa incrassata,
Venus fasciata. Aporrhais pes-pelecani.
Cardium suecicum. Buccinum undatum.
Cardium fasciatum. Fusus antiquus.
Lucina borealis. Fusus gracilis.
Lucina flexuosa. Trophon Barvicense.
Kellia suborbicularis. Clavatula linearis.
Crenellae. Trichotropis borealis.
Nuculse. Eulima distorta.
Pinna ingens. Eulima subulata.
Pecten similis.
Some of them, under rare circumstances, as in a few localities (Skye and the
lochs of Ross-shire) in the West Highlands, are found occasionally living at
low-water. I have before called attention to this fact, and to the circum-
stance that on the neighbouring shore in such localities the alpine plants
descend from the mountains and are distributed along the water's edge. I
am strongly impressed with the suspicion that this curious phasnomenon, so
far as I have observed it, always seen in connexion with the neighbourhood
of outliers of the glacial submarine fauna, has a relation, as yet unexplained,
with the history of the changes in the configuration and elevation of land at
the close of the glacial epoch.
Certain species are common to Laminarian and Coralline Zones, and in*
differently inhabit both, as —
Cypraea europaea. Tellina donacina.
Natica helicoides. Lucinopsis undata.
Eulima polita. Lepton squamosum.
Velutina laevigata. Lima hians.
Mactra elliptica. Lima Loscombi.
Artemis exoleta. Modiola modiolus.
Artemis lincta. Ostrea edulis.
Circe minima. Pecten varius.
Certain species commence their range in the Coralline Zone, as —
Rissoa abyssicola. Cerithium metula.
Pleurotoma teres. Trochus alabastrum.
Cemoria noachina. Fusus islandicus.
Propilidium fulvum. Neaera costellata.
Pilidium ancyloides. Neaera abbreviata.
Nucula tenuis. Leda pygmaea.
Area raridentata.
And it is curious to observe that all these are members of the Scandinavian
fauna.
^ A few species appear to be confined to the region of deep-sea corals ; as Apor-
250 REPORT — 1850.
rhais pes-carbonis, Poranvja granulata, Tellina proximo, probably Terebra-
tula cra7iium, and a few Echinoderms and Zoophytes.
Certain species which enjoy a great vertical range in the north, extending
through the second, third, and in part the fourth regions of depth, are in the
south found only within limited tracts of deep-sea, as —
Cardium suecicum. Syndosmya intermedia.
Nucula polii. Terebratula Caput-serpentis.
Pecten fuci. Scalaria Trevelyana?.
These species are essentially members of the boreal or glacial fauna, and
their presence in the south is dependent, if my views be correct, on the
former spread of the glacial sea, and the preservation of its inhabitants at the
existing epoch in many isolated and distant localities, where they live usually
at considerable depths in the midst of, and mixed up with an assemblage of
creatures of a Celtic and often a much more southern character.
Hoiv far the nature of the sea-bottom determines the number and diff'usion of
species. — In the preceding tables, the nature of the sea-bed is expressed by-
letters representing the several mineral characters of the bottom, whether
sand, sandy mud, mud, rock, stones, gravel, nmddy gravel, shelly, shell-sand,
or nullipore ; the last kind of bottom being that commonly called " coral " in
the charts of the European seas.
Now, though our evidence certainly goes to show that the range of species
in depth and distance from shore is often considerably extended by a con-
tinuity, whether vertical or horizontal, of the same kind of ground, yet as-
suredly ground alone will not determine the extension of any species ; for
otherwise we should have the stone- and gravel-inhabiting species of the Lit-
toral zone carried in many places into the Laminarian and Coralline zones, and
the peculiar inhabitants of the muddy and sandy tracts in the Laminarian
zone carried far into the depths of the sea, since in very many places these
kinds of sea-bed range without interruption from shallows to great depths.
But this is not the case ; no continuity of mud, for instance, enables Scrobi-
cularia to live beyond its bounds, or the characteristic i?mo« of the gravelly
parts of the Laminarian zone to extend themselves into the deep sea.
The conditions of the sea-bottom which are most favourable to variety of
species may best be illustrated by referring to those dredging papers in which
the number of species of either univalve or bivalve testacea taken alive ex-
ceeded ten. In the southernmost of the districts within the area under con-
sideration, out of eighteen papers ten come under this category. Three of
these belong to the Laminarian zone, five to the Coralline region, and two to
the upper region of deep-sea corals. The three first-mentioned are all from
a muddy and stony or gravelly bottom with weed, and within two miles of
the shore ; their number of univalves exceeds that of bivalves ; in all three
the number of living univalves is very high, being 15 and above; and in
two of them the numbers of living bivalves are respectively 10 and 19, and of
dead 9 and \.9.. Of the five papers from the Coralline zone, four are within
three miles from the shore ; three of these are from bottoms more or less
stony and gravelly, in one instance mingled with nullipore; and one is from
a floor of shell sand. They are also very prolific ; one in dead and living
univalves, one in dead and living bivalves, and two equally so in bivalves
and univalves. The fifth of these coralline papers is from a depth of 30
fathoms and under, and a bottom of sand and gravel at a distance of 11 miles
from shore ; it exhibits a great preponderance of bivalves, and an equal
number of species taken dead and alive. The two deep-sea papers are from
a depth of 50 fathoms, on a sandy bottom, 60 miles from land ; they scarcely
come under the head of prolific papers, since few living species were taken,
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 251
though many dead, the number of dead univalves predominating in the one
instance, and of dead bivalves in the other, respectively 17 and 20, both high
numbers.
Twenty-six papers from the Irish sea relate to a sufficiently limited range
in depth to admit of a similar inquiry. Of these, eight included more than
10 species of univalves and bivalves, or both. Two are from the Laminarian
zone, and within 2 miles from shore ; in the one instance, where the bottom
was gravelly and stony, univalves prevail, and those alive ; in the other, where
it was sandy, bivalves prevail, and those mostly dead. The remaining five
papers are from the Coralline zone ; in three of them, where the bottom was
a scallop bank several miles from shore, the number of both bivalves and
univalves taken alive was very considerable, reaching in one instance respec-
tively to 21 and 27. In one, from a nullipore bottom one mile from shore,
univalves prevail, but bivalves are also abundant. In one, on a gravelly and
stony bottom near shore, bivalves prevail (the numbers being 24- living and
25 dead), but univalves are also plentiful.
Among sixty-four dredging papers from the Clyde district and the He-
brides, twenty-two exhibit numbers either of bivalves or univalves above 10;
of these three come within the Laminarian division, and one from depths very
close to shore ; in two of these the number of species of living univalves pre-
vails ; in one, of the bivalves. From the upper part of the Coralline zone
there are eleven papers, in six of which the bivalves prevail, all from muddy
or sandy bottoms, sometimes mixed with stones, close to shore ; in two, uni-
valves prevail over bivalves, in gravelly and stony bottoms near shore ; and
in two, the numbers are nearly equal on stony and mixed bottoms near to
shore. From depths between 40 and 60 fathoms, there are six prolific papers,
all richer in bivalves than in univalves, and all from sandy, gravelly or muddy
beds, varying from two to ten miles from shore. A bottom of gravel and
sand in 90 fathoms, close to shore, is richest in bivalves.
Of thirty papers from the Zetlands, sixteen are rich in species ; one only
is from the Laminarian zone, on a sandy bottom, especially rich in living bi-
valves (30), and having many (15) univalves also. Of two, from the upper
part of the Coralline zone close to shore, one, with a nullipore and stony
bottom, is richest in univalves ; the other, from a shelly bed, in bivalves. Of
the thirteen remaining papers from depths between 40 and 100 fathoms, eight
present considerable numbers of both univalves and bivalves, and in five (all
from depths below 60 fathoms) bivalves prevail. The numbers of species of
bivalves are high in the depths at a considerable (30 to 100 miles) distance
from shore. The bivalves are also predominant at these great depths on more
or less muddy bottoms, and at the farther distances ; the univalves most
numerous alive where the bottom is more or less stony.
Gregarious and prolific species. — Many of our littoral moUusca, as the
shore-living species of Littorina, Purpura, Trochus, Cardium, Donax,
Scrobicularia, Mya, Pholas, &c., are truly gregarious, and the individuals of
each are constantly found assembled together in considerable numbers. This
is not so commonly the habit among sub-littoral species ; among them, how-
ever, there are some habitually gregarious (as Ostrea edulis, Pecten opercu-
laris, Corbula fiucleus, Syndosmya alba, Pectuncidus glycimeris, Modiola
modiolus, and Turritella terebra ; and among radiata, Ophiura rosula,
Uraster rubem, Comatula europcea. Echinus sphcera), though with this dif-
ference as compared with most littoral gregarious forms, that whereas the
individuals of the latter are always assembled together, the sub-littoral species
are gregarious in some zones of depth, and under certain conditions of sea-
bottom, whilst they are at the same time diflFused in small numbers, or evea
252 REPORT — 1850.
as solitary individuals in situations where the conditions do not seem so
favourable to fecundity. Many species also, not at all gregarious in the true
sense of the word, having a very wide range in depth, are not equally pro-
lific throughout that range, but are developed in much greater numbers in
one region than in another, or in different parts of the same region accord-
ing to the conditions of the sea-bed. Cliniatal differences also have a con-
siderable effect in determining the prolific or non-prolific character of a
species, and this may be observed clearly, even in such a limited area as that
under review. Hence, when we state of many species that they are diffused
throughout all the provinces of that area, it is not to be understood that they
are equally abundant, so far as their individuals are concerned in all. Thus,
for example, Dentalium entalis is distributed throughout the British seas ; but,
whilst it is so abundant as to be almost gregarious in the northern provinces,
it becomes scarce and solitary in the southern. Many examples of this may
be seen by consulting the analysis of dredging papers in the preceding tables,
and afterwards comparing them with the tables of enumeration of localities
of species.
In the Littoral region, as mentioned already, the species of Littorina, Tro-
chus. Patella and Purpura are most abundant, and among bivalves, Mytilus
edulis, Cardium edule and Kellia rubra. These, with many other animals,
and with peculiar marine plants, which it is not the province of this Report
to enumerate, give a character to the sea-belt between tide-mark*.
In the Laminarian region, extending from low- water mark to 15 fathoms or
thereabouts, LacuncB and RissocB are abundant. The species observed to be
most prolific within this region during the dredging researches on the English
shores, were Rissoa parva and interriipta ; in Laminarian shallows. Lacuna
puteolus, Rissoa labiosa and Phasianella pulliis, where Zostera prevailed ;
Trochus cinereus, Magus and Ziziphinus, Acmcea virginea, Modiola modiolus,
Nucula nucleus on muddy gravelly bottoms; Turritella, Corbula nucleus^
Syndosmya alba, Dentalium tarentinum, Ophiocoina rosula in sandy and
muddy places ; Solen pellucidus and Mactra subtruncata where sand pre-
vailed ; Chiton asellus everywhere where shells or stones were present ;
Echinus miliaris on many bottoms ; Ascidia and Crustacea everywhere.
On the Scottish shores in like depths, most of the above-named forms
(except the Rissoa labiosa, Phasianella, Lacuna and Dentalium tarentinum)
were equally prolific, whilst others seldom observed in great numbers in the
south became very plentiful, as Dentalium entalis, Lucina Jlexuosa, Lima
Mans, Venus striatula, Ophiocoma chiagii ; and in places, Cardium pygmceum,
Crenella decussata and Bulla akera.
Between 15 and 25 fathoms in the upper part of the Coralline zone, Tro-
chus ziziphinus and tumidus. Chiton asellus, Acmtea virginea, Nassa reticU'
lata, Turritella, Venus ovata and V. fasciata, Pecten opercularis, Modiola
modiolus, Crenellce, Pectuncubis, Nucula nucleus, abound in individuals on
the English shores. The same species, with the addition of Astarte sulcata
and A. elliptica, Syndosmya intermedia, Lima subauricidata, Leda caudata,
Cardium fasciatum and Lucina sinuata, mark the same region in the Scottish
seas. In both north and soai\i Echinus sphcera and Ophiocoma are very pro-
lific in this belt.
Between 25 and 40 fathoms, in the middle and lower sections of the
Coralline region, the species observed most prolific in individuals on the
English coast were few, comprehending Solen pellucidus, Pecten varius,
Modiola modiolus and Dentalium tarentinum.
* For a tabulated view of the subdivisions and inhabitants of this zone, see the first
volume of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 253
On the Scottish coast this region is remarkable for prolific and peculiar
species. Great numbers of Brachiopoda {Terebratula Caput-serpentis, and
Crania norvegica) are found in gravelly and stony places. Dentalium en-
talis, Nucula nucleus, Astarte sulcata, Leda caudata, and (in places) L. pyg-
mcea, Mactra elliptica and Modiola modiolus, are all very prolific.
Between 40 and 60 fathoms, on the verge of the region of deep-sea corals,
we have too little experience on the English coast to judge. Cardium sue-
cicutn, however, essentially a northern form, was noted as abundant at a depth
of 50 fathoms between Cornwall and Ireland.
In the Scottish seas between these depths, besides most of the species noted
as prolific in the last region, we find Nucula tenuis, Cardium suecicum, Nu-
cida decussata (locally) and Venus fasciata abundant ; also Turritella in
places. Below that depth, Leda caudata, Syndosmya intermedia, Venus
ovata and striatula (var.), Lucina spinifera, Dentalium entalis, Turritella,
Ditrupa and Echinus norvegicus, liave been taken in considerable numbers
in several Scottish localities. Widely diff"used species of Turritella, Denta-
lium, Modiola, Nucula, Vemis and Astarte, appear to be most prolific through-
out the range of their distribution.
Generic and subgeneric groups confined to particular zones in depth. — In
the Littoral and Laminarian zones, we find all the species of certain well-
marked natural groups assembled, but very few, if any, of those which are
distributed in the regions of corallines and of deep-sea corals are peculiar,
the s])ecies of moUusks in the lower zones especially, being members of
genera which have representatives in the Laminarian or in both Littoral and
Laminarian zones. Within the two higher zones we find all the British
species of Patella, Purpura, Littorina, Otina, Cmiovulus, Truncatella, Ca-
lyptrea. Lacuna (except L. aassior), Aplysia, Scrobicularia and Danax.
Almost, though not entirely confined to them, are also the genera Phasianella,
Mya, Lutraria, Mytilus, Pholas and Cytherea. Some important genera,
such as Rissoa, Chiton, Trochus, Mactra, Venus, Bulla and Cardium, are
mainly developed in the Laminarian zone. In the genus Patella we have one
section, that of Patella proper, confined to the Littoral zone, and another,
Patina, confined to the Laminarian zone. The subgenus Hydrobia o{ Rissoa
is almost wholly littoral. Very rarely do we find instances of a species
strictly littoral descending far into the Laminarian zone or below it; on the
west coast of Anglesey Purpura lapillus was dredged in 10 fathoms, and
three specimens taken at that depth were remarkable for the development
and perfection of the crenulated laminas of growth on the surface of the
shell. Rissoa Barleii of JeflPreys appears to be a variety of the littoral
Rissoa ulvce, descending below its usual level. More frequently do we find
mollusks and radiata of the Laminarian zone and the upper part of the region
of Corallines ascending into the littoral belt. This is especially the case in
certain localities on the Hebrides, as in Skye and on the west coast of Ar-
gyleshire ; and very generally is it to be observed, as the registrar pointed out
to the Natural History Section in 1836, in the immediate neighbourhood of
those localities where alpine plants, such as Silene acaulis &c., are found
abundantly near the water's edge.
Certain genera, such as Necera, Crania, Pilidium, Cemoria and Propilidium,
have, so far as the area under review is concerned, a range in depth entirely
confined to the Coralline region and that of deep-sea corals. But elsewhere
species of these genera ascend into the Laminarian, and possibly some of them
into the Littoral zones, so that great stress cannot be laid upon their distri-
bution as genera indicative of depth. Very important, however, are the
facts stated with regard to the Laminarian and Littoral genera ; and the geolo-
254 REPORT — 1850.
gist will do well to bear in mind that entire well-marked generic groups of
testacea are confined to, and indicate with certainty, the space between tide-
marks and the sea-bed to a depth of about \5 fathoms beloiv low-water mark.
' Relation of colour to distribution. — Althougli the extent and depth of our
seas scarcely afford sufficient data for illustrating the influence of light in the
colouring of marine animals, yet some facts bearing on this subject may be
gathered from the papers before us.- In the horizontal diffusion of species,
several, as some of the Trochi and Veiieridce, exhibit a distinct influence of
light upon the brightness of their hues, in the south, as compared with the
dull aspect of specimens from the north, and this in individuals of the same
species. It is easy for the practised conchologist to distinguish specimens of
most painted shells, gathered on the southern coasts of England, from those
taken on other parts of our shores. We have evidence also of the distinct
effect of depth in the defacing of the hues of the same species, when it has a
great bathymetrical range. Thus the examples of Venus striatula, Venus
ovata and Turritella terebra (all having a range from the Laminarian zone to
the deepest recesses of the British seas), taken alive at a depth of 100
fathoms off tiie Zetland Isles by Mr. MacAndrew, were colourless ; whilst
those from more moderate and shallow depths are almost always conspicu-
ously coloured. Between 60 and 80 fathoms in the Scottish seas, dirty white,
dull red, yellow or brown, rarely broken into stripes or bands, are the pre-
vailing hues of the testacea ; though at ,50 fathoms, shells painted in patterns
and vividly coloured (as Natica Alderi and Clavatula purpurea), exhibit their
hues unimpaired. At the same lime it must not be forgotten that the vividly
painted animal of the coral Caryophyllia thrives at a depth of 80 fathoms. A
curious phaenomenon apparently connected with depth is the blindness of the
crustacean Calocaris.
Condition of the exuvice of marine invertebrata taken in the dredge. — In the
great majority of instances and places, the dead shells of mollusca are taken
nearly entire, or, in the case of the bivalves, with the valves disunited but
not broken. This applies especially to all localities of a considerable depth,
and where strong currents are not in action. Very near the shore, broken
shells are not uncommon ; and in current-ways, even at the depth of 30
fathoms, the bottom may be composed in great part of triturated shells.
Lieut. Thomas, R.N., observes, when communicating his lists of Testacea
dredged around the Orkney Islands, that " between Fair Island and the
Orkneys, the bottom near the latter islands is either rocky or composed of
large pieces of Modiola modiolus or Pectunculus glycimeris. I make no
doubt," he remarks, " that these are broken by some large species of Crus-
tacea (?) ; their freshness of fracture is astonishing, as if the creature feeding
had been disturbed at his meal." Among bivalves, besides those mentioned,
the shells of Thracia, Cyprina, Isocardia, and the larger species of Cardium
are most frequently found broken ; among univalves, those of Succinum and
JFusus. Some few bivalves are frequently dredged dead, yet with their
valves united ; such are Ltccina radula, the Necerce, Mactra elliptica, Psam-
mobice, Venus ovata and striatula, Tapes virginea, Tellina donadna, Thracia
phaseolina, Lucinopsis, Nucula pygnicea. Salens, Syndosmyce and Pectunculus
pilosus, this last open and gaping. The monomyarious bivalves are often
found dead in quantities, but almost always with valves disunited ; and this
may be said of the great majority of dimyarious bivalves also. Echinoderms
fall to pieces when dead, or if taken entire have lost their spines.
Phcenomena of tJie horizontal distribution of species on the western shores
of Great Britain. — In the older accounts of British marine animals, the phrase
" from Devon to Zetland " was frequently given as marking their range, and
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY, 255
the natural inference from such statement was that such species were uni-
versally diffused through our seas. The researches embodied in this Report,
however, put beyond question the fact that there are marked peculiarities in
the distribution of British marine animals, and that though there are nume-
rous species common to the whole area, there are also numerous species
peculiar to parts of that area. We have clear evidence of more elements
than one contributing to the composition of our submarine population, of
a southern element, derived from the Lusitanian provinces of the European
seas, of a northern element introduced from the Scandinavian seas, of a Celtic
element having its centre within our own region, of an oceanic element ma-
nifested by the floating Gasteropoda and the Pteropoda that reach our
shores, and of an arctic element due to causes which were in action
before the British Isles had assumed their present conformation *. The
following statements, founded mainly on the data contained in the prece-
ding tables, will serv6 to illustrate the phajnomeua, so far as this Report is
concerned.
The northern and southern provinces of the western coast of Great Britain
may be distinguished hy certain Mollusea of the Littoral Zone. — Thus, in the
extreme south, along the shores of the English Channel, we find Truncatella
truncatula, and there only. Trochus lineatus commences its range to the
west of Portland Island, and is found around the coasts of Devon, Cornwall
and the Bristol Channel, until it ceases in Cardigan Bay or a little higher
up; a similar cessation of its diffusion taking place on the opposite shores of
Ireland. Acmcea testudinalis, on the other hand, appears in the Orkneys
(its presence in the Zetlands is doubtful), and ranges through the Hebrides
and the Clyde region until it reaches the northern shores of Ireland and the
northern coast of the Isle of Man ; but it is not found on coasts southwards
of those points. Chiton marmoreus ceases sooner; Littorina petrcea is
abundant in the British Channel, and equally plentiful in the Hebrides, but
rare in the central part of the Irish sea. All the other Littorince, Chiton
marginatus, Rissoa parva and cingillus, Patella vulgata, Trochus cinerarius.
Purpura lapillus, Skenea planorbis, Mytilus edulis and Kellia rubra, are
common throughout the area, even as they are all round the shores of the
British Isles. Trochus umbilicatus is equally abundant throughout the area,
whilst on the other hand it is entirely absent from the eastern coast of
Britain.
The differetices between the northern and southern provinces are equally
shown by the sublittoral testacea. — These are evident, — 1st, in the presence of
a number of species in the south which are not found in the north, and vice
versa ; and 2nd, in the greater frequency of the individuals and localities of
certain species as we proceed from south to north, and vice versa ; thus —
1. The following testacea are confined to the extreme south ; they are all
Spanish or Mediterranean species : —
Trochus striatus. Pholas parva.
Trochus exiguus. Ervilia castanea.
Ghemnitzia fenestrata. Cardium rusticum.
Volva patula. Crenella rhombea.
Pholadidea papyracea.
2. The following species are peculiarly southern, but more general than
the former; they are also species of the Mediterranean and Lusitanian
type :—
* See the Memoir on the British Fauna and Flora, in the first volume of the Memoirs of
the Geological Survey.
256
REPORT — 1850.
Dentalium tarentinuin.
Emarginula rosea.
Adeorbis subcarinatus.
Calyptrsea sinensis.
Scalaria clathratulus.
Nassa varicosa.
Cliemnitzia scalaris.
Modiola barbata.
Area lactea.
Cytherea chione.
Cardium aculeatum.
Diplodonta rotundata.
Venus verrucosa.
Gastrocliaena modiolina.
3. The following species increase in frequency of occurrence as we proceed
from uorth to south : —
Chiton fascicularis. Cerithiopsis tubercularls.
Trochus granulatus. Clavatula rufa.
Rissoa crenulata. Modiola tulipa.
Scalaria clathrus. Mactra subtruncata.
Cerithium adversum. Pecten varius.
4. On the other hand, a greater number of species become more frequent
in proceeding from south to north, showing thereby the more powerful in-
fluence of the Scandinavian element in our fauna : —
Dentalium entalis.
Chiton cancellatus.
Emarginula MuUeri.
Trochus millegranus.
Lacuna crassior.
Cheranitzia fulvocincta.
Eulimella MacAndrei.
Natica Montagui.
Fusus gracilis.
Trophon Bamfium.
Bela turricula.
5. The power of the Scandinavian element is still more strongly shown m
the number and character of species, which are peculiarly northern: —
Tapes puUastra.
Cyprina islandica.
Astarte danmoniensis.
Astarte compressa.
Lucina borealis.
Lucina flexuosa.
Modiola vulgaris.
Leda caudata.
Lima subauriculata.
Pecten tigrinus.
Chiton Hanleyi.
Acmsea testudinalis.
Propilidium ancyloide.
Scissurella crispata.
Chemnitzia rufescens.
Natica grcenlandica.
Velutina plicatilis.
Trichotropis borealis.
Trophon Barvicense.
Bela decussata.
Mangelia brachystonia.
Mangelia Boothii.
Bulla hyalina.
Bulla Cranchii.
Bulla akera ?.
BuUaea quadrata.
BuUaea scabra.
Pecten danicus.
Pecten striatus ?.
Crenella decussata.
Crenella nigra.
Pecten niveus.
Astarte elliptica.
Astarte crebricostata.
Lucina ferruginosa.
Poromya anatinoides.
Neaera costellata.
Nesera abbreviata.
To which may be added certain species found in the southern part of the
British seas only in a few isolated patches, spaces which I regard as " glacial
outliers," as —
Pilidium fulvum.
Emarginula crassa.
Rissoa abyssicola.
Scalaria Trevelyana.
Terebratula Caput-serpentis,
Crania norvegica.
Area raridentata.
Nucula decussata.
Nucula tenuis.
Leda pygmaea.
Nesera cuspidata.
Syndosmya intermedia.
Cardium suecicum.
ox BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 257
6. There are also a number of species confined to the extreme north ; as —
Trochus alabastrum. Natica helicoides. Astarte arctica.
Cerithium metula. Fusus albus. Tellina proxima.
Aporrhais pes-carbonis. Fusus decemcostatus. Terebratula cranium.
Scalaria grcenlandica. <'t-:*'
7. A few, of which Rissoa vitrea, Isocardia cor and Ostrea ^diMs'sxe ex-
amples, are very local in various degrees of abundance, the cause of their
localization being obscure.
8. Certain species are more or less common at both ends of the area under
exploration, though very rare or not found at all in the Irish sea ; they can,
most of them, however, be tracked making their way northwards along the
western coast of Ireland.
Rissoa costata. Marginella Isevis. Cardium pygmgeum.
Rissoa zetlandica. Psammobia costulata. Lucina spinifera.
Cerithium reticulatum. Diodonta fragilis. Pinna pectinata.
Mangelia teres. Tapes decussata. Area tetragona.
Mangelia costata. Circe minima. Pecten similis.
Mangelia attenuata.
9. Not a few species appear to be equally diffused everywhere throughout
our area ; of these, there may be cited as examples, —
Chiton asellus. Mangelia linearis. Tellina crassa.
Acmaea virginea. Cypraea europaea. Tellina donacina.
Ti'ochus cinerarius. Crenella discrepans. Syndosmya alba.
Trochns tumidus. Crenella marmorata. Mactra elliptica.
Trochus ziziphinus. Pectunculus glycimeris. Tapes virginea.
Rissoa parva. Nucula nucleus. Venus ovata.
Rissoa striata. Lima hians. Venus fasciata.
Turritella terebra. Lima Loscombi. Venus cassina.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani. Pecten maximus. Venus striatula.
Natica Alderi. Pecten pusio. Artemis exoleta.
Buccinum undatum. Pecten opercularis. Artemis lincta.
Fusus antiquus. Solen pellucidus. Cardium fasciatura.
Trophon muricatum. Psammobia ferroensis. Kellia suborbicularis.
Tlie harder Echinodermata exhibit similar phmnomena of distribution. —
Thus, Cidaris histrix, Echinus norvegicus. Echinus neglectus and Euryale
verrucosa, are peculiarly and extreme northern species, and all of Scandina-
vian origin.
Erissus lyrifer (which occurs also in glacial outliers in the south), Ophio-
coma filifortnis, Comatula petasus, Goniaster Templetoni (i. e. pulvillus), and
Uraster rosea ( = Cribella rosea), are peculiarly northern.
Echinus Flemingii is northern and southern, but deficient in the interval.
Echinus sphcera and Echinus miliaris, with many of our starfishes, are
general throughout the area.
Echinus Melo and the extra-limital Echinus lividus are peculiarly southern.
Similar peculiarities of distribution are shown by the soft Echinoderms,
by the soft Mollusca and by the Zoophytes.
Numerical comparisons of the Testacea and hard Echinodermata inhabit-
ing the regions explored, with the total number of British species. — In the fol-
lowing table, one of the striking features is the small number of testacea and
hard echinoderms inhabiting tlie British seas, which do not live upon the
western shores of Great Britain ; such as are beyond their limits, are either
of excessively southern and scarcely British character, as Haliotis tuberculata,
1850. s
258 REPORT — 1850.
Jeffreysia opalina, JRissoa lactea and Murex corallinus ; or oceanic forms of
lanthina, Hyalcea and Spirialis ; or species probablj' of arctic origin, ex-
tending only to our north-eastern coasts, as Fusus norvegicus and Turtoni,
Ncdica Kingii, Hypothyris psittacea and Goniaster equestris. The number
of doubtful or not sufficiently investigated forms is also very small. A con-
siderable number of genera have no, or few, representative members in the
Scottish and English columns of western sublittoral species ; these are either
extra-limital, as Hyalcea, Haliotis and Hypothyris ; or excessively rare in
our seas, as Avicula, Stylifer, Cidaris and Astrophyton ; or oceanic, as lan-
thina and Spirialis ; or wholly or mainly littoral, as Liltorina, Otina, Cono-
vulus, Truncatella, Jeffreysia, Skenea (proper), Patella, Pleurobranchus,
Teredo, Xylophaga, Petricola, Venerupis, Ceratisolen, Turtonia, Galeomma,
Mytilus, Asterina. In Odostomia we have a genus which is not fairly re-
presented on account of the excessively critical character of its species. Five
genera of Gasteropoda, three of Lamellibranchiate acephala, three of Pallio-
branchiate acephala, and three of hard Echinodermata, all having members
in the Scottish portion of the regions explored, are without representatives in
the English western and southern provinces. On the other hand, seven
genera of Gasteropoda and eight of Lamellibranchiate acephala having
English representatives, are altogether wanting on the western and northern
coasts of Scotland. All our brachiopods found within the area explored are
Scottish species ; the number of nionomyarious Lamellibranchiata is slightly
in favour of Scotland over England, which, however, shows a considerable
majority of dimyaria. The proportion of Gasteropoda in the Scottish seas
is, however, so great, that the total number of testacea is in favour of the
north. This is to be attributed partly to the greater variety of depths and '
ground, and partly to the presence in the north of isolated colonies of arctic
forms which swell the ranks of the inhabitants of those regions to beyond
their natural proportions.
This table shows the total number of species of each genus of British tes-
tacea and hard Echinodermata, compared with the number of species recorded
in the following tables of depths ; the Scottish and English regions of the
areas to which this Report is devoted, having the number of their species
dredged in separate columns. In order to facilitate the comparison, and to
show cause for the diiferences between the latter or district columns and the
first or general enumeration, columns showing the number of species normally
living in the Littoral andLaminarian zones, of obscure forms said to live within
the area explored, and of British species found only beyond the limits of
these areas, are inserted between. I have added for general comparison a
column showing the number of species identical with existing British forms,
of which we find fossil remains in the later British tertiaries, taking my data
from the valuable monographs by Mi". Searles Wood. In two other columns,
I have inserted in the one the total number of Scandinavian species of each
genus in the British list, irrespective of identity, founding the list on Loven's
researches; and in the other, the total number in like manner of Mediterra-
nean species, founding tiie list on the works of Phillippi, on my iEgean lists,
and on the dredging papers of Mr. MacAndrew. These two columns, when
compared with the others, will afford not a few indications of the respective
influences of the northern and southern elements in the British marine fauna.
The numbers of the Scandinavian Echinodermata are taken from the excel-
lent memoir by Duben and Koren.
ON BRITISH MARINE Z0OI..OGY.
259
British genera.
•I •
■s'S
■i'i
■|l
II
"►J
II
" i s
§•1
3 S
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3
1
1
2
*
*
1
1
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I
1
1
5
1
3
*
2
4
1
8
4
1
1
1
4
2
2
1
5
2
1
1
1
2
1
8
5
1
3
«
2
1
*
1
4
3
4
1
2
1
*
c .
1*
British later ter-
tiary fossils iden-
tical mth living
British species.
n'o S
S 1
Test. Mollusca.
Lamellibranchiata.
Teredo
6
1
4
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
1
5
1
4
1
2
4
1
9
4
1
2
1
6
2
4
1
5
2
1
1
1
6
1
8
6
1
3
1
3
2
1
1
4
6
5
2
3
1
1
6
1
4
1
T
1
2
2
1
1
4
1
1
2
5
2
3
2
1
;
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
1
2
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
3
>
4
1
7
4
1
1
6
2
4
1
5
2
1
1
1
4
3
3
I
3
2
2?
1
1
4
6
3
1
2
1
i
i
1
i
...
1
*
*
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
3
2
2
1
7
3
*
*
4
1
3
4
2
1
1
1
6
1
7
4
3
*
1
1
*
3
4
5
2
2
1
1
1
)
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
3
6
3
1
2
6
1
3
1
3
2
1
1
6
I
3
4
1
3
2
2
1
3
4
3
2
3
1
1
2
1
3
2
2
1
2
;
1.'
1
3
1
3
1
3
5
3
1
1
3
3
4
2
1
1
4
1
7
4
2
1
1
1
1
5
4
4
3
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
?
4
1
3
1
5
>
5
1
2
3
1
13
3
2
4
1
5
1
6
3
6
2
1
1
4
1
17
12
2
1
?
3
1
1
2
4
4
5
2
9
2
1
Xylophaga
Pholas
Pholadidea . . .
Gastrochaena
Saxicava
Petricola
Venerupis
Mya
Panopaea
Corbula
Sphsenia
Nesera
Poromya
Pandora
Lyonsia
Cochlodesma ...
Solen
Ceratisolen
Psammobia
Diodonta
Tellina
Syndosmya
Scrobicularia
Ervilia
Tapes
Cytherea
Artemis
Cyprina
Astarte
Cardium
iDiplodonta
'Turtonia
iLepton
'Nucula
licda
Pectunculus
Avicula
1-
s2
260
REPORT — 1850.
British genera.
Test. Mollosca.
Lamellibranchiata.
Pinna
Lima
Pecten
Ostrea
Anomia
Palliobranchiata.
Hypothyris
Terebratula
Megathyris
Crania
Pteropoda.
Hyatea
Spirialis
Gasteropoda.
Chiton
Patella
Acmaia
Pilidium
Propilidium
Dentalium
Pileopsis
Calyptrsea
Fissurella
Puncturella
Emarginula
Haliotis
Trochus
Phasianella
Adeorbis
Scissurella
lanthina
Littorina
Lacuna
Rissoa
Jeffrej'sia
Siienea
Skenea?
Turritella
Coecum
Aporrhais
Cerithium
Scalaria
Aclis
Stylifer
Eulima
Chemnitzia
Odostomia
Eulimella
Truncatella
Otina
Natica
Lamellaria
Velutina
Cerithiopsis
Trichotropis
1
2
1
1
1
1
3
10
5
8
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
2
1
1
16
5
11
1
1
1
1
1?
1
1
1?
1.'
3
4
4
4
4
29
10
14
2
2
1
1
4
4.'
1
1
2
2
2
1
3
1
2
5
3
4
3?
1
1?
4
4?
8
6.'
22
*
*
4
2
1
1
1
1
7
1
4
2
1.'
2
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1
1
ml
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2
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15
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1
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY.
261
British genera.
.a
II.
is"
ii
II
II
Hi
o &
a .
British later ter-
tiary fossils iden-
tical with living
British species.
C.5! J
Hi
S en C
Test. Mollusca.
Gasteropoda.
1
3
9
4
3
3
15
1
2
1
1
11
6
2
1
2
2
2
11
1
4
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Murex
Fusus
Buccinum
Nassa
Trophon
Mangelia
Marginella
Volva
Cypraea
Tornatella
Bulla
Bultea
Pleurobranchus
Aplysia
Conovulus
ECHINODERMATA.
Comatula
Ophiura
Euryale
Uraster
Cribella
Paltnipes
Asterina
Goniaster
Asterias
Luidia
Echinus
Cidaris
Brissus
Amphidetus
Spatangus
1 ::: i
1
Causes which seem to determine or to have determined the peculiarities of the
horizontal distribution of Species on the western coast of Great Britain.
These seem to be mainly, — first, the influence and distribution of existing
oceanic currents; and secondly, the geological changes which the region has
undergone since the tertiary epoch, and during the last term of that epoch.
The first is the climatal influence, acting by its regulation of the temperature
of the sea; the second, a geological influence, the action of which, so far as
the present epoch is concerned whilst under review, has passed away.
Along the southern coast of England, the upper portion of the Coralline
zone (18-30 fathoms) has a wide extension from the shore towards the eastern
extremity of the English channel, occupying its whole breadth and gradually
narrowing along the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, where the deeper por-
tion of the same region approaches the land more nearly than elsewhere
on the western English coast*. To the extension and connection of lauds
* The naturalist, besides consulting the usual hydrographical charts, cannot do better
than study the interesting Map of the English Channel by Mr. Austen, published in the
Geological Journal.
262 REPORT — 1850.
across the eastern channel, ancient but not anterior to the existing population
of the British seas, we may ascribe some of the peculiarities of our southern-
most marine fauna, especially the presence there of southern forms of mol-
lusks, inhabitants of the Littoral or Laminarian zones, and u ndoubtedly colonists
from a more southern assemblage, such as we now see in the Channel Islands.
The inhabitants of greater depths taken off the Cornish coast at considerable
distances from shore, we have seen to be species of a different climatal
character, boreal instead of southern ; and when the distribution of animals
on the Nymph Bank and off the southernmost coast of Ireland shall have been
more fully explored, we shall find — at least, so the facts already made known
indicate — that there is a large tract of considerable depth in the southern
part of St. George's Channel, of the great deep-sea fishing-grounds, charac-
terized by this boreal fauna, bearing a close relationship with the extinct
fauna of the northern drift of the south-eastern districts of Ireland and parts
of the coast of Wales. A great part of the Irish sea is very shallow, rarely
sufficiently deep to affect the character of its fauna ; parts of its floor, as be-
tween the Isle of Man and Lancashire, barely emerging from the Coralline
zone, and its deepest portions of any extent scarcely infringing on the region
of deep-sea corals. Between the Isle of Man and the Mull of Galloway, it is
true, there is the deep and narrow ravine, 150 fathoms in its deepest part,
discovered by Captain Beechey and dredged by him. But the results of his
valuable research, carefully investigated by a most able naturalist, Mr. W.
Thompson of Belfast, have shown that we have no fauna in that limited
gulf at all corresponding to its depth, and that its contents are normally inha-
bitants of shallower regions. For this reason, the absence of the assemblage
of subarctic or boreal species met with in all the older British submarine
areas of considerable depth, and the curious interruption in the distribution
of the smaller terrestrial quadrupeds which occurs in this quarter, reaching,
as many of them do, the extreme parts of the south of Scotland, yet not in-
habiting the nearest portions of Ireland opposite or any part of that island, I
am induced to hazard the conjecture, that the great ravine in question dates
its origin from a period later than the close of the glacial epoch, yet before
that of the general spread of the greater part of the Germanic fauna and flora
over these islands — of that part which, from causes varying in different spe-
cies of animals and plants, was the more tardy in its progress. In the regions
of the Clyde and along the inner Hebrides we have a great variety of depths ;
but the pbeenomenon most striking is the great depth of many of the lochs,
often of considerable dimensions, whilst the entrances to them are exceedingly
shallow ; and in some cases the seas without them for a considerable distance
are very shallow also. The fauna of these isolated deeps is very different
from that of the Gallovegian ravine, for in the former we find assembled and
imprisoned creatures which are characteristic of very deep regions of the
sea, and which are mainly of a marked Scandinavian character. Sometimes,
as in the neighbourhood of the Croulin iislands, between Skye and the Ross-
shire coast, we find a deep area of the sea thronged with Scandinavian spe-
cies, living on the remains of the ancient glacial sea-bed and mingled with
the exuviae of their extinct ancestors, and of other creatures, now wholly ex-
tinguished within our seas, of an equally boreal or even arctic complexion.
We have to sail a long way from the islands before we eome to the edge of
the permanently 100- fathom line, which, as we go northwards, must be
sought for considerably to the west of St. Kilda and north of the desolate
rocks of Sulisker and Rona. Around the Zetland Isles is the region in which
the British explorer has the best opportunity of inquiring into the features of
the fauna of the greater abysses of our seas, though of these depths we can
scarcely claim more than the 100-fathom region as coming within the com-
ON BRITISH MARINE ZOOLOGY. 263
pass of British natural history. The soundings for a degree and a half north
of Unst do not reach 300 fathoms ; and from the Naze of Norway to the
coast of Scotland there is a line of soundings not reaching to 100 fathoms,
quite sufficient, as may be seen from an examination of the tables here
given, to keep up a considerable communication and interchange with the
Scandinavian marine fauna.
That the diffusion of Lusitanian forms along our southern shores and for
some distance up St. George's Channel is due to the action of southern cur-
rents and their climatal influenee, must be evident to any person who will
compare the range of those species with the course and extension of Rennell's
current, which, striking towards our shores from the coast of Spain, im-
pinges on our south-western English provinces and diifuses its influence over
an area exactly corresponding with the extension of our marine creatures of
southern types. The extension, more or less powerful in different years, of
the Gulf-stream towards the Irish coast, and the combined influence of it
and its branch-current already mentioned, affects an area extending from our
south-western English province round the western coast of Ireland and im-
pinging on the western shores of Scotland in its northern portion, sufficient
to account for the curious curve of distribution taken by those animals
which range in that line almost from Devon to Zetland, but are rare or
absent in the central portions of the Irish sea. The setting-in of the arctic
current from the centre will account for the transmission to our northern
shores of numerous Scandinavian forms. But no action of currents, as at
present maintained, can account for the isolated patches and imprisoned
assemblages of glacial animals to which I have more than once alluded ia
this Report. To account for them we must trace the physical conformation
of the British seas in an epoch anterior to the present, and by doing so, shall
find that the causes similar to those now in action differently disposed, will
give us a clear insight into the origin of these phaenomena. I have elsewhere
theorized fully on this subject*, and have only to add, that all subsequent
researches, a great mass of which is embodied in this Report, go in the
strongest manner to confirm the views I had ventured to advance.
Desiderata within this area. — A great deal may yet be done for the ex-
ploration of the part of the British seas which has furnished the subject of this
Report. Although little that is new, if anything, can be expected from the
coasts of Hants, Sussex and Kent, yet it would be satisfactory to have a
well-filled series of dredging papers relating to those counties. The central
portion of the English channel and its entrance have yet to be systematically
explored, and the depths of the Cornish coast and around the Scilly Isles
should be sedulously examined. Off the entrance of the Bristol channel are
isolated, or nearly so, patches of 60 fathoms and thereabouts which require
to be carefully explored. The deeper portions of the Irish sea should be
looked to more minutely. A more difficult task, and one which can be
hardly hoped for fulfilment without the help of a steam-vessel and continued
calm weather, is the dredging of the deeps ofl" the Hebrides in the open
ocean. Much of the deep sea area around the Zetlands is sure to reward the
explorer. The lochs of Sutherlandshire have not as yet been systematically
examined. And lastly, though I fear the consummation, however devoutly
wished for, is not likely soon to be effected, a series of dredgings between
the Zetland and the Faroe Isles, where the greatest depth is under 700 fathoms,
would throw more light on the natural history of the North Atlantic and on
marine zoology generally, than any investigation that has yet been under-
taken.
* Memoirs of Geological Survey, vol. i.
264
REPORT — 1850.
Notes on the Distribution and Range in depth of Mollusca and other
Marine Animals observed on the coasts of Spain, Portugal, Barbary,
Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849. By Robert MacAndrew,
Esq., F.L.S.
List of Species of INIoUusca obtained in Vigo Bay during the first week of
April and the last week of August 184^9.
Depth.
Ground.
Living at
Fre-
quency.
4 fath.
4 fath.
8 fatli.
shore
shore
8 fath.
shore
10 fath.
shore
shore
sh. to 4 f.
3 fath.
sand
mud
mud
mud
sand
sand
mud
sand
sand
sand
sand
null,
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
mud
mud
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
mud
sand
sand
sand
sand
mud
null,
null,
mud
null,
null,
sand
sand
sand
sand
mud
mud
sand
sand
mud
sand
mud
mud
8 fath.
5 to 25 f.
20 fath.
10 fath.
8 fath.
low water
low water
low water
low water
shore
10 fath.
10 fath.
shore
5 to 10 f.
shore
low water
8 fath.
low water
low water
low water
5 fath.
20 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
low water
low water
littoral
littoral
littoral
10 fath.
10 fath.
shore
10 fath.
10tol5f.
4 fath.
10 to 12 f.
rare
abun.
rare,
rare,
rare,
rare,
rare,
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
rare
freq.
rare,
rare,
rare
rare
abun.
freq.
rare,
rare,
not ab.
freq.
freq.
rare
rare
rare
num.
abun.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
lim.
freq.
rare,
abun.
rare,
abun.
abun.
rare,
rare
freq.
lim.
local
rare,
rare,
r.&sra.
local.
smooth variety in mud.
sold in the market.
valves small.
one valve,
one valve,
one living.
or solida.
valves.
sold in the market.
valves, three pairs. '
very highly coloured.
large,
large.
finely coloured, sold in market,
more rare than preceding.
one specimen more square than
medium specimen,
[loured,
only a few specimens, rose-co-
larger than British specimens.
Thracia villosiuscula ?
Psammobia vespertina ...
Scrobicularia piperata ...
Mesodesma donacilla
Mactra subtruncata
Astarte triangularis
norvegicum
papillosum, var
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA.
265
Lucina spinifera var
Moutacuta bidentata
Kellia suborbicularis
Lepton squamosum
Galeomma Tiirtoni
Kellia ? (genus uncertain)
Mytilus Galloprovincialis ?
edulis?
Modiola tulipa
Crenella marmorata
costulata
Nucula nucleus
radiata
nitida
Area tetragona
— lactea
Pectunculus glycimeris ...
Avicula tarentina
Pecten maximus .
opercularis .
varius
— obsoletus .
distortus . . . .
similis
fuci
Ostrea edulis ....
var. parasitica
Anomia ephippium
pateUif ormis
Crania anomala
Chiton rufus
fascicularis
marginatus
asellus
Isevis
cancellatus
Patella vulgaris
pellucida
Acmaea virginea
Emarginula rosea
Fissurella reticulata
Calyptrsea sinensis
Bullaeaaperta
scabra
Bulla hydatis
akera
cylindrica ...
lignaria
- umbilicata ...
truncata
Aplysia depilans . . .
Rissoa ulva;
vincta
costata
-^— costulata
labiosa
interrupta?
Depth.
Ground.
8 fath.
shore
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
20 fath.
15 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
mud
mud
mud
sand
mud
mud
rocks
rocks
mud
mud
mud
mud
nul.&gr.
nul.&gr,
nul.&gr.
mud
sand
sand
sand
sand
rocky
mud
sand
s. & gr.
s. & gr,
s. &m,
s. & m.
s. & m.
s. & m,
sand
sand
shells
mud
mud
mud
mud
sand
mud
mud
mud
sand
mud
Living at
10 to 12 f.
4 fath.
8 fath.
10 fath.
5 fath.
littoral
littoral
12 fath.
12 fath.
5 to 25 f.
20 to 25 f
20 to 25 f.
8 to 12 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 to 20 f.
8 fath.
6 fath.
low water
low water
10 fath.
10 fath.
25 fath.
1, w. to 12 f.
8 fath.
littoral
8 to 12 f.
8 to 12 f.
8 to 12 f.
littoral
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 to 12 f.
8 to 12 f.
8 to 12 f.
1. w. to 20 f.
4 fath.
sh. to 4 f.
4 fath.
8 fath.
10 fath.
l.w.to8f.
low water
4 fath.
Fre-
quency.
local
rare,
freq.
rare
V. r.
rare
abun.
abuu.
rare,
rare
V. r.
freq.
rare,
freq.
rare
rare
rare,
rare
freq.
not f.
not f.
rare
local.
rare
rare
freq.
rare.
V. r.
abun.
freq.
freq.
freq.
rare,
rare,
abun.
freq.
freq.
freq.
rare
rare
v.f.
freq.
rare.
V. a.
freq.
freq.
V. r.
local,
local.
local.
local.
rare.
V. r.
freq,
local.
smooth, cream or buff-colour.
in dead shells of Tapes virginea.
valves. [shells.
one specimen in mud with dead
of same genus, perhaps species,
as a shell, procured alive un-
der stones in Faro Harbour.
entrance of the bay.
in Ascidiae.
one valve.
valves,
valves.
one living, several dead on the
shore, where they were proba.
bly brought by the Seine nets.
small.
valves.
valves,
valves.
abundant in shallow water near
the head of the bay, and ex-
cellent quality,
covering rocks near head of the
bay, small.
[trance of bay.
dredged one specimen near en-
creeping on the shore and at-
tached to dead shells, &c. ;
some came up with the chain
every time we got under way.
on fucus.
large,
not large,
small,
small.
one specimen.
extremely abundant on the
shore.
266
REPORT — 1850.
Rissoa striata
pellucida
parva
calathiscus
cimex ?
lactea
violacea ?
Alvania albella
Odostomia of 2 or 3 species
Skenea ?
Chemnitzia elegantissima
scalaris
fulvocincta
fenestrata
indistincta ?
scalaris
— — new?
Eulima polita
subulata
Natica Alderi
nionilifera ?
Velutina lasvigata
Tornatella fasciata
Lamellaria perspicua . .
Haiiotis tuberculatus ..
Scalaria communis
Turtoni
clathratulus
Vermetus semisurrectus
(Serpula tubularia)
triqueter
Mullen
Solarium luteura
stramineum
Depth. Ground,
4 fath.
4iFath.
4 fath.
shore
8 fath.
4 fath.
4 to 12 f.
8 fath.
4 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
shore
Living at
low water
4 fath
8 fath.
Trochus umbilicatus
tumidus
— — striatus
exiguus
Montagui
magus
Laugieri
cinerarius
ziziphinus
crassus
Adeorbis subcarinatus
Phasianella pulla
Lacuna puteolus ?
Littorina littoreus
rudis
littoralis
saxatilis?
Turritella tricostalis ..
terebra
Cerithium reticulatum
perversum
Pleurotoma atteuuatum .
costatum
lineare
elegans
brachystomum . . . .
shore
shore
4 fath.
8 fath.
shore
12 fath.
4 fath.
shore
4 fath.
6 to 10 f.
8 fath.
12 fath.
s. &m.
sand
sand
sand
mud
mud
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
mud
8 to 12 f.
8 fath.
10 fath.
10 to 15 f.
6 to 10 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 & 12f
shore
shore
s. & ra. 5 to 12 f.
s. &m
mud
mud
mud
sand
saud
null,
sand
sand
sand
sand
rocky
sand
mud
sand
mud
mud
mud
mud
sand
sand
mud
5 to 12 f.
20 fath.
8 fath.
8 to 12 f.
8 to 12 f.
8 fath.
15 fath,
7 fath.
10 fath.
8 fath.
shore.
10 fath.
8 f. & sh.
littoral
Uttoral
littoral
littoral
8 to 12 f.
12 to 25 f.
4 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
Fre-
quency,
freq.
rare,
rare,
rare,
f. but 1
rare,
rare.
local,
rare,
freq.
V. r.
V. r,
V. r.
V. r.
V. r.
V. r.
rare,
rare,
freq.
rare
rare
few.
one.
freq,
freq.
freq.
freq.
abuu.
V. a.
rare,
freq.
V. r.
freq.
freq.
freq.
rare,
local.
fi-eq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
abun.
rare,
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
one specimen (lost).
only one specimen,
only two specimens,
only two specimens,
only two specimens,
a fragment, large.
one, dead and imperfect.
smaU.
one, young.
animal a bright orange colour.
fragment.
fragment.
extremely abundant, in large
groups brought in by fishing
nets.
one, living,
one, living.
minute, depressed, bicarinated
{qy. young of preceding ?).
on fucus.
on fucus {qy. vars. of T. cinera-
rius).
one dead specimen.
more rare than preceding ; very
produced.
one specimen.
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA.
267
Depth.
GrTound.
Living at
Fre-
quency.
Pleurotoma purpureum ...
8 fath.
8 fath.
15 fath.
4 to 25 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
sand
sand
saud
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
mud
s. &m.
mud
mud
sand
sand
sand
mud
mud
sand
mud
8 fath.
8 fath.
shore
8 fath.
8 fath.
shore
shore
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
littoral
4 to 8 f.
4 fath.
20 to 25 f.
6 to 25 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
5 to 20 f.
5 to 20 f.
26'fath.
rare,
rare.
V. r.
freq.
rare
freq.
freq.
local,
freq.
freq.
rare,
freq.
V. a.
V. a.
local.
freq.
abun.
rare,
rare,
local
tvfo, fine and large.
obtained seven living specimens
on shore near the town, five
dead in 8 fath. near the mouth
of the bay.
carinated ; some resemblance to
P. lapillus.
three specimens together,
one, living,
one, living.
near the town and low dovra
the bay small and dark colour,
at head of the bay large and
white.
ordinary form, in sand, dark co-
loured undulated var. in mud.
large, never striated.
smooth, purple, obscurely
banded ; animal very active.
two specimens living.
pellucid, very narrow in propor-
tion to length, ^in. : greenish
colour when living.
gathered from rocks at entrance
of the bay, sold abundantly
for food, and much esteemed.
— — coarctatumorSmithii
cristatiis? var. ? ...
Chenopus pes-peiecani ...
Ringuicula auriculata
Buccinum, new sp
Dentalium dentalis or
Spirorbis.
Pollicipes cornucopia
Balani.
Clitia verruca.
Acasta Montagui.
Anatifa vulgaris.
striata.
4 species of Echinus.
4 species of Star-fishes.
4 species of Comatula.
Holothuriae.
Cucumariae.
Alcyonium digitatum.
Pennatula (Med. species).
Actiniae &c. Zoanthus
Couchii.
Edwardsia.
Veritmuru.
Vigo Bay extends 16 or 18 miles inland; in raid-channel the bottom is
muddy, 25 fathoms, near the entrance, gradually shoaling as you proceed
upwards ; the littoral fauna, which is of a British or Celtic character, better
developed towards the head of the bay, being more abundant, and the indi-
viduals attaining larger size.
Of the preceding list of 200 species of MoUusca (omitting Balani and Ze-
pades), twenty-six are not inhabitants of the seas of the British Islands,
268
REPORT — 1850.
Tellina serrata.
Mesodesnia donacilla.
Lutraria rugosa.
Cardium papillosum, var,
Lucina digitalis.
(genus unknown).
Mytilus galloprovincialis.
Chiton ruf'us*.
, new ?*.
Fissurella gibba.
Rissoa violacea?.
Cheiunitzia (new)*.
Solarium luteum.
Solarium stramineum.
Trochus Laugieri.
Turritella tricostalis.
Fusus contrarius*.
Pleurotoma maravigni.
Murex Edwardsii.
cristatus?.
Triton variegatum.
corrugatum.
Ringuicula auriculata.
Buccinum (new ?)*.
Dentalium quadrangulare.
(new?)*.
The shell which I have designated above under the name of Fusus contra-
rius I believe to be distinct from the reversed var. of F. antiquus.
Of the species not British, at least twenty have been found in the Medi-
terranean ; the exceptions are marked * in the list, and of these two, viz.
Fusus contrarius and Buccinum, new species (which may be a var. of B. mo-
destum), I look upon as doubtful.
The subjoined list contains thirty species found at Vigo, and not known to
inhabit the Mediterranean. Six of them may be considered doubtful, viz.
Fusus contrarius and Buccinum (new?), for the reasons already mentioned ;
Natica monilifera and Lacuna puteolus, because they are in the Vigo list
upon the faith of single, old, dead and imperfect specimens ; Natica Alderi
and Pecten obsoletus, because possibly identical with N. Marochiensis of
authors, and a Pecten procured at Gibraltar.
The twenty-nine species procured at Vigo, but not in the Mediterranean,
all inhabit the British seas except six or seven (marked * in the list), Fusus
contrarius being doubtful.
Donax anatinus.
Mactra truncata.
Tapes puUastra.
Kellia? (genus unknown)*.
Pecten obsoletus.
Chiton rufus*.
marginatus.
asellus.
, new?*.
Patella pellucida.
Rissoa ulvae.
pellucida.
vincta.
striata.
Chemnitzia, new?*.
Natica monilifera ?.
Alderi.
Velutina laevigata.
Trochus tumidus.
cinerarius.
Lacuna puteolus ?.
Littorina littoreus.
rudis.
saxatilis.
Fusus contrarius*.
(carinated).
Purpura lapillus.
Buccinum — — (new?)*.
Dentalium -. (new*).
From the foregoing lists, it appears that the marine fauna of Vigo, as
regards Mollusca, is more nearly related to that of the British Isles than to
that of the division in which it is situated, the Lusitanian.
The only land shells I met with in the neighbourhood of Vigo, are, —
Helix aspersa.
caperata.
r cellaria.
Helix nemoralis.
barbula.
I revoluta.
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA.
269
I attempted to dredge off the Berlings bearing E.S.E. 8 or ] miles, but
could obtain no bottom Avith 200 fathoms' line.
Species obtained by dredging off Cascaes Bay, south of the rock of Lisbon :
bottom hard sand, depth 15 to 20 fathoms.
Corbula nucleus.
Solen ensis.
Solecurtus legumen.
Syndosmya alba.
Artemis lincta.
Venus striatula.
Cardium aculeatum Cyoung).
Pinna (fragment).
Patella pellucida {qy. southern
limit of range ?).
Bulla cylindrica.
Odostomia conoidea.
Chemnitzia fulvocincta.
Eulima subulata — 7 or 8 living.
Nassa varicosa.
Cymba olla — 2 living (gy. most
noi'thern locality?).
Dredging Paper No. 1.
Date, 5th of April, 1849.
Locality, Cape St. Mary's, South Coast of Portugal.
Depth, 15 to 30 fathoms.
Distance from shore, about 1^ mile.
Ground, coarse sand, mud.
Region,
Species obtained.
Number
of living
specms
Serpula filograna ,
Ditrupa subulata or co-
arctata
Dentalium quadrangu-
lare ,
— tarentinum
Pholas dactylus
Corbula nucleus
Pandora rostrata
Thracia phaseoUna
Solen siliqua
pellucidus
Solecurtus candidus . .
antiquatus
Lutraria?
Psammobia tellinella
ferroensis
Diodonta fragilis
Tellina distorta
— crassa
— planata
— COStiB
Donax trunculus
politus
Syndosmya alba
Ervillia castanea
Mactra stuitorum . . .
subtruncata . .
Cytherea chione
venetiana
Number of dead' I
specimens. Ij
Species obtained.
1 group
innum.
8
5
"i
Number
of living
specms
a fragment.
valves.
1 valve.
a fragment.
fragments.
a valve,
frag, of 1 or 2
species,
valves
valves,
1 valve.
1
4 valves.
2 valves.
2 valves.
valves.
num. valves.
num. vidves.
num. valves,
fragment
2
1
valve.
Venus verrucosa.
striatula
fasciata ....
casnia
Circe minuta
Cardium edule
laevigatum
papillosum, var....
fasciatum
Cardita trapezia
Lucina lactea
spinifera
digitalis
divaricata
Diplodonta rotundata..
Mytilus afer ?
Modiola
Nucula nitida
radiata
Leda emarginata
Area tetragona
— lactea
Pectunculus glycimeris
Pinna ingens ?
Pecten maximus.
opercularis
varius
polymorplms
Emarginula fissura ....,
FissureUa gibba
Calyptrsea sinensis ....
Number of dead]
specimens
abun.
1
fragment.
fragment,
valve.
valve,
valve,
valve.
1
valves,
valves,
valves,
valve,
valve.
num. valves
valves.
valves.
valves.
fragment.
valves,
valves,
valves.
2
2
3
270
REPORT — 1850.
Species obtained.
Number
of liWng
specms.
Number of dead
specimens.
Species obtained.
Number
of livinp
specms.
Number of dead
specimens.
4
18
2
1
fragment.
1
fragment.
1
1
2
1
3
several.
1
Pleurotoma elegans
6
1
5
4
6
4
4
fragment.
1
several.
several.
several,
fragment,
fragments.
1
12
Natica Guilleininii
sagra
Tornatella fasciata
attenuatum
Trochus ziziphinus
canaliculatus
Turritella terebra
Chenopus pes-pelecani
Cerithium vulgare
— — reticulatum
Buccinura modestum ...
Ringuicula amiculata ...
The port of Faro in Algarve is situated behind the low islands, or rather
salt marshes which form Cape St. Mary's (Cabo de Santa Maria), There
are several channels leading to it, but only one (facing the east) navigable
for vessels drawing 8 to 12 feet water. This is only accessible at high tide
over a succession of sand-banks. At low water most of the channels are
nearly dry : bottom mud, with abundance of Zostera. I remained in the
port five days, but was able to do but very little in the way of research.
The following is a list of the shells obtained in the harbour and on the
neighbouring shore, the species marked * being procured alive : —
Pholas candidus.
' dactylus.
Petricola lithopbaga*.
Venerupis irus*.
Fauopsea Aldrovandi — numerous
valves, 2 or 3 united.
Solen siliqua* — in the market.
• ensis.
— — vagina* — in the market.
Solecurtus legumen — valves.
■ strigillatus — valves.
Psammobia vespertina — valves.
costata (Hanley) — large, con-
centrically wrinkled, radiated.
Tellina tenuis.
Diodonta fragilis.
Syndosmya prismatica*.
Scrobicularia piperata.
Donax trunculus.
politus.
Ervillia castanea — several perfect
shells, united valves, but none alive.
Mactra helvacea — numerous valves
on the exposed shore.
i stultorum.
subtruncata*.
Lutraria elliptica*.
oblonga*.
Lutraria rugosa.
Cytherea chione.
Tapes aurea.
decussata.
perforans.
Venus verrucosa.
fasciata*.
striatula.
.Circe minuta.
Artemis exoleta.
lincta.
Cardium edule*.
var. rusticum of Mont
. var — very wide in propor-
tion to length.
— norvegicum.
tuberculatum.
exiguum ?*.
Lucina lactea.
Bornia corbuloides* — abundant
under stones.
t genus unknown* — abundant
under stones.
Kellia suborbicularis*.
t Somewhat resembling Bornia corbuloides in form, but larger, much wider, opake. An
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA.
271
Mytilus galloprovincialis*.
minutus.
Modiola barbata.
tulipa.
Crenella marmorata*.
Lithodomus caudigerus* — in stones
found in Asturias, but not at Cadiz
or in the Mediterranean.
Arcalactea* — abundantunder stones.
tetragona* — one under stones.
Pectunculus glycimeris — abundant
valves, used by fishermen instead
of lead.
Lima scabrella ?.
Pecten maximus.
«— — varius.
Ostrea edulis.
Chiton marginatus ? ?*
— — fascicularis*.
Patella vulgaris*.
Siphonaria concinna*.
Fissurella graeca.
Bulla striata.
Natica intricata*.
■ Guilleminii.
Sigaretus haliotoideus (of Lam.).
Littorina neritoides.
Phasianella intermedia — on Zostera.
Rissoa labiosa — on Zostera.
lactea.
Chemnitzia elegantissima.
fTrochus crassus?*, var. — pale colour
(Qy. is it met with further south?).
— — umbilicatus* — on Zostera.
■■ ■ striatus* — on Zostera.
It will be noticed, that of the foregoing list, there are only TrocJiUS umbi-
licatus and crassus (doubtful), and perhaps Chiton marginatus (a doubtful
determination), British species not found in the Mediterranean.
Dredged at San Lucar de Barameda (mouth of the Guadalquivir), 12th,
21st, and 22nd of April, locality not favourable for dredging ; bad enough for
anchorage on account of the strong tide and freshwater coming down after
the heavy rains — sandy shore. The most abundant species were Mactra
stvltorum, ordinary variety, and one pure white in about equal plenty ; Tel-
Una costce not uncommon ; valves of Lutraria rugosa small. Numerous com-
mon South European species.
Between the bar of San Lucar and Cadiz I made use of the dredge at
various points, in 8 to above 20 fathoms, and found the bottom to be black
epidermis furnished with minute tufts of hair arranged in rows, diverging from the limbs,
giving it the appearance of being striated.
N.B. I have formerly found dead and worn specimens on the shore of Asturias, when I
supposed it to be Bomia complanata. I procured the same, or an allied species, smaller,
dead, from mud in Vigo.
t Poatibly a variety of T. articulatus, or intermediate between the two species.
Trochus Laugieri* — on Zostera.
canaliculatus* — on Zostera.
, var. ?
, var.?
Turbo rugosa.
Turritella sulcata.
Cerithium vulgatum.
reticulatum.
perversum.
Murex corallinus*.
truncatus*.
Brandaris*.
erinaceus*.
Edwardsii*.
Triton variegatum*.
corrugatum.
cutaceum.
Chenopus pes-pelecani.
Purpura hgeniastoma.
Cassis saburon ? — two, dead.
Nassa reticulata.
macula.
Columbella rustica.
Mitra (yellow, large).
Cymba olla — picked up abundantly
from bottom of a narrow channel
at low water.
Cyprsea Europaea*.
Conus mediterraneus — abundant on
muddy banks.
Serpula triqueter, &c.
Balanus* — on stones.
, two species*^upon fishermen's
cork.
272
REPORT — 1850.
mud, with hardly any shells except Nucula nitida and Turritella terehra.
Between Cadiz and Cape Trafalgar, I met with better success (see dredging
papers No. 2 and No. 8).
Dredging Paper No. 2.
Date, 23rd of April, 1849.
Locality, between Cadiz and Cape Trafalgar.
Depth, 30 fathoms.
Distance from shore, 8 to 10 miles.
Ground, sand and gravel.
Resion,
Species obtained.
Number
of living
specmns.
Number of
dead
specimens.
Gastrochaena cuneiformis
Saxicava arctica
Corbula nucleus
Pandora obtusa
Solecurtus antiquus
Psammobia ferroensis
Tellina serrata
Syndosmya alba
— intermedia?
ErviUia castanea
Mactra subtruncata
Tapes virginea
Cytherea venetiana
Venus verrucosa
— fasciata
— ovata
Circe minuta
Astarte incrassata ?
Cardiiim echinatura .,,...
1 or 2
roseum .'
minimum
Lucina radula
digitalis
— - spinifera
Diplodonta rotundata.
Modiola vestita
Nucula nitida
Leda emarginata
Area lactea
obliqua
antiquata ?
tetragona
Lima fragilis
Pecten maximus
op ercularis
varius
polymorphus . . . .
FissureUa grseca ? ....
Calyptraea sinensis ....
Vermetus
Bulla cylindrica
truncata
Rissoa Montagui
several.
1
2 young.
Odostomia conoidea
acuta
several
in the root of the coral {qy. Oculina ?).
minute.
1 & valves,
valves.
valves.
2 valves.
1 valve,
several,
valves.
1 valve.
valves.
1 valve.
1 valve.
valve.
1 & valve.
valve.
valve.
num. valves.
1 valve.
num. valves.
1 valve.
1 valve.
fragments.
fragments.
fragments.
fragments.
2
several.
3
1
several.
1
allied to vitrea ?
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA.
273
Species obtained.
Euliraa polita
subulata
Chemnitzia elegantissitna ..
rufa
new?
new (rosea)
fulvocincta ?
Scalaria communis
Trochus ziziphiniis
millegranus
Turbo rugosus
Turritella terebra
tricostalis
Cerithium reticulatum
perversuni
Fusus corneus (Lin.)
Pleurotoma gracilis
brachy stomum
reticulatum var. spino-
sum
, new sp
Number
of living
specmns.
Buccinum modestum
minus
Nassa reticulata
macula
Ringuicula auriculata
Dentalium quadrangulare ...
Ditrupa subulata
Balanus
Adna anglica
Numerous Zoophytes, a large
red coral, Occulina.
several,
several,
1
1
1
several
several
several
several
1
1
Number of
dead
specimens.
1 broken.
1
1
2 opercula.
several.
1
1
1
several.
1
several.
2
several,
several,
several,
several,
several.
Observations.
very slender oblique undulated ribs.
banded, black and yellow.
on Caryophyllia.
Dredging Paper No. 8.
Date, 26th of July, 1849.
Locality, 8 miles north and west of Cape Trafalgar.
Depth, 15 fathoms.
Distance from shore, 5 miles.
Ground, coarse sand with broken shells.
Region,
Species obtained.
No, of living
specimens.
No. of dead
specimens.
Observations.
Dentalium entalis or taren-
tinum
few.
few.
few.
6
1
I
1
1
4
Ditrupa strangulata?
Serpula intorta
triqueter
Corbula nucleus
Pandora obtusa
rostrata
] small.
valves,
valves.
Psammobia ferroensis
tellinella
Mactra elliptica?
1
1850.
274
REPORT 1850.
Species obtained.
No. of living
specimens.
No. of dead
specimens.
Observations.
Lutraria elliptica
"3"
"e"
■■■2*
1
5
"2"
"1
1
8
""2"
1
'3"
10
4
8
abundant,
abundant.
2
numerous.
"1 "
3
5
2
numerous.
10
"1 "
2
2
7
1 valve.
abundant.
valves.
1 valve.
1
valves.
1 & valves.
1 valve.
a valve,
valves.
1
1 valve.
:e; }
1
1
1
2
several.
3
2
2
1
3
small.
much incrusted with sponges, &c.
venetiana
casina
Astarte triangularis
Kellia suborbicularis
Nucula nucleus
radiata
Area tetragona
Pectunculus glycimeris
Lima subauriculata
polvmorphus
Ostrea edulis
Fissurella grseca
Calyptraea vulgaris
Bulla ti'uncata
Natica Alderi
Trochus magus
Pleurotoma
Marginalia miliacea
Triton nodiferum ?
Nassa varicosa
Ampbioxus lanceolatus
Echinus, 2 species.
Ophiurse, &c.
On the 24th of April, in the Strait of Gibraltar, the water was teeming
with SalpiE, generally in the form of double chains ; the individuals varying
in size from a quarter of an inch or less to three inches in length. The
opake part of the smaller was blue, of the larger brown. They were very
phosphorescent when agitated in water. Various small and beautiful Me-
dusae. Near the entrance of the Bay of Gibraltar I put down the dredge in
130 fathoms of water, but had the greatest difficulty in recovering it from a
rocky bottom, and obtained nothing.
I spent a full fortnight in Gibraltar (on my way out and home), and
dredged more or less nearly every day : bottom sand and mud.
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA. 275
Species of Mollusca obtained at Gibraltar end of April and beginning of
May 1849.
Depth.
Living at
Fre-
quency.
Gastrochsena cuneiformis .
Saxicava arctica
shore
45 fath.
45 fath.
45 "fath.
shore
4 to 8 f.
shore
sh. & 6 f.
shore
shore
8 fath.
8 fath.
shore
shore
15to45f.
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
8 fath.
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
8 fath.
sh. 40 f.
20 to 45 f.
sh.8fath.
shore
sh. to 6 f.
sh.to20f.
4 to 8 f.
8 to 40 f.
40 fath.
8 to 20 f.
10 to 25 f.
Sfath.
40fath.
6 fatii.
8 ifath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
40 fath.
45 fath.
Sfath.
8 ifath.
8 fath.
6 to 25 f.
30 fath.
8 fath.
40 fath.
6 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
6 to 40 f.
8 fath.
45 fath.
local
1 spm.
freq.
local
freq.
rare.
rare.
rare.
1 valve.
rare.
freq.
V. r.
rare
local.
rare.
rare
freq.
rare,
local.
freq.
local,
local.
rare
rare
rare
freq.
freq.
local,
freq.
local,
rare,
freq.
freq.
a frag,
rare
valves,
valves.
1 valve,
freq.
freq.
freq.
local,
local,
freq.
freq.
rare
freq.
freq.
local,
freq.
freq.
rare
freq.
rare
local
in stone,
not common.
fragments on Med. shore.
valves,
valves.
only one living specimen.
Med. shore.
one specimen.
one specimen.
frequent valves.
one specimen (large), size of the
British specimens ; it appears to
become smaller, but more abun-
dant further eastward.
small, triangular, elongated.
valves not unfrequent, only one or
two living, white, concentrically
wrinkled.
finely coloured.
two small specimens allied to V.
casina, smaller, more orbicular,
convex, white,
young and old, identical with British.
, var. .'
Panopaea Aldobrandi
Pandora obtusa
Thracia convexa
pubescens
Solen siliqua
Solecurtus antiquus
strigillatus
Solemya mediterranea ...
Psammobia vespertina . . .
ferroensis
Tellina tenuis
pulchella
distorta
depressa
Diodonta fragilis
Scrobicularia Cotardi
Donax trunculus
venustus
poUtus
Mesodesma donacella
Mactra subtruncata
helvacea ?
Corbula , new ?
Lutraria eUiptica
Tapes decussata
^— Beudantii
virginea
Cytherea venetiana
, var. ? or new ? .
chione
Venus galUna
striatula
casina
Astarte Danmoniensis
T 2
276
REPORT — 1850.
Depth.
Living at
Fre-
quency.
Astarte incrassata
, var. .'..
triangularis
Artemis exoleta
lincta
Cardium erinaceum
, var. (wliite) ...
tuberculatum
■ , var., white ...
aculeatum :
l.Tvigatum
papillosum
punctulatum ?
minimum
papillosum, var
Cardita sulcata
squamosa (aculeata,
Ph.)
calyculata
Lucina lactea
spinifera
digitalis
Diplodonta rotuudata
Lepton squamosum
Bornia corbuloides
complanata
Mytilus galloprovincialis..
Modiola harbata
tulipa
vestita
Crenella marmorata
costiilata
rhombea
Nucula nucleus
nitida
polii
radiata
Leda emarginata
striata
Area?
lactea
antiquata
raridentata
tetragona
Pectunciilus glycimeris ...
pilosus
Avicula tarentina ..
Pinna squamosa
Lima fragilis
tenera
subauriculata ..
scabrella .'
Pecten maxim us
opercularis
varius
distortus
polymorphus . .
gibbus
obsoletus .'
shore
8 fath.
30 to 40 f.
30 to 40 f.
30 fath.
7 to 8 f .
shore
6 fath.
shore
shore
shore
shore
8 to 12 f.
20 to 40 f.
30 fath
30 fath
20 to 40 f
sh.to lOf.
15 to 45 f.
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
8 fath.
15 to 25 f.
4 to 30 f.
4 to 8 f.
12 to 45 f.
10 to 25 f.
20 to 40 f.
10 fath
shore
40 fath.
shore
shore
15 fath.
10 fath.
6 to 20 f.
12 to 40 f.
30 to 45 {.
30 to 45 f.
4 to 12 f.
30 to 40 f
20 fath.
20 to 12 f.
30 to 45 f.
45 fath,
30 fath,
30 fath,
8 fath.
35 fath.
shore
sh.to 40 f.
15 to 45 f.
4 to 25 f.
20 to 40 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
6 fath.
25 fath.
30 fath.
local
local
rare
local
local
local,
local
local
freq.
rare
rare
local,
local.
V. r.
V. r.
rare.
V. a.
freq.
valve,
local,
rare,
freq.
freq.
valve,
freq.
rare
freq.
local,
rare,
local.
rare
freq.
freq.
local,
freq.
local,
freq.
rare
local,
local
V. r.
V. r.
rare
local
1
local
locar
local
rare
local
freq.
local
freq.
local.
very distinct from preceding,grooved
only towards the umbo,
sulca; more numerous, closer, and
extending to the margin, smaller,
smaller than preceding, radiated.
large and fine.
(Med.).
large.
from fisherman.
(Med.).
(Med.).
(Med.).
two or three valves.
valves,
valves.
small, living ; resembles A.fuaca.
numerous valves, few living.
three specimens.
one specimen, small.
small, one very large valve on shore.
mud.
fragments at various depths.
valves.
valves.
one living, small, several fragments.
valves.
small.
common on shore.
one, living, numerous valves.
one, living.
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA.
277
Depth.
Living at
Fre-
quency.
Pecten Fuci .'
20 to 40 f.
8 fath.
45 fath.
45 fath.
various
8 to 15 f.
12fath.
8 "fath.
10to40f.
20 to 40 f.
20 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
to 30 f.
to 30 f.
15 fath.
shore
to 30 f.
15 to 30 f.
15 to 30 f.
15 to 30 f.
15 to 30 f.
to 40 f.
0tol2f.
12 fath.
shore
sh.toibf.
shore
sh.tolOf.
8 fath.
30 fath.
various
8 fath.
sh. to 8 f.
8 fath.
sh. to 8 f.
littoral
littoral
littoral
8 fath.
shore
littoral
8 fath.
litt. to 8 f.
8 fath.
to 30 f.
12 fath.
15 fath.
15 fath.
15 fath.
15 fath.
8 to 30 f.
8 to 30 f.
ibfath.
sbifath.
12 fath.
8 to 10 f.
8 to 20 f.
8 fath.
30 to 40 f.
shore
s'fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
rare
local
local,
freq.
rare.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
local,
freq.
freq.
freq.
local,
local,
rare.
V. a.
rare,
rare,
local
local.
1
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
rare,
rare.
1 spm.
local,
local
local,
rare.
1
local,
rare,
rare.
1 small,
rare,
freq.
freq.
V. r.
local.
local.
rare.
rare.
local.
rare.
local.
local.
local.
local.
local,
local,
local.
destitute of spines.
valves.
varieties, aspera, electriua, &c.
one, pellucid, radiated with pink,
fragment.
angulated.
some large.
whorls flat, deeply groored between.
Anomia ephippiura
patelliformis
H valaea tricornis
Patella athletica ?
Siphonaria concinna
Acmeea virginea
Haliotis tuberculata, var. ?
Emarginula elongata
Fissurella rosea
costaria ?
Capulus UDgaricus
Calj-ptraea sinensis
Bulla hgnaria
— ^ umbilicata
acuminata
Rissoa cimex
Montagui ...'.
— — 2 others
Eulima polita
Ditida
Eulimella acicula
(Scilte?)
Odostomia conoidea
spiralis
Chemnitzia varricosa
elegantissima
varicosa
fulvocincta
or cerithium ? .
bicallosa.
Alderi
Sigaretus perspicuus
Scalaria communis
Turtoni ?
canceUatus.'
semisurrectus (Ser-
triqueter (Serpula)...
278
REPORT — 1850.
Depth.
Living at
Fre-
quency.
8 fath.
40 fath.
40 fath.
40 fath.
12to'4bf.
12 fath.
to 30 f.
10 to 30 f.
20 fath.
20 fath.
15 "fath.
ibfath.
8 fath.
40 fath.
8 to 15 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
40 fath.
8 fath.
littoral.
15 fath.
8 to 15 f.
8 to 15 f.
6 to 10 f.
littoral
littoral
littoral
littoral
10 fath.
littoral
6 to 8 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
littoral
littoral
to 30 f.
8 to 40 f.
8 to 15 f.
15 fath.
15 to 30 f.
15to30f.
littoral
lit.tol2f.
8 "fath.
8 to 15 f.
8 to 40 f.
8 to 12 f.
4 to 30 f.
8 fath,
8 fath.
10 to 30 f.
8 to 15 f.
8 fatb.
4 to 8 f.
to 8 f.
4to8f.
4 to 8 f.
6 to 25 f.
lb fath.
5 to 30 f.
5 to 10 f.
OtolOf.
8 fath.
local,
rare
freq.
abun.
local,
freq.
local
rare,
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
local,
local,
local,
local,
freq.
local,
local,
abun.
abun.
abun.
freq.
rare
abun.
local.
local.
rare
rare
rare.
rare
local.
local.
freq.
local.
local
local,
freq.
local,
local.
local
rare
one
freq.
local
one
local
V. r.
local,
freq.
local,
local.
more compressed than specimens
from Vigo, one living,
one, resembling in form S. perspec-
iivum.
one, small, flat, strongly reticulated,
with varieties.
smaller than in Britain,
smaller than in Britain.
large only in shallow water,
produced, narrow, in deep water,
nearly all distorted,
two, living, qy. (new .').
four, Uving, smooth like terebra.
one, living (minute).
white,
white.
white.
one, known hitherto as a fossil only.
one, short.
some resemblance to T. corallinus,
but conical, more produced, varies
in colour from white to dark
brown, latter genera true.
[hermit crab).
one, fine, but dead (occupied by a
one, imperfect.
, probably some others not iden-
' tified.
banded yellow and black, one living,
one dead.
Solarium stramineum ? ...
divaricatus
Vieillotti
Littorina littoraUs
Turritella tricostalis
3 .
Cerithium vulgatum
. .. '
Cancellaria cancellata
Fusus pulchellus
rostratus .'
— — corneus (Lin.)
Murex multilamellatus . . .
Fusus .'
5
Pleurotoma brachystomum
ginnannianum
Boothii
gracile (Mont.)
elegans
— — vauquelinii ?
Murex brandaris
■ ■ cristatus
ON SOUTH-EUROPEAN MARINE INVERTEBRATA.
279
Depth.
Living at
Fre-
quency.
Ilanella gigantea
Triton variegatum
nodiferum
— — cutaceum
corrugatum
Chenopus pes-pelecani
Cassis sulcosa
Nassa mutabilis
neritoides
incrassata
reticulata
varicosa
Buccinum minus
minimum
variabilis
corniculum
granum
scriptum
Columbella rustica
Ringuicula auriculata ,..
Mitra ebenus
columbellaria
Cymba oUa
Erato tevis
Marginella clandestina
miliacea
Ovula spelta ■
Cyprsea pyrum
europaea
Conus mediterraneus ..
Spirula Peronii
Dentalium tarentinura
quadrangulare . .
Ditrupa subulata
, new?
Anatifa Isevis
striata
fascicularis
Balani.
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
8 fath.
8 to 15 f.
OtolO
8 fath.
8 fath.
8 fath.
4 to 12 f.
8 fath.
8 fath.
4 to 10 f.
littoral
10 fath.
8 fath.
littoral
8 fath.
10 to 25 f.
8 fath.
8 to 30 f.
shore
8 to 20 f.
shore
15 to 40 f.
8 fath.
8 to 10 f.
shore
8 fath.
littoral
8 to 40 f.
8 to 20 f.
30 to 45 f.
Echinus esculentus, abun-
dant.
Lluydia fragilissima
Asterias, &c.
15 to 40 f.
shore
local
local
local
local
local.
local.
rare.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
freq.
rare.
freq.
freq.
two.
local.
freq.
local.
local
rare.
freq.
freq.
rare
rare.
local.
freq.
freq.
rare
freq.
rare.
local
local.
rare.
rare.
of Mediterranean.
of Mediterranean and bay.
of Mediterranean.
bay.
small variety.
Mediterranean.
on Gorgonia.
some of the smaller specimens finely
striated longitudinally with a
waved appearance.
small, transparent, not much arcu-
ated, narrow end grooved fore and
aft.
Few species of land-shells on the rock ; the prevailing are —
Helix pisana. Helix lactea, var. Hispanica.
virgata. Bulimus acutus.
280
REPORT — 1850.
List of Shells procured at Malaga from 6th to 11th of May 1849, with the
addition of some species obtained in same locality on a former occasion.
Living at
Fre-
queacy.
Dentalium fissura, or ru- shore
bescens.
■ tarentinuni
Pholas dactyliis shore
Candida shore
parva shore
Corbula nucleus
Pandora rostrata
Thracia phaseolina
Solan ensis I
vagina
Solecurtus legumen .
antiquus
Psamraobia ferroensis.
Diodonta fragilis
Scrobicularia piperata.
Tellina costfe
— — (new)
pulchella
- tenuis
depressa
distorta
■ punicea
planata
Syndosmya alba
Donax trunculus
venustus
Mesodesiua donacilla ...
Lutraria elliptica
oblonga
rugosa
Mactra subtruucata ....
Tapes Beudantii
— geographica
Cytherea venetiana
chione
Venus gallina
striatula
fasciata
ovata ,
, new.'
Circe minima
Artemis lincta ,
Cardiuni aculeatum
tuberculatum
edule
fasciatum
Cardita calyculata
Lucina lactea
Pectuuculus violascens
Nuculapolii ^
nucleus
Leda emarginata
Avicula tarentina
Chama gryphoides ,
Mytilus afer
Crenella costulata
Pecten yarius
Ostrea edulis
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
4 fath.
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
shore
4 fath.
8 to 30 f.
4 to 30 f.
4 to 8 f.
4 to 8 f.
4 fath.
4 fath.
4 fath.
shore
shore
shore
4 fath.
4 to 12 f.
4 fath.
4 fath.
35 fath.
4 to 12 f.
4 to 12 f.
35 fath.
4 to 12 f.
4 fath.
4 to 8 f.
4 to 8 f.
4 to 8 f.
littoral
littoral
4 to 8 f.
35 fath.
4 to 30 f.
4 to 8 f.
35 fath.
littoral
4 fath.
4 to 8 f.
4 to 8 f.
local
locaL
rare
rare
rare
freq.
freq.
local,
freq.
local,
freq.
local,
local,