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REPORT
OF THE
TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT GLASGOW IN SEPTEMBER 1855.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1856,
PRINTED BY
RICHARD TAYLOR AND WILLIAM FRANCTS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.
CONTENTS.
—
Page
Oxszcts and Rules of the Association .c.c.....scsseeesceeeeeaeeeseeeeeee XVI
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ......+..sseseeeee xx
Table of Council from commencement .........00.sseeeeesceeeseeeeeeeeee | XXiii
Treasurer's ACCOUNE ........ccceccessecectenrenetetcecscesetecsecssessosesess XXV
Sercimrand Connell 62g) (1d, VATA IAT AD vc aaa) OVI
Officers of Sectional Committees ..........secceceeceeeesesneeetesseeeeeeee | XXvVii
Corresponding Members............. Lath, Abt atediesa eo? SRP
Report of the Council to the Bona acciaiabaa olsLesivendi. dnigs GeRvill
Report of the Kew Committee ......... ccc cececeeee eee eeneeeneeeteaeereeeee XEX
Report of the Parliamentary Committee ........scceseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee XiVil
Recommendations for Additional Reports and cpa ibe in Selanne lxili
Synopsis of Money Grants . win sae Oe ate sate 5 ERE
General Statement of Sums baat fi Scientific Puen ee eS a
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee ..............00+. Ixxi
Arrangement of the General Meetings .............cscessesseeseressceesee IXXH
RePMMTNT tHE EPCENUENG 02022206 ctc ices. ses Seectacsedccaces joeescecteqedetrss LMU
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and Re-
volving Storms. By Tuomas Dosson, B.A., of St. John’s College,
Rs 2 LET sade eked aee Gord ae eee lidadaahedadamscwatesssenswssdbeve | ' 1
On the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants
growing under different Atmospheric Conditions.— Part III. By J. H.
G.apsTongE, Ph.D., F.R.S. pAUsieasce kis ncecnspasiunaaamsacdss cesnoe | LON
On the British Banihal C. Spence Bare, F.L.S. &c. 18
On the present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to
Towns. By Joun Freperic BATEMAN, C.E., F.G.S. ...........08 62.
aZ
lV CONTENTS.
Fifteenth Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor DAUBENY,
Professor Hensiow, and Professor LinDLEy, appointed to continue
their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ......,.....++
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55. By the Rev.
BapvEN Powe tt, M.A., F.R.S. &c., Savilian Professor of Geometry
iia bine Wisi versity OF TOELOLC, «years ascececssasectwoeisus dia goaesunpescoaalte
Provisional Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. FarrBairy,
His Grace the Duke of ArGyLt, Captain Sir Epwarp Betcuer,
the Rey. Dr. Rozgrnson, the Rev. Dr. Scoressy, Mr. JosepH WuitT-
wortH, Mr. J. BEAumont Nertson, Mr. JAMEs NAsmyrTH, and
Mr. W. J. Macquorn RankKINE; appointed to institute an Inquiry
into the best means of ascertaining those properties of metals and
effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to
the durability and efficiency of Artillery; and empowered, should
they think it advisable, to communicate, in the naine of the Associa-
tion, with Her Majesty’s Government, and to request its assistance. .
On Typical Objects in Natural History... ..........ceseeeescee nee eeeeeeeee ees
An Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-Gauge
erected at the Liverpool Observatory in the Autumn of 185], with a
Summary of the Records for the years 1852, 1853, 1854, and 1855.
By A. FoLLetr Ose, F.RAS. ....1....15.n0e ces cosseronecoecnscossnn essere
Pravasional Reports ..:c.ccc. cecwssisstede eats buwcaaus sus soapnade dscns: ssw ewarenee
Page
78
Ae.
100
108
127
143
—
CONTENTS.
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
MATHEMATICS.
Mr. ArrHuR CAyLEy on the Porism of the in-and-circumscribed Triangle ...
Mr. M. Coturns on the possible and impossible cases of Quadratic Duplicate
Equalities in the Diophantine Aualysis............:cceseccseerecssccseencceeeascans oe
Mr. A. J. Ex1s on a more general Theory of Analytical Geometry, including
the Cartesian as a particular Case ......0ssscsssseccsceccesseceesccnctecscoseeecacensase
Sir W. R. Hamitton on the conception of the Anharmonie Quaternion, and
on its application to the Theory of Involution in Space ...........cseeceeeeseeees
Lieut, Heat, Evectricity, MAGNETISM.
Dr. ADAMSON on the Fixing of Photographs...... Rica ssl cceasee metas ead sta senees
Sir Davip BREwSTER on the Triple Spectrum.........:cssccseeesseeeeeesseneceeees
on the Binocular Vision of Surfaces of Different Colours
on the Existence of Acari in Mica.............cseecsececnces
on the Absorption of Matter by the Surfaces of Bodies
—- on the Remains of Plants in Caleareous Spar from
Hemes County, Ireland i cs suscersscqdthnt use nvasnsaceedntisesacasesresacesanatenas sae
—_—— — on the Phenomena of Decomposed Glass....s.......00.008
Mr. Pau Cameron on the Making and Magnetizing of Steel Magnets ......
———_——_——— on the Deviations of the Compass in Iron Ships and the
means of adjusting them ...........cesssscseeseetecesseesenseeees ECO OREO SE
Professor CHEVALLIER on an Analogy between Heat and Electricity............
M. ANTOINE CLAUDET on the Polystereopticon .............csseccseceeeceeeeaeees
M. Léon Foucautt on the Heat produced by the Influence of the Magnet
upon Bodies in Motion ..........-++ Brseidseneinuchicdseseencrecaven sien teeta tas etaaarcas
Dr. GREEN on a Machine for Polishing Specula .............ccseceecsecseceeeeeeees
M. W. HarpinGEr on the Optical Properties of Cadmacetite............s0es00e0
Mr. Evan Hopxrns on the Optical Illusions of the Atmospheric Lens.........
Mr. J. P. Joue’s Account of some Experiments with a large Electro-Magnet
M. Nacuor on New Forms of Microscope, adapted for Physiological Demon-
StVatlON eseceeeeeeseeee Seaphy ap eeeeeeni teams - ada “hfiesadeBonc neBpic- Sebo on sade Sbee eee
Dr. Witi1Am ScoreEssBy’s Elucidations, by Facts and Experiments, of the
Magnetism of Iron Ships, and its changes ...... ........066 pete onica eiigt ds eee
Professor SroKES on the Achromatism of a Double Object-Glass .......ssse00e
Page
I
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vi CONTENTS.
Mr. Wi1Lt1AM Symons on a New Form of the Gas Battery..........ssesssseeeseee
Mr. James THoMsoN on certain curious Motions observable on the Surfaces
of Wine and other Alcoholic Liquors ........seeecssceecsseecnneeseseeece Socussiocc
Professor W. THomson on the Effects of Mechanical Strain on the Thermo-
Hlectric Qualities of WMHS H KEaoik a deVeu tabs. whebsutae tid eB ells cccccscccascecascass
on the Use of Observations of Terrestrial Temperature
for the investigation of Absolute Dates in Geology.........sseseeseeeeeeeereeneenes
on the Electric Qualities of Magnetized Iron .........
on the Thermo-Electric Position of Aluminium ......
—— on Peristaltic Induction of Electric Currents in Sub-
marine Telegraph Wires ......sssese0es vivseeessens iWon sousclaelsvsies cles sunsadceementetes
-—— on New Instruments for Measuring Electrical Poten-
tials and Capacitiesiassssscacevssseasisesesestvcessoss seuss FaSNUREN CEES «6 See aaeaaeeeeeeee
Mr. Joun T. Towson on the Means proposed by the Liverpool Compass
Committee for carrying out Investigations relative to the Laws which govern
the Deviation of the Compass ......... AapeoanepapaLcnae mannASCNOOC cecaseae ies setees
Professor TyNDALL’s Experimental Demonstration of the Polarity of Dia-
magnetic Bodies ......... rod hos a LEU Ered a dedive. dated biabcbacdetents
Mr. WinpMAN WHITEHOUSE’s Experimental Observations on an Electric
Cale rivers .ctieetie eda osesioee teense Voptbeeotebaucedebpeecbsbubes ota uus ll vetted viviens
Mr. C. Grevitte WiLiiams on the New Maximum Thermometer of H.
Negretti and Zambra ......sscssecesrecsscvsecscnvans Ware ssbiacd \saseds cuddndatusbovibevs
Astronomy, METEORS, WAVES.
Astronomer Broun on the Establishment of a Magnetic Meteorological and
Astronomical Observatory on the Mountain of Angusta Mullay, at 6200 feet,
BD) ETAVANCOTE) ...2.<0202 scan cooees+sendunubannert Pe TT
Mr. W. S. Jacos on certain Anomalies presented by the Binary Star 70
Ophiuchi......... eden ccs rs aaepe ay ce ceeMOURen -duesias ses Kev ecus seuss core vsaesca st eeratenr
Professor Mossorri on the Calculation of an Observed Eclipse or Occultation
OL MMOL cc scncaseet ceacaeeteeestemesccenerancsacwentcccecdessacvscannenevesens sehen datas
Professor NicHou’s Remarks on the Chronology of the Formations of the
IMIGOW "Shtcve-sencereccavsotancsccscsccscarees casascececoruaveceusasestusbaeattt.eehueseatme
Professor C. Prazz1 Smytu’s Note on Solar Refraction.........cecccseeseeceeeees
———— on Altitude Observations at Sea .........s.sseesceeee
——_———— on the Transmission of Time Signals ..............
METEOROLOGY.
Mr. ALEXANDER Brown on the Fall of Rain at Arbroath ............seeeeeees waa
Dr. Grorce Burst on remarkable Hailstorms in India, from March 1851 to
WSiy BOON sncetataclscarcsrsctuestacedacccaactrcrsnuesencduaedacee sscscneniece sarees
Professor CHEVALLIER on a Rainbow seen after Sunset .........sscseseeeeeeee eee
Professor CoNnNELL’s Improvements on a Dew-poimt Hygrometer lately
described by the Author iis .iiee sie sctiieeesceceacue ee Sacdisedssovadsasdusabescdicgces
Captain FirzRoy’s Wind-charts of the Atlantic, compiled from Maury’s
Pilot Charts ....+....06 Hiscovdoeecse debesecascvacenunstiod has bathsns¥ agarifvaweseons odnegs
Mr. M. J. Jounson on the Detection and Measurement of Atmospheric
Electricity by the Photo-Barograph and Thermograph ......+.,.0scesseseeeeeees :
Mr. E. J. Lowe on the Force of the Wind in July and August 1855, as taken
by the “ Atmospheric Recorder” at the Beeston Observatory sscsssecereecseens
23
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26
28
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29
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31
38
38
39
40
40
0 OI
CONTENTS.
Mr. J. C. Mounsey on a singular Iridescent Phenomenon seen on Winder-
mere Lake, Oct. 24, 1851 .........0008+ Rete GRRGNTEC EMA RAt OR NeLsN MANE RORE Sienred sta eie
Dr. Nicuou’s Notice of Climatological Elements in the Western District of
SUOTLANC peas an sedtcyaccenn dca saccdaeeaisenssenaaaqoadecuecuteresenpeland? scp bayaverst) oak is
Rev. T. RANKIN on Meteorological Phenomena for 1854, registered at
HEMP ALE 6...c. xem smeeceasse SB SELENE ROSE COCEOC EL CLEBRUUT: ECO SEED AR CE nee EO CEeee ee MEE
Rear-Admiral Sir Joun Ross on the Aurora Borealis ......scc.sceeseeeseeeeees mae
Mr. R. Russewu on the Meteorology of the United States and Canada.........
Professor C. P1azzi SMyTH on Naval Anemometrical Observations ......+ sae
Mr. P. L. Stmmonps’s Notices of Rain-falls for a Series of Years at Home
Bnd in Foreign Countries ssseceice.csenssssevscentesenvesecoenaresoescssetocenccarcenpns
tee LO Ott, W ALETEPDUTS sys asxpasapyrni-rycassenmaemnns snchpsisentone mt Bir piccwesicwm
CHEMISTRY.
Dr. THomas ANnpDREws on the Polar Decomposition of Water by Common
and Atmospheric Electricity .........ssccssecscsscecnseeeeeeeetsscssceses eeaaaceaes ani
—_—___——_. on the Allotropie Modifications of Chlorine and
Bromine analogous to the Ozone from Oxygen .........ecsecsssseseetes pistes dss
Mr. BARNETT on Photographic Researches .........ssscesscsscceeeceetteeceeeeeeeees
Professor BUNSEN and Dr. Henry E. Roscoer’s Photochemical Researches,
with reference to the Laws of the Chemical Action of Light ........s.c.sese0e
Mr, F. Crace Catvert on the Manufacture of Iron by Purified Coke....... ‘i
——_——_——— and Mr. Ricuarp Jounson on Alloys .........-.06+
— onthe Action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen on Salts of
Zine and Copper......cssecesceeeeee TAU eye torr Be adtuesatedcscasknuseecsonbe VERDE
Mr. D. CampBeELw’s Description of Dr. Clark’s Patent Process for Softening
Water, now in use at the Works of the Plumstead, Woolwich, and Charlton
Consumers’ Pure Water Company, together with some Account of their
WOTKS \rorchech Thea dries biaetiad nets eset dasen Suro vaassecewesdaneitauseces tan frasasd beadés. 2
Chevalier Dz CLAusSEN on the Preservation of the Potato Crops ...... see este
Mrs. Crosse on the apparent Mechanical Action accompanying Electrical
Transfer s..sssssreasss rin deandvndd sie ctQ neds «needoe apeigs yA UUKNd saad veda emisvavera esate
Extracts from a Letter from the Rev. A. 8; Farrar, on the late Eruption of
Vesuvius ..e.sccseees deanenacbenstssnerasamucersad sas emit aaescsvtl sass des cigdaneaee dient gh
Professor DausENy on an Indirect Method of ascertaining the presence of
Phosphoric Acid in Rocks, where the quantity of that ingredient was too
minute to be determinable by direct analysis .........ccescssecssecsseenssereeeneces
———-—— on the Action of Light on the Germination of Seeds......
Dr. J. B. Epwarps on the Titaniferous Iron of the Mersey Shore ........+... see
Mr. Davin Forsss on the Action of Sulphurets on Metallic Silicates at high
SCTE PULAUNILCS 2.9iden«-VernencdscantieraeseccecscgareietecadvecseCatds souvsadeavestsareesns
Professor FRANKLAND on some Organic Compounds containing Metals ......
————_———— on a Mode of conserving the Alkaline Sulphates con-
tained in Alums ............06 Fave istas as cclatésiePceiius qrseaeded (Fixesess coaadtenstts oF
Professor E. Frimy on the Extraction of Metals from the Ore of Platinum ...
Mr. J. GALLETLEY on a New Glucocide contained in the Petals of a Wall-
MOWED feccscccevecenkhignvesapa sted ibaa tsawa castes baadeatewdeeeee: (ivsehpaeevissesdes weneee
Mr. Rosert GaLioway on the Use of: Phosphate of Potash in a Salt Meat
: Dietary......0++00, weeeee PPP OP Cee rere reeset ee renee erereseeseereseesseeesHerereseD Pebeestneses
vil
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vill CONTENTS.
Page
Mr. Ropert GALLoway on the Quality of Food of Artizans in an artificially
heated Atmosphere.........cssccseecoeseerecnsecseseersseueseenens nscestauepanecdsee teem
Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE on a Crystalline Deposit of Gypsum in the Reservoir
of the Highgate Waterworks........scsseccssseeeecsseecneeeanesenteeeeseueseaseseneeeen
M. Ep. Harrre y’s Experiments on the Compounds of Tin with Arsenic ...
Baron Von LieB1G on a new Form of Cyanic Acid ......eceseeeeesceeecereneeeeeee
Dr, A. L. Linpsay on the Commercial Uses of Lichens .........:..c:seeeeseeeeeee
Mr. Stevenson Macapam on the Chemical Composition of the Waters of
the Clydesicecisccsscecsctsensecesccevscnsodeesevesageoasss San te ovlecens he eeeeas teres ie
Dr. MactaGan on the Composition of Beoadlt Giautesn de eldeacest caseaaaee deacwapaunese
Dr. A. MatruiesseEen on the Metals of the Alkaline Earths.............cceeeeeeeee
Rey. Dr. J. G. Macvicar on the possibility of representing by Diagrams the
principal Functions of the Molecules of Bodies .........:sssesesecceecnseeeceeeees
Mr. E. CHambpers Nicuoxson and Dr. Davin S. Pricr on the Chemical
Composition of some Iron Ores called ‘ Brass’ occurring in the Coal-Measures
AE SOUCI VV ALCS: one's cneasmaemaneratarenadatcsee tenants Jere Seenege sates PET bor aodaocn oO
Dr. Normanpy on the Marine Aérated Freshwater Apparatus............+++8 =o
Dr, F. Penny on a simple Volumetric Process for the Valuation of Cochineal...
on the Manufacture of Iodine and other Products from Kelp ...
on the Composition and Phosphorescence of Plate-Sulphate of
Potash ....ce.ee0s seaienidsiels dp diisis «sien Coahis ceinaienaiclnea Nosinas see vapisins|s oMsapanen Veen seus =>
Professor A. ©. Ramsay on a Process for obtaining Lithographs by the Photo-
graphic Process .....+.+++++... Ronis (eeMbiaras(eicsinacianccsassnts dav cove ek eden acselnaataeee
Mr. Tuos. H. Rowney on the Composition of Vandyke-Brown.........+++++ ade
on the Composition of two Mineral Substances. em-
loved sas PACWIENIS adorable seencnnse eee nacisaesuasevaens<csbs0crdddawena sss pee aanue oem
Mr. BALFourR STEWART on certain Laws observed in the mutual action of
Sulphuric Acid and Water..........0. Bindu e ssdeuaobmnensiowsicathoes adeaie ase smaee eae
Dr. R. D. THomson on the Condition of the Atmosphere during Cholera......
Dr. Auc. V@LcKER on Caseine, and a method of determining Sulphur and
Phosphorus in Organic Compounds in one operation .........++ Se apiacevyhewcabiane
Mr. C. GrEvILLE WILLIAMS on some of the Basie Constituents of Coal-
INGEN ade ovass wcnwasarcnsans«cesspudett ah dome shes coanmcuncph sdearatccbcehGs teas ene wap nets :
Mr. G. F. Wiison on a Process for obtaining and purifying Glycerine, and on
some Of its Applications... ........cssescooscsebsscorecccnsentonses cule 040 vo seesece tense vee
GEOLOGY.
Mr. Ropert ALLAN on the condition of the Haukedalr Geysers of Iceland,
SUNS OD. cencucassoagssssenandecsccndcucestcccsonsxescotccteteecenbancen rac ec es Teaeee <é
Mr. GzorGe ANDERSON on the Superficial Deposits laid open by the Cuttings
on the Inverness and Nairn Railroad ......cccsscscscsssscscssenserscsecnsseesseeeons
Mr. RicHarp Banks on the recent Discovery of Ichthyolites and Crustacea in
the Tilestones of Kington, Herefordshire.........sscsessecssceeceeeseeees eereeanes ene
Captain Sr Epwarp Bricuer’s Notice of the Discovery of Ichthyosaurus
and other Fossils in the late Arctic Searching Expedition, 1852-54 ........... .
Mr. JAmMEs Bryce on the Glacial Phenomena of the Lake District of England
—— on a lately discovered Tract of Granite in Arran............0+8
Mr. ALEXANDER Bryson on sections of Fossils from the Coal Formation of
Mid-Lothian. :-...cccscssesssceees PETER EOL ieianedee Jadwlhe Chad cand Sasiaseas isdasacdadtetme
—
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CONTENTS.
Mr. Joun BucuANAN on Ancient Canoes found at Glasgow ......sccseseceeeee de
Mr. J. A. CAMPBELL on the Auriferous Quartz Formation of Australia .........
Mr. Ropert CHAMBERS on Denudation and other effects usually attributed to
Water oo... scessescceseeesecesensscenecsenes =cONKCaiegigd dels ToNGeHBRNCLOe ont dened soeane conto
Mr. W. Daruine on the Probable Maximum Depth of the Ocean ......... sont
Mr. J. W. Dawson on the Fossils of the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia ......
Mr. Davip Forsss on the Relations of the Silurian and Metamorphic Rocks
Of the South of Norway .........sssssvcovssveeccrscssscsccessrecesconssacsastsessstances
Professors HARKNESS and BiytTH’s Remarks on the Cleavage of the Devonians
of the South of Ireland .......... sroacthaes slate aneratsclersexe novia esietts secteete cree
Professor HARKNESS on the Lowest Sedimentary Rocks of Scotland ............
on the Geology of the Dingle Promontory, Ireland ......
Mr. Evan Hopkins on the Meridional and Symmetrical Structure of the Globe,
its Superficial Changes, and the Polarity of all Terrestrial Operations ...... Sci
—_—__— on the Gold-bearing Districts of the World ...............
Signor LANzA on the Formations of Dalmatia ............ ce nghbnuodetope Barna - ce ce
Mr. C. MacuareEn on the Excavation of certain River Channels in Scotland ...
Mr. HueH Miuter on the less-known Fossil Floras of Scotland............+4 ee
Mr. Joun MILuer’s Exhibition of Fossil Plants of the Old Red Sandstone of
Moyet GMRTe RS aah oule sats catd dats alos Se watt sad Sao hrloweicn Sadan corse ae shida Sa GosoS es ghee ae twauds
Sir Ropericx I. Murcuison on the Relations of the Crystalline Rocks of the
North Highlands to the Old Red Sandstone of that Region, and on the recent
discoveries of Fossils in the former by Mr. Charles Peach ...............seeeeeees
Sir Roprericx I. Murcuison and Professor James Nicou’s New Geological
Map of Europe exhibited ...............s000+ EL eRe tee sues odor esucasabwage «ts aeabesoats
Professor James Nico. on Striated Rocks and other Evidences of Ice-Action
observed in the North of Scotland ........ccccscsseseresccteeseseeeseeneees iidambwaeie
Mr, D. Pace on the Péerygotus and Pterygotus Beds of Great Britain........... :
— on the Freshwater Limestone of Dr. Hibbert .............. ndpacse ae
———— — on the Subdivisions of the Paleozoic and Metamorphic Rocks of
SOOUINIICE tree cane vecctadtes cueeecs se stet ee Nude Neme eda seais eceltaclseceeue sechier BCORODNGIOST
Professor PHILLIPs’s Remarks on certain Trap Dykes in Arran ............000008
Mr. H. Poouz’s Note on a recent Geological Survey of the Region between
5 Constantinople and Broussa, in Asia Minor, in search of Coal ...........0.00006
_ Mr. Joun Price on the Geology of the District of Great and Little Ormes-
4 head, North Wales........... eM edraiecssnascueusanmeasisesssies Sbagubornosanee GneeeF dod IaC
J
_ Mr. A.C. Ramsay on the commencement and progress of the Geological Survey
PBR SCOMMENO sete ccorssareess a emer aatemctseicartcadeoscutecadanswrcesdaces ectiobotaacender
Professor H. D. Rocers on some of the Geological Functions of the Winds,
illustrating the Origin of Salt, &c. ssesssseseseseeeeeceseneees Rica cosa daredduseeeas :
——_———_——— on the Geology of the United States ............00006 nee
—- —————— on some Reptilian Footprints from the Carboniferous
Pbrata) OLMPENNSylyaniay <2 .c-ccesacedeescseeevensscceccccaaseccesoeecaecescoesucadeesense
Mr. J. W. SauTEr’s Additions to the Geology of the Arctic Regions ..........+.
——————— on some Fossils from the Cambrian Rocks of the Longmynd,
PDTOPSbIPe: | pey.;yssavananetaccnccasts Pevinechuneanertstenac saa thantec cca agence cee one
ix
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x CONTENTS.
Mr. R. SLimon on New Forms of Crustacea from the District of Lesmahagow.
Mr. James SmirHu on the Shelly Deposits of the Basin of the Clyde, with proofs
Of Change of Climate,...........s.ssessssssoccstsccescesencscetsssenssesescesensacreer #0
Mr. H. C. Sorzy on the Structure and Mutual Relationships of the older Rocks
of the Highland Border .....cs.cseccsscosscssssecescensravcnerssecnsersscoscessansaunses
————_——— on some of the Mechanical Structures of Limestones.........
on the Currents produced by the action of the Wind and
Tides, and the structures generated in the deposits formed under their in-
fluence, by which the physical geography of the Seas at various geological
epochs may be ascertained.........cecssseeesseescsscesceeeees sees encestsncrasnasdann foe
Rey. W. S. Symonps on a Phyllopod Crustacean in the Upper Ludlow Rock
HLL G1 i Secs epodencaoBaboctectenbodesndccnckdsupssceesaso cos-assocmogaucdoebescns 2c0e
Professor WyVILLE THOMSON on the Fauna of the Lower Silurians of the
South of Scotland .......... ade Te SEU ETL cOUAE eae ce tatl nadine ox dds 10 te cae tvenroveereeeetioe
Dr. Tryre’s Exhibition of a Series of Preparations obtained from the
Decomposition of Cannel Coal and the Torbane Hill Coal ............ pancoda,
Mr. SEARLES V. Woop, Jun., on the Probable Maximum Depth of the Ocean
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY rnctupinc PHYSIOLOGY.
Borany.
Mr. Joun G. Baxer’s Attempt to classify the Flowering Plants and Ferns
of Great Britain according to their geognostic relations.........ss.ssseeseeeeeeees
— on Galium montanum, Thuill., and G. commutatum, Jord.
Professor BALFour’s Exhibition of a Series of Specimens illustrating the Distri-
bution of Plants in Great Britain, and Remarks on the Flora of Scotland...
Captain Sir E. BeLcuEr’s Remarks on the Trunk of a Tree discovered erect as
it grew, within the Arctic Circle, in 75° 32' N., 92° W., or immediately to the
Northward of the Narrow Strait which opens into the Wellington Sound ...
Mr. P. Cuark on the Flowering of Victoria Regia, in the Royal Botanic Gar-
den, Glasgow ......+.+++ Seciesage otaab tunities «saiseciee gap arisian aise manana saMeseetane
Dr. DauBENy on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Plants.........
Chevalier Dre CLaussEN on the Hancornia speciosa, Artificial Gutta Percha
STING ID RUDDER suas ceneance<decmveccccecsws so saccaveascgansie=seg ee
— on the Employment of Algz and other Plants in the
Manufacture of Soaps.....c.cs.scsssesessseeceseascetessecsseereseeces didevctetedeas ickees
on Papyrus, Bonapartea, and other Plants which can
Page
96
96
97
97
98
99
99
99
99
100
100
101
102
103
103
furnish Fibre for Paper Pulp.........csesseseeeeeees Per recent iid sibsccbabbendactenewe 104
Professor Dick1e’s Remarks on the Effects of Last Winter upon Vegetation
at Aberdeen......sss...eseese iFestee Siesbaseesiesccesitaawssterserebsodids sanseabdest hides d
Dr. DuncAN on Impregnation in Phanerogamous Plants.........s..:+sseseeeeenees
Mr. C. H. Furtone’s Exhibition of a Collection of Ferns from Portugal ......
Dr. MicHELSON on the Flowers and Vegetation of the Crimea ........ soeeae oa
ZOoLoGy.
Mr. Lucas BARRET?’s Notes on the Brachiopoda observed in a Dredging Tour
with Mr. M‘AnprREw on the Coast of Norway, in the Summer of the pre-
105
106
106
106
sent year, 1855 ...seccseee pevasecessneceseae soeeatere dcscsyehstyecsesccvinassaaaal Renae 106
————
CONTENTS.
.v.cssor CARPENTER on the Occurrence of the Pentacrinoid Larva of Coma-
tula rosacea, in Lamlash Bay, Isle of Arran ..........s0:000e+ Me danpamcraldsleasaae a
Sea on the Structure and Development of Orbditolites com-
BUTE RIGELIS) on sich nssunsinns sminhvalssaicasieshGanebpaeinnabiviislearioesiewisnsibmanncie ue eee Sovigns salt
Mr. T. Spancer CopBoLn’s Description of a New Species of Trematode Worm
' (Fasciola giganticd) seccccccseeess soo oA PERVEMUANL tka sete iebitativets iaiia ci kein Ws
Description of a malformed Trout ......sssseeeeeee
Mr. J. W. Dawson on the Species of Meriones and Arvicole found in Nova
RNP ani scn suid fis Sisco danke s vaninwinsans minlavshpievedntanndanaseayieserets anvses
Professor Dickin’s Notes on the Eomologies of Lepismide ....... bbsbeebeabnane
Mr. James Fuuton on the application (for ceconomic and sanitary objects) of
_ the principle of “ Vivaria” to Agriculture and other purposes of life ......<..
Sir Winu1AM JARDINE on the Coregoni of Scotland ...... beedecttss (hE oc eis unset
Professor K6LLIKER on transparent Fishes from Messina ....s6.++...seeee Seti
Rev. Wiiu1AM LeitcH on the Development of Sex in Social Insects ........-
Mr. Epwarp JoserH Lowe on a Singular Mortality amongst the Swallow
Tribe Cee eeetearbessesce PP Pe ree eee tet eases seeebeeeenseeesttsean Ceeeeereseres Geeeee eeeeeeee Beerss
Mr. Rosert M‘AnpReEw’s Exhibition of Zoophytes, Mollusca, &c., observed
on the Coast of Norway, in the Summer of 1855 ....... Acavvasihas eixethcual asda
Rey. Cuarues P. Mixes on the Fauna of the Clyde, and on the Vivaria now
exhibited in the City Hall, Glaszow.............scceccsssecsecccncecscnceetetecnsanene
Mr. Anprew Murray on the Recent Additions to our Knowledge of the
_ Zoology of Western Africa ......sscesecesssereeestececesssseerssnsemeneneeeteterseens
Mr. W. OutpHant’s Exhibition of the Skull of a Manatus Senegalensis (the
Denbow yiron Ol daO ala are ds oc ae .ce5-'0<raacniieaseve sons seesupeanccereerausseseeatne
Mr. J. Price’s Notes on Animals ............c.ceeeeeenes Sas uarwnanelenavae dak astavekad
Mr. J. D. SANDLAND on Sea Meduse ..sscsesseaee gaatdidciens th urdate eaiva swinwedants bine
Mr. N. B. Warp on Vivaria.........08 AvahGu date sae ci Ueewsectasassassezauenty rained i
Mr. Rosert WARItNGTON on the Habits of the Stickleback, and on the
_ Effects of an Excess or Want of Heat and Light on the Aquarium (Marine)..
Dr, LANKESTER’s Exhibition of a Copy of the ‘ Natural History of Deeside
’ and Braemar,’ by the late Dr. Macgillivray......... siudsmudeves Sé6 a oaabdemeans Se
Rev. Dr. PatEeRson on the Cultivation of Sea-sand or Sand-hills .......4.......
PHYSIOLOGY.
Professor ALLMAN on the signification of the so-called Ova of the Hippocrepian
~ Polyzoa, and on the Development of the proper Embryo in these Animals...
Professor J. HuGHEs BENNETT on the Law of Molecular Elaboration in Orga-
nized Bodies ...........0055 Paestanemeectobdene renee Wawa saecates ties es Claas stress wededt
Mr. Jamus Bratp on the Physiology of Fascination.......... ieaiecd Waatidss bedbaas
Professor CatvuerT and Dr. THomas Morrat on the Action of the Carbo-
azotic Acid and the Carbo-azotates on the Human Body ....-ssssessssscsseveees
Dr. WiLuiam Camps on an abnormal Condition of the Nervous System ......
Dr. T, Spencer Copsoup on a curious pouched condition of the Glandule
Peyerianze in the Giraffe ...ccscssecsscrnscosnensonercssnsscesnccccesctsesseneenessangye
122
xii CONTEN'S.
Dr. FERDINAND CoHN on the Sexuality of the Algae ......scesssessseeeeeeeueoenes 122
Dr. RicHarp Fow.er’s Attempt to solve some of the Difficulties of the
Berkleyan Controversy by well-ascertained Physiological and Psychological
ittehae glen gastes otcuaeraee-sednoacucaadeataiwaneittsesaivsenceeeses da sussooeerinet's sesame 123
Professor K6LLIKER on the occurrence of Leucine and Tyrosine in the Pan-
creatic Fluid and contents of the Intestine ........csecscsseeee eeteeeenesaesereneees 124
on the Physiology of the Spermatozoa .........+0+ egieree 125
—_—_——_————_ Demonstration of the Trichomonas vaginalis of Donné... 125
—__—_—_—— on a peculiar Structure lately discovered in the Epithelial
Cells of the Small Intestines, together with some observations on the Absorp-
TIO OL MAGIULO LHe SVRUCID cc cessscasejarcosospcaccensesanvce case chy ssnesousmarnese ne 126
on the Hectocotylus, or Male of the Argonaut ......+-.... 127
Mr. James Macponaup on the Form and Dimensions of the Human
Body, as ascertained by a Universal Measurer or Andrometer «..+++.sseeseeeees 127
Professor WILLIAM MaAcponaLp on the Vertebral Homologies in Animals .., 128
Dr. M‘Cormac’s Demonstration of the Origin of Tubercular Consumption ... 131
Dr. Henry NEwson’s further Observations on the Fecundation of the Ova in
ASCONIS MYSLOR | cesaccccesaracascrsocesncnsnapesécanpossaccassccasotsetsucsnnsssesenassne 13]
Dr. W. H. Ransom’s further Observations on the Structure of the Ova of
Fishes, with especial reference to the Micropyle, and the Phenomena of their
Fecundation........+...0000s miele dataiaa rate aiencl dup. gable sca «mine asl cle ans enon beans Saeae -» 131
Professor REMAK on the Mode of Action of Galvanic Stimuli, directly applied
to the Muscles .......++.+. Basactceds sicec access sorvese--einancag sates Soccer sieeaehtaeas 131
Professor RETz1us on the Antrum Pylori in Man and Animals .......seessseeees 132
— on the peculiar Development of the Vermis Cerebelli in the
Albatros (Diomedea exulans)........cccoccccstsncccocossscsccserescecs aiesacast caseven sol oes
—-——~ on the Fornix Cerebri in Man, Mammals, and other Verte-
BR Atd. (eee: ccsaca des casaconeeeioneshosSreewahereaccseuenransds scan caweer ames csaperMiecee ees 133
———— on an Episcaphoid Bone in both Hands of a Guarani Man.. 134
——_—__——-—— on the Pelvis of a Lapland Giantess ............ Bscareadgeee vee 134
Dr. Roru on the application of Physiological Principles to gymnastic education 134
Professor SCHLOSSBERGER’S Observations on the Chemistry of Foetal Life ... 135
Dr. Joun StruTHERs on the Use of the Round Ligament of the Head of the
IBEMINY Foncwsecscess0s Somciecteosenes aaiaecsess Soames daneccshaatas cs cssuess el = teseaeeeentes 135
on the Use of the Round Ligament of the Hip-J oint... 136
——_————_—— on the Explanation of the Crossed Influence of the -
RMRANAY cag a dstewinidy ca su vahtia end coaenat an tevoneanet aan te: = Hockcr cuseeocepe carbon ti no ot 136
Professor CAnL J. SUNDEVALD on the Muscles of the Extremities of Birds... 137.
Professer ALLEN THOMSON on the Formation and Structure of the Spermatozoa
INL CASCATIS MYSLAX. <4:500cecessssteeese seca beeet Maatatde wwaeeon ancseedse sees eneeenater 138
== on the Brain of the Troglodytes niger....+..se+0.0 139.
—_—_—_——_————- Contributions to the History of Fecimdation in
different Animals ......+66.., siessecvseuvesuwpeWuneeeweGuss on eu sc nel aseses s1imiasMnnseeen amele
=i. ot aae
‘
CONTENTS. Xill
GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
ETHNOLOGY.
Rey. Tuomas C. ARCHER on some peculiar Circumstances connected with one
of the Coins used on the West Coast of Africa ......csscsssssseseeesens svekveexesm /LAQ
Dr. Barru’s Description of Timbuctoo, its Population, and Commerce......... 140
Mr. Joun CRAwFurRp on the different Centres of Civilization ssesss.sseerserees 14]
Mr. Ricwarp Cuuu’s Manual of Ethnological Inquiry, and the Ethnology of
PPE GIVTNICSIA 002.2000 cauaninas'edaneanveennne Pe od apis heen eit eee celestial Sa tann aa peeticn nodes sale
—_—— on some Water-colour Portraits of Natives of Van
- Diemen’s Land ............ ASE te ie SERRE Spree bps sy el le seid A is het eheley 142
_—_— on the Complexion and Hair of the Ancient Egyptians 142
Mr. Josep Barnarp Davis on theForms of the Crania of the Ancient Romans 142
Mr. ALEXANDER J. Exuis on a Universal Alphabet with ordinary Letters for
the use of Geographers, Ethnologists, &C. ......cesssceseeeceeceseeeeaeeeecees scorns 1403
Mr, G. Epmonps on a Philosophie Universal Language ........... Socensetenqnoese 145
Rey. J. Gemmex on the Deciphering of Inscriptions on Two Seals, found by
_ My. Layard at Koyunjik ......... SEAR OC Erp eBAS act eccpo cease areas ydacosadhe nan Anece 145
Professor Rerzius on Celtic, Sclavic, and Aztec Cramia .....sesescceceeeeete scape, L4G
Mr. C. Roacu SmiruH on a Roman Sepulcral Inscription on an Anglo-Saxon
Urn ia the Faussett Collection ............c0000 Suaetnecdsscdeancerscdercacosaaca=nas 145
Mr. Toomas Wricut on the Ethnology of England at the Extinction of the
» Roman Government in the Island........sscseeseeenseesceeeneensenecees ep tnsenmecniio: 146
—_— on Inscriptions in Unknown Characters on Roman
Pottery discovered in England .........sessccsecssscescestcesecnseeanseeccecenevens w. 146
GroGRAPHY.
Mr. C. J. ANDERSON on late Explorations in Africa..........+. “PBS Bsapear aspeaiest4o
Dr. W. Bautrour Batixtir’s Report of the late Expedition up the Niger and
Dehadda Rivers ......0....cssccscessossenssescescaes Sone bec Ch Genetica Lace ele or Cote eno 146
Baptain Sir E. BeLcuHeEr’s Remarks on the late Arctic Expedition, and on the
- several Completions of the North-west Passage ......... BN sit syctoditgcoten semen one 147
Mr. J. Boutr on the Importance of Periodical Engineering Surveys of Tidal
_ Harbours, illustrated by a Comparison of the Surveys of the River Mersey,
» by the late F. Giles; and the Marine Surveys of the Port.........scsceceeeeeeeee 147
Mr. Consul Branv’s Notes on the Portuguese Possessions of South-west Africa 147
Lieut.-Col. Burton’s Account of a Visit to Medina from Suez, by way of Jambo 147
Rey. F. FLemine’s Journey across the Rivers of British Kaffraria .........++.... 147
Mr. James GALL, jun., on Improved Monographic Projections of the World... 148
Mr. J. M. Insxip’s Account of the Exploration of the Isthmus of Darien,
under Capt. Prevost, R.N........ st Ty es ere traps Aileen ee Shale Aras rea Cecuapete 148
Dr. Livineston, Extracts from Letters dated Pungo, Andongo, and St. Paul de
a Loanda, describing his Journey across Tropical Africa .........+. A a aisab a4 Sones 148
Professor MacDonaALp on the Preadamitic Condition of the Globe ........-. .. 148
‘Dr. Juxtius OppeErT on the Geographical and Historical Results of the French
* Scientific Expedition to Babylon .........seseeeesesevaee Redteeee swiss aoirkh Vee woadehaey? 148
xiv «CONTENTS.
Capt. SHERARD Osporn’s Notes on the late Arctic Expeditions ...++....++++.
Sir B. F. Ourram on Hartlepool Pier and Port as a Harbour of Refuge ......
Mr. Harry Parxes’s Notes on the Hindti-Chinese Nations and Siamese
149
Rivers, with an Account of Sir John Bowring’s Mission to Siam ....++... steer 149
Sefor ANDRES Pory on Hurricanes in the West Indies and the North Atlantic
fron sl AG TOMLAD dc caaasiuaesweetseee rs dete cadedteavecdeds vddecessnqgend nis code eabh Sed8F 150
Mr. J. N. Ramsay’s Account of the Ascent of Mont Blanc by a new Route
from the side of Italy.......sesesseeeeeees PReREr creer maachd> ant asebasas vspenspenet
Capt. Ropertson’s Ascent of the Mountain Sumeru Parbut .........+0sseeeeeees
Messrs. ADOLPHE SCHLAGINTWEIT and RoBERT SCHLAGINTWEIT’s Notices
of Journeys in the Himalayas of Kemaon ......s.seseeesseeeeeeeeeeeeeseeueesennes 152
Sefior Susini on the Amazon and Atlantic Water-courses of South America...
STATISTICS.
Dr. W. P. Auison’s Notes on the Application of Statistics to questions in
Medical Science, particularly as to the External Causes of Diseases...........-
Lady BENTHAM on an Improved Mode of Keeping Accounts in our National
PPRPADNISHIMICNES: | casescaticcegsaes speslersplenrncccrsedes ces veescpunasvesesancdsscnsuemnsccs
Professor A. BuCHANAN on the Physiological Law of Mortality, and on certain
Deviations from it, observed about the Commencement of Adult Life...... ats
—_—__-——_——_—— on a Mechanical Process, by which a Life Table com-
mencing at Birth may be converted into a Table, in every respect similar,
commencing at any other period of Life «............00++ valli dubewavecsseedames one
Mr. R. CuarkE on Prevailing Diseases of Sierra Leone .........2++see0es Rartaneey
Dr. Joun CotpsTREAM on some of the results deducible from the Report
on the Statics of Disease in Ireland, published with the Census of 1851......
Count D. Fréticu’s Analysis of some of the Principles which regulate the
Effects of a Convertible Paper Currency .........seseseeeneeeneeeeeeeenes Jacdev detain
Mr, Peter GALE on Decimal Arrangement of Land Measures ......... PMI.
Mr. J. W. GiuBart on the Laws of the Currency in Scotland.........secsseeeees
_ Mr. J. Guyps, jun., on the Localities of Crime in Suffolk ...... oaundauwaes elem
Mr. Wituram A. Guy on the Fluctuations in the number of Births, Deaths,
and Marriages, and in the Number of Deaths from Special Causes, in the
Metropolis, during the last Fifteen Years, from 1840 to 1854 inclusive ......
Mr. Joun Locke on the Agricultural Labourers of England and Wales, their
Inferiority in the Social Scale, and the means of effecting their Improvement. .
Dr. A. G. Matcoum on the Influence of Factory Life on the Health of the
Operative, as founded upon the Medical Statistics of this Class at Belfast ...
Rey. A. K. M‘Catium on Juvenile Delinquency—its Principal Causes and
Proposed Cure, as adopted in the Glasgow Reformatory Schools........+. deena
Mr. James M‘CLELLAND on Measures relating to the adoption of the Family
and Agricultural System of Training in the Reformation of Criminal and
Destitute Children ..cscsssccecscceceeseceseeeeseneetececsees ee sdabect iesseuncacaemenens
Mr. Winiram Newmarcn’s Remarks on two Lectures delivered at Oxford in
Trinity Term, by the Professor of Political Economy, on the subject of a recent
Paper by Mr. Newmarch, “On the Loans raised by Mr. Pitt from 1793 to 1801”
150
150
aad
155
179
183
CONTENTS. XV
Mr. Witt1am Newmarcu on the Emigration of the last Ten Years from the
United Kingdom, and from France and Germany ...-+-++++-.+e+eee00 Aa tsscs“tee 183
Mr. Wiix1AM Pare on “ Equitable Villages” in America «.++sssseeessrreetereees 183
Lieut.-Gen. Sir C. PasLEy on a Plan for Simplifying and Improving the
Measures, Weights and Monies of this Country, without materially altermg
the present Standards .........ssecesccsesseeeceeseneetanessessseseaeneaaescneesaneess .. 184
Mr. THEoporE W. RATHBONE on Decimal Accounts and Coinage ......-..... 184
Mr. Joun Retp on the Progressive Rates of Mortality, as occurring in all ages ;
and on certain Deviations .........2seseseeseeseeteeeees Uatadecenes chaseseacaue eosecess. £86
Mr. P. L. Srmmonps’s Statistics of Newspapers of Various Countries ........- 188
— on the Growth and Commercial Progress of the two
Pacific States of California and Australia....,..cs-sscsecsscssesereseerenscateneneees 188
Mr. Joun STarx’s Return of the Number of Civil Actions and Civil and Cri-
minal Prosecutions and Informations in the Circuit for the Northern District
of the Island of Newfoundland, from January 1826 to January 1855, beg
a period of 29 years .......-...- Tec! ecenamoagas age ssesdeeacas “pesaasor Apdendereeancee 191
Mr. Davip Stow on Moral Training for large TOWNS «...--..sssessseestereeeeee ees 191
Mr. ANDREW TENNENT’S Statistics of a Glasgow Grammar School Class of
ROME OYE!asccccc..easccvascsoccsvecesscenscceresssccnres Detain taeccted st eae staeet isee dues 192
Dr. Joun StRancG on the Progress, Extent and Value of the Coal and Iron
Trade of the West of Scotland ..........:scssceseceeeescceeneeneeeseesees comnnacecencC 193
Mr. Ricuarp Va.py on the Effect of the War, in Russia and England, upon
the principal articles of Russian produce ....-+-...+sssesee++ weesesecees dvs cuvsecedes 195
Mr. Ricuarp Hussey WALSH on the Condition of the Labouring Population
of Jamaica, as connected with the present state of Landed Property in that
MREEICL este ee saterecsdcatscatccucccecaxcatrascaseccecescstseseseecncsanecsecesss Sia ent ness, 197
——_——_. ——_——___—_—— The Price of Silver of late years does not
afford an accurate measure of the Value of Gold............... Geaboznseeeente Betuee 198
Mr. Joun Years on our National Strength, as tested by the Numbers, the
Ages, and the Industrial Qualifications of the People.......... SURE ERaAROEnan passe 199
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Mr. W. J. Macavorn RANKINE’s Opening Remarks on the Objects of the
Section ......... Sas ccscadsegeaacssbasehtbeastes dave siewavsniveee chhledccerevaecesdsese oe 201
Mr. W. Bripces ApAms on Railways and their Varieties .......-.0e0- daeew fave 202
—_———— on Artillery and Projectiles......... poadbau seen ads decsesw ee Uae
Mr. H. P. BasBaceE on Mechanical Notation, as exemplified in the Swedish
Calculating Machine of Messrs. Scheiitz ........:0..-seeseee Sspeceeecacbrecoocconc se 203
_ Mr. Ropert Barktay on an Instrument for Sounding ............csseceeeeeeeues 205
Lady BentHam on Continuous Work in Dockyards ..............0ec0e0 aisaata tess 205
Mr. Rogert W. Bituines on the Mechanical Principles of Ancient Tracery... 205
Mr. Joseru Boutr on the Importance of Periodical Engineering Surveys of
Tidal Harbours, illustrated by a comparison of the Surveys of the River
Mersey, by the late Francis Giles, C.E., and by the Marine Surveyor of the
Pee MIGVERHOO! jon; Sanas so se@actsee=sasnaadacse224c secs on=ttanwaossesksdeneosseausen> 205
Mr. W. Farrparren on the Machinery of the Universal Exhibition of Paris ... 206
Mr. James Gatti, jun., on the mutual Influence of Capillary Attraction and
Motion on Projectiles, and its application to the construction of a new kind
of Rifle-shells, and Balls to be thrown from common guns ......+:ssssseeeeees 206
XVi CONTENTS.
Mr. WILLIAM GORMAN on a Momentum Engine..eccrsssecseceesercenseceeasereeeen B00
—_——_—_—__——__-——- 0n a Pressure Water-Meter ........ soos uabilc cies e cceternnmnal
Mr. ANDREW HENDERSON on the Measurement of Ships ............ aceceduseaes UL
Mr. M. HotpEN on Working a Steam-engine with Rarefied Air......... ésevenve qu:
Mr. Rosert JAMIESON on a Compass independent of Local Attraction ..... . 207
Mr. James LAING on a new Air-Pump ...... sees seeeeee Seceae- soe tht caviensaeaene ». 207
Professor MAcDONALD on the Structure of Shell Mortars without Touch-hole,
to be discharged by Galvanic Circuit .....ssscesseeeeeeeeenneeeneeeeens oeaasyen asen 20)
Mr. Hersert Mackworru on the Metra ........ceseeeeeee Pe ne dines Sewer BOR
Mr. Rosert Marr on an Application of Galvanic Power to Machinery......... 208
Dr. Marcu on a Screw-vent for tuning Spiked Guns into use .....0...008 feces DUS
Mr. GeorcGe MILs on Manceuvring Steamers ..........seceseeeeeeesececeees famreeen 20S
Mr. J. R. Napier’s Description of the Launch of the Steamer ‘ Persia’ ...... 208
—_———-—— ona simple Boat Plug ...ssecseessecseceneeseeeeeene wa cauenakana 208
—_—_—_-——-——_ on a now Method of Drying Timber .............066 veaenae --- 208
Mr. W. J. Macauorn RANKINE on Practical Tables of the Latent Heat of
Vapours ...... RABBA 0 8s Sonne Gen adeaogn deta Abocktgrcticcceedbedodoe esse tisw oes acess seseeee 208
————_—_——-—— - on the Operation of the Patent Laws ......... 208
Mr. G. RENNIE on the Effects of Screw Propellers when moved at different
Velocities.and Depths .......c0cccccsscsensssavescistetsecesdeusccnsedhuacsoeus seecseee ZOD
Mr. Wiuu1aM Sim on the Blasting and Quarrying of Rocks .....cssesssesseeeeee 209
Professor C. PrAzz1 SmMyTu on the Transmission of Time Signals ..... eae ecee
Dr. TayLor’s Account of Experiments on Combustion in Furnaces, with a view
to the Prevention of Smoke ......seeeeereeeeee Sooncones a sniietia sbiquaceae eat aan Apart 209
Mr. James Tuomson on the Friction Break Dynamometer..........-secssesseceee 209
—__-___——— on a Centrifugal Pump and Windmill erected for Drain-
age and Irrigation in Jamaica ..-.....sseeeeraesereneesenees avayneW ee aanines sate Ramus 210
- on an India-rubber -Valve for Drainage of Low Lands
into Tidal Outfalls ...........+46 SelasHesn eu seuloeceadeniescuee eee class ise Se(sicn cela ceaemaye LO
-——_- on Practical Details of the Measurement of Running
Water by Weir Boards ..........s.seesseeeene, pep esoeder teeeese cea: Arerrncerrcreoscn ne 210
Mr. J. F. Urs on the Navigation of the Clyde .......cseccssecesecteececssecneens vee SIE
Mr. W. J. Macavorn RANKINE’S Concluding Address ..... sar goetonrs seceenes » 211
APPENDIX.
Mr. J. W. Satter on some Additions to the Geology of the Arctic Regions... 211
ERRATUM.
Page 87, line 6, for a dextral and not a sinistral, »ead a sinistral and not a dextral.
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
Bat nee
OBJECTS.
Tue AssocraTion contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are,—To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a more general attention to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.
RULES.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.
All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be-
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con-
form to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So-
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in.like manner, to become Mem-
bers of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of a General
Meeting.
COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.
Lire Memssrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be pub-
lished after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association.
Annvat Susscrizers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this Subscription in any particu-
lar year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
_ future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :
but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
.: to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. :
855.
Xviil j RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad-
mission T’en Pounds as a composition,
8. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in
termission of Annual Payment. | “i
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the pay-
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay-
ment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6, Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com-
position.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication
Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.
Annual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip-
tion,
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
tion, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
the Publication Price. Application to be made (by letter) to
Messrs. Taylor & Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet St., London,
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
MEETINGS.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee at the pre-
vious Meeting; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Offi-
cers of the Association.
GENERAL COMMITTEE.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
1. Presidents and Officers for the present and preceding years, with au-
thors of Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who have communicated any Paper to a Philosophical Society,
which has been printed in its Transactions, and which relates to such subjects
as are taken into consideration at the Sectional Meetings of the Association.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix
3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether, not exceed-
ing three in numberyfrom any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.
4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the Association has formerly met.
5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the meeting of the year by the Presi-
dent and General Secretaries.
6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections are
ex officio members of the General Committee for the time being.
SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Committees, con-
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branches
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.
The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they would
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting. |
The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent persons,
for the information of the Annual Meetings.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects, shall be submitted to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom-
mendations.
LOCAL COMMITTEES.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power-of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
OFFICERS.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
COUNCIL.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council
may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the
Meeting.
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
. ACCOUNTS.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting.
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II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who
have served on the Council in former years.
Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Acland, Professor H. W., B.M., F.R.S.
Adams, J. Couch, M.A., F.R.S.
‘Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S.
Adare, Edwin, Viscount, M.P., F.R.S.
Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem-
broke Hall, Cambridge.
Airy, G.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal.
Alison, Professor W. P., M.D., F.R.S.E.
‘Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S.
Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S.
‘Arnott, Neil, M,D., F.R.S.
Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L.
Babbage, Charles, Esq., F.R.S.
Babington, C. C., Esq., F.R.S.
Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S.
‘Balfour, Professor John H., M.D.
‘Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S.
Bell, Professor Thomas, F.L.S., F.R.S.
Bengough, George, Esq.
‘Bentham, George, Esq., F.L.S.
Bigge, Charles, Esq.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S.
Boileau, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S.
Boyle, Right Hon. David, Lord Justice-Ge-
neral, F.R.S.E.
Brand, William, Esq.
Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.
Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., Principal of the United College of
- St. Salvator and St. Leonard, St. Andrews.
Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M., Bart.,
K.C.B., G.C.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Brooke, Charles, B.A., F.R.S.
Brown, Robert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Brunel, Sir M. I., F.R.S.
Buckland, Very Kev. William, D.D., Dean of
Westminster, F.R.S.
Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., F.R.S.,
Chancellor of the University of London.
Bute, John, Marquis of, K.T.
Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S.
Carson, Rev. Joseph.
Cathcart, Lt.-Gen., Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E.
Chalmers, Rev. T., D.D., late Professor of
Divinity, Edinburgh.
Chance, James, Esq.
Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of. |
Christie, Professor S. H., M.A., Sec. R.S.
Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S.
Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge).
Clark, Henry, M.D.
Clark, G. T., Esq.
“Clear, William, Esq.
Clerke, Major Shadwell, K.H., R.E., F.R.S.
Clift, William, Esq., F.R.S.
Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P.
Colquhoun, J. C., Esq., M.P.
Conybeare, Very Rev. W. D., Dean of Llandaff,
2 M.A., F.R.S.
Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S.
‘Crum, Walter, Esq., F.R.S.
Currie, William Wallace, Esq.
Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Daniell, Professor J. F., F.R.S.
Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Darwin, Charles, Esq., F.R.S.
Daubeny, Prof. Charles G. B., M.D., F.R.S.
De la Beche, Sir Henry T., C.B., F.R.S., Di-
__.__ rector-General of the Geological Survey
+ of the United Kingdom: .
Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.S.
Drinkwater, J. E., Esq.
Durham, Edward Maltby, D.D., Lord Bishop
of, F.R.S.
Egerton, Sir Philip de M. Grey, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.S.
Eliot, Lord, M.P.
Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, F.G.S.
Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Estcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L.
Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Fitzwilliam, Charles William, Earl, D.C.L., ,
F.R.S.
Fleming, W., M.D.
Fletcher, Bell, M.D.
Forbes, Charles, Esq.
Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R.S.
Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E.
Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S.
Frost, Charles, F.S.A.
Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S.
Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Graham, Professor Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.
Gray, John E., Esq., F.R.S.
Gray, Jonathan, Esq.
Gray, William, jun., Esq., F.G.S.
Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F.R.S.
Greenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S.
Grove, W. R., Esq., F.R.S.
Hallam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Hamilton, W. J., Esq., Sec.G.S.
Hamilton, Sir William R., Astronomer Royal
of Ireland, M.R.I.A.
Harcourt, Rev. William Vernon, M.A., F.R.S.
Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Earl of, F.R.S.
Harford, J. S., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.
Harrowby, The Earl of, F.R.S.
Hatfeild, William, Esq., F.G.S.
Henry, W. C., M.D., F.R.S.
Henry, Rev. P. S., D.D., President of Queen’s
College, Belfast.
Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S.
Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. William, late
Dean of Manchester, LL.D., F.L.S.
Herschel, Sir John F, W., Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.
Heywood, James, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S.
Hincks, Rev. Edward, D.D., M.R.I.A.
Hodgkin, Thomas, M.D.
Hodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S.
Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S.
Hooker, Sir William J., LL.D., F.R.S.
Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.
Hopkins, William, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Hovenden, V. F., Esq., M.A.
Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S.
Hutton, William, Esq., F.G.S.
Ibbetson, Capt. L.L. Boscawen, K.R.E.,F.G.S.
Inglis,Sir Robert H., Bart., D.C.L., M.P., F.R.S,
Jameson, Professor R., F.R.S.
Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Jeffreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.
Jenyns, Rey. Leonard, F.L.S.
Jerrard, H. B., Esq.
Johnston, Right Hon. William, Lord Provost
of Edinburgh. '
Johnston, Professor J. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.
Keleher, William, Esq.
Kelland, Rev. Professor P., M.A.
Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S.
Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L.,F.R.S.
Lardner, Rev. Dr.
Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L.& E.
Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S.
Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E., Prin-
cipal of the University of Edinburgh.
Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S.
Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, Speaker
of the House of Commons.
Leinon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Liddell, Andrew, Esq.
Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Listowel, The Earl of.
Lloyd, Rev. Bartholomew, D.D., late Provost
of Trinity College, Dublin.
Lloyd, Rev. Professor, D.D., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin, F.R.S.
Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S.
Lubbock, Sir John W,, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
Luby, Rev. Thomas.
Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.S.
MacCullagh, Professor, D.C.L., M.R.I.A.
Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal.
MacLeay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S.
MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.
Malcolm, Vice Admiral Sir Charles, K.C.B.
Manchester, J. P. Lee, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Meynell, Thomas, Jun., Esq., F.L.S.
Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bart.
Miller, Professor W. A., M.D., F.R.S.
Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S,
Milnes, R. Monckton, Esq., M.P.
Moillet, J. D., Esq.
Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.
Moody, J. Sadleir, Esq.
Moody, T. H. C., Esq.
Moody, T. F., Esq.
Morley, The Earl of.
Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.
Mount-Edgecumbe, Ernest Augustus, Earl of,
Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.St.8S., F.R.S.
Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Nicol, D., M.D.
Nicol, Rev. J. P., LL.D.
Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar-
quis of, V.P.R.S.
Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G., M.A.,
F.R.S.
Norwich, Edward Stanley, D.D., F.R.S., late
Lord Bishop of. ,
Norwich, Samuel Hinds, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Ormerod, G. W., Esq., F.G.S.
Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D.
Orpen, J. H., LL.D.
Osler, Follett, Esq.
Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S.
Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D.,
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M.P.
Peacock, Very Rev. George, D.D., Dean of
Ely, I’.R.S.
Peel, Rt. Hon. Sir Robert, Bart.,
1.C.L., F.R.S.
Pendarves, I., Esq., F.R.S.
Phillips, Professor John, M.A., F.R.S.
Porter, G. R., Esq.
Powell, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.R.S,
Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R.S.
Ramsay, Professor W., M.A.
Reid, Lieut.-Col. Sir William, F.R.S.
Rendlesham, Rt. Hon, Lord, M.P,
Lord
M.P.,
Rennie, George, Esq., V.P.R.S.
Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S.
Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S.
Ritchie, Rev. Professor, LL.D., F.R.S.
Robinson, Rev. J., D.D.
Robinson, Rev. ‘. R., D.D., Pres.R.I.A.,
F.R.A.S.
Robison, Sir John, late Sec.R.S.Edin.
Roche, James, Esq.
Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S.
Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. __
Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ross, Capt. Sir James C., R.N., F.R.S.
Rosse, William, Earl of, M.A., M.R.LA.,
President of the Royal Society.
Royle, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S.
Russell, James, Esq.
Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.
Sabine, Col. Edward, R.A.,Treas. & V.P.R.S.
Sandon, Lord (the present Earl of Harrowby).
Saunders, William, Esq., F.G.S.
Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S.
Sedgwick, Rev. Professor Adam, M.A.,F.R.S.
Selby, Prideaux John, Esq., F.R.S.E.
Smith, Lieut.-Colonel C, Hamilton, F.R.S,
Smith, James, F.R.S. L. & E.
Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S.
Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S.
St. David’s, C. Thirlwall, D.D., Lord Bishop of,
Stevelly, Professor John, LL.D.
Stokes, Professor G. G., F.R.S.
Strang, John, Esq.
Strickland, Hugh Edwin, Esq., F.R.S.
Sykes, Lieut.-Colonel W. H., F.R.S,
Symonds, B. P., D.D., late Vice-Chancellor of
the University of Oxford,
Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S,
Tayler, Rev. John James, B.A.
Taylor, John, Esq., F.R.S.
Taylor, Richard, Jun., Esq., F.G.S,
Thompson, William, Esq., F.L.S.
Thomson, Professor William, M.A., F.R.S.
Tindal, Captain, R.N.
Tite, William, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E,
Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S,
Traill, J. S., M.D.
Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S.
Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Turner, Rev. W.
Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S.
Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S.
Walker, James, Esq., F.R.S.
Walker, Joseph N., Esq., F.G.S.
Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Warburton, Henry, Esq., M.A., M.P., F.R.S.
Washington, Captain, R.N.
West, William, Esq., F.R.S.
Western, Thomas Burch, Esq.
Wharncliffe, John Stuart, Lord, F.R.S.
Wheatstone, Professor Charles, F.R.S.
Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Williams, Professor Charles J.B., M.D.,F.R.S.
Willis, Rev. Professor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Wills, William, Esq.
Winchester, John, Marquis of.
Woollcombe, Henry, Esq., F.S.A.
Wrottesley, John, Lord, M.A., Pres. R.S.
Yarrell, William, Esq., F.L.S.
Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L.
Yates, James, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
| Yates, Joseph Brooks, Esq., F,S,A., F.R.G.S.
—_—_— ———————
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OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1855-56.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
Srr Ropericx I. Murcurson,G.C.St.S.,F.R.S. The Very Rev.Grorce Peacock,D.D., Dean
Joun Taytor, Esq., F.R.S. of Ely, F.R.S.
PRESIDENT.
Tue Duke or AreyYLL, F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Very Rev. Principal M‘Faruanz, D.D. Watrer Crom, Esq., F.R.S.
Sir Wint1aM Jarpine, Bt., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Taomas Grauam, M.A., F.RS., Hon. Mem.
Sir Cuarztes Lyexz, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., R.S.Ed., F.G.S., Master of the Royal Mint.
Hon. Mem. R.S.Ed., F.L.S., F.G.S. Wiritram Tuomson, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E.,
James Smirn, Esq., F.R.S.L.&E., F.GS., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
F.R.G.S., M.W.S. University of Glasgow.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
Cuartes G. B. Dauseny, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon. M.R.1L.A., Regius
Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Eart or Duct, F.R.S., F.G.S. Soc., Director-General of the Geological
Sir Roprericx I. Murcuison, G.C.S*S., Survey of the United Kingdom.
D.C.L., F.B.S.,F.G.S.,F.L.S.,V.P.R.Geogr. THomas Barwick Luoyp BAKER, Esq.
The Rey. Francis Cross, M.A.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CHELTENHAM.
Captain Rosertson, R.A., Rodney House, Cheltenham.
Ricuarp BEamisH, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.S., 2 Suffolk Square, Cheltenham.
Joun West HueA tt, Esq., 4 Essex Place, Cheltenham.
LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CHELTENHAM.
JAMES WEBSTER, Esq. James Ace GARDNER, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Arnort, Nez, M.D.,F.R.S. Grove, WirztamR., F.R.S. Surrey, Professor, Sec. B.S.
BEECHEY, Rear-Admiral, Hxrywoop, Jamxs,Esq.,M.P. Sroxes, Professor, F.R.S.
F.R.S. Horner, L., Esq., F.R.S. Syxes, Lt.-Col. W. H., F.R.S.
BELL, Prof., Pres.L.S., F.R.S. Hurron, Rozert, F.G.S. Tirn, W., M.P., F.S.A.,F.R.S.
Brooxs, Cuarzes, Esq., Lanxester,E.,M.D.,F.R.S. Tooxs, T., Esq., F.R.S.
B.A., F.R.S. Miuter, Prof. W. A., M.D., TynpA.t, Professor, F.R.S.
Darwin, CuHar.es, F.R.S. F.R.S. Wesster, THomAS, F.R.S.
Eeerton, Sir Puiu, Bart., Murcnus, R. M., Esq., M.P. WueatsTong, Prof., F.R.S.
M.P., F.R.S. Owen, Professor, F.R.S. Wrortes.ey,Lord,Pres.R.S.
Gassiot, Joun P., F.R.S. RENNIE, GeorGE, F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the Ge-
neral and Assistant-General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presi-
dents of former years, viz. The Earl Fitzwilliam. Rev. Dr. Buckland. Rev. Professor Sedgwick.
Sir Thomas M. Brisbane. The Marquis of Lansdowne. The Earl of Burlington. Rev. W.
V. Harcourt. The Marquis of Breadalbane. Rev. Dr. Whewell. The Earl of Ellesmere.
The Earl of Rosse. The Dean of Ely. Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. Sir Roderick I. Mur-
chison. The Rev. Dr. Robinson. Sir David Brewster. G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer
Royal. Colonel Sabine. William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. The Earl of Harrowby.
GENERAL SECRETARY.
Cotonet Epwarp Sasing, R.A., Treas. & V.P.R.S., F.R.A.S., 13 Ashley Place, Westminster.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
Joun Pures, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Deputy Reader in Geology in the University of
Oxford ; Magdalen Bridge, Oxford.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Joun Taytor, Esq., F.R.S., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames Street, London.
LOCAL TREASURERS.
William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., York. Professor Ramsay, M.A., Glasgow.
C.C.Babington, Esq.,M.A.,F.R.S.,Cambridge. Robert P. Greg, Esq., F.G.S., Manchester.
William Brand, Esq., Edinburgh. J. Sadleir Moody, Esq., Southampton.
John H. Orpen, LL.D., Dudlin. John Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., Swansea.
William Sanders, Esq., F.G.S., Bristol. J. B. Alexander, Esq., Ipswich.
Robert M‘Andrew, Esq., F.R.S., Liverpool. Robert Patterson, Esq., Belfast.
W. R. Wills, Esq., Birmingham. Edmund Smith, Esq., Hull.
AUDITORS.
A. Follett Osler, Esq. Wn. Tite, Esq., M.P. Edwin Lankester, M.D.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Xxvil
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
GLASGOW MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
President.—Rev. Professor Kelland, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E.
Vice-Presidents.—Rev. Dr. Robinson; Sir David Brewster, F.R.S. L. & E.; Rev.
Dr. Whewell, F.R.S.; Professor Stokes, Sec. R.S.; Rev. Dr. Scoresby, F.R.S.L.,
& E.; M. J. Johnson, Esq., M.A., Pres. R.A.S. ;
Secretaries.—Rev. Dr. Forbes; Professor Tyndall, F,R.S.; Professor David
Gray, M.A., F.R.S.E,
SECTION B.— CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS
TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.
President.—Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Baron Liebig; M. Fremy, Member of the Institute of France;
M. Peligot,"Royal Mint, Paris; Professor Anderson, F.R.S,E.; Dr: Andrews, F.R.S.;
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S,; Thos. Graham, Esq., D.C.L., F.R. S.; Dr. W. A. Miller,
F.R.S.; Dr. R. D. Thomson, F.R.S, L. & E.
Secretaries.—Professor Frankland, Ph.D., F.R.S.; Dr. H. E.’ Roscoe.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir C. Lyell, F.R.S.; Charles Darwin, F.R.S.; Rey. Professor
Sedgwick, F.R.S.; Hugh Miller, Esq.; A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.
_Secretaries.—Professor Nicol, F.G.S.; James Bryce, M.A., F.G.S.; Professor
Harkness, F.G.S,
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
President.—Rey. Dr. Fleming, F.R.S.E,
Vice-Presidents.—Dr. Sharpey, Sec.R.S.; Dr. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.; Dr. Car-
penter, F.R.S.; Dr. Dickinson, F.R.S.
Secretaries. ie, Lankester, F.R.S.; William Keddie, Esq.
: PHYSIOLOGICAL SUB-SECTION.
Chairman.—Professor Allen Thomson, F.R.S. L. & E.
Vice-Chairman.—Professor Buchanan, M.D.; Dr. A. D. Anderson; Professor
Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
, Secretaries.— Professor J. H. Corbett, M.D.; Dr. John Struthers.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
+ President.—Sir John Richardson, M.D., C.B., F.R.S.
_ Vice-Presidents:—Rear-Admiral Beechey; A. Keith Johnston, ons: Sir R. I,
Murchison, F.R.S.; Major-General Sir Charles Pasley, R.E., C.B., F.R.S.
Secretaries. Sarton Shaw, M.D., Sec. Roy. Geog. Soc. ; Hichard Cull, Esq., Hon,
Sec, Ethnol. Society; W. G. Blackie, Ph,D., F.R.G.S.
SECTION F.—-STATISTICS. _
President. —R. Monckton Milnes, Esq., M.P., D.C.L.
. Vice-Presidents.—The Lord Provost of Glasgow; Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ; Sir Archi-
bald Alison, Bart.; Professor A. Buchanan, M.D.; John Macgregor, Esq.» M.P.;
James Heywood, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.; William Tite, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
. Secreéaries—William Newmarch, Esq. ; Edward Cheshire, Esq. ; J. A. Campbell,
Esq. ; Professor R. Hussey Walsh.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
«President. —W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.R.S. L. & E.
| Vice-Presidents.—Robert Napier, Esq. ; Joseph Whitworth, Esq.; Dr. Neil Arnott,
_E.R.S.; William Fairbairn, Esq., C.E., F.R. S.; George Rennie, Esq., C.E., F.R.S,
Secretaries, —James Thomson, M. as C.E. ; Lawrence Hill, jun., C. E.; William
Ramsay, C.E. .
ee ee al
XXVlil
REPORT—1855.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Professor Agassiz, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts.
M. Babinet, Paris.
Dr. A. D. Bache, Washington.
Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, U.S.
M. Boutigny (d’Evreux).
Professor Braschmann, Moscow.
Chevalier Bunsen, Heidelberg.
Prince Charies Bonaparte, Paris.
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, Breslau.
M. De la Rive, Geneva.
Professor Dove, Berlin.
M. Dufrénoy, Paris.
Professor Dumas, Paris.
Dr. J. Milne-Edwards, Paris.
Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin.
Dr. Eisenlohr, Carlsruhe.
Professor Encke, Berlin.
Dr. A. Erman, Berlin.
Professor Esmark, Christiania.
Professor G. Forchhammer, Copenhagen.
M. Léon Foucault, Paris.
Prof. E. Fremy, Paris.
M. Frisiani, Milan.
Professor Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Henry, Washington, U.S.
Baron Alexander von Humboldt, Berlin.
M. Jacobi, St. Petersburg.
Prof. A.-Kolliker, Wurzburg.
Prof. De Koninck, Liége.
Professor Kreil, Vienna.
M. Kupffer, St. Petersburg.
Dr. Lamont, Munich.
Dr. Langberg, Christiania.
Prof. F. Lanza, Spoleto.
M. Le Verrier, Paris.
Baron von Liebig, Munich.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps, Liege.
Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin.
Professor Matteucci, Pisa.
Professor von Middendorff, St. Petersburg.
M. l’Abbé Moigno, Paris.
M. Morren, Liége.
Professor Nilsson, Sweden.
Dr. N. Nordengsciold, Finland.
M. E. Peligot, Paris.
Chevalier Plana, Turin.
Professor Pliicker, Bonn.
M. Quetelet, Brussels.
M. Constant Prévost, Paris.
Prof. Retzius, Stockholm.
Professor C. Ritter, Berlin.
Professor H. D. Rogers, Boston, U.S.
Professor W. B. Rogers, Boston, U.S.
Professor H. Rose, Berlin.
Baron Senftenberg, Bohemia.
Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm.
M. Struvé, Pulkowa.
Dr. Svanberg, Stockholm.
Dr. Van der Hoeven, Leyden.
Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen,
Gottingen.
M. Pierre Tchihatchef.
Professor Wartmann, Geneva.
Report OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COUNCIL IN 1854-55, AS PRESENTED
TO THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE AT GLASGow, WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER
127TH, 1855.
1. In reference to the sum of £500 placed by the General Committee at
Liverpool at the disposal of the Council for the maintenance of the Establish-
ment at Kew, the General Committee will find in the subjoined Report of
the Superintending Committee of that Establishment, an account of the
various objects which have occupied their attention, and of their proceed-
ings during the past year. The Council have directed printed copies of this
Report to be laid upon the table as the best means of enabling those mem-
bers of the General Committee who have not personally visited Kew, to
form their own judgment of the nature and value of the services which have
been performed there, and of the thanks which are due to the Superintend-
ing Committee for their voluntary and untiring labours in conducting the
Establishment, and to the personal staff, by whom their wishes have been
most zealously and effectively carried out. By the perusal of this Report the
Council consider also, that the General Committee will be better able to
judge of the claims of the Kew Establishment to the approval and to the
continued support of the British Association, than by any comments of their
own with which the Council might have accompanied the Report *.
* See p. xxx.
.
.
;
.
sea
ahs
—
A
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXIX
2. The Council have also directed printed copies to be laid on the table
of a Report which has been presented by the Parliamentary Committee of
the British Association, on the question, “ Whether any measures could be
adopted by Government or Parliament to improve the position of Science or
its Cultivators in this Country *.”
The suggestions which this Report contains are numerous and important.
Some of them, such as those touching alterations in the system of education
in our Universities, and an increased encouragement to the formation of
museums and public libraries, seem to be already in a fair way of being in a
greater or less degree adopted. The suggestion that the principal Scientific
Societies shall be located in London at the public expense in some one cen-
tral building, is, as there is good reason to hope, in a fair train of being
realized, under the most favourable circumstances, within the walls of Bur-
lington House in Piccadilly ; and-such a result would be of the highest im-
portance, not only for the convenience which such a juxtaposition would
afford to members for the pursuit of their researches, but perhaps still more
from the advantage of presenting the various scientific bodies, and in their
persons science itself, to the public eye in a conspicuous, honourable, and
influential position.
Other suggestions of the Parliamentary Committee, such as those touching
the support by the State of lecturers on science in the provincial towns,—
touching the question of rewards to be given in various shapes to the culti-
vators of science, and more especially that of the creation of a Board of
Science which shall advise the Government in connexion with it, have yet
to receive that sanction from public opinion, and more especially from the
opinion of men of science themselves, which more extended discussion can
alone elicit, and without which they could not be pressed upon Government
or Parliament with any prospect of success. For such a discussion perhaps
the present meeting may present a fitting opportunity.
3. In reference to the recommendation of the General Committee, that the
shipowners and other gentlemen interested in navigation at Liverpool should
form a Committee of their own body for the purpose of inquiring into the
best means of obviating the inconveniences and losses occasioned by the
errors of the compasses produced by the iron employed in the construction
and equipment of ships, the Council have had the satisfaction of learning
that a Committee has been formed and has entered upon the inquiry.
4. The Council have added to the list of Corresponding Members of the
British Association the names of Monsieur Léon Foucault and the Abbé
Moigno.
5. The Council have been informed that a Deputation will attend at Glas-
gow for the purpose of conveying an invitation to the British Association to
hold its meeting in 1856 at Cheltenham.
Letters have also been received, and will be laid before the General Com-
mittee, from the Board of Trinity College in Dublin, from the Royal Irish
Academy, and from the Royal Dublin Society, inviting the British Associa-
tion to hold its meeting in 1857 at Dublin.
* See p. xlviii.
XXX f REPORT—1855.
Report of the Kew Committee, presented to the Council of the British
Association June 27, 1855.
The Committee beg to submit the following Report of their proceedings
since the meeting of the Association at Liverpool.
On the 20th of October last, Mr. John Phillips addressed a letter to the
Chairman of the Kew Committee, announcing that a sum of £500 had been
placed by the General Committee at the disposal of the Council for the main-
tenance of the establishment at Kew, and that the General Committee had
recommended that application should be made by the President to Her
Majesty’s Government for the use, rent free, of the two acres of land adjacent
to the Observatory, and for the laying-on of gas.
The Committee met on the 8th of November, when the fixed expendi-
ture for the year was estimated at £341 (viz. Mr. Welsh £150, Beckley £91,
Magrath £40, and house expenses £60).
It having been represented to the Committee that Her Majesty's Govern-
ment were anxious that magnetical and meteorological instruments, showing
the state to which they had advanced in this country, should be exhibited at
the Paris Exhibition, and that the expenses which might be incurred on any
instruments or apparatus forwarded by the Committee would be defrayed by
the Government, your Committee requested Colonel Sabine, Mr. Welsh, and
the Chairman, to attend the Royal Society Paris Exhibition Committee, to
explain that the Kew Committee would most readily afford every assistance
in their power to carry out the wishes of Her Majesty’s Government.
The sum of £140 was ultimately awarded by the Royal Society Com-
mittee for this purpose, and the instruments have been prepared and forwarded
to Paris.
The following letter from Mr. John Welsh, addressed to the Chairman
of the Committee, is presented as a part of this Report.
“ Kew Observatory, June 26, 1855.
* Dear Srr,—Colonel Sabine furnished, from the Stores in the depart-
ment under his control at Woolwich, several of the instruments which had
been in use at the British Colonial Magnetical Observatories ; and he also
procured to be sent from Messrs. Jones and Barrow such of the smaller
portable instruments as are employed in magnetical surveys.
“‘ At the Observatory, specimens of the self-recording magnetical and
meteorological instruments of Mr. Ronalds were put in order, several small
alterations in their adjustments being necessary in order to adapt them to the
circumstances of the Exhibition. The two instruments sent, viz. the Bifilar
Magnetograph and the Barometrograph, were sufficient to illustrate in every
particular the principle of Mr. Ronalds’s method of recording magnetical and
meteorological phenomena; whilst a few specimens of the actual work of
these instruments served to show the degree of accuracy of which they were
capable. ;
“ Portions of an electrical apparatus were so arranged as to illustrate the
methods of insulation and of observation employed in the larger atmospheric
electrometer of Mr. Ronalds.
“A complete meteorological thermometer-stand, similar to the one ;
actually in use at the Observatory (described in the Report of the Kew
Committee to the meeting at Liverpool, 1854), was constructed under my
own superintendence, and furnished with instruments chiefly graduated by
myself.
*‘ Some of the standard thermometers graduated at the Observatory have
‘REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXt
been sent; and an apparatus similar to that employed here in the verification
of thermometers has been constructed, and is exhibited in working order.
“The meteorological instruments made use of in the balloon ascents of
1852 were put in order, and arranged for exhibition exactly in the condition
in which they were employed in the ascents.
“The following instruments were made by my direction expressly for
the Exhibition :—
« An Evaporation-gauge on the principle of Mr. Ronalds.
“ A common circular Rain-gauge.
“ A portable Boiling-point apparatus (the thermometer graduated by
myself), on the principle of Regnault’s large instrument.
* At the request of the Committee, Mr. Adie furnished a specimen of the
marine barometers constructed by him, and recommended by the Committee
to the British and American Governments. Messrs. Negretti and Zambra,
and Messrs. Casella and Co., also furnished specimens of the marine thermo-
meters constructed by them under the superintendence of the Committee.
“In order to render the collection of meteorological instruments more
complete, the Committee requested instruments to be sent by the following
London opticians, viz.— -
« By Mr. Newman, a Standard and a Portable Barometer.
“By Mr. Barrow, a Standard Barometer; and
“By Mr. Adie, a Standard and a Portable Barometer, and a Portable
Robinson’s Anemometer.
“The instruments having been prepared and collected at Kew, glass
cases and other fittings required for their proper exhibition and protection
were constructed, and the whole packed and forwarded on April 10th to the
shipping agents appointed by the Board of Trade, by whom they were
transmitted to Paris.
“ Having learned that the instruments had arrived in Paris, and that the
space allotted for their exhibition was in readiness ; on May 9th, accompanied
by Mr. Beckley, I proceeded to Paris for the purpose of arranging the Col-
lection. Owing to certain arrangements of the Imperial Commissioners, I
could not proceed with the necessary preparations until the 17th of May.
On June 2nd, the instruments having been all put in order, we returned to
the Observatory.
“ The space assigned to the Kew Collection is situated near the middle
of the South Gallery in the Central Building. It consists of a counter space
_ 95 feet long, and an open space 25 feet long by 7 feet wide. On the counter
2
.
—_
are placed two glass cases, each 10 feet long, the one containing the smaller
Magnetical Instruments, and the other the Meteorological Instruments. On
. the counter are also placed Mr. Ronalds’s Self-registering Magnetograph, and
the apparatus for the verification of thermometers.
‘On the open space are placed the three large Magnetical Instruments
used in the Colonial Magnetical Observatories, with the Reading Telescopes,
supported by wooden Tripod Stands; the Self-recording Barometer and
Electrical Insulator of Mr. Ronalds; and the Kew Thermometer Stand.
“ There is also on this space a Stand containing a copy of the Magnetical
and Meteorological Observations made at the British Colonial Observatories,
surmounted by Mr. De la Rue’s model of the Tower proposed to be erected
_ at Kew for the Huyghenian Telescope.
* The various instruments, especially the magnetical, have been put, as
far as was practicable, in a state of approximate adjustment. In order to
avoid the effect of tremor in the floor, the magnets have been supported on
blocks in such a way as to render the scales visible. All the instruments
XXXIi REPORT—1855.
have affixed to them descriptive labels in French and English. The annexed
copy of these labels will best explain the nature of the collection.
“ The instruments exhibited by the Kew Committee have been put in
charge of M. de Fontaine Moreau, who has agreed to keep them in good
order during the continuance of the Exhibition for the sum of £10. It
would, I think, have been of great advantage if there had been, besides,
some competent person appointed by the English Commissioners to take a
general superintendence of the whole collection of Philosophical Instruments
exhibited, and who, being always on the spot, could give any information
required by visitors.
* You will see by the account of the expenses, which I have already
handed to you, that there has been expended the sum of £141 4s. 7d.,
which already exceeds the amount of the grant from the Board of Trade.
Some considerable expense will still be necessary for the protection of the
Instruments in Paris, as well as for having them repacked and sent home at
the close of the Exhibition. The amount of this I cannot at present esti-
mate, but it will not I believe exceed £50.
* Tt will be borne in mind that these expenses do not include any return
to the funds of the Observatory, on account of the loss of the services of
their Assistants during the very considerable period which has been devoted
to the preparation of the Instruments and their arrangement in Paris. This
period has been little (if at all) short of three months, and the consequent
pecuniary sacrifice by the Committee cannot be estimated at less than £60
or £70, independently of the very serious inconvenience sustained in the
derangement of the general work of the Observatory.
“ T am, dear Sir,
“ Yours faithfully,
“To J. P. Gassiot, Esq., F.R.S., “ J. WELSH.
Chairman of the Kew Observatory Committee,
“ Copy of the Labels affixed to the various Instruments and Apparatus
deposited by the Kew Observatory Committee in the Paris Universal
Exhibition.
“1. Declination Magnetometer employed in the British Colonial Magnetic
Observatories, under the superintendence of Colonel Edward Sabine, R.A.,
F.R.S. &c. &c. Constructed by Grubb of Dublin, on the model of the
instrument used in the Dublin Magnetic Observatory, under the direction |
of Dr. Lloyd, F.R.S.
“2, Bifilar Magnetometer, for observations of the variations of the hori-
zontal magnetic intensity, employed in the British Cofonial Observatories,
under the superintendence of Colonel Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S. &e. &e,
Constructed by Grubb of Dublin, on the model of the instrument used in the
Dublin Magnetic Observatory, under the direction of Dr. Lloyd, F.R.S.
“ 3, Balance Magnetometer, for observation of the variations of the ver-
tical magnetic intensity, employed in the British Colonial Magnetic Obser-
vatories, under the superintendence of Colonel Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.
Devised by Dr. Lloyd, F.R.S., and constructed by Robinson of London.
‘4, Dip-circle with Microscopes, for observation of the magnetic inclina-
tion, furnished with Deflection Bars, for observation of the absolute vertical
intensity, by the method of Dr. Lloyd. Constructed by Barrow and Co.,
London.
“ 5. Standard Compass used in the British Navy, with Sabine’s Deflection
Apparatus. Constructed by Barrow and Co., London.
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXxiii-
- ©6, Portable Unifilar Magnetometer, for observation of deflection in the
determination of the absolute horizontal intensity by the method of Gauss.
Constructed by W. H. Jones of London.
“7, Portable Vibration Apparatus (to accompany the Unifilar Magneto-
meter), for observations of the time of vibration of the deflecting magnet in
experiments for the absolute horizontal intensity, with brass rings for the
determination of the moment of inertia of the magnet and its appendages.
Constructed by W. H. Jones of London.
“8. Portable Declinometer, with Theodolite and Collimator Magnet, for
observation of the absolute declination. Constructed by W. H. Jones of
London.
“9, Universal Unifilar Magnetometer, for observations of deflection and
vibration in experiments for the absolute horizontal intensity, and (with the
addition of a Theodolite) of the absolute declination. Constructed by W. H.
Jones of London.
“10. Portable Declinometer, for observations of the variations of the
magnetic declination. Constructed by W. H. Jones of London.
“11. Portable Bifilar Magnetometer, for observations of the variations of
the horizontal intensity. Constructed by W. H. Jones of London.
“12. Self-registering Magnetometer, for recording photographically the
variations of the horizontal magnetic intensity, or of the magnetic decli-
nation. Invented by Francis Ronalds, Esq., F.R.S., and constructed under
his direction for the Kew Observatory.
«13. Self-registering Barometer, for recording photographically the
variations of the atmospheric pressure, with mechanical compensation for
the effect of temperature. Invented by Francis Ronalds, Esq., F.R.S., and
constructed under his direction for the Kew Observatory.
“14, Apparatus to illustrate the methods of Insulation and Observation
employed in the Atmospheric Electrometer, constructed for the Kew Ob-
servatory, under the direction of Francis Ronalds, Esq., F.R.S.
“15. Thermometer Stand for Meteorological Observations, similar to that
employed at the Kew Observatory ; furnished with—
A. Dry- and Wet-bulb Thermometers.
B. Regnault’s Condensing Hygrometer, with the Inverting Aspirator
of Mr. Ronalds. ae
C. Daniell’s Dew-point Hygrometer.
D. Negretti and Zambra’s Maximum-Thermometer.
E. Phillips’s Maximum-Thermometer.
F. Rutherford’s Minimum-Thermometer.
“16. Standard Barometer by Newman.
«17, Standard Barometer by Barrow and Co.
“18. Standard Barometer by Adie.
“19. Portable Barometer by Newman.
«90, Portable Barometer by Adie.
* «9}],. Marine Barometer by Adie, London, supplied to ships by the
British’ and American Governments, on the recommendation of the Kew
Observatory Committee.
« 99, Cistern of Adie’s Standard or Portable Barometer.
«93, Cistern of Newman’s Portable Barometer.
“94, Standard Thermometers graduated at the Kew Observatory by
J. Welsh.
“95. Thermometers for Marine Meteorological Observations, supplied to
ships by the British and American Governments, on the recommendation of
the Kew Observatory Committee.
1855. ec
XXXiV REPORT—1855,.
“96, Evaporation-Gauge, invented by Francis Ronalds, F.R.S, and em-
ployed at the Kew Observatory.
“97, Rain-Gauge, with graduated Glass-measure.
“98, Portable Apparatus, for the determination of heights by observation
of the boiling-point of water. Constructed on the principle of Regnault’s
Boiling-point Apparatus for the Kew Observatory.
«29, Meteorological Instruments employed in the experimental Balloon
ascents performed in 1852, under the direction of the Kew Observatory
Committee, at the expense of the Royal Society of London.
“30. Portable Robinson’s Anemometer.
“31. Sliding-rule for the computation of the results of observations of the
dry- and wet-bulb hygrometer. Designed by J. Welsh, of the Kew Ob-
servatory.
«392. Sliding-rule for computing the variations of the dip and total intensity
from observations of the horizontal and vertical components of magnetic
intensity. Designed by J. Welsh, of the Kew Observatory.
“33, Apparatus similar to that employed at the Kew Observatory, in
the verification of the thermometers supplied to ships by the British and
American Governments,
* 34. Specimens of the Photographic Records of the Self-registering Mag-
netometer and Barometer, with apparatus for measuring the ordinates of the
curves.”
The cost and expenses incurred in the preparation and transit of the
instruments and apparatus sent to the Paris Exhibition having exceeded the
amount of £140 received from the Board of Trade, and Mr. Welsh having
strongly recommended that some arrangement should be made for increased
inspection of the instruments and apparatus during the time they remain in
the Exhibition,—
The Committee Resolved,—That the Chairman be requested to forward an
account of the expenses incurred, amounting to £141 4s. 7d., with
vouchers, to the' Board of Trade, and a list of the instruments exhibited,
requesting that a further sum of £50 be granted in order to defray the
expenses that must be incurred in repacking and forwarding the instru-
ments to England; and that a copy of the above, and of this Resolution,
be sent to the Royal Society’s Paris Exhibition Committee, requesting its
support of the application.
A copy of the above Resolution, with a list of the apparatus deposited in
the Exhibition, has been forwarded to Dr. Lyon Playfair and to the Royal
Society.
The apparatus for testing barometers has been completed, and is now in
action. This apparatus has been entirely constructed in the Observatory by
Mr. Beckley, under the direction and superintendence of Mr. Welsh.
In their last report, the Committee stated that they had engaged to verify
for the Board of Trade 400 thermometers and 60 barometers, and for the
United States Navy 1000 thermometers and 50 barometers, all of which
instruments have now been despatched from the Observatory. The Com-
mittee have since undertaken the verification of the following additional in-
struments, viz.
For the Board of Trade. For the Admiralty.
480
Thermometers
Barometers.............. 60 80 .
Hydrometers ............ 600 400
Of which there have been already completed 540 thermometers, 800 hydro-
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXV
meters, 45 barometers, There have besides been verified for opticians
92 thermometers. The total number of instruments verified up to this time
is 2032 thermometers, 155 barometers, 800 hydrometers.
The Chairman has received an application, through Colonel Sabine, from
Dr. Pegado, Superintendent of the Royal Marine Meteorological Observatory.
at Lisbon, fora Kew Standard Thermometer, and for specimens of the Marine
Barometers, Thermometers and Hydrometers, supplied to the British Navy
and Board of Trade, accompanied by an inquiry whether a supply of such in-
struments can be obtained for the Portuguese Royal Marine by the aid of the
Kew Committee of the British Association, the centesimal scale being em-
ployed in the thermometers, and the metrical scale in the barometers. The
instruments thus applied for are in course of preparation, and the Kew Com~
mittee signified to Dr. Pegado their readiness to undertake the verification
of Marine Meteorological. Instruments for the Portuguese Government (if
desired), under similar arrangements to those which have been approved and
adopted by our own Government and by the Government of the United States.
The increased demand on the time and work necessary for the verifica-
tion of instruments in the Observatory, renders it necessary for the Committee
to employ further assistance. As yet the Committee have not been able to
obtain the permanent services of any person of the character they require ;
but in the meantime, Dr. Hermann Halleur, of Berlin, at a weekly salary of
30s., on the recommendation of Colonel Sykes, has undertaken for a short
time to assist Mr. Welsh in the verification of the instruments.
The Committee has caused a room for magnetic experiments to be erected.
in the ground, at a cost of about £50. :
The apparatus suggested by Sir John Herschel for photographing
the spots on the sun’s disc, is progressing under the superintendence of
Mr. Warren De la Rue. |The Solar Photographic Telescope is promised by
the maker complete in three months; the object-glass is finished, and some
progress has been made with the stand. The diameter of the object-glass is
3°4 inches, and its focal length 50 inches; the image of the sun will be
0°465 inch, but the proposed eye-piece will, with a magnifying power of
25°8 times and focal length a, increase the image to 12 inches, the angle of
the picture being abou. 13°45’. The object-glass is under-corrected in such
a manner as to produce the best practical coincidence of the chemical and
visual foci*. The eye-piece consists of two nearly achromatic combinations,
their forms, foci, and focal lengths being arranged upon the basis of the
photographic portrait lens, the conditions being nearly similar.
It is contemplated to form the system of micrometer-wires on a curved
surface; and it may ultimately be found to be advantageous also to curve
the photographic screen, as the small curvature necessary, namely about
two-tenths of an inch, will present no mechanical difficulties. As in practice
it may possibly be found desirable not to produce the sun’s image with too
great rapidity, a provision is contemplated for the absorption of some of the
most energetic active rays by the interposition of coloured media of different
tints.
_ The telescope being for a special object, it will have no appliances except
_ such as appertain exclusively to that object, so that the only means provided
for viewing the sun will be through the finder intended for facilitating the
adjustment of the sun’s image in position as regards the micrometer. The
” *® Mr. Ross has found, that if for the greatest intensity of vision, in common lenses, the
tatio of the dispersive powers of the two media is 0°65, the chemical and visual foci
- will coincide best practically when with the same media the ratio is altered to 0°60; the
media he sometimes uses being Pellatt’s flint and Thames plate. 2
’ c
XXXVi REPORT—1855,
polar axis will be furnished with a worm-wheel and clock-work driver, and
the declination axis with a clamping circle. A shutter for covering the
object-glass, and capable of being rapidly moved by the observer, will be so
contrived as to be under his command, whether he be at the time near the
object-glass or near the screen, eight feet distant.
It was originally intended to place the telescope in an observatory 12
feet in diameter, provided with a revolving roof; adjoining the observatory,
a small room for chemicals was to have been constructed, so as to facilitate
the fixing of the pictures. It has however been found possible to somewhat
alter the construction of the tube, so as to reduce its length sufficiently to
allow of the telescope being placed under the dome of the Kew Observatory,
which is only 10 feet in diameter.
Dr. Miller has selected an air-pump for the use of the Observatory,
which has been purchased out of the grant of the Royal Society, and is now
in the Observatory.
Dr. Robinson’s Anemometer, to record the total amount of wind (but
not as yet the time or direction), has been constructed at the Observatory,
and is now in action.
Joun P. Gassior,
Chairman.
Special Report of the Kew Committee relative to the use of Land contiguous
to the Observatory, as aiso to the Lighting of the Building with Gas.
The Committee having ascertained through the Earl of Harrowby, Pre-
sident of the British Association, that in consequence of a recent Act of
Parliament no portion of the ground contiguous to the Observatory could
be obtained free of rent, and the Commissioners of Parks, Palaces, and Public
Buildings having refused to light the Observatory with gas, the Committee
consider it their duty to present the following special Report for the con-
sideration of the Council.
Report.
The Observatory was originally placed at the disposal of the British Asso-
ciation by Her Majesty’s Government in 1842, and has since been used as a
place of deposit for the various books, papers and apparatus belonging to the
Association, as well as for the carrying on a continued series of scientific in-
vestigations, which have from time to time been fully detailed in its annual
reports.
In the Report of the Committee presented to the Association at their
Meeting at Hull in September 1853, it was recommended that an application
should be made to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests for the tempo-
rary use of a small portion of the ground near the Observatory for the erec-
tion of suitable places for observing: this recommendation having been
approved by the Association, Col. Sabine and the Chairman of the Com-
mittee waited on Sir W. Molesworth in January 1854, and explained that
the land which the Committee required would not exceed two acres. Sir
W. Molesworth stated, that there was some doubt whether the Park was
under the control of his Board, but that he would be happy to forward the
application.
The Committee not hearing anything further from Sir W. Molesworth,
applied to the Hon. Charles Gore, who, at their request, visited the Obser-
vatory on the Ist of April, 1854, in company with Mr. Clutton, when it was
arranged that the Committee should pay a sum of £10 10s. per acre for the
use of the land to the tenant, until Michaelmas 1854, at which time it was
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXVIL
stated the present tenure with the Crown would cease, and it being then
‘considered, that at the termination of the agreement arrangements might be
made with the Crown for the use of this small portion of the ground; this,
however, is now found to be impracticable: the Commissioner having sub-
sequently informed the Committee that he has no intention to determine
the present tenancy of the Park, the Committee are therefore precluded
from becoming the direct tenants from the Crown, even at a rental (see
Letter, 11th April, 1855); and consequently they must either continue to
pay the present exorbitant rent of £10 10s. per acre, or give up the land
to the tenant, although an expense of £48 in fencing, and nearly £50 in the
erection of a magnetical house, has been incurred.
In respect to the lighting of the Observatory with gas, the Committee
consider that it is highly desirable that this should be effected ; for, exclusive
of the increase in the general scientific work carried on in the Observatory,
the constant attention requisite in the verification of the barometers and.
thermometers for the use of H.M. Navy and the Mercantile Marine, ren-
ders a more perfect and uniform system of lighting highly desirable, as also
avoiding the danger of fire by the use of oil lamps.
The Committee having at last ascertained, by correspondence, that the
Observatory and the Park are under the control of separate Boards, the Ob-
servatory being under the direction of the Commissioners of Parks, Palaces,
and Public Buildings, while the Park is under that of the Woods, Forests, and
Land Revenues, applied to the Chief Commissioner of the latter department, to
ascertain whether he would grant permission to lay down the gas-pipes in the
Park, and whether any, and what, amount of compensation would have to be
paid to the tenant who rents the land; by the correspondence it will be seen
that no compensation will be required, if the gas-pipes are laid down during
the winter, and that the Chief Commissioner will not object, provided the
Association will undertake to pay a nominal rent of Ls. per annum.
The Committee have ascertained that the cost of laying down the gas to
the Observatory would be about £220, and in the event of its being considered
advisable, all that will now be necessary to obtain is the sanction of the
officer of the Parks, Palaces, and Public Buildings department, who has
charge of the district, and whose name and address the Committee will
endeavour to ascertain. Joun P. Gassior,
Chairman.
Supplementary Report of the Kew Committee, September 12, 1855.
In addition to the report presented to the Council on June 27, a copy of
which is appended, your Committee have now to report that a tube of
rather more than one inch internal diameter having been satisfactorily filled
with mercury by Mr. Welsh, the standard barometer has been now completed.
A detailed account of the various experiments which have been made during
the construction of this instrument will be prepared for publication.
The following statement shows the actual number of meteorological in-
struments verified at the Kew Observatory during the past year :—
Thermometers. Barometers. Hydrometers.
For the United States Government .... 1000 ,
Ri Admiralty and Board of Trade.. 1340 200 1269
x, Opticians ........ LHe ce ESO 7
—— ——ee
Total,... 2520 257 1269
XXXVill REPORT—1855.
Apparatus similar to that employed at the Kew Observatory for the veri-
fication of barometers and thermometers, has been ordered by the Board of
Trade, for the observatory at Liverpool; it has been constructed by Mr. Adie,
under the advice and direction of Mr. Welsh; the original patterns used in
making the Kew apparatus having been lent for that purpose. The Committee
have also been informed that it is the intention of the Admiralty to provide
similar apparatus for Portsmouth and Plymouth.
The apparatus necessary for the complete registration of Dr. Robinson’s
Anemometer is in progress at the Observatory ; the castings of all the parts
and most of the wheel-work being completed.
The following letter having been addressed by Mr. Welsh to the Chairman,
copies were forwarded, by the instructions of the Committee, to Admiral
Beechey and Captain FitzRoy at the Board of Trade.
“‘ Kew Observatory, Aug. 27, 1855.
“My pEAR S1r,—I enclose a memorandum of the number of meteoro-
logical instruments which during the past years have been verified for the
meteorological department of the Admiralty and Board of Trade, with the
sums due to the Kew Committee for the same.
“In the event of further contracts being entered into with the opticians
for the supply of meteorological instruments which are to be examined at
this observatory, I would offer one or two suggestions with regard to the
instruments and the terms of the contracts, with the view of facilitating our
proceedings and of securing greater uniformity in the quality of the instru-
ments, and greater punctuality in their delivery.
“Ist. As regards the accuracy of the graduation of the thermometers, we
have, I think, been fully successful; the instruments made by Casella and by
Negretti and Zambra have in this respect been constructed with much care,
and the numbers rejected on account of error very small. I have not, how-
ever, been so well satisfied with regard to the uniformity of the instruments
in a mechanical point of view:—the diameter of the bulbs has been too
irregular, and in many cases considerably more than is desirable,—the range
of the graduation has differed in many instances excessively from that pre-
scribed in the instructions of the Kew Committee,—and even the dimensions
of the mere material have been too little attended to, at least in some of the
instruments more recently made by Negrettiand Zambra. With respect to the
first two faults, as it is practically impossible to make the instruments exactly
to a prescribed pattern, I would suggest that certain limits should be clearly
specified in the contracts, beyond which the instruments must not be in
error; for example, ‘the diameter of the bulb should be as nearly as possible
0°4: inch, it must not exceed 0°5 inch, nor fall short of 0:3 inch,’ and ‘the
graduation shall extend through 8} inches of the tube, and shall range from
about 10° to 130°, and shall not exceed the limits 0° to 140° or 20° to 130°’
The dimensions of the mere materials should of course be explicitly stated,
and no deviation from them be allowed. In_ the instructions given at first
by the Committee, it is stated that ‘Auoric or hydrofluoric acid’ may be used
in etching the divisions: I would suggest that fluoric acid vapour alone should-
be used.
“2nd. In the case of the hydrometers, it would be well if there existed
more uniformity in the form and dimensions of the instruments as made by
the three different makers employed by Captain FitzRoy. Those made by
Casella are, on the whole, the best adapted for practical work; their scales
should, however, be more open. In shape and strength they are by
far the best, those by Adie and by Negretti and Zambra being much too
7
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. XXXiX
fragile to stand the work they are designed for. In respect to accuracy,
Casella’s are also incomparably the best, and he deserves credit for the care
with which they have been made: I cannot report so favourably of the
quality of those by Adie, or Negretti and Zambra. I would recommend that
for the future the use of metal hydrometers should be altogether discon-
tinued. They are four times the price of glass ones,—are generally less
accurate,—are more apt to give deceptive results from their greater affinity
for grease,—are very liable to pick up small particles of mercury,—and,
lastly, if they do get a knock, their indications are rendered false; whereas
a glass one is simply destroyed and no harm is done to the observations.
“3rd. I have no particular remark to make about the marine barometers
by Adie; they continue to improve in quality and regularity as the maker
becomes more familiar with the work.
“4th. With regard to punctuality in the delivery of the instruments ;—
.there is, I understand, in the contracts, a clause to the effect that if the instru-
ments are not delivered at certain dates, the Board of Trade or Admiralty
are at liberty to purchase the instruments elsewhere, fhe defaulter to pay
any difference in the cost. Now such a penalty might do very well if we
had to deal with articles which are to be had at any time of the same quality.
As it is, the instruments are not to be had in an emergency by simply sending
into the market. I do not mean that barometers and thermometers may not
be had in abundance, but we know, from past experience, that they are not
of a quality which it would be desirable to give out for accurate observations.
Such a penalty becomes therefore practically inoperative. I would suggest,
whether a direct pecuniary fine should not be rather imposed in cases of
default: If the punctual delivery of the instruments by the makers were
rigorously enforced, I should then be able so to arrange beforehand the work
of the Observatory, that the verifications should in all cases be proceeded
with promptly and regularly. The want of punctuality hitherto has frequently
been a source of serious inconvenience to the Observatory.
“Tt would, I believe, contribute much to regularity, if the thermometers
and hydrometers were sent here in the boxes, just as they are to be delivered
to the ships: the additional expense would be very trifling,— perhaps a half-
penny on each instrument.
“T remain, dear Sir, yours faithfully,
“J. P. Gassiot, Esq., F.R.S.” “ J. WELSH.”
The following reply has been received from the Board of Trade :—
“Office of Committee of Privy Council for Trade, Marine Department,
4th September, 1855.
«Srr,—I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council
for Trade to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 31st ultimo, en-
closing a copy of a letter from Mr. Welsh, having reference to certain
arrangements which he proposes should be made with instrument-makers in
the case of future contracts for meteorological instruments; I am to convey
_to you their Lordships’ thanks for the communication, and to inform you
that they will adopt Mr. Welsh’s suggestions.
“Tam, Sir, your obedient Servant,
“Doucias Gatton, Capt. R.E.”
“ John P. Gassiot, F'sq., Chairman of the Kew Committee,
British Association, Kew Observatory.”
__ Two portable barometers by Adie, previously compared with the standard
xl REPORT—1855.
at Kew, were deposited for a few days at the Imperial Observatory at Paris ;
comparisons with the standard instrument of the Observatory were taken by
M. Liais, which indicated that the standards of the two Institutions do not
differ from each other by one-thousandth of an inch. :
In the report of the Committee presented to the Association at the
Liverpooi Meeting, it is stated that—“ Considering the variety and import-
ance of the objects which are now being carried out at the Observatory, the
Comunittee submit for the consideration of the Council, that should the finan-
cial state of the Association at Liverpool justify an increase in the annual
sum placed at the disposal of the Committee, they feel confident that a larger
grant than has been allowed in the last few years for the maintenance of
the Observatory, might be so appropriated in the next year with great advan-
tage to the interests of science and to the credit of the Association.” The
Association responded to this request by placing the sum of £500 at the dis-
position of the Kew Committee. The Committee hope that the account of
disbursements and the report now presented will satisfy the Association that
the money expended during the past year has not been misapplied. Should
the financial position of the Association justify the expenditure, the Com-
mittee hope that a similar amount of £500 may be awarded for the current
expenses of the Kew Observatory for the ensuing year.
The Committee cannot close this report without alluding to the advantages
which are likely to arise from the endeavours used by the Association to
improve the construction of meteorological instruments, and at the same time
to reduce their price. Independently of the improvement which the Committee
have been able to introduce in the manufacture of instruments for the use
of the Royal and Commercial Marine, they are gratified by perceiving an
increasing disposition among the makers generally to bestow more care upon
the construction of their instruments.
(Signed) Joun P. Gassior,
Chairman.
CORRESPONDENCE REFERRED TO IN PRECEDING REPORT.
1. Mr. Gassiot to the Hon. Charles Gore.
‘¢ Clapham Common, 20th March, 1855,
“ Srr,—You are I believe aware, that some years since H.M. Govern-
ment placed the Observatory in the Old Deer Park, at Richmond, at the
disposal of the British Association, with the view of its being used not only
for the deposit of the various scientific instruments and apparatus as well as
books belonging to the Association, but also for the carrying on of various
scientific experimental investigations.
“ Much inconvenience has arisen in the prosecution of the latter, from the
Observatory not being properly lighted, and I have been requested by the
Committee to suggest to you the advisability of the interior of the building
being lighted with gas.
“Exclusive of the desirableness of the gas being laid on, as has been
done in the Magnetical and Electrical Department of the Royal Observatory
at Greenwich Park, and ia the event of which the Committee would be
enabled to carry out a variety of scientific investigations which they are
now totally prevented from commencing, I may state that the increased
requirements arising from the number of barometers and thermometers,
which are at present in course of verification for the use of H.M. Navy
and Mercantile Marine, has rendered it indispensable that a corresponding
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xb
increase should be made in the number of oil lamps, and the Committee
cannot but be sensible that in a building in which so large a quantity of
papers and books is distributed, a corresponding increase in the danger of
fire has arisen; this would be entirely obviated by the introduction of gas
into the building.
“Limited as are the funds which are at the disposal of the Association, the
expense of the gas proposed to be used would be defrayed by the Committee,
and all they ask is that it should be laid on in the different rooms. The
Committee hope that as no pecuniary assistance is received by the Associa-
tion from H.M. Government, and that as the exertions of the Committee
have latterly been devoted to the great national object of verifying the
meteorological instruments used by H.M. Navy, this request will not be
refused. :
“Some time since, the Committee made arrangements through your
Surveyor, with the present tenant, for the occupation of two acres of the
land immediately contiguous to the Observatory ; the land has been enclosed
with a strong paling at a very considerable expense.
“In any future letting, the Committee hope they will be permitted to
take the two acres direct from the Crown, at such rent as your Surveyor may
consider fair and equitable ; and as some misunderstanding has at times arisen
as to the right of way to the Observatory, the Committee would feel obliged
in any future arrangements you may make for the letting of the land, that
the right of way should be specified.
“JT am also directed to acquaint you, that the Committee consider it
desirable the Building should be examined by your Surveyor, as some repairs
are required, which if not made at an early period,.may ultimately cause.
considerable expense to the Government.
‘“‘ T have the honour to be, Sir,
«“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) * «J.P. Gassior.”
‘To the Hon. Charles Gore.”
2. Mr. Gore to Mr. Gassiot.
“ Office of Woods, &c., 27th March, 1855.
_ €§1r,—TI have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 20th inst.,
and to inform you in reply, that the Buildings of the Observatory being
under the charge of the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Works, &c., any
communication respecting its condition, or as to lighting it with gas, should
be made to that Department at No. 12 Whitehall Place, and I have therefore
transmitted copy of those portions of your letter which have reference to that
Building to that Office.
_“ With respect, however, to the tenancy of the land adjoining the Ob-
_servatory, I have to state that in the event of any change in the letting of
_ the Park taking place, your application, that the Committee of the British
_ Association may be permitted to rent it direct from the Crown, and a right
_ of way thereto reserved in the letting of the residue, shall receive attention.
Ca “Tam, Sir,
k “ Your obedient Servant,
: (Signed) “ Cuas. Gore.”
i
J, P. Gassiot, Esq.” 4
‘ 3. Mr. Gore to Mr. Gassiot.
“ Office of Woods, &c., 11th April, 1855.
“Srr,—With reference to my letter to you of the 27th ult., 1 have to
acquaint you that I do not think it would be for the interest of the Crown,
Te a ND
>
xlii REPORT—1855.
and I have therefore no intention to determine the present tenancy of the
Old Deer Park. It is not therefore in my power to give to the British
Association a direct holding under the Crown of the land adjoining the
Observatory and in their occupation; but, as stated in my said letter, in the
event of any change in the letting taking place, your application to that effect
shall receive attention. <T am, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed ) “ CHas. Gore.”
“J. P. Gassiot, Esq.”
4. Mr. Gassiot to the Hon. Charles Gore.
“ Clapham Common, 17th April, 1855.
“Sr1r,—I have the honour to acknowledge receipt of your esteemed
favours of 27th ult. and 11th inst. At the time the Committee agreed to give
the present tenant the rent which they now pay, they considered (from the
conversation they had with you) that the present tenancy terminated next
Michaelmas, otherwise they would not have instructed me to make the
application, and they cannot but regret it is not in your power to give
them a direct holding under the Crown for the small portion of the Park
which they at present occupy.
“Tn your letter of 27th ult., you stated that you had forwarded an extract
of that portion of my former letter which referred to the repairs and lighting
of the Observatory with gas to another department; I have not received any ,
communication on the subject, and Mr. Welsh informs me that the Obser-
vatory has not been visited by any person in reference thereto; for the
reasons mentioned in my letter, the Committee would feel obliged if you could
assist them in obtaining the lighting of the Observatory with gas; as regards
the repairs, unless some early notice is taken, the ultimate expense to Govern-
ment may be considerable. ,
“T have the honour to be, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “Joun P. Gassiot,
.“ Chairman of the Kew Committee -
of the British Association.”
“To the Hon. Chas. Gore.”
5. Mr. Gore to Mr. Gassiot.
“ Office of Woods, &c., 19th April, 1855.
« Sir,—I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 17th inst.,
requesting attention to your previous application, with regard to the repairs
and lighting of the Observatory in the Old Deer Park with gas.
“In reply I have to acquaint you that I have no power to obtain a reply,
and to suggest therefore that any further communication on the subject which
you may consider desirable, should be addressed direct to the Chief Com-
missioner of Her Majesty’s Works, &c., No. 12 Whitehall Place, to whom, as
stated in my letter of the 27th ult., I had forwarded your previous applica~
tion. “T am, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ CHAs. Gorz.”
“ J, P. Gassiot, Esq.” ss
iy
4
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xliii
6. Mr. Gassiot to the Hon. Sir William Molesworth, Bart.
“Clapham Common, 26th May, 1855.
“Str,—On the 20th of last March, by the direction of the Kew
Committee of the British Association, I addressed a letter to the Hon. Charles
Gore, Chief Commissioner of H.M. Woods, Forests, and Land Revenue
Department, of which the following are extracts :—
*¢ You are, I believe, aware, that some years since H.M. Government
placed the Observatory, in the Old Deer Park at Richmond, at the disposal
of the British Association, with the view of its being used not only for the
deposit of the various scientific instruments and apparatus, as well as books
belonging to the Associatiun, but also for the carrying on of various scientific
experimental investigations.
“¢Much inconvenience has arisen in the prosecution of the latter, from
the Observatory not being properly lighted, and I have been requested by
the Committee to suggest to you the advisability of the interior of the
Building being lighted with gas.
*¢ Exclusive of the desirableness of the gas being laid on, as has been
done in the Magnetic and Electrical Department of the Royal Observatory
at Greenwich Park, and in the event of which the Committee would be
enabled to carry out a variety of scientific investigations which they are now
totally prevented from commencing, I may state that the increased require-
ments arising from the number of Barometers and Thermometers which are
‘at present in course of verification for the use of H.M. Navy and Mercantile
Marine, has rendered it indispensable that a corresponding increase should
‘be made in the number of oil lamps, and the Committee cannot but be
sensible that in a Building in which so large a quantity of papers and books
is distributed, a corresponding increase in-the danger of fire has arisen; this
would be entirely obviated by the introduction of gas into the Building.
“¢JVimited as are the funds which are at the disposal of the ‘Anaufftions
the expense of the gas proposed to be used would be defrayed by the Com-
mittee, and all they ask is that it should be laid on in the different rooms ;
the Committee hope that as no pecuniary assistance is received by the Asso-
ciation from H.M. Government, and that as the exertions of the Committee
have latterly been devoted to the great national object of verifying the meteo-
rological instruments used by H.M. Navy, this request will not be refused.
“¢T am also directed to acquaint you, that the Committee consider it
desirable the building should be examined by your Surveyor, as some repairs
are required, which if not made at an early period, may ultimately cause
considerable expense to the Government.’
“ On the 27th March, Mr. Gore replied, stating ‘that the Building of the
Observatory being under the charge of the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s
Works, any communication respecting its condition, or as to lighting it with
gas, should be made to that department, at No. 12, Whitehall Place, and I have
therefore transmitted copy of those portions of your letter which have
reference to that Building to that Office.’
“Nearly two months having elapsed without being favoured with any
communication from you, I have been directed by the Committee to state,
that they should feel obliged by your informing them whether their request
_ can be complied with: I may add, that, in respect to the repairs, these are
absolutely necessary, in order to prevent a much larger outlay at no great
distance of time. “1 have the honour to be, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ Joun P. Gasgsior.”
xliv REPORT—1855.
7. The Secretary of the Board of Works, §c. to Mr. Gassiot.
“ Office of Works, &c., June 2, 1855.
“ Sir,—The Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Works, &c. have had
transmitted to them by the Hon. Charles Gore, one of the Commissioners
of Her Majesty’s Woods, &c., extracts from your letter to him of the 20th
March last, in which you request, on behalf of the British Association, that
they may be permitted to burn gas in the Observatory in the Old Deer Park
at Richmond, the use of which has been allowed to them, and also that the
gas may be laid on to the different rooms free of expense to the Association,
they engaging to pay the cost of the gas proposed to be used.
“In reply, I am directed to inform you that the Board have no objection
to the use of gas in the building in question, but that the whole of the work
must be done by, and at the expense of, the Association, and to the satisfac-
tion of the Board’s officer in charge of the district.
—
“T am, Sir,
“ Your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ J. THOMBORROW,
“ Assistant Secretary.”
“J. P. Gassiot, Esq.”
8 Mr. Gassiot to the Secretary of the Board of Works, &c.
““ Observatory, Old Deer Park, Richmond,
June 7, 1855.
« Srr,—I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2nd instant, °
wherein you state that, in reply to a communication made by me to the
Hon. Charles Gore on the 20th of last March, relative to the lighting of the
Observatory with gas, the Board has no objection to the use of gas in the
Observatory, but that the whole of the work must be done at the expense of
the British Association, and to the satisfaction of the Board’s officer in charge
of the district. ;
“In a letter addressed to the Right Hon. the Chief Commissioner, of the
96th ult., but which you have not done me the honour to notice, I explained
that, in consequence of the increased requirements arising from the number
of barometers and thermometers which are at present in course of verification
for the use of Her Majesty’s Navy and the Mercantile Marine, it was highly
desirable that the Observatory should be lighted with gas.
“ The entire outlay attending the important work done in the Observatory
has been defrayed by the British Association; and considering that so large
a portion consists in the verification of instruments for the use of the Navy,
I cannot but regret that so trifling a request should have been so summarily
refused ; for although upwards of two months have elapsed since the appli-
cation was made, no one has visited the Observatory from your. department
to inquire as to the advisability of the application being granted.
“J believe I am also correct in stating, that during the many years the
Observatory has been occupied by the Association, no officer from your
Board has visited the building. I name this because a portion of my letter
referred to its present dilapidated condition, to which the Committee had
particularly requested me to draw the attention of your Board.
“J have the honour to be, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “« J. P. Gassior.”
“« J, Thomborrow, Esq.,
Assistant Secretary, Parks, Palaces, &c.”
}
i
%
:
REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE. xlv
9. Mr. Gassiot to the Hon. Charles Gore, Esq.
‘“‘ Kew Observatory, June 12, 1855.
“Sirn,—The Chief Commissioner of Her Majesty’s Works not having
favoured the Kew Committee with any communication relative to their ap-
plication to you for the introduction of gas into the Observatory, and which
application you informed me, in your letter of the 27th of last March, you
had forwarded to him, I addressed a letter to Sir William Molesworth on the
26th ult.; on the 2nd inst. the Assistant Secretary writes me as follows :—
“ <T am directed to inform you that the Board have no objection to the
use of gas in the building in question, but that the whole of the work must
be done by, and at the expense of, the British Association, and to the satis-
faction of the Board’s officer in charge of the district.’
“The correspondence has been submitted to the Kew Committee, and I
am instructed to inquire if you will grant permission for the gas to be laid
on-to the Observatory through the Park, and whether, in the case of your
granting such permission, any, and if so, what amount of compensation will
have to be paid to the tenant in possession.
“The Committee are anxious, before they present their Report to the
Council of the Association, to be informed as to the total expense they would
have to incur in laying on the gas; and as, in a former instance, compensa-
tion was to have been paid for the carrying of materials across the Park, the
Committee considered it advisable that this should be ascertained before any
outlay is commenced. “JT have the honour to be, Sir,
“Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “J, P. GAssior.”
“To the Hon. C. Gore, Chief Commissioner
of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests, Land Revenue.’’
10. Mr. Gore to Mr. Gassiot.
‘“‘ Office of Woods, &c., June 18, 1855.
“ Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 12th instant, I have to inform you,
that, provided the gas pipes are laid down as nearly as possible in the direc-
tion of the footpath leading from Mr. Fuller’s Farm Premises to the Obser-
vatory in the Old Deer Park, as requested by you on behalf of the Kew Com-
mittee, I am ready to grant the permission sought on payment of an annual
acknowledgment of one shilling.
“ As regards the compensation to be made to the tenant of the Park, I
am informed that if the works are not proceeded with until October next,
and completed without interruption, and to the satisfaction of Mr. Clutton,
the Crown Receiver, he will not require any compensation ; and as Mr. Clut-
ton has been informed by the Superintendent of the Observatory that the
pipes will not be required to be laid down until the latter part of the year,
__ J presume that the Committee will not object to accede to this arrangement.
“Tam, Sir,
“ Your obedient Servant,
- (Signed) “ CHARLES GORE.”
“J. P. Gassiot, Esq.”
REPORT—1855.
xlvi
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REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. xlvii
Report of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association to
the Meeting at Glasgow in September 1855.
The Parliamentary Committee have the honour to Report as follows :—
The labours of the Committee during the past year have been confined
to two subjects :
1st. The juxtaposition of the Scientific Societies in some central lo-
cality of the Metropolis ;
And, 2ndly. The report on the question, Whether any measures could
be adopted by the Government or Parliament that would improve the
position of Science or its Cultivators in this Country.
As to the first,—
We have co-operated with the Committee of the Memorialists in endea-
vouring to obtain a reply to the Memorial on this subject presented to Lord
Aberdeen, the First Lord of the Treasury, in May 1853, and we have learned
from our Chairman that a Deputation of the Memorialists, of which he was
a member, had a satisfactory interview with Lord Palmerston on the 30th
of June last.
As to the second,—
Your Committee have, since their last Report, received a great many very
valuable suggestions, both from those eminent persons who had before done
them the honour to reply to their Circular, and from many others occupying
distinguished positions as men of science. They have also had the benefit
of the assistance of their new colleague, Mr. John Ball, and of others of their
own body who had not previously expressed any opinion on the various in-
teresting questions discussed in the Report, as originally framed.
Your Committee maturely considered all these opinions and suggestions,
and finally agreed on the Report, which, by permission of your Council,
has been already printed and circulated among the Members of the Asso-
ciation *.
_ Your Chairman has forwarded a copy of this Report to Lord Palmerston
and other Members of the Cabinet, and to certain distinguished Members
_ of the Legislature, accompanied by the following letter :—
““Wrottesley, August 1855.
“TJ have the honour to forward to you a Report, carefully prepared, after
consulting many of the most distinguished Cultivators of Science on the in-
_ teresting question therein discussed.
“ The object aimed at was to. collect together and enumerate all the pre-
_ sent requirements of Science, considered in its relation to the ruling powers
and educational establishments of the State; and these various desiderata
_ will be found in the last page of the enclosed Report in the form of ten pro-
_ Positions.
‘ _ “Tt must not be inferred from the course which has been taken in pre-
_ paring this Report, that a necessity is believed to exist for the immediate
adoption of all its suggestions; but with respect to the tenth and last, viz.
the creation of a Board of Science, it may with confidence be affirmed, that
this measure would of itself, and at a trifling cost, confer most important
benefits on the Government and Nation, and that it deserves early and serious
consideration.
“T remain, yours faithfully,
MA Ni fe
«“ WROTTESLEY.
* This Report, dated July 14, 1855, is given in pp. 7-22.
fee
xlviii REPORT—1855.
Your Committee recommend that Mr. Robert Stephenson, M.P. for
Whitby, who is well known as a distinguished Civil Engineer, be appointed
to fill the vacancy in their body caused by the death of the late Mr. Vivian.
August, 1855, WrotteEsLey, Chairman.
Report presented by the Parliamentary Committee to the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science at Glasgow, on the question,
Whether any measures could be adopted by the Government or
Parliament that would improve the position of Science or its Culti-
vators in this Country.
It will be remembered, that we expressed our intention of presenting a
Report on the answers which we had received to the above question from
several eminent men of science.
The whole of the subjects discussed in the valuable replies which we have
received, or which have occurred to ourselves as material to the issue, may
be considered under the three following heads :—
Ist. How can the knowledge of scientific truths be most conveniently and
effectually extended ?
2nd. What inducements should be held out to students to acquire that
knowledge ; and, after the period of pupilage has expired, to extend it, and
turn it to useful account ?
3rd. What arrangements can be made to give to the whole body of com-
petent men of science a due influence over the determination of practical
questions, dependent for their correct solution on an accurate knowledge of
scientific principles ?
The proper determination of these three questions appears to us of vital
importance to the welfare of the State.
On the first question, How is the knowledge of science to be extended? it
will hardly be expected that we should enter into details; but it is so inti-
mately connected with the second, that a few words on the subject will not
be out of place.
For the purposes of this inquiry, the community may be divided into
those who resort to the Universities for education, and those who do not.
As to the former, we know of no step that would be more effectual than that
which we have already recommended in our Report of last year, viz. that a
certain amount of knowledge of physical science should be required from
every candidate for a degree. The expediency of this course is strongly
urged by Professor Phillips and Mr. Grove in answer to our query, and also
by distinguished witnesses who gave evidence to the University Commis-
sioners. Your President, in his late address at Liverpool, has stated it as an
undeniable proposition, “that those who administer the affairs of the country
ought at least to know enough of science to appreciate its value, and to be
acquainted with its wants and bearings on the interests of society.”
Mr. Grove observes, “that it is melancholy to see the number of Oxford
graduates who do not know the elementary principles of a telescope, a
barometer, or a steam-engine. The contempt of anything manual or me-
chanical, which Bacon so strongly reproved, still prevails to a large extent
among the upper classes.”’
REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. xlix
Some evidence was given to the Oxford University Commissioners in
reference to the inconveniences suffered by Oxford graduates when thrown
suddenly on their own resources, as e.g. in a newly-settled country, from
their neglect of physical science during their University career.
It must be remembered also, that there is scarcely any profession or voca-
tion in life in which some amount of knowledge of physics may not be a
desirable, or even necessary acquisition. The legislator, statesman, and even
legal tribunals, through ignorance of the principles of natural science, become
the prey of charlatans; and vast sums of money may be squandered on
impracticable, unnecessarily costly, or useless projects. In the legal and
medical as well as in the naval and military services, a knowledge of scientific
principles is most essential, and should be imparted to all; but this is too
wide a field to enter upon here.
Now, there can be no doubt, that if Science be made an essential condition
for obtaining a degree, it will be taught more extensively at schools, and at
the University itself. This will give rise to an increased demand for accom-
plished professors and teachers, or to some modification of the professorial
system calculated to effect this object. The increase in the numbers of
teachers, and the necessity for giving increased salaries to ensure high quali-
fications, will in itself create a variety of lucrative employments ; and this,
again, will stimulate students to learn that which is capable of affording
them a comfortable provision in after-life. The whole machine of instruc-
tion will thus act and react to the great benefit of all concerned ; and if other
stimulants, about to be alluded to, be added, a valuable species of knowledge
will rapidly spread among those destined hereafter either to teach or to dis-
charge important functions, or fill high offices in the State.
_ While recommending, however, that physical science should be required
from all candidates for a degree, we admit that a discretion should be left to
the University authorities, as to the extent to which this desirable change
shall be at first carried into effect, in full confidence that studies so attractive
and useful will eventually obtain from all candidates for University degrees
that share of attention to which they are so justly entitled.
As to that portion of the population who do not resort to universities for
instruction, it is to be hoped that University Reform will diminish the number
of this now very numerous class. The best mode of imparting to them
instruction in science seems to be that suggested by Mr. Grove and others
in their replies to our Circular; that is, that professors, paid either wholly
or in part by the State, should be appointed to deliver gratuitous, or very
cheap lectures, illustrated by philosophical apparatus, to Institutions, in
London and at the principal provincial towns, whose rules of admission and
management should have been duly approved; and, when the system has
been well organized, it might even be still further extended.
Such lectures would be successful only in proportion as they were
followed by examinations and rewards to diligent hearers, who might thus
‘be induced to extend their studies, and assist in the diffusion of sound
knowledge.
We are aware that lectures, even though followed by examinations of a
nature really calculated to test the degree of attention and ability of the
hearers, are by no means a substitute for that course of severe study and
_ mental training which can alone introduce the student to an accurate know-
X
ng
oe
ledge of physical science. Lectures, however, even when addressed to men
wholly, or almost wholly ignorant of their subject-matter, are very valuable
as stimulating curiosity, exciting desire for study, and diffusing a general
knowledge of facts and principles, and perhaps enabling alone aaaiee at
1855.
1 REPORT—1855.
least to appreciate science; and when addressed to the real student, lectures
are useful aids, particularly i in those departments which require experimental
illustrations *.
On this subject, Professor Phillips, whose skill and experience in imparting
oral instruction are so well known and appreciated, has forwarded to us the
following remarks. He observes, “that success in teaching depends not
merely, or even mainly, on the ability of the teacher: it is much more the
effect of his standing en the right relation to his audience. For conversational,
2. e. tutorial teaching, one class of mind, for public teaching of large au-
diences, another is required. Again, a teacher, whether by conversation or
lecture, must lead by short strings. You cannot explain the precession of
the equinoxes to a man who does not know what the rotation of the earth
means... .. University men should be employed for University work ; local
men for local work. No man can take away from others the ignorance
which he has never felt, or sympathised with.”
The Professor then proceeds to urge the employment as teachers of per-
sons in the same grade of life as those to be taught.
Sir Charles Lyell contrasts the state of Germany with that of this country
in reference to the teaching of physical science. He says, “that in the
former country, not only in cities where there are Universities, but almost
everywhere in places where there exists a school of considerable size for
boys under the usual university age, there is at least one teacher to be found
whose business it is specially to give instruction in natural philosophy and
history, and who has charge of a collection of natural objects. Frequently
these teachers are so much devoted to some one of the branches in which
they give instruction, as to be authors of original papers in scientific periodi-
cals. So far is this from being the case in England, that I have visited large
cities where there are richly endowed ecclesiastical establishments, where I
have in vain inquired for a single individual who is pursuing any one branch
of physical science or natural history. Hence it happens that if the towns-
people, assisted by some of the gentry and clergy of the neighbourhood,
establish a museum, they cannot obtain any scientific aid towards its arrange-
ment and superintendence.”
Sir Charles suggests that laymen should be almost invariably~selected to
fill those Professorships which relate to the departments of science repre-
sented in our Association. He suggests also, that if provincial leetureships
should be established, five or six towns should be first selected, which have
exhibited their taste for scientific knowledge by the foundation of museums
and the appointment of curators, such as York and Bristol. The Govern-
ment might enter into an arrangement with the latter to double their
salaries, so as to secure to them a continuation of the local patronage
already afforded them, and prevent the new grant from becoming merely a
substitute for it.
Mr. William Tite, M.P., observes :—“ The practical course to be adopted,
and which has, I believe, to some extent, been carried out by private efforts,
or the tardy intervention of the State, seems to me to consist, for instance,
in the formation of schools of mining in such places as Cornwall, &c.; of
schools of arts and sciences in such places as Manchester, &c.; of schools of
navigation in Liverpool, &c.; of agriculture in York, &c. Perhaps in all it
might be found advisable to found ‘thirty schools or colleges of this deserip-
tion, with (it may be) on the average six professors in each. I would pro-
pose that these professors should only be appointed after a severe examina-
* Mr. Ball suggests that, on the payment of a small fee, students should have the privi-
lege of using the Lecturer’s apparatus, and making analyses and experiments.
REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE, li
tion before a competent Board; the Board not named by the Government,
but by the Councils of the Universities, and of the different recognized
and chartered scientific institutions. They should be paid by a small fixed
sdlary from the State, but principally by the fees from students, the latter
being regulated by the examining Board, or by any municipal council which
would undertake to defray the fixed charge, or the cost of the buildings and
apparatus necessary. The united body. of professors should be entitled to
conifer honorary degrees, which should in no case convey any description of
exclusive privilege. ........ :
«An annual vote of between £18,000 and £27,000 would suffice to carry
out this system,—surely a very small sum to be devoted, by a country like
England, to the practical scientific education of the people.
“ The only measures,” continues Mr. Tite, “I should at present wish to
see adopted to connect science with public affairs, would be by attaching
eminent men to the various Government Boards.”
Sir Charles Lemon, whose experience in these matters is well known,
decidedly objects to any plan under which itinerant lecturers should be
employed.
In addition to the direct advantages derivable from lectures, we may
remark that the establishment of an enlarged staff of professors and teachers
will provide further employment in after-life for students; and the situations
will bein themselves so attractive, that many will be induced to accept them,
on receiving a moderate remuneration for their services; the rather, that in
the interval between their professional labours, time might be found for
prosecuting their studies.
That these professors should prosecute those studies by which they have
obtained their offices, is most desirable. The scientific character of the
nation suffers from this cause, that our English system offers so little induce-
ment to Mathematicians and Physicists to pursue their researches. Young
men of twenty-one arrive at a marvellous state of proficiency for their age,
and then entirely abandon the exact sciences for various professions; a
foundation is laid on which a superstructure worthy of the countrymen of
Newton might well be reared, and then the work is abandoned; the student
must earn his subsistence, and he cannot earn it by geometrical or physical
researches.
We have no fear but that if the above, and other suggestions which we
are about to make, should be carried out, the extended desire for acquiring
knowledge of the kind in question would create a proportional demand for
qualified instructors at all the principal educational establishments in the
country, and their emoluments would again augment the desire to learn,
both in university and general students.
In addition to the above measures, there is no doubt that much might
be done by the Committee of Privy Council and the Department of Science
at Marlborough House under the direction of the Board of Trade, towards
diffusing a knowledge of physical science among the pupils of primary and
secondary schools, and it is with pleasure that we learn that some steps
have already been taken in this direction.
We are of opinion also, that means should be adopted for encouraging the
foundation of Museums and Public Libraries, accessible to all, in our prin-
eipal towns ; and by degrees all imposts should be abolished which enhance
the cost to the public of scientific publications. Donations should also be
made to public libraries and educational establishments, of works pub-
lished at the expense of the nation; such, e.g., as the Geological and Ord-
hance Surveys.
d2
lii REPORT-—1855.
Qndly. How are the students and proficients in science to be encouraged ? ©
The measures which we have above described will not alone be sufficient to
effect the object we have in view. However attractive Natural Science may
be in itself, and it is impossible to over-estimate the pleasure which its study
affords to the majority of minds, it cannot be expected that many men will
pursue it to any extent, so long as fellowships and the other university
prizes continue to be almost exclusively bestowed upon the students in other
departments of knowledge. In Oxford more particularly, to use Mr.
Grove’s words, “the 740s, which has been eulogized by some, is peculiarly
antagonistic to the study of physical science. It is true that by the recent
statutes physics are recognized, but they are not made compulsory or neces-
sary. .... From what I saw when resident at Oxford, the genius loci is so
far removed from such studies, that, unless they are made compulsory, or
tempting prizes are held out, the minds of young men will not for an indefinitely
long period be directed into that channel, and thus, though the examination
papers will look very well to the public, science will form no integral part of
a university education.”
Lord Rosse, again, in his last address to the Royal Society, has added his
testimony to that of the many eminent men who have deplored in common
the neglect of these studies at Oxford. ‘ A man,” says he, “ having taken a
first class in literis humanioribus, may be ignorant of physics in the most ele-
mentary form, and be incapable of comprehending the first principles of
machinery and manufactures, or of forming a just and enlarged conception
of the resources of this great country.”
And lastly, the Chancellor of Oxford himself has lately advocated the ex-
tension of these studies in an eloquent appeal addressed to the University
authorities on the occasion of founding the new museum.
That important and instructive public document, the Report of the Oxford
University Commissioners, shows how little the rewards now held out to
students in mathematics at that university deserve to be denominated
“tempting ;’ they are in truth utterly insufficient; and unless the changes
about to be introduced, under the auspices of the Parliamentary Commis-
sioners, shall remedy this defect, we greatly fear that the anticipations above
expressed by Mr. Grove will only be too well realized.
We are, however, convinced that the well-being of the nation would be
greatly promoted by an extension of scientific knowledge among all classes,
and that more encouragement in the shape of reward for successful exertion _
must be provided before that desirable end can be accomplished.
More numerous prizes ought to be provided at our universities ; and other
rewards and inducements both to study and to the prosecution of scientific
research should be held out by the State.
It is important that the endowments of Professors, who are at present very
inadequately remunerated, should be augmented. Sir John Herschel mentions
the following “as one of the most directly beneficial steps which can be
taken by Government for the advancement of science itself, as well as for
the general diffusion of its principles: viz. to increase the number, and
materially improve the position, of the Professors of its several branches in all
our Universities and public educational establishments; and to erect Local
Professorships in the chief provincial towns, independent of any University ;
and more especially to make better and indeed handsome provision in the
way of salary, for the Professors of those more abstract branches, which
cannot be rendered popular and attractive, and therefore self-remunerating
in the way of lectures.”
We direct particular attention to the last paragraph, from a conviction of
REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. hii
the importance of the suggestion therein contained. In a subsequent part of
this Report, we have inserted a quotation from Professor Liebig relating to
this subject.
In a former Report we embodied a correspondence with the then Prime
Minister respecting the unsatisfactory manner in which the bounty of Parlia-
ment, in the shape of pensions, has been hitherto distributed.
The lamented Professor Forbes says, in the concluding paragraph of his
reply to our Circular, “It might be considered, whether it would not be de-
sirable to found a number of scientific pensions, to be assigned, not for relief,
but for reward of good service, like the good-service pensions in the Army.
They would often help to free the man of science from drudgery and pot-
work, and give him the leisure for original research. ‘They would be better
rewards than ribands or stars, or other labels, upon the coats of philoso-
hers.”
f Mr. Ball seems to doubt the propriety of the suggestion in reference to
good-service pensions; he states ‘“ that he has a strong sense of the probable
evils of anything approaching to a system of Government patronage of
scientific men, to which it would be a forward step.”
The expediency of resorting to orders, or decorations, or any extension
of the present system of bestowing medals, as a means of encourage-
ment to the prosecution of physical researches, has been doubted. So long
as the student is in statu pupillari, the system of rewarding by medals, or
other honorary distinctions, presents little difficulty ; but in the case of pro-
ficients it is otherwise. In addition to other objections, there is one which
in our opinion is deserving of serious consideration ; and that is, that it seems
difficult to devise any method of bestowing such distinctions that will be
satisfactory. The Government are, by the hypothesis, not sufficiently
informed ; and it will perhaps not be considered desirable that the system
of the cultivators of science rewarding one another should receive any im-
portant extension. We fear that, in its present limited form, it can be
hardly predicated of this mode of conferring distinction that it has worked
so well as to be entirely satisfactory. Only those versed in the particular
branch of knowledge to be rewarded can properly decide on the merit of
the candidate; and the fear that partiality may be imputed to judges, who
are either rivals, or will be considered as such by many, is likely both to
render the task of decision irksome, and to impair the efficient exercise of the
judicial function. Again, the value of a theory, or discovery, can seldom
be justly appreciated by contemporaries :—Posterity alone can decide.
Professor Phillips is of opinion that medals should never be bestowed
except for work done and published; and that they should never be given
for mere mental proficiency; they should be rewards for public service,
rather than proofs of personal merit.
We believe, however, that, whatever objections may be raised to the
mode of distribution, some medals are desirable, as incentives to exertion;
at the same time, we are aware that there may be persons whose labours
are but little affected by these and similar rewards. Engaged in elevated
pursuits of an intellectual and attractive nature, and appreciating the pure
_ delights which such researches impart, they are contented with the renown
which successful exertion brings in its train, and they weigh not ¢heir own
merits in a nicely-adjusted balance, and with a jealous eye, against those of
their rivals in fame, nor calculate the chances of material reward. Sufficient
_ it is for them that they have done mankind good service, and that those
whom they have benefited have not proved wholly ungrateful.
_- Professor Faraday, ‘after speaking of the distinctions, both national and
liv REPORT—1855.
foreign, which may even now be earned, writes, “ I cannot say that I have
not valued such distinctions; on the contrary, I esteem them very highly,
but I do not think J have ever worked for, or sought after them.”
The late Professor Moll, of Berlin, in his excellent pamphlet on the state of
Science in England, has some remarks on the distribution of orders and
medals abroad, which are not calculated to enhance the estimation in which
they may be held by any one in this country.
Again, the prosecution of some researches and the reduction and publica-
tion of results, are expensive, and beyond the means of many of the ablest
and most active cultivators of science. The Wollaston Fund of the Royal
Society, the Government grant, and the grants of the British Association
afford, in addition to the funds of the various scientific societies, most
useful aid, but further assistance is sometimes needed, and would be more
so, were science more extensively cultivated, and such assistance might be
safely accorded under the conditions hereafter recommended.
The juxtaposition of the principal scientific societies in some central locality
in the metropolis is a question which has lately excited great interest among
the cultivators of science.
Lord Rosse, in his address to the -Royal Society in 1853, observes, “‘ The
interests of Science appear to me to be deeply involved in the question of
providing a suitable building for the scientific societies. .... If a man,
naturally gifted, and well educated, attends scientific meetings, he will feel
himself constrained to work, and therefore it is so important for the advance-
ment of knowledge, that able men should be induced to join and attend the
different societies; but nothing I think would have greater attractions than
a building in a convenient central situation, where the business of Science
would be transacted, where there would be access to the best libraries, and
where that kind of society most valued by seientifi¢e men would always be
within reach.”
The advantages of this juxtaposition are ates shortly set forth in the Me-
morial on this subject presented to Lord Aberdeen, and are indeed so obvious
that they need not be here re-stated at length. Mr. Grove; on this subject,
observes, “It should be borne in inind that scientific men have but very
limited means of acting on Government; they are politicians in a less de-
gree than any class of Her Majesty’s subjects; they consist of men belonging
to various classes of society, and whose ordinary occupations differ greatly.
Most of the great measures of reform or progress which are effected in this
country result from a strong pressure of public opinion, urged on by agita-
tion; and as men of science are peculiarly unfitted for this pracess, Govern-
ment might not unreasonably be asked to step out of its usual habits, and to
lend Science a helping hand.”
Professor Forbes observes, ‘‘ Science must have a local habitation, and be
something more than a name, ere it can make a permanent impression on
the somewhat material mind of John Bull. As a man without a home, or,
if houseless, without a club, is a doubtful and suspicious personage in the
opinion of English householders, so is science a questionable myth whilst
unprovided with a visible habitation. A first step, then, towards securing a
due and wholesome reverence for science in the minds of the masses,
educated and uneducated, is the congregation of the more important
Scientifie Societies in a central and convenient public edifice, where they
shall be lodged at the eost, and by the authority, of the State. The prestige
thus accorded to the Societies would soon extend to their members.”
The Astronomer Royal, on the other hand, conceives that the advantages
of juxtaposition have been overrated ; but admits that if the measure, recom-
REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. _ ly.
mended hereafter under our third head, be adopted, the propriety of such a
Capitol of Science would be more evident.
Having, however, considered this question in all its bearings, we cannot
too strongly express our conviction, that the juxtaposition of the principal
scientific societies would confer a most important benefit on Science; and
almost all concur in this opinion.
Of late years, considerable encouragement has been extended to practical
science, and this is praiseworthy, provided that abstract science receive its
due measure of support; but the genius of our countrymen is so eminently
practical, that there is great fear that the less showy branch may be com-
paratively neglected. Mr. Grove observes, that in that case, “not only will
practical science itself suffer, but the country will lose its position in the
scale of nations in all that most exalts them.” It would be, in fact, to use a
common phrase, a beginning at the wrong end.
This is a subject on which much misconception prevails, and this Report
may be read by some to whom the facts about to be stated are not so familiar
as they are to those to whom it is primarily addressed. The following state-
ment, therefore, may not be deemed wholly uncalled for. It is not uncom-
mon to hear, or even to read, remarks in which the practical application of
scientific truths is lauded at the expense of Science itself, so that it might be
inferred, that those from whom such observations proceed were completely
ignorant,—1st, of the extent to which the most abstract scientific investigations
have often led to the most useful industrial applications; and 2ndly, of the
many instances in which observations and experiments, seemingly trivial, and
likely to lead to no useful result, have, sometimes after the lapse of years and
after having been submitted to a succession of master minds, been elaborated
into discoveries of the greatest importance to the progress of civilization,
and which do honour to human nature. -
These objectors to pure Science have either forgotten, or never learnt,
that, in the words of an eminent writer, “the modern art of navigation is an
unforeseen emanation from the purely speculative,and apparently merely
curious inquiry, by the mathematicians of Alexandria, into the properties of
three curves formed by the intersection of a plane surface and a cone.”
The Steam-Engine itself, so simple in its origin, and yet so fruitful of
great results, derived its most important improvements from the abstract
investigations, by Dr. Black and others, into the nature of heat ;—-though it
required the genius of a Watt to make them ayailable in practice.
Some curious properties of chemical substances, when acted on by light,
were noted, and then arose the art of Photography, the applications of which
both to Science and Art are in course of continual extension. Marvellous
properties of light, called its “polarization,” led to the invention of instru-
ments by which submarine rocks may be discovered, to new modes of
detecting the nature of chemical liquids, and to improvements in the art
of refining beet-root sugar.
Observations of the magnetism of iron, and on the elasticity of steel and
relative expansions of metals, were the origin of the compass and chronometer,
without which navigation and commerce (and how many countless blessings
follow in ¢hetr train!) would now be in almost as rude a state as in the time
of the ancients.
The examination of the properties. of gases passing through narrow aper-
tures, showed us how to shield the miner from destruction; and other chemical
investigations, how to preserve the sheathing of ships from corrosion—an in-
vention which, from unforeseen and remarkable causes, failed at first, but is
now successful.
lvi REPORT—1855.
To say nothing of Astrology and Alchemy, the experiments on the leg of
a dead frog were the primary source of the electric telegraph, electro-
plating, the power of producing submarine explosions, and of blasting rocks
with greater facility and safety, and the other invaluable applications of
voltaic electricity to the arts.
The labours of our Geologists teach us how to avoid useless expenditure i in
searches for minerals where none can by possibility be discovered, and where
to seek for materials for our buildings.
Those of the Botanist minister to our health; and the Meteorologist will,
in addition to the other important applications of his science, soon be enlisted
in the service of navigation. Nor is Science less. necessary to excellence in
the arts of war than in those of peace; the construction and use of arms,
fortification, surveys, rapid locomotion, screw steamers, and so forth, all
depend on it for their success. Nor is this all: the calamities and failures
in war may often be traced to the inefficient means possessed by governments
of distinguishing the really scientific man from the ignorant pretender.
This enumeration might be greatly extended, but sufficient has been said
to prove how truly the same distinguished writer above quoted remarks, “ No
limit can be set to the importance, even in a purely productive and material
point of view, of mere thought. The labour of the savant, or speculative
thinker, is as much a part of production, in the very narrowest sense, as that
of the inventor of a practical art; many such inventions having been the
direct consequences of theoretic discoveries, and every extension of know-
ledge of the powers of nature being fruitful of applications to the purposes
of outward life*.”
On this subject Professor Liebig observes in a letter to Professor Faraday,
dated February 1845, and cited in Lyell’s Travels in North America :—
“ What struck me most in England was the perception that only those works
that have a practical tendency awake attention and command respect ; while
the purely scientific, which possess far greater merit, are almost unknown.
And yet the latter are the proper and true source from which the others flow.
Practice alone can never lead to the discovery of a truth or a principle. In
Germany it is quite the contrary. Here, in the eyes of scientific men, no
value, or at least but a trifling one, is placed on the practical results. The
enrichment of Science is alone considered worthy of attention. I do not
mean to say that this is better; for both nations the golden medium would
certainly be a real good fortune.”
Almost all who have replied to our Circular, or favoured us with sugges-
tions, are opposed to the establishment of Institutes or Academies; nor is
there any wish expressed that men of science, as such, should be appointed
to high political offices in the State. As Assessors, however, or advisers
to executive Boards, the services of scientific men would be highly valuable ;
and in foreign countries such services are believed to be much in request.
Promotions in the Church have been occasionally made avowedly on the
ground of literary merit; but if such claims be admissible, it would seem
that scientific acquirements should not be overlooked in an age in which
scepticism has been nourished by mistaken views of physical phenomena.
The public offices which ought to be filled by men of science, as such, should
be sufficiently well remunerated, both to ensure their acceptance by the most
qualified men, and also to erat them a desirable object of ambition, and
swell the list of tempting prizes for scientific distinction. We believe that,
with one single exception perhaps, all these offices are inadequately endowed.
* See Mill’s Political Economy, vol. i. p. 52.
REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. lvii
Nor is increase of salary all that is required: care should also be taken
not to subject men of first-rate eminence in science to the harassing and
vexatious interference of men of inferior calibre, uninterested in their pur-
suits, and unable to appreciate their devotion.
Mr. Ball remarks, “that it is not reasonable to expect that scientific offices
in themselves very desirable, and arrived at by a career in itself interesting
and attractive, should be rewarded by salaries equal to those which remu-
nerate the devotion of time and industry to pursuits comparatively arid and
distasteful... .... but there are a good many offices filled by men of high
scientific attainments, which are quite below the level which at the general
standard of living befits the position of a gentleman.”
It is also worthy of remark, that not only ought the present scientific
offices to be placed on a more eligible footing in respect of remuneration,
but that there is need for the institution of others answering to that descrip-
tien, which do not now exist.
It would be unfair, however, not to remark, while discussing these
matters, that the Government has already taken very important steps in
the right direction, and has supplied very pressing wants by the establish-
ment of the Department of Practical Geology, and of the Marine Depart-
ment of the Board of Trade, and its office for the discussion of nautical
and meteorological data. Much yet remains to be done; but these and
other acts, having a like tendency, such in particular as the £1000 grant to
the Royal Society before referred to, are an earnest that a disposition is not
wanting “to lend Science a helping hand.”
We observed with pleasure that, in regulating the studies of candidates
for employment in India, Physical Science was not forgotten by the eminent
men whose signatures are appended to the Report thereon.
It appears ‘to us that. the question of the propriety of instituting public
examinations, by which the degree of proficiency in knowledge of all candi-
dates for public employment might be tested, is one of great interest, and
that its right determination must exercise an important influence on the
progress of education in any country.
Finally, under both the above general heads may be classed all measures
for facilitating the circulation of scientific publications both at home and
abroad—an object the importance of which it is difficult to over-estimate.
3rdly. How are the proficients in science to make their opinions known and
cause them to be respected and adopted ?
We have already stated that late events have shown that a disposi-
tion is not wanting in Government to give additional encouragement to
;
3
5
Science; and the only way in which we can account for the rejection of some
applications for aid, which from time to time have emanated from scientific
societies and individuals, and which deserved a better fate, is by supposing that
the members of the administration, to whom the applications were made, were
either unwilling-to prefer a demand for the necessary funds, or had some want
of confidence in the judgment of those by whom the requests were preferred.
Now the period at which the application was made may have been deemed
an unseasonable one, as for example when the country is involved in war;
we should, however, be concerned to see our country placed by any events
in the position of being wholly unable to comply with demands of this kind ;
but for any want of confidence we think that a remedy might be devised,
which would relieve the Government from the performance of difficult and
invidious duties, and give satisfaction to the cultivators of science at large.
We observe that the Board of Visitors of the Greenwich Observatory has,
in the proper discharge of its duties, been often compelled to recommend
lviii REPORT—1855-
large outlays upon that establishment and matters connected with astronomy ;
and we believe there is no instance on record of the measures recommended
being rejected, or even postponed, whatever might be the condition of public
affairs, or whatever party might be in power. We believe that this is to be
accounted for, ina great measure, by supposing that the Board of Visitors
and the Astronomer Royal possess more of the confidence of Government
than the governing bodies of societies can hope to acquire. This is probably
owing to the permanent nature of this Board, the mode in which its members
are appointed, and the kind of quasi connexion with the Government which
its particular constitution involves. Again, the late Board of Longitude,
and the similar institution in France, afford in like manner illustrations of
‘the superior means possessed by public bodies so constituted of inspiring
the ruling powers with confidence in their recommendations, and so causing
their opinions to be respected and adopted.
These considerations suggested the question, Whether some Board could
not be organized, somewhat after the model of these Boards, but with
improvements, which should distribute Government grants, perform for
the whole domain of Science the functions which two of the above-men-
tioned Boards still discharge for Navigation and Astronomy, and more-
over act as a referee and arbitrator in matters connected with science
brought under its cognizance by Government? At present, in Science, as in
Art, Government has no responsible adviser, and the acceptance or rejection
of any proposal of a scientific character, or of one for the proper deter-
mination of which some knowledge of science is required, depends upon
the fiat of those who preside over the several public departments by virtue of
qualifications, high it may be for the general purposes of the State, but
wholly inadequate to the proper solution of the particular questions at issue.
If such a Board as is above proposed could be constituted, whieh should
acquire and deserve to possess the confidence of the Government and Par-
liament, it would be clearly for the interests of the nation and of scienee
that it should exercise the above functions. What kind of constitution,
then, must be given to the new Board, in order that it may fulfil the above
requirements ?
We will begin with setting out the opinions of those who have done us the
honour to favour us with suggestions, premising that the late Professor Forbes,
Colonel Sabine, Admiral Smyth, Sir Philip Egerton, and the Astronomer
Royal have all expressed themselves in favour-of the establishment of a new.
Board of Science, though, as might be expected, there is some difference of
opinion as to its functions and the mode in which it ought to be constituted.
Professor Forbes, who appears to have reflected much and well on the
questions raised in this Report *, says, “Ido not think anything like an Insti-
tute desirable . . . but I think that some Board, haying at once authority
and knowledge, should be constituted for the regulation and disposition of
Government grants for scientific purposes, such as the assistance and
endowment of scientific expeditions, the publication of their results, &c. ;
matiers at present disposed of by capricious, often extravagant, oftener par-
simonious, and sometimes pernicious methods. An approximation towards a
right course is already made in the case of the disposal of the £1000 grant
for assisting scientific researches. Now I would work all Government grants
for such purposes as the above mentioned, by a modification of that scheme,
viz. through an unsalaried committee, constituted much as the Recommenda-
tion Committee is at present, combined with an endowed staff, consisting of a
* It is a great source of regret to us, that he was not spared to give us further advice and
assistance in the advocacy and carrying out of reforms which he had so much at heart,
REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. lix
salaried representative (always a man of distinguished eminence and autho-
rity in his line of research) of each of the following departments :
Mathematics. Physiology.
Astronomy. Zoology.
Physics. Botany.
Mechanics. Geology.
Chemistry.”
Colonel Sabine considers that the working of the Board of Longitude,
whilst Dr. Young was its secretary, affords a model which, with a few
and slight modifications, might be extremely suitable for a Board, which
should be constituted with a more extended scientific scope.
Admiral Smyth writes, ‘“ Now for Science a real boon would be the esta-
blishment of a proper Board of Longitude, organized on clear principles, and
armed with power tantamount to its responsibility. This great step gained,
the cultivators of science would necessarily advance. .... A good Board of
Longitude is meet for a maritime nation, and would, de facto, form its great
synod of knowledge.” Again he writes, he does not mean a Board consti-
tuted as the former one so called, but “a useful institution resembling the
French Bureau des Longitudes, a Board managed by unequivocally qualified
men, both in talent and vocation, with regular salaries, who are personally
responsible for their public proceedings, whether regarding opinions, rewards,
or publications. This Bureau is composed of Géométres, Astronomes,
Anciens Navigateurs, Géographes, Artistes, and Adjoints; and there is ‘no
doubt but that the model may be improved.”
Sir Philip Egerton describes the evils which result to Science from the
want of system in entertaining and deciding upon projects, and carrying out —
the determinations of successive Governments in reference to questions of
science. He complains that applications have to be made sometimes to one
department, sometimes to another ; that Governments are prone to give ear,
not to propositions in relation solely to the acquisition and furtherance of
pure Science, but to the economic application of scientific principles to the
improvement of arts and manufactures ; a most essential matter indeed, and
properly confided to the Board of Trade, but which ought not to be con-
founded with the more intellectual process of scientific research. Sir Philip
thus proceeds: ‘ ‘The toil and labour of the latter are too apt to be left to
the unaided exertions of the scientific drudge, and the Government steps in
and reaps the benefit,—the osprey catches the fish, but the sea-eagle appro-
priates it. The remedy I would propose for this state of things is, the esta-
blishment of a Board of Science, to which all questions of a scientifie nature
might be referred by the Government for consideration. The constitution of
this Board might be easily made such as to command the confidence both of
the Government and the public; but it should be provided, that only a
portion of the members should be dependent on the existence of the ministry
of the day. Certain funds might be placed yearly at the absolute disposition
of the Board; but all recommendations for the application of large funds
would of course require the sanction of the Government.”
The Astronomer Royal considers a restriction of the functions of the Board
desirable; he thinks that it should zxztiate proposals and urge them on the
Government ; but he objects to its acting as a general referee and arbitrator
in all matters connected with Science.
There is an expression in the letter of Professor Forbes which appears to
us to describe, with great propriety, what ought to be the characteristics of
the future Board ; he says, ‘it should have at once authority and knowledge ;”
lx REPORT—1855.
and after weighing all the above suggestions, and considering the constitu-
tion of other Boards established for carrying out nearly similar objects, we
think that the new Board should be composed of a certain number of persons
holding high official situations in the State, more or less connected with
science and education; and others holding scientific offices under the
Government ; together with the most eminent men in every department of
science. With respect to the official class, there can be no necessity that
they should be as numerous as in the late Board of Longitude, of which
about fourteen persons answering to that description were members.
Lord Rosse, the Astronomer Royal, and Admiral Smyth, have expressed
opinions unfavourable to the admission of great Officers of State as ex officio
members of the proposed Board. Admiral Smyth is even opposed to ex
officio Members altogether, and would have all the Members of the Board
elected. In these views of the Admiral we cannot concur; but the expedi-
ency of admitting the great Officers at all admits of some doubt. We are un-
willing to believe that the free expression of opinion on the part of the other
members of the Board would be controlled by the presence of Ministers of
State to the extent apprehended by the Astronomer Royal; but an objection
to the measure alluded to by Lord Rosse, viz. that these Officers must of
necessity, in the great majority of instances, derive their information on the
subjects discussed from the discussion itself, is entitled to some weight.
Whatever determination, however, may be adopted in reference to these
matters, we are anxious that a principle of stability and permanence should
have place in constituting a body which is to exercise sugh important
functions. A certain proportion of the members might perhaps hold their
offices for life, as is now the case in the Board of Visitors at Greenwich ; but
some provision should be made for the retirement of a sufficient number, to
ensure the ranks being recruited occasionally by the election of young and
rising men in the various departments of science. It may not perhaps be
advisable to endanger the success of an application to Government for the
establishment of this Board, by adopting the suggestions of those who desire
that salaries should be given to several of its members, as such. We may
perhaps trust to the ultimate adoption of some of our other recommendations,
in which the general public are more directly interested, for providing stimu-
lants to scientific exertion, without seeking for them here.
It will be necessary, however, that a Secretary, with a salary, should be
appointed to the Board, and that a place of meeting and deposit for papers
should be assigned.
Professor Phillips suggests that the proceedings of the Board should be
embodied in an annual report to Parliament, which should be widely circu-
lated ; a suggestion in which we entirely coincide.
It will probably be thought right that the functions of the Board should
be rather strictly defined in the instrument which constitutes it.
If the working of the Board be satisfactory, and the confidence of
Parliament and the public be really acquired, it is hardly taking too sanguine
a view to anticipate,—1st, that there will be greater assistance and encourage-
ment given than heretofore to Science, and scientific researches, and the
reduction and publication of such researches, in cases where such aid is
required; 2ndly, that the necessary funds will be more directly and easily
obtained; and, 3rdly, that the influence and authority of such a body of
distinguished men will ensure the adoption of all suggestions made or ap-
proved by them for the benefit of Science, check improvident and reckless
schemes, promote those that are deserving of encouragement, and generally
give to Science its due weight and importance in the councils of the nation.
REPORT OF THE PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEE. Ixi
It may be that the union in one Board, of men holding high executive
offices in the State, and others who, however distinguished in their own
departments of knowledge, have in the course of their pursuits acquired
habits of abstraction, which are supposed by some to be unfavourable to the
development of administrative capacity, will be attended with. beneficial
results to the working of the Institution in question, the members of which
will learn by degrees to appreciate all that is valuable in the characteristics
of each of the sections of which it will be composed.
We think that the new Board ought not to consist of less than about
thirty-five members ; and if it be objected that this number is too large for
business, it must be borne in mind, that most of the work will be done by
standing sub-committees for the various departments of science, organized
somewhat after the model of the Sections in our own Association, reporting
to the general body, who will revise their proceedings. It would be hardly
possible to include all those who have a claim to be members, and whose
counsel and assistance it is most desirable to secure, if any attempt were
made still further to limit the numbers. The late Board of Longitude, though
presiding over only one department of science, contained about twenty-seven
members.
It is proper to add, that Lord Rosse is doubtful as to the expediency of
constituting the new Board of Science, on the ground, principally, that the
duties here assigned to it might equally well be performed by the Council of
the Royal Society, enlarged for the purpose; and that the Society would be
in fact so far superseded by the new body.
We cannot concur in this view. It cannot fairly be contended that the
Council of the Royal Society, or any Committee appointed by it, confined
as they must necessarily be to the members of one Society, is likely to
contain at any time within it such a union and variety of talent as would be
concentrated in the new Board, if properly constituted. We believe, more-
over, that eminent members of that Society do not entertain the apprehen-
sions of their late President.
_ The Government again are never likely, as has been before fully explained,
to extend as much of their confidence to any one Society, however eminent,
as to the proposed Board.
In conclusion, it appears that though your Committee have endeavoured to
elicit opinions from members of their own body, and from many emiuneit
cultivators of science, they have the gratification of discovering that none
_ of the suggestions offered, or changes proposed, are of such a nature as to
- impose any serious difficulty on Government, Parliament, or the Universities,
_ were they at once to concede all that is asked.
_ Such of the above suggestions as we think deserving of the serious and
earnest attention of Government, Pariiament, and the Universities, and
a we may term our desiderata, may be summed up in the following
propositions :—
_— 1st. That reforms shall take place gradually in the system of any of our
Universities which do not at present exact a certain proficiency in physical
science as a condition preliminary to obtaining a degree.
' Qndly. That the number of Professors of Physical Science at the Univer-
sities shall be increased, where necessary ; but that at all events, by a redis-
tribution of subjects, or other arrangements, provision should be made for
effectually teaching all the various branches of physical science.
* $rdly. That Professors and Local Teachers shall be appointed to give
ures on Science in the chief provincial towns, for whose use philoso-
Ixii REPORT—1855.
phical apparatus shall be provided ; and that arrangements shall be made for
testing by examination the proficiency of those who attend such lectures.
4thly. That the formation of Museums and Public Libraries in such towns,
open to all classes, shall be encouraged and assisted in like manner as aid is
now given to instruction in the principles of art; that all imposts shall by
degrees be abolished that impede the diffusion of scientific knowledge; and
such donations of national publications be made as above mentioned.
5thly. That more encouragement shall be given, by fellowships, increased
salaries to Professors and other rewards, to the study of Physical Science.
6thly. That an alteration shall be made in the present system of bestowing
pensions ; some annuities in the nature of good-service pensions be granted ;
and additional aid be given to the prosecution, reduction, and publication of
scientific researches.
7thly. That an appropriate building, in some central situation in London,
shall be provided at the cost of the nation, in which the principal Scientific
Societies may be located together.
8thly. That scientific offices shall be placed more nearly on a level, in respect
to salary, with such other civil appointments as are an object of ambition
to highly educated men; that the officers themselves shall be emanci-
pated from all such interference as is calculated to obstruct the zealous per-
formance of their duties; and that new scientific offices shall be created in
some cases in which they are required.
9thly. That facilities shall be given for transmitting and receiving scien-
tific publications to and from our colonies and foreign parts.
10thly, and lastly. That a Board of Science shall be constituted, composed
partly of persons holding offices under the Crown, and partly of men of the
highest eminence in science, which shall have the control and expenditure
of the greater part at least of the public funds given for its advancement
and encouragement, shall originate applications for pecuniary or other aid
to science, and generally perform such functions as are above described,
together with such others as Government or Parliament may think fit to
impose upon it.
It will be observed, that the majority of the above desiderata ma_ be
described rather as suggestions on behalf of national education than as
privileges to be conferred on Science. Three of the propositions, however,
the 6th, 7th, and 8th, involve the establishment of privileges and rewards
not now enjoyed by those who make science either their profession or pur-
suit. Still it must be borne in mind, that the encouragement thereby
afforded to the cultivation of science, and not the boon to the individual, is
the principal object in view.
The 10th proposition, the establishment of the Board, is not advocated as
a means of increasing privileges and emoluments, but as the best mode of
accomplishing an important national object.
Of the value of Science no one surely can doubt who has received any
menial training worthy of the name of education ; and, notwithstanding any
seeming indifference to an object of such vital importance, we believe that
a feeling does pervade the community at large, that our country’s welfare
and even safety depend upon its due encouragement and fostering; and this
is evidenced by the readiness with which the House of Commons accedes
to demands, when made on its behalf. Owing, however, to the system which
prevails in this country, of each successive Government striving to outvie
its predecessors in popularity by the reduction of public burdens, there is a
temptation sometimes to withhold grants which may swell the total outlay of
departments in which reductions are contemplated. This it is more par-
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixiii
ticularly which, in our opinion, renders the creation of the new Board, or
some analogous measure, necessary.
Whatever may be the result of this appeal, or of any other measures
which we may adopt in the discharge of our duty of watching over the
interests of Science, we will never cease our endeavours to diffuse a sense
of what is due to Science, and to those who make great personal sacrifices
for the sake of a pursuit on which the happiness and welfare of mankind so
_ materially depend.
14 July, 1855. WrortresLey, Chairman.
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Guiascow MEETING 1N SEPTEMBER 1855.
{When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary of
the Committee, except there be a specific nomination. ]
Involving Grants of Money.
That the sum of £500 be placed at the disposal of the Council for main-
taining the Establishment and providing for the continuance of Special Ex-
periments at Kew.
That Professor Anderson, F.R.S., be requested to report on the compounds
of Platinum and the allied metals with Ammonia; and that the sum of £10
be placed at his disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Hodges be requested to continue the inquiries necessary to
complete the report on Flax Fibre; and that the £20 formerly voted to him
be placed at his disposal for the purpose. ;
_ That a Committee, consisting of Professor Bunsen of Heidelberg, and Dr.
H. E. Roscoe of London, be requested to continue their researches on the
Laws of the Chemical Action of Light; and that the sum of £20 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Mallet be requested to complete his experiments on Earthquake
_ Waves ; and that £40 be placed at his disposal for the purpose.
_ That Professors Phillips and Ramsay be requested to construct a vertical
column of British Strata; and that the sum of £15 be placed at their disposal
_ for the purpose.
__ That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Patterson, Mr. Hyndman and others,
_ be requested to continue their Dredging Researches in the neighbourhood of
_ Belfast; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
__ That the sum of £10 be placed at the disposal of the Council for the pur-
_ pose of procuring a report on British Annelida.
That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Lankester, Professor Owen, Dr. Dickie,
i a Dr. Layeock, be requested to draw up ‘lables for the Registration of
_ Periodic Phenomena; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal
for the purpose.
__ That a Committee, consisting of the Rev. C. P. Miles, M.D., Professor Bal-
| ak Dr. Greville, and Mr. Eyton, be requested to report on the Dredging of
_ the West Coast of Scotland; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
_ That Mr. R. Patterson, of Belfast, be requested to furnish Dredging Forms
to.the different Dredging Committees; and that the sum of £10 be placed
at his disposal for the purpose.
lxiv REPORT—1855.
That a Conmittee, consisting of Mr. T.C. Archer and Dr. Dickinson, be
requested to draw up in a tabular furm the Statistics of the Vegetable, Ani-
mal, and Mineral products imported into Liverpool; and that the sum of £10
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. William Keddie and Mr. Michael
Connal, be requested to draw up in a tabular form the Statistics of the Vege-
table, Animal, and Mineral products imported into Glasgow ; and that the
sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Sir William Jardine, Bart., Dr. Fleming,
and Mr. Edmund Ashworth, be requested to report on the progress of experi-
ments on the Propagation of Salmon; and that the sum of £10 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Henslow and others, be requested
to print 250 copies of their Report on the Typical Forms for Museums, for
distribution; and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Dr. Daubeny and a Committee be requested to continue their atten-
tion to the Vitality of Seeds ; with £10 at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. William Fairbairn, C.E., be requested to continue his Report
on the Strength of Iron Plates ; and that a further grant of £10 be placed at
his disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. James Thomson, C.E., be requested to report on the Measure-
ment of Water by Weir Boards; and that the sum of £10 be placed at his
disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Andrew Henderson, Major-General
Chesney, Captain Sir Edward Belcher, Mr. James R. Napier, Mr. James
Thomson, C.E., Mr. William Ramsay, C.E., Mr. Primrose, and Sir William
Jardine, Bart., be requested to continue the investigation as to the statistics
and condition of Life-Boats and Fishing-Boats; as to the principles on which
such boats should be constructed; the essential conditions of their successful
use; and the means of establishing them round the coasts: and that the sum
of £5 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
Involving Applications to Government or Public Institutions.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. William Fairbairn, His
Grace the Duke of Argyll, Captain Sir Edward Belcher, The Rev. Dr.
Robinson, The Rev. Dr. Scoresby, Mr. Joseph Whitworth, Mr. James Beau-
mont Neilson, Mr. James Nasmyth, and Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, to
institute an inquiry into the best means of ascertaining those properties of
Metals, and effects of different modes of treating them, which are of import-
ance to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ; and that the said Committee
be empowered to communicate in the name of the Association with, and to
request the assistance of, Her Majesty’s Government.
That the Earl of Harrowby, His Grace the Duke of Argyll, Sir David
Brewster, Colonel Sabine, Mr. Thomas Graham, Master of the Mint, Mr.
William Fairbairn, and Mr. Thomas Webster, be a Committee for taking
such steps as may be necessary to render the Patent system of this country,
and the funds derived from inventors, more efficient and available for the
reward of meritorious inventors, and the advancement of practical science.
That the thanks of the Association be presented to the Liverpool Compass
Committee for their first report; that they be requested to continue -re-
searches so important, not only to the commercial interests of the nation,
but to the progress of magnetic science ; and that the Committee be recom-
a a
|
.
FAS
RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE. lxv
mended to put themselves in communication with Her Majesty’s Government,
for the purpose of obtaining funds adequate to the effectual prosecution of
the inquiry, in which application the British Association will gladly concur.
Report of the Parliamentary Committee.
1. That the thanks of the British Association be tendered to Lord Wrot-
tesley and the Members of the Parliamentary Committee, for the vigilance and
prudence with which they watch over the interests of Science in the Legis-
lature.
2. That the Report of their proceedings since the last meeting more
especially calls for the attentive consideration of the Association, as containing
compreheusive views on the encouragement which Science requires of the
Legislature, and suggestions of definite measures for augmenting the useful-
ness and amending the position of its cultivators and teachers.
3. That the British Association offer to the Parliamentary Committee its
congratulations on the progress already made in this difficult and important
question, and express its confident expectation that their labours will be ulti-
mately rewarded by a satisfactory result.
4, That the British Association regard as a matter of immediate importance
to the general interests of science, the seventh recommendation of the Par-
liamentary Committee, viz. That an appropriate building in the metropolis
should be provided by the State, wherein the Scientific Societies may be placed
in juxtaposition; and request the President to express respectfully to Her
Majesty's Government their anxious hope that this recommendation may
receive its early and favourable consideration.
That R. Stephenson, Esq., M.P., be elected in the Parliamentary Committee,
instead of Sir R. H. Inglis, Bart., deceased.
That the British Association express their satisfaction at the establishment
of the Meteorological Association in Scotland, and their willingness to afford
them the assistance which can be yielded by the establishment at Kew.
That a letter to this effect be addressed to the Meteorological Association
of Scotland by the General Secretary.
Reports and Researches.
That Mr. A. Cayley be requested to draw up a Report on the recent pro-
gress of Theoretical Dynamics for the next meeting of the British Association.
That Professor Phillips be requested to prepare a Report on Cleavage and
Foliation in rocks ; and on the theoretical explanations which have been pro-
posed of these phenomena.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Bennett, M.D., Professor Piazzi
Smyth, and Professor George Wilson, be requested to report onthe employment
of M. Duboseq’s Electrie Lamps and Microscopie Apparatus for anatomical,
physiological and other scientific purposes ; and that they be reecmmended
to make application to the Royal Society for assistance in procuring the ne-
cessary apparatus.
That Mr. J. F. Bateman, C.E., be requested to complete, in an engineering
point of view, his Report on the supplying of Water to Towns.
That Mr. John Scott Russell be requested to proceed with his Report on
Naval Architecture.
That Mr. William Fairbairn, C.E., be requested to continue his Report
on Boiler Explosions.
That a Committee, consisting of Professor Smyth, the Rev. Dr. Robinson,
Captain Sir Edward Belcher, Sir T. M. Brisbane, Professor Nichol, and Mr,
1855. e
Ixvi REPORT—1855.
James Thomson, be requested to prepare a Report to the Council on the ad-
vantages of the telegraphic communication of Time-signals, and on the best
method of accomplishing it.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. W. Fairbairn, Dr. Neil Arnott, Mr.
Henry Houldsworth, Mr. J. B. Neilson, Mr. C. T. Dunlop, Mr. James Robert
Napier, Mr. James Aitken, Mr. Thomas Webster, Mr. W. J. M. Rankine,
and Dr. John Taylor, be requested to prepare a Report on the subject of
the Prevention of Smoke.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Andrew Henderson, Mr. J. R.
Napier, Mr. John Wood, Mr. John Scott Russell, Mr. Allan Gilman, Mr.
Charles Atherton, C.E., and Mr. James Peake, be appointed to consider
the question of the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage.
A communication from Professor Henry, of Washington, having been read,
containing a proposal for the publication of a Catalogue of Philosophical
Memoirs scattered throughout the Transactions of Societies in Europe and
America, with the offer of co-operation on the part of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, to the extent of preparing and publishing, in accordance with the
general plan which might be adopted by the British Association, a Catalogue
of all the American Memoirs on Physical Science,—
The Committee approve of the suggestion, and recommend—
That Mr. Cayley, Mr. Grant, and Professor Stokes, be appointed
a Committee to consider the best system of arrangement, and to report
. thereon to the Council.
That the Rev. Dr. Whewell, the Dean of Ely, the Astronomer Royal, Sir J.
F. W. Herschel; Colonel Sabine, Colonel Sykes, Mr. Gassiot, Professor Miller,
and Mr. Hopkins, be appointed a Committee for considering the propriety of
repeating the Balloon Experiments of 1852 ; and of applying to the Royal
Society for the grant of the necessary funds; and that the Rev. Dr. Whewell
be the Convener.
Having received from the Committee of Section A, a communication re-
specting the importance of having observations on the Sun’s Atmosphere made
at a considerable elevation above the sea, the General Committee resolved,—
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer
Royal for Scotland, Professor Nichol, Mr. G. B. Airy, Astronomer
Royal, Dr. Robinson, and Mr. W. Lassell, be appointed to consider
of this proposition, and investigate the best means of accomplishing
the object, and that they report to the next meeting of the Asso-
ciation.
That a Committee, consisting of Mr. James Thompson, C.E., and Mr,
William Fairbairn, C.E., be requested to continue their investigations on the
Friction of Discs in Water, and on Centrifugal Pumps.
That the Committee appointed last year, (viz. The Earl of Harrowby,
Admiral Beechey, Mr. J. B. Yates, Mr. J. Boult, Sir R. I. Murchison, and
Mr. Rennie,) to report upon the condition of the River Mersey, be reap-
pointed, with the addition of Sir Philip Egerton, Bart., M.P., and Captain
Henderson, and requested to continue the inquiry.
Communications to be printed among the Reports.
That the Communication by Mr. W. Whitehouse, on the rate of Electro-
telegraphic Conduction, be printed entire in the next volume of Transactions.
That the Communication by Mr. J. Dobson, B.A., on the relation be-
tween Rotating Storms and Explosions in Collieries, be printed entire in the
next volume of Transactions.
Rohs
SYNOPSIS OF MONEY GRANTS. Ixvii
R,M. Milnes, Esqg., M.P,, D.C.L., gave notice of a motion to be proposed
to the General Committee at the Meeting of the Association in 1856, as fol-
lows :—That the Section of the Association now named the Section of Sta-
tistics, be named the “ Section of Economic Science and Statistics.”
OPAL.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Olects by the
General Committee at the Glasgow Meeting in Sept. 1855, with the
name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee, is
entitled to draw for the Money.
' Kew Observatory. | £
s. d.
At the disposal of the Council for defraying expenses ...... 500 0 O
Chemistry.
AnpERSON, Prof.——Compounds of Platinum and other metals
Win Aminania® os Geis ee et es eS 10 O O
Honces, Prof.—Preparation of Flax .............- 1 Pen ho 20 0 O
Bunsen, Prof.—Chemical Action of Light ................ 20 0 O
Geology.
Mattet, R.—Earthquake Wave Experiments ............ 40 0 O
Puituirs, Prof.—Section of British Strata................ 15 0 0
Zoology and Botany.
Patterson, R.—Dredging near Belfast.................. 10
The Council.—British Annelida ............ 0.002000 0055 10
Lanxester, Dr.—Periodical Phenomena ................ 10
Mites, Rey. C. P.—Dredging on the West Coast of Scotland. 10
Patterson, R.—Dredging Forms ...... AF
_ ArcHER, T. C.—Natural products imported into Liverpool ay 10
Keppiz, W.—Natural Products imported into Glasgow..,... 10
JARDINE, Sir W.—Propagation of Salmon . earn
cooocooceco
coocococeso
HeEnsiow, Prof.—Typical Forms for Museums ............ 10
Davseny, Dr.—Vitality of Seeds, . Spclygwas bore oN chien 't ba
Mechanics.
Farrpairn, W.—Strength of Iron Plates ...... a eee Ah gO
Tuomson, James.—Measurement of Water by Weir-boards.. 10 0 0
Henperson, Andrew.—Life-Boats .......... 00.20. eevee 5 0 0
Grants..,. £730 0 O
e2
Ixviti
REPORT—1855.
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for
Scientific Purposes.
SB imet ib £ os. d.
1834, Meteorology and Subterranean
Tide Discussions ....escsereee 20 0 0 Temperature ......eeeees decceseeer SDM DEAEO
1835. Vitrification Experiments......++ 9 4 7
Tide Discussions ....,.s0+....00++ s 62. 0,70 Cast-Iron Experiments ....+..+.+- ai da
British Fossil Ichthyology .....- 105 0 0 uae Seapets ni E 2
£167 0 0 | Steam-vessels’ Gupicdete 100 0 90
1836. nae in pie Céleste ...... ag fe ie 4
Tide Discussions ........ce1eee+ TH RaW Racha aie go oe
British Fossil Ichthyology ...... RUC pisses oo Catalogue......... ee ae
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0 pea See ne nae on 50 0 0
Experiments on long-continued pr ON Asif eg fap oe ‘46 1 0
R a SPs ete Be a Ma Cast and Wrought Iron...... Scores 40 0 0
Ain Gauges ...cccscercsscesececeees 913 0 Heat Demise Hadi 30 0
Refraction Experiments ......... 15 0 0 a oe Sea: OGLES Wseeeses =
Lunar Nutation...........006: aos 60 0 0 ascs on Solar Specoruya Heawaaen a Ge
Phernicnicters eabrre igen Hourly Meteorological Observa-
grasa phe tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 8
£434 14 0} possi Reptiles ......ssesseeceseeees 118 2 9
1837. Mining Statistics ......... Mee eanicee 50 0 O
Tide Discussions ........ceseeseeee 284 1 0 £1595 11 0
Chemical Constants .........00. 2413 6
Lunar Nutation.,......ccecccssseees 70 0 O 1840.
Observations on Waves..... pee 100 12 O Bristol Tides ....,.....005 occcece cence 100 0 0
Tides dt BristOlicccsseuctevscacessess 150 0 0 | Subterranean Temperature ...... 13 13 6
Meteorology and Subterranean Heart Experiments ....e+.sse.e00 18 19 0
Temperature ...csccecsessssseeees 89 5 8] Lungs Experiments ........... twa 818 0
Vitrification Experiments........- 150 © 0] Tide Discussions .,.....sseeeeeses - ~o0es0" <0
Heart Experiments eae Cage ee ae 8 4546 Land and Sea Level ...........2002 6 11 1
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) aeevecees 242 10 0
Barometers seseseseeee Fes pevsiee’s ... 11.18 6| Stars (Lacaille) ......... Se eanuee CSA SIDE RO
“918 14 6 Hk ealnen©) REE Doyo, moniter oa a
mospheric Air .......0 SRE
1838. Water on Tron .......se08. Sabie cores 10 0 0
Tide Discussions .........+0« na 29 © 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ...... Preys lisesi
British Fossil Fishes ....... ..... 100 0 0] Meteorological Observations...... 5217 6
Meteorological Observations and Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...... 112 1 6
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0 Working Population ...........+0++ 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) Bae Es: 60 0 0 | School Statistics.......0..000+¢.se0s OD. O
Animaland Vegetable Substances brats t pia Gea scesis PO herase 184 7 0
(Preservation Of) sse.ssseerssees 19 1 10| Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
Railway Constants .........ee0e .. 41 12 10 MENA oo. eeee saber tasebioce vi hvdeee? PAO O 700
Bristol Tides Bolicedecs Mereat date cakes 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations at
Growth of Plants ......seessseeeees 75 0 0 Plymouth .....+..0+ siebwetes ree: ay ew |)
Mud in Rivers .....cseseeeseeesvere 3 6 6] Magnetical Observations ...... we 185, 13 “9
Education Committee .........0.. 50 0 0 £1546 16 4
Heart Experiments ....0+.....000+ oto” 0
Land and Sea Level............006 267 7 8% 1841.
Subterranean Temperature ...... 8 6 0] Observations on Waves........ wee G00 30
Steam-vesselS.e..sseseeesseresaeerere 100 0 0} Meteorology and Subterranean
Meteorological Committee ...... Bua Oyo Temperature .........cecccre Soave Oe
Thermometers ......+ adabeliatesgeas 16 4 0} Actinometers.......6....0+ sebdoscae lt OREO
£956 12 2 | Larthquake Shocks ..........0++6. Meh 0
es | Acrid POISONS.............ccee seen’ 6 0 0
1839. Veins and Absorbents ,........... 3 0 °0
Fossil Ichthyology...........00s bese EO) 0% 00] Migdlin RAVeES) ....cessvonnaecesmeies 5 0 0
Meteorological Observations at Marine Zoology........csccsseeeee 15 12 8
Plymouth ..sesescsecreerscseeeens 63 10 0 | Skeleton Maps ....... beneete secnns 20" 6, 0
Mechanism of Waves ..... paaeae . 144 2 0} Mountain Barometers .,.......... 6 18 6
Bristol Tides ....scrsseoeperessesveee 35 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste).,......... 185 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ s d.
Stars (Lacaille) ....sssesseeseeeeeens 79 5 0
Stars (Nomenclature of) ..... a a ate nL ta Seb
Stars (Catalogue of) ....+6.--..++++ 40 0 0
Water on Tron .....ceeeeereeeeee ees 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations at
Inverness .ee.sesesseeeereeeeeeeee 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations (re-
Auction Of) cecsenverseeeee tMeheee Dior KOR 0
Fossil Reptiles ...sss.sseresseseeers 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs wes...» 62 0 0
Railway Sections .se..ssscereeeeees 38 1 6
Forms of Vessels ......sceseereee . 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth ....... teeeee stesso oe Op 60
Magnetical Observations ......... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0
Tides at Leith ........++00. adegeeny ON Ofe0
Anemometer at Edinburgh ... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ......... 9 6 8
Races of Men ..sscecseerresceees yoo one 0Es0
Radiate Animals .....ssseeeeeseees 2900) 0
£1235 10 11
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments ....++ 113 11 .2
Anoplura Britanniz .......0+...++ 52 12 0
Tides at Bristol...... Bennece pe Kaieens 09) 9 Se O
Gases on Light......- ofedBhs teabe 30 14 7
Chronometers ...se+e++ eaisisieciine . 2617 6
Marine Zoology.....ssesseesesseeees 1 5 0
British Fossil Mammalia .......-- 100 0 0
Statistics of Education .........+++ 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste).........++ 59 0 0
Stars (Brit, Assoc. Cat. of ) ...... 110 0 0
Railway Sections .......++. ced odoes 161 10 0
British Belemnites.....-..+..s+ss00e 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication of
Report) ....... Aeaccocan Reotidante 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ..s.ssseeeereeeeee 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments at
Plymouth ..... Sadivisaeecmvelle - 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dynamo-
metric Instruments .....-++0+++ 90 0 0
Force of Wind .......seseeeee eect LOY 0) 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ..... . 8&8 0 0
Vital Statistics .........+ variances 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... Be Mell
Questions on Human Race ...... MDD
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature of
Stars ...ccseceeceecesereeeesecers 2 0 0
Reduction of Stars, British pene
ciation Catalogue ...sessesssees wn2aQd) 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth ...scscsseeeeeers Paseeay ool 01. 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ........ 10 0 0
£ os. d.
Meteorological Observations, Os-
ler’s Anemometer at Plymouth 20 0 0
Reduction of a de Ob-
SEYVALIONS ssscceeeeeeeeeveeeeerees 30 0 0
Meteorological . Tastraments and
Gratuities ..ssecass covsseerees 39 6 0
Construction of Anemometer “at
Inverness ....eceeeeeseee WA wie A DERI 2
Magnetic Co-operation ......+++4++ 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for Kew
ObservatOry ....cseeeeeeeeee vsodeee SOPH OMI
Action of Gases on Light.....-.. . 1816 1
Establishment at Kew Observa-
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
ture and Sundries ...... Qoceses . 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Publication of Report on Fossil
Reptiles ...sessesssseee sohinetattes sSONROe TO
Coloured Drawings of Railway
Sections ....cecesveeeeeeeeeeeeeress 14718 3
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS ..ceovssccccceceeeenreneee . 80 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomencla-
TUTE coessceeeeereees ea eneaccccsees 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red ae
stone near Manchester ....+.++ 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds- 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits er yey 10 0 0
Marine Zoology.es..seseseseeevsenre 10 0 O
Marine Zoology......+ POODETISORCORAC 214 11
Preparation of Report on British
Fossil Mammalia .....e..seeeeee 100 0 O
Physiological Operations of Me-
dicinal Agents ......sessseeeeee . 20 0 0
Vital Statistics ....c-.sceeeeeesereee 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ....ssseseee+0 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels .sssesesssesees 100 0 90
Reduction of Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ..sssseseseeeee 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Indicator ...ceessesseeeeeees veeee 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength of
Materials ....ssseeeeceeesesrenes . 60 0 0
£1565 10 2
1844.
Meteorological Observations at
Kingussie and Inverness ...... 12 0 0
Completing Observations at Ply-
MOUth Lo. cseeeeeereerecneeensenee 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
operation wiadadene dale an enas esas st 25 8 4
Publication of the British Asso-
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East coast of Scotland ........ . 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature of
Stars ..ccsecseeseee pie acee en 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establishment in
Kew Observatory «see 11717 8
Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3
Ixx REPORT—1855.
or 8. ds & os. d.
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 0 0/| Fossil Fishes of the LondonClay 100 0 0
Seah Temperature in Computation of the Gaussian
Treland ...ccscccscctessscensretere §=5 (0 0 Constants for 1839......csees008 . 50 0 0
geiatia Drawings of Railway okey Maintaining the Establishment at
CCLIONS .iscsesssstecessssccneceess 5 6 Kew Observatory .sseessseseeees 146 16 7
Investigation of Fossil Fishes of Strength of MEuadislh, sevenaeneers 60 0 0
the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0] Researches in Asphyxia..s...0008 6 16 2
meres the Shocks of ae ae Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0
QUAKES ....scecereeceseseds Vitality of Seeds .........0061844 2 15 10
Structure of Fossil Shells......... 20 0 0] Vitality of Seeds ..........01845 712 8
Radiata and Mollusca of the Marine Zoology of Cornwall.. 10 0 0
Bgean and Red Seas.....1842 100 0 0 | Marine Zoology of Britain .,.... 10 0 0
Geographical Distributions of Exotic Anoplura ..........0.1844 25 0 0
Marine Zoology........ 1842 010 0] ExpensesattendingAnemometers 11 7 6
gs = of Devon and ee ee eee owaseaeenesa : :
rmwa Ob cbcedecesineceaves te tmospheric Waves .....seeeeesses
Marine Zoology of Carfu sesesesse 10 0 0} Captive Balloons ............ 1844 819 38
Te allan on the Vitality of jouer Varieties of the Human Race
CCUG y..cccscecccsenosssevcssee tase 1844 7 6 38
A am on the. vin a ae Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
COME vise sseee eabeveoss tality at York .......- soccsseesry 22) 0.220
Exotic Anoplura ssseeeee-..s ieveee 1'5;; 0.10 £685 16 0
Strength of Materials ..... obaasee 100 0 0
Completing itAagag on the
Forms of Ships .....ssss0eeeeseee 100 0 0 A 1847. ;
Inquiries into Asphyxia ‘acess 10 0 © | Computation of the Gaussian
Investigations on the Internal Constants for 1839 Pep ccdos wicini 50 0 0
Constitution of Metals ......... 50 0 0 | Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0
Constant Indicator and Morin’s Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0
Instrument, 1842 ........++ ws 10 3 6| Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves .....s.seesseee 6 9 3
2
S081 4978 | Vieahity of Seedaes.. cas eeacoes an 7
1845. Maintaining the Establishment at
Publication of the British Associa- Kew Observatory ..... Sitaecren ULE ONO
tion Catalogue of Stars......... 351 14 6 £208 5 4
Meteorological Observations at
INVeEYNeSS s,.ceccesscsesseseeeeves 30 18 11 1848.
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Maintaining the Establishment at
PS eee abi ctencneua nk 1616 8 Kew Observatory ...+.-..seeseee 171 15 11
eteoraive ical ,nstruments. at Atmospheric Waves ...... cconstam 310 9
Edinburgh seeeeeeeeeece Seeeesenee 18 11 9 Vitality of Seeds 915 0
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob Lhahse > ig ey eee
5 Completion of Catalogues of Stars 70 0 0
servations at Plymouth qisisaush ti eo gO) 10 On Colouring Matters ........0+++ F 0.0
Electrical Experiments at Kew On Growth of Plants......00..0. 15 0 0
Observatory ...ccccccccssesceseee 43:17 8 “£75 18
Maintaining the Establishment in prven 6
Kew Observatory .......seeeeees 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0 1849.
Gases from Iron Furnaces ...... 50 0 | Electrical Observations at Kew
The Actinograph .....-.... oere 15 0 0 | Observatory ......ssseereeeeerees 50 0 0
Microscopic Structure of Shells... 20 0 0 | Maintaining Establishment at
Exotic Anoplura .........0 1843 10 0 0 ditto PUsAsTesseesause aiaseniiene eee T62* 5
Vitality of Seeds..........c..4 1848 9 0 7 | Vitality of Seeds ............c0s00s a 9S. 1
Vitality of Seeds ...... ee..1844 7 O 0 | On Growth of Plants............0+ 5 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0 | Registration of Periodical Phae-
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 NOMENA v.vavevsvseadeseorssrarires 10 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and Morta- Bill on account of Anemometrical
lity in York ...... Teas At 20 0 0 Observations «es...es sd eceeeeeeens 13 9 0
Earthquake Shocks .........18438 15 14 8 £159 19 6
1850.
1846. Maintaining the Establishment at
British Association Catalogue of Kew Observatory ....++...s06. 255 18 0
Stars ..ccccesscsseneseseeeeee 1844 211 15 0 | Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0
aie ca by "ee
GENERAL STATEMENT. Ixxi
RPlOoOocoraAoce
& s. d. £ s. d.
Periodical Phenomena. ............ 15 0 0| Experiments on the Influence of
Meteorological Instrument, Solar Radiation.........sscesees 15 0 0
Azores ...... Gs oUsFesecasleoper en's 25 0 0 Researches on the British Anne-
£345 18 0 LGA cA avevssvenpretaedsabeveoes eee 10 0 0
—————= | Dredging on the East Coast of
1851. Scotlands svasi sess cb sdatevecsaced en 10 0 0
Maintaining the Establishment at Ethnological Queries ............ 5 0 0
Kew Observatory (includes part £205 0 0
of grantin 1849) .......+. vevvee BOD 2-2 ——
Theory of Heat ........sseceeeeeeeee 20 1 1
Periodical Pheenomena of Animals 1854.
and Plants .....s0+0.00 bina tet Js 5 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment at
Vitality of Seeds 5 6 4 Kew Observatory (including
Influence of Solar aitiddonii:. 30 0 0 balance of former grant) ...... 830 15 4
Ethnological Inquiries ..... ea Bi 12 0 0 | Investigations on Flax ............ 11 0 0
Researches on Annelida ......... 10 0 o| Effects of Temperature on
$391 9 7 Wrought Iron ...........eeeeeee 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-
1852. NOMENA. ..sseeseesesesereeeeseneees 10 0 0
Maintaining the Establishment at SH ae Petes y4 wee 10 0 0
Kew Observatory (including ae ene 5 Si specacdast beatae pom ieee ta
balance of grant for 1850) ... 283 17 8 onduction of Heat .......... piceb Wits due AW
Experiments on the Conduction £380 19 7
BL LICAL sitesewscwisaee ns. cabtanays ined! LBD
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0 Nb these 1855.
Revearches on the British Anne- Maintaining the Establishment at
RIE ties eve cvaceodo ceeded systiee LO) 10-0 Kew Observatory «+-....sse0000s 425 0
Vitality of Seeds ........cceeseeeee 10 6 9| Earthquake Movements ......... 10 0
Strength of Boiler Plates .,....... 10 0 0 | Physical Aspect of the Moon..... 11 8
£304.67 Vitality of Seeds .,.........006 one ep OF taal
Map of the World ....,.ssc0e00 15 0
1853. Ethnological Queries ......... Gee 5 0
Maintaining the Establishment at CIEE SEP nesta
Kew Observatory .....ccseseeees 165 0 0 £480 16
Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific pur-
_ poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re-
mains disposable on each grant.
Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso-
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the person entitled to call
on the Treasurer, John Taylor, Esq., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames
Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to
time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not pontaaplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, asa part of the amount, the specified balancé which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
Ixxii : GENERAL MEETINGS.
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, Sept. 12th, at 8 p.m., in the City Hall, the Earl of
Harrowby, F.R.S., resigned the office of President to the Duke of Argyll,
F.R.S., who took the Chair at the General Meeting, and delivered an Address,
for which see page Ixxiii.
On Thursday, Sept. 13th, a Soirée took place in the M‘Lellan Rooms.
On Friday, Sept. 14th, at 8 p.m., in the City Hall, W. B. Carpenter, M.D.,
F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on the Characters of Species.
On Saturday, Sept. 15th, a Soirée took place in the M‘Lellan Rooms.
On Monday, Sept. 17th, at 8 p.m., in the City Hall, Lieut.-Col. Rawlinson,
C.B., delivered a Discourse on Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities and
Ethnology.
On Tuesday, Sept. 18th, the President’s Dinner took place at $ past 5 P.M.,
in the City Hall.
On Wednesday, Sept. 19th, at 3 p.m., the concluding General Meeting of
the Association was held in the City Hall, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee, and the Grants of Money for scientific purposes, were
explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Cheltenham *.
* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, the 6th of August, 1856.
ADDRESS
OF
THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, F-.R.S.
GENTLEMEN OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,
I xnow, Gentlemen, that the duty of presiding over this Meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, has been assigned to
me mainly in consequence of my local connexion with the district and City in
which we are now assembled. It cannot therefore be departing from the
special duty of that position, if I address you in the first place as one of those
who are receiving the honour of your visit. I am sure I cannot express in
terms too warm the feelings of this great community. It would be strange
indeed if Glasgow did not hold out to you a cordial reception. Here, if
anywhere, we have reason to honour Science, and to welcome the men whose
lives are devoted to its pursuit. The West of Scotland has itself contributed
not a few illustrious names to the number of those who have enlarged the
boundaries of knowledge, or have given fruitful application to principles
already known. I need not dwell on the fact that it was in this valley of the
Clyde that the patient genius of Watt perfected the mechanism which first
gave complete control over the powers of steam; and that it was on these
waters too that those powers were first applied in a manner which has given
new wings to commerce, and is now affecting not less decisively the terrible
operations of war. These are but single examples, more striking and palpable
than others, of the dependence of the Arts upon the advance of Science.
This, however, is a dependence which I am sure the citizens of Glasgow
would be the first to acknowledge, and which no doubt, with them as with
_ all men, must be an important element in the value which they set upon
_ physical research. But I am sure I should deeply wrong the intelligence of
the people of Glasgow, if I were to represent them as measuring the value of
science by no other standard than its immediate applicability to commercial
_ purposes. They seek to honour science for its own sake, and to encourage
_ the desire of knowledge as in itself one of the noblest instincts of our nature.
It is my duty also, Gentlemen, to speak on behalf of a special body—one of
_ which Glasgow has so much reason to be proud—I mean its ancient and vene-
‘rable University. If the mechanical arts owe to this district of Scotland the
greatest impulse they have ever yet received, it is not less true that our
knowledge of the laws which regulate the pursuits of industry, and determine
the distribution of the “ Wealth of Nations,” has been almost founded on the
lxxiv REPORT—1855.
researches of one whose name is indissolubly associated with this seat of
learning. Here again we have an illustrious example of the mutual relations
between science and politics in its best and highest definition. But indeed
our convictions are independent of such examples. It is impossible to ap-
preciate too highly the influence which science is evidently destined to have
on the prospects of education, and we look for the time when its methods,
as well as its results, will form the subject of teaching, not only as partially it
has long done in our Colleges, but also in the humblest of our schools. I
feel it to be no small privilege arising out of the Academical Office which this
year I have the honour of holding, to be able to assure you on behalf of the
University of Glasgow of the deep interest with which we regard your visit,
and of our high appreciation of the ends which it is your object to promote.
It is now fifteen years since the last Meeting of the British Association
here. There are probably few even annual meetings of any considerable
body of men, which are not marked by some melancholy recollections. Still
more must this be the case after the lapse of so long an interval,—one which
measures, as is usually reckoned, full half a generation in the life of man.
Among the many vacancies in your ranks which that period has occasioned
there are some which, from local association or from other causes, are naturally
impressed more deeply on the mind than others. I am sure that one vene-
rable name will rise to the memory of all who took any interest in the proceed-
ings of 1840 ;—of one whose early tastes for natural science had only yielded
before his devotion to a yet higher service; but whose powerful mind still
sought to found all his efforts in the cause of religion and humanity on
obedience to the eternal laws, which are as sure and steady in their operation
over the minds of men, and over the progress of society, as are other laws
over the subjects of material change. Who can forget the zeal and more than
youthful eagerness with which Dr. Chalmers entered into the discussions of
the Statistical section; and how he saw in those discussions the means of
spreading the knowledge of principles which are of vital interest to the
welfare of the State ?
But that name, though the lapse of years has not carried it beyond the re-
gion of regret, is one with which we have at least become familiar as belonging
to the number of the departed great. Such is not the case with other
vacancies, and especially with one which is still affecting us with almost
bewildered sorrow, and an abiding sense of irreparable loss. Who shall take
up the torch which has fallen from the hand of Edward Forbes? Who shall
hold it as he held it to those dark places in the History of Life which Science
is striving, perhaps in vain, to penetrate, but which seemed already opening
their treasures to his fine and advancing genius?
But whilst sad recollections are thus forced upon us as regards the life of
individual men, we have every reason to be satisfied with the inheritance
they have left. Many labourers are gone, but the cause in which they
laboured has been steadily gaining ground. Long as fifteen years may be
as a period in human life, it is generally but a fraction in the history of
mental progress. Yet since the last Meeting of the British Association here,
I am greatly mistaken if we cannot mark great strides in the advance of
science. J wish, Gentlemen, you had a President more competent than I am
to chronicle that advance, and direct the retrospect to a practical and useful
end. There are, however, some features so remarkable that I cannot omit ;
referring to them, as well calculated to raise our hopes and stimulate our
exertions. In that science which is the oldest and most venerable of all, I
mean Astronomy, if there had been nothing else to mark the progress of ~
discovery, the construction and application of Lord Rosse’s Great Reflector
ee
a ee ee
ae
ADDRESS. Ixxv
would have been enough to constitute an important epoch. Its systematic
operations may be said to be still only in the first stages of their progress ;
yet already how often do we see reference had to the mysterious revelations it
chas made in discussions on the principles of that science, and in not a few of the
speculations to which they are giving birth! My distinguished friend Sir D.
Brewster, in his recent Life of Newton, has designated that telescope as “one
of the most wonderful combinations of art and science which the world has
yet seen.” All who are interested in the devotion of abilities, of means and
of leisure to the noblest pursuits, must earnestly wish to see Lord Rosse
rewarded by that which he will value most, the steady progress of discovery.
It'must always be remembered, however, that Astronomy is ascience of which
hitherto at least it might almost be said that one great genius had left us no
more worlds to conquer ; that is to say, he carried our knowledge at a bound
to one grand, and apparently universal law, to which all worlds were subject,
and of which every new discovery had been but an additional illustration.
The reign of that law, whether universal or not, was at least so wide, that we
had never pierced beyond the boundary of its vast domain. For the first time
since the days of Newton a suspicion has arisen in the minds of astronomers
that we have passed into the reign of other laws, and that the nebular pheeno-
mena revealed to us by Lord Rosse’s telescope must be. governed by forces
different from those of which we have any knowledge. Whether this opinion
be or be not well founded—whether it be or be not probable that our
limited command over time and space can ever yield to our research
any other law of interest or importance comparable with that which has
already been determined—still, inside that vast horizon there are fillings-in
and fillings-up which will ever furnish infinite reward to labour. Of these
not a few have been secured since our last meeting here. Besides the patient
work of our professed Astronomers, and the good service rendered by such
men as Mr. Lassell and Mr. Nasmyth, who have so well relieved the business
of commercial industry by their devotion to the pursuits of science, we have
had one event so remarkable that in the whole history of Astronomy it stands
alone. If in looking at the wonderful objects revealed to us in Lord Rosse’s
telescope, we turn instinctively sometimes from the thing shown to the thing
which shows—from the Spiral Nebule to the knowledge and resources which
have collected their feeble light, and brought their mysterious forms under
the cognizance of the human eye, how much more curiously do we turn
from the single planet Neptune, to that other instrument which has felt, as it
were, and found its obscure and distant orbit ! So long as our species remains,
that body will be associated with one of the most glorious proofs ever given
of the reach of the human intellect ;—of the sweep and certainty of that noble
science which now honours with enduring memory the twin names of Adams
_ and Leverrier.
In Geology, the youngest, but not the least vigorous of the sciences, every
_ year has been adding to the breadth of its foundation—to the depth and
_ meaning of its results. Probably no science has ever advanced with more
_ rapid steps. In 1840 the then recent publication of the “ Silurian System ”
had just established those landmarks of the Paleozoic world which all subse-
‘quent discovery has only tended to confirm. The great horizons which were
first defined by the labours of Murchison and Sedgwick have since disclosed
the same phenomena which they so accurately described, in every quarter
of the globe ; and the generalizations founded thereupon have been definitely
established. The same period has sufficed, partly by tke labours of the
Same distinguished men, to clear up the relative position of the strata which
Sad
lxxvi REPORT—1855.
secondary age. But above all, the last few years have seen immense progress
made in our knowledge of that vast series of deposits which usher in the
dawn of existing forms, and carry us on to those changes, which, though the
most recent, are not the least obscure of any which have affected the surface
of the globe. The investigations of Edward Forbes on the laws which de-
termine the conditions of Marine Zoology, have supplied us with data altogether
new on some of the highest conclusions of the science; whilst his profound
speculations on the centres of creation and areas of distribution have pointed
out paths of inquiry which are themselves of inexhaustible interest, and hold
out the promise of great results. Another branch of investigation, which, if
not entirely new, is at least pursued on a new system, and with new resources,
has been opened up in Dynamical Geology by the learning and ingenuity of
Mr. Hopkins; whilst the thorough elucidation of the conditions of Glacier
Motion, which we owe to Professor James Forbes of Edinburgh, has given us
clear and definite ideas on one, and that not the least important of the agents
in Geological change. The observations accumulated during the recent
Arctic voyages have materially added to our knowledge of the operation of
the same agency under different conditions—conditions which we know must
once have extended widely over the firths and estuaries near where we are now
assembled—leaving behind them those enduring records of the Glacial epoch
which were first explored by my friend Mr. Smith of Jordan-hill. We owe
many important observations on the same phenomena, and on the various
changes of sea-level, to Mr. Robert Chambers. And if the thanks of Science
are due to those who advance her interests, both directly by adding to her
store of facts, or of her discovered laws; and also indirectly by investing
them with popular interest, and thus enlarging the circle of observers, we
must mention with special gratitude the classical works of Mr. Hugh Miller ;
and those writings of Sir Charles Lyell, which his indefatigable industry is
ever bringing up abreast with the progress of discovery—a progress stimu-
lated in no small degree by his own exertions,—and which are alike remark-
able for completeness of knowledge, for fertility of suggestion, and for sound
philosophical reasoning. I think we cannot mistake the general tendency of
Geological research, whether Stratigraphical or Zoological. It has been to
prolong periods which had been considered short; to divide others which
were classed together ; to fill up spaces which were imagined blank, and to
connect more and more in one unbroken chain the course of physical change
and the progress of organic life.
We pass from geology by a natural transition to another science which
stands to it in close alliance. If all our most sure conclusions respecting the
superficial covering of the globe have been founded on the classification of
its animal remains, it is not less true that our knowledge and understanding
of organic structure have been infinitely extended by the means which geo-
logy has afforded of studying that structure in relation to its history in past
time. In the hands of our great countryman, Professor Owen, Physiology
has assumed a new rank in science, leading us up to the very threshold of
the deepest mysteries of Nature. If the last few years had been marked by ~
no other event in the advancement of science, there would have been enough
to signalise them in the publication of his treatise on the “ Homologies of
the Vertebrate Skeleton:” and we may recollect with pride the fact of that
high argument having been first opened at a Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation.
A sad interest, indeed, attaches, in one direction at least, to the progress
of our knowledge in Geography. All serious doubt seems to have closed now
over the grave of Franklin, Even ina year during which war has been ~
—s
ADDRESS. Ixxvii
- claiming the noblest victims by thousands and tens of thousands, it would ill
become this Association not to mark with an expression of our sorrow and
admiration the self-sacrifice of that gallant band which has perished in the
cause of science. But their devotion has been emulated, under a still higher
stimulus, in the more successful career of others: and at last in the discovery
of the North-West Passage (still so-called in spite of its having been found
impassable), the courage and endurance of Captain M°Clure and his asso-
ciates have ascertained with certainty a most remarkable fact in the physical
conformation of the globe. Results of still larger, and certainly of more im-
mediate interest are being arrived at by the rapid march of African explo-
ration,—not, surely, before the time. Every part of the circumference of
that vast continent has been either known or accessible to us for centuries.
On its soil have flourished some of the most ancient and famous monarchies ;
and one of its great valleys is the fatherland of science. Yet up to com-
paratively recent times our horizon there has been bounded by the same
sands or mountains which bounded the knowledge of antiquity, and we had
almost as little acquaintance with its interior as had the Tyrian mer-
chant when his eye rested of old on the Peaks of Atlas. Nothing but fami-
liarity with the fact could have reconciled us to the ignorance in which we
have so long remained of one of the largest and most interesting regions of
the world. That ignorance is at last being cleared away; and the exertions
of many individuals, amongst whom the names of Mr. Galton, of Mr. Ander-
son, Dr. Livingston, Dr. Baikie and Dr. Barth, stand conspicuous, have con-
tributed results of the deepest interest and importance. No man who values
science can fail to appreciate the extension of our knowledge respecting
geography even where, as in the Arctic regions, that knowledge is pursued
simply for its own sake. But it becomes invested with tenfold interest when
it brings with it the largest influence on the destinies of millions of the
human race ; and adds, as we may confidently hope it will ultimately do in
the case of Africa, an inexhaustible field for manufacturing and commercial
enterprise.
In connexion with the diffusion of geographical knowledge I cannot omit
to mention the magnificent publications of Mr. Alexander Keith Johnston of
Edinburgh, in his Atlas of Physical Geography. It is seldom that such a
mass of information has been presented in a form so beautiful and attractive ;
or one which tends so much to place the study of geography on a truly sci-
- entific basis—that is to say, on the basis of its relation to the other natural
_ sciences, and those grand cosmical views of terrestrial pheenomena which have
found their most distinguished interpreter in Baron Humboldt.
The kindred science of Ethnology has received of late years great deve-
_ lopment; not only by its increasing store of facts, but by the more scientific
use which is being made of facts which have been long familiar. The in-
vestigation of the laws which regulate the growth of language, promise to
cast the most important lights on the history of our race; but the conclu-
sions to which that investigation may lead are still matters of keen and anxious
controversy, and are exposed to all that suspicion which has been directed
against almost every science at some stage or other of its growth; and
which, we must allow, every science has, at some stage or other, justified by
hasty generalization and premature deduction.
_ Of all the sciences Chemistry is that which least requires to have its
triumphs recorded here. The immediate applicability of so many ef its
results to the useful arts has secured for it the watchful interest of the
world; and every day is adding some new proof of its inexhaustible fertility.
_ There is one department of inquiry, and that perhaps the most interesting of
4
Ixxviii REPORT—1855.
all, I mean Organic Chemistry, which has received an especial impulse during,
the last few years, an impulse mainly due to the genius of one distinguished
man whom we have the honour of numbering among our guests upon this
occasion. I think Baron Liebig will find in Scotland that kind of welcome
which a man of science values most,—a readiness to profit by his instructions,
and an enlightened appreciation among the farmers of the country of the
practical value of studying in their husbandry the laws which have been
revealed by his research. I am reminded, through the kindness of Dr,
Lyon Playfair, of some facts which give yet a more special interest to this
subject in connexion with our meeting here. It was to the British As-
sociation at Glasgow in 1840 that Baron Liebig first communicated his
work on the Application of Chemistry to Vegetable Physiology. The
philosophical explanation there -given of the principles of manuring and
cropping gave an immediate impulse to agriculture, and directed attention te
the manures which are valuable for their ammonia and mineral ingredients ;
and especially to guano, of which in 1840 only a few specimens had ap-
peared in this country. The consequence was that in the next year, 1841,
no less than 2881 tons were imported; and during the succeeding years the
total quantity imported into this country has exceeded the enormous amount
of 1,500,000 tons. Nor has this been all: Chemistry has come in with her
aid to do the work of Nature, and as the supply of guano becomes exhausted,
limited as its production must be to a few rainless regions of the world, the
importance of artificial mineral manures will increase. Already considerable
capital is invested in the manufacture of superphosphates of lime, formed by
the solution of bones in sulphuric acid, the use of which was first recom-
mended at the last Glasgow Meeting. Of these artificial manures not less
than 60,000 tons are annually sold in England alone; and it is a curious
example of the endless interchange of services between the various sciences
that Geology has contributed her quota to the same important end ; and the
exuviz and bones of extinct animals, found in a fossil state, are now, to the
extent of from 12,000 to 15,000 tons, used to supply annually the same ferti-
lizing materials to the soil. The exertions of Professor Daubeny of Oxford on
the same important subject, and the continued attention which he has de-
voted to it, have done much for the cause of agricultural chemistry in En-
gland; whilst the thanks both of practical and of scientific men are due to
Dr. Lyon Playfair, and Professor Gregory of Edinburgh, for those admirable
translations of Baron Liebig’s works, which have rendered them accessible to
every English reader; and have thereby had no unimportant influence in
extending the knowledge of the laws affecting both vegetable and animal
physiology.
I am indebted to the same quarter for the mention of one remarkable in-
stance of the manner in which—to use Dr. Playfair's words—“ the over-
flowings of Abstract Science pass into and fertilize the field of Industry.”
One of the newest and most obscure subjects of chemical research has been
the discovery of certain conditions under which bodies, like in their com-
position, are nevertheless endowed with unlike properties, and thereby
become convertible to new purposes. It is in the application of this
principle that a gentleman of this city, Mr. James Young, has succeeded in
obtaining the illuminating principle of coal gas either in a solid or liquid
state; and it has proved to be a substance of immense value for the lubrica-
tion of machinery, vast quantities of it being now manufactured and sold for
that purpose.
I hardly know whether it is strictly in connexion with the advance of
chemical knowledge that I ought to remind you of one great discovery made
ADDRESS. Ixxix
long since we last assembled here ;—I refer to the discovery of the effects of
chloroform on the animal system; one which claims for my friend Dr. Simp-
son of Edinburgh a high place indeed among the benefactors of mankind.
Chloroform as a mere chemical composition had indeed been known before,
and had been made the subject of elaborate research by the distinguished
_ French chemist, M. Dumas, whom we have here the honour of receiving as
a guest. But the discovery of its application is not the less a triumph of
science, and of the best and highest scientific faculties. Seldom indeed has
that disposition of mind which is ever ready to receive a chance suggestion,
and to pursue it believing what great things we have yet to learn, been
crowned with a more brilliant and direct reward.
It marks the growing sense entertained of the value of Statistical research,
that, during the late session of Parliament, a committee of the House of Lords
sat for a considerable time on the best means of securing a complete system
of Agricultural Returns. We owe much in this matter to the exertions of the
Highland Society of Scotland, and, as has been specially recorded by the
committee, to the zeal and activity of their able secretary, Mr. Hall Max-
well. We owe not less, also, to the high intelligence of the farmers of Scot-
land generally, who have rendered every assistance in their power, and that
with a willingness which can only arise from an enlightened appreciation of
the great objects to be gained by the inquiry.
No one has rendered more important service to Statistical science, in one
of its most interesting departments, than the able Chamberlain of this city,
Dr. Strang. His periodical Reports on the Growth and Progress of Glasgow
are among the most curious and useful records of the kind which haye been
published in any part of the United Kingdom. I need hardly say that they
supply materials for much reflection on many questions connected with the
social welfare of the people. I believe Dr. Strang has lately visited Paris,
- with a view to communicate to this Meeting of the Association various facts
connected with the great improvements which are in the course of progress
in that city. Should his investigations cast any light on the best means of
improving the dwellings of the labouring classes in the great centres of popu-
lation, and on the possibility of doing so on a large scale, by public authority,
he will have rendered no small service to his country in a matter of vital
interest and of much difficulty.
Closely connected with the subject of Statistics, as applied to Agricultural
returns, I am happy to say that, mainly owing to the exertions of Sir J.
_ Forbes of Fettercairn, and of Mr. Milne Home, a Meteorological Society for
Scotland has been established, warmly seconded by the Highland Society.
_ The wonderful results on a great scale which have been obtained in this de-
_ partment of science by Lieut. Maury of the United States, give us ground
_ to hope that even on the small areas of individual countries, where of course,
~ from the crossing of local influences, the general result is infinitely com-
| plicated, some approach may be made towards ascertaining the laws which
| regulate the seasons.
_ The admirable agency which is now afforded by the Kew Committee of
| this Association, for the verification of instruments, and by the new meteoro-
ogical department of the Board of Trade under Capt. FitzRoy, for the reduc-
tion of local observations, will, I trust, be taken advantage of by the new
Scottish Society. I cannot help congratulating the Association on the posi-
tion which has been secured by science in connexion with both of these
establishments. The thanks of the commercial as well as of the scientific
world are due to Colonel Sabine and the other members of the Kew Com-
Mittee, whose assistance is now highly appreciated by practical men, and
oh
Ixxx REPORT~—1855.
eagerly sought for by the best instrument-makers; whilst Capt. FitzRoy’s
office and duties are in themselves an acknowledgement of no small im-
portance of the public value of systematic observation.
The increasing employment of iron in ship-building has brought into cor-
responding notice the uncertainty which attends the action of the compass
on board vessels of that construction. This important and intricate subject
has been treated of by Mr. Archibald Smith of Jordan Hill, with all the re-
sources of his high mathematical and scientific attainments, in publications
which have appeared under the sanction and with the recommendation of
the Admiralty. It will not fail to interest this great commercial city, whose
freights are_on every sea, that this question was taken up at the last Liver-
pool Meeting by Dr. Scoresby, that it has continued to occupy his close
attention, and that he intends to communicate to this Meeting of the Asso-
ciation some of the valuable results of his investigations.
Feeling deeply, as I do, my own inability to give anything like an ade-
quate sketch—even in outline—of the progress of science during the last
few years, I remember at the same time with some satisfaction, that it is less
the business of this Association to boast of the achievements which have
already been effected, than to devise means of facilitating those which are
yet to come. You have appointed a Parliamentary Committee for the con-
sideration of one important branch of this inquiry. We shall doubtless hear
from my noble friend Lord Wrottesley those recommendations which have
been the result of its recent labours, and which will be found to owe much
to his enlightened zeal, to his great knowledge and his sound judgment. In
the meantime, I trust I may be allowed to make a few general observations
on what appear to me to be some of the best means of promoting in this
country the advancement of physical science.
It will readily be understood, that, in referring for a moment here to the
aid which may be afforded by the State to the advancement of science, I
divest myself entirely of any official character other than that which belongs
to me as your President, and that I seek to give expression to my own
opinions only.
I am not one of those who are disposed to look to public authority as
the primary or the best supporter of abstract science. In the main it must
depend for its advancement on its own inexhaustible attractions,—on the
delight which it affords us to study the constitution of the world around
us, and to endeavour to understand, though it be but darkly, how the
reins of its government are held. Nor am I disposed to indulge in any
complaint on a matter which ‘has lately attracted some attention among
scientific men. In a great manufacturing country like ours, the dispo-
sition of whose people is eminently practical, it is perfectly natural that
greater attention should be bestowed on the arts than on the abstract
sciences. This, indeed, is but adhering to what has been hitherto at least
the natural and historical order of precedence; for it is a just observa-
tion of Professor Whewell, in his lecture on the results of the Great Exhi-
bition of 1851, that practice has generally gone before theory—results have
been arrived at, before the laws on which they depend had been defined or
understood. Art, in short, has preceded science. But it is equally import-
ant to observe, that in recent times this order has been in numberless
instances reversed. Abstract science has gone ahead of the arts, and the
conduct of the workshop is now perpetually receiving its direction from the
experiments of the laboratory. Perhaps the most wonderful discovery of
modern days—that of the Electric Telegraph—was thought out and perfected,
so far as its principle was concerned, in the closet and the lecture-room, and
_ ADDRESS. Ixxxi
flashed ready-made on the astonishment of the world. In chemistry, the lead
taken by abstract science in reacting on the arts is manifest and constant ;
and in a greater or less degree the same result is appearing in connexion
with every branch of physical research. The interest, therefore, of the
State, even if it be considered merely in this economic point of view, in the
encouragement of abstract science, is obvious and immediate. And there is
this additional motive to be remembered: the moment any result of science
becomes applicable to the arts, the unfailing enterprise of the commercial and
manufacturing classes takes it up and exhausts every resource of capital and
of skill in giving to that application the largest possible development. But so
long as science is still purely abstract, it has often to be prosecuted with
slender resources, and specially requires fostering care and a helping hand.
But I rejoice to believe that the conviction of this truth is sensibly gaining
ground. The foundation of the geological museums both in England and
in Scotland, and the carrying out of a complete geological, concurrently with
a geographical survey, by public authority and at the public expense, were
great steps in the right direction. Another such step was the investment of
£1000 annually in aiding experimental research, through the agency of the
Royal Society, which undertook the trouble of its special allocation. It isthe
intention of my noble friend, Lord Palmerston, to bring the principle of some
expenditure in this direction specially under the notice of Parliament for the
future ; and it is worthy of remark, as illustrating how far a small sum may go
in aid of abstract science, and how cheaply the largest and most fruitful
results may thereby be attained, that, as I have been informed on very high
authority, this apparently trivial sum has been felt as a most important help
in numberless instances, sometimes in the conduct of experiments, sometimes
in the publication of their results, and sometimes in securing accurate artistic
delineations.
The relations now established between the Board of Trade and various
branches of scientific investigation are such as lay the foundation for further
progress in the same direction. I am happy to say that, in connexion with
the new national museum which is being organized for Scotland, there is to be
a special branch devoted to the industrial applications of science; and that a
new Professorship—one which has long existed in almost all the continental
universities—that of Technology—has just been instituted by the Government.
I am not less happy in being able to announce that to that chair Dr. George
Wilson has been appointed. The writings which we owe to the pen of Dr. Wil-
son, and especially his beautiful Memoirs of Cavendish, and of Dr. Reid, are
_ among the happiest productions of the Literature of Science.
I trust also that the aid of the State may be secured in providing a house
and home for the scientific bodies in the metropolis. I am disposed to agree
with those who attach no small importance to this consummation. When
the Royal Society alone adequately represented all or nearly all who were
engaged in physical science, that great body fulfilled all the necessary con-
ditions of a scientific council. But now, when almost every separate division
of science has a separate society of its own, it has become almost indispen-
sable that some new arrangement should be come to, in order that abstract
science may have that degree of organization without which its interests will
never receive the public attention which they ought to have.
The influence, if not the authority of the State, may also, I think, be most
beneficially exerted on behalf of Science, through the educational rules and
principles of administration of the Privy Council. But the Committee of
Council, in the adoption of those rules, is necessarily governed to a certain
extent by the feelings and opinions of the various churches and bodies which
1855,
Ixxxil. REPORT—1855.
are the primary supporters of our existing educational system. In the last
Report of the Council of the Geographical Society, they announce a com-
munication from the Committee of Privy Council, requesting the Society to
appoint an Examiner in Geography, to be associated with other examiners
on other branches of education. It may be well worthy of consideration,
whether the same expedient might not be usefully adopted in reference to
other branches of science, which have hitherto formed a less admitted part
of ordinary instruction.
And this, Gentlemen, brings me to say, that the Advancement of Science
depends, above all things, on securing for it a better and more ac-
knowledged place in the education of the young. There are many signs
that the time is coming when our wishes in this respect will be fulfilled.
They would be fulfilled, perhaps, still more rapidly, but for the operation
of obstructing causes, some of which we should do well to notice. How
often do we find it assumed, that those who urge the claims of Science
are desirous of depreciating some one or more of the older and more sacred
branches of education! In respect to elementary schools we are generally
opposed, as aiming at the displacement of religious teaching; whilst in
respect to the higher schools and colleges, the cudgels are taken up in
behalf of classical attainments. A remarkable example of the influence
of these feelings will be found in a speech delivered by Lord Lyndhurst
during the late session of Parliament. With all the power of his digni-
fied and commanding eloquence he asserted the right of the elder studies
to their time-honoured pre-eminence; and in the keen pursuit of this
argument even he was almost tempted to speak in a tone of some deprecia-~
tion of those noble pursuits in which the University of which he is a distin-
guished ornament has won no small portion of her fame. But surely no
enlightened friend of the Natural Sciences would seek to challenge this
imaginary competition. Perhaps, indeed, like other zealous advocates, we
may have sometimes overstrained our language, and have thereby given such
vantage-ground to prejudice, that it has been enabled to assume the form of
just objection. We cannot too earnestly disclaim the idea that the know-
ledge of physical laws can ever of itself form the groundwork of any active
influence in morals or religion. Any such idea would only betray our igno-
rance of some of the deepest principles of our nature. But this does not
affect the estimate which we may justly put on an early training in the
principles of physical research. ‘That estimate may be not the less a high
one, because it does not assign to science what belongs to other things.
There is one aspect in which we do not require to plead the cause of
science as an element in education, and on that, therefore, I shall not dwell.
I mean that in which certain applied sciences are recognized as the essential
bases of professional training: as, for example, when the engineer is trained
in the principles of mechanics and hydrostatics, or the physician in those of
chemistry. Of course, with every new application of the sciences to the arts
of life this direct influence will extend. But what we desire, and ought to
aim at, is something more. It is, that abstract science, without special refer-
ence to its departmental application, should be more recognized as an essen-
tial element in every liberal education, We desire this on two grounds
mainly ; first, that it will contribute more than anything else to the further
advancement of science itself; and, secondly, because we believe that it
would be an instrument of vital benefit in the culture and strengthening of
the mental powers.
But, as regards both these great objects, we must remember that much
will depend on the manner in which elementary instruction in science is con-
PS
Pi
ADDRESS. lxxxili
-ducted; on the conception, in fact, which we entertain of what science really
is. Nothing can be easier than so to teach science as to feed every mental
vice or weakness which obstructs the progress of knowledge, or blinds men to
every evidence of new truths, in self-satisfied contemplation of the few they
have already ascertained. May we not illustrate this by the effect which has not
seldom been produced by the scientific education of professions? It is true,
indeed, that professional men have often enlarged the field of science by the
discovery of new and important truths. Some of the strongest-armed pioneers
of science have been of this class. But how have their discoveries been too
often received by their professional brethren? How many of them have
been assailed by every weapon in the extensive armoury of prejudice and
bigotry! How many of them have had their name recognized only after it
had been written on the grave! and over whom we might well repeat the
noble lines—
..... Now thy brows are cold
We see thee, what thou art, and know
Thy likeness to the wise below,
Thy kindred with the great of old.
_ What we want in the teaching of the young, is, not so much the mere
results, as the methods, and, above all, the history of science. How, and by
what steps it has advanced; with what large admixture of error every new
truth has been at first surrounded ; by what patient watchings and careful
reasonings; by what chance suggestions and happythoughts; by what doci-
lity of mind, and faith in the fullness of Nature’s meanings; in short, by
what kinds of power and virtue, the great men, aye, and the lesser men of
science have each contributed their quota to her progress; this is what we
ought to teach, if we desire to see education well conducted to the great ends
in view. It is not merely for the sake of investing the abstractions of science
with something of a living and human interest, that we should recall and re-
vive these passages in her history: nor is it merely to impress her results
better on the memory, as we fill up from biographies and other sources of
information, the meagre page of the general historian. It is for something
more than this. It is both that they may be more encouraged to observe
nature, and that they may better understand how to do so with effect. It
is that they may cultivate that temper of mind to which she most loves to
reveal her secrets. And as regards those whose own opportunities of obser-
vation may be small, it is that they may better appreciate the labours of
others ; and may be enabled to recognize, in the midst, perhaps, of much ex-
travagance, the tokens of real genius, and in the midst of much error the
golden sands of truth. ¢
It is one of the many observations of Sir C. Lyell which have a much
wider application than that to which they were specially directed, that the
mistake of looking too exclusively to the grand results of geological change,
and of referring them too readily to sudden agencies of tremendous activity
and power, tended to check the advance of that science, by discouraging
habits of watchfulness over those operations which are contemporary with
ourselves, and the secret of whose power is to be found in the lapse of time.
An effect precisely analogous is produced on the progress of science as a
whole by a similar method of regarding it. And even when the history of
that progress is attended to at all, there is a natural disposition to look back
to a few great names among the number of its chief promoters, as Beings
who, by dint only of some unapproachable superiority of intellect, have
taught us all we know. It is true, indeed, there have been a few such men;
just as there have been periods of sudden geological operations, which have
Ixxxiv REPORT—1855.
upheaved at once stupendous and enduring monuments. But even in re-
spect to those great men, it will often be found that at least one great secret
of their power has lain in virtues which might be more common than unfortu-
nately they are found to be. That openness and simplicity of mind which
is ever ready to entertain a new idea, and not the less willing that it may be
suggested hy some common and familiar thing, is one of the surest accom-
paniments of genius. But it is clearly separable from extraordinary intellec-
tual power, although, where both are found together, the great results pro-
duced are too often attributed to the more brilliant faculty alone. Professor
Whewell, in his most interesting History of the Inductive Sciences, whilst
deprecating the degree of attention which has been paid to the well-known
story respecting the origin of Newton’s thoughts on gravitation, has never-
theless stated, with his usual clearness and precision, the essential truth
which the traditions of science have done well to cherish. Those who have
been competent to judge of the calibre of Newton’s mind, of its powers of
pure abstract reasoning, have with one voice assigned it the highest place in
the records of human intellect. Doubtless, it was those powers which enabled
him to prove what otherwise would have remained conjecture. But it is not
the less important to observe, that the suggestion on which these powers were
called to work was one eminently characteristic of a mind where simplicity and
greatness were indeed synonymous. That the celestial motions, about which so
many wonderful facts were then already known, and which, had been referred
to so many mysterious and imaginary forces, should be indeed identical in
kind with the motions which took place close beside him, and that the same
rules should be applicable to each, this was an idea in which, to use
Dr. Whewell’s words, “‘ Newton had no forerunner.” We do not need to
compare the relative importance of those qualities of mind which are in-
dicated in the first conception of such an idea, and of those other faculties
which could alone crown it with demonstration, and add it to the number of
established truths. For the attainment, by a single individual, of results so
grand and so complete as those which were reached by Newton, each was
necessary to the other. But characteristics, which were in him united, have not
the less had their separate value when divided in other men; and it cannot
be too often repeated, that habits of wakeful observation on the commonest
phznomena of nature are often alone enough to yield a rich harvest to the
man of science, and to crown his labours with an immortalname. This has
been a result of continual recurrence in the progress of knowledge. It is the
expression and evidence of a truth of equal importance in the moral and the
physical world, that the common things which surround us in our daily life,
and many of which we do not really see, only because we see them too often
and too familiarly, are governed by principles of infinite interest and value,
and whose range of application is wide as the universe of God.
And this brings me to say a word on the value of instruction in Physical
Science, not merely with a view to its own advancement, but as in itself a
means of mental training and an instrument for the highest purposes of edu-
cation. It is in this latter point of view that its claims seem to be least ad-
mitted or understood. We may bear an exception made in favour of the
exact sciences, which involve the application of Mathematical knowledge,
since this has been long recognized as requiring the highest intellectual exer-
tion; but with regard to other sciences, how often do we hear them con-
demned as affording “ mere information,” and as tending in no sensible de-
gree to strengthen and invigorate the mental powers! But, again I say, this
would entirely depend on how Science is to be taught—whether by a mere
cramming of facts from manuals, or by explaining how and by whom former
ADDRESS. — Ixxxv
problems have been solved,—what and how vast are other problems yet
waiting for, and capable of solution. And even where the researches of
Physical Science can do little more than guide conjecture, or illustrate merely
what it cannot prove, how grand are the questions which it excites us to
ask, and on which it enables us to gather some amount of evidence! In
Geology, is it true, or is it not true, that “we can see no trace of a beginning
—no symptom of an end?” ‘To what extent, and in what sense are we yet
entitled to say, that there has been an advance in organization as there has
been advance in time? In Physiology, what is the meaning of that great
law, of adherence to type and pattern, standing behind as it were, and in
reserve of that other law by which organic structures are specially adapted
to special modes of Life? What is the relation between these two laws; and
can any light be cast upon it, derived from the history of extinct forms, or
from the conditions to which we find that existing forms are subject? In
Vegetable Physiology do the same, or similar laws prevail,—or can we trace
others, such as those on the relations between structure, form and colour, of
which clear indications have already been established, in communications
lately made to this Association by Dr. M‘Cosh and Dr. Dickie of Belfast?
In Chemistry, how is it that some of the most powerful actions escape our
finest analyses? In Medicine, what is the action of specifics? and are there
no more discoveries to be made such as rewarded the observation of Jenner,
in the almost total extinction of a fearful and frequent scourge? It is in refer-
ence to such great questions, and ten thousand others equally interesting and
important, that the pursuits of science call forth the highest activities of the
mind, and exercise every power of thought and reasoning with which it has
been endowed.
Indeed it may fairly be questioned whether those sciences which are called
exact, are necessarily the best preparation for the actual business of’ the world.
It is the rare exception, and not the rule, when exact and perfect demonstration
becomes applicable to the affairs of life. In general, men have to balance
’ between a thousand probabilities, and to take into account a thousand con-
‘
flicting tendencies. Surely there can be no training better than that which .
teaches us by what careful inductive reasoning—by what separation between
permanent and accidental causes,—by what constant reference from the pre-
sent to the past, and from the past back again to the present, our existing
knowledge has been attained in the paths of physical research. It is true,
indeed, that where men’s passions and prejudices are much concerned, no
amount of teaching will ever induce them to follow or attend to the best
methods of arriving at the truth. But even where there are no such dis-
turbing causes, where moderate and candid men are expressing their sincere
convictions, how constantly do we hear them ascribing effects to causes,
CsA
which the slightest habit of correct reasoning would have been sufficient to
dismiss! In questions of great social or political, as well as of philosophical
importance, the want of such habit is often most painfully apparent, and
serves in no small degree to retard the progress of mankind. The necessity
_ of considering all questions with reference to fundamental principles or laws,
and these again with referenee to the disturbing causes which delay or sus-
pend their operation, the mode of weighing evidence, and the degree of value
to be attached to that which is of a merely negative kind—these are things
_ of which we are perpetually reminded in the pursuits of science ; and these
surely are no useless lessons, whether in religious, social, or political affairs.
And then there is another consideration of no small importance. As
Science has now come to a stage in her progress, when she heads the Arts,
and flings back upon them her reflected light, so also has she now reached a
lxxxvi REPORT—1855.
degree of development, which casts some rays forward on questions of higher
import than those which she can fully answer. It is in vain that we try to
draw definite lines between the Physical and the Metaphysical,—-between the
Secular and the Religious. There is a felt relation between the laws which
obtain in each—such indeed as we might expect to find in provinces of a
universal empire. The consequence is, that in every speculation on those
higher questions on which men will and must speculate—in every system of
Philosophy, whether ancient or modern, they draw not merely their illustra-
tions, but not a few of their conclusions from science, or from that which
passes by the name. If, therefore, her discoveries, and above all, her
methods and her history be but partially and superficially understood, the
popular mind will be a perpetual prey to the most specious forms of error.
But that history teaches caution. It is full of warning as well as of example.
In being a history of the progress of knowledge, it is a history also of the
obstructions which Knowledge has encountered, and an index of those to
which she is still exposed. The influence of opinions and theories precon-
ceived,—of rash conclusions, and of false analogies, has been, and still is, a
perpetual source of danger. So much is this the case, that we soon learn to
receive with extreme caution the inferences drawn by men of science from
the facts they may bring to light, wherever these inferences touch upon other
departments of knowledge. The relation in which a new fact or law stands
to others is seldom at once rightly understood. It is only through fightings
and controversies of every kind that it gradually finds its place; and be-
comes, not unfrequently, an instrument in defence of truths which at first it
was supposed to sap and undermine. I do not mean to say that the full
meaning of the discoveries of science is always brought to light. Far from
it. It would be more true to say that their ultimate meaning is never
reached ; and that for every question which Science answers, she propounds
another which it is beyond her powers to solve. But in this we may see the
strongest of all arguments against our entertaining any fear of science, as
regards the interests of religion. It is sometimes proudly asked, who shall
set bounds to Science, or to the widening circle of her horizon? But why
should we try to do so, when it is enough to observe that that horizon, how-
ever it may be enlarged, is an horizon still—a circle beyond which, however
wide it be, there shine, like fixed stars without a parallax, eternal problems in
which the march of science never shows any change of place. If there be one
fact of which Science reminds us more perpetually than another, it is that we
have faculties impelling us to ask questions which we have no powers enabling
us to answer. What better lesson of humility than this—what better indi-
cation of the reasonableness of looking to a state in which this discrepancy
shall be done away ; and when we shall “ know, even as we are known!”
But, Gentlemen, I have already detained you too long, and occupied your
time far less profitably than it would have been occupied by many who are
present on this occasion. The hospitality of this great city will afford you,
I trust, a pleasant, and your own exertions will secure a profitable, Meeting.
You may well engage in its business and discussions, with a sense of the
high interest and value of your pursuits—not-less interesting in themselves,
—not less conducive to the progress and happiness of mankind,—not less
tasking the noblest faculties of the mind, than those which engross the atten-
tion of jurists, of soldiers or of statesmen, when their motives are the purest,
and their objects are the best.
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REPORTS
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THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-mines and Re-
volving Storms. By Tuomas Dosson, B.A., of St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
In coal-mines liable to explosions, there is a continuous discharge of car-
buretted hydrogen gas, from the innumerable minute fissures of the fractured
coal, into the galleries of the mine. The rate and quantity of this issue of
gas depend, ceteris paribus, upon the density of the atmosphere; being
greater when this density is less, and vice versd. The preponderance of air
over gas in the atmosphere of the mine never falls below a certain fixed
ratio without producing a risk of explosion; hence a due adjustment must
be maintained at all times between the rates of ventilation and of gaseous
discharge, in order to prevent the mine from becoming charged with gas
up to the explosive point. ,
It is here proposed to consider the effect of extraordinary fluctuations of
the density and temperature of the atmosphere in deranging this delicate
adjustment of opposing powers.
There are two ways in which meteorological agency may render the atmo-
sphere of a mine explosive. 4
1. During a period of comparatively calm weather, when the mercury in
the barometer ranges above 30 inches for several days, the usual escape of gas
into the mine is checked by the greater density of the air, and the tension of
the pent-up gases increases. If such a period be succeeded by a rapid dimi-
nution of atmospheric pressure, indicated by a considerable fall of the mer-
curial column, the consequent outpouring of suddenly liberated gas may be
so great as to overpower the ordinary ventilation of the mine, and thus an
explosive atmosphere may be produced by an excessive issue of gas, owing to
a sudden decrease of atmospheric pressure.
2. Supposing the action of the ventilating mechanism to remain unchanged
and the flow of gas into the mine to be steady and constant in quantity, itis
evident that the effective ventilation will vary inversely as the temperature of
the external air. In fact, the efficiency of the ventilation depends chiefly
upon the difference of temperature of the air in the mine and the air above-
ground. Hence a considerable rise in the temperature of the external air .
may so impede the ventilation as to render it inadequate to effect the neces-
sary dilution and removal of even the ordinary quantity of gas discharged ;
1855. B
Je, _ REPORT ON THE RELATION BETWEEN
and the atmosphere of a mine may thus become explosive from a want of
sufficient air, owing to a sudden increase of atmospheric temperature.
There are two distinct and essential conditions necessary to cause an ex-
plosion in a coal-mine :—
Ist. The atmosphere of the mine must be rendered inflammable.
2ndly. The inflammable air must be ignited.
The condition of inflammability may occasionally arise from a workman
unexpectedly breaking into a reservoir of accumulated gas; from the fall of
the roof of a Goaf, or old waste; or from the accidental derangement of the
ventilating machinery. Such fortuitous cases do not belong to the present
inquiry.
As the instant of ignition is independent of the weather, and is generally
determined by an individual act of carelessness, it is obvious that any reason-
ing based on the action of the barometer or thermometer just at the time of
explosion will be apt to lead to conflicting and even erroneous results. This
will appear more plainly from a brief consideration of the attempts that have
been made hitherto to determine the relation between explosions in coal-mines
and atmospherical fluctuations.
In the minutes of evidence on “ Accidents in Coal-mines,” taken before a
Select Committee of the House of Lords in 1849, is a table, constructed by
J. Hutchinson, Esq., M.D., of thirty of the “chief explosions” since 1800 in
Northumberland and Durham, with one daily reading of the barometer and
thermometer at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, for each of three days, of which the
day of explosion is the last. The mean action of the barometer on the thirty
days of explosion is found to be a depression of ‘02 (two-hundredths) of an
inch ; and that of the thermometer an elevation of one degree. Hence it is
concluded that the relation between such explosions and the barometer is
“feeble” compared with their relation to the thermometer (Parl. Report,
&e., 1849, p- 154).
T. J. Taylor, Esq., an eminent colliery-viewer in the North of England,
has selected twenty-five of the “great pit-explosions” in the same district,
and likewise tabulated a single barometrical reading at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, for each of three days, of which the second is the day of explosion
(dem, p. 557).
These tables have been generally accepted as conclusive against the con-
nexion between a falling barometer and explosions in coal-mines. In a par-
ticular instance, where a great fall of the barometric column immediately
preceded a fatal explosion, a Government Inspector of Mines cites these -
tables as the basis of his opinion that the fall of the mercury had no effect in
producing the explosion referred to (Parl. Report, &c. 1853, Qu. 543, 568).
The following considerations will show that the nugatory result of these
tables is really no evidence of the absence of meteorological influences.
Ist. By selecting the explosion for the critical phenomenon of the inquiry,
the numerous cases are excluded where explosions have been foreseen and
prevented, when the atmosphere of the mine has been observed to have become
highly inflammable before it was too late to retreat. Two instructive instances
of this kind are mentioned ina letter of the 24th Sept. 1839, from T. D.
Brown, Esq., the owner of Jarrow Colliery, published in the Appendix to the
able Report of the South Shields Committee. Mr. Brown writes, “On the
Ist Sept.I find the barometer stood at 28°81 inches. The master-wasteman’s
account of the state of the air in Jarrow pit on that day is, that it was so bad
that the gas came to the shaft. On the day of the great storm (7th January,
1839) my barometer was down to 27°48 inches, and the wasteman’s account
is, that he seldom, if ever, knew a pit to be in such a state. The gas came
EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES AND REVOLVING STORMS. 3
to the shaft in the Bensham; and having made its appearance in the Bensham
engine chimney, it was found necessary to extinguish the fire. The waste-
man says that the glass does not fall two degrees without a change being
perceptible below.”
Notwithstanding the absence of an explosion in each of these cases, it is
es that the readings 28°81 and 27°48 ought to have appeared in the
tables.
Qndly. By estimating the importance of the explosion by the number of
persons killed, the great explosions are omitted which have occurred at times
when few persons were in the mine.
8rdly. By taking all the great explosions, some cases are included which have
arisen from known accidental causes, unconnected with atmospherical changes.
These tables are, therefore, defective with respect to a large and important
class of cases, and redundant with respect to others which have no relation to
meteorological agency. But even if they had been perfect, the results would
still have been illusory, so long as the attention was confined to the action of
the barometer and thermometer at the time of explosion; for the transit of
a great atmospheric storm generally occupies several days, during which a
mine may continue in a “foul” and dangerous state, ready to explode at any
stage of the storm’s progress. The mercurial column, therefore, at the time
of explosion, may have any length comprised within the extreme limits of the
range of the barometer. The condition of ignition, and therefore the explo-
sion, may even be deferred until the storm has entirely passed over, and the
mercury has resumed the height and stability peculiar to settled weather.
Thus, on the 3rd and 4th of November 1850, “a most violent storm of
wind” caused great loss of life and property in Great Britain ; blowing down
walls, chimneys, trees, &c. on land, and destroying many vessels along the
coasts. At the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, the passage of the storm is
recognized by a sudden and considerable depression of the mercury on the
3rd and 4th of November, but the readings range above 30 inches on the
9th, 10th, and 11th (see Plate V.).
On the 11th of November, twenty-six persons perished by an explosion
in the Houghton pit, Newbottle, county of Durham.
The remark that “the workmen had been apprehensive of an explosion for
th than a week,” connects this accident with the storm of the preceding
week.
That such cases of delayed danger are not uncommon, appears from the
following statement of Mr. Mather to the Parliamentary Committee in 1854
(Second Report, &e., Qu. 1564). “The Killingworth explosion was pre-
viously indicated for eight days by three separate explosions ; the Washing-
ton explosion gave notice for five weeks of the coming catastrophe; and
Wallsend, that killed 102 people, showed its state for three days in red-hot
Davy-lamps. All of them gave large and decided indications of gas being
present for days before they happened ; and these are some of the chief acci-
dents that have occurred. In one instance there was, for a period of six
weeks, carburetted hydrogen to be found in a most positive manner.”
The opinion that explosions in coal-mines are, in some manner, dependent
upon certain changes in the ordinary conditions of the atmosphere, seems to
have been long entertained by the colliers of the various mining districts of
Great Britain and France ; and is repeatedly expressed in the minutes of evi-
dence taken by the Select Committee of the House of Lords on “ Accidents
in Coal-mines,” in 1849; and by the several Committees of the House of
Commons, on the same subject, in 1835, 1852, 1853, end 1854.
_ It appears to have been satisfactorily established by pees that the
B
4 REPORT ON THE RELATION BETWEEN
inflammable carburetted hydrogen gas oozes out from the coal into the mine ~
in greatest abundance (and, therefore, that the danger of explosion is great-
est) when the barometer has fallen considerably, and a warm wind blows
from the south-east, south, or south-west points of the compass; and that,
on the contrary, the mine is most free from gas, and explosions are least fre-
quent, when the barometer is high and the wind cold and northerly.
A brief exposition here, of the general nature of the great storms which
pass over the British Islands and the continent of Europe, will help toa right
understanding of the special cases to be afterwards considered ; and will also
show that the several meteorological conditions which have been so often
observed to precede, or accompany, a highly inflammable state of the atmo-
sphere of a coal-mine, are only so many direct consequences of the ‘‘ Law of
Storms” in the Northern Hemisphere.
From the valuable work of Colonel Reid “On the Law of Storms and of
the Variable Winds” (Weale, London, 1849), it appears that the great
storms which sweep over Britain and the Continent of Europe during the
autumnal and winter months, rise first among the West Indian Islands; and
after coasting along the sea-board of the United States, cross the Atlantic
Ocean in a north-easterly direction.
These storms are simply immense aérial eddies, or whirlwinds, which ex-
pand gradually as they proceed; their mean diameter frequently extending
a thousand miles by the time that they impinge upon Ireland and the western
coast of Scotland, England, and France. In the course of a few days, such
a storm passes over France and the British Isles, to Belgium, Holland, Ger-
many, Denmark, Sweden, and the Baltic Sea (Plate J.).
The atmospheric pressure diminishes continuously, but at an accelerated
rate, from the circumference towards the centre of a revolving storm. Hence,
if a chord be drawn parallel to the track of the centre, to represent the part
of the storm that passes over any assigned place, the mercury at that place
will fall until the middle of the chord arrives there; and will rise, at first
rapidly, but afterwards more and more slowly, as the second half of the storm
is passing over. It follows that the greatest local depression of the mercury
will occur simultaneously at all places situated on the diameter perpendicular
to the track of the cyclone.
In the cyclones of the Northern Hemisphere, the wind ¢urns in a direction
contrary to the motion of the hands of a watch, so that when a revolving storm
approaches Britain, the mercury begins to fall, and a warm wind to blow from
thesouthward. These are precisely the circumstances under which experi-
ence has proved that coal-mines are most liable to explosion.
As the diameter of simultaneous local maximum depression advances, the
mercury falls faster at any place in front of the storm, and the violence of the
wind increases there.
The general track of cyclones passing over Britain tends towards the
E.N.E. Therefore, if the storm begins at S.E., S., and S.W. respectively, at
three different places, the wind will shift during the transit of the cyclone,
from S.E. through E. to N. at the first place; from S. through W. to
N.W. at the second place; and from S.W. to W. at the third place.
This shifting of the wind, which indicates a passing cyclone, is reckoned
by miners among the symptoms of danger. J. Roberts, Esq., Colliery Owner
in Dean Forest, stated before the Committee of 1849 (Qu. 6272) that the
gas in those mines generally occurs as the wind shifts.
The diagram (Plate I.) is adapted from the Chart at page 323 of Colonel
Reid’s work, and represents the storm of November 1838. I have added
the mean direction (E.N.E.) of progression, and drawn chords through
EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES AND REVOLVING STORMS. 5
Wick in Scotland, Dublin and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Dover, and Oporto,
to illustrate the successive phases of the cyclone during its passage over these
respective places. At Wick, the wind shifts from S.E. through E. to N.,
and blows hardest at E.N.E. At Dover, the wind shifts from S. through W.
to N.W., and blows hardest at W.S.W. At Oporto, the wind shifts from
S.W. to W., and blows hardest at W.S.W.
The centre passes over Dublin and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where the wind
shifts abruptly from S.S.E. to N.N.W., a short lull probably preceding the
change of wind. Here the mercury falls lowest.
Since all the different coal-fields of Britain are sometimes subjected to the
action of one cyclone at the same time, the occurrence of nearly simultaneous
explosions in mines far apart may be anticipated; and since storms travel
towards the E.N.E., explosions in the coal-mines of France, Belgium, &c.
will sometimes happen a day or two after a great storm has passed over the
British Islands. Ifthe number of such cases is found to be considerable, it
will be a strong proof of the connexion between revolving storms and explo-
sions in coal-mines. This proof will be confirmed by our finding that after
an entire absence of explosions for many weeks, several occur almost simul-
taneously, just after the arrival at Britain of some extraordinary atmospheric
paroxysm, which has already devastated the islands and shores of the Gulf of
Mexico, and the sea-board of the United States, and left several wrecked and
disabled ships in the rear during its eastward course across the Atlantic.
Unfortunately our mining records are defective with regard to two large
classes of phenomena, which are eligible as evidence in this inquiry.
They seldom notice explosions which have not been fatal to human life, and
they contain no account of cases like those at Jarrow in 1839, where mines
have been filled with gas during stormy weather, and explosions have been
prevented.
In order {to ascertain the relation between explosions and the seasons of
the year, Mr. Taylor has arranged, in monthly periods, a table of 115 of the
chief explosions during forty years in the north of England (Parl. Report,
&c., 1849, p. 572).
Up to the end of 1854 there are recorded 514 explosions in British coal-
mines. With these I have constructed, in monthly periods, the curve A
(Plate IJ.), which agrees remarkably well with the corresponding curve B,
formed from the 115 explosions selected by Mr. Taylor. In the curve C, I
have grouped all the explosions (491) of which the day of occurrence is
known, in 73 periods of 5 days each. The minimum for the year in A is 23,
and falls in February; in B is 3, and falls in January and February; and in
C is 1, and falls in January 20-25.
The maximum for the year in A is 55, and falls in June; in B is 15, and
falls in June and December; in C is 12, and falls June 9-14, and July 9-14.
The persistent character of these curves, with respect to the places of their
maxima and minima, proves indisputably the general dependence of explosions
in coal-mines upon the seasons of the year.
The lowest temperature of the year occurs between the middle of January
and the middle of February. The ventilation of mines is consequently most
active during these months; and accordingly the curves show that this is the
season least liable to explosions.
As the temperature increases, explosions are more frequent, until the highest
temperature and the greatest number of explosions take place together in June
and July. In September the curve descends, that is, the number of explo-
| _ sions is less as the temperature decreases. The rise of the curve at the end of
|. September, and the great number of explosions in October, November, and
6 REPORT ON THE RELATION BETWEEN
December, is due chiefly to the frequent and sudden diminutions of atmo-
spheric pressure which accompany the storms that prevail during these
months.
The advent of a cyclone to Britain produces both the meteorological
conditions which tend to make the atmosphere of a mine explosive. The
barometer falls and the thermometer rises. The examination of particular
instances of explosions will show that both causes frequently concur in pro-
ducing them. But from March to August a rising thermometer is the ex-
' ponent of danger from the predominating meteorological agent, and a falling
barometer is the corresponding exponent from August to January; while the
curves indicate that the increased activity of the effective ventilation renders
January and February a period of comparative safety, so far as atmospherical
influences are concerned.
The list of dates of colliery explosions begins in 1743, and often presents
a hiatus of four or five years in its earlier portion, when collieries were few,
and the more fatal cases only were recorded. Of the 514 cases in my list,
considerably more than one-half have occurred during the last five years.
The rate of increasing carefulness in observing and publishing such cata-
strophes, may be estimated by the numbers of known explosions for each
year since 1849. These were—22 in 1850; 53 in 1851 ; 67 in 1852; 75 in
1853, and 77 in 1854. Old meteorological registers are also much less com-
plete than those of recent years.
The most satisfactory method, therefore, of forming a correct opinion of
the nature and extent of meteorological influences in producing an explosive
atmosphere in mines, would be to take, as a standard of comparison, the
barometrical and thermometrical curves for the last five or six years, con-
structed from several daily readings made at some observatory situated near
the centre of the colliery districts.
By way of illustration, I shall examine the meteorological conditions which
were simultaneous with, or which immediately preceded, the explosions in
British coal-mines during the end of 1851 and the whole of 1852. I have
taken the Greenwich Observations for 1851; and for 1852 the Manchester
Observations, which were laid before the Parliamentary Committee of 1854
by Mr. Dickenson, Government Inspector of Mines. The Manchester obser-
vations have been carefully compared with the contemporaneous observations
at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and those made at Highfield House,
near Nottingham, by Mr. Lowe.
In all the curves [ have drawn the vertical fluctuations of the barometer
of the actual size, and those of the thermometer to a scale of 10° to an inch.
The barometrical line of 30 inches coincides with the thermal line of 70°;
except during the first three months of 1852, when it coincides with the
thermal line of 60°, in order to save space.
The upper thermal line indicates the diurnal, and the lower the nocturnal
temperature.
In the continuous curves for 1851 and 1852, each day is represented bya
lateral space of 4th of an inch, but in the barometrical curves of isolated
eyclones, by =1;th of an inch.
In the vertical strip denoting a day of explosion, the space between the
barometric curve and the line of 30 inches is shaded, as also the space
included between the two thermal lines; the shade being deeper where more
explosions than ove occur on the same day. This arrangement enables the
eye to perceive readily the height of the barometer, and the height and range
of the thermometer on the day of explosion; and to compare them with those
of the preceding days.
EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES AND REVOLVING STORMS. 7
The mere inspection of these curves will show that explosions very seldom
take place without the direct and manifest concurrence of one or both of the
meteorological conditions which tend to produce an explosive atmosphere in
_ ~ mines.
Explosions in October 1851 (see Plate I.).
Oct. 13, Ince Hall Colliery, Wigan. Oct. 27, Glasshouse Colliery, Leeds.
» 13, Grange Colliery, Wakefield. », 30, Clifton Colliery, Halifax.
yy 20, Dewsbury, Yorkshire. » 91, Killingworth Colliery, Newcastle.
All fatal explosions; at Killingworth eight killed and six burnt.
The approach of a cyclone raises the temperature 10° on the 12th and
13th, and a depression of an inch of the barometer takes place by the 15th.
Two explosions on the same day coincide with this marked rise of both the
nocturnal and diurnal temperature.
From the 20th to the 27th both thermal lines are high, but the explosions
of the 30th and 31st seem to have been influenced chiefly by the extreme
barometric depression on the 27th, 28th, and 29th.
During the following jive weeks there are no explosions, for both the
favourable atmospheric conditions are wanting. The barometer is always
above 29°50, and there are no great and rapid falls of the mercury. The
nocturnal and diurnal temperatures are both excessively low during the whole
time. ‘The absence of explosions at such a time is quite as significant as
their presence when the favourable conditions exist.
Explosions in December 1851.
Dec. 6, Woodthorpe Colliery, Sheffield (three | Dec. 20, Rawmarsh Colliery, Rotherham
killed). (fifty-two killed).
» 22, Ince Hall Colliery, Wigan, Lanca-
shire (thirteen killed),
On each of these days the diagram shows a very marked rise of both the
thermal lines, induced by the south wind in front of two cyclones; of which
the former is scarcely recognized at Greenwich on the 8th and 9th, but in
the latter, the diminished pressure manifestly conspires with the increased
temperature to produce the serious catastrophes of the 20th and 22nd.
Explosions in January 1852 (see Plate III.).
Jan. 9, Pemberton Colliery, Wigan. Jan. 26, Ringley Colliery, Manchester,
» 26, Stoneclough Colliery, Kearsley.
» 27, Rothwell Haigh, Leeds.
“The gales of January caused 126 casualties (at sea); they prevailed
during the whole month, and the early part of February.” (Parl. Return of
Wrecks for 1852.)
On the 8th and 9th the most violent snow-storin for many years raged
over the British Isles. This was a regular cyclone, passing to the Texel on
the 11th, &c. Wind S.W. on 7th and 8th, N.E. on 8th and 9th.
On the 24th are recorded a tempest and many wrecks in the English
Channel and on the east coast, as well as a most destructive tornado at
Nenagh in Ireland. On the 26th and 27th, storms and wrecks again occur,
and on the 5th of February the consequent inundations at Holmfirth in
Yorkshire. The great barometrical depressions show the passage of several
“successive cyclones in January, some of which were probably derived from
the great hurricane that destroyed fourteen ships at Vera Cruz, in the Gulf
of Mexico, on the 13th.
8 REPORT ON THE RELATION BETWEEN
Explosions in March 1852.
Mar. 13, Blackleyhurst Colliery. Mar. 22, Albion Colliery.
», 15, Coate’s Park, Alfreton. », 23, Bayleyfield Colliery.
», 18, Ince Hall Colliery, Wigan.
During the whole of February, with one exception, the barometer ranges
high. It is also unusually high in the first week of March. The fall of
about half an inch before the 11th, together with the contemporaneous rise
of the nocturnal temperature, may have liberated a sufficient quantity of the
accumulated gas to produce the explosions of the 13th, 15th, and 18th.
The predominant agent, however, is unmistakeable on the 22nd and 23rd.
A letter in the ‘Times’ of the 24th, signed P. P. B. M. (Byam Martin ?),
Dorchester, describes the approach to Britain on those days of a cyclone,
which veered from S.W. to N.E. Its arrival caused an extreme increase of
temperature over the whole island. The Manchester curves rise to 45° at
night, and 62° in the day, on the 22nd; and at Perth the thermometer was
61° on the 23rd. At Nottingham, the maxima readings are 61°5 on the
21st, 71°5 on the 22nd, 70° on the 23rd, and 49%5 on the 24th. The tem-
perature was therefore 10°, or an inch of vertical space, higher than shown
by the Manchester curve on the 22nd, The wind on the 22nd and 23rd was
S.W., and then veered to N.E. This is a striking instance of the effect of
a cyclone in impeding the ventilation of mines by augmenting the external
temperature.
Explosions in April 1852.
April 16, Ince Hall Colliery, Wigan.
», 23, Norleyhall Colliery, Wigan.
», 28, Dukinfield Colliery, Cheshire.
April 3, Smithfold Colliery.
» 11, Yewtree Colliery.
», 13, Hulton Colliery.
Barometric agency is manifested in the explosions of the 3rd and 28th of
April. In the other cases, the thermal lines show the predisposing cause.
A hard gale blew from S.E. and E. on the 22nd and 23rd, and from W.S.W.
on the 28th, shifting to E.N.E. on the 29th.
Explosions in May 1852.
May 6, Hebburn (twenty-two killed). May 20, Preston (thirty-four killed).
», 10, Aberdare (sixty-five killed). », 28, Preston (four burnt).
», 11, Hyde and Gerard’s Bridge Colliery. » 28, Birket Park Colliery.
» 29, Broad Oak Colliery.
The West Indian steamship ‘ Medway’ arrived at Southampton on the 8th
of May, having been overtaken by strong easterly gales (the northern margin
of a West Indian cyclone) on the 3rd and 4th. The barometric curve shows
this cyclone to have passed over England between the 6th and 22nd of May.
The curve shows also the consequent rise of temperature at Manchester. At
Nottingham this rise was equally remarkable, the maximum readings there
having been 55° on the 5th, 65%6 on the 6th, and 74° on the 7th of May.
On the 9th, 10th, and 11th there was very stormy weather at sea from the
S.W., shifting to N.W. on the 14th.
Another cyclone reached Europe at the end of May, which seems to have
been more felt on the continent than in England. There were violent storms
of hail, lightning, &c. on the 29th at Amsterdam, Caen, Leipsic, &c., and
great Joss from the ensuing inundations at Cette, &c. in the South of France.
Explosions in June 1852.
June 14, Bilston Collier) \fivé killed, seven- | June 28, Sankey Brook Colliery.
teen burnt).
EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES AND REVOLVING STORMS. 9
A cyclonic depression of the barometric curve extends through nearly the
whole of June, the centre passing between the 13th and 16th, when strong
winds blew, shifting from S. to N.E. on the 16th. The observations at
Nottingham on the 14th are—10 A.M., thunder-storm until 7°30 P.M., wind
W., eerdatar rising ; thermometer 63°°5 at 2°30 p.m., and 66° at 3° 40 P.M.
In the Manchester curves, both the thermal lines rise considerably from the
middle to the end of the month, which was distinguished by a very general
perturbation of the atmosphere; thus, on the 27th of June there was a heavy
storm of thunder, lightning and rain at Glasgow, and a waterspout near
Irvine; on the 28th a great storm at Belfast, and on the 29th a S.W. gale
at Queenstown.
Explosions in July 1852 (Plate IV.).
July 4, Jackfield Colliery, Burslem. July 17, High Green Colliery, Sheffield.
» 6, Beeston Manor Colliery, Leeds. » 24, Tillerey Colliery, Monmouthshire.
» 8, Monkwearmouth Colliery. » 2¢, Haydock Colliery, Warrington.
», 15, Alfreton Colliery. », 30, Silkstone Colliery, Barnsley.
» 16, Foley Colliery, Longton.
“Tn July, the maximum temperature was very high and steady, rising at
times above 90°, and once reaching 92°5.” (Mr. Lowe.)
It is unnecessary to particularize here the dates of the thunder-storms,
waterspouts, &c. which occurred during this month of excessive warmth.
The thermal curves indicate distinctly the coincidence of days of explosion
and of increased temperature.
Explosions in August 1852.
Aug. 6, Manor Park Colliery, Belper. Aug. 23, Sutherland Colliery, Dudley.
» 13, Bradshaw House Colliery, Wigan. », 30, Bredbury Mine, Cheshire.
» 16, Ubberley Colliery, Hanley.
A great cyclone, accompanied by thunder-storms and very violent gales
all over the kingdom, is characterized in the barometric curve by a depression
extending from the Ist to the 20th of August. The southerly gale of the 11th
and 12th is described as the most violent for many years. The gale is from
the N.N.W. on the 15th. Its subsequent arrival on the continent is marked
by a destructive hailstorm and waterspout in Wirtemberg on the 19th, a
great storm at Leipsic on the 28th and 31st, &c. The thermal lines con-
tinue high during the whole month.
Explosions in September 1852.
Sept. 5, Little Lever Colliery, Bolton. Sept. 22, Winnington Wood Colliery, New-
» 16, Glodwich Colliery, Oldham. port.
» 17, Brymbo Colliery, Denbigh. jsmine ds Ananda Colliery, Bradford.
» 18, Little Hulton Colliery, Lancashire. » 25, Roway Colliery, Tipton.
Several very severe West Indian hurricanes crossed the Atlantic Ocean
during the autumn and winter of 1852. A very destructive cyclone blew at
Mobile from the 23rd to the 26th of August, and afterwards travelled along
the east coast of the United States from Virginia to Maine. A month after-
wards another great cyclone devastated Antigua, Martinique, &c. on the
22nd and 23rd of September, and a third reached its climax at Jamaica on
the 6th of October.
The barometric curve in England presents a succession of extreme fluc-
tuations derived from the violent atmospheric paroxysms in the Western
Atlantic.
At Highfield House, Nottingham, on the 5th of September, there was a
_ brief but Heavy storm in the evening, and on the 6th a great thunder-storm.
Nearly 23 inches of rain fell in twenty-four hours. From the 14th to the
10 REPORT ON THE RELATION BETWEEN
22nd the depression characteristic of a great cyclone appears ijn the barometric
curve.
At Leipsic, the first impression of the approaching cyclone appears on the
17th, on which day more rain fell there than on any day during the pre-
ceding sixty years. On the 19th the barometer fell to 327 Paris lines, and
on the 20th there was a tornado. Notwithstanding the excessive decrease
of temperature which the thermal lines indicate during the passage over
Britain of the central portion of this cyclone, there are three explosions
on three consecutive days, in the very midst of the cyclonic barometric
depression.
On the 21st the barometer rises about an inch, but both the thermal lines
rise also, and explosions follow on the 22nd and 24th. These accidents
were therefore induced both by diminished pressure and increased tempera-
ture; but so far as meteorological agency is concerned, the explosions of the
16th, 17th and 18th were due to diminished atmospheric pressure alone.
Explosions in October 1852.
Oct. 4, Horsehay Colliery, Dawley. Oct. 12, Worsley Colliery, Lancashire.
», 4, Willfield Colliery, Longton. », 22, Tyrnicholas Colliery, Monmouth-
», 6, Cwmbargoed, Dowlais, S. Wales. shire.
», 8, Cwmbach, Aberdare, S. Wales. » 27, Monkwearmouth Colliery, Durham.
» 29, Dudley-port Colliery.
From the 28th of September to the 10th of October, another cyclonic de-
pression occurs, the mercury sinking to 28°75 on the 4th of October. Two
explosions happen on this day, and three others follow on the 6th, 8th, and 12th
respectively. The weather was excessively stormy until the 10th, both here
and on the continent. At Portsmouth, on the 4th and 5th, “a truly awful,
gale” blew from the S8.S.W., and there was a destructive inundation and a
hurricane of wind at Lewes. On the 6th and 7th, after the centre of the
cyclone had passed, an unusually severe storm of wind blew from N.E. in
Scotland. On the 29th of September, 1 A.m., the ship ‘ Mobile,’ 1000 tons,
from Liverpool, in a hurricane from N., went to pieces in the Irish Channel ;
sixty lives were lost. Many other wrecks occurred.
A great barometric depression begins on the 20th of October, and extends
to the 8th of November. On the 22nd of October both thermal lines rise
considerably, and the barometer has fallen half an inch. The temperature
is low on the 27th and 29th, but the great barometric depression is quite
sufficient to account for the explosions on these days.
The barometer was 28°75 on the 26th. Many vessels, and upwards of
100 lives, were lost on the 26th and 27th, during the storm at Shields,
Sunderland, &e. At Cologne the barometer is lowest (327 lines) on the
27th. The cyclone began here with a gale from S.E., and shifted to N.E.
In the Parliamentary Return of Wrecks for 1852 it is stated, that “on
the 26th of October an easterly gale began that in six days strewed the coasts
with 102 wrecks.” ,
Explosions in November 1852.
Noy. 6, Winstanley Colliery, Wigan. Noy. 20, N. Brierly Colliery, Bradford.
», 11, Bryndu Colliery, Pyle. », 22, Plat Lane Colliery, Wigan.
» 17, Stoneclough Colliery, Kearsley, Lan-} ,, 26, Coate’s Park Colliery, Alfreton.
cashire. » 28, Hadden Mill Colliery, Dudley, Staf-
fordshire.
On the 6th the thermal lines are high ; but the temperature is low during
the rest of the month. The remaining explosions of this month coincide in
a most striking manner with the great barometric depressions. Hurricanes
of wind, wrecks and great inundations all over the kingdom, marked the
EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES AND REVOLVING STORMS. 11
presence of the cyclone which the curve indicates to have arrived on the
12th of November.
Explosions in December 1852.
Dec. 2 and 14, Abersychan. | Dec. 27, Comrie, Culross, Perthshire.
» 16, Blackleyhurst Colliery, St. Helen’s. » 27, Titwood Colliery, Pollockshaws,
», 22, Elsecar Colliery, Barnsley. Glasgow.
», 29, Pendlebury Colliery, Lancashire.
» 31, Seghill Colliery, Northumberland.
Mr. Lowe states that “the gales of December were all accompanied by
hot weather for the time of year,” which is also shown by the Manchester
thermal lines. The explosion on the 2nd of December was probably a conse-
quence of the cyclone just past. From the 17th to the 18th of December, the
barometer at Manchester rose an inch and a quarter, 7. e. from 28°85 to
30:10. In Peebleshire, the simultaneous rise was from 27:90 to 29°60. This
sudden rise of the barometer marks the exit of a cyclone all over the world.
Another cyclone, which had more of the violence of a tropical hurricane
than is usual in Britain, began to reach England on the 18th of December, and
did not entirely pass over until the lst of January 1853. The hurricane
began at S.W., shifting to W.S.W., and blew hardest on the 26th and 27th.
_The ‘ Times’ of the 29th has several columns of details of losses of ships and
lives. The following is from the Parliamentary Return of Wrecks for 1852:
“On the 24th of December a heavy storm from the S.W. burst over the
country, and continued to the end of the year with such violence, that by the
29th there was scarcely a vessel in the neighbourhood of the British Islands
left at sea. Some had found safety by running into port; while of others,
the returns show a list of 183 casualties ; of these 102 were totally wrecked,
making an average of thirty wrecks a day during this awful and destructive
ale.”
4 Two explosions on the very day of the greatest barometrical depression are
indisputable witnesses of the effect of greatly diminished atmospheric pressure,
Explosions in January 1853.
Jan. 2, Titwood, Pollockshaws, Glasgow. Jan. 9, Trubshaw Colliery, Newcastle-under-
» 9, Leasingthorne Colliery, North of Eng- Lyne.
land. », 10, Smallbridge Colliery, Rochdale.
9 9, 6, Seghill Colliery, North of England.
The weather was still unsettled in the early part of January, and these
explosions were doubtless partly induced by the great atmospheric paroxysm
that had just occurred.
From the 10th of January to the 12th of February there were no explosions,
which corresponds with the indications of the general curve respecting the
season of lowest annual temperature.
Before quitting this examination, let the winter curves for 1851 and 1852
be placed in juxtaposition, and the different conditions of atmospheric pressure
and temperature carefully noted, and it will be at once apparent why there
were so many as seven fatal explosions in November 1852, and mone in
November 1851 ; and so many as eight fatal explosions in December 1852,
and only three in December 1851].
-In order to corroborate the evidence already adduced in proof of the
connexion between revolving storms and explosions in coal-mines, I have
selected the following from a considerable number of cases in which explo-
sions have occurred either during or immediately after the passage of a
cyclone.
12 REPORT ON THE RELATION BETWEEN
In a few instances I have given the contemporaneous barometric curves
at two or three stations far apart, as London, Versailles, and Goersdorf on the
Lower Rhine; London and Rouen, &ce.
1784.—The diagram (Plate II.) shows the barometric curve at London,
from observations published in the ‘Gentleman’s Magazine’ of the time, in
December. On the 6th the mercury fell to 28°25 inches. A general storm
of unusual violence accompanied this great depression.
Only two explosions are recorded in this year, of which one (at Wallsend,
Northumberland) occurs before the rear of the cyclone has passed over, on
the 12th of December.
1818, April 9.—By a great explosion at Warnes, near Mons, between thirty
and forty persons lost their lives on this day.
The curve (Plate V.) shows that a regular cyclone passed over Britain from
the 5th to the 12th. Howard, in his ‘ Climate of London,’ records a gale
from the S. on the 8th, and states the 9th, 10th, and 11th to have been
windy. No explosions are recorded in Britain during 1818.
1821, October.—From the 30th of September to the 9th of October, 1821, a
regular West Indian hurricane, beginning at N.N.E.and ending at S.S.W. (and
therefore progressing towards Florida, Newfoundland and Great Britain),
blew between Jamaica and Cuba (Howard, vol. iii. p. 63).
The great barometric depression at London (Plate V.), from observations
by Howard, between the 16th and 26th, indicates the passage of this cyclone
over England. The barometer was equally low at Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
There are five explosions recorded in 1821, éwo on the same day, July 9,
at Rainton Colliery and Coxlodge Colliery, in the North of England, coin-
cident with a rise of temperature, and the remaining three just as the central
area of this cyclone was passing over Britain. These also occur in the North
of England ; thus—on October 19, at Nesham’s Pit, Newbottle (six killed) ;
Oct. 23, Russel’s Pit, Wallsend (fifty-two killed) ; Oct. 23, Felling Colliery
(six killed).
1823, November.—A great storm passed over Britain at the end of October.
On the 30th and 31st alone, 140 vessels were lost on-the N.E. coast. At
Penzance, the wind suddenly shifted from E.S.E. to N.E. and N.N.E., and
instantly blew a hurricane. This shows the progressive motion of a revolving
storm to the eastward. In Plate II. are given the barometric curves for
London and Boston during the transit of this cyclone.
On November 3, before the storm had ceased, an explosion at Plain Pit,
Rainton, Durham, destroyed fifty-nine men. This, and an explosion at
Ouston Colliery on the 21st of February, are all that are recorded during 1823.
1828, Nov. 20.—At Washington Colliery fourteen persons killed by an ex-
plosion. Howard’s curve (Plate IT.) shows that a great barometric depres-
sion immediately preceded this catastrophe.
1844, January.—A very heavy storm of thunder, lightning, hail and rain,
passed over the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire on the Ist of January.
The barometric curve at Makerstoun shows that the storm was general and
lasted for several days. The contemporaneous explosions are on December 31,
1843, Hulton Pit; on January 8, 1844, Dynas Pit, Glamorganshire (ten
killed) ; Jan. 11, Whitehaven, Cumberland (sixteen killed); Jan. 18, Kil-
lingworth Colliery, Northumberland (five killed).
1844, October.—The great Cuba hurricane, investigated by Redfield, oc-
curred on the 3rd and 4th of October at Cuba and Jamaica, and passing over
Florida, the Bahamas, &c. in a N.E. track, reached Newfoundland on the
8th (see Col. Reid’s work). At Havannah, seventy-two ships were wrecked
or sunk, houses were unroofed, crops destroyed, &c., the estimated loss there
EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES AND REVOLVING STORMS. 13
being £1,000,000. At Matanzas, in Cuba, the barometer, which usually
stands at 30 inches, fell to 28 inches on the 5th, and rose to 29°8 by 9 A.M.
of the 6th. Many vessels were destroyed at Jamaica, &c. The barometric
curve at Highfield House, Nottingham, shows that this great cyclone caused
asuccession of depressions between the 2nd and 24th in Britain. The central
area passed on the 14th, 15th and 16th. The barometer is 28°56 on the
15th. The wind is S.W. until the 13th; then W. till the 16th, and after-
wards N.W. till the 19th. The arrival of the cyclone on the continent is
accompanied by a destructive waterspout at Cette on the 22nd, which de-
stroyed thirty persons and many buildings ; and by a great storm at Toulouse
on the 24th, followed by inundations at Marseilles, Avignon, &c.
Two explosions occur in the very midst of this storm, viz. on Oct. 15, at
Coxlodge Colliery, North of England (one killed) ; Oct. 19, Rowley Regis,
’ Staffordshire (eleven killed).
1845, August.—In Plate V.I have given the barometric curves for August at
Greenwich and Rouen, which shows that the atmospheric disturbance passed
from England to France. The remarks at Greenwich are—Aug. 2, thunder-
storm, rain, lightning; gusty. Aug. 9, wind and rain; gusty. Aug. 19,
rain and wind. The atmospherical disturbance on the 19th was very general.
In Holland, on the 19th, at Zevenberghem, a hurricane destroyed eleven build-
ings, killed three persons, and injured several others. The same tempest
caused great damage in North Brabant, &c. ° At Rouen, on the 19th, a
whirlwind destroyed the three principal factories, killing seventy-five persons
and wounding 150 others; the wind was violent from the S.W. On the 20th
of August there were snow-storms in England and Scotland, in which several
boats with their crews perished. The explosions in coal-mines during this
month were,—on Aug.2, at Aberdare (twenty-nine killed); Aug.9, Ashby-de-
la-Zouch, Leicester (three killed and fifteen burnt); Aug. 18th, Dudley, Staf-
fordshire (four killed and sixteen burnt); Aug. 21, Jarrow, Durham (thirty-
nine killed).
At Newcastle-upon-Tyne the wind was N.W. on the 21st, and the daily
barometrical readings are 29°47, 29°81, 30°05 ; which agree with the Green-
wich and Rouen curves, and indicate the passage of the rear of the cyclone.
1846, September and October (Plate V.).—From the 4th to the 9th of Sep-
tember, a storm passed over Britain. On the 7th a woman was killed by
lightning during the storm at Leeds. On the 9th, a violent storm at Bour-
deaux marks the rear of the cyclone. On the 6th, an explosion in a coal-mine
at Charleroi, in Belgium, destroyed eight persons. The director had just
inspected the mine, and was unable to account for the accident.
Colonel Reid has given the daily track of a West Indian hurricane, which
was at Trinidad on the 11th of September, and reached Newfoundland on the
20th. By the 21st its centre had traversed one-fourth of the distance towards
Britain; where its arrival is indicated by the unusual barometric depressions
‘at the end of September and in the beginning of October. In Sicily, by the
storm on Sept. 30, seven villages near Messina were inundated and destroyed.
Fifteen persons were killed at Portici. The village of St. Firmin, near Briare,
was engulphed, and 600 perished. At Melazzo and Marsala 100 persons
perished by the tempest and consequent floods. Trees, houses, &c. were
carried away. On the 4th of October, a gale, the worst since 1824, caused
damage at Weymouth to the extent of £1000.
No explosions in coal-mines ‘are recorded for fowr months before the arrival
_at Britain of this great cyclone. During its transit five fatal explosions occur
within eleven days. These are,—on September 26, at West Bromwich (ten
killed); Sept. 28, Bogle Hole Colliery, Clyde Iron Works, Glasgow (six killed);
14 REPORT ON EXPLOSIONS IN COAL-MINES, ETC.
Oct. 1 or 2, Littleton Hall Colliery, West Bromwich, Staffordshire (three
killed ; Oct. 3 (Sunday), Rainton, Durham (one man and seventeen horses
killed); Oct. 6, Haigh Moor Colliery, Wakefield (three killed). Stax weeks
now succeed without explosions, so that there are xo explosions for nearly
six months, except the five explosions that occur within eleven days during
the passage over Britain of a great revolving storm.
1846, November.—On the 19th and 20th (Plate II.) a violent storm caused
many wrecks on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. The barometer
begins to fall early on the 16th, and continues low till the end of the month.
There were no explosions during the preceding six weeks. Two occur during
this storm, viz. on Nov. 17, at Round’s Green Pit, Oldbury (nineteen killed) ;
Nov. 24th, Brough Pit, Coppul, near Chorley (eight killed).
1847, March.—The barometric curves for Greenwich and Rouen (Plate
II.), show the passage of a storm from Greenwich towards Rouen, between
the 17th and 27th of March. From the 25th to the 27th, a hurricane from W.
to N. blew on the coast of Ireland (the rear of the cyclone). There are two
explosions on the continent, viz. on March 22, at Mons, Belgium (twenty-
six killed and many injured) ; March 23, Lagraine, Alsace (twenty-four killed
and twelve burnt).
1847.—In December a well-defined cyclone passed over the British Islands.
On the Ist the barometer at Greenwich stands at 30°23 and falls to 28°38,
i. e. nearly éwo inches by the 6th (Plate V.). The wind during that time was
S.W.; it afterwards shifted to W.S.W., and finally to W.N.W., when the
barometer began torise. At Rouen the barometer falls later, but rises sooner
than at Greenwich, showing that Rouen was nearer the margin of the cyclone.
The barometer is lowest (725°21) at Brussels on the 7th. The only fatal explo-
sion during four months is on Dec. 6, at Haigh Pit, Lancashire ; also on Dec.7,
at Rochdale Colliery, three men are suffoeated by an escape of “ foul air.”
1850.—A cyclone appears by the curves (Plate V.) to have passed over
Greenwich, Goersdorf on the Lower Rhine, and Versailles, between the 22nd
and 28th of March. The news of a great colliery explosion at Mons, by
which seventy-five persons were killed, reached Brussels on the 25th. It is
therefore probable that it had taken place on the 23rd or 24th, just as the
greatest barometric depression occurred.
1850.—On the 3rd and 4th of November, a most violent storm of wind caused
vast loss of life and property in Britain. The packet-boat from Boulogne
had to be run ashore at Margate. At Nottingham, Liverpool, &c., chimneys,
walls, trees, &c., were blown down. At Liverpool, the ships ‘Providence’ and
‘ Arcturus’ were wrecked, and twenty-five persons perished. Several other
wrecks took place along the coasts.
On the 11th of November, at Houghton pit, Newbottle, twenty-six lives
were lost by an explosion. It-is stated that the workmen had been appre-
hensive for more than a week.
Two great storms succeed, one at the end of November, and the other in
the middle of December (Plate V.), both distinguished by heavy gales,
thunder-storms, wrecks, &c. I have given the barometrical curve at Green-
wich for November and December, accompanied by the curves for November
at Goersdorf and Versailles.
The contemporaneous explosions are on Nov. 19, Emroyd Pit, Wakefield ;
Nov. 25, Dawley, Shropshire; Nov. 28, Victoria Pit, Wakefield; Dee. 4,
Oldham, Lancashire ; Dec. 5, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire; Dec. 7, Hay-
lock Colliery, St. Helen’s; Dec. 13, Rowley Regis Colliery, Staffordshire ;
Dee. 14, Middle Duffryn, Aberdare; Dec. 17, Springfield Colliery, Hindley ;
_ Dec. 21, Wrexham, Denbigh.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 15
On the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of
Plants growing under different atmospheric conditions.—Part ILI.
By J. H. Guapstons, PA.D., F.RS.
Durine the course of the experiments recorded in my last Report, a number
of questions suggested themselves, and were incorporated in my remarks.
To the solution of some of these I have since addressed myself.
In previously examining the germination and early growth of wheat and
peas under the various coloured glasses and in obscurity, more or less com-
plete, it was thought necessary not to cover the seeds with mould, since that
would have greatly intertered with the quantity of the light that surrounded
them. For certain reasons also the air was allowed to remain unchanged during
the whole vegetation of the plants. A number of well-defined results were
obtained ; but they were liable to the objection that the wheat and peas were
not grown under normal conditions. I have felt it to be the more necessary
to remove this objection, seeing that one of the most important results arrived
at was in direct antagonism to what other observers had remarked; the result
was, that “ the cutting off of the chemical ray facilitates in a marked manner
the process of germination, and that both in reference to the protrusion of
the radicle, and the evolution of the plume.” During the spring of the
present year, therefore, another series of experiments was instituted upon the
growth of the same plants—wheat and peas—under the same coloured and
obscured bell-glasses, with this important difference, that a little garden-
mould was placed on the bricks, together with the seeds, but not in sufficient
quantity to cover them from the light. The bricks were sunk in the earth
of a small garden attached to my residence in London; the seeds were kept
well-watered, and a slight change of air was permitted. The experiment was
commenced on April 3. It was thought unnecessary in this instance to keep
any record of the weather ; suffice it to say, that the season was generally
backward, and that cold east winds prevailed during the latter part of April,
which interfered with the growth of the plants materially. Owing most pro-
bably to this circumstance, the experiments now detailed were not so suc-
_ cessful as those of the previous year; the main results, therefore, will only
be recorded.
In respect to the wheat, it began, as before, to germinate most speedily in
_ obscurity, but of the coloured glasses the blue appeared to be the most
favourable to its growth; the red light seemed also advantageous. On
May 18th, when the experiment was put an end to, the best developed plants
were found under the obscured colourless glass.
As to the peas, they also grew best and most rapidly in obscurity. Some
circumstance militated against their proper development under the colourless
and coloured glasses, with the single exception that the roots had been put
forth well under the blue glass. On May 18th, it was found that in the dark
all the peas experimented with had put forth long roots, and most of them
had grown tall plants; while under the partially obscured colourless and
‘partially obscured yellow glasses, all the peas had grown, giving rflants,
which for the most part were taller, more succulent and less healthy in
colour than those which, having been planted at the same time, had grown
in the garden without any covering. The peculiarly beneficial effect of the
_ calorific ray on the growth of peas was not observed in this instance.
Notwithstanding the imperfect success of this series of experiments, they
give support to the view generally entertained of the efficiency of the che-
mical ray in facilitating germination, which, however, my previous experi-
_ ments (in accordance with those made by Dr. Daubeny) directly contradict,
16 REPORT—1855.
The cause of this contrariety might naturally be sought for in the fact that
there was soil about the seeds in this year’s experiment. In hopes of deter-
mining this point, and as the season was not too far advanced, the following
experiments were instituted.
Two sets of the large, colourless, blue and yellow bell-glasses were taken.
The one set was placed over bricks in plates filled with water, and on the
bricks were simply laid, in each instance, twelve grains of wheat and eight
peas, previously weighed. They were placed in a sunny situation in the
garden, and the air was occasionally changed. ‘This set, therefore, was ana-
logous to those described in the last Report. The other set was placed in a
sunny part of the garden over spots where the same number of grains of
wheat and of peas, also previously weighed, had been sown in the mould.
They were watered, and the air was changed from time to time.
On May 26th, that is a few days after the commencement of the experi-
ment, the wheat and peas had begun to burst under all the six glasses.
Summer weather succeeded, warm sunshine and warm showers.
The wheat on the bricks appeared to germinate first under the blue glass,
and it grew more quickly there, yet not so many had shown signs of life as
under the other glasses, and in about a month’s time it was found that the
plants were growing about equally well under all the three shades, though
somewhat impeded by the luxuriant growth of the peas. On July 19th the
plants that had thriven were counted, measured, removed from the bricks,
allowed to dry in the air for twenty-four hours, and then weighed.
Average
. Average
Average increase on
weight, original lentes
weight. Pp 2
Se grs. inches.
Colourless .......0.. soece ‘ 18
BICC) teccedacenaencenssess 27
WEOW yctccscnsecoscsswas Q 21
The wheat that was sown in mould was found on May 30th to have grown
to the height of two inches under the colourless and the yellow shades, but
the plants were not so tall under the blue. Some of the wheat under the
yellow was remarkably fine. On July 19th, the following were the observed
results, the weight being taken as before :—
Average Average
Number of : Average i e 8
Weight. . increase in length of
BE OSE vert. weight. plants.
gs. grs. grs. inches.
Colourless ......+. Sogdeck 3 20'5 68 6:1
Blue ...ceesere Riese rachss 2 6 3 2°3 14
Yellow ...ccccessssve aaa 4 315 79 7:2 23
It is worthy of remark, that whether with or without mould, the smallest
number of wheat-seeds have germinated under the influence of the chemical
ray ; yet they appear to have grown well under these circumstances up to a
certain point, but the plant seems to have required the luminous or the
calorific rays in order to profit much by the soil.
The peas that were placed on the damp bricks were found on May 30th to
have put forth radicles of half an inch or upwards in length under all the glasses,
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 17
those under the blue being somewhat the longest. Presently the effect of
the yellow light in causing the production of very long roots began to show
itself. All the seeds germinated. On July 19th, the peas were treated as
the wheat had been.
fate Weight. cpa increase of length of
(a es ee ha gprs. inches:
Colourless .........608.4 8 47 5:9 1-4
PDE) isin vivscijsce'sne'sedsnices 8 21:5 27 —1°8 9
MW OW else ccece.d cic lso ees 8 32 4 —0°5 75
The peas that were sown in mould began to grow equally at first, but in
about three weeks’ time those under the colourless. glass were the shortest.
They grew luxuriantly and filled the bell-glasses, but at the beginning of
July the pea-plants which grew under the blue shade, and which had never
thriven, shrivelled and died away. The leaves never opened properly. The
following were the numerical observations made July 19th :—
Average Average
Mouilier of Weight. eae ac increase of "| length of
Pao: Bate weight. plant.
grs. grs. gers. inches.
Colourless ....... eaevenss 8 98 12-2 77
UO ce dhactonsdenesmocices ee iat ta eile Sib oa sui ons vue
PMEHOWAS edcscsaseseenasbe 4 28 Z 2-5 24
On comparing these last results, it is evident that whether with or without
mould, the peas that grew under the blue glass display an inferiority. The
peas growing in mould certainly produced the most healthy plants when they
were exposed to all the influences of the solar ray, and the deprivation of the .
luminous principle proved fatal to them in their more mature growth, although
the removal of the chemical ray had little effect.
These experiments indicate no relative difference in the actions of the
three different coloured lights upon the germination of seeds, dependent on
the absence or presence of soil; and they afford further confirmation of my
former view, that the chemical rays rather militate against than favour the
healthy germination of at least these particular instances of Monocotyledonous
and Dicotyledonous plants. I remain unacquainted with the reason why the
experiments of some other observers, atid indeed one or two of my own, ex-
hibit a tendency of seeds to germinate more readily under a blue glass. It
may be from the more complete darkness thus produced ; but the problem is
evidently a difficult and intricate one, and I abstain from further conjecture.
Among the queries at the close of the last Report was the following :~-
“Does carbonic acid act specifically in the prevention of germination, or
merely by the exclusion of oxygen?’’ It was thought that this might be
determined by substituting that gas for the nitrogen in the air, and observing
whether seeds germinated equally well in such an atmosphere. Experiments:
previously recorded rendered it unnecessary for me to satisfy myself again
that peas and wheat would commence growing in a colourless jar of twenty-
five cubic inches capacity. Such a jar was therefore filled with a mixture of
four parts of carbonic acid and one part of oxygen, placed over mercury, on
1855. ¢
ti vO, REPORT—1855.
the surface of which was a little water; it was placed in the garden with a
sunny aspect. Mould was introduced, and some seeds of wheat and peas.
After fourteen days it was found that the peas had merely split, and were
black and decomposed, while the wheat showed no signs of germination, and
were quite soft and decayed. An analogous experiment was made with pure
oxygen gas. Both the peas and wheat germinated and grew a little, until no
doubt the atmosphere of the jar was in a great measure converted into car-
bonic acid, when they also decayed. It appears then that carbonic acid in ~
considerable excess has a positively injurious effect on germination.
In concluding the record of this investigation of the influence of solar ra- -
diations on the growth of plants under different atmospheric conditions, I
feel very sensible of the imperfect nature of the results, and am convinced
that such are the difficulties of the inquiry, that the conclusions actually
arrived at must not be generalized without the greatest caution. Yet at the
same time I beg to express the hope that other observers may take up some
of the questions, to which I have incidentally alluded, but which still remain
unanswered.
On the British Edriophthalma. By C. Spence Bates, F.L.S. &c.
Part I.—The Amphipoda.
Introduction —The term Hdriophthalma has been given by Dr. Leach and
recognized by all subsequent naturalists, as applied to a legion of Crustacea
that differs in several of its external characters, independently of the eyes,
from that on which he has conferred the antagonistic term of Podophthalma.
These two applications are not capable of comprehending within their
separate significations every genus which it is desirable should be so
embraced. There is a whole family that belongs to the Macroural type,
the eyes of which are sessile, being lodged beneath the integument of the
antennal segments. This infringement, which occurs in the Diastylide*,
shows us that it is not necessarily a law among Crustacea that the eyes shall
be borne on footstalks whenever there is a tendency to an accumulation of
the nervous ganglia into a central mass, even though that centralization be
more or less imperfect.
Again, the infringement is repeated upon opposite evidence, for we per-
ceive that the eyes may be borne on footstalks where the nervous system is
divided into many separate ganglia. The genus Tanais among Jsopoda has
the eyes raised upon distinct pedicles, which we believe are moveable, and
differ from the eyes of the Podophthalma only in being less club-shaped.
But ever since the time of the great Swedish naturalist, Linnzeus, the rela-
tive position of the eyes has been held as a means of natural classification,
distinctly separating one great family of Crustaceans from that of another ;
and although there are exceptions which demonstrate that the arrangement
is not free from error, yet so very generally is the application correct and so
easily capable of discernment, that it probably will remain a permanent
mode, even should a more perfect but less readily detective system of natural
arrangement be discovered.
The term Edriophthalma was first understood to contain all the Crustacea
which were not embraced within that of Podophthalma, and, with the excep-
tion of the Cirripedia, they are still so retained in Mr. Dana’s classification of
* Cuma, &c. of M. Milne-Edwards.
4
-
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. i :)
Crustacea. It therefore would embrace a large number of Crustacea, which
vary considerably in their habits and forms, some of them belonging to well-
organized beings, whereas others degenerate in character and descend to
those which assume an insect-like appearance. ,
The first step therefore separated the Entomostracans ; and now when we
speak of the Edriophthalma, it is understood to be a legion intermediate
between Podophthalma and the Entomostraca of recent Crustacea. But
this term still conveys too wide a signification. Latreille therefore divided
it into two, one of which he named Amphipoda, the other Isopoda. A third
subdivision was established by the same author, that of Lemipoda (or
Lemodipoda*). This embraces an aberrant group of Amphipoda, which
previously were ranked among the Jsopoda, and must be looked upon as
differing from the normal type in the rudimentary character of certain
parts, rather than as possessing separate qualifications of their own, warrant-
ing their being formed into an order of equal importance to the other two,
although it has been retained in this position by the profound authority of
Professor Milne-Edwards. ,
Lamarck embraced these, together with the Amphipoda and Isopoda, as in
one family.
Duméril, in his ‘Zoologie Analytique,’ united the Amphipoda with the
Stomapoda, notwithstanding the pedunculated character of the eyes of the
latter, because in each of these genera the head, he thought, was “separated
from the corselet.” To these united tribes he gave the name of “ Arthroce-
phalés” or “ Capités.” ' 3
Desmarest, in his ‘ Considérations générales des Crustacés,’ has adopted
the order of Lemodipoda which Leach united with the Isopoda, because he
thought the vesicular sacs to be “spurious” legs.
M. Blainville, in classifying Crustacea, arranged these three under the
term Tetradecapoda, as antagonistic to that of Decapoda, which is synony-
mous with Podophthalma. ‘The adaptation of the name by Blainville to the
sessile-eyed Crustacea, arose from the circumstance of their possession of
fourteen legs, but this characteristic circumstance is not a constant fact.
It is true, that in Caprella the legs are obsolete, and in Anceus are altered
in form, though present; yet if these facts be not admitted of importance in
consequence of their homological signification, then we must include them
with the higher orders, for the only separation which naturally exists is the
modification of the forms of certain parts homologically the same. Thus it
will be found that ten-legged Crustacea exist among the sessile-eyed form,
which in all other respects are nearer allied to true Jsopodes. Anceus and
Paniza, though only possessing ten perambulatory legs, approximate nearer in
their structural signification to the fourteen-legged Crustacea than to that
class, which the number of these legs would seem to suggest.
The term Choristopoda, from ywpiords separate, rovs foot, has been lately
applied by Mr. Dana, and is made synonymous by its author with the Tetra-
decapoda of Blainville, and includes the Amphipoda, Lemodipoda, Isopoda
of authors, and the Anisopoda of Dana.
Perceiving no advantage in the new term over its older synonym, and
_ fearing the result of multiplying names, it is the intention in this Report to
adhere to the one most commonly used, and on that account most generally
understood. We consider the second division of Crustacea as Edrio-
‘ phthalma, using it as synonymous with Tetradecapoda of Blainville and
Choristopoda of Dana.
* At first Latreille placed the animals belonging to this order among the Jsopoda, section
Cystibranches.—(Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle.) q
Cc
20 REPORT—1855.
Thus it will be perceived, that, instead of considering Trilobita, Entomo-
straca, and Rotatoria as orders belonging to the second division of Crustacea,
as Dana has done, we take them to form natural divisions in themselves,
with wider structural demarcations than exist between the Macroura of the
first division and the Amphipoda of the second. This nearer approximates
the system of arrangement adopted by Milne-Edwards in his ‘ Histoire des
Crustacés.’ But in his classification, Latreille’s order of Lemodipoda is
admitted to a rank of equal importance to that of the Amphipoda or
Isopoda.
This, from a correct appreciation of the homological relation of the several
parts, Mr. Dana (whom as a carcinologist no one appears to have surpassed
in close observation) entirely ignores, and embraces the Lemodipoda within
the order of true Amphipoda, making no allowance in his arrangement for
their naturally aberrant departure in outward form from that group. “ They
are,” says that author, “properly therefore Amphipoda with certain parts
obsolescent. . .. The more essential characters are closely related to the
Amphipoda rather than to the sopoda, and are not properly intermediate,
nor a new type alike distinct from both.”—Vol. i. p. 11.
This author, while from anatomical reasoning, he removes the Lemodi-
poda from the position in which they have been placed as a separate and
intermediate order between the Amphipoda and the Isopoda, yet sees in
another group, which by every previous naturalist has been ranked with
Isopoda, a “true intermediate species between the Amphipoda and Isopoda ;
and if any third or intermediate group be admitted, these should (he thinks)
be considered as constituting it. These species belong to the genera Zanais,
Arcturus, Leachia, and others allied.”—Vol. i. p. 11. These form the tribe
or group of Anisopoda, the second or intermediate of that author.
By the force of similar arguments as those which are employed for the
removal of the Lemodipoda trom taking a position distinct from the Amphi-
poda, it is difficult to imagine that so acute an observer as the founder of
this new group should separate it from the true Zsopoda upon grounds so
feeble as appears to us to be the case.
But on this we shall enter more at large when we report upon the British
Isopoda, and at present only observe, that the affinity which the Anisopoda
holds to the true Zsopoda in all its more important characters is too close
to admit of its being recognized as a distinct and separate group of equal
importance. The only feature which.appears to approximate it to the
Amphipoda, the forward direction of the fourth pair of feet, can scarcely,
we think, be of sufficient importance to narrow the margin between the
Amphipoda and the Isopoda, there being other characters of greater import-
ance that induce a natural separation strongly marked.
But although anatomical science will not admit the elevation of the
Lemodipoda or that of the Anisopoda into distinct orders-or groups equal
to that of the Amphipoda and Isopoda, yet the presence of strongly defined
characters, both in development of form and suppression of parts, might
safely admit, with great convenience to classification, a separation of the
Lemodipoda from the Amphipoda proper, and the Anisopoda from the Iso-
poda proper, each forming a group subordinate to their respective types ;
and in this Report we propose the following arrangement :— i
21
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA.
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22 REPORT—1855.
It will here be seen that it is thought preferable to abide by the older
classification, which considers the Amphipoda and Jsopoda as distinct orders
of the second division, than as separate groups of the same order as classified
by Dana; in this, we think, we are justified upon strictly anatomical reason-
ing, for there appears to be as great, if not a more distinct separation, between
the Amphipoda and the Isopoda, than between the Amphipoda and the
higher types of Crustacea.
This latter opinion is one on which Dana is again opposed to Edwards and
the older naturalists *.
The former considers the Zsopoda a higher type of Crustacea than the
Amphipoda, whereas Leach, Latreille, Desmarest, Lamarck, and Edwards
have each respectively placed them next, succeeding the Stomapoda in the
descending scale.
This difference of opinion involves and necessarily opens the question of
the homological relation of parts between the different orders or groups of
Crustacea, the discussion of which will enable us, we hope, to see how much
or little the same organs resemble each other when adapted to forms higher
or lower in the scale; and their closeness or dissimilarity will enable us to
approximate toward a tolerably correct estimate of the value of the unity of
typical development, and thereby judge the relation which one form of Crus-
tacea may hold to another.
The older European naturalists, and Edwards in particular, consider the
Edriophthalma as formed upon the same general type as the Podophthalma ;
not so the American carcinologist, who affirms that “they have not a
macroural characteristic, but have a body divided into as many segments as
there are legs (whence our name Choristopoda); the antenna, legs and whole
internal structure are distinct in type.”—Vol. i. p. 1404. ;
The consideration of the structure of the Amphipoda is one that has little
attracted the attention of either naturalists or physiologists. This remark
is the more correct in relation to our own country, where, we are not aware
that there has yet been published a single communication on the internal
organization of this order, except a short paper on the Caprelle, by Mr.
H. Goodsir, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for July 1842.
The labours of Montagu were mostly directed to the pursuit of objects,
and .the important addition of figuring and describing the outward appear-
ances of his results. The attention of Leach was confined to describing,
generalising and classifying all known species, whether the result of his
own discoveries or that of others. The researches of most later writers have -
been extended to the elucidation of local faunas only. Dr. Thomson of
Belfast read at the British Association, and published in the Annals of
Natural History for 1847, a series of papers on the Crustacea of Ireland.
Dr. Johnston of Berwick has during an industrious career (alas! too early
* Milne-Edwards. Dana.
Legio (II.) Edriophthalma. Subclassis II. Edriophthalma.
Ordo I. Amphipoda. Ordo L. Chori
» iI. Isopoda. rdo oristopoda.
: Tribus 1. Isopoda.
» Ill. Lemodipoda. = ne. Agere: .
Order T. Amphipoda. », 3. Amphipoda.
Family. Family, Tribus 3.
Gammaridz. Hyperide. Amphipoda.
Tribus. Tribus.
Families,
_—_———————— aa A
Sauteurs. Marcheurs, Gammaroides. Anormales.
iT = SE:
Caprellidea. G idea, idea,
pete Pp’ ammaridea. Hyperidea,
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 23
closed) described several Scottish species. Prof. Allman, in the ‘ Annals
-‘ Natural History’ for 1847, published a memoir on the Chelura tere-
rans.
But even on the continent the study of these animals has not been a
favourite pursuit, and few naturalists have examined for themselves beyond
the external form and general arrangement of structure. Hence-we find
that each of the few actual observers is inclined to adopt some new scheme
of generalization for himself, founded on some peculiar fact more or less
common to the tribe. This will continue to be the case until the anatomy
and development be properly displayed, and their structure demonstrated in
comparison with other known types.
The labours of the great French carcinologist are among the best known,
and certainly the most recognized and appreciated of any of the systematic
works on Crustacea. But the investigations of Kolliker, Miller, and the
labours of Von Siebold are valuable both in interest and importance. But
these have, probably from their inland position, confined their researches
chiefly to the internal structure of the Jsopoda.
Rathke’s contributions to the fauna of the Crimea are not only valuable
for the addition of animals from a region that has been little examined, but
are noticeable for great accuracy of delineation in minute detail, which make
them second to none, if not before all others, in value, for truthfulness and
the close observation of the author. But Prof. Kroyer appears to have been
the one of all the naturalists who has entered upon the investigation of this
order in a manner which induces us to believe that he felt the import-
ance of its close and extended observation, and his great work, entitled
‘ Voyages en Seandinavie, en Japonie, Spitzberg, et en Feroe,’ is a labour, of
_ which it is to be regretted Europe has so few examples.
Recently, Mr. Dana has given to the world a great work on the Crustacea
as the result of his researches in the southern seas, where he was sent by the
United States Government. This work, of which the plates have only been
published since this paper has been in the press, will rank its author as second
to no European carcinologist, and during the course of this Report, the work,
though but recently obtained, will be found frequently alluded to and
uoted.
: In furnishing to the best of our opportunities this Report to the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, we are aware of shortcomings,
These chiefly arise from inability of obtaining foreign works published many
years since, and others difficult to be procured. But these faults (not many
or important, we hope) might have been more considerable but for the kind-
ness of friends, who willingly supplied us with those in their possession. In
this way we are indebted mostly to John Lubbock, Esq., Col. C. Hamilton
Smith, C. Darwin, Esq., and J. O. Westwood, Esq.
To study the results of other observers in connexion with a British fauna,
it became desirable that specimens should be obtained from as many and
distant localities as possible. In pursuance of this plan, we have many
valued friends to thank, and if gratitude is to be measured in proportion to
liberal communications and generous supplies, then we are most indebted to
our highly esteemed correspondent the Rev. George Gordon, Bernie Manse,
near Elgin, for many most interesting species, among which are some that
are additions to the British fauna, as well as others that are new to
science.
Our kind friend, George Barlee, Esq., so well known to naturalists by his
dredging results, has sent us many valuable collections from Penzance, St.
Ives, and the Arran Isles. So also from the first of these localities we have
24 REPORT—1855.
been supplied by our friend C. S. Harris, Esq., of Budley Salterton, and from
Falmouth we have recently been indebted to our excellent friend J. Web-
ster, Esq., for the results of extensive dredgings.
From the coasts of Northumberland and Durham we have received many
species through the kindness of Joshua Alder, Esq. From Weymouth we have
been assisted by Prof. Williamson of Manchester, and P. H. Gosse, Esq. ,
To our excellent friend P. T. Smyth, Esq., who not only supplied us with
the result of his own industry, but frequently placed his yacht at our disposal
for dredging purposes, we cannot be too thankful, since it is greatly through
his means that we have been successful in obtaining a very large collection
of South British species.
Mr. Boswarva, so well known in the neighbourhood of Plymouth for his
knowledge and skill in preserving the marine Algz, has frequently sent us
specimens. So also has our valued friend and companion Howard Stewart,
Esq., Student of Anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons; also his
brother, Mr. Charles Stewart.
George Parker, Esq., of Jersey, and recently Mr. Edwards, an industrious
naturalist at Banff, and Mr. John Loughor of Polperro, and other kind
friends have furnished us with what specimens accident or good fortune
may have brought within their reach *.
For the purpose of identifying species with Leach’s and Montagu’s
types we visited the British Museum, where we received every assistance
and kindness from Dr. Gray and Mr. White, whose ‘Catalogue of British
Crustacea’ has been a valuable handbook of species, and much used by us
in our progress with the subject. Nor can we forget Mr. Kippist, the Li-
brarian of the Linnean Society, who most obligingly procured for us many
books of the Society which it was necessary should be consulted.
The Homologies.—In comparing the external organization of the Amphi-
poda with that of the Macroura, the observer is attracted by the absence in
the former of the great cephalo-thoracic buckler or carapace. This in the
higher tribes is the result of the exaggerated development of some of the
anterior segments of the head. ‘This loss of the carapace is also accom-
panied with a separation into distinct annules of the whole of the remaining
portion of the animal, whilst the cephalic region, including the seven anterior
segments, assumes no greater space or higher importance than any of the
other individual segments.
If a careful examination of the cephalic ring be made, it will be found
that there evidently are the same relative parts, without that monstrous deve-
lopment which in the higher types preduce the carapace.
It has elsewhere been shown}, upon evidence which appears to us impos-
sible to be misunderstood, that the anterior segments exhibited in the cara-
pace, viz. the antennal rings, gradually diminish in importance inversely
with the development of the mandibular; that whereas the former build up
the larger portion of the carapace in the Brachyura, the mandibular seg-
ment in the lowest of the Macroura type (Diastylis, Cuma, &e.[) completes,
to the almost total exclusion of the anterior segments, the entire carapace.
This increasing development of the anterior or cephalic segments is in
accordance with the consolidation of the nervous system, and vice versd, the
separation of the nervous cord into distinct ganglia is coincident with a cor-
responding decrease in the importance of the carapace.
* In the forthcoming work on the British Edriophthalma, we shall identify the species
with their habitats upon the authority of our kind friends.
J Annals of Natural History for July 1855.
t Vide paper on the British Diastylide, Ann, Nat. Hist. for June 1856.
2
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 95
This law, which regulates the character of the cephalic segments in the
higher types, is still persistent in the Hdriophthalma.
The nervous system below the Stomapoda is entirely free from thoracic
consolidation, except in the abnormal class of Cirripedia. The cephalic
region or segments belonging to the organs of consciousness is reduced to a
minimum, or represented only by corresponding appendages.
In all the higher types, the antennal segments as well as the mandibular,
excepting only the anomalous genus of Squilla and its near allies, unite to
build up the carapace, the respective relation of each segment to the others
differing in importance in distinct orders. This appears to be the same with
respect to the cephalic ring of the Amphipoda, which homologizes with the
entire carapace of the Brachyura and Macroura, differing from them only
in degree.
In the Macroura the development of the mandibular segment extends
back and covers the whole of the thoracic region, forming so efficient a pro-
tection as to render the completion of the dorsal portion of the thoracic seg-
ments a work of supererogation. ‘These latter rings in the higher types
become so closely compacted together, that, by diminishing their extent,
they concentrate their force; whereas in Amphipoda the thorax is developed
into seven distinct and perfect rings, while the homologue of the carapace
reaches not beyond the segment which bears the first maxilliped, and
this not by any extraordinary development of the posterior cephalic rings,
but by the consolidation of the three segments next succeeding the man-
dibular into one, which supports the three posterior appendages of the mouth.
Prof. Milne-Edwards* contends that the whole of the seven anterior
segments of the animal are fused together and form the first or cepha-
lie ring. ;
“The exact normal relation of the shell of the head,” says Mr. Dana
(part i. p. 35 of his great work ), “is with difficulty determined ; yet the argu-
ment that this segment extends across below just anterior to the mandibles,
and only here, probably holds in this group, as in the Decapoda, so as to
show that the shell pertains either to the mandibles or second antenne:
further investigation may possibly bring out a more definite decision.”
The effort in this Report will be directed, if possible, to demonstrate that
the “shell of the head” is homologically the same as the carapace in the
higher types, restricted according to a law of development to be a less im-
portant feature of the animal. Gradually it descends from the most per-
fect forms.
In Macroura, a distinct suture, the cervical or epimeral of M. Milne-
Edwards, is visible, distinguishing the mandibular from the antennal seg-
ments. In Brachyura the large development of the antennal segments
completes most of the carapace; in Macroura the mandibular ring equals, if
not exceeds, the half of this structure. This change is produced in the rela-
tion of the two parts by a corresponding decrease of importance in the an-
tennal or cephalic portion, rather than by an extraordinary enlargement of
the mandibular. As we descend in the scale of Crustacea, we find that the
antennal, or that portion supplied with nerves from the cephalic ganglion,
diminishes in size in relation to the rest of the carapace, and that the cara-
_ pace likewise itself loses its importance in relation to the entire animal.
This, which we see being carried out in the Macroura, Stomapoda, and
Diastylide, where the thorax of the animal is seen gradually in each suc-
ceeding form to become less protected by the carapace, appears to reach a
limit approaching the extreme in the Amphipoda, when the entire thorax is
* Histoire des Crustacés, vol. i. p. 20.
26 REPORT—1855.
free ; not being protected by the carapace, it ceases to possess that resem-
blance to an internal skeleton, which it receives in the higher types from its
peculiar relation to the monstrously developed cephalic rings.
In the Amphipoda the upper portion or shell of the cephalic ring is
constructed as in the higher types, that is, it is formed of the antennal
and mandibular segments, each reduced to almost its minimum of im-
portance.
In Jalitrus and Gammarus, but most distinct in consequence of the larger
size in the former, a suture, which most certainly homologizes with the so-
called cervical or epimeral suture of Macroura, is visible, and shows that the
mandibular ring perfects its inferior arch: this forms the epistome of the
frontal aspect of the head.
The line of demarcation or suture which separates this segment from the
anterior, traverses the lateral walls of the head, parallel with, and but a short
distance above, the mandibles, after passing which it rises toward the upper
surface, but loses itself in the posterior margin about half-way from the top*.
In this respect it bears some analogy to the manner in which it is lost in
Brachyura, but only in appearance, for there it was the result of a large
development of the anterior segments; here both are equally unimportant,
In point of fact, the connexion of the Amphipoda is much nearer to the Ma-
croura; and if a perpendicular line of incision were made to cut away the
carapace of Astacus just in front of the cervical suture where it exists on the
top of the carapace, that is to remove the whole of the carapace posterior to
that line, and perfect each ring of the thorax, but for the pedunculated eyes,
the Astacus would be pronounced among the Amphipoda.
The epistome (Plate XII. fig. 1 C) appears with little doubt to be the inferior
aspect of the mandibular ring (B), which is seen on the external lateral
surface of the head, and which can be identified from the fact of its carry-
ing the mandibles. This relation of the epistome to the mandibular segment
is not admitted by Mr. Dana, who rather, from analogy with the higher
types, than by direct evidence of the subject before him, identifies the epi-
stome as belonging to the inferior (or external) antennal segments.
We do not think that the evidence in the higher forms bears out this
assumed relation; for whilst in the Brachyura the two antennal segments and
the mandibular, each through the arrangement of their sternal portions, unite
to form the antero-oral plate, we find that in the Macroura their relative
importance is not of equal extent. We think, that as the ophthalmic segment
is itself not developed to much importance in the Brachyura, and is altogether
lost in the Macroura, so we believe that the same process of annihilation of
parts continues, and that in the Amphipoda the only segment in which the
sternal portion is persistent is the mandibular. A thin partition of osseous
tissue, passing perpendicular in the median line between the antenna, less
important between the superior than the inferior, may possibly represent the
sternal part of each of the antennal segments respectively.
The next three pairs of appendages succeeding the mandibles are borne
upon a piece which forms the infra-posterior portion of the head (Plate XII,
fig. 2 K), and is probably the sternal piece of the segments belonging to the
two maxillze and the maxilliped; the dorsal portion of these segments
appears to form an arch within the cavity of the head, as given in Plate XIL
fig. 3, and offers a support to the stomach as well as points of attachment
for muscles.
In attributing to this internal structure the high relative importance as the
* This suture, though recognized, was scarcely appreciated by us until we had read
Dana’s work. ;
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. — oF
homologue of the dorsal portion of the segments, of which it is a part, we
think we are justified from a careful observation of its relation to sur-
rounding parts; and it should always be borne in mind, that the relation
which the internal organization bears to the external structure is the only
sound way of understanding the true relation of individual parts to the whole.
In the genus Talitrus the appendages posterior to the powerful mandibles
appear to be strengthened by an internal process on either side, which is
produced until the two meet and form aring. It is this ring that we contend
to be the homologue of the three posterior segments of the cephalic division :
that it is dorsal and not sternal, is demonstrated, we think, from the fact that
the nervous cord passes through the hollow, though to accomplish this a con-
siderable depression from its normal direction is produced.
Thoracic segments (Pereion*). The seven annules which posteriorly
follow the cephalic portion are in the higher order protected by the carapace.
These become less so in the descending order; and in the Amphipoda each
segment is formed into a perfect ring, analogous in appearance to the abdo-
minal segments in Macroura.
The anterior of these thoracic segments differs in its position from those
which are posterior, by the circumstance, that the anterior margin overrides
the posterior edge of the cephalic, whereas in all the subsequent ones the
anterior dips beneath the posterior edge of the annule immediately pre-
ceding, the two margins being united by a thin membrane sufficiently elastic
to admit of one plate passing to a small extent beneath the next.
The several appendages supported by these segments are locomotive in
their character, sometimes more perfectly perambulatory, at others adapted
for climbing and grasping, under which character the two anterior are most
constant in their adaptation; and the probability is that they are never used
except as supplying organs to the mouth, unless to assist in climbing occa-
sionally.
On each side of the several annules of the thorax, the Amphipoda are
remarkable for the development of a large scaliform appendage, which Prof.
Milne-Edwards, and hitherto every author after him, consider to be epimeral
or side-pieces of the dorsal arch, of each respective segment, remaining
unfused. These so-called epimerals we exclude from being a portion of the
true segment, believing them, as we think we shall be able clearly to demon-
strate in the proper place, to be the first joints or coxz of the legs.
Abdominal seyments (or pleon+).—The next succeeding seven rings form
the so-called abdomen of all later carcinologists, but they support three very
distinct kinds of appendages.
In the Brachyura the appendages are all of one sort, and these all present
only in the female, and are adapted to a special function connected with the
process of reproduction. In the male they are absent, except the two an-
terior pairs, which are modified so as to adapt them to fulfil the office of
intromittent organs. As we descend in the scale from perfect development,
We perceive that the posterior annules are constructed and arranged so as
to become a tail piece, and a powerful and efficient organ it is in the Ma-
eroura and Anomoura, which enables the animal to dart or swim through the
‘water with considerable force and velocity.
The number of segments which are arranged to complete the caudal
appendage differs in separate orders. In the Brachyura there is but one;
among the Macroura the two last segments are so arranged; but among
~* From mepatow, to walk about : pereion, part which supports the walking legs. This and
‘the following are suggested instead of the old and incorrect synonyms of thorax, abdomen, &c.
T From wAéw, navigo: pleon,.part which supports the swimming legs,
y
28 REPORT—185)5.
the Amphipoda, there are four so constructed as to form a tail. Of these
four, three pairs are arranged upon the same type; the other, which is the ex-
tremity, or twenty-first ring, can only be contemplated in the character of an
obsolete segment with its rudimentary appendages.
Thus the segments which form the abdomen support three distinct form
of appendages. Three anterior are constructed upon one type, three suc-
ceeding upon a second, and the last, which for convenience we shall de-
signate by the name of Telson (from ré\cov, extremity), upon a third; or,
perhaps to speak more correctly, it is a rudimentary appendage, modified
upon the type of the preceding three.
Thus we perceive a singular coincidence, that the most anterior as well
as the most posterior segments of the animal are annihilated and represented
by their respective appendages only, a circumstance which appears to reverse
the law in embryological development in this class of animals, where we find
that the earliest developed parts are the anterior and posterior extremities of
the animal, the intermediate segments being the result of subsequent growth.
Having compared the twenty-one segments of the crustacean type with
those of the Amphipoda, it will next be desirable that we should see to what
extent the separate parts or appendages may or may not differ from those in
the other forms.
Organs of vision.—The first normal segment of the typically perfect
Crustacea is represented in the Amphipoda by its appendages only ; the eyes,
which appear to be lodged between the two pairs of antennz, are homolo-
gically anterior to the antennz, and are supplied with nerves which are the
most anterior pair given off by the cephalic ganglia.
In the higher orders the eyes are projected upon footstalks. In the Amphi-
poda they are sessile. This distinction between the two has been thought
by naturalists generally to be an important signification in relation of one
tribe to that of the other; hence the feature has been made available as a
demarcation of distinct orders, it being taken for granted that so visible an
alteration in these organs must be accompanied by considerable and im-
portant changes in other parts of the structure.
The eye in relation to the typical animal must be viewed as an appendage
of the first normal segment peculiarly developed to perfect its adaptation for
the fulfilment of certain requisite conditions; after the same manner, the
mandibles, chelz and feet are necessary forms for other uses.
In the Brachyura an ocular appendage consists of two articulations, at
the extremity of which the eye is lodged, in the same manner as we might
presume the hand would hold a ball, or, to give a more correct idea, be
developed into a ball having power of vision.
It appears to be a law in the decreasing structural importance of Crustacea,
that the segment supporting the appendages shall disappear before the appen-
dages that it supports ; thus in Macroura the segment has disappeared, but
the eye is still borne on footstalks. In the Amphzpoda it appears that the eye
alone remains; the segment and the articulating portion of the appendage
not being developed, the eye is presented so deeply within the segment suc-
ceeding, that it appears to be behind the antennz. But its position, wherever
situated, can only be to meet peculiar advantages under certain conditions.
Thus in the genus Talitrus the eye appears to be nearly at the top of the
head, while in Hrichthoneus and some of the Podocerides it is carried upon
a projecting inferior angle, which in some genera of this subfamily is cons
siderably developed in advance of the head; in which position, in con-
sequence of the insufficient depth of structure, the eye projects upon the
internal surface, where it is lodged in the form of a protuberance.
Cll ate at
—_—_— SS —————
+
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 29
In the genus Tetromatus, which, we believe, is now for the first time added
to our knowledge, there are four simple eyes, two upon each side of the head,
instead of one made up of many facets, as is usually the form of the organ
in this class of animals. But this seeming anomaly appears not to be with-
out explanation. ;
In the young of the Amphipoda the number of facets is fewer in the eye
than in the adult; the number of the lenses therefore increases with growth.
In the genus Gammarus the early numbers are eight or ten, whilst those of
the adult are from forty to fifty. If we suppose that in Zetromatus there
were but two crystalline lenses developed in the larva, a consequent
arrest of development at this particular stage would limit the number in the
adult to those already present in the larva, and which therefore, we, think,
must be looked upon rather as two distant lenses of the same eye, than as
distinct organs of vision, although to external observation they assume the
appearance of two separate eyes (Plate XIII. fig. 8). The coloured cornea
is very distant from the lenses.
In this genus the crystalline lens is developed in the integumentary struc-
ture of which it forms a part; in this arrangement the condition of the eye
differs from that of any other among the Amphipoda. Close observation
may detect a lessened approximation of like condition in Anonyx Holbolli,
but there only a semi-transparency, like a single small lens, exists.
The sessile character of the eyes in this order appears chiefly to rest on
the pedunculated feature being absent rather than in any definite alteration
of the eye itself, and by no means is it to be considered as evidence of organs
of vision indicative of a lower class of animal. This we think is easily
demonstrated by the fact, that in all the Diastylide the eyes are sessile and
converge into a single organ; this is the case also with some of the Ento-
mostraca, whilst, on the other hand, the genus Tanuis among the Edrio-
phthalma, and Artemia among the Entomostraca, have the eyes supported
on footstalks in a manner corresponding with the higher types.
The internal or first antenne.—These organsyare invariably constant in
the order Amphipoda, although in the genera of Orechestia, Talorchestia and
Talitrus, they are so unimportant as to be little more than rudimentary
appendages. They belong to the second normal segment, which in the Am-
phipoda we believe not to be developed, or, if present, fused so completely
with the next succeeding, as not to be distinguished from it.
The anterior antenne typically consist in all Crustacea of a peduncle
_ formed of three articulations, all of which are present in the Amphipoda; and
a filamentary appendage more or less extensively developed, and one or two
secondary filaments of greater or less importance, of which latter in the
Amphipoda there is never more than one, and that is generally rudimentary,
often obsolete, and perhaps more frequently absent than present. But this
secondary appendage appears to fulfil but an unimportant office even in the
higher orders, whilst in the Amphipoda it consists of but a few short arti-
culated joints furnished at the extremity of each with a few hairs of a form
similar to others peculiar to the species.
It therefore differs from the principal filament or éige, as it is named by
_M.-Edwards, which, except in the subfamily of Pontoporeides, is developed
to a much greater extent, and in addition to the simple hairs, is furnished
with a considerable number of membranaceous cilia, which appear to be
peculiar to this organ in Crustacea. The forms of these cilia vary in certain
species, and will be more particularly described when it becomes necessary
to consider the especial senses of the Amphipoda. We shall only here
remark, that they appear to us to be active agents in communicating a
30 REPORT—1855.
consciousness analogous to sound to the auditory nerve, and on this account
we shall allude to them under the name of Auditory Cilia.
Professor Milne-Edwards considers the presence or absence of the se-
condary filament or palp as a circumstance of little importance, and affirms
that naturally the genus Amphitoé, without this appendage, is extremely near
to Gammarus, in ‘which it exists, if they be not in the same genus*; the
separation being admitted for the convenience of classification only.
But from this our experience compels us to differ. The two filaments, how-
ever unequal, homologize with those in the higher order, where sometimes a
third is added, two of which are, to the extent of our present knowledge,
always constant. We therefore can but view the presence or absence of
this palp, however rudimentary the form in which it may exist, as de-
monstrative of some change in the habits or condition of the animal, which
must be accompanied by structural alteration of a more or less important
character. It must therefore show a separation between animals that vary in
some essential conditions, even though not very visible features.
Thus it will be found upon a close examination that Amphitoé is separated
from Gammarus by important essential qualities (which will be described
with the animals in our forthcoming work on this subject in conjunction
with Mr. Westwood). Here it is sufficient to observe, that the habits of
Amphitoé, as well as its structure, are closely allied to those of the genus
Podocerus, and that they both exist in a division (Nidifiea) of the family
Corophiide, which division we have thought desirable to construct, that
those Amphipoda which live in nests of their own construction - may be
separated from those which live in tubes, or burrow, such as Cerapus and
Corophium.
The second or external pair of antenne.—These organs appear to us to be
the most anterior appendages, which are supported inthe Amphipoda upon
a segment that is present, and which forms almost the entire cephalic region.
One of these antenne consists typically in the order of a peduncle and a
solitary filament. The peduncle consists of five articulations. In some, as
the Macroura, there is attached a moveable scale ; and in others, as the Ano-
moura, a spine exists on the basal portion of the antenna: these appear
both to be represented in the larva of the Brachyura, and at an early period
of this stage are more important than the principal appendage of the an-
tenna itself. These secondary parts are absent in the Amphipoda.
The first or basal joints of this organ in the Brachyura are very generally
fused together, and with the nearest approximating part of the calcareous
skeleton of the animal; this fusion is sometimes so perfect, that no mark of
distinction is apparent to. distinguish the antenna from the body of the
animal: this is particularly correct of the Leptopodiade. But this close
union between the parts of the antenna and the body of the animal lessens
with the degradation of the creature, until we find the five articulations
separate from each other and distinct from the animal. ‘This is the case in
the Macroura as well as Amphipoda.
But even in this order, Amphipoda, in many species it is with difficulty the ~
demarcation between the two first or basal articulations can be made out, so
intimately do they appear to be connected together. From the first of these
a strong tooth or spine is commonly developed, in some more importantly
than in others; this denticle is the external portion of the olfactory organ,
and homologizes with the olfactory tubercle (auditory of M. Milne-Edwards,
Von Siebold, &c.), which is situated on the basal portion of the antenna in
the Podophthalma.
* Histoire des Crustacés, vol. iii. p. 28.
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 3Ir
’ The two first articulations, without being actually fused with the anterior
integumentary tissues, are sometimes so closely incorporated with them, as to
be lost, except to close analytical observation. This is the case in the family
of Orchestid@, which has long been described by authors as having but three
articulations to the peduncle of this antenna; but the other two may be seen
to exist in the upright anterior walls of the head, of which they form the
largest portion (vide Plate XII. fig. 1 =H first articulation= P second=G third
and fourth). A similar conclusion is almost arrived at by Mr. Dana (Part I.
p- 848). He says, “C [answering to P in our figure], an area adjoining
the antennz, having a membranous covering and properly a part of the
base of the outer antenne; d [answering to H in our figure], a shelly
area either side of e [C], or epistome*.” This shelly area he has failed
to perceive, equally with P, is part of the base of the outer or second pair of
antenne. These articulations are so closely impacted with the head as not
to be observable to a lateral examination of the animal, being as they are
absorbed into the cephalic region. It is this peculiar arrangement of organs
in this family that pushes, as it were, the whole of the anterior organs to the
top of the head, placing as it does a more than usual distance between them
and the oral appendages.
The filamentary termination of this antenna in the Amphiphoda is inva-
riably solitary and generally multi-articulate. It obtains its most filamentary
character in the true Gammavi, but in some genera the whole of the numerous
articulations of which it is constructed become consolidated.
The first approximation toward the strengthening character of this organ,
exists in the true Amphitoé, whence, by its near allies through Podocerus, it
arrives at its fulminating point in Corophium and Chelura, where they are
completely fused into a single articulation (vide Plate XIII.). In such cases
_ they are powerful assistants in enabling the animal to climb over uneven sur-
faces, and probably assist in the construction of their abodes, whether bur-
rowing, as Chelura and Corophium, or forming tubes, as Siphonocetus and
Cerapus, and probably also Erichthoneus, or in building nests, as Amphitoé
and Podocerus; and to adapt them more completely to their work, they are ~
often supplied with hooks towards the extremity (Plate XIII. fig.6 a). These
are formed by the consolidation of some of the capillary armature into
strong curved spines ; the best examples that we have observed are in Podo-
cerus, where they must become an additional means to the power of the
antenna. ,
In all Crustacea this pair of antenne appears persistent and generally well
developed ; we are not aware that there exists in any of the Gammarina of
this order, or among the aberrant family of the Caprellide, a solitary instance
of its being reduced to a rudimentary or obsolete form.
This remark appears to be true of Jsopoda as well as Amphipoda, if we
remove from each the parasitic forms, such as the Hyperia among the
latter, and Bopyrus and its allies among the Zsopoda ; a circumstance, which
induces us to believe that the second antenna is the seat of a sense which
undergoes but slight modifications to enable it to be equally efficient whether
in air or water, since the Orchestide live entirely out of the water, as like-
wise several species of Isopoda. :
The mandibles.—These are the next succeeding appendages, but are
separated from the last by the epistome and labium.
_ The former (epistome) is generally placed in the Amphipoda, vertically in
the anterior wall of the head; occasionally it is produced into a spear-like
' * The Plates to Mr. Dana’s work having been published since this has been in the press,
we haye only known the references to them by the text of hie work. ;
5 a REPORT—1855.
process, as in Anonyx ampulla (Kroy.); but in the more common forms it
appears as a plate across the anterior portion, as if it gave strength and so-
lidity to the structure. As before observed, this is the sternal aspect of the
mandibular segment, and acts as a fulcrum to the labium and anterior
portion of the mandible.
The labium is divided into two parts, the upper and the lower. The line
of separation appears to be an imperfect hinge enabling the lower portion
(E, fig. 2, Pl. XII.) to possess a slight opening and closing power, which co-
operates with the mandibles in collecting materials into the mouth.
The margin of the labium is generally fringed with hairs. In Gammarus
gracilis many of these are club-shaped and cumbersome in their appearance.
The mandibles are powerful organs which impinge at their extremities
one against the other, the biting edge being in the median line, and deve-
loped into a series of denticles or teeth-like processes (Pl. XIV. fig. 6 6);
these vary in form, in some considerably, and perhaps less remarkably in all
genera. Within the denticulated extremity a second process commonly
exists (Pl. XIV. fig. 6c), like a repetition of the first. It appears not to be
always present ; but when it is, the plate is articulated by a free joint with
the mandible, and is capable cf a certain amount of movement. Situated
about the centre of the posterior margin stands a large projection, which
meets a fellow in the opposite mandible, and is evidently adapted for
mastication ; it may with propriety be called the molar tubercle (Pl. XIV.
fig.6 a). It forms with the anterior denticulated edge the two extremities
or horns of a crescent. The second or articulated process is placed between
the two, but nearer to the anterior teeth. This intermediate plate appears
to be constructed so as to pass the food from one to the other, from the
biting to the grinding surfaces, between which there are curved spines (d)
to facilitate tie movement.
The two mandibles are brought into contact by powerful muscles, which
are attached to the inner surface of the dorsal portion of the cephalic ring,
and homologize with those attached to the long calcareous tendons in Ma-
croura, which have their muscles secured to the inside of the carapace.
The surface of the molar tubercle is covered over with rows of teeth-like
processes, so minute that they can only be defined by a quarter-inch power
object-glass.. The arrangement of these teeth is tolerably constant, being
in rows more or less even. At the lower portion the teeth are larger, the
outer row being most conspicuous; the size diminishing, row after row, until
towards the higher limits, their importance has so fallen away, that they can
with great difficulty be distinguished at all. In some species there is added
a filamentary appendage to this tubercle, the margin of which is ciliated
with minute hairs. Perhaps this may be in some way connected with taste.
The mandibles are no exception to the general law among the Articulata,
that all the appendages are modified legs; the mandible itself homologizing
with the ischium or third joint of the perambulating leg, and the same in the
gnathopodite of the recent acute but cumbersome homologicai nomenclature
of Prof. Milne-Edwards, the maxilliped of authors generally.
That the third joint is the correct homologue, unless the second be fused
in common with it, we think can be demonstrated by the fact, that in the
Macroura the ischium of the third gnathopod (maxilliped) has the inner
margin furnished with teeth which impinge against the similarly denticulated
edge of the corresponding member, and assumes the character of a not very
imperfect biting apparatus.
In the mandible of the Amphipoda the parts are developed into an
efficient and powerful organ; the denticulated margin has the teeth more
’
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 33
strongly defined where their office is most required, but absent where not
wanted.
In some, as Anonyx denticulatus, the anterior teeth are reduced to a
smooth cutting edge; but we have failed to detect that any relative form is
dependent upon the character or kind of food which it may be the habit of
the animal to prey upon. The Zalitri, which are known to be carnivorous,
appear to differ in no important feature from those which are believed to live
on marine vegetables, as is the case with the Gammari.
The ischium being developed into the necessary or important part of the
mandibles, the remaining articulations of the typical appendage are reduced
to an obsolete form, and in some of the Amphipoda are entirely wanting,
This is the case in the family of Orchestide, a circumstance from the, at
most, amphibious character of the group, which suggests the idea, that it is
efficient only to those which inhabit the water, from scarcely any of which
among the Amphipoda is it wanting, as far as our experience goes. The use
of this appendage is, perhaps, to direct Moating material more readily towards
the mouth. The organ generally is raised and lies between the lower pair
of antenne.
The Maxille.—These are separated from the mandibles by a posterior
labium (Pl. XV. fig. 2), which differs from the anterior in being cleft in the
centre, but probably cooperates with the mandibles in the process of man-
ducation.
The maxille are two pairs, the first or anterior, and second or posterior.
They are extremely delicate leaf-like organs, and by no means fulfil the idea
suggested by their name.
The segments of which they are appendages, together with the next suc-
ceeding, the first maxilliped, are fused together and concentrated around the
mouth.
The first maxilla consists of three foliaceous plates (Edwards has figured
a fourth in this same species, Gam. locusia); the basal is developed upon
the second articulation or basis joint of its homological position of the leg ;
the coxa being, we presume, suppressed from a tendency we observe in
Crustacea generally to a fusion of this articulation with the main trunk of
the animal, rather than with the appendage of which it forms a part. The
second foliaceous plate is developed upon the third joint or ischium in the
homological character of the leg, and therefore represents the veritable por-
tion of the mandible (Pl. XV. figs. 3,4, No.5). The third leaf-like plate con-
sists of two joints, the fourth and the fifth, the meros and the carpus. This
last represents the appendage to the mandibles with the anterior joint or pro-
podos suppressed. ‘The extremity of each plate is fringed; in the anterior
or third it exists in the form of five or six short stout teeth. The middle have
likewise teeth, but these are more numerous, and exist in two rows; the
teeth are long, and each has the point slightly curved, having the anterior
edge itself furnished with three or four smaller teeth. The first or posterior
plate is furnished with a thick row of hairs, the anterior portion of which
is extremely plumose and bushy.
The second mazilla consists of two foliaceous plates only, which latter
homologize with the first and second of the anterior maxilla; they are
extremely delicate and furnished on their anterior margin with stout hairs,
which generally are slightly ciliated.
In the genus Sulcator (but whether it holds through the whole of the
subfamily of the Pontoporeides, we have not experience to guide us) the
posterior plates of both pairs of maxilla are folded so as to become two or
aa parallel leaves, one of which, in the first maxilla, is developed into a
55. D
34 REPORT—1855.
prominent lobe, the contents of which are large cells apparently of a secreting
kind; but of the office or use of the organ we have met with no analogy
among Crustacea to guide us.
The Mazilliped—We here retain the older name in order to distinguish
between the two next succeeding members. This is the last of the three
appendages which are supported by the same ring. It homologizes with the
first or anterior maxilliped in the Macrowra, but as an operculum fulfils the
duty of the third or posterior, and properly belongs to the cephalic division.
The basal joint and the next succeeding are foliaceous in their develop-
ment and furnished with hairs; that of the third joint or ischium is also
supplied with small denticles or teeth; these vary considerably in form, and
we think may be used as a valuable adjunct to other circumstances as a test
for species (vide Pl. XVI. fig. 6, No. 3, and Pl. XVII. D, fig. 1 to 5), of which
advantage will be taken in the forthcoming history of Sessile-eyed Crustacea.
The Gnathopoda*.—The (so-called) thoracic members consist of seven
successive pairs, which generally throughout the Amphipoda are developed
upon analogous types, and assume to appearance the character of organs
more or less perfectly adapted for perambulation. These seven pairs repre-
sent three separate forms ; the two anterior, with a few exceptions, are deve-
loped into more or less perfect prehensile organs, and homologize with the two
posterior pairs of maxillipeds of the higher types of Crustacea, and like them
their chief use appears to be as organs attendant upon the mouth. For the
sake of distinction from the posterior pairs, we shall adopt the name given
to them by M. Milne-Edwards, of gnathopoda, as being singularly appropriate
for these subcheliformed organs.
In swimming, walking or climbing, unless perhaps to overcome any extra-
ordinary difficulty, the two gnathopoda are always at rest, being folded up
and overlying the external oral appendages.
Perhaps no member in the whole range of Crustacea in one order under-
goes such a variety of modifications adapted to one end, more or less com-
plete, as is to be found in the gnathopoda of the Amphipoda. They vary
from the simple finger and thumb of the perfect chela to the rudimentary
or obsolete form, in which the hairs that ornament it are more important
than the impinging process itself. Sometimes the prehensile character
depends upon the dactylos or finger being reflected back and impinging
against the propodos, either of which may have its edge of contact simple
or serrated ; sometimes antagonistic to the point there is a minute denticle,
a rudiment of the thumb-like process, which upon full development com-
pletes the normal chela of the higher types. The most constant position for
this tooth is at the extremity of the anterior inferior angle of the pro-
podos, to the portion between which and the articulation of the dactylos,
we shall limit the signification of the palm. Occasionally the thumb is the
result of an analogous development of the next succeeding joint, the carpus,
as we find to be the case with Cerapus and Brichthoneus, or of the still an-
terior articulation, the meros, as is the case with Lonchomeros; in which
examples the prehensile claw is formed with one and two intermediate arti-
culations existing between the two impinging extremities.
The first of the gnathopoda is generally the less important of the two,
though not invariably, as in the genus Lembos. It is moreover occasionally
developed, as in Talitrus and Lysianassa, into a simple foot; a feature that
we are not aware is ever the case with the second, which generally is the
more important organ of the two. Occasionally, as in Talktrus, Anonyz,
Lysianassa, &¢., the cheliform character of the second foot is very rudi-
& This includes the two first thoracic feet of authors. ;
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 35
mentary ; but as far as our experience goes, it is never developed into a per-
fectly simple foot. The nearest approach may be in Tetromatus.
These two pairs of members are formed most commonly upon the same
type, those of the same pair are invariably alike. Once or twice we observed
indications of a variety of form between those of the same pair, but these we
were induced to consider as the result of an abnormal condition of the part
rather than a constant feature in the species.
Even between the sexes the form of these members exhibits a very marked
similarity, though the rule is not constant. We see in Orchestia littorea that
the second pair of gnathopoda in the male are furnished with large powerful
claws; whereas in the female they are scarcely more than rudimentary, and
assimilate in form to those found in the larva of this species. The realiza-
tion of the same may be found in a few other species, but still the prevailing
tule admits of little variation even where any exists.
The Pereipoda*, or walking feet—The two next succeeding pairs are the
first true perambulating feet, and are always developed simple in the Am-
phipoda, unless there may be an exception in the genus Phrosina. The
first homologizes with the great claw in the Macroura and Brachyura; and
both are in all the swimming Amphipoda less important in their peculiar
character than either those which are anterior or posterior to them; but in
those which use them more in walking, which include many of the Corophiide,
they are larger and stronger. Their action is directed forwards, similarly to
the two gnathopoda or anterior pairs of feet.
The three next pairs of legs are the last belonging to this portion of the
animal, and are the powerful perambulators in Amphipoda ; generally the last
is the longest, but not invariably so; in Phozus it is almost obsolete. They
differ from the anterior in being directed backwards, and having each the
thigh or basal joint developed into a scale-like process.
Among the more important features which are peculiar to the legs of the
Amphipoda, and perhaps to the whole of the legion of Hdriophthalma, and
‘identify them as distinct from the Podophthalma, is, that every joint is so
constructed that the whole leg can move only in its own plane. The legs of
the Podophthalma are arranged to admit of greater freedom in their action ;
they can bend them in almost any direction. Independently of this pecu-
liarity, there are others equally characteristic of the order.
The separate parts of which the leg is constructed are unequal in their
respective lengths as well as different in form in the separate orders. The
basal joint in Podophthalma is extremely short and unimportant in appear-
ance, whereas among the Amphipoda it becomes perhaps the most powerful
and conspicuous of any, as may be seen by reference to the table repre-
senting the homologies of the leg in Crustacea (Pl. XVI. figs. 2, 3, &c.).
. Moreover it is often so developed, as, when folded up, to receive the extre-
imity of the same leg within a groove, and sometimes, as in Acanthonotus, the
propodos is completely buried and protected from accident.
The knee or bending articulation, which admits of one portion of the leg
being folded upon the other in the Brachyura, takes place between the meros
and the carpus: in the Amphipoda it takes place between the ischium and
meros; but the greatest individuality in the character of the legs of the
Amphipoda proper, as well as the Jsopoda proper, and which, we think, has
led to error in the appreciation of the true position of these creatures in
the class Crustacea, is to be found in the development of the coxa or first joint
of the leg; the epimerals of authors generally, and Prof. Milne-Edwards in
particular.
; , * This includes the five posterior thoracic feet of authors.
D2
36 REPORT—1855.
The coxa in Brachyura is universally fused with the segment of the body,
so that its normal form cannot be distinguished ; in the Macroura it is free :
it is here we are enabled to make out that the normal number of joints in
the legs of Crustacea is seven, which only vary by suppression of the last or
fusion of the first with the body of the animal.
In the Amphipoda, except the aberrant tribe of Zemodipoda, the coxa is
always developed into a scale-like process, and has been always considered
as side-pieces complementary to the segment of the body to which the legs
belonged, and received the name of epimerals or side-pieces by M. Milne-
Edwards.
These so-called epimerals, we think, we shall here be able to demonstrate;
are homologically the coxe of the legs, and represent the first joint in the
typical condition of Crustacea. But this is so contrary in its description to
the opinions of all the highest authorities, that it is necessary we should
produce good evidence of the reason why we are induced to affirm that the
seale-like form belongs to the first joint of the leg, rather than to the segment,
of which the leg is an appendage.
The normal number of joints is most conspicuous in Nephrops and Homa-
rus, where the coxa is an articulating joint, but appears to have no very great
extent of movement. In the Brachyura and the Lemodipoda, that is the
Aberrantia of the table accompanying this Report, the coxa is fused with the
body ; but in the Amphipoda it is fixed to, but not fused with, the segment.
There is a peculiar tendency among the Amphipoda to a development of
a scale-like form to the joints of the legs in general, a fact which is recog-
nized as a constant feature in the bass joint of the three posterior peram-
bulating legs.
This is occasionally the case with the same joint in other legs, as in Podo-
cerus, but appears to reach a culminating point in the genus Suleator, where
there is a peculiar tendency to this kind of development in almost every part
of the visible members.
The object of this peculiar development seems to be for the protection of
the branchial organs, which are suspended from the inner surface of the legs,
and would otherwise be liable to accidents, particularly to such animals as
Sulcator arenarius, whose habitat is in the damp sand.
But the chief object which here we have to demonstrate is, that this scale-
like development belongs to the leg and homologically is the first jomt (or
coxa), and that it is not a lateral or separate portion of the annular segments
of the body of the animal, and, in fact, that no side-pieces or epimerals exist ;
to this end we think we are justified by the followine arguments, which we
shall endeavour to substantiate :—
Ist. That seven joints are the normal number in the legs of all the Mala-
costracous Crustacea. |
2nd. That the branchia is normally an appendage of the leg and attached
to the coxa. |
3rd. That the moveable power of the leg is always between the coxa and
the leg, and never between the coxa and the body.
4th. That the coxa (the so-called epimeral) in Amphipoda overlaps the
segment to which it is attached, and except by a small portion only, is not
united by the whole of the margin in juxtaposition with the segment.
5th. ‘That there are no cpimerals where there are no legs.
Gth. That epimerals are found in no other type, except the Ldriophthalma
among Crustacea.
Ist. That seven is the normal number of joints to a leg, we think we
have already disposed of, in comparing the leg of the Macroura type with
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 37
those of Crustacea generally, and Amphipoda in particular, which is better
and we think fully explained in the table of the homologies in Plate XVI.
Qnd. That the branchia is normally an appendage of the leg and attached
fo the coxa.—This is readily observable in the Amphipoda, but not so di-
stinct in the higher types, inasmuch as the organ is developed within the
walls of the carapace and possesses an internal character. But this internal
character is one of appearance only, dependent upon the monstrous growth
of the carapace, which covers the rings and the branchial appendages also.
Therefore, whenever the anterior cephalic segments cease to be developed
into a carapace or protecting buckler, the branchial organs must be external,
which in reality is their homological position even in the highest developed
forms.
In the Brachyura and Macroura the branchial organs are lodged in a
cavity formed by the carapace, but they are separated from the great cavity
containing the internal viscera by the wall of the segments belonging to the
(so-called) thorax. These segments are not complete in their structure, but
still they are a portion of the external skeleton, and the branchial organs
developed upon their outer surface are homologically the same as the bran-
chial sacs on the inner side of the coxa in the Amphipoda ; and the proba-
bility is that the disarrangement exists in the higher type, in order to meet
certain conditions which enable them to fulfil the more complete function
of internal gills. The typical character of the branchial organs in Crustacea
is an external apparatus.
The coxa in the Brachyura is anchylosed with the segment of the body.
In Macroura it is free; consequently we can the more readily perceive the
attachment between it and the branchia. The flabella in the same orders,
which are nothing more than an altered gill, originates from the same joint,
and every fact proves to demonstration that the true homological position of
the branchia is in connexion with the coxa (PI. VIII. figs. 2, 3, 10).
Admitting then that the branchial organs are appendages of the legs
attached to the coxz, we perceive at once, since they are attached to the (so-
called) epimerals, that these epimerals must homologically be consonant with
the coxe of the Macroura type, and therefore the first joint of each leg.
3rd. The moveable power to the greatest degree is between the coxa and the
next succeeding joint, and never between the coxa and the animal.—This is
most apparent in the Brachyura, where the coxa is fused with the segments
of the body. In the Amphipoda it is not fused, but fixed, and the greatest
freedom of motion to the legs is where the next joint is articulated with this,
which is so frequently close to the base, that it is highly probable that a
hasty examination of some of the more common species only, such as Talktrus
and Gammarus locusta, might delay the acceptation of a fact urged by an
unknown individual in opposition to the long-received idea propounded by
the highest authorities and admitted by all others (vide Pl. XV. fig. 8).
But if the very transparent and by no means rare species of Gammarus
grossimanus be examined, the coxa will be found to have the scale-like form
‘developed to a moderate degree only ; and unlike most of the common
species, the basal joint articulates with the coxa almost at the extremity,
and gives to the latter so much the character of being a portion of the leg,
that if all others of the class had been the same, we doubt if any observer
would have thought of describing them as epimerals or side-pieces of the
true segments. This remark will also hold in relation to the three posterior
legs of Amphipoda generally, where the cox are developed to a small
degree ; also in the group Aberrantia (Lemodipoda), where each is fused with
the rest of the animal, as we find it is the casein Brachyura, a circumstance
‘38 REPORT—1855.
which demonstrates that a fusion of the parts of the leg with the body is no
evidence of a more or less perfect type of Crustacea.
4th. That close examination shows that the (so-called) epimerals are
not united to the segments in a manner which would be the case if they were
merely separated parts of the same segment (Plate XV. fig. 8).—It is but
natural to suppose, whenever, in the structure of a segment, it is necessary
that a line of demarcation, from incomplete union by an arrest in the deve-
lopment of the whole, must exist, the two separated portions would con-
tinue in the same plane. But these coxe articulate with their segments by
the length of at most one-half of the width of the segment only, and that
upon the inner portion. It is this line of demarcation which splits when
the animal throws off its exuvie, and leaves the cox attached to the
legs, a fact which shows that a closer connexion exists between the leg and
the scaliform coxa than between the coxa (epimeral) and the body of the
animal.
5th. There are no epimerals where there are no legs.
6th. Epimerals are not observed in any except the Edriophthalma.
These two last arguments are negative in their character ; but it is at least
curious, that if the coxe are side-pieces of each successive segment, a
more perfect development of the segments with the side-pieces takes place
posteriorly where the perambulating legs cease to exist. Again, their absence
in the Macroura (for we consider it a thing proved that the so-called epimerals
appertaining to the carapace are in fact the mandibular segment*) is at least
remarkable both in the anterior and posterior portions of the animal.
Posterior to the perambulating legs, the pleopoda or swimming-feet are
attached to the underside of what is commonly called the abdomen, but
which we think with more convenience may be called the pleon, being the
segments which bear the swimming feet.
The superior arches of the segments overlie the side of the inferior to a
considerable extent, but there are no traces of anything like independent
side-pieces or epimerals.
Taking these several facts into consideration, we are forced to the con-
clusion that the epimerals of Milne-Edwards are not lateral pieces of the
normal segment, but the first joint of the true legs, and homologize with the
coxopodite of the same author in the Brachyura and Macroura.
In the Amphipoda the coxa is developed into a scale-like form common
to the whole order, and is produced to a much greater extent in the four
anterior than the three posterior legs. The three last have generally the
second joint (basis) developed to assume the scaly appearance which belongs
to the anterior coxa.
In some species, as in Montagua, one or two of the anterior coxe are
developed so as to hide the whole of the rest of the inferiorly situated parts
of the animal.
On the microscopic Structure of the Integumentary Skeleton.
In all Crustacea, from the highest to the lowest, the composition of the
tissues is the same.
From its capability of withstanding the disintegrating power of boiling
potash as well as that of the mineral acids, the base of the structure is
assumed to be chitine, developed in the form of cells, the hollows of which
are filled with carbonate of lime.
The process of development appears to be analogous to that of the higher
* Annals of Nat. Hist. July 1855, and in Dana on Crustacea...
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 39
forms of Crustacea, but the tissue is never consolidated into so firm a struc-
ture. It seldom, except in the larger species, and in certain parts of others
where strength is required, as the chele, &c., increases to such an extent as
to cease to be transparent. This circumstance offers to the observer very
valuable advantages. Without necessarily destroying life, one is enabled to
perceive the currents of the circulation of the (so-called) blood ; also the
motion of the cardiac vessels, and the position of many of the internal organs,
which otherwise could never be clearly ascertained ; since in the dissection of
an animal so small, a great disarrangement of the tissues must necessarily
take place.
Independent of the advantage of being able to see through the dermal
tissue, we are also capable of examining its minute composition, and the
manner in which it is built up, without cutting the material into thin sec-
tions, and thus precluding the examination of its character as a whole. The
examination of this tissue microscopically is one of considerable im-
portance, as we believe it will be found to offer very extensive varieties of
structure, the extent of which is limited only perhaps by the number of
species in the genera; for as far as our examination has progressed, we have
found the law of peculiarity of structure constant to every species, a cir-
cumstance in itself of great advantage in the determination of doubtful
specimens.
Although a great dissimilarity of the microscopic structure between spe-
cies belonging to the same genus is persistent to such an extent, as to differ
widely even when the general appearances of animals assimilate so that they
may be mistaken otherwise for the same species, yet we find that in different
genera the character of the structure of the dermal tissue is repeated with
but little modification; as compare Gammarus (Othonis?) with Chelura
(Plate XVII. figs. 6 & 10), also Dewamine with Calliope Leachii (figs. 2 & 3)
in the same table.
The closely allied species, which by Leach in his typical collection in the
British Museum are arranged under the same head as Gammarus locusta,
will be found, in spite of the very near resemblance in external character, to
have a considerable variation in the microscopic appearance of the integu-
mentary tissue, and are in fact two species, G. locusta and G. gracilis.
In Gammarus locusta the dermal skeleton will be found, when examined
under one-fifth of an inch power object-glass, to possess a minutely granular
appearance in its general aspect, studded here and there with small short
arrow-headed spinules or hairs, around each of which is a semitransparent
areola, it being free from granular material. In addition to the arrow-
headed points, which at intervals cover the general surface, there is in this
species on each side of the medial line of the four or five posterior seg-
ments of the (so-called) thorax, a row of small simple-pointed spines: these
are closely placed together to the number of nine or ten in a semitransparent
areola which surrounds the entire set; the whole arranged in the form of a
short, rather abruptly curved line (Plate XVII. fig. 5).
_The closely allied species we believe to be identical with Gammarus gra-
eilis of Rathke, and perhaps also G’. Olivii and affinis of Edwards, but which
only a microscopic examination of the structure of the skin could positively
determine, since they have been found at very distant habitats; the former
at the Crimea, the latter at Naples. In this species, the most abundant
upon our shores, the granular pavement is not so conspicuous; the walls
of the cells, of which the tissue is constructed, are still apparent in their
general arrangement. They form polygonal divisions caused by their mutual
pressure. The small spinules, which in G. locusta assume an arrow-headed
40> REPORT—1855.
form, are in G. gracilis represented by minute sharp-pointed ones, which
rise out of a socket which lies within the tissue itself, and assume the form
somewhat of an hour-glass, enlarging in diameter as it does at each extremity.
Besides these two appearances, there is a third, which, though not present
in G. locusta, is a feature in the order generally. This is a series of very
numerous small perforations, which in some species assume a waved appear-
ance as they come through the tissue (Pl. XVII. fig. 4).
Without being confident in the assertion, we think that the object of these
tubes is analogous to that of the pores in fish and other marine animals.
In apposition to the dissimilarity, which often is very great, between the
most closely allied species of the same genus, it will not unfrequently be
found that the same kind of microscopic structure is repeated in species’
belonging to genera widely separate.
In the genus Gammarus, a species on our shores, which approximates
nearer to that of G. Othonis of Edwards than any other of which we are cog-
nisant, and has the surface rough, though minutely so, it is sufficient to be
appreciable under a lens of low power. When this is examined under a
microscope of greater capability, the roughened appearance resolves into a
surface irregularly covered with a number of minute projecting obtuse
points. These appear to have a tendency to form into rows, the unequal
length as well as distance between which are so irregularly repeated, that
they appear to exist often together in clusters of greater or less importance
(Pl. XVII. fig. 6).
This description of the appearance under the microscope of the dermal
tissue in G. Othonis (?.}) would be equally correct of Chelura terebrans, which
belongs to a genus which bears little or no comparative assimilation with
Gammarus, the only appreciable difference being that the points which are
scattered over the surface of each are perhaps more obtuse in Chelura; but
even this may have some modification dependent upon the part of the animal
from which it is taken, or the relative ages of either (Pl. XVII. fig. 10).
Again, in Dexamine bispinosa of the British seas (which in form much
resembles Amphitoé costata of Edwards from the Isle of Bourbon), we see
repeated with little variety the same microscopic characters visible in Cal-
liope Leachit. In each of these the animal is covered by many small scale-like
processes developed upon the surface of the dermal tissue. ‘These, attached
at one margin, are raised at the opposite, which is directed posteriorly. In
Dexamine there are also present a few solitary small hairs or minute spinules
which we have not perceived in Calliope (Pl. XVII. figs. 2 & 3).
The scales, broad at their attached base and rounded at the apex, re-
semble generally a crescent form in both Dewamine and Calliope. In
Dexamine they appear to be more numerous and generally more minute,
but it is not impossible that this supposed difference may be dependent upon
age or sex.
Looking at the arrangement of the microscopic structure of the dermalk
tissue of this order generally, we are forcibly led to rely with con-
siderable confidence upon its value as an important test in the diagnosis of
species.
The form and structure of the hairs which exist on different parts of the
animal, when microscopically considered, will be found to be auxiliaries of
analogous character ; but being not so constant in their peculiarities, are less
valuable as tests of species. They not only vary in species, but differ on
separate parts of the same animal. In Sulcator arenarius there are no less
than twelve varieties.
ist. Some are plain, simple, stiff, bristle-like spines. These are common,
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. AY
in different degrees of strength, to the margins of the limbs generally (Pl.
XVII. fig. A 1).
Qnd. Are longer in general form, and are fringed on one side with a
series of fine, straight teeth-like processes, assuming a rake-like character.
These are attached to the maxilliped, as also another variety (Pl. XVII. fig.
A2).
a, Differs from the last in having the teeth bent in a curve directed
to the base (fig. A 3).
4th. On the carpus of the second gnathopod (the second thoracic foot
of authors), the hairs are two very distinct varieties, which appear to
originate from closely approximating bases. One is long and slender, naked
until the extreme point, where appear a few exquisitely delicate cilia, which
give to the extremity a bulbous appearance, which can be resolved only
with a 700 magnifying power (fig. A 4).
5th. The other is short, broad and flat, terminating in a point which is
sharply turned upon itself; the margins of the hair are likewise furnished
with a series of minute teeth pointing towards the base, ranged on each side
for about two-thirds of the entire length of the lair (fig. A 5).
6th. Again, upon the same member on the propodos, we find two other
forms, though decidedly moulded upon the type of the two preceding. The
shorter form loses the hook-like point in a bulbous termination, and the
shaft is furnished with teeth but on one edge (fig. A 6).
7th. On the appendage to the mandible a variety of this last form exists
(fig. A’7).
8th. Represents the longer variety, and shows a decided increase of
strength ; it is slightly turned at the extremity (fig. A 8).
9th. These hairs are situated on the first gnathopod, and assimilate to
No. 6 on the second in general form, but are minus the serrated margin;
on one side of the extremity is a fine hair (fig. A 9).
10th, 11th, 12th are varieties of the plumose form, and are chiefly found upon
the second antenna, though a few are present at several parts of the animal
besides. Besides these, there are numerous modifications of a less distinct
form of many of them in different positions of the animal (fig. A 10, 11, 12).
To become acquainted with the whole, so as to make the knowledge avail-
able to any practical result in the determination of species, would partake of
too exclusive a study, and one that would not be commensurate to the labour
entailed, if the great variety of forms were generally constant. It is not
often that we meet with this obstruction.
On Talitrus locusta (the common shore sand-hopper).—There appears to
be but a single kind of hair with but little modification of form to meet the
conditions of distinct parts. They are short, stiff, blunt spines, and exhibit
under the microscope a tendency to a spiral condition for about one-fourth
the length of the whole from the extremity, at which distance a second, but
smaller process, exists, so that the hair might be characterized as forked, but
that the great inequality of the two terminations would scarcely admit the
idea to be realized (Pl. XVII. fig. B). This kind of termination to the hair
is by no means rare in the order. Those found in Gammarus are scarcely
more than modifications of the same form, and not very important in their
change, a circumstance which lessens the confidence in the expression of
any opinion obtained from their observation.
But still the close examination of the hairs taken from positions homolo-
gically the same in different species, may. not unfrequently be found an
auxiliary of greater or less importance in the study of closely-allied species,
The process of moulting.—The Amphipoda, as all other Crustacea, renew
42. REPORT—1855.
their integumentary tissues periodically*. This remark holds equally true as
regards the lining membrane of the alimentary canal, which is cast in con-
nexion with the external skeleton. There is no appreciable difference in the
habits of the animal more immediately before the casting of the skin than at
any other period. It appears to swim about just the same until the hour of
moulting arrives, when it seeks a place of comparative security where it may
remain the desired length of time that may be necessary without fear of
interruption.
The opportunities that have been most favourable for our observations
have been when the animals, confined in glass jars, have occasionally chosen
a position against the upright walls. _
They grasp with their anterior foot or feet some fixed ground, weed, or
secure material as an anchorage, resting the entire side against the glass.
Here the little creature commences its labour, which appears to be one of
no great discomfort, if we may judge from the small amount of disquietude
with which the operation is conducted. Almost at any stage the animal has
the capability of removing, if it be disturbed, to another spot out of reach.
The process appears to be the result of an internal growth of the animal,
which becoming too large for the skin, it splits. This is produced at the
margin where the dorsal and sternal arches of the three anterior segments of
the pereion (thorax) meet, the inferior arch carrying the legs, inclusive of
the coxz (epimerals) attached to them; a fact, which identifies, we think, the
relation of the (so-called) epimerals with the sternal rather than the dorsal
arch.
The first of the two gnathic segments of the pereion which overrides
anteriorly the cephalic ring is broken at that point from its attachment with
it, and in conjunction with the two next succeeding segments it becomes a
moveable lid, as it were, to the case in which the animal resides.
After some tolerable exertion, the posterior porticn of the animal, together
with its limbs, is withdrawn from its normal position, and ultimately becomes
entirely liberated from the skin, to which the animal now remains attached
by the head and the anterior members only. A few more struggles, and the
creature is free of the whole of the dead exuvie, which is left attached to
its old position.
Unless disturbed, the animal, which is now extremely soft, generally
rests for some time, as if exhausted, near the cast-off skeleton; should,
however, there be any cause, it is perfectly capable of swimming away
immediately.
In Capreila, Mr. Henry Goodsir (Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1842)
remarked that the animal, before the process commenced, “lies for a
considerable time languid, and to all appearance dead. At length a slight
quivering takes place all over the body, attended in a short time with more
violent exertions. The skin then bursts behind the head in a transverse
direction, and also down the mesial line of the abdominal surface ; a few
more violent exertions then free the body of its old covering. After this
the animal remains for a considerable time in a languid state, and is quite
transparent and colourless.”
The new creature is a perfect representation of the old one slightly
enlarged, and, according to our own observations, every hair is produced
complete; though Prof. Edwards believes that this is not the case, but that
* Mr. Bell, in his Introduction to the ‘ History of the British Crustacea,’ has, upon the
authority of Mr. Couch, stated (in a note, page Ixi), “that the families in which the eyes
are always sessile in their adult growth...... do not exuviate or voluntarily throw off
their limbs.’’
-
ON THE BRITISH BDRIOPHTHALEMA. 43
they are afterwards produced. Our observations have not been pursued
upon those species which are supplied with an abundant brush of hair, but
still it would appear, that if the remark be correct when the hairs are few, it
would lead to the same result where they are abundant. It is certainly
eapable of demonstration, even before moulting, for we have repeatedly
observed the new hair attached to the new skin while examining specimens
under the microscope, where the second layer of similarly furnished integu-
ment is distinctly visible beneath the outer; and it has always appeared
to us, though contrary to anticipation, that the new materials (hairs, spines,
&e.) are not developed within each corresponding hair, spine, tooth, &c.,
since they are visible within the integument as a second armature.
This remark is particularly verified by the teeth on the maxille ; this may
probably be here induced by their commonly forked character, which might
cause an injury, should they have to be withdrawn from similarly formed
organs. This is a fate that not unfrequently happens to the branchial sacs.
We have seen one of these last remain within the old tunic of the cast skin,
it having been torn from the parent during the process of moulting, owing
to the narrow neck of the sac; but which by analogy, we may infer, is again
replaced by a process of repair, common to the whole class, but which has
most frequently been observed in the higher types of Crustacea.
On the reproduction of lost parts—The power of animals to restore to its
normal character a new limb or organ, is nowhere so visibly illustrated as in
this great class. The manner iu which it is carried into effect has been
described by Dalyell, Goodsir, and others (including a short paper of our
own in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ for 1850, as well as the British Asso-
ciation Reports for the same year); but these labours have chiefly been
directed to the higher orders of Crustacea, among which it has been shown,
that upon the infliction of an injury upon any given member, the whole limb
is immediately forcibly dislocated and thrown off. This is always done at
the articulation between the coxa and the next succeeding joint.
The wound that is caused by this sudden rupture of parts is naturally
stanched by a thin membrane which instantly shows itself as the immediate
result, and it appears not to be impossible, that its formation, which must be
very sudden, may be the amputating power.
Observers have generally added as an appendage to the above curious fact
in nature, that it is exceedingly fortunate that Crustacea have this power of
voluntary amputation of their members at a given spot, for otherwise, enclosed
as they are in a most unyielding dermal case, they must, upon being wounded,
of necessity bleed to death.
In all the natural sciences there is nothing more likely to lead to error
than deductions based upon negative evidence. That an animal would bleed
to death under such circumstances would appear an extremely probable
hypothesis; but in answer to it, the whole of the order of the Amphipoda
appear to want the power of the dislodgement of any of the limbs, yet they
do not die upon being so wounded.
If a leg be cut off, or any part injured, the wound appears shortly after to
cicatrize over with a black scar; but as far as our opportunities, which have
not been inconsiderable, have enabled us to judge, the member is never
thrown off.
That a limb upon being lost is capable of being reproduced, is, we believe,
correct, but the injured limb is not thrown off to facilitate the reproduction.
We presume, that when the animal moults the skin, the remaining portion
of the injured member may be thrown off with it, and the new limb com-
mences reproduction at that or some earlier period; but not having been
44 REPORT—1855.
enabled to state the circumstance from actual observation, we wish not tosay
much on the subject.
We have noticed a young limb commencing at the coxa as in the higher
order, a circumstance which makes us infer that the reproduction of a lost
member is always from that joint; and since it is necessary, before the com-
pletion of the new part, that the old one should be got rid of, it is thrown off
at the period of moulting.
To meet with one of these animals with the limb undergoing the process
of redevelopment is of very rare occurrence; so rare, that after having
watched some thousands in glass tanks, we remember only having observed
a single specimen which had two legs in this state.
On the auditory organs—The upper antenne are in Crustacea without
doubt organs of hearing of a more or less imperfect nature. This, we think,
has been argued to demonstration: first, by Dr. Farre, in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1843, who reversed the decision of older authors, aud gave
satisfactory reasons for considering them as auditory organs in Macroura.
This has been followed up by Mr. Huxley, who, in a paper in the ‘ Annals of
Natural History’ for the year 1851, supported the opinion of Dr. Farre by
researches on some small exotic Macroura, and identified a “strongly refract-
ing otolithe” in the anterior antenne. And lately, in a paper communicated
to the Fellows of the Linnean Society, and published in the ‘ Annals of
Natural History’ for July 1855, we have demonstrated a more elaborate
and higher kind of organ in the basal joint of the same antenna in the Bra-
chyura.
We may here therefore take for granted, since M. Milne-Edwards’
‘Histoire des Sciences Naturelles’ was published in 1840, in which he
argues these to be olfactory organs, that the present state of our know-
ledge accepts the interpretation of the later observations on the subject *.
Admitting this to be the fact, it is for us here merely to compare the
upper antenna of the Amphipoda with the internal of the Macroura.
In Amphipoda the structure of the anterior antenna is very simple, and is
generally long and slender. The second filament, which in the higher orders
is commonly of equal length with the first, is in this order reduced to a rudi-
mentary condition, or entirely wanting. When this antenna is reduced in
length, it generally is increased in bulk at the base of the peduncle, as if the
internal organization became more important with external decreasing exten-
sion. Examples of this are to be found in the genus Lystanassa (Pl. XIII.
fig. 1) and Anonyz.
A marked exception to this is perceptible in the true Orchestia, where
the organ is short and unimportant, approximating towards a rudimentary
condition of the whole. This is a valuable fact, since it evidently is the
result of certain altered circumstances which interfere with the proper
development of the organ, which in Amphipoda generally is adapted for
aquatic existence only.
Talitrus and Orchestia are in an intermediate position, their habits are
between the aquatic and the land Crustacea, and are the nearest approach to
terrestrial Amphipoda that we know. As their habits, so are their organs
adapted. The Crustacea, which are purely terrestrial, possess no upper an-
tenn ; those which are semiterrestrial possess them in but a rudimentary con-
dition. They differ from the short upper antenne of aquatic Crustacea, such
as the Lysianasside. They are evidently impoverished organs, that is small,
because they are not required; they ceased to grow from an arrest of pro-
* Von Siebold, in his recent ‘ Comparative Anatomy,’ supports the opinion of Edwards, but
we think not from his own actual researches so much as from the works of others.
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 45
gréssive development. They are not the evidence of a more perfect
structure.
This fact has not its full weight in the reasoning of Mr. Dana, when he
makes the short upper antenne evidence of a higher organized Crustacea.
The antenna is reduced in length to fulfil certain conditions: in Zalitrus,
because it is needless as an aquatic organ; in Lysianassa and its near allies,
possibly as a more perfect one; in the Hyperide, with scarce an excep-
tion, on account of the impoverished character of the whole animal.
Talitrus and Hyperia are generally admitted by naturalists to rank at the
opposite extremities of the order, and if generalization were to be adopted
from a too narrow observation, then at whichever extremity of the order it
was confined, the faulty conclusion would be enunciated which identifies a
short anterior antenna as typical of an improved organization, and, on the
other hand, one of a more feeble type.
The most perfectly formed anterior antenna belonging to the Amphipoda
has always appeared to us to be that furnished with the most perfect and
largest number of those appendages which we have in this paper denomi-
nated as auditory cilia, since they enable the organ more completely to fulfil
its office. These membranous cilia we believe to be the external agents
by which a sensation analogous to sound is conveyed to the consciousness of
the animal. The imperfect nature of the organ is in accordance with our idea
of the imperfect condition of the sensation conveyed to an animal so low in
the scale of creation, conducted as it is by means of a medium so dense as
water. We have never been able to observe any traces of an internal organ
in this antenna, but in one or two species we have thought we detected
a nerve traversing the lower side to the extremity of the peduncle in
Aigina longispina and Amphitoé rubricata. This nerve terminates at the
roots of the first auditory cilia, which are placed at the extremity of the
peduncle, and are repeated throughout the length of the filamentary con-
tinuation, which appears to us to be a more or less extended base for the
support of these delicate organisms. The number of auditory cilia belong-
ing to the antenna bears no relative proportion to its length. They crowd
together where the limb is short, as in Plate XIII. fig. 1. Upon the more
lengthened member they generally are to be found, one at the further ex-
tremity of each small articulation.
These auditory cilia are to be found only on the principal filament in all
the malacostracous divisions of Crustacea; the complementary appendage,
however important, is never furnished with them. Their forms vary in
different species, but not to any very considerable extent; occasionally they
will be found, as fig.c in Plate XIII., to terminate with a little tooth-like point;
very commonly they are seen with a kind of semiarticulation near the centre,
as in Zetromatus ; often they are quite simple, as in Lysianassa. But
the most typical form appears to be blunt at the extremity, equal in
breadth from the top to the bottom, with a sudden decrease near the centre,
that gives it an articulated appearance. They are compressed longitudinally,
instead of being round like hairs generally, and are extremely delicate in
structure, quite transparent, and almost invisible when compared with the
true hairs. They are membranous and flexible, and we should presume pecu-
liarly appropriated for the reception of impressions of a vibratile character.
The concentration of these organisms upon a short antenna, together with
the evident increase of diameter at the base of the peduncle, may be indica-
tious of an organ better adapted for the reception of sounds; but we have
not been enabled to distinguish that there is consequently any relative in-
crease of perfection in the organization of the entire animal.
46 Ate REPORT—1855. ©
Olfactory organ.—We have elsewhere* given our reasons for following
the opinion of Dr. Farre, in transferring the seat of this sense to the lower
or external antenna, in opposition to the opinions of Prof. Milne-Edwards,
Von Siebold, and others. These, since they are too recent to be generally
known, we shall here briefly recapitulate. :
“ The question which we have to consider is, to which sense either of the
two sets of organs belongs ;—whether the upper belongs to the auditory and
the lower to the olfactory, as we shall endeavour to prove; or vice versd, as
maintained by all previous writers, except Dr. Farre and Mr. Huxley.
“ We shall divide the evidences on either side under two heads ; first, that
which is derived from an external observation; and second, that which is
derived from the internal organization.
“ First then from external circumstances: An auditory apparatus is an
organ furnished to an animal for one or both of two objects; first, for pro-
tection from danger; second, for the pleasure derivable from sounds. To
animals so low in the scale of being as the Crustacea, placed as they are
in a medium which must considerably modify its character, sound can convey
little to the consciousness of the animal beyond a sense of security or danger.
“ To enable this to be of the most extensive value, the auditory organ must
be, and always is placed so as to be most exposed to external impressions at
all periods ; particularly when the animal is at rest or pre-occupied.
“‘ Now if we look at the organ which the present state of science attributes to
the sense of hearing, we find that in the most perfectly formed animals, the
Brachyura, it is enclosed within a bony case and secured by a calcareous
operculum ; that it is always so in a state of rest, and only exposed when
especially required. Not only is this the case throughout the order, but in
some genera, as in Corystes, Cancer, &c., it is again covered by the supplying
organs of the mouth.
“If we take into consideration the nature of sound, and its difference of
character when conveyed under water from that of passing through air, the
obtuse character of the former, which can scarcely be more than a vibratory
action of particles of water, which conveys to us a very modified and imper-
fect idea of sound, we find it difficult to understand that the organ situated
at the base of the under (internal) antenna is capable of receiving impressions
of sound, enclosed as it is within and covered by a stout calcareous oper-
culum.
“ But if we view it as an organ of smell, every objection previously mani-
fest now becomes evidence in favour of the idea. The small door, when it
is raised, exposes the orifice in a direction pointing to the mouth; this also is
the direction of the same organ in all the higher orders. In Amphipoda it
is directed inwards and forwards. In every animal it is so situated, that it is
impossible for any food to be conveyed into the mouth without passing under
the test of this organ, and by it the animal has the power to judge the
suitability of the substance as food, by raising the operculum at will, and
exposing to it the hidden organ—the olfactory.”
The deductions in the paper just quoted were the result of researches
chiefly made on the Brachyura. In the Amphipoda, the homologue of the
above organ, which we maintain is adapted for smelling, is to be found in the
form of a small spine or denticle at the inferior side of the second antenna.
This denticle is so constant, that its absence is a thing of note, as for
instance in the almost terrestrial genus of Orchestia; probably the result
of an adaptation of the internal organ to meet a more rarefied atmosphere.
This organ appears to be developed from the first and second joints of the
* Annals of Natural History, July 1855. :
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 47
peduncle ; for the two appear to be so closely associated, that it is impossible
to say to which it more immediately belongs. From analogy with the higher
types, we should infer the first, though probably the two combine to increase
the efficiency of the organ by their concentration.
In the freshwater species of Gammarus, the organ appears rather larger
and more characteristic in form. It is from this species we shall give our
description of the organ.
The first joint of the antenna is enlarged into a chamber of a globose form
(Pl. XIV. fig. 4): this is received into a corresponding notch of the cephalic
ring (fig. 3). From the globular chamber, which appears to be the pro-
tecting walls of an internal organ of more delicate contrivance, there proceeds
a large tooth-like process (6), which in this Report we have called the olfactory
denticle. It differs in length and breadth in different species, but is a very
constant appendage. This process is open at the extremity (c), through
which a tube projects (d), which latter is either open, or protected by a
menibrane too delicate to be observed, but which, from analogy with the
higher orders, we are induced to believe may be the case. It is not always
that the tube projects through the aperture at the extremity of the denticle;
occasionally it falls short, as in Isa (fig. 1); but this is merely a variety
depending upon species.
The tube appears to be cylindrical, and continues internally with parallel
walls to about half the length of the tooth itself, when it suddenly converges
to a point, which is open, since it is entered by what appears to be a nerve,
which either itself terminates in or supplies with sensibility a sharp tongue-
like process (f), which is enclosed within the cavity of the tube-like canal.
From the base of this small organ the supposed nerve is traceable in a waving
line to a small bulbous origin (g), situated at the base of the olfactory
denticle at its point of connexion with the enlarged chamber. Beyond this
probable ganglion the closest investigation has not enabled us to see any
further trace of the nerve.
This organ, with but little variation of external form, is to be met with in
almost every species, even including those where the whole antenna is pro-
duced in the form attributable to the character of legs, and used as such in
climbing over irregular protuberances of the ground.
The species in which the organ in its external form does not exist, are the
Talitri, Orchestie, and the Hyperie, together with a species of Gammarus,
which we believe hitherto to be undescribed ; we call it in our list Gammarus
elegans, on account of the general beauty of the form and colouring of the
only specimen we have yet taken*. The lower antenna in this species is sup-
plied with a peculiar set of organs, similar to those which have been described
by Prof. Edwards in his species G. ornatus. Commencing on the last joint of
the peduncleto the extremity of the long filament, there is, at gradually increa-
sing intervals, a series of small membranous polyp-like bodies: they are closed
sacs, and require but a low power of the microscope to perceive them. Those
described by Edwards are fringed with a slightly ciliated border, and belong
toa North American species, which differs in other essential respects from our
British form. To assign any peculiar use to these organisms came not within
the conception of their original observer, and we can only point to this solitary
instance of their being present on the olfactory antenna, where the organ of
the sense peculiar to it is either absent or reduced to a rudimentary cha-
racter: but a more extended opportunity of observation is necessary before
we ean attempt to pronounce this condition constant (Pl. XIV. figs. 5 & 5a).
* This may be the true reason why the olfactory denticle has not been observed: we
“were afraid of injuring the specimen.
48 REPORT—1855.
In Orchestia, as previously observed, the absence of the olfactory denticle is
probably the result of altered internal conditions of the organ necessary to
meet the peculiar change of circumstances into air from water, in which the
Amphipoda normally reside.
The denticle, when present, is situated slightly in advance of the mouth,
and nothing can be eaten that does not pass the ordeal of the olfactory
organs, for such we do not hesitate to call them.
Taste.—The sense of the enjoyment of food, even in the highest types of
the animal kingdom, is not the result of the power of any especial organ.
The nerves which communicate the idea are developed over most of the
internal surface of the mouth, and it is only the consciousness of taste that
demonstrates their position and use. ‘The probability from analogy is, that
the sensation is manifest to creatures low in the animal scale in a similar
manner, and is rather a faculty peculiar to the mouth in general, than the
result of any especial combination directed to a given part.
In Suleator arenarius, and only in that species, have we observed what
may possibly be an especial organ of taste. There is a large protuberance
upon the first maxilla. It has a somewhat glandular appearance, and is the
result of cell growth; these cells are large and nucleated. We have failed
to observe the organ, or anything analogous in the same or a similar position,
in any of the more common and numerous forms of Amphipoda that we have
examined. It can scarcely be looked upon in the light of a salivary organ,
although its component cells possess all the characteristics of those belong-
ing to asecreting gland, since its position upon the maxilla, being external to
the mandibles, forbids the idea. The purpose of this organ (if it be one)
will require more extended and systematic observations ere it can be resolved
from its present enigmatical character (Pl. XV. fig. 4a).
The Prima Via.—The cesophagus leads, as in all Crustacea, abruptly
from the mouth to the stomach; it is extremely short and is directed upwards,
inclining rather forwards than otherwise, so that the stomach is almost
entirely within the cephalic ring in the Amphipoda.
Just within the anterior opening of the stomach are two rake-like
organs (Pl. XIX. fig. 1 a, a); the rows of teeth form themselves on each side
into a convex line, the teeth being a little curved, the lower or anterior ones
mostly so. The apparatus directs its teeth inwards and backwards, so that
the food may with ease pass in, but cannot agair return. The teeth on each
side appear to be antagonistic sets, which probably tear and masticate the
food as it enters into the stomach.
Behind this masticating apparatus there exist four simple leaf-like plates
fringed with long and powerful cilia, placed in pairs (00, cc), one anteriorly
and the other posteriorly situated in the stomach; immediately above the
second or posterior pair, apparently in a chamber of its own, is a gizzard-like
organ (d). This so-called gizzard consists of several closely-packed rows
of fine short strong hairs, the whole formed into the shape, when displayed,
of an inverted heart with the apex removed, and tke reversed section added
to the base; the walls of the cavity in which the gizzard exists is lined with
numerous but small hairs: the whole apparatus appears to be placed out
of the direct line of continuation between the cesophagus and the alimentary
veanal. Posterior to the gizzard-like organ, there exists in some, but we are
not certain that it is common to all the Amphipoda, a long ceca or eul de
sae (e,e) on each side of the posterior opening of the stomach. These are
delicate prolongations of the wall of the stomach, and gradually become
narrower towards their extremity. They probably supply the stomach with
a gastric juice. Still more posteriorly, at the point where the stomach con- ;
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 49
verges and unites with the alimentary canal, on the inferior surface, it is
united with the liver.
From the stomach, the alimentary tube is continued in a direct line to
the anal extremity. To this general law we know of but one exception, and
that upon the authority of Professor Allman, who states that in Chelura
terebrans the alimentary canal is so arranged as to shut one part within
another to admit of the head being projected forwards, that the animal may
eat its way into the wood.
In a few species the alimentary tube is continued beyond the posterior
limits of the calcareous tissue of the animal, and is furnished with a slightly
pectinated edge.
- The most constant condition is, that the anus shall coterminate with thé
last segment, and is there closed by a set of transverse muscles which pro-
bably fulfil the office of a sphincter (Pl. XX. fig. 1 ¢).
The structure of the walls of the canal appears to be a membrane pos-
sessing a fibrous character which stripes it in a longitudinal direction (Pl. XIX.
fig.5). Transverse lines of a finer appearance are also perceptible (fig. 6) ;
and the general appearance of the whole is that of a passage surrounded
with elastic walls.
The stomach is retained in its position; first, by being supported upon flat
calcareous plates (Pl. XII. figs. 4 O & 5), processes of the dorsal part of the
segment which carries the maxille. These processes are flattened to receive
the organ, which is further retained in its position by a calcareous con-
tinuation on each side. Besides, there are several muscles, some of which
are attached to the upper external surface and retain it anteriorly, while
others are attached to the under surface and hold it posteriorly in position
(Pl. XIX. fig. 2, f & g). .
' The Liver appears to be among the most important of the viscera, if we
may judge from its relative size. It uniformly, as far as our experience
teaches us, consists of four long simple sacs filled with biliary cells, the
contents of which are yellow in colour (Pl. XIX. figs.3 p). These separate
sacs unite together at their anterior extremity into a single short biliary
duct, which opens into the intestinal tube on the under aspect, immediately
where it leaves the stomach.
Urinary organs.— About two-thirds the distance from the stomach to the
anal aperture, two long cylindrical appendages, closed at the free extremity,
communicate laterally upon the upper side with the intestinal tube (Pl. XX.
fig. 2). These appendages are more important in appearance in some
species of Amphipoda than in others; but as far as our experience guides,
they are universally present both in male and female, as also in the imma-
ture animal. In the younger forms they are rudimentary, as shown in fig. 4,
taken from Amphitoé ; but are scarcely more so than those found in the adult
Gammarus grossimanus, as shown in fig. 3 of the same Plate.
Immediately posterior to the communication of this organ with the ali-
_ mentary canal are a series of muscular fibres transversely lying across the
dJatter (Pl. XIX. fig. 1G) ; they strongly assimilate both in form and arrange-
ment with those which we have already mentioned as being sphincter muscles,
to the terminal orifice of the alimentary tube. The position which this
second set of muscles holds is at the immediate point of communication
between the two organs, and the general appearance would also induce us to
believe that their object is to fulfil a similar office and keep compressed the
efferent orifice. In fact they act the part of sphincter muscles to the
urinary organ.
ee we name these the urinary organs, yet it is without perfect
: E
50 REPORT—1855.
assurance that we can arrive at the conclusion of their veritable purpose. But
from their general position and structure, their constant presence both in male
and female, old as well as young, together with the form of the entire appa-
ratus, we are induced to believe them to be a simple form of urinary organ.
The contents, under a one-fifth power of the microscope, are resolved into
small round cells, containing a nucleus of granular material (Pl. XIX. fig. 6).
These cells are closely packed together, but not so firmly as to lose their
original form; and the whole are confined within the walls of the organ,
which appear to be very stout, the external surface of which is slightly
notched (fig. 5) at tolerably regular distances, as if the organ had the power
of contraction and expansion. Both the organs (if there are always two, of
which we are not certain, in every species, since we have not clearly de-
monstrated them, except in Swleator) (fig. 2) lie so closely together, as to
appear like one; but in the genus Sulcator we have displayed them both by
dissection. They lie their full length along about one-third of the upper
aspect of the alimentary canal, and towards the posterior extremity make a
sudden turn, and directly after connect themselves with the alimentary canal
(fig. 1). The appearance of the structure at this bend is of a much more
robust character than at any other point of the organ.
The Vascular System.—At the anterior portion of the alimentary canal,
and placed above it, lies the cardiac vessel or heart (Pl. XXII. fig.3a@). Itis
a long simple organ more like an aorta than a heart, reaching from the first
to the last segment of the pereion (or thorax), and does not extend, as
asserted in the ‘ Histoire des Crustacés’ (vol. i. p.98), “through the whole
length of the abdomen,” as is the case, upon the same authority, in the Sto-
mapoda. The superior wall is suspended by a series of attachments at the
centre of each successive segment, which gives it a festooned appearance
through the whole length of its upper surface. The walls of the organ are
of a fibrous character, arranged diagonally to the vision under the micro-
scope, the result we believe of a spiral arrangement in the general structure
of the walls. The whole possesses an elastic nature, and a persistent pulsation
is carried on, causing the festoon on the upper surface to rise and fall with
each successive throb.
Corresponding with the centre of each segment there is an aperture in
the heart into which passes the blood, being propelled by successive
jerks (Pl. XXII. fig. 3 ¢,c,¢). The (so-called) blood-corpuscles are very
discernible, and by this means the course of the circulation is not difficult
to be traced. Though the corpuscles travel in a continuous current, yet we
have never been able to distinguish that this channel is bounded by walls,
in fact that there are any true blood-vessels. That none exist we think may
be strongly inferred from the fact elucidated by close and continued obser-
vation of the circulation, where two currents, an arterial and a venous,
travel in close proximity to each other; an occasional corpuscle from the
arterial may be seen to pass over to the venous without traversing the
greater circuit followed by the others.
An arterial current passes through the whole length of the animal imme-
diately above the alimentary canal, aud the great venous course returns
along the dorsal centre; at the commencement of the pereion (thorax) the
current appears to descend, and becomes confused to observation with the
arterial channel. (Vide diagram, Pl. XXII. fig. 3.)
The legs are nourished by a single arterial current and its venous return;
in the broad plates of the coxe the arterial course passes down through the
centre, where it diverges and returns as two venous currents, the one on the
anterior, the other on the posterior margin. Near this point are situated
’
.
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 5k
the branchial organs, where the blood, which is much divided and exposed
to aération, goes, we believe, direct to the heart, and then, without returning
again to these organs, passes on its way, carryiug oxygen to the general
system.
. The Branchie.—These are by no means the simple sacs that authors have
universally described them. They are situated upon the inner surface of
the coxz of the leg, and assume the form of leaf-like plates on each side of
the sternum, and are attached to every leg except the first in females, and
_ generally the last in males, though in Gammarus we have seen them present
in the male as well as the female, on the seventh, as shown in Pl. XXI. fig. 3.
The arterial course passes down on the side nearest the heart, and divides
itself as it proceeds along the internal labyrinth of the organ into many
streams, and passes out of the vesicle by an efferent course on the side
opposite to that on which it entered.
The corpuscles never increase beyond one deep. Thus each of these.
supposed oxygen carriers is brought into immediate contact with the thin
walls, which alone separate them from external atmospheric influences. The
branchiz homologize with the same organs in the higher orders of Crustacea,
and each may be viewed in the light of a solitary plate of one of those more
compound organs. In fact they bear an extremely close resemblance to the
branchie of the Brachyura in the larval condition, before they assume
the foliaceous appearance of the perfect organ (Pl. XVIII. fig. 10).
The great difference in the general character appears to be derived mostly
from the appearance which the organs in the higher types assume of a resem-
blance to an internal position; but this is a condition of appearance only, as
shown in an earlier portion of this paper; the branchiz are overcapped by
the monstrous production of the anterior cephalic segments, a peculiarity
which is not carried out in the Amphipodous order; consequently the
branchie are external and pendent in the water, and it is for their greater
protection that the cox are developed into large scaliform plates.
The internal structure of the branchial organs appears to be produced by
a thickening of a fibrous tissue in contact with the internal surface of the
walls of the organ (Pl. XVIII. fig. ’7). This appears to be carried out in
patches of an irregular form, but which correspond in their arrangement
with one another. These patches are thickest at their centre and thin out
towards their edges: the result is that a channel is left between each. All
the channels so formed are connected together throughout the whole organ,
and exhibit a continuous labyrinth in which the blood circulates in many
small streams (fig. 8).
Should the animal become feeble, a gradual accumulation of corpuscles
may be discerned in different parts of the gills, mostiy out of reach of the
stronger currents, which latter, as the vitality of the animal diminishes, can
be observed to lessen in force until it is propelled only by jerks, coexistent
with every pulsation of the heart ; and at length a throbbing without any pro-
gression of the corpuscles appears as the last effort of decaying circulation.
The external form of the organ varies but little: in Zalitrus (Pl. XVIII.
fig. 3) there appears a second of smaller dimensions, originating from a com-
mon base, the stalks being separated. Somewhat similar are they in the
branchiz of Sulcator arenarius (fig. 1), and would appear as if it were an
effort of nature to make a step towards the more foliaceous organs of the
higher types. In the Aderrantia we find that Caprella Pennantii (for in
this group, except in the genus Proto, there are but two sets attached to the
third and fourth segment of the pereion (thorax)) has the anterior branchia
round and much larger than the posterior, which is more cylindrical in form.
E2
52 REPORT—1855.
In A2gina they are long and slender, and furnished on the outer side of the
neck ries a small articulated scale, the rudiment of the undeveloped leg
fig. 6).
‘ Organs of Generation (male).—The dissection of these organs requires
much care; the most distinct that we have been enabled to make out were in
a specimen of Sulcator arenarius, sent us by our most valued correspondent,
the Rev. G. Gordon, taken in Moray Frith. This specimen was so exqui-
sitely transparent, that we could readily detect the white patch of the testes
with unassisted vision; and by cautious dissection under the microscope,
we were enabled to trace the connexion between them and the external
organs*.
The testicles are large, opake, oblong organs, being in breadth about
equal to half their length ; they are situated on the dorsal aspect, immediately
beneath the dermal tissues, occupying a position under the sixth and seventh
segments of the pereion (thorax) (Pl. XXI. fig. 1).
From the posterior extremity of each, deflecting one to the right, the other
to the left, a vas deferens proceeds towards and enters into the first joint of
the seventh pair of legs (figs. 2 and 3), and again passes out and terminates
in an external penis ; but whether intromittent or not we have hitherto failed
to discover, though we believe it is not. We have had Gammarus gracilis
long in keeping, and watched them in their habits much; but have never
detected any communication between the sexes which could admit of a
direct passage of the penis into-the vulva, which latter organ we have not
yet discovered in the normal Amphipoda.
The male appears to grasp the opposite sex by one of its strong subche-
liform gnathopoda, by the insertion of the claws beneath the anterior edge
of the first segment of the pereion (thorax), whilst another is inserted be-
neath the posterior margin of the fourth or fifth. Thus grasping the female
by the back, it draws it into immediate contact with the ventral surface of
itself. In this attitude, more or less firmly compressed, they swim and rest
alternately for days, or perhaps, as we believe, a very much longer period,
without any apparent closer communication.
If the two be driven asunder by any fear of danger, as has been performed
by us for the value of the observation, the female seeks a place of shelter,
while the male swims more actively about; and we have noticed, that should
it after a few moments swim within a little distance of its late mate, it
instantly becomes aware of the circumstance, and having passed the spot,
will turn abruptly back, seek her out, and seize her with avidity from amidst
several others, and immediately after securing, strike her with two or three
strong lashes of the tail. The female rolling herself up in fear is so carried
off by her more powerful mate.
This contact between the sexes is either occasionally repeated or may last
through the whole period of incubation, as we have frequently taken them
coupled in this manner, even when the matured young have been sufficiently
advanced as to leave the care of the parent. We are induced from this fact
to believe, that a series of broods are producible from the same parents during
the year, and that the erotic state of the female may exist during the incu-
bation of any previous brood.
The penis is a soft membranous tube, the external continuation of the
vas deferens, with the probable capability of erection (Pl. XXI. figs. 1, 2,3 a).
The orifice occupies but scarcely half of the diameter of the extremity of the
tube, and most probably has the power of closing itself voluntarily. This
remark is true both in Gammarus and Sulcator, in which latter the organ is
* The observations of De Siebold on this organ chiefly relate to the Jsopoda, ;
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA, 53
considerably longer, and terminates with a simple opening near the centre
of the extremity of the tube (fig. 2a). In Gammarus (fig. 3 a) the orifice
is on one side of the terminal point, and furnished with a small bundle of
minute hairs.
The spermatozoa are long simple hair-like bodies, and bear a general
resemblance to those found in the Cirripedia; in Sulcator they have their
largest diameter at one end and the smallest at the other, but there is no
decided enlargement of one part over the other to give it the tadpole resem-
blance of the typical form of these organisms. In Gammarus, the largest
part*, if one is larger than the other, is a little on one side of the centre,
with the smallest diameter equally at each extremity +.
In the Aberrantia, a group recognized under the generally-accepted
synonym of Lemodipoda, the male organs are of a more powerful character,
and connected in Capredla with the coxe of the last pair of thoracic legs,
which in this group are all anchylosed with the segment from which they
originate (Pl. XXI. fig. 4).
In the closely allied genus Profo, the pleon (abdomen), though rudi-
mentary, is not so entirely obsolete; similar appendages to those which we
have considered male organs in Capredla exist, four in number, but these
homologize with the pleopoda of the anterior pleon in the normal type of
Amphipoda.
This fact can scarcely interfere with the adaptation of the members as
intromittent organs, since in the higher order of the Brachyura the vas
deferens is known to pass directly into one of the false feet, modified for a
similar purpose. The observations on this family are further supported by
those of M. Rousel de Vauzeme, on Cyamus ovalis{, in which the organs
are situated analogous to those of Caprella. ;
Organs of Reproduction ( female).—If we found that to become acquainted
with these organs in the male required much care, those of the female demand
_ it still more, a circumstance which will account for the incompletion of all
their details with this Report; but we feel assured that which we here state
may be relied upon as correct as far as it goes.
In the normal type of the Amphipoda, hitherto we have failed to discover
the vulvze, but infer its place from the fact of their constant position in all the
higher formsof Crustacea, on the coxz of that pair of the pereipoda or walking
legs, attached to the fifth segment of the pereion; and we are induced to assign
them an analogous position. In the Brachyura they are generally described
by authors as perforations in the sternum; so they appear also in the abnor-
mal Amphipoda ( Caprella) : in both these cases, as has been proved, the coxe
are fused with their supporting segments. In Homarus, &c., where the coxe
are free, the vulvz are seen in their normal position, which we believe to be
homologically constant in Crustacea; and those in the Amphipoda, probably
being only oviducts in their adaptation, have escaped our observation from
some slight obstruction to our plan of inquiry.
* We have observed minute objects like fat-globules attached to these thread-like organs
with which they were in contact, or else form a part of the structure; a few in fig. 5 are
drawn with the spots attached.
+ The description given by Von Siebold in his ‘ Anatomie Comparée,’ p. 472, § 290, agrees
generally with the forms here alluded to. He says, moreover, that they are very similar in
Mysis and the Isopoda. This statement is made by him on the authority of observations on
Mysis, Oniscus, Porcellio, Idothea, and Gammarus (Von Siebold, Miiller’s Archives,1836) ; and
Kolliker has observed the same, but states them to be rigid, and not in a figure of 8, as
observed by Siebold in Iphimedia obesa and Hyperia medusaria, where they are slightly
enlarged and a little bent ateone extremity. ;
} Ann. des Sciences Nat. 1834.
54 REPORT—1855.
In Caprella Pennantii two distinct circular orifices, situated side by side, as
in the highest types, are visible in the caleareous ventral aspect of the fifth seg-
ment. This is also confirmed by Rousel de Vauzeme in his observations on
Cyamus ovalis, except the organs which he appears to raise on small pro-
minences (Pl. XIII. fig. 17a,a, Ann.des Sc. Nat. 1834). The position of these
organs is very readily distinguishable, even in the dried animal, and con-
tradicts the statement of Mr. H. Goodsir, that they are placed one before the
other in the middle of the ventral region (Edin. Phil. Journ. 1842), Pl. XXI.
fig. 8.
oThe internal organs consist of two sets of ovaries placed one on each side, but
are not the simple tubes described by Von Siebold ; but as that author’s infor-
mation consists chiefly of the results of Rathke, Brandt and Miiller, who mostly
pursued their researches upon the Jsopoda, it may be that-still we are both
correct in the individual instances. Rousel de Vauzeme figures them in
Cyamus ovalis of the same simple character as described by Siebold, termina-
ting each posteriorly in a short oviduct.
The ovaries in Gammarus appéared to us to consist of four or five sac-
like organs, narrowing each towards their attachment with a canal into which
they all empty themselves in succession, the largest being the most distant
from the extremity approximating the vulva. One of these sets was found
upon each side of the alimentary canal, and appeared to be enclosed within a
common sac; that is, we observed a transparency around the whole organ
which induced us so to interpret the appearance, though we were unable to
dissect the organ out, or trace it in continuation with the as yet to us undis-
covered vulva.
It is not certain at what time the impregnation of the ovum takes place
by the fertilizing spermatozoa, and it is only conjecture that induces us to
assume it must be as the former escapes from the oviduct. Thus, if we-
are correct in our deduction frora negative evidence, that an intromission
of the male organs does not take place, then we must conclude that the male
emission must escape into the surrounding medium, and that of the many
thousand active organisms, some are attracted by the force of the continued
currents, induced by the swimming feet, into the incubatory pouch, where
they are brought into contact with and impregnate the recently deposited
ovum, which after fertilization continues in this position to be cherished
until after the larva quits the egg. The supposition that impregnation is an
external act is supported by the observations of Von Siebold (p. 472 of the
work already quoted), that the spermatozoa continue rolled into a figure of
8 until they come into contact with the water.
The Incubatory Pouch is the result of the folding over of several lamel-
liform plates, generally fringed with hairs. One of these is developed upon
- the inner side of each of the two pairs of gnathopoda and the two anterior
pereipoda (or four anterior pairs of thoracic feet). These plates overlie each
other in a compact form, and securely protect the eggs or the immature
young from external accidents (Pl. XVIII. fig. 11).
This lamelliform appendage, which is called the palpe by M, Milne-Ed-
wards, i is, according to Von Siebold (p. 476), developed at the “ époque du
rut,” and afterwards again disappears. This we have not been able to verify,
since we have frequently taken the female at all periods of the year with these
appendages fully developed, but do not recollect ever having seen them in a
half-formed state. We have never observed them present on the young animal,
so that probably they may be produced as the animal arrives towards the
era of female development. But we are inclined to.doubt, when once deve-
loped, that they ever again disappear except as the result of accident.
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 55
On the Development of the Young.—The length of time between the epoch
of the deposit of the ovum to that of the emancipationof the young animal from
the care of the parent, has not, as far as we are aware, been ascertained, but
from parallel circumstances in Asellus, among the Jsopoda it appears to last
from about a month to six weeks.
At first the egg is perfectly round in form; it shortly increases in length,
assuming a larger proportion at one extremity than the other; it is now that
the young animal is seen under development, and indistinct segments are
observable. The wall of the ovum is formed of an elastic membrane
which corresponds to the movement of the internal embryo.
It is probable, that about the middle of the period of incubation, the young
animal quits the egg, for we have constantly taken them from the pouch,
bearing an embryonic character without being closed in their egg-case. The
larva at this period is very immature and covered in a general tunic, which,
apparently without having any absolute vital connexion with the animal
more than the original egg-case had to the embryo, adapts itself in form to
the whole creature, and fulfils the duty of a protective tissue. This probably
is shed more than once, as we perceive that as the animal increases in size
and completeness of form, so the tunic corresponds in its general adapta-
tion ; and at last the larva frees itself from this case and strengthens in its
own development, but appears not to quit the care of the parent immediately.
We have often observed that the young escape from the mother if she be taken
or alarmed; from the active state of their existence at this time, they appear
as if they had long since been capable of so acting if they had preferred or
circumstances required it. Repeatedly observing this fact, we have been
induced to believe that they had the power, and used it, of quitting the parent
occasionally, and either returned to the pouch again, or else being free, con-
tinued more or less perfectly under her protection. This trace of parental
affection receives support from the observation of Mr. Henry Goodsir*, who
“on one occasion, while examining a female Caprella under the microscope,
found that her body was thickly covered with young ones; they were firmly
attached to her by means of their posterior feet, and were resting in an erect
posture, waving about their long antennz with great activity.” But although
the resemblance to the parent is very considerable, yet it is by no means com-
plete, and it is probable that several moults are undergone before the perfect
development of the animal is matured. ‘The value of the relative difference
is important, since the observation of the same animal at different stages of
its existence might otherwise lead to the misinterpretation of the value of
species.
When the young of Gammarus gracilis first appears as an animal, de-
pendent upon its own resources, there is no very decided contrast between the
articulations of the peduncle of the antenna and those which pertain to the
filament. The latter itself is shorter, consisting of five articulations only,
than in the mother, where there are twenty-nine ; and we counted thirty-five in
a male of the same species ; again, in the inferior antenna there are but three
joints to the filament, whilst in the adult male and female sixteen are
developed. This relative difference is likewise constant in the small fila-
mentary appendage of the upper antenna, which in the larva has but two
segments of an unequal length; in the adult there are six or more.
Again, in the structure of the eye we see the same gradual increase
still goes on after the young has become free. The facets, or rather
lenses, which are seen beneath the integument of the animal (for we consider
that the eye has no especial dermal covering peculiar to itself in Amphipoda),
* Edinb. Phil, Journ. 1842.
56 . REPORT—1855.
are in the young from ten to twelve in number, whereas in the adult from
sixty to eighty can be counted, and the cornea assumes a deeper tint; being
crimson in the larva, it becomes purple or almost black in the adult.
The young are generally of a more or less deep orange colour ; in some
species they are cornuous and transparent} and in the development are
generally less marked than the adult.
The large hand in Orchestia holds in the larva a nearer contrast to that
of the female than to the larger claw of the male; it is therefore extremely
probable that this organ likewise increases in growth; a fact also remarked
by Rathke*, regarding the warty development of the posterior leg of the
same animal which still goes on with increasing age.
In Hyperia the larva bears so little resemblance to the parent, that it
has been pronounced by Edwards, who first observed the fact, and Mr. Gosse,
to be a metamorphosis; but since, even in the higher types, the immense
variety of change from the Zoé to the adult animal is but the result of subordi-
nate becoming more important parts, together with development of others not
yet present, and therefore hardly acceptable under the signification of meta-
morphosis, as understood in true Insecta; we can scarcely subscribe to the
great alteration of form as a metamorphosis in Hyperia, which is one of degree
only, and of which we shall give a figure in the forthcoming ‘ British Edrio-
phthalma.’
On the Nervous System.—This part of the subject has been attended to
with more care than perhaps any other part of the animal, by MM. Audouin
and Edwards, in a memoir published by them on the nervous system of
Crustacea generally.
To this paper, which has been made the standard of all authors, we shall
now refer the reader; and in this Report only draw attention to particular
details of more or less importance, which we have noticed from actual obser-
vation in dissections made upon Talitrus locusta, and which are given in our
figures of the nervous system of that Amphipod in Pl. XXII. accompanying
this Report.
_The scheme of the arrangement is peculiarly annular, perhaps typically
crustacean; a ganglion corresponds to every segment of the animal, each
being united to the other by two cords, which correspond, but are not
connected with each other. From each ganglion on the right and left, a
double branch is given off; the one passes to the legs, the other probably to
the branchial organs. In the male, the ganglion corresponding with the
seventh segment of the pereion (thorax), which supports the male organs,
appears a little larger than the others. From the cords intermediate between
the ganglia originates on the external side of each a corresponding nervous
thread, which again divides into two, and probably supplies the internal vis-
cera of the animal. These threads have not been recorded in the memoir
quoted as belonging to the Amphipoda, but analogous ones are figured in the
‘ Histoire des Crustacés,’ pl. 11. figs. 3, 4, as belonging to the Stomapoda.
But a more important variation in the nervous system of the Amphipoda
exists in the arrangement of that part which belongs to the cephalic region.
The first ganglion (Plate XXII. fig. 2 E) of the pereion (thorax) rests upon
the sternal portion of its own segment, from which anteriorly a sudden de-
pression takes place to the infra-cesophageal ganglion (B), which lies beneath
a calcareous arch (O), which earlier in this paper has been described as being
the dorsal aspect of the three segments, which fused together support the
maxillz and maxilliped.
From the infra-cesophageal ganglion several nerves originate to supply
* Faunen de Crim, Phil, Trans. St. Petersburg.
—_— _ _
a
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA. 57
the attendant appendages of the mouth, and two more important ones are
directed anteriorly to the supra-cesophageal or cephalic ganglion, which last
we have not satisfactorily made out, although we have traced the nervous
cord almost to its connexion with it, that is, up to the anterior or facial wall
of the head.
The probability is, that there is no very great amount of difference from
that which is figured by Edwards and Audouin as belonging to the Amphi-
poda proper, or as given by Rouzel de Vauzeme, as observed in the aberrant
genus of Cyamus.
Any observations, either on the generalization or geographical distribution
of the order, we shall reserve until we furnish the second part of the Report
‘On the British Zsopoda,’ and here only remark that our experience induces
us to consider the Amphipoda, inclusive of the aberrant group, as a modification
of the great Crustacean typé, as exemplified in the Macroura, rather than
as possessing a perfectly distinct characteristic, as asserted by Mr. Dana.
In this conclusion we approximate that already arrived at by Edwards in
his ‘Observations on the Classification of Crustacea’ (Ann. des Sci. Nat.
vol. xviii. n. s. p. 121). But he includes in his remarks the Isopoda and
the Pyenogonides, with which in this Report we have nothing to do.
In the accompanying Table the species are arranged according to order.
Those which are in italics have never been previously recorded as British.
Those marked with an asterisk, are species which we have not examined,
and record upon the authority of previous authors.
OrderI. AMPHIPODA.
Group A. NORMALIA.
Division A.A. GAMMARINA.
Subdivision A.A.a. Vagantia.
Tribe a.a. SALTATORIA.
Family Orchestide.
Genus. Author. Species. Author.
Talitrus...... Bose... se ese locusta ...... Latr.
Orchestia .... Leach........ littorea ...... Leach.
Deshayesii.... Audouin.
Allorchestes .. Dana........ Dana ....-. mihi.
imbricatus .... mihi.
Galanthis .... mihi ........ Lubbockiana .. mihi.
Tribe 6.6. NATATORIA.
Family Gammaride.
Subfamily I. SrEGocEPHALIDES.
Montagua,... mihi ........ monoculoides. . Montagu.
marinus.....- mihi.
pollewianus .. mihi.
dubius ...... mihi.
REPORT—1855.
Subfamily 2. Lys1anassADEs.
Genus. Author. Species. Author.
Lysianassa.... Edwards .... Coste@........ Edwards.
Audouiniana.. mihi.
Chausica .... Edwards.
Scopelocheirus. mibi ........ breviatus...... mihi.
Anonyx ...... Kroyer ...... Edwardsii.... Kroyer.
: minutus ...... Kroyer.
ampulla...... Kroyer.
Holbolli...... Kroyer.
denticulatus .. mihi.
Amanonyx.... mihi ........ Guerinianus .. mihi.
Subfamily 3. TeETRoMATIDEs.
Tetromatus .. mihi ........ typicus ...... mihi.
Bellianus .... mihi.
Subfamily 4. PonToporEIDEs.
Westwoodea.. mihi ........ ceculus ...... mihi.
carinatus .... mihi.
PRogis 5, -' Kroyer ...... Kroyerii .... mihi.
plumosus.
Suleator...... mihi ........ arenarius .... mibi.
Darwinea .... mihi .......- compressus.... mihi.
Iphimedia .... Rathke...... ODESE tine os Rathke.
Acanthonotus? Owen.......- Owen” 5... a
Dexamine.... Leach ...... spinosa ...... Montagu.
bispinosa .... mihi.
Gordoniana .. mihi.
fucicola...... Edwards.
Calliope...... Leach (MS.).. Leachit ...... mihi.
Tsaa ........ Edwards .... Montagui .... Edwards.
Lembos ...... mihi ........ Cambriensis .. mihi.
Damnoniensis. mihi.
versiculatus .. mihi.
Websterit .... mihi.
Lonchomerus.. mihi ........ gracilis ...... mihi.
Eurystheus .. mihi ........ tridentatus.... mihi. -
Amathia...... Rathke .2:. .. carinatus .... Rathke.
Gammarus .. Fabr......... Sabinii ...... Leach.
- carinatus?.... Johnston.
locastass oc Fabr.
fluviatilis *,... Edwards.
pulex >> ...°.. “Pabr
gracilis ...... Rathke.
camptolops .. Leach.
palmatus .... Montagu.
marinus...... Leach.
longimanus .. Montagu.
brevicaudatus.. Edwards.
grossimanus .. Montagu.
elegans ...... mihi,
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA.
. 59
Genus. Author. Species. Author.
Gammarus .. Fabr....... .- Othonis? . Edwards.
maculatus? .. Johnston.
subterraneus*. Leach.
Niphargus* .. Schiddte Stygius*...... Westwood.
Thersites .... mihi ........ Guilliamsonia mihi.
pelagica...... mihi.
Subfamily 6. LeucorHoIveEs.
Leucothoé.... Leach ...... articulosa .... Leach.
Subdivision B.B.b. Domicola.
Family 1. Corophiide.
Division A. NIDIFICA.
Subfamily PopocERIDEs.
Pleonexes .... mihi ...,.... Gammaroides.. mihi.
Amphitoé .... Leach ...... rubricata .... Montagu.
Tittonind< ...,..<'< mihi (punctata,
Johnston).
Sunamphitoé.. mihi hee AOMULUS . . c5 ws mihi.
conformatus .. mihi.
Podocerus.... Leach ...... pulchellus .... Edwards.
pelagicus .... Edwards.
punctatus .... Edwards.
variegatus.... Leach.
falcatus ...... Montagu.
Division B. TUBIFICA.
Subfamily 1. CeERAPIDEs.
Erichthoneus.. ............ difformis.
Siphonocetus.. Kroyer ...... Kroyeranus .~ mihi.
crassicornis .: mihi.
dubius . mihi.
Subfamily 2. CoropuiiDEs.
Cyrtophium .. Dana........ Darwinii . mihi.
Corophium MRS 5 viet = longicorne .... Latr.
Family Cheluridz.
Chelura...... Philippi...... terebrans .... Philippi.
Division B.B. HYPERINA.
Family 1. Hyperide.
Piyperia.:;.... Latr... 2. Galba........ Montagu.
oblivia. ...... Edwards.
Lestrigonus*.. Edwards .... Fabreii ...... Edwards.
Family 2. Phronomidz.
Phronoma .. .jiijatr. .-.-..-. sedentaria.... Latr.
Family 3. Typhide (? British).
Typhis ......
RissO....ee--
nolens* ,..... Johnston.
60 REPORT—1855.
Group B. ABERRANTIA.
Family Caprellide.
Genus. Author. Species. Author.
| Sg aes eevee 6° Ts): OARS pedata ...... Leach.
Goodsirii .... mihi.
figina....... Kroyer ...... longispina.... Kroyer.
Caprella...... Lamarck .... linearis ...... Latr.
[esvis® Si. Goodsir.
acanthifera.... Leach.
acutifrons .... Desm.
phasma...... Latr.
tuberculata* .. Goodsir.
. lobata? ... s 2% Miller.
Pennantii .... Leach.
MOV RMUIN 5 © sins PURE esate Soa. 5i5 FE lige RINE Linneus.
ovalis* ...... Rouss.
gracilis* .... Rouss.
gracilis* .... Gosse.
REFERENCE TO DRAWINGS.
PLATE XII. Tig. 2. Inferior antenna of Talitrus lo-
Fig. 1. Head of Talitrus locusta, frontal custa.
aspect. Fig. 3. Inferior antenna of Chelura te-
Fig. 2. Head of ditto, lateral aspect. rebrans.
Fig. 3. Head of ditto, posterior. Fig. 4. Inferior antenna of Suleator are~
Fig. 4. Head of ditto, interior labial. narius.
A. Inferior antennal segment. Fig. 5. Inferior antenna of Corophium
B. Mandibular segment. longicorne.
C. Epistome or inferior portion | Fig. 6. Inferior antenna of Podocerus.
of B. Fig. Ga. Inferior antenna, the point of
D. Upper division of labium. Podocerus.
E. Lower division of labium. Fig. 7. Inferior antenna of Hyperia
F. Upper antenna. Galba.
G. Lower antenna. Fig. 8, Eyes of Tetromatus.
H. gla of lower an- PLATE XIV.
P. Second articulation of lower | Fig. 1. Olfactory organs or base of in-
antenna,represented by mem- ) ferior antenna in Is@a Montagui.
brane with calcareous margin. Fig. 2. Olfactory organs of Gammarus
I, Mandible. j gracilis.
K. Inferior portion of the thin Fig. 3. Olfactory organs of Gammarus
posterior segment of the ce- E pulec. P.
phalic region. Fig. 4. Olfactory organs of ditto, enlarged.
O. Internal portion of the last | Fig. 5. Olfactory organs? of Gammarus
segment, (the homologue of ; elegans.
the dorsal part): on this the Fig. 5a. Two of the segments enlarged.
stomach rests. Fig. 6. Mandible of Talitrus locusta.
L. First maxilla. Fig. 7. Mandible of Anonyz.
M. Second maxilla. Fig. 8. Mandible of Gammarus gracilis.
N. Maxilliped. a. Molar tubercle.
Fig. 5. The part O seen from above. b. Incisive edge.
c. Secondary edge with moveable
PLATE XIII. joint.
Fig. 1, Superior antenna of Lysianassa. d. Hairs or ciliated spines.
a, b,c. Varieties of auditory e. Muscles.
cilia. Fig. 9. Dexamine spinosa.
ON THE BRITISH EDRIOPHTHALMA.
4 PLATE XV.
Fig. 1. Anterior labium of Gammarus
locusta.
Fig. 2. Posterior labium of ditto.
Fig. 3. First maxilla of ditto.
Fig. 4. First maxilla of Sulcator are-
narius.
Fig. 5. Second maxilla of Gammarus lo-
custa,
Fig. 6. Maxilliped of ditto.
Fig. 7. Two segments from Is@a Mon-
tayui, showing their mode of
attachment.
Fig. 8. Inside of the coxe from Gam-
marus, showing the manner of
their connexion with the legs
and to the segments of the body.
PLATE XVI.
Diagrams showing the homologies of
separate parts.
Fig, 1. Imaginary Amphipoda.
A. Cephalic ring or region.
a. Anterior portion, or infra
antennal segment.
b. Posterior portion, or man-
dibular segment.
B. Pereion, or portion carrying the
pereipoda or perambulatory
legs. Thorax of authors.
Bl. Anterior portion, bearing the
two gnathopoda.
B2. Posterior portion, bearing the
five pereipoda.
C. Pleon, or portion carrying the
swimming feet (abdomen of
authors).
Cl. Anterior portion,
E2. Posterior portion.
1. Superior antenna.
c. Auditory cilia.
2. Inferior antenna,
a, Olfactory denticle.
3. Mandible.
b. Mandibular filament.
4. First maxilla.
5. Second maxilla.
6. Maxilliped.
7, 8. Two gnathopoda.
9, 10. Anterior pereipoda.
11,12,13. Posterior pereipoda.
14, 15,16. Anterior pleopoda.
17, 18,19. Posterior pleopoda.
: 20. Telson (extremity).
Fig. 2. Leg of Macroura, after .dwards.
Figs. 3, 4, 5. Legs of Amphipoda. The
lines drawn through each joint
demonstrate the homologies.
61
PLATE XVII.
Microscopic Sections of the Skin and
Hairs.
SKIN oF
1. Talitrus locusta.
- Dexamine bispinosa.
. Calliope Leachit.
. Gammarus gracilis.
Gammarus locusta.
Gammarus Othonis?
. Galanthis Lubbockiana (leg).
. Tetromatus typicus,
Lembos Damnoniensis,
. Chelura terebrans.
. Amphitoé littorina.
From thorax of 7.
_
—
| el
.
THatrs oF
A. Sulcator arenarius,
1. On legs, &c.
2. On maxilliped (3rd joint).
8. On maxilliped (5th joint).
4, 5. On carpus of gnathopoda.
6. On propodos of gnathopoda.
8. On propodos of gnathopoda.
7. On mandible.
9, On propodos, Ist gnathopoda,
10. On antenne, &c.
11. On superior antenna.
12. On inferior antenna.
B. Hair from Yalitrus.
C. Hairs from Tetromatus.
D. Teeth from maxilliped of species.
1.. Talitrus locusta,
2. Anonyzx denticulatus.
8. Anonyx Holbolii.
4. Tetromatus iypicus.
5. Tetromatus Bellianus.
PLATE XVIII.
Organs of Respiration.
Fig. 1. Suleator arenarius.
Fig. 2. Gammarus locusta,
Fig. 3. Talitrus locusta.
Fig. 4. Neck of 2, showing a tendency
to a more leaf-like structure.
Fig. 5. Caprella.
a. Anterior.
b. Posterior.
Fig. 6. Zgina longispinosa.
Fig. 7. Internal structure of branchial
sac, side near the middle.
Fig. 8. Ditto, from bottom of sac.
Fig. 9. Blood-corpuscles.
Fig. 10, Leg and branchia of young De-
capod.
Fig. 11. Diagram showing the arrange-
ment of the plates which form
the incubatory pouch and the
position of the branchial sacs,
62 y REPORT—1855.
PLATE XIX.
Alimentary Canal.
Fig. 1. Stomach of Yalitrus, seen from
above.
Fig. la. Gsophagus from Tetromatus.
Fig. 2. Stomach of Sulcator, lateral view.
Fig. 3. Stomach of Gammarus in situ,
with the liver attached.
Fig. 2. Part of 7th segment, with coxa *
and penis attached.
Fig. 3. The under arch of 7th segment
of pereion (thorax), with bran-
chial vessels and penis attached,
from Gammarus.
Fig. 3a. Extremity of penis,
Fig. 2a. Extremity of penis of Sulcator,
Fig. 4. Penis of Caprella,
Fig. 4. Alimentary tube of Sulcator are-
narius below the stomach, with
the liver and urinary sacs at-
tached,
Fig. 5. Appearance of the alimentary
canal under two-thirds of inch
Fig. 5. Spermatozoa of Gammarus.
Fig. 6. Spermatozoa of Sulcator,
FEMALE.
Fig. 7. Ovaries of Gammarus, é
Fig. 10. Ovaries of Caprella (after Good-
power. A
Fig. 6. Ditto, und -fifth. sir).
las ag Fig. 8. Vulve of Caprella,
PLATE XX, Fig, 11. Plate from incubatory pouch of
Fig. 1, Posterior portion of Gammarus, Caprella.
showing the urinary —
a, Organs in position.
b. Sphincter muscles at ter-
mination of urinary organ. | F
ce, Sphincter muscles at termi-
nation of alimentary tube.
Fig. 2. Urinary organs from Sulcator
PLATE XXII.
. 1. Nervous cord of Valitrus locusta,
O. The calcareous arch under
which it dips to the infra-
cesophageal ganglion.
ved
arenarius. A. The cephalic or supra-oeso-
Fig. 3. Urinary organs from Gammarus phageal ganglion.
grossimanus. B. The infra-cesophageal gan-
glion hid by (O).
E. And following, one to each
segment of the body.
Fig. 4. Urinary organs from larva of
Amphitoé rubricata,
Figs.5 &6. Ultimate structure of the organ.
Fig. 2. Lateral view of the internal ar-
PLATE XXI. rangement of the head, show-
Mate. ing the line which the nervous
cord takes: letters the same.
. 8, Diagram showing the circulation
of the blood.
Fig. 1. Testes from Suleator arenarius,
with their vas deferens and penis | Fi
attached.
ag
On the present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns.
By Joun Freveric Bateman, C.E., F.G.S.
Amonc the many interesting and important subjects to which the present
desire for sanitary improvement has recently directed public attention, none
have a higher claim upon that attention, nor are more intimately mixed up
with the health, the comfort and the well-being of our town populations, than
the questions of an abundant supply of good and wholesome water, the com-
plete and proper drainage of our houses and our cities, and the purification
of the streams and rivers into which the sewage of our towns is allowed to
flow. Scientific research, and the experience of daily life, are constantly
bringing to view the close connexion which these questions have with
the mortality, the comfort and the moral habits of our rapidly-increasing
population.
The tendency to herd together in large cities for purposes of convenience
and employment, the rapidity with which many manufacturing towns have
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. 63
sprung into existence or increased in size,—outstripping all preparation or
arrangement for the physical comfort and well-being of their inhabitants,—
the deterioration of the dwellings of many of the older towns and the closer
packing of the labouring classes for want of proper house accommodation,
have all contributed to enhance the evils attendant upon a deficient supply
of water and imperfect drainage.
The spread of manufactures and the valuable commercial purposes to
which the waters of the country have been applied, have led to the deteriora-
tion of most of the streams to which the inhabitants formerly resorted for the
supply of their domestic wants, and suitable natural supplies of water have
now become either wholly deficient or lamentably inadequate to meet the
demands of health and comfort. Systems of artificial supply have to be
adopted, and in many cases these are attended with so much ditficulty and
expense, that every effort to inculcate right principles of supply, and to
afford accurate information for the government of those engaged in carrying
out works of so much value to the community, is entitled to attention and
respect.
I have had the honour of being requested to. prepare a Report on the pre-
sent state of our knowledge on this subject, but the question is one which in
its ramifications embraces so many points, that I shall not attempt, on the
present occasion, to do more than draw attention to the different modes of
supply which have been successfully adopted, and to give, as far as I am
able, such examples or such information as may serve to illustrate general
principles, without attempting to enter minutely into mechanical or prac-
tical details.
The supply of water to towns on a large scale appears to have attracted
very little attention in Great Britain till a comparatively recent period. The
general hilly nature of the country, its geological character, and the abun-
dant and tolerably uniform fall of rain, have contributed to an almost uni-
' versal diffusion of springs or streams, which, so long as they remained pure,
supplied all the wants of the inhabitants, then thinly and widely spread, or
gathered together into towns of only very moderate dimensions.
But as population has increased and manufactures have extended, as
towns have become larger, and streams originally pure have become foul,
the subject has of necessity forced itself upon the notice of the public and
excited the attention it deserves. Works are now contemplated and carried
into effect which rival the greatest undertakings of the ancients and the Ro-
| mans, and not in this country only, but in America and on the continent of
Europe the water-works of modern times are amongst the largest, the
boldest and the most successful productions of the age. Cities and towns
are now almost universally supplied with an unlimited quantity of water,
‘conducted into the interior of the houses, supplying in the most perfect and
convenient manner every domestic want. Protection against fire is secured
by arrangements specially adapted for that purpose, by which in many places
the simple pressure of the water is made to perform, and with much greater
effect, the duty formerly supplied by the mechanical agency of the fire-
engine. Streets are watered, and sewers are cleansed with little or no addi-
tional expense, and the general sanitary condition of our thickly-peopled
districts is materially improved.
The general mode in which towns in this country were formerly supplied
with water by artificial means still exists in some places, and is common in
continental towns. It appears to be the same also which, to a great extent,
Was adopted by the ancients, and carried out on the grandest scale by the
Romans in the height of their prosperity. It consists in collecting springs at
64 REPORT—1855.
suitable heights and distances, and conveying the water by covered aqueducts_
or pipes to public wells or fountains in convenient situations, from which the
inhabitants fetch water as they require it.
The supply to Rome on this system, is said to have amounted at one time
to 50,000,000 cubic feet of water per day, for 1,000,000 of inhabitants,
which is upwards of 300 gallons a-day to each person. Some of the water
was brought a distance of nearly fifty miles, the works for its conveyance
being of the most massive and expensive character. It was largely consumed
in public and private baths, in fish-ponds and ornamental waters, as well as
in supplying ordinary domestic wants. The abundance of the supply encou-
raged the universal habit of bathing, and contributed in many ways to the
luxurious indulgence of the inhabitants. “If any person,” says Pliny, in
writing on the aqueducts for supplying Rome, “shall very attentively con-
sider the abundance of water conveyed to the public, for baths, fish-ponds,
private houses, fountains, gardens, villaa—conducted over arches of consi-
derable extent, through mountains, perforated for the purpose, and even
valleys filled up,—he will be disposed to acknowledge that nothing was ever
more wonderful in the world.” With the fall of the Roman empire, how-
ever, the disposition or the means for carrying out works on this scale disap-
peared, and since then nothing for many centuries appears to have been
done, even by the most enterprising cities, beyond that which was absolutely
required for pressing and immediate wants.
The supply of water to London, which till lately has been far in advance
of other places, is strongly illustrative of this. As local supplies became
exhausted, springs were from time to time brought into the city, as its popu-
lation increased and its wants required, and these supplied public wells or
fountains, from which the inhabitants fetched the water in vessels as they
required it. But it was a constant struggle to maintain a sufficient supply
even for this limited use, and no means of artificially forcing water from low
levels or conducting it into the interior of the houses was thought of, nor
indeed was any large scheme attempted, until the year 1581, when Peter
Morice, a Dutchman, proposed to raise water from the river Thames by
means of pumps worked by a water-wheel, to be driven by the force of the
current of the river and receding tide through one of the arches of the old
London Bridge. This ingenious project was carried into effect in the fol-
lowing year, 1582, and was attended with so much success and advantage to
the city, that several other arches of the bridge were appropriated to the
same purpose. From an account of the works, written by Mr. Beighton, an
engineer, and published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1731, there
were at that time three water-wheels employed, which, if they worked con-
stantly, would raise about 2,500,000 gallons of water in twenty-four hours,
Allowing for the difference of the flow and ebb of the tide, probably nearly
two-thirds of this quantity would be raised. These works continued, with some
additions and improvements, till the removal of the old London Bridge, about
the year 1822, being a period of 240 years from their first establishment.
In 1821 there were six water-wheels employed, and the average daily quan-
tity of water supplied was estimated at nearly 4,000,000 gallons.
This was probably the earliest pumping establishment on a large scale ; but
in the beginning of the seventeenth century a much more important scheme,
on a different principle, that of gravitation, was proposed, and was, after
years of difficulty, great self-denial, and the most praiseworthy perseverance,
successfully completed by Sir Hugh Myddelton.
This proposal was, to convey pure water from the springs of Chadwell and
Amwell in Hertfordshire, to the city of London, a distance along the line of
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. 65
the aqueduct of about forty miles. For this object the Corporation of London
obtained Parliamentary powers in 1606, and, after some delay, transferred
their powers to Sir Hugh, then Mr. Hugh Myddelton, in 1609. In the year
1613 the original works were completed, and the water introduced into a
reservoir for the supply of the city, at an elevation of about 84 feet above
high water in the Thames ; from which time the New River Works, as they
were then, and have since been called, have largely contributed to the benefit
of the city by supplying a large portion of its inhabitants with an abundant
quantity of water for all their domestic wants. The original cost of the
works is estimated to have been between £200,000 and £300,000; but the
quantity of water which was first introduced I have not been able to ascer-
tain. It soon, however, proved insufficient, and recourse was had to the river
Lea. Additions to the supply have since been made in various ways from
various sources, and at different times, until the supply afforded by the New
River Water Company now amounts to about 18,000,000 gallons per day,
which is delivered to about 500,000 persons.
It is not my intention to follow the history of the London water-works. I
have thus briefly drawn attention to the first pumping and first gravitation
schemes of magnitude in this country, fur the purpose of marking the period
of the earliest important undertakings, and of exhibiting the progressive
development of works of this nature.
The invention of the steam-engine, and its application to the water supply
of towns, towards the close of the last century, and the substitution of iron
pipes for wooden ones, which does not appear to have taken place till about
the year 1810, led to great extension in the quantity of water supplied, and
to many improvements in the mode of conducting it through the streets, and
introducing it into the houses of the consumers.
London is now supplied with water by nine different Water Companies,
who jointly deliver about 44,000,000 gallons of water per day, and derive a
revenue of about £236,000 a year. The water is principally derived from
the river Thames or the river Lea, or brought in by the New River Com-
pany, and, according to the evidence given before the Committee on the
Metropolis Water Bill in 1851, the steam-engines employed in raising or
forcing water amounted at that time to a combined power of 3372 horses.
The different sources from whence a town can derive a supply of water,
beyond that which the inhabitants can collect in cisterns from rain, or pro-
cure by wells on their own premises, may be ciassed as follows :—
1. From springs.
2. From Artesian wells, or from the water to be obtained from absorbent
geological strata.
3. From rivers.
4. From gathering grounds, where the surplus water of wet seasons is
collected into large storeage reservoirs. And
5. From natural lakes.
1. From springs.—Where spring-water can be procured in sufficient
quantity and of a quality suitable for domestic requirements, nothing can
exceed, nor perhaps equal, this source of supply. Bright and sparkling, free
_ from all vegetable contamination, and deliciously cool, the very idea of
spring-water is refreshing to the senses; but it seldom happens that it can be
procured conveniently in considerable volume, nor is it always the most suit-
able for domestic use. The water, from its solvent action on the rocks with
which it comes in contact in passing through different geological strata,
Bently undergoes material change between the time of its first resting on
. F
66 » REPORT—1855.
the surface of the earth in the form of rain, and that of its final issue in the
form of springs. The quality of spring-water, and indeed of that which
flows only over the surface, varies constantly according to the geological
character of the district on which it falls, or through which it passes,
Thus most of the primitive rocks and many of the secondary ones, being
composed of comparatively insoluble ingredients, impart little or no change
to the water ; while others, such as the old and new red sandstones, limestone,
chalk, the rocks of the lias and oolitic formations and clays generally, are
more or less acted upon by the water, imparting to it in various degrees a
portion of their mineral or chemical constituents. Hence spring-water varies
considerably in its character ; and though, when not impregnated by mineral
substances, it is generally agreeable and wholesome as a beverage, it is fre-
quently unfitted for culinary and domestic uses, as well as for delicate pur-
poses of trade, by reason of its chemical ingredients and its excessive hardness.
Dr. Clark of Aberdeen has invented a convenient mode of determining the
relative hardness of water by the application of a soap-test. By his rule,
“each degree of hardness indicates as much hardness as would be produced
by one grain of chalk per gallon, held in solution in the form of bicar-
bonate of lime free from any excess of carbonic acid. .... A quantity
of a soluble magnesian salt, equivalent to one grain of chalk, destroys a like
quantity of soap-test, and consequently indicates one degree of hardness.
The same is the case with the salts of iron and salts of alumina; salts of
alkalies do not produce hardness.” By this test it requires about 4° of
hardness, according to Dr. Clark's scale, to break or curdle soap. By the
use of this test it is shown that distilled water being zero, or possessing no
hardness at all, rain-water, as freshly caught in towns, is generally from 1°
to 2° of hardness. The springs which issue from such primitive rocks as
granite or gneiss, from the mica-slate and clay-slate formations, from the
millstone grit and from the greensands, as they are developed in Surrey, vary,
with some exceptions, from about 1° to 3° of hardness; all these formations
yielding water of the greatest natural purity. The springs of the new red
sandstone vary generally from 5° to 20°, and the limestone- and chalk-waters
from 10° to 20° of hardness, while those which issue from the lias and oolite
run up to 30° and upwards.
I need not mention mineral springs and spa-water.
The chemical character of water has only recently been attended to, but
in the selection of a water for the supply of a town, there is nothing more
important than careful chemical investigation. -
The instances of supplies of water being derived from springs, although
the mode commonly adopted when towns were small and the demand for
water limited, are now becoming rare ; but it may be interesting to mention a
few cases, and to give the particulars of some of the more important springs
which have been appropriated or proposed to be applied for that purpose.
The city of Edinburgh was, till a recent period, supplied by springs
collected in the Pentland Hills, and scrupulously guarded from all admixture
with other water by the very able engineer of the Water Company, Mr. Jardine.
The supply, however, proving insufficient, recourse has been had to the sur-
face-water collected in large reservoirs, for which object very extensive works
have just been completed by Mr. Leslie, the present engineer to the Company.
The whole district of the Staffordshire Potteries, comprising a very large
population, is now supplied by a magnificent spring of very excellent water
issuing from the new red sandstone in the valley of the River Churnet near
Leek, which, after being raised by engine-power to the summit of a neighbour-
ing height, is conducted several miles by iron pipes, supplying the district by
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. 67
gravitation. Many smaller towns, particularly in the limestone, chalk, and
oolite districts, also derive their supplies from springs, but the supplies thus af-
forded are in general comparatively insignificant to those obtained in other ways.
The quantity of spring-water yielded by any given district varies materially,
not only according to the amount of rain which falls, but also according to its
geological character. Sand, gravel, chalk, limestone and other absorbent
rocks, yield springs in the greatest abundance; next to these, the more
loosely stratified rocks, such as the coal-measures, the millstone grit, and the
old red sandstone; least of all the closely-bedded slate rocks and the
primitive formations.
Chalk and sand absorb nearly all the rain which falls upon the surface.
There are few large rivers or streams in these formations, for little water
runs away in floods, that which is absorbed escaping again at the points of
greatest depression, or along the edges of some impervious stratum on which
the measures may rest. Thus chalk springs are generally found at the foot
of the chalk hills, either at the lowest level of the ground, or where the lower
beds of this formation, above the greensand, are comparatively impermeable.
The springs of the upper greensand issue along the upper edge of the gault,
an impervious bed of clay on which it rests; and the springs of the lower
greensand, where they again rest on the Wealden or Kimmeridge clays.
The water absorbed by the lower oolite is thrown out by the lias clay, and
the carboniferous limestone-water passes either through clefts or fissures in
the rock to some convenient outlet ; or having penetrated to the bottom of the
limestone bed, is thrown out by the thick beds of shale which lie beneath.
The sands of the new red sandstone formation also absorb most of the
water which falls upon them, as do also the local beds of sand and gravel
found interspersed amongst the clays of the diluvium.
From all these sources, produced by absorbent measures, large quantities
of spring-water may undoubtedly be procured, often continuing with little
daily variation, and frequently so situated as to be easily available for the
supply of towns. Many single springs yield several hundred thousand
gallons a-day; some amount to upwards of 1,000,000, and there are a few
which far exceed this quantity, forming at- once rivers of considerable
volume—such are the source of the Aire at Malham Cove in Yorkshire, the
Syreford Spring and Seven Wells near Cheltenham, the Hogg’s Mill River
near Ewell in Surrey, the spring at Holywell in Wales, and many others.
But the most abundant quantity of spring-water yielded by any extended
district is probably that which is found in the greensand formation in Surrey.
Here this formation rises into hills of considerable elevation, Hindhead and
Leith Hills being nearly 1000 feet above the level of the sea, forming arid
wastes or sandy deserts almost destitute of vegetation, which are eminently
absorbent of water. The water thus absorbed issues in springs of the
greatest purity, forming collectively, in the dryest seasons, a volume of
_ water at Guildford from a comparatively limited tract of country, exceeding
40,000,000 gallons of water a-day, 33,000,000 of which are the produce’ of
the greensands, not exceeding on the average 25° of hardness. One stream,
the Potsford Brook, which rises in the Leith Hills and falls into the Albury
Brook a little above Guildford, is under four miles in length, and yet gra-
dually and almost imperceptibly increases to a daily volume, as measured in
extreme drought, of nearly 5,000,000 gallons of pure spring-water. After
funning one mile, it contains 800,000 gallons a-day, in the second it is
augmented to 1,400,000, and at the end of the third mile to 4,400,000.
The gross quantity of soft spring-water which might be conveniently collected
in this district at an elevation of about 120 feet above the Thames at
B2
68 REPORT—1855.
London, and conveyed thence, for a very moderate outlay, exceeds 40,000,000
gallons per day.
The sands of Delamere Forest in Cheshire yield a large quantity of
beautiful water, not exceeding 5° of hardness, issuing along the margin of
the closer measures on which they rest. From measurements made in the
summer of 1851, the gross produce was 16,000,000 gallons a-day, from a
tract of country not exceeding thirty-six square miles in extent.
The quantity of spring-water must of course depend much upon the
amount of rain which falls upon the surface, even when the other conditions
of the case are similar; but it is probable that in the two instances last
named, there is little difference in the annual rain-fall. The Rev. Gilbert
White, in his ‘ Natural History of Selborne,’ gives the average rain at
Selborne, close to the Surrey sand district, from thirteen years’ observation
(from 1780 to 1792), at 36°42 inches per annum; while at Liverpool, no great
distance from Delamere Forest, the average annual rain is about 3.5 inches.
Passing from these absorbent measures, which are so eminently productive
of springs, to those of older date and harder or closer texture, I am able to
give, from extensive observation, some information upon the volume of spring-
water produced by the sandstone district of the lower coal-measures and the
millstone grit formation immediately beneath. These two groups of rocks
usually produce spring-water of great excellence and softness, but owing
to their general horizontal stratification, the frequent and great extent to
which they are covered by drift clay and the numerous beds of impervious
shale with which the sandstones and flag-rocks are interstratified; and also
to the steep and hilly character of the surface which generally prevails where
these formations are present, the bulk of the rain which falls runs off the
ground in floods, and a comparatively small quantity finds its way through
cracks and fissures into the interior of the earth, to be reproduced as springs.
Hence it is seldom that springs are found here in sufficient volume to
supply large masses of population, and a different system of supply has
been resorted to, that of storing the surplus water of wet seasons for use
in periods of drought, which will form a separate subject of observation.
The volume of spring-water from equal areas varies considerably in the
districts under consideration.
_ This is owing partly to elevation, partly to geological differences, but
perhaps principally to the very variable quantity of rain which falls upon
the surface. Taking the Penine chain of hills, which forms the boundary
between the counties of York and Lancaster, and the various projecting
spurs of the same range which run into both counties, as the most conspicuous
development of these geological formations, the rain is found to vary 100
per cent. in the same year, although the district named is confined to very
narrow limits. Thus the rain at Liverpool, Lancaster, and Manchester, on
the plain beyond the western confines of the district, averages 35 inches per
annum; at the foot of the hills, at Bolton and Rochdale for instance, it
reaches nearly 50 inches; on the hills above Bolton, within the gathering
grounds of the district supplying that town, Liverpool, Chorley, Black-
burn and other places, the rain amounts to nearly 60 inches per annum.
On Blackstone Edge, the summit of the ridge between Rochdale and Hali-
fax, and in the Manchester Water-Works district, about half-way between
Manchester and Sheffield, the annual rain is upwards of 50 inches. At the
foot of the hills to the east, as at Sowerby Bridge and Halifax, it does not
much exceed 30 inches; and further on to the east, as at Leeds and York,
it falls to bet ween 20 and 30 inches.
In like manner the spring-water varies in extreme drought from about 7 of
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. 69
a cubic foot per second for every 1000 acres of contributing area, as in the
Washbourne, one of the tributaries of the river Wharfe in Yorkshire, to 7 of
a cubic foot per second from the same area, as in the river Etherow at the
Manchester Water-Works. The spring-water of the Rivington Hills, from
whence the supply of Liverpool is to be obtained, is equal in the same dry
season to about half the quantity of that yielded by the Manchester district
in proportion to their respective areas. The general lowest yield of these
measures in the dryest weather, after a long period of drought, is about 4
or 3 of a cubic foot per 1000 acres. These are the quantities measured in
the streams, the produce of considerable tracts of land, and are liable to be
increased and discoloured by floods. There are seldom any large or import-
ant individual springs. The Manywells Spring, near Bradford in Yorkshire,
is one of the largest. When at its lowest, except in extreme drought, it is
about 200,000 gallons a-day, but will average about 500,000.
The abundance of spring-water found in the limestone which lies below
the millstone grit has been alluded to. Of that which issues from the old
red sandstone I have no certain information, but it probably closely resembles
in quantity that yielded by the lower coal-measures and the millstone grit.
Beneath these, in geological series, the rocks generally become so compact
and so little fissured as to allow the infiltration of a very small portion of the
water which falls upon them, and the springs are consequently insignificant, not-
withstanding the abundant quantity of rain which prevails in the mountainous
districts peculiar to these formations. Measurements in the mica-slate in
Scotland in the summer of 1853, give results smaller than those obtained in
the millstone grit, notwithstanding the greater elevation of the ground and
the much larger annual rain-fall.
2. From Artesian Wells.—The obtaining of water by means of wells
sunk into absorbent measures, “ water-bearing strata” as they have been
called, overlaid by other measures of a retentive or impervious character, or
by wells sunk into permeable rocks like the new red sandstone, is a system
which has been widely adopted, and with considerable success. Such is the
mode by which both Paris and London are to a great extent supplied, as well
as Liverpool, Birkenhead, Wolverhampton and other places in this country,
and Tours, Calais, Venice and other places on the continent.
Where absorbent measures are covered by others of an impervious cha-
racter, as the greensands and chalk are in the London basin by the plastic
clay, and where the absorbent or water-bearing measures are supplied with
the water they contain from elevated districts where they rise to the surface,
and where they receive and absorb the rain, the manner in which the water
is obtained is the most simple and convenient. A bore-hole of suitable size
is sunk through the impervious overlying stratum or strata to the measures
beneath, which are charged with water received from their distant elevated
outcrops. As soon as the water-bearing measure is reached, the water pent
down by the overlying impervious mass is released, and rises through the
bore-hole to the surface of the ground, where, if the supply be abundant and
_ the pressure great, it will overflow in a constant stream.
The name of Artesian Well is said to have been derived from wells of this
description having been first constructed in Artois, in the north of France,
where the geological structure of the country favoured their easy and econo-
mical construction. In France, large quantities of water are obtained in
this manner. At and near Tours fifteen wells yield about 4,000,000 gallons
per day; one well alone supplying as much as 950,000 gallons in twenty-
four hours. The well at Grenelle, in Paris, yields 880,000 gallons of water
70 REPORT—1855.
daily, and has continued, without diminution in quantity, since it was com-
pleted in 1841. The supply to the sand from which it rises is said to be
derived 100 miles off; and yet such is the pressure, that it rises in a tube to
the height of 120 feet above the surface of the ground at the well.
It is estimated that the quantity of water derived by means of Artesian
wells by public and private parties within the city of London or its imme-
diate neighbourhood, amounts to 8,000,000 or 10,000,000 gallons per day.
This is obtained almost entirely from the lower tertiary sands and the upper
beds of the chalk. Probably a much larger quantity could be procured
from the greensands below the chalk. Mr. Prestwich, who has most ably
entered into an examination of this question, is of opinion that 30,000,000
or 40,000,000 gallons of excellent water might be obtained daily in this
manner for the supply of London.
The quality of the water will depend upon the character of the water-
bearing stratum from which it is derived; the chalk will generally yield hard-
water, the greensands generally soft. The water from the lower tertiary sands
is occasionally chalybeate and unsuitable for domestic use. In nearly all cases,
the water, after being first tapped, improves in quality as it continues to flow.
This source of supply is of course only available under certain geological
conditions, and is always limited by the amount of water which the water-
bearing stratum can absorb from rain or surface drainage, and by the resistance
opposed to its free passage by the closeness of the material through which it
has to pass.
Formerly the water in the Artesian wells which are sunk to the chalk in
London, rose to the surface and overflowed; but the number of wells which
have been constructed have in great measure exhausted the supply, and the
water has now to be raised by artificial means from considerable depths.
The question of a supply of water by this means is one of great interest.
It has been very carefully investigated by many able and competent men—
by Mr. Prestwich, the Rev. Mr. Clutterbuck, Mr. Dickinson, Mr. Stephenson,
Mr. Braithwaite, Mr. Homersham and others, to whose publications and to
the discussions which have taken place in the Institution of Civil Engineers,
useful reference may be made.
The water derived from wells in the new red sandstone forms a closely
analogous system of supply.
Here the supply generally depends upon the porosity of the rock, the
quantity of rain which falls upon its surface, the amount of infiltration, and
the angle of friction which is formed by the resistance of the rock to the free
passage of the water. The new red sandstone covers so large a portion
of England that its capability for affording water is a question of correspond-
ing interest. In some districts it is found to yield an abundant quantity, in
others very little. Itis generally hard, but well-aérated and agreeable to the
taste.
The largest supplies from this source have been obtained in Liverpool, and
owing to the long contest and repeated investigations as to the best means of
affording an increased supply to that town, very ample information has been
obtained as to the yield of the wells and the quality of the water. The
Report of Mr. Robert Stephenson on this subject in March 1850, is full of
valuable statistics. It appears that the supply then afforded by the new red
sandstone from seven wells or stations, was 3,900,000 gallons per day, being an -
average of about 570,000 gallons for each well; but Mr. Stephenson arrived
at the opinion that an isolated well in the new red sandstone at Liverpool
might be assumed as capable of yielding about 1,000,000 gallons of water
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. 71
per day. After careful study of the facts with which he became acquainted,
he came to the following conclusions :—
“‘Thatan abundance of water is stored up in the new red sandstone, and may
_ be obtained by sinking shafts and driving tunnels about the level of low water.
“That the sandstone is generally very pervious, admitting of deep wells
drawing their supplies from distances exceeding one mile.
‘That the permeability of the sandstone is occasionally interfered with by
faults or fissures filled with argillaceous matter, sometimes rendering them
partially or wholly water-tight.
“ That neither by sinking, tunnelling, or boring, can the yield of any well
be very materially and permanently increased, except so far as the contri-
buting area may be thereby enlarged.
“ That the contributing area to any given well is limited by the amount of
friction experienced by the movement of the water through the fissures and
pores of the sandstone; and
“ That there is little or no probability of obtaining permanently more than
about 1,000,000 or 1,200,000 gallons a day, and this only when not inter-
fered with by other deep wells.”
The hardness of the Liverpool public well-water varied from 5° to 28°, but
many of the private wells far exceeded this, They ranged from 23° to 352°,
the highest being evidently affected by saline infiltration from the sea- water
of the Mersey.
Assuming Mr. Stephenson’s conclusions as to the probable yield of wells in
the new red sandstone as correct, although they are beyond what is realized
in practice, and that each well withdraws the water within a radius of one
mile, one million gallons per day will equal a depth of about 8 inches of water
per annum over the whole surface, which must be absorbed and conducted
to the well. The rain at Liverpool is 35 or 36 inches per annum on the
average. After allowing for the loss occasioned by evaporation, vegetation,
and such absorption as does not subsequently reappear in springs, and which
has been ascertained to be from 12 to 16 inches and upwards, there would
remain to supply springs and flow off in floods about 20 inches per annum,
of which 8 inches would appear to permeate the rock, and be available for
the supply of deep wells.
Similar experience is derived from a deep well sunk into the new red
_ sandstone by the late Manchester Water-Works Company, at their works
at Gorton, about the year 1845. This well was expected to have yielded
2,000,000 gallons per day, and it is stated to have actually yielded at one
time 1,500,000. In 1850 it was represented to Mr. Stephenson as yielding
1,200,000, and in 1852, previous to its use being discontinued, the regular
yield from daily measurements was 750,000 gallons per day. Here the rain,
as at Liverpool, is about 36 inches per annum; and assuming the same extent
of collecting area, the water raised, at 750,000 gallons per day, is equal to a
percolation of little more than 6 inches perannum. In the Midland Counties,
however, where the rain is much less in quantity, and where also there may
be some lithological difference in the permeability of the rock, the yield from
such wells as have been sunk with a view of obtaining water supplies is much
less. At Wolverhampton, where the rain is probably under 30 inches, the
yield of two wells sunk by the Water Company is only equal to about
200,000 gallons per day each. Some special causes may have affected the
supply at these wells, but no greater quantity could reasonably be expected
if the data afforded by Liverpool be made the groundwork for calculation.
The only rain observations in that district are those which have been made
at Lord Wrottesley’s Observatory at Wrottesley, but as the rain-gauges are
72 REPORT—1855.
placed at considerable elevations above the ground, they probably indicate
much less than the real quantity of water reaching the surface. By these
observations the average annual rain is about ZO inches, but allowing for
the probable error, and assuming it at 25 or 26 inches, from which an annual
loss of 15 or 16 inches must be deducted, there will remain only about 10
inches to supply floods and percolation, just half the quantity which remains
at Liverpool and Manchester. As at those places it appears that much more
water runs off in floods than remains both for floods and percolation at Wol-
verhampton, and as undoubtedly a large portion of the water will also run off
the ground in floods in that district, a very small quantity can remain to give
a constant supply to deep wells.
‘ In all cases the red sandstone water has to be pumped out of the rock
by artificial means. Except where the rock is very porous, and where the
downward tendency of the water is little interrupted by intervening beds of
shale, and where only it is abundantly supplied by rain on the surface, no
large, convenient, or cheap supplies of water can be expected. The hard-
ness of the Manchester water at the Gorton well was about 20°, of the water
at Wolverhampton about 18°.
Some small supplies have been obtained by bore-holes in the coal-measures,
particularly where they are covered by the new red sandstone; but they are
comparatively of small moment.
3. From rivers.—It has been so easy and natural a course to resort
to rivers for a supply of water to towns, as the springs or local supplies on
which they originally depended have failed or become exhausted, that except
in districts where the streams have been greatly polluted, recourse to con-
tiguous or convenient rivers has been a common practice. Thus the Seine
has contributed a large portion of the supply to Paris. The Thames and the
Lea contribute the bulk of the water consumed in London. The Clyde
affords the main supply to Glasgow. The Ouse supplies York ; the Lee,
Cork; the Trent, Nottingham; the Dee, Chester; the Tyne formerly
supplied Newcastle, and the Wharfe has just been laid under contribution
for the wants of Leeds.
In general, however, rivers are being abandoned where other sources are
within reach, partly from the fouling of the streams by the drainage of
towns and by mining and manufacturing operations, and partly on account of
the frequent discoloration of the water by floods or vegetable decomposition,
and the difficulty of purifying the water so discoloured even by the expensive
and troublesome system of careful filtration. But where the rivers are pure
and free from discoloration, and local circumstances favour the adoption of
such a supply, it possesses many and great advantages. The requisite works
are simple and capable of easy extension, and the supply generally is most
abundant. Such are the cases of Inverness, Aberdeen, and Perth, all deri-
ving their supplies from rivers of unexceptionable quality.
River-water also possesses to a great extent a power of self-purification, so
that a moderate admixture of foul water in the upper part of a stream does
not necessarily render the water unfit for the supply of a place lower down in
its course. In the case of the river Wharfe, for example, from whence the
town of Leeds is to be partially supplied with water, Dr. Hofmann was unable
to detect the presence of any noxious ingredient at the point at which it was
proposed to withdraw the water, although it received the drainage of several
small towns and villages, and the refuse of several woollen-mills situated at no
great distance higher upon theriver. The case, however, of the deleterious
character of the water of the Thames is nutorious, and I need scarcely cite
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. 73
the evidence of Dr. Hassall. The Severn at Gloucester contains palpable
indications of the sewage of Cheltenham, Tewkesbury and Worcester, and
the Clyde at Glasgow is no longer fit for domestic use. Except, indeed, in
mountain districts of such physical and geological character that the water
can neither be injured by agricultural or mining operations, nor by the refuse
of towns and manufactures, few rivers can be depended upon for a supply of
good and wholesome water.
I now pass on to the consideration of the supplies derived—
4. From “ gathering grounds,” where the surplus-water of wet seasons is
collected into large storeage reservoirs.—F rom these sources probably the most
important supplies are now derived, and many points of considerable interest
enter into the consideration of this branch of the subject.
Very accurate information is required as to the fall of rain, the loss by”
evaporation and vegetable absorption, the quantity of water which issues in
springs or flows off the surface of the ground, the duration of droughts and
the largest quantity of water which passes off the ground in limited periods,
together with the requisite capacity of reservoirs for storing such water
according to the character of the district or the annual amount of rain.
Nearly all the correct information which we possess on these points has
been collected within the last thirty years, the bulk of it within little more
than half that period. So little was formerly known on these questions,
that so recently as 1799 the late Dr. Dalton wrote a paper which was read
before the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, entitled “ Ex-
periments and Observations to determine whether the quantity of Rain and
Dew is equal to the quantity of Water carried off by Rivers and raised by
Evaporation, with an inquiry into the origin of Springs.” In this paper he
examines the question by the aid of such meagre information as then existed,
and arrives at the conclusion, “that the rain and dew of this country are
equivalent to the quantity of water carried off by evaporation and by the
rivers.” He then examines the various opinions which at that time existed
upon the origin of springs, combating the supposition that they were derived
from some hidden subterraneous source, concluding that they must be attri-
buted solely to the rain, their variation depending upon the seasons, and
upon the quantity of rain which falls.
At this time Dr. Dalton determined that the average precipitation of rain
and dew throughout the kingdom was 36 inches, allowing 31 inches for rain
and 5 inches for dew. The highest returns of rain before him were from Ken-
dal and Keswick, both under 60 inches per annum. Observations since then,
some of the most important conducted by Dr. Miller of Whitehaven, have
proved that the rain in many parts of the country far exceeds this quantity.
In the mountainous district of Westmoreland and Cumberland, Dr. Miller has
ascertained that the rain amounts in one locality to nearly 200 inches
per annum.
On the hills between Lancashire and Yorkshire it amounts occasionally to
80 inches in a year, the average being between 50 and 60; and from obser-
vations recently taken in the Highlands of Scotland, it exceeds, at the head
of Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond, 100 inches per annum. Judging by
analogy, and from snch facts as have been ascertained, it is probable that
both amongst the mountains of Scotland and those of Wales, the rain will be as
great as Dr. Miller has ascertained it to be in the English lake district. Such
quantities form a striking contrast to those registered on the eastern coast of
the country, where the average will not probably exceed 20 inches per annum.
The next important point is to ascertain how much of the rain which falls
74 REPORT—1855.
is lost to the rivers and springs by evaporation, or by being taken up by
vegetation. The physical and geological features of the country will produce
very varying results. The proportionate quantity of water which will flow
from steep mountain sides, consisting of impervious rocks, will be very dif-
ferent from that which will pass away from a gently undulating country well
clothed with vegetation.
The first accurate observer on a large scale in this department appears to
have been the late ingenious Mr. Thom of Rothesay, the constructor of the
Shaws Water-Works, near Greenock.
The following is the result of information which he gave some years ago
to the Institution of Civil Engineers on the rain which fell in 1826 and in
1828, the former year being the dryest year on record, and the latter, one in
which there fell more than the average amount of rain :—
inches.
From the lst April 1826 to 1st April 1827, the fall of rain in Bute was 45-4
Of which there found its way to the reservoirs .........ssssseeeeeeeeee 23°9
Lost to the reServOir............ceeeeeeeeeeeees 21°5
In 1828 the rain at Greenock Reservoir was 60 inches, of which there
flowed to the reservoir 41 inches, showing a loss by evaporation, vegetation,
absorption, &c., of 19 inches. Further observations by Mr. Thom led him
to the conclusion, that the loss bore a certain definite proportion to the rain-
fall; and the late Mr. Stirrat of Paisley, also an accurate observer, viewed
the question in the same light; their average results giving the loss at about
3,ths or ;4,ths of the whole fall, when the annual amount was from 54 to 65
inches. ‘This conclusion was no doubt correctly arrived at from the facts
before them, but it is obvious from a little reflection that this mode of caleu-
lation is inapplicable to other districts, where a much larger or a much
smaller quantity of rain might fall. For instance, the requirements of vege-
tation and the amount of evaporation are usually much less where a large
quantity of rain falls, while at the same time the ground is generally less
absorbent and the declivities greater, and it evidently follows that the
loss by evaporation and vegetation must be less under such circumstances
than in a rich level country, where the rain is not nearly so great. By as-
suming a certain definite proportion of the whole rain, the reverse would
appear to be the case. Take, by way of illustration, 100 inches in a sterile
mountainous country, the loss at ;,ths would be 30 inches; and take 30
inches again as the rain in a fertile level country, the loss at =4,ths would be
but 9 inches, obviously inconsistent with the real facts of the case. The truth
appears to be, that the loss within certain limits is a tolerably constant quantity,
and that generally the greater the rain the less the deduction ought to be.
The observations of Mr. Thom and Mr. Stirrat alluded to, give the annual
loss at from 18 to 23 inches per annum, out of rain-falls of 54 inches and 65
inches respectively. Measurements and observations in 1852 in the Gorbals
Water-Works district, closely adjoining those in which these observations
were made, and in which there is about the same amount of rain, show the loss
to have been but 12 inches out of 60. The average loss from several years’
observations at the Manchester Water-Works is about 12 inches per annum.
Mr. Hawksley’s observations at the Liverpool New Water-Works, in 1847,
show a loss of 123 inches.
Other observations scattered over the country show the loss to be ordi-
narily from 12 to 16 inches, and to a great extent to be irrespective of the rain
which falls. In determining, therefore, the probable quantity of water which
may be collected from any district, other than one of an absorbent character, it
is necessary first to ascertain the fall of rain, and then, having due regard to
Dy
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. He
the state of cultivation, to physical features and geological structure, to make
such a deduction for the loss by evaporation and vegetation, as, in the abs-
ence of correct experiments, may under the circumstances appear to be just.
But in estimating this quantity as a supply to towns, it is not safe to calculate
upon an average of seasons. It is scarcely possible to provide storage which
will equalize the extremes of wet seasons and dry ones. The average of two
or three successive dry years should be taken as the standard.
The storage requisite for equalizing the supply afforded during this period
should be provided with a due regard to the continuance of drought and the
quantity of water which will flow off the ground in extreme wet seasons.
No water should be allowed to run to waste. Experience has shown that in the
regions of comparatively moderate rain in this country, the storage to effect
this object should vary from 20,000 or 30,000 cubic feet to 50,000 or 60,000
cubic feet for each acre of collecting ground, the smaller quantity being about
sufficient for an available annual rain-fall of perhaps 18 inches, and the larger
for one of about 36 or 40 inches. Or in estimating the storage by time, it
should be sufficient to afford the average daily supply of the district for 100
or 120 days where the available rain is 40 inches per annum or upwards, and
where the rain is frequent and heavy; and for 200 or 250 days where the
rain is less, and where the annual available quantity will not exceed 8 or 12
inches, due allowance in every case being made for the produce of the
springs in protracted droughts.
The year 1852 was a remarkable year, not only in its meteorological fea-
tures, but as affording valuable information for the guidance of the hydraulic
engineer. In that year there occurred probably one of the longest droughts
of which we have any correct record, and the heaviest falls of rain within
short periods. The total annual fall was but an average, and reservoirs for
a town’s supply should have been able to collect nearly all the water which
flowed off the ground during the periods of excessive wet, to have afforded
a full daily supply throughout the whole duration of the drought. In the
Manchester Water-Works, the rain was just an average, the average being
about 50 inches per annum. Rather more than half the whole quantity
fell in the two first and two last months of the year. The quantity of
water which flowed from 18,900 acres between the Ist of January and the
9thofFebruary exceeded 800,000,000 cubic feet. The rain in the same period,
taking the average of what was indicated by the gauges, was 12 inches. The
flow from the ground, accurately measured through reservoirs, equalled 121
inches, the rain-gauges evidently indicating less than the real fall. From the
evening of the 4th of February to the morning of the 5th, the quantity of
water received into the reservoirs was equal to a depth over the whole sur-
face of the ground of 2,4, inches. This excessive rain was followed by a
drought of 110 days in duration, occasional wet days having occurred during
this period, which would reduce the net duration of the drought to 105
days. In the year 1850, at the Whittle Dean Water-Works, which supply
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the reservoirs went down constantly for 240 days,
the whole available produce of the district being but 61 inches in the year,
out of 172 inches of rain-fall. At Warrington, iv the year 1854, there was
no appreciable supply of water for 230 days, the reservoirs and the springs
constantly decreasing during that period. The total produce of the year was
but 8 inches out of 27 inches of rain-fall.
These are a few of the points which require to be considered in connexion
with the system of obtaining water from “ gathering grounds.” The amount
of information now existing in a scattered and unpublished form is very
large, and if properly brought together, would form a valuable contribution
76 REPORT—1855.
to our knowledge on this subject. Most large modern undertakings have
been laid out on this principle, and the constantly accumulating information
enables the engineer to revise his data, to correct errors, and to make his
calculations with additional certainty. To enumerate the works on this
principle would be to name most of the important water projects of modern
date in this country and in America. The Croton Aqueduct, constructed
between the years 1835 and 1842, for the supply of New York in America,
from a source nearly forty miles distant, at a cost of £2,500,000, and which
yields a daily supply of about 30,000,000 gallons a day, was one of the first
large works on this system. The Cochituate Works, for the supply of Bos-
ton, United States, are of more recent date. ‘They supply about 7,900,000
gallons per day to 140,000 persons. The distance is twenty miles, and the
cost has been about £1,500,000. The GorbalsWater Works, as they are
now completed, receive their supplies from a tract of elevated ground of
2750 acres in extent, furnishing the city of Glasgow and its neighbourhood
south of the Clyde with about 4,000,000 gallons of good water per day, be-
sides a stipulated compensation to the stream of 1,310,712 gallons. The
annual rain is about 45 inches on the average, and the capacity of the re-
servoirs equal to 61,000 cubic feet for each acre of collecting ground.
The Liverpool Water-Works, now nearly completed, in the neighbourhood
of the hills known by the name of Rivington Pike, near Chorley, will collect
the water from about 10,000 acres of hilly ground, and are estimated to be
capable of affording a supply of from 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 gallons of
water per day, after giving about half that quantity as compensation to mills.
The rain is about 57 inches on the average, and the capacity of the reservoirs
about 49,000 cubic feet per acre of collecting ground.
The Manchester Water-Works, which are now all but completed, and
which have supplied Manchester for nearly five years, collect the water from
about 19,000 acres of mountain ground, and are calculated to afford, when
finished, about 25,000,000 gallons per day to Manchester and its neigh-
bourhood, besides giving 17,000,000 as compensation to the mills on the
river upon which the works are constructed. The average rain is a little
above 50 inches; the total storage upwards of 600,000,000 cubic feet, or
about 34,000 cubie feet per acre. Much water runs to waste for want of
sufficient storage.
The supplies to Sheffield, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Halifax, Blackburn, Bol-
ton, Bristol, Edinburgh, and most of the large towns and cities in the manufac-
turing districts, and in the north of England and Scotland, are supplied in the
same manner; but it would be tedious and needless to describe the peculiari-
ties at each place.
There is, however, one point in connexion with the supplies obtained in
this way which should not be passed over. Water obtained from gathering
grounds is occasionally, sometimes frequently, discoloured in times of heavy
rain, and is rendered unfit for immediate supply to the inhabitants of a town.
Various methods have been adopted for obviating this objection. In some
cases the discoloration from peat or other causes is so great, that no
means which can be practically adopted on a large scale have been suffi-
cient to clarify or purify the water to such an extent as could be desired.
In many works a system of clarification has been adopted by means of a
succession of reservoirs, in which the water is allowed time to deposit impu-
rities, being gradually decanted off from one to another, until it at last becomes
fitted for consumption. In others, mechanical filtration has been applied,
the water being passed through layers of fine sand; but no mechanical filtra-
tion will effectually remove the stain of peat.
ON THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO TOWNS. 77
In most gathering grounds the water is at times perfectly pure, and a very
large portion of that which flows off the ground is in the most unexcep-
tionable condition for immediate consumption. If this were mixed with
that which had been previously stored in a discoloured state, the whole
might be spoiled, and deposition or filtration would have to be resorted to.
Taking advantage of these circumstances, a system of separation has been
adopted in many works, and in the largest and most complete manner in
those for the supply of Manchester. There, by simple self-acting means, not
liable to any derangement, each stream subject to discoloration is made to
separate itself, the pure uncoloured water either flowing direct to Manchester
or to reservoirs set apart for the storage of pure water. The turbid water
flows to other reservoirs, where it either bleaches and settles for subsequent
use, or is employed in affording the required quantity of compensation water
to the mills on the stream. This system is probably the simplest, cheapest,
and most effective which has been suggested; and though only recently
introduced, is becoming very general, where circumstances are favourable
for its adoption.
5. The supply from natural lakes —This supply can scarcely be said to
differ from that of gathering grounds and large storage reservoirs, but there
are one or two peculiarities which it may be desirable to allude to.
Its simplicity, where it can be adopted, is a material recommendation. It
saves the construction of large artificial reservoirs, which is sometimes one of
the most difficult works that an engineer can undertake. The great depth,
and frequently the large surface, of water which is exposed, in comparison
with the collecting area, favour the clarification of the water, and, as lakes
are generally found in mountainous districts and in the harder geological
measures, the water is frequently of the very purest quality. The towns of
Whitehaven and Dumfries are supplied with water from natural lakes; the
first from Ennerdale Lake in Cumberland, and the latter from Loch Rutton
in Dumfriesshire. The town of Inverness is also supplied from lake water,
the water being taken from the river Ness, a few miles below Loch Ness.
But the largest work of this kind when completed will be the supply to the
city of Glasgow with water from Loch Katrine, a work for which parlia-
mentary sanction has been obtained, and which is now being carried out.
The distance is about thirty-four miles, and the supply to the city will be
50,000,000 gallons per day.
Objections have been taken to the quality of these mountain lake waters
on account of their excessive purity and their violent action upon new lead
under certain circumstances. Similar objections were urged to the supply of
very soft and excellent water to the cities of New York, Philadelphia and
Boston in the United States, but experience has shown that no practical evil
has resulted, either in that country or in this, from the passage of such water
through leaden service pipes in any town’s supply of water.
The supply of water in the towns of Inverness and Whitehaven, both of
which are supplied with water of the greatest softness and the utmost purity,
almost equal in all respects to distilled water, are striking instances of the
safety with which such water can be conveyed to the inhabitants through
leaden pipes and cisterns. Inverness has been supplied with Loch Ness water
for upwards of five-and-twenty years, through the intervention of lead pipes and
cisterns, without a single case of illness ever having occurred which could be
attributed in the slightest degree to the contamination of the water by lead.
In Whitehaven the water was introduced from Ennerdale Lake in the
summer of 1850. ‘This water is of the same degree of purity and softness as
78 REPORT—1855.
the Loch Ness water. The average mortality of the town for the four years
preceding the introduction of the lake water was 34°8 per 1000, and for the
four years subsequently the average deaths were only 23°5 per 1000. Ex-
cept the new supply of water, there was no apparent cause for this amelio-
ration. These cases clearly demonstrate the great benefit which results from
the supply of eminently pure water, even though it should be delivered to
the inhabitants through leaden pipes and cisterns. Any objection, however,
on this score does not apply to the water, but to the means of its distribution,
and the evil, if any, can be obviated in various ways.
There are still many points of much interest connected with the supply of
water, and the sources from which it should be obtained, apart from all
engineering and mechanical details, which have not as yet been touched
upon; but their investigation would occupy considerable time, and they must
be reserved for future consideration.
Fifteenth Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor DAUBENY,
Professor HENsLow, and Professor LINDLEY, appointed to con-
tinue their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.
THESE experiments have been continued under circumstances similar to
those of preceding years, and the results are registered in the annexed
Table.
No. of Seeds of each
Species which yege- hn bee clpeg ie oth
days at
Name and Date when gathered. fab especie WE edad iat aidie Remarks.
Ox- | Cam- |Chis-| Ox- | Cam- | Chis-
1842, ford. | bridge. |wick.| ford. | bridge. | wick.
1. Aconitum Napellus ............ 100
2. Adonis autumnalis ............ 50
3. Amaranthus caudatus .........| 100
4, Anagallis arvensis ....4..0.... 100
5. Buffonia annua............s.s06 100
6. Buphthalmum cordifolium ...} 100
7. Bupleurum rotundifolium ...| 100
8. Conium maculatum............ 100
9. Cytisus Laburnum ............ 50
10. Dipsacus laciniatus ............ 50
11. Elsholtzia cristata ..........+ 100
12. Erysimum Peroffskianum ...| 150
13. Helianthus indicus ............ 25
14. Heracleum elegatis ...........: 50
15. Hyoscyamus niger .......05... 100
16. Iberis umbellata .........s.s08 100
AZ2 Uris sibiri@a sc<ssea+sessseseuecos> 50
18. Lathyrus heterophyllus ...... BU AMR ksertase| boxes Z5—-3O].....0004] cevees Healthy.
19. Leonurus Cardiaca ..........+- 100
20. Malcomia maritima ............ 100
21. Momordica Elaterium ......... 25 | scisss}.cseti.cs Al sis Jadscsoaas 30 |Strong.
22. Nepeta Cataria............ceeee 100
23. Nicandra physaloides ......... 100 | 28 | 48 | 22 |25-30) 8 {16-24
24, Nigella nana..........c...s..0008 50
25. Orobus niger ..........e0..se0e 50
26. Potentilla nepalensis ......... 50
27. Stenactis speciosa ............ 100
28. Tetragonolobus purpureus ...| 25
29. Trigonella Foenum-grecum...| 50
30. Tropzolum majus ............ 25
31, Cucurbita Pepo, var. ......... 15
' 146. Impatiens glanduligera ...... 50
ON THE GROWTH AND VITALITY OF SEEDS. 49
No. of Seeds of each
Species which vege-
tated at
Time of vegetating in
days at
Remarks,
Name and Date when gathered.
Ox- | Cam- |Chis-| Ox-
ford. | bridge. |wick.| ford. | bridge.
1842.
a2. Gilia achillezfolia ......s6.... 100
33. Capsicum, Sp. ..+..eeesseeeeees 25
34, Calandrinia speciosa ......... 100
35. Callichroa platyglossa......... 100
36. Collomia coccinea ............ 100
37. Coreopsis atrosanguinea ...... 100
38. Cotoneaster rotundifolia ...... 20
39. Crategus macrantha ......... 50 |,
40. Cynoglossum glochidatum ...| 100 |......J..000..
Al. Digitalis lutea .......c0.ssssseee 100
42, Hutoca viscida .......scceeeeeess 100
. Godetia Lindleyana.........0«
45. Gladiolus psittacinus ......... 100
47. Lupinus succulentus ......... 100
48, Malope grandiflora .......04.. 100
49. Nolana atriplicifolia.........+.. 100
50. Oxyura chrysanthemoides ...| 100
51. Papaver amcenum ...........5 100
52. Phacelia tanacetifolia ......... 100
53. Sphenogyne speciosa ....... ..| 100
DA, ACAaCia, SP. .sscsseeecereceecers 100
55. Betula alba .........cseseeeveees 200
56. Carpinus Betula ...........0065 100
57. Catalpa cordifolia ............ 50
68. Cercis canadensis............... 50
59. Cerinthe major.............0006 50
60. Cichorium Endivia, var. ...... 150
G1. Cobaa scandens .....6.....000. 6
62. Cuphea procumbens ......+.. 50
63. Dolichos lignosus..........+.... 25
64. Galinsogea trilobata ......... 100
65. Tlex Aquifolia ........sscee0+8 100
66. Juniperus communis ......... 100
67. Liriodendron Tulipiferum ...| 50
68. Loasa nitida...........c08teeeees 100
69. Magnolia, sp. ........sseeeeeees 15
70. Martynia proboscidea ......... 20
13 | 53 7 |20-25) 10 |15-20)Strong.
71. Medicago maculata ............ 100 | 17 | 66 | 18 |20-25} 1-21 |18-30
72. Mesembryanthemum at 100
stallinuM ........eseceeeees
73. Mirabilis Jalapa ......seceeeeee 25
74, Morus nigra ...........seseeeeeee 100
75. Ricinus communis ........c00 15
76. Scorpiurus sulcatus ............ 25
77. Tetragonia expansa ...........- 15
78. Ulex europea ..........ceceees 100 |} 11] 55 J...
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55. By the Rev.
Baprn Powe, M.A., F.R.S. &c., Savilian Professor of Geometry
in the University of Oxford.
Tue present Report presents, I fear, but a meagre appearance in comparison
with some of its predecessors. But among the meteors recorded will be
found some of considerable interest. I have to express my obligations to
the several friends who have contributed their observations, chiefly the same
who have favoured me on former occasions.
80 REPORT—1855.
Appearance and Brightness . Velocity or
ate oe. magnitude. and colour. a duration.
1854. | hm s |
Oct. 3] 6 45p.m.|Commenced as ajMiddle of the|Burst in a long stream of|About 6 or 7 secs.
bright point; in-| stream bright} light obliquely towards
creased and burst. | white, each] N.
edge deep
blue.
14, 9 0 p.m. |Like a rocket ......... Brilliant ...... Long luminous train ...... 5 OF 6 SECS. seeseeeee
22) 7 45 A large fire-ball about/Intensely Leaving scintillations or|Rapid; described a
(G.M.T.) 3 moon’s diameter.| bright, clear| sparks of a whitish red} path of about 30°
, and vivid} colour on all sides. and exploded.
white, daz-
zling.
Dec. 10/9 44 ...... Large meteor ......... White ......... No train or sparks ......... SIOW.......0000 sovnes
14/10 5 ...... Large meteor ......... Whitish ......|Sparks ....e.sceresesesesseeees S1OW.....+scereeeeenns
1855. . {
April 18) 8 58 Very bright meteor, =|Steady light...|No train ........ssseseeeeeeees 3 or 4 secs., movee
(G.M.T.) Venus, and as well slowly and ste
defined. dily ; disappeare¢
instantaneously.
Aug. 12/10 14 ...... Large meteor ....+... Reddish ...... Long and brilliant train Of|/SlOW.....+.+++sses008
sparks.
Luminous Meteors observed 1854-55,
1854.
Oct. 7| 8 45 p.m. [3 size moon..........5. Yellowish......|LOng tail soosscssssecseseeesee/RAPIA sesecesvsveees
Dec. 9/11 20 p.m. |2nd mag.* ............ Orange-red ...|Streak left ..... Sone eveee{RAPIG coersveveeeens
10} 8 5p.m. |2nd mag.* ......004.4 Blue......+0+4.. Streak ...,...ssccscessscesraas Rapid ..scosseseeee
12} 1 6a.m. |2nd mag.* ............ REG). ccessccen-|StKEAK ..ccscrecesencorcnctence Rapid ...ssereseers
1855.
Jan. 13/11 44 p.m. [Ist mag.*..........c000e Colourless_ ...|Long streak.......++. eooeesce [Ld SCC. ccovnccesseem
17| 6 50 p.m. |lst mag.*......... cospee| LELLOW cooveees. Streak left .........0. secccce|] SOC. .ccecescvesmm
6 50 30 |2nd mag* ............ Yellow ......... SUTCAKE -cacceas cceecanemeecuee +. |O°F SCC. cccsvseesens
p-m.
April 17] 9 32 p.m. [5th mag.* ............,|Colourless ...|No tail ...cccserecceneeeesseene|O'L SECssesseesennes
May 4/11 48 p.m. |Ist mag.*...ccee.see.. Yellow ......+0.|Tail ....... ssacatensesarcecusus Rapid ..ssseseesens
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 81
_ Direction or altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.
_-
by N., alt. about 25° under|Light, rather hazy.|Driffield, near/Rev. D. Blanch-|MS. communicated
ootes, Moon half-full. | Beverley, York-| ard. by Rev. T. Ran-
shire. kin.
N.E. to S.W. over the/Became much Bank top Station,
enith. brighter before | L. & N.W, Rail-
disappearing. way, Manches-
ter.
H. Fletcher, Cu-|MS. communicated
rator of Lit.and| to Mr. Greg.
Philos. Society.
Anotheraccount
in the Manches-
ter Examiner,
Oct. 21, 1854.
Mr. G. F. Ansell,|MS. communicated
Cheinist to the] to Mr. Birt. See
Royal Panop-| App. No. I.
ticon, London.
N.N.W. towards W. below)...........cesessceoees. Langley, near
Lyre. Hitchin, Herts.
w a Aurigze to Ursa Major.|Brilliant ............ St. Ives, Hunts. |J. King Watts. |MS. communicated
: to Prof. Powell.
a Persei towards the|Very brilliant ..... DIG seremesns sens Id. Ibid.
uth. :
Poet ss. Bens banasteecainase Venus visible ...... WashingtonChe-|Mr. John Wat-|MS. communicated
: mical Works,| son. to Prof. Powell.
Fence houses See App. No. II.
(Durham).
Polaris to S.W............. Avery beautiful and St. Ives, Hunts. |J. King Watts. [MS. communicated
brilliant object. | to Prof. Powell.
: by E. J. Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S.
35° N.W. by W., moved]..............sccs00000. Nottingham...... F. E.Swann, Esq.,/E. J. Lowe’s MS.
° towards N. & Capt. A.S. H.
‘ Lowe.
at angle 45° towards W..,|..........0-ssscsceeeees Observatory, E. J. Lowe ...... Ibid.
ing through 6 Andromede. Beeston,
ing down through Rigel ...}.........000..c.ccccs ees MDI sce docannc ess UG Pc Ibid
at angle 45° towards S.,].............csccceeese. MDIGF oc een oe NGS! jccoteccesec ati [bid
ig 2° S. of Sirius.
endicular down, passing 2°|................ceseceee MIG. «5... 4cc8ceebss [i SSesGeccteacn sec Ibid
. of Polaris, moved 30°.
ly from ¥y to o Aquarii, in-|............cccsccesees 50 Se ee Pe siete, Ibid.
eased from a mere point.
f to 9 Pegasi..........0.00./... Baa dancens ken scates |G Baia ene Hi Ek Sea Sa eene aa Ibid.
n, inclining W., passed be-|.............00000...... LIL Pees. Sean 1G Frere aceae ee ere Ibid. |
een 3 and 3 Leonis.
§ Bootis towards + Vir-|................ ccocepes EDIGs. ccs Saccwaaac Fd sdiveesaedeins Ibid.
1S.
REPORT—1855.
Velocity or
Appearance and Brightness :
magnitude. and colour. Train or spares: duration. —
—
July 13/11 14 30 |Twice size 21, and 4{Intense blue... Disappearedsuddenlywhen|Very slow,
times as bright as at its maximum bright-| 2 secs.
ness.
=2nd mag.* ........- Blue.......... ITAUL, cds -deacesbsacsvseenmenes
=2nd mag.*, and as/Bluish ......... Short tail..........00« sateseed
28)12 53am.
bright as 1st mag.*
esa newess Colourless
‘As large as %, but Colourless ...|Trail of light left ....-....
only as bright as
5th or 6th mag.*
. |=2nd mag.* in size,|Blue.........++- Resembled a reflected flash|Instantaneous 3
and as bright as 2}. of lightning.
10 15 p.m. |5 or 6 times the size|Bluish ......... Long streak left behind ...
of Jupiter.
wceveeees | DIU seererenanee
.m. |=4 size moon........- Colourless,and
then blue.
Si sengMag.* | .vs. ces. Colourless ...|Streak ........ceeseeeeeeeeeees[eeeeeee Sen doue a
Direction or altitude. General remarks.
é Serpentis through 3).....0.. ..secececeeees
Ophiuchi, fading away near|
¢ Ophiuchi, having a single
rection of 6 Cygni.
m 1° below « Andromede)..............cc0e0es00
down towards S. at an angle
of 50°,-moved over 30° of
space.
om y Urs Minoris through]........................
‘0 to near Z Urs Majoris.
m # Herculis through « Co-|.................020000
ronz Borealis. Very singular.
I could evidently see the
ody(which wasoval inform),
Place.
Observatory,
| Beeston.
and apparently not 4 mile in C port >
he air. The stars were shi-
ing brightly.
peared at ¢ Aquile, and only}........................
joved over 0° 15’ of space.
m the direction of 8 Pegasi,|..................0.000.
tarting from a point 5° above}
Pegasi, passed through «
egasi, and faded near «
quarii. |
t instantly increased from a
int to its maximum size
nd brightness, and after
welling for 1 sec. as instan-
aneously disappeared. It cast
light upon the ground.
m / Cygni towards Cassio-|............see.cese00
el
a.
St visible in S.S.W. at anl.........ccccessseceseee
itude of 45°, it moved down
na curve to W.N.W. burst-
g at an altitude of 25°, con-
iderably brighter than the
oon, being as light as day.
‘or more than half its course
twas a colourless, well-defined
ircular body, leaving a streak’
f light behind in its track.
en more than half-way,
he meteor altered, increasing
© double its original size,
ecame blue in colour, and
he edges ill-defined. Dis-
ppeared suddenly, having
een visible 2 secs.
izontally from 3° above
ega, moving from S.E. to
ray in front. O=
ugh Polaris from the di-|..........06......:0e008
When first seen.
Penner eee terses
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Observer.
83
anew we eet eenae
ween ec eereeee
ote ee seer trees
Afterwards.
bia.
Reference.
.|E. J. Lowe’s MS.
Appearance and
magnitude.
Brightness
and colour.
Colourless
. |= 1stmag.* & brighter
than lst mag.*
.m. |=2nd mag.*
Twice size of 1st=|Blue
mag. star.
Small meteor in Pegasus.
Another small meteor in Pegasus.
2nd mag.*
REPORT—1855.
Colourless ...
Colourless ..
Colourless ...
Colourless ...
Colourless ...
E —
Velocity or
Train or sparks. eiewatiows
———
wae| Streak .cccducodbecdecueliveccsievdcuethecerase cocoa
ry rapid, d
tion 0°2 sec.
Instantaneous .,
Between 10" 24™ and 10" 26™ six other small meteors.
= Ist Magt...s.ee.cseseleccessrescerceners With train of light
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 85
{
. Direction or altitude. General remarks.
Place. Observer. Reference.
‘ern endicularly down from 1°|....0.....scceseseeeeeee Observatory, E. J. Lowe ......)/Mr. Lowe’s MS.
S. of Vega. ’ Beeston
erpendicularly down from 1°|s+...........ss08e coon [LDid..ee sss eee saeces| LOnpyedes deter tess: Ibid
S$. of Delphinus.
erpendicularly down from f).......... COREE Peer bid ces svadesensaaes Td cwndsanescosces Ibid
Bootis.
om 6 Cygni towards Cassio-|.............ssseeeeeees NDId os c20s etaaoees Fas ovesss SSE. 2s Ibid
lige towards Vega from @..........sseeceeeeeenes ROI .wosepwepeecee Td! Wats JStecenaes Ibid
Cephei. -
assed down through B Perseéi,|..............csseeeeees Tbid......é..+..2.0- G2) Nosaconeesoencs Ibid
coming from the direction of
Cassiopeia.
from 1° W. of y Ursze Minoris}..........0.....c0.066 Ibid........sessee Td. seesseeeecceees Ibid
to « Draconis.
om 1° below B Andromedee}...........cecececsseees UDidserceeehnsondaos 1 eae Rl Ibid
through the head of Perseus
to x% Piscium.
Il down from GB Urs. Min. ...|.ccsesssesecscsscseceeee Tbid........ saweeeet TS Bees Oe cee Ibid.
| These two fell down from
| between @ and y vf Pe eee Pees Dither swevahercaness LE cesschossseeue Ibid
| Maj. inclining to W.
Jioved upward from 1° above y]...++..0.....sseeeeeeeee Ibid.............00. Id... Seeacess Ibid
Cassiopeiz.
Jiom 1° above B Cassiopeiz,|...scsceccesssesees Becca EBtdicesscdecesenees Tegra fee, Ibid.
|| passing through Vega. It left
behind a streak of light 20°
||long, all of which faded away
except 1° in length of that
portion about 5° N. of where
the meteor vanished. This
|portion was visible 1 min. and
gradually became narrower.
‘2 fing at & Cassiopeia, and)...........seeceeessseee tls aaciict Si cess| AU non tde sees +e...(L bid.
moving towards « Cygni.
SERN sc seer eye ccreet Ed, [accor steak diesen Weccnds DIG seb ioceseees NA Qte. Leow. Ibid
soocscseer Td. .......0.22s004{[bid
pean ewe belsewed Td. ..:............/[bid
Gownwards from near Alecesereecsseseseeeeeeee id....... Buc ccsaed Wik Sereeeprema ae Ibid.
Draconis.
y Pegasi nearly horizon-|...+++......sssesseeveee Aoseansalsyedee sts MG stave! Hevea sh <5 Tbid.
y towards 3 Piscium.
# Aquarii through ¢ Ca-|......ss+0.. ocawoe{LDIC. sctceasehveeees Weds Hatet feo ate nes Ibid.
Polaris horizontally to 1°|+s+...sessssessecseeeeee([Did.ess.ccsscsseess Bal eee Ibid.
IN. of 6 Cassiopeiz. ‘
Ibm midway between 3 Cas-\...ssssseseeesss bolas TIAN B2E lei ven, Ta? wave. dedes 4 Ibid
siopeiz and 7 Persei, moving
“towards the S. and passing
between y and + Andromede.
Inebula of Andromeda ......|......+
Aout 4° N. of the cluster in}..
Sword-handle of Perseus.
nd f regasi.
bm 1° N. of the Sword-handle’...............ccsseees
of Perseus, perpendicularly
‘own. Two other small ones,
positions not marked.
ip
10}12 1 40...
REPORT—1855.
Appearance and Brightness Velocity or —
Train or sparks.
magnitude. and colour. duration.
hm 8s
910 33
10 35 ......J=Srd mag.* ....ceccs|eeeeeseeeeeeeeeeee|DUEAK ... eeseeeeee
10 36 ......[Smmall ......... se eeeeee|eceecseceeeeeserns[/SELCAK oc seceeeeseceeeseeecnecs|esenecneeeeeawecceen
10 37 weso0e[=3rd MAg.* oo... ece|eceseeeeseereeeee|WULOAK occ cseseeeeceeeneeeeaec|tereseeeeeseeeeeees
10 40 ......j)=3rd mag.* .........|Colourless ...|Streak ..........sesereeeeeeees|esereeeeenes
10 41 ......,—=2md mag.* ....00...Jscessscoeesessonee/SEEAK 2.0.00. sececenseeneenes ICL. fee oe ‘
NOAA eases - =3rd mag.*
10 42 30.../=4th mag.*
10 43 ..... .|=4th mag.*
1052 ......|/—=2nd mag.® ...... ISMsvcess es Having a streak which lin-
gered 10 secs. after the
meteor had disappeared.
10 52 15...;=Srd mag.™ .......--}ccceecceceescese-|SEFCAK ....yeeereee
10 54 ...... =3rd mag.* ‘ Gy gs gene
RO) SS reree|— At Mag. baesece [Streak ......ceccsesececseeense[ecsterenesrsenees
10 56 ...... Leaving a long blue streak].
behind.
ll 0 ......)=2nd mag.* ......... IS Tie eis ane Leaving a long streak......|......+++++++s+0+8 F
PT) Boieeen
11 7....../Two meteors of thel.................. Leaving streaks ........ Peiferorer
3rd mag. were fall-
ing together.
1d 12s ..|With streak......... = <p nel
1] 13 ......,—=2nd mag.* .........
11 16 ......J—Ist mag.* ......,..|Brilliant ......
1117 ......)=S3rd mag* .........|eccceseseeeeeeeees[OtTEAK 2... 0000000
1) 50..4...-}=Sth mag.™ | ...csesss|.sccaeen
11 56 ...... =3rd mag.* .
aD sy, Base =2nd mag.* .........]...ceeeeeeeeeeees-| With a train of light ......|...esesseeeeee
Shape f...c1s..
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
|
| - Direction or altitude.
wpendic. down from x Cassio-
pei. Beeston.
om 2° S. of the Sword-handle]..............6+ Bias TIGA, ssasheetucaee LG Fees at nraspenie Ibid
of Perseus, moving nearly
‘horizontally towards S. in-
}iclining in an angle of 5°.
fiom g Coronze Borealis t0 7]........ssscssesceseeees IDiGsxavespeesqsees GE Spanepedo-cen 0 Ibid
} Herculis.
Jom Pegasus down towards E.|...........ss00ccc0eeees bide. tssc:ba saeco Td. sascorvessconee Ibid
Jom a Pegasi, nearly horizon-|............ssssccceeee Mb Ide: oy sbcencasen Tdting sate Sse onic 5. Ibid
}jtal, slightly inclined down-
)/wards, moved 4° towards N.
om between « and Z Ursel......c0c..sccseceseeees Lt Bee ee NO cvccseecevdss Ibid
||Maj. towards W. nearly hori-
\izontal, passing under » Urse
|| Maj.
fimilar to the last, and in the]..........cesesseseeerss Db idisiees denemenees Tp sasine dart acrhn Ibid
|\same path.
om Polaris horizontally ......|....0....:cesseeeeesees YG Bas eee Td pasac. dad e200. Ibid
Jirpendic. down from 2° N. of|Two siher. sraall Wbid.ecs..4...c.s0n LG BARE opi edanscon see Ibid.
|Sword-handle in Perseus. meteors.
om the direction of 2° under]........-..sccsesseeeees UDG ssaenceesueciece 11 Basra) ec eace ace Ibid
|\y Cassiopeize, passing 1°
|\below Polaris.
Jill perpendic. down from 2°..........cccescsseesees Tbids, cs.dess--ace0 Neeaeeseeenesen: Ibid
1|S. of Polaris.
jbrpendic. down from midway]...........0....seeseess 111056 RS eee 1G Bere es oceee Ibid
|\between « and 6 Andromede.
dbrpendic. down from 10° S. Off..........sseesseseeeeee WUTC Picea eeeeereee Tdstassias,. Spt S ween Ibid
|\Polaris, and from the same
altitude as Polaris.
jarting from just above Atair,].........s00.cssceeeenee TDG Pret ataincias Tdi iaay. faces case ns Ibid.
and falling down just W. of
\the Galaxy. Another small
|, meteor.
BORE 21° Pepasi £0 56°lsoeco.eccnsanne-ces-cese fie, fo ee Ibid
| Antinoi.
jrom + Andromedz horizon-].........s00....ceesees- BD oo Aanose sas De as wctegenitcleans Thid
| tally towards the S.
jjom just above « Persei, nearly|...........scsrsseeeeeee Did dscbie cw nennses LF reset stetsonsass Ibid
| ‘|| perpendic. down, inclining E.| -
fll nearly perpendic. down,].........c.sccseseeevars NDIG2 ve deascawse’s 17 PRR BaP eee Ree Ibid.
inclining to E. and passing
'||30/ E. of » Aquarii.
|jom y Pegasi perpendic. down,|..............sssseeeees Ibid.......... Aree MGs cas sdeisas esas Ibid.
|inelining to E.
\jom @ Cygni perpendic. downl..........sscsccecseeee Ibid.......+ Shee Id. .-|[bid
|\towards N.W. horizon.
jfom direction of. Cassiopeial...............000...00- Mbidsccascgseeeess od Be raseteoeescec race Ibid
|/passing through nebula of
‘ Andromeda.
PI tacos eee eee aecess cele ccs scenssonecaschoatens Thids.ocschsness5-05 Id.
jown from near ¢ Aquarii......|........66.... i Id.
om 1° below ¢« Cassiopeie
| down at an angle 50° towards
[tee N. — Moved over 10°
Joved horizontally 14° above. svscccccsestucetsnsson» 1076 FRBRBR opener Eds. ahsasvesp rons. Thid.
| Polaris
t
[
87
General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.
Se oncavege stinker tekeee Observatory, E. J. Lowe ....../Mr. Lowe’s MS.
REPORT—1855.
Velocity or ©
duration.
Appearance and Brightness
Date. Hour. magnitude. and colour.
Train or sparks.
1855. |h m s
Aug. 10/12 6 ...... =4th mag.* .........]scsseceoneees eons
12 Grete 2nd mag.P w.ceseselse0: wiketen sneer ID mracssssceceeeose
12 9 30...)=2nd mag.* ......... Blue ...ccesseces ase colaeee Id) Seestuseem
DZOUSieectss|==OLQ NAR Gaceceee| sc s0cces Secbeones| MEAL coceseecspseceus<patemee|Geaesscn steam
12 23 ......;=3rd mag.* ......... spucusoeteesevanerte
12'S «2.502 = 20d MAG. of ccncoeee Colourless ...
ean eeeeeeee
weweee (TIGL soseceneeseesesees/(VOIOUTICSS ...,0UICAR .oesee
12 59 ....0.)= 2nd Mag.....0..000
1 3am. |=3rd mag. ....00...[REd ccsccsseeeee
sealer ee es ereeeeeceseseesentsesese teslewreseeeseeee cence
AS talks nnecnsacestste- MUR ot
Streak ...cc.cvcseceestdnacdeatl neers dnt sae
DD) Ser. .c.| Small ier: cwwsasses ras OO pence aococrrecee| Ec Sodenceserscsccesveudequecsosesleerersccescensgal
AE ABN lbenno Fe DT: Colourless . .|Very . rapid.
ration 05
LE -3itiiine Upwards. = 3rd mag.*\......
tl 4 es Down, =3rd mag.*
Rapid eeeseceee
Rapid .....s008
a
wy A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 89
4
| Direction or altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.
}
from 2° below and 1° N. Of B).....cecseeeseceeneeeees Observatory, E. J. Lowe ...... Mr. Lowe’s MS.
Persei. Moved 30’ of space. Beeston.
Down from 1° N. and 10° be-|......ceeccceeesseneeeee DDT aaiieatvanaa dete (hdin Skeeaaeoasdecan Ibid
low Capella.
From 5° below and 10° N. Off....ce.se.ssovee <5 SR MOGs szcceaose Lee Ade les tecttiondd lies Ibid.
6 Persei down towards N. at
angle of 60°.
trom 1° below and 15° N. of. Gl......seeseesesscseeeees [bide cst eescce Ld teeeaccevessegsse Ibid.
Persei down towards N.
Down in N. from 10° abovel.......ecsercesereeeeees TG id de centre metacs Tid weteee eee ot Ibid.
horizon.
from head of Dragon down to-|......s0+.-ssssseesssees Tbid..... TOs ects. Sadowcasss Ibid.
| ) wards W. Moved over 40°
| of space.
Below G PErsei. ............cscees|-oeceeccccceccsscncsoses (bidesdsciaenoudl NG? wccwsctedevs sags Ibid
MUMMIES MSTOL...<.02..c0.eccecnen[vaccersccsoncrscceseeces bids. ..c.canives Id aps asexethies docs Ibid.
om 10° E. and 2° higher than]............sesesseeeees MDG es eedesswecnsd Dd aie it tee «ose Ibid.
) Polaris, endingat 2° E.of Polaris.
from direction of Polaris, start-|Circutar ............ Dbidivscssteenscvace Wier cecicesses dees Ibid
ing 10° below Polaris and
moved down towards E. at
angle of 60°.
_ vow in N.
from direction of 1° above @
_| Persei, horizontal, passing to
Polaris.
,Pown from Perseus to near
_| Pleiades.
early horizontal, inclining
_\down, moving towards S., and
_ passing 5° below & Arietis.
tarting midway between a Per-
| sei and @ Arietis, and ending
| 6 N. of « Arietis.
Peer
eoecceccersessss| bbe = secsseenesescen
ee eeeeroescccves|tihe sessesseronsces
a
val
"| ately above Polaris.
pwards from Sword-handle of;
" | Perseus.
,|(tve small meteors within one
own through Corona Borealis.
P from 7 Cassiopeiae .........Jeseceseeeeeensesceeeens
orizontally, passing immedi-
seeeevcovesovesevecvcces| Li Uecescccccesecves|tile cecnecccseseves
erececseceseeses|tihe eencesescoseces
Sweeerescconesccessesecs| Li lUsececsccscccceee
;y| Minute, four in Pegasus and
onefrom @ Andromedz, which
|moved towards Cassiopeia,
_| fading when 2° S. of 6 Cas-
siopeiz. This was curious; it
| had a rolling motion, left no
| streak, but was itself a col-
! lection of rounded bodies
‘each equal to a 4th mag.*,
and about 16 in number.
see eeeenseeeeee
: :
eae eeeeetonsees
90 REPORT—1855. .
Appearance and Brightness : Velocity or
Date. Hour. magnitude. ea ectaur Train or sparks. Pitney
1855. |h m s
Aug. 10)11 5 ......
1 Gees
1 WR lee ee Horizontal, =3rd voctecuue uesates
mag.*
11 10 ...... =2nd MAg.* ceerecsee|eceeeereeseeeeeee
1114 .....
11 14 30
11 20 ......|Became overcast.
= 1st mag.* in bright-|Colourless ... Duration 1 sec. .
ness, and twice size
of 1st mag.*
12|12 48 a.m.
1 Beis Another shone
through cloud =1st
mag.*
10 20 p.m. |= Ist mag.* but | Yellowish
brighter.
10 24 30...;/=3rd mag.* ...,.....|Blue.........0+
10 25 ......J=Brd mage® ....cceeleeesseeeeeeeeeceee|LPTAIM se ecseseeeeeeeee nessa ees|MAPIG seeeeres
10 28 ......j;=3rd mag.* ........./Red .....-...++
9 45 p.m
11 48) p.m. |= Ist mag-*........0000].seesseeevenseree OUTED vee sessseceensersnecsoeafuneneasestecidass
11] 48 10...) =3rd mag.* .......eeJeecseeeeeeeeeeoees
11 55 30...)/=3rd mag.* .........|Colourless ...|Streak .......0+..eeeeees
11 55 31...{=Srd mag.* ...eeeee.| NED .....000000
13/12 9am. |=3rd mag.* .........[Red coe..reeeee] PALL veeesseeeeee cveeeeeeereeee| HADI: see eeeee
12 57 ..e00.[=3rd mag.* .......0./REM ......000.--[ Streak ..-eeseeeseeereeeeeess-|/MAPIG ».-. +000
12 58 ......;=2nd mag. .........
1 Oa. | =2nd mag.* cec.crseeleseressccneeeeeees/SULEAK soveevcensccssessrecerealecseseeescrees
1 3 ...0-/=2nd mag.” ......... ...(Streak, which lingered].........+++s++e0
2 secs. after the meteor
had disappeared.
; A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
~
: Direction or altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer.
| Cassiopeie horizontally
91
Reference.
1 Cassiopeia Ne okt <aucads|ioaintsnue eee ee eres oes Observatory, E. J. Lowe ......|Mr. Lowe’s MS.
4 Beeston.
rom Sword-handle of Per-].......ssssceeceeeceeees|L DIG... ..seeeeeee es NOE Sykdke edn soso
‘seus
OM 7 CYgQni........seeecccececcs[ecceeeeeeceeeeeseeeeeees|LDIGe,..+seeeneeeeee Dee Nicuas fate enemas
own from @ Pegasi. Three].............ssseseeeee-[[DIG.......2002-00e Fdiisuteus fads <<-'50
other small meteors having
tails.
cross from direction Of Per-|.........ceesceeseseee+-[LDIGseeeeeeeseeeeeee fs Ue sreiyancceee ee
seus towards Polaris.
om Cassiopeia towards PO-|.............ceeeceeeses[LDIG.....seseeeeeees 1 7 ER Ree ar
hone through thin clouds,]....,.....-0.++....+-0+-|[DIG.....00....2.08+ Mel sasssaseees apron
and passed across a small
opening. Moved tolerably
rapid from about y Andro-
medz towards Polaris, fading}
in thick cloud about 10° S.E.
of Polaris and at nearly same
| elevation. J
ell down below Cassiopeia.|............ceesseeeeee-[LDIG.... eee seen Wes) .ccacecacescens
| Between this and 15 15™ se-
_| veral others imperfectly seen,
| after 1» 15™ overcast. :
_pll perpendic. down along N.}..............2eeesee00 Rbid) Beeetemasanca (LOO maces b ectnas Ibid
‘| side of Galaxy from 9 Ser-
pentis.
oss zenith, from & Cassio-|.............-s0r-++++-[LDI.......-+2++ see 1G Lape ea cp cas Se bid.
| peiz towards Cygnus.
iIpwards from Cassiopeia ......|.....se+eseessecseeenees [11s PSRAR es ae Pa i eee eee Ibid.
wrom exactly Polaris, perpen-|.........+esseeeeeeeeees 1 ene eeeeee se Ge ee Sree ae Ibid
dic. down 12° towards N. ho-
«fpone through thin clouds from]........2..-.ee.eeeseee+|L DIG... .eeseee eevee ila Sok este cece Ibid.
} about & Cygni towards S.W.
jown from Sword-handle off...............sssesecee(LDIG..s.se.eee. eee cde eases esccc ene Ibid
| Perseus towards S.
SOMES, 25.200 .c-cereseeccesenss Two other meteors.|[bid.......+0+2+2+0- Relay raascoptnnsanest Ibid
orizontally from half-way be-|..-....... See eon eet es becomes enean an an [IGE Bana Ssccencce Ibid
| tween Sword-handle of Per-
| seus and Cassiopeia, moved
towards Perseus.
.jorizontally in an opposite di-|..........0:.seee008 BUDIds.2s0s5<sc0-5%e- 1G ener Ibid
f rection to the last, starting
} at. 6 Andromede.
. rting 30’ below 6 Andro-|...........s:++se++2e+e-|LDid...+ Sree eres LE Gear e nar rena Ibid
| medz, and passed 2° below
a Andromede.
Jom 10’ W. of Polaris, perpen-|..........0sceseceerses(LDIG....eeeseeeeeeee ATEN, FS ake eek Ibid.
| dic. down.
fom 10° above & Draconis, and] ...............c..se00-([DId.... cesses seen Ns Bs. acta tears os Ibid.
| passing through this star and
| fading 5° below it.
fom 4 between Capella and).................0.000--[[DIM seeceseeeeeoees Mele pecs stscsces sss Ibid
) Ursa Major, horizontally.
}oved from 30’ S. and 2° below]............2...seeeeee-[LDICs eee seeedeeeees Delstuctigaase vans <= Ihid
|
Sept.
REPORT—1855.
Appearance and Brightness . Velocity or
a. magnitude. and colour. —— ao duration.
. | h ms ‘ ’
13})1) 3... =4th mag.* ..... oece|B1UOs..--s00000. Streak .......00.. sbceovnveonss/ RAPIONeecseeetems
1 {Ba = 3rd Mag. cereecrne|ssecessecsseceeses [Streak .....ccsccoscveccievees 1d. Pscsecesocee
Ls SOM =3rd mag.* ....00..- Colourless .../Streak ........ssceccseseeesees
1 9 30...;=2nd mag.* .esseeeee Colourless_ .,./Streak ...... snspevetede=auaid id. G30ce00ceae
Oke sbee = STL apne eoneaesss Colourless .../Streak .......ssessceeseeeeeees i
15/12 43a.m. |=3rd mag.* ......... Colourless ... Streak ...ssccecseesesesseeeees I Podtss. Jace +
12 44 ......
U2ZVAS, BO. .|icctaceccceevesseevescceses|oconcccccsssnescee
16/12 10 a.m.
10 45 p.m. =3rd mag.* ebdeeian|-<caseeveccsssanes IN .sescceeereeeeeees
17/12 45 a.m. |=3rd mag.* ......... Red <2 .csssas-= Streak of light..........++...
22|10 45 p.m. |=3rd mag.* ......... Colourless ...|Streak ........sssseseceseeses 1d svsccsuseu
3/10 14 ....../Two small meteors]....ccccccccscsseslesctseccscccssscscsscveccssecsces|sucescace
with streaks.
'4) 8 300241... == ISt MMAR. Ssccescuseeae Red. .scc00. 00000 Having a long train of|Duration 0°2 s
light |
SB raaicechiee OPO MMAR * beccn sens Colourless ...|....008+ eiciies ames Resi tenieeseeeme ‘Rapid, instanta-
neous.
8 50 ...... = Ist mag.*......0 esse ]evsee sdeeeed scone IDEAIN 5 siusceeseesucenek elev are ert cbeceneceal
APPENDIX.
Lipa. >
Mr. Ansell describes the appearance of the fire-ball as of intense bright-
ness, its colour being a clear and vivid white, and refers the cause of its
dazzling brilliance to its intense ignition in passing through the earth’s atmo-
sphere ; comparing it with the well-known experiment of fusing and even
volatilizing iron by means of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, he says its light
and accompanying scintillations were of precisely the same character as
those produced in the experiment alluded to, and he has very little doubt
that they were actually the same. The metallic iron which we know enters
largely into the composition of aérolites having become heated and subse-
quently fused, produced so intense an ignition that explosion necessarily
followed. The appearance ‘witnessed was exceedingly beautiful. The
drawing at the head of this article represents the meteor at the moment
of explosion.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
No. II.—Diagram of the meteor observed by Mr. J. WATSON.
No. III.—In the Philoso-
phical Magazine, Nov. and
’ Dec. 1854, there is a valuable
paper by R. P. Greg, Esq.,
containing the details of a
communication “ On Meteor-
ites or Aérolites,” which that
_ gentleman gave in abrief form
at the Liverpool Meeting of
the British Association, 1854.
It is much to be regretted that
the valuable catalogue which
it includes was not communi-
cated so as to form a part of
_ the Report.
A subsequent paper by the
same author, Phil. Mag. July
1855, contains a curious and
interesting account of some
other meteorites.
*C apella
Bm
mee.
arn
carte
~,
Ros
Gat
(Venus) 9 e
WY Moon
93
Direction or altitude. General remarks. Place. Observer. Reference.
esogang secsessseeeeeees (ODServatory, |. J. Lowe, Esq.|Mr. Lowe’s MS.
peia towards S Beeston.
m Cassiopeia through the].........se+.csssreevees DIO Sige ebcaweegdes Tas Oj,oteeenldmscced Ibid.
Dragon’s tail.
m # Arietis moved 10° inl....... SBpcencaerdeneeea bid ee stnanesinesaes LIfe Aa Se See Ibid.
the direction of the Pleiades.
om Cassiopeia towards Vega.|....... nochencdecndernen MDIe.wecnesncseaee Lig oars Aaa! Tbid.
m direction of Cassiopeia]..........ssccsseseeees EDidsseeseeheees. LG bss See eee Ibid.
passing 5° N. of Vega.
‘om about H. 1 Camelopardil...............seeesseee Hbid.cayvaeecesner es « [LGsti team cseense Ibid.
down towards N. at angle o
45°. -
similar one S. of 7 Draconis.|.........sscsseeseseeees Ibid. foo. ccsuts<s la Gesnecs Ae Ibid.
similar one near A Draconis. |.........0+000000eesee TDIds eres etsecsnas i ee ee Ibid.
seMisasce Very few to-night. |Ibid. id. ee Sebi
Maaateudesdeste eect ros 11) Perr ea eB cchosecena asso: Ibid.
sei, passing 1° under @ Arietis
and 1° under y Arietis.
foved from immediately under].......0+...sessseceeees WDC s ons reannce san Giese ear age see Ibid
& Andromedz and passed 1°
above y Andromedz.
own towards W. at angle Off.........sssssseessseeee Thid.............00e Dyas ke eweactvocs Ibid
45°, passed 10’ W. of Urse
Majoris.
Cassiopeia ........... sehcancaba ne Meabasnes danse weddene MDId cpescony anna Ldispctacsesicncwase Ibid.
floved rapidly from Polaris}.........ssesecscrseee so[EDIG.. Jeoss.saseenre Rs ERR i a Ibid.
perpendic. down. -
oved down the W. edge Off.......ssesesseesecseree Lbid fs See ahwctees ae Td fyxityecnssschoes Ibid.
the Galaxy from 5° below the
altitude of Atair.
ssed downwards through the].......... bedsusen tenes L7G EOP area UG OP er Berccenecta Ibid.
centre of the Great Bear.
Ka Perset
" Dis appeared.
94 REPORT— 1855.
With a view to ¢heory, no student should fail to read two valuable and
elaborate papers in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
of Philadelphia, vol. viii. part 1. 1841, new series, viz. Art. VIIJ.—“ On
the Perturbations of Meteors approaching the Earth,” by B. Pierce, M.A.,
and Art. [X.—“ Researches concerning the periodical Meteors of August
and November,” by Hans C. Walker, A.P.S., containing investigations of the
nature of the orbits of such bodies about the sun, occasionally encountering
the earth.
No. 1V.—Extracts of letters from R. P. Greg, Esq., to Professor Powell,
dated Sept. 4th and Sept. 9th, 1854.
“1844, Oct. 8th, near Coblentz, a German gentleman (a friend of Mr.
Greg’s), accompanied by another person, late in the evening, after dark,
walking in a dry ploughed field, saw a luminous body descend straight
down close to them (not 20 yards off), and heard it distinctly strike the
ground with a noise; they marked the spot, and returning early the next
morning as nearly as possible where it seemed to fall, they found a gela-
tinous mass of a greyish colour so viscid as ‘to tremble all over’ when
poked with a stick. It had no appearance of being organic. They, how-
ever, took no further care to preserve it.”
“ In connexion with the passage of luminous bodies across the field of a
telescope observed by the Rev. W. Read (Report 1852, p. 235), Mr. Greg
mentions that a friend of his (whose name he does not give) observed an
apparently similar phenomenon, May 22nd, 1854. With a 5-inch object
glass equatorial telescope with clockwork, looking for Mercury about 11
o'clock, then little more than an hour from the sun, he saw a luminous
body about the size and appearance of Mercury cross the field close to
Mercury, with a perfectly round and distinct disk ; about a minute after
another followed in the same path with about the same velocity (crossing
the field in about 23 seconds by counting the beats of the clock), with an
elongated form like a comet; in a few minutes another followed, smaller and
round, with the same direction and velocity. They went N.E. and S.W.,
and appeared going to the sun. It would have taken Mercury 50 seconds
to cross the field; the telescope being disconnected with the clockwork. He
has never before or since seen a similar phenomenon.”
No. V.—Account of the Meteor of Sept. 30, 1850, by Prof. Bond,
Cambridge, U.S.
It rarely happens that an aérolite remains visible to us during a sufficient
period of time to enable an observer to trace its path and determine its ve-
locity with anything approaching to the degree of accuracy with which we
can, from their slower apparent motion, obtain the same data for the orbits
of planets or comets. It is not surprising, therefore, that so little is certainly
known regarding the origin of meteors.
Laplace considered it possible that they might be fragments of the moon,
ejected from some of the numerous craters of our satellite by volcanic
power; others have supposed that innumerable smaller masses of dense
matter, not in immediate connexion with the larger planetary bodies, might
be dispersed throughout infinite space, and occasionally brought within the
preponderating influence of the earth. Some persons have believed that
meteors were the smaller, as the asteroids may be the larger portions of a
planet which formerly occupied a position between the orbits of Jupiter and
Mars. Whatever hypothesis may be adopted in regard to their origin, we
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 95
must assign to meteors the properties of dense matter, subject to the laws of
gravitation; as this fact has been sufficiently established in numerous
instances where portions of them have been seen to strike the earth, which
upon examination have proved to be solid bodies; the analysis showing
them to be, in general, composed of native iron, sulphuret of nickel, quartz
and magnesia.
The object of this communication, however, is not to advance any new
theory, but to put on record the circumstances which attended the exhi-
bition of the remarkable meteor of the 30th of September, as witnessed at
Cambridge.
My attention was called to this phenomenon by Miss Jenny Lind, who
happening at the time of its first appearance to be looking at the planet
Saturn through the great equatorial telescope, nearly in the direction of
the meteor’s path, was startled by
a sudden flash of light, no doubt Fig. 1.
much concentrated by the power
of the glass; probably not more
than a second of time intervened
before the meteor exploded, lea-
ving a bright train of light some
8° long, extending from near the
head of Medusa towards a point
3° below the star Alpha Arietis,
this being the direction of motion, Fig. 2.
and projecting a portion of its
mass forward about 2°, as repre-
sented in fig. 1.
This took place at 8° 54™ M.s. T.
of the Observatory, and in or
very near the small constellation
“ Musca Borealis” in right ascen-
sion 2° 30™ and north declination
27°. There were numerous radia-
tions, but nothing sparkling in its Fig. 3.
appearance. At 85 57™ this had
subsided into a serpentine figure
about half a degree broad in the
widest part and 10° long, as seen
in fig. 2.
At 9 o'clock the preceding por-
tion had extended upward, curved
in the form represented in fig. 3 ;
or as expressed by a person who
noticed the same appearance at
Framingham, it appeared “ to
draw up its head like a serpent.”
Three minutes later it had as-
sumed the figure given in fig. 4.
During these changes the me-
teor had continued a bright, con-
spicuous object, some 10° in
length, lying nearly horizontal. It
was examined with three different telescopes—the comet seeker, a 4-feet
refractor, and the great equatorial. The appearance was that of a con-
96 REPORT—1855.
gregation of minute, bright clouds, of the formation usually denominated
Cirrocumuli.
At 95 7™ we had the regular
cometary figure of fig. 5.
This, the most durable form,
forcibly reminded one of the
drawings made by Sir John Her-
schel of Halley’s comet, as seen
by him at the Cape of Good Hope
on the 28th of January 1836.
The meteor commenced a slow,
regular motion, passing about a
degree below the star Alpha Arietis, towards a point somewhat above the
planet Saturn, at the same time rotating apparently on a point answering
to the nucleus of the explosion, and expanding in every direction.
At 9» 28" its position in regard Fic. 6
: g. 6.
to Saturn was as represented in
fig. 6, the external outline touch-
ing the planet. The meteor was
now extended in breadth to 12°,
its longest diameter reaching up-
wards nearly to the zenith. Its
rotary motion had therefore been
equal to an angle of about 90° in
20 minutes of time. Although it
had now become a faint nebulous
light, yet it continued to exhibit
a well-defined boundary until past
10 o'clock, having been under ob-
servation more than an hour: I have never met with any account of a
single meteor having been visible for so long a time.
From the observations communicated by the Hon. William Mitchell of
Nantucket, combined with our own, we have ascertained that the vertical
height of this meteor above the surface of the earth was about 50 miles, and
its distance from Cambridge 100 miles in a north-eastern direction.
We have accounts of its having been seen from near Albany on the
Hudson river, Brooklyn, Long Island, Providence, Rhode Island, Nantucket,
Manchester, Cape Ann, Portland, Maine, Boscawen, and Peterborough in
New Hampshire, Quebec on the St. Lawrence, and the interior stations,
Springfield, Quincy, Pepperell, Framingham and Lancaster in Massachusetts,
and Norwich in Connecticut.
We have no intelligence in regard to this meteor from Nova Scotia, where
it must have been seen if the sky was Clear. It is much to be regretted that
among the thousands who witnessed this splendid phenomenon, only so
small a number regarded it with sufficient interest to note the direction
of motion, position among the stars, and time of its first appearance and
duration. W. C. Bonn.
Cambridge Observatory, Oct. 14th, 1850.
No. VI.—Account of a Meteor accompanying a Thunder-storm and Earth-
quake in India.
[From the Bombay Times, Dec. 13.]
A correspondent calls our attention to the fact that in all likelihood Bom-
bay was visited by an earthquake which has been omitted in our enumera-
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 97
tion during the furious thunderburst that occurred on the 25th Sept. 1851.
“He had never then met with anything of this sort; now that he has really
felt the sensation created by an earthquake, and reflects on what occurred
three years ago, he has no doubt that the former visitation was the same as
the latter, but that the violence of the thunder-storm and fury of the rain
-prevented us from perceiving the tremor, though the sound was heard every-
where. The following is the account given of it at the time :—
« Some singular phenomena occurred during the thunder-storm of Thursday
evening, which seem well worthy of record. Exactly at a quarter past ten,
when the thunder was at its loudest, the inhabitants of the northern end of
the Fort were alarmed with the sound as if of a large mass of something
rushing violently through the air—the noise resembling that of a huge
cannon-shot passing close by—and immediately afterwards a tremendous
crash was heard, as if the mass had impinged on the ground or penetrated
some of the buildings; nothing, however, could yesterday morning be dis-
covered in the neighbourhood. The whole closely resembled what is men-
tioned as having occurred in Rosshire in August 1849, when a huge mass
of ice was found to have fallen. The rain was at this time falling so
furiously, the night was so dark in the intervals between the flashes of
lightning, and these last so bright and frequent, that a meteor of any size
might have ‘swept unheeded by;’ yet appearances look very much as if
something of this sort had fallen, and we should recommend observers to be
on the outlook for the corpus delicti, more than likely at the same time to
have dropped into the sea. A tumbler half-full of water, on the sideboard
of a house near the Mint, fell in two about seven in the evening, imme-
diately after a vivid flash of lightning! We have it now before us; it is
cut almost as clean asunder as if cloven with a knife. The storm abated
somewhat after eleven, having apparently gone round to the west and south-
west; half an hour after midnight it again got round to the east, and several
loud peals of thunder were heard; the lightning throughout was almost
continued. Shortly after one all was tranquil again.”—Bombay Times,
Sept. 27, 1851.
“ Some further particulars of the fall of the meteor which occurred during
the thunder-storm of Thursday evening, noticed in our last two issues, have
since then been received. The mighty rushing sound and violent concus-
sion perceived by hundreds of persons in the Fort, was so in exactly the
same manner in Colaba, a mile to the southward,—at Ambrolie, two and a
half miles to the north-west,—as it was in the Roadstead, a mile to the east-
ward. All the parties between these two extremes of nearly four miles give
exactly the same account of the matter. The sound was said to proceed
from the northward as of that of a body passing right over head towards the
south, and striking the ground at no great distance. As these phenomena
are spoken of by all parties as nearly identical, the meteor must have passed
when at its nearest at a distance of ten or twelve miles at least. We want
more information on the subject. The smallest contributions will be accept-
able. Only one party who has communicated with us actually saw it rush
—. air, and observed it fall near the outer light-ship.”—Jbid. Sept.
, :
“The writer of the following most interesting notice has our grateful
thanks ; we trust to hear further of the matter from the Lighthouse, or those
on board the outer light-vessel. We have no doubt whatever that this was
a meteor or fire-ball of large dimensions which has fallen into the sea :—‘ It
may be of interest to you, with reference to the notice in today’s paper of
we a on the night betwixt Thursday and Friday, to know that I was
. H
98 REPOR?T—1855. ‘
last evening informed by a seafaring friend of mine, who was, at the time the
Times describes the rushing sound to have been heard, sitting on the deck
of a vessel in harbour watching the storm, that he saw what appeared to be
an immense mass or ball of electric fluid fall, perpendicularly (as it were)
into the sea, apparently near the outer light-vessel : the persons in charge of
this craft may probably be able to afford further information.’ ”—Zbid. Oct.
1, 1851. :
“« The following notice of the meteor of Thursday last closely corresponds
with what has already reached us: had our correspondent been able to give
us anything like an exact idea of the interval which elapsed betwixt the fire-
ball being seen and the sound being heard, we might have formed an estimate
of the distance of the falling body, if the hissing spoken of was in reality the
same as the rushing through the air described by other observers. We shall
be happy to receive the future communication our correspondent promises
us. ‘My wife and I had been watching the lightning for some time at the
door of our bungalow, but feeling very much fatigued, being an invalid, I
retired to the sofa, and had scarcely done so when my wife called out that
she saw a ball of fire fall into the sea in the vicinity of the outer light-ship.
The heavens appeared to open at one spot, from which it descended. This
took place between the hours of 10 and 11 p.m. Neither of us noticed at
that time any particular noise, but at a later hour I said,—Listen to the con-
flict going on amongst the elements: they seemed hissing one another for
some moments.’ ”—Jbid. Oct. 2, 1851.
The fire-ball here referred to was assumed at the time to have been a
meteor, and is set down in Prof. Baden Powell’s report of that year as one
of three which had been observed during thunder-storms, one on the 18th
of March in the N.W. Provinces, seen to fall and strike the ground, giving
a clear ringing sound like the crack of a rifle, without echo or reverberation
at all like thunder. It appeared 150 yards from the Choki, and resembled
in its descent a huge ball of red-hot iron, followed by a band of fire appa-
rently about 30 feet in length: another was visible at Kurrachee on the
30th of April in the same year. It burst with a violent explosion during a
storm of wind and rain, resembling the discharge of a vast battery of
artillery ; about a minute afterwards a great ball of fire, supposed to be a
meteor, was seen descending into the sea—the third case being that of the
25th September already quoted. Departing from the question of earth-
quakes, we now come to the conclusion that these balls of fire, supposed to
have been meteors, were in reality instances of “the glow discharge” men-
tioned by Sir William Snow Harris, and that they are matters of rather fre-
quent occurrence in India. In 1832, in the middle of a violent thunder-
storm, a great fire-ball was seen to descend over the house of Sir Colin
Halkett near Parell. It burst with a furious explosion, and did much mis-
chief all around, amongst other things melting the plate on the sideboard.
On the 16th of June 1819, at the time of the great earthquake, a tremendous
thunder-storm occurred at Masulipatam, during which a fire-ball was seen
to descend on the root of a bungalow, when it burst with an explosion like
a 40-inch shell, and immediately set the thatch in a blaze. These two last
cases which we have quoted, one of which occurred during an earthquake,
certainly were electric explcsions, and they in all respects so closely resemble
the others heretofore supposed to be meteors, that we think we are perfectly
safe in assuming the phanomena to have been the same, and that Prof.
Powell’s Bombay correspondent was in error on the matter.
.
A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 99
No. VII.
Observatory, Beeston, near Nottingham, Sept. 4, 1855.
My pear Sir,—The Rev. K. Swann, of Gedling near Nottingham, has
sent me an account of two meteors whose paths crossed each = x _—pyaris
other; they started from a point between Polaris and Ca-
pella, but only a third of the distance from Polaris. The .«. Z
first was of the lst magnitude and the second of the 2nd vere
magnitude ; both moved rapidly, were colourless, and had no
trains of light. The paths were about 5° in length. Mr.
Swann sent the following sketch :—
Believe me, my dear Sir, yours very truly,
E. J. Lowe. * Capella
Observatory, Beeston, near Nottingham, Sept. 4, 1855.
My pear S1r,—Yesterday I posted for the British Association Report
on Meteors a list of those which have been noticed here during the past
twelve months. To that report I have to add a few remarks.
In 1855 the meteors on the 9th and 10th of August were very numerous.
The evenings of the 10th and 11th were mostly cloudy, but many meteors
were noticed on the 12th.
There were two large meteors cbserved on the 3rd, and it is worthy of
note, that, although the number of these bodies in the first week of August
are not nearly so numerous as they are a week later, still larger meteors are
seen about the 3rd of August than about the 10th; this I have noticed in
ee Of 118 meteors seen between the 9th and 13th of August
855,
: 15 were of the Ist magnitude,
22 were of the 2nd magnitude,
| 30 were of the 3rd magnitude,
51 were of smaller magnitude.
: In 42 examples of these meteors,
7 17 were colourless,
17 were blue,
7 were red,
1 was yellow.
Nearly all the meteors had streaks, which lingered after the meteors had
themselves vanished.
At a fair estimate I could not have seen more than a third of the meteors
that fell, consequently they were falling at the following rate per hour :—
August 9th from 10 to 11 p.m.=150,
10th from 12 to 1 a.m.=48,
10th from 10 to 11 p.m.=56,
12th from 10 to 12 oe ie
13th from 12 tolam. f{ ~~~?
an average between the 9th and 13th of 73 per hour, which would give for
the five days the extraordinary number of 8760.
On producing the paths of their course backwards, several points of
| divergence were well shown on the 9th, 10th, 12th and 13th.
| The one most apparent was 3° above and 2° N. of a Persei; a second
| well shown was 2° N. of the cluster of stars in the Sword-handle of Perseus;
\a third immediately under Cassiopeia; and a fourth below y Cygni.
. A very large proportion of the meteors were at one portion of their path
within 10° of an imaginary line drawn from Cassiopeia to Cygnus.
H
4
100 REPORT—1855.
The majority moved very rapidly.
The points of divergence in Cassiopeia and Cygnus were noticed in
former years, but the two in Perseus were not seen until 1855, and I cannot
help thinking that the meteors in other years (that I have observed) did not.
show these points of divergence iu Perseus.
It will be well to call the attention of observers to this fact, in order that
it may be carefully watched.
Believe me, my dear Sir, yours very truly,
E. J, Lowe.
To the Rev. Professor Baden Powell, F.R.S. &c.
Provisional Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. FAIRBAIRN, _
His Grace the Duke of Arcyut, Captain Sir Epwarp BretcueEr,
the Rev. Dr. Ropinson, the Rev. Dr. Scorespy, Mr. Joseph
Wuitwortn, Mr. J. BEAumont Netuson, Mr. James Nas-
myYTH, and Mr. W. J. Macauorn Rankine; appointed to insti-
tute an inquiry into the best means of ascertaining those properties
of metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of
importance to the durability and efficiency of Artillery; and em-
powered, should they think it advisable, to communicate, in the name
of the Association, with Her Majesty’s Government, and to request —
its assistance.
>
At the time of the meeting of the British Association, at Glasgow, in
September last, a question arose in the Mechanical Section as to the causes
of the deterioration of the metal of which the Artillery of the present day was
constructed. On this question a long and interesting discussion ensued, both
in reference to the comparative weakness of cast iron as now produced, and
to the adaptation of forged and malleable iron, as being stronger and
better adapted for the purpose than the former.
Accounts received from the Baltic and from the Black Sea of the bursting
of guns and mortars of recent construction (for which the inferiority of the
metal from which they were cast was the reason assigned), afford evidence of
something wrong. ‘These failures gave rise to conjectures and uneasiness on
the part of the Government as well as the public, and in order to trace the
cause of this apparent weakness to its source, an inquiry was instituted by
the authorities at Woolwich, and, subsequently by the Association, in the
appointment of this Committee to co-operate with Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment in the investigation of this very important question. In order that
no time might be lost, the Secretary of the Section was directed to issue
circulars to engineers, ironmasters and manufacturers, requesting that they
would forward to the members of the Committee such opinions and observa-
tions as they deemed advisable, in regard to the material itself and to its
treatment preparatory to the manufacture of ordnance.
To these applications replies have been received from Sir Edward Belcher,
Mr. Nasmyth, Mr. Neilson, Mr. Fairbairn, and others, of which the fol-
lowing are extracts :—
Extracts from a letter addressed to the Committee by Sir Edward Belcher,
dated Glasgow, Sept. 19th, 1855.
Sir Edward observes that, in gunnery practice, the interposition of grit and
ON METALS FOR ORDNANCE. 101
the oxidation of the shot, especially with undue rapidity of firing, soon change
the central axis ; and alludes to the grooved and abraded state of the guns
which have been returned, in proof of his assertion. He points out the
necessity of experiments to ascertain how much of the heating of the gun is
due to friction, and urges that, for special service at any rate, polished shot
accurately fitting the gun should be provided. He- points out the great
efficiency of the guns used at the siege of Gaeta, in 1815, in which he took
an important part; and considers that some guns of that date should be
examined and the quality of the metal of which they are composed, ascer-
tained. He believes that the greater heat at which metals are now fused,
and the more perfect fluidity attained, facilitate an undue rapidity of cry-
stallization, and, according to his idea, impair the cohesive strength of the
metal. In consequence of the vents giving way before the bore is injured,
he proposes the use of screw vents, 1} inch in diameter, and as hard as
fowling-piece nipples. He considers that even the whole breech might be |
cast separate, of a denser material than the rest of the gun ; and that this is
proved by the ancient forms of guns, by the Chinese gingals, and by the
revolving rifles and pistols of Colt and Adams. In conclusion he affirms
that four-fifths of the present expense might be saved by the use of the best
guns our engineers can produce.
There is some truth in Sir Edward’s remarks on the abrasion or grooving
of the gun. The two opposite forces of propulsion and recoil act equally on
the breech as on the ball, but in different directions; and if the ball does
not accurately fill the bore, it has a tendency to expend part of its force on
the sides of the gun, and to cause rupture near the trunnions. Under such
circumstances, the gun is subject to several distinct strains: one on the
Fig. 1.
breech in the direction of the arrow a; another in the line of the bore in
the direction of the arrow 6; and a third from the pressure of the ball upon
one of the sides as at c, causing a strain in the direction of the arrow d.
These forces, when in action at the same time, tend to rupture the gun at
the trunnions, by tension on the line of discharge a b, and by a transverse
strain at c, caused by the pressure of the ball in the direction of the line d.
In guns of great length, a perfectly true bore and an oblong or cylindrically
turned ball, fitted like the piston of a steam-engine, would doubtless cure
this defect and prove advantageous, by giving greater safety to the gun, by
diminishing the friction, improving the windage, and ensuring a more direct
line of flight to the projectile. There are difficulties in casting and fitting
guns on this principle, which may however be. overcome by strict attention
to sound rules of construction.
Extracts from a letter addressed to the Committee by Mr. James Nasmyth,
dated Patricroft, Sept. 19th, 1855. =
Mr. Nasmyth, so well known as the inventor of the steam-hammer,
commences his letter by entering on the subject of the failure of malleable
iron guns. He states that those which are built of bars, welded together, are
sure to be destroyed sooner or later by the continued disruptive force of the
102 REPORT—1855.
explosion of powder in the chamber ; that it is stilla question, whether, with.
our present means of forging large masses of iron, we may not obtain powerful
forged iron guns; but so great is the difficulty of obtaining a sufficiently
large mass of iron sound in every part, so great is the expense arising from loss
of material by oxidation, and such is the tendency to basaltic crystallization
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Diagram to illustrate the effects of casting solid, | Mr. Nasmyth’s method of casting mortars with
the interior being weak and spongy. a malleable iron chamber.
Vertical section. Vertical section.
© (is ? \ |
NX Uy fi” \
V2 Va
\S te i :
\
Ay
tts
Z
‘
SSX
i
i
Uf
Si
So
x
nie
»
WY
hh
i
AN
\S
~ ‘ -
RA
SN EYE
Horizontal section.
which the long-continued heating produces, that Mr. Nasmyth comes to the
conclusion, that powerful ordnance cannot be manufactured advantageously
ON METALS FOR ORDNANCE. 103
of malleable iron,—a candid admission on the part of one whose exertions in
that direction are so well known.
Mr. Nasmyth then refers to the failure of cast-iron guns of recent con~
struction. This he attributes principally to two causes: first, to the use of
iron smelted and cast by coal; and secondly, to the modern method of
casting without a core. The superiority of Russian and Swedish guns,
proved by the late war, he ascribes to the use of iron prepared by wood fuel ;
coal in all cases detracting from the tenacity of iron by contaminating it
with sulphur. For this reason, hot-blast iron, smelted by raw coal, is inferior
to cold blast, which is smelted by coke from which many of the impurities
of the coal have been driven off. He believes that the present method of
casting without a core causes the centre or last-cooled portion to be spongy
and deficient in density and strength. To secure the greatest density and
tenacity in the centre, the present mode must be reversed, and,—as,
according to his statement, has long been practised in Russia, Sweden and
the United States,—must be cooled from the centre outwards. Mr. Nasmyth
proposes that the core should consist of a malleable iron chamber, kept cool
by a current of air or by a stream of water. In this way he thinks we shall
obtain increased density of metal where it is most wanted, and he hopes fully
to prove the correctness of his views by the construction of a mortar of great
strength and range, now in progress. In conclusion, he points out the un-
fitness of the spherical form for a missile expected to reach its destination
with precision, on account of its susceptibility to slight disturbing causes.
He considers the Minié bullet, especially when axial rotation is imparted, to
possess all the conditions required to give efficiency to a projectile.
In addition to the above, we may observe that most of Mr. Nasmyth’s ob-
jections to wrought iron apply also to steel: for although it can be cast
and run into moulds, and can afterwards be rendered malleable by the
strokes of a powerful hammer, with some degree of certainty; yet, looking
at the results of the attempt to produce a 68-pounder gun, made by one
of the most distinguished steel manufacturers in Europe, Herr Krupp, of
Essen in Prussia, and taking into consideration the enormous cost, we may
conclude that this valuable material is not calculated to supplant cast iron in
the manufacture of ordnance.
With regard to Mr. Nasmyth’s opinion on the subject of casting with a
core, undoubtedly great advantages would result if it could be accomplished.
But in this process many obstacles have to be surmounted, arising from the
difficulty of regulating the rate of cooling on the exterior and interior sur-
faces, and from the obstacles in the way of boring after a core. This process
has often been tried in this country, but in practice has generally been found
unsuccessful. In America and in France it has also been attempted, but we
have yet to learn, whether the artillery of those countries is actually cast in
this way.
Mr. Cochran, of the United States, has a patent for the water-core system,
but we have been unable to ascertain to what extent it has been successfully
put in practice. Casting in chill is another process also beset with difficulties ;
some experimental trials made at St. Helens during the last six months show
that great uncertainty exists as to the result. Further experiments, however,
and a more extended practice may eventually remove the difficulties.
Extracts from a letter addressed to the Committee by Mr. J. Beaumont
Neilson, dated Glasgow, Sept. 20th, 1855.
Mr. J. B. Neilson, the inventor of the hot blast, who has had great ex-
perience in casting metals, recommends that guns, if made of wrought iron,
104 REPORT—1855.
should be forged upon a mandril in a series of rings, welded successively one
upon another, till the required length is completed. He is of opinion that
the hot blast has enabled the manufacturer to produce iron from inferior
materials, and that quantity, not quality, is chiefly aimed at by the smelter.
He considers, however, that if premiums were offered for the best and
strongest qualities of iron, Government would soon have metal of the required
tenacity. He recommends that guns be cast hollow with cores artificially
cooled. He thinks that it would be advantageous to cast a number of bars
about 2 feet long and 2 inches square, in moulds of various materials, as in
green-sand, dry-sand, loam, in chill, and in cast-iron moulds at 500° of tem-
perature, in order that the effects of different rates of cooling might be
observed and the best quality selected.
The next communication is from Mr. Fairbairn, addressed to His Grace
the Duke of Argyll, a member of the Committee, dated Cardross, Perthshire,
Sept. 27th, 1853. This letter was submitted by His Grace to the Minister
for War, and to the Select Committee at Woolwich.
Mr. Neilson’s communication to the Mechanical Section, “On Forging
large Masses of Malleable Iron,” proved that the strength and other pro-
perties of wrought iron are seriously injured by repeated heatings, that there
is a considerable loss by oxidation, and that the cost and risk are great.
These considerations, and others arising from the physical properties of
wrought iron, its ductility and want of elasticity, clearly show that it is not
a material adapted for the construction of heavy ordnance.
We must therefore inquire, what material at our disposal is best calculated
to ensure durability and strength for heavy guns. Cast steel is expensive,
and hitherto has not been manufactured on a sufficiently large scale to ensure
its application. We have therefore to choose between brass gun-metal and
cast iron. The latter appears by far the more eligible, both as regards its
density and cost, and it opposes almost as much resistance to strain. The
failure of recent cast-iron guns arises from the employment of an unsuitable
description of that material, and: from errors in their manufacture.
It is our opinion that guns of the very best quality can be manufactured
in this country, provided that more care is taken in smelting and casting ;
that cold-blast iron, smelted with coke free from sulphur, is used ; and that a
proper selection of flux and ore is made. The introduction of the hot blast
has given great facilities not only for the reduction of crude ores of inferior
quality, but at the same time it enables the manufacturer to melt down cinder
heaps and other impurities which cause the iron produced to exhibit all the
conditions of porosity and weakness. On this account hot-blast iron should
be absolutely prohibited in the manufacture of ordnance; there is no excuse
for its employment, as we are confidently assured, that several makers are
prepared to supply Government with any quantity of the required descrip-
tion at a proportionate rate of cost. Careful selection of the material and
attention to its treatment are only therefore required to produce iron suitable
for guns of any power or strength.
Being satisfied on these points, we have next to consider how to make
use of the material to produce guns of a maximum strength. The contrac-
tion that a large mass of metal undergoes, in becoming solid, is known to
have a very injurious effect on its tenacity and strength. In casting guns, as
at present managed, the cooling process proceeds from the exterior to the
interior, and the consequence is that the central portion is porous and to a
great extent devoid of density and cohesion. It does not require much
practical skill to know that the use of a core would remedy this defect; and -
ON METALS FOR ORDNANCE. 105
provided this could be accomplished and the core kept cool by a current of
air or water, as is said to have been done in America, considerable improve-
ment as regards strength would be effected. If these suggestions were acted
on, the Government of this country would doubtless have guns of as great
strength and range as any other nation; and it would be a disgrace to us, if,
with our boasted skill and vast experience in the treatment of metals, we
could not surmount a difficulty which should never have existed, and
which only requires the attention of practical men to place it on a more
satisfactory footing.
In all descriptions of artillery the strain in the chamber of the gun is
enormous. This is evident when we consider that the ball leaves the gun
with a velocity of 1800 to 2000 feet per second, and that the force which
gives this immense velocity acts equally on the breech of the gun as upon
the ball. From these data we must learn to apportion the metal to the
several parts in the ratio of the strain they have to bear.
The length of the bore is another important point, as, within certain
limits, the range depends upon the time during which tae expansive power of
the gases of the explosion is acting upon the ball, or in other words, on the
length of the bore. Increasing the length of the bore increases the range,
or, what is the same thing, diminishes the amount of powder necessary to
project the ball to a given distance.
One of the causes of failure, in both ancient and modern artillery, is the
abrasion of the lower part of the vent by repeated discharges. In modern
guns this is perhaps more injurious, on account of the porous state of the
metal at that part arising from casting solid. To remedy this defect it is
important to increase the density of the metal, and if possible to case-harden
the entire inner surface of the gun. To attain this we have already in-
timated that ordnance be cast in chill; that is, should be cast on accurately
turned metallic cores, at such a temperature as is best calculated to secure
the object in view. ‘To obtain uniformity in the rate of cooling round this
core, and to produce a hard skin of steeled iron over the whole interior of
the gun, the core should be hollow, and a current of air or water conducted
through it. This process would-secure much greater strength and durability
to ordnance, and at the same time cheapen its construction.
In a former part of this Report we referred to the process of casting in
chill (wide page 103). This is a process well worthy of the attention of the
Government, as a series of accurately conducted experiments, with proper
apparatus, would, in our opinion, lead to important and highly satisfactory
results. At St. Helens experiments of this nature were made by Messrs.
Robinson and Cook under the immediate superintendence of Mr. Fairbairn ;
and judging from the results of some of the castings, there did not exist a
doubt as to the advantages to be derived from the system if properly carried
out. Several guns, or rather cylinders, of the same proportionate thickness
of metal were cast ; two of them failed, from some irregularities in the cooling,
which caused the core or mandril to get fast; another, however, was well
cast, with a perfectly smooth, interior skin, case-hardened to a considerable
depth by the chill. In this experiment the process was to a great extent
successful, and the only difficulty to be encountered was the danger indi-
cated by the failures, of collapse or contraction upon the mandril. The
utmost care was required for regulating the rate of cooling upon the man-
dril to preven: its being unduly heated by the surrounding mass so long
retained in a state of liquefaction.
_In these experiments sufficient data were established to convince the
experimenters that, with proper tools and appliances, this. system of casting
106 REPORT—1855.
ordnance might, with careful management, be introduced; and assuming
that this could be done, we have the less hesitation in recommending it to
the attention of the Government as eminently entitled to a further extension
of experimental research,
If casting in chill were successfully accomplished, artillery would be cast
on accurately turned and perfectly true mandrils, so as to chill or case-
harden the interior to a depth of about a tenth of an inch. This process
would consolidate the metal by a uniform rate of cooling, and entirely
dispense with boring. In the attainment of these objects, it must, however,
be admitted that many difficulties have to be encountered, such as the
cooling of so large a mass of fluid metal without injuring the mandril, and
regulating the temperature so as to produce the desired chill. These are points
which require minute attention, and must be left to the consideration of the
Government and to the unerring test of experiment.
In addition to the numerous suggestions contained in this Report, we
may state that experiments are now in progress to ascertain the strength
and other properties of a compound similar to meteoric iron, composed of
an alloy of about 23 per cent. of nickel melted with the best cold-blast
iron. His Grace the Duke of Argyll has kindly sent a quantity of cal-
cined nickel in order to ascertain the properties of this compound as
compared with those of the ordinary mixtures of the best metals. These
experiments are not yet complete; but assuming the properties of the
mixture to be similar to those of meteoric iron, we should then have a strong
and very elastic material for the manufacture of artillery *.
Mr. Joseph Whitworth, in a communication to the Committee, dated
September 20, 1855, refers to a rifled cannon, which he is constructing in
parts. It consists of three cast- or wrought-iron pieces bound together by
wrought-iron rings. The bore is nine-sided, with the requisite pitch for
imparting rotatory motion to the ball.
Mr. Fulton, in a communication to the Committee, dated Glasgow, Sep-
tember 29, 1855, offers to undertake the forging of a wrought-iron gun
similar to Mr. Nasmyth’s, and sends sketches of some very large forgings he
is making for Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.’s great vessel, showing what he is
able to accomplish :—
tons cwt. qrs.
Paddle shafts, supposed to be ... 30 O O each.
Propeller shaft, supposed ..,....... 87 0 O
Intermediate shaft, forged......... 28:18 gel
So or re 10 10 2
Cranks; Hnished j,25cicccseeessecndsce a tidy O
Friction strap, supposed ......... 10 0 O
Extracts from a letter addressed to the Committee by Mr. Macquorn Ran-
kine, dated Glasgow, November 13, 1855.
Mr. Rankine, after referring to the fact that it is extremely difficult to
break a brittle earthenware jar if filled with honey, the difficulty obviously
arising from the softness and defective elasticity of the honey, which im-
pedes the transmission of molecular vibrations, proposes to imbed the cannon
in a thick coating of some soft inelastic metal such as lead.
* Since the above was written, several alloys of nickel and iron have been put to the
test of experiment, and have not proved so satisfactory in their powers of resistance to strain
and impact as was originally expected.
er. Pee ee
ON METALS FOR ORDNANCE. 107
Extracts from a letter from Mr. David Pilmore of Shoreham, forwarded to
the Committee by Mr. John Mackinlay, dated Edinburgh, January 7,
1856.
Mr. Pilmore considers that the inferiority of the iron of the present day
is due partly to the source froin which it is derived, but chiefly to the manner
in which it is smelted. ~All the iron of the present day contains, according
to his statement, phosphuret of iron, amounting, even in the best gray sorts,
to 4 per cent. ; this salt being derived from the use of coal in smelting. He
thinks also that the gunpowder of the present day may differ greatly in its
properties from that formerly manufactured. This difference he expects
from the fact that the charcoal now used in its manufacture is burnt in
closed iron vessels, thus preventing the passage of air through its tissues,
which was allowed formerly.
Extracts from a letter addressed to Mr. Fairbairn by Mr. A. Handyside,
dated Derby, January 22, 1856.
Mr. Handyside sends the annexed drawings of a mortar and cannon to
be made in parts; the material to be wrought iron.
The mortar (figs. 4 & 5) to be made of rings welded together, the whole
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
ii
|
lt
to be turned and ground together and then firmly bound by longitudinal
bolts. The cannon (fig. 6) to be made in a similar way, the part behind
108 REPORT—1855.
the trunnions slabbed longitudinally and ringed as shown. Mr. Handyside
adopted this method in order to make use of wrought iron, as he conceives
that they could not be made of it entire. He was led to this plan by having
successfully made in this way an hydraulic press cylinder after a cast one
had broken. The forged one has stood for six years and is still sound.
Others made since in the same way have been equally successful.
It is questionable whether any built gun can long resist the violence of
the explosion, and we believe that wrought iron is not the best material for
heavy ordnance. Nevertheless, in our opinion, Mr. Handyside’s gun and
mortar are constructed on a better principle than most we have yet seen.
Extracts from a letter from Mr. Cochran addressed to Mr. Fairbairn.
Without date.
Mr. Cochran attributes the failures of ordnance of the present day to the
inferiority of the metal and to the defective manner of casting. He would
obviate the first by the use of iron from the Acadian mines of Nova Scotia,
which he states to be equal if not superior to the celebrated Swedish metal,
Fig. 7.
Gun as now adopted in the United States—from a drawing sent by Mr. Cochran.
We think it would be improved if the metal were filled up as far as the dotted lines a a.
and is used extensively by the Government of the United States for artillery.
The defective mode of casting he would remedy by the use of the water
core which he has invented. He encloses the ordinary mould in a case of
non-conducting materials so thick as entirely to prevent the passage of heat
from the exterior of the casting. To accelerate the cooling on the interior
of the casting he uses a hollow core through which he can draw a stream of
water or current of air at pleasure. :
On Typical Objects in Natural History.
[ Cireular.]
Hitcham, Bildeston, Suffolk,
Dear Sir, June 1855. ,
To secure materials for a Report called for by the Natural History Section
of the British Association “On a Typical Series of Objects in Natural
History adapted to local Museums,” I would thank the Members of the
Committee to furnish me with the names and addresses of Naturalists whom
they know to have paid special attention to particular groups in either the
animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms. I will then request these parties,
as I now do the Members of the Committee, to send me their opinion of
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY.. 109
what objects they regard as most typical of those groups and their principal
subdivisions. May I request that returns be made as speedily as con-
venient, and that they be not delayed beyond the end of this month, or at
furthest the middle of the next ?
As an example of what may be considered sufficient. for the purpose in-
tended, I here subjoin the information afforded me by Mr. Darwin, whose
close study of the Cirripedia has rendered him so competent a judge of what
may be regarded as the most typical species of this group of animals.
: J. S. Henstow.
[ N.B.—The list referred to is inserted under Crustacea. ]
P.S. I would further suggest, that where the Jes¢ type is not’a British object,
some British species in addition (the more common the better), belunging
to the same group, should be named. These, being superadded to the typical
series, will point out the full extent to which the groups illustrated occur in
Britain.
In regard to typical objects for a geological series, I would suggest some
such formula as the following to be filled up and forwarded :-—
Under each formation, its—
I. Lithology.
1. Typical rock specimens (ex. gr. from Red Crag) :—
Ss Comminuted shells, more or less cemented by oxide of iron.
(2) Detrital materials from the lower beds, viz. rolled and altered
fragments of Septaria, phosphate nodules, and a few characteristic
fossils from London Clay, from Coralline Crag, &c.
_ 2. Simple minerals frequently associated with the rock series (ex. gr. from
London Clay ):—
Gypsum (crystals), Iron Pyrites (nodules).
3. Illustrations of voleanic agency :—
oi Rocks ejected during the period.
2) Rocks modified by eruptions subsequent to the period in question
(ex. yr. coal charred, limestone crystallized, by incursion of trap in
dykes subsequent to the consolidation of the coal-measures).
II. (Botany) Fiora.
Best examples for proving the fact, that either or each of the three Natural
Classes have been met with in the formation illustrated :-—
(3) Acotyledones.
(2) Monocotyledones.
(1) Dicotyledones.
III. (Zoology) Fauna.
One species of one cr more genera characteristic of the formation in each
Class, and its main subdivisions, as,
Classes or Subclasses. Example of Subdivisions. ~
Amorphozoa.
Foraminifera.
Zoophyta. Crinoidea.
Echinodermata............ { Asteroidea.
Echinoidea.
Annelida.
Crustacea................+.. Cirripedia.
Insecta.
_ TT” rerw_C
110 , REPORT—1855.
Bryozoa.
Brachiopoda.
Monomyaria.
Dimyaria.
Gasteropoda.
Pteropoda.
Cephalopoda.
Pisces.
Reptilia.
Aves.
Mammalia.
The following Report, with the Lists received, were presented at the
Glasgow meeting :—
Tue late lamented Prof. E. Forbes devoted his Introductory Lecture* at
the Museum of Practical Geology, in 1853, to a consideration of the “ Edu-
cational Uses” of Museums, and he has there commented, with some degree
of severity, upon the very inefficient manner in which many local Museums
are arranged. Without wishing to extend his censures to Curators who have
devoted time and labour to the due arrangement of whatever objects have
been placed under their care, we cannot help remarking how inefficient their
exertions have proved in respect to the general “educational uses” to which
they might have been rendered subservient. Great care may often have been
bestowed in displaying numerous species belonging to one or more favourite
groups, whilst many others, more or less extensive (tribes, orders, and even
classes) among animals, plants, and minerals, are entirely unrepresented.
Although our great National Establishments in London are adapted for
displaying a large proportion of all procurable objects of natural history,
it would require larger funds than local Museums are likely to command,
to adopt the plan which they follow. But it is within the power of every
Museum, however humble its pretensions, to procure and display such
instructive series of objects as may bring the entire range of natural history
in a forcible manner before the attention of the public. Wherever a specimen
of some species regarded as a sufficient type of a particular group cannot be
conveniently procured, then a model, a drawing, or a tracing from some pub-
lished figure may be introduced as a substitute. Naturalists often differ in
regard to what species they consider the best representatives of certain
groups; but still, the judgement of Curators would be greatly assisted in
making choice of objects for public display, if they were furnished with lists
of types selected by naturalists who had paid special attention to particular
groups. If they considered it the primary object of their duty to secure
specimens of as many of these types as possible, and to obtain representa-
tions (models or figures) of whatever they could not procure, they would
possess a basis on which to ground their arrangement of whatever else their
Museums contained. There would no longer be great gaps in the general
* On the Educational Uses of Museums (a pamphlet of 19 pp.), by Edw. Forbes, F.R.S. &c.
Longman and Co., 1853.
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 111
series; but good types of all the main groups in the three great kingdoms of
nature would be publicly displayed.
Frequent additions to a general collection necessitate continual re-
arrangements among the objects deposited in Museums ; but a set of hori-
zontal cases on the floor may be advantageously appropriated to the
display of the selected types. These will form a sort of “ Typical Epi-
tome” of natural history, distinct from the rest of the collection. This
Epitome will serve as a general index to the whole; and where a typical
specimen (from size or other consideration) could not be ranged in the
horizontal cases, a model or figure would occupy its place, accompanied by
a reference to the spot where (if it be in the Museum) it may be seen. By
a little tact and contrivance, such a Typical Epitome may be reduced within
a narrow compass. Very limited Museums might advantageously restrict
their collections to little more than a general typical series; always ex-
cepting those special collections which are to illustrate the natural history of
their own neighbourhoods.
Perhaps the plan of a general circular inviting naturalists to cooperate in
furnishing typical series for the departments with which they happen to be
best acquainted, has not been so successful as a more special application to
individual Members of the Association might have proved. A few, however,
have kindly favoured us with lists, and the publication of these may probably
prevail with others to assist in completing a scheme which the Natural
History Section has twice sanctioned, and which partial experience has
proved to be of considerable utility. No Curator can be equally competent
in all departments of natural history, to select the types best adapted for
illustrating the principal groups* in which genera are ranged.
ANIMAL KINGDOM.
N.B.—In the present imperfect state of the returns, the divisions into
Classes, Orders, &c. are retained as the respective authors have employed
these terms. 3
Class MAMMALIA.
No list sent in.
Class AVES.
The types are selected for groups nearly according with the arrangement
of Mr. G. R. Gray. List supplied by Philip Lutley Sclater, Esq.
Ordo I. ACCIPITRES.
1. Vulturide ........ Meophron perenopterus .......... B.
2. Falconide ........ Falco peregrinus...:.. Meine et sr es B.
S$. Strigide... 223% Strix flammea.:.:::.0.. 00005... B.
- * Great service will be rendered, if those who furnish the lists, will, as far as possible,
give references to good figures of the types selected. A (B) should be placed after such spe-
cies as occur in Britain.
112 REPORT—1855.
Ordo II. PASSERES.
a. FISSIROSTRES.
4. Caprimulgide...... Caprimulgus europ@us ......+++- B.
5. Hirundinide ...... Hirundo rustica .. 6.0 ccc cece dees > Bs
6. Coraciade ........ Coracias garrula .. 1... seseeeee Bz
Te Lodidw i).6:). sss Todus viridis.
8. Momotide ........° Momotus brasiliensis.
9. Trogonide........ Trogon curucut.
10, Alcedinide........ Alcedo ispidd .....eeseeveeerees B.
11. Galbulide ........ Galbula viridis.
12, Meropide ........ Merops apiaster .. 1.4... 00000 vet Be
13. Bucerotide........ Buceros rhinoceros.
6. TENUIROSTRES.
14. Upupide ........ Upupa epops ...sccceeevesee pie sree
15. Promeropide ...... Vectarinia senegalensis.
16. Cerebide ........ Cereba cerulea.
17. Trochilide........ Trochilus colubris.
18. Meliphagide ...... Meliphaga phrygia.
19. Certhiide ........ Certhia familiaris 1... 000. ceveee B.
c. DENTIROSTRES.
90. Sylviide.........- Sylvia luscinia ....0+-+++ eer B.
Q). Turdide.......... Turdus viscwvorus .....0++-+ +++: B.
22. Muscicapide ...... Muscicapa grisola ...+.0+++.400+ B.
23. Ampelide ........ Ampelis garrula v.00. .s00 sss: Be
94, Laniide ......--.- AOA CLEUDILOR sn) 9 arni joins ene a B.
d, CONIROSTRES.
25. Corvide....... os» Corvus cOTAr ...+...-+ Roesean oe B.
26. Paradiseide ...... Paradisea apoda.
27. Sturnide...... “ee. Sturmus vulgaris .....0..s0005 Ds
98. Fringillide ........ Fringilla celebs .. B.
Ordo III. SCANSORES.
29. Psittacidee ......6. Psittacus erithacus.
30. Ramphastide...... Ramphastos toco.
31. Capitonide........ Capito cayanensis.
32. Picide .......:.. Picus major ........-...- os aay B.
33. Cuculide ........ Cuculus canorus.......0ee+e eee B.
34, Musophagide...... Musophaga violacea.
Ordo IV. COLUMB/.
35. Columbide........ Columba palumbus...... 10-0. -. B
Ordo V. GALLINZ.
36. Cracide .......... Crazx alector.
37. Megapodide ...... Megapodius lapeyrousii.
| 38. Phasianide........ Phasianus colchicus .....++++++2 B.
39. Tetraonide........ TVET GO TTIZ. <6 0:0 «000-5: eth istaaetoaee B.
40. Chionidide........ Chionis alba.
41. Tinamide ........ Tinamus major.
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 113
Ordo VI. STRUTHIONES.
42. Struthionide ...... Struthio camelus.
43. Apterygide ...... <Apteryx australis.
Ordo VII. GRALLE.
44, Otidide .......... OUISEATAC. «on ecc cies & gas a ak ca\e aise Me
45. Charadriide ...... _ Charadrius pluvialis ............ B.
46. Gruide .......... Grus cinerea .. 0... 021-008 : no be
47. Ardeide......0... Ardea cinerea .. 1... ccc ce eens B.
48. Scolopacide ...... Scolopax rusticola ........+. 000 B.
49. Palamedeide ...... Palamedea cornuta......... ot won
BO. Rallida 5.).....5%..% Rallus aquaticus.........sseeee. Be
Ordo VIII. ANSERES.
51. Anatide....,..... Amas boschas .........+4+ ape te Rpe 2:
52. Colymbide........ Podiceps minor .....,.. 004 sia feu
53. Alcide .......... Utamania tordu..........++000- B
54. Procellaride ...... Procellaria pelagica .....++. ocajy o4y Ele
ie WAPI ee. «<r TGTUS CONUS. i BP oh ssc sibore alaye.cpace B
56. Pelecanidz...... hye Phalacracorax carbo .........5+: B
Class REPTILIA.
| No list sent in.
Class PISCES.
No typical series sent in; but Jonathan Couch, Esq. has furnished the
ollowing list of British Fish, which he considers may be useful to local
Vfuseums, as they can all be procured at small expense.
Blue Shark, Carcharias glaucus, or else the Toper, Galerius vulgaris.
Picked Dog, as an example of such as have spines on the back.
Nursehound, Seyllium Catulus, as one of the Ground Sharks.
Porbeagle, as one of the class that bears a ridge on the side near the tail.
The Common Skate, or the Thornback ; and for examples of variations in
he teeth, as being conspicuous objects of distinction among Sharks and Rays,
__ che jaws should be exhibited separately. A complete series of them from all
_ she British species of these two subfamilies would be very instructive, and
night be easily obtained.
_ As aberrant genera, the Monk, Torpedo, and Sting-ray.
The Perch, or Bass.
Smooth Serranus, for those with a single dorsal fin and serrated gill-covers.
__ The greater Weaver.
— - Surmullet.
~ Common Gurnard ; the mailed Gurnard for an aberrant type.
- Common Cottus and armed Bullhead.
?
Of Sticklebacks; the fifteen-spined should be preferred, as being easy to
_ be procured, and more easily examined than the smaller species.
_ The Common Sea Bream. Ray’s Bream.
~ Common Mackerel, or else the Tunny. Scad.
_ Doree.
Red Band-fish.
Grey Mullet.
Common Blenny. Wolf-fish. Gattorugine. Butter-fish.
Rock Goby.
1855. I
114 REPORT—1855.
Either of the Callionymi, but C. Zyra in preference.
Angler. ;
Ballan Wrass, and as an example of the Wrass tribe with serrated gill-
covers, the Corkwing. The Cook also would be desirable, as displaying
beauty of colouring ; which by art may be preserved from fading.
I pass over the freshwater fishes, to name the Gar-fish, and its congener,
the Skopster.
Flying-fish, and in preference the Exocetus exiliens, as being perhaps the .
only species ever yet found in our seas.
Herring or Pilchard.
Cod-fish.
Coal-fish.
Hake, Rockling, for aberrant genera.
The Plaice, or Flounder, looking to the right.
Brill, looking to the left. Rhombus hirtus, as possessing peculiarities of
form, roughness of skin, and remarkable position of the dorsal fin.
The Sole, showing an elongated form.
The Lump-fish, and any of the smaller species in spirit.
The Remora, as displaying a variation in the mode of forming adhesion
(which may be illustrated by another method of doing the same thing,
although with a very different object, in the Sea’ Lamprey).
The Common Eel, or Conger.
The larger Launce.
Syngnathus acus, for the subfamily with tail and pectoral fin, bearing
its young in a pouch; and S. Ophidion, not having these fins, and bearing
its ova adhering to the belly.
Sun-fish.
MOLLUSCA.
The following list, from Cephalopoda to Tunicata, has been supplied by
S. P. Woodward, Esq.
Classis ]. CEPHALOPODA.
Best example, SprruLa.
Ordo I. Disrancuiata.
(Onychoteuthis or Ommastrephes.)
Fam. 1. Argonautide .. Argonauta argo.
2. Octopodide,... Octopus vulgaris...... B.
3. Teuthide .... Loligo vulgaris ....+.. B.
4, Belemnitide .. Belemnites Owenit .... B.
5. Sepiade ...... Sepia officinalis ...... B.
6. Spirulide .... Spirula Peroni ...... B.
Ordo Il. Terraprancuiata. (Orthoceras.)
Fam. 1. Nautilide .... Nautilus pompilius.
2. Orthoceratide. . Actinoceras giganteum B.
3. Ammonitide .. Ammonites Jason ..., B.
Classis II. GASTEROPODA.
( Turbo marmoratus.)
Ordo I. NuctroprancuiatTa. (Carinaria.)
Fam. J. Firolide...... Firola coronata.
2. Atlantide .... Atlanta Peronii.
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 115
Ordo II. Prosopoprancuiata. (Buccinum and Turbo.)
Fam. 1. Strombide .... Strombus giganteus,
2. Buccinide .... Buccinum undatum.... PB.
9. Conidae ve sua.s Conus marmoreus.
4. Volutide...... Voluta musica.
5. Cypreide .... Cyprea tigris.
6. Naticide...... Natica millepunctata.
7. Cancellariade. . Trichotropis borealis .. B.
8. Pyramidellide. . Pyramidella dolabrata.
9. Calyptreeide .. Calyptrea sinensis .... B.
10. Ianthinide .... Tanthina exigua...... B.
11. Turritellide.... Turritella communis .. B.
12. Cerithiade ..., Cerithium vulgatum.
13. Melaniade .... Melania inquinata.
14. Litorinide .... Litorina litorea ...... B.
15. Paludinide .... Paludina vivipara.... B.
16. Turbinide .... Trochus Zizyphinus .. B.
17. Haliotide ..,. Haliotis tuberculata .. B.
18. Fissurellide .. Fissurella reticulata .. B.
19. Neritide ...... _ Nerita peloronta.
(Neritina fluviatilis B.)
20. Patellide...... Patella vulgata ...... B.
91. Dentaliade .... Dentalium Tarentinum B.
22. Chitonide .... Chiton levis ........ B.
Ordo II. Putmonirera. (a great Bulimus or Achatina.)
§§ 1. Inoperculata.
Fam. 1. Helicide...... Helix pomatia.......- B.
2. Limacide .... Limax antiquorum,... B.
3. Oncidiade .... Oncidium celticum .... B.
4. Limneide .... Limnea stagnalis .... B.
5. Auriculide .... Conovulus denticulatus B.
§$§ 2. Operculata.
6. Cyclostomida. . Cyclostoma elegans.... B.
7. Aciculide .,.. Acicula fusca ........- B.
Ordo IV. OpistHosrancuiaTaA. (Aplysia. )
§§ 1. Tectibranchiata.
Fam. 1. Tornatellide .. Tornatella fasciata.... B.
2. Bullide ...... Bulla hydatis . . . B.
P §§ 2. Inferobranchiata.
Fam. 3. Aplysiade .... Aplysia hybrida...... B.
4. Pleurobranchide Pleu. membranaceus .. B.
5. Phyllidiade. ... Diphyllidia lineata.... . B.
§§ 3. Nudibranchiata.
Fam. 6. Doride ...... Doris tuberculata...... B.
7. Tritoniade.... Tritonia Hombergi.... B.
8. Holide ...... Aolis papillosa ...... B.
9. Phyllirhoide .. Phyllirhoa bucephala.
10. Elysiade.. .... Elysia viridis ....... : By
116 ‘7 REPORT—1855.
Classis III. PTEROPODA.
Ordo 5. Aroroprancuiata. (Cleodora.)
Fam. 1. Hyaleide .... Hyalea telemus.
2. Limacinide.... Limacina arctica.
BeChidwe. .. .. ene. Clio borealis.
Classis IV. ACEPHALA. (Cytherea, Chione.)
Classis V. CONCHIFERA.
Ordo I. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
§§ 1. Asiphonida.
Fam. 1. Pectinide .... Pecten maximus .....+ B.
2. Ostreide...... Ostrea edulis ........ B.
3. Aviculide .... Avicula margaritifera.
4, Mytilide...... Mytilus edulis........ B
5. Aveauwe ....' .- Arca Noe.
6. Nuculide...... Nucula nucleus ....-. B.
7. Trigoniade.... Trigonia clavellata.... B.
8. Unionide...... Unio pictorum ...... B.
§§ 2. Integropallialia.
9. Chamide...... Chama macrophylla.
10. Hippuritide .. ( Caprotina semistriata.)
11. Tridacnide.... Tridacna gigas.
12. Cardiade...... Cardium (echinatum).. B.
13. Lueinide., -..).. Lucina borealis .....- B.
14. Astartide .... Astarte suleata ...... B.
15. Cyprinide .... Cyprina Islandica.... B
§§ 3. Sinupallialia.
16. Veneride .... Cytherea chione ...... B.
17. Mactride .... Mactra stultorum B.
18. Tellinide .... Tellina (crassa) ...... B.
19. Solenidz...... MOLE IGNRES Se ae B.
20. Myacide...... Mya arenaria.......- B.
21. Anatinide .... (Thracia pubescens) .. B.
22. Gastrochenide Gastrochena modiolina B.
23. Pholadide .... Pholas dactylus ...... B.
Classis VI. BRACHIOPODA.
Ordo II, PALLIOBRANCHIATA.
Fam. 1. Terebratulide.. Terebratula caput-ser-
PETTUS oon wise > wie 5 ' B.
Q. Spiriferide .... Spirifera striata...... B.
3. Rhynchonellide Rhynchonella psittacea B.
4. Orthide ...... Orthis resupinata .... B.
5. Productide.... Producta gigantea .... B.
6. Craniade .... Crania anomala B.
7. Discinide .... Discina lamellosa.
8. Lingulide .... Lingula anatina.
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 117
Classis VII. TUNICATA.
Ordo III. HETERoBRANCHIATA, Bl.
1. Ascidiade .... Ascidium intestinale .. B.
2. Clavellinide .. Clavellina lepadiformis B.
3. Botryllide .... Botryllus violaceus.... B.
4. Pyrosomide .. Pyrosoma atlanticum.
5. Salpide ...... Salpa democratica.
Mollusca (continued ).—G. Busk, Esq. has furnished the following list for
the lower groups of Mollusca.
Classis POLYZOA.
Ordo I. P. INFUNDIBULATA.
Subordo I. Cueitostomata. (Celleporina.)
§ A. Polyzoarium articulated.
§§ a. Uniserial.
Fam. 1. Catenicellide ...... Catenicella hastata.
$§ b. Bi-multiserial.
Fam. 2. Salicornariade .... Salicornaria farciminoides.. B.
3. Cellulariade ...... Cellularia Peachit........ B.
§ B. Polyzoarium not articulated, but continuous throughout.
§§ a. Uniserial.
Fam. 4. Scrupariade...... Scruparia chelata ...... B.
§§ b. Bi-multiserial.
Fam. 5. Farciminariade .. Farciminaria aculeata.
6. Gemellariade .... Gemellaria loricata ...... Bb.
7. Cabereadee ...... Caberea Hookeri.........-+ B.
8. Bicellariade ...... Bicellaria ciliata ........ B.
9. Flustrade ........ Flustra foliacea .......... B.
10. Membraniporade . . Membranipora membrana-
CORN.) Cat ene les aes B.
Lepralia auriculata ...... B.
11. Celleporade ...... Cellepora pumicosa ...... B.
12. Escharade........ Eischara foliacea...... ily. Be
13. Vinculade........ Vineularia ornata.
14. Selenariade ...... Cupularia Lowet.
Subordo II. Cyctostomara. (Tubuliporina.)
§ 1. Hrect, not adnate.
§§ a. Articulated, or having the polyzoary divided into internodes united by
flexible joints.
Fam. 1. Crisiade .......... Crisia eburnea ...... oat. 22 Be
§§ b. Polyzoary continuous throughout.
Fam. 2. Idmoneade........ Idmonea atlantica........ B.
Pustulipora deflexa ...... B.
118 REPORT—1855.
§ 2. Decumbent, more or less adnate.
Fam. 3. Alectoade ........ Alecto granulata.......... B.
4. Tubuliporade...... Tubulipora serpens ...... B.
5. Discoporade ...... Discopora patina ........ B.
Subordo III. Crenostomata. (Vesicularina.)
$1. Corneous ; the polyzoary composed of a horny substance, sometimes con-
taining earthy matter.
Fam. 1. Vesiculariade...... Serialaria lendigera ...... B.
2. Farellade ........ Bowerbankia imbricata .... B.
§ 2. Carnose ; the polyzoary composed of a fleshy or semigelatinous substance.
Fam. 3. Alcyoniade........ Alcyonium gelatinosum .... B.
Subordo IV. PEpICcELLINEA.
Fam. 1. Pedicellinide ...... Pedicellina echinata ...... B.
Ordo II. P. HIPPOCREPIA.
§ 1. Lophophore bilateral ; mouth furnished with a valve.
§§ a. Free, locomotive.
Fam. 1. Cristatellide ...... Cristatella mucedo...... «+ B.
§§ b. Rooted.
Fam. 2. Plumatellide ....., Alcyonella fungosa........ B.
§ 2. Lophophore orbicular, mouth destitute of a valve.
Fam. Paludicellide ...... Paludicella Ehrenbergi.... B.
Arachnida.—R. H. Meade, Esq., has forwarded the list for this group.
Ordo I. ARANEIDEA.
Tribus OcTONOcULINA.
Epeira diadema (best type for the whole order).
Fam. I. Mygalidee (Latebricol) Mygale avicularia.
II. Lycoside (Cursores) .. Lycosa tarantula.
(Lycosa saccata) ........ B.
Ill. Salticidweiw ve. « Salticus scenicus ........ B.
IV. Thomiside (Laterigradz ) Thomisus cristatus........ B.
V. Drasside (Niditele) .. Clubiona holosericea ...... B.
VI. Agelenide (Tassitelz ) Agelena labyrinthica...... B.
VII. Dhertdiidess; wets). 5. Theridion nervosum ...... B.
VIII. Linyphiide (Retitele ) Linyphia montana,....... B.
IX. Epeiride (Orbitele) .. Epeira diadema.......... B.
Tribus SENOCULINA.
Fam. X. Dysderide (Tubicole) Dysdera erythrina...... B.
Ordo II. PHRYNEIDEA.
Phrynus lunatus. *
Ordo III. SCORPIONIDEA.
Fam. I. Scorpionide .......... Scorpio Europeus.
If. Bathidesiauas\. va sues Buthus afer.
TIT. (Centres oo ono .o a a's « Centrurus gallineus.
IV. Androctonides........ Androctonus bicolor.
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 119
Subordo I. THELYPHONIDZ.
Thelyphonus caudatus.
Subordo II. Psrupo-scoRPIONID&.
Chelifer cancroides .. 1... esse sereee B.
Ordo IV. PHALANGIDEA.
Fam. I. Solpugiide .......... Galeodes araneoides.
II. Phalangiide.......... Phalangium parietinum.... B.
Ill. Troguliide .......... Trogulus nepeformis...... B.?
IV. Gonyleptiide ........ Gonyleptes horridus.
Wa SITGMi@eey 6 ae OLS Siro rubens ...... arate share B.
Ordo V. ACARIDEA.
Fam. I. Trombidiade ........ Trombidium holosericeum.. B.
II. Gammasiide.......... Gammasus coleoptratorum.. B.
HI Acartide- i rn..s4 5 -- Acarus domesticus........ B.
1s bcos a Ivodes Ricinus .......... B.
WV. Cheylenidee tec aay = - Sarcoptes Scabier . oe
VI. Hydrachnade ........ Limnochares holosericea.... B.
CRUSTACEA.
The following list of the Podophthalma is furnished by T. Bell, Esq.,
President of the Linnean Society.
| Subclassis PODOPHTHALMA.
Ordo DECAPODA.
Subordo Bracuyura.
Fam. Leptopodiade.... Leptopodia sagittaria.
(Stenorynchus Phalangium) B
Maijad@e. .02552.4..° Maia Squinado ........
Parthenopide ........ Parthenope horrida.
Canceridie . 6... 545 Eurynome aspera...... «+ B.
Subfam. Cryptopodia (/Ethrina) Aithra scruposa.
Arcuata (Cancerina) .. Cancer Pagurus. .......- B.
Quadrilatera (Eriphina) Eriphia spinifrons,
Fam. Portunide .......... Portunus puber ........ B.
Thelphusidea ........ Thelphusa fluviatilis.
Gecarcinide ........ Gecarcinus ruricola.
Pinnotheride ........ Pinnotheres Pisum ...... B.
Ocypodide .......... Ocypode Ippeus.
( Gelasimus vocans).
Gonoplacide ........ Gonoplax angulata .. B.
Grapsida@,..0.+ esses Grapsus pictus.
o
(Nautilograpsus minutus)
Leucosia Urania.
" (Aberrans.) Ebalia Pennant .. B.
Leucosiade,.......
Calappadse 250.225: ¥: Calappa granulata.
. Dy ale Matuta Victor.
Corystide ........ : Corystes Cassivelaunus .. B.
Dorippide ese y vies Dorippe quadridentata.
120 | REPORT—1855.
Subordo ANoMoURA.
Fam. -Dromiadis .. 5... sie ss Dromia vulgaris .. 1664+. B.
Homolade .......... Homola spinifrons.
Lithodes arctica ........ B.
Reamimasice 5.:.'s% s)he 8 Ranina dentata.
BRIG PAGS io po inyaye sis yess Reemipes testudinarius.
FAP. ojo em ei cas ais Pagurus Bernhardus .... B.
(Aberrans.) Birgus Latro.
Subfam. Porcellanide ........ Porcellana violacea.
Porcellanina ........ Porcellana platycheles.... B.
Galathema Tees” Galathea strigosa........ B.
Subordo Macroura.
“Fam. Seyllaridze: aj... «6:00 Scyllarus aretus.
Palinunide <7. ais.= +» Palinurus vulgaris ...... B.
Thalassinide ........ Thalassina scorpionides.
Gebia Deltura........ pans
WASTHOMME Ss: « penis o> osm, Astacus fluviatilis........ B:
Crangonide.......... Crangon borealis.
Crangon vulgaris........ B.
Pipher. cs yee ee Alpheus bidens.
Alpheus ruberes. oc vc. a5 Bs
Palemonidz.......... Palemon Carcinus.
Palemon serratus........ B.
CBRN ng a sha aieTa che Penaeus Caramote.
Pencus trisuleatus ...... B.
CumtAdie. on sca seas Cuma trispinosa ........ B.
Ordo STOMOPODA.
Fam. Mygidm iss seieewaene- Mysis Chameleon........ B.
Deve leridas 5 irs cqreislnle Leucifer Typus.
Phyllosomatide ...... Phyllosoma laticorne.
Erichthide \..+..,. +5. - Erichthus vitreus.
Squillade. voiis einen Squilla Mantis.......... B.
Dr. Baird furnishes the following list for Entomostraca.
Divisio ENTOMOSTRACA.
Legio I. BRANCHIOPODA.
Ordo I. PHYLLOPODA.
AE OCNETT TRS 5 os fo a Otis BE OEE, ia B.
Chirocephalus (Branchipus) diaphanus.......... B.
Legio II. LOPHYROPODA.
Ordo I. OSTRACODA.
Cypris vidua, f
Candona reptans \ fresh ‘Waters 6.c: susat brepslete ss B.
Cythere renifoarmis, sea Water oo. cec eee eee eee B. -
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 121
Ordo II. CLADOCERA.
Daphnia quadricornis . Ste aera any iain We
Chydorus (Lynceus) sphericus Saange Waele B.
Ordo III. COPEPODA.
Cyclops vulgaris ......... Pate iet es. aos. aj Bis
Legio III. PQACILOPODA.
Ordo I. SIPHONOSTOMA.
Argulus foliaceus (on Stickleback).......... 000+ B.
Cahqus Matters (oa Cod) (2. P20. is. cess we vane 6 B.
Lepeophtheirus ( Caligus) Stromii (on Salmon).... B.
Ordo JI. LERNAIDA.
Chondracanthus ae hh Foes Sesto wit eae B.
Lernea branchialis . nh ie neo Sy eta Be PORTER Oe OE
(i BEAD: seated all sable cb soda RRM te? CPEB enlleha sdelti ts AE Res gh
The following list for the Cirripedia is communicated by C. Darwin, Esq.
Subclassis CIRRIPEDIA.
Ordo I. THORACICA.
Pollicipes mitella (best type for the order).
Fam. 1. Balanide Seong gas
Subfam. 1. Balanine. . gee Balanus tintinnabulum.
porcatus ........ B.
2. Chthamaline ...... Chthamalus stellatus vo Bs
Catophragmus polymerus
(as connecting Balanide
with Lepadida).
Fam. 2. Verrucide .... Verruca stromia ...... B
3. Lepadide (peduneulated
Cirripeds) . .. Lepas anatifera ...... B
Ordo II. ABDOMINALIA.
Cryptophialus minutus.
Ordo II]. APODA.
Proteolepas bivincta.
ee ee ee as te
RADIATA.
Among these, G. Busk, Esq. has furnished the following list for the class
Anthozoa.
Classis ANTHOZOA.
Subclassis I. A. nypRoIDA.
Ordo I. TUBULARINA.
Fam. 1. Corynide ........., Coryne pusilla......... -» B.
2. Tubulariade ........ Tubularia indivisa ...... B.
iT; REPORT—1855.
Ordo Il. SERTULARINA.
Fam. 3. Sertulariade ........ Sertularia abietina...... B.
Plumularia cristata...... B.
4. Campanulariade...... Laomedea dichotoma .... B.
Ordo II. HYDRINA.
Fam. 5. Hydroide .......... Hydra viridis, or vulgaris. B.
Subclassis I]. A. AsTEROIDA.
Fam. 1. Pennatulide ........ Pennatula phosphorea.... B.
2. Gorgoniade ........ Gorgonia verrucosa...... B.
$. Alcyonide .:...-.... Aleyonium digitatum .... B.
4. Antipathide ........ Antipathes myriophylla ... B.
Subclassis III. A. HELIANTHOIDA (Zoantharia).
Ordo I. MALACODERMATA.
§ 1. Polypes associated by a common base.
Fam. 1.*Zoanthide ..........- Zoanthus Couchii ...... B.
§ 2. Polypes separate.
Fam. 2. Actiniade .........- Actinia mesembryanthemum B.
3. Lucernariade ........ Lucernaria auricula.
Ordo Il. SCLERENCHYMATOSA. (Corals.)
Subordo I. Aporosa.
Fam. 1. Turbinolide.
Tribus 1. Cyathinine ...... Cyathina cyathus.
2. Turbinoline ...... Turbinolia borealis.
Fam. 2. Oculinide ........-. Oculina virginea.
3. Astreidee.
Tribus 1- Eusmiline.
§ 1. E. proprize .......- Eusmilia fastigiata.
2. E. confluentes...... Ctenophyllia meandrites.
3. E. aggregate ...... Stylina echinulata.
4, E. immerse ......-- Sareinula organum.
Tribus 2. Astreinz.
§ 1. Astreine hirte .... Caryophyllia Smithit .... B.
2. A. confluentes...... Meandrina filograna.
3. A. dendroide ...... Cladocora cespitosa.
4. A. aggregate ...... Astrea cavernosa.
5. A. reptantes........ Angia rubeola.
Fam. 4. Fungide.
Tribus 1. Cyclolitine ...... Cyclolites elliptica.
2, A ENE oo, «aah Anabacia orbulites.
3. Lophoserine ...... Agaricia undata.
Subordo II. Z, PERFORATA seu POROSA.
Fam. 5. Eupsammide ........ Eupsammia trochiformis.
6. Madreporide.
Tribus 1. Madreporine .... Madrepora muricata.
2. Explanarine ...... Explanaria crater.
Fam. 7. Poritide.
Tribus 1. Poritine ........ Porites conglomerata.
2. Montiporine...... Alveopora rubra.
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 123
Subordo III. Z. raBuLATA.
Fam. 8. Milleporide ........ Millepora alcicornis.
9. Favositidee.
Tribus 1. Favositine ...... Favosites Gothlandica.
2. Chetetinez........ Chetetes radians.
3. Halysitine ...... Halysites escharoides.
4. Pocilloporine .... Pocillopora acuta.
Fam. 10. Seriatoporide ...... Seriatopora subulata.
LYS “Mhieeitie ys. <,2..0.. 4. Thecia Swinderniana.
Subordo IV. Z. RuGoSA.
Fam. 12. Stauride.-......« 41s Stauria astreiformis.
13. Cyathaxonide ...... Cyathaxonia cornu (fossil).
14. Cyathophyllidz
Tribus 1. Zaphrentine...... Zaphrentis patula (fossil).
2. Cyathophylline .. Cyathophyllum helianthoides
(fossil).
3. Lithodendronine .. Lithodendron irregulare
(fossil).
Fam. 15. Cystiphyllide ...... Cystiphyllum Siluriense (fossil).
VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
Dried plants from the Herbarium cannot be advantageously displayed in
glass cases. The following method may be adopted for the Typical Epitome:—
a few wax models of flowers, with figures of such parts as require to be
magnified; but especially entire fruits, with dissections exposing the seed
and embryo. As a general plan for fruits and seeds, there should be ex-
hibited, —
1. Entire fruit, dried or (where succulent) modelled in wax.
2. Section of the pericarp to expose the seed in position.
3. Entire seed.
4. Section of seed to expose the embryo.
5. Embryo. When minute, it may be preserved as a microscopic object,
and accompanied by a figure of it magnified.
These preparations should be protected against the attacks of insects, by
being steeped in a solution of corrosive sublimate.
In addition to the illustrations displayed in the Epitome, dried specimens
and figures may be arranged in a “ Typical Herbarium.”
If the following plan of drawing up a joint list of objects for the “ Typical
Herbarium,” and the Epitome to be exposed under glass, should be approved,
it will be continued in a Second Report. J. S. HEnsLow.
124 REPORT—1855.
Typical Herbarium. Specimens displayed under glass.
maa aS Ga. Le Sse aero |
Classis I. DICOTYLEDONES. ebicemsten ssh
— a transverse section,
Subclassis 1. THALAMIFLORZ. - :
Flower. | E, cies S. seed./E. embryo.
Ordo. RANUNCULACE2. a
Tribus. Clematidee ................ |v. T. Herb.
Clematis vitalba.... E.B. 612.. B. Ae BCP
cirrhosa...... B.M. 1070.
—— (Atragene) ver-
ticillaris .... B.M. 887
Tribus. Anemonee.
Anemone pulsatilla.. E.B. 51..B. 2 F, (2
narcissiflora .. B.M. 1120
hepatica......B.M. 10
Tribus. Ranunculee.
Ranunculus aquatilis E.B. 101.. B. bs Ly
bulbosus...... E.B.)i517.. B.| Figure 4 FCP
arvensis ...... E.B. 135. . B. F
ficaria........E.B. 584..B
Tribus. Helleborez.
Helleborus niger ..B.M. 8 EG?
foetidus ...... E.B. 613
Nigella damascena BM. 22..
Aquilegia vulgaris.. E.B. 297..
B
B
Tribus. Paoniee.
Peeonia officinalis .. B.M. 1784. . B. £8 F,(P |S, ( S|E+ fig.
B.
B
corallina ....E.B.1515..
Tribus. Actezez.
Acteea spicata...... E.B. 918..
Ordo. DILLENIACER ...... v. T. Herb.
Tribus. Delimez.
Delima hebecarpa. Dell.Ic. 72
Tribus. Dillenee.
Dillenia speciosa. Sm.Ex.Bot. 2
E, ree &
wax
Ordo. MAGNOLIACEX. v. T. Herb.
Tribus. Ilicieze.
Tlicium floridanum B.M. 439
Tribus. Magnoliez.
Magnolia grandiflora B.R. 518
MINERAL KINGDOM.
For educational uses, the mineralogical and geological portions of the
Typical Epitome may be preluded by a few illustrations of some of the
important properties of minerals. The following notice of such illustrations
as have been introduced into the Ipswich Museum may suggest others.
TYPICAL OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY. 125
No. 1. As many of the elements as can be exposed under glass.
”
”?
”?
od
?
2. Scale of temperatures at which some of the elements appear solid,
liquid, and gaseous.
3. A compound substance, of given weight, exhibited with the rela-
tive weights of the ingredients of which it is composed :—
Ex. gr. Cinnabar (HgS) ; with sulphur and mercury.
$5 A grain of water (HO); with relative bulks of oxygen
and hydrogen.
2 Gypsum (CaO,SO,+2HO); with lime, sulphuric acid,
and water.
Malleability, extreme in gold.
Ductility, extreme in platina.
Specific gravity illustrated by a drawing.
Hardness, tested by nine simple minerals adopted in Mohs’s scale,
each scratched by the one which succeeds, except the last, which
is scratched only by diamond.
1. Tale. 2. Rock-salt. 3. Calcite. 4. Fluor. 5. Apatite. 6. Fel-
spar. 7. Quartz. 8. Topaz. 9. Corundum.
8. Magnetism with polarity, exposed by a compass-needle deflected
by a piece of magnetite.
9. Crystallization produced from four predisposing influences :—
1. Solution,—alum ; blue copperas; and ferrocyanate of potash.
2. Fusion,—bismuth ; sulphur; and slag of an iron furnace.
3. Sublimation,—naphthaline ; camphor; and biniodide of mer-
cury.
4. Peceha lend. tin; and silver,
10. Cleavage, very distinet in,—
]. one direction, in mica ;
2. three directions, in calcite ;
3. four directions, in fluor.
11. Models to illustrate the six systems of crystals; severally repre-
sented by a letter and a colour as follows: —
es eae
Cubic system........ Cy a tieeno ae Red.
Pyramidal .......... Q ........ Orange.
Rhombohedral ...... Ris ns tas -- Yellow.
EMANIG Fah, Aosmak Pood casas Green.
Oblique...... wisda S siunivalar Blue
Amorthies 257.0095. 2 Dy ciahd Rene: butple:
2. from aqueous agency,—in iron pyrites ;
3. metamorphic rearrangement,—in a mass of limestone (nodular
disintegration).
14. Stalactitic and stalagmitic concretions,—in calcite.
15. Polarization of light.
16. Double refraction,—in calcite.
Mineralogy.
An Epitome of this science has been formed by placing one small specimen
of every procurable species noticed in Brooke’s ‘ Mineralogy,’ on stout card-
_ board of a given size. A letter indicating the system, and printed on the
appropriate colour, is pasted on the cardboard to the left above the specimen,
126 REPORT—1855. 5
and its chemical composition is introduced to the right; the name is addea 1
below. The whole does not occupy 5 feet by 2, although blank spaces are
left for the species not yet obtained.
Geology.
As no returns have yet been received from geologists, perhaps we may
improve upon the suggestions offered in the Circular, by asking, tm addition,
for lists of such genera as first occur in each formation, and also of such
as disappear in each, It will be serviceable to those who cater for Museums,
to receive references to localities whence the typical rock specimens may be
most readily obtained.
P.S. Since the above was in type, Professor Huxley has suggested the fol-
lowing arrangement as an approximation to a scheme which shall exhibit the
equivalent classes and sub-classes of the animal kingdom. The brackets imply,
that in his opinion there is good reason for fusing into one group the sub-
classes thus united, and giving a new name to the whole, to be regarded as
equivalent to the other sub-classes. Where (H?) is added to a group, he
considers it very doubtful whether such is really an equivalent to the other
sub-classes. An (R)-is placed after those groups which were united by
_ Cuvier under Radiata. Professor Huxley proposes at the next meeting of
the Association to read a statement of his reasons for proposing the above
classification, and to discuss any points in it which may appear doubtful to
other naturalists.
I. VERTEBRATA.
( Abranchiata.)
Mammalia.
Aves.
Reptilia.
(Branchiata.)
Amphibia (H ?).
Pisces.
II. Motxusca. Ill. Annutosa.
(§ A.) (§ A.)
Heteropoda. _ Insecta. Arachnida.
Cephalopoda. { Gastropoda _ Myriapoda. Crustacea.
dicecia.
Pulmonata. (§ B. Annuloida.)
Picronoda: Gasteropoda a nnelida. Scoleide (H?).
moneecia.
Lamellibranchiata Apemptoda 0)- \
: Echinodermata. Taniade (R).
Turbellaria (R).
(§ B. Molluscoida.)
Brachiopoda. Ascidioida.
Polyzoa (R).
Rotifera (R. H?). Nematoidea(R.H?).
IV. Ca@LENTERATA.
Hydrozoa (R), Actinozoa (R).
V. Protozoa.
Infusoria (R). Spongiade (R). Gregarinide (R).
Noctilucide. Foraminifera (R). Thalassicallide (H ?).
“a
SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER AND RAIN-GAUGE. 127
An Account of the Self-registering Anemometer and Rain-gauge
erected at the Liverpool Observatory in the Autumn of 1851, with
a Summary of the Records for the years 1852, 1853, 1854, and
1855. By A. Foutett Oster, F.R.S.
Ir was at the Meeting held in Liverpool in 1837, that my self-registering |
Anemometer and Rain-gauge were iirst introduced to the notice of the
British Association. Never having previously seen any instruments designed
to accomplish similar purposes, I was at the outset much at fault, especially
with regard to the Anemometer, and soon became sensible that to construct
one that would record light winds with any degree of accuracy, and at the
same time effect the registration of storms and hurricanes, would necessarily
involve many difficulties. Subsequent experience has enabled me to over-
come most of these, and I believe that the instruments now under the able
superintendence uf Mr. Hartnup, at the Liverpool Observatory, of which I
subjoin a brief description, have for these four years past registered an
accurate and complete series of results.
The direction of the wind is obtained by means of a wheel-fan, similar to
that at the back of a windmill; this preserves a steady action and is very free
from oscillation. Its motion is connected with the recording portion of
the instrument, by means of a tube carrying at the lower end a large screw
or spiral groove *, to which the direction pencil is attached ; the motion given
by this means causing a pencil to trace the direction of the wind on a sheet
of paper stretched on a vertical cylinder, which is moved at a uniform rate by
means of aclock. The paper is engraved with perpendicular lines to show
the time, and with horizontal lines to indicate the direction.
The force of the wind is ascertained by means of a circular plate having
- an area of four square feet, which is kept by the vane at right angles to the
current of the wind. This plate is suspended by four light springs, imme-
diately behind which are four strong ones, the whole being so arranged that
the light springs are in action in light winds, but as the force increases the
ressure is gradually received on the strong ones. To this pressure-plate is
attached a wire which communicates with a recording pencil below, that
marks off the force of the wind in pounds avoirdupois per square foot on the
margin of the paper on which the direction is recorded.
For the method employed for ascertaining the amount of horizontal motion
of the air, I am indebted to Dr. Robinson, who first introduced that beauti-
ful and simple arrangement of the revolving hemispherical cups. These
cups revolve in a horizontal plane, the difference in resistance between the
convex and concave surfaces securing their constant revolution in one di-
rection at a velocity of one-third of that of the airt. Dr. Robinson has
fully explained the laws that regulate their motion in a paper to the Royal
Trish Academy (vol. xxii. part 3). The plan for registration, however,
* In the first instrument the paper was placed horizontally, and the motion conveyed to
the direction pencil by means of a rack and pinion ; but finding a vertical position on several
accounts more convenient, I made use of the screw movement described above, which had
been previously suggested in a conversation with the late Mr. Henry Knight, of Birmingham.
7 in the first instrument which I erected at Birmingham, the velocity of the air was obtained
by means of a light wheel three feet in diameter, placed horizontally, having fans resembling
those on a water-wheel, the greater portion of the wheel being screened by a cover with a
oni attached to it, so that only a few of the fans were exposed to the action of the wind.
e number of revolutions was recorded on the same paper on which the other registers
were taken, by communicating their motion, reduced by screw movements, to a spiral incline,
— propelled a pencil at right angles to the direction in which the paper was moved by
e clock. I found, however, that the high velocity at which it revolved interfered so much
With its durability and accuracy, that after afew months I discontinued the use of it, I have
128 REPORT—1855.
which I have employed, consists in communicating the motion of the hemi-
spheres reduced by screw movements* to a vertical cylinder covered with a
plain sheet of paper; a pair of pointed hammers strike a dot on each margin
of the paper on the completion of every hour; but when gales of wind or
storms occur, and the paper moves more rapidly, the spaces between the
hourly dots can be subdivided by throwing into gear another pair of hammers,
whereby the half-hours, quarter-hours, or even intervals of five minutes, may
be indicated if required. The pencil that traces the horizontal motion is con-
nected with the direction register, while thelinesthatindicatethe cardinal points
are at the same time ruled off by a series of narrow notched rollers. The di-
rection, horizontal motion, andtime, are by these means simultaneously recorded.
The rain-funnel exposes an area of four hundred square inches, and the
water passes into a glass vessel below, suspended on a bent lever balance, to
which a pencil is attached, to record the quantity, of rain that falls, on the
margin of the same paper as that on which the wind is registered. The line
traced will thus show the exact time at which each fall of rain commenced
and ended, while its curve indicates the rate at which it fell. To enable the
quantity of rain to be read with accuracy, the scale is enlarged, so that one
quarter of an inch of rain is represented by a space of two inches on the
paper; whenever a quarter of an inch of rain has fallen, the glass vessel
discharges its contents, and the pencil returns to zero. :
The following Tables, prepared by Mr. Hartnup, are abstracts arranged
from the tabulated registers of the Anemometer and Rain-gauge at the Liver-
pool Observatory, during the years 1852, 1853, 1854, and 1855. ‘The very
exact and punctual manner in which the records have been kept, as well as
the great amount of information tabulated, has given a peculiar value to
them:—for the benefit of those who may take an interest in carrying on
similar observations, copies of the records for one month are printed in full,
showing how they are entered daily from the registers given by the instru-
ments. See Tables I. and II.
From the monthly sheets of which Tables I. and II. are specimens, the
annual Tables III. and IV. are obtained: in Table III. the results are
arranged according to the points of the compass, and in Table IV. according
to the hours of the day. It is unnecessary to enter on a detailed description
of these, as the heading of each table and column affords sufficient explanation.
since found that this principle had been previously applied, though, I believe, not to registration
as regards time, Still, feeling the importance of obtaining the velocity as well as the force of
the wind, I some years afterwards adopted the following method. A series of fans was fixed
on a light vertical wheel three feet in diameter, which was kept opposed to the current of the
airin the direction of theaxis by means of thevane ; the fans were set obliquely at an angle which
decided the rate at which the wheel would revolve in proportion to the velocity of the air; to
this I briefly alluded in a paper which I brought before the British Association at Birmingham
(see Reportfor 1849). The principle is exactly the same as Dr. Whewell’s anemometer, the main
difference consisting in the fans being placed at a distance from the centre, and at so small an
angle to the axis, as to reduce the motion to one-fourth or one-sixth, or any other proportion
of the velocity of the air that might be required. Massey’s Ship Log is also constructed on
this principle. For the purpose of keeping the fans steadily opposed to the current of the
air, it is desirable to use awindmill vane, as the continual oscillations of one of the ordinary kind
of vanes would seriously interfere with the correct motion of thefans. This was just completed
when the revolving hemispherical cups introduced by Dr. Robiuson first became known to
me: the simplicity of this contrivance pleased me so much, that I at once decided on —
applying it in preference to my own, though I am inclined to think that in situations where ~
the instrument would be exposed to very violent storms, as in the tropics, the arrangement of —
fans as just described would probably be found’of advantage, both on account of the small re-
sistance offered in passing through the air, and theslowrateat whichthey may be madetorevolve. —
* In this instrument, for every inch of paper worked off, the centres of the hemispherical —
cups travel 12°75 miles, which, according to Dr. Robinson’s experiments, is equivalent to 38:25
miles of air passing over the station: the results have been tabulated on this assumption.
The direction of the wind is represented by the following figures :—
Taste I.—Horizontal motion of the air during each hour of the day.
Daily horizontal
motion of the air.
oe
Part 2.
Mean hourly
horizontal motion.
Extreme pressure
on the square foot.
Time at which
it occurred.
Whole amount of
rain in inches.
Time occupied
in falling.
Direction.
. | Miles,
Pounds.
-$EGS we
ewe Bao we oe Dw or| Miles.
GO tr turns
95
75
14
10:3
63
89
68
IbL
10:7
90
82
37
68
25
15
27
To face p. 128.
60
10
30
45
O05
90
32
S.w. W.S.W. N.W.
11 14
.M. 3 5 7 8 9 12 [ee eat 16 17 18 19 20 | 21
AAI elale|2|e(alelalz Bee E ElS/E\S/E/S/2|2 (2/2 \2\2| 2
a Aa\z\a fa) a a\z\a A A\A|8 a Bla alalalalaleialeia 4
7 7\14 8 14 7 9| 10) 12 13 15 15 15| 3/15) 4/16] 4 4
4 4 7 1g 11 14 14 13 8 9) 14] 7
10 3 13) 7 15 3 4 14] 13] 16) 13] 16
u 4 14{ 11 14 14] 10] 14 7 6| 14] 6
2 5 8} 6 5 15 15 6 4} 16] 6
8 6 7 7 8 6 6 6) 5) 7
2 7 8 8 13 3 6\ 14] 6
10 6 8 7 8 rT 11} 7] 9
6 6 6 5 5 10 9) 6] 12
11 2 3 6 5 5) 8 8) 4] 5
3 7 6 16 13) 15) 13) 12) 13] 11 9) 13] 6
\2 2lrq| 2 15 15| 5\15| 5]15| 4 4|x3] 2
| 3 4 3 15] 8)15| 7] 15] 5 12| 8] 9
10 9 8 15] 5/14) 5) 14) 4 15 | 11
5 2] 12| 13 13| 6/15] 4] 15] 4 2/15] 1
1 4 13] 15/13] 17] 13] 18 17} 13] 17
7 7 13|27| 13 28) 13) 29 20) 13
21 19 14|13] 14] 12] 14] 11 4) 13
7 8 9] 7} 33] 10} 13} 21 2213
29 13 |28| 13| 28) 13] 27 20) 13
8 5 7| 7| 13] 5| 14] 3 1) 15
1 3 1 4 15| 2\r5| 4|15| 2 4) 15
2 3 7 16] 9)15] 9|15] 9 8) 15
2 8 3 15| 6|16| 6) 1) 6 4) 1
M4 4 15 12|18| 12) 18} 12] 13 14} 12
7 8 8 7\12| 7|12] 8|11 9| 8
5 6 6 rt] Sfx] 1) 34 5} 10
6 on 14 14{12| 14/15) 14 8} 15
7 7 9 8 1410] 14{ 9| 14 9) 14
2 3 4 7 6| 6| 6 7 8) ar
10 8 8 ro| 6} 13)12) 13 12} 13
327 | 321 281
106 | 106 | 103 97
“oo. - -
Tables I. and II. are copies
of the records for one month,
showing how the observations
are tabulated daily from the re-
gisters given bythe instruments.
Table I, Part 1, gives the
horizontal motion and direction
of the wind for every hour of
the day; the latter is indicated
by a figure, the sixteen points
of the compass being numbered
in rotation, commencing with
N.N.E. No. 1, N.E. No. 2, &c.
Part 3, Table II. is an abs-
tract of the above, and shows
the daily amount of horizontal
motion from each point of the
compass, and the number of
hours each wind continued.
Part 4, Table II. is obtained
from the Rain-register, and
shows the quantity of rain in
thousandths of an inch that fell
in each hour during the month.
Part 2, Table I. contains the
daily totals obtained from the
hourly records of the wind and _
rain as just described.
Agyuenb ueayy
famnenh nea
amp Saump snoy sod
Part 3. Taste II. Part 4.
Horizontal motion of the air in miles referred to 16 points. Rain in thousandths of an inch which fell during each hour,
N.LN.E, N.B. E.LN.E. E.S.E. B.E, 8.5.E. 5, S.8.W. s.W. W.S.W. Ww. W.N.W, N.W. NLN.W,
‘pr, NC . A & 6 é r F A < a 4 a 1] 2]3]4{5/ 6) 7] 8] 9} 10) 11] 12) 13} 14) 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 Bs QUES
A\S(2/S/4 Fl als) 4 lols |e lola [el Sloe lala lel sls) = |e] se lech Leewal|
ool al allo AS hel} 65) 5| 62] 4] 27] al. 10 || e7]| ea! ee ee mall a
2 7) 2) 4] x| 9] 2] 22] 4]....|..|... : 37) 5] 102 2
(0 Boo feed Pood bad! lage fel Reed fos] bsed fecal Aebe joes bared fice Nec (eet rec 8] 1] 236) 19) 16 8
oie ae Hen : 120] 9] 87 4
Bale 6)1] 8] 1] 2} 12] 2 20) 4 7] s| 6 5
6 | | 38] 5 20) 5 ae a 6
7 +l al Bese fas aa 42] 5 Peels 2] x] 23] 2| 23 7
8 ‘ | 80] 3 51] 4 ire 5 . 8
9 57] 4) U7) a1 65| hoe Pad boo [so |] ocr brace 9
10 | 4] 1 48| 5] 70] 7| 66] 8 Bl | 10
| 2} x ala ad 4] 2] 121] 12] 34 N
12 2| 11) 4] 14 vee] 12
13 wef 25 13
uu 10] | 16 M4
15 3] 144] xx] 6] 1] 20| 8]..]-.1.... 15
6 175} x6) cB 1}| ra | eae seed | Pee | pee ate 16
17 549] 23| 22 W
18 202] 14] 123 18
19 17] 2| 191 19
20 569] 22] 64 .| 20
21 3) 15] 2 21
22 Wioooollcest| call sap cCUl syilles lead bas Boles | tatetell ec wetall Grates | cepa Soon bace| baad booul boos) Boral hand bacaliac meal . +) 22
23 7 teeedes . ete mater | ata Al erie bees Pood hrc kic.s¢) bade ional bang Aes booclbrcad kand bond has Ne sfoe es feee [1020 1-038 160) 23
24 | 85 | 6)..--) oe Joes) e+ |e ee] 9] 2}... 40} 3 20 037 |-015 |:100 |-072 |-034 |-118 |:032 |-080 |-090 |-020 |-005|....]....|... betes ers -}055]....]..+.]...-/:250] 24
25 7| x} 23] 2 25| 2| 90] 6 004]. |-020 |:030 | 070 |-060 |-085 |:135 |-120 | 032/111 |:135 020} 008 | 25
26 Prete 3| 53] 6| 59] 7] 77] 8].. : =i 2 | 038 Sales
97 27| 5| 66] s| 15] 2] 17 mals 1 .}010]....|:036 |
28 ' WW] x} 41] 3] 97
29 val ale 188] 21] 19] 4|..|..|.... wy)
80 35] 4] 8] x] 36 7 Gl Alcon): 16 Ve ta [tee clad lene Hae| Mech Heal Gane Ne
SN fees fee fee |e eedes fede fee] | 67] 2] a7] a] 8] x] 15 62] 6 1040 }040 L021}... .}012]....]....}:040|-162 081 090-184 |-042]....|.-
Sum} 79 }16] 10} 3 | 68 | 9 |160] 17/289] 55 |372| 43|797|88|477| 53| 123} 19| 68 229 | 26] 2565) 174| 1110] 107 | 565) 104| 74] 13/169 | 269-116 | 241 | 265 / 264-918 | 181 (195 |-183|-262 | 232 | 204 }244 250/210 |120 |
Ber gs Ree
*ToF-0 ‘Tay Ures yeq? au.
Taste III.—Abstract of Results derived from the Integrating Anemometer and Rain-gauge arranged according to
a the direction of the wind. 1852. See Plates VIII. and IX.
=~
KY ' 1 i ae 1 1 ! mm, » i
S| Z gos [Ses Pepe ee ee a : es |e : ea
o = ow 98 Sikes Puacl “se fs Ss} 22 | Fes Foe [de Suleeck or yi
= iS) Pet 25 Fies* (Sear Poa le. ={-F ae ma he sae or =a
2 2 | $8 |88 Wleesslecsi| sea (8s u| SBS | Su of | sei | $e 23
Soiree = SPoFs/EeeRu/ “Ss FS 8) 8S | as S|) Paes gm
a S | @ & os Sle SPs oc ee oF a o A me Ses one ee off of Zz by
ls 2 © BEuaIS Salestae| 15 fe. Sl ess ke © & Bae ap 5
< Ss Soaps essce yl Sse Se ~-| sas aS SH sacl act =?
fm 3 Se, |\Seo |BeoS8i\Se8 | Sar Sey | See | 3 SE iss 32 $5
a & PQs [ess jaessiesk | <8 ess Bas Fa 3 me <¢ 22's
= Miles. ‘ Hours. Inch Inch.
NN.E. 2,488 | 0:35 0-78 ; 34:3 0:80 0-069 0:945
Fs NE. 1,239 | 017 0:36 20-0 0-47 0-058 0-934
eB E.N.E 2,799 | 0:39 0°58 24-2 0°57 0-060 0514
3 L 4,708 | 0-66 0-78 30-9 0:72 0046 0-299
2 E.S.E. 4,134 | 058 0°77 27°5 0-64 0-054 0-360
3 S.E. 5,907 | 0-83 0-96 343 | 0:80 | 0047 | 0-272
a $.8.E. 18,111 254 2-75 1178 2-76 0-037 0-243
%, s. 10,452 | 1-48 1-66 66°5 1-55 0-026 0:167
< $.8.W. 8,059 | 1:09 1:07 41-2 0-97 0-044 0-225
a) S.W. 8,311 1-22 0:81 41-9 0-98 0-048 0-241
Z W.S.W. 6,982 | 0-98 0-76 412 0:97 0-051 0:300
2 w. 7,479 | 1:05 0:69 439 1:03 0-038 0:223
a W.N.W. 14.541 | 2:03 1:39 713 1-68 0-046 0-224
& New. 7,788 | 1:09 0:87 32-2 0-76 0-033 0-147
I N.N.W. 8,702 | 1-24 V5 33°6 0:79 0-089 0342
oS a
S N. 2,576 | 036 0:59 22-7 0:53 0-042 0:367
[e<] a —EEE——EEE Ea —
rom Columns...1 2 3 5 10 11 12 13 7
=| ees io)
a 114,276 683°5 =28 days, 11 hours, 30 minutes. ca
* There were nineteen calm hours in the year. + There was one calm hour during which 0-054 of an inch of rain fell.
Mean quantity of rain to every 1000 miles of air, 0-276 in.
ee ene
Tapue III. (continued). 1853.
¢ | gs fee ese lgaz les 2 Taas] |. ge iP | 14
Se he 2 & a285 er Bal a ame Eos a a7 ae 2 8
a SS j62 S288 |QEES| oS l>o S| Ee ES io lage eR w i oa
io) Seg oo AAO) IS Bom Bet (Sq iy are Wee Sain OR oa em i
2 ge |88 ilesdle,3l| seg [58 | Sf ] os aS ll BS 23
= ss |*_ sls cFslssos/ 4834s 3] o83 | Be Bs |/*a¢| Se aS
3 SH |[o8 S).8e A a8] whe lof 8] 82 | ch | =F | o#S| ot | Be
2 oq (lSsHel\Scegieccc| Pas lag S| eee | SE | ay |Se=] Pa 3
3 ce |e8" les ' sis -8 | 5£5 |e8 sme | 8 ce | 33 ic as
s Se, jake [seotSse | Fay [oes Sak 3 =] 3a Ea| S°
es FSS MAS Aessesk |ags sae | FSS | x FS | me <5 Z8a
Miles. Hours Miles. Inches. Hours. Inch. Inch.
Ne] N.N.E. 4,303 0°65 655 1:26 6°6 0°55 1-700 1-21 40-1 1:20 0-042 0:392
Y N.E. 1,502 0:23 240 0°46 6:3 053 0°843 0-60 19:4 0:58 0-043 0561
eo E.N.E. 2,773 0°42 360 0-69 77 0°65 0°836 0:59 19-4 0:58 0:043 0°301
| E. 4,262 0-64 388 0°75 11-0 091 1-466 1-04 27°4 0°82 0-058 0343
=] E.S.E. 3,832 058 404 0-76 95 0°80 0-954 0°68 19-4 0:58 0:049 0-248
od S.E. 5,929 0:89 488 0:94 12-1 1:02 1-119 0:79 24°1 0-76 0:046 0°187
3 S.S.E. 14,316 2°15 1233 2-23 11-6 0:97 3124 2:22 93°0 2:27 | 0-034 0-218
| s. 6,358 0:95 646 1:25 9:8 0°82 1479 1-05 47-5 1:46 0°031 0:217
a=) S.S.W. 5,160 0:78 459 0:89 11:2 0:94 1-125 0°80 36°8 1:10 0:03) 0:218
S.W. 7,572 1:14 432 0°83 17°5 1-47 1-262 0°81 34:8 1:05 0:036 0:166
W.S.W. 5,952 0:90 393 0:76 15-1 1:27 1554 111 48:2 1-44 0-032 0:261
Ww. 6,938 1:04 395 0:76 176 1-48 2-085 1-48 42:8 1-28 0:049 0:300
W.N.W. 14,292 2:15 814 1:57 17:6 1:48 2:146 153 78:2 2:23 0-027 0:150
N.W. 9,678 1°45 662 1:28 14:9 1:25 1091 0°78 47-5 1:42 0:023 0:10
N.N.W. 9,045 1:36 696 1:34 13:0 1:08 0:914 | 0:65 28°8 0:86 0-032 0:100
N. 4,077 0°63 468 0:90 87 0°72 0777 0:55 20:8 0°62 0:037 0:190
Columns...1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 oF <4 10 11 12
ed . | es |
105,989 | 22:475 | | 625:2=26 days 1 hour 12 minutes.
There were twenty-seven calm hours.
Mean quantity of rain to every 1000 miles of air, 0:212 in.
Mean quantity per hour during the time that rain fell, 0°357.
130
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ <
131
SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER AND RAIN-GAUGE.
Points of the Compass.
Columns...1
zontal motion of the
| Whole amount of hori-
air.
Miles.
2,604
1,020
1,481
2,781
3,046
4,076
12,817
7,196
5,654
6,486
8,993
14,3381
24,622
18,393
11,666
3,617
128,283
of
amount
Relative
horizontal motion of
the air.
(Mean= 1-00.)
Tasue III. (continued). 1854.
ako at ae, 4 OD en: ) ‘oOo n , Oo » Se
Bee lgeg_|22. (82 | S35 |. bg |= Eee
B22 (feu aol wal s ol aes as oe 5.5) 8 =o
BSS joe S| »o'8 |>o S| Bie ES ag 47? Ss * 35 nN
Seas Pot) Se. (se VT] waa | 37 sede = ie | ae 2 M
we Eee, Sill s8g jog I] SEF | a hl ad | ge i Bx gS
So BBE og “os (-S gi ase) 4g | Sa |*ee| 48 a5
ag ae rr o | aol Ee all, acsnet o SE ‘a © ‘3 a
ZABSSmsk | ans |Raa BSS pe es aie <¢ =aQs
Hours. Miles.- Inches. Hours. Inch. Inch.
373 0:68 6: 0:50 1:061 0:78 18:2 0:54 0058 0407
148 0:27 6°9 0:54 0:071 0:05 9-1 0:27 0:008 0:060
199 0:36 71 0°55 0:361 0:26 13'8 0:41 0:026 0:243
256 0:47 10°5 0°81 0-442 0°32 6:3 0-19 0:070 0:158
309 0°56 gia 0°76 0°760 0-51 13°1 0:39 0:053 0:229
374 0°68 10:9 0°85 1-471 1:07 27°5 082 0:053 0:369
1106 2:02 11 0:86 2-782 -| 2-01 72:2 215 0:039 0:225
673 1:23 107 0°83 1-436 1:04 41°8 1:24 0:034 | 0-190
496 0:91 11:4 0:88 0:960 0°69 29:7 0:88 0:032 0°169
41] 0:75 15°8 1-2] ‘0989 0°72 223 0-66 0:044 0:152
561 1:02 16°5 1:26 2558 1°85 610 1°81 © 0:042 0:284
666 1:22 21-5 1:66 2689 1:94 64:7 1:92 0:042 0-187
1210 2:21 20°3 1:58 2-689 1:94 68:9 2°05 0-039 0-109
741 1:36 24:8 1-92 1-410 1:02 42-9 1:28 0:033 0:076
820 1:50 14:2 1:10 J:922 1:39 30:0 0:89 0:064 0164
413 0:76 8°8 0:68 0:574 0°42 16:0 0:48 0:035 0158
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
22-115 537:5 =22 days, 9 hours, 30 minutes.
There were four calm hours in the year.
Mean quantity of rain to every 1000 miles of air, 0:172 in.
Mean quantity per hour during the time that rain fell, 0-411.
OOOO a
————EO
of
i i
bag
Tasxe III. (continued).
1855.
¢ |g |= jeez lege lea tee | eg. [| ge le |= [as
E jes. leg aeee eecl@sd ls a s2e |) de} 22-\2oa) 8. [2g
8 3s BS Slee lee t's] +s Ibo S| Swe ae ee : ra
i®) ee oo ll Lea ne “jr Bor eo Gq Led ges ers] fen sent om Az te| &
2 5.2 BR ilweeele Sl sess ies it] SES | S14 os Be ll ES zs
= se |°. s/SoFsieSos/ 583 i855 gs] 83 | Bs = gmme O a a e gs
S Ee oie ee eV eae oA g oF = Sea pr o= o fg ‘of Be
a HS, ie SHels a eels 3 Se/ 5 |z. Sl ots Ze © &0 Pa bp E
2 os eS Veto’ sie 8 Bee |e S So He 3 ra =| $3 E'S ge
3S See (S5S [Bee sis SS | See lose cee cs ea od See Soy
a Pra |zas IAPSSmMSe | aga lesa FES eS mE <5 Aga
Miles Hours. Miles. Inches Hours Inch Inch.
N.N.E. 4,456 0:67 703 1:28 674 0:56 0:973 0:69 34:9 1:03 0028 0-218
a N.E. 1,727 0-26 264 0:48 73 0-64 0:233 0°17 9:2 0:27 0025 0134
Ye) E.N.E. 3,014 0:46 383 0:70 79 0:69 0°702 0°49 145 0:43 0-048 0:232
- E. 5,418 0°84 460 0:84 11°8 1:04 0:182 0-13 4-0 0-12 0-046 0:033
E.S.E. 3,807 0:59 401 0-73 9:4 0:83 0599 0°42 10:8 0:32 0:056 0157
B SE. 7,229 1:10 556 1:02 11:2 0-99 1146 0°81 30:7 0-91 0:037 0158
2 S.S.E. 12,267 1:90 1132 2:07 10°8 0:95 3129 2-20 118-0 3°50 0:027 0:255
° s. 5,728 0:88 614 1-12 93 0:82 1:860 131 45'8 1:35 0-041 0-324
= S.S.W. 3,322 052 302 0:55 11-0 0:97 0°352 0:24 126 0:37 0:028 0:105
2 S.w. 4,742 0:73 312 0:57 15:0 1:32 1-486 1:05 18:8 0:56 0-071 0313
W.S.W. 4,014 0:62 309 0:56 13°0 1-15 0:262 0-18 20:0 0:59 0-013 0-065
. w. 7,439 115 413 0:76 18:0 1:59 3912 277 52:2 155 0:075 0525
W.N.W. 20,353 315 1046 1-91 195 1:72 2-744 1:94 64:5 1:9] 0:043 0:134
N.W. 8,857 1:36 630 1-15 14-1 114 2°722 1:91 44-9 1:30 0-060 0:307
: N.N.W. 7,883 1-22 782 1:43 10-1 0:89 0826 0:58 25°7 0:76 0:032 0:104
N. 3,149 0:49 441 0°81 71 0:63 1-440 1:02 33-2 0:98 0-043 0°457
Columns...1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
103,405 22°568 539°8=22 days 11 hours 48 minutes.
a Nee |
There were twelve calm hours.
a Mean quantity of rain to every 1000 miles of air, 0-215 in.
of} Mean quantity per hour during the time that rain fell, 0-418.
SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER AND RAIN-GAUGE.
133
Points of the Compass,
N.N.E.
N.E.
E.N.E.
E.
E.S.E.
S.E.
S.S.E.
s.
S.S.W.
S.w.
W.S.W.
Ww.
W.N.W.
N.W.
N.N.W.
N.
Columns...1
112,989
zontal motion of the
air.
Whole amount of hori-
eS
Co
IS
bo co
TasueE III. (continued). Means for the years 1852, 1853, 1854, and 1855.
of
amount
Relative
horizontal motion of
in
of hours
which the direction of
the wind was referred
to each point.
Number
Hours.
539
213
315
383
384
483
1244
711
461
400
420
468
958
627
732
on . 1 o to 2 oO nm. » ot Se
s#2(33. (82 | $e |. | #2 |d fa a oy
Sng S| Sele a Sle eee | aS Figs «|g be Be “a
a= ties reba ents ES a's — a og
SES meas le - eo 1 A Rit bos Be
Se OO) es fej eles! Ga t= 5 oor a i
O28 ware elessataly Seer | ral od ge ae eS
ell et ouesie | clesee eel emt Su) me a-5 Boa iS aS
eS2g\ e° (ok §| 28a | Ss | Ft Fa meee Eh
fas bo, 8 ees a os-s fe igs £le Ep oF
B.5 | 585 jes. | 223 | 8 oe oes teeeeise oe
283 |288 i288 | Fes | a Es |ae AE S28
Miles. Inches, Hours. Inch. Inch.
0:98 6:20- 0-49 1:522 0:99 319 0°86 0049 0-440
0°39 6°60 0-51 0576 0:37 14:4 039 0:033 0-420
0:58 7°80 0:60 0834 0:55 18:0 0:49 0:044 0-331
0:70 11:00 0:85 0:874 0:56 Wl 0:46 0:055 0:203
0:70 9:60 0:74 0°935 0:60 W777 0:48 0:053 0:252
0:88 11:60 090 1334 0°86 29'1 0:79 0:046 0:231
2:28 11-40 0:88 3°362 2:18 100:2 271 0:034 0 236
1:30 10 30 0:80 162 1:05 50°4 1:36 0033 0-219
0°84 11:80 0-91 1-063 0:69 30°1 081 00384 0-192
073 16:70 1:30 1-435 0:93 29°4 0:80 0:050 0-212
0-77 15°50 1:20 1518 0:98 426 115 0:036 0:234
0°85 18:90 1:46 2'589 1:68 50°9 1:37 0°051 0-286
175 19:00 1:47 2-711 1:76 707 1-91 0:039 0-141
115 17:40 1:35 1:592 1:03 A19 1:13 0:037 0:142
1:34 12:70 0:98 1-661 1:07 29°5 0:80 0:054 0177
0°75 7:30 0:60 0:934 0:60 23:2 0-63 0:039 0:278
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
hoe ee ll we ee ST oe > ee ete eae ee eee
24:671 597°1=24 days 21 hours 6 minutes.
Le ee ae eee eee SS
134 REPORT—1855.
Taste IV.—Abstracts of Results from the Integrating Anemometer and the
Pluviometer during the years 1852, 1853, 1854, and 1855, arranged
according to the hours of the day. 1852.
Ss
122 | 094 | 1398 | 107 | 282 | 099 | 0050
127 | o98 | 1555 | 119 | 288 | 1-01 | 0054
134 | 103 | 1459 | 111 | 316 | 1-11 | 0-046
, 10 137 | 105 | 1090 | 083 | 288 | 1-01 | 0-038
ag 144 | 111 | 1389 | 1:07 | 275 | 0:97 | 0-050
51 | 116 | 0-936 | O71 | 268 |. 094 | 0-035
2 | 117 | 1305 | 099 | 25-4 | 089 | 0-051
2 155 | 119 | 1178 | 089 | 267 | 0-94 | 0-044
3 12 | 117 | 1359 | 104 | 261 | 092 | 0-051 a
4 49 | 114 | 1476 | 1:13 | 267 | 0:94 | 0-055
5 145 | 111 | 1-241 | 095 | 356 | 1:25 | 0-035
6 136 | 104 | 1-262 | 0:96 | 267 | 0-94 | 0-047
7 131 | 1-01 | 1354 | 103 | 309 | 1:08 | 0-044
on 127 | 098 | 0851 | 064 | 219 | 0-77 | 0-039
9
10
11
12
Sea ieg i838 | 856 i ey Bd
» |FEL [es 22° |FS5| 22/8 o/ 28
2 g@ec |ES S/S84 |s2S| 28 |F.8| FS.
= Bee [ge “|g25 ohare anenonn a kta a Ee
a Sao (Sa IWSSS5| aq! of | BS | Ss
Be* (So gigagelSse| Be | Fag | 228
ara lo e Sleeas| ofS ~e o #2 av
3 wo lee Slat Blas | on | Boe] pos
= A eh FS eg br ed I ak hae (= A a
SeL,eges |SB2S\ au = |-ad S:5 2
Se&slssa (Fes alad Sa | ae ae]
Columns...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ;
a Se, rs tageten: Inches. Hours. ee Inch.
12to lam. | 11-2 0:86 1:269 0:97 30-2 1-06 0-042
raga 11-4 0:88 1:242 0:95 26:2 0:92 0-048
AED 11-4 0:88 1529 1:08 34:3 1:20 | 0-042
eget 11:5 0:88 1:353 1-03 35-0 1-23 0-038
i 12:0 0-92 1-160 0:88 24-0 0:84 0-048
6 12:0 0:92 1-386 1:06 30-2 1-06 0:046
7
8
9
SOON RON
ted et
ho
a
hm OD
n
s
12:2 0:94 1594 1:21 28:9 101 0:055
116 0:89 1:306 1:00 24:0 0-84 0-054
ot SO WN Or & GP bO
10.,, 11-5 0:88 1:356 1-03 29°5 1:04 | 0-046
i a 115 0:88 1545 1:18 29°5 1:04 | 0-052
1853.
12to sae 103 0°85 0607 | 0-68 1671 0:69 | 0-037
Poe 10:5 0:87 | 0:833 | 0-93 21-4 091 | 0-039
2, 3 10:7 0:88 | 0-607 | 0-68 21-4 0-91 0-026
Bed: 105 0:87 | 0:766 | 0-85 26:1 112 | 0-029
Y ag padi 108 0:89 1-049 1:17 30-2 1:29 | 0-035
se 10°8 0:89 | 0-915 1:02 27°5 118 | 0-034
Gao Ae 11:3 0:93 1-089 1-21 30°8 1:32 | 0-035.
TZ; 18 12:0 0:99 1-249 1:38 30:8 1:32 | 0-040
8-79 12:5 1-03 1-046 117 32-8 1:40 | 0-032
9,, 10 13:2 1:09 1-185 1:34 30-1 1:29 | 0-039
10 ,, ll 13:8 114 1577 1-76 30:1 1:29 0:052 :
M1, 12 14:2 1:17. | 0-860 | 0-96 22.1 0:94 | 0-039 ‘
i Nese, 146 1-20 1-011 1:13 27-5 1:14 | 0-037
| ee 14:7 1-21 1-173 131 28:8 1:24 | 0-041 ‘
2
3 14-4 119 0°818 0-91 25°5 1-04 0:032
4 14:0 116 0-811 0:90 2671 1:12 0:081
5 13°5 1:12 1:047 117 315 1:35 0:033
6 12:7 1:05 0920 1:03 30°8
7
8
9
10
” 1:32 0:030
TE 0:97 1-108 1-24 30'1 1:29 0:037
11:2 0:93 0°788 0°88 28:1 1:20 0:028
11:0 0-91 0-913 1:02 21-4 0-91 0:042
10:9 0:90 0681 0:76 20'1 0:86 0:034
yo wd 105 0:87 0631 0:70 18:1 0:78 0:035
» 12 106 0°88 0-820 0-91 21°4 0-91 0:038
SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER AND RAIN-GAUGE. 135
Taste IV. (continued). 1854.
682 |4¢6 eS Ae a4 E ed
S Be= jeg 252 | 23.) 22 18 | 28
S laa eeslesa-|yae | 2/3 S|] Fs.
ca Bey [85 s8Eq |_S7 | #8 | edo | eae
La So (Se e832] a4! of | #21 | BS8
° Bod oo g\e-86 Ses =| Ss8|8e3
g Seq [SS S/a58 8] ofS] =F | o BS | oz
° mw S| Os aS oe
5 2383s |2%8 2428 ae 2 | kat] Pad
‘4 Ssnece2 Bastia. | 28 [ee | #28
Segssass FES alas Sc |e a2 4
Columns...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
h h Miles Inches Hours. Inch.
12to lam. 12°8 0:90 0°762 0°83 18-2 0-77 0:042
rae) 12°8 0:90 0-415 0-45 20:4 0°92 0:020
2, 3 128 0:90 0556 0-60 18-7 0-78 0:030
3,, 4 13:1 0:92 1:031 1:12 28°6 1:26 0:036
Arn) D 12°6 0°89 1-289 1-40 31°8 1:42 0-041
5, 6 126 0:89 1:247 1-35 26:0 1:16 0-048
rae | 12°8 0:90 1:263 1:37 27°3 1:22 0:046
his 8 136 0:96 1112 1:21 26°2 1:18 0:043
Hees Ao 14:0 0:99 0:593 0-63 20°2 0°90 0-029
9 ,, 10 14:9 1:05 0°881 0:96 20:2 0:90 0:043
10 ,, 1l 15-2 1:07 0:706 0-76 21:8 0:97 0-032
1 eae be 15°5 1:09 0°936 1:01 26°3 1:17 0-036
12, lpm, 16:3 115 0°820 0:89 201 0:90 0-039
ise) 16°6 1:17 1:026 1J1 20:0 0:90 0:051
Ceram } 16:3 1:15 0:714 0-78 17-4 0-78 0-041
3, 4 16:0 113 0-776 0°84 16:9 0°75 0-046
Any co 156 1:10 1:090 1:18 20:9 0:93 0-052
5, 6 14:9 1:05 0°733 0:79 19-1 0°85 0-038
ey 4 14:5 1:02 0°836 0-91 26°6 1-19 0-031
Gonat 14-0 0-99 1:052 1:14 25:4 1:13 0:041
CR] 13°5 0:96 1:518 1-64 21:8 0:97 0-069
9 ,, 10 13°3 0:94 1:065 1:16 19°6 0°87 0-054
10 ,, 11 133 0-94 0:734 0-80 22:8 1-01 0-033
a aoe 13-1 0:92 0:860 0:93 21-2 0-94 0-041
12to lam 10-5 0:89 0657 0°69 22:2 0:99 0:029
| ane | 10°5 0:89 6971 1:63 24:6 1:09 0:039
2, 3 10°3 087 0-771 0°82 21-4 0°95 0:036
38, 4 10:4 0:87 0:827 0°88 25°1 1-11 0:033
a i] 10-4 0°87 0°827 0:88 26:5 118 0:031
5 ,, 6 10°5 0:89 0°648 0-68 20:3 0:90 0-032
i, 7 10:8 0-91 0:795 0:84 22:9 1:01 0-035
7 aaet 115 0:97 0856 0-91 24:3 1:08 0-035
Ba vliew St 116 0:97 0:666 0-71 23°3 1:12 0:027
9 ,, 10 12:3 104 | 08380 | 093 | 260 | 1-16 | 0-034
57 al 13°1 1-11 0°768 0°81 20-2 0:90 0:038
12 135 1:14 1:12] 119 25:4 1:12 0:044
leo, 13-9 1-18 1:445 153 23°3 1:03 0:062
2 14:2 1:20 1:756 1:86 19:7 0:87 0-081
3 14:0 118 0:933 0:98 15-0 0°66 0:062
t 13°5 114 0-778 0°83 23°0 1:02 0°034
” 13:0 111 0:887 0:94 19-9 0:88 0044
7
8
9
10
ot pet ee
mde ©
12°6 1-06 1-608 1:69 20°6 0:91 0:078
11:6 0:97 1-025 1:08 19-6 0:88 0:052
11-2 0:95 0-916 0:96 24:7 1:09 0-037
108 0:91 0971 1:03 19-9 0:88 0-049
108 0:91 0653 0°68 22°8 101 0-029
aa 10°7 0-91 0-709 075 25°1 111 0-028
» 12 10-6 0°89 1-100 117 21:8 0:97 0-050
—$ SOO ONO OP COS
i
136 REPORT—1855.
Table IV. (continued).—Means for the years 1852, 1853, 1854, and 1855,
Fn nnn nnn UEIET LEEIcEIEEEEEEIE SISSY SaeSnS EEN
482 |668 eS Sa Be to 2g
: Be aes a|ee= | a8—) 86 15 = os
3 gee [Bs S\ss5 | sss] 12 | 7 | bs,
a BE ony Ste Bed sa] BR | ont | Bae
= ea5 [ha Ils eo 5) Se ll os sei | ss
‘3 Hod |Oo SIS Bs| HE —:5 Beas] Sas
2 os a os Shas aS ot & FE oom HEB
5 “se |23 elecas|23¢| 2 |Zec| Fae
= Be slae8 |S25 2 =5 SE | s2 B38
a one aes) oO 5 oa a
SLES|IZ22 EELS BS Be |ee |<82
Columns...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
h h Miles Inches, Hours Inch.
12to lam 11:2 0-88 0-824 0:80 21:7 0:037
is 113 0:89 0:865 0:84 23°1 0:036
2%, 3 113 0-39 0-866 0°84 23°9 0-033
See: 11-4 0:90 0-994 0:96 28:7 0-034
reid 11-4 9:90 1-081 1-05 28°1 ile 0-039
5 ,, 6 11:5 0-90 1:049 1-02 26:0 1:05 0:040
Greys 11°83 0:93 1-136 110 27:3 1:10 0-041
fete: 12-4 0:97 1:193 1-16 27°5 1:10 0-043
Ss, 9 12:9 1-01 0-941 0-91 27°5 110 0:083
ge 10 135 1:06 1-009 0:97 26:3 1:06 0-036
10 ,, Il 141 1-11 1:110 1:08 24-9 1:00 0-043
Les, k2 14:6 115 0:963 0-93 25-1 101 0-088
12%, vipat. 15°0 1:18 1145 11] 24-1 1:00 0 047
te 2 15-2 1-19 1-283 1-25 23°8 0-96 0:054
gas 15:0 118 0:956 0:93 210 0°84 0 046
ary 4 146 1-15 0:360 0:93 23:2 093 0-041
A 141 11 1:066 1:03 27-0 1:09 0.041
ieee SG 13:4 1:05 1:13] 1:10 24:3 1:00 0-048
Cac ta 12-7 1-00 1-081 1:05 26°8 1:09 0-041
Coerigete! 12°3 0:97 0:902 0-90 25°0 101 0-036
beret!) | 11-9 0-93 1-249 1:21 23-0 0:93 0:054
9 ,, 10 | 116 0-91 0-926 | 0-90 21:6 087 | 0-043
Vere gl Via sl (090 0°857 0:83 23-9 0:96 0-035
1s 11-4 0:90 1:081 1:05 23:5 0°94 0-045 |
The accompanying diagrams I have prepared in order to convey a more
accurate and comprehensive perception of the results than can be obtained by
consulting tables and figures, and also to enable a comparison of the different
years to be made with greater facility.
The Charts contained in Plate VII. are reduced from some very large and
carefully prepared tracings laid down by Mr. Hartnup, directly from the
worked paper of the integrating instrument, according to the method first
suggested by Dr. Whewell ; on examining these tracings for each year, they
will be found to bear but little resemblance to one another; and if we refer to
those projected in a similar manner for Plymouth, by Sir William Harris,
during the years 1841, 1842, and 1843*, as great a difference will be found
to exist, one feature only being at all observable throughout, and that is the
general tendency of the wind from the W. towards the E.; this appears to
have been the case to a remarkable degree in Liverpool in the year 1854;
in other respects but little or no resemblance can be traced. Notwithstand-
ing this apparent dissimilarity when thus illustrated, it will be found, that if
the various winds, instead of being projected in the order in which they sue-
ceeded one another, are classified so as to show the relative amount of each,
for the different years, a remarkable coincidence is observable. A reference
* Sce Report of the British Association for 1844.
°
s
SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER AND RAIN-GAUGE. 137
- to the first row of diagrams on Plate VIII. will render this fact very strikingly
apparent; these are all drawn to one scale, so that the comparative motion
of the air from each point, for the different years, may be seen at a glance ;
they are on precisely the same plan as those I brought before the British
Association in 1840*, the difference being that the mileage of each wind
* is in this case regarded instead of the force. To this mode of making dia-
grams of the wind, the title of “ Wind Stars” has lately been given by Captain
Fitzroy. I had prepared similar diagrams for each month and quarter of
the year, but have reserved these until a longer range of averages had been
obtained.
In the second row of diagrams, Plate VIII., the hows during which each
wind has lasted are compared, instead of the number of miles; in these, the
resemblance the different years bear to one another is even more striking.
The average hourly rate at which each wind travels, is shown in the third
row of diagrams, Plate VIII.; from this it will be seen that all those winds
having a westerly bearing travel very much the fastest: those from the S. to
the E. proceed at a much slower rate, while such as come from the North-
east average but a little more than one-third the rate of the Westerly winds
(for the exact rates see Table III., Column 6).
With reference to the results obtained from the Rain-registers, the first
row of diagrams, Plate IX., gives a comparative view of the amount of rain
which accompanied each wind, while the second row exhibits the number of
hours it occupied in falling; from these the hourly rate is at once obtained,
and the result is shown in the third row of diagrams on the same Plate. In
addition to this, the quantity of rain compared with the amount of air that
passed over the station has been taken out (see Table III. column 2), and a
diagram (see Plate X. fig. 2) is given, showing the mean quantity of rain
that falls to every thousand miles of air from each point of the compass.
By this it will be observed that the North-Easterly winds, which are smallest
- in amount, bring with them a much larger proportion of rain than those from
any other point.
TABLE V.—Whole amount of rain that fell between each hour.
See Plate X. fig. 1, and Table IV. col. 4.
a ee ee ie ee
aM. |12to1.)1to2.)2to3.|3 to 4.) 4 to 5.|5 to 6.| 6 to 7.17 to 8.| 8 to 9. |9 to 10.) 10toll|L1to12
ee
1-090 | 1-389 | 0-936.
1-185 | 1577 | 0-860
0-881 | 0-706 | 0-936
0-880 | 0-768 | 1-121
1-009 | 1:110 | 0-963
| ff |
| Mean | 0-824 | 0:365 | 0-866
P.M. 12 tol! 1to2. 2to3.|3t04.|4 to 5.|5 to 6.| 6 to 7.| 7 to 8. | 8 to 9.|9 to 10. 10tol1 11t012
1852. | 1-305 |1-178 |1-359 | 1-476 | 1-241 | 1-262 [1-354 10-851 |1-594 11-306 |1-356 |1-545
1858. |1-011 | 1-173 | 0-818 | 0-811 | 1-047 | 0 920 |1-108 | 0-788 | 0-913 | 0-681 {0-631 | 0-820
1854. | 0-820 | 1-026 | 0-714 | 0-776 | 1-090 | 0-733 |0-836 | 1-052 |1-518 | 1-065 | 0-734 | 0-860
1855. |1-445 | 1-756 | 0-933 | 0-778 | 0-887 | 1-608 | 1-025 | 0-916 | 0-971 | 0-658 | 0-709 | 1-100
Mean | 1-145 | 1-283 | 0-956
—_—_
0-960 | 1-066 | 1-131 | 1-081 | 0-902 | 1-249 | 0-926 | 0-857 | L081
* See Report of the British Association at Glasgow, 1840,
138
REPORT—1855.
Taste VI.—Mean hourly horizontal motion of the air in miles for each month.
See Plate X. fig. 3.
Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov, | Dec
1852. | 19-2 | 18-6 90 93 |126 |135 |105 |106 |11:2 {116 |126 | 17-6
1858. | 15-3 {12:0 {103 |17:0 | 11:3 9-8 | 15:2 |10:7 | 123 | 117 9°8 9°6
1854. {160 {192 {139 |12°8 |106 |126 |104 |114 [128 |13:2 |138:7 |23°9
1855. | 9°6 98 |126 |138°8 |12°5 |12:-4 96 |146 81 |13:9 85 | 15°5
Mean | 15-0 [14:9 | 11-45 {13-2 [11-75 | 12-1 [11-4 [11-8 [111 {126 |109 |16°85
Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn.
Dec., Jan., Feb. Mar., Apr., May. June, July, Aug. Sept., Oct., Nov.
L._._,— — Se eet a ——— e?
es
15°6 miles per hour. 12:1 miles per hour. 11°8 miles per hour. _11°5 miles per hour.
Taste VII.—Horizontal motion of the air for the years 1852, 1853, 1854, .
and 1855.
Total number |Mean rate per
Miles. Hours. oy of hoursin the] hour per
‘ year. annum.
1852,* 114,276 8765 19 8784 13:00
1853. 105,989 8733 27 8760 12-09
1854. 128,283 8756 4 8760 14-64
1855. 103,405 8748 12 8760 11°80
Mean 112,989 8750 15°5 8766 12:90
* Leap year.
The sums of all the changes in the direction of the wind are in the following order :-—
12 revolutions in 1852.
12 revolutions in 1853.
2 revolutions in 1854.
10 revolutions in 1855.
The excess of the direct over the retrograde motion was therefore—
in 1852, Sixteen revolutions,
in 1853, Twelve revolutions,
in 1854, Twenty-four revolutions,
in 1855, Fourteen revolutions.
28 revolutions in 1852.
24 revolutions in 1853.
26 revolutions in 1854.
24 revolutions in 1855.
N.E.S.W.N. N.W.S.E.N.
Table V. gives the hourly amount of rain, and is illustrated in fig. 1,
Plate X. As far as four years are capable of indicating, it would appear
that the minimum amount of rain falls during the first three hours after
midnight, and that there are three periods in the day when an increased
amount of rain falls, namely, between seven and eight o'clock in the morning,
between one and two in the middle of the day, and between eight and nine
in the evening; but before any satisfactory conclusions can be arrived at on
this subject, it will be necessary to obtain averages for a longer period.
Table VI. gives the average hourly motion of the air in miles for each
month, direction not being regarded. The curves shown in fig. 3, Plate X.,
exhibit the comparative results given in this table, by which it appears that
the greatest amount of motion in the air takes place in the months of Decem-
SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER AND RAIN-GAUGE. 139
ber, January, and February. November seems to be the stillest month in
the year, and March, which is usually considered such a windy month, is in
fact one of the four in which the least. amount of motion in the air occurs,
while April is only surpassed by the three winter months mentioned above.
Table VIII., like the preceding, gives the mean hourly motion of the air
without regard to direction, but instead of referring to the months, shows
the amount of motion between any one hour of the day and the next follow-
ing, as explained in the heading of the table. This is illustrated in Plate XI.,
a reference to which will render any lengthened explanation here unnecessary.
I would merely call attention to the coincidence between these curves and
those of temperature ; they also agree in a striking manner with the curves
T laid down in a similar way from the observations taken in Birmingham
with the Force Anemometer, and which appear in the Report of the British
Association for 1840, already alluded to.
In the foregoing ‘Tables in this Report, the horizontal motion of the air,
obtaine:l from Dr. Robinson’s revolving cups, is tabulated in preference to
the force, not only because it can be recorded more definitely, but as afford-
ing many interesting results respecting the velocity of various winds; but
when observations from different stations have to be compared, the force
register will be found of great utility, by exhibiting the sudden and extreme
changes which frequently take place, not only in storms, but in the more
regular currents of the atmosphere, when those marked and important indi-
cations become of peculiar interest: on this account I consider both modes
of registration as desirable.
Important as are the Observations at the Liverpool Observatory, contained
in the foregoing Tables, their value will be much enhanced when regarded
in connexion with those at other places; and this leads me to repeat a pro-
position to which I have on more than one occasion taken the liberty of
calling attention, namely, the expediency of carrying out Anemometrical
Observations on an extended scale, especially further South, where the
action of the sun, that great disturbing cause, is more marked and regular ;
after this is in operation, the observations may be advantageously carried
Northwards to our own country, where the changes are more complex. We
cannot hope to determine the laws of the great atmospheric currents from
observations limited to such an ever-varying condition of the elements as
exists in these islands, which are situated in a region of variable winds pro-
ducing an equally varied climate, and lie, moreover, on the borders of a
great continent as well as a vast ocean; but if such observations were com-
bined with a series of continuous anemometrical records of the atmospheric
currents, commencing nearer the equator, 1 think it would do more towards
the advancement of the Science of Meteorology than any other class of
observations.
The very valuable observations that are being taken by Captains of vessels
carrying meteorological instruments supplied by Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment, under the management of Captain Fitzroy, as well as those from the
American Government, under the superintendence of Lieutenant Maury,
are of great and immediate practical value; but I am of opinion, that
if a number of standard points were to be selected, and a continuous series
of self-registered observations obtained, the investigations that are now going
on-would be greaily benefited and advanced. Detached observations
on the wind taken at intervals on board ship, are most valuable in filling
up the spaces between fixed and unerring Sself-recording instruments, but
are scarcely sufficient to procure such exact knowledge of the variations
as it is so necessary to obtain, if the movements of the air are to be
140
apie VIII.—Showing the mean horizontal motion of the air in miles
for the years ending November 30,
Dec., Jan., Feb........ 13°57 | 13-75 | 13-97 | 14°12 | 14:27 | 14-42 | 14°37 | 14-70 | 14°67 | 15-25
March, April, May ...| 10°15 | 10:00 | 10°07 10:27 | 10-20 | 10°32 | 10°77 | 11-45 | 12-45 | 13-25
1-77
REPORT—1855.
9:85 | 997 | 9:90 |.9:75 | 9:92 | 9:97 | 10-75
1851-52. 23 | 3-4 | 45 | 5-6 | 6-7 | 7-8 | 8-9 | 9-10
—— a — —_
Dec., Jan., Feb.......---| 18°8 | 14-1 | 143 | 15-1 | 15-4 14:9 | 146 | 15:0 | 15:5 | 15-6
March, April, May ...) 85 8:4 8-0 79 8:0 8:4 88 90 ; 103 | 113
June, July, August ...) 9:5 | 10°0 | 10-2 95 | 100 | 102 | 11-3 | 12-2 | 128 | 13:5
Sept., Oct., Nov. ...... 10-7 | 109 | 10:3 | 10:8 | 10-9 | 106 | 105 | 108 | 11-7 | 118
1852-538.
Dets Gat. ROD. xss0.-. 13-5 | 139 | 147 | 146 | 15:5 | 15-4 | 155 | 16-0 | 15-4 | 16-1
March, April, May ...| 103 | 10:5 | 11-0 | 10:8 11-1 | 10-9 | 11-6 | 126 | 137 | 14:5
June, July, August ...} 10-0 9°6 9-4 9°3 9-7 96 | 10-1 | 11-6 | 12-4 | 12°8
Sept., Oct., Nov. . 10-0 | 10:3 | 10-4 | 10:3 | 10:2 | 10-7 | 10-7 | 1i4 | 11-7 | 118
1853-54.
Dec., Jan., Feb.....++ A 13-7 | 132°] 13-2 | 13-2 | 13-2 | 13-9 | 140 | 14:1 | 141 | 149
March, April, May ...| 107 | 10:2 | 10-4 | Ill 106 | 106 | 108 | 11:8 | 12:7 | 13:4
June, July, August ...} 9:5 9°6 9-4 9-4 9-4 9:0 | 10:0 | 11-1 | 12-1 | 12°8
Sept., Oct., Nov. ...++ 12-6 | 12-2 | 124 | 12-7 | 126 | 12:3 | 12-2 |.12-7 | 128 | 137
1854-55.
Dec., Jan., Feb.......++ 13:3 | 13:8 | 13-7 | 136 | 13-0 | 13:5 | 13-4 | 137 | 13-7 | 142
March, April, May ...| 11:1 | 10:9 | 10:9 | 113 11-1 | 11-4 | 11-9 | 12-4 | 13-1 | 136
June, July, August ...| 10-4 | 207 | 106 10°8 | 10-6 | 11-1 | 11-6 | 12-2 | 12-6 | 12-9
Sept., Oct., Nov. ....-- 8:9 8:6 8-9 8-8 8-8 8-6 8:9 9-3 | 10:1 | 10°8
charted, and we are to hope for a discovery of the laws that regulate them.
I would propose, therefore, that stations be established to aid in carrying out
an Anemometrical Survey of the Atlantic ; in the first place at Bermuda, the
Azores, and Madeira; also one or two on the South Coast of England, and
on some Southerly point in Ireland. To these it would be desirable, if pos-
sible, to add two or three stations on the Atlantic Coasts of Europe and
America. This plan, which I suggested at the Physical Section of the
British Association in 1849, would, I believe, be the most efficient
and expeditious mode of obtaining the knowledge required, and the
advantages to be derived from it would more than compensate any
difficulty. Nor need the expense be very great; for instruments might
be constructed that would continue their record for several days together,
and thus require occasional attention only. I should recommend com-
mencing with the three first-named insular stations, as being the most
important. In addition to the information to be obtained respecting the
general currents of the air, the subject of rotatory storms might be investi-
gated. There is much to be discovered respecting them, which self-register-
ing instruments alone are likely to supply. That rotatory storms do take
place, there can be no doubt; but I believe the rotatory portion is much less
than is supposed, and may not always be in contact with the earth. The
present theory respecting them does not account for many phenomena,
and can only be regarded as furnishing a rough approximation to their
real motion.
,
SELF-REGISTERING ANEMOMETER AND RAIN-GAUGE.
141
between any one hour of the day and the next hour following, for each of the seasons,
1852, 1853, 1854, and 1855. See Plate XI.
16:9 |
178
12:7
14:0
13:0
17-2
15:9
138
13:1
15-6
13:8
127
147
15:8
15-5
13:9
12:0
177
12°8
13:8
13°4
171
15:8
146
13°4
15:8
15-0
13°6
15-1
16°5
16:0
14:1
12°6
12°65
16:60
14-47
13-60
13:20
14-46 | 14:82
, 1854, and 1855.
16-77
14:90
14:02
13°62
10-11 | 11-12 | 12-13 | 13-14
| sd
18:3
13:4
13°8
13'8
17-0
16-2
14:8
13°6
16:1
15:3
145
14:8
166
16-3
143
13:1
17-00
15°30
14:35
13°82
15:11
14-15 | 15-16
"18:2 | 17:3
13-2 | 13-1
135 | 13:3
13-7 | 133
160 | 15-0
15-9 | 15-7
15-0 | 15-0
13-4 | 13-0
162 | 15-6
163 | 151
140 | 1355.
140 | 141
161 | 15:8
16-3 | 15-7
14-0 | 13-7
126 | 11-9
16-17
17:3
12-3
13°2
13:2
14:4
15°5
17-18
——}
15°8
10:6
12-1
18-19 | 19-20 | 20-21
16:62
15:17
14:12
13°45
16:05
14:90
13°87
13°07
14:84 | 14:47
21-22 | 22-23
15:3 | 15:0
9:0 87
91 92
11-7 | 113
135 | 13:3
11:0 | 106
10-4 9:9
10-2 | 10-0
14:0 | 14:2
11:0 | 11:0
10-4 | 10:2
13] | 13-4
13°83 | 13:7
11:7 | 11-7
10-7 | 10:9
9:2 9:0
Many interesting and important results remain to be worked out from the
very accurate and complete series of observations that have been recorded
at Liverpool, under the skilful and vigilant care of Mr. Hartnup. His
Tables, which will increase in value with their progressive accumulation, are
admirably arranged, and contain much more information than any I have
hitherto seen.
The following Table exhibits the extreme pressure of the wind in pounds
on the square foot, and the greatest horizontal motion of the air between any
one hour and the next hour following, for all the gales during the four years
in which the pressure has reached fifteen pounds on the square foot.
a es | | Ef | ee” | =|
142 REPORT—1855.
Greatest velocity
Extreme 4
ressure on ‘ime at which it of the air between urs between Direction
Dats. the square Ee seul ae pee pa te whieh it eceurnell ne wind
foot. ns
following.
1852. Pounds. h m Miles. h h
January 3 16 7 30 P.M. 50 8 & 9PM s.W
35 4 28 5 380 a.m. 53 5 ,, Gam. W.N.W.
re 7 19 2 30 P.M. 50 3 ,, 4 P.M. W.N.W.
on 8 18 4 12 P.M. 39 4, 5 P.M s
3 9 29 3 Oa.M. 62 4,, 5A.M. W.N.W.
PP 15 16 11 304.M. 44 ll ,, 12 a.m. w
4; 16 15 0 45 p.m. 40 | Ww
3 21 18 7 30pm. 46 8,, 9PM. W.S.Ws
5 25 16 4 30 P.M. 27 4, 5pm. $.S.W.
35 30 17 0 20 p.m. 38 12 ,, leo. W.N.W.
Februaty 6 15 “4 45 aM. 44 4, DAM: W.N.W:
FA 9 18 4 20 a.m. 47 5 5, Oem. N.N.W:
Fy 16 22 7 42pm. 50 7, Spm. W.N.W.
ss 17 16 7 38 eM. 47 8 ,, 9PM. Ww.
5 18 15 8 380 a.M. 47 6,, 7AM. N.W
May 14 V7 9 d0a.m. 49 9 ,, 10 a.m. W.N.W.
December 25 42 4 45 a.M. 79 4, 5a.m. W.S.W.
iy 27 42 6 48 a.m. 71 8 ,, 9a.M. S.W.
1853.
January 6 19 10 40 a.m. 38 6, JEM W.N.W.
i ll 17 10 12 4.m. 47 10 ,, lla.m Ww
FA 12 7 7 50 A.M. 47 9 ,, 10a.m s.W
February 26 33 1] 40 a.m. 60 1 VP. N.N.W.
April 1 23 11 Oa. 51 es eee S.W
7 7 16 2 30 p.m. 42 2,, 3PM. W.N.W.
September 25 37 7 50 P.M. 65 75 Sak N.N.W.
FA 26 24 2 12 a.m. 56 2, SAM. N.N.W. 3
1854.
January 20 22 0 42 pM. 30 9 ,, 10 p.m. W.S.W.
s 24 19 2 54 a.m. 34 5, 64a.mM. s
~* 25. 16 3 36 P.M. 34 145, O PM, W.S.W.
F 26 43 10 42 a.m. 53 9 ,, 104.m. w
53 27 20 7 247M. 53 75 SPM. S.W
February 6 15 0 36 4.M. 43 1,5, 2am. Ww
ft 8 21 1 6a.mM. 45 1, 2am. W.N.W.
P| 15 15 4 24am. 40 5» 6am. New,
% 17 27 8 6P.M. 56 8,, 9PM. N.W
3 18 31 3 54am. 56 4, Sam. W.N.W.
" 22 18 2 18 P.M. 35 3,, 4.P.M. S.S.W.
October 22 24 6 42 a.m. 44 6, 7AM: N.W
December 2 16 5 6am. 47 6, 7AM. W.N.W.
. 3 25 3 54 P.M. 45 11_,, 122M. W.N.W.
i 4 17 1 6a.M. 43 0; Lam. W.N.W:
9 5 16 11 18a.M. 45 8 ,, 9PM. w
ae 15 17 8 42 a.m. 44 8, 9am, Ww.
Es 22 27 8 12 a.m. 48 8,, 9am. W.N.W.
‘3 25 20 1 24 P.M. 48 M4 SUB ee W.N.W.
. 26 16 10 364.M. 40 12, lem. Ww
es 27 15 2 48 a.m. 43 3,, 44.M. W.N.W.
« 31 15 10 18 P.M. 46 10 ,, ll pw N.W
1855.
January 1 19 1 24 a.m. 48 3,, 4am. W.N.W.
March 1 15 2 Op™. 46 2, 3PM. W.N.W.
+ 18 15 2 30 p.m. 46 2, 3PM. W.N.W.
April 10 24 0 5pm. | 0°; Sear W.N.W.
Ss 11 18 2 45 a.m. 48 3,, 4am. _ W.N.We
October 24 16 7 15 a.m. 40 5, 6am. Ww.
Ey ddEEEndEIyyyIn nn nnnner nse nS
143
PROVISIONAL REPORTS.
On the Strength of Boiler Plates. By Wn. FatrBairn, F.R.S,
On Boiler Explosions. By Wm. Farrsairn, F.R.S.
Report of the Committee appointed by the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, to investigate and report upon the changes
which have taken place in the Channels of the Mersey during the
last fifty years, to the General Meeting at Glasgow, 1855.
Your Committee have to report that they have been engaged in the exa-
mination of various documents which contain evidence upon the subject
confided to them ; and they have pleasure in acknowledging the courteous
assistance they have received from the Duchy of Lancaster, the Mayor and
Town Council of Liverpool, the Dock Committee of Liverpool, and James
Rendel, Esq., C.E., who have granted access to the various documents which
they severally possess, calculated to give information upon the subject.
As, however, the charts, reports, and other papers are for the most part
very valuable, the several custodians naturally decline to allow them to be
removed from their respective places of deposit; and it has therefore been
found necessary to transcribe such portions as are required for the purposes
of the inquiry. Should the Association consider that the inquiry should be
prosecuted, your Committee hope to be entrusted with a grant of £100 to be
applied to the purpose.
As Sir Philip Egerton for several years past has given considerable atten-
tion to the changes in the Mersey, your Committee are desirous of enjoying
the advantage of his assistance, and hope that he may be included in their
reappointment. ;
The inquiry into the causes of the present state of the Mersey has so
important a relation to harbour engineering specially, and to certain sciences
the knowledge of which is necessary for its operations, that your Committee
hope that they shall be permitted to continue that inquiry with the means
requisite for giving it practical efficiency. Harrowsy.
First Report of the Liverpool Committee on the Deviations of the
Compass Needle in Iron and other Vessels occasioned by Inductive
or Polar Magnetism. By J. B. Yates, F.A.S., Chairman to the
Compass Committee, and Joun Granruam, C.E., Hon. Sec.
On Life Boats. By A. HENDERSON.
On the Friction of Disks in Water and on Centrifugal Pumps.
By James Tuomson, C.E.
A Report of one Day’s Dredging by the Belfast Dredging Committee
was read by Mr. Parrerson, who exhibited specimens of Virgularia
mirabilis, with Drawings of the Polypes, by Professor WYV1LLE
THomson.
WM
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=
DM
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<x
=
<q
op)
ea
BS
Sas
je)
Z
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
MATHEMATICS.
On the Porism of the in-and-circumseribed Triangle.
By A. Cavity, M.A., FR.S.
Tue porism of the in-and-circumscribed triangle in its most general form relates to
a triangle, the angles of which lie in fixed curves, and the sides of which touch fixed
curves, but at present I consider only the case in which the angles Jie in one and the
same fixed curve, which for greater simplicity I assume to be a conic. We have
therefore a triangle ABC, the angles of which lie in a fixed conic §, and the sides
of which touch the fixed curves 4, 33, @. And if we consider the conic & and the
curves @, 36 as given, the curve € will be the envelope of the side AB of the triangle.
Suppose that the curves , 3§ are of the classes m, n respectively, there is no diffi-
culty in showing that the curve @ is of the class 2mn. But the curve @ has in
general double tangents, forming two distinct groups, the first group arising from
quadrilaterals inscribed in the conic &, and such that two opposite sides touch the
curve @ and the other two opposite sides touch the curve 3§, the second group
arising from quadrilaterals inscribed in the conic &, and such that two adjacent sides
touch the curve @ and the other two adjacent sides touch the curve 3. The number
of double tangents of the first group is mm (m n—1), and the number of double tan-
gents of the second group is mn (mn—m—n-+1) ; the number of double tangents of
the two groups is therefore mn(2mn—m—n). The curve & has not in general any
inflexions, hence being of the class 2mn and having mn (2mn—m—n) double tan-
gents, it will be of the order 2mn (m+n—1).
When the curves @ and 3§ are conics, the curve @ is therefore of the class 8, with
16 double tangents but no inflexions, consequently of the order 24. But there are
two remarkable cases in which the order is further diminished. First, when each of
the conics Q, 36 has double contact with the conic &. The four points of contact
give rise to 8 new double tangents, or there are in all 24 double tangents, the curve
@ is therefore of the degree 8 ; and being of the class 8, with 24 double tangents, it
must of necessity break up into four curves each of the class 2, i. e. into four conics.
Each of these has double contact with the conic §, or attending only to one of the
four conics, we have the well-known theorem, which I call the porism (homographic)
of the in-and-circumescribed triangle, viz. ‘‘ there are an infinity of triangles inscribed
in a conic, and such that the sides touch conics having each of them double contact
with the circumscribed conic.”
Secondly, the conics @ and 38 may intersect the conic § in the same four points.
Here every tangent of the curve @ is in fact a double tangent belonging to the first
mentioned group, the curve € in fact consists of two coincident curves ; each of them
therefore of the class 4. But this curve of the class 4 has itself four double tangents,
arising from the common points of intersection of the conics A, 38 with the conic $;
‘it must therefore break up into two curves, each of the class 2, 7. e. into two conics ;
each of these intersects the conic § in the same four points in which it is intersected
by the conics A, 33. Attending only to one of the two conics, we have the other well-
1855.
2 REPORT—1855.
known theorem, which I call the porism (allographic) of the in-and-cireumscribed —
triangle, viz. ‘‘ there are an infinity of triangles inscribed in a conic, and such that the
sides touch conics, each of them meeting the circumscribed conic in the same four
points.”
The investigations, the results of which have just been stated, will appear in the
Quarterly Mathematical Journal.
A Tract on the possible and impossible cases of Quadratic Duplicate Equa-
lities in the Diophantine Analysis. By Mattuew Couuins, B.A., Senior
Moderator in Mathematics and Physics, and Bishop Law’s Mathematical
Prizeman, Trinity College, Dublin.
The author of this tract divides it into three chapters.
Chapter I. treats of the possible and impossible cases of the two simul-
taneous equations 2’°+4+Ay’=0 and #’—Ay’=0; now it is proved in the
original paper from which the present abstract is taken that this is impossible
when A is any integer < 20, except 5, 6, 7, 18, 14 or 15. And the demon-
strations of the impossibility are extremely easy, clear, and rigorous, and pos-
sess the great advantage of being effected, in all the different cases, by one
uniform method. This first chapter terminates with a general demonstration
of the impossibility whenever A is a prime number, and such that neither
m*>+1 nor m*—2 is divisible by A, m being < 4A.
In the cases that are possible, as many solutions as we please, in integers
(w, y) prime to each other, are obtained in this paper with singular facility
and rapidity by means of the following zew and useful—
General Theorem.—Thesolution of X*+abY°= 0 =Z’and X’—abY*= 0 = W?
can be obtained from a solution of the two auziliary equations ax* + by?=nz*
and abe*—y?= + nw’, for in fact X=Jn(z*+w') and Y=2zryzw will answer.
Demonstration.—The difference of the squares of the two auxiliary equa-
tions gives 4abz°y’=n?(z*—w’*), and .. abY’=4aba°y*2*w"’, . =n? 2°w"(z'—w’);
and as 4X?=n7(z!4+ w')?=n?(z4—w')? +27 (22°w?)P?=n7(? +0"), where t=2*§—w!
and v=22°w" and 4abY? is =4n?z*w"(z'—w’), .°. =n? (2tv),
. 4(X?+ abY*)=n°(t+v)’, which are both squares. Q.E. D.
By taking n=1 and also 6=1, we can, from one solution of the equations
r+ay=2 and 2° —ay’=w", derive another solution of the same equations in
larger integers; thus new X=}(z2*+w*) and new Y=2eyzw.
Ex. gr. When A=5, then the auziliary equations 2°+5y’=nz* and
x’? —5y°= — nw’ are obviously fulfilled by taking zx=l=y=w, z=2 and z=3;
hence by the general theorem, we find X=}(2*+w*)=3(3*+ 1*)=41 and
Y=22yzw=12 to fulfil the proposed equations
e+5y>0=2 and ¢’—5yY= 0 =w’,
giving z=49 and w=31; and from this set of answers we can, according to
the above observation, deduce another set in larger integers; in fact, it is
evident new .
r=}(49*+31*)=3344161, and new y=2 x 41 x 12x 49 x 31= 1494696,
from which we could again find new and very high values of z and y, and thus
ascend into very great whole numbers,
When A=6, then z=5 and y=2 givez=7 andw=1;
“. new r=2(7*+ 14)=1201,
and new y=10X2x7=140, giving new z=1249 and new w=1151, and
thence again
New v= }(1249* +1151‘) and new y=1201 x 280 x 1249 x 1151, &e.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3
When A=7, then taking n=2, one obvious solution of the auwiliary equa-
tions 2?+7y?=22" and 2—7y°=2w"* is 2=5, y=1, z=4, and w=3; and
hence by the above general theorem, we find X= jn(2*+w')=4* + 3'=337
and Y=2ryzw=120 to fulfil the two proposed equations 2” + 7y’=O0=2" and
2—7y=O=w", giving z=463 and w=113; and thence we find again,
according to the above observation, new x=3(463*+ 113%) and
new y=337 x 240 x 463 x 118,
from which we could again find values of x and y in integers still larger, &c.
When A=13, then taking n=1, one obvious solution of the auciliary
equations a+ 13y?=2? and a” —13y’= —w’ is r=6, y=5, giving z=19 and
w=17; and hence by the general theorem, we find X=}(19*+17*)=106921
and Y=10x6x19x17=19380 to fulfil the two proposed equations,
2?4+13y=o0=2 and 2’—13y=o=w*. These values of 2 and y give
z=127729 and w=80929, from which again we find, according to the fore-
going observation, new a=3(127729*+ 80929*) and
new y=2 x 106921 x 19380 x 127729 x 80929, &c.
Finally, it is observed that the solution of X°4+abY?=O=Z* and
X?—abY*=0=W’ can be also derived from a solution of the auziliary
equations 27+ y= az and a*—y’= bw’, since in fact X=a*+y* and
Y=2zyzw will answer; for then
abY?=4ab2°y?2*w = 4a°y" (az*) (bw?) =4a°y?(a*—y*) = 2tv
where t=a*—y' and v=2z’y’, and X*=(a*+y*)?=f+v"; and so
X?+abY?=(t+v)’, which are both squares. Q. E. D.
Chapter II. treats of the possible and impossible cases of the two simul-
taneous equations 2+ y?=0 anda2®+Ay’=O. Now in the original paper itis
rigorously demonstrated by one uniform, easy, and satisfactory method, that
this is impossible when A is any positive integer < 20, except 7, 10, 11 or 17;
and it is also satisfactorily proved that the proposed equations will be always
possible or solvable whenever A is =2a’—8, or 2a°—1, or 2a?+ 2, or 2a7+9,
or 2a74+50, or 3a?—48, or 3a°—8, or 3a’+4, or 3a°+49, or 5a°—4, or
2
5a@+5, or 5a°—80, or 5a7+81, or Ga°—2, or 6a°+3, or 4a°+ 3a, or a
diminished either by } or by 1}, &c. &e. And thus the proposed equations will
be possible or soluble whenever A is any of the following integers ; viz. 7, 10,
11, 17, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 31, 34, 41, 42, 45, 49, 50, 52, 57, 58, 59, 60,
61, 68, 71, 72, 74, 76, 79, 82, 85, 86, 90, 92, 94, 97, 99, 100, 101, 104,
105, 112, 115, 119, 120, 121, 122, &c.
The solutions of the possible cases are inferred with great facility in the
present paper from the following new and useful—
General Theorem.—The values of X and Y in X*+Y°=O=Z? and
X? + abY*=O= W’ can be deduced or inferred from the values of x and y in
the auziliary equations x? +ay?=nz? and y’? + b2*=nw" ; in fact, X=a°w°—y?2?
and Y=2zyzw will answer; for then X?+ Y’?=(a’w’+y°2")?. And so the
first condition is fulfilled. Now 2X=a°(y?+27)—y*(#*+ay’), .. =bat—ay*;
also n°Y°=4a"y*(2*+ ay”)(y?+62"), .. =4a*y'(1+ab) +4b2°y’ + 4az*y’; and
so n°(X*+abY>) =(ba*+ 2abs’y?+ ay*)?; and hence
X? + abY*= (bat + 2aba*y? + ay*)? +n’, . =O.
And thus these values of X and Y satisfy the second condition also. Q. E. D.
If a or b be negative, we obtain a solution of X?+ Y’=O and X’—abY°=0;
but by taking 6=1 andz=1, and interchanging z and w, this general theorem
shows that, “from one solution of the proposed equations 2°+y’=2* and
1*
4 REPORT—1855.
z+ Ay’=w* we can obtain another solution of the same equations, in larger
integers, by only taking new X=Ay*—a* and new Y=2eyzw.” We shall
give here only a few instances of the use of this most important theorem.
When A=7, then the proposed equations a?+y’=O0=2" and 2°+7/=0=w?
are obviously fulfilled by z=3, y=4, z=5, and w=11; whence for a second
solution we haveonly totakenew2=7 x 4*—3*=1711 andnewy=2zryzw=1320,
giving .*. new z=2161 and new w=3889; and thence again a third set of
answers are new #=7 X 1320’—1711* and
new y=2X 1711 x 1320 x 2161 x 3889.
When A=10, one solution is obviously e=3 and y=4, from which new
solutions can be obtained as above. When A=11, then taking n=5, a pos-
sible remainder of squares to modulus 11, the auziliary equations #*+y?=527
and #?+11ly’=5w’ are obviously fulfilled by x=1, y=2, z=1, and w=38;
whence by our general theorem we have X=a?z?—y’w?=35 and Y=2cyzw
=12, which are the least values of x and y to answer the proposed equations
rP+y=oO=2 and 2?+1ly=oO=w’, giving z=37 and w=53; and thence
again another set of answers are new z=11y*—a*, .°.==1272529 and new
y= 2ryzw=70 X 12 X 37 x 53=1647240, and thence again new X=11y*—2*
=11 x 1647240*—1272529%, &c.
When A=4, the proposed equations (#?+y’=0O and a2’?+4y’=D) are
proved to be impossible, whence by taking a=d=—2 and n= —1, it follows
from the foregoing general theorem that the auziliary equations 2y?—a2?=z*
and 22°—y’=w? must be also impossible, i. e, there cannot be four square
numbers, w’, 2, y®, z”, in arithmetical progression.
Chapter III. treats of the possible and impossible cases of the two simul-
taneous equations 2’—y’?=0O and «’—Ay’=0O. In the paper, of which we
here present a very short abstract, this is rigorously demonstrated to be im-
possible when A is any integer < 13, except 7 or 11; the solutions of the
possible cases in integers x, y prime to each other are obtained with great
facility and generality from the following new and important —
General Theorem.—The values of X and Y to fulfil X*—Y’=o=Z? and
X?—abY’=O=W?’ can be got from the solution of the auviliary equations
xv’ —ay’=nz and ba’?—y’=nw”, since in fact X=2°w?+y*2° and Y=2eyzw
will answer the purpose, as is easily demonstrated.
By taking 6=1, and interchanging z and w in this general theorem, we see
that the solution of X°—Y?=Z? and X?—aY*=W’ can be obtained from the
solution of 2’—y’=nz* and 2?—ay’=nw* merely by taking X=a*z*+y*w
and Y=2zyzw. And then again, by taking n=1, this general theorem shows
how to find a solution in great integers from a known solution in smaller
integers of 2°—y?=2* and w°—ay’=u"; for thennew X=2°2?+yw=a2*—ay*
and new Y=2zyzw in all cases.
Ex. gr. Let a=7, so that the two equations to be solved are 2?—y’=O=2*?
and 2’—7y’=O=w’; then taking n=2, a possible remainder of square
numbers to divisor 7, we see that one obvious solution of the two auziliary
equations a’—y’=22* and a? —7y*=2w* is 7=3, y=1, z=2, and w=1; and
.. by the foregoing X=a2°z?4y°w°=37 and y=2zryzw=12, which are the
least integers to answer the two proposed equations; they give z=35 and
w=19; and from this solution we find another, as indicated above, viz. new
X=2'—ay'=37'—7 . 12=1729009 and new
Y=2ryzw=37 x 24 x 35 x 19=590520.
And now using these values of X and Y for 2 and y, we thence get another
solution by the same formule, viz.
new X=ax*—ay'=1729009'—7 .590520*= &c.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5
As another example, let a=11, so that the two equations to be solved are
’—y=o=2* and a’—lly?=oO=w’*; then taking n=5, we see that one
obvious solution of the two auwiliary equations 2?—y’?=5z’ and 2°—11ly’=5w*
is v=7, y=2, z=3, and w=1; and .°. by the foregoing theorem
X=272? + yw? = 217+ Y?=—445 and Y=2ryzw=84,
which are the least integral values of x and y to fulfil the proposed equations ;
they give z=437 and w=347 ; and now from this solution we find another,
as indicated above, viz. new X=a'—ay'=445*—11 . 84* and
new Y =2ayzw=2 x 445 x 84 x 487 x 847 =&c. ;
and by using these values of X and Y for 2 and y, we can thence again
find X and Y in very great integers, &c. By taking a negative, we could
obviously deduce the solution of X*—Y?=Z? and X’+abY°=W? from a
solution of the two auziliary equations 2°+ay=«2 and be’—y'=nw’".
Finally, we may observe that the two equations #*—y’=0 and a?—Ay’=0O
will be simultaneously possible whenever A is =9—2a’, or 50—2a’, or
49 —3¢?, or 81—5a’”, or 25—6a?, or 64—7a’, or 100—11a’, or any of the
following integers, viz. 7, 11, 18, 19, 22, 32, 36, 37, 42, 46, 48, 56, 57,
61, &c.
General Theorem.—The solution of X?+ Y?=0 and X?+ (a+1)Y°=0 can
be obtained from a solution of the two auailiary equations 2°+y’=nz’ and
ay + a? =nw*; in fact X=a*2?—y’w" and Y=2zyzw will answer, as is easily
demonstrated.
Another General Theorem.—The solution of X?— Y?=QOand X?—(a+1)Y’=O
can also be obtained from a solution of the two auziliary equations
{ ad sk
ax? +y=nw J’
or from a solution of the pair
yt eet s
y—ar=nw 5’
for in fact X=2’w*+y’2" and Y=2zcyzw will answer, as is also easily de-
monstrated.
The author states, that it is the demonstrations of the impossible cases
that have led to the discovery of ali the foregoing general theorems for
solving the possible cases; and although these demonstrations of the impos-
sible cases are by far the most interesting and valuable part of this Tract,
they are necessarily, on account of their length, omitted in the present
abstract ; but the Tract quite entire will be soon published.
On a more general Theory of Analytical Geometry, including the Cartesian
as a particular case. By ALEXANDER J. Evus, B.A., F.CP.S.
Assuming a Roman i as the symbol for rotating through 90°, it is shown
that (~+i)(@—i)=a?+1, and that therefore i=/(—1). Taking (p+ig)L
as the representative of a line of the length /(p?+q’) . L, L being the unit
of length, making an angle @ with the axis, where Vv pt+q’.sin 6=g and
4 p+q.cos0=p, this line will determine its extreme point when referred
to a known origin, axis, and scale. :
Two Dimensions.
Simple Locus.—If q be a function of p, then the two expressions p+ ig and
9=9p ‘letermine a curve. This corresponds with the usual Cartesian case.
6 REPORT—1855.
General Locus.—lf x=p+ig and y=r+is, and f(z, y) be any function of
x and y, then f(w, y)=X+1Y, where X and Y are functions of p, g, 7, s,
which determines a point. If, moreover, we have given q7=4, in order to
have only one variable p, and also g(x, y)=9'(p, ¢,7, 8) +i¢"(p, 9,7, 8) =0 as
any relation between # and y, then the whole system f(w, y), g=q,, and
¢(2, y)=0 determines a curve, called the general locus, which is found by
eliminating p, q, 7, s between the five equations X and Y= functions of
PGs 8, Y=,» 9'=0, and g”=0, whence Y = a function of X, and the
required locus is the simple locus of X+iY and Y= function of X.
Particular cases.—lf g=s=0, and first, f(a,y)=ptir, we have a case
corresponding to the Cartesian rectangular coordinates. If, secondly,
J(«, v)=p(cosa+isin a)+4+r(cos6+isin 8), we have the case of oblique
coordinates; while, thirdly, f(v, y,.=r(cosp+isinp) gives the case of
polar coordinates.
Radical Loci of the equation ¢(7,y)=0 for g=g,. From 1=Yp ¢'=0,
¢’=0, find s=s, and r=r,,, and describe the simple loci of—
1. p+ig and q=q, giving x from p,
2. r+is and s=s giving y from 7, while
3. pt+ir and r=r, gives r from p;
so that by setting off pL, both zL and yL are found. In the Cartesian case,
g=s=Oand the loci 1. and 2. coincide with the axis, while 3. is the ordinary
locus.
Three Dimensions.
Assume a known origin, axis, scale, and plane, called the cumbent plane.
On this plane draw a line determined by p+ig. Through this line draw a
plane perpendicular to the former, called the sistent plane. On this set off
rL, where r= some function of p and q, in the direction of the line already
determined, and theu set off the line determined by 7+is on the sistent plane.
The extremity of this second line determines any point in space.
Simple Locus.—If p and g are independent, and s= a function of r, and
therefore of p and q, the points determined by p+ig and r-+is lie on a
surface. If, in addition, g (and therefore r and s) be a function of p, the
points determined by the system lie on a curve.
General Locus.—lf x=p+ig, y=r-+is, and z=u+iv, then f(z, y) will
determine a line on the cumbent plane, and SF '(p.q 1; S, 2) aline on the sistent
plane drawn through the former. Assuming g a function of p and s a func-
tion of r in order to have only two variables, and ¢(a, y, z)=0 as any rela-
tion between 2, y, 2, then finding f(z, y)=X+iY and f'(p, q, 7, s,z)=R+iZ,
with ¢(z, y, z)=o'+ig!’=0, where X, Y, Z, R, ¢!, g" are all functions of
P, 4, 7, 8, U, v, or by virtue of the relations between g and p, s and r, func-
tions of p, r, u, v only, we find from g'=0 and ¢!'=0 that u and v, and
hence X, Y, Z, R, are functions of p and ry only. Hence by two eliminations
R and Z are found as functions of X and Y. The general locus is then the
simple locus of X+4+iY on the cumbent, and R+iZ on the sistent planes,
where R and Z are known functions of X and Y.
Particular cases—Taking g=s=v=0, and assuming R so that RL is
always the length of the line determined by f(z, y), we readily obtain cases
corresponding to the Cartesian rectangular oblique and polar coordinates.
Radical Loci of (x, y, z)=0 for g a function of p, and s of r. Having
found u and v functions of p and r as before, describe the simple loci of —
1. p+ig and g= function of p ; and 2. r+is and s= function of r, both on
the cumbent plane, to find a and y.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 7
3. p+ir on the cumbent, and »/(p’?+r*)+iv on the sistent plane, with v
a function of p and r, giving a surface, whence ivL is found on the sistent,
and therefore also on the cumbent plane.
4. p+ir on the cumbent, and /(p’+7*)+iw on the sistent plane, with u
a function of p and r, giving a surface, whence ivL is found on the sistent,
and therefore also wL on the cumbent plane.
Hence (u+iv)L=zL is also found on the cumbent plane, and z, y, z can
be fully represented for any values of p and r.
By this theory, all cases of impossible roots of equations with one, two,
or three unknown expressions admit of geometrical representation, while
every Cartesian case is included.
On the conception of the Anharmonic Quaternion, and on its application to
the Theory of Involution in Space. By Sir W. R. Hamivron, LL.D.
Licut, Heat, ELEcTRIcITY, MAGNETISM.
On the Fixing of Photographs. By Dr. Avamsoy.
On the Triple Spectrum. By Sir Davin Brewster, A.A, PRS. L. & L.
At an early meeting of the Association the author communicated to the Associa-
tion an account of the experiments by which he endeavoured to establish the exist-
ence of a triple spectrum, that is, a spectrum which, instead of consisting of seven
different colours, consisted of three spectra of equal length—red, yellow, and blue—
having different degrees of intensity in different parts, and their ordinates of maxi-
mum intensely incoincident. This paper, entitled ““A new Analysis of Solar Light,”
was published in 1831 in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The
experiments were shown to some of the distinguished members of that body, who
honoured them by the adjudication of the Keith Medal. To objections which
have been raised by Mr. Airy, Dr. Draper and M. Melloni to the accuracy of these
results, the author has replied successively, and, he has reason to think, successfully.
Within the last few years the subject of the triple spectrum has been studied by
two eminent individuals, M. Bernard in France, and M. Helmholtz in Prussia,
both of whom have called in question the accuracy of his conclusions. To the obser-
vations of these two writers he did not think it necessary to reply; but being obliged
to refer to the subject of the changes of colour produced by absorption, and conse-
quently to the triple spectrum, in his History of Newton’s optical discoveries, he
found it necessary to notice the objections which had been made to it; and he now
submitted to the Section a few of the remarks which he has there made upon the
experiments of these two foreign observers.
To make these remarks intelligible, he first stated that his analysis of the spectrum
embraces three propositions, which to a certain extent are independent of each other :—
1. That the colours of the spectrum may be changed by absorbing media acting
by reflexions and transmissions.
2. That in pure spectra white light, which the prism cannot decompose, can be
insulated ; and
3. That the Newtonian spectrum of seven colours consists of three equal primary
spectra—red, yellow, and blue superposed,—having their maximum intensity of illu-
mination at different points, and shading to nothing at their extremities.
“Now,” observes the author, “ the first of these propositions may be true, even
though we could not insulate white light at any point of the spectrum; and both
the first and second may be true, without our being able to demonstrate that the
three spectra have the same length, and diminish in intensity from their maxima of
8 REPORT-—1855.
illumination to their extremitics. The general proposition, that the colours of the
spectrum are changed by absorption, was denied, as already stated, by Mr. Airy,
and by Dr. Draper and M. Melloni, whereas both M. Helmholtz and M. Bernard
have admitted it as an indubitable truth. In direct contradiction of Mr. Airy’s
statement, M. Helmholtz has candidly remarked, ‘ that the changes of colour which
Sir D. Brewster described, as produced by absorption, are for the most part suffi-
ciently striking to be observed without difficulty ;’ and he adds, ‘that a careful
repetition of at least the most important of the experiments, carried out in exact
accordance with the method laid down, and with every precaution taken, has,
indeed, taught him that the facts are described with perfect accuracy.’ In
these words, which are those of M. Helmholtz himself, the change of colour is
admitted as a physical fact; but he ascribes it to two causes :—1, to the possible
admixture of rays scattered from the prism, and the other transparent bodies used
in the experiment; and 2, to the mixture of complementary colours, produced by
the action of the other colours of the spectrum on the retina.”
The author remarks, that the first of these causes, namely, the possible admixture
of scattered rays, is a very extraordinary one, and that it should not have been
assumed without some attempt to show its probability. He observes, “it is cer-
tainly possible that scattered rays may have influenced my retina; but, even if
such rays did exist, it would be necessary to show that they were the precise rays
which were capable of producing the alleged change of colour. Now M. Helmholtz
has not even attempted to make it probable that such disturbing rays exist or could
have influenced any retina if they did exist; nor has he attempted to show that
such possible rays are of colours which are complementary to those which I saw.
With regard to the second cause, namely, the admixture of complementary colours,
I unhesitatingly deny that it had any influence in the phenomena which 1
observed; and I earnestly request the attention of the Section to the following
observations :—If the subjective perception of colour, when we view the spectrum
or make experiments, in which more than one colour reaches the eye, is capable
of altering the colours under examination, then all that has been written on colours,
thus seen, must be erroneous, and all the gay tints of Art or of Nature, which
we admire and study, are but false hues under the metamorphosis of a subjective
perception. We must not now pronounce a rose to be red and its leaves green
till we have stared at them through a chink or torn them from their footstalk.
The changes of colour by absorption which I have described I have distinctly seen,
and seen as correctly as Newton saw his seven colours in the spectrum, and Hooke
his composite tints in the soap-bubble ; and, now that my eyes have nearly finished
their work, I cannot mistrust, without reason, such good and faithful servants.
“<The observations of M. Bernard, who has repeated only a few of my experiments,
differ very little in their character from those of M. Helmholtz. He maintains that
the conversion of the blue space into violet, which I observed, arises from the
diminution of the light by absorption. Now, if the colours of the spectrum thus
change when they become fainter, we would desire to know at what degree of illu-
mination we are to see the prismatic spectrum in itstruecolours. If the bluespace
is converted into violet by the diminution of its light, then colour does not depend
upon refrangibility alone, but also upon intensity of illumination; a doctrine as sub-
versive as mine of the opinion of Newton, that to the same refrangibility always
belongs the same colour. If M. Bernard’s experiments be correct, it is perfectly
compatible with my opinion, because it only proves that the blue rays, when enfeebled,
lose their power over the retina sooner than the red. Nay, it is a sound argument
in favour of the doctrine which it is brought forward to disprove.”
In concluding his communication, the author mentions that none of the oppo-
nents of the triple spectrum have repeated his fundamental experiment made with
an apparatus which he believes no person but himself possesses. He examines a
pure spectrum divided into compartments by the action of thin plates of calcareous
spar passing across a prism of the same substance. Each of these luminous eom-
partments shades off into the adjacent dark spaces, and is in a different condition
from the corresponding portion of the complete spectrum. When the proper
absorbing media are applied to certain portions of this divided spectrum, he insulates
a large portion of white light indecomposable by the prism, and it stands beside a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9
portion of red light as distinctly as an almond placed beside a cherry. This is an
experimentum crucis, if one were wanting in favour of the doctrine of a triple
spectrum,—of the existence of three colours, red, yellow, and blue at the same point
of the spectrum.
On the Binocular Vision of Surfaces of Different Colours.
By Sir Davip Brewster, K.H.,, F.RS. L. & &.
Prof. Dove had published an account of some beautiful experiments in connexion
with this subject some years ago. M. Dove showed in his paper, that when dif-
ferent colours at the same real distance are regarded by the eye, they appear to be at
different distances; this is also the case when a white surface is compared with a
black. Now M. Dove argues if a white surface and a black one be stereoscopically
combined, one of them must be seen through the other. Taking a figure for the left
eye with a white ground, and a second figure of the same object on a black ground
for the right eye, when these two figures are combined, a beautiful effect is observed;
the figure starts into relief, and its sides appear to possess a shining metallic lustre.
This is the case when the surface of each siugle object is quite dull and without lustre.
On this experiment M. Dove founds a theory of lustre, supposing it to be produced
by the action of light received from surfaces at different distances from the eye.
An example of this is the effect observed on looking at varnished pictures: one por-
tion of the light comes from the anterior surface of the varnish and the other from
its posterior surface, the action of both of these conspiring to produce the observed
lustre. The metallic lustre of mica is also referred to by M. Dove as an example
of the same kind. In his present communication, Sir David Brewster controverts
the theory here laid down, and bases his objections on the following remarkable ex-
periment :—where a white surface without definite buundary and a black surface of
the same kind are regarded through the stereoscope, no lustre is observed. Sir David
therefore infers that the lustre is due, not to the rays from one surface passing
through the other to the eye, but to the effort of the eyes to combine the two stereo-
scopic pictures.
On the Existence of Acari in Mica. By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., F.R.S.
While examining with a microscope a thick plate of mica from Siberia, about 5 inches
long and 3 inches wide, Sir David was surprised to observe the remains of minute
animals, some the 70th of an inch, and others only the 150th of an inch in size.
Some of these were enclosed in cavities, round which the films of mica were in optical
contact. These acari were, of course, not fossil, but must have insinuated themselves
through openings between the plates of mica, which afterwards closed over them.
On the Absorption of Matter by the Surfaces of Bodies.
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.A., F.RS. L. & E.
If we smear, very slightly, with soap the surface of a piece of glass, whether arti-
ficially polished or fused, and then clean it perfectly with a piece of chamois leather,
the surface, when breathed upon, will exhibit, in the most brilliant manner, all the
colours of thin plates. If we breathe through a tube, the colours will be arranged
in rings, the outermost of which is black, corresponding to the centre of the system
of rings formed between a convex anda plane surface of glass. In repeating this expe-
riment on the surfaces of other bodies, Sir David found that there were several on whose
surfaces no colours were produced. Quartz exhibited the colours like glass, but cal-
careous spar and several other minerals did not. In explaining this phenomenon, the
author stated that the particles of the soap, which are dissolved by the breath, must
either enter the pores of the bodies or form a strongly adhering film on their surface.
This property of appropriating temporarily the particles of soap, becomes a new di-
stinctive character of mineral and other bodies.
On the Remains of Plants in Calcareous Spar from King’s County, Ireland.
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., F.RS. L. & E.
10 REPGRT—1855.
On the Phenomena of Decomposed Glass.
By Sir Davip Brewster, KH. PRS. 1.3 Ee
These papers were illustrated by elaborate drawings of the phenomena.
On the Making and Magnetizing of Steel Magnets.
By Paut Cameron, Glasgow.
The author records a few experiments in the forging, softening, hardening, and
magnetizing of them. He procured one dozen of magnets: four of them were
forged, hardened, and magnetized north and south ; four were forged, hardened, and
magnetized N.E.; and the remaining four were forged, hardened, and magnetized
east and west. One dozen compass needles were forged, hardened, and magnetized
similar to the above; four of the compass needles were enclosed in an iron case
filled with fresh lime; the case was then put into a fire until it became a deep red,
and was then covered up and allowed to cool slowly. The needles were then
dressed and hardened in a fire mixed with bone-dust, the bone-dust being mixed with
charcoal and lime, which would further increase the quality of the steel.
The average magnetic powers of the magnet before magnetizing were as follows :—
The magnetic powers of the bars hardened N. and S, from 7° to 10.
a ast ass .E, sauce bbOSE age
out ae of B. and W.4.....3 ta 2
He then placed a large copper coil, having an inclination corresponding with the
dip, in the magnetic meridian, and connected the coil with the poles of a galvanic
battery containing thirty-six pairs of plates; passed and repassed the magnets that
were hardened N. and S.; placed the coil in a N.E. direction, and passed and re-
passed the magnets hardened N.E.; and then placed the coil in the direction E. and
W., and passed and repassed the magnets that were hardened EK, and W.
The magnets hardened and magnetized N.and S., average deflection from 43° to 45°.
oe aoe -E. 36° to 38°.
a See xe E. and W. ... ae 20° to 22°.
A similar result followed after the needles were passed through the coil.
On the Deviations of the Compass in Iron Ships and the means of adjusting
them. By Paut Cameron.
On an Analogy between Heat and Electricity.
By the Rev. Professor CHEVALLIER.
Arago, in his posthumous work on lightning (GHuvres de Francois Arago, Notices
Scientifiques, tom. i. Paris, 1854), distinguishes three classes of lightning, of which
the third is that which takes the form of a fire-ball.
He produces many examples (chap. vi. vii.), the principal facts being, that during
a thunder-storm balls of fire are sometimes seen; that they sometimes move very
slowly, not faster than a mouse (ch. vii. § 3), so that, in a room, a person may get
out of their way (ch. vii. § 6), rolling over and over like a kitten, or may follow
them for a considerable distance on foot (ch. vii. § 5); that for a time the presence
of such a ball may produce no injurious effect ; but that it usually explodes at last
with prodigious violence.
It does not seem to have been pointed out, that this form of electricity bears a
remarkable analogy to the spheroidal form which fluids assume when in apparent
contact with bodies intensely heated. The attention of the Section was invited to
the subject.
On the Polystereopticon. By Antoine CLAupeEt, F.R.S.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. il
On the Heat produced by the Influence of the Magnet upon Bodies in Motion.
By M. Léon Foucautt, Paris.
In 1824, Arago observed the remarkable fact of the attraction of the magnetic
needle by conducting bodies in motion. The phenomenon appeared very singular,
and remained without explanation until Faraday announced the important discovery
of currents of induction. It was then evident, that in Arago’s experiments the motion
gave rise to currents, which, by reacting upon the magnet, tended to associate it
with the moveable body and draw it in the same direction. It may be said, in
general terms, that the magnet and the conducting body tend towards a state of rela-
tive repose by a mutual influence.
If, notwithstanding this influence, it is desired to continue the motion, a certain
amount of force (travail) must be constantly furnished ; the moveable part seems to
be, as it were, pressed by a break, and this force which disappears necessarily pro-
duces a dynamic effect, which I have thought must be represented by heat.
We arrive at the same inference by taking into consideration the currents of
induction which succeed one another in the interior of bodies in motion; but an
idea of the quantity of heat produced would only be acquired with great difficulty
by this mode of regarding the affair, whilst by considering this heat as due to a trans-
formation of force, it appeared certain to me that a sensible elevation of temperature
would be easily produced in a decisive experiment. Having ready to my hand all
the elements necessary for a prompt verification, I proceeded to its execution in the
following manner. :
Between the poles of a strong electro-magnet I partially introduced the solid of
revolution belonging to the apparatus which I have called a gyroscope, and which was
previously employed in experiments of a very different nature. This solid is a torus
of bronze connected by a toothed pinion with an apparatus of wheels, by the action
of which, when turned by the hand, it may revolve with a rapidity of 150 or 200
turns in a second. To render the action of the magnet more effective, two pieces of
soft iron added to the helices prolonged the magnetic poles, and concentrated them
in the vicinity of the revolving body.
When the apparatus is going with the greatest rapidity, the current of six Bunsen’s
couples, passed into the electro-magnet, stops the movement in a few seconds, as
though an invisible break had been applied to the moving body: this is Arago’s
experiment, as developed by Faraday. But if the handle be then pushed, so as
to restore to the apparatus the movement which it has lost, the resistance experienced
requires the application of a certain amount of force, the equivalent of which reap-
pears and accumulates in heat in the interior of the revolving body.
By means of a thermometer inserted in the mass we may follow the gradual eleva-
tion of teraperature. Having, for example, taken the apparatus at the surrounding
temperature of 60°'8 F., I saw the thermometer rise successively to 68°, 77°, 86°, and
93°°2 F.; but the phenomenon had previously become sufficiently developed to
render the employment of the thermometer unnecessary, as the heat produced had
become sensible by the hand.
If the experiment appear worthy of interest, it would be easy to arrange an appa-
ratus to reproduce and augment this phenomenon. There is no doubt, that by
means of a machine properly constructed, and composed only of permanent magnets,
_ high temperatures might be produced, so as to place before the eyes of the public
assembled in lecture rooms a curious example of the conversion of force into heat.
On a Machine for Polishing Specula. By Dr. GREEN.
On the Optical Properties of Cadmacetite.
By Witvtiam Harpincer, Vienna.
[Crystals of the salt were laid before the Section by Sir David Brewster.]
I have the honour to lay before the Association a short notice on the Absorption
‘of the Crystals of Acetate of Cadmium, or to denote them by a single word, of Cad-
macetite, together with some of the crystals, which form the subject of the commu-
nication. .
12 4 REPORT—1855.
The form of the crystals belongs to the oblique system. The apparent longi-
tudinal axis of the broad six-sided prisms makes an angle of nearly 100° with the
base. There is a most perfect cleavage parallel to the axis in only one direction,
which bisects the prism of 135° 39’. The plane of the optic axis is perpendicular to
this plane of cleavage. One of the axes of elasticity makes with the plane of cleavage
an angle of about 10°. If now the crystals are examined as to their polarization in
a direction perpendicular to the plane of the optic axes, it will be found that the
pencil polarized parallel to the above-mentioned axis, which makes the angle of 10°
with the faces of cleavage, freely passes the crystal, but that the pencil polarized
perpendicularly to it does not pass. It is true, there appears not exactly a black
tint, but only a more or less dark gray ; but the contrast nevertheless is very striking.
On the mode of examination being reversed, the effect is still more powerful. A
plate of cadmacetite cut perpendicular to the plane of cleavage, parallel to the axis of
the crystals, when held near the eye, will extinguish one of the two images of a
doubly refracting prism entirely, without letting pass a trace of light, if the plate be
only so much as one-fourth of an inch in thickness.
It is the more unexpected to find such great contrasts in the modifying power of
these crystals in respect to light, as for the rest they are perfectly colourless. M,
Charles von Hauer has succeeded in obtaining crystals 3 inches long and 1 inch
thick, but they are always very little homogeneous, consisting of concentric
funnel-shaped portions, which makes it very difficult to extract larger portions fit
for being turned to advantage as a polarizing apparatus. It is deserving of notice,
that some particular very compact portions of the crystals do not possess that cha-
racteristic absorbing property.
On the Optical Illusions of the Atmospheric Lens.
By Evan Hopkins, C.E., F.G.S.
An Account of some Experiments with a large Electro-Magnet.
By J. P. Joure, F.R.S.
Prof. W. Thomson, in Mr. Joule’s absence, brought the subject before the
Section. The relation of the exciting force to the sustaining power of a magnet was
the subject which it was the author’s desire to examine, the laws arrived at being
very divergent from those usually received. The soft iron made use of in this magnet
was of such a nature, that, after magnetization by moderate currents, it always—
probably on account of intense magnetization on some former occasion—retained
a residual polarity which was always in the same direction. The magnet might ~
be excited by a current which developed a polarity opposed to the residual one;
but on the interruption of the current, the latter re-appeared. With high power,
the lifting power fell short of being proportional to the square of the current; but
with feeble excitation, Mr. Joule found the sustaining force to vary nearly as the
fourth power of the current strength employed.
Photographs of the Hartwell Observatory, and of the Craig Telescope at Wands-
worth, were exhibited and described by Dr. LEE.
On New Forms of Microscope, adapted for Physiological Demonstration.
By M. Nacuor.
Elucidations, by Facts and Experiments, of the Magnetism of Iron Ships
and its Changes. By Wiii1am Scoressy, D.D., F.RS.S. Lond.
& Edin., Corresp. Mem. of Institute of France, &c. §c.
The author first recapitulated, as the basis of his present communication, the
theoretic principles—concerning the magnetism of iron ships and its changes, with
the effects on the action of the compasses—which he had formerly brought before
the British Association, and described more elaborately in his “‘ Magnetical Inves-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13
tigations.” Referring, more particularly, to his paper of last session On the Loss
of the Tayleur, and to the principles on which the lines of magnetic force, and the
equatorial, or neutral plane, are adjusted in correspondency with the earth’s polar
magnetic axis,—it followed, he showed, that the distribution of the magnetic lines
externally should have special relation to the direction of the ship’s head whilst
building, and should therefore be easily predicted, proximately, for every particular
case,
The views of Dr. Scoresby on these fundamental principles, as well as on the
source of and changes in the more intense quality of magnetism, the retentive, in
iron ships, had had very extensive and beautiful verifications in actual experi-
ments, since the former meeting of the Association. As to the equatorial plane of
no-attraction, illustrated by diagrams in ‘‘ Magnetical Investigations,’”” which were
cut in wood in the year 1851,—experiments in 1854 and 1855, on five or six ships
whilst yet on the stocks, had shown the most remarkable correspondency. Thus,
in the case of the Elizabeth Harrison, at Liverpool, having her head about E.N.E.,
which Dr. Scoresby examined in October 1854,—the plane of no-attraction on the
starboard side was found to lie 11 feet 6 inches Jower than that on the port side,
whilst the difference, previously calculated, according to theory, was 11 feet! In
the case, again, of the Fiery Cross, of Glasgow, investigated at his request by Mr.
James Napier, the lines of no-attraction on the two sides, with the ship’s head
S.W.erly, were found to be almost exactly in agreement with theory. Again, in the
case of the Elba of Newcastle, built at Jarrow on Tyne, with her head only half a
point from the magnetic meridian; as also of another ship built on the same spot,
the magnetic lines were found in close analogy with those figured in the diagrams
above referred to. Finally, in the case of the Persia, a large and splendid ship
built by Messrs. Napier and Co., at Glasgow, the magnetic lines, as determined by
Mr. James Napier, were found to have the like canformableness with theoretic
deduction. One striking and beautiful exception—beautiful because anticipated on
magnetic principles—was brought out in experiments made by Mr. Robert Newall,
Mr. George Palmer, and Mr. James Napier. This apparent exception consisted in
certain irregularities in the external lines of the magnetic plane,—sometimes shown
in sudden limited deflections,—a circumstance plainly referable to particular accu-
mulations of iron material within, such as of beam ends, stringers, bulk-heads, &c.,
which the author had noticed in his ‘‘ Magnetical Investigations’”’ as not unlikely
to disturb the regularity of the magnetic lines. In this case, therefore, the observed
exception to regularity served most convincingly to confirm the general rule.
Dr. Scoresby then proceeded to show how mechanical action, such as vibration,
straining, or blows of the sea, on an iron ship, must modify or change the original
magnetic lines, and tend (whatever the extent might practically be) to bring them
into some measure of conformity with the terrestrial magnetic force as applied to
the new direction of the ship’s head.
One case of positive and demonstrable change in the magnetic lines of a new
ship, the Imperador, built at Liverpool, Dr. Scoresby had experimentally deter-
mined; a change which had taken place (in exact conformity with his predictions)
whilst the ship was being fitted out for sea. In this instance the lines of no-attrac-
tion on the two sides of the ship, which from her position on the stocks must have
originally differed some 10 feet in level, were found to have changed to within
about 20 inches of the same level. This showed, as the general experience of the
adjusters of compasses and observant navigators also indicated, that much service
at sea, and well knocking about on various courses, lad the tendency to bring the
original extreme and oblique magnetic lines into a normal direction,—approaching
to a horizontal equatorial plane with lines of no-deviation running on both sides,
nearly on the same level, from stem to stern, and a polar axis (in the centre of the
ship) vertical to the keel. This tendency was elucidated by different striking facts
of experience.
The author further explained, and illustrated by bold and descriptive drawings,
several cases of sudden and remarkable compass-changes, dwelling particularly on
that of the Tuyleur, where a change of some points had taken place within two or
three days, whilst contending against a heavy sea with her head in a reverse po-
sition from that on the stocks; and on that of the Ottawa, one of whose cumpasses
14 REPORT-—1855.
suddenly changed two points from a heavy blow of the sea on the ship; on that of
another ship wherea similar change took place on occasion of a collision; on that of
the —— (name not mentioned) where the steering compass suddenly changed several
points, and produced an error in the ship’s position within 24 to 30 hours, which,
measured on atrack chart by the first officer, in his, Dr. Scoresby’s, possession, was
very nearly of the extent of the breadth of Ireland! These various compass-changes
were plainly in accordance with the theoretic principles formerly published by the
author, with the exception of the latter, as to which the requisite data for tracing
the probable causes had not been furnished.
Of compass-changes from strokes of lightning (one of the cases also predicted),
Dr. Scoresby adduced the instances of the Bold Buccleuch and another ship, where
the compass suddenly went wrong to the extent of several points.
Having elucidated, rapidly, these various magnetic phenomena and others be-
longing to ships built of iron, and having given a variety of examples of great or
considerable alterations in the compass-direction of ships proceeding into southern
latitudes, the author recalled attention to his plan of a compass aloft, as affording,
in the absence of azimuths or other guidance from celestial observations, a simple
and effective mode of ascertaining the direction of the ship’s course, and so, by
comparison with the steering compass, knowing its errors and the proper correction
to be made. This plan, he observed, when properly carried out, and a table of
deviations, if requisite, obtained, he believed to be perfectly safe and reliable; and
he had much satisfaction in being able to state that it had not only been extensively
adopted by some of our first firms interested in the building and property of iron
ships, but had received the particular sanction and commendation of Mr. Airy,
Astronomer Royal, and Lieut. Maury, U.S. Navy ; that is, as being recommended
by both these gentlemen for adoption for determining safe compass guidance, or the
correction of adjusted compasses whenever they might be found to be in error.
On the Achromutism of a Double Object-glass.
By Professor Stoxes, J0.A., D.C.L., Sec.RS.
The general theory of the mode of rendering an object-glass achromatic by com-
bining a flint-glass with a crown-glass lens, is well known. The achromatism is
never perfect, on account of the irrationality of dispersion. The defect thence
arising cannot possibly be obviated, except by altering the composition of the glass.
It seemed worthy of consideration whether much improvement might not be effected
in this direction; but the problem which the author proposed for consideration was
only the following :—Given the kinds of glass to be employed, to find what ought to
be done so as to produce the best effect; in other words, to determine the ratio of
the focal lengths which gives the nearest approach to perfect achromatism. Two
classes of methods may be employed for this purpose. In the one, compensations
are effected by trial on a small scale; in the other, the refractive indices of each
kind of glass are determined for certain well-defined objects in the spectrum, such
for example as the principal fixed lines. The former has this disadvantage, that
compensations on a small scale do not furnish so delicate a test as the performance
of a large object-glass. The observation of refractive indices, on the other hand,
admits of great precision; but it does not immediately appear what ought to be
done with the refractive indices when they are obtained. After alluding to the me-
thod proposed by Fraunhofer for combining the refractive indices, which, however,
as he himself remarked, did not lead to results in exact accordance with observation,
the author proposed the following as the condition of nearest approach to achro-
matism :—that the point of the spectrum for which the focal length of the com-
bination is a minimum shall be situated at the brightest part, namely, at about
one-third of the interval DE from the fixed line D towards E. The refractive
index of the flint-glass may be regarded as a function of the refractive index of the
crown-glass, and may be expressed with sufficient accuracy by a series with three
terms only. The three arbitrary constants may be determined by the values of three
refractive indices determined for each kind of glass. The result is as follows:—Let
Hy, Po» Hg be the refractive indices for the crown-glass; py, fly, fz the same for the
flint-glass ; 4, w’ the refractive indices of the two glasses for any arbitrary ray ; m
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15
the value of » for the point at which the focal length is to be made a minimum; r
the ratio of Ap! to Ap to be employed in the ordinary formula for achromatism.
Then having calculated numerically
, , , ’
Be Phi pS Nee OF
Yr > a —— a Sea Wi eS Ts = Rated
te ee = Paes
we shall have - 2m
sae) B2
r=). + (T3.3°— T9)
For the value of m it will be sufficient to take
1
Ppt 5 (4.—Hp)-
On applying this formula to calculate r for the object-glass for which Fraunhofer
has given both the refractive indices of the component glasses and the value of r,
which, as observation showed, gave the best results, and taking in succession
various combinations of three lines each out of the seven used by Fraunhofer, the
author found that whenever the combination was judiciously chosen, the resulting
value of 7 was the same, whatever might have been the combination, and equal to
1-980, which is precisely the value determined by Fraunhofer from observation, as
giving the best effect.
On a new Form of the Gas Battery. By Witi1AM Symons.
The ingenious and original arrangement known as Grove’s gas battery, although
always considered an instrument of great philcsophical interest, appears to have
been little used as an instrument of research and experiment, except instudying the com-
binations of different gases. The author has long thought that a modification of it may
be usefully employed in many experiments requiring a weak but continuous current;
and believes the following arrangement will be found convenient and economical.
Fig. 1 is a plan, and fig. 2 a section of three pairs; the tray is made of gutta percha;
it is divided into water-tight compartments about 23 inches wide; the length of the
tray will of course depend on the number of cells required, and its width on the
length of the strips of platinum; its depth about 1 inch. A are small tubes to
keep the dilute acid at a uniform level; B are tubes perforated through the bottom
of the tray, and standing above the level of the acid to admit a constant supply of
Fig. 1.
¢ A A A
hydrogen from below ; C are cells about 1 inch deep, 4 inch broad, and long enough
coyer the platinum plates; these may be composed of glass, or gutta percha with
16 REPORT—1855.
glass tops; P are the platinum plates, 4 inch wide, doubled lengthways ito a
U-shape, and divided in the middle through a part of their length; the connexions S
Fig. 2.
are silver wires passed through the platinum, and attached to it at D by the blow-
pipe without any solder. It would economize room to crease the platinum into
short zigzags.
The battery, as here described, supposes the use of hydrogen and atmospheric air,
but it may be easily modified for two gases without altering the cells or the plates,
by the addition of tubes at EK, similar to B, in communication with a supply of oxygen
from below.
The advantages of this arrangement over Grove’s are, cheapness of construction,
the absence of connexions by mercury or binding screws, the facility for removing
the plates to clean, &c., and the very great economy in the platinum ; for whereas in
Grove’s battery a plate of 4 inches long and 3 inch broad would, according to his
theory of its action, have but 1 inch of action, by the proposed arrangement it
would have sixteen times that amount.
The author adds a suggestion with regard to apparatus of a totally different kind,
such as condensers, multipliers, &c., used in static electricity, where a perfectly flat
and smooth conducting surface is required; plate-glass gilded is generally used ;
the substitute he would propose is common slate; it is cheaper, stronger, and far
more easily polished, shaped, and gilded; perhaps rubbing it over with good
plumbago would render it a sufficiently perfect conductor; this is the plan adopted
in an electroscope described in the ‘ Chemist’ for August.
On certain curious Motions observable on the Surfaces of Wine and other
Alcoholic Liquors. By James Tuomson, C.E., Belfast.
The phenomena of capillary attraction in liquids (Mr. Thomson stated) are ac-
counted for according to the generally received theory of Dr. Young, by the existence
of forces equivalent to a tension of the surface of the liquid, uniform in all directions,
and independent of the form of the surface. The tensile force is not the same in dif-
ferent liquids. Thus it is found to be much less inalcohol than inwater. This fact
affords an explanation of several very curious motions observable, under various circum-
stances, at the surfaces of alcoholic liquors. One part of these phenomena is, that
if, in the middle of the surface of a glass of water, a small quantity of alcohol, or
strong spirituous liquor, be gently introduced, a rapid rushing of the surface is found
to occur outwards from the place where the spirit is introduced. It is made more
apparent if fine powder be dusted on the surface of the water. Another part of the
phzenomena is, that if the sides of the vessel be wet with water above the general
level surface of the water, and if the spirit be introduced in sufficient quantity in the
middle of the vessel, or if it be introduced near the side, the fluid is even seen to
ascend the inside of the glass until it accumulates in some places to such an extent
that its weight preponderates, and it falls down again. The manner in which Mr.
Thomson explains these two parts of the phenomena is, that the more watery por-
tions of the entire surface, having more tension than those which are more alcoholic,
drag the latter briskly away, sometimes even so as to form a horizontal ring of liquid
high up round the interior of the vessel, and thicker than that by which the interior
of the vessel was wet. Then the tendency is for the various parts of this ring or
Jine to run together to those parts which happen to be most watery, and so there
is no stable equilibrium, for the parts to which the various portions of the liquid
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17
aggregate themselves soon become too heavy to be sustained, and so they fall down.
The same mode of explanation, when carried a step further, shows the reason of the
curious motions commonly observed in the film of wine adhering to the inside
of a wine-glass, when the glass, having been partially filled with wine, has been
shaken so as to wet the inside above the general level of the surface of the liquid ;
for, to explain these motions, it is only necessary further to bring under consideration,
that the thin film adhering to the inside of the glass must very quickly become more
watery than the rest on account of the evaporation of the alcohol contained in it
being more rapid than the evaporation ofthe water. On this matter, Mr. Thomson
exhibited to the Section a very decisive experiment. He showed that in a vial partly
filled with wine, no motion of the kind described occcurs as long as the vial is kept
corked. On his removing the cork, however, and withdrawing by a tube the air
saturated with vapour of the wine, so that it was replaced by fresh air capable of
producing evaporation, a liquid film was instantly seen as a horizontal ring creeping
up the interior of the vial, with viscid-looking pendent streams descending from it like
a fringe from a curtain. He gave another striking illustration by pouring water on
a flat silver tray, previously carefully cleaned from any film which could hinder the
water from thoroughly wetting the surface. The water was about one-tenth of an
inch deep. Then, on a little alcohol being laid down in the middle of the tray, the
water immediately rushed away from the middle, leaving a deep hollow there, which
laid the tray bare of all liquid, except'an exceedingly thin film. These and other
experiments, which he made with fine lycopodium powder dusted on the surface of
the water, into the middle of which he introduced alcohol gently from a fine tube,
were very simple, and can easily be repeated. Certain curious return currents which
he showed by means of the powder on the surface, he stated he had not yet been able
fully to explain. He referred to very interesting phenomena previously observed by
Mr. Varley, and described in the fiftieth volume of the Transactions of the Society
of Arts, and he believed that many or all of these would prove to be explicable
according to the principles he had now proposed.
On the Effects of Mechanical Strain on the Thermo-Electric Qualities of
Metals. By Professor W. Tuomson, M.A., F.R.S.
Having found by experiment that iron and copper wires, when stretched by forces
insufficient to cause any permanent elongation, had their thermo-electric qualities
altered, but immediately fell back to their primitive condition in this respect when
the stretching forces were removed; having remarked that these temporary effects
were in each case the reverse of the permanent thermo-electric effects previously
discovered by Magnus, as resulting from permanent elongation of the wires, by
drawing them through holes in a draw-plate; and thinking it most probable that
all these effects depended on mechanical induction of the thermo-electric qualities of
a crystal in the metals operated upon ; the author undertook an experimental inves-
tigation of the thermo-electric effects of mechanical strains, in which he intended to
include longitudinal extension, longitudinal compression, lateral compression, and
Jateral extension, and in each case to test both the temporary effects of strains
within the elastic limits of the substance, and the residual alterations in thermo-
electric quality, manifested after the cessation of the constraining force, when this
has been so great as to give the substance a permanent set. The cycle of experi-
ments has now been so nearly completed for both the temporary and the permanent
strains, as to allow the author to conclude with certainty that the peculiar thermo-
electric qualities induced in each case are those of a crystal. Thus, he finds that
iron bars, hardened -by longitudinal compression, have the reverse thermo-electric
property to that discovered by Magnus in iron wires hardened by drawing; and
that iron wire, under lateral compression, manifests the same thermo-electric pro-
erty as the author had discovered in iron wire while under a longitudinal stretch-
ing force. The apparatus by which these results were obtained was exhibited to the
Section, and the mode of experimenting fully described. As regards iron, the
general conclusion is, that its thermo-electric quality, when under pressure in one
direction, deviates from that of the unstrained metal, towards bismuth for currents
in the direction of the strain, and towards antimony for currents perpendicular to
1855.
18 REPORT—1855.
this direction; while for all cases that have been examined, the residual thermo-
electric effect of a permanent strain is the reverse of the temporary thermo-electric
effect which subsists as long as the constraining force is kept applied. Those of the
other metals which have been as yet examined, namely, Copper, Lead, Cadmium, Tin,
Zinc, Brass, Steel, and Platinum (specimens supplied as chemically pure by Messrs.
Matthey and Johnson being in general used), showed uniformly the reverse effect
to that of iron when similarly treated. The effects of permanent lateral compression
by hammering were those which were chiefly tested for this list of metals, and were
in almost every case of a very marked and unmistakeable kind. Curious results
were also obtained by carefully annealing portions of wires which had been suddenly
cooled, and leaving the remaining parts unannealed. Tin and Cadmium thus
treated have, as yet, given only doubtful results ; Platinum has not been tried ; Iron,
Steel, Copper, and Brass have given decided indications, in which the unannealed
portions showed the same kind of thermo-electric effect as had been found to be
produced by permanent lateral compression.
On the Use of Observations of Terrestrial Temperature for the investigation
of Absolute Dates in Geology. By Professor W. Tuomson, .A., FP. RS.
The relative thermal conductivities of different substances have been investigated
by many experimenters; but the only absolute determinations yet made in this
most important subject are due to Professor James Forbes *, who has deduced the
absolute thermal conductivity of the trap rock of Calton Hill, of the sandstone of
Craigleith Quarry, and of the sand below the soil of the Experimental Gardens,
from observations on terrestrial temperature, which were carried on for five years
in these three localities (all in the immediate neighbourhood of Edinburgh), by
means of thermometers constructed and laid, under his care, by the British Asso-
ciation, The author of the present communication explained briefly a method of
reduction depending on elementary formule of the theory of the conduction of heat
given by the great French mathematician Fourier, which proved to be more complete
and satisfactory than the method indicated by Poisson, which had been adopted by
Professor Forbes. He applied it both to the series of observations used by Professor
Forbes, and to a continuation of the observations on the trap rock of Calton Hill,
which has been carried on up to the present time at the Royal Observatory of Edin-
burgh, and of which eleven years complete have been supplied to the author in
manuscript, through the kindness of Professor Piazzi Smyth. The results, as re-
gards thermal conductivities, show that the determinations originally given by
Professor Forbes do not require very considerable corrections ; and are satisfactory,
inasmuch as values derived from the diminution of the extent of variation of the
temperature for the deep thermometers agree very closely with those derived from
the retardation of the periods of summer heat and winter cold at the different
depths. They show very decidedly a somewhat greater conductivity of the trap rock
at the greater depths (from twelve to twenty-four feet) than between the three feet
deep and the six feet, or between the six feet and the twelve feet thermometers, but
do not establish any such variation in the properties of the sandstone, and of the
sand of the two other localities. A comparison of the mean temperatures of the
four thermometers, for the whole sixteen years’ observation, shows an increase of
indicated temperature in going downwards in Calton Hill, which apparently is much
more rapid between the upper than between the lower thermometers; so much so,
as not to be referable to the greater conductivity of the rock in the lower position.
The author remarked, that, to make the observations available for giving with accu-
racy the mean absolute temperatures at the different depths, it would be necessary
to have the thermometers taken up and re-compared with a standard thermometer.
It is most probable that the zero-points of all the thermometers have risen consider-
ably since they were first laid, because the apparent mean temperatures, as shown
by the thermometers, are much higher of late than they were at first. Thus, for
the period of five years examined by Professor Forbes, and for the succeeding period
of eleven years, the means at the different depths are as follows :—
* Account of some Experiments on the Temperature of the Earth near Edinburgh,
Trans, Roy. Soc, Edinb, vol. xvi. part 2.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19
Trap Rock of Calton Hill.
3 feet deep. 6 feet deep. 12 feet deep. 24 feet deep.
Period 1837 to 1842 45°49 45°86 46°36 46°87
« 1843 to 1854 46°512 46°751 47-035 47349
Notwithstanding the cause of uncertainty which has been alluded to, these
results make it highly probable that the augmentation of mean temperature
from 3 feet to 24 feet below the surface, apparently 1°38 Fahr. in the first
period and ‘84° in the second period, must be really more than half a degree,
or more than the greatest elevation of temperature that had been observed, for
a depth of 21 feet, in any other part of the earth. The author was struck
with this, and reflecting that probably the Edinburgh observations are the only
ones that have been made on the interior temperature of other igneous rocks
than granite, supposed it to indicate the comparatively modern time at which the
trap rock of Calton Hill has burst up in an incandescent fluid state. This conjec-
ture, shortly after it occurred to him, was confirmed by the intelligence he received at
Kreuznach, in Rhenish Prussia, that the temperature in the porphyry of that locality
increases at the rate of from 2° to 3° Reaumur in 100 feet downwards, being more
than double or triple the rate of augmentation which had been observed in numerous
localities in England, France, and other parts of Kurope, in granitic rocks and sedi-
mentary strata, and found to be about 1° Fahr. of elevation of temperature in fifteen
yards at the least or in twenty yards at the greatest, as Professor Phillips has shown
in his Treatise on Geology, in Lardner’s Cyclopedia, from careful observations made
by himself and others. The author pointed out, that the mathematical theory of
heat,—with data as to absolute conductivities of rocks, such as those supplied by
Professor Forbes, and with the assistance of observation on the actual cooling of
historic lava streams, such as the great outbreak from Etna which overthrew Ca-
tania in 1669, or of those of Vesuvius which may be seen in the incandescent state,
and observed for temperature a few weeks or months after the commencement of
solidification,—may be applied to give estimates, within determined limits of ac-
curacy, of the absolute dates of eruption of actual volcanic rocks of prehistoric
periods of geology, from observations of temperature in bores made into the vole
canic rocks themselves and the surrounding strata.
On the Electric Qualities of Magnetized Iron.
By Professor W. Tuomson, M.A., FL.RS.
The well-known ordinary phenomena of magnetism prove that there is a wonderful
difference between the mutual physical relations of the particles of a mass of iron
according as it is magnetized or in an unmagnetic condition. Joule’s important
discovery, that a bar of iron, when longitudinally magnetized, experiences an
increase of length, accompanied with such a diminution of its lateral dimensions as
to leave its bulk unaltered, is the first of a series by which it may be expected we
shall learn that all the physical properties of iron become altered when the metal
is magnetized, and that in general those qualities which have relation to definite
directions in the substance are differently altered at different inclinations to the
direction of magnetization. In the present communication, the author described
experiments he had made—with assistance in defraying the expenses from the Royal
Society, out of the Government grant for scientific investigations—to determine the
effects of magnetization on the thermo-electric qualities, and on the electric conduc-
tivity, of iron.
The first result obtained was, that longitudinally magnetized iron wire, in an
electric circuit, differs thermo-electrically in the same direction as antimony from
unmagnetized iron. This any one may verify with the greatest ease by applying a
spirit-lamp to heat the middle of an iron wire or thin rod of iron a couple of feet
long, with a little magnetizing coil of copper wire (excited by a cell or two of any
ordinary galvanic battery) adapted to slide freely on it, and so bring a magnetizing
force to act on two or three inches in any part of the length of the iron i and, when
2
920 REPORT—1855.
the ends of the iron conductor are connected with the electrodes of an astatic
needle galvanometer of very moderate sensibility, suddenly moving the coil from one
side to the other of the flame of the spirit-lamp.
The author next explained a series of experiments (not so easily described without
the apparatus which was exhibited to the Section, or drawings of it), by which it was
ascertained that magnetized iron, with electric currents crossing the lines of magnet-
ization at right angles, differs from unmagnetized iron, thermo-electrically, in the
same direction as bismuth, that is, in the opposite way to that previously found for
iron magnetized along the line of current ; and it was verified that an iron conductor,
obliquely magnetized, and placed in a circuit of conducting matter, has a current
excited through it when its two polar sides are maintained at different temperatures.
The author also described and exhibited an experimental arrangement made, but
not yet sufficiently tried, to test whether or not magnetized iron possesse$ a certain
thermo-electric rotatory property which his theory of thermo-electricity in crystal-
line conductors had Jed him to believe might possibly exist in every substance
possessing, either intrinsically or inductively, such a dipolar directional property as
that of magnetism.
Regarding the thermo-electric properties of magnetized steel, the only experiments
yet made, being on longitudinal magnetization, showed most decidedly the same
kind of effect subsisting with the permanent magnetization, after the magnetizing
agency is withdrawn, as had been found in iron while actually sustained in a state
of magnetization by the electro-magnetic force.
The effects of magnetism on the conductivity of iron both for heat and electricity,
in different directions with reference to the direction of magnetization, had been
tested by different experimenters with no confirmed indications in the conduction of
heat, and with only negative results regarding electric conductivity. The author of
the present communication, feeling convinced that only tests of sufficient power are
required to demonstrate real effects of magnetization on all physical properties of
iron, tried to ascertain the particular nature of the conjectured effect in the case of
electric conductivity ; and at last, after many unsuccessful attempts, succeeded in
establishing, that an iron conductor, sustained in a magnetic condition by a longi-
tudinal magnetizing force, and brittle steel wires retaining longitudinal magnetism,
resist the passage of electricity more, or, which is the same, possess less electric
conductivity, than the same conductors when unmagnetic. It remains to be seen
whether either iron or steel has, when magnetized, the electro-crystalline property of
possessing different electric conductivities in different directions; and whether
either has the possible rotatory property as regards conduction, which the intrin-
sically dipolar type of magnetization suggests.
It is important to observe, that both the thermo-electric quality, and the effect on
electrical conductivity induced in iron or steel, and sustained by the magnetizing
force, are retained with the permanent magnetism in steel after the magnetizing force
is removed, as Joule found to be the case with the alteration of dimensions, which
he discovered as an effect of magnetism ; while on the other hand, as the author
showed in a previous communication to the Section, the thermo-electric quality he
had discovered as an effect of mechanical strain, becomes reversed when the con-
straining force has been removed, if any permanent strain has been produced.
On the Thermo-Electric Position of Aluminium.
By Professor W. Tuomson, M.A, F.RS.
The author, through the kindness of Baron Liebig, having been enabled to make
experiments on a bar of aluminium with a view to investigating its thermo-electric
properties, found that it gave currents when its ends were at different temperatures,
and an inch or two of its length was included in the circuit of a galvanometer by
means of wires of copper, of lead, of tin, or of platinum, bent round it. These
currents were in such directions as to show that the Aluminium lies, in the
thermo-electric series, on the side towards bismuth, of Tin, Lead, Copper, and a
certain platinum wire (P,); and, on the side towards Antimony, of another
platinum wire (P3). They were in the same direction as regards the higher
and lower temperatures of the two junctions of the aluminium with the other
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21
metal in each case, whether the whole bar was heated so much by a spirit-lamp
that it could scarcely be held in the hand, or no part of it was heated above the
temperature of the air, and one end cooled by being covered with cotton kept
moistened with «ther. Taking into account the results of previous experiments
which the author had made on a number of different metals, including three speci-
mens of platinum wire (P;, Py, P,), probably differing from one another as to
chemical purity, which he used as thermo-electric standards, he concluded that at
temperatures of from 10° to 32° Cent., the following order subsists unchanged
as regards the thermo-electric properties of the metals mentioned :—Bismuth, P3,
Aluminium, Tin, Lead, P,, Copper, P,, Zinc, Silver, Cadmium, Iron. As he had
found that a brass wire, on which he experimented, is neutral to P, at —10° Cent.,
and to P, at 38°, he infers that at some temperature between —10° and 38° Alumi-
nium must be neutral either to the brass or to P;. He intends, as soon as he can
procure a few inches of aluminium wire to experiment with, to determine this
neutral point, and others which he infers from the experiments already made, will
probably be found at some temperature not very low, between Aluminium and Tin,
and Aluminium and Lead; and to look for neutral points which may possibly be
found between Aluminium and P, and Aluminium and Pz, at either high or low
temperatures.
On Peristaltic Induction of Electric Currents in Submarine Telegraph
Wires. By Professor W. Tuomson, M.A., F.R.S.
Recent examinations of the propagation of electricity through wires in subaqueous
and subterranean telegraphic cables, have led to the observation of phenomena of
induced electric currents, which are essentially different from the phenomena (dis-
covered by Faraday many years ago) of what has ‘hitherto been called electro-
dynamic, or electro-magnetic induction, but which, for the future, it will be con-
venient to designate exclusively by the term electro-magnetic. The new phenomena
present a very perfect analogy with the mutual influences of a number of elastic
tubes bound together laterally throughout their lengths, and surrounded and filled
with a liquid which is forced through one or xaore of them, while the others are left
with their ends open or closed. The hydrostatic pressure applied to force the
liquid through any of the tubes will cause them to swell, and to press against the
others, which will thus, by peristaltic action, compel the liquid contained in them
to move in different parts of them in one direction or the other. A long solid
cylinder of India-rubber, bored symmetrically in four, six, or more circular passages
parallel to its length, will correspond to an ordinary telegraphic cable containing
the same number of copper wires, separated from one another only by gutta percha;
and the hydraulic motion will follow rigorously the same laws as the electrical
conduction, and will be expressed by identical language in mathematics, provided
the lateral dimensions of the bores are so small, in comparison with their lengths,
or the viscosity of the fluid so great, that the motions are not sensibly affected by
inertia, and are consequently dependent altogether on hydrostatic pressure and fluid
friction. Hence the author considers himself justified in calling the kind of elec-
tric action now alluded to, peristaltic induction, to distinguish it from the electro-
magnetic kind of electro-dynamic induction, The mathematical treatment of the
on of mutual peristaltic induction is contained in the paper brought before the
ection ; but the author confined himself in the meeting to mentioning some of the
results. Among others, he mentioned, as being of practical importance, that the
experiments which have been made on the transmission of currents backwards .
and forwards by the different wires of a multiple cable, do not indicate correctly the °
degree of retardation that is to be expected when signals are to be transmitted
through the same amount of wire laid out in a cable of the full length. It follows,
that expectations as to the working of a submarine telegraph between Britain and
America, founded on such experiments, may prove fallacious; and to avoid the chance
of prodigious losses in such an undertaking, the author suggested that the working
of the Varna and Balaklava wire should be examined. He remarked that a part
of the theory communicated by himself to the Royal Society last May, and published in
the Proceedings, shows that a wire of six times the length of the Varna and Bala-
22 REPORT—1855. ’
klava wire, if of the same lateral dimensions, would give thirty-six times the
retardation, and thirty-six times the slowness of action. If the distinctness of
utterance and rapidity of action practicable with the Varna and Balaklava wire are
only such as to be not inconvenient, it would be necessary to have a wire of six
times the diameter ; or better, thirty-six wires of the same dimensions ; or a larger
number of still smaller wires twisted together, under a gutta percha covering, to give
tolerably convenient action by a submarine cable of six times the length. The theory
skows how, from careful observations on such a wire as that between Varna and
Balaklava, an exact estimate of the lateral dimensions required for greater distances,
or sufficient for smaller distances, may be made. Immense economy may be prac-
tised in attending to these indications of theory in all submarine cables constructed
in future for short distances; and the non-failure of great undertakings can alone be
ensured by using them in a preliminary estimate.
On new Instruments for Measuring Electrical Potentials and Capacities.
By Professor W. THomson, I.A., F.R.S.
In this communication three instruments were described and exhibited to the
Section: the first a standard electrometer, designed to measure, by a process of
weighing the mutual attraction of two conducting discs, the difference of electrical
potential between two bodies with which they are connected, an instrument which
will be useful for determining the electromotive force of a galvanic battery in electro-
static measure, and for graduating electroscopic instruments so as to convert their
scale indications into absolute measure; the second an electroscopic electrometer,
which may be used for indicating electrical potentials in absolute measure, in ordinary
experiments, and, probably with great advantage, in observations of atmospheric elec-
tricity; and the third, for which a scientific friend has suggested the name of Electro-
platymeter, an instrument which may be applied either to measure the capacities of
conducting surfaces for holding charges of electricity, or to determine the electric
inductive capacities of insulating media.
On the Means proposed by the Liverpool Compass Committee for carrying
out Investigations relative to the Laws which govern the deviation of the
Compass. By Joun T. Towson.
Experimental Demonstration of the Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies.
By Professor Tynvatt, F.R.S.
The author referred to the Bakerian Lecture of the present year, as proving that a
bar of bismuth freely suspended within a spiral of copper wire, excited by a current
passing through that wire and acted upon by external magnets, could be attracted
and repelled with the same certainty as, though with a far less energy than, a bar of
iron, the sense of the deflection, which indicated the polarity of the diamagnetic
bismuth bar, being always opposed to the deflection of the iron bar under the same
circumstances. The experiments now described formed the complement, so to speak,
of those described in the lecture referred to. In the latter case, the bismuth bar was
deflected by magnets ; but as the action is mutual, it is to be expected that the magnets,
if properly arranged, could be deflected by the diamagnetic bars. An experiment of this
nature has already been made by Prof. Weber of Gottingen, but the results obtained by
this distinguished experimenter have not commanded general conviction ; they have
been questioned by Matteucci, Von Feilitzsch, and others. Prof. Tyndall has to thank
M. Weber for the plan of an instrument, constructed by M. Leyser of Leipsic, which
has enabled him to remove the last trace of doubt from this important question.
The instrument consists essentially of two upright spirals of copper wire about 18
inches long, fastened to a stout slab of wood, enclosed on all sides during the time
of experiment, and so fixed into solid masonry that the spirals are vertical.
Above the spirals is a wooden wheel with a grooved circumference; below the spirals
there is a similar wheel; an endless string passed tightly round both wheels, and
to this string are attached two cylinders of the diamagnetic body to be examined.
A’
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23
By turning the lower wheel by a suitable key, the cylinders may be moved up and
down within the spirals. Two steel bar magnets are arranged to an astatic system,
connected together by a rigid brass junction, and suspended so that both magnets
are in the same horizontal plane. It is so arranged that these two magnets have the
two spirals between them, and have their poles opposite to the centre of the spirals.
When, therefore, a current is sent through the spirals, it exerts no more action on
the magnets than the centre or neutral point of a magnet would do. Supposing the
bars within the spirals to be also perfectly central, they also present their neutral
points to the magnetic poles, and hence exert no action upon it. But if the key be
turned so as to bring the two ends of the diamagnetic bars to act upon the suspended
magnets, if the bars be polar, the magnitude and nature of their polarity will be indi-
cated by the consequent deflection of the magnets. The index by which the deflec-
tion of the magnets is observed is a ray of light reflected from a mirror attached to
the magnets ; and as the length of this ray may be varied at pleasure, the sensibility
of the instrument may be indefinitely increased. When cylinders of bismuth are
submitted to experiment, a very marked deflection is produced, indicating a polarity
on the part of the bismuth opposed to the polarity of iron. This is the result already
obtained by M. Weber; but against it, it has been urged that the deflection is due
to induced currents excited in the metallic cylinders during their motion within the
spirals. To this objection Prof. Tyndall replied as follows :—first, the deflection
produced was a permanent deflection, which could not be the case if it were due to
the momentary currents of induction ;' secondly, if due to induction, copper ought
to show the effect far more energetically than bismuth, for its conducting power and,
consequently, the facility with which such currents are produced, is fifty times
greater than that of bismuth; but with cylinders of copper no sensible deflection
was produced; thirdly, two prisms of the heavy glass with which Mr, Faraday
discovered the diamagnetic force and produced the rotation of the plane of polariza-
tion of a luminous ray, were substituted for the metallic cylinders; and although the
action was far less energetic, it was equally certain as in the case of bismuth, and
indicated the same polarity. The formation of induced currents is wholly out of
the question here, for the substance is an insulator. The experiments, therefore,
remove the last remaining doubt from the proposition, that diamagnetic bodies under
magnetic excitement possess a polarity which is the reverse of that possessed by
magnetic ones.
Experimental Observations on an Electrie Cable.
By WitpMAN WHITEHOUSE.
After referring to the rapid progress in submarine telegraphy which the last
four years have witnessed, Mr, Whitehouse said that he regarded it as an esta-
blished fact, that the nautical and engineering difficulties which at first existed had
been already overcome, and that the experience gained in submerging the shorter
lengths had enabled the projectors to provide for all contingencies affecting the
greater. The author then drew the attention of the Section to a series of experi-
mental observations which he had recently made upon the Mediterranean and
Newfoundland cables, before they sailed for their respective destinations. These
cables contained an aggregate of 1125 miles of insulated electric wire, and the
experiments were conducted chiefly with reference to the problem of the practica-
bility of establishing electric communications with India, Australia, and. America.
The results of all the experiments were recorded by a steel style upon electro-
chemical paper by the action of the current itself, while the paper was at the same
time divided into seconds and fractional parts of a second by the use of a pendulum.
This mode of operating admits of great delicacy in the determination of the results,
as the seconds can afterwards be divided into hundredths by the use of a “‘ vernier,”
and the result read off with the same facility as a barometric observation. Enlarged
fac-similes of the electric autographs, as the author calls them, were exhibited as
diagrams, and the actual slips of electro-chemical paper were laid upon the table.
The well-known effects of induction upon the current were accurately displayed ;
and contrasted with these were other autographs showing the effect of forcibly dis-
charging the wire by giving it an adequate charge of the opposite electricity in the
24 REPORT—1855.
mode proposed by the author. Wo less than eight currents—four positive and four
negative—were in this way transmitted in a single second of time through the same
length of wire (1125 miles), through which a single current required a second and
a half to discharge itself spontaneously upon the paper. Having stated the precau-
tions adopted to guard against error in the observations, the details of the experi-
ments were then concisely given, including those for “ velocity,’’ which showed a
much higher rate attainable by the magneto-electric than by the yoltaic current.
The author then recapitulated the facts, to which he specially invited attention :—
First, the mode of testing velocity by the use of a voltaic current divided into two
parts (a split current), one of which shall pass through a graduated resistance tube
of distilled water, and a few feet only of wire, while the other part shall be sent
through the long circuit, both being made to record themselves by adjacent styles
upon the same slip of electro-chemical paper. Second, the use of magneto-electric
“twin-currents,”’ synchronous in their origin, but wholly distinct in their metallic
circuits, for the same purpose, whether they be made to record themselves direct
upon the paper, or to actuate relays or receiving instruments which shall give con-
tacts for a local printing battery. Third, the effects of induction, retardation of the
current, and charging of the wire, as shown autographically ; and contrasted with
this—fourth, the rapid and forcible discharging of the wire by the use of an opposite
current ; and hence—fifth, the use of this as a means of maintaining, or restoring at
pleasure, the electric equilibrium of the wire. Sixth, absolute neutralization of
currents by too rapid reversal. Seventh, comparison of working speed attainable in
a given length of wire by the use of repetitions of similar voltaic currents as con-
trasted with alternating magneto-electric currents, and which, at the lowest estimate,
seemed to be seven or eight to one in favour of the latter. Eighth, proof of the
co-existence of several waves of electric force of opposite character in a wire of given
length, of which each respectively will arrive at its destination without interference.
Ninth, the velocity, or rather amount of retardation, greatly influenced by the
energy of the current employed, other conditions remaining the same. Tenth, no
adequate advantages obtained in a 300-mile length by doubling or trebling the mass
of conducting metals. The author, in conclusion, stated his conviction, that it
appeared from these experiments, as well as from trials which he had made with an
instrument of the simplest form, actuated by magneto-electric currents, that the
working speed attainable in a submarine wire of 1125 miles was ample for commer-
cial success. And may we not, he added, fairly conclude also, that India, Australia,
and America, are accessible by telegraph without the use of wires larger than those
commonly employed in submarine cables ?
On the New Maximum Thermometer of H. Necrett1 and ZAMBRA.
Communicated by C. GREVILLE WILLIAMS.
The very simple but effective instrument for indicating maximum temperature,
invented by Messrs. H. Negretti and Zambra, is remarkable both for the delicacy of
the workmanship and for the difficulty which is found in constructing it, a difficulty
which is entirely of a practical character, and prevents the possibility of a perfect
instrument being constructed by any but a dextrous artist.
It consists of a thermometer-tube bent near the bulb, in the manner of the old
ones, but just at the bend the tube has an impediment caused by a contraction at
that point. This choking of the tube is insufficient to prevent the easy passage of
the mercury during its expansion, but nevertheless effectually prevents its return as
the temperature falls, and the mercury in the globe consequently occupies less
space. The portion left in the stem serves as the index of the highest temperature
arrived at.
It is acknowledged that a certain amount of error is here unavoidably introduced,
from the fact that the mercury at the time of passage into the tube is at a higher
temperature than when the observation is made, and occupies a larger space in the
tube. Consequently, the instrument when read off indicates a lower temperature
than the truth; but although this objection may justly be made on theoretical
grounds, in practice the effect of this error on the result is inappreciable, owing
to the very small quantity of the mercury in the tube,
omtn
.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25
When it is required to return the mercury to the bulb for the purpose of making
a fresh observation, the end furthest from the bend is to be elevated, and the instru-
ment slightly agitated ; by this means the metal repasses the obstruction and indi-
cates the temperature at the time. ?
Mr. Williams called the attention of the Section to the advantages of having the
scale engraved on the stem of the instrument, thus preventing the danger of error
from alteration of the scale, which may result from wooden ones being exposed to
damp, or too high a temperature. The instrument is also provided with another
glass scale more boldly graduated, attached to the tube, to facilitate reading off.
Astronomy, MeTrEors, WAVES.
On the Establishment of a Magnetie Meteorological and Astronomical
Observatory on the Mountain of Angusta Mullay, at 6200 feet, in Tra-
vancore. By Astronomer Broun. (Communicated by Colonel SyxKEs.)
Astronomer Broun, in a letter to Colonel Sykes dated 2nd of July, 1855, describes
the successful establishment of an observatory on Angusta Mullay, at 6200 feet
above the sea-level, for the purpose of simultaneous record with the Observatory at
Trevandrum.
The difficulties of access to the summit of the mountain were so great, from
having to cut paths through dense jungles infested by elephants and other wild
animals, from having to use ropes and mechanical aid in getting up the building
materials, provisions, and the instruments, and in the delays from the labourers
running away from fright and the effects of cold, that two years were consumed in
the undertaking. The object of Astronomer Broun, in making known his successful
efforts in Europe, is to enable observers to put themselves into communication with
him, in case they should desire to have any experimental researches made in so
novel a position for an observatory.
On certain Anomalies presented by the Binary Star '70 Ophiuchi.
By W.S. Jacos, Director of the Madras Observatory.
This pair has been long known as a binary system, but the exact orbit is yet in
doubt, although nearly a whole revolution has been completed since it was first
observed in 1779.
All the orbits that have been computed fail in representing the true positions at
certain points, and those which best represent the angles fail entirely as regards the
distances.
The most remarkable point is, that even in those orbits which agree best with
observation, the errors in the angles assume a periodical form, retaining the same sign
through a considerable space.
An orbit has been computed with a period of ninety-three years, in which the
errors are + from 1820 to 1823, — with one exception from 1823 to 1830, doubtful
-from 1830 to 1832, and from 1833 to 1842 all +, after which they continue for the
most part —.
This must depend upon some law: it might arise from a change in the law of
gravitation, but may be accounted for more simply by supposing the existence of a
third opake body perturbing the other two. Such bodies have been already sur-
ae to account for irregular motion of apparently single stars, such as Sirius and
rocyon.
The body in this case, if supposed to circulate as a planet round the smaller star,
need not be very large, as the deviation from the ellipse does not exceed 0!"1 of arc.
Assuming the small star to describe a secondary ellipse, in which a=0:08,
e=0°15, P=26 years, and «=200°, and applying corresponding corrections to the
positions, the average error in the angles is reduced from 50’ to 37', and in the
distances measured subsequent to 1837 from 0'"14 to 0’"11, or by about 4.
There is therefore primd facie evidence for the existence of such a body, and it is
desirable that the fact should be still further tested by careful observation.
26 ‘REPORT—1855.
On the Calculation of an Observed Eclipse or Occultation of a Star.
By Professor Mossortti.
According to the denominations adopted in Dr. Pearson’s ‘Introduction to Prac-
tical Astronomy,’ vol. ii. p. 675, and following, the general equation for an eclipse,
a passage of a planet over the sun, or an occultation of a star is—
(m—arp? + a—rvrP=d+D—f—retan (D —f))?.
This equation, by introducing a new angle é, may be resolved into the following
two :—
(m—awp)cosE+ (n—wv)snEé=d+D—f—rotan(D—f). . (a)
—(m—rp)siné+(n—awv)cosE=—0,. . ..- «. » (b)
the last of which gives
: o: \ucaBal
OnE eae pl. “as: eta rane
The angle & given by this formula may be computed by the values of m, n, and
m, deduced from the lunar tables, and the small error by which they may still be
affected will not have any sensible influence upon equation (a), because the fluxion
for a change in the value of the angle & is evidently reduced to nothing in con-
sequence of the second equation (b). On this property lies the foundation of the
method which we are going to explain.
If we count the time ¢ from the instant of the observation, the values of the
cosines m, and m, corresponding to the instant of the true conjunction may be
expressed by series*—
m=m+mit+ im"? +o,
mantnlt+ ile to:
but at the moment of the true conjunction, we must have
mM, = 0, Ny = by — By,
therefore
m= — mit —5 mle,
n = by — By— n't — en" 2;
and by substituting these expressions in equation (a), and by putting, for sake of an
easier computation,
m' = v cos O, p = sin (cos », m'' = w cos e,
n' = v sin O, vy = sin (sin p, n' = w sine,
we shall have
— tvcos (£—O) + (5,— B,) sin € — sin (cos (E—») —@+D—f)=
— 7 cos ¢ tan (D — f) + 5 feos (€—e).
The letter ¢ denotes the time elapsed from the instant of the observation to that
of conjunction, and its value is negative when the conjunction happens before; then,
if we call T the mean time of observation, as counted at the place, and A the east-
ward longitude of the place from the meridian for which the time © of conjunction
has been computed, which will commonly be the meridian of the lunar tables em-
ployed, we must have
T+t=0+A,,
and the preceding equation may assume the form
8 vcos (E—O)+Avcos (£—O)—(b,—B,) sin £+7 sin (cos (E—v) +d4+D=
T vcos (€—O) +f—z7 cos ¢ tan D—f)— 5H w cos (£—e). (A)
The values of the coefficients v cos (€—O), sin &, sin ¢ cos (€—v), as well as those
of the last two terms of the second member, may be computed by the elements
* See the Note II. at the end.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. oT
drawn from lunar tables without any sensible error arising in our equation; T
and f are given by observation, only the quantities ©, A, 6) — By), 7 and d + D, or
some of them may form the queries of the problem, according to circumstances ;
and as all these quantities are contained under a linear form, their determination
can be directly obtained by the resolution of equations of first degree, without having
recourse to the method of corrections by supposed errors, which is an analytical and
practical advantage of the formula we propose. 4
If we refer to a construction upon the usual plane of projection, as seen in the
annexed figure, it will be easily seen that the angle € which we have employed is
M
the angle, SH A, which the line, S L, uniting the apparent centres, S and L, of the
occulting and occulted bodies, makes with A B, the perpendicular to the projection,
C M, of the circle of declination; O is the angle, L’ © B, which the relative orbit,
L, LL’, of the occulting body makes with the same perpendicular, v the relative
velocity of this body in its orbit, ¢ the zenith distance, C S, of the occulted body,
and v the complement, SC A, of its angle of variation. This being understood,
it is clear that the leading idea of our method consists in valuing the abscissz
Ci, Cs of the projected centres of the said bodies, at the instant of the observa-
tion, and in a direction parallel to the line which unites them, and to make the sum
of their projected semidiameters, diminished by the phasis, equal to the difference of
those absciss, upon the length of which difference a small error on the angle €
has no important influence.
_ Nore I.—In the expressions of m and n, given at page 635 of the quoted work,
it is supposed that A, a, B and b denote the right ascensions and declinations of
the occulting and occulted bodies, but we may suppose as well that they represent
their longitudes and latitudes. In this case, calling P the angle of position of the
occulted body* at the instant of the observation, we must compute € by formula
msin P + ncosP—7yp
ELIE at eas eee a ’
é mcosP—nsinP—wp’ ° * * * ° * * (c)
and we must substitute in formula (A) £— P and »— P instead of £ and». Then®
will be the time of conjunction in longitude, and 6,— B, the difference of latitude
of the two bodies ; but in the expressions of p, v and a, the letters a and 8 will con-
tinue to represent the right ascension and declination of the occulted body, and
_ * The angle of position P is to be taken positive in the ascending signs of the ecliptic
“75, and negative in the descending signs 90x.
28 REPORT—1855.
their values, as well as that of P, are only wanted to be known to the nearest
minute. The angle é given by formula (c) or (c)’, ought to be taken lesser or
greater than 180°, according as the values of the numerators will be positive or
negative.
Nore II.—The fluxions or derivates m’, n'; m’, x” of first and second order,
may be valued by employing the corresponding horary motions given by tables,
which would be more analytical, but in practice it will be found more convenient
to take out from the ‘ Nautical Almanac,’ or from other sources, for an hour before,
the instant of the observation, for this instant, and for an hour after, the necessary
elements for computing three successive values, M—,, Mm, m, and n—,, n, m,, and to
make
Ny — n-+ (n —n~)
m,— m + (m — m—1) a
ey 2 ; 2
1, _ ™m—m — (m—m-}) 1, %— 2” — (n —n_)
ee a 2 , Pe 2
I subjoin here some faults of printing discovered in Dr. Pearson’s work :—
At page 634, line 13, read place instead of plane.
At page 635, line 10, the formule must be
m=cos Bcos(a— A), ”=sinbcos Bcos (a— A) — cosbdsinB.
At page 635, line 10, read 34’ 57” instead of 3! 51”.
e
Remarks on the Chronology of the Formations of the Moon.
By Professor Nicuor, LL.D., Observatory, Glasgow.
Prof. Nichol stated, that, through the munificence of the Marquis of Breadalbane,
he had been enabled to bring to bear on the delicate inquiries, whose commencement
he intended to explain, a very great,if not a fully adequate amount of telescopic
power. A speculum of twenty-one inches, originally made by the late Mr.
Ramage with the impracticable focal length of fifty-five feet, had, at the expense of
that noble Lord, been re-ground, polished, mounted as an equatoreal, and placed in
the Glasgow Observatory, in its best state, only about six weeks ago. Prof. Nichol
showed some lunar photographs, which indicated the great light with which the
telescope endowed its focal images, and entered on other details as to its definition.
The object of the present paper is the reverse of speculative. It aims to recall from
mere speculation, to the road towards positive inquiry, all observers of the lunar
surface. To our satellite hitherto those very ideas have been applied, which confused
the whole early epochs of our terrestrial geology, the notion, viz. that its surface is a
chaos, the result of primary, sudden, short-lived and lawless convulsion. Wedo not
now connect the conception of irregularity with the history of the earth :—it is the
triumph of science to have analysed that apparent chaos, and discerned order through
it all. The mode by which this has been accomplished, it is well known, has
been the arrangement of our terrene mountains according to their relation to time:
their relative ages determined, the course of our world seemed smooth and harmo-
nious, like the advance of any other great organization. Ought we not then to attempt
to apply a similar mode of classification to the formations in the moon,—hoping to
discern there also a course of development, and no confusion of manifestation of
irregular convulsion? Prof. Nichol then attempted to point out that there appeared
a practical and positive mode by which such classification might be effected. It
could not, in so far as he yet had discerned, be accomplished by tracing, as we had
done on earth, relations between lunar upheavals and stratified rocks; but another
principle was quite as decisive in the information it gave, viz. the intersection of dis-
locations. There are clear marks of dislocation in the moon; nay, the surface of
our satellite is overspread with them. These are the rays of light, or rather bright
trays, that flow from almost all the great craters as their centres, and are also found
where craters do not at present appear. Whatever the substance of this highly
reflecting matter, it is evidently no superficial layer or stream, like lava, but extends
‘
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99.
downwards a considerable depth into the body of the moon. In short, we have no
likeness to it on earth, in the sense now spoken of, except our great trap and crystalline
dykes. Itseemed clear, then, that the intersection of these rays are really intersections
of dislocations, from which we might deduce their chronology. Can the intersection,
however, be sufficiently seen? in other words, Is the telescope adequate to deter-
mine which of the two intersecting lines has disturbed or cut through the other? Prof.
Nichol maintained the affirmative in many cases, and by aid of diagrams, taken down
from direct observation, illustrated and enforced his views.
Note on Solar Refraction. By Professor C, Piazz1 Smytu, Royal Observa-
tory, Edinburgh.
Amongst other interesting and important consequences of the dynamical theory
of heat, Prof. W. Thomson having deduced the necessity of a resisting medium,
the condensation of this about the sun, and a consequent refraction of the stars
seen in that neighbourhood, Prof. Piazzi Smyth had endeavoured to ascertain by
direct astronomical observation, whether any such effect were sensible to our best
astronomical instruments. Owing to atmospheric disturbances, only three ob-
servations, yielding two results, had been yet obtained; but both these indicated a
sensible amount of solar refraction. Should this effect be confirmed by more
numerous observations, it must have important bearings on every branch of astro-
nomy; and as the atmosphere at all ordinary observatories presents almost
insuperable obstacles, the author pointed out the advantage of stationing a tele-
scope for this purpose on the summit of a high mountain.
On Altitude Observations at Sea. By Professor C. Prazzi SmytH,
Edinburgh.
This paper treated mainly of the observation of altitudes at sea under circum-
stances when at present they are generally unattainable, viz. when the sea horizon
is not visible. After a statement of the necessary principles which should guide
inventors in this matter, the author exhibited a new species of artificial horizon,
which allowed all the latitude of the natural horizon as to errors in the position of
the whole sextant; and while exhibiting extreme sensibility to angular movement,
was very little affected by any horizontal disturbance or translation through space.
Any still outstanding difficulties were effectually removed by the employment, in
addition, of a stand, which taking advantage of the composition of rotatory notion
and the permanence of an axis of rotation, as seen on the grand scale in the con-
stancy of the annual direction of the earth’s pole, or in the phenomenon of the
precession of the equinoxes, and in a small way in a spinning-top, completely
eliminated all the angular movements of which a ship is capable.
This second subject of the paper concludes thus :—“ To the first idea of taking
advantage of the general principle for the present purpose, I believe that I was led in
a great degree by the eminently clear and practical manner in which the Rev. Baden
Powell exhibited by models, and expounded in his lectures in 1852 and 1853, the
action of the composition of rotatory motion under various circumstances in nature
and in art; for then I perceived why ‘Troughton’s top’ had so narrowly, but
completely escaped the honour of becoming a useful instrument to nautical astro-
nomy; and how what was good in it might be transferred to a better planned
apparatus. More recently, as every one knows, M. Foucault has added a degree of
glory even to the mechanical law, by employing another feature of it in his ‘ gyro-
scope, as a means of detecting and exhibiting the rotation of the earth.”
On the Transmission of Time Signals. By Professor C. P1azzi Smytu.
After alluding to the general subject of the longitude, the very large number of
ships lost during the past year through errors of their longitude, and the recognized
aids that have been furnished to seamen in the erection of time-balls, the author
30: REPORT—1855.
described the recently erected time-ball on the Nelson Monument, on the Calton
Hill, Edinburgh; which ball is dropped daily by a clock adjusted to true time in
the Edinburgh Observatory, and acting through electric agency, in much the same
way as at the Greenwich Observatory.
This electric agency having been proved, through a year and a half, to be most
certain and accurate, and the ball proving of great advantage to Edinburgh and
Leith, the question of extending the signal to the other parts of Scotland had been
raised.
If only local means be provided for raising the balls, there can be no difficulty
in dropping them with equal accuracy, and by the same electric contact which drops
the Edinburgh time-ball, if they also be connected together metallically by the
wires of the Electric Telegraph.
But, practically, there is some difficulty, or rather doubt, when the distance
becomes great, on account of the loss of electricity by the way. An actual experi-
ment, therefore, in the proposed locality, was important; and Sir T. Makdougall
Brisbane, having long desired to see a time-ball established in Glasgow, most libe-
rally volunteered to bear the expense of laying down temporary wires between the
telegraph station and the meeting-room of Section G. The Royal Scottish Society
of Arts lent a large model of a time-ball; and the Electric Telegraph Company lent
many batteries, and the services of their practised assistants. With this help, the
model was erected in the room of Section G, placed in electric connexion with the
Edinburgh Observatory, and having been half raised at five minutes and full raised
at two minutes before one o’clock, according to preliminary signals received, at one
o’clock p.m. exactly, the ball was dropped by the Edinburgh clock at the same
instant as it also dropped the Edinburgh time-ball.
METEOROLOGY.
On the Fall of Rain at Arbroath. By Avexanver Brown, Arbroath.
The following Table, containing a synopsis of the depth of rain which falls at
Arbroath, was compiled for insertion in the article “‘ Forfarshire ” in the forthcoming
edition of the ‘ Encyclopzdia Britannica,’ and is one of a series for the purpose of
showing the climate of that county :—
Summer. | Autumn. Winter.
June. September.! December. | Total.
April. July. October. | January.
May. August. | November.| February.
inches. inches. inches. inches. inches.
1°620 9-021 8:926 4°840 24°407
67152 8°103 10°787 3°494 28°536
7016 5°167 5°506 12°808 30°497
67105 9-823 7°242 6°793 29:963
4°514 6°857 4°530 8:033 23°934
4-490 5°764 6°239 6°212 22°705
7°280 7°308 3°481 6°869 24:°938
2°323 67120 9°186 11°525 29°154
3043 7°515 9-128 5*242 24°928
3°897 5°744 6°417 4°220 20:278
——
4°644 77142 77144 7°004 25°934
From the Table, it appears that at Arbroath, in latitude 56° 34’ N., Longitude, 2°
35’ W., the mean annual fall of rain from ten years’ observation, ending February
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 31
1855, was 25°934 (nearly 26) inches. Beginning the year with March, about one-
sixth of the annual fall, or 4°644 inches, occurs in the three spring months of March,
April, and May, and the remaining five-sixths, or 21°29 inches, in the summer,
autumn, and winter months, the fall in each of the three latter quarters being nearly
equal. In any three months during the period above-mentioned, the greatest fall
was in the winter of 1847, 12°808 inches, and the least in the spring of 1845, 1°62
inch. The average number of days in each year on which rain fell was 146. The
height of the rain-gauge above the sea is 40 feet, and 3 feet from the ground; distant
from the sea three-eighths of a mile.
Remarkable Hailstorms in India, from March 1851 to May 1855. By
Dr. Georce Burst, F.R.S. (Communicated by Colonel Sykes, F.R.S.)
Perhaps nowhere do the phenomena of hailstorms manifest themselves in such
frequency and magnificence as in India, or present such opportunities of studying the
matter itself with such care and advantage.
Reflecting on the imperfections of the records of these remarkable pheno-
mena, the author resolved, in 1839, to prepare for publication a list of the more
remarkable hailstorms that had occurred in India as far back as information per-
mitted. The most invaluable assistance was derived in this inquiry, between the
years 1816 and 1842, from the Asiatic Journal, a publication discontinued thirteen
years ago, the second part (about the half) of each volume of which was filled with
most judicious selections of extracts from the newspapers ; the whole work being so
admirably indexed, that anything contained in it, whether original or selected, might
be examined with the utmost certainty, and almost without trouble. For the next ten
years intervening betwixt 1841 and 1851, the newspapers required. to be searched ;
a somewhat tiresome task, and one of considerable labour; so that it is not impro-
bable that oversights may have occurred : since 1851, the extracts have been collected
as they appeared in print.
The following will afford an outline of the conclusions I have for the present
arrived at: I say for the present, for but few of them are fully established, and all
stand in need of extension and elucidation :—
Times when Hailstorms occur *.—Hailstorms occur in India, so far as appears from
the published extracts, in the following proportions for the various months of the
year :-—
JANUATY veecesecsvrvccscocsee 5 July serecccsecsccccrsenvcees 2
February ccccesseessescsees 20 AUguSt cercseressessseseceee O
March ..........0008 aeeciaes 31 September ....ecccecseees “Seip?
EPI eas sacdas sco ces des wcceee 34 WELGnEN susseas=-esccnacencl
May «cccscenasecscevoncsndce, 1G November ......seceseeesees 4
SVUTIC Sepesaccenes wencessangesy) 4 December ......scscersesere 5
It will be seen that hail chiefly falls in our driest months, February, March, and
April, and does not seem dependent on temperature; May, which supplies seven-
teen hailstorms, being the hottest month of the year, the true maxima due to the
season being masked by the rains wherever these occur near the summer solstice. .
December and January, almost the coldest months, are nearly devoid of hail. We
have a few instances of hail occurring in June and July in Central India, when the
rains were late in setting in, but the hailstones in those cases were always small, and
the falls light in comparison to those experienced in other periods of the year.
Hours when Hailstorms occur.—It very seldom happens that writers advert to the
hours when hailstorms occur. Of a list of 30 published from the notes of that inde-
fatigable observer Dr. Spilsbury, there are 10 set down as occurring at 3 or 4 P.M. ;
lat4p.m.; 4 at sunset; 5 at 11 a.m. or noon; 2at2p.m.; 1 at 8 a.m.; and 1 at
Qa.m. Only 3 occur after dark, and none later than midnight.
* The author refers to and corrects some of the statements of Mrs. Somerville and Dr.
Thomson.
32
REPORT—1855.
Places from which Accounts of Hailstorms have been received, arranged
Meerut....1761, 1851, 1855
Cawnpore ......1817, 1855
Mirzapore ...... 1819, 1852
Jubbulpore, 1821-23-24—25-
27-3 1-36-37-39-40-41
Bangalore ...... 1822, 1851
Monpltyr cleric cote 1823
Kamptee ..... - 1823, 1831
Lahargong .......-..- 1825
Bopalpore ........ - 1825
Garth ....... wee ce ce 1825
Serampore...... 1827, 1829
POSHONE c\saieinic: <{aie ateie 1827
Kotah .05. 6512 0,0 hs 3 A827,
Calcutta, «.i00' 50 entsen 1829
SEVINEE vote wirietacs s\n 1010/0 1830
Allahabad ) 6g. -50°6 1833
N. W. Mountains 1827, 1829
Nagpoor ......++s.0- 1831
Raneegunge.......... 1834
Poona ....1834, 1847, 1853
Bénares: secs hs weet 1836
Secunderabad ..1837, 1851
Seetapore.........-+. 1838
Near Calcutta ........1838
chronologically.:
Saugor ....1838, 1840, 1847
JESSOFE ». ose essecece LO40
Mandavee....... --.-.1840
NDR RUE Wa c'cis a cle <5 aieteln 1844
Sattara ....1845, 1850, 1852
Gianore Wee's eee 1847, 1853
Simla ....1847, 1849, 1853
Belgaum ......1847, 1849
Bancoora%\=s\s"-"s"s Stet ae BAT
Near Nassick ........ 1848
Edulabad......... .-.1848
Brdachieciiwsisiveer vies 1849
DUCESAieaisleiaisiereinaie/eie= spk
ANMOXC dies ao bid caer te Les9
BAUIDAD mien <0 ste ainisrem 1 OAD
Rhotas...... Wanda se 1849
UBD ELAN A= gofuic tinue e's 1849
Purneah........ 1849, 1852
DUNN} AD etal qret car sy stie\s, wear 1849
IBHODIGONWercis «crete ise. 1849
PTO) bess nigacicd 1849
Peshawur ......1849, 1853
Datca. ip .ee Leek iets 1849
Delhi ....1849, 1851, 1853
Bandar .3 6 sic la see's be B49
Gwalior,..<;,22 «sin smerl aoe
Rajpeepla ......-1850, 1851
Bajkotel ..p emcees 1850
Rungpore .......... 1851
Ootacamund ........ 1852
Pondicherry....... - 1852
Tirhoot ..... vee eee 1852
Shahpoor (Punjaub) ..1852
Kalabagh ..........-. 1852
Landoor ...... Sega 1852
Sealkote ............1852
Kurrachee. .1852, 1853, 1854
Mahableshwar........ 1852
Hydrabad (Sinde) ....1852
Ceylon -- 1852, 1855
Ferozepoor ......++++1853
Nainee Tal ..........1854
Roorkee ...........-1854
Neemuch ......s.00 1854
JOONECEY' oss svar eiaiecere tie 1854
Poorundhur...... 223. 1854
Aurungabad ........1854
Bolarum ....... vee 1855
Hurryhur............1855
Places where Hailstorms have occurred in India, arranged alphabetically.
Allahabad ..........1883
Aurungabad ........ 1854
AMCOOEA ve overere is Jove shel eos 1847
Banda ...... ds\» a elvis: LOAD
Bangalore ......1822, 1851
Belgaum........ 1847, 1849
Benares ......+-.---1836
Bhooloola......-...-- 1849
PFOLAYUNO | favcte'~\oiotntotere fe 1855
Bopalpore ceeece e+ 1825
BRVOACH. 31 bln 0 eedun vin pin, LOSS,
Calctiftals itels nis,o 36 o 1829
Near Calcutta ........ 1838
Cawnpore ...... 1817, 1855
Ceylon ........1852, 1855
Deere aceon Anmaeee te
Deesa ...... aievaeteieve= 1849
Delhi ....1849, 1851, 1853
Edulabad..........--1848
Ferozepoor ..--.+..+.- 1853
Garth? 20.1.5. Pits. Se 1825
Gwalior ......+..5 «+. 1850
Hurryhur........ ++» 1855
Hydrabad (Sinde) ....1852
MRLOTES 6 Drew iplcrenie nis inal 1849
Caving ‘ses es > = ~.-.1849
JEEIOTEE heeive web slates 1840
SOOKCERT ee ciciste'stainiel e's 1854
Jubbulpore 1821—23-—24—25-
27-3 1-36-37-39-40~-41
Kalabagh......+-++++1852
Kamptee ....-. 1823, 1831
Kataliines sisisecs nsieeeetbed
GREEMIO ON teres. aretateyicts's 1849
Kurrachee. .1852, 1853, 1854
Lahargong ......---- 1825
Lahore ........ 1847, 1853
Diandoutes = = b+ +. bes « 1852
Mahableshwur,....... 1852
Mandveee 2 ol sic apa 1840
Meerut ....1761, 1850,1855
Mirzapore ......1819, 1852
Monghyr .....-...... 1823
Nagpoor ....+.eesee. 1831
Nainee Tal .......... 1854
Near Nassick .......-.
Neemuch .......+..0+- 1854
N. W. Mountains 1827, 1829
Ootacamund ........1852
Peshawur ......1849, 1853
Pondicherry.........- 1852
Poona ....1834, 1847, 1853
Poorundhur..........1854
Punjaub oeee +1849
Purneah........1849, 1852
Rajkote .....+.+-.+.1850
Rajpeepla ......1850, 1851
Raneegunge........--1834
see eee
RhOtaS) ms. oes ate «+ --1849
Roorkees.. «isso catehye= 1854
Rungpore..+.+++-e+-- 1851
Sattara....1845, 1850, 1852
Saugor....1838, 1840, 1847
Senlkote 2: «agiaeiiete tele 1852
Secunderabad ..1837,1851
Seetapore.. 00. 0ese 0. 1838
Serampore...... 1827, 1829
Shahpore (Punjab) ....1852
Simla ....1847, 1849, 1853
Sukkur...... ee eeeees 1844
Sylhet .......+..+... 1830
Tindolle .. -. 1827
Tipperah ....... see. 1849
Tirhoot.s0esveeen0» 401852
eee reese
From the foregoing tables of localities where the hailstorms enumerated in my two
lists have occurred, one very singular anomaly will become apparent—that whereas
the Delta of the Ganges down to the sea, in lat. 22°, and but little raised above the
highest tide, whose damp, tepid atmosphere contrasts as strikingly as possible with
the pure crisp, vapourless air of the mountains, is the favourite locality of hailstorms,
and whereas these are frequent along the western shore of the Bay of Bengal—from
Surat south to Ceylon, in corresponding latitudes and altitudes on the Malabar
coast, hail is a thing nearly unknown, though appearing in abundance immediately ©
=
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 33
to the north-westward, along the shores of Cutch and Sind, and io the eastward,
as at Sattara, Mahableshwur, in the Ghauts, and all over the Deccan, so soon as we
get some 1500 feet above the level of the sea. The climate of the eastern side of
India is in summer somewhat drier and hotter, as it is colder in winter, than along
the Malabar coast ; but there is no such difference betwixt them as to explain, so
far as appears, the absence of hail*.
In Europe and America, according to Dr. Thompson and Mrs. Somerville, hail
rarely falls amongst or very near the mountains; in India no such law obtains.
In my present and previous lists will be found accounts of hailstorms in the central
provinces of Ceylon, at Ootacamund on the Neilgherries, both 6000 feet above the
sea, and incontiguity with mountain masses of much greater elevation, Dodabetta
in the latter case towering to the altitude of 8500 feet ; at Sattara and Mahablesh-
wur, in the Western Ghauts, 1700 and 4500 feet respectively; at Simla, 8000; at
Nainee Tal, 6000; and at the Jummoo Highlands 1500 above the sea—the last three
in the bosom of the Himalayas.
In Europe, hailstorms usually travel rapidly over the country in straight narrow
bands, of vast length, but very small lateral extension. On the 24th of July, 1818,
a hailstorm passed over the Orkneys from S.W. to N.E., twenty miles in length and
a mile and a half in breadth: it travelled at the rate of a mile in a minute anda
half, or the speed of arace-horse; ice covered the ground to the depth of 9 inches,
though the storm at no given place endured beyond as many minutest. In 1788,a
hailstorm moved directly from the S.W. of France to the shores of Holland. It
marched along in two columns, the breadth of that on the west being ten miles, that
of the east five miles, with twelve miles between them. The one extended nearly
500 miles, the other 440 miles; the destruction occasioned by it amounted to close
on a million sterling}.
The Indian hailstorm falls in very limited patches, and seldom lasts above fifteen
or twenty minutes ; but the frequency with which hailstorms occur simultaneously at
places remote from each other, but nearly in straight lines, seems to indicate a ten-
dency on the part of the column to become continuous ;* probably they are at times
more so than we imagine, only that such things are not made known to us where
there are no Europeans, and where the country is thinly inhabited. The most
noble of these are the hailstorms which fell on the 12th and 13th of May, 1853, at
Ferozepore, Lahore, and Meean Meer, Peshawur, and Jummoo, places occupying a
line of 350 miles in length, right across the Punjaub: unluckily the hours at which
they occurred at these places respectively are not given.
Although this is the only instance I am aware of, of a series of hailstorms bursting
out simultaneously, and, if not quite forming a continuous line, appearing somewhat
like a string of beads stretched across the country, we have numbers of them occur-
ring in pairs or in threes on the same day at places remote from each other. Our
first outbursts of hail nearly always happen within a week or two of each other, at
_ what may almost be termed the glacial periods of our climate; and I have no doubt
that in many of these cases it would appear that there had been independent chains
of hail showers, or of local atmospheric changes, many of which were accompanied
by hail, had a greater abundance of records for reference existed. The following
examples of this will be found in the printed list :—
Bhopalpore nf ©Omiles apart, 9th February, 1826.
ig oie Sot piildongade
Aurungabad .........eceees a Nn fan May, 1849.
Deesa —....ceesceeseeeeeeeeee 350 miles from latter
* In my previous paper, prepared by Colonel Sykes for the British Association, and given
in abstract in their Reports for 1851, with some valuable emendations and additions of his
Own, it was stated that no hail fell on the sea-level south of lat. 20°—it should have been
added, on the western shore of India; it seems not at all uncommon on the eastern shore. A
hailstorm occurred at Pondicherry, south of Madras, in 1852, and various other places, if my
Memory serves me right, which I have not been able to catalogue. Trichinopoly, Masulipatam,
and the Gossam Valley, some way from the shore, but nearly on a level with the sea, are
mentioned by Dr. P. Thompson, on the authority of Dr. Turnbull Christie and Colonel Bowler.
T Thompson, p. 175. t Ibid, 24,962,000 francs,
1855. 3
34 REPORT—1855.
Kurnaul) sic..sedstenss 1G. sat ‘
Simla sist dibbenra Se: } 100 Sees Bag jac May, 1849.
Peshawnt) Caivaviiizadt i 400 miles from Simla
Probably also at Dacca, where hail showers occurred almost daily during the first
week of May.
Soa i tstt }50 miles apart, 20th March, 1852.
UFSINGPOTE s.seeesesese pen
Hydrabad (Sind)
Dilhiiints dkahectedel dl ter eee eee
On the 16th there was a severe hailstorm at Sattara, 700 miles south of Hydra~
bad; but I have only coupled together those occurring on the same day.
It must not always be assumed that places are always prone to hail in proportion
to the number of hailstorms assigned to them; the apparent excess or deficiency of
these is not unfrequently to be ascribed to the care or negligence with which they
have been recorded. The great seeming predominance of them at Jubbulpore is
attributed mainly to the residence for twenty years at that station of Dr. Spilsbury,
a faithful, patient, and minute observer in all departments of natural history.
In like manner, when we find hailstorms occurring forty times in twenty-six years,
or on an average 1°65 times a year, from 1820 to 1846, and then find that the
years 1847, 1848, and 1849 afford us twenty, we must not ascribe the whole, or
perhaps any part of this, to change of climate, but to improved registration. On the
other hand, again, when we find 1849 affording us fifteen storms, or above three times
the number of any of the years around, and when there is no reason why there should
have been any change in respect of registry, we may fairly set this year down as
having been peculiarly favoured in its falls of hail.
There are four occasions on which remarkable masses of ice, of many hundred
pounds in weight, are believed to have fallen in India. One near Seringapatam, in,
the end of last century, said to have been the size of anelephant. It took three days
to melt. We have no further particulars, but there is no reason whatever for our
doubting the fact.
In 1826, a mass of ice nearly a cubic yard in size, fell in Khandeish.
In April, 1838, a mass of hailstones, 20 feet in its larger diameter, fell at
Dharwar.
On the 22nd of May, after a violent hailstorm, 80 miles south of Bangalore, an
immense block of ice, consisting of hailstones cemented together, was found ina
dry well.
These masses of ice, like many of those considered hailstones of the largest sizes
have, in all probability, been formed by violent whirlwinds or eddies, and seem to
have reached the monstrous dimensions in which we find them, either on their ap-
proach to or their impingement on the ground; and the same thing will apply to
those of much more moderate bulk, and which are commonly considered hailstones,
though when examined they turn out to be a number of these aggregated together.
Many of the masses doubtless owe their origin to being swept, like that of 1852 near
Belgaum, into hollows or cavities—in this particular case into a dry well—where
they become almost immediately congealed into a mass.
Since 1850 two hailstorms of much greater magnitude, and more disastrous con-
sequences, have occurred than any here made mention of, that in the Himalayas
north of the Peshawur on the 12th of May, 1853, when eighty-four human beings
and 3000 oxen were killed, and that which occurred at Nainee Tal, a Sanitarium on
the lower Himalayas, on the 11th of May, 1855, Of the Peshawur storm we have
few details beyond the fact that the ice masses were very hard, compact, and spherical,
many of them measuring 3} inches in diameter, or nearly a foot in circumference ;
and this fact seems to have been given from measurement, not by guess.
The description of the Nainee Tal storm, from the pen of an eye-witness of intelli-
gence and information, is the best we possess. The approach of the storm was
heralded in by a noise as if thousands of bags of walnuts were being emptied in the
air. At first the hail was of comparatively small size, about that of pigeons” eggs;
it gradually increased in magnitude, till it reached the dimensions of cricket-balls,
Pieces, picked up at all parts of the station, were carefully weighed and measured,
and the results will be found further on,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE. SECTIONS. 35
In the unhappy ignorance of the science of meteorology now prevailing around us,
it seems generally supposed that these hailstorms are peculiar to India; and many
educated persons who have lived long in the country are disposed to receive such
narratives as those of the Peshawur and Nainee Tal ice-storms as fabulous, or grossly
exaggerated. To correct errors of this sort, and if possible encourage observation, I
may refer to Dr. Purdie Thompson’s Meteorology, published in 1849, the year before
the first collection of Indian hailstorms was laid before the world. He falls into
the error of believing them nearly unknown between the tropics.
Form.—The forms of the hailstones which fall in India seem pretty much the
same as those that have been examined at home, and they are chiefly of four kinds :—
1, pure crystalline masses, either globular or lenticular, internally transparent, but
covered externally with a coating of opake white ice; 2, the same, but with a star
of many points in the centre, the principal rays of which extend to the circumference,
the section being singularly beautiful; 3, nearly globular, consisting of thin con-
centric layers, like the coatings of an onion, of different degrees of transparency, as
if increased in size by film after film being frozen over them in their descent ; and 4,
agglutinated masses of hailstones, cemented together subsequent to their primary
formation—if indeed these last, which may consist in part of any of the previous
three varieties, are entitled to the name of hailstones at all.
Size.—I have already stated that we are now no longer required to refer, unless
for the sake of familiar comparison, to our hail being as large as pigeon, pullet, or
goose eggs, or pumpkins, having abundance of accounts to quote from where it has
been correctly weighed and measured, and its precise dimensions put on record. The
largest hailstones seem to be from ten to thirteen inches, and to weigh from nine
to eighteen ounces. But these are the extreme exceptional cases; and our average
maxima appear to be from eight to ten inches in circumference, and from two to
four ounces in weight. Their forms are so seldom regular, that it is rarely possible
to deduce the one fact from the other.
It is not every one who has the promptitude of the describer of the Nainee Tal
storm; but were any one, when a hailstorm occurs, to pick up two or three of the
largest pieces, taking care to note the number, and if not provided witha balance of
his own, to send the water they have yielded to the apothecary of the station to be
weighed or measured, forwarding a note of the result, the cubical contents of the
mass might be easily computed, and much valuable information obtained. From the
weight of the water it yielded, one of the most important facts connected with it becomes
determined, its mass. The fracture of the hailstones when large, with the view to
examining, and, if possible, sketching their internal substance, is what should be
resorted to as frequently as possible, India affording much greater facilities in this
respect than can be looked for elsewhere.
No hailstones have ever been known to fall in India to be compared in magnitude
to very many of those already enumerated vaunted blocks of ice, of anything like
equal in size to at least a dozen described by Dr. Thompson himself as having fallen
in Europe. The great distinguishing characteristic of the Indian, as contrasted with
the European hailstorm, is, that with us in the great majority of cases the hail which
falls exceeds the size of filberts, at home it seldom amounts to that of peas or beans;
that which here is the rule, occurring many times every year, is in Europe the
exception—not happening oftener than once in ten or twenty years.
Es Dr. Buist then describes fifty-one hailstorms, from which the following are selec-
ions :—
Hailstorm near Bangalore at Chickanallenhully, on the 22nd of May, 1851.
Lat. 12° 57’, long. 77° 38’. (From the Bombay Times.)
On the evening of the 22nd of May, at Chickanallenhully, eighty miles south-west
of Bangalore, and forty miles west of Toomcoor, there was a heavy fall of rain,
accompanied, after the night closed in, by thunder, lightning, and hail. The hail-
stones were for the most part about the size of oranges and limes, which broke the
tiles on the roofs of houses, and seriously injured cocoanut and beetlenut gardens,
and many fruit-trees, crushing many young trees, and breaking down a few larger
ones, but neither men nor beasts were injured, all having sought shelter at the com-
mencement of the rain. The next morning many hailstones as large as pumpkins
and jack-fruit were found on the plain, extending three miles south of a town; and
3
36 REPORT—1855.
one immense block, measuring four and a half feet in length, three feet in breadth,
and eighteen inches in thickness, was found in a dry well.
Hailstorm at Kandy (Ceylon) on the 15th a March, 1852.
Lat. 7° 17' N., long. 80° 36’ E
Kandy (Ceylon).—‘ On Monday (15th) afternoon, on a ‘sudden the town assumed a
dismal appearance, and heavy showers of rain commenced to fall, accompanied by
peels ofthunder. The wind blew with such irresistible fury that the branches of some
trees towards the Lake Road were broken down to the ground. There was also a fall
of hail for nearly an hour, and so much was the curiosity it excited, that crowds
of persons were seen, in spite of the rain, busily engaged in picking up the stones,
which were as large as bullets. After a few hours the rain ceased, thick clouds that
were overspreading the country disappeared, and a fine calm and clear evening fol-
lowed. The night was quite obscure, and the atmosphere very humid; a star was
scarcely to be seen in the firmament, and lightning was flashing from every quarter,
illuminating the country, and making the smallest object visible.
Hailstorm at Ootacamund, on the 19th of March, 1852.
Lat. 11° 50’ N., long. 76° 45’. Alt. 7300 feet.
A very severe hailstorm occurred at Ootacamund at 2 p.m. on the 19th of March.
The hailstones were not large, but sufficiently so to do considerable damage in
the gardens. It lasted about an hour, when the ground was as white as if snow had
fallen. Buckets full, caught from the house-tops, were next morning large lumps
of ice; but as this is an article little cared for in this cold region, no one took
the trouble to keep it. Since this occurred the weather has been much colder,
and we cannot as yet throw off any of our winter clothing or blankets.
Hailstorm at Nursingpore, on the 19th and 20th of March, 1852.
Lat. 22° 56! N., long. 79° 18’ E. Alt. 1900 feet.
A letter of the 30th March, from Nursiugpore, contains the following items :—
“In my last of the 13th April I mentioned that the weather was extremely sultry,
hazy, and suspicious ; and I have now to communicate that, from the 17th to the 27th,
we experienced a stormy period, of greater intensity and duration than is usually
encountered inland upon the sun’s equinoctial passage. Rain, more or less, fell on
each day, attended invariably with much lightning and thunder, and occasionally
with violent gusts of wind. On the 19th, at 2 50™ p.m., a fall of hail of the size
of ordinary grapes occurred, with lightning and loud bursts of thunder; and on the
following day, at 2 10™ p.m., a similar phenomenon took place during bright sun-
shine. No cloud in this instance was to be discerned whence the hail proceeded.
No lightning or thunder accompanied this last fall of hail here, andthe only body of
cloud was at an altitude of about 40° in the south-west quarter. The zenith was
quite clear. The total fall of rain amounted to 1°337 inch during the above days.”
Hailstorm at Ae on the 24th of March, 1852.
Lat. 11° 57’ N., Jong. 79° 54' E. Alt. 20 feet.
Pondicherry, 24th March. —Pondicherry was visited by a hailstorm between 3 and
4 in the afternoon of Wednesday last (24th), during a squall from the north-east.
The hailstones, which fell in large quantities for about 15 minutes, were generally
formed of a transparent covering over a white but opake interior, and most of them
were flattened or armed with points. The largest might have been an inch and a
half in diameter.
Hailstorm at Mahableshwur, on the 16th of April, 1852.
Lat. 17° 56’ N., long. 73° 30’ E. Alt. 4500 feet.
On Friday last, the 16th of April, the weather had become perfectly oppressive in the
forenoon, preceded some few days by great piles of thunder-clouds to N.N.E. About
2 o’clock the sky became suddenly overcast, followed by loud claps of thunder and
vivid and forked lightning; the thunder increased louder, peal after peal, and lightning
flash after flash, until 5 minutes to 4 p.m., when the wind veered round to N.E., and
with it came torrents of rain, accompanied by hail, the largest of which was at least
the size of a pigeon’s egg ; such a shower of the latter I cannot recollect ever before
witnessing. ‘The entire compound of my house was one sheet of irregular ice—
millions of stones might be picked up in a few minutes. This lasted for an hour, and
I have since ascertained that the pluviometer indicated the fall of 1°50 inch. During
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37
the same night we had another light shower of some ‘06 or ‘07 of an inch. Strange,
that there was no depression of the barometer; on the contrary, it had risen 050
of an inch above that of the previous day !
Hailstorm at Poorundhur, on the 11th of December, 1854.
Lat. 18° 42’ N., long. 14° 12’ E. Alt. 3500 feet.
A severe hailstorm was experienced in the Poorundhur Talooka of this Collec-
torate on the afternoon of the 11th of December. Numbers of persons were severely
injured by the falling of large ice-flakes, many of them weighing several pounds,
and cattle in considerable numbers have died from the effects of the storm, which, for
the time it lasted (about three hours), was the most severe of any within the recol-
lection of the oldest inhabitant. The hailstorm was succeeded, as at Jooneer, by a
very heavy fall of rain, and the grain crops, gardens, and fruit-trees have suffered
greatly therefrom. Poorundhur is situated at a distance of seventy miles south-east
of Jooneer; but we have not yet heard that the intervening districts have experi-
enced similar phenomena to those above described. There has been no particular
atmospheric disturbance in or around Poona, the climate of which station is now
delightful, as it always is at this time of year.— Poona Observer, Dec. 20.
The most unusual occurrence of a hailstorm in Ceylon has lately taken place. A
few days since at Puselava, following a thunder-storm, a heavy fall of hail took
place, lasting half an hour. In some places, where the wind drove the hail into
corners, whole handsfull of hail, the size of marbles, were gathered. The natives
were struck with wonderment, and whilst shifting the frozen drops from hand to
hand, declared that it was so hot that they could not hold it. The hail actually for
some minutes whitened the ground in many places. At Hunasgeria also a shower
of hail fell on the same day, but not in the same quantity as at Puselava. Some
years ago we saw a small fallof hail at Kornegalle. It is unknown either at Newera
Killia or at the Neilgherries—Ceylon Times, April 13.
Hailstorm at Futtehgurh, on the 21st of April, 1855. Lat. 26° 10', long. 75° 10!.
A correspondent at Futtehgurh, writing on the 24th of April, mentions the occur-
rence of a severe hailstorm on Saturday last, which had caused considerable
damage to the tobacco and melon fields. Our correspondent says the hailstones
were larger than he ever beheld; one he measured being seven inches in circum-
ference. Heavy clouds were hanging about at the time of writing. —— Delhi
Gazette, April 26.
A correspondent gives the following account of a hailstorm which took place at
Futtchgurh on the 21st April :—‘‘ Last Saturday we had an awful hailstorm, such
a one as probably has not been known for a century. The hailstones, without
exaggeration, were larger than turkey eggs, and sufficient to have knocked a bullock
down. As they fell, you saw them rebounding six feet in height.”
Hailstorm at Nainee Tal, on the 11th of May, 1855. Lat. 29° 20, long. 79° 80’.
On the 11th of May 1855, Nainee Tal was visited by a storm of hail, which, as
_ regards the size, weight, and number of the stones, has probably never been sur-
passed by any in the world. A calm, cool morning; a hot, enervating noon; a
cold evening and night, with the wind blowing bleakly from the north, had charac-
terized the few preceding days. The barometer had stood high, and the wet-bulb ther-
mometer indicated an extremely dry atmosphere. On the 10th, at 4 p.m., the dry-
bulb thermometer stood, under a grass chopper, at 80 degrees Fahr.; on the 11th,
at the same hour and place, at 62 degrees Fahr.! On the former date, the difference
between the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers was 15 degrees; on the latter, this
difference was reduced to 4 degrees! Towards 6 P.M., a small preliminary shower
of rain fell, deep-toned thunder rolled and reverberated, and vivid lightning streamed
and blazed over the devoted station. The hail was ushered in by a few bright lens-
shaped stones, as large as pigeons’ eggs; thencame more. Many were the weighings
and measurings of these monsters over all parts of the station. Some weighed 6,
others 8, others 10 ounces; and one or two more than 12 pound avoirdupois, with
circumferences varying from 9 to 13 inches. Though no bullocks were killed, a
monkey was, and three human beings were knocked down. Birds were killed,
trees barked, and houses unroofed. Such was the storm of the 11th of May, and it
forms an epoch in the meteorological history of Nainee Tal; for though hail is
common enough here in the hot weather, no stones (during the ten years that Sir
38 REPORT—1855.
W. Richards has kept a register) of any size have ever fallen except once, and then
they were only 24 inches in circumference. The stones measured from 1 to 14
inches about.
What is a Hailstorm?—Aqueous vapour condensed into ice, by passing through
an intensely cold atmosphere, is the apparent, and probably the trueanswer. Some
coatend, that, because hail falls so rarely in winter, and the cloud whence it comes
is usually at no great altitude, there being at the same time almost always thunder
and lightning (with atmospheric electrometers changing in intensity), and passing
from positive to negative, and vice versd (ten times in a minute), hence electricity
must have quite as much to doin the matter as cold. But the latter seems the most
reasonable view. In almost all very large hailstones (as was observed here) is found
a nucleus, a piece of snow, or a small opake hailstone in the centre, surrounded by
transparent coverings, one over another, concentricaliy arranged (like an onion),
leading to the belief that the first concretion was asmall one, and that it accumulated
in its descent; that a whirlwind above kept battering these formations together, and
prevented their falling, until at length, immensely enlarged, and getting out of this
influence, they came down upon éerra firma. We are not justified in assigning limits
to the amount of cold in the upper strata of the atmosphere.
On a Rainbow seen after Sunset. By the Rev. Professor CHEVALLIER.
At the meeting of the Association in 1849, an account was given of a rainbow
seen after actual sunset (Report, p. 16); and it was suggested that, in order to
account for it, either the horizontal refraction must have been much greater than its
ordinary value, or the rainbow must have been formed in a very elevated region of
the atmosphere. :
On August 11, 1855, a rainbow was seen at Whitby, by Mr. C. P. Knight,
which seems to show that such a phenomenon may arise from rain falling at a
great height. The mean Greenwich time of the apparent setting of the sun’s upper
limb, taking refraction into account, was 75 44™,
At 7 30", “railway time,’”’ a rainbow was seen, and continued to be visible till
7" 48™, which is thus described. ‘‘It appeared to be far above the earth’s surface.
It was higher up than some clouds called cirro-stratus (in a sketch which accom-
panied the account) ; and those clouds were seen in front of the bow in several
places. Rain-clouds were some distance below these, and far above all were some
filmy light cirri, lit up by the sun, There were only two or three small spaces of
blue sky to be seen. No rain had fallen for some hours ; and there was no appear-
ance of any falling where the bow was. The time I had was Greenwich time.”
Although the time given may-not be quite accurate, it seems to be established
that this rainbow was seen after actual sunset, and that it was formed in an elevated
region of the atmosphere.
Improvements on a Dew-point Hygrometer lately described by the Author.
By Professor Connett, F. RS. L. § E.
This instrument consists of a little bottle of thin brass, polished externally, con-
nected laterally with a small exhausting syringe, and having a thermometer inserted
in it, by means of an air-tight brass stopper. Ether having been previously intro-
duced into the bottle, the temperature is gradually reduced by working the syringe
until moisture is deposited on the bottle. The thermometer then indicates the dew-
point. An intercepting portion of ivory preyents the communication of the heat of
friction to the bottle. The valves of the syringe are constructed of gold-beaters’ leaf.
A few simple changes, since the instrument was described in the Transactions of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh and in the Philosophical Magazine for 1854, have
greatly facilitated its manipulation, and have made it less liable to injury.
The brass bottle is now connected with the syringe by means of a coupling screw
instead of acommon screw. This permits the bottle with the inserted thermometer
to be at once brought into the proper vertical position, whatever be the nature and
situation of the fixture to which the clamp, by which the instrument is secured when
in operation, is attached. The projecting portion of the ivory intercepting partition
is now made of brass, and is therefore not liable to fracture as it was previously,
The form of the key employed in screwing and unscrewing the parts of the instru-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 39
ment, has now been so altered as not to cause any injury when made use of, as it
sometimes did previously.
It was found in a late tour on the continent that no part of the instrument is
liable to injury from the ordinary concussions of travelling ; and its use was ascer-
tained to be as well adapted to continental climates, so far as was tried, as to that of
Great Britain.
Wind-charts of the Atlantic, compiled from Maury’s Pilot Charts.
By Captain FirzRoy, &.M., F.RS.
These diagrams are intended to show what winds preyail, at the four quarters of
the year, in the Atlantic.
Each figure should be considered by itself alone, as the scales are generally very
different, depending on the number of observations from which the respective
diagrams are constructed.
Relative prevalence of wind (or calm) is shown in each square of ten degrees; but
in no case is absolute amount given; nor is strength of wind exhibited, as it may be
hereafter.
The navigator may be influenced, in shaping a course, by the probability of find-
ing certain winds more or less favourable in certain localities.
To a sailing ship such considerations are most important; and a glance at these
charts shows a seaman how the wind blows (usually) during a season, as readily as
his “‘ dog-vane ”’ indicates the (apparent) direction at any moment of observation.
The diagrams illustrate Maury’s Pilot Charts, in which similar information is
offered by numbers, which require more mental operation in their use than these
graphical figures.
Tn each square the numerical data contained in four of Lieut. Maury’s five-degree
squares are combined in the following manner.
Of a circle inscribed in any such square, the radius is taken as a measure of the
sum of the greatest number of observations of the most prevalent wind; and other
lines, likewise drawn (to leeward respectively) from the centre, and on the same scale,
indicate the relative duration or prevalence of other winds (each observation
referring to a period of eight hours), and through the extremities of these lines a
boundary is traced.
As a circle is said to be generated by the revolution of a line around a point, so
the figure representing successive directions of wind may be supposed to be generated
by the motions of a wind-vane, and the lines or points may extend from the centre
(like the growth of crystals) in proportion to the persistence (or continuance) of the
vane in their respective directions.
The relative amount or duration of calms is shown by a circle, of which the
radius equals (according to the scale of the diagram) the number of (eight-hour)
periods in which there was little or no wind.
The direction of wind is corrected, approximately, for variation of the compass.
The larger area of each figure is to leeward of the centre of the square (or inscribed
circle). .
The calendar quarters of the year are adopted advisedly, because the considera-
tion of seasons in all quarters of the globe, and the examination of Maury’s charts
(including those of the trade-winds), induce the belief that extreme periodical changes
of wind follow at a certain interval, rather than accompany the extremes of tempe-
rature or climate. ’
The small figures at the lower left-hand corner indicate the total number of (eight-
hour) observations of calm, as well as of wind, recorded as having been made in
that square; and the figures at the lower right-hand corner show, in decimals of an
inch, the wnit of scale employed in constructing the diagram in that square.
The force of wind is not shown, because it was not noted in the records from
which these charts were compiled; but at a future time it may be given so com-
bined and arranged as to indicate average strength as well as direction.
Nothing more is thus shown, in a graphical manner, than has been exhibited
numerically in Maury’s original Pilot Charts, whence solely the data for these were
obtained.
_ For the few squares still blank, sufficient data have not yet been collected.
_ The number of observations used in constructing each diagram affords a scale of
40 REPORT—1855.
value for the figure, which may be augmented from time to time by fresh material,
but need not be diminished, unless by a reduction of the scale (should the figure
much outgrow its square).
The star-like form of the figures (‘‘ Wind-star’’) is merely a consequence of
grouping observations under principal points of the compass.
It is proposed to compile wind-charts for all known parts of the world, for
smaller spaces or squares, and for each month of the year, as soon as sufficient
observations can be collected and employed.
On the Detection and Measurement of Atmospheric Electricity by the Photo-
Barograph and Thermograph. By M. J. Jounson, M.A., Radcliffe
Observer, Oxford.
Photography has already rendered considerable aid to science, and some results
brought before the Section by Mr. Johnson furnish an example of this. On exa-
mining and comparing the registrations of the thermometer and barometer, certain
peculiarities present themselves which indicate a curious connexion between the
course of these instruments and the state of the weather. The line which indicates
the daily curve of temperature is sometimes serrated, sometimes even and con-
tinuous; and these appearances correspond to certain determinate states of the
weather; the serrated outline being confined to fine warm weather, from the end
of March to the end of September, and never occurring even then during the night.
Among the most remarkable results is a sudden rise of the barometer, amounting
to ‘035 inch, and an increase of temperature of 1°, coincident with the occurrence
of a thunder-clap which struck one of the churches in Oxford, July 14, 1855. A
similar phenomenon took place during a thunder-storm on the 23rd of August,
when the rise of the barometer was still greater, amounting to ‘049 inch; though
the thunder-clap coincident with this latter rise was distant. Mr. Johnson also
showed, that, during every occurrence of thunder or hail which had been recorded
by his instruments, similar phenomena presented themselves, sometimes very mi-
nute, but quite perceptible.
Foree of the Wind in July and August 1855, as taken by the “ Atmospheric
Recorder” at the Beeston Observatory. By E. J. Lows, F.R.A.S. Se.
The instruments at the Beeston Observatory have only recently been erected ; yet
as the records of the force of the wind show some interesting facts, the following
brief summary has been forwarded to the British Association in the belief that the
records will prove interesting.
Greatest pressure in
Number of days Mean pressure in oz.
oo quite calm. on the square foot. ib cae pietons
A.M. July. August. July. August. July. August.
h m
12 0 26 19 03 1 0°5 17
12 30 26 19 02 1 0-4 0°5
1 0 26 18 03 1 0°6 08
1 30 26 19 02 1 0-4 1:4
2 0 26 19 02 1 0°8 0:8
2 30 26 19 02 2 0-4 1:10
3 0 26 18 ie 2 0°5 17
3 30 26 19 02 2 0-4 1:12
4 0 26 19 ox 1 0-3 0°7
4 30 25 19 02 14 0:3 1°6
5 0 25 19 0x 14 07 1:2
5 30 25 19 1 13 15 15
6 0 25 19 1 24 07 1:9
6 30 24 19 14 3 15 1:12
fin 0 23 18 13 4 15 2°13
7 30 22 16 2 5 16 1:14
8 0 21 15 24 5 16 2°14
8 30 20 14 $ 7 16 3°3
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 4}
Greatest pressure in
Number of days Mean pressure in oz.
Hour. quite calm. on the square foot. sn Lea ag
A.M. July. August, July. August. July. August.
hm
9 0 18 13 3 8 1:10 2°13
9 30 16 9 3 8 16 2°13
10 0 16 8 3 8i 2°3 2°13
10 30 15 8 3 84 16 2°13
11 0 13 8 3 9 17 2°14
11 30 12 7 3 9 2:0 2°6
P.M.
12 0 11 7 3 9 1:10 2°12
12 30 9 5 3 9 1:10 2°12
1 0 8 4 Bry 11 113 2°11
1 30 7 4 35 12 1:14 20
2 0 6 3 33 8 1:10 2°0
2 30 5 3 4 9 Tl 2°12
3.0 4 3 33 8 1:12 1-14
3 30 3 3 3 7 13 113
4 0 5 4 2 9 2:0 1:13
4 30 6 4 3 7 1:14 1:12
5 0 7 6 34 5 1:3 1:12
5 30 8 10 25 4 17 17
6 0 9 11 25 3 14 16
6 30 10 13 2 25 08 15
7 0 12 14 14 23 16 1:8
7 30 13 15 13 25 08 18
8 0 16 16 1 2 1:3 15
8 30 16 16 03 2 0°3 16
9 0 7 16 04 3 0°4 1:13
9 30 18 16 0¢ 2 0-4 17
10 0 21 17 04 14 0°4 ~ 15
10 30 22 17 04 1 0-4 0°8
Bie.0 23 19 03 1i 0-4 1-6
11 30 24 19 04 2 0:5 17
From the above it will be seen that in July the greatest number of calm days
occurred between midnight and 4 a.m., and the least number at 3" 30" p.m.; and
in August the greatest number from 11 p.m. to 64 30" a.m., and the least number
from 2 p.m. to 3830" p.m.; also that in each month there was a gradual increase
from the minimum to the maximum number.
The mean pressure in July was least from 1230" a.m. to 5 a.m., and greatest
at 2 30™ p.m., and in August least from 12 a.m. to 2 a.m., and greatest at 15 30™ p.m.
The greatest pressure was heaviest in July at 10 a.m. and in August at 8" 30™ a.m.
The greatest pressure was least in July between 8430™ p.m. and 4°30" a.m., and in
August at 12" 30" a.m.
In July the range of calm days was from 3 to 26, 7. e. 23, and in August 3 to 19,
i.e. 16. The range in mean pressure was in July from about 0} oz. to 4 oz., or 12
times as strong; and in August from 1 oz. to 12 0z., or 12 times as strong. The
greatest force in July ranged between 3 oz. and 2 lbs. 3 oz., an increase of 12 times;
and in August between 5 oz. and 3 Ibs. 3 oz., an increase of 10 times the force.
Singular Iridescent Phenomenon seen on Windermere Lake, Oct. 24, 1851.
By J.C. Mounsry. Communicated by J. F. Mitten, Ph.D., F.RS. ec.
The morning was very misty, and the barometer high (30°35 at Whitehaven).
Between 10 and 11 a.m. the mist cleared off, the sky became cloudless and the air
calm, the lake being of a glassy smoothness. At 11, we went on the Jake, and in
42. - ; REPORT—1855.
about half an hour T observed brilliant prismatic colours on the water near the
shore, say half a mile or more distant, but no appearance of a bow. I rowed
towards the spot, and, in doing so, the colours increased in extent and brilliancy.
There were two bows, which resembled ordinary rainbows inverted ; both were
exceedingly brilliant at the extremities, and became gradually fainter as they receded
from the shore. The outer bow came completely down to the boat, which appeared
to prevent our seeing the crown of the arch ; its extremities also proceeded from the
shore, and its centre was apparently under the feet of the spectator. In both bows
the red was on the outside and the violet on the inside, and, in both, the light and
colours were most brilliant and distinct at the extremities, or points of convergence
at the water’s edge. 1 am certain there was no rainbow in the sky at the time,
neither was there any solar halo or other phenomenon in the air that I observed, of
which this could be the reflexion.
I observed that, wherever the prismatic phenomenon showed itself, there was a
sort of scum on the water, as though there was some fine dust or bubbles on the
surface, I put my finger into the water, and found it so dirty as to leave a distinct
mark behind, which leads me to think that what I at first took to be small bubbles
must have been some sort of dust. Whatever it was, it appeared to me to be the
cause of the iridescence, as, wherever it was lost, the bows disappeared. The bows
were visible about an hour, and, in looking at them, the sun was of course behind
the spectator.
The boatmen say they have sometimes (though very rarely) seen a similar phe-
nomenon after the disappearance of a mist from the surface of the water. At
Whitehaven the sky was also cloudless, but in the evening the air was misty.
In reply to questions from Prof. Powell, some further particulars were stated and
drawings furnished,
Notice of Climatological Elements in the Western District of Scotland.
By Dr. Nicuot.
Meteorological Phenomena for 1854, registered at Huggate.
By the Rey. T. RANKIN.
On the Aurora Borealis. By Rear-Admiral Sir Joun Ross.
Referring to his formerly published opinion, namely “that the phenomena of the
aurora borealis were occasioned by the action of the sun, when below the pole, on
the surrounding masses of coloured ice, by its rays being reflected from the
points of incidence to clouds above the pole which were before invisible,”’ the author
stated his impression that the pheenomena might be artificially produced. To accom-
plish this, he placed a powerful lamp to represent the sun, having a lens, at the focal
distance of which he placed a rectified terrestrial globe, on which bruised glass, of
the various colours seen in Baffin’s Bay, was placed, to represent the coloured ice-
bergs seen in that locality, while. the space between Greenland and Spitzbergen was
left blank, to represent thesea. To represent the clouds above the pole, which were
to receive the refracted rays, he applied a hot iron to a sponge; and by giving the
globe a regular diurnal motion, he produced the phenomena vulgarly called “The
Merry Dancers,” and every other appearance, exactly as seen in the natural sky,
while it disappeared as the globe turned, as being the part representing the sea to the
points of incidence.
On the Meteorology of the United States and Canada, By R, Russet,
The author first drew attention to the physical geography of North America, as in-
fluencing in a very particular manner the meteorological phenomena of that country,
The Appalachian chain, from Northern Alabama to Maine, runs parallel with the
~
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43
Atlantic coast, and though only from 2000 to 4000 feet in elevation, exercised a
marked influence in giving peculiar development to certain atmospheric disturbances
which took place in the Atlantic States. To the west of this chain lies the vast
valley of the Mississippi; its surface forms an easy ascent towards the Lakes of
about one foot ina mile. This great basin is thus exposed to the free course of the
south winds from the Gulf of Mexico. But the Rocky Mountains on the west,
stretching from the Arctic Circle, appear to be the grand physical feature which in
a great measure determines the peculiarities of the meteorology of North America.
This range has an average elevation of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, which is almost
unbroken to the Isthmus of Panama. This vast natural wall forms a barrier to the
trade-winds of the Caribbean Sea, as they cannot cross this ridge and flow into the
Pacific. By means of this elevated land, which forms the isthmus connecting the
two continents, the trade-wind is gradually directed northwards until it reaches —
Texas as a south wind, which is the prevailing one in that State throughout the year,
but more especially in summer. The great fertility of the climate of the United
States and Canada is to be chiefly ascribed to this physical feature of the country.
The fiow of the south wind in winter brings moisture and mild weather—in summer
intense heat, with thunder-storms. The wind, which is entirely opposite in its cha-
racter to the south, is the west. In winter, a due west wind is intensely cold over
the whole territory of Canada and the United States, and it often blows with great
violence: there is no relaxing of the cold weather so long as it continues. Insum-
mer it is dry, and the sky assumes that bright azure tint which is so striking to one
from our island. It is a singular fact, that a west upper current flowing across the
Rocky Mountains seems to prevail almost constantly during the whole year. This
must never be lost sight of in discussing the atmospheric phenomena of North
America. The upper current is nearly due west at Washington and the States to
the south; it is a point or two north of west in the New England States and Canada.
The west and north-west wind of the United States must be regarded as the descent
of this upper current. In fact, the winds of the United States, especially during
great atmospheric disturbances, may all be considered to become modifications of the
south and the west wind. The indications of the thermometer and hygrometer are
entirely in favour of this arrangement. The N. and N.W. winds must be regarded
as modifications of the upper westerly current descending to the surface of the
ground, and the §.W., S.E., E., and even N.E., as modifications of the south wind.
The difference betwixt the temperature of the Arctic current and the Gulf-stream, as
they meet beyond the Newfoundland coast, is not nearly so great as the difference
of the temperature, in winter, between the west current which descends along the
eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and the south wind from the warm waters
of the Gulf of Mexico, The vast territories of the United States to the east of the
Rocky Mountains are subjected alternately to these two currents so opposite in their
characters, and hence the great changeableness of the climate, to which we have
nothing that can be compared in Europe. The exceeding coldness of the west wind
arises from its being robbed of its moisture as it crosses the Rocky Mountains. It
is especially worthy of being kept in mind, that the west wind, or its modifications,
is light and pleasant in the warm season, but intensely cold in winter, and blows
with great vehemence when it succeeds the south wind. After the west wind has
blown for some time in winter, the whole area over which it has extended is subjected
to a great: depression of temperature. As a general rule, the temperature rises in the
far west in winter for some time before it rises in the Atlantic States. The weather
first moderates in the territory east of the Rocky Mountains and west of the Missis-
sippi, by a south wind, 500 to 700 miles in breadth, setting in and blowing along
the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and probably extending into the Arctic
Circle. The rise of temperature thus takes place over all the regions swept by the
south wind. The rising of temperature is apparently propagated from west to east
in the United States, by the south wind flowing in succession over those States which
are more easterly. This is the cause of the winter storms of the United States tra-
velling from west to east, as has been maintained by Prof. Espy, who was the first
that made the discovery, and which has since been corroborated by Profs. Hare and
Loomis. The distance between the ridge of the Rocky Mountains and the east coast of
Florida is about 1400 miles, but in the latitude of Newfoundland the Rocky Mountains
44 REPORT—1855.
are nearly double that distance from the Atlantic. The south wind perhaps never
occupies at one time the whole breadth of the country from western Texas to eastern
Florida. The south wind is rapidly propagated from the west along the northern
shores of the Gulf of-Mexico, but it is almost as rapidly destroyed on its western
edges by the cold upper current descending along the eastern slopes of the Rocky
Mountains, and penetrating, as asurface wind, this warm current from the Caribbean
Sea. In this manner the western edges of the south wind are raised into the upper
current, and drifted towards the east. Thus the winter storms of the United States
are always succeeded by a cold wind from a westerly direction. The cause of the
violence of the west wind in winter was then shown. The weather during summer
was regulated by the same principles, but the north-west wind then lost its power,
in consequence of its being warm and elastic. The thunder-storms and tornadoes
generally drifted from west to east in the middle States, and from north-west in the
northern States. This arose from the clouds being formed in the upper current, and
drifting towards the east at the very time that the south wind was prevailing. The
thunder and tornado clouds usually drifted in the south wind over the States bor-
dering on the Gulf of Mexico. The hurricane-clouds also drifted in the southern
stream of warm air, and were often propagated along the Atlantic coast. The fluc-
tuations of the barometer were attributed to the fluctuations of density of the air at
the surface of the earth. This was Dalton’s hypothesis, which he thought explained
the fluctuations of the barometer more consistently than any which had been offered.
It did not explain all in Britain, but it explained a great deal,—the apparent excep-
tions were all grouped together very consistently. ‘The height of the barometer is
inversely as the temperature, or rather moisture, for the latter is a more permanent
cause of high temperature. Diagrams were exhibited to illustrate this connexion
between the rise or fall of temperature and the fall or rise of mercury. By adopting
the arbitrary scale of 5° of heat as equal to one-tenth of an inch of mercury, which
indicated the south wind to be about 10,000 feet in height, a great parallelism between
the curve of temperature and inverted curve of the barometer was exhibited. A more
perfect explanation of the fluctuations of the barometer at Alabama could not be
given. The south wind being lighter, depressed the barometer at every place where
the temperature was raised. The low barometer extended in a long line from the
Gulf of Mexico to the lakes, and travelled to the east as the rains and high tempera-
ture did. The grand exception to fluctuations of the barometer being occasioned by
fluctuations in the density of the air at the surface of the earth, arises in the West
Indian hurricane, when a depression of two inches was sometimes observed to take
place. The only theory which successfully met this phenomena was that of Prof.
Espy, in which the wind blowing towards a central space rose in consequence of the
extrication of latent caloric, by the condensation ef moisture through the expansion
of the air causing a reduction of temperature below the dew-point. Prof. Espy
maintains that the whole force generated during hurricanes can be accounted for by
the effects of heat,—Prof. Hare, that part is due to the electrical agency. In the
case of the sea-breeze, a considerable body of air is put and kept in motion by slight
differences in the weights of adjoining columns of air. Were such differences of the
atmospheric conditions as the chart of the 10th of November exhibited between the
mouth of the Mississippi and Montreal, tremendous disturbances would ensue. When
the distance is great, the power is diffused in moving the whole body of air betwixt
the stations. ‘The expenditure of power in this diffused manner may be compared
to the flow of the Mississippi over the last 1400 miles of its course, where the fall is
less than three inches toa mile. On the other hand, when the Niagara tumbles
over its great precipice, it expends much power at once. The hurricane might be
regarded as an aérial cataract, only the air being forced upwards. If a slight fall of
rain produced such remarkable effects as are noticed on the passage of the squall
cloud, what must be the power evoked by the evolution of latent caloric in hurricanes !
Six inches of rain have been known to fall during some hurricanes. The caloric set ~
free by the condensation of this amount of water over every square mile is equal to
that which would be generated in the burning of 2,620,000 tons of coal, allowing
1 Ib. of coal to evaporate 13 Ibs. of water. The clouds of the hurricane interrupt the
ominous calm as suddenly as the smooth flow of the stream is changed at the brink
of the cascade.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 45
On Naval Anemometrical Observations. By Professor C. Prazz1 Smytu.
After alluding to the mechanical importance of the trade-winds in the economy of
the atmosphere, the author pointed out the naturally admirable circumstances of a
station on the surface of the sea for making exact observations to this end; but
indicated also the artificial difficulties that were opposed by the eddies caused about
the actual station, viz. the deck of a ship, as well as by its proper motion. Froma
series of observations communicated to him by Captain H. Toynbee, the author had
concluded, that the only unexceptionable station for anemometrical observation at
‘sea was the mast head. Accordingly he exhibited a combined apparatus for the
direction and the velocity of the wind, arranged with a view to such a position, and
also with a view to accurately observing the mean effects, and this, by a summation
of every individual gust, even the lightest. For the most accurate plan of securing
data, he had arranged a method of electric registration which was extremely simple,
and proceeded in the cabins below while the anemometers were measuring the wind
aloft.
Notices of Rain-falls for a Series of Years at Home and in Foreign Countries.
By P. L. Simmonps.
After pointing out the advantages which would result from an accumulation of facts
that would serve to guide us to a knowledge of the mean average fall of rain in cer-
tain periods, the proportionate evaporation, and the alternation of wet and dry
seasons, Mr. Simmonds pointed out the value of such inquiries to the agriculturist,
the physician, and the statist; and showed how important was this knowledge of the
mean annual fall of rain in particular localities, and the average number of days in
which rain fell in the year. Particular crops, as the sugar-cane, the indigo-plant,
the cotton- and tobacco-plants might be entirely ruined by too much or too little
rain. Many localities, such as Malta, Gibraltar, Ascension, &c., are obliged to hus-
band the rain-waterin tanks. The navigation of rivers and the irrigation of adjacent
lands are also dependent on a certain amount of rain; andthe potato, the vine, and
other plants are injuriously affected by the condition of the atmosphere and the super-
abundance of moisture. Even the fact of whether the moon has any influence on
the fall of rain is still a disputed point.
The relative proportions of rain that fall by night and by day was another point
touched on. Mr. Simmonds then took a survey of the records of this branch of
meteorology in the various quarters of the globe, citing the comparative falls of rain
in the tropics and in temperate regions in different countries.
On Waterspouts. By Dr. Taytor, Professor of Natural Philosophy,
Andersonian University, Glasgow.
The author, after describing the phenomena of the Waterspout, stated the different
theories which had been proposed as to their nature and origin, and showed that
the only one which, in the present state of science, is at all tenable, is that which
ascribes the descent of the cone of cloud and the ascent of water or other sub-
stances, to the partial vacuum created in a portion of the atmosphere by the action
of contending currents producing a whirlwind. He next pointed out the difficulties
encountered in applying this theory to the explanation of some of the phenomena,
such as the division of the “tube” into several portions towards its lower part,
which are often seen to twist about each other like coiling snakes, and also to present
the appearance of a dilation running up the tube like the action of the throat of an
animal in drinking. After showing, by calculation founded on the laws of dynamics,
that the rapidity of rotatory movement necessary to produce any considerable
approach to a total vacuum in the interior of the tube cannot possibly exist in any
case, it was proved that a shred of cloud, of slightly less specific gravity than that of
the atmosphere below it, might easily be made to descend by a comparatively slight
degree of rotatory rapidity ; and also that spray from the sea or light bodies from the
46 REPORT— 1855.
earth, might be carried up into the interior of the revolving mass to an extent suffi-
cient to account for all the appearances which have in any case been actually
observed. Formule were shown giving the necessary velocity in any supposed case.
An experimental apparatus was next exhibited, whereby the appearances of the
waterspout can be easily and completely produced on a small scale. A rectangular
box, about 18 inches square, formed of plates of glass, placed merely edge to edge
at the corners, but not cemented, is covered by a plate of glass with a hole about
11 inch in diameter in the centre of it. This box is suspended to the roof by
means of a twisted string, and the interior filled with the smoke rising from burning
nitrated paper. A film of loose cotton wool is placed on the opening in the lid,
and the box set into rotation. In a short time the air enters at the opening as the
smoke is pressed out by the centrifugal action at the edges of the plates, and a tube
exactly resembling the waterspout descends in the interior. It frequently divides
into two, three, or more tubes which coil round each other; and as their shreds,
often of a flat or spiral form, turn themselves in different positions to the eye, the
appearance formerly referred to, of a drinking action, is exhibited. Small holes
pierced in the bottom, allowing air also there to enter, give rise to the formation of
an ascending column which meets and joins with the descending one, precisely as
on the great scale in nature.
CHEMISTRY.
On the Polar Decomposition of Water by Common and Atmospheric
Electricity. By Tuomas AnprReEws, W.D., F.R.S., MRA.
In the fine experiment first made by two Dutch chemists, and afterwards modified
and extended by Wollaston, water was decomposed by a succession of disruptive dis-
charges produced by the common electrical machine. But in this experiment, as
Wollaston himself has correctly remarked, we have only an imitation of the galvanic
phenomena, and the essential differences between its results and true electro-chemical
decomposition have been pointed out by Faraday with his usual clearness and ability.
“The law which regulates the transference and final place of the evolved bodies,” the
latter remarks, ‘‘has no influence here, The water is evolved at both poles, and the
oxygen evolved at the wires are the elements of the water existing before in those
laces.”
: The same distinguished experimentalist obtained only uncertain results when he
attempted to procure the true polar decomposition of water by common electricity,
that is, to decompose it so that the oxygen might be evolved at one pole and the
hydrogen at the other. ‘‘ When what I consider the true effect only was obtained,”
he says, ‘the quantity of gas given off was so small that I could not ascertain whe-
ther it was, as it ought to be, oxygen at one wire and hydrogen at the other. Of the
two streams, one seemed more copious than the other; and on turning the apparatus
round, still the same side in relation to the machine gave the largest stream. But
the quantities were so small, that on working the machine for half an hour, I could
not obtain at either pole a bubble of gas larger than a grain of sand.”
On repeating this experiment with wires of different lengths and thicknesses, I
obtained the same uncertain results, although I had at my command a stream of
electricity of great power, and which could be maintained without intermission for
mauy hours. But while engaged in some experiments on the conversion of oxygen,
contained in fine thermometer tubes, into ozone, the tubes being inverted in water, I
found to my surprise that the gas in certain cases steadily augmented in volume, and
on further inquiry I found that the augmentation of volume arose from the water
having undergone polar decomposition. The conditions under which the gases arising .
from the polar decomposition of water might be obtained were now quite manifest, as
was also the cause of no appreciable amount of gas having been obtained in former
investigations, The quantity of gas produced in fact in a given time from the elec-
trolysis of water, by means even ofa powerful electrical machine, is so small, that the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47
gasesare dissolved in the liquid as quickly as they are formed, if the poles, whether
they be large or small, be freely exposed to the action of a large mass of the liquid;
but if the bulk of liquid around each pole be made to correspond to the volume of
the gases evolved, the latter will not be dissolved to a greater extent than in ordinary
eudiometric experiments conducted over water. To attain this object it is only nes
cessary to employ thermometer tubes, having fine platina wires hermetically sealed
into their upper ends, as the tubes for receiving the gases. The wires may be so long
as to extend through the entire length of the thermometer tubes; but it will be suffi-
cient if they only projéct a short way into the tubes, as the film of liquid which covers
the interior of the tube is sufficient to conduct electricity of such high tension as that
produced by the electrical machine.
That the gases were evolved very nearly in the proportion of 1 vol. oxygen to
2 vols. hydrogen, will appear from the following examples :—
Hydrogen......06. 6°85 ssssesee 4:00 wesesesee 8°35
Oxygen sadsectsses O45 VSearesse 210 seats 1°55
The electrolyte employed in these experiments was water containing | per cent.
of sulphuric acid. The gases collected in these tubes were thus proved to be oxygen
and hydrogen :—
1. Electrical sparks passed through the hydrogen tube exhibited the characteristic
red colour which electrical flashes produce in that gas.
2. On introducing a solution of iodide of potassium into the oxygen tube, and
passing sparks through it, the oxygen was converted into ozone, and absorbed in the
course of about one minute. :
3. On reversing the connexions with the electrical machine and the ground, the
relative volumes of the gases were reversed; and after passing the current for the
same time as before, and afterwards a spark through the mixed gases, they combined
together in both tubes with explosion.
Each of the above divisions contained 0-00006 cent. cub., and an electrical machine,
in good order and performing 240 revolutions each minute, produced about 1:1 divi-
sion of oxygen gas in the same time. A column of acidulated water, 10 feet long,
and having a section equal to the internal calibre of a fine thermometer tube in which
it was contained, presented no sensible resistance to the passage of this current; but
a similar column of distilled water 1 foot in length reduced the current to 3th of its
original amount.
On passing the electrical current through a series of sixty pairs of thermometer
tubes charged with acidulated water, and fitted with platina wires as already
described, decomposition proceeded with the same facility, and the same amount of
oxygen and hydrogen was collected in each pair of tubes as when only a single
couple was interposed in the circuit.
The same apparatus enabled me to decompose water without difficulty by means of
atmospheric electricity. To collect the electricity, I employed an electrical kite which
carried a fine brass wire attached to its cord. The experiments were all performed
on fine clear days, when the air exhibited no unusual symptoms of free electricity.
On connecting the platina wire of one of the thermometer tubes with the insulated
wire of the kite, and that of the other tube with the ground, the decomposition pro-
ceeded slowly but steadily at the rate of 0:9 div. or about 0-000054 cub. cent. oxygen
per hour. Hence about 0-000000085 gramme water was decomposed hourly, or nearly
Toooosos gramme, or zoo500 Of a grain, The wire of the kite gave small sparks,
varying in length according to the amount of movementin the kite, from one-tenth to
half an inch in length. The shocks were moderately strong; and the needle of a
galvanometer of 2000 coils was sensibly deflected.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1831, Mr. Barry describes an experiment,
in which he supposes that he collected the gases produced by the decomposition of
water by the action of atmospheric electricity; but from the form of apparatus which
. he employed, I consider it very improbable that he could have succeeded in collecting
any visible quantity of either of the gases,
48 REPORT—1855.
On the Allotropic Modifications of Chlorine and Bromine analogous to the
Ozone from Oxygen. By Tuomas Anvrews, M.D. F.R.S., MRA.
The author explained that ozone could be produced, first, by an electric spark ;
secondly, by the decomposition of acids and solutions, when coming into contact with
the galvanic wire; and lastly, by oxidation.
On Photographic Researches. By Mr. Barnetr.
Photochemical Researches, with reference to the Laws of the Chemical Action
of Light. By Professor Bunsen of Heidelberg and Dr. Henry E.
Roscoe of London.
The following abstract gives the results of an investigation extending over a period
of nearly two years, which has been carried on at Heidelberg.
Owing to the great experimental difficulties which are met with in researches on
the chemical action of light, our knowledge of the laws which govern this action is at
present very limited. The object of the following investigation was to endeavour to
obtain more precise information regarding these laws, and if possible to arrive at a
quantitative measurement of the chemical rays. The first substances examined in
their photochemical relations were aqueous solutions of chlorine, bromine, and iodine,
either alone in solution or mixed with hydrogenous organic substances, and the altera-
tion which these solutions underwent by exposure to sun-light was made the subject of
accurate measurement. The amount of free chlorine, bromine, or iodine present
both before and after insolation, was estimated most exactly by the iodometric
method, and the experiments were so conducted that all errors arising from gaseous
absorption or diffusion were fully eliminated. From many experiments made accord-
ing to this method, it was observed that no simple relation existed between the
amount of free chlorine which disappeared and the time of exposure or the intensity
of the light.
This anomalous action may be explained by theoretical considerations. Chemical
affinity must be regarded as the resultant of all the forces which come into play
during the decomposition, and therefore the total action is dependent not only upon
the interchanging molecules, but also upon the atoms which more or less surround
these. Alteration in the mass of these surrounding particles must therefore alter the
resulting chemical action. The correctness of this view was remarkably established
by further experiment. In order to ascertain what effect the hydrochloric acid,
formed during the decomposition, exerted upon the affinity of chlorine for hydrogen
in presence of sun-light, pure chlorine-water and chlorine-water containing 10 per
cent. of hydrochloric acid were insolated during the same period; the solution of
pure chlorine lost 99°6 per cent. ; whilst that containing 10 per cent. of hydrochloric
acid lost only 1°3 per cent. of its contained free chlorine. The result of this and
many other series of experiments*, justifies the conclusions,—
1. That the presence of hydrochloric acid retards in a remarkable degree the
affinity of chlorine for hydrogen.
2. That owing to this retarding action, which is governed by entirely unknown laws,
the examination of the photochemical decomposition of chlorine-water cannot lead
to the discovery of any simple relations.
From these circumstances it appears probable that some simple law would be
arrived at if the following conditions were complied with :—
_1. That two elements which have no action upon each other in the dark, simply
combine under the action of the light, so that the relative amounts of the uncombined
bodies remain the same.
2. That the substance produced by the combination be either entirely removed
from the sphere of chemical action, or be reduced to a small constant amount.
These two conditions are only found in the gas evolved by the electrolytic decom-
position of hydrochloric acid. This gas consists, under certain conditions, of exactly
equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen, and is singularly well-fitted for a photo-
metric substance. It is perfectly unalterable in the dark; it is not affected by lamp-
* See Quart. Journ. of Chemical Society, Oct. 1855.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
or candle-light under the circumstances of the experiment, and is nevertheless so
easily acted upon by solar light, that when perfectly free from all admixture, its coin-
ponent gases unite with explosion in the diffused light of a room.
In order to eliminate the source of error of the retarding action of the hydrochloric
acid formed, it is only necessary that water saturated with the gaseous mixture should
be present. By this means the hydrochloric acid is removed from the gas at the
moment of its production, and thus a diminution of the volume of the gas is effected.
This diminution of volume is a direct measure of the amount of chemical action of
the light, and it is upon this fact that the method of measuring photochemical action
rests, According to this method, and by carrying out a great number of necessary
precautions, the following laws were arrived at :—
1. The amount of chemical action is directly proportional to the time of insolation.
2. The amount of chemical action is directly proportional to the intensity of the
light.
The law connecting the amount of action with the mass of the decomposing body
is not as yet completely established, but the results obtained seem to show that the
light suffers mere optical absorption, and is not in any way expended, and therefore
cannot be represented by any equivalent in chemical action.
Many very interesting phenomena connected with the action of solar light upon
mixtures of chlorine and hydrogen will be fully treated of in the next communication
to the Association.
In the prosecution of these researches the authors reserve to themselves the exami-
nation of all subjects arising out of this method; amongst others,—
1. The reflexion and absorption of the chemical rays.
2. Polarization of the chemical rays. 7
3. Examination of the arrangement of the chemical rays in the spectrum.
4, Application of the method to meteorological observation.
On the Manufacture of Iron by Purified Coke.
By F. Crace Catvert, £.C.S.
After pointing out what were believed to be the causes of the inferiority of iron in
many works, apart from the varying qualities of the ores, the injurious action which
an impure fuel had upon the quality of the iron was particularly alluded to; and the
hecessity of removing sulphur from the coal or coke, in the blast-furnaces, before it
could be imparted to the cast iron during the process of smelting, was strongly
enforced. Mr. Crace Calvert then referred to several instances in which the quality of
iron, by the application of the chloride of sodium in the blast-furnace, had been greatly
improved, ‘I’hese improvements were described to have been effected at a very small
cost by the following simple process. If the blast-furnace was worked entirely with
coal, chloride of sodium was added with each charge, in proportion to the quality of ore
and flux employed ; but a better result was produced if the coal was previously con-
verted into coke, and a very slight excess of the chloride was used in its preparation in
order to act on the sulphur of the coal and of the ore, should any be found therein; and
a greater improvement was manifested in the quality of iron, when only coke so prepared
was used in the blast-furnace. The coke so purified emitted no sulphurous fumes when
taken out of the coke-oven; nor, when extinguished with water, did it give off the
unpleasant odour of sulphuretted hydrogen ; nor was any sulphurous acid gas liberated
during the operation of smelting iron in the cupola, or in raising steam in the loco-
motive boiler, by coke so prepared; and it was stated that these decided advan-
tages were gained, in some cases, at an additional cost of only one penny per ton of
fue .
Mr, Crace Calvert gave the results of a series of experiments which had been made
upon trial bars one inch square, cast from iron melted in the cupola, with coke pre-
pared by his process. He exhibited specimens of the iron so prepared, when the
closeness of texture and the absence of the ‘honeycomb’ appearance prevailing in the
iron cast with ordinary coke were clearly demonstrated.
The mode of experimenting was described and the results were given very fully, and
it was shown that the average increase of strength was from 10 to 20 per cent,
1855. 4
50 REPORT—1855,
Mean breaking weight of Bars
melted by Difference in favour
At the Works of _ oe et OF Puriied Coke,
Ordinary Coke. | Purified Coke.
Fairbairn and Sons, Manchester...| 427 Ibs. 512 lbs, 20 per cent.
J. and W. Galloway and Co.,do....} 547... 620... LS. ce
Fox, Henderson and Co., Birming-
TAM... cccesccctcoscecees No. 3iron.} 455... 514... 18 ,..
Ditto ditto Abadi 417... 459 ... 10 ...
Hibbert, Platt, and Co., Oldham...} 499... 552... 10:38
Monklang ..........sseeeeeeeens “SHnae: 578 ... 641 ... 1007.2
Joieey and Co., Skinnerburn 616 ... yh 20...
Newcastle ......seecsscesees 658 .. *716 ... Oites
Elswick Foundry 695 ... *863 ... 24 os
* Were bars 3 feet 10 inches and 4 feet only in length.
The following conclusions were arrived at by W. Fairbairn, Esq., F.R.S., by taking
the mean of an extensive series of experiments: —The mean breaking-weight of the bars
one inch square, smelted with the improved coke, was 515°5 lbs.; ditto, with ordinary
coke, 427-0lbs., equal to 88°5lbs. in favour of the castings produced from the improved
coke, or in ratio to 5:4. The experiments on the bars smelted with the improved
coke, indicated iron of a high order of strength, and might be considered equal to the
strongest cold-blast iron. The metal appeared to have run exceedingly close, and ex-
hibited a compact granulated structure, with a light gray colour.
On Alloys. By F.C. Catvert, F.C.S., and Ricuarp JoHNsoN.
The authors have succeeded in producing many new alloys having a definite che-
mical equivalent composition, therefore bringing a large class of products called alloys
into the general laws of definite proportion.
The following alloys of iron and potassium, viz.
First Alloy,
4 equivalents of iron,
1 equivalent of potassium,
Second Alloy,
6 equivalents of iron,
1 equivalent of potassium,
were prepared with the view of rendering iron less oxidizable when exposed to a damp
atmosphere, no kind of coating having been discovered which will resist the constant
friction of water,—as in the case with iron steamers, But all the alloys which they
have produced up to the present time, with the exception of one, are oxidizable,
although some of them contain as much as 25 per cent. of potassium, the most elec-
tro-positive metal known, and the one most likely to render iron in that electro-chemical
state less liable to combine with oxygen. The above alloys of potassium and iron were
remarkable for their great hardness.
The authors have also succeeded in producing two new alloys composed of iron com-
bined with aluminium, These two alloys are composed as follows :—
First Alloy.
1 equivalent of aluminium,
5 equivalents of iron.
Second Alloy.
2 equivalents of aluminium,
3 equivalents of iron.
The last alloy presents the useful property of not oxidizing when exposed to a damp
atmosphere, although it contains 75 per cent, of iron.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 5k
The authors hope to find, between this date and the next Meeting of the Associa-
tion, a practical method of preparing this desirable alloy, which would render eminent
service to manufacture.
The following alloys were also described, one composed of one equivalent of alu-
minium and five equivalents of copper; one other of iron and zinc composed of one
equivalent of iron and twelve equivalents of zinc; and what is interesting respecting —
this last alloy, is not only its extreme hardness, but that it is produced at a temperature
of about 800°, it being formed in a bath of zinc and tin containing 14 tons of metal,
and through which iron-wire is passed when coated with zine or galvanized.
The authors took advantage of having large melted mass of metals (zinc and tin)
at their disposal, to inquire into the following question, viz. if two metals, when
melted together, separate according to their respective specific gravity, or form a
homogeneous mass combined in definite proportions.
They consequently analysed three samples taken from the melted bath, one near
the top, one in the middle, and one atthe bottom. Strange to say, they all presented
a different composition; and what is not less remarkable is, that the upper layer con-~
tained the largest proportion of the heaviest metal. These three samples offered the
following equivalents and definite composition :—
T 1 equivalent of tin,
P+ \ 11 equivalents of zinc.
. 1 equivalent of tin
Middle { 16 equivalents of zine.
1 equivalent of tin,
Bottom { 19 equivalents of zinc.
The authors also prepared several alloys of zinc and copper; copper, zinc, and tin
and copper, zinc, tin and lead, having definite and equivalent composition; but they
intend to enter more fully into this subject next year.
The action of acids on these alloys of copper, zinc, &c. presents this curious fact,
viz. that although hydrochloric acid attacks zine and tin violently, still, in alloys con-
taining these metals with copper, they are not, or very slightly attacked by this power-
ful acid. Similar results were also obtained with sulphuric and nitric acids.
On the Action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen on Salts of Zine and Copper.
By F. Crace Catvert, F.C.S,
In all our treatises of analytical chemistry, it is stated that the process to be fol-
lowed to separate zinc or its compounds from those of copper, is to render the liquors
acid which contain salts of these metals, and to pass a current of sulphuretted hydro-
gen, when the copper will be precipitated in the state of sulphuret, leaving the zinc
in solution.
Having had lately to analyse several alloys of zinc and copper in connexion with some
researches on alloys, the author found it impossible to make two analyses of the same
alloy correspond satisfactorily. To ascertain the cause of error, he made several trials,
and soon found out that zinc, even in very acid liquors, was freely and sometimes
completely precipitated from them by sulphuretted hydrogen. He also remarked that
the facility with which zinc was precipitated from an acid solution depended in a
great measure on the peculiar salt of zinc which was in solution, and the nature of
the acid employed to acidify the liquor. The results contained in this paper are so
conclusive on this point, that the old method (which is still recommended in recently
published works on quantitative analysis) for the separation of salts of zinc from those
of copper must in future be rejected as completely inexact.
The experiments were made by employing 18 grains of crystallized-and pure sul-
hate of zinc, dissolving them in 400 grains of distilled water, and adding to the
iquor equivalent quantities of an acid; for example, as there existed in the quantity
of sulphate of zinc used for the experiment (18 grains) 5 grains of sulphuric acid, 2°5,
5, 10, 12°5, or 15 grains of sulphuric acid were added, after being previously mixed
_ with such a proportion of water as to give in each jar of an a art cs grains
52 REPORT—1855.
of fluid. The time required for a precipitate to appear was carefully noted down,
and also the time which elapsed before the liquors were filtered off. ‘The filtrates
were then tested to ascertain if any salt of zinc remained in solution. The results
obtained are given in the Tables.
TasB_e I.
S| S0,2n0+7HO. Sulphuric acid. Water./Time when preci- PAHS ©
z, grs.* | pitate appeared. through
liquor.
1,)18 grs. (con-|} 2°5 grs. (half the quan- The _precipi-
taining 5 grs.| | tity of SO# of the sul- fate appear
of SO%) in| f phate) in 50 grs. wa- space of from 3 Preeigitation
400 grs. water) J ter ...ceeseeeeee seeeee-|1050 |to 10 minutes |4 hours P
after the satura- complete.
tion of the li-
2. 59 grs. in 100 grs. water |1000 | quor with Hs, |4 hours
3.1] 18 ers. in 7°5 grs. in 150 grs. water) 950 ee of cur- |4 hours
. t in- .
4,| > 400 grs. 4 | 10 grs. in 200 grs. water| 900 fluence. |G hours { npriees cna
5. Me 12°5 gers. in 250 grs. water) 850 6 hours| ) The greatest part
6. 15 grs. in 300 grs. water of the zinc preci-
(or 3 equivalents) ...) 800 6 hours} } pitated.
eee eee eee een ee eee ee eee eee eee ne es Earaimermesmemaanann
Mr. Calvert also made another series of experiments in which he employed weaker
solutions, viz. diluting with twice their bulk of water similar solutions to those obtained
in the above table, and these are the results obtained :—
Taste II.
: Time o
Time when passing
Water.| precipitate HS
grs.t | appeared. through
2 S0,Zn0+7H0,. Sulphuric acid.
liquor.
—
(|10 grs. in 100 grs. water | 3900 | After a few |5 hours| All precipitated.
minutes Almost all. precipi-
5a.| | 18 grs. in | |12°5 grs. in 125 grs. water| 3875 ditto {5 hours { tated; after 12hours’
+ 500 grs. standing, complete.
water Precipitate not com-
plete even after 12
6a. 15 grs. in 150 grs. water | 3850 ditto {5 hours}, hours’ standing; the
| quantity not precip.
was considerable.
It will be observed, in perusing the above tables, that zinc is freely and generally
completely precipitated from its combination with sulphuric acid, even in liquors
containing a great excess of sulphuric acid, or from 3 to 4 times as much free sulphuric
acid as existed in the quantity of salt used.
Mr. Calvert also thought it advisable to make a series of experiments, employing
chloride of zinc, and adding to it submultiple or multiple quantities of hydrochloric
acid; and these were the results obtained.
The required amounts of acid were calculated by employing a quantity of acid con-
taining a given proportion of chlorine.
* The quantity of water in column 3 is such, that when added to the quantity of water in
columns 1 and 2, the sum is always 1500 grains.
+ Total quantity employed, 4500 grains.
Bie
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53
Taste III.
Time of
Time when! P@ssing
ee precipitate| _ HS
appeared. through
liquor.
Chloride of zinc. Hydrochloric acid.
10 grs. ata 2°63 grs. (half the quan-
5°26 of chlorine, or
5°33 hydrochloric
acid in 250 grs.water.
tity of the chlorine of 1125
the chloride) in 125 grs. | gectmeies e hauts
zinc precipitated, but not
¢ Aconsiderable Niciaard of
\ é.
complete.
5°26 grs. in 250 grs. water| 1000 |5 minutes|5 hours} Only partially precipitated.
7°89 ers. in 375 grs.water| 875 |8 minutes|5 hours] small quantity precipitated.
1:32 grs. in 250 grs. water} 1000 |3 minutes|5 hours| precipitate not complete.
0°66 grs. in 125 grs. water| 1125 |3 minutes|5 hours| Almost all precipitated.
0°33 grs. in 62 grs, water | 1188 |2 minutes|5 hours| A trace not precipitated.
0°165 grs. in 250 grs. water] 1150 |/2 minutes|5 hours| All precipitated.
10 grs. in
250 grs. water
Influence of Dilution with Water.
: : Precipitate complete with-
10 grs. in 1°32 grs. in 250 grs. water} 4140 |3 minutes|5 hours| 4 out leaving it to stand for
110 prs. water a longer time.
1-32 grs. in 250 gers. water| 7140 /3 minutes|5 hours] Precipitate complete.
In comparing the results contained in this Table with those of the previous ones,
it will be noticed that zinc is more easily precipitated from its combination with chlo-
rine, and in presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid, than when it is combined with
sulphuric acid. Still, in either case, and even in presence of a very large excess of
acid, zinc is precipitated, and in many cases completely.
Before undertaking a series of experiments to discover a new method of separating
quantitatively zinc and copper, the author thought it advisable to examine the various
processes which have been proposed of late years, and these are the results :—
He first made a series of experiments with a process which has been recommended
by Messrs. Rivot and Bouquet, and which consists in adding an excess of ammonia
to an acid liquor containing the above two metals, and then adding caustic potash in
slight excess. ‘The liquor is to be heated to 158° Fahr. until the whole of the ammo-
nia is expelled, the copper being thrown down in the state of black oxide, whilst the
oxide of zine remains in solution; but Mr. Calvert has always found, even in employing
diluted liquors and a very slight excess of potash, that a certain proportion of hydrate
of oxide of zinc, dissolved in the caustic potash, was dehydrated, became insoluble, and
precipitated with the oxide of copper, thereby increasing its relative proportion, and
rendering the results incorrect.
The two methods having failed in his hands, although he had taken all the
necessary precautions recommended to carry out those processes successively, he next
had recourse to the methods proposed by M. Flajolot. The first consists in adding
to a boiling solution of zinc and copper, rendered slightly acid by sulphuric acid,
hyvosulphite of soda, until no more black protosulphuret of copper precipitates, filter-
ing, and determining the copper by oxidizing the sulphuret with nitric acid in the
usual way, and throwing down the copper. The zinc is precipitated with carbonate
of soda. The second process given by this chemist consists in estimating the copper
by ee it in the state of protoiodide by a solution of iodine in sulphurous
acid*.
Both these processes of M. Flajolot gave very satisfactory results, and can be
adopted when a complete analysis of an alloy of zinc and copper is required; but as these
methods require too much time when rapid analyses are desired, the author next tried
M. Pelouze’s method, which consists in rendering the liquor containing salts of zine
and copper alkaline with an excess of ammonia, and pouring very gradually into it a
standard solution of monosulphuret of sodium, which first precipitates all the copper
as black sulphuret, leaving the zinc in solution. As this latter metal yields a white
sulphuret, it is easy to ascertain when all the copper is precipitated. This method is
* For further details see ‘ Chemist,’ vol. i. p. 411.
54 REPORT—1855.
so easily and rapidly performed, that he thought it advisable to test its accuracy, and
the following results leave no doubt as to its exactitude and value. The zine is de-
termined by difference.
Taken. Obtained.
I. Copper ........ TUG E Necrcenss oe Oly
TCS Racer eee IRD PRN AS tere 17:96
TL. Copper ..ccoo... 9°91 acesecvesa. 9°930
AiG eacas aeewece B'D5 .sescsveesee D'OLO
Description of Dr. CLarx’s Patent Process for softening Water, now in
use at the Works of the Plumstead, Woolwich, and Charlton Consumers’
Pure Water Company, together with some Account of their Works. By
D. Camesett, F.C.S.
According to the author, the process of Dr. Clark for softening water may be applied
with advantage to water from the chalk strata, water from the New Red Sandstone,
and waters which contain carbonate of lime in solution from any strata. It is briefly
described as follows; namely, by adding a quantity of milk of lime to the water, it takes
carbonic acid holding carbonate of lime in solution ; and forms a precipitate of carbonate
of lime, throwing down at the same time the quantity of carbonate of lime held insolution
by the carbonic acid, and thus rendering the water soft. The works and operations for
carrying out the process were fully described by diagrams. One peculiar feature in the
water after it had been softened, and which was not anticipated by Dr. Clark when he
first took out his patent, is, that it does not show the slightest sign of vegetation, though
exposed to the sun and light for upwards of a month, whilst the water before softening
cannot be kept above a few days without producing Conferve; and if this be not
immediately removed, decay commences quickly, and small insects are soon observed,
which feed upon the decaying vegetable matter; and the water soon assumes a bad
taste. This is continually the case when the water is kept in large reservoirs, and its
removal occasions considerable trouble and expense. The author had endeavoured to
explain the reason of this marked difference between the unsoftened and the softened
water; and he was nearly satisfied that the vegetating principle in the water was more
especially due to the carbonic acid holding the carbonate of lime in solution than to
the volatile matter, or, as it is sometimes called, organic matter. The process is
applicable to many towns already supplied with water from the chalk and from the
New Red Sandstone, and if properly applied will be found to pay the expense of its
working, and confer a great boon upon the populations, the enlightenment of whose
corporations may induce them to adopt it.
On the Preservation of the Potato Crops.
By Chevalier De CLausseEn.
At the meeting of the British Association in Hull, two years ago, the author proposed
sulphate of lime as a means of preserving the potato. He has since, by successive
experiments, convinced himself that it is entirely efficient. He wets them with water -
acidulated with sulphuric acid (1 part acid, 500 parts water), and before they are dry
throws over them powdered sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris, by which process
they are covered with a thin film of sulphate of lime. If the potatoes are already
attacked partially with the disease, they must be left from six to twelve hours in the
acidulated water before the sulphate of lime is used; but in case they are free of
disease, a few minutes are sufficient. It is very possible that sulphate of lime, with
an excess of sulphuric acid added to the soil in which potatoes grow, may be useful ;
but he has not made any experiment to this purpose. He has ground to suppose that
chemical combinations in contact with animal or vegetable products have a tendency
to preserve them, in the same way as the combination of oxygen and zinc preserves
iron, and that this is one of the causes why the combination of water with the sul-
hate of lime preserves potatoes and other vegetables; and that in the same time the
small quantity of free sulphuric acid destroys the fungus which causes the disease.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55
On the apparent Mechanical Action accompanying Electrical Transfer.
By Mrs. Crosse.
Dr. Playfair stated, that at the last meeting of the Association, Mr. Crosse, who is
recently dead, had read a communication on some phenomena which took place in
the electric current, and it was objected on that occasion, that it was possible the gold
which was carried over might have been impure gold; and that it was owing to a
solution of copper that was in the gold that these mechanical phenomena ensued,
Mrs. Crosse, with a desire to show the accuracy of her husband’s experiments, had
since his death repeated the experiment with pure gold, and obtained the results men-
tioned in the communication. ;
Extracts from a Letter from the Rev. A. S. FARRAR, of Queen's College,
Oxford, on the late Hruption of Vesuvius (read by Dr. DAuBENY).
The writer sketched the recent history of the volcano down to the late eruption.
A new crater was formed in December 1854 by the sudden giving way of a portion
of the summit of the great cone, which, however, revealed little of the internal
structure of the mountain, though it discharged only gas. The eruption commenced
on May Ist, 1855, from ten craters which broke out in one long line down the north
side of the cone. The lava continued to flow for twenty-eight days, and destroyed
much valuable property, passing down the ravines between the Monte Somma and
the Observatory, and pursuing its course in the plain to a distance of six miles.
Professor Palmieri has taken meteorological observations at the Observatory near the
Hermitage. The magnets were affected for two days previously to the outburst of the
lava, with remarkable oscillations analogous to these observed in 1851, during the
earthquake at Melfi. The development of electricity was strongly marked, of a
nature always positive, and yielding ditferent results when studied with a fixed con-
ductor, and the same made moveable according to Peltier’s method. The Neapolitan
Professors Scacchi and Palmieri intend to publish their observations. Mr. Farrar
concluded with an account of M. Deville’s Chemical Observations on the gases
emitted by the fumaroles, as recorded in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for June and July,
1855.
On an Indirect Method of ascertaining the presence of Phosphoric Acid in
Rocks, where the quantity of that ingredient was too minute to be determi-
nable by direct analysis. By Professor Dauseny, M.D., F.R.S.
The method employed was to sow on a portion of the rock, well-pulverized, and
brought into a condition, mechanically speaking, suitable to the growth of a plant, a
certain number of seeds in which the amount of phosphoric acid had been deter-
mined by a previous analysis.
It is evident, that whatever excess of phosphoric acid over that existent in the seed
was detected in the crop resulting, must be referred to the soil in which the plant
had grown, and hence would serve to indicate the existence of that quantity at least
in the rock,
Now when chalk, oolite, magnesian limestone, red sandstone, and other rocks in
which organic remains are usually present, were made the subject of experiment, the
existence of phosphoric acid in the rock was always detected by the foregoing method,
the phosphoric acid in the crop exceeding the amount of that in the seeds sown.
But when the slates that lie at the bottom of the Silurian system, such as those of
Bangor and Llanberris in North Wales, were tested in the same manner, the almost
entire absence of phosphoric acid in them was inferred from the scantiness of the
erop, which in each instance contained scarcely more of phosphoric acid than had
been present in the seeds from which it had been derived. Nor was this owing to
any mechanical impediment to their growth; for when the rock was manured with
phosphate of lime, a crop was obtained from it as large as in the preceding cases.
These experiments tend therefore to show that the rocks above named really were
56 REPORT—1855.
deposited where no living beings existed; for although the absence of organic remains
in them might be accounted for by metamorphic action, the heat which obliterated
the latter would exert no influence upon the phosphoric acid which all animals and
vegetables contain, and which therefore would still remain in a rock made up in part
of their exuvie, even if it had undergone fusion.
Dr. Daubeny suggested that this method of investigation might throw some light
upon the much-disputed question, whether any rocks are known which were aute-
cedent to the commencement of organic life; and also, in a practical point of view,
might be useful by showing, whether manuring with phosphate of lime was likely to
be serviceable in increasing their agricultural value.
The second subject adverted to in this communication related to the reputed exist-
ence of phosphoric acid in certain rocks of Connemara in Ireland, which Sir Roderick
Murchison had referred to the Silurian epoch.
These limestones, although totally destitute of organic remains, and possessing all
the characters of primitive limestone, being crystalline and interstratified with quartz
rock and mica slate, often contain, according to a recent analysis, a large per-centage
of phosphoric acid ; and this statement, Dr. Daubeny, from a hasty examination which
he had made of them upon the spot, was disposed to credit, so far at least as relates to
the presence of traces of this ingredient in the limestones referred to*.
Should this fact be substantiated by further investigations, it will not only confirm
Sir R. Murchison’s previous opinion as to the age of these limestones, but will also
show that they are likely to be of value as manures, by reason of the phosphoric
acid which they contain.
On the Action of Light on the Germination of Seeds.
By Professor Dauseny, M.D., F.RS.
An opinion has gone abroad, and has found a place in several standard treatises T,
that as the luminous rays favour the development of the growing plant, so the chemical
rays promote the germination of the seed.
The authority upon which this statement rests, seems to be that of some experiments
instituted by Professor Robert Hunt, who, whilst employed in investigating the che-
mical action of light upon inorganic bodies, and its application to photography, turned
his attention likewise to the influence of the same agent upon plants.
One circumstance alone, however, might raise a doubt as to any direct effect having,
in the instances reported, been produced by the several solar rays, namely that, so far
as can be collected from the statement given, all the seeds tried by Mr. Hunt were
buried in the ground to the usual depth. Now I found that a depth of two inches of
common garden soil was quite sufficient to intercept the rays of light, so as to prevent
the slightest chemical action being exerted upon highly sensitive paper placed be-
neath it.
The improbability, therefore, of a ray of light acting through such a medium in-
duced me to institute a set of experiments, in which the seeds were placed on the
surface of moist earth exposed to the action of particular portions only of the solar
spectrum.
Although the results obtained are rather of a negative than of a positive descrip-
tion, and have likewise been in some measure superseded by the researches already
published by Dr. Gladstone, yet as the experiments have been repeated during the
last summer, and lead uniformly to similar results, they are communicated, as justi-
fying the conclusion to which I had arrived, that no positive influence of a direct
kind in promoting germination can be traced to the chemical rays of light, when
compared with other portions of the sunbeam.
Six sorts of seeds were in general employed in these experiments, and the number
of radicles and plumules of the several kinds which had protruded each day were
duly registered.
The media employed for isolating certain rays, or at least particular portions
* These limestones have been since examined more carefully by Dr. Daubeny, and the
quantity of phosphoric acid present in them found to be much smaller than that reported
in the analysis referred to. See Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society for Oct. 29, 1855.
+ See in particular Mrs. Somerville’s work on Physical Geography.
ase oe
on
sai
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57
of the spectrum, are enumerated in the table annexed, by reference to which it
will be at once seen, what specific luminous influence was exerted upon the seeds by
each of those coloured glasses or fluids which are named in the brief statement of the
experiments which follow.
~ Iam indebted to Mr. Maskelyne, the Deputy-Reader of Mineralogy at Oxford, for
having examined the various media employed, and defined by reference to Frauen-
hofer’s lines the exact quality of the rays transmitted by each, as is stated in the
Table. (See Plate. VI ~
In the first set of experiments a south aspect was selected, and the following seeds
were experimented upon, viz.—
Datura Catula ........e00. 10 Helianthus annuus .......... 13
Malope grandiflora ........ 14 Polygonum fagopyrum........ 16
Trifolium incarnatum ...... 14 Hordeum sativum,.........0. 14
Raphanus rotundus ........ 12 a
Inall..... . 93
But as none of the two first came up, the real number operated upon may be esti-
mated at 69. Of these—
46 radicles and 18 plumules came up under violet light.
44 radicles and 18 plumules came up under green glass.
41 radicles and 19 plumules came up in one instance :
41 radicles and 5 qilesaiites came ay in another instance fin darkness,
36 radicles and 26 plumules came up under cobalt-blue glass.
32 radicles and 17 plumules came up under amber glass.
29 radicles and 7 plumules came up under ruby glass.
23 radicles and 5 plumules came up under orange glass.
Accordingly, in this series a slight superiority seemed certainly to belong to the violet
coloured medium over the rest, in relation to the number both of radicles and of
plumules which appeared; whilst in respect to the quickness of their germination, the
violet and green media were a-head of the rest, although the plumules did not follow
the same order. 4
When, however, the same experiments were repeated in a north aspect, the same
law did not hold good, for out of 69 seeds,—
52 radicles and 22 plumules appeared under green glass.
49 radicles and 17 plumules appeared under blue glass.
47 radicles and 14 plumules }
47 radicles and 21 plumules [
44 radicles and 17 plumules appeared under transparent glass.
39 radicles and 23 plumules appeared under violet light.
And with respect to the quickness of germination, it appeared that the green stood first
in order; that the seeds under blue and violet glass and in absolute darkness came
up next in order, and with nearly equal rapidity ; that those in full light were next
a order; whilst orange, ruby, and yellow were about equal, but somewhat later than
the rest. ‘
It did not appear, therefore, from this last series of experiments, that violet light
favoured germination at all more than any other species of light ; nor indeed that any
kind of ray was injurious to the process, so long as its intensity was not too great, as
may be inferred to have been the case in the first set of experiments, where the seeds
were exposed to the full rays of the sun in a southern aspect.
I therefore, in my subsequent experiments, selected uniformly a north aspect for
the germination of the seeds; and in order still further to test the point as to whether
the quality of the light had anything to do with the process, I placed as before upon
the surface of the soil, in boxes, ten seeds of each of the four following plants, viz.
peas, beans, kidney-beans, and a species of sunflower (Helianthus annuus), all of which
germinated. Now in this case
37 radicles and 25 plumules appeared in the dark box;
36 radicles and 30 plumules appeared under green glass;
35 radicles and 30 plumules appeared under blue glass ;
34 radicles and 24 plumules appeared under transparent glass;
the whole number of seeds operated upon being only 40.
appeared in darkness.
68 7 REPORT—1855.
It would seem, then, as if in these cases the absence or presence of light was
almost a matter of indifference.
In the fourth series of experiments rather a greater variety of species was experi-
mented upon, and a larger number of media employed, the total number of seeds in
each box being 52, viz. of a species of sunflower, peas, kidney-beans, and barley,
10 of each, and of radishes 12. In this instance, the whole number came up under
four of the media employed, but these media were of very different qualities; in one
case, all light being excluded; in another, the violet ray alone admitted; in another,
green light; andin the fourth, a pale green glass being used, which cut off none of the
rays completely, although it enfeebled all.
The number of plumules that were developed in these several instances, were from
46 to 47.
The number of radicles developed under transparent glass was only less by two than
the others, so that no fair inference would seem deducible from this series, in favonr
of one medium being preferable to another. The radicles, however, came up most
rapidly in total darkness, and least so when all the rays were admitted.
Although the above four sets of experiments seemed to render it improbable that
any influence, favourable or otherwise, could be traced to particular rays or portions
of the spectrum, still it seemed desirable to show more directly, that where the
quantity of light was the same its quality was immaterial.
It was with this view principally that I instituted a fifth set of experiments, in
which the light was filtered as it were through liquids—one of which was the ammonio-
sulphate of copper, which excluded all but the violet; another, port wine, which
admitted only the extreme red; and a third, a mixture of ink and water, which
deadened equally all the rays of the spectrum.
It was in the first place ascertained, as nearly as could be done by the eye, that an
equal amount of light was admitted through each of the media, they being severally
diluted with water, until they allowed just so much light to pass as was sufficient for
reading the largest print in a chamber otherwise darkened,
The results appear to show, that there was under these circumstances scarcely any
difference to be detected; nor indeed did a glass, which admitted allthe light present,
appear to interfere with the process materially, although in the box from whence light
was entirely excluded the germination seemed to go on somewhat less vigorously than
in the others.
It will be seen at least, that out of 50 seeds, or 10 of each of the following, radishes,
peas, kidney-beans, sunflower, and barley,
49 radicles and 48 plumules appeared under port wine.
49 radicles and 43 plumules appeared under ink and water.
47 radicles and 36 plumules appeared under transparent glass.
46 radicles and 48 plumules appeared under
45 radicles and 98 plumules appeared under
42 radicles and 37 plumules appeared in total darkness.
} ammonio-sulphate of copper.
Upon the whole, from a general survey of the above experiments, no other conclu-
sion seems deducible, except that light has very little to dodirectly with the germination
of seeds; and that although the popular opinion may be well-founded, namely, that the
process goes on best in the dark, as maltsters generally believe, still that the light which
interferes with the success of the operation acts chiefly by producing such a degree of
dryness as is unfavourable to the sprouting of the seed, and not by itself interfering
directly with the result.
An experienced maltster, indeed, assures me, that darkness is not necessary for
malting, although, in order to maintain a suitable degree of humidity in the apart-
ment, strong light is generally excluded.
In the Tables annexed, the numbers attached to each column indicate merely the
relative number of radicles or plumules, which had been found to develope themselves
under the several media employed, on each of the days of which the date is given.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
First set of Experiments—In a South Aspect.—SUMMARYe
Numbers that had vegetated on each day.—Experiment beginning April 13.
59
April
Media.
17. | 18.| 19. | 20. | 21. | 22. | 23. 25. | 26.
SOR ba weed out celia wil id bas | ae ea ae R
No, 2. Blue swf} 9 | 9} 42) 45 | 15 | 93 | 26/92 | 36 || B
No.6. Amber .{} 212} 2/s2 143] a9| a2 | ar [a2 || R
eae Ruby .-...{ nF 31 8 | a4 i 2 be R
No. 7. Orange «..{ ; : , : : we Fe he ; y
ee oreen a 4 » “ pa be eh “4 e
No. 11°. Black «..{| 3 ot ay bia h49 04 | 29 Bo be
Mae ti". Block vod 9 3 ul 16 al 06 | 31 A fi -
Nos, Violet uf] 2] 9] 42) 43 | of | 90 [34 | 40 (46 | |
Second set of Experiments.—In a North Aspect.—Summary.
Numbers that had vegetated on each day.—Experiment beginning A
No 7. Orange wiesse4
No.5. Ruby sss
No.6. Amber...
No.8. Green wise
No.1, Black ......4
No. 11. Black ss
{
No. 8. Violet .......
pril 28.
wo WU dU ww WN as|
60 REPORT—1855.
Third set of Experiments.—In a North Aspect,—SumMary.
Numbers that had vegetated on each day.—Experiment beginning May 16.
a a ee rn Sela a I
June
Fourth set of Experiments.—In a North Aspect.—SumMary.
Numbers that had vegetated on each day.—Experiment beginning July 28.
Green...
No. 2. Blue..
Av av av wy a aU |
Fifth set of Experiments.—In a North Aspect.—Summanry.
Numbers that had vegetated on each day.— Experiment beginning May 25.
June
Media.
2, | 3.) 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. |10.)11.]12./17. | 19.) 20. }21. | 23./26.
PY gl SE re, 3] 3| 3|10|15|20| 26/26/32] 32| 34
No. 1. White ..4 |99 | 96| 34 | 37137 |37 | 41|41| 46| 46] 46| 47] 47 | 47
i: 3| 3] 7|13/17| 20] 20| 25| 25 | 29/31/32
No. 11. Black..4 v.» |37|40| 40] 41 | 41 | 41 | 41] 42 | 42] 42 | 42| 42 | 49
No. 8#.Sulphate f}...]...|-+.]...| 1} 2] 7} 8} 11] 20/20/28) 31) 34
of Copper.. . | 22| 33 | 33 | 33 | 34 | 36 | 37) 38 | 44) 44 | 44) 44) 44
: | 3| 3] 7] 10/24 | 27 | 28] 31 | 35] 35 | 37 | 37/40
No.9. PortWine 4 6 | 36| 38 | 38 | 40 | 43 | 43 | 43| 46 | 47| 47 | 47 | 47 | 47
No. 8?.Sulphate f]...|..- 3] 3] 5/11 | 18} 23) 26 | 33] 33 | 35 | 36 | 39
of Copper.. . | 82| 89 | 39 | 89 | 39 | 39 | 41) 45 | 45 | 45 | 45 | 45 | 45
vec |oce{oee|oee| eof 2] 8112] 18] 26] 26/33/35 138
No 19) Ink 2.4 "| 9529 | 29 | 34 | 38 | 40] 43| 48 | 49] 49 | 49| 49 |49
34
47
32
42
34
44
40
47
39
45
38
49
35
47
33
42
34
44
42
47
40
45
39
49
36 |P
47)R
37 |P
42|R
38 |P ’
45 |R 4
48 |p
49 |R
45 |p
46)R
43 |P
49 /R
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.- 61
On the Titaniferous Iron of the Mersey Shore. By J.B. Epwarps, Ph.D.,
F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the Royal Infirmary School of Medicine,
and Royal Institution, Liverpool.
The sand along the western shore of the Mersey, especially between Seacombe and
New-Brighton, has long been observed to contain a considerable quantity of titani-
ferous iron, which is strongly attracted by the magnet, and thus readily separated
from the shore sand. It occurs from the disintegration of boulders of granitic rock,
which are found in a clay bed which rises abruptly from the shore to the height of
about 80 or 40 feet, and is of limited extent. The formation of the district is new
red sandstone, and this drift must have come from a considerable distance, and is
generally ascribed to the hills of the Solway. Some of the masses of rock are very
Jarge, but the majority are of a few pounds’ weight, or less. They are found in va-
rious stages of decomposition ; some appearing quite hard, and speckled black, others
green and crumbling, others in complete disintegration within the clay, and in this
state the green colour is generally very marked. This is probably due to adhering oxide
of iron undergoing change by the action of the atmosphere. When collected from
among the sand of the shore, the crystals of the mineral appear of a uniform black
colour.
The specimens examined were carefully separated from the shore sand by a mag-
net. Prof. Thomson’s formula for iserine is FeO, TiOg, and the analysis he gives is
TiOg sss. 50°12
FeO ......... 49°88
100°00
The spec. grav. he gives as 4°5, and states that it is strongly attracted by the magnet,
Gmelin gives the formula of 2FeO+-Ti0, =
MOS Kshs we. 30°36
FeO ......... 63°63
99°99
These compounds may also be represented as oxides in which both metals are basic.
Titanium being isomorphous with iron, the first compound therefore represents sesqui-
oxide of iron, in which iron is partly replaced by titanium, and the latter magnetic
oxide, with a similar substitution ; thus
a } 0s Poeesvere No. 1.
F
Ti \o, <owasaie | NO. 2e
Many compounds of titaniferous iron have been examined, and the composition
appears to vary very considerably. That which I now describe has a specific gravity
of 4°82, and is powerfully attracted by the magnet; some of the particles also them-
selves attract iron, The results of three experiments gave as its composition the
following :—
Experiment, Theory of formula,
iO ge See SVM EILOT “ect cctsesscenccese. Loge
BeO! © secre eNO, ce oeckaes Somooce 30°92
Fe, OF ee aOR eee clavetecee 40°89
AO: ceaNee BIER Li: Lye 891
Oe et ee eas 4 eR
99°02 99:47
This nearly agrees with the following formula :
2(FeO, TiO.) 3(Fe; O,) + Al, O, + SiO,.
If the iron exists, as here represented, in the state of magnetic oxide, the magnetic
properties of the crystals would be thus explained.
62) REPORT—1855.
On the Action of Sulphurets on Metallic Silicates at high Temperatures.
By Davip Forsss, F.G.S.
This communication first treated of the sulphurets of metals formed by fusion,
showing that very distinct compounds were thus formed generally more basic than
under other circumstances. The action of sulphurets on silicates was illustrated by a
series of researches, which showed that when the silicate of a weaker metal was fused
along with the sulphuret of a stronger one, or vice versd, the result was the same,—
not a perfect mutual decomposition, as would have been expected, but the production
of a double sulphur-salt of both metals. When the fusion, however, took place at lower
temperatures, no action was found to take place. A series of specimens illustrated the
occurrence of such reactions, metallurgical operations, and their chemical composi-
tion, &c.
On some Organie Compounds containing Metals.
By Professor FRANKLAND, PA.D., F.R.S.
The author has continued his researches on the above-named compounds, and in a
communication just presented to the Royal Society, has completed the history of zinc-
ethyl, which is produced by the action of zinc upon iodide of ethyl in close vessels,
at a temperature of about 130° C. Zincethyl is a colourless, transparent, and mobile
liquid, refracting light strongly and possessing a peculiar ethereal odour. Its specific
gravity is 17182. It boils at 118° C., and distils unchanged in an atmosphere of car-
bonic acid. The specific gravity of its vapour is 4:259. It therefore consists of two
volumes of ethyl and one volume of zine vapour, the three volumes being condensed
to two.
Zincethyl inflames spontaneously in atmospheric air or in oxygen, burning with a
brilliant blue flame fringed with green. When more gradually oxidized, it yields
ethylate of zinc (ZnO C,H, O); with.iodine it gives iodide of ethyl and iodide of
zinc, and with bromium, chlorine, and sulphur the reaction is similar. Zincethyl
decomposes water with almost explosive violence, forming oxide of zinc and hydride
of ethyl.
These remarkable reactions lead the author to anticipate, that zincethy] will prove
in the hands of chemists a new and valuable means of research; for it is evident from
its reactions that it will be capable of replacing electro-negative elements in organic
or inorganic compounds by ethyl; a kind of replacement which has never yet been
attempted, but which the author anticipates will enable him to build up organic com-
pounds from inorganic ones, and ascend the homologous series of organic bodies; by
replacing, for instance, the hydrogen in a methylic compound by chlorine or iodine, and
then acting upon this product of substitution by zincethyl or zincmethyl, the author
believes that compounds higher in the series will be obtained, since he regards the higher
homologues of methyl and its compounds as derived from the latter radical by the
successive replacement of hydrogen by methyl,
The author, who is now engaged with researches in this direction, mentioned some
substitution products derived from nitric acid in proof of the strong probability of
the foregoing considerations,
——
On a Mode of conserving the Alkaline Sulphates contained in Alums.
By Professor FRANKLAND, PA.D., FBS.
The ultimate object of the manufacture of alums is the production of a pure salt
of alumina, and the alkaline sulphates contained in alums are employed only for pro-
ducing with sulphate of alumina a readily crystallizable salt, which can be freed from
impurities, and especially from oxide of iron, by repeated crystallizations. In almost
every case in which alum is employed in the arts, the alkaline sulphate which it con-
tains is utterly useless; it is consequently wasted and thrown away. The author
therefore proposes to extract the alkaline sulphates from alums, thus producing pure
sulphate of alumina, and conserving the alkaline sulphates, which latter can then either
be sold as such, or employed for the preparation of a new quantity of alum, This
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63
separation the author effects by dissolving the alum (ammonia alum is to be pre-
ferred) in hot water and then passing into the solution a stream of ammoniacal gas,
produced by boiling the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works with lime, until the whole
of the alumina is precipitated as a subsulphate; this precipitate is then to be separated
from the solution of sulphate of alumina by means of canvas filters, or a hydro-extract-
or. The subsulphate of alumina, being then dissolved in sulphuric acid and evaporated,
yields pure sulphate of alumina admirably adapted for the production of the usual
alumina mordants of the calico-printer, and the filtered solution yields on evaporation
crystallized sulphate of ammonia, about 9 cwt. of which will be produced from each
ton of alum, one third, or 3 cwt., being separated from the alum itself.
On the Extraction of Metals from the Ore of Platinum.
By Professor E. Frimy, Paris.
M. Frémy treated of the preparation of osmium, rhodium and iridium from the
residues of the platinum ores. The preparation of osmium according to the old method
is attended with great difficulties and actual danger. M. Frémy proposed to prepare
osmium by passing atmospheric air over the residual ore, heated in a porcelain tube.
The volatile osmic acid is condensed in glass balloons, and the less volatile oxide of
ruthenium is found at the extremity of the heated tube. The rhodium remaining in the
residual mass is separated from the other metal contained by chlorine gas at a high
temperature.
On a New Glucocide contained in the Petals of a Wallflower.
By J. GALLETLEY.
On the Use of Phosphate of Potash in a Salt Meat Dietary.
By Rozert Gattoway, F.CS.
We know from the researches of Liebig that salted meat is less nutritious than
unsalted meat, if the salting has been carried to such an extent as to produce brine;
for the salt remains along with the water of the flesh, the different substances dissolved
in it being albumen, lactic acid, kreatine, kreatinine and some of the mineral ingre-
dients, especially phosphoric acid and potash. It is, in my opinion, the loss of the
two latter substances which renders salted meat so unnutritious, because the fibrine of
the flesh can supply the place of the organic substances, but none of the substances
remaining in the flesh can supply the place of the phosphoric acid and potash, and even
vegetables do not contain these substances in sufficient quantity to make up for the loss.
To supply the deficiency, 1 propose that phosphate of potash be used with salted meat
as common salt is with flesh; this addition would render salted meat nearly, if not
quite, as nutritious as flesh, and as a consequence the diseases arising from the use of
salted meat would cease. ;
On the Quality of Food of Artizans in an artificially heated Atmosphere.
By Rozert Gattoway, F.C.S.
Some time ago I had to superintend the operations in a sugar refinery; during the
time my attention became directed to the quality of the food consumed by the work-
men. The temperature of a refinery varies from 90° to 120° Fahr., and the work is
laborious. The workmen, as theory would predict, live almost exclusively upon nitro-
genous substances; their food consists of bread and meat; and this is the more stri-
king, as the men in their own country (the men employed in refineries are Germans),
and at other occupations, live almost exclusively upon vegetables,
On a Crystalline Deposit of Gypsum in the Reservoir of the Highgate Water-
works. By J. H. Guapstonet, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Dr, Gladstone laid on the table a large branching crystal of gypsum, weighing
about half a pound, It was described as a small portion of a deposit which was
found recently on cleaning out one of the reservoirs at Highgate. The clerk of the
64 REPORT—1855.
works called it “congealed water,” and supposed that it could not possibly have
’ been brought there originally and placed in the position where it was found. The
crystals had spread themselves over a stratum of clay, and had probably been formed
by the action of slowly decomposing sulphurets on the carbonate of lime in the water
or earth.
Experiments on the Compounds of Tin with Arsenic. By Ep. HAEFFELY.
These experiments had led to this practical fact, that the danger of using any arse-
niates in stannates of soda might be obviated by the use of pure stannate of soda
alone.
On a new Form of Cyanic Acid. By the Baron Von Liexic, Munich.
In the course of some experiments on the fulthinate of mercury, I observed that that
compound, when kept boiling in water, changed its colour, and lost its fulminating
properties. On examining the change that had taken place in the composition of the
fulminate, I discovered a new acid, which had exactly the composition of cyanuric acid,
but which differed entirely from that acid in its properties, and in the properties of the
salts which are produced with the alkaline bases—salts remarkable for their beauty
and for the distinctness of their crystalline form. Taking for the equivalent of hydrated
fulminic acid the formula C2, NO, HO, the new acid is produced in a very similar
manner. The elements of three equivalents of fulminic acid unite to form one equi-
valent of the new acid, to which I shall give the name of fulminuric acid. This acid
is monobasic. Its salt of silver is soluble in hot water, and crystallizes from it in long,
silky, white needles, ‘The alkaline salts of the new acid are very easily prepared by
boiling the fulminate of mercury with an alkaline chloride. The fulminate of mercury
is first dissolved; then gradually two-thirds of the oxide of mercury precipitates, and
the alkaline fulminate, with a certain quantity of chloride of mercury and potassium,
remains in the solution. By employing the chloride of sodium, or the chloride of
barium, we obtain, of course, a salt of the new acid, with a base of soda or of barytes.
With chloride of ammonium an ammoniacal salt is obtained, the crystals of which are
distinguished from all others by their adamantine brilliancy, and their high degree of
power and lustre. ‘These crystals belong ts the Klinorhombic system, and possess
double refraction almost as strongly as Iceland spar. The hydrated acid is easily
obtained by decomposing the basic lead salt by means of sulphuretted hydrogen. It
has a strongly acid reaction, and when reduced by evaporation to a state of syrup, it
is transformed by degrees into a crystalline mass, which dissolves in alcohol, and which,
by the action of acids, is changed into carbonic acid and ammonia,
Baron Lirgic made a few observations on a new mode of making bread introduced
into Germany. Lime-water had been used in the preparation of the dough, and the
loaf was rendered still more nutritive than that made by the common mode.
Baron Lirzgic handed in for inspection a large bar of the new and interesting
metal Aluminium.
On the Commercial Uses of Lichens. By Dr. A. L. Linpsay.
On the Chemical Composition of the Waters of the Clyde. By StEVENSON
Macapam, PA.D., F.RS.E., F.CS., Lecturer on Chemistry, Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.
This communication is the first of a series which the author has undertaken in
order to determine the chemical composition of the rivers of Scotland. The present
examination was confined to the river and firth of Clyde, from Dalmarnock Bridge
down to Arran. Specimens of the water at the more prominent stations were pro-
cured by the author, and separately analysed. Three points were determined, viz.
a the specific gravity; 2. the amount of saline matter; and 3. the quantity of
chlorine.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
65
The following table contains the results of the analyses of the various waters: —
LOW WATER,
Dalmarnock Bridge ..........4.
Rutherglen Bridge
Green Suspension Bridge } wae
Suspension Bridge
Broomielaw ......... =
Lower Quay .....0.....ceeceseeee
GOVAN sa cnave cca tdense en eaddemed
IRENE W 5.3 <0s..<skiche + osdasiiee ds vo
FRUIPAtNICK? vs cnseuis acs sc2eesannes
BOWLING, ..sos..canescecscoensiacene
Ditto, 1 mile below ............
Ditto, 2 miles below.........+«.
Port-Glasgow ........sceceeeeee
GreenOCk cidisccdevesesceccoeeves
Ditto, + Helensburgh.........
Helensburgh ......00.....seceeees
ROW ern seaiealsermeeente sce Pancesene
Shandon
Rahane ;
Gairloch-head ............sce008
Greenock + Kilcreggan ......
Kilcreggam.........csseesseesceees
COVE Ie cok kaos Wha usesenh nidac eth
Portinstuck ............seseeeeer
Lochlong + Lochgoil .........
ATTOCHAY | ..Jsesccessecscscsceesss
Stroney er oen ees so eeeukvaveucse
BGIMUN eccvcstveinsosscswsccsareee
Sandbank .e....ssece-sesceesesees
Lazaretto ..eccccscancsscscesscevs
Peete erecceereces
Inellan ......... Das cMaede wee eds Mes
Toward Point ..........eeeeeees
Rothesay ....,.seseeeeseeee aire
IASCOPs sh cnevetcanhinoueh erste deen
Kilchallan Bay ......c00...00004
Garroch-head ........seeessseee
COrmie yi fiaeas cd sae ceeak sa eeesos
HATES tet creteanseatxeattneseenoss
Wemyss Bay .rsssecsscssccreevees
Tnnmerkap, * vevasesats ceseccd. axe.
HIGH WATER.
Specific
gravity.
—_ —
1000°25
1000-28
1000-40
1000-60
1000-60
1000:59
1000-62
1000-9
1001:3
1002°3
1005°8
1007°3
1011-3
1021-8
1018-9
1020°4
1022°1
1000 grains.
Saline
matter.
0:28
0:30
0:45
0°67
0:66
0:64
0:70
1:12
1:62
2:92
7°38
9°36
14:42
27°87
24:53
26:02
28°24
28:29
28°35
28°52
28:49
25:77
28-06
27°84
28:97
29-02
6:86
28°51
28:26
27°85
28°36
27:97
29°23
31:02
31:06
80°12 ©
29-70
28:68
30:98
31°16
31-72
33°98
33°66
32-72
32.68
32°46
32°71
30°83
8:14
2-02
Chlorine.
0:03
0:06
0:10
0:10
0-10
0-15
0:60
079
1-61
4-03
5°18
7-96
15°48
13:59
14-46
15:63
15-64
15°82
15-91
15:91
14:31
15°53
15°47
16-09
16-14
3°78
15°88
15°62
15:48
15:80
15:52
1631
17:23
17-24
16°88
16:54
15:97
17:16
17-41
17°69
18-91
18-72
18:34
18:23
18:08
18-25
17-08
4:38
1:09
0:02
The author does not regard the above figures as expressing the standard mean compo-
sition of the Clyde waters at allseasons. Many circumstances will tend to affect these
results, such as a wet or dry season determining the greater or less volume of fresh
water carried down by the river, and the ebbing or flowing of the tide. The effects
1855.
5
66 REPORT—1855.
of the latter are well seen in the instances of Bowling and Renfrew, where water of
a similar composition is found, at Bowling during every ebb of the tide, and at Ren-
frew during flood-tide. The distance between these two places is five miles; hence
at every ebb and flow of the tide, there is a five-mile variation in the composition of
the water at these points. In passing further down the Clyde, no doubt this five-
mile oscillation in the strength of the water will vary, but at all the places mentioned
in the table it will be more or less apparent.
On the Composition of Bread. By Dr. MAcLAGAn.
Dr. Maclagan gave the results of some experiments which he himself had made. The
amount of moisture in bread was less, and consequently the nutritive value greater, than
was generally allowed. The late Prof. Johnston had stated that a sack of flour produced
one hundred quartern loaves. But, according to his (Dr. Maclagan’s) examination,
the sack of 380 lbs. gave 943 loaves of bread; 100 lbs. of flour giving 231 Ibs. of bread.
The majority of bakers were of opinion that the sack produced on an average 92 loaves,
and there was no great discrepancy between this and the result of his own analysis.
Unfermented bread contains, of dry flour, 60; moisture, 10; water added by baker, 30.
100 Ibs. of flour will give 143 Ibs. of bread, and a sack of flour will yield 1003 quartern
loaves of unfermented bread.
On the Metals of the Alkaline Earths. By A. Martutessen, Ph.D.
Dr. Matthiessen has succeeded in. preparing the metals strontium and calcium in
the form of metallic reguli. The mode of preparation was illustrated by the apparatus
used, and beautiful specimens of the metals, sealed up in tubes containing roach oil,
and free from all air, were circulated among the members of the Section. Specimens
of Lithian wire, prepared by Prof. Bunsen, at whose laboratory at Heidelberg the
foregoing metals were prepared, were also exhibited,
On the possibility of representing by Diagrams the principal Functions of
the Molecules of Bodies. By the Rev. J. G. Macvicar, D.D., Moffat,
Dumfriesshire.
In this communication, the author, setting out with a point in the centre of a circle
(Dalton’s diagram for hydrogen and the astronomical diagram for the sun) to stand
for the unit of material nature or minim element out of which all the molecules of
bodies might be conceived to be constructed, proceeded to show that nothing more
was required in order to arrive at constructions representative of hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur, &c., both as to atomic weight, refractive power, &c., but to combine these unit
elements or atoms in such a way as to give a symmetrical construction.
Then showing that the law of symmetry (which alone he postulated as the grand
law of natural synthesis) culminated towards a spherical shell or cell as its limit, he
proceeded to combine the representatives of the undecomposed bodies he had con-
structed, so that the compound should always be more nearly spherical than its consti-
tuents when separate; and thus he obtained diagrams which proved to be represent-
atives of vapour, water, monohydrated sulphuric acid, &c.
He concluded by illustrating the practical value of his method by presenting before
the Section diagrams of urea and uric acid, from which it appeared that their transfor-
mation was, under the law of genesis according to maximum symmetry, quite a definite
problem.
On the Chemical Composition of some Iron Ores called ‘ Brass’ occurring in
the Coal-Measures of South Wales. By E. CoamBers NIcHOLson and
Davo S. Prics, PA.D., F.CWS.
The ores to which this paper refers are held in low estimation, and even rejected
by some ironmasters. It was with a view of explaining the reason of this that
their examination was undertaken.
There are three varieties of this ore.
I. One is compact, heavy, and black from the admixture of coaly matter; when
broken it exhibits a coarse pisiform fracture,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67
II. Another is compact and crystalline, not unlike the dark-coloured mountain
limestone of South Wales in appearance.
III. The third variety is similar in structure to the first-named. The granules, con-
sisting of iron pyrites, are mixed with coal, and apparently cemented together by a
mineral substance of like composition to the two foregoing.
It is from the yellow colour of this last variety that the name ‘brass’ has been
given to the ores by the miners.
The following is their composition :—
Te Too
Carbonate of iron.,.,.... » 68°71 = iron 33°3 100, 59°73 iron = 28°83
Carbonate of manganese 0°42 0°37
Carbonate of lime ...... 9°36 11°80
Carbonate of magnesia ,. 11°8 15°55
Iron pyrites .....,:+0004. 0°22 trace
Phosphoric acid ,,....-.. 0°17 0:23
Coaly matter ...,...00005 8:87 9°80
Clay .....s000 ecrabaeicabsha 2°70
99°55 100°18
Ill.
Carbonate Of i70M..,ccsececcsessecececcenees 17-74
Carbonate of lime...... passgamabateitvan Saheer Moko
Carbonate of magnesia _.,......... cereesee 12°06
Tron pyrites ....0..sscerrescegtcessecenceen 49°72
Phosphoric acid ...... “SARA SAHRSe seevrsee {Lace
Coaly matter...cocssseree suepensengsescssseps O10
99°81
The ores J, and II., to which attention is directed as being those to which
the remarks apply, may be classified with the spathose carbonates of iron, The
absence of clay, and the difficulty, from ignorance of this fact, that would in conse-
gunnce be experienced in smelting these ores, sufficiently explain the reason of the
isrepute in which they have hitherto been held; for when judiciously treated in the
blast-furnace, they smelt with the greatest facility, and afford an iron equal to that
meeneed from the argillaceous ores. It will be evident, from the large amount of
ime and magnesia which they contain, that their employment must be advantageous
in an economic point of view.
An interesting feature in these ores is their fusibility during calcination on the
large scale, When this process is conducted in heaps, the centre portions are inva-
riably melted. This, considering the almost entire absence of silica, is apparently an
unexpected result. ;
’ The fused mass is entirely magnetic and crystalline. Treated with acids, it dis-
solves with great evolution of heat.
The following is its composition :—
Protoxide of VON ,...,.seeseeveee 38°28
Sesquioxide of iron....,....,+..2,, 92°50
Protoxide of manganese,,.,......- - 0:38
TUDO rere a EEA aieitigiels oizaa.2 %. 14 4aCOe
Magnesia ,..... > oaig an atts RAAF .. 13°87
Phosphoric acid ,,.......+e00e08 sanity OL Le
MAUR /20cie lea slelalte 4n's 28's § silenis a peaiee
Silicic PVT: (See ieee aS sees oe 1-20
FEIGNED eee ay a> bain ci siana’syale Sn sil ae
100°08
_ From the aboye analysis, it is probable that its fusibility is owing to the magnetic
oxide of iron acting the part of an acid,
When thoroughly calcined and unfused, the ores retain their original form, and if
exposed to the air for any length of time, crumble to powder from the absorption of
water by the alkaline earths. tulaues als
5*
68 REPORT<1855.
On the Marine Aérated Freshwater Apparatus. By Dr.Normanvy*.
On a simple Volumetric Process for the Valuation of Cochineal. By Dr. F.
Penny, F.R.S.L., Prof. of Chemistry, Andersonian University, Glasgow.
Within the last few years several eminent chemists have rendered important ser-
vice to the arts by devising simple and expeditious processes for estimating the value
of technical products. In the application of volumetric methods of analysis their
labours have been most successful.
The great aim has been to combine economy of time with simplicity of manipula-
tion and accuracy of result. ‘lhe variety and extent of these investigations may be
sufficiently indicated by referring to the processes of chlorimetry, to Bunsen’s beautiful
method for iodine, Marguerite’s process for iron, Liebig’s process for chlorine and
urea, Pelouze and Schwarz’s processes for copper, the assaying of silver according to
Gay-Lussac, the employment of bichromate of potash for the estimation of iron, tin,
iodides, &c., and the recent methods of testing the potash-prussiates.
In this field of inquiry, however, much still remains to be done, both as regards
the improvement of the methods already in use, and the extension of our powers by
the application of new processes. The discovery of trustworthy methods of deter-
mining the economic value of madder, cochineal, oak-bark, logwood, and of many
other articles, is a boon still to be desired, and the attainment of which is confidently
expected from the progress of technical chemistry.
Several processes have been proposed for testing cochineal. The high price and
variable quality of this article, as well as its liability to accidental impurity and occa-
sional adulteration, render the discovery of a suitable method exceedingly desirable.
The adulterations of cochineal have frequently been noticed. The use of sulphate
of baryta and bone-black was detected and exposed many years ago. It has also
been adulterated with powdered tale and carbonate of lead, and it has at times been
found mixed with a coloured paste, moulded into small grains, to resemble, as closely
as possible, the form and outline of the insect itself.
Ground cochineal is occasionally adulterated with spent or exhausted cochineal ;
and Persoz states that the entire insect, exhausted more or less with water acidulated
with vinegar, has been dried and sold, or mixed with sound cochineal.
The substance called ‘ Garblings,’ the refuse from riddling or sifting cochineal, has
likewise been added to the article in bulk.
As imported, the principal impurities are sand, fibrous organic matter, and a
resinous substance resembling seed-lac.
Of the different methods that have been suggested for ascertaining the tinctorial
powers of cochineal, the simplest consists in exhausting a known weight with water,
and examining the liquor, made up to a certain volume by the addition of water, in the
colorimeter, according to the method proposed by Labillardiére for madder and indigo.
Berthollet estimates the comparative richness of cochineal in colouring matter by
dosing a known quantity, dissolved in water, with a standard solution of chlorine.
An ammoniacal solution of alum has also been proposed for the volumetric valua-
tion of cochineal. The insect in fine powder is exhausted with water, and the liquor
and washings, being concentrated by evaporation, are treated with a standard solution
of alum, until the whole of the colouring matter is precipitated. From the propor-
tion of alum liquor used the comparative quality of the cochineal is easily determined.
Brokers and others estimate the value of cochineal by boiling a few grains of the
samplet with a slip of flannel for a quarter of an hour, in water to which small
quantities of cream of tartar and chloride of tin are added. The flannel is afterwards
washed and dried, and according to the shade and intensity of the scarlet colour
communicated, the value of the cochineal is judged of.
The process now proposed, though far from fulfilling all that could be wished, has
been found extremely useful in comparing different samples of cochineal, and has
proved equally serviceable in examining specimens of lac-dye, than whick few com-
mercial substances are more variable in quality.
It is based on the well-known bleaching properties of red prussiate of potash in
* This invention is patented, and is employed in the Navy and at Heligoland,
+ Normandy, Commercial Analysis.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69
presence of a free alkali. The powers of red prussiate of potash as a discharger or
bleacher of organic colouring principles have been successfuliy applied by Mercer*, and
its action as an oxidizing agent fully examined and explained by Playfair, Baudraultf,
Wallace}, and others. Its rapid action upon the colouring matter of cochineal
may be seen by adding a solution of the salt to cochineal dissolved in a weak ley of
caustic potash or soda, when the rich purple colour of the cochineal liquor will be
speedily discharged.
In applying this action to testing the quality of commercial samples of cochineal,
certain precautions require to be strictly observed, and of these the most important
are, to use the solution of cochineal perfectly cold, and to finish off the process as
quickly as possible.
Process.—A fair quantity of the sample being finely pulverized, 20 grains are
weighed out, and gently heated in a beaker with half an ounce of caustic potash
solution and one ounce of water. When the colouring matter is completely dissolved,
one ounce of cold water is added, and the mixture allowed to cool.
An alkalimeter is made up with 5 grains of pure and dry red prussiate of potash
in the usual way. This solution is then dropped into the cochineal liquor till the
rich purple colour is discharged, ard the liquor assumes a yellowish-brown tint. The
moment when this effect is produced may be easily ascertained by occasionally spot-
ting a little of the liquor upon a white slab. The number of measures consumed
shows the comparative richness of the sample in available colouring matter.
In applying this method to lac-dye, the operations are the same as for cochineal,
except that a larger quantity of the lac must be employed, as the amount of colouring
matter in it is small compared with that in cochineal.
The accuracy of this process may of course be easily vitiated by the presence or
addition of any substance that acts chemically upon the agent of valuation. But
nearly all volumetric methods of analysis are open to this objection; and hence they
cannot be considered as intended for the use of those who have not sufficient chemical
knowledge to guard against such obvious sources of error.
On the Manufacture of Iodine and other Products from Kelp.
By Dr. F. Penny, F.CS.
In the course of his remarks, Dr. Penny stated that the results of some hundred tests
showed the quantities of the several ingredients found in kelp to be as follows: —In good
drift weed—soluble matter 75, insoluble matter 22, water 3, iodine per ton 14 lbs., potash
salts 7cwt. In the inferior drift-weed, which had been adulterated with sand and
stones, the proportions were—soluble matter 40, insoluble matter 50, water 10, iodine
2 lbs., potash salts 33 cwt. In cut weed, the proportions were—soluble matter 60,
insoluble matter 35, water 5, iodine 23 lbs., potash salts 5} cwt. The average produc-
tion from a ton of kelp was, from drift-weed kelp—iodine 12 lbs., muriate of potash
4% ewt. (80 per cent.), sulphate of potash 23 cwt. (55 per cent.), alkaline or fished
salt 23 cwt., and refuse sulphur 3 cwt. From cut-weed kelp the production was—
iodine 2% Ibs., muriate of potash 34 cwt. (75 per cent.), sulphate of potash 23 cwt. (30
per cent.), alkaline or fished salt 33 cwt., and refuse sulphur 3 cwt.
On the Composition and Phosphorescence of Plate-Sulphate of Potash.
By Dr. Frep. Penny, F.C.S., Prof. of Chem., Andersonian Inst., Glasgow.
[This paper may. be referred to in Phil. Mag. Dec. 1855.]
On a Process for obtaining Lithographs by the Photographie Process.
By Professor A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.
Prof. Ramsay described a process by which Mr. Robert M‘Pherson, of Rome, had
succeeded in obtaining beautiful photo-lithographs,—specimens of which had been
hung up in the Photographic Exhibition in Buchanan Street. The steps of the process
are as follows :—1. Bitumen is dissolved in sulphuric acid, and the solution is poured
on an ordinary lithographic stone. The zther quickly evaporates, and leaves a thin
coating of bitumen spread uniformly over the stone. This coating is sensitive to light,
* Chem. Soc. iii. + Journ. Pharm. vii. t Quart. Journ. vol, vii.
70 REPORT—1855.
a discovery made originally by M. Niepce of Chalons. 2. A negative on glass, or
waxed-paper, is applied to the sensitive coating of bitumen, and exposed to the full
rays of the sun for a period longer or shorter according to the intensity of the light,
and a faint impression on the bitumen is thus obtained. 3. The stone is now placed
in a bath of sulphuric ether, which almost instantaneously dissolves the bitumen, which
has not been acted upon by light, leaving a delicate picture on the stone, composed of
bitumen on which the light has fallen. 4. The stone, after being carefully washed, may
be at once placed in the hands of the lithographer, who is to treat it in the ordinary
manner with gum and acid, after which proofs may be thrown off by the usual process.
Prof. Ramsay then proceeded to state, that the above process, modified, had been
employed with success to etch plates of steel or copper, without the use of the
burin :—1. The metal plate is prepared with a coating of bitumen, precisely in the
manner noticed above. 2. A positive picture on glass or paper is then applied to the
bitumen, and an impression is obtained by exposure to light. 3. The plate is placed
in a bath of ether, and the bitumen not acted upon by light is dissolved out. A beau-
tiful negative remains on the plate. 4. The plate is now to be plunged into a galvano-
plastic bath, and gilded. The gold adheres to the bare metal, but refuses to attach
itself to the bitumen. 5. The bitumen is now removed entirely by the action of spirits
and gentle heat. The lines of the negative picture are now represented in bare steel
- or copper, the rest of the plate being covered by a coating of gold. 6. Nitric acid is
now applied as in the common etching process, The acid attacks the lines of the
picture formed by the bare metal, but will not bite into the gilded surface. A perfect
etching is thus obtained.
On the Composition of Vandyke-Brown.
By Tuos. H. Rowney, Ph.D., FCS.
This pigment is of organic origin, and is obtained from the peat beds in Cassel in
Germany. It is a brown earthy-looking substance, a little heavier than water. It
was found to be an organic acid with about 6:00 of earthy matter. The formula
deduced from the analyses is C5,Ho9 Ogg. It is very soluble in alkaline solutions, and
forms salts with various metals and alkaline earths. Being a distinct mineral, the
name Vandykite is proposed for it.
On the Composition of two Mineral Substances employed as Pigments.
By Tuos. H. Rowney, Ph.D., F.CS.
In this communication two new minerals are described which have for some con-
siderable time been employed as pigment, but had not previously been described,
The first, called Indian red, is brought from the Persian Gulf. It occurs as a
coarse powder of a deep red colour; its sp. gr. is 8°848. By analysis it was found
to be a silicate of iron, having the formula Fe,O3;+Si0,. This corresponds in con-
stitution to xenolite, which is a silicate of alumina of the formula Al,O3 + SiO,,
The second mineral, called raw sienna, is obtained from Sienna. It is a soft
earthy substance, of a brownish-yellow colour; its sp. gr. is 3-46. It is hydrated
silicate of iron containing a small quantity of alumina, and has the formula
4(Fe O03, Al,O3)+Si0,+6HO. The name proposed for it is Hypoxanthite; in con-
stitution it resembles opaline allophane, and Schrotterite.
Hypoxanthite ......... 4(Fe,O3, Al, O3) +Si0;+ 6HO
Opaline allophane ... 4Al,O, +8i03;+18HC
Schrotterite......... .. 4Al, O3 +8i03;+16HO.
On certain Laws observed in the mutual action of Sulphuric Acid and Water.
By Batrour Stewart.
The object of this paper is to show that in mixtures of sulphuric acid and water
there is a distinct dependence on the chemical equivalents of these substances, and
several hydrates are indicated.
The method of analysis used is applicable to other solutions.
When sulphuric acid combines with water the space occupied by the compound is
less than that occupied by the ingredients when uncombined, and consequently the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71
specific gravity of the mixture is greater than it would have been had no contraction
taken place.
Assuming the specific gravity of strong liquid acid to be 1°8485 (that of water
being 1), we may find what ought to be the specific gravity of any mixture of acid
and water, did no contraction take place.
By Dr. Ure’s table we can tell the actual specific gravity of such a mixture.
Dividing this by the former, we have the proportional condensation.
The proportional condensation is greatest for strength 73 of Dr. Ure’s table, which
denotes a hydrate composed of 1 equivalent liquid actd and 2 equivalents of water.
Let us now suppose all mixtures stronger than a given mixture to be formed by the
combination of that mixture with liquid acid, and all mixtures weaker than it to be
formed by its combination with water.
If we call this given mixture our standard, and take its specific gravity from Dr.
Ure’s table, we shall, by means of it, be referred to new proportional condensations
different from those already alluded to.
Taking as our standards strengths 40, 43 and 45, we are referred to a maximum
of condensation at strength 73, as before.
Taking as our standards strengths 50, 53 and 55, we are referred to a maximum
between strengths 84 and 85, denoting a hydrate composed of 1 equivalent of liquid
acid and 1 equivalent of water.
Taking as our standards strengths 38, 40 and 45, we are referred to a maximum
at strength 82, denoting probably a hydrate composed of 5 equivalents of liquid acid
and 6 equivalents of water.
From this it appears, that were we to use as standards all the 100 strengths in
Dr. Ure’s table, we should be referred to maxima of condensation the number of
which would be much less than 100. May we not infer, that when liquids or
other substances mix with each other in all proportions, all strengths of such mix-
tures may be viewed as derived from definite compounds having a tendency to com-
bine with their components and with each other, thereby forming other compounds,
so that at length mixtures of any strength may be produced ?
It might be advantageous to lay off the different strengths in Dr. Ure’s table as
abscissze of a curve, of which the corresponding proportional condensations (for a
given standard) are the ordinates; thus the irregularities would become apparent,
It might also be advantageous to apply this analysis to metallic alloys and amal-
gams, where it would probably indicate those possessed of properties the most marked.
On the Condition of the Atmosphere during Cholera.
By R.D. THomson, .D., F.RS.
_ The chemical condition of cholera atmospheres is a question of intense interest in
_ the subject of public health; but, with the exception of the unpublished experiments
of Dr. Prout in 1832, comparatively little attention appears to have been bestowed
onit. One of the most striking circumstances connected with the occurrence of the
disease is, that no change very palpable to the senses prevails, and even one may
have remarked that the weather has usually been exceedingly agreeable. In Lon-
don, at St. Thomas’s Hospital, the neighbourhood of which afforded a large supply of
cholera cases, the relative weight of the air in August 1854, a cholera month, and in
August 1855, when the metropolis was in an extremely healthy condition, is exhi-
bited in the following table, in grains per cubic foot :—
1854. Weight of 1855. Weight of
cubic foot cubic foot
Week ending | in grains. Week ending in grains.
August 5 ...} 522-9 August 4 ...) 516:9
» 12 ..| 526-7 » Il ...| 5243
» 19 ...| 525-0 » 18 ...| 525-9
» 26. ...| 5235 » 25 ...| 519-2
Sept. 2 ...| 525-1 Sept. 1 ...| 523-0
» 9 eal 580°3 seen Ge BPG
Mean...... 525°6 Mean......| 523°5
72 REPORT—1855.
The result, as deduced from this table, which has been calculated approximately from
the barometric pressure and dry- and wet-bulb thermometer, is analogous to that
obtained by Dr. Prout in 1832, as the author was informed by himself. Correspond-
ing observations have been made at Greenwich by Mr. Glaisher, and the same con-
clusions arrived at; from which it would appear that this superior weight of a given
bulk of air was not a local phenomenon, but was diffused to considerable distances.
The character distinguishing September 1854 from the corresponding period in
1855, was the absence of any atmospheric action on ozone test-paper in the
former season, while during the present year the oxidizing influence of the air has
never been absent at St. Thomas’s Hospital. During September 1854, however,
when no ozone could be detected in London, its action was sometimes faintly and
often very strongly marked at Lewisham, near Greenwich. Throughout the same
periods the air was exceedingly stagnant; and it has since been observed by Mr.
Glaisher, and also at Vienna, that rapid atmospheric movement is pretty constantly
accompanied by an oxidizing condition of the air. With reference to the chemical
composition in the atmosphere of inhabited localities and of malarious districts, expe-
riments have usually been conducted on the constitution of the gases which enter
into the composition of the air. But the results seem to have thrown little light on
the possibility of the production, from such causes, of any disease characterized by a
regular sequence of symptoms. So far as our knowledge warrants, gases can either
act only as asphyxiating media by the exclusion of oxygen, or as slow or rapid poi-
sons. The cause capable of inducing a disease formed on a peculiar type, analogy
leads us to infer must be an organized condition, either in ‘a solid form or in a finely
diffused or vaporific state. ‘The fact observed, that in malarious atmospheres sulphuric
acid speedily becomes black, also points to the propriety of examining the air in such
situations, with the view of filtering from it solid or condensable matter. In the epi-
demic of 1849-50, the author examined the exterior air of an infected district with
this object in view, to the extent of many cubic feet; but the result was comparatively
negative, and led to the inference that the examination of large masses of air could
alone hold out any prospect of a successful issue. For this purpose air was passed
through carefully prepared distilled water, contained in Woulfe’s bottles, by means of
a large aspirating apparatus of the capacity of 16 cubic feet, which was kept constantly
in action during the day for several months. Occasionally, freezing mixtures were
applied to portions of the apparatus, and a tube filled with pumice moistened with
sulphuric acid placed next the aspirator completed the series. A range of tubes con-
ducted the air from a cholera ward into the aspirator. The ward was 32 feet long,
20 feet wide, and 9 feet high. The air was drawn from the centre of the ward near
the ceiling; and when the apartment was filled with cholera patients, the air, after
traversing several layers of distilled water, was speedily charred by the sulphuric acid,
previously depositing a variety of solids in all the Woulfe’s bottles, which could even
be detected in some measure by the eye. The objects consisted of blue and red cotton
fibres from the dresses of the inmates, portions of hair, wool, fungi, sporules of fungi,
abundance of vibriones or lower forms of animal life, with particles of silica and dirt.
In this and all the experiments conducted on the air of closed apartments, the distilled
water was rendered strongly acid from the presence of sulphuric and sulphurous acids
derived from the products of gas and coal combustion. The distilled water employed
in these experiments was boiled for some time previous to being introduced into the
apparatus, and was divided into two portions; one part being placed in a stoppered
bottle beside the Woulfe’s bottles through which the air was conducted, the sediment,
if any, being afterwards examined and compared with that resulting from the experi-
ment. When the ward was partially full, vegetable epiderm, vegetable cellular tissue,
fragments of wood, cotton, linen, vegetable hairs, a sponge spicula, minute fungi,
spiral vessels, sporules, spore cases, animal epithelium, oil-globules, and siliceous
particles were detected; while vibriones were entirely absent, or at least mere traces
could be discriminated. This is an interesting result, since in the first case only 98°6
cubic feet were examined, and of the partially empty ward 240 cubic feet passed
through the apparatus. When the ward was empty, cotton fibres, wool, a trace of
fungus with carbonaceous and siliceous particles were alone discernible, the amount
of air examined being 304 cubic feet. The air external to the ward and in the im-
mediate neighbourhood afforded, from 560 cubic feet, one cotton fibre, one of wool,
a crystalline body (probably a sponge spicula), sporules, beautiful mycelia of fungi in
various stages of development, and some carbonaceous matter. The distilled water
————
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 73
in this instance likewise yielded a strongly acid reaction, produced by sulphur acids.
The possible influence of sewer atmospheres predicated interesting results from an
examination of such air; and accordingly it was found that the predominating feature
of this experiment was animal life in the form of swarms of vibriones in various
stages of advancement. The chemical reaction in this case, unlike that in the pre-
ceding experiments, was invariably alkaline, due to the evolution of ammonia from
the nitrogenous matters contained in the sewage liquors. ‘These experiments render
it sufficiently obvious that organic living bodies constantly surround us in close apart-
ments, and particularly that animal matter under certain circumstances is likewise
diffused through such atmospheres. They fail to point out any matter capable of
communicating cholera from one individual to another through the medium of the
air, and therefore are highly important to the public; but they show that foreign
animal matter injurious to health may speedily be concentrated in certain localities,
which will undoubtedly assist in the production and propagation of disease in con-
junction with meteorological conditions. Pathological investigations, carefully con-
ducted by the author’s colleague, Mr. Rainey, detected in one case an entozoon in
the glottis or upper part of the air-passage, the only analogue of which has been
found in the substance of the muscle of animals, which would seem to indicate that the
germ of this creature had been derived from the atmosphere, or at least from external
sources.
It is intended that these experiments, which are tedious and laborious in their
character, shall be extended to other atmospheres, so as to obtain comparative series
of views, so to speak, of air modified by the influence of different diseases.
On Caseine, and a method of determining Sulphur and Phosphorus in Organic
Compounds in one operation. By Dr. AuG. V@LcKER, Prof. of Chemistry
in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
When milk is mixed with a saturated solution of common salt and heated, the
caseine coagulates like albumen, and separates almost completely, if sufficient salt-
solution has been employed.
The caseine, thus separated from milk, washed, dried, and exhausted with alcohol
and zther, on analysis furnished the following results :—
Carbon.......... 50°97
Hydrogen ...... 7°48
Nitrogen ........ 15°09
Oxygen ........ 17°99
Sulphur sos. sic' | Udo
Phosphorus,..... *89
BLM race wstesias.. OL90
The ash consisted chiefly of phosphate of lime, which rendered it doubtful whether
or not there was any phosphorus present in another state, as that of phosphoric acid.
With the view of determining this point, the impure caseine obtained with com-
mon salt was dissolved in dilute caustic ammonia, the solution filtered and precipi-
tated with acetic acid. It was then washed with cold distilled water, dried, and again
extracted with alcohol and zther. Dried at 110°C., it furnished, on combustion
with chromate of lead, the following results :—
Ash deducted.
Carbon .......... 53°43 ...... 53°61
Hydrogen........ 712 ...... 7:14
Miimomenie. titente. 15°SG2 bi cere doae
Oxygen.......... 21°92 ...... 21:99
Sulphuncder avente Tel 20%. 111
Phosphorus ...... "74 wees “74
Ash cate eee s . °32
100°00 100-00
It was thus remarkably free from inorganic matters, and the phosphorus mentioned
74 REPORT—1855.
in the analysis cannot therefore have occurred in the caseine in the form of a phos-
phate, but must have existed in it in a peculiar state of organic combination. This
amount of phosphorus is equal to 1°70 of phosphoric acid, a quantity nearly six times
as large as the whole amount of ash in the sample of caseine analysed.
~ In caseine prepared at different times, invariably free phosphorus, amounting from
*50 to ‘75 per cent., was detected.
The method employed for determining sulphur and phosphorus in caseine, in one
operation, was the following :—
About 18 grs. of the dried and finely powdered caseine was mixed with six times
its weight of a mixture of pure carbonate of soda and nitre, and this mixture intro-
duced in small quantities into a large red-hot silver or platinum crucible. The white
fused mass was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the sulphuric acid thrown down
with chloride of barium. From the weight of the sulphate of baryta the sulphur was
calculated. The excess of baryta was next removed with pure sulphuric acid, after
which the acid liquid was supersaturated with caustic ammonia, which precipitated a
small amount of phosphates. The ammonia precipitate was collected on a filter,
washed, dried, and weighed. ‘The filtrate was finally mixed with an ammoniacal
solution of sulphate of magnesia, which threw down the phosphoric acid; produced
under the oxidizing influence of nitre from the organic phosphorus contained in the
caseine,
Comparative experiments with sugar and the same oxidizing mixture employed in
the phosphorus-determination of caseine, gave only negative results, and thus showed
that there was no phosphorus present in any form in the mixture of carbonate of
soda and nitre.
On some of the Basic Constituents of Coal-Naphtha. By C. GREvILLE
WItuiaMs, Assistant to Dr. ANDERSON, Glasgow University.
In this paper, which forms part of a series of researches on the volatile organic
bases, the author shows, that although the points of difference between the gelatinous
tissue of bones, cinchonine, coal, and bituminous shale, are as well marked as it is
possible for them to be, that, nevertheless, the volatile alkaloids produced by their
destructive distillation are almost identical, thus :—
Gelatinous Tissues. Cinchonine. Coal. Dorset Shale.
Pyrrol*. Pyrrolf. Pyrrol§. Pyrrol.
Pyridine*. Pyridine . da Pyridine**,
Picoline*. Picoline +. Picoline||. Picoline J.
Lutidine*. Lutidine }. vee LutidineY.
Collidine*. Collidine f. nae Collidine .
200 Chinoline. Chinoline §. Parvoline 4.
Aniline*. Lepidinet. Aniline §.
Three intervals are seen to exist in the coal series, namely pyridine, lutidine, and
collidine. The author proceeds to show, that by a careful fractional distillation of the
bases obtained by treatment of crude naphtha with sulphuric acid, and subsequent
distillation of the acid liquid with lime, fluids may be obtained boiling at 242°, 310°,
and 845° Fahr. He converted these fractions into platinum salts, which on analysis
gave numbers almost exactly agreeing with those required by theory for the three bases
last mentioned.
As a further confirmation of the identity of the pyridine from coal-tar with that from
bone-oil, he transformed the platinum salt by protracted boiling with water into the
bibydrochlorate of platino-pyridine,
C8 HL 2HCI
pe f2 ,
the per-centage of platinum corresponding closely with that required by the formula,
* Anderson, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinb., vol. xvi. part 4; vol. xx. part 2; and vol. xxi. part 1.
t Gerhardt, Revue Scientif., vol. x. p. 186.
+ Greville Williams, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinb., vol. xxi. part 2.
§ Runge (1834), Poggendorff’s Annalen, vols. xxxi. & xxxii.
|| Anderson, Trans. Royal Soc. Edinb., vol. xvi. part 2.
Greville Williams (1854), Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc. Lond.
** Greville Williams (1854), Phil. Mag.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75
On a Process for obtaining and purifying Glycerine, and on some of its
Applications. By G. F. Wiuson.
The manner in which it is prepared is by placing a piece of common fat in a quan-
tity of supersaturated steam ; the fat is decomposed, and resolves itself into two sub-
stances, viz. an acid and glycerine. The latter, having a taste like sugar, is applicable
to the cure of burns, rheumatism, and ear diseases; it is a substitute for cod-liver oil,
and also for spirits of wine; also for the preservation of flesh ; and can be applied to
photography, and preserving animals in their natural colours.
GEOLOGY.
On the condition of the Haukedalr G'eysers of Iceland, July, 1855.
By Rosert Auian, PRS, PGS. &e.
Tue Geysers of Iceland, like most volcanic phenomena in other regions, are change-
able in their action, and from time to time alter in their character and appearance.
Some of them, it is a well-ascertained fact, are steadily increasing in activity and
intensity, while others are as distinctly growing weaker. Those of Haukedalr,
towards the south-western extremity of the island, are the hot springs best known
to us; and although there can be little question that they fall under the category of
diminishing Geysers, their action is still powerful, and their structure most remark-
able. These Geysers, according to well-authenticated Icelandic history, came into
existence in the fifteenth century, namely, in the year 1446. What phenomena
attended their eruption at that period we are not informed, but their action is under-
stood among scientific men in Iceland, to have been then and long after much more
powerful than it now is; nor is the statement made by Olavsen and Paulson, that
the eruption of the Great Geyser in the year 1772 rose to the height of 360 feet,
however incredible in our eyes, disbelieved by well-informed men in that country.
But coming down to our own times, and taking facts upon which there can be no
possible doubt, we still find the description and drawings of these Geysers, as de-
tailed by each successive visitor who has published any account of them during the
current century, differ materially in particulars. Sir George Mackenzie’s narrative,
in 1810, is a faithful and interesting one; but the changes which have occurred
in the “har forty-five years are sufficiently remarkable to render them worthy
of record.
The entire area of these hot springs cannot exceed sixteen or twenty acres, and
its extreme length from north to south is not above a quarter of a mile. They are
situated at the foot of Langarfiall, a crag about 300 feet high, upon rather elevated
flat ground, commanding a wide open view over a fine verdant plain to the east and
south, Blafell and other mountains partly capped with snow rising to the north with
great magnificence. Even the white point of Hecla may be distinguished in this
locality some thirty miles distant.
This area or field slopes to the south, and also falls away towards the river on the
east, so that the Great Geysers is situated not only towards the northern, but also
on the higher portion of the ground. The Strokr is distant about 120 yards south-
ward of the Geyser; and the little Strokr perhaps 100 yards still farther south and
in nearly a direct line. These are the three principal springs at present erupting,
and although there are from forty to fifty other apertures in the vicinity, and par-
ticularly towards the lower or southern extremity of the field, some of which emit
water with violent ebullition and much noise, yet to these three alone can the title
_ of either Geyser or Strokr be properly applied—the former, that is the Geyser,
meaning “‘ Agitator,”’ and the latter, or Strokr, being the common Icelandic name
for a churn. To the Strokrs the appellation of Roaring Geyser and New Geyser are
given by previous travellers; but as this rather tends to confusion, we shall retain the
names given them by the peasantry, about which there can be no misapprehension.
On still higher ground than even the Geyser, and more towards the aforemen-
76 REPORT—1855.
tioned crag, are two tremendous holes or underground caverns, 30 or 40 feet deep,
filled and seething over with boiling water of the most perfect limpidity. These are
coated to their edge with a thin crust of earth or crumbly rock; and although really
beautiful objects, such vast caldrons can scarcely be gazed into from so unsound a
margin without a certain feeling of awe. Several of the holes in the lower portion
of the field are of a similar description, being, in fact, irregularly shaped caverns,
quietly running over with boiling water, which to their bottom is as clear as crystal,
and of a fine light green hue. In one of them we observed large bubbles, probably
a foot in diameter, rapidly evolved, and rising in one direct line from some lower
region to another higher up, but which did not ascend to the surface; nor could we
perceive that they had any direct communication with other orifices in the vicinity,
although undoubtedly some such existed. Some of the smaller holes bubble out
water with much noise, and six of these, we noticed, close to others perfectly limpid,
emitted boiling mud.
The paramount objects, however, of this wonderful locality are the Geyser and
the two Strokrs, and to these we shall confine our remarks.
The Geyser is the only one of the three which has formed a mound or siliceous
deposit round its orifice. From the sloping nature of the ground this mound is
more than one-half higher on the east than it is on the west side, and extends three
or four times farther in the former than it does in the latter direction, attributable,
probably, to the greater prevalence of westerly winds in this locality.
The western side may be 15 to 20 feet in height, the eastern can be little short of
25 or 30. The northern, the western, and the southern are comparatively abrupt,
while that on the east slopes away gradually; but throughout, they form one mass
of siliceous deposit, which is roughened on the surface with what, at a little di-
stance, might be taken for an irregular circular flight of steps. The section of the
Geyser may be compared to a funnel, its pipe or orifice resembling the stalk, and its
cup or basin the head of that utensil. The cup is nearly round, its diameters
taken in opposite directions being 72°6 and 68°1; while its depth, measuring per-
pendicularly from a line drawn across its margin, appeared to be nearly 4 feet. The
pipe we ascertained to be 83°2 in depth, and rather more than 10 feet in diameter.
Under ordinary circumstances, when the Geyser is quiescent, this cup and pipe
are filled to the brim with limpid hot water, which ever and anon, but at totally
irregular periods, boils up in the centre, and then the water runs over, principally at
the points where the lip is a few inches lower than elsewhere in the circle. This is
a mere abortive attempt ; when, however, an eruption takes place, which almost
invariably is preceded by a premonitory subterranean rumbling noise, resembling the
looming of distant cannon, and by a trembling of the earth under foot, these ebullitions
rise higher, first in a mass of 2 or 3 feet, which opens in the centre, and surges
outwards like a wave, and then the water is suddenly ejected into the air, with the
velocity and din of some hundred sky-rockets, the entire mound being immediately
overflowed. This occurred four times during the thirty-six hours we were on the
spot, two of these eruptions being on the grandest and most brilliant scale; which,
after waiting patiently for no less than twenty-seven hours, without the slightest
appearance of action, we were fortunate enough to witness, the first at half-past eleven
at night, the other at six the following morning. After an eruption, the water re-
cedes in the pipe, and not only is the cup left entirely dry, but 8 or 10 feet of
the pipe is likewise emptied. The inside of the pipe appears perfectly smooth, and
is nearly circular ; but the cup, or upper portion of the funnel, as well as the entire
mound outside of it, are both covered with siliceous incrustations, deposited by the
water, and doubtless still more by the volumes of steam or spray arising from it.
Inside of the cup, these incrustations present a smooth, dull ash-gray coloured crust,
dotted with occasional pure white concretions of extreme beauty. When broken up,
this crust yields an exceedingly hard sinter, bearing considerable resemblance in
colour, when cut and polished, to some varieties of madrepore. Outside the mound,
these incrustations assume the figure of cauliflower heads, and many other forms,
which, although deposited perfectly white, shortly become gray; and which, not-
withstanding their being as entirely siliceous as those of the hard sinter inside the
cup, are too porous and fibrous in their structure to admit of being polished. But
the finest specimens of these incrustations are to be found at some of the smaller ori-
fices lower down the field, where they are much varied in colour, structure, and
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77
appearance ; often so extremely fragile, as to crumble on being handled, and occa-
sionally forming mere coatings of the most delicate description, on vegetable or
bony matter—nay, even upon portions of clothing material, or scraps of writing or
printed paper.
Both of the Strokrs differ from the Geyser in being mere round holes or pipes,
neither funnel-shaped at their orifices nor raised above the surface of the ground.
They likewise differ from it in the fact that they afford no premonitory symptom of
a coming eruption—no previous warning, but all at once dart into the atmosphere
with extreme violence. The depth of the Strokr approximates to that of the Great
Geyser—being, according to our measurement, 87% feet, but the diameter of its pipe
is rather under 9 feet.
Shortly after our arrival, the guides cut about a barrowful of turf, which they
threw into this Strokr. This at first apparently stopped the violent ebullitiou which
can be seen always going forward in this remarkable spring at the depth of 10 or
12 feet, but in the course of ten minutes it began to roar, and then we had an
instantaneous and truly magnificent eruption. The water did not appear in acolumn,
as most fountains do, but in a continued intermittent series of many jets all at one
moment, having different forces, and unitedly presenting one grand pyramidal jet
d’eau of the most symmetrical and graceful description. Calculating from a little
distance in proportion to the figures standing by it, we were satisfied that some of
the principal ejections on this occasion—and there were fully thirty of them, lasting
in all about ten minutes—must have been from 90 to 100 feet in height, and darkened
as the water naturally appeared from the turf thrown into it, the effect was exceed-
ingly striking. About twelve hours afterwards we repeated the dose, but the Strokr
would not act until it received a double allowance, and then it did so much to
the same effect as previously, throwing up stones and portions of the turf to its
highest elevation. Three times subsequently during our short stay it erupted spon-
taneously, but on none of the occasions was it so fine as when provoked by our
feeding it with turf. The Little Strokr is very violentand very noisy. Its eruptions
are feathery and extremely beautiful, although it rarely rises above 30 feet, and
from the less regular form of its orifice, is not so symmetrical as its larger namesake.
The action of these hot springs during eruption is not that of a mass of water
driven up in column, as the description and drawings of most previous visitors
would lead one to expect. The old print published by Sir John Stanley so far back
as 1789 comes nearer to what we witnessed than anything bearing more recent date.
Instead of a column, it is rather that of a multitude of jets possessing different in-
tensities, all working simultaneously ; so that, whilst a few of them rise perpendicu-
larly and attain the highest elevation, others having less power apparently stop short,
and others again, being slightly inclined, are thrown out somewhat obliquely—all
this, be it remembered, at one and the same moment, the jets intermitting, altering,
and repeating their action with the utmost rapidity, and affording to an onlooker,
on a quiet day, one of the most sublime and magnificent objects in nature. No
doubt the ejection from the orifice of the pipe takes place in a columnar mass. This
we distinctiy observed it did at the Great Geyser, to the height of 10 to 15 feet above
the rim of the cup; but being accompanied, as these eruptions of boiling water
naturally are, by vast volumes of steam, and withal so rapidly changeful in their
movements, it is not easy to ascertain exactly what goes on near the orifice at the
moment of propulsion. But under no circumstance did this column, as it issued
10 feet diameter from the mouth of the pipe, remain long in that form. It surged
outwards, and was in.mediately forced up in jets, which, rising abruptly above the
volumes of steam, broke in the most graceful feathery masses in every direction.
Stones thrown in, and particularly the masses of turf with which we supplied the
Strokr, were driven out to the highest extremity of these jets, some of them falling
outwards, and others dropping into the vortex, and being a second or a third time
driven into the atmosphere. How all this takes place—the structure of the ma-
chinery which causes such magnificent action—or, in fact, what goes on underground,
it is not my province to speculate upon.
I close these remarks by noticing a few of the recent changes which are observable
in this locality. Sir John Stanley in 1789 found the pipe of the Geyser 61 feet deep,
and 84 in diameter. The funnel, or basin, as he terms it, is stated at that period to
have been 8 feet in depth and 60 feet in diameter. ‘Both of these,” he says, “have
78 REPORT—1855.
been evidently formed by gradual deposition from the water, and a mound round
them has in like manner been formed 30 feet high, and extending in-various direc-
tions to distances of 80, 100 or 120 feet.”’ The great eruptions, which by theodo-
lite he ascertained to rise 96 feet, took place every two hours, and lasted 15 to 20
minutes. The Strokr he states to be 6 feet 10 inches in diameter, and its eruption
to be much more columnar than that of the Geyser, and rising to the height of 132
feet. In 1810 Sir George Mackenzie found the pipe 60 feet deep and 10 in diameter,
and its basin only 3 feet deep, and from 46 to 58 feet across—the configuration
of the latter in his time not being round, but indented, as it were, at one side. The
Geyser eruption he estimated as rising to 90 feet, and the periods of its action were
more frequent than now. The Strokr, Sir George says, played magnificently to the
height of 70 feet for half an hour at a time. Henderson, in 1815, who paid the
locality two visits, estimated the Geyser eruption at 150 feet, and that of the Strokr
as even higher than 200 feet. The French in 1836 made the depth of the Geyser
751 feet, the breadth of the basin 523, the height of its eruptions 105, and the dia-
meter of the pipe 16 feet. The Strokr they noticed to rise to the height of 92 feet,
and the diameter of its pipe they give at 8 feet, and its depth at 65 feet.
Professor Bunsen, in 1846, who spent eleven days upon the locality, found the Gey-
ser about 66 feet deep, and estimated its eruption at 140 up to 177 feet. The Strokr,
he says, is 43 feet deep, and only 7 in diameter, and he estimated its eruption at 160
feet. Comparing these descriptions and measurements with each other and with
our own, it is pretty evident, that whether the intensity of the eruptions of these
Geysers be greater or less now than they have been during the past seventy years, they
assuredly have fallen off exceedingly, both in their frequency and in their duration.
No doubt the action is more powerful at one time than another, or at one season
than another ; indeed it is believed to be more so in damp and wet weather than
during dry seasons. The supply of water to the springs must vary, and the evapo-
ration at the surface, dependent on the currents of air, may also have its effect upon
their action. Still, that the quantity of water emitted from them on the whole is
much less than it once was, there can be no question.
Sir John Stanley found the great eruptions of the Geyser take place every two
hours. Henderson, in 1815, says that the Geyser erupted in the most imposing
manner every six hours. We waited twenty-seven hours before anything of the kind
occurred; and the eruptions of the Strokr, which Sir George Mackenzie gazed upon for
half an hour at a time, never now last above eight or ten minutes. Another obvious
change has been going forward, and is still progressing, inthe mound of the Geyser,
arising from the rapid deposit of siliceousmatter uponits sides. The edge of thismound
forms the rim of the circular cup, which Sir John Stanley and Sir George Mackenzie
both describe as about 60 feet across. This has now extended, still however in a
nearly circular form, to no less than 68 by 72, and the size and bulk of the mound
must have correspondingly increased. On the whole, such decided changes upon the
aspect of these Haukedalr Geysers leave little doubt that their action is becoming
rapidly weaker, and that the time may not be far distant when their forces, like those
of Hecla in the vicinity, will become nearly quiescent. There are other similar hot
springs in the island, especially to the north, which are known, on the contrary, to
be steadily increasing ; and I am sanguine of having it in my power shortly to place
in the hands of our scientific men a detailed account of some of these to us hitherto
almost unknown Geysers in Iceland.
On the Superficial Deposits laid open by the Cuttings on the Inverness and
Nairn Railroad. By GEorGE ANDERSON.
On the recent Discovery of Ichthyolites and Crustacea in the Tilestones of
Kington, Herefordshire. By Ricuarp Banks. Communicated by the
President.
The discovery of fossil fishes and minerals, highly illustrative portions of the
crustacean Pterygotus, by Mr. R. Banks, was adverted to by Sir R. Murchison, the
detailed description of which was referred to the Geological Society of London.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79
Notice of the Discovery of Ichthyosawrus and other Fossils in the late
Arctic Searching Expedition, 1852-54. By Captain Sir Epwarp
Betcuer, C.B.
The position where the remains of the Ichthyosaurus were found on the summit
of Exmouth Island, about 700 feet above the sea-level, is in lat. 77° 16’ N., and
long. 96° W. ‘The upper stratum of limestone is about 30 fect in thickness,
dipping at an angle of 7° westerly. The inferior stratum is of red sandstone of
B deep red colour, which gave to the island, in the first instance, the name of Red
sland,
The base of the island is of a friable disintegrating sandstone, which has been
worn away on all sides, leaving the concentric elevation equal to one-third of its
original diameter, and rising so abruptly from its base as to be accessible only on
its western end.
These fossils were examined by Professor Owen, and described as follows :—
“ The specimens submitted to me by Captain Sir Edward Belcher, which form
the subjects of plate 31, are fossil remains of vertebre and portions of ribs of an
Ichthyosaurus.
“Figs. 1, 2, and 3 represent the largest and best preserved fossil, which is the body
of an anterior abdominal vertebra. It presents the ichthyic character of the con-
cavity of the articular surface on both the front and back part of the centrum c; with
the character of co-existing diapophyses d and parapophyses p, not known in fishes,
but which the Enaliosawria present in their anterior trunk-vertebre, in common
with the Dinosauria, Crocodilia, and other highly organized reptiles. The generic
characters of the Ichthyosaurus are manifested in the shortness (7. e. the relatively
small fore and aft diameter) of the centrum as compared with its breadth and height,
and in the shape of the neurapophysial surfaces p, and their proportions to the
free neural surface x. With regard to the specific character of this vertebral cen-
trum, its proportions pretty closely accord with those of the Ichthyosaurus acutus
from the Whitby lias ; but this would be quite inadequate ground for a reference of
the Arctic Ichthyosaur to that species in the absence of any evidence of the shape
of its skull and dentition.
“ Figs. 4 to 7 are of a terminal caudal vertebra, of the natural size, apparently of
the same species of Ichthyosaur and probably from the same individual as the ver-
tebre figs. 1-3, from the more advanced part of the body.
“The small caudal vertebra equally manifests the Ichthyosaurian characters in its
degree of biconcavity and in the form of the neurapophysial pits mp; the lateral
compression of the centrum indicates the vertebral development of the tegumentary
tail-fin it helped to support: on the under surface are four surfaces for the hemal
arches, which are articulated, as in the Crocodiles, at the vertebral interspaces to
two contiguous centrums.
“Figs. 8 to 11 are portions of ribs. The long, free, thoracic-abdominal pleurapo-
physes, or vertebral ribs, of the Ichthyosaurus are peculiar for the deep longitudinal
groove which impresses them on each side, giving to their transverse section the
form represented in fig. 10. Two fragments of ribs, figs. 8 and 9, found associated
with the before-described vertebra, present this grooved character, and, with the
vertebrze, afford cumulative proof of the Ichthyosaurian nature of the Arctic fossils
represented in plate 31*.”
It was on the centre of the island, at its highest pitch, and at a vertical bluff
where a cairn was constructed, that these remains, accompanied by other fossils,
were noticed; and at the last moment, on finishing the pile, two specimens were
presented by one of the men, apparently fossil bones ; but, from anxiety to proceed
and save the season, were hastily thrust into the pocket, and consigned, with others,
for future scrutiny.
It is remarkable that no fossiliferous limestone is met with on the westernmost
cliff of Exmouth Island, nor on any of the lands outside of an oval space which
would include Princess Royal Island, and the cliffs adjacent—on an axis of twenty-
five miles; nor do any further traces of fossils of any description re-appear until
* Impressions of the Plates referred to were presented to the Association,
80 REPORT—1855.
reaching the entrance of Cardigan Strait, in 76° 38’ N., where they only occur in
boulders on the beach; and the next position southerly is Cape Eden, in 75° 30’,
where the ‘ Assistance’ wintered in 1853-54.
On the Glacial Phenomena of the Lake District of England.
By James Bryce, F.G.S.
Mr. Bryce pointed out the peculiar geological structure of the district, illustrated
by acoloured map. There are three granitic districts, encircled by slate of three
different ages, the granites and slates being all very distinct and easily recognized
when found in remote places. These rocks are found to be transported to great
distances, in various directions, across valleys and over high ridges, and the cause
adequate to produce the phenomena is a matter still in dispute among geologists.
In order to elucidate, if possible, this obscure subject, Mr. Bryce had carefully
examined the many mountain valleys radiating in all directions from the high
mountain mass of the Great Gabel, and found various evidences of the former action
of glaciers in all these valleys. They seem to have descended from a nucleus in the
higher bosoms of the mountains, to have filled the valleys, and spread out over the
low country at the base, all round the lake district. In confirmation of this view,
various arguments were stated, and the directions of the striz pointed out on a map
on which they had been laid down by the compass.
On a lately discovered Tract of Granite in Arran.
By James Bryce, F.G.S.
On sections of Fossils from the Coal Formation of Mid-Lothian.
By ALEXANDER Bryson.
Ancient Canoes found at Glasgow. By Jonn Bucuanan, Glasgow.
The very considerable number of these primitive vessels, discovered from time to
time at Glasgow, belonging to the wild people who inhabited this part of Scotland
at a period long antecedent to the dawn of British history, is not alittle remarkable,
and seems fairly entitled to some consideration, not merely as raising curious moot
points in archeology, but as tending to reflect glimmerings of light, feeble though
these may be, on the physical condition of the locality in which a great city now
stands, at an epoch so deep in the dark night of Time, as to be, to us, utterly
unknown.
Without, however, entering at present upon archeological topics, I shall confine
myself to a narrative of the facts connected with the canoe discoveries. And here I
may observe that I happened to possess favourable opportunities for personally
inspecting the greater number of these ancient boats, through the courtesy of the late
Mr. David Bremner, the talented engineer on the river Clyde, who sent me timely
notice of each discovery, and thus enabled me to see them while in situ.
Within the last eighty years, no less than seventeen canoes have been revealed at
Glasgow. This little ancient fleet was of the most primitive kind. Each boat was
formed out of a single oak-tree. Some were more rudely shaped than others, and
had evidently been hollowed out principally by the action of fire, assisted by blunt
tools, probably of stone. All had the aspect of great antiquity.
The physical position of Glasgow is in a valley, several miles wide, through
which the Clyde pursues its course from east to west, expanding into an estuary
about twenty-five miles distant. The more ancient portion of the city is built on a
ridge of considerable elevation, about a mile north from, and nearly parallel with,
the river. From this stony ridge descend several successive terraces, or deserted
sea-beaches, having a general direction the same as the ridge. A number of the
streets of the more modern part of Glasgow have been formed along, and the houses
face these terraces. When dug into, either in the construction of common sewers,
or otherwise, they are found to be composed of finely laminated sand, as if it had
been deposited in tranquil, and probably deep water.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81
Now, five of the canoes were discovered on, or near these terraces, under the
streets, viz. one near the bottom of the ridge; two within a few yards of each
other-at the City Cross, on a lower terrace, one whereof was in a vertical position
with the prow uppermost as if it had sunk in a storm, and had within it a number
of marine shells; a fourth was dug out further down the slope; and the fifth under
what is now St. Enoch’s parish church, within 200 yards from, and at an elevation
of about ten feet above the river bank, being the lowermost terrace. In this last
canoe was a stone hatchet, still preserved. ‘The three first-mentioned boats lay at
points far above all river action, and could not have been drifted by the mere stream
of the Clyde to their resting-places.
The remaining twelve canoes were discovered within the last ten years, still lower
down, during extensive operations for improving and widening the harbour. Large
portions of the river banks were cut away, and these canoes were found. They lay
in groups in a very thick bed of finely laminated sand, on the lands of Springfield,
Clyde-haugh, Bankton, &c., at an average depth of about twenty vertical feet, and
at a distance of more than 100 yards back from the river edge, as laid down in the
oldest maps. One of these canoes had gone down prow foremost, and was sticking
in the sand at an angle of 45 degrees; another had been capsized, and lay bottom
uppermost ; all the rest were in a horizontal position, as if they had sunk in smooth
water.
These facts seem to warrant the conclusion that, at the time the canoes floated,
a sea or estuary, several miles wide, and reaching far up the country, existed at
what is now Glasgow, washing the base of the hills on both sides of the valley ; and
that this ancient sea retired either by the recession of the waters, or the elevation of
the bottom, by degrees, with long pauses between, which occasioned the formation
of the terraces, or deserted beaches already noticed. The tide is still perceptible
three miles above Glasgow, at the little burgh of Rutherglen, where a canoe similar
to those described in the outset was found in 1830, at a considerable elevation, and
a long way back from the river, as recorded in the ‘ New Statistical Account of
Scotland,’ vol. vi. p. 601.
On the Auriferous Quartz Formation of Australia. By J. A. CAMPBELL.
Mr. Campbell was of opinion that the gold fields are inexhaustible, and the finding
of gold only in its infancy. Boundless fields lie still untouched, which will employ the
labour of ages yet to come, when efficient machinery shall have been brought to
operate upon the rocks.
On Denudation and other effects usually attributed to Water.
By Rosert Cuamsers, F.G.S.
On the Probable Maximum Depth of the Ocean. By W. Dartuine.
_ Mr. Darling suggested, that.as the sea covers three times the area of the land, it
is reasonable to suppose that the depth of the ocean, and that for a large portion, is -
three times as great as the height of the highest mountains.
On the Fossils of the Goal Formation of Nova Scotia.
By J. W. Dawson, Principal of MacGill College, Montreal.
[The paper was illustrated by a rich collection of specimens. ]
Mr. Dawson said, that the strata of the coal-measures in Nova Scotia extend to
a depth of no less than 14,000 feet, containing sixty distinct surfaces, covered with
plants and trees. He spoke of the marine and land deposits collected in the deltas,
where the roots of the Calamite held together the mud which, forming into flats,
sank down to receive others.
Many of the fossil remains described by Mr. Dawson as existing in the coal for-
mations of Nova Scotia are to be found also in the coal-fields of Scotland.
1855. 6
82 REPORT—1855.
On the Relations of the Silurian and Metamorphie Rocks of the South of
Norway. By Davip Forsss, F.G.S.
A number of large sections were exhibited, showing the relative positions of these
rocks, and their structure dwelt upon at length. It was shown, by overlook-
ing the foliation of the metamorphic rocks, and by keeping in view the mineral
character of the rock masses themselves, that the crystalline rocks of Norway,
hitherto considered as irresolvable, would be found conformable to the Silurian
formation above them, and that they could be regarded as altered sedimentary rocks,
probably analogous to the Cambrian sandstones and shales of Wales.
Some of the hornblende gneiss was even shown to be above the Devonian sand-
stones, and to correspond to argillaceous shales of other parts of Norway.
It was contended that the felspathic and massive gneiss of the South of Norway
was in great part, if not altogether, granite, with a superinduced foliated structure ;
and the large sections and plans showed full evidence of its having been eruptive.
Remarks on the Cleavage of the Devonians of the South of Ireland.
By Professors Harkness and Biytu.
The counties of Cork and Kerry present several features of an interesting nature,
as far as regards cleavage. Beds affording this structure are intimately associated,
and interstratified with others which are devoid of cleavage; and from several
analyses it would appear that the cleaved strata possess a greater amount of
alumina than such deposits as want this structure. The specific gravity of the
cleaved strata is also greater than where this mode of arrangement does not occur,
The angle of the cleavage planes varies with the chemical composition of the rock
in which this structure appears; the greater the proportional amount of alumina, the
greater is the angle of cleavage.
In the county of Cork the strike of the cleavage planes accords with the strike of
the rolls, which the Devonian strata have in this district been subjected to, and is
in an east and west direction. In the county of Kerry the same circumstance
obtains, but here the strike of the roll is not so regular as in the former county:
In the island of Valentia the intimate connexion which exists between the opera-
tions of the force producing rolls and that from whence cleavage originates is well
seen. Here the strikes are E. and W., E.N.E. and W.S.W., and N.N.E. and
§.S.W., and with these seyeral strikes the planes of cleavage agree. The cleavage
is also most perfect in those localities where the rolls are best developed, and all the
features presented by the cleavage of the Devonians of the south of Ireland support
the inference that this structure owes its origin to that force which has subjected
the deposits to a series of rolls; and that those beds exhibit this structure best
which were originally of a soft shaly nature, being composed of particles capable
of rearranging themselves at right angles to the planes of pressure.
On the Lowest Sedimentary Rocks of Scotland.
By Professor Harkness, F'.G.S.
The axis of the lower Silurians of the south of Scotland traverses the counties of
Roxburgh and Dumfries, and in connexion with this axis are found the lowest
sedimentary rocks of Scotland. The nature of the strata composing the axis is
arenaceous ; and beds of this character are well seen in the course of the Dryffe
water in the latter county. ‘These beds are overlaid both on their north and south
side by thin bedded greywacke sandstones and shales which are much flexured, and
in one locality afford slaty beds, which seem to be the result of the flexures to which
the strata have been subjected, At Brinks in Roxburghshire the thin greywacke
shales afford evidence of the existence of animal life in the form of tracks of animals
traversing mud, and these tracks bear the appearance of having resulted from crus-
taceans. They are the earliest traces of animal life which have yet been detected in
Scotland. The same beds also are marked by desiccation cracks, furnishing the
earliest direct proofs of the existence of dry land. They are likewise gently rippled,
and seem to have originated from littoral conditions. Some higher beds contain
Protovirgularia, and above these are found the graptolite shales, which have previ-
_
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83
ously been regarded as the base of the fossiliferous rocks of Scotland. The purple
grits, which form the axis, have a continuous E.N.E and W.S.W. course. On the
north side the strata dip N.N.W., and on the south side S.S.E.
On the Geology of the Dingle Promontory, Ireland.
By Professor Harkness, F.G.S.
The county of Kerry is for the most part occupied by Devonian strata, and good
sections of them are seen on the coast between Slea Head at the north entrance
into Dingle Bay and Sibyl head, the southern point of Tralee Bay. Devonian strata
are not, however, the exclusive beds in the interval occupied by these points, for at
Donquin and Ferriters cove deposits of a different mineral nature make their
appearance, and these abound in upper Silurian fossils. Both on the north and
south side of the Silurian areas, and also in the space which separates them, there
occur deposits of purple slate overlaid by conglomerates; and those on the south
side of the Silurians dip south at the same angle with the latter formation, and on
the north side they appear to pass under the Silurians also, at the same dip. This
mode of occurrence seems to result from rolling of the strata, the deposits being
pushed over towards the north. ‘The sequence of strata in this district appears to
be perfect from the upper Silurians below through some strata appertaining to the
Devonians above ; and in this portion of Ireland we have as yet the only beds which
have been recognized as upper Silurian in Ireland.
On the Meridional and Symmetrical Structure of the Globe, its Superficial
Changes, and the Polarity of all Terrestrial Operations. By Evay
Hopkins, C.E., F.GLS.
On the Gold-bearing Districts of the World. By E. Horxtys, C.E., F.G.S.
Mr. Hopkins’s paper contained the results of his observations on the auriferous
districts of the world, in which he stated that gold was found only in the primary
rocks, and chiefly in quartz, because, when the gold was precipitated, as it were, in
nature, the quartz was that with which its particles most readily mixed. Gold
might be found in all primary rocks of a meridional structure, where crystalline
sands predominate. It was a curious fact, that gold might often be found at the
roots of large trees, because the roots having assimilated for nourishment the other
materials, left the gold as an indigestible surface behind.
On the Formations of Dalmatia. By Signor Lanza,
On the Excavation of certain River Channels in Scotland.
By C. Macraren, F.G.S.
On the less-known Fossil Floras of Scotland. By Hucu Mituer.
Scotland has its four fossil Floras: its Flora of the Old Red Sandstone, its car-
boniferous Flora, its oolitic Flora, and that Flora of apparently tertiary age, of
which His Grace the Duke of Argyll found so interesting a fragment under the
thick basalt beds and trap tuffs of Mull. Of these, the only one adequately known
to the geologist is the gorgeous Flora of the coal-measures, probably the richest,
in at least individual plants, which the world has yet seen. The others are all but
wholly unknown. How much of the lost may yet be recovered I know not; but the
circumstances that two great Floras—remote predecessors of the existing one—that
once covered with their continuous mantle of green the dry land of what is now
Scotland, should be represented but by a few coniferous fossils, a few cycadaceous
fronds, a few ferns and club-mosses, must serve "to show what mere fragments of
the past history of our country we have yet been able to recover from the rocks, and
how very much in the work of exploration and discovery still remains for us to do,
. 6*
84 REPORT—1855.
We stand on the further edge of the great Floras of bygone creations, and have
gathered but a few handsfull of faded leaves, a few broken branches, and a few de-
cayed cones.
The Silurian deposits of our country have not yet furnished us with any unequivo-
cal traces of a terrestrial vegetation. Professor Nicol of Aberdeen, on subjecting to
the microscope the ashes of a Silurian anthracite which occurs in Peebles-shire,
detected in it minute tubular fibres, which seem, he says, to indicate a higher class
of vegetation than the alge; but these may have belonged to marine vegetation
notwithstanding.
Associated with the earliest ichthyan remains of the Old Red Sandstone, we find
vegetable organisms in such abundance, that they communicate often a fissile cha-
racter to the stone in which they occur. But existing as mere carbonaceous mark-
ings, their state of preservation is usually so bad, that they tell us little else than
that the antiquely-formed fishes of this remote period had swum over sea-bottoms
darkened by forests of alge.
The immensely developed flagstones of Caithness seem to owe their dark colour
to organic matter, mainly of vegetable origin. So strongly bituminous, indeed, are
some of the beds of dingier tint, that they flame in the fire like slates steeped in oil.
The remains of terrestrial vegetation in this deposit are greatly scantier than those
of its marine Flora; but they must be regarded as possessing a peculiar interest, as
the oldest of their class in, at least, the British Islands, whose true place in the scale
can be satisfactorily established.
In the flagstones of Orkney there occurs, though very rarely, a minute vegetable
organism, which the author has elsewhere described as having much the appearance
of one of our smaller ferns, such as the maidenhair spleenwort or dwarf moonwort.
But the vegetable organism of the formation, indicative of the highest rank of any
et found in it, is a true wood of the cone-bearing order.
«T laid open the nodule which contains this specimen, in one of the ichthyolite
beds of Cromarty, rather more than eighteen years ago; but, though I described it, -
in the first edition of a little work on ‘The Old Red Sandstone’ in 1841, as exhibit-
ing the woody fibre, it was not until 1845 that, with the assistance of the optical
lapidary, I subjected its structure to the test of the microscope. It turned out, as I had
anticipated, to be the portion of a tree; and on my submitting the prepared spe-
cimen to one of our highest authorities, the late Mr. William Nicol, he at once
decided that the ‘reticulated texture of the transverse section, though somewhat
compressed, clearly indicated a coniferous origin.’ I may add, that this most
ancient of Scottish lignites presented several peculiarities of structure. Like some
of the Araucarians of the warmer latitudes, it exhibits no lines of yearly growth;
its medullary rays are slender, and comparatively inconspicuous; and the discs
which mottle the sides of its sap-chambers, when viewed in the longitudinal section,
are exceedingly minute, and are ranged, so far as can be judged in their imperfect
state of keeping, in the alternate order peculiar to the Araucarians. On what
perished land of the early Paleozoic ages did this venerably antique tree cast root
and flourish, when the extinct genera Pterichthys and Coccosteus were enjoying life
by millions in the surrounding seas—long ere the Flora or Fauna of the coal-
measures had begun to be ?”’
The Caithness flagstones have furnished one vegetable organism apparently higher
in the scale than those just described, in a well-marked specimen of Lepidodendron,
which exhibits, like the Araucarian of the Lower Old Red, though less distinctly,
the internal structure. It was found about sixteen years ago in a pavement quarry
near Clockbriggs—the last station on the Aberdeen and Forfar Railway—as the
traveller approaches the latter place from the north. Above this gray flagstone
formation lies the Upper Old Red Sandstone, with its peculiar group of ichthyic
organisms, none of which seem specifically identical with those of either the Caith-
ness or the Forfarshire beds ; for it is an interesting circumstance, suggestive surely.
of the vast periods which must have elapsed during its deposition, that the great
Old Red system has its three distinct platforms of organic existence, each wholly
different from the others. Generically and in the group, however, the Upper fishes
much more closely resemble the fishes of the Lower, or Caithness and Cromarty
platform, than they do those of the Forfarshire and Kincardine one. In the upper-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85
most beds of the Upper Old Red formation in Scotland, which are usually ofa pale or
light yellow colour, the vegetable remains again becomestrongly carbonaceous, but their
state of preservation continues bad—too bad to admit of their determination of either
species or genera; and not until we rise a very little beyond the system do we find
the remains of a Flora either rich cr well-preserved. But very remarkable is the
change which at this stage at once occurs. We pass at a single stride from great
poverty to great wealth. The suddenness of the change seems suited to remind one
of that experienced by the voyager when, after traversing for many days some wide
expanse of ocean, unvaried save by its banks of floating sea-weed, or where, occa-
sionally and at wide intervals, he picks up some leaf-bearing bough, or marks some
fragment of drift-weed go floating past, he enters at length the sheltered lagoon of
some coral island, and sees all around the deep green of a tropical vegetation de-
scending in tangled luxuriance to the water’s-edge—tall, erect ferns, and creeping
Lycopodiacee ; and the Pandanus, with its aérial roots and its screw-like clusters of
narrow leaves; and high over all, tall Palms, with their huge pinnate fronds, and
their curiously aggregated groups of massive fruit.
‘Tn this noble Flora of the coal-measures much still remains to be done in Scotland.
Our Lower Carboniferous rocks are of immense development; the limestones of
Burdie House, with their numerous terrestrial plants, occur many hundred feet
beneath our mountain limestones; and our list of vegetable species peculiar to these
lower deposits is still very incomplete. Even in those higher carboniferous rocks
with which the many coal-workings of the country have rendered us comparatively
familiar, there seems to be still a good deal of the new and the unknown to repay
the labour of future explorers. It was only last year that Mr. Gourlie, of this city,
added to our fossil Flora a new Volkmannia from the coal-field of Carluke; and IJ
detected very recently in a neighbouring locality, though in but an indifferent state
of keeping, what seems to be a new and very peculiar fern. There is a Stig-
maria, too, on the table, very ornate in its sculpture, of which I have now found
three specimens in a quarry of the coal-measures near Portobello, that has still to
be figured and described. In this richly-ornamented Stigmaria the characteristic
areole present the ordinary aspect; each, however, forms the centre of a sculptured
‘star, consisting of from eighteen to twenty rays, or rather the centre of a sculptured
flower of the Composite order, resembling a garden daisy. The minute petals—if
we are to accept the latter comparison—are ranged in three concentric lines, and
their form is irregularly lenticular. Even among the vegetable organisms already
partially described and figured, much remains to be accomplished in the way of
restoration. The detached pinnz of a fern, or a few fragments of the stems of Ulo-
dendron or Sigillaria, give very inadequate ideas of the plants to which they had
belonged in their state of original entireness.”’
Exhibition of Fossil Plants of the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness. Col-
. lected by Joun MiLuER of Thurso.
These plants, chiefly collected from the upper portion of the Caithness flags near
Thurso, appeared to be the same as those described in detail by Mr. Hugh Miller.
Some of the specimens were of considerable dimensions and great beauty.
On the Relations of the Crystalline Rocks of the North Highlands to the Old
Red Sandstone of that Region, and on the recent discoveries of Fossils in
the former by Mr. Charles Peach. By Sir Ropericx I. Murcaison,
Director-General of the Geological Survey.
Having referred to his earliest publications relating to the Old Red Sandstone, in
1826 and 1827 (associated in the latter year with Prof. Sedgwick), the author
explained how the classification originally proposed by his colleague and himself had
been extended and improved by the researches of Mr. Hugh Miller. Having stated
that his matured and condensed views, showing the true equivalents of the Old Red
Sandstone to be the Devonian rocks of other countries, were given in his last publi-
86 REPORT—1855.
cation, entitled ‘Siluria,’ Sir Roderick called the special attention of the Section to
the consideration of the true relations of these deposits to the crystalline rocks of
the Highlands. To satisfy his mind on this point, and to see if it was necessary to
make any fundamental change in his former views, the author re-surveyed his old
ground in Sutherland, Caithness, and Ross-shire, accompanied by Prof. Jamés Nicol.
Obtaining ample evidence to induce him to adhere to his former opinion, that all the
crystalline rocks of that region, consisting of gneiss, mica-schist, chloritic and quartz-
ose rocks, limestones, clay-slate, &¢., were originally Stratified deposits, which had
been crystallized before the commencement of the accumulation of the Old Red Sand-
stone, he first gave a rapid and general sketch of those ancient rocks, whose cry-
stalline character he attributed to a change of their pristine sedimentary condition.
They have a prevalent strike, varying from N.E. and 8.W. to N.N.E, and 8.S.W.,
and in the northernmost counties of Scotland their usual inclination is to the E.S.E.
or S.E., usually at high angles.
In combating a theoretical idea, which had recently been applied to the crystalline
rocks of Scotland, viz. that many of their apparetit layers were simply 4 Soft of
érystalline cleavage, by which the different minerals were arranged in parallel folia
or lamine, and were independent of the original lines of deposit, he showed how
the geologists who had longest studied these rocks in Scotland had formed a different
opinion. Hutton, Playfair, Hall, Jameson, M‘Culloch, and Boué, all believed, as
well as Professor Sedgwick and himself, that the variously constituted and differently
coloured layers of these rocks truly indicated separate deposits of sand, mud, and
calcareous matter. He also cited numerous cases of interstratified pebble beds and
limestones as completely demonstrative of their original status. Alluding to the
real distinction between stratification and cleavage, he expressed his belief that,
whilst in scarcely any part of the Highlands which he had seen, did there exist that
perfect and symmetrical cleavage which prevails in North Wales, there was, hever-
theless, a very marked and prevalent division of these Highland crystalline rocks into
rhombic and other forms by rude cleavages and decisive joints.
In describing two traverses which he made across these crystalline rock tasses
in the north coast of Sutherland,—the first, twenty-eight years ago, thé other in thé
weeks preceding this meeting,—and, in mentioning with due praise a memoir, of
intermediate date, by the late Mr. Cunningham, it was stated, that the oldest, or
lowest visible stratified rock in that region was a very hard, pray, quartzose piieiés,
traversed by veins of granite, as seen on the shores of Loch Laxford, Cape Wrath,
the escarpment of Ben Spionnach, in Durness, and other places.
At the last-mentioned locality, and neat Rispond, the older gneiss is uicofiform-
ably overlaid by a copious series of quartz rocks, of white and gray colours, occa-
sionally passing into mica-schists or flagstones, and also into stratified masses, which
are also gneissose, inasmuch as they are com posed of quartz, mica, or felspar. Witha
copious interstratification of bands of limestone, near their lower parts, these crystal-
line rocks are veryclearly exhibited between Loch Durness arid the Whiten Head of the
coast, or between Ben Spionnach and Loch Eribol in the interior. It is in one of the
beds of limestone subordinate to the lower quartzites of this great series, at Balnakiel,
in Durness, that Mr. Charles Peach recently discovered organic remains; and, as their
discovery has led to certain suggestions, including one which would refer thése cry-
stalline rocks to the Dévonian or Old Red Sandstone formation, the author shows
why such an opinion is untenable. For, whether a section be made across the
various strata between Loch Durness and Loch Eribol, or from the latter to Loch
Hope, the same limestones, subordinate to quartz rocks of white and gray colours
(including some rare coarse white grits, as in the summit of Ben Spionnach); and
associated with many siliceous concretions (of various colours, red and dark gray),
are distinctly and conformably overlaid by and pass up into micaceous quartzite and
dark-coloured schists, both chloritic aid talcose, which are followed by other and
differently composed stratified masses, having the character of gneiss, Along the
north coast, these overlying masses extend to the west shore of Loch Tongue, before
they are interfered with by any mass of granite; and it is therefore uaquestionably
true, that the band of limestone containing the fossil shells discovered by Mr. Peach
is a low member of this great crystalline series of stratified rocks of such diversified
characters.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87
It had been suggested, that the fossils in question, being of a whorled form, might
prove to be the Clymenie of the Devonian rocks; but although, according to Mr.
Salter, one or two of them have a certain resemblance to that genus, and some even
to Goniatites, the evidence of their being chambered shells is too obscure to decide
the case. The principal fossil is probably an Euomphalus: it resembles the
Maclurea or Raphistoma of the Lower Silurian rocks, except that the former, to
which it most approaches, has a dextral and not a sinistral curve. Even should
some of these whorled shells prove te be chambered, there is nothing about them
to gainsay their belonging to thee%ituites of the Lower Silurian rocks, Another
fossil is certainly an Orthoceratite.
Sir Roderick then adverted to a feature in the older series of crystalline rocks of
the west coast of Scotland; which still required to be more accurately defined than
had hitherto been done. Prof. Sedgwick and himself had formerly called attention
to the occurrence, near Ullapool; of a red conglomerate or coarse grit, subordinate to
the erystalline rocks, but which must not be confounded with the true Old Red; aa
developed on the north and east coasts of the counties of Caithness, Ross, Inverness,
Nairn, Moray, &c. During his excursion of this year, Prof. Nicol and himself saw;
near Inchnadampff in Assynt, a similar interposition of hard red conglomeritic grit,
resting unconformiably on the older gneiss. He pointedly cautioned young geologists
not to be led away by the notion that all Scottish conglomerates made up of crystalline
pre-existing rocks represented the so-called old red conglomerate, and particularly
feferred to the coarse red conglomerate of Girvan in Ayrshire, which is a part of the
Lower Silurian series of the south of Scotland*. Whilst, however, it is probable that
sonie of the red conglomerate of the West Highlands, which is associated with the
crystalline rocks, may be also of Lower Paleozoic age, it is clear that the stupendous
masses of red sandstone which constitute the mountains of Applecross and Gareloch
are of a younger date. Positive proof of this was formerly given by Prof. Sedgwick
and himself, from unconformable junctions of the two classes of rock at Ullapool
in the West Highlands: On tlie eastern coasts also; the oldest conglomerate and
sandstone of the Ord of Caithness clasps round the quartzose and micaceous rocks
of the Scarabin Hills, and is made up of the materials derived from those crystalline
rocks which are contiguous to its ’
From the immeise length of time which must have passed in their accumulation;
the vast deposits of the Old Red Sandstone are supposed by the author to be the
full and entire equivalents of the Devonian rocks of the south-west of England, of
the: Rhehish provinces, of large regions in other parts of Germany, as well as of
France, Spain, and other countries. He demonstrated the truth of this position
by citing the fact, that in Russia, where he had traced such a very extensive range
of rocks of this age, regularly interpolated between the Silurian and Carboniferous
systems, there occurred in the same beds 4 mixture of the same species of fossil
fishes (Asterolepis, Dendrodus, Glyptosteus, Bothriolepis, Holoptychius, Cricodus,
Pterichthys, &c.) which prevail in the north of Scotland, with the shells which charac-
terize the formation in the slates and calcareous type which it assumes in Devonshire,
_ He then announced that, in addition to_ the fossils previously elaborated and
described by Mr. Hugh Miller and other authors, a number of plants had recently
been discovered, chiefly by Mr. C. Peach of Wick, but also by Mr. J. Miller and
Mr. Dick of Thurso, in the vety héart of the Caithness flagstones—the great fish
deposit of the seriés. Of these plants a large number of those which Mr. Beach had
submitted to him seemed to be of terrestrial origin. The importance of correctly
determining the character of these plahts will be at once seen when it i& con-
sidered that, with the exception of the minute and rare vegetable forms detected
by the author in the uppermost Silurian rocks, which form a passage into the
Devonian rocks or Old Red Sandstone, these Caithness fossils are probably the
oldest known and clearly recognizable land plants; it being believed that the fossil
vegetables hitherto foutid in the so-called Old Red, chiefly occur in the upper member
of the system: Such are cértain plants discovered by Dr. Fleming and others in
Shetland and Orkney, by the geological surveyors in Ireland ; and such is the posi-
tion of that very remarkable and beautiful Flora, detected by M. Richter of Sahifield
in Germany, which is under the description of M. Unger of Gratz t.
* See Quart: Journ: Geol: Soe. vol. vii: p: 152; and ‘ Siluria;’ p. 160;
T Quart. Journ. Géol. Soc, vol. xi, p. 4165 and ‘ Siluria,’ p. 358,
88 REPORT—1855.
In recapitulating, Sir Roderick expressed his conviction that the same series of the
older crystalline or metamorphic rocks was several times repeated in the contiguous
tracts of Sutherland and Ross by great heaves of the masses,—such breaks being
often occupied by the chief lochs or firths. J1e also dwelt on the very remarkable fact,
that in these two northern counties there was an apparent symmetrical succession
from older to younger masses in proceeding from west to east. Even the physical
watershed of one portion of the region, as seen in the steep precipices of the Bealloch
of Kintail, only four miles distant from the western sea, indicated no anticlinal; the
flagstones of gneissose rocks there plunging rapidly to the east-south-east. In the
more southern portions of the Highlands, and where they usually still preserve the
same general strike, these crystalline strata are frequently thrown into anticlinal forms,
owing to the powerful intrusion of eruptive rocks; so that from Fort William or
Ben Nevis southwards we have first in the porphyry of that mountain, and afterwards
in the porphyries and syenites of Glencoe or the granite of Ben Cruachan, as well as
in other points still further south, great centres of disturbance, by which the same
series of quartzose, micaceous, and chloritic rocks with limestones, but in which clay-
slate more prevails than in the north, is repeated in vast undulations, some of which
dip to the west-north-west and others to the east-south-east. One of the most
southern of these anticlinals may be seen in the centre of Loch Eck, where the
masses dip off to Strachur and Inverary on the north-west, and to the Ciyde on
the south-east.
In conclusion, the author enforced his view of the posteriority of the Old Red
Sandstone to all such crystalline rocks by showing (as indeed Prof. Sedgwick and
himself had done many years ago) that the coarse conglomerates of the Old Red
Sandstone series, not only wrapped round those ancient roeks, but were absolutely
made up of their fragments. He further adverted to the great diversity of the
strike and dip of the two classes of rock and of their entire unconformity to each
other, of which he cited an instructive example at the head of Loch Keeshorn,
and the lofty massive mountains of the Old Red Sandstone of Applecross, the
beds of which have a steady, slight inclination of 10° or 12° to the north-west,
whilst the low flanking and conterminous primary limestones, quartzites, mica-
schists and gneissose rocks extending from Keeshorn to Loch Carron plunge
rapidly to the east-south-east. In short, whilst the limestone of Durness in Suther-
land (identical in its mineral characters and associations with that of Keeshorn in
Ross) is of very remote antiquity, the Old Red Sandstone is composed of the
regenerated materials of such older rocks, and distinctly overlaps them in discordant
positions.
New Geological Map of Europe exhibited. By Sir Ropericx I. Murcut-
son, D.C.L., F.R.S. &c., and Professor James Nicou, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
This new Map of Europe was stated by Sir R. Murchison to be an extension to
Western Europe of the Map of Russia and the conterminous countries, published in
the year 1845 by himself and his associates; the same classification being con-
tinued.
The chief new feature is the addition of the geology of Spain as prepared by M.
de Verneuil. As the previous Map of Russia comprehended by much the largest
half of Europe, the present work would have been completed long ago had it not
been desirable to postpone it until a due acquaintance with the Iberian peninsula had
been obtained.
[The Map is published by Messrs, Johnston of Edinburgh, and may be had
separately from the Physical Atlas.]
On Striated Rocks and other Evidences of Ice-Action observed in the North
of Scotland. By James Nicot, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural
History in the University of Aberdeen.
The author described several evidences of ice-action observed in the north of
Scotland during a recent excursion with Sir Roderick I. Murchison. These were,
Ist. Striated rocks; the more remarkable instances were the following :—Strath
Garve for many miles above Contin, where the sides of the valley are covered with
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89
strie running from N.W. to S.E.*, parallel to the valley. Strath Bran, also in the
direction of the valley, or nearly W. and E. Braambury Hill near Brora, the white
- siliceous sandstone of the oolite beautifully smoothed and marked with strie
running W. towards Loch Brora and Ben Horn. Large angular masses of the old
red conglomerate are still resting on the striated rocks. North coast of Sutherland,
near Betty Hill, striz from E.S.E. to W.N.W. West side of the Kyle of Durness,
white quartz-rock with horizontal strie running N.N.E. to 8.S.W. West coast of
Sutherland Ridge above Kyle Skow, gneiss polished and striated ; direction of striz
E.S.E. to W.N.W.
The most remarkable instance of the dependence of the direction of glacier striz
on local conditions is seen near the Sound of Skye. At the upper extremity of
Loch Keeshorn, close to the bridge, the striz, on the old red sandstone, have
a direction from N. to S. parallel to the valley. On the east of the Loch in the
valley, followed by the road to Jean Town, the rocks, generally talcose beds of the
quartz series, are beautifully marked by striz running W. by N., or nearly at right
angles to the former. On the ridge and on the top of the hills between Balmacarra
and Kyle Aiken ferry, the striz are again from S. by E. to W. by N. At the foot
of Keppoch Hill on Loch Duich, an overhanging cliff is very distinctly marked by
horizontal striz from S.E. to N.E in the direction of the lake. Taken in connexion
with the Coolin Hills in Skye, shown by Professor James Forbes to be another
centre of glacier striz, these facts show a convergence of ancient ice-streams towards
the Sound of Skye.
2nd. The second form of ice-action are transported boulders. Blocks of a very
peculiar granite were traced from the valley of the Alness above Ardross Castle,
where they are sometimes arranged as it were in moraines, over the whole promon-
tory of the Black Isle to the shores of the Moray Firth. Striated stones were seen
in the detritus near Cape Wrath. On the west coast of Sutherland, near Loch
Laxford, enormous blocks are often perched on the top of rounded bosses, or on the
very verge of precipices, like lines of sentries on the watch. As the slightest impulse
seems sufficient to dislodge these boulders, the manner in which they have been
placed in their present position is very problematical.
3rd. The third form of ice-action was observed on the coast of Caithness, near
the old castle of Wick. The top of the cliff, far above high water for nearly a
quarter of a mile, is covered by angular blocks, broken from the rocks below and
forced up, in a sloping position one over the other, like shoals of ice on the banks
of a river when breaking up after frost. The author ascribes this remarkable accu-
mulation to an iceberg grounding on the shore, and, from the position of the
fragments, considers that it must have been moving from the E.N.E. or E.
On the Pterygotus and Pterygotus Beds of Great Britain. By D. Pace.
Without attempting to define with precision the vertical range of the Pzerygotus
and other associated Crustacea, the author was of opinion that the zone of the
“« Tilestones,’’—partly on the verge of Siluria and partly on the verge of Devonia—
might, with no great impropriety, be designated the ‘‘ Pterygotus beds of Great
Britain.” At all events, in this zone alone had the remains of Péerygotus and other
allied Crustacea been found most abundantly; so abundantly, indeed, that these
creatures might be regarded as the characteristic fauna of the period. During the
Jast summer, he had examined pretty minutely the relations of the strata in Forfar,
Perth, Stirling, Dunbarton and Lanarkshire, and everywhere he had found them
maintaining the same stratigraphical position, and characterized by the same fossil
fauna. Co-ordinating them in like manner with the Ludlow and Hereford beds
(which had yielded fragments of Pterygotus, Onchus, Plectrodus, &c.), they appeared
to be on the same horizon; and thus it was, he wished to group the whole of these
“ Tilestone” strata as the ‘“‘ Pterygotus beds of Great Britain.”” The subject he
intended to lay before the Section naturally resolved itself into two divisions ; first,
what we know of the Pferygotus and its crustacean congeners; and, second, the
range and limit of the strata in which these crustaceans had been discovered. The
* The directions are true, or corrected for the variation.
90 REPORT—1855.
remains of the Péerygotus have been known in Scotland for more than half a cen+
tury, tHe mandibular, or jaw-feet (from their scale-like sculptuting and wing-like
shape), being the “Seraphim” of the Forfarshire quarrymen. These and other
portions have been in the cabinets of the curious for many years, and were univer-
sally regarded as the remains of fishes. Even Agassiz himself looked upon the
imperfect fragments originally shown him as ichthyolites; and it was not till he
had an opportunity of examining (in 1834) the once magnificent collection of Mr.
Webster, of Balruddery, that he discovered their true crustacean character, and at
once assigned to them a place in Paleontology, under the title of Paleocarcinus
alatus; and subsequently, when he saw that the creature had no generic relation-
ship to any existing Crustacea, he abandoned the first name for that of Pterygotus
problematicus, in allusion to the deceptive nature of the remains. The Pterygotus,
of which there appeared to be three distinct species,—the gigantic problematicus,
the anglicus, and the punctatus—was altogether different in its general structure
from any known crustacean, living or extinct. The portions chiefly found (ahd or
these capital specimens were in the collections of Lord Kinnaird, the Watt Insti-
tution, Dundee, &e., all originally from Balruddery) were the frontal cephalic shield,
the posterior cephalic or thoracic shield, with its lunar-like epimera, the abdominal
segments, generally from seven to eleven in number, the huge prehensile claws,
with theit curiots denticulated edgés, attached to limbs of great length, the shorter
swimming-limbs, with their paddle-like appendages, and several semi-oval detached
plates, which evidently belonged to the breast or under side of the animal. Putting
all thesé pottions in place, as nearly as could be determined, we had a huge lobster-
like crustacean—but only lobster-like in general contour, for in its true generic
relations it belonged to no existing family in the order. Partly phyllopod and
partly peecilopod, in its abdominal segmentation macrourous, and in its thoracic ap-
paratus resembling the existing Limulus, the Pterygotus could be classed with no
living family, and was in aspect more like the larval than the adult form of any
Crustacea with which we were acquainted. This peculiarity, indeed, ran throughout
the whole of the Crusta¢ea (and there were several new forms he would notice on
another occasion) which had hitherto been detected in this geological horizon—a
horizon that would yet be fond to be marked peculiarly by its strange Crustacea.
From the portions he now exhibited to the Section, the members could perceive at a
glance that the restoration by Mr. M‘Coy was altogether erroneous, and bore scarcely
any resetblance to what the creature must have been when alive, and acting the
part of scaveriger along the muddy shores of the Old Red Sandstone seas. The
figures on thé walls (Mr. Page here exhibited what he conceived to be a near
approach to a complete restoration) would afford some idea of the general features
of the animal, which he had found of all sizes, from ten or twelve inches up to full
five or six feet in length. Such was the Pterygotus; and, looking at its complex
structure, as well as the similar structure of the other Crustacea of the period, there
could be no doubt that no existing classification of the order embraced them in its
subdivisions. The fact was, that the existing Crustacea were by no means well
worked out a8 a group, and the discovery of these strange fossil forms rendéred the
study still less perfect. With regard to the second portion of his subject, he would
only remark, that, without attempting minute co-ordinations, he was inclined to
place the “ Pterygotus beds” on the very lowest verge of what had hitherto been
regarded the Old Red Sandstone or Devonian system. It was true, that some high
authorities were inclined to rank these beds as Upper Silurian, that is, on the very
highest stage of the Silurian system; and so far as the working out of the beds were
concerned, it mattered little whether they were regarded as lowest Devonian or upper-
most Silurian; but this he might observe, that 80 long as the Cephalaspis was re-
garded as 4 true Old Red ichthyolite, geologists were bound to rank the Pterygotus
beds as the base of that system: In Scotland, the Cephalaspis and Pterygotus were
invariably found in the same strata; and for this reason he had hitherto contended
for the “Tilestones” of the English geologists being restored to the Devonian
system, where they had origifially been placed. Taking this view, we had a well-
marked zotie of grey fissile flags and tilestones, of slaty matls and laminated shales,
everywhere in Scotland and England subjacent to the true ‘“ Old Red,” and as de-
cidedly superior to the shales and limestones of Siluria, characterized as these were
a ar
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 91
by the presence of trilobitic Crustacea, and the: general absence of ichthyic forms:
The Pterygotus beds were well-marked throughout the whole of Forfar, Perth, Stir-
ling, Dunbarton, and Lanark; and he had little doubt that, when more minute
research was directed to the subject in England, they would be found to be equally
persistent, though marked, it might be, by the presence of additional local forms.
On the Freshwater Limestone of Dr. Hinsert. By D. Pace.
In introducing this subject, the author remarked, that it was now upwards ©
of twenty years sincé Dr. Hibbert’s elaborate memoir on the Burdie House lime=
Stone was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Since that time little
had beén done to determine the stratigraphical relations and extent of the Burdie
Housé beds; and, though the workings had yielded many fossils, no further attempt
had been made to identify their geological horizon with other portions of the great
Scottish coal-field. At the time Dr. Hibbert made his researches, the Burdie Housé
limestone was regarded 4s a peculiar and anomalous deposit ; and though its earliest
investigator had a clear conception of its inferior position to the maritie or true
carboniferous limestone, he yet failed to exhibit the continuity and extent of its
geographical range, of to contect it with its chronological equivalents in other locali-
ties. The résult of this has been, that while the Burdie House limestone is often
quoted as ati instance of freshwater or brackish beds occurring in thé carboniferous
system, it is as often misplaced, and its real geological beatings misinterpreted. For
example, in two of our mo8t réeceht publications, and these by atkiiowledged masters
of the science, the Burdie House strata aré by one placed abovethe millstone-grit,
and by the other ate asSociatéd with the mountain limestone. Nothing, however,
could be more decided than their subjacent positiof to the trué carbonifétous lime-
stone. It was a member of the subcarboniferous or lower coal-measure group,
and had a range of strike as regular and well-marked as the carboniferous limestone
itself. Beginning, for itstance, at Buidie Howse and tracing it to the north-east,
it was found at St. Catherine’s, at Duddingstone, near Holyrood, crossing the Frith
of Forth; in the Island of Inchkeith, then at Pettycur, and westward by Brosiehall,
Bin of Burntisland, Newbigging, Starleyburn, Balram, on the shore near Inchcolm
House, in the low grounds of Donibristle, at Rosyth, beyond Quéensferry, and then
re-crossing the Forth, in the parish of Abercorn, at Binny, Kirkton of Bathgate;
East Calder, in the Water of Leith, and eastward by the Pentlands to Burdie House,
Its outcrop thus presented a large elliptical area, and everywhere dipped at varying
distances beneath the true carboniferous or mountain limestone. In fact, when the
outcrop of the mountain limestone was traced in the same manner, starting at Gils
merton and Moredun, and thence across the Forth, to Seafield of Kinghorn, and
Chapel of Kirkaldy, then westward by Glenniston, Little Raith, Bucklivie, Duloch,
Charleston—thence across the Forth by Winchburgh and Bathgate, and then east-
ward by Midcalder, the Pentlands, and Dryden, to Gilmerton—it presented an
almost perfect parallelism and continuity. In fact, the two outcrops exhibited two
boldly marked zones on a quaquaversal uprise, of which the Corstorphine Hills
might be considered the centre. With the one were associated dark-coloured shales
with bands of ironstone, beds of fire-clay; thin seams of coal; and thick-bedded
sandstones like those of Craigleith, Burntisland, and St. Andrews; with the others
were associated calcareous and bituminous shales, black band and clay, ironstones,
seams of coal, and coarse quartzose grits. Such were the stratigraphical relations
and extent of the Burdie House limestone proper} and its equivalents were to be
found ranging in the same manner, beneath the mountain limestone, in the east of
Fife and Stirling coal-fields, as well as, he believed, in the Lanark and Ayrshire
districts. As to the vertical development of these lower coal-measures, it varied in
different districts from 600 to 1800 feet, and he had measured an uninterrupted
section near St. Andrews of 1400 feet, Consisting chiefly of sandstones, shales, and
fire-clays. Respecting the fossils:of the Burdie House limestone, not a single coral,
coralline, or marine shell had yet been detected in it; and 80 far as he was aware,
nothing had yet been discovered to invalidate the opinion of Dr. Hibbert, that the
limestone with its associated beds were of freshwater or estuary origin. In the
lower coal-measures; however, considered as a group, he (Mr. Page) had détected
92 REPORT—1855.
one or two instances of marine exuvie, as in a thin band of limestone near St.
Andrews, which contained fragments of minute encrinites; but, taken as a whole,
the group was eminently characterized by freshwater estuary remains. The cha-
racteristic plants were Sphenopteris uffinis, bifida and linearis; Lepidophyllum inter-
medium; Pecopteris heterophyllum; Neuropteris Loshii; Calamites canneformis ;
Lepidodendron elegans, selaginoides and gracilis; Lepidostrobus variabilis and orna-
tus ; Stigmaria ficoides and stellaris, with Sigillaria pachyderma, and another of more
slender and regular growth. Of the animal remains the most characteristic were
Cypris faba and punctata, which abounded in all the shales and limestones; Micro-
conchus carbonarius ; various Unionide, sometimes forming whole bands of lime-
stone; Paleoniscus Robisonit, Eurynotus, and Amblypterus; Holoptychius Hibbertii
(which was altogether different from the Holoptychius of the Old Red) ; Megalich-
thys, Gyracanthus, and some other well-marked ichthyolites and coprolites. So
characteristic were many of these fossils, that there was little difficulty in deter-
mining by their aid the lower from the upper coal-measures. What Mr. Page
chiefly wished to establish by his remarks, were,—1st. That the limestone of Burdie
House was not a mere local and anomalous deposit, but had a considerable geogra-
phical range. 2nd. That its position was unmistakeably among the lower coal-
measures, and beneath the mountain or marine carboniferous limestone. 3rd. That,
in its palzontological features, the Burdie House limestone is of undoubted fresh-
water or estuary origin; and, 4th. That while the Burdie House limestone, per se,
was of estuary origin, as most of the lower coal-measures were, yet, in several
instances, bands of limestone and ironstone occurred in the series containing en-
crinital joints, Retepora, Murchisonia, and the like, thus showing that during the
deposition of the lower carboniferous strata there were occasional alternations of
marine and freshwater conditions. :
On the Subdivisions of the Paleozoic and Metamorphic Rocks of Scotland.
By D. Pace.
At the former meeting Mr. Page had endeavoured to establish, that below the carbo-
niferous limestone proper there existed in Scotland an extensive and well-defined group
which he termed the “lower coal-measures,” and which were evidently the equiva-
lents of Mr. Griffith’s ‘‘ carboniferous slates” in Ireland. He had also endeavoured
to show that the yellow sandstones of Dura Den and Stratheden were a distinct
Devonian, or old red sandstone group, and clearly separable, lithologically and palzon-
tologically, from the carboniferous system with which they were by some still con-
founded. He had during the past summer worked out numerous sections, both in
the north and south of Scotland, and now ventured to submit the following as well-
defined subdivisions of the paleozoic and metamorphic strata. He omitted all notice,
in the meantime, of the Permian rocks and their supposed triassic co-relatives,
believing that these groups in Scotland had, as yet, been altogether misunderstood
and misinterpreted :—
Upper coal-measures.
Millstone-grit (feebly indicated).
Carboniferous limestone (marine).
Lower coal-measures.
Yellow sandstone of Stratheden and Elgin.
Red sandstone and conglomerates.
Caithness flags and great conglomerate.
Forfar flags and tilestones.
Undetermined zone.
SILURIAN SYSTEM...... hengesees | Middle group of Ayrshire.
Lower group of Peebles and Roxburgh.
Clay-slate group.
Chloritic and micaceous schist group.
Hornblende schist and quartzitic group.
Gneiss and granitoid schists.
Presuming that the preceding subdivisions of the carboniferous strata would now
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM ......
Op RED SANDSTONE SYSTEM
METAMORPHIC ROCKS .«...00..,
a
s
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93
stand uncontroverted, Mr. Page went on at length to establish his proposed groups
of the lower systems. The yellow sandstones of Stratheden and Elgin, characterized
by such fossil forms as Pterichthys hydrophilus and Holoptychius Andersoni, Glypto-
lepis, Actinolepis, Stagonolepis, Telerpeton Hlginense, and Cyclopteris Hibernicus, were
at once clearly separable from the carboniferous system above; and it is likewise
readily distinguished, lithologically as well as palzontologically, from red marls,
sandstones, and conglomerates which lay below. These red beds were comparatively
barren of fossils, but perhaps the Holoptychius nobilissimus, Pamphractus, Glyptopo-
mus, and Phyllolepis, were their characteristic fishes ; at all events they marked the
meridian of the Holoptychius nobilissimus, whose scales were found in every district
where these red sandstones occurred. The Caithness flags, replete with such forms as
Pterichthys Milleri, Coccosteus, Dipterus, Diplopterus, Diplacanthus, Cheirolepis,
Osteolopis, and Asterolepis, were evidently a distinct group from the red sandstone
above, and as well defined on the other hand from the Forfarshire flags and tile-
stones, with their Cephalaspis, Onchus, Climatius, Parexus, Pterygotus, Kampecaris,
and other Crustaceans, as well as with their peculiar stems, seed-vessels, and unde-
termined flora. If the Caithness flags were not in some respects the chronological
equivalents of the middle flags of Forfarshire, they certainly did not hold a lower
place, and he was strongly impressed with the belief that the Forfarshire lower flags,
with their curious crustaceans, fish spines, fish jaws, and seed-spores, brought the
palzontologist to the same geological horizon as the Ludlow Silurians. At this
stage there was yet an undetermined gap in Scottish lithology, and he was con-
vinced that it would shortly become a question whether portions of these old red
flagstones should be ranked as Upper Silurians, or the “tilestones”’ of Upper Silurian
replaced again as the natural basis of the Devonian system. Without attempting
any decided line of demarcation (and in a science like geology, where so many of its
arrangements were provisional, it was better that all sharp lines of demarcation
should be avoided), he was inclined to argue for the restoration of the “ tilestones ”
to the Devonian system, as bringing the English strata more in harmony with their
Scottish equivalents, and at the same time establishing for the Devonian that great
basis of vertebrate life for which Sir Roderick Murchison had so long contended.
Respecting the subdivision of the Silurian rocks of the south of Scotland (for in the
north no certain indications of Silurian fossils had been yet detected), Mr. Page was
inclined to accept the grouping suggested in the recent ‘Siluria’ of Sir Roderick
Murchison. At all events, there could be no doubt in the mind of any one who had
worked out a stratigraphical section, and this altogether independent of fossil testi-
mony, that the greywacke grits and schists of Peeblesshire, Selkirk, and Roxburgh,
were older than the Silurian limestones, flagstones, and sandstones of Ayrshire and
Upper Lanark. Accepting the former as the equivalents of the Lower Silurians of
England, and the latter as representing the middle beds, there were still wanting, or
undiscovered, if it did exist, a set of strata corresponding to the Ludlow or Upper
Silurians. Leaving this uppermost stage as undetermined in the meantime, he next
proceeded, in descending order, to the metamorphic strata. It had been contended
by some that it was impossible to group or separate into anything like chronological
stages the metamorphic rocks; and yet those who expressed such opinions were
themselves daily placing mica-schist under clay-slate, and gneiss under mica-schist.
There could be no doubt, that in greatly disturbed districts, and in regions where
these rocks had undergone a high degree of mineral metamorphism, it was often im-
possible to establish anything like order of superposition ; still, by taking a sufficiently
wide field, such as both slopes of the Grampians afforded, and by working out
patiently many sections in detail, he thought there could be little doubt that the
following was the true descending order of the metamorphic strata in Scotland :—
Ist. clay-slate, with and without slaty cleavage; 2nd. chloritic and micaceous
schists ; 3rd. quartz rock and hornblende schists, forming, perhaps, one of the best
marked zones in the system; and 4th. gneiss, porphyritic gneiss, and gneissose beds,
often so granitic-looking, that they were apt to be mistaken for granite, and for which
he would propose the term “granitoid schists.””? Though chlorite slate might, in
some instances, be associated with clay-slate, and mica-schists be intercalated with
gneiss, still, as a general rule, the preceding order prevailed ; and what was peculiar,
each zone had its own limestone beds, and these so persistent in character, that he
94 REPORT—1855. ©
could in most instances determine the group by an examination of the limestone
quarries. In fact, as limestone strata often afforded the key to the fossiliferous
groups, so limestone, in a great measure, enabled the worker out of primary forma-
tions to ascertain his lithological place and position. In submitting the preceding
arrangements, he (Mr. Page) was perhaps advancing nothing new to many members
of the Section; still he was aware that much doubt and error prevailed respecting
the relations of the stratified system in Scotland, and by thus attempting their
grouping and subdivision, it would facilitate comparison with other regions, and
especially with continental Europe and North America, where so many eminent
geologists were working out with admirable precision and in detail the rock arrange-
ments of their respective localities. He had endeavoured to be as explicit as
the time allowed for such an outline would permit, and would venture to predict
that the time was not far distant, when the ancient rocks of Scotland, notwith-
standing the obscurity of the subject and the difficulty of the research, would be
as minutely grouped and as well understood, as the younger, the more attractive, and
the more easily deciphered fossiliferous secondaries of England. No doubt, different
geologists would attach different degrees of value to these attempted subdivisions ;
but in a science like geology, where as yet so much was temporary and provisional,
and where the height to be ascended was so steep and arduous, the more notches in
the cliff, the more easy the ascent ; and if once the path were familiar and known, we
could dispense with many of the intermediate notches, and make our steps the fewer
and more comprehensive.
Remarks on certain Trap Dykes in Arran.
By Professor Puttuies, M.A., F.R.S.
The author exhibited maps and sections of the trap dykes between Brodich Bay
and Lamlash Bay—for the purpose of showing the existence of a certain law regard-
ing the direction of these dykes, as compared with the strata of the Red Sandstone
strata, and the axes of subterranean movement in Arran. The investigation, founded
on two sets of careful observations, in the years 1826 and 1855, on forty-four dykes,
which were separately described for the purpose, proved the dykes to be assembled
in two principal systems or groups, both included in arcs of 90°, so as to produce
alternating quadrants of + and —, capable of combination into one general re-
sultant. The dykes are not generally accompanied by vertical displacement; the
sandstones on their borders are usually bleached and indurated so as to run in high
crests, above the frequently excavated course of the dyke. Many special phzno-
mena were pointed out in regard to the ‘“‘ Claystone,”’ ‘‘ Pitchstone,”’ and “ Green-
stone” dykes, of this and other parts of Arran, as a preliminary to an excursion on
the coast after the conclusion of the meeting.
Note ona recent Geological Survey of the Region between Constantinople and
Broussa, in Asia Minor, in search of Coal. By H. Poorn. _Com-
municated by Sir R. I, Murcuison, with the permission of the Earl of
CLARENDON,
Sir Roderick Murchison briefly explained, that in consequence of reports of the
existence of coal on the south side of the Gulf of Nicomedia in the Sea of Marmora,
he had recommended Mr. H, Poole to Her Majesty’s Government as a suryeyor
capable of determining the nature and value of the combustible. The Earl of Claren-
don had in consequence sent out that gentleman, who had ascertained that the so-
called coal was a poor lignite only, and probably of tertiary age; and that thus the hope
of the old coal of Eregli (Heraclea) being continuous to or repeated in the Gulf of
Nicomedia so near to Constantinople was dispelled.
On the Geology of the District of Great and Little Ormeshead, North Wales,
: By Joun Price, B.A.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95
On the commencement and progress of the Geological Survey in Scotland.
By A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S., F.GS.
Qn some of the Geological Functions of the Winds, illustrating the Origin
of Salt, $e. By Professor H. D. Rogers, Boston, U.S.
On the Geology of the United States.
By Professor H. D. Rocers, Boston, U.S.
On some Reptilian Footprints from the Carboniferous Strata of Pennsylvania,
By Professor H. D. Rocsrs, Boston, U.S,
Additions to the Geology of the Arctic Regions. By J. W. Sauter, F.G. «
On some Fossils from the Cambrian Rocks of the Longmynd, Shropshire,
By J. W. Satter, F.G.S., A.L.S., of the Geological Survey of Great
Britain.
The author visited the Longmynd during the summer of 1855, for the purpose of
searching carefully in the sandy flag-like beds east of the principal ridge for organic
remains,
The succession is as follows, in ascending order :—
1. Dark olive schists. Church Stretton, Brocards Castle, &c.
2. Harder flags and schists, with some felspathic beds.
3. Bluish fine-grained sandstones of considerable thickness and ending in a
series of ripple-marked flags, as at the Carding Mill, Church Stretton ;
the Devil’s Mouth; Winter Hill; north side of Callow Hill, Little
Stretton ; the Packet Stone, West of Minton.
In all these localities ripple or current marks are frequent on the surface of the
stone, and in several places these are marked in such a way by radiating lines as to
lead to a belief that they represent the minute drainage of the hollows as the tide
receded, thus indicating littoral conditions. The large-sized conglomerates in the
neighbourhood also favour the same idea.
On the surfaces of the sandy beds are many double oval impressions, not above a
line long, always placed in pairs, and parallel to one another in direction, though
scattered over the stone. As these twin oval indentations are not placed in any
regular series, they clearly do not indicate the track of a crustacean or higher animal ;
and they offer on the whole the best analogy with the double holes of sand-
burrowing worms, such as the Lob-worm (4renicoia) of our coasts. Mr. Binney of
Manchester first called attention to the occurrence of such burrows on the coal
sandstones of that district. The present are, however, minute in comparison. The
author calls them Arenicola didyma. There are also many direct traces of the pre-
sence of worms in long sinuous tracts, such as are usually made by these animals.
The most interesting fossils are several specimens of the tail, and perhaps the
head, of a new genus of Olenoid Trilobites, allied closely to some forms in the very
lowest fossiliferous beds of America. Though imperfect, their occurrence so low
down justifies the application of a distinctive name, Paleopyge Ramsayi.
Impressions very like those of rain-drops, and remarkable raised lines on the sur-
faces of the beds, are points of interest, but do not call for further notice,
These fussiliferoys beds are succeeded by (4) red shales and (5) grey sandstones,
pnother series of flaggy sandstone with ripple-marks (at the small waterfall near
Church Stretton), red sandstqnes and grey beds alternating as far as the ridge of the
Portway, beyond which, for three miles, is a great series of red sandstone with
some beds of conglomerate (one bed of which is 120 feet thick). These con-
glomerates are chiefly of quartz reck, with much felspathie matter, and only rarely
gontain pebbles of syenite. They indicate the proximity of older and probably of
yolcanic lands,
96 - REPORT—1855.
On New Forms of Crustacea from the District of Lesmahagow.
By R. Strmon*.
On the Shelly Deposits of the Basin of the Clyde, with proofs of change of
Climate. By James Smith, F.R.S., F.G.S.
On the Structure and Mutual Relationships of the older Rocks of the High-
land Border. By H. C. Sorsy, F.G.S.
The author first gave a short outline of the opinions that have been entertained
by various geologists respecting the origin of that structure in the metamorphic
rocks, for which the term foliation has been proposed. He much objects to this, if
used as though there were but one structure present in them; for, by a careful and.
close inspection, with or without the microscope, two, that are most distinct from
one another, may very often be recognized. One of these has every character that
would be the result of stratification, even in some cases including the current struc-
tures; and the other is related to it in precisely the same manner that the cleavage
of slate rocks is to their bedding. This is best seen in the more micaceous bands
in contorted beds of gneiss, and in them the crystalline flakes of mica often lie, not
in the plane of the bands themselves, but pass on in one uniform direction, whilst
the bands of varying composition bend about and are often perpendicular to the
general direction of the flakes of mica. One of the most decided relations between
cleavage and bedding is that cleavage lies in a plane perpendicular to the line in which
pressure has acted, so as to change the dimensions of the rock. The structure just
alluded to, as in some districts affecting mica-schist and gneiss, agrees with it in
this; and in fact presents us with all the peculiarities that could be expected from
metamorphosed cleavage, in the same manner as the other does with respect to
stratification.
In some districts it appears to be absent, as is also the case with cleavage,
and then only that analogous to stratification is to be seen. Metamorphic rocks
are often very full of contortions, some larger and others quite small. These appear
to have been formed in various manners; but may be accounted for on strictly me-
chanical principles. In order to explain this, the author had constructed models to
represent beds that could readily and evenly give way and change their dimensions
when elevated or bent, and others that would not admit of this; and by bending or
elevating them, in the manner that is seen to have occurred in the case of the rocks,
when composed of elastic material, no contortions are produced ; whereas, in the
other case, they are formed, and have precisely the same relations to the character
of the elevation or bending, as those met with in the rocks themselves. The author
therefore is of opinion, that nearly the whole of them may be explained on strictly
physical principles, by supposing that mica-schist and gneiss were in a more or less
softened condition when the movements of elevation occurred, and not in a state
analogous to the unaltered rocks, that have yielded to similar actions in a very dif-
ferent manner; and this supposition he thinks would agree with what is indicated
by other facts.
In carrying out these inquiries, some sections of the Highland border had been
constructed, in which the structure described above as due to stratification was
carefully distinguished from that considered to be produced by cleavage; and the
result is, that there is every reason to believe that the clay-slate rocks are not more
recent than the whole of the mica-schist, as has been supposed, but are older than a
considerable portion of it; and on the whole are the same group of rocks prolonged
to a distance beyond the limit of the metamorphic action. This supposition com-
pletely explains all the peculiarities observed; whereas, if their dip under the altered
rocks was only apparent, and due to inversion, there is very good cause for conclu.
ding that the relations of the cleavage and the axes of the contortions to the general
* The tract has since been examined by Sir R. Murchison and Professor Ramsay, and is
described in the Quart. Journ. Geological Society, March, 1856; the crustaceans being
described by Mr. Salter.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97
curves of the bedding would have been very different from what may be seen by
examining the rocks.
In the district about Loch Lomond the beds have been so bent by elevation that
the clay-slate is newer than the metamorphic rocks in immediate contact with it.
The dip of cleavage follows a uniform law in both, and shows that the elevating
force there was on the north side, as is also indicated by the bedding.
On some of the Mechanical Structures of Limestones.
By H. C. Sorsy, F.G.S.
The author considers that the only satisfactory method of ascertaining the true
structure of limestones, is to examine thin sections of them with the microscope.
The results described in this paper were arrived at in this manner. Limestones
have been usually described as more or less crystalline or earthy, but this has re-
ference chiefly to subsequent changes, and not to their original condition. When
examined with the microscope, it is seen that to describe them according to their
mechanical characters would usually be far better. In this manner they may be
very conveniently classed as organic sands or clays; in the same way that we may
speak of felspar, sand or clay. The organic structure of the minute fragments of
which they are composed is often so well preserved, that their nature and relative
proportion can be satisfactorily determined. :
Where they have been consolidated, the shrinking of the mass has often produced
cracks and joints, afterwards filled with calcareous spar, and often presenting a
beautiful appearance, when examined with the microscope, on account of their
number and regularity; and showing faults of %$,th of an inch, or much less.
These are totally distinct from slaty cleavage, which can be studied to great advan-
tage in such limestones as have that structure. The author has proposed a theory
to account for this, and has shown that the rocks that possess it have been so
much compressed, as shown by a great variety of facts, that the position of their
ultimate particles would be changed in such a manner as to give rise to precisely
such a structure as that which produces cleavage. That this would be a necessary
result may be proved both by calculation and experiment. In the case of lime-
stones, it is impossible to suppose that any other than a mechanical cause can have
developed the structure seen with the microscope, because the particles whose posi-
tion has been changed are fragments of organic bodies, and not crystals. Besides
this change of position, in many cases minute organic fragments, whose original
form and structure are well known, are greatly compressed in the plane of cleavage,
as shown by the change in their form and structure; and even crystals of dolomite
are broken up, elongated, and their crystalline cleavage planes bent; thus showing
that the rock was ina consolidated condition when the change of dimensions
occurred, but that the pressure was so intense, and acted so gradually, that the
whole mass of rock gave way like more malleable substances, by the movement of
the particles one over another.
On the Currents produced by the action of the wind and tides, and the struc-
tures generated in the deposits formed under their influence, by which the
physical geography of the Seas at various geological epochs may be ascer-
tained. By H.C. Sorsy, #.G.S.
The first division of this communication consisted of a description of the nature
and peculiarities of the currents produced at the present period by the operation of
the tides, waves, and winds, and their relations to the physical geography of the
sea, in order that a proper judgment might be formed with reference to those of
former epochs. It is thus seen that a knowledge of the directions and characters
of the currents would furnish very much information respecting the general physical
peculiarities of the seas, and the position and direction of their coasts.
The second division comprised an account of observations and experiments re-
specting the effects of currents on the deposits formed under their influence, by
* 1855.
98 REPORT—1855.
which various structures are produced, for which the author proposes the general
term “current structures.” The first of these is when the beds are deposited in
horizontal bands, indicating little or no current at the bottom. The second has
been known by the term ‘ripple marking ;”’ but a very careful study of it yields
far more information than would be expected at first; for, by carefully attending
to the peculiarities of its structure, the direction and velocity of the current can be
very generally determined, and even the actual rate at which deposition proceeded.
The third kind of structure has often been called ‘‘ false bedding ;” but for this the
author proposes the term “drift bedding.” This furnishes information respecting
the direction of the current, but not necessarily the velocity. However, by carefully
attending to minute facts in its structure, it appears almost certain that the actual
depth of the water can in many cases be ascertained to within a fathom. By means
of these various structures, the direction of the currents can be made out with great
accuracy, as well as their general characters; whether they were oscillating and due
to tides or stranding waves, or moved only in one direction. Thence the peculiari-
ties in the motion of the currents from which the physical geography of the modern
Seas might be inferred, would permanently impress these characters on the deposits
formed in them, in such a manner that similar inferences might be derived from the
study of our ancient rocks.
Applying these general principles to particular cases, it was shown that the red
sandstone of the valley of the Annan at Moffat was accumulated by ordinary tidal
influence in a small marine loch. The detailed structure of the magnesian lime-
stone in the south of Yorkshire proves that the tide moved in a line from S. 70° W,
to N. 70° E., amongst a number of shoals. There must have been a much more
open sea towards the east than the west, because the greater storm-waves come from
that quarter; but yet they were never very great, as might be expected in a sea that
was generally shallow and full of shoals. The Wealden also has such a structure
as agrees with the rise and fall of the tide amongst a number of sand-banks, like
what would occur at the mouth of a great river; and the fluvio-marine tertiaries of
the Isle of Wight and Hampshire present a good example of the accumulation of
deposits in a tidal estuary, whose axis ran from east by south to west by north.
Many curious facts respecting the rise and fall of the tide and the currents due to
the action of the prevailing west winds are seen in the old red sandstone of the cen-
tral district of Scotland, and in the carboniferous strata of the north of England;
and they present most determinate data for forming a conclusion with respect to the
distribution of the land and sea at those periods. The carboniferous strata show
that most remarkable changes must have occurred between their formation and that
of the magnesian limestone; because the lines of rise and fall of the tide in those
two epochs in Yorkshire are nearly perpendicular to one another. Proceeding
upwards to the coal strata, to where tidal influence ceases, the author is of opinion
that the currents were chiefly due to the action of the wind; for in the neighbour-
hood. of Sheffield he finds that there is a most close agreement between their direc-
tions and that of the winds of the present period; and that their general character
and arrangement agree better with this supposition than with any other that has
yet occurred to him.
Stratified rocks of every period that have been thoroughly explored in this manner,
lead to the conclusion that their structure not only agrees with what would take ~
place from the action of the winds and tides, but furnish good evidence to prove
that no other agent could have produced them than such as are met with in modern
seas, and acting with no greater intensity than is now seen in various parts of the
globe. The application of this subject also furnishes many facts of considerable
interest in connexion with many other branches of theoretical geology.
The author illustrated his subject by an appropriate assortment of maps, and an —
ingenious machine representing the action of the waves.
On a Phyllopod Crustacean in the Upper Ludlow Rock of Ludlow.
Discovered by R. Ligutgopy. By the Rev. W. 5. Symonps, F.G.S.
This fossil is the trifid tail of a crustacean apparently allied to Hymenocaris
vermicauda of the lower Silurians of North Wales, and was discovered by Mr,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 99
Lightbody of Ludlow in the upper Ludlow shales on the banks of the river Tame.
The addition of a new crustacean to the upper Silurian list of organic remains is an
interesting fact, and the fossil was new to Mr. Salter. The various crustaceous
remains lately discovered in the upper Ludlow shales and tilestones are assuming
an important feature in geology, and Mr. Symonds quoted the supposed “ Cephalas-
pides’”’ in the tilestones of Kington, discovered by Mr. Banks, and expressed his
doubt whether, after all, the ‘‘Cephalaspidean”’ plates would not turn out to be
those of crustaceans. A drawing of this fossil by Mrs. H. Salwey of Ludlow has
been engraved on plate for the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, Oct. 1855.
On the Fauna of the Lower Silurians of the South of Scotland.
By Professor WyvittE Tuomson, F.R.S.£., Belfast.
Exhibition of a Series of Preparations obtained from the Decomposition of
Cannel Coal and the Torbane Hill Coal. By Dr. Tryre.
On the Probable Maximum Depth of the Ocean.
By Srarres V. Woop, Jun.
The author, after pointing out that if a surface be rugose in such a manner that
for every elevation upon it there exists an equal depression, and that if the interstices
be then filled in with liquid, it would be found, that when the area left uncovered
equalled the area covered by the liquid, the height of the prominences above the
liquid level would equal the depth of the depressions beneath the same level, and that
when such areas were as 2 to 1, or 3 to 1, the heights and depths would be in those
ratios, and so on in direct proportion,—suggested that if it were assumed that the
earth’s surface if uncovered would exhibit such a rugosity as above, then, since the
ocean area is to the land area as 3 to 1 (nearly), it would be found over large spaces
of a depth three times the average height of any mountain mass ; and that if the
average height of the mountain mass of the Himaleh were taken at from 13,000 to
14,000 feet, a large space of the ocean would give soundings of from 39,000 to
42,000 feet (eight miles), being three times that height.
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY inciupinc PHYSIOLOGY.
BorTany.
An attempt to classify the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Great Britain
according to their geognostic relations*. By Joun G. BAKER.
I. Fundamental Generalities.—1. In regulating the distribution of species, and
modifying specific types, the subjacent geological formations, principally by reason
of their mechanical properties, exercise an influence, which, taken as a whole, is
‘secondary only to that of climate, which it modifies, and by which it is modified
perpetually. ;
2. With reference to the facility with which they yield to disintegration and to
their hygroscopicity and porosity, strata are essentially separable into two principal
classes, dysgeogenous and eugeogenous.
3. Dysyeogenous formations are those which are disintegrated with difficulty and
yield only a feeble detritus. On a grand scale they absorb moisture readily, and
> furnish stations characterized by their comparative dryness. Rocks of this class
mostly contain a large proportion of carbonate of lime in their composition.
4. Eugeogenous formations are those which abrade easily and yield an abundant
* This paper, with a complete catalogue, &c., has been issued in the form of a pamphlet,
‘and may be procured of the author, Thirsk, Yorkshire, or of the publishers, W. and F. G.
Cash, London.
: rk
100 REPORT—1855.
superficial detritus, which may be either of a sandy or clayey nature. They are
comparatively impermeable, and consequently hygroscopic upon a grand scale, fur-
nishing damper stations than the rocks of the opposite category, especially when
the detritus is clayey.
5. Every species possesses essentially its characteristic special range of lithological
adaptability, in the same way that cach possesses its characteristic special range of
climatic adaptability. Under equal climatic conditions some species are restricted
to more or less distinctly marked dysgeogenous situations, and others to more or
less distinctly marked eugeogenous situations; but a greater number can adapt
themselves more or less decidedly to stations of either class.
6. In proportion as we advance from an austral to a boreal, and from a conti-
nental to an insular climate, the proportion in number which the restricted (¢. e.
dysgeogenous and eugeogenous) bear to the ubiquitous species lessens, principally
through reason of many of the eugeogenous species being able, under more humid
conditions of climate, to adapt themselves also to dysgeogenous situations. '
Il. The Field of Study lithologically viewed.—For phytostatic purposes the surface
of Britain may be conveniently considered as subdivided into six lithological
zones, viz.—l. Psammo-eugeogenous ; including the endogenous and metamorphic
rocks of the Scotch Highlands and sedimentary strata that surrounds them.
2. Mixed: including the Silurian and Devonian, and accompanying strata of the
southern part of Scotland and of Wales and the West of England.
3. Primary dysgeogenous: including the carboniferous formations of the Penine
chain and Permian limestones, enclosing the coal-fields of Durham and West
Yorkshire.
4, Eugeogenous: including the New Red Sandstone strata of the centre of En-
gland.
5. Secondary dysgeogenous: including the liassic, oolitic, Wealden and cretaceous
strata of the south-eastern half of England.
6. Subeugeogenous: including the fen country and London and Hampshire tertiary
basins. These are almost all occasionally interrupted by intervals of less typical or
exceptional nature.
Ill. Summary of Species.—
Class. No. of Species. Per-centage.
A. Dysgeogenous...........sersssecessersssseces 92 7+
AB, Subdysgeogenous ......ecesscseseereeterenes 75 6—
Bs; ss DIQUILOUS io: aoe seecinene sian scvnaecbicceess 7 699 53+
CB. Subeugeogenous ............seseeesncteeeeses 89 ‘=
C1. Eugeogenous, austral........-scssesceceseers 65 5—
C2: tn Ural gece tceens acdiencesonss 79 6+
DS Varo Ciena. adsiasmeneee edebaeas cape aeebieaace 90 7—
E. Hibernian and Sarnian ........csceseeeeeee 37 3—
F. Local or dubiouS.........ccssscereessesseesees 89 7-
1315
On Galium montanum, Vhuill. and G. commutatum, Jord.
By Joun G. Baker.
The author announced the discovery in Yorkshire of these two continental species,
and pointed out their distinctive characters.
Exhibition of « Series of Specimens illustrating the Distribution of Plants in
Great Britain, and Remarks on the Flora of Scotland. By Professor
Baxrrour, M.D., F.R.S.E.
After making some general remarks on the geographical distribution of plants, ~
and calling attention to the important addition made by Drs. Hooker and Thomson,
Mr. Spruce and other botanical travellers, Dr. Balfour proceeded to the consideration _
of the British Flora. He noticed the important services rendered by Mr. Watson,
and illustrated the flora of the British Isles by means of specimens arranged on
large sheets of paper in a map-like manner, so as at once to suggest the prevalent
forms of plants in different districts. }
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 101
He particularly referred to Forbes’ five floras. 1. Flora of West of Ireland.
2. Flora of South-west of England and South-east of Ireland. 3. Flora of South-
east of England. 4. Alpine flora. 5. Germanic flora.
He then drew particular attention to the alpine flora as developed on the Scotch
mountains, and gave the results of a trip to Ben Lawers in August 1855. During
the trip, abundance of Cystopteris montana was gathered on Ben Lawers as wellas on
Corrach Uachdar ; Pseudathyrium alpestre had been collected on Ben Lawers, Craig
Chailleach, Meal Ghyrdy, and Corrach Uachdar. Pseudathyrium flexile had been
seen sparingly on Ben Lawers.
Remarks on the Trunk of a Tree discovered erect as it grew, within the
Arctic Circle, in 75° 32' N., 92° W., or immediately to the Northward of
the Narrow Strait which opens into the Wellington Sound. By Captain
Sir E. Betcuer, R.N., F.R.A.S.
Having despatched several shooting parties in quest of hares and ptarmigan, one
commanded by the boatswain returned about midnight, on the 12th of September,
1853, bringing a report that they had discovered the heel of the topgallant-mast of
a ship in an erect position, about one mile and a half inland; and the carpenter’s
mate, one of the party, asserting that it was certainly ‘‘a worked spar,”’ of about
eight inches diameter, seemed to confirm this report. Such a communication, from
such authorities, and considered of sufficient importance to awake me, startled me
not alittle. One point, however, was not so clear to my imagination,—it was too
far inland; and, moreover, in a hollow. On the morrow I proceeded, accompanied
by the boatswain, armed with picks and crows, to search for and bring in this disco-
very. But it was not without great difficulty that it was re-discovered, snow having
nearly obliterated the foot-marks of the previous day. I at once perceived that it
was not a mast, nor a worked spar; nor placed there by human agency. It was the
trunk of a tree, that had probably grown there, and flourished, but at what date
who would venture to determine? At the period when whales were thrown up and
deposited, as we found them, at elevations of 500 to 800 feet above the present level
of the sea, and the land generally convulsed, and also when a much higher tem-
perature prevailed in these regions, this tree probably put forth its leaves, and
afforded shade from the. sun. Such a change of climate just then would have been
peculiarly acceptable! I directed tlie party which attended me to proceed at once
to clear away the soil, then frozen mud, and splintering at every effort like glass.
The stump was at length extracted, but not without being compelled eventually to
divide the tap root; and collecting together the portions of soil which were imme-
diately in contact, and surrounding the tree, in the hope of discovering impressions
of leaves or cones, the whole was carefully packed in canvas; and eventually reached
this country. Near.to the spot in question I noticed several peculiar knolls, from
which I was led to infer that other trees had grown there; and I caused them to
be dug into. But they proved to be peat mosses, about nine inches in depth, and
on closer examination, in my cabin, proved to contain the bones of the Lemming,
in such extraordinary quantity, as to constitute almost a mass of bony manure.
Through the kindness of Dr. Hooker, the entire matter having been forwarded to
Sir W. Hooker at Kew, I am enabled to furnish the following interesting remarks :
“«‘ The piece of wood brought by Sir Edward Belcher from the shores of Wellington
Channel belongs to a species of pine—probably to the Pinus (Abies) alba, the most
northern conifer. This, the ‘white spruce,’ advances as far north as the 68th
parallel, and must be often floated down the great rivers of: North America to the
Polar Ocean. The structure of the wood of the specimen brought home, differs
remarkably in its anatomical characters from that of any other conifer with which I
am acquainted. Each concentric ring (or annual growth) consists of two zones of
tissue; one, the outer, that towards the circumference, is broader, of a pale colour,
and consists of ordinary tubes of fibres of wood marked with discs common to all
Coniferze. These discs are usually opposite one another when more than one row of
them occur in the direction of the length of the fibre; and, what is very unusual,
present radiating lines from the central depression to the circumference. Secondly,
the inner zone of each annual ring of wood is narrower, of a dark colour, and formed
of more slender woody fibres, with thicker walls in proportion to their diameter.
102 REPORT—1855.
These tubes have few or no discs upon them, but are covered with spiral striz,
giving the appearance of each tube being formed of a twisted band. The above
characters prevail in all parts of the wood, but are slightly modified in different
rings. Thus, the outer zone is broader in some than in others, the dise-bearing
fibres of the outer zone are sometimes faintly marked with spiral strie, and the
spirally marked fibres of the inner zone sometimes bear discs. These appearances
suggest the annual recurrence of some special cause that shall thus modify the first
and last-formed fibres of each year’s deposit, so that that first formed may differ in
amount as well as in kind from that last formed; and the peculiar conditions of an
arctic climate appear to afford an adequate solution. The inner, or first formed
zone, must be regarded as imperfectly developed, being deposited at a season when
the functions of the plant are very intermittently exercised, and when a few short
hours of hot sunshine are daily succeeded by many of extreme cold. As the season
advances, the sun’s heat and light are continuous during the greater part of the
twenty-four hours, and the newly-formed wood fibres are hence more perfectly de-
veloped; they are much larger, present no signs of striz, but are studded with discs
of a more highly organized structure than are usual in the natural order to which
this tree belongs.”
On the Flowering of Victoria Regia, in the Royal Botanic Garden, Glasgow.
By P. Crark, Curator of the Garden.
The author traced in the first place the history of the cultivation of this plant in
Britain, and then explained the method employed in the Botanic Garden of Glasgow,
which was opened to the Members of the Association.
The structure in which the water-lily is grown was specially erected for the
purpose, and contains a tank 20 by 22 feet, so constructed as to give a depth of
3 feet, gently sloping to half that depth at the edges. In the centre of the tank
there is a square pit one foot in depth, over which is formed a conical mound, con-
sisting of about three cart-loads of charred loam, leaf-mould, &c. In this the
Victoria was planted on the 12th of May last. The temperature of the water kept
up during the whole summer has been from about 83° to 85° Fahr. When planted,
the largest leaf was not more than 12 inches in diameter, but the size and number
of leaves soon increased, and towards the end of the month some of them were a
foot and a half in diameter. The increase continued; on the 15th of June one leaf
measured 2 feet in diameter; but after this date, in consequence of much dull rainy
weather, the plant did not make progress until towards the end of July, when it
again started into healthy growth and rapidly gained strength, so much so, that, in
the course of a week, it had gained fourteen good leaves, some of them measuring
3 feet 6 inches in diameter. By the 15th of August the plant had increased to
great size, and presented a remarkably beautiful and healthy appearance; at this
time some of the young leaves increased in diameter at the rate of 12 or 14 inches
in twenty-four hours. On the 22nd of August a flower-bud was discovered, the plant
being then very healthy and vigorous, and the largest leaf 4 feet 10 inches across.
On the morning of the 31st of August, the flower-bud was seen to move itself as
far as possible in one direction, then back again in a semicircle, finally raising itself
into a somewhat erect position out of the water, so as to rest against the margin of
the young leaf from the axil of which it was produced. As the day advanced the
flower began to open, diffusing a fragrance like that of a well-ripened pine-apple
through the house, which was also distinctly perceptible in the adjoining palm-
house. At 3 o’clock a number of the petals opened, and at 5 p.m. the flower
expanded to considerable size, continuing to increase throughout the evening and
night. At 10 o’clock on the following morning (Ist Sept.) the petals began to
close again, and in little more than an hour it was almost quite closed, in which
state it remained during the forenoon. In the afternoon (between 2 and 3 o’clock)
it again opened, and more fully than before, the central petals rising up in a beauti-
ful manner ; the full expansion occurred at half-past 6 p.m. The flower, when in
its best condition, was examined by 2000 visitors during the afternoon. It mea-
sured 13 inches in diameter; but one produced since then was half an inch larger.
One leaf measured 5 feet 2 inches in diameter, the margin being turned up in the
tray form so peculiar to the leaf of this plant.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ; 103
The other flowers subsequently produced have gone through the same stages as
the one now described ; in all six flowers have been produced, and two buds are
now nearly ready to expand—one of which will probably be in full blow to-morrow
(Tuesday), and will be followed by others during the present week.
The first cultivators of the plant in England believed that it required a great
amount of light; but the success which has attended it in the Crystal Palace at
Sydenham has shown that it is capable of very successful cultivation even where
shaded by palms and at a great distance from the glass. This circumstance has led
to the belief that shading is in fact desirable ; but I have hitherto treated the plant
in such a manner as to secure as much light as possible, and have no reason to
complain of the result.
The growth of confervaceous plants proves detrimental to the Victoria, and care
has been taken throughout to keep down such weeds.
In the same tank with the Victoria there are a few aquatic plants, such as the
Pontederia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, and Nymphea Devoniensis, N. dentata, N. ce-
rulea, and other kinds.
On the Influence of Light on the Germination of Plants. By Dr. DAUBENY.
On the Hancornia speciosa, Artificial Gutta Percha and India Rubber.
By the Chevalier Dz CLAusseEn.
In the course of my travels as botanist in South America, I had occasion to
examine the different trees which produce the india-rubber, and of which the Han-
cornia speciosa is one. It grows on the high plateaux of South America, between
the tenth and twentieth degrees of latitude south, at a height from three to five
thousand feet above the level of the sea. It is of the family of the Sapotacee, the
same to which belongs the tree which produces gutta percha. It bears a fruit, in
form not unlike a bergamot pear, and full of a milky juice, which is liquid india-
rubber. To be eatable, this fruit must be kept two or three weeks after being
gathered, in which time all the india-rubber disappears or is converted into sugar,
and is then in taste one of the most delicious fruits known, and regarded by the
Brazilians (who call it Mangava) as superior to all other fruits of their country.
The change of india-rubber into sugar led me to suppose that gutta percha, india-
rubber, and similar compounds contained starch. I have therefore tried to mix it
with resinous or oily substances, in combination with tannin, and have succeeded in
making compounds which can be mixed in all proportions with gutta percha or india-
rubber without altering their characters. By the foregoing it will be understood
that a great number of compounds of the gutta percha and india-rubber class may
be formed by mixing starch, gluten, or flour with tannin and resinous cr oily sub-
stances. By mixing some of these compounds with gutta percha or india-rubber, I
can so increase its hardness, that it will be like horn, and may be used as shields to
protect the soldiers from the effect of the Minie balls ; and I have also no doubt that
some of these compounds, in combination with iron, may be useful in floating bat-
teries and many other purposes, such as the covering the electric telegraph wires,
imitation of wood, ship-building, &c.
On the Employment of Alge and other Plants in the Manufacture of Soaps.
By the Chevalier DE CLausseEn.
When 1| was experimenting on several plants for the purpose of discovering fibres
for paper pulp, I accidentally treated some common sea-weeds with alkalies, and
found they were entirely dissolved, and formed a soapy compound which could be
employed in the manufacture of soap. The making of soaps directly from sea-weeds
-must be more advantageous than burning them for the purpose of making kelp,
because the fucus oil and glutinous matter they contain are saved and converted into
soap. The Brazilians use a malvaceous plant (Sida) for washing instead of soap,
and the Chinese use flour of beans in the scouring of their silk ; and I have found
that not only sea-weed, but also many other glutinous plants, and gluten and flour,
may be used in the manufacture of soap with advantage.
104 REPORT—1855.
On Papyrus, Bonapartea, and other Plants which can furnish Fibre for
Paper Pulp. By Chevalier De CLAusseEn.
The paper-makers are in want of a material to replace rags in the manufacture of
paper, and [| have therefore turned my attention to this subject, the result of which -
I will communicate to the Association. To make this matter more comprehensible,
I will explain what the paper-makers want. They require a cheap material, with a
strong fibre, easily bleac!ed, and of which an unlimited supply may be obtained. I
will now enumerate a few of the different substances which I have examined for the
purpose of discovering a proper substitute for rags. Rags containing about 50 per cent.
of vegetable fibre mixed with wool or silk are regarded by the paper-makers as use-
less to them, and several thousand tons are yearly burned in the manufacture of
prussiate of potash. By a simple process, which consists in boiling these rags in
caustic alkali, the animal fibre is dissolved, and the vegetable fibre is available for
the manufacture of white paper pulp. Surat, or Jute, the inner bark of Corchorus
indicus, produces a paper pulp of inferior quality bleached with difficulty. Agave,
Phormium tenax, and Banana or plantain fibre (Manilla hemp), are not only
expensive, but it is nearly impossible to bleach them. ‘The Banana leaves contain
40 per cent. of fibre. Flax would be suitable to replace rags in paper manufacture,
but the high price and scarcity of it, caused partly by the war, and partly by the
injudicious way in which it is cultivated, prevents that. Six tons of flax straw
are required to produce one ton of flax fibre, and by the present mode of treatment
all the woody part is lost. By my process the bulk of the flax straw is lessened
by partial cleaning before retting, whereby about 50 to 60 per cent. of shoves (a
most valuable cattle food) are saved, and the cost of the fibre reduced. By the fore-
going it will be seen that the flax plant only produces from 12 to 15 per cent.
of paper pulp. All that I have said about flax is applicable to hemp, which
produces 25 per cent. of paper pulp. Nettles produce 25 per cent. of a very
beautiful and easily bleached fibre. Palm-leaves contain 30 to 40 per cent.
fibre, but are not easily bleached. The Bromeliacee contain from 25 to
40 per cent. fibre. Bonapartea juncoidea contains 35 per cent. of the most beautiful
vegetable fibre known; it could not only be used for paper pulp, but for all kinds of
manufactures in which flax, cotton, silk, or wool are employed. It appears that this
plant exists in large quantities in Australia, and it is most desirable that some of our
large manufacturers should import a quantity of it. The plant wants no other pre-
paration than cutting, drying, and compressing like hay. The bleaching and finishing
it may be done here. Ferns give 20 to 25 per cent. fibre, not easily bleached.
Equisetum, from 15 to 20 per cent. inferior fibre, iseasily bleached. The inner bark
of the lime-tree (Tilia), gives a fibre easily bleached, but not very strong. Althea
and many Malvacee produce from 15 to 20 per cent. paper pulp. Stalks of beans,
peas, hops, buckwheat, potatoes, heather, broom, and many other plants contain
from 10 to 20 per cent. of fibre, but their extraction and bleaching present diffi-
culties which will probably prevent their use. The straws of the Cereales cannot be
converted into white paper pulp after they have ripened the grain; the joints or knots
in the stalks are then so hardened that they will resist all bleaching agents. To
produce paper pulp from them they must be cut green before the grain appears, and
this would probably not be advantageous. Many grasses contain from 30 to
50 per cent. of fibre, not very strong, but easily bleached. Of indigenous grasses,
the Rye-grass contains 35 per cent. of paper pulp, the Phalaris 30 per cent., Arrena-
therum 30 per cent., Dactylis 30 per cent., and Carex 30 per cent. Several reeds
and canes contain from 30 to 50 per cent. of fibre, easily bleached. The stalk of the
sugar-cane gives 40 per cent. of white paper pulp. The wood of the Conifere gives
a fibre suitable for paper pulp. I made this discovery accidentally in 1851, when I
was making flax cotton in my model establishment at Stepney, near London, I
remarked that the pine wood vats in which I bleached were rapidly decomposed on
the surface into a kind of paper pulp; I collected some of it, and exhibited it in the
Great Exhibition, butas at that time there was no want of paper material, no attention
was paid to it. The leaves and top branches of Scotch fir produce 25 per cent. of
paper pulp. ‘The shavings and sawdust of wood from Scotch fir gives 40 per cent.
pulp. The cost of reducing to pulp and bleaching pine wood will be about three
times that of bleaching rags. As none of the above-named substances or plants would
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105
entirely satisfy on all points the wants of the paper-makers, I continued my researches,
and at last remembered the Papyrus (the plant of which the ancients made their
paper), which I examined, and found to contain about 40 per cent. of strong fibre,
excellent for paper, and very easily bleached. The only point which was not entirely
satisfactory was relative to the abundant supply of it, as this plant is only found in
Egypt. I directed, therefore, my attention to plants growing in this country ; and
I found to my great satisfaction that the common rushes (Juncus effusus and others)
contain 40 per cent. of fibre, quite equal, if not superior, to the Papyrus fibre, and
a perfect substitute for rags in the manufacture of paper, and that one ton of rushes
contains more fibre than two tons of flax straw.
Remarks on the Effects of Last Winter upon Vegetation at Aberdeen:
By Professor Dicxiz, M.D.
The lowest temperature was recorded on the 15th of February, viz. minus 1° of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the mean temperature of the entire month having been
26°°8 Fahr. The effect of such severe frost was very considerable on many plants
which for several years previously had been in a thriving condition, and were sup-
posed to be sufficiently hardy to entitle them to a place among species fitted for the
garden or the forest. Rhododendrons were more or less injured, and many of them
destroyed down to the point where they were protected by the snow, which had
fallen copiously. Budded roses were, generally speaking, destroyed, the stock being
uninjured. Even the Ayrshire rose (a variety of Rosa arvensis) was generally killed
to the ground. Common roses and cabbage roses’ were uninjured. Several in-
teresting and valuable species of pine were either severely injured or killed to the
ground, as Pinus Russeliana, P. macrocarpa, P. insignis, P. Teocote, and P. longi-
folia. Plants of Araucaria imbricata, which had resisted the influence of previous
winters, were killed to the ground. Generally speaking, all of this species unpro-
tected by snow were destroyed. Species of Taxodium, Cupressus, Fitzroya, Saxe-
gothea, and Cephalotaxus were injured or killed to the ground. Even large plants
of the Irish yew were destroyed down to the part protected by snow. The common
and Portugal laurels, the holly, and cthers, were more or less injured, and in some
cases the growth of ten or more years destroyed. Among wild plants the influence
of the low temperature was most obvious upon whin and broom, which in exposed
places were killed down to the part covered by snow, and in not a few instances as
far as the ground.
Respecting the exotic trees and shrubs reported as either materially injured or
totally destroyed, it would be rash to infer that this indicates their inability to
resist low temperatures under any circumstances. In every instance it was observed
that the destruction was greater in low than in high localities, and this even in the
same garden. In one garden, a low sheltered spot, the great destruction occasioned
by the frost of February was attributed by the proprietor to the fact that there was
continued growth till January, the sudden transition to a low temperature causing
the destruction of parts not properly matured.
The effects of last winter in different parts of the United Kingdom has demon-
strated that a temperature approaching zero of Fahrenheit occasions almost
irreparable damage to many introduced species; and that even some indigenous
plants, as the whin and broom, are liable to periodical destruction of all the part
above the soil. Such facts also enable us better to appreciate that admirable
arrangement by which most of our native perennial species are able to survive the
most inclement season. The subterranean stock is protected by the snow which
accumulates in severe winters and the soil in which it is imbedded; the reviving
influence of spring stimulating the upward development of the subterranean buds
and the formation of leaves, flowers, and seed. It appears unnecessary to urge at
any length the importance of recording the influence of different seasons upon
exotics as well as on our native species.
Much has been done of late years to increase the number of foreign plants likely
to bear free exposure in our climate. The experience of last winter has shown that
too sanguine expectations have been formed regarding some, and that our collections
are liable to periodical thinning occasioned by the influence of low temperatures on
species which are more delicate than had been supposed. The loss of time and of
106 REPORT—1855.
capital occasioned by such occurrences render these inquiries more than subjects of
interest to the physiologist merely. Every garden in the kingdom, whether public
or private, ought to be considered as an experimental establishment ; the subjects
of experiment are already provided, viz. the trees and shrubs which have been
introduced, and the varying seasons are the agents whose influence we ought to
observe and record.
A continued series of such observations would ultimately lead to important
results, and we should cease to hear of valuable soil encumbered by plants which
must ultimately suecumb under the influence of unusually severe winters. It is
the interest of all parties to give aid in collecting the kind of information to which
we have been referring; and in our gardens and our forests we cannot fail
ultimately to reap important results from the accumulation of such practical
knowledge.
On Impregnation in Phanerogamous Plants, By Dr. Duncan,
1. Description of the development of the ovules of Tigridia conchiflora.
2. Experiments upon the duration of the process of the passage of the pollen-
tube down the style.
The rate of growth determined.
The pollen-tube asserted to be cellular and to be nourished in its passage by the
cells of the female plant contiguous to it.
3. The independence of the pollen-tube both in its powers of growth and impreg-
nation of the pollen grain proved by experiments of series 2.
4, The pollen-tube abuts against the embryo-sac, but does not perforate; the
wall of the embryo-sac is cellular, the contents are granular.
5. The embryo-sac is pushed back, and the end of the pollen-tube swells out
before losing its contents.
6. Cells do not appear in the impregnated embryo-sac for some days. A
mingling of the granular contents of the last cell of the pollen-tube with the
granular contents of the embryo-sac first occurs.
7. The cells of the coat of the embryo-sac have been usually mistaken for ‘ germ-
cells.”
Exhibition of a Collection of Ferns from Portugal.
By C. H. Furtone.
These plants were prepared and dried by Mr. Pike, Consul for the United States
at Oporto, and were remarkable for the careful manner in which they had been
mounted.
On the Flowers and Vegetation of the Crimea, By Dr. MicHE.son.
The author confirmed what is known of the plants of this at present deeply inter-
esting part of the world. The vegetation is generally sub-tropical, and in the
valleys and sides of the hills most prolific, At present only a small part of it is
cultivated, but it is susceptible of the highest culture, and of supporting a dense
population.
ZOoLoey.
Notes on the Brachiopoda observed in a Dredging Tour with Mr. M‘ANDREW —
on the Coast of Norway, in the Summer of the present year, 1855. By
Lucas Barrett, F.G.S.
In the course of our cruise we met with four species of living Brachiopoda, belong- —
ing to three out of the five recent families of those shells. Fresh specimens of one
or more of them were obtained almost daily for six weeks; and as during a month
of that time we were north of the Arctic circle, enjoying perpetual sunlight, the
opportunity of watching their movements was extremely favourable.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107
1. Terebratulina caput-serpentis. This species, which shows more of itself than any,
and protrudes its cirri further, was met with everywhere in small numbers from 30
to 100 fathoms, often attached to Oculinu. The cirri on the reflected part of the
arms were shorter than those on the first part, weré almost constantly in motion,
and were often observed to convey small particles to the channel at their base.
When placed in a small glass of sea water the valves gradually opened. Individuals
remaining attached to other objects manifested a remarkable power and disposition
to move on their pedicles. Detached specimens could be moved about without
causing the animal to close its valves. If any part of the protruded cirri were touched,
they were retracted and the shell closed with a snap, but soon opened again. When
the oral arms are retracted, the cirri are bent up, but are gradually uncoiled and
straightened when the shell is opened, before which the animal has been often ob-
served to protrude a few of its cirri, and move them about as if to ascertain if any
danger threatened. Only on one occasion a current was observed to set in on one
side between the two rows of cirri. I had been attempting to ascertain the exist-
ence of currents, by introducing smal! quantities of indigo into the water near the
animal with a camel’s-hair brush; three times the water was forcibly drawn in, and
the particles of indigo were seen to glide along the groove at the base of the cirri in
the direction of the mouth.
2. Waldheimia cranium occurred on several occasions between Vigten Islands and
the North Cape, in 25 to 160 fathoms, attached to stones ; only abundant at Omnesoe.
It does not protrude its cirri behind the margin of the shell. No currents were
detected, though frequently sought for. This species belongs to the division of
Terebratulide with a long loop, in which the oral arms are so fixed to the caleareous
skeleton as to be incapable of motion, except at their spiral terminations. It was
moderately abundant in the extreme north from Tromsdée to the North Cape in 70
to 150 fathoms of water. It has been supposed that these conjoined spiral ends can
be unrolled like the proboscis of a butterfly: I never saw any disposition of the
kind manifested. This species is more lively than caput-serpentis, moving often on
its pedicle, and is also more easily alarmed. :
3. Rhynchonella psittacea was moderately abundant in the extreme north, from
Tromsée to the North Cape, in a living state, in 40 to 150 fathoms ; dead valves were
found at Hammerfest in mud. I found the Rhynchonella very difficult to examine,
the animal being extremely timid, and closing its valves directly when disturbed. The
coiled arms are extended, so that the cirri when unbent come as far as the margin
of the shell. I have frequently seen this species open, but it never protruded its
arms.
4. Crania anomala, Mull. sp., was only met with from Drontheim to Tromséen,
in 25 to 100 fathoms water. The cirri of Crania are protruded beyond the margin
of its valves, but the arms are not extended. The shell opens by moving upon the
straight side as on a hinge, without sliding the valve.
On the Occurrence of the Pentacrinoid Larva of Comatula rosacea, in Lam-
lash Bay, Isle of Arran. By Professor Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S.
After giving a general history of the discovery of the so-called Pentacrinus
Europeus by Mr. J. V. Thompson, of Cork, in 1823, of his subsequent identification
of it as the attached larva of Comatula, and of the confirmation of this identification
by Prof. E. Forbes, Mr. W. Thompson (of Belfast), and Dr. R. Ball (of Dublin), Dr.
Carpenter stated that he had recently succeeded in dredging it up, in all stages of
growth, in Lamlash Bay, where it occurred in great abundance, attached to the
fronds of the common Laminaria. He expressed the hope of being able hereafter to
give a complete history of its development; as he was about again to proceed to
Lamlash Bay with Prof. Kolliker, for the purpose of making further investigations
on the subject.
On the Structure and Development of Orbitolites complanatus.
By Professor Carpenter, M.D., F.RS.
In this communication, the author gave a general account of his researches on -
Orbitolites full details of which will be found in the Philosophical Transactions for
108 REPORT—1855.
1856; his special object being to show the very wide range of variation that pre-
sents itself in this type, within the limits of a single species, in illustration of his
Piecd
evening discourse on the general question, “ What is a species?
Description of a New Species of Trematode Worm (Fasciola gigantica). By
T. Spencer Cossoip, M.D., Assistant Conservator of the Anatomical
Museum, University of Edinburgh.
In respect to this Entozoon, Dr. Cobbold observed as follows :— The trematode
now before the Association, designated Fusciola gigantica, varies in length from an inch
and a half to nearly three inches, most of the specimens being about two inches;
their breadth averages three lines, some attaining the thirdof an inch. The general
form of the body is elongated, and rounded at the caudal extremity, in which latter
feature it differs very markedly from /’. hepatica. The larger or more fully developed
individuals present slight irregularities or creaations of the lateral margins near the
neck; a character, however, by“no means constant. The borders are more attenu-
ated than in the common species, and the substance of the body is thinner. The
anterior extremity is prolonged forward about two lines, and terminates in a sucker
half a line in diameter. There is no evident distinction between what has been
termed head and neck, but the part to which the latter title is assigned is very pro-
minent on the dorsal surface, from the distended condition of the oviducts and semi-
nal reservoir lying immediately beneath.
“The digestive apparatus commences by a short cesophagus proceeding downward
from the base of the oval sucker; while in the neck it divides into two slightly
diverging trunks which pass on either side of the ventral sucker, again approximate,
and are continued to the tail. On their passage down, the two principal trunks lie
almost parallel, near the mesial line of the body ; they give off eight or ten secondary
branches, which proceed to the lateral margins, and end in blind ceca; small
twigs also proceed from the main tubes inwards, but they do not extend beyond the
middle line, and present very few subdivisions. The ramifying systems of digestive
ceca in each lateral segment of the animal are not absolutely symmetrical, neither is
there uniformity in respect of number ; they preserve, however, a general resemblance
both in the degree of subdivision and in the direction which the secondary trunks
assume. The downward direction of the branches, and the angle of divergence re-
sulting from such a disposition of parts, form a striking contrast to the arrangement
of that system of canals situated nearer the dorsal aspect of the body, and usually
regarded as the circulatory apparatus. These vessels are represented in F. gigantica
by a single median trunk, from which numerous primary branches pass obliquely
upward to the sides.
«« We may here remark, that considerable dispute has arisen among helmintholo-
gists, as to the propriety of regarding this series of canals as vascular ; some have even
expressed doubts as to the presence of any true organs of circulation in the trematode
worms, and the distinguished authority Van Beneden holds this opinion, Those
who regard the superficial set of tubes in the light of an excretory or secreting gland,
ground their view on the circumstance of a supposed caudal opening, through which
matters thrown into the median vessel frequently pass. M. Blanchard has shown
the aperture in question to result from over-distension of the canal, which readily
gives way at this, its weakest point; our own attempts to inject have confirmed this
observation.
« Accepting M. Blanchard’s explanation as correct, we have to state further, in re-
gard to these vessels, that they exhibit less regularity of distribution than obtains in
the branching tubes of the alimentary system, and they inosculate freely from one
end of the body to the other. Irrespective of these-distinguishing marks, there is a
disparity of calibre between the two sets of tubes, and all their peculiarities taken
together strongly convince us of their true vascular nature.
««The external spiral appendages, with minute orifices of the reproductive organs,
occupy the same relative position as in F. hepatica, i, e. lying directly in front of
the second or great ventral sucker. In reference to these structures—the nervous
system and other special parts—it is unnecessary to give additional particulars ;
their characters resembling in all respects those seen in the typical species, and
which are now so fully understood.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109
** Fusciola gigantica, Cobbold.—Corpore'compresso, elliptico-lanceolato, terunciatim
longo, antrorsum attenuato; ore hausterioque antice; collo elongato, cylindrico ;
cauda rotundaté; ventriculo dendritico, ramis clausis.
Habitat in hepate Camelopardalis Giraffe.”
Description of a malformed Trout. By T. Spencer Copso tp, M.D. Se.
The author of this communication remarked as follows :—‘ For the specimen now
before the Association I am indebted to Mr. Thomas Turnbull, who captured it
while fly-fishing in the river Jed, near Jedburgh. He stated, that though for many
years familiar with different kinds of trout, he had never met with one of this form. Its
chief peculiarity, viewed externally, consists in the preponderant depth of the body,
as compared with the length, giving the animal a hump-backed appearance, and
causing it in outline to resemble individuals of the Sparide or Cyprinide, rather than
members of its own group. To ascertain the cause of this anomaly, we proceeded
to examine the viscera, under the impression that any deviation from the structural
arrangement usually observed in Salmonidz would indicate a hybrid, the visceral
morphology at the same time suggesting the kind of fish whence such agency had
been derived.
“Turning down the integument, and dissecting the great lateral muscular mass
from one side so as to expose some of the ribs and diverging appendages, these parts,
and some of the vertebral segments which had also been laid bare, at once offered
an explanation of the longitudinal shortening of the trunk; we had here, in fact, an
extreme abrogation of the spinal column, resulting from the coalescence of numerous
vertebral ‘centra,’ giving rise secondarily to modifications in the surrounding soft
parts.
“« The following is a brief record of the skeletal peculiarities :—
“The vertebral segments, not including the bony elements of the head, which ap-
pear natural, are fifty-six in number. The first seven, proceeding from before back-
ward, have their bodies or ‘centra’ united into one bone, the multiple parts of which are
recognized by grooves at the side, and further indicated by seven corresponding
spinous processes above, and as many ribs, with the accompanying styliform appen-
dages, below. A single ‘centrum’ carries the neural and hemal elements of the
eighth and ninth vertebre.
“« Thus far the bones do not present any marked change of position, save that which
immediately results from their close approximation. ‘There is a little bending for-
ward of the tips of the spinous processes belonging to the five hindmost, but through-
out their greater extent they take, as usual, an oblique course backward.
“ The tenth vertebral quantity is normal, but its neural spine, to which is articulated
the first of the interspinous bones, is much curved forward. The eleventh and
twelfth are conjoined; their laminz or ‘neurapophyses’ slope backward, as in the
healthily-developed trout, but the corresponding neural spines have a perpendicular
direction. The thirteenth segment is quantitatively natural, its autogenous parts
having a similar disposition to the foregoing. The bodies of the fourteenth and
fifteenth vertebre are united to form a single ‘centrum.’ The sixteenth and
seventeenth are likewise anchylosed, but more attenuated. The ‘centra’ of the
succeeding five segments, viz. the eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first,
and twenty-second, are all developed into a single osseous mass. The neural spines
of these, and the preceding six, are all very closely packed together; they support
the eleven interspinous bones, and in consequence of a vertical position, have tilted
up the latter with their associated fin rays, so as to produce the great dorsal eleva-
tion. The ribs curve obliquely forward, and this mal-direction, especially at the
upper part of the hemal arches, applies more or less to all the ‘ pleurapophysial ’
elements of the spinal series at present described; the small osseous appendages
agree in number and relation.
“From the twenty-third to the thirty-third vertebra inclusive, the neural and hemal
“apophyses’ are attached to a single bone, which is consequently the representative
of eleven ‘centra.’? The lamine or ‘neurapophyses’ of the first six segments are
directed diagonally forward, the neural spines of all gradually curving backward.
The transverse processes or ‘ parapophyses,’ with the accompanying ‘pleurapo-
physes,’ belonging to nine of the included segments, approach the normal position.
110 REPORT—1855.
“The ‘centra’ of the thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth divisions of the spinal series
are ossified together. A single piece indicates the union of the bodies of the thirty-
sixth, thirty-seventh, thirty-eighth, and thirty-ninth vertebre, the spinous transverse
processes pointing obliquely backward. The fortieth and forty-first vertebral bodies
are united. The forty-secondisindependent. The forty-third and forty-fourth have
coalesced. In these latter five instances, the supra and infra -axial developments have
recovered much of their natural character.
“The twelve remaining segments of the spinal series, from the forty-fifth to the
fifty-sixth inclusive, alone present a completely healthy aspect, and a glance at their
uniform disposition affords a criterion of the extreme mal-arrangement to which the
abdominal vertebrze have been subjected.”’
On the Species of Meriones and Arvicole found in Nova Scotia.
By J. W. Dawson.
There appear to be two species of Meriones in Nova Scotia: one of them is
identical with M. Labradorius of Sir J. Richardson, differing only in some trifling
characters ; the second species is smaller, darker coloured, and has coarser hair.
The average dimensions of three adult specimens are,—length of head and body, 3
inches 6 lines; tail, 4 inches 8 lines; tarsus and foot, 1 inch 4 lines. The author
had not found any description of this last species; but would not desire to name it
as a new species until he had made further inquiry. Should it prove to be new,
he would claim for it the name M. Acadicus. ‘This species inhabits grain fields,
It does not burrow, but prepares forms in sheltered places, lying very close; and,
when disturbed, escaping by a few rapid leaps or bounds. It feeds by day, and does
not appear to prepare any store of food for winter. It is usually stated that these
elaping mice are adapted to level and open countries ; it therefore appears singular
that in a country originally densely wooded two species should exist. Their natural
habitat may have been those places from which the woods have been removed by
fire, and replaced by herbaceous plants and shrubs. The most common A?rvicola in’
Nova Scotia is the A. Pennsylvanica, which in form and habits closely resembles the
European 4. vulgaris. It burrows, forming a neat nest, having two entrances each
with a sort of antechamber to enable the animal to turn itself. It excavates
galleries under the snow in winter, devouring grass-roots, bark of trees, &c.; and at
the same season it often resorts to barns and outhouses. Some other specimens of
Arvicola were exhibited, closely approaching in their characters to the 4. Novobora-
censis. The white-footed mouse, Mus leucopus, also occurs in Nova Scotia, and the
domestic mouse and brown rat have been introduced and naturalized, while of the
black rat only a few specimens have been found in the city of Halifax. It was
stated that some of the specimens exhibited had been collected by Mr. Winton and
Mr. Downes of Halifax.
Notes on the Homologies of Lepismide. By Professor Dickiz, M.D.
The species on which the present remarks are founded is Machilis maritima, an
insect which is common on different parts of our shores, lurking under stones and ~
in crevices of rocks near high-water mark. It is destitute of wings, but provided
with means of locomotion for running and leaping. The thoracic and abdominal
zoonites present considerable uniformity in size; the former have the usual number
(viz. three pairs) of well-developed limbs; the abdominal zoonites are eleven in
number, and each, with the exception of the penultimate and the last, is provided
with a pair of rudimentary limbs. The existence of these appendages, their resem-
blance to those attached to the base of the second and third pairs of thoracic limbs, —
and their relations to the elements of the zoonites with which they are connected, —
enable us to trace with facility the true homology of the parts of the ovipositor in —
Machilis.
In a series of very elaborate papers lately published in the ‘ Annales des Sciences _
Naturelles,’ Lacaze-Duthiers has arrived at the conclusion that there is unity of ©
composition in the structure of stings and ovipositors in different orders of the class
of insects. From examination of a single species, viz. Lepisma saccharina, he con-—
cludes that in the Thysanoura, as in other orders, the ninth urite forms the ovi-
:
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. ‘il
positor; the appendages of the upper arch and the sternites, together constitute the
active part of the organ, and are lodged in the fissure left between the episternites.
The facility for examination and interpretation of the nature of the parts are very
considerable in Machilis; the existence of the abdominal limbs, so obvious in that
genus, enables us to see the true relations of the other parts. The ovipositor consists
of four slender, flexible, and slightly club-shaped filaments, closely united to each
other by means of interlocking hairs and teeth; the two outermost are evidently the
sternites of the eighth urite; they are of greater diameter and length than the two
others, to which they form a sort of sheath ; the latter are the sternites of the ninth
urite, and differ but slightly from the other two. This view of the nature of the
organ does not imply that unnatural transference in position of parts which follows
from adopting the other theory.
On the application (for ceconomic and sanitary oljects) of the principle of
“ Vivaria” to Agriculture and other purposes of life. By JAamxEs
Futon.
This paper consisted of suggestions in carrying out on a most extended field the
application of glass to cultivation, on the above principle.
On the Coregoni of Scotland. By Sir Witi1AM JARDINE, Bart.,
F.RS.EB.
These fish form a considerable group, and in geographical distribution range chiefly
over Northern Europe and North America, but are found also in Central Europe and
in Great Britain and Ireland. In structure they have been generally placed with the
salmon; but they are by no means typical, and differ in their large scales, the form
of their mouth and minute teeth, and in their habits being more gregarious, as they
are generally found in large shoals. In all these points they are related to the
herring. In Scotland, the localities yet known as inhabited by the Coregoni, are the
lochs at Lochmaben in Dumfries-shire, Loch Lomond and Loch Eke in Dumbarton-
shire, though from the description of fish taken in other lochs, there can be no
doubt that their range is more extensive, and reaches further northward. Those of
Lochmaben are undoubtedly distinct from those of Loch Lomond, but until lately
those of Loch Eke were regarded as identical with the latter. The author then
pointed out the differences between the three Scotch species, C. Willughbii, C. clu-
peoides and C. lavaretus, and exhibited specimens to the Section.
On transparent Fishes from Messina. By Professor K6iyixrr, Wurzburg.
Professor Kolliker exhibited specimens and made some remarks on the structure
of some transparent and otherwise peculiar fishes, recently obtained by him from
Messina, viz. Leptocephalus vitreus and Helmichthys diaphanus. These fishes,
when alive and in water, are so transparent as scarcely to be perceptible. In their
external form they are allied to the eels; but they possess a skeleton which is only in
the embryonic state.
On the Development of Sex in Social Insects.
By the Rev. WitiiAM Lerrcu, A.M, Monimail Manse.
The author commenced his researches with the view of ascertaining the circum-
stances that determine the development of the grub of the neuter bee into a queen.
In the course of his observations, a much wider physiological question presented
itself, viz. the determination of sex in general in the case of insects in which the
triple distinction of sex is found to exist. He has not, as yet, satisfactorily verified
his results in any social insects except the hive bee, his observations on which
extend over many years. The hives he employed were a combination of the leaf
hive and the thin single-comb hive, the one being readily converted into the other
while the colony is in active operation. The single-comb hive was so constructed
that any small portion of the comb could be readily removed, and eggs and brood
transferred from one cell to another. A speculum was employed, by which, with-
out removing the comb from the hive, the eggs and grubs, at the bottom of the cells,
112 REPORT—1855.
might be inspected during night and day. Delicate thermometers were so con-
structed as to be readily applied to any particular bee or cell. The following are the
principal results :—
1. Temperature is one, if not the sole element, in determining the sex of the queen.
Huber ascribed the development of a queen from a neuter to special feeding, but no
microscopic or chemical test can detect any difference of food. The author, however,
found that the temperature of the royal cell was always higher than that of the
neighbouring cells, the difference of temperature being maintained by the increased
respiration of the bees clustering on the cell. The cell is also built out from the
plane of the comb, so as to admit of a special temperature being maintained.
2. The queen or perfect female is always developed from an egg which, with ordi-
nary treatment, would have produced a neuter. The belief has hitherto been, that
the egg, from which the queen is ordinarily hatched, is different from the others, and
that the power of developing a female from a neuter is altogether abnormal. This
power, however, instead of being “exceptional, is the normal method of producing
queens.
3. The drones or males are hatched from eggs, which, without special treatment,
would have produced neuters.
4. All the eggs laid by the queen are sexless, or rather bisexual. This follows
from the last two results. It has been hitherto understood by naturalists that the
queen lays three kinds of eggs, corresponding to the triple distinction of male,
female, and neuter. The observations of the author lead to the conclusion that
there is but one kind of egg, and that it depends on external circumstances which
sex is to be evolved. The instinct of the bees determines the circumstances suitable
for each sex, temperature being one, if not the sole determining condition; and, by
respiration, they have the power of limiting a special temperature to a circumscribed
space. That a female should be developed from a neuter does not now appear so
startling ; but, at the first announcement, the discovery was received with incredulity,
and declared to be a miracle in nature. The wonder is much lessened, now, that it
is admitted, that the neuter is only an undeveloped female. The development of a
male from an egg that would, in other circumstances, have produced a neuter or a
female, is, however, a fact of a different order. The mass of the observations were
directed to the determination of this point, which may have an important bearing on
the development of life in general. The result arrived at is not altogether destitute
of analogy. It has been found that a plant which, under certain conditions of
light and temperature, produces only female flowers, may, by altering these condi-
tions, produce flowers of an opposite sex. Weber’s discovery of traces of bisexuality
as a normal fact, even in the higher mammalia, also countenances the doctrine.
5. There is a polar development of instinct in determining sex. When the
instinct of the colony is excited to produce a queen, there is, at the same time, an im-
pulse to produce drones. When the queen is removed from a hive, the colony
begin to hatch, at the same time, both males and females. This polarity of instinct
is still more remarkably displayed by inserting drone brood in a hive which has still
a reigning queen. The presence of male brood excites the instinct to produce
females, and royal cells are immediately commenced, though, from the presence of
the queen, the attempt is abortive.
6. The males, in the normal condition of the hive, are hatched in large cells, and
the neuters in small ones; but when the drone instinct is excited while there are no
eggs in the larger cells, the drones are hatched from eggs in the smaller ones ; and,
in this case, they are much smaller than ordinary drones, though their organs are
quite perfect. These small drones were observed by Huber, but he ascribed them
to retarded impregnation. The authorrepeated Huber’s experiments on retardation,
but obtained a different result. He however could produce small drones at pleasure,
by determining the instinct of the hive to the production of drones.
Singular Mortality amongst the Swallow Tribe.
By Enwarp Joseru Lowe, Esq., ERAS 5 ots
There has seldom been recorded a more singular circumstance than the mortality
amongst the swallow tribe, which occurred on the 30th and 31st of May in the
present year.
- sews
’
.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 113
The unusually cold weather for this advanced season appears to have operated in
producing the destruction of the greater number of this useful tribe of migratory
birds ; the severity of the weather causing a scarcity of insects (the ordinary food
of the swallow), and rendering the birds too weak to enable them to search for food.
On the 30th of May the swallows became so tame that they flew about the legs of
persons, and could be caught without difficulty, and on the following morning most
of them lay dead upon the ground, or in their own nests.
In this neighbourhood (near Nottingham) the greatest mortality was occasioned
amongst the house swallow (Hirundo rustica), yet solely because this bird predomi-
nates.
Near the Red-Hill Tunnel at Thrumpton, there are great numbers of sand-martins
(Hirundo riparia), and there in a saw-pit on the banks of the river Soar, hundreds
congregated and died.
At Borrowash, near the Derwent river, there are very many white-martins
(Hirundo urbica) ; they also congregated and died, lying ten and twelve deep on the
different window-sills. Several persons opened their windows, and the birds were
very willing to take shelter in the rooms, exhibiting no disposition to depart. Many
were kept alive in the different houses by being fed with the Aphis of the rose-tree,
the only procurable insect.
At Bulwell, Wollaton, Long Eaton, Sawley, and many other places, the same fear-
ful mortality occurred. Farmers opened their barn-doors to admit the birds. To
show the extent of the deaths, it may be mentioned that at one place, where pre-
viously there were fifty nests-occupied, only six pair survived to take possession of
them.
’ The manner in which they congregated was a curious feature in the occurrence.
A swallow would fly round a heap of dead and dying companions, and then
suddenly dart down and bury itself amongst them.
On the same days, in the Vale of Belvoir, and in parts of Nottinghamshire and
Lincolnshire, several hundred newly-shorn sheep perished.
A brief account of the weather at Highfield previous to the 31st of May will prove
interesting.
Maximum
May. Pedant e Teateeure) peter am ge ee eke ae
26. 81°9 54°4 65'1 45°0 27°5 E.
27. 70°0 51°6 56°8 47°5 18°4 E.
28. 61°8 43°0 49°3 40°2 18°8 E.
29. 56°1 38°8 44°8 36°0 17°3 N.
30. 50°0 35°0 40°4 30°5 15:0 N.
31. 44°7 37'8 42'0 37°2 6°9 NE.
During these six days the barometer ranged between 29°6 inches and 29°9 inches.
The first three days were very fine, and during the whole time there was much ozone.
29th, electricity active from 11 a.m. till noon. 30th, boisterous wind with hail-
storms. 31st, boisterous wind with continued rain. On the 30th there was a frost.
- It would be interesting to trace over what extent of the island this mortality was
noticed.
Exhibition of Zoophytes, Mollusca, c., observed on the Coast of Norway, in
the Summer of 1855. By Rozerr M‘Anprew, /.R.S.*
A few of the species of mollusca were new : many were not recorded to have been
previously obtained from the locality, whilst others exhibited peculiar forms of well-
known species.
_ * Mr. M‘Andrew was requested to draw up a report on the results of his various dredging
excursions.
1855. 8
114 REPORT—1855.
Some Remarks on the Fauna of the Clyde and on the Vivaria now exhibited in
the City Hall, Glasgow. By the Rev. Cuarves P. Mites, M.D., Glasgow.
The author made some remarks on the distribution and habits of the invertebrate
animals of the Clyde, and showed specimens of the more remarkable species which
had been collected together in the large tanks of sea-water under his direction in the
City Hall for exhibition during the Meeting. He also drew attention to the various
forms of Zoophytes, Mollusca, Crustacea, and Echinodermata,—including Comatula
rosacea, Luidia fragilissima, Alga tridens, Plumularia pinnata, &c., as among the
more interesting and rare.
On the Recent Additions to our Knowledge of the Zoology of Western
Africa. By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.
After referring to the fact that so little was known of the natural history of
Western Africa, he proceeded to say—I should not have thought of making any
communication on the subject, had it not been for a new source of information
which has been opened to the Scottish naturalists within the last two or three
years, which I have thought it might be useful to our southern friends to be made
aware of, as a’ means. likely to supply much of the information we want upon at
least one part of the coast; and I hope also to serve as an example which may
produce similar results elsewhere—I allude to the mission stations which have been
established at Old Calabar. It is only two or three years ago since the Rev. H.
Waddell, on his temporary return to this country, brought with him, besides other
objects of interest, a few bottles of snakes and insects. These were exhibited to the
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh in December 1852; and every encouragement
was given by the members of that Society to Mr. Waddell to proceed in the working
of what promised to turn out a mine of interest. They enlisted Mr. Goldie and
Mr. Thomson in the pursuit; and the consequence has been that there has already
been received from these gentlemen a large amount of interesting new species,—a
number of which have since been described and published, and others of which are
in course of preparation for publication. .
Mr. Murray then briefly drew attention to such additions to the natural history
of Western Africa as had been recently made. He said—Little has been done in
the Mammalia. M. Dureau de Lamalle has published in the ‘ Annales des Sciences
Naturelles’ some particulars regarding the Great Chimpanzee, or Troglodytes Go-
yilla, found in the river Gaboon; and in 1823 Dr. Kneeland of Boston published
details of the skeleton of this species. Mr. Fraser, after his return from the Niger
Expedition in 1843, published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ a
description of a new Bat from Fernando Po, as well as a new Pouched Rat from
the same place. Dr. J. E. Gray described in the same ‘ Proceedings,’ a new Manis ;
and in 1852 he described in the ‘Annals of Natural History,’ a new Wart Pig
(Cheiropotamus pictus) from the Cameroon river. As to ornithology, more has
been done of late years. A considerable number of new species were brought home
by the officers of the Niger Expedition above referred to, and were described partly
by Mr. Strickland and partly by Mr. Fraser. And more recently, M. Verraux has
described a number of species from this coast. Several of these were received from
Old Calabar simultaneously (or nearly so) with their publication by M. Verraux.
A number of new fishes has been received from Old Calabar, the most interesting
of which is an electric fish, a Silurus, which I have described and published under
the name of Malapterurus Beninensis. In addition to the information which is
given in my account of the fish in the ‘ Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,’ I
have since received some additional particulars from Mr. Thomson. He informs me
that its electrical properties are made use of by the natives as a remedy for their
sick children. The fish is put into a vessel of water, and the child made to play
with it; or the child is put into a tub of water in which several fishes are placed.
It is interesting to find a popular scientific remedy of our own, anticipated by the °
unlettered savage. Mr. Thomson also mentioned an instance of the electric power
of this fish, which may be worth mentioning. He had a tame heron, which, having
been taken young, had never had the opportunity of searching for and choosing its _
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 115
food for itself. It was fed with small fishes; and on one occasion there happened
to be a newly-caught electric fish among them, which it swallowed, but imme-
diately uttered a loud cry, and was thrown backwards. It soon recovered, but
could never afterwards be induced to dine upon Malapterurus. This species I
believe to be found all along the Guinea coast. Dr. Baikie informs me that he had
seen a small species at Fernando Po, which appeared to him to correspond with the
description of this species. Among other interesting. fish sent by Mr. Waddell,
there is a species of Lophius, or mud-fish, which appears undescribed. The curious
‘habits of this semi-amphibious family, of crawling out of the water, using their fore
fins like legs, and then sitting staring about with their great goggle eyes, is noticed
by Mr. Waddell as very marked in this species. If placed in a basin, it will crawl
up the side, and sit on the edge, looking about. A new pipe-fish has also been
_ received, as well as some other species of fishes which I have not yet had the oppor-
tunity of determining. A very considerable number of snakes, lizards, &c. have
also been sent. Among the lizards there was a new Monitor, which Dr. Lowe
exhibited to the Royal Physical Society, approaching near to the Monitor pulcher of
Leach (now recognized as a variety of the M. niloticus, Linn.), besides specimens of
the chameleon.
As to the Mollusca, Dr. Greville not long ago exhibited to the Royal Physical
Society a very interesting collection of land and freshwater shells, which had
recently been transmitted to him by the Rev. Mr. Goldie. Bulimus Wrightii was
the most valuable shell of the series,—a handsome species, then described only a
few months before by Mr. Sowerby, jun., from a single specimen picked up by a
shipwrecked sailor. Other species of the same genus were B. Numidicus (Reeve)
and B. spectralis (Reeve) ; of Achatina there was A. striatella (Rang), and a large
one which Dr. Greville had been unable to determine, nearly allied to 4. marginata,
but more ovate in form, and distinguished by a red pillar. There were also three
_ small Helices, belonging to sections difficult of determination, one of them probably
new. Fine specimens occurred of Melania Owenii (Gray), which appears to be
generally distributed in Western Africa; and of M. mutans (Gould), which Dr.
Greville had previously received from Liberia. Neritina Perrottetiana (Recluz), and
a fine bivalve, probably a Cyrene, were the remaining forms.
In Insects, however, more has been done than in any other branch. I shall not
go back to the insects of Angola, described by Erichsen about ten years ago, or the
species from Congo, described by Mr. White about the same time; but I think I
may be excused for referring to Westwood’s ‘ Arcana Entomologica,’ although a
few years have elapsed since its publication, seeing that the most attractive part of
that work is occupied with the West African Goliaths, of which the largest and
finest species known is the entomological ornament of this University (the almost
_ unique specimen of the Goliathus giganteus).
Very large collections of Coleoptera have been received from our correspondents
in Old Calabar ; so much so, that we are now in a position not only to make up a
pretty accurate list of the Coleoptera of that country, but also to form an opinion as
to their relative numbers. Such a list I am in the course of preparing, intercalating
descriptions of the new species as they occur; and, as a large proportion of them
are undescribed, the new information will be considerable. Before I thought of
doing so, however, 1 had supplied my friend M. Chevrolat (who is our great
authority in Longicorns) with a set of the new species of that group, and he has
lessened my task by describing nearly fifty of them in Guérin’s ‘ Revue Zoologique.”
As is always the case in warm climates, the Geodephaga are comparatively few,
both in number of species and individuals—the whole number of species which I
have received not exceeding fifty. One or two very fine species, however, occur
among them. No Hydro-cantharide have been received. This may arise from
their not having been sought for. But I am inclined to think that, in point of fact,
the water-beetles are not numerous in these latitudes. As might be expected, the
burying beetles have not been found there; the climate would not allow their nidus
to remain as food for the larve long enough for their growth—a consideration, which
suggests to me a curious cliange in habit suited to the climate, which was men-
tioned to me by Mr. Thomson regarding the 4phodii. - In this country, as entomo-
logists are aware, that family lay their eggs in dung, in which the larve feed until
*
116 REPORT—1855.
they come to maturity, and then descend into the earth to undergo their transform~
ation; and in walking over the fields we find every patch of dung swarming with
their larvee. At Old Calabar we could find nothing of this. The heat is so great
that in a couple of days the patch of dung would be quite dried up. The Aphodii,
therefore, have a different habit. As soon as the dung has been dropped, they come,
and each bores a hole under it; and carry down a small quantity there to feed, and
lay their eggs; so that they, at one and the same time, clear away the refuse from
the ground, and apply it as manure to the roots of the plants.
As already mentioned, the Longicorns have furnished a considerable number of
novelties, many of great beauty; but with the exception of one or two species,
which occur in quantity, the individuals have been very scarce. It is, however, in
the Phytophaga that nature seems to have most revelled here. Their number is
great both to individuals and species, and a great portion of them are undescribed.
Many new genera also occur. The number of brilliant little Casside is also remark-
able. The Heteromera are numerous in individuals; not so much so in species. A
number of Mr. Westwood’s recently described species have occurred. Of the
Brachelytra no representatives have been found. A single new Paussus (named
Paussus Murrayi by Westwood) has also been found. Members will recollect that
it was on this coast that the first Paussus known was met with. Afzelius was
sitting at table in the dusk, when a small insect dropped upon his paper, carrying
two globe-shaped antennz like coach-lanterns on its head, both giving out a feeble
light. This was the Paussus spherocephalus. Mr. Westwood has since described
a large number of species; and he seems to question the accuracy of Afzelius, so
far as regards the light given out by the antennz, as that has not been observed
since, and many of the species have hard and untransparent globes on the antenne.
The globes in Afzelius’s species, however, are semi-transparent ; and the habit of
life of many of them would seem to render their luminosity not improbable, for
they live in ants’ nests, and it would surely be very convenient to have a pair of
lanterns fastened like a Davy lamp on their head, to light them on their way
through the dark galleries. If it is so, it shows how diversely nature sometimes
acts under the same circumstances. Here she provides a light for the darkness ;
while in other instances, where species live wholly in the dark, as in the caves of
Carniola, Kentucky, &c., and in the genus Claviger, which lives in ants’ nests, she
takes away their eyes altogether as useless appendages. ‘The Hemiptera are largely
represented in Old Calabar. A great proportion of them are undescribed; but M.
Signoret has undertaken to describe the most striking of the new species, and has
already described and figured one or two in the ‘Annals of the Entomological
Society of France.’
There seem to bea good many spiders. A large Mygale was exhibited to the Royal
Physical Society by Mr. Logan; and the species of Epeira clavipes, described by
Palissot de Beauvois, appears common. Dr. Lowe of Edinburgh also described two
species of gigantic Iulus. A word regarding the geographical relations of the
insects of this country. The most striking circumstance is the relationship of many
of them tc South American species. We not only find many representatives of
American genera, but actually species of genera hitherto only known as South
American ; and in some instances even the same species occurs, such as Mallodon
mavxillosum, Bostrichus muricatus, &c. Putting aside these latter as being wood-
feeders, and therefore capable of being introduced by floating across the ocean, we
have the genera Galerita, Parandra, Gime, Smodicum, and others now containing
African species. This, however, is a subject which deserves more extended obser-
vation before any sound deduction can be drawn from it.
Mr. W. OxreHant, Treasurer, R.P.S.E., exhibited the skull of a Manatus Senxe-
galensis (the Sea Cow), for which he was indebted to Mr. Thomson, from Old
Calabar. The skull, which was that of a young animal, the teeth not being fully
developed, was interesting, as it was from comparing their crania that Mr. F. Cuvier
had ascertained that the MW. Senegalensis of the West Coast of Africa was a different
speeies from the M. Americanus, which frequents the rivers on the other side of the
Atlantic. He regretted not being able to make any addition to the rather scanty
knowledge we possess of the history and habits of this species, but mentioned a
Gieakidetibdied wets.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117
curious fact as to the high estimation in which it is held by the natives. All the
Manati in the Calabar waters belong to Egbo, and before any one can become a
member of this remarkable institution, it is necessary that he procure one of these
animals for the feast which takes place on his admission. This Egbo Society
exercises a very important influence in the country, being, in fact, the great governing
power, as from it all the laws regulating both civil and religious matters emanate.
It was by an Egbo Jaw passed within these three years that an end was put to the
wholesale murders which were committed on the death of a chief by the Ordeal Bean,
of which an interesting account by Prof. Christison appeared in a late Number of the
‘Edinburgh Medical Journal.’ Admission to Egbo is obtained by purchase, and all
the leading men are members. It is divided into shares, of which any individual
may hold as many as his means will enable him to acquire. At his death one share
drops, but the others vested in him are inherited by his relatives ; in this way, as
each share confers a vote, large political power may become concentrated in one
person. Eyo Honesty, the present king, a shrewd and sagacious man, who has
obtained his surname by the integrity of his dealings with the numerous traders who
frequent his river, purchases a share whenever he can procure a Manatus, and has
thus a Jarge sum of money invested in it, from which he derives a considerable,
though somewhat precarious revenue. Calabar is steadily advancing in civilization,
and its progress would be much accelerated were it not for the barrier which this
powerful body presents. Eyo is aware of this, but as he holds a large stake in the
concern, he, like other potentates, is somewhat conservative of old customs, and
though he has admitted some slight ameliorations in its mode of operation, will
allow no material change in its constitution. Admission being dependent upon the
acquisition of a Manatus, the capture of one of these animals is a prize of no small
value. ‘The species is said to attain the size of from 12 to 15 feet in length, and its
flesh, which much resembles veal, is esteemed a great delicacy by the natives. In
Calabar, the elephant, hippopotamus, leopard, and boa constrictor, are deemed royal
property, and are denominated in the broken English of the country ‘“‘ King Beef.”
Lately a serious disturbance was like to occur in consequence of the Ekri Tobacco
people having devoured a small portion of a putrid hippopotamus which had been
shot by one of King Eyo’s men, and had been carried by the current to their neigh-
bourhood. The inhabitants of -the village only escaped by the payment of a heavy
fine to Egbo. Mr. Oliphant said he had mentioned these particulars, as they were
not likely to come under the notice of the naturalist.
Notes on Animals. By J. Price.
The author offered directions for aérating the water of the marine aquarium by
means of a moving tank, and suggestions for removing putrid matter from the water.
On Sea Meduse. By J.D. SANDLAND.
—_———_—.
On Vivariaa By N. B. Warn, F.R.S.
The object of the author was to show that the cases for growing plants and the
tanks for cultivating plants and animals in water, which he had first suggested, had
perfectly succeeded in all the objects for which he had first proposed they should be
used. He read several letters from persons who had extensively employed them,
and concluded by urging a much more extensive use of them than had been hitherto
undertaken. pee
On the Habits of the Stickleback, and on the Effects of an Excess or Want of
Heat and Light on the Aquarium (Marine). By Rosrrt WARINGTON.
In the latter paper the author points out that temperatures below 45° destroyed
many forms of animal life, especially crustacea, whilst a temperature exceeding
75° Fahr. was destructive of bath animal and vegetable life. Too great exposure to
light was also found to be injurious to many creatures kept in the Marine Aquarium*.
* Dr. Fleming related, in connexion with the subject of keeping animals in sea-water, that
he had in his possession an Actinia, originally captured by Sir John Dalyell, that had now
been in captivity twenty-eight years.
118 REPORT—1855.
Dr. Lanxester exhibited the model of a dredge, invented by Mr. Dempster.
Evhibition of a Copy of the ‘ Natural History of Deeside and Braemar,’
by the late Dr. MACGILLIVRAY, and edited by Dr. LANKESTER.
The manuscript of this work had been purchased by the Queen, and was now -
published by Her Majesty’s command. The work consists of an account of a per-
sonal tour made by the author in 1853, lists of the plants, animals, and minerals,
and a complete map of the district, with woodcuts illustrative of the scenery in the
neighbourhood of Balmoral.
On the Cultivation of Sea-sand or Sand-hills.
By the Rev. Dr. PATERSON, of Glasgow.
Dr. LanxzsteEr exhibited a series of photographs on glass, of various histological
and natural history objects, executed by Dr. Redfern, of Aberdeen. They were
done according to the suggestions made by Mr. Wenham at the last Meeting of the
Association at Liverpool.
Mr. Parrerson exhibited a series of Zoological Diagrams prepared by him for the
Government Department of Science and Art.
PHYSIOLOGY.
On the signification of the so-called Ova of the Hippocrepian Polyzoa, and
on the Development of the proper Embryo in these Animals. By Pro-
fessor ALLMAN, F.R.S'
The author maintained that the peculiar egg-like bodies which are found so
abundantly in the endocystal cavity of almost all the Hippocrepian Polyzoa, and
which had been hitherto universally viewed as ova, are not ova, but gemme, pecu-
liarly encysted, and destined to remain for a period in a quiescent pupa-like state.
The very earliest stages of their development are all that can be followed, as they
soon become enveloped in an opake horny investment which entirely conceals all
internal structure. From such examination, however, as they admit of, it can be
seen that they never present the least trace of germinal vesicle or germinal spot, nor
do they undergo segmentation. After a time the horny covering splits into two
valves, and allows the young polyzoon to escape, in all essential points resembling
the adult, and never presenting the general ciliated surface which is always found in
the true embryo. The bodies under consideration are invariably produced in the long
chord or funiculus which connects the fundus of the stomach of the polypid with the
bottom of the cell, and are plainly developed as buds from its substance. They may
be seen in regular stages of growth from the proximate to the remote extremity of the
funiculus, being younger-as they recede from the stomach. ‘The funiculus, with its
peculiar gemme, reminds us of the gemmiferous stolon in the interior of the soli-
tary individuals of Salpa. To the bodies in question, the author proposed to give
the name of statoblasts. They present a striking analogy with the so-called ‘ ephip-
pial ova’”’ of Daphnia, and the “ winter ova”’ of the Rotiferze, which latter have
been already brought into the category of gemme by Huxley (Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science, October 1852). While the characters of the statoblasts are
thus much more in accordance with those of gemmee than of ova, their real nature
appears to be entirely set at rest by the fact that there also exists in the Polyzoa a true
ovary with genuine ova. The author has made out this organ very distinctly in
Alcyonella. It is there developed in the walls of the endocyst, near the anterior
extremity of the cell. It appears as a slightly pedunculated roundish mass, filled
with spherical ova, each presenting a large germinal vesicle and very distinct ger-
minal spot. The ovum undergoes segmentation, and pa after the mulberry-like
i
}
“2 “Ety
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. — 119
condition has disappeared, we find that the contents have assumed the form of a
roundish or oval embryo, richly ciliated on its external surface, and with a large
central cavity. When liberated from the external membrane of the ovum, which
still confines it, it swims actively through the surrounding water. As development
proceeds, we find this ciliated body to present an anterior opening, through which
an unciliated hernia-like sac is capable of heing protruded by a process of evagina-
tion; and there is evidence to support the opinion that this protrusible non-ciliated
portion has been separated from the inner surface of the ciliated portion by a kind
of unlining. In the interior of the protrusible portion, the polypid is developed in
a manner which appears altogether similar to that by which new polypids are
produced by gemmation from the walls of the endocystal cavity of the adult. The
protrusible or non-ciliated portion remains for a time incapable of complete evagina-
tion, the posterior part of it being retained in a permanently invaginated state, by
bands which pass from it to the opposed surface of the ciliated portion in a manner
exactly similar to that by which the permanently invaginated part of the endocyst
in the adult is retained in its place by the parieto-vaginal muscles. As develop-
ment continues, these bands disappear, and the invagination with which they were
connected becoming obliterated, the non-ciliated portion becomes directly continuous
with the ciliated, and incapable of being any longer withdrawn within it. The
cilia now disappear, and the entire sac becomes enveloped in an ectocyst to consti-
tute the cell of the adult polyzoon. The subsequent changes are produced by the
gemmation of new polypids.
- The testis is developed in the form of an irregular roundish mass upon the funis
culus, and frequently co-exists with statoblasts. It is composed of spherical cells,
each of which contains within it numerous “vesicles of evolution.” The visible
contents of the vesicles of evolution are at first confined to a well-defined spherical
nucleus, and this is afterwards transformed into a spermatozoal filament, which
subsequently escapes by the rupture of the containing cells. The escaped sperma-
tozoa in dlcyonella present distinct, though not very active undulatory motions.
They are simple filaments of uniform diameter, and destitute of capitulum.
On the Law of Molecular Elaboration in Organized Bodies.
By Professor J. Hucues Bennett, M.D., of Edinburgh.
When the Association met in Edinburgh, the author pointed out to the Physiolo-
gical Sub-section,—1st, how molecules are being continually formed in the body from
the union of oil and-albumen, from the results of endosmose and exosmose, and
from various chemical combinations ; 2ndly, certain facts with regard to the peculiar
movements of these bodies—the molecular motions of Brown; and 3rdly, how they
unite to form nuclei, fibres and membranes directly, independently of the agency of
cell formation. He also pointed out that the process of degeneration was exactly
inverse to that of formation, and that the last as well as the first histological form
was the molecular.
Subsequent research as to the behaviour of these molecules induced him now to
put forth the following law, viz. that the formations and transformations of the
various textures of the body not only take their point of departure from molecules, but
are brought about by successive buildings up and breakings down of masses of molecules.
By the term molecule or granule, the author did not mean a cell or nucleus, but
those smaller particles which are only distinguishable optically under high powers
by exhibiting a bright or dark centre, and a dark or bright border, according to the
focal point in which they are viewed. Organic molecules consist of a mixture of
some proteine compound with oil. :
He then referred to various well-known facts with a view of demonstrating that
ultimate form and composition were arrived at by a succession of formations and
disintegrations, and that when a new arrangement of parts took place this was
effected through the agency of molecules. He described,—1st, the mode of develop-
ment of Ascaris mystaw as detailed by Nelson; 2ndly, that of the mammalian ovum
as described by Barry and Bischoff; 3rdly, the mode of development in uni-cellular
plants and animals; 4thly, the transformations of insects; 5thly, the formation of
120 REPORT—1855.
blood from the prepared food; and 6thly, the production of morbid growths from
an exuded blood-plasma. All ‘of which, with many others that might have been
brought forward, point out that from organic molecules, nuclei and cells are pro-
duced, and that these break down once again to form molecules. From this second
mass of molecules other cells are formed, which again break down to form a third
mass of molecules, and so on; and by this law of molecular elaboration the various
textures are ultimately produced.
Lastly, he endeavoured to illustrate how these formations and breakings down,
and a knowledge of this law must constitute the only real scientific basis for the
arts of horticulture, agriculture, and medicine; moreover, that in the chain of living
processes each step is dependent on the one that precedes it; and that, inasmuch as
regards form, we cannot go further back than the molecular elernent, so a knowledge
of it must be the first step to a correct theory of organization.
The Physiology of Fascination.
By James Brain, L.R.C.S. Edin., M.W.S. &c., Manchester.
‘The power possessed by ser pents to fascinate birds has always been a source ‘of
interest and admiration to the curious. That a crawling reptile, such as a serpent,
doomed to move pronely on the earth, should possess the craft and power, by the
mere fixed gaze of its glaring eyes, irresistibly to draw down from their proud aérial
perch the very fowls of heaven, seems to proclaim this as one of the most remark-
able of nature’s laws, which has ordained that extremes should meet. The question
therefore arises, by what means is this remarkable result effected? Is there any
magnetic attraction in the eye of the serpent by which the bird is drawn? or is it
the result of any poisonous emanation projected by the serpent? Is it a voluntary
or an involuntary process, by which the creature approaches and falls an easy prey to
its fell destroyer?
I shall at once proceed to state what appears to me to be the true explanation of
the phenomenon—one which is quite in accordance with nature’s laws, and which,
moreover, explains, on scientific principles, some remarkable phenomena observed
even in man.
From various observations which I have read and heard on the subject, I feel
satisfied that the creatures fascinated do not voluntarily surrender themselves to their
fate ; and this I consider is proved by the agitation and alarm which many of them
display when advancing to meet their fate, viz. their plaintive cries, and the agita-
tion of their bodies, and the instant escape which they make when any circumstance
has occurred to avert from their sight the glaring eyes of the serpent. Their ability
to escape so speedily, moreover, under such circumstances, proves that the charm
had not been the result of any magnetic attraction, or poisonous emanation pro-
ceeding from, or projected by, the serpent. After due consideration, I feel satisfied
that the approach and surrender of itself by the bird, or other animal, is just
another example of the mono-ideo-dynamic, or unconscious muscular action from a
dominant idea possessing the mind, which is also the true cause of “ table-turning.”
The law upon which these phenomena are to be explained has long been familiar
to me, from observations made during my investigation of hypnotic and mesmeric
phenomena, and it is simply this—that when the attention of man or animal is
deeply engrossed or absorbed by a given idea associated with movement, a current
of nervous force is sent into the muscles which produces a corresponding motion,
not only without any conscious effort of volition, but even in opposition to volition,
in many instances; and hence they seem to be irresistibly drawn, or spell-bound,
according to the purport of the dominant idea or impression in the mind of each at
the time. The voliticn is prostrate ; the individual is so completely mono-ideised, or
under the influence of the dominant idea, as to be incapable of exerting an efficient
restraining or opposing power to the dominant idea; and in the case of the bird
and serpent, it is first wonder which arrests the creature’s attention, and then fear
causes that mono-ideo-dynamic action of the muscles which involuntarily issues in the
advance and capture of the unhappy bird. This is the principle, moreover, which
accounts for such accidents as are frequently witnessed in the streets of every
eee ee.
~~
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121
crowded thoroughfare, where some persons, when crossing the streets amidst a
crowd of carriages, not only become spell-bound by a sense of their danger, so that
they cannot move from the point of danger, but it even sometimes happens that they
seem impelled to advance forward into the greater danger from which they are anxious
to escape, and from which a person with more self-possession or presence of mind may
be forced, by the very sense of his danger, to escape, by making an incredible bound
—his natural powers having become stimulated to unwonted energy, by a lively
faith having taken possession of his mind as to his capability to accomplish such a
feat. It is this very principle of involuntary muscular action from a dominant idea
which has got possession of the mind, and the suggestions conveyed to the mind by
the muscular action which flows from it, which led so many to be deceived during
their experiments in ‘‘ table-turning,” and induced them to believe that the table
was drawing them, whilst all the while they were unconsciously drawing or push-
ing it by their own muscular force. As already remarked, it is upon this principle
that the bird is drawn to its fell destroyer, and, moreover, that human beings may
appear deliberately and intentionally to leap over precipices, and cast themselves
from towers and other situations, not only of danger, but of certain destruction.
It is also upon the same principle that some individuals may be brought so much
under the control of others, through certain audible and visible and tangible sug-
gestions by another individual, as is seen in the phzenomena exhibited in the waking
condition, in what has been so absurdly called ‘‘ electro-biology.”” The whole of
these phenomena of “‘electro-biology,”’ of ‘‘table-turning,” the gyrations of the
odometer of Dr. Mayo, of the magnetometer of Mr. Rutter, the movements of the
divining rod, and the supposed levity of the human body lifted on the tips of the
fingers of four individuals, as described by Sir David Brewster, the fascination of
serpents, the evil eye and witchcraft, and the charm by which a fowl may be fixed
and spell-bound by causing it to gaze at a chalk line, or strip of coloured paper, or
of white paper on a dark ground—all come under the same category, namely, the
influence of a dominant idea, or fixed act of attention, absorbing, or putting in
abeyance for the nonce, the other and great controlling power of the mind—the will.
My investigations have proved, beyond all controversy, that by these means the
ordinary mental and physical functions may be changed, so that the subject shall
lose his freedom of action, and that all the natural functions may be either excited
or depressed with great uniformity, even in the waking condition, according to the
dominant idea existing in the mind of man or animal at the time, whether that has
arisen spontaneously, has been the result of previous associations, or of the sugges-
tions of others. The whole of the subsequent abnormal phenomena are due entirely
to this influence of dominant ideas over physical action, and point to the importance
of combining the study of psychology with that of physiology, and vice versd. I
believe the attempt made to study these two branches of science so much apart from
each other, has been a great hindrance to the successful study of either.
On the Action of the Carbo-azotic Acid and the Carbo-azotates on the Human
Body. By Professor CAtvert and Dr. Toomas Morrat.
On an abnormal Condition of the Nervous System.
By WitiraM Camps, ID.
The author stated that the object aimed at in this communication was to present
to the Section a remarkable, if not unique condition of the nervous system, as
observed in a female aged fourteen years. He described it as an instance of
irregular intermittent tetanic catalepsy. Although the subject of this catalepsy
resided some sixty or seventy miles from London, yet he had seen the young woman
on two separate cccasions, thus affording him opportunities of witnessing the various
phenomena connected with this abnormal condition of the nervous system, _ By this
means, he had seen her whilst waking up out of a profound cataleptic slumber,
during her waking state, and also in the cataleptic slumber. She had continued in
this state throughout a period of nearly twenty weeks, during which he had been in-
formed she had taken but very little nourishment, The conditions of the voluntary
s
122 REPORT—1855.
muscular apparatus during these several states, as well as other functions of the
body, were described by the author of the paper. The various properties of the
nervous system, as here exhibited, were remarked upon and severally discussed, such
as sensation, volition, consciousness, and intelligence. She sometimes would awake
every day, for haif an hour or so, and sometimes her slumber would continue un-
disturbed for days; but always when asleep, the greater part of her body was in a
state of tetanoid rigidity, which however totally disappeared on awaking. The
author considered this muscular contraction to be automatic and not voluntary; he
thought too, that consciousness was only partially, and not totally absent, even in her
profoundest slumber.
On a curious pouched condition of the Glandule Peyeriane in the Giraffe.
By Dr. T. Spencer Cosson.
Professor Allen Thomson exhibited, on behalf of Dr. Cobbold, Assistant Con-
servator of the Anatomical Museum, University of Edinburgh, a preparation of -
part of the cecum and colon of a giraffe. The specimen showed a complicated
series of pouches in connexion with the last patch of compound intestinal glands,
which extended beyond the ileo-colic opening, and the whole formed a cellular net-
work, resembling in some measure the water cavities of the reticulum. A second
specimen was also shown, from which it appeared that certain of the Peyerian
patches in the ileum likewise displayed each a simple valvular fold at the duodenal
extremity of the glandular masses.
On the Sexuality of the Alge. By Dr. Frrpinanp Coun, of Breslau.
In this paper the author first referred to the influence which the newer doctrines
of cell-structure and formation had exercised on the progress of animal and vege-
table physiology, and pointed out the peculiar advantages presented by the unicel-
lular plants for the investigation of some of the more hidden vital processes. He
then sketched the recent progress of discovery as to the sexuality of different tribes
of plants formerly regarded as Cryptogamic. Among the most novel of these dis-
coveries, he referred more particularly to the researches of Thuret of Cherbourg, on
the Fecundation of the Fucacez (1855), which have incontestably proved the occur-
rence of a sexual fecundation in some of the larger Fuci; and to the observations of
Pringsheim of Berlin, also in 1855, which have first extended the same discovery
with certainty to some of the lower Algee (Vaucheria). The author stated that he
had not only been able to confirm the observations of Pringsheim on these plants,
but had himself nearly at the same time (in March 1855) made the discovery of similar
phenomena in others of the lower Alge, Spheroplea annulina, &c.
In this beautiful and delicately organized Conferva the contents of the thread-like
plant are arranged in the form of about twenty green rings in each cell. They con-
sist, like the spiral bands of Spirogyra, of slimy protoplasma coloured by chlorophyll,
and containing a large number of starch-granules. In the month of March, when
the time of propagation had arrived, Dr. Cohn observed the cells of this plant to
undergo a remarkable transformation, by which some become converted into spo-
rangia and others into antheridia. In the first of these bodies the green rings
dissolve as it were into a shapeless mass, from which about as many green globular
bodies or spores are found as there were previously rings ; and when these are com-
plete, several small apertures appear in the wall of the mother-cell. In the other
cells which are about to become antheridia, the green rings became, under Dr, Cohn’s
observation, actually broken down and converted into small red stiff corpuscles, each
of which bears at its anterior extremity two long fine vibrating filaments. These
bodies, which are the spermatozoa, then assume the swarming motion; soon one or
more escape by a small aperture_in the cell-wall, and all the rest follow, and they
move with vivacity in the surrounding water. They approach the spore-cells, and
some of them soon penetrate by the apertures already formed in them; others
follow, and thus the spore-cells become quite full of them. Dr. Cohn observed the
spermatozoa moving about within the spore-cells for two hours, after which they
affixed themselves to the surface of the spores and disappeared by difiluence in slimy
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123
drops, which seemed to be absorbed into the spores. As soon as this has occurred,
each green spore-globule, previously naked, becomes covered with a clear glassy
membrane, its colour changes to red, and other coverings are formed successively
within the outer one. Finally, the red spore-globule is enclosed in a peculiar stellate
wall. :
In another Conferva belonging to the genus Cidogonium, a singular mode of
fecundation has also been observed by Dr. Cohn. The ciliated ‘‘ macrogonidia ” of
this Conferva have long been known: this germinates into a long cellular thread.
The other sexual element of this plant consists of the so-called “ resting-spores,”
which are red globular bodies enclosed by a thick wall. But Dr. Cohn has observed
that the “‘ microgonidia,”’ which were detected by Alexander Braun, undergo a sort
of germination, and by this produce two small agile spermatozoa, which penetrate
the sporangium cells through a small aperture (which had been seen by Pringsheim),
and adhering to the spore, thus probably effect fecundation.
The principal difference between the propagation of Gdogonium and that of Vau-
cheria and Spheroplea consists in this, that while in the two latter the fecundating
corpuscles (spermatozoa) are directly produced, and the male and female organs are
united in one confervoid individual, in the Gdogonium the moving bodies are to be
regarded rather as gonidia, which are destined to germinate like the great gonidia.
But from the microgonidia there issue the minute male individuals, consisting each
of a small cell, of which the whole contents are changed into spermatozoa. The
great gonidia (macrogonidia) germinate into large plants, consisting of numerous
long cells and generating the resting-spores.
The observations of Braun and Pringsheim already show that similar phenomena
must occur in others of the Conferve; and, according to Dr. Cohn, it seems very
probable that the fact of sexuality, although at present proved only of a few genera
of the Confervee, will very soon be discovered in all other kinds; and that an act of
fecundation will be shown to occur in the simplest unicellular plants. In various
plants, one or other of the reproductive elements have been discovered singly, as in
Chetophora and Hydrodictyon ; but already enough is known to point to the desti-
nation of these bodies.
Dr, Cohn indicated the probable future progress of inquiry in respect to these
functions also in the Volvocinex, Floridee, Zygnemex, Desmidiex, and Diatomacee.
From these considerations the author drew the general conclusion, that sexual
difference and an act of impregnation are the necessary conditions of reproduction of
all plants from the highest to the lowest, and he regards it as probable that the
same will ultimately be proved of the lowest or infusorial animals.
An attempt to solve some of the Difficulties of the Berkleyan Controversy by
well-ascertained Physiological and Psychological Facts. By Ricuarp
Fowter, M.D., F.RS.
The Berkleyans contend that we have no knowledge of matter but by gratuitous
inference from subjective sensation; that, in reality, the mind has no direct per-
ception of anything but of impressions, conceptions or ideas.
The generality of mankind, however, instinctively believe that impressions on our
organs of sense, like impressions on wax by a seal, are made by objects external to
the mind: such objects are supposed to be modifications of matter. It therefore
becomes necessary to ascertain what matter may really be. Berkley said there was
no matter; and it was wittily replied, “ It is no matter what Berkley said.” In
our conceptions we have all the forms and colours and dimensions of matter, but
they are wanting in the impenetrability assigned to matter, and in the periodicity by
which some of its phenomena are noticeable—as the revolution of the planets, ad-
mitting of mathematical calculation, while our conceptions are fleeting, uncertain
and evanescent,—come when they are least expected, and, in emotions, particularly
fear and remorse, resist all the efforts of volition to exorcise them.
The question then recurs, what is matter? Its impenetrability has been supposed
to consist in a nucleus surrounded by spheres of attraction and repulsion. But as
it is useless to assign more causes of the fact than are necessary to produce it, phi-
losophers, Newton, Boscovich, Priestley and others, have, the author thinks, experi-
/
124 REPORT—1855.
mentally shown that these nuclei never can be brought in contact with each other,
and that all the phenomena attendant on compression and adhesion can be explained
by the atomic forces of attraction and repulsion. It was therefore the conclusion
of Boscovich, that the attractive and repulsive forces might have no other common
centre than mere mathematical points.
It would appear, then, that we have no knowledge of any external cause of our
impressions on our mental force but by the vital and physical forces. For example,
we have no sensation from mere contact of objects ; we must move to feel; we have, -
then, sensation by our muscular sense. We must look to see, listen to-hear, sniff
to smell, and move the organs of the mouth to have the sensation of flavour.
Matter, then, seems to have been, not without reason, considered by Turgot,
Prof. John Robison and Prof. Dugald Stewart as the mere cause of the phenomena
which are believed by us to be real, external and palpable objects.
But is it possible that any such appearance can be produced by any combination
of mere forces ?
This is no idle question of mere curiosity ; it bears on the very foundation of our
hopes of a future life. We have all the evidence which the present state of this
world can give us, that the forces by which its pheenomena are effected have always
existed, and are likely always to continue to exist—the immediate agents of the
Deity ; so immediate, indeed, as to be considered by many profound thinkers (Male-
branche and Norris) as evincing the presence of Deity itself, and that all our per-
ceptions are impressed by the conceptions of the Deity.
It must be borne in mind that ‘‘ quicquid recipitur, modo recipientis recipitur.””
Well, therefore, might Turgot, Robison, Dugald Stewart, and all philosophers who
have given a candid consideration to the speculations of Berkley, say that we cannot,
indeed, prove or deny the existence of matter external to the mind. We are be-
wildered by phenomena for which we are at a loss to account. The author’s solu-
tion of the difficulty, after much consideration, is, that these phenomena are
produced by impressions by physical and vital forces external to the mental force,
but in immediate proximity and communication with it, by the medium of the
union of the several branches of the fifth pair of nerves in the medulla oblongata.
On the occurrence of Leucine and Tyrosine in the Pancreatic Fluid and
contents of the Intestine. By Professor KOuLIKkER, Wurzburg.
Professor K6lliker communicated the result of observations recently made by
Professor H. Miiller and himself on the normal occurrence of Leucine in the animal
organism. This nitrogenous compound, which was first obtained by decomposition
of various animal substances by strong chemical reagents, has been detected by Robin
and Verdeuil in the lungs. Afterwards Frerichs and Steedeler found the same sub-
stance in diseased liver, and Virchow showed that it occurs normally in large quantity
in the substance of the pancreas and of the spleen ; in which latter organ it had first
been found by Scherer and described as Lienin. This substance was discovered by
the authors of the communication in the pancreatic juice of a dog, in which a fistula
of the pancreatic duct had been experimentally established. It was also discovered by
them in the contents of the duodenum and small intestine, but not in the colon, of
man, dogs, cats, guinea-pigs, but not in the rabbit. It may be proper to notice that
the guinea-pigs employed in these observations were fed on milk.
The leucine was obtained either by simple evaporation of the fluids, or by extrac-
tion by means of water. It presented under the microscope a spherical form, the
single spheres being often marked with concentric lines, and were found isolated or
aggregated in large spherical masses, or united in a laminated shape.
Together with these corpuscles were always to be found acicular crystals forming
brownish spheres or dumb-bell shaped bodies, resembling those which Robin and Ver-
deuil have described as leucine. Stzdeler and Frerichs seem to be of opinion that
these bodies are tyrosine. In regard to this question, the authors observe that the
chemical reactions of the two kinds of corpuscles referred to are not identical, the
crystals not being so easily soluble in water and alcohol as the spherical bodies, but
they do not venture to decide whether this depends on the leucine being mixed or
combined with other substances.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125
On the Physiology of the Spermatozoa.
By Professor KoiiiKer, of Wurzburg.
The first part of this paper treated of the effects of various reagents on the
vitality and movements of the spermatozoa. From a great many observations and
experiments on the effects of water, and various aqueous and other solutions of salts,
acids, alkalies, in different substances, such as sugar, gum, albumen, urea, and many
others, it appeared that a certain degree of concentration of these solutions is favour-
able to the maintenance of the motion of the spermatozoa, and that other degrees,
either too low or too high, are hurtful. It was also ascertained that the spermatozoa
might be revivified, or their motion restored by solutions of a certain degree of con-
centration bearing a fixed relation to that in which the motions had been lost, or
when it had ceased from merely keeping the sperm; and that the caustic alkalies,
soda, potash, and ammonia (not lime or baryta) have a special action in maintaining
and restoring the motions of the spermatozoa. And it was further observed, by a
series of comparative experiments, that while the action of different solutions on
the spermatozoa is nearly similar in the several classes of Mammals, Birds, Am-
phibia, and Fishes, there is an appropriate degree of concentration of the solutions
and reagents specially adapted to the maintenance of the motions of the spermatozoa
in the animals belonging to each class.
From the very numerous facts detailed, the author deduced the conclusion, that
the movements of the spermatozoa do not depend on mere endosmosis and exos-
mosis, but ought to be regarded as a truly vital phenomenon, or one depending on
vital conditions, and which may be considered as belonging to the same class with,
or bearing an analogy to the movements of cilia and those of the muscular parts.
With reference to the analogy between the phenomena presented by the seminal
filaments and the motions of cilia and infusoria, Professor Kolliker found, by a
series of observations on several of these structures, that there is a very great
analogy in the action of different solutions on them and that which he had previously
ascertained in the spermatozoa.
The author gave, in another part of the paper, comparative analyses of the sperm
of different animals. In the sperm of the Bull, he has discovered the fatty principle
named Myeline by Virchow, analogous to the phosphuretted fatty matters occurring
in the brain, and the same as that discovered by Gobley in the sperm of the Carp-
fish.
Professor Kélliker also called attention to the remarkable resistance of the sper-
matozoa to destruction by different chemical reagents, even of considerable strength,
such as organic and mineral acids, and caustic alkalies, as bearing upon the ques-
tion of the changes which these filaments undergo in the ovum subsequent to
fecundation.
The second part of Professor Kolliker’s paper related to the development of the
spermatic bodies of the higher Vertebrata. From a series of observations recently
instituted by him, it appeared that within the spermatic cells nuclei are contained
in variable numbers, from one or a few up to twenty or more. Out of each of these
nuclei one spermatozoon takes its origin by the conversion of the whole nucleus into
the body part of the spermatozoon, while the filament is developed by the gradual
elongation or extension of one side or pole of the nucleus. The spermatozoa, after
they have assumed the filamentary shape, are still contained for a time in the sper-
matic cells, coiled up in a spiral form. They afterwards escape by the perforation
or laceration of the cell-walls. -
These observations lead to some modification of the description of this process of
development previously given by the author.
Demonstration of the Trichomonas vaginalis of Donné.
By Professor K6ii1KeEr, of Wurzburg.
Professor KOlliker exhibited to the Section, with the microscope, from specimens
of vaginal mucus which were furnished by Dr. Tannahill from the Lock Hospital,
the Trichomonas vaginalis discovered by Donné many years ago, but since only
126 REPORT—1855.
observed by a few, and supposed by most to be a modified form of ciliated epithe-
lium. Observations made in the present year by Professors Scanzoni and Kolliker
show that the opinion of Donné is correct, and that this body is really an infusorial
animalcule. It occurs in most specimens of vaginal mucus, containing mucous or
pus-corpuscles, but is not a specific indication of syphilis.
Professor Kélliker showed at the same time, parasitic vegetable productions in
the same mucus, which bore a close resemblance to the Alga occurring in the mouth,
named by Robin Leptothrix buccalis.
A detailed description of these observations will appear in Scanzoni’s ‘ Beitragen,’
&e.
On a peculiar structure lately discovered in the Epithelial Cells of the
Small Intestines, together with some observations on the absorption of Fat
into the system. By Professor K6tiiker, Wurzburg. — _ ~
The foliowing are the principal results of these observations :—
1. The cylindrical epithelium-cells of the small intestine of Mammalia, Birds and
Amphibia, present at their extremities, directed towards the intestinal cavity, a thick-
ened wall, in which, under favourable conditions, and with a good microscope, a
distinct fine striation is to be observed; and which, though with greater difficulty,
_and almost only in the rabbit with certainty, is to be perceived from above as a fine
punctuation.
2. This thickened striated cell-wall, which is also easily to be seen in isolated
cells, swells up in water or thin solutions to more than double its natural thickness ;
the striation becomes remarkably distinct, and passes as if into separate filaments
or fibrille, so as to give the cell the appearance of being ciliated. At last water
destroys the whole border from without inwards, the inner part resisting longest.
Water also induces two other changes in the intestinal cells; first, it causes the
exudation from the uninjured cell of clear mucous drops,‘which have been erro-
neously represented as dilated cells; and second, it often removes the thickened
membrane entirely. It is easy to distinguish, however, these two changes.
3. In herbivorous mammalia the thickened striated wall is wanting in the cells
of the large intestine, and so it is also in Amphibia and Birds; but in carnivorous
mammalia and in man there is observed a slight indication of it. In the stomach,
the membranes of the cylindrical cells are without any peculiar structure.
4. In mammalia, fat becomes converted, previous to absorption, into immeasu-
rably fine molecules, and passes as such into the epithc'ial cells. The larger fat-
globules, which are seen, in particular conditions, in perfectly fresh cells, do not
necessarily prove that the fat has entered in that form.
5. In all animals, and in all portions of the intestine, there are found between
the common epithelial cells, other bodies of a granular structure, more club-shaped,
and generally without distinct nuclei, which are to be regarded as cells seen in the
act of regeneration, and burst at the upper end.
From these facts, the following views and hypotheses are suggested :—
1. The striz in the thickened cell membrane may be pores or porous canals.
2. If this supposition is right, it follows that we may regard these canals as
holding a direct relation to the absorption of fat; but it is also possible that they
may have a more general signification, more especially in connexion with the
taking in and giving out of materials by means of cells. In favour of the first
view, it may be remarked,—a. That in many animals (herbivorous mammalia, am-
phibia, and birds in part) the thickened cell membranes exist only on the surface of
the small intestine, while they are wanting in the glands, and in the large intestine
and stomach. 8. That cylindrical and ciliated epithelium of other localities presents
nothing of any structure which would indicate the existence of the porous canals.
c. That fat is absorbed in such fine molecules, that it is at least possible for these
to pass through the porous canals.
The only fact which (always on the supposition that true porous canals exist)
is opposed to the supposition now stated, is this, that in carnivora and in man the
striated cell membrane is also found in the cells of the large intestine; but this fact
‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. - 127
might appear to have no validity against the hypothesis, if it were shown that in
these animals, in which the intestinal canal is short and the food rich in fat, the
large intestine may also be the seat of the absorption of fat.
In reference to the porous canals mentioned above, the author wishes to explain
that the porous structure now described by him in the intestinal epithelium cells is
by no means the same as the pores of the epithelium alleged to exist by Keber in
his work entitled “‘ Microscopic Researches on the Porosity of Bodies.’’ Kénigsberg,
1854. (See p. 38.)
On the Hectocotylus, or Male of the Argonaut.
By Professor Kéiiixer, of Wurzburg.
Professor Kdélliker exhibited specimens of the Hectocotylus Argonaute, and of
the entire male of the same animal, from the coast of Sicily. The author referred
to the history of the progress of discovery with regard to the Hectocotylus of the
Cephalopoda; the opinion of its parasitic nature adopted by Cuvier on its first dis-
covery; Professor Kélliker’s own observations in 1842 (published in 1845), which
showed that the Hectocotylus itself must necessarily belong to the Cephalopods,
and played the part of a male; the observations of H. Miiller, who was so fortunate
as to find the whole male, and thus to point out that the Hectocotylus is a peculiar
and highly developed arm, destined for the purpose of fecundation; and to the
observations of C: Vogt made shortly afterwards on the Octopus Carena. Speci-
~ mens were exhibited, showing the various stages of development of the fecundating
arm or Hectocotylus attached, and enclosed in its sac, on the male, and also in the
detached state, which the author explained to the Section.
On the Form and Dimensions of the Human Body, as ascertained by a
Universal Measurer or Andrometer. By JAMES MacpoNnALD.
Communicated by Professor W1LL1AM Macpona.p, M.D., St. Andrew's.
Mr. Macdonald exhibited the use of this instrument, and in a paper accompanied
by elaborate tables, he stated the results at which he had arrived from a vast num-
ber of measurements as to the average proportions of the human body and its parts
in adult life, and at different ages, and pointed out the various important uses to
which a more accurate determination of these proportions may be applied in the
public service and otherwise. ;
The average height of adult men in Scotland was found to be 67 inches, the head
and neck 102 inches, the head and trunk 25 inches, the lower limbs fromthe division
of the body or fork 31‘ inches. The average circumference of the chest is 36 inches,
and that of the hips nearly the same.
The feet have attained their full length at 16 years of age, the legs at 18, but the
trunk not till 25 years. The girth of the hips attains its full size soon after 18 ;
that of the chest continues to increase for several years later, or nearly up to 25
years of age. _
In the transverse section of a well-formed body, the arms are placed midway
between the front and back, and occupy each about one-sixth of the circumference.
In this case the section is oval or elliptical, When it is more nearly circular, the
te are set more backwards; when the chest is flat the arms are set more for-
wards. -
Mr. Macdonald pointed out the relation between the various differences in these
proportions and the capacity of the individual for different kinds of exertion, as in
walking, running, leaping, the use of firearms, &c.
The following table presents in round numbers (or without the smallest fractions),
the general result of the measurements of 144 adult men taken promiscuously from
804. The numbers express English inches and their parts. Each line gives the
Bere: of twelve individuals of the stature within the limits stated in the first
column. :
128 REPORT—1855.
Whole height.
521 to 633
65
67-68 101 25 32
68 69 101 25 nearly 332
69 693 103 251 33
70 71 103 252 34
71 712 11 261 34
ee 73 11 nearly 2621 35
73 733 108 26% 352
74 79 103. 272 362
General . :
Hie } 672 103 25 32
On the Vertebral Homologies in Animals.
By Professor Wirttam Macponatp, M.D., St. Andrew's.
When Goethe and Oken first pointed out the striking analogy subsisting between ©
the separate bony segments of the cranium of a deer which was accidentally picked
up in the Black Forest, and the different portions of the vertebral column, they evi-
dently adopted the usual definition of the vertebra, as then and still too commonly
followed in the medico-anatomical schools, as consisting of a body—transverse and
articulating processes with a bony ring terminating in a spinous process. The pre-
vailing expression in common language of the whole vertebral column being viewed
as the back-bone, long tended te obscure the investigation, and to some extent it still
impedes the adoption of more scientific and philosophic views. This was strongly
urged at the Association meeting at Cambridge in 1845.
If a simpler definition of a Vertebra were adopted, there is little doubt that the
homologies of the bony segments of the vertebral column would be easily traced by
the anatomical student and comparative anatomist, and with that view it is proposed
to restrict the term vertebra, and thus define it to consist merely of the Body or
Centrum with the Transverse Process or Diapophysis and the Mesapophysis. ‘Thus
restricted, it will form a portion or segment of the Central Stem on which the other
lamine are developed, and the skeleton constructed. On this ground the Professor
repudiates the common appellation of the back-bone, and also on the ground of its
consisting of many separable segments, each consisting of several bones.
First, the Central Stem or Caulon, in man, consists of several classes of
bones or vertebra, and extends from the nasal spine of the frontal bone, along
the basis cranii, down the bodies of the vertebral column and sacrum to the
simple condition in the coccyx.
In the lower animals, where the tail exists, the caulon is extended to the tip.
It is necessary to explain a few of the terms used in the present communication
in order that the subject may be understood as intended. Lamina includes all the
bony branches extending around the great cavities of the body arising from the
caulon or central stem, viz. the ribs, bones of the face, as well as the limb-bearing
zones, whether these support the maxill, the arm or the leg; also the perineural
arches forming the tunnel for the cerebro-spinal axis. Following the example of
the distinguished Hunterian Professor of the Royal College of Surgeons, Professor
Owen, Dr. Macdonald feels inclined to adopt the Greek etymology in constructing
the form of the nomenclature ; but as it may be viewed as too pedantic, he also
uses the names already adopted by others, and also such as can be made up of the
common expression.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129
' The chest and sacs | Cerebro-spinal tunnel.
|
Prosopo-kistT. Face chest, the man- PROCRANIUM.
dible, incisive and palate-bones. ; | Ethmoid and frontal bone.
The CauLon EF Central Stem or Vertebral Column
MeEsocraNIvumM.
The sphenoid.
TRACHELO-SAC.
Pharynx and larynx. MeracRANIUM. wi
Parietal, petrosal and Wormial
bones.
2 PARACRANIUM.
eae ie PPR, Occipital bone below the tento-
Hearing. waa
Hypo-cRANIUM,
Atlas and axis, and the four cervical
vertebre.
The Throat.
Pneumo-xist. Lung chest, the seven
ribs and sternum containing the lungs
and heart.
Upper dorsal.
7 and 14 vertebre inclusive.
Lower dorsal.
Koito-sac. Bowel-sac. 15 and 19 vertebre
\ inclusive.
20and 24 ,,
Arporo-x1st, Pelvis. Sacral.
The pelvic viscera. | Coccygeal and caudal.
Connected with, and binding, as it were, the trunk or body, there are next to be
described three limb-bearing zones.
I. Squamo-zycomaric, or temporal bone (except the petro-styloid), supporting
the maxilla or masticatory limb.
II. ScaPuLo-cLAVICULAR, supporting the arm or respiratory limb.
Ili. Coxau, supporting the leg.
These zones have a general likeness in their functional connexion with the limbs
or member I, and II., having glenoid cavities for the head of the membral lamine,
while the third generally has a well-formed acetabulum for the head of the femur,
which affords a very important and useful test in the analysis of the homologues,
especially in the class Ichthyia.
__ The ideal vertebra adopted is much simpler than either that of Owen, Geoffroy
St. Hilaire, or Carus.
s—=(0 A. Diapophysis or transverse.
B. Mesapophysis.
| C. Centrum, or body of vertebra.
B
The perineural laminz consist of three portions or parts, but consolidated.
I. Primat. The pedicle.
II. Dima. The lamella.
III. Trimax. The spine. :
By the union of these the ring or perineural tunnel is formed. In like manner the
perisplanchnic laminz form the several chests, enclosing the visceral tubes and organs.
By thus separating from the ideal vertebra, the perineural and perisplanchnic
parts, the zones and membral laminz, the homology of the different parts of the
skeleton can be more readily traced, and thus the beneficial application : homology
1855.
130 REPORT—1855. .
more widely extended, to the great advantage of the student. This is especially
applicable in the homology of the osseous fishes, where, it is conceived, Professor
Owen has misapprehended the homology of the limb, functionally as well as struc-
turally.
When the British Association first met in Glasgow, 1840, the author submitted a
scheme of the homology of the Cod and Haddock, demonstrating the pectoral fin as
the homologue of the hind-leg, and not the arm, as proposed by Professor Owen ;
and also that the round head of the femur was received into an acetabulum of a coxa,
which was connected with the cranium; and also, that what Cuvier and others had
described as the scapula and clavicle, was really the femur and tibia, and that the
fibula, from being inside of the reversed leg, was described as a new bony segment—
epicoracoid; the foot was then described as the arm, forearm, carpus and hand,
thus making two bones into the scapula, and multiplying one into several. A care-
ful study of the skeleton of the human foot would very readily have shown the ana-
logy which the tarsus bears to the bones of the arm; the astragalus = brachium,
calcis = ulna, scaphoid = the radius, the cuneiform and cuboid=the carpus. The
phalanges of the toes and fingers are easily seen to be identical. Functionally, the
hind-limb in the Vertebrata is more or less associated with the sexual system; in
the osseous fishes the pubis is widely separated from the pelvis, and is really homo-
typical of the sternum. It there is represented by the ventral fins. It appears in
the Cetacea in a similar relation, also connected with the sexual organs.
It may be asked, where then is the homologue of the arm? this is easily seen in
the opercular bones, which are here also connected with the respiratory system of the
osseous fishes. It is entirely different in the Chondria or cartilaginous fishes, where
the opercular bones are more in accordance with the higher animal types of terres-
trial animals as motor limbs, while the pectoral fins are sent further back, forming
the claspers of the rays and sharks. In those singular fishes, the Lophide, there
may be traced an approach to the limb-form of the opercular bone, by the par-
tial development of some fin-rays in the substance of the skin, but not protruding
beyond its surface, at once forming the connecting link between the true osseous and
cartilaginous fishes, which zoologically considered form separate and distinct classes.
Geoffroy St. Hilaire was even further from the true homology of the opercular bones
when he stated them to be the analogues of the auditory series, not perceiving that
these are also arranged in accordance with the law of organic unity of plan, capable
of modification by the necessities of each class of animals, and appearing in a vast
variety of metamorphic types. The idea of Professor Owen, that the arm of man
was merely the divergent apophysis of the occipital bone, is regarded as incon-
sistent with strict anatomy and function. All anatomists allow that the con-
struction of the skeleton is regulated by and dependent upon the nervous system,
whether in its original and primitive development in the foetus, or in mature condition
in the adult types. The skeleton has been described as the hard envelope protect-
ing the neural axis and its primary branches; therefore the different limbs or mem-
bers can only be connected with that part of the caulon from whence the nervous
cords are emitted; in that view the arm has no connexion with the occiput, but
with the lower part of the cervical and upper dorsal regions, through which the
nerves forming the brachial plexus are transmitted. The same holds true with
regard to the other membranal lamin, and also the primary cestal laminz ; and it is
interesting to notice how strikingly this is demonstrable in the parietes of the chest,
where the intercostal nerve passes out from the cerebro-spinal axis under the protect-
ing rib, till it emerges in the region of the lower ribs near the distal part of the
dimal portion, to be distributed on the upper abdominal parietes in a manner similar
to the distribution of the nerves of the arm emerging from the interosseous space to
supply the hand.
The true homology may be claimed as a questio vewata among anatomists ; but if
a careful examination of a vertebral skeleton in connexion with the distribution of the
nerves be patiently conducted, there is little doubt that the scheme now sub-
mitted will be found not only the most simple and easy of application, but also
most consistent with the structure of the vertebral skeleton. Having for twenty years
steadily examined the subject, and being completely satisfied with the correctness
of the explanation, the author cannot believe that the homology proposed by Cuyier,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 131
Owen, &c., will any longer be adopted. He rejects the idea of the arm being the
divergent appendage of the occipital bone, merely from being in the fish attached
to the cranium as well as the coxal zone and leg; since in all the vertebral classes
there is no connexion with the cranium and either of the anterior or posterior
extremities ; and whatever may. be thought of calling the arm of man and higher
mammals as the divergent appendage, it must be viewed as an error to describe the
pelvis and leg as diverging from the occiput when placed at such an immense
distance from the occiput, not only in saurian reptiles of the ancient world, but also
the long-necked birds of the existing epoch.
As the complicated form of the ideal typical vertebra, associated with the long
Greek names not attended with the characteristic euphony of that ancient tongue
has retarded in a great measure the study of homology, the author trusts the
simpler formule now proposed will be examined and tested with the vertebral
skeleton, as he believes them applicable to all forms.
A short Demonstration of the Origin of Tubercular Consumption.
By Dr. M‘Cormac.
Further Observations on the Fecundation of thé Ova in Ascaris mystax.
By Dr. Henry NEtson.
Professor Allen Thomson communicated observations from Dr. Henry Nelson,
tending to confirm the views he had laid before the Royal Society, in 1851, on
the process of fecundation in the Ascaris mystax. Dr. Nelson regarded it as certain
that there is no vitelline or other enclosing membrane in these ova at the time when
they meet with the spermatozoa; and he feels equally convinced of the penetration
of the spermatozoa into the substance of the yolk, by which he means impactment
or involvement. He further stated, that he had traced the gradual disappearance
of the spermatic bodies after they had undergone changes of form, and had gra-
dually become more and more intimately combined with the vitelline substance.
He regarded these phenomena as evidence of a mutual action having taken place
between the spermatic and vitelline substance, having the effect of producing a
solution or peculiar disintegration of the latter. To take a coarse comparison, the
author said that the involvement of the spermatozoa by the uncovered yolk might
be likened to what would happen if a ball of snow were rolled over small masses of
salt, and the whole were then enclosed in a bladder, which might represent the
membrane which is formed only after impregnation has taken place.
Further Observations on the Structure of the Ova of Fishes, with especial
reference to the Micropyle, and the Phenomena of their fecundation. By
Dr. W. H. Ransom, Nottingham.
Dr. Ransom communicated the results of observations on the structure and im-
pregnation of the ovum in fishes, and on the first changes which the yolk undergoes
after fecundation. Dr. Ransom announced the existence of an aperture through
the yolk-sac of the ovum, in several freshwater fishes; pointed out its relation to
the formative yolk, and its importance as permitting the entrance of the sperma-
tozoa. Dr. Ransom described certain peculiar contractions and rotations of the
yolk which are among the earliest of the changes which follow fecundation, but
which he believes to be due to the action of water upon a delicate membrane within
e yolk-sac, and independent of the agency of the spermatozoon,
On the Mode of Action of Galvanie Stimuli, directly applied to the Muscles.
By Professor Remax, Berlin. _ Communicated by Professor KOLLIKER.
Professor Kolliker presented on the part of Dr. Remak, of the University of Berlin,
a short printed paper, of date 8th August, 1855, giving an account of experiments
made during the past summer, with a view to determine in what manner various
o*
.
132 REPORT—1855.
muscles of the body are affected by the local application of electrical or galvanic
currents over their surface. These experiments were undertaken chiefly with the
view of ascertaining the accuracy of the statements contained in the recent work of
M. Duchenne of Boulogne (de l’électrisation localisée, Paris, 1855), viz. that the
local application of electricity shows that the muscles or parts of them are excited to
contraction by the stimulus directly, and not through the intervention of their nerves.
Dr. Remak’s experiments have led him to a different conclusion, viz. that the
contraction of muscles produced by the application of the electric conductors in
their vicinity is always the more powerful the nearer one of these conductors is
brought to the place at which the principal nerve enters the muscle; and that the
more limited contractions produced by the application of the conductors on the skin
over the surface of subcutaneous muscles are not less the result of the distributed
twigs of nerves in the muscular fibres. It is also an interesting result of these expe-
riments, that the most efficient application of the stimulus is also the least painful,
by directing the galvanic current towards the muscle, and carrying it away from the
sensitive nerves which may be placed in the vicinity.
On the Antrum Pylori in Man and Animals.
By Professor Rerzrus, Stockholm,
The author remarked that the name of Antrum pylori was first used by Willis in
his work, ‘“ Pharmaceutices rationalis, sive diatriba de medicamentorum opera-
tionibus,” &c. Few after him have appreciated the true form and importance of
this part, except Cruveilhier. Professor Retzius has found three different forms of
this part in man; he calls the one (described by Cruveilhier) the short form, the
other (mentioned by Willis) the Jong, and the third he calls the conical form. In
the first form the part has two ampullz on the upper side, and one, sometimes two,
on the lower, besides the great pyloric curvature (Coude de |’estomac of Cru-
veilhier). The two ampulle nearest the pylorus are the most constant, and form a
proper division of the whole antrum part. This has commonly a darker colour than
the rest. In the second form, which Professor Retzius has often found in middle-
aged females who had lived sparingly, the antrum is much elongated, tubular, and
sigmoid, and is separated from the rest of the stomach as a quite distinct part, so
as sometimes to have been mistaken for a part of the duodenum. The ampullz are
in this form not so much elongated, and not distinct, as in the other two; and the
constrictions are very slight, and lengthened out. In the third form the ampulle
are small, less limited, and the whole part short, and nearly in the form of a trun-
cated cone. In this form the “‘Coude de l’estomac”’ is very prominent, and the
opposite plica in the lesser curvature narrow.
In all these forms, and most in the first, two proper bands of longitudinal fibres,
partly muscular, partly of white and yellow fibrous tissue, run along both the ante-
rior and posterior walls of the stomach. These bands are mentioned by several of
the older anatomists as the bands or ligaments of the pylorus. As in the colon,
these longitudinal bands are shorter than the tube, which is somewhat contracted
by them; and by this shortening, as in the colon, folds and haustra are formed,
which have been called by Cruveilhier ‘‘ les ampoules.”
The peculiarities of the mucous membrane in the pyloric part of the stomach
were already observed by Sir Everard Home. The muscular coat is very strong,
principally formed by a thick layer of circular fibres, whose thickest part in the
length of an inch occupies the space nearest the pylorus, corresponding to the two
last ampullz. In many specimens Professor Retzius has found the before-men-
tioned white tissue covering what were formerly called the ligamenta pylorica,
shining and white like tendons. He considers them as in a rudimentary degree
corresponding with the well-known tendons in the muscular stomach of the Croco- —
dile and Birds. Professor Retzius has found the same tendon on the pyloric part —
of the stomach of dogs, and peculiarly developed in the Arctic Bear. ;
In the stomach of the Arctic Hare this tendon is nearly quadrangular. The
antrum pylori in several carnivora is an elongated and narrow tubular, sometimes
conical part of the stomach. In the Common Seal (Phoca annellata, Nils.), the
antrum pylori is a long, oval, and narrow cavity, folded back on the rest of the:
a
— or
~
<PeRs
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 133
Jesser curvature. The muscular wall is very thick, and the mucous membrane of a
peculiar appearance. The valvula pylori is wanting in many animals, and is re-
placed by the strong and broad layer of circular muscular fibres in the antrum
pylori near the beginning of the duodenum. In some animals a little groove exists
in the great curvature of the antrum, behind the passage into the duodenum. The
border of this forms a thick semilunar fold, somewhat resembling a part of the
valvula pylori. Professor Retzius regards the third stomach in the ventricle of the
Porpoise (D. phocena) as the same with the antrum pylori. The fourth stomach,
which Cuvier describes, in the ventricle of Delphinus, is only a globular dilatation
of the first part of the duodenum, in which part the biliary duct opens. Professor
Retzius has found a corresponding dilatation in the first part of the duodenum in
man and several mammals, and proposes to call it antrum or atrium duodeni. In
man, the first part of the duodenum has no plice conniventes, as several anatomists
have long ago remarked (Quain, Hyrtl). The author illustrated this communication
with a rich collection of drawings.
On the peculiar development of the Vermis Cerebelli in the Albatros (Dio-
medea exulans). By Professor Retzrus, Stockholm.
Dr. John Kinberg, Zoologist and first Surgeon of His Majesty’s frigate ‘ Eugénie,”
during her voyage in the Pacific Ocear, had occasion to prepare a perfectly fresh
brain of an Albatros. The brain was immediately put in strong spirit, brougnt
home, and presented to the Anatomical Museum of the Royal Caroline Institute.
Prof. Retzius had remarked that the cerebellum of this specimen presented quite a
peculiar development. It was flattened on both sides, with very little protuberance
at the base of each side, and, as in birds in general, the central part or vermis
much developed, but in this more than in any other known bird’s encephalon.
This middle part, forming the whole cerebellum, projects like a fan behind both
hemispheres over the medulla oblongata, being more than one-third raised over the
level of the highest points of the hemispheres. Professor Retzius counted on the
edge twenty-eight tongues or foliated gyri, proceeding from two branches, one of
which turns forward and the other backwards; the whole having some likeness to
a cock’s comb. Professor Retzius had examined the brains of many birds, but
never found anything like this, and supposed that this peculiar development of the
middle part might stand in some proper relation to the great perfection of the
flight of the Albatros. This bird lives, as we know, only in the vast ocean;
dividing his solitary life between the air and the waves, without approaching the
shores by many miles’ distance. Mariners meet with him in these regions, accom-
panying the ships for whole days without ever resting on the waves, and often
without any visible movement of his large and powerful wings. And if it be as
Professor Flourens regards it, one of the functions of the cerebellum to assist in the
combination of the action of the separate muscles for motion, this combination
must be so much more necessary the more perfect are the movements. In this
bird, the strong, continuous, tranquil flight seems to occur in its highest degree,
and, as Professor Retzius believes, depends on the peculiar development of the
Vermis cerebelli.
On the Fornizx Cerebri in Man, Mammals, and other Vertebrata.
By Professor Retzius, Stockholm.
_ The shape of the fornix in the completely formed human brain gives us only an
imperfect idea of the proper nature of this part. Professor Eschricht of Copen-
hagen has, in his excellent Manual of Physiology (Haandbog d. Physiologien),
given an excellent description of the first formation of the fornix, as the inner and
lower margin of the two original hemispherical vesicles, embracing the trunk or the
arms of the cerebrum. This is the point of view from which the further develop-
ment of this part ought to be considered. This view, of which we owe the first
key to Tiedemann, had been adopted by Prof. Retzius in an original paper on the for-
134 REPORT—1855.
mation of the hemispheres in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences of
Stockholm for 1844, without his being then aware of Eschricht’s views. Professor
Retzius has in this view considered the fornix to form a part of the inferior surface
of the hemispheres. (See his Treatise on Phrenology, considered from an anato-
mical point of view, 1847.) This is confirmed by examination of the brain in a
great number of the mammals, in which the under surface of the fornix is toa
considerable extent in its posterior part, covered with bilateral and symmetrical gyri
of grey substance. In man these gyri are small and thin. The posterior part of
them is situated under the lateral parts of the so-called splenium corporis callosi
(which partly belongs to the fornix). Here these gyri are very pale, greyish,
low, smooth, only 4 millimetres broad. The posterior ends, which are convergent,
are small, tongue-shaped, and very thin; they diverge anteriorly in proceeding
towards the cornua Ammonis, where they are continued as the well-known fascia
dentata of the hippocampus or cornu. Professor R. mentions that these gyri are
represented in Vicq d’Azyr’s 20th table, especially in the coloured part on the left
side. It seems that Vicq d’Azyr himself had not given any particular attention to
these gyri, as they are not mentioned in the text or explanation of the plates. The
author illustrated this paper with a number of drawings, representing the brains, in
different stages of development, of mammals and man.
On an Episcaphoid Bone in both Hands of a Guarani Man.
By Professor ANDREw Rerzius, of Stockholm.
A Swedish gentleman, Signor Liljedah], now mining engineer in Paraguay, sent
home, some years ago, with the Swedish corvette ‘ Najaden,’ from Buenos Ayres, a
skeleton of a native man of the Guarani race. Among several other peculiarities
in that skeleton, now belonging to the Anatomical Museum of the Royal Caroline
Institute at Stockholm, it had nine carpal bones on both hands. The supernumerary
bone was situated on the upper articular surface of the scaphoid bone, turned towards
the vola, and near the lower end of the radius, and opposite the pisiform on the
ulnar side. It bore much resemblance to a large pisiform bone; its articular surface
was concave: on the outer side it had the appearance of a ligamentous connexion.
It is probable that the proper annular ligament had had one of its attachments to it.
Its length from above downwards is 13 millimetres, height from the articulating
surface 11 millimetres, thickness 9 millimetres. The posterior side is flattened,
with two small tubercles on the anterior surface. The other half was a part of the
surface before mentioned for ligamentous attachment. The rest was concave, form-
ing a slight groove. The bones in the two hands are precisely the same shape, and
are nearly of the same size. Future observations will probably- show whether
such bones are of more or less frequent occurrence among the Guaranis. Dr.
Retzius hopes he may obtain further information on the subject from his country-
men, Dr. Rosenskjold and Mr. Liljedahl, in Paraguay, to whom he had applied.
On the Pelvis of a Lapland Giantess.
By Professor Anprew Rerzius, of Stockholm.
Professor Retzius exhibited a cast, and described the pelvis of a giant Lapland
woman, aged 43 years, which, with the whole skeleton, he had obtained for the
Museum of the Royal Caroline Institute of Stockholm. This woman was 6 feet 133
inches (Swedish measure) in height. The pelvis presented a general enlargement
corresponding with that of the rest of the body. It was nearly naturally formed,
but approached somewhat the male form, more especially in the narrowness of the
subpubic arch.
On the application of Physiological Principles to gymnastic education.
By Dr. Roru, London.
| TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135
Some Observations on the Chemistry of Fetal Life. By Professor Scutoss-
BERGER, of Tubingen. Communicated by Professor ALLEN THOMSON.
Having lately made some observations on the chemistry of the foetus, hitherto a
terra incognita, the author has obtained some remarkable results, of which the fol-
lowing is an abstract.
Ist. I have analysed the milk of the uterus of Ruminantia, which is the best ex-
ample of a foetal food. I found microscopic corpuscles in it, resembling the first
stages of the corpuscles of true milk. The secretion is acid (volatile fatty acid).
It contains no sugar, little fat, and is very rich in proteine compounds. Therefore it
seems that the foetus in which the respiratory process is going on more slowly has a
food in which the plastic nourishment prevails, the necessity for purely respiratory
material being less than in the adult. The quantitative analysis gave in 100 parts
the following proportions in the foetus of a calf of six weeks :—
Water......scseees pide res seienateaitecataetase nS SrOy
Fixed solids .........sceseeee ideale dees 11°93, viz.
Wate eat alate aioe sae vecesesescceeee 1°59
WASHES Seidaccscet. oaeveeae Joueders OS7a
Albumen and cells, &c. ... 9°6
100-00
A comparison with the colostrum and the true milk of the cow is suggested by
this.
2nd. The stomach of the feetal calf contains true mucine, described by Scherer.
The viscous fluid contained in the stomach is precipitated by acetic acid, and the
precipitate is not soluble in excess of acid,
I found quite marked differences between the contents of the stomach and amnio-
tic fluid, so that both must be regarded as independent secretions. Nevertheless
I will not deny that the foetus occasionally swallows the amniotic fluid. Asa proof
of this I give the following analysis :—
Contents of the stomach of a foetal calf twenty weeks old.
‘ VINETIETTR AANA S* RA cha Sap ENB GOD Cee enn ee One eeaaAR EEG oe 98'°6
H Solids......... aah wae eh des SR ae See cuidekieguluas Seplgee etme seat we Lede BLZe
RATING Peering shes peti cela Saka sloggar seers ri Brdngte 0:44
Wa lisina seh cgebe tev sagey ea pet seectiae Beate deeiians sic tess 0:96
Organic substance precipitated by tannic acid 0O°1
100:00
The amniotic fluid of the same foetus contained in 100 parts—
Wiiatienie dee soso swans ties cman ean veers 96°03
Organic substance..........- aac Ga
(no mucine.)
3rd. The fourth stomach of the foetal calf possesses in a high degree the coagula-
ting action on milk.
4th. The amount of water contained in the foetal organs is as follows :—
Foetus of 4 weeks. F. of 6 weeks. F. of 20 weeks.
BV SINE ee seers 91 per cent. — percent. — per cent.
Heart? 3s Soe ren i — 3 —_— A
Lungs ......... 90 ,, AQs? 86 a
Muscles ...... Te. 2 aeiete 87 1
River! Sua gees ei. 83 4 83 55
Blood ...... fide = Aaa 82 ae 80 Be
The general result of a considerable number of experiments has been, that many
tissues of the foetus are richer in water than the blood of the foetus, and that the
organs which contain the greatest amount of blood have the least water.
On the Use of the Round Ligament of the Head of the Femur.
By Dr. Joun SrruTuers. :
136 REPORT—1855.
On the Use of the Round Ligament of the Hip-Joint.
By Dr. Joun Srrutuers, F.R.C.S., Lecturer on Anatomy, Edinburgh.
By removing the bottom of the acetabulum so as to expose the round ligament
from behind, while its attachments and those of the capsular ligament are left
entire, the author has been able to afford actual demonstration of the use of this
important ligament. On moving the femur in the various directions, it is now seen
that the ligament becomes quite tight only in rotation outwards. It approaches the
tight condition if adduction,—the motion which this ligament has more recently
been supposed to check, so as to support the body on the femur in the erect
posture; but extreme adduction does not actually stretch the ligament. In ro-
tation outwards, however, the ligament is so much stretched as to be flattened upon
the bone, and is perfectly tight. It is not tightened in rotation inwards, as this is a
more limited motion than rotation outwards. This being the fact, the reason seems
to be, that it is in this motion, rotation outwards, that the femur is naturally most
liable to, and would otherwise leave the socket. To prevent this there are two pro-
visions,—the great thickness of the front half of the capsular ligament, and, in-
ternally, the round ligament. By adopting this method of demonstration, any
anatomist may satisfy himself as to these statements. It must be granted that the
ligament can be of use only in that position in which it becomes tight.
On the Explanation of the Crossed Influence of the Brain.
By Dr. Joun Struruers, F.R.C.S., Lecturer on Anatomy, Edinburgh.
The object of this paper was to show that the decussation of the anterior py-
ramids of the medulla oblongata affords only a partial explanation of the phenomena
of crossed nervous influence. This was made evident by the want of proportion or
correspondence between the phzenomena and the amount of decussating matter, which
does not include above one-third of even the cerebral portion of the medulla oblongata;
while the influence of each side of the brain, as regards both motion and sensation,
is usually entirely crossed upon the opposite side of the body, as seen in cases of
palsy, putting aside in this argument the results of experiments on the lower
animals. The statements as to exceptional cases in human pathology, are not
unlikely to have had their origin in mistakes in the use of the terms right and left.
Further, we have evidence of the influence having crossed a considerable distance
above the decussation of the pyramids, in the fact, which the author’s own ob-
servation attested, that in cases of palsy of one side of the body, accompanied by
palsy of the face, the two palsies were on the same side, and therefore on the
opposite side to the cerebral lesion.
The conclusions drawn were—
1. That the influence of the brain is entirely crossed, one side of the body being
set on the opposite side of the brain for both motion and sensation; unlike the
optic decussation, which is a half decussation, serving a special purpose in the
equal reflex regulation of the pupils.
2. That the phenomena could not therefore be explained unless by a complete
decussation of each lateral half of the descending fibres of the brain.
3. That the decussation of the anterior pyramids does not form more than about
a fourth part of the anatomical decussation or decussating channel.
4. That the situations in which the rest of the fibres passed, or might pass, across
the middle line, are (a) the middle line of the pons, where especially the fibres of
the great crus cerebelli may decussate, and thus readily explain the crossed influence
of the cerebellum, which could not be well explained through the restiform body.
(b) The middle line, or so-called septum, of the medulla oblongata. (ce) The white
commissure of the spinal cord in its whole length. In these situations there is no
coarse decussation like that of the pyramids, but ample space for a complete de-
cussation, by a finer admixture of the whole of the descending fibres of the brain.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137
On the Museles of the Extremities of Birds.
By Professor Cart J.SuNDEVALD. Communicated by Professor RETz1us.
This paper contained an abstract of an extended examination of the comparative
anatomy of the muscles of the limbs in the various orders and families of birds in
further elucidation of views brought forward by the author in 1851, together with an
attempt to determine the homologies of these muscles with those of mammals and
reptiles. The author traced to variations in the skeleton many of those differences
in the muscles which had occasioned so much difficulty to comparative anatomists
in ascertaining their homologies. He remarks on the inappropriateness of many of
the names applied to the muscles from human anatomy, such as triceps and biceps
brachii, &c. The biceps he would call Vector brachii, and for the Biceps femoris, he
would propose the name of Pulsator in connexion with its action on the foot. The
posterior clavicular bone of birds, usually named coracoid by recent anatomists, he
would propose to call obex (bolt or bar), as the coracoid is in reality only a part of
this bone; and he would distinguish thus the muscles which are, attached to the
whole bone as obical in distinction from those which are simply coracoid.
The subclavius muscle of birds the author regards as merely an anterior part of
the pectoralis minor, and he adduces in proof of this view the variations of this
muscle in different mammals, more particularly those wanting the clavicle, in which
the subclavius is proportionally large and is continued on to the humerus along with
the pectoralis minor.
The greater part of the cervical muscles going to the shoulder is wanting in birds,
such as the sterno-mastoid, omo-hyoid, &c. The muscle usually termed cucullaris in
birds is only an extension of the upper rhomboid, being covered by the latissimus,
and the fore-part of the latissimus corresponds to the dorsal portion of the true
cucullaris. The so-called pectoralis tertius (of Tiedemann), or coraco-brachialis
inferior (of Meckel), is a part of the coraco-brachial modified as in Saurians by the
extension of the coracoid bone.
The large pelvic muscle of birds which extends over the patella to the tendons of
the perforated flexors, and has been variously considered as rectus femoris, pectineus
or gracilis, is called by Sundevald musculus ambiens. It is not, as has been generally
supposed, the means of enabling birds to sleep sitting on the branches of trees, &c.,
as it is frequently wanting precisely in those birds which have this habit, and is
found, but not invariably, in the Swimmers and Waders.
The femoro-caudal muscle is a small representative of the muscle which is so very
large in Saurians, and which gives the backward direction to the hind-limbs. The
author Jeaves it doubtful, whether it is, as has been supposed, the pyriformis with a
more extended attachment to the vertebral column. :
On the whole, the muscular system of different families of birds presents very
considerable varieties. The singing birds (Oscines, part of Passeres) have the
greatest uniformity.- They are distinguished principally by the large size and extent
of the deltoid and the breadth of the teres minor. They have no gluteus maximus
and no ambiens, and the femoro-caudalis is simple. Sundevald points out, that the
Menura, Tyranni and Furnarii, and some other birds of doubtful systematic place,
have the same muscular structure as the Oscines, and should be placed under the
same division with them (as he proposed in 1835), but perhaps under a separate
section, as they do not possess the singing apparatus.
In a number of the Scansores the gluteus maximus is wanting; the ambiens and
femoro-caudalis variable ; the peronei deficient or very short, as also is the case in
Colymbus and Podiceps.
The Raptatores have no semitendinosus and no tibialis posticus, but they possess
a small gluteus maximus. In Falco and Vultur the ambiens exists, but not in owls.
It is interesting that all the muscular peculiarities of the diurnal birds of prey are
found in Tachypetes, proving their close relation.
In the Gallinz, Gralla and Anseres, the accessory head of the tensor przalaris is
small. In most of them, the gluteus maximus is present, but very small. The
Galline are especially distinguished by their large subclavius, separate from the
pectoralis minor, by the humero-ulnaris internus peculiar to them, and by their
large pronators. In Wading birds there is little peculiar. The Swimming birds are
138 REPORT—1855.
distinguished by a peculiar form of the semitendinosus, which is similar to that of
mammals.
The ostrich shows some of the greatest peculiarities in the form of the sternal and
clavicular muscles in connexior with the modifications of the bones. There is no
femoro-caudalis, tibialis posticus, nor peroneus brevis. ‘The most remarkable pecu-
liarity is in the existence of the second head of the vastus internus, which is like a
gracilis muscle, which indeed it has been called. This is also the case in the Casso-
wary and Apteryx. In all other birds the gracilis is quite lost.
The Galline have the greatest number of muscles present among birds; the
Podiceps (Natatores) the fewest, wanting the ambiens, femoro-caudal, semimem-
branosus, gluteus maximus, flexor arctic. prim. digit. secundi, peroneus brevis, digital
tendon of peroneus longus, the femoral head of the semitendinosus, and the gastro-
cnemius medius.
On the Formation and Structure of the Spermatozoa in Ascaris mystax.
By Professor ALLEN Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S.
This paper contained an account of observations instituted by the author, with
the view of ascertaining the validity of the objections raised by Professor Bischoff
of Munich to the views of Dr. Henry Nelson on the subject of the fecundation of
the ova of Ascaris mystax, and which were communicated by the author to the
Royal Society in 1851. Professor Bischoff considered the bodies described by Dr.
Nelson as spermatozoa to be nothing more than peculiar epithelial particles belong-
ing to the female passages; but Professor Thomson has succeeded in showing in
full detail the whole progress of development of the peculiar flask-shaped spermatic
bodies which Dr. Nelson found in the female Ascaris, from their earliest stages in
the male, and has thus proved satisfactorily their spermatic nature.
The following are the principal steps of the development of these spermatic
bodies :—Ist. They arise by cell-germs in the uppermost cecal extremities of the
male testicular tubes; which cell-germs are probably not formed singly, but by
endogenous increase within parent-cells. 2nd. In the next part of the tube, which
is opake or granular, each of these cell-germs is surrounded by a mass of fine
granular matter, so as to constitute each an aggregated cell, at first without any
external wall, but afterwards this wall is formed by deposit or change round the
granular mass, 3rd. The granular nucleated sperm-cell is divided into four, and
the granular matter of each portion assumes a remarkable appearance of radiated
lines. These remain united together for a time. 4th. The four cells next separate
from each other, the radiated linear appearance returns to the granular state, and
each of these cells is the source of a spermatic corpuscle. 5th. In general the sper-
matic cells do not advance beyond this stage, so long as they remain within the
male organs; but in some cases the author perceived transitions to the forms that
are found in the female passages, and was thus enabled to prove the identity of the
two sets of bodies. The formation of the spermatozoon from the last-mentioned
cells took place by the clearing up of one part of the outer or granular part, and
the removal of the granules to the other side; while the spermatozoon itself was
produced by the thickening of the wall of the nucleus in the shape of a dome or
hemisphere on one side of the nucleus, the open side of the dome being occupied
by the remains of the granular matter and the nucleolus. 6th, In the female pas-
sages, the higher these spermatic cells have ascended, the more advanced are they
found in the changes of the nucleus into the spermatic body, until in the upper part
of the oviduct, where they first encounter the ova, and, according to Dr. Nelson,
effect fecundation, they have attained their full development, and have assumed the
peculiar flask or test-tube shape. In the lower parts of the female passage, every
stage of transition, from the forms observed in the lower part of the vas deferens of
the male, through the dome, bell, flask, and test-tube forms, is to be found.
The author pointed out the peculiarity of form and mode of development belong-
ing to those spermatozoa which, as in the Ascaris, are acaudal and motionless. The
highly refracting part of the spermatic cell, which assumes the dome or flask-shape,
he regarded as corresponding with the body part of the spermatozoa in the higher
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139
animals; but in the Ascaris, this part, in its growth, by thickening from the
nucleus, never closes completely over it, but leaves one side as it were open, occu-
pied by the remains of the granular covering and by the nucleolus. The develop-
ment, accordingly, never reaches that stage, in which, as shown by Kolliker’s most
recent observations in the higher animals, the caudal filament is formed by pro-
longation from the closed nucleus. The want of motion in the spermatozoa of the
Ascaris, the author considered to be dependent on the absence of the caudal fila-
ment, which, when present, acts precisely in the manner of a vibratile cilium.
The author entered into various details as to the particulars in which his observa-
tions agreed with or differed from those of Reichert, Nelson, Bischoff, and Meissner,
on the same subject.
On the Brain of the Troglodytes niger.
By Professor ALLEN Tuomson, M.D., F.RS.
As the brain of the Chimpanzee had been littie investigated by anatomists, the
author exhibited and described a dissection of it which he had recently had an
opportunity of making. The specimen belonged to a female, which was probably
of six or seven months old. The author called attention to the various points of
resemblance and difference between the human brain and that of the Chimpanzee
and other Simiz. The communication was illustrated by photographic and other
representations, and by dissections of the brains of various animals.
Contributions to the History of Fecundation in different Animals.
By Professor ALLEN Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S.
In this paper, the author first gave an account of a series of observations which
he had made, confirmatory of Dr. Ransom’s discovery of the micropyle aperture
in the ovum of fishes, viz. in the salmon, trout, and stickleback, and the fact
of the entrance of the spermatozoa within the membrane of the ovum.
The author next gave a detailed description of the development of the ovum in
Ascaris mystax ; and in connexion with the mode of its fecundation, adverted par-
ticularly to the fact, which he had placed beyond doubt, that at the time when the
peculiar motionless spermatic bodies first meet with the ova in their descent
through the female passages, and effect. fecundation by the peculiar penetration
observed by Dr. Nelson, the ova are destitute of any membranous covering; and
the spermatozoa come, therefore, into direct contact with the exposed surface of the
yolk. Professor Thomson’s observations were, therefore, in support of the views
of Dr. Nelson on this subject, and in opposition to those of Meissner, who con-
ceives that, in Ascaris as in Mermis, the spermatozoa are introduced through
a micropyle aperture in a membranous covering; and to those of Bischoff, who
denies the spermatic nature of the bodies referred to.
Professor Thomson described an observation in which he had fully confirmed
the statement originally made by Dr. Martin Barry, of the penetration of the sper-
matozoa into the mammiferous ovum, as has more recently also been observed by
several continental physiologists. The author’s observations were made on several
ova taken from the Fallonian tube of a rabbit, about seventy hours after sexual
“intercourse, in all of which he detected very clearly a considerable number of
spermatozoa within the zona, but without his being able to perceive any indication
of an aperture or micropyle in that membrane.
The author next passed in review the various observations of recent authors with
regard to the micropyle structure, and the phenomena of fecundation related to it,
or independent of it, in different animals; more particularly those of J. Muller,
Newport, Meissner, Keber, Leuckart, Leydig and others, and deduced some
general conclusions therefrom as to the manner of the fecundating process. From
these it appeared that the micropyle aperture, first discovered by J. Muller in
Holothuria, is of frequent occurrence in the ova of animals; that it is not invariable,
however, but that when present it is always related to fecundation; that in some
animals it exists from the earliest condition of the ovum, while in others it is of
140 REPORT—1855.
later formation ; that future observations will probably bring it to light in many
animals in which it is not yet known; but that in othersit is most probably entirely
absent; and yet, that spermatozoa penetrate the egg coverings, even though these
are of considerable density, as in the case of mammalia; that it appears to exist
principally in those ova of which the coverings have peculiar strength and density ;
that in a number of instances the spermatozoa meet with the ovum previous to
the formation of any enclosing or vitelline membrane, and must thus act directly on
the yolk or germ; and that in a few animals (as Trematode and Cestoid worms), the
spermatozoa are mingled with the contents of the ovum, viz. germinal vesicle, and
yolk substance, at the period of their being brought together in their formation, and
are thus enclosed, along with the rest of the parts, by the membrane which is after-
wards deposited externally.
Thus, while many interesting and important additions have been recently made to
our knowledge of the history of the phenomena of fecundation, further observations
are still required to bring these phenomena, as observed in different classes of
animals, under one general doctrine or law.
GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
ETHNOLOGY.
On some peculiar Circumstances connected with one of the Coins used on the
West Coast of Africa. By the Rev. Tuomas C. ARCHER.
Description of Timbuctoo, its Population, and Commerce. By Dr. BARTH.
Communicated through the Foreign Office.
Before reading the paper, Dr. Shaw informed the meeting that Dr. Barth had just
arrived in London in safety. Dr. Barth, dating from Timbuctoo, on the 2nd of
October, 1853, acquainted the Earl of Clarendon, the Foreign Minister, that on the
7th of the month previous he had reached Timbuctoo, and had met with a very satis-
factory reception. He entered from the south side, having navigated a considerable
channel of the river. He was escorted to the town from Kabara by Sidi Alawad,
the brother of the absent Sheikh of Bakay, and welcomed by great part of the
wealthier Arabs inhabiting the place; but was obliged to support before the people
the character of a messenger of the Sultan of Stamboul, his real character being
known only to his protector. When the Sheikh of Bakay himself arrived, he gave
Dr. Barth the fullest assurance of his safety in the town, and his safe return home
by way of Borno; he had done so before, and as far as his influence extended, had
given ‘full security to any Englishman visiting this place.” Dr. Barth then gives
a brief description of the town :—‘‘ Timbuctoo is situated, according to an accurate
computation of my route, 18° 3! 30’ to 18° 4’ 5” north latitude, and 1° 45! west
longitude, Greenwich ; and is distant from the river itself further than has been sup-
posed,—Kabara, its so-called port, being situated on a very small ditch, which, being
inundated by the river, is made navigable for four, or, when the rains have been most
plentiful, for five months in the year; whereas, during the eight remaining months,
all the merchandise has to be transported on the backs of asses to a much greater
distance than Kabara....... As for the town itself, it is not now environed by a wall,
the former one having long ago fallen into decay; but like the small towns of the
Tonray in general, its mud houses form a tolerably entire enclosure, pierced only by
narrow entrances. Having been at least twice as large during the period when the
Tonray empire was in its prime and glory, its circumference at present does not
exceed two and a half miles. ‘The whole town consists of houses built of mud, for
the greater part only one story high, while the wealthier people have all their houses
raised to two stories. There are at present only three mosques in the town. The
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141
market is well supplied with rich merchandise, much better than the market of Kano.
But there is a great defect in the scaveity of current coin,—salt, a rather heavy, un-
manageable sort of money, being the standard for all iarger things much more than
gold, while cowries are extremely scarce, and dollars are scarcely accepted in payment
by anybody. The population of Timbuctoo, as well as its government, are consi-
derably mixed. The original, and by far the most numerous part of the inhabitants,
are the Tonray, who, after the supremacy of Morocco had ceased, regained once
more the government of their town, and were not disturbed by the Bambara, who did
not obtain possession of Timbuctvo, though on the south side of the river their
empire extended as far as Hombori. Besides the Tonray, there are the Arabs, partly
settled, and partly belonging to different tribes of the desert, and remaining only for
several months or years. Certainly, the mixed population of this place for itself is
not able to repulse any serious attack, as it was taken twenty-eight years ago (one
year before the unfortunate attempt of Major Laing) by the Fullan of Mohammed
Lebbo, almost without a struggle.” Referring to the Fullan of Hand Allahi, whom
he was desirous of visiting, Dr. Barth says,—‘ Their fanaticism would, if not endanger
greatly my situation when among them, at least make it all but intolerable; for
these Fullan, who call their brethren of Tokoto ‘ infidels,’ and have threatened them
with teaching them Islamism, think themselves the only true Moslems. Amongst
other things, they have made smoking a capital crime; so that even in Timbuctoo,
except near the house of El Bakay, a man smoking is in greater danger than in the
streets of Berlin.”
On the different Centres of Civilization. By Joun CRAWFURD.
The Manual of Ethnological Inquiry and the Ethnology of Polynesia. By
Ricnarp Curt, Fellow and Honorary Secretary of the Ethnological
Society.
The two editions of the ‘ Ethnological Manual’ issued at the expense of the
British Association have been circulated far and wide. The second edition, with
which I have had more to do, has been sent to every missionary station in the world,
to many of our naval and military stations, to men of science and known ability in
various countries, and to travellers. It has been thought that the results have not
been in proportion to the expenditure, pecuniary and otherwise, of our two ‘ Manuals,’
and accordingly it has been proposed to discontinue further outlay in the distri-
bution of the remaining copies of the second edition. The collection of informa-
tion, in accordance with special directions such as those contained in our ‘ Manual,’
is necessarily slow. We can only request persons to observe and record their ob-
servations for the use of science. Still the ‘ Manual’ has been of use in many ways.
The late lamented Capt. Owen Stanley used it as his guide in his surveying
expeditions, and I am informed by Mr. Brierly that it was constantly on the captain’s
table as a book of very frequent reference. Several officers both of the Royal Navy
and of the Mercantile Marine have expressed themselves to me as deeply indebted
to our little ‘ Manual’ as a useful guide in observing man.
- In the interval between the exhaustion of the first edition and the issue of the
second, ‘ The Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry’ was published. Dr. Prichard
contributed to this ‘ Manual’ the Section on Ethnology, and avowedly drew largely
upon our little ‘ Manual,’ adding new matter, improving and adapting it for the
special service of the Royal Navy.
In editing the second edition of our little ‘ Manual,’ the Committee naturally
availed themselves of Dr. Prichard’s improvements, and I think we improved it still
further.
_ The ‘ Admiralty Manual’ has been published more than six years, but beyond the
most interesting information collected by Capt. Collinson of the Western Esquimaux,
I am unaware of any results from the Ethnological section of it. When we consider
the great difficulty of observation, we ought not to feel disappointed at the seemingly
inadequate results, and we ought to have patience in waiting for results, as I am
about to show. I hold in my hand a copy of ‘The Samoan Reporter,’ a periodical
142 REPORT—1855.
published half-yearly in the island of Samoa, consisting of one sheet filled with chiefly
secular matter contributed by missionaries, each number containing a chapter on the
Ethnology of the Pacific Islands. ‘The missionaries of these islands were supplied
with the first edition of our ‘ Manual,’ and some of them at once appreciated its value
as a guide to enable them to study the ethnology of the people they are labouring
to convert to Christianity. It is now nearly ten years ago since the first article
appeared on the Ethnology of these islanders printed on one of the islands. The
ordinary work of the mission so fully employs the printing press of the station, that it
is not found practicable to print the journal oftener than half-yearly. It was only
in April of this year that I became aware of the existence of this periodical through
the kindness of the Rev. E. Prout, the Home Secretary of the London Missionary
Society. I have brought this to the notice of the Association through this Section as
one gratifying result of the usefulness of our ‘ Manual.’
The frequent reference to our little ‘Manual’ by travellers and others ought
to satisfy us that our labour has not been in vain. If the results of researches sug-
gested and directed by that ‘ Manual’ have not been published to the world through
this Association, let us not indulge in selfish regrets, but rather rejoice that in any
way it has contributed to the advancement of Ethnological science.
On some Water-colour Portraits of Natives of Van Diemen’s Land.
By Ricuaxrp Cutt, Hon. See. Ethnol. Society.
Mr. Cull exhibited a number of authentic portraits of natives of Van Diemen’s
Land, and remarked that the value of these portraits was enhanced by the circum-
stance that they could not be replaced, for not one of the aborigines was now alive,
or, at any rate, not more than one. The chief object of the paper was to show that
the aborigines of Van Diemen’s Land were not black, as was popularly supposed, but
of a brown complexion.
On the Complexion and Hair of the Ancient Egyptians.
By Ricuarp Curr, Hon. See. Ethnol. Society.
On the Forms of the Crania of the Ancient Romans.
By Josep Barnarp Davis, M.R.C.S. Engl., PSA.
A numerous series of ancient Roman skulls, derived from three different sources in
Italy and from Roman cemeteries at Eburacum, Londinium, Lindum and Glevum, has
fallen into the hands of the author. As the basis of these observations, he selects the
cranium of TuEoporianus, a Roman of consequence, who died at Eburacum in his
35th year, aud whose inscribed stone sarcophagus was discovered many years ago.
The venerable antiquary of Roman York, the Rev. Charles Wellbeloved, has referred
him to a Roman family of Nomentum, a town of the Sabiniin Italy. His skull is an
elegant example of the capacious Roman cranium. It is marked by the squareness
of face common to the typical form of the Roman head, the fine prominent nasal
bones of aquiline profile, their position being more expressed from the broad nasal
processes of the superior maxillze—the expanded and capacious forehead, of somewhat
low elevation, terminating below in a prominence of the supra-nasal region, which
distinguishes it from the regular skull of Grecian type. It may be regarded as
belonging to the typical section of ancient Roman crania, although not presenting the
typical character in so decided a form as others exhibited. It will come under the
division of what may be called platy-cephalic crania, those distinguished by a horizon-
tal expansion of the vertical region. The diacritical marks which distinguish the crania
of the ancient Britons from those of the ancient Romans may be expressed as follows :
after remarking that those of the Romans were decidedly the larger, he adds :—
The face of the former was rather shorter, more irregular, deeply marked by mus-
cular impressions, with a frowning supra-nasal and supra-orbital prominence ; short
but abruptly eminent nasal bones, rising suddenly out of the depression at the root of
the nose; the forehead narrower, yet rising at about the same angle to nearly an
equal elevation. The face of the ancient Roman was slightly longer, fully as wide in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143
all parts, and sensibly wider in the frontal region, and at the angles and condyles of
the lower jaw. This increaséd breadth at the two extremities, with want of elevation
of forebead, imparted to the countenance that quadrangular appearance so com-
monly observed in the statues of ancient Romans of Consular and Imperial times.
The calvarium in the ¢ypical British skull is marked by particular shortness; that of
the ancient Roman viewed vertically is not remarkable for shortness, whilst it pre-
serves a considerable breadth. It is fully half an inch longer than the British, and
yet somewhat wider. Commencing in the frontal region, this width extends to the
temporal in all its parts, and to the parietal. It is on this feature we are disposed to
rest its peculiarity, and to call it platy-cephalic, to express that especially expanded
form belonging to it without marked loftiness. Probably ancient British and Roman
skulls agree pretty closely in elevation. The well-known peculiarity in the nasal
bones of the latter, mostly conjoined with remarkable breadth and elevation of the
nasal process of the superior maxillary, is another typical mark.
The author next refers to two selected from several skulls obtained from burialson
the Via Appia—to a series derived from the Roman cemetery without the south-
western gate of Eburacum in 1852—to others obtained from the Roman Cemetery of
Londinium in the Borough, dug up from the ‘ Roman level’ about 16 feet below the
present surface. He compares the physical characters of the ancient Romans with
those which may still be observed in the modern population of Italy, and infers that
“notwithstanding the vicissitudes of all the ages intervening between the present
and imperial times, we have just ground for believing that the indicia of the ancient
Roman people are still unextinguished in their descendants.” He concludes by sug-
gesting the inquiry into the degree in which these peculiarities of the Romans may
~ be traced in the people of Britain.
On a Universal Alphabet with ordinary Letters for the use of Geographers,
Lithnologists, se. By ALEXANDER J. Exis, B.A., F.CP.S.
The problem to be solved is, Given an ordinary fount of roman (or italic) letters,
consisting of capitals, small capitals and small letters, with stops, but without ac-
cented letters (as these are seldom supplied in sufficient quantities), to write the
sound of any word in any language with a correctness intelligible to a native. The
solution should contain provision for the use of existing accented letters when feasible,
and for a rougher approximation when sufficient.
In the following digraphic alphabet the first column contains the rough approxi-
mation, with the duplicate accented letter, the second its explanation, together with
the finer approximations. Thus a may be used for G. mann, E. man, F. péte, or
these three sounds may be distinguished as a, ae or d, and aa or &, Again, aao or
ao or 99 may represent the long sound of ow in nowght.. Capitals are only used as
initials, r
Digraphic Alphabet arranged in the order of the Roman Alphabet.
’ E, English, G. German, F. French, I. Italian, 8. Sanscrit, Sc. Sanscrit cerebral,
A. Arabic, Ad. Arabic dental.
Aa. G, mann (a); EK. man (ae, a); F. | Dd. E. do (d); Se. d (.d); Ad. d (dd).
patte (aa, a). dh. Xi. the.
aa(a). E. tather (aa, a); F. pate (aaa, dzh. E. judge.
a2, ad). dy. Hungarian Magyar (dj).
a0 (Q). . not (ao, Q); I. rocco (0a,0a,6). | Ze. F. é (e); E. men (ea, ea, @).
aao (a0, 09). K. nought; I. poco (00a, ee (e). E. mane (ee, e); F. béte (eea,
6a, 00a, Oa, 00). @9, eea, Ga, 66).
ai. G. mein (ai), E. mine (ai). ea. F. vin.
aot. Ei. hoy (aoi); G. ewle (aue, ati). | 7 a. E. nut.
au. G. haus (au); E, howse (au). aa. F. wn.
aa. F, chant. Ff. E, face (f); Greek ¢ (ph).
Bb. E. be. Gg. E. go (g); F. gueux (gj).
Ce, Af. cluck (¢), cerebral (,c,eq), palatal gh. G. tag (gh), teig (jh); A. ghain
(cj), dental (cc), side (ck). (grh).
144
H « (,h) he (s) (A must not be used in
this sense); A. hha (uh).
h. Only used to form digraphs.
nw. E. wheel.
uy. E. hue (yh).
Ti. E. been (i), bin (ia, i) ; Welsh zw (ih).
zi @). E. bean.
iu, E. view.
Jj. (See dy, ly, ny, gh.)
Kk, E. keep (k) ; F. queue (kj).
kh. G. dach (kh), dich (ch); Spanish
j (x), A. kha (krh?).
Ll, E. lo (1); Polish barred 7 (Il); Se. Z
]
(1).
lh. W. il.
ly. 1, giglio (lj); Spanish 7 (1j).
Mm. E. me.
Nn, E. nay; Se. x (.n); Dental » (nn).
ag. KE. sing.
a. See aa, aa, ea, oa.
ny. F. montagne (nj); Spanish fi (nj).
Oo, E. omit (0); F. homme (0a, 0a, 6); I.
onde (ua, u).
oo (6). E. bone (00, 6); I. solo (uua,
te, uu).
oe (6). G. stoecke (oe, 6); F. jewne
(eo, €) e muet (eo, €); Gaelic
laogh (oh).
ooe (Ge, 66). G. Goethe.
oa, F. non.
P p. E. pea.
REPORT—1855.
Qq. Arabic qaaf.
Rr. E. ray (x), air (a), are (R), vary
(ar); Se. r (r); Lip-trill (brh).
rh. W. rhag.
S's. E. see (s); Ad. s (ss).
sh. E. she (sh); Se. sh (,sh).
sy. Polish s! (sj).
Tt. E. tea (t); Sc. ¢(,t); Ad. ¢ (tt).
th. KE, thin.
ish. E. cheese.
Uu. E. pull.
uu (a). E. pool.
ue (ii). G. hwette (ue, ii); Swedish w
(uh); Polish y (eh).
uue (ue, iii). Long of we.
Vv. E. vie (v); G. wie (bh).
Ww, E, weal,
X x. See kh.
Yy. E. yet.
yh. See ny.
Zz. E, zeal (z); Ad. x (zz).
zh. F.j (zh); Polish rz (zrh).
zy. Polish 2! (zj).
(’). Indistinct murmur bed’,
(‘). Slight whisper bet‘,
(,). Stop, to separate digraphs (,);
Arabic alef ({), hamza (;), ,ain (¢).
(-). Glide to connect letters in differ-
ent words.
(+) or ('). Place of accent.
Examples in the finer approximation.
English (without any accented letter).
Dhi ienveon'shon aoy rait‘iang, dhi greetrast
aend moost iampaaort’aent whiatsh dhi yhuum‘aen maind naeth eav‘t meed,
Rougher Approximation.
Dhi inven‘shan aov rait‘ing, dhi greet*est and moost im-
paaor‘tant uwitsh dhi nyuum‘an maind nath ev‘r meed.
Ordinary Spelling. ‘The invention of writing, the greatest and most important which
the human mind hath ever made.
German (with the acute accent).
Di earfindung dear shrift, di gréoeste und
bhichtijhste bhéalche yee dear méanshliche geist gemakht mat.
Rougher Approximation.
Di erfind‘ung der shrift, di grooest‘e und vikht-ighste
velkh*e yee der mensh‘likhe gaist gemakht: hat.
Ordinary Spelling. Die Erfindung der Schrift, die groesste und wichtigste welche je
der menschliche Geist gemacht hat.
Teamer'si deo‘vea suel di kuel-lea kda'zea
Ttalian (with the long mark).
K-an‘noa poateen:tsa di fa‘rea-altrwi ma‘lea.
Observe wé stands for u-e, or the diphthong of wu and e as distinct from we or 7, and
ue the long of we or uue.
Rougher Approximation.
Temeer'si dee‘ve sool di kuel:le kaaoz‘e
K-an‘no paoten‘tsa di faa're-altruu i maa‘le.
Ordinary Spelling.
Temersi deve sol di quelle cose
Ch’ anno potenza di fare altrui male.
French (with accented letters). Kruaaré tu dekuvér ét-iin-érér profoad,
S-é- praadré 1-drizoa pur ]é-borné dii-moad.
Rougher Approximation.
Kruaaroe tu dekiiver et-uen-eroer profoad
S-e praadroe ]-orizoa pur le bornoe due-moad.
Ordinary Spelling. Croire tout découvert est une erreur profonde,
C’est prendre l’horizon pour les bornes du monde.
These various styles may be mixed at pleasure, but double consonants must always
be separated by the stop or accent, thus an*noa or dn,noe, as dnnoa would represent a
single dental n, giving a very different sound.
- TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145
On a Philosophie Universal Language. By G. Epmonvs, Birmingham.
On the Deciphering of Inscriptions on Two Seals, found by Mr. Layard at
Koyunjik. By the Rev. J. GEMMEL.
On Celtic, Sclavic, and Aztec Crania. By Prof. Rerztus, of Stockholm.
' The Professor combated the phrenological view that high skulls betokened high
intellect. He had gone into schools in this country, and uniformly observed, on
looking around, that not more than one in a hundred could be found without the
elongated skull and prominent occiput. The same thing was to be said of his native
country, Sweden. There were some among the Swedes who had the short, high
head, but it was always found that these persons did not resemble the native popu-
lation, but had black hair, and were allied to the Finlanders or Laplanders. Phre-
nologists placed the Sclavonian in the Caucasian race; but if this were correct,
anatomy was certainly of no use to ethnologists, for it. completely contradicted that
view. Prof. Retzius then exhibited and described an Aztec skull, which he said was
supposed to belong to the ancient Mexicans, who had left the gigantic remains of
civilization which had been found in that country, and to be, at any rate, older than
the Spanish conquest. These skulls had much the same character as those of the
ancient Peruvians, and came under the Mongolian type. ‘ These skulls were always
small, but the chiefs, who may be regarded as the nobility, had elongated heads.
The whole American people belonged either to the short-headed or the long-headed
class, the former being found on the west side, and the latter on the east side of the
continent.
On a Roman Sepuleral Inscription on an Anglo-Saxon Urn in the Faussett
Collection. By C. Roacu Smitu, F.S.A. (In a Letier addressed to
Tuomas Wricut, F.S.A.)
The author presents, in the first place, a general view of the progress made in
separating the Anglo-Saxon remains from the Roman, and adds the following illus-
tration of the care required in this investigation :—
“An urn, which I suspect came from Norfolk, is
in the museum of our friend Mr. Joseph Mayer of
Liverpool, in the Faussett Department. While last
autumn I was looking over the Kentish Saxon an-
tiquities, I was.struck with the shape of this vase,
and examining closely, I discovered upon it a Roman
funereal inscription as follows :—
D.M. Pilar
LAELIAE SS
RVFINAE
VIXIT. A, XIE nw
M. III. D. VI
——— So
scratched with some sharp tool.
“Not finding any mention of it in Mr. Faussett’s Journal of his excavations in
Kent, I concluded it did not belong to that county, as indeed I doubted from the
first. But I find a memorandum of his referring to two Roman urns from Norfolk
which belonged to one of his neighbours, and one of these I suspect is the urn now
under our consideraton ; but, if so, it is remarkable he did not notice the inscription.
The antiquity of this inscription I see no reason to doubt; and I can instance names
and funereal inscriptions scratched, in like manner, upon sepulcral urns of the
Roman period.
“This urn, then, we cannot avoid believing tobe Roman. But it is, doubtless, of a
very late period, that probably which verged upon the Anglo-Saxon. You will see at
once what are now my opinions on the Derby urns, and the fragment of the duck-billed
fibula found in one of them. All the Frankish and Saxon ornaments may be traced
to Roman archetypes; and though I know of no instance where one of these peculiar
1855. 10
146 REPORT—1855.
fibule has been found in an interment purely Roman, yet intercourse may have
induced Romans occasionally to use the ornaments of foreigners, and the intercourse
of the Saxons with Britain you know had been pretty considerable before the Romans
departed. Other questions which I need not at present go into, suggest themselves.
“T now draw your attention to the discoveries of Mr. Neville at Wilbraham on the
borders of Cambridgeshire and Essex.
“Here we find skeletons with weapons, &c,, undoubtedly those of Saxons, in juxta-
position with urns containing burnt bones; such we never find in Kent, except when
a Roman grave has been disturbed by a Saxon interment.
“T think we shall have to refer most of these urns containing burnt bones to a
late Roman period just preceding that of the Anglo-Saxon; and the fact of these
urns being found placed over the bodies of Saxons, proves, I think, not that the urns
were originally so located, but that the Saxons, when interring their dead upon the
site of an old burial-ground, found the urns with burnt bones, respected them, aud
replaced them in the newly-made graves.”
On the Ethnology of England at the Extinction of the Roman Government
in the Island. By Tuomas Wricut, £.S.A.
On Inscriptions in Unknown Characters on Roman Pottery discovered in
England. By Tuomas Wrieut, F.S.A.
GEOGRAPHY.
On late Explorations in Africa. By C.J.ANDERSON. Despatch from George
Frere, Esq., H.M.’s Commissioner at the Cape of Good Hope, relating to
Mr. C. J. Anderson’s Journey to Lake N’gami. Communicated by the
Ear of CLARENDON.
The following summary of the results of Mr, Anderson’s explorations is from
the despatch :— The country in the immediate neighbourhood of Lake N’gami
is inhabited by tribes under the authority of the chief Letiholetebe, who, I regret to
learn from Mr. Anderson, has permitted the sale of slaves to the Boers. Mr, Anderson
attempted to proceed from the lake up the Trionghe river to visit Liberbe, the capital
town of the Bavicko country, said to be about nineteen days’ journey by land from
the lake ; but his proposal met with so little encouragement from Letiholetebe, that,
after ascending the river for several days, he was obliged to return. He, however,
learns that it was the centre of a great inland trading place, visited by the Mambari,
who purchase slaves, ivory, &c. for the Portuguese residents at the settlements on the
west coast, and also by the Ovapangari and Ovapangama, from the country north of
the Ovambo, between the 17th and 18th degrees of south latitude, who formed an
intercourse with the tribes under Sebitoane, Letiholetebe, and others to the eastward.
But perhaps Mr. Anderson’s success may be considered of peculiar interest and im~
portance, as showing that this well-watered country,—the inhabitants of which have
proved themselves so friendly and well-disposed towards English travellers, or as
Messrs. Oswell and Livingstone describe it, ‘‘ the great highway into a large section
of the continent of Africa,’—may now be reached in from forty to sixty days from
Walfisch Bay, with which communicatioi by sea from Cape Town is easy; and that
the traveller can reach this starting-point unmolested by the interference of the emi-
grant Boers, or by attacks by the plundering Griguas, and without encountering the
perils of Kalahari Desert.”
Report of the late Expedition up the Niger and Tchadda Rivers. By
Dr. W. Batrour Barkiz, R.V., F.R.G.S., addressed to the Lords of the
Admiralty.
After detailing the preparations he had made for his expedition, Dr. Baikie, dating
on board the African mail-steamer Bacchante, Sierra Leone, January 3, 1855, reports
as follows :—‘‘ We have explored about 250 miles of the river Tchadda beyond the.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147
furthest point attained by Allen and Oakfield in 1833, and reaching to about fifty
miles of the meeting of the Faroe and Binue, have established the identity of the
Tchadda with the Binue. We have established the navigable nature of the river
during the rainy season up to our furthest point; and seemingly, as well as from the
information of the natives, considerably beyond. We have encountered several new
tribes; have inquired into the resources, &c. of the various countries; and have
ascertained the friendly disposition of the natives. From numerous careful obser-
vations, we can almost demonstrate the incorrectness of Dr. Barth’s astronomical
positions ; our furthest point east being 11° 30!, at which time we were considerably
beyond Hamaruva, and almost certainly, at the furthest, within fifty miles of the
junction of the Faro, which was placed by that gentleman in longitude 14° east,”” Dr.
Baikie states, as the result of his expedition, that he will be able to lay before the
Admiralty a tolerably accurate chart of the entire rivers, and materials for a much
improved map of the surrounding countries. He proceeds :—“ With the assistance
‘of Mr. Crowther, we have satisfied ourselves of the general desire of the natives to
receive instruction and to admit teachers, and also of their wishes to carry on trade
with us. We are enabled to report favourably on the climate, having encountered.
but little sickness, and, providentially, not lost a single life. .,..,Inability to cut
fuel was the principal cause of our final stop;—the Krooboys, also, were nearly
exhausted by the immense labour consequent on the employment of miserably
insufiicient tools. Scurvy likewise made its appearance among the crew, apparently
from an improper amount of nourishment.. The actual turning back of the vessel
took place while Mr. May and I were absent in the gig, endeavouring to make a
higher ascent. The furthest point eastward reached by the party was about latitude
9° 30! north, and in longitude 11°30’ east. They believed, from information received,
that they were at that place not more than fifty miles from the Faro. The different
native tribes, for the most part, gave them the most friendly reception.”” Dr. Baikie
and his party reached the mouth of the river, op their return, on the 4th of November
1854. ‘ During the voyage the amount of sickness was very little, and every case of
fever yielded to the careful, but free administration of quinine, which was also em-
pioyed largely as a prophylactic, and, as it seemed, with great benefit. The trading
part of the voyage was a great failure.” In conclusion, Dr. Baikie remarks that,
‘from all appearances, there is less war and turmoil, and a greater feeling of security
along the river than formerly; as detached huts and patches of cultivated ground
are now to be seen along the banks, none of which, I am assured by Mr. Crowther,
existed during his visit in 1841.”
Remarks on the late Arctic Expedition, and on the several Completions of the
North-west Passage. By Capt. Sir E. Bercuer, R.N., FRA.
On the Importance of Periodical Engineering Surveys of Tidal Harbours,
illustrated by a comparison of the Surveys of the River Mersey, by the late
F. Gites, CLE.; and the Marine Surveys of the Port. By J. Bou.t.
Mr. Boult pointed out the extent to which the sea had encroached upon the Jand
_ at the mouth of the Mersey, the average yearly encroachment being about six yards;
and showed the consequent necessity of repeated and minute surveys, for the purpose
of discovering where the sea encroached, and where deposits were laid down, with
_ the view of preserving the harbours undeteriorated.
Notes on the Portuguese Possessions of South-west Africa.
By Mr. Consul Branp.
An Account of a Visit to Medina from Suez, by way of Jambo.
By Lieut.-Col. Burton.
Journey across the Rivers of British Kaffraria. By the Rev. F. FLemine.
This paper described a journey from the Great Kei to the Q’Nabaga Rivers, in-
eluding a description of some fossil remains which Mr. Fleming discovered near
Q’Nabaga.
10*
148 REPORT—1855.
On Improved Monographie Projections of the World.
By James GAutt, Jun., Edinburgh.
Cylindrical. maps alone can represent the whole world in one diagram. There
are only three features in which a cylindrical map can be accurate :—1. in Orienta-
tion; 2. Polar distance; and 3. Proportion of area ; butif one of these be obtained, the
others must be sacrificed. ‘The best projection is that which will divide the errors,
and combine the advantages of each. Mercator’s projection sacrifices Form, Polar
distance, and Proportionate area, to obtain accurate orientation for the navigator ;
whereas, to the geographer, Form, Polar distance, and Proportion of area are more
important than Orientation. ’
Polar distance is obtained by making the degrees of latitude equal.
Proportion of area is obtained by projecting the degrees of latitude orthographically.
In these two projections orientation can be correct at only one line of latitude; but if
we select the 45th degree of latitude, and make the orientation correct at that line,
the error is halved on each side and the distortion less offensive.
The projection which unites all the advantages of the three, in the best proportion,
is obtained by projecting the degrees of latitude stereographically, and selecting the
45th degree of latitude as the line of correct orientation. It will possess the following
advantages :—
1. It gives a more accurate representation of geographical forms.
2. It gives a representation of the whole world, including the poles.
3. It represents polar distance and proportionate area better; and
4. It saves 25 per cent. of the space occupied by Mercator’s.
Nore.—There is no formula by which Mercator’s chart may be projected ac-
curately, the orientation of each degree being obtained by calculation; but an
approximation may be obtained (up to the 85th degree) by projecting the latitudes
from a point behind the quadrant, nine degrees higher than the base, and one-third
of the radius distant from the centre. This approximation is so close, that it cannot
be distinguished except by careful measurement, and is of use for particular pur-
poses. MTT
An Account of the Exploration of the Isthmus of Darien, under Capt.
Prevost, R.N. By J. M. Insxip.
The greater part of the country was extremely wooded, so much so that the party
had to cut their way through it, sometimes only being able to advance at a rate of
about two miles to two miles and a half a day; and other parts were extremely swampy,
presenting almost equal difficulties to the explorers. He gives an opinion, that, before
any complete survey can be made, it will be necessary either to conciliate or subdue
the Indians, and that the construction of a canal across the isthmus will be a work
alike of great difficulty and expense. A railway, however, may be constructed with-
out probably any greater difficulties than exist in many parts of England.
Extracts from Letters dated Pungo, Andongo, and St. Paul de Loanda,
describing his Journey across Tropical Africa. By Dr. Livingston.
These papers speak of the great value of Angola and other Portuguese possessions
in Africa, commercially, more especially to the British, by whom they have been long
neglected, principally, it would appear, from the slave trade having interfered with
legitimate commerce, which, however, is now being rapidly developed; the export
slave trade having been altogether abolished, and the condition of the domestic slaves
very much ameliorated.
On the Preadamitie Condition of the Globe. By Prof. MacDona.p.
The Geographical and Historical Results of the French Scientific Expedition
to Babylon. By Dr. Juttus Oppert.
Dr. Oppert stated that he had spent two years on the site of Babylon, examining
the cuneiform inscriptions on the bricks and stone slabs. Babylon covered rather
more than an area of 200 square miles, being about two and a half times as great as
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149
the site of London. But all this space was not inhabited, there being immense fields
to supply the city with corn and pasture in case of siege. Dr. Oppert gave a brief
description of the cuneiform inscriptions, and the principle on which particular cha-
racters were chosen to represent particular objects and ideas,
Notes on the late Arctic Expeditions. By Capt. SHrrarp Oszory, RN.
On Hartlepool Pier and Port as a Harbour of Refuge.
By Sir B. F. Ourram, M.D., C.B., F.RS.
Notes on the Hindi- Chinese Nations and Siamese Rivers, with an Account
of Sir John Bowring’s Mission to Siam. By Harry Parxes, A.M.
Consul, Amoy, China.
The author states that the population of Birma, Siam, and Cochin-China, had formerly
been considerably over-estimated. The population of Birma was about five millions,
that of Siam six millions, and that of Cochin-China thirteen millions. ‘This would
give to Birma and Siam a population of twenty-three to the square mile; but when
due allowance was made for the extent of the jungles, and other land incapable of
habitation, this scale would not appear low. Cochin-China has a greater population
on account of its greater fertility, industry, and enterprise. The products of these
countries were generally the same,—trice, cotton, bees’-wax, and various metals.
Siam had the greatest resources, and must receive the preference as a commercial
nation ; for though Cochin-China had gold and other precious metals, it was deficient
in staple commodities. The Malayese were subjected to Siam, but only gave tribute
when Siam was in a condition to enforce it. As a distinct language, it was consi-
dered by the best scholars that Siamese could not have existed for more than four
centuries at the most; their sacred writings were still in the Camboja character, and
the language of the chiefs had many Camboja words, they being descended from that
people, who appeared to have subjected the Siamese. The dress of the Siamese was
very picturesque, and the mountaineers, like the mountaineers of Scotland and other
countries, wore dresses of a plaid pattern. With reference to Sir John Bowring’s
mission, Mr. Parkes stated that it was rendered necessary in consequence of the
monopolies, restrictions, and impediments placed on our trade by the last king of
Siam. In 1826 the British obtained permission to trade in Siam, but the treaty was
not observed during the last reign. The present king came to the throne in 1851,
and Sir John Bowring visited him in April of this year, and met with a very friendly
reception. Mr. Parkes then described the advantages of the treaty concluded.
Instead of the very restrictive duties formerly imposed, there was now to be an import
duty of three per cent., payable either in money or in kind, and permission was given
to the British to purchase houses and lands, and even build ships in their rivers.
And in accordance with the memorial sent to the British Government from Glasgow
aud other places, Sir John Bowring arranged that a consul be appointed to take
British interests under his charge, on the same principle which obtains in the Levant
and China. The prospects of commerce with Siam were very hopeful. The Siamese
were not a manufacturing people, and would be ready to take manufactures in return
for their produce. In 1840, the value of our trade with Siam was about half a
million, and there was reason to hope that in ten years hence it might amount to
£4,000,000 or £5,000,000. ‘Their rice was perhaps the best in the world, and the
cultivation of this crop might be extended to almost any amount. Mr. Parkes
exhibited several of their books, which consisted of prepared leaves tied together, and
specimens of native hemp, the wood of the gamboge tree, gamboge in its rough
manufactured state, and specimens of their hardware, cutlery, and domestic utensils.
With regard to their physiological characteristics, they were described to be 5 ft. 2in.
in height, being shorter than the Chinese and taller than the Malays. Their beards
were plucked out by the roots, the hair was shaved from the back of their heads,
leaving a tuft on the front of the head, which being with both sexes kept cut to the
length of an inch, presented very much the appearance of a blacking-brush. The
teeth of both sexes were dyed of a deep black colour, and their mouths were conti-
150 REPORT—1855.
nually filled with a quid of tobacco, betel, and other condiments. There were many
free schools in Siam ; education was conducted by the priests, and four-fifths of the
people could read. Their principal town, Bankok, had a population exceeding that
of Glasgow.
Hurricanes in the West Indies and the North Atlantic from 1493 to 1855.
By Sefior Anpres Poey, of Havana.
A chronological table, comprising 364 cyclone hurricanes, which have occurred in
the West Indies and in the North Atlantic within 362 years, from 1493 to 1855, with
a bibliographical list of 300 authors, books and periodicals.
Account of the Ascent of Mont Blane by a new Route from the Side of Italy.
By J. N. Ramsay.
Ascent of the Mountain Sumeru Parbut. By Capt. Ropertson.
In October 1851, Lieut. Sandilands, of the 8th (the King’s regiment), and myself
visited the hot springs of Jumnotsi. One of the Brahmins of Kursallee, who acted
as our guide, showed us a memorandum of Lieut. Yule, of the Bengal Engineers,
recording an attempt to reach the summit of the ridge which separates the waters of
the Jumna from those of the Touse. At the season when Lieut. Yule made this
attempt there was a great deal of snow on the mountain, and he was unable to reach
the summit of the ridge; but it appeared to him that at a later season of the year the
point might have been reached without difficulty ; even the snowy peaks above, it
seemed to him, might not have proved inaccessible. Confiding in Lieut Yule’s
opinion, and there being very little snow on the mountain, Lieut. Sandilands and
myself resolved to make an effort to reach the summit of one of these peaks called
Sumeru Parbut. We promised the Brahmin 50 rupees if he would accompany us
and act as our guide. He agreed to do so, and engaged five rajpoots to join the
arty.
js On the 28th we slept at Reshi Wodar, a spot near the hot springs, two hours and
twenty minutes from Kursallee, the last village on the Jumna. On the 29th we
removed our tent from Reshi Wodar to a small plateau under a peak called Dhotee
Tiba. This plateau is situated in the region between the upper limit of the growth
of shrubs and the snow, at about one-half of its height. The elevation above the sea
was probably between 13,000 and 14,000 feet. After the sun set the air became
intensely cold, A soda-water bottle, filled with water, we found next morning burst.
We had employed a gang of people to carry up wood to our bivouac, and kept a fire
burning all night in front of our tent.
Mr. D’Aguilar, the chaplain of Meerut, who had arrived at Kursallee in the
morning, hearing of our projected attempt, resolved to join our party, and came up
to the bivouac in the evening. Mr. D’Aguilar was badly provided with blankets and
clothing, and he suffered so much from the cold that he was unable to sleep. He
spent the night miserably, cowering over the fire, with his blankets huddled round
him. Sandilands and I lay down on our cots without undressing, and covering
ourselves with a pile of blankets, slept soundly, and did not feel the cold. The
Brahmin, the five rajpoots, and the two guides of Mr. D’Aguilar, slept in Mr.
D’Aguilar’s tent. The whole party stript to the skin; they lay down close together,
and covered themselves with their clothes and blankets. This is the way that the
mountaineers always bivouac. The ascent from Reshi Wodar to our tent occupied
two hours and nine minutes.
At ten minutes past eight on the following morning we left our tent. In one hour
and thirty-five minutes we reached a flat-topped glacier. Here the breathing and
vision of Sandilands and several of the guides were a good deal affected. From this
point to the summit of the ridge, which separates the feeders of the Jumna from
those of the Touse, called by the natives Banderpouch ke Ghattee, we were an hour
and twenty-one minutes. From the top of this ridge—which, I believe, was never
before reached by any travellers, and which the natives affirmed had never been
reached either by them or by any inhabitants of their valley—the view was magnifi-
cent. Below us was a great valley of ice, the glacier from which the Touse issues.
oe
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151
“On the right of the glacier rose the three great Jumnotsi peaks, designated in Sheet
65 of the Trigonometrical Survey of India Black E, Great E. and Little E, the
altitudes of which, as given in map, are 21,155, 20,916 and 20,122 feet. The peaks
designated in the Trigonometrical Survey Great E. and Little E. are the two
summits of a mountain which the natives call Banderpouch. On the left the glacier
was bounded by a wall of precipices, terminating in the lofty snow-covered peak of
Sumeru Parbut. The height of this peak is not given in the Survey Map; but,
from its appearance, as compared with that of the measured peaks, and also from the
height it rises above the limit of perpetual snow, I should estimate its altitude at
about 18,000 feet. The altitude of Banderpouch ke Ghattee I estimate at about
16,000 feet.
In making my agreement with the Brahmin, I was under the impression that
Sumeru Parbut was one of the measured peaks, and it was not until [ reached Ban-
derpouch ke Ghattee that 1 discovered my mistake. As soon as I did so, I wished
to alter our route, and to attempt the ascent of Banderpouch. But the Brahmin
would not agree to this: he affirmed that Banderpouch was inaccessible. We there-
fore turned to our left, and scaling the precipice, and creeping along its narrow ser-
rated ridge, in two hours and thirty minutes the Brahmin and myself reached the
summit of Sumeru Parbut. Mr. D’Aguilar, finding that he could not proceed
further without being obliged to bivouac for another night in the cold, had left us at
the foot of the ascent leading to Banderpouch ke Ghattee. Lieut. Sandilands reached
a point within about half an hour of the summit, when he found himself so severely
affected by the rarefied atmosphere that it was physically impossible for him to
roceed. When he turned he was attended by only one of the rajpoots, all the others
aving deserted him before.
My Brahmin guide, a very fine athletic young man of 25, did not seem to suffer
in the least, but on our return to our tent he was unable to eat his bread. My eyes
ached a little, my breathing was a good deal affected, and my spivits very much
depressed; but I retained sufficient energy and physical power to persevere almost
continuously in the exertion of climbing, and on my return to our tent, my appetite
was not at all affected, and I ate a hearty supper. It was a quarter to two when we
yeached the summit. When I commenced my journey to Jumnotsi I had no
intention of attempting the ascent of any culminating point, and did not, therefore,
provide myself with any instrument, excepting a thermometer and a surveying com-
pass. Several weeks before I had broken my thermometer, and was therefore
unfortunately totally destitute of the means of making observations. I, however,
observed that the surface of the snow was melting,—a little rill of water trickled
down on the face of a fragment of rock which projected through the snow. This
proves that at two o'clock in the afternoon on the 30th of October, at an altitude of
18,000 feet, the sun has sufficient power to raise the temperature above the freezing-
point.
At ten minutes after two we commenced our descent. In 1 hour and 27 minutes
we reached the bed of the glaciers; in 53 minutes Banderpouch ke Ghattee, where
we rejoined Sandilands and one of the rajpoots; in 57 minutes the lower edge of
the Dhotee Tiba glaciers; and in 1 hour and 17 minutes, at 38 minutes after six,
we rejoined our tent. The total time occupied in the descent, from the time we left
the summit until we reached the tent, was 4 hours and 28 minutes. On the following
day we continued our descent to Kursallee, which we reached in 4 hours and
11 minutes. Before reaching the edge of the Dhotee Tiba glacier we had been
enveloped in a dense mass of cloud which entirely concealed every landmark, We
were very apprehensive that we should have missed our tent. Had we done so, we
should probably have perished before morning. Next day, before we reached Kur-
sallee, the first snow of the season began to fall, so that the opportunity of further
exploring the icy regions of the mountains was gone.
I am now about to rejoin my regiment in India, and am likely to be stationed
within reach of the Himalayas, so that I hope, in the autumn of 1854 or 1855, to
pay another visit to Jumnotsi. Should I do so, I purpose to encamp in the plateau
between Dhotee Tiba and to devote three or four days to an attempt to ascend one
of the great Jumnotsi peaks, having found by experience that 1 suffer comparatively
little from the ravefaction of the atmosphere; and having tested the intrepidity and
energy of the Brahmin guide, I am in hopes, if I can discover an accessible path,
152 ; _ REPORT—1855.
that I shall he able to reach the summit of one of the Jumnotsi peaks. I conceive
that the successful ascent of so lofty a mountain, and the demonstration which would
be thereby afforded of the capacity of the human frame for physical exertion, at an
elevation of upwards of 20,000 feet, would in itself be an interesting fact. I should
also endeavour to carry up with me a thermometer and barometer; and if able to
register observations made with these instruments on the summit of the mountain,
such observations would doubtless be esteemed both valuable and interesting.
Notices of Journeys in the Himalayas of Kemaon. By Avo.pur ScHLa-
GINTWEIT and ROBERT SCHLAGINTWEIT. (Communicated by Col. SyKEs,
F.R.S.)
We left Nainee Tal, where we had made several geological excursions in the
outer ranges of the Himalayas, on the 16th and 20th of May, taking two different
routes to Milum in Johar. My brother Robert went by Almorah Bageom and
Gheigaon to Munshari, and from thence to Milum; I myself went up the Surjoo
valley to Kathi, the last village in the Pindaree valley, for the purpose of examining
the Pindaree glaciers. When I was on the spot I had some conversation with the
natives about a pass across the high chain of Nanda Kot and Nanda Devi from Pin-
daree directly to Milum, which I had been informed in Nainee Tal had some twenty-
five years ago been made by Mr. Traill, Commissioner of Kemaon. I soon found
that the brave Danpoor people would be more willing to go than I had at first ex-
pected; I promised them a good remuneration, gave them each a piece of green
gauze for protecting their eyes against the snow glare, of which they were exceed-
ingly afraid, and allowed them to offer to the Nanda Devi on the top of the pass some
goats and other things, which, being very superstitious, they considered of the utmost
importance. Only one man out of the one hundred who had accompanied Mr, Traill
twenty-five years ago could be found, being the only one who knew anything about
the route; he was a valuable guide. ‘Two strong Danpoor men accompanied me
with thirty people.
I left Kathi on the 28th of May, arrived at Pindaree on the 29th, slept on the 30th
on some rocks free of snow above tle Pindaree glacier, and on the evening of the
31st we encamped on the other side of the Nanda Kot range in the highest Koeriko
on the foot of the Soan glaciers. We had a rather uncomfortable night on the 30th,
where we slept without any tent or other protection in the open air, in a place called
Shoeraji Koerik, on the right side of the Pindaree glacier above the limits of all shrub
vegetation; on account of the very steep ascent over rocks, it would have been
indeed impossible for the people without great risk of life to have carried up great
heavy loads like tents, &c., all which I had therefore sent round by Namik. We
started on the 31st at half-past 2 a.m. I was obliged to leave behind four persons
who had got very unwell in the night. The snow was hard and easy to walk
on, on account of the cold night, and we steadily rose higher and reached the sum-
mit of the pass at 8 o’clock:—only the last ascent to the pass over very steep icy
snow, when we were obliged to cut hundreds of steps, was rather tiring for men
already fatigued by a bad night and a long march. I halted one hour on the
pass for making my observations, and then we went on. The pass does not lead over
the main ridge of the snowy range; it only leads to the extensive snow-fields which
feed the Pindaree glacier, since the glacier coming down a very steep valley is broken
up in icy cliffs and needles. We had to walk for nearly two hours over the snow
fields of the upper Pindaree glacier before we reached the second pass which leads
down to the Soan valley. Here we began to feel the effect of the sun and the snow-
glare. My people lay down constantly on the ice, and I had much difficulty in
pushing them on. The thermometer, which had been with us on the pass 32° Fahr.,
rose between 10° and 11° when we were walking nearly on the same level, but
sheltered from the cold wind, to.55° in the sun, which we all found an oppressive heat
up here. At eleven we reached the second pass, from whence we discovered Nanda
Devi and the Milum mountains.
All the time we had been in sight of the high snowy peaks which surround the
Pindaree glacier I had been able from several places to take angles to the principal
points, and T hope my observations may not be without some result for the orography
and geology of this part of the snowy range. I halted one hour and a half again on
=
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153
the second pass, which is only very little lower than the first, and then we descended
over steep snowy declivities te the Soan glacier. After halting several times for
making my observations, we arrived at 5 o'clock at the Nassapanpatti Koerick in the
upper Soan valley, where we slept very well under the shelter of some rocks. The
next day we went down to Martoli, and on the 2nd of June | had the pleasure of
meeting my brother Robert at Milum, who had been going from Almora by Mun-
shari to Milum with the greater part of our instruments.
Iam not able to give absolute heights for the passes, on account of not having
received the corresponding observations from the plains; but calculating my obser-
vations by those made by my brother Robert, and assuming the height of these places
as given in the maps (though I cannot be responsible for them in any way), I find
that the height of the pass will be about 17,950 English feet. I had not the least
suffered in the eyes from the snow glare, and some of my people who had got in-
flamed eyes were soon all well again. I had still with me my draftsman Eleazar and
one Kidmutgar, who both wanted to accompany me, but the poor people got fearfully
exhausted up there, and I was very glad to see them safely brought down to the foot
of the Soan glacier.
At Milum we found that Manee, the clever Putwaree of the Johar district, had
made the best arrangements he could in this place, and we made ourselves quite
comfortable in a little native house cleaned out for us. We stopped some days at
Milum for putting up our instruments, and setting regularly to work our assistants,
plant collectors, &e. Then my brother [tobert and myself went up to the foot of a
glacier just above the Pachu village, in order to take a closer view of the Nanda Devi
group which rises just behind the glacier. We sent two days before seven people to
examine the different sides of the little glacier valley, and on the 10th of June we
succeeded in reaching the summit of a rocky crest just stretching out eastward from
Nanda Devi, from whence we had a very extensive view of all the Himalaya range,
from Dharma over Oota Dhorra to Nanda Devi and the Nanda Kot group. The
height of the peak is as nearly the same as possible as that of Traill’s pass, about
17,900 English feet; but being no pass, but an isolated peak surrounded by deep
precipitous valleys, it was a much better place for studying the structure of this
part of the Himalayas, and for. taking angles with our theodolite, than the pass had
been.
We left our camp at four o’clock in the morning, and after a continual ascent over
rocks and snow masses on the right side of the Pachoo glaciers, we reached the
summit at half-past 10 a.m. We found no particular difficulties; for it would be
_ searcely worth mentioning those which are always to be met with in going up to
“such a place. We were accompanied by thirteen strong Bhotias for carrying our
instruments, some ropes and some provisions. The top was rather confined, and we
managed to find a little lower a sheltered place where we got up a little fire with
some bits of wood brought up from the valley, and there we placed our Bhotias to
warm themselves until we had completed our observations on the top. We were able
to remain from 10" 30™ a.m. until 3 in the afternoon; the temperature was from 35°
to 38° Fahr. Some of our people complained of severe headache; we ourselves
experienced only once a little feeling of headache, which soon went off again. The
ascent was rapid and agreeable after having passed the dangerous and much-cre-
viced places of the snow. Qn our return we went on sliding down the pretty
hard snow-fields with great velocity, and we arrived at half-past five at the foot of
the mountain glacier, whence we walked down leisurely to our camp, where Manee
and our people awaited our arrival. ’
After staying two days more for completing our observations, we returned to
Milum, where our young assistant Daniel, a young East Indian of good education,
had made very good barometrical observations, &c. during all the time. We remained
in Milum till the 16th, occupied with magnetic observations and photographic ex-
periments. Our photographic apparatus, which acted very well, produced a marvel-
lous effect among the Bhotias. We shall have the honour of sending you some of
our photographs from Simla or Agra, where only we shall find time to take positive
copies from our negatives,
On the 16th we again left Milum to examine the great Milum glacier. It is
the largest we have seen, eight or ten English miles long and 3000 feet broad; no
glacier in the Alps is equal to it in size.
154 REPORT—1855.
On the 18th we pushed on our camp to a small rocky crest, which rises in
the midst of snow and ice masses of the glacier; it is called Rata Dak or Red
Mountain. It offered us an excellent view of the mountains surrounding the upper
part of the Milum glacier. The height of the mountain is about 16,500 English feet ;
we were much above the limit of all shrub vegetation, and only light loads could
be carried up through the narrow and steep rocky ascent, over which passed the only
possible way. We had the first day a want of fuel. Our sixteen Bhotias declared
it was impossible to go on any further. They walk well on rocks, but they are much
afraid of snow and ice, and especially of the glacier crevices. Nevertheless, we left
our camp early in the morning on the 19th, fastened to each other by strong ropes,
which materially increased the courage of the Bhotias. We went on over the glacier.
After some hours we reached the most difficult place, a very steep descent of the
glacier, about 1000 feet high. One of us went on before fastened to the rope for
examining the road, and for ascertaining whether the fresh snow on the sides of the
crevices was solid enough for supporting us. Our people followed with quiet resig-
nation; they had a long time before given up every pretension to a judgment of
their own of the way we had to take.
After several attempts we succeeded in reaching the upper part of the descent, and
we found ourselves on comparatively level snow fields. We thought ourselves to be
pretty near to the end of our wandering,—a black rocky crest on the termination of
the Milum névé; but as is often the case, the snow masses seemed to become
larger and longer the more we ascended. The influence of the height made itself
now remarkable in a very different way with the different people. We ourselves felt
not the least headache, we had been acclimatized by degrees, and we found our
thick Indian pith hats an excellent protection against the sun, which is felt in India
much more than in the Alps; some of our people who tried to stimulate themselves
by brandy complained of severe headache, but we all were tived and exhausted in a
remarkable way, which may have been owing partly to the fatigues of the ascent, and
partly to the rarefied air. At last, at 1 o’clock, we reached the highest part of the
snow on the foot of the little rocky crest; the barometer indicated just half the
pressure of the atmosphere ; it stood at 380 millimetres; compared with Milum, the
height must be about 19,100 English feet, or a little more*. We went up to the
rocks behind, from whence we had a fine view over a part of Tibetan mountain ranges
which lay just below us. We were separated from it by very steep impassable
rocky precipices from the south; as is generally the case here in the afternoon,
heavy clouds came up, but over Tibet was a clear dark blue sky. Our people urged
us to return; at half-past four we started, and went on as quick as we could over the
places where we had to fear avalanches, the snow being much softened by the sun;
and at half-past five we reached the foot of tlie difficult steep ascent of the glacier,
where we were quite out of danger.
The mountains in the neighbourhood of the Milum glacier offer a great interest
for geological researches. The crystalline schists of the central parts of the
Himalayas are here overlaid by fossiliferous sedimentary strata of the Silurian forma-
tion. We were fortunate enough to gather a pretty large collection of well-preserved
Silurian fossils, both near our camp on Rata Dak and on the highest points above
19,000 feet, which we reached, since the mountains are quite void of vegetation. We
had a very good occasion for examining the transition from the crystalline schists
into the sedimentary strata. We convinced ourselves, that what appears stratification
in the crystalline schists is here at least no stratification, but merely foliation or
cleavage. ‘he cleavage is easily traceable into the sedimentary strata, where we see
therefore (1) cleavage, (2) the true stratification, both often very confused, and difficult
in the beginning to be distinguished from each other. We are much pleased with
the beauty of the Himalayas in the central parts, and with the glaciers; the forms of
the mountains are exactly like the Alps, but the dimensions are much grander. The
upper Pindaree va!ley, the beautiful gorge above Munshari, and the mountains
between Pindaree and Milum can only be compared for beauty and grandeur with
the finest parts of the Bernese and Savoy Alps. The large Milum valley is like all
high similar valleys, rather a little mere monotonous; it lies above the limits of all
* 4600 feet higher (the exact elevation above the barometer has been determined tri-
gonometrically),
: TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 155
trees; it can be compared with the elevated valley of the Eugadin in the Grisons, but
the valley and the mountains on both sides are about twice as high. In a few days
we shall go out to Tibet by Oota Dhoora and Laptel. We go both alone, sending all
our followers to Badrinath. We shall be of course disguised as Bhotias. Manee, the
Putwaree of Johar, and ten Bhotias with fifteen Joopoos, will accompany us. We
take with us a selection of the best and most portable instruments, and if it is in any
way possible we hope to go to Mansarower, the holy lakes of Tibet. The only thing
we have really to fear, is that the present war between the Tibetans and Nepalese
may interfere with our route.
On the Amazon and Atlantic Water-courses of South America.
By Senor Susin1.
Sefior Susini, in his introductory observations, states, that of all the diplomatic
questions of the present period, the most important and the most valuable as regards
Spain is that of the free navigation of the above-mentioned majestic rivers and their
tributaries. The regions watered by the Amazonas, reclaimed from the savage tribes,
ferocious animals, and noxious reptiles which now infest them, and traversed by the
ploughshare, might be capable of sustaining the population of the entire globe. The
district in question is pre-eminently adapted for the growth of rice, which commonly
yields there fortyfold, and which is reaped five months after being planted in the
ground, irrespective of season. Sefor Susini describes generally the characteristics
of the South American climate and soil. :
STATISTICS.
Notes on the Application of Statistics to questions in Medical Science, par-
ticularly as to the External Causes of Diseases. By W. P. Atison,
M.D. Edinburgh, D.C.L. Oxon. Emeritus Professor of Practice of Medi-
cine, Edinburgh, &c. ce.
Tue object of this paper was to show that, notwithstanding the plausible objections
often made to statistical inquiries, as being applicable to the support of so many
principles, as to give little real support to any, there are various questions in medical
science, of the utmost practical importance, which admit of a perfectly satisfactory
solution in this way, and in no other; because the present state of science does not
enable us, nor afford any prospect of our being soon enabled to understand the inti-
mate nature either of diseased actions, or of the powers by which they may be
excited or counteracted ; in many instances, when, by simply empirical observation,
and comparison of numbers, i.e. by evidence truly statistical, although often not
formally expressed as such, principles may be established which are already amply
sufficient for practical application of the highest importance.
The author referred to some observations of his own (in the ‘ British and Foreign
Medical Review,’ for 1854), as explaining why these useful applications of statistics
should more frequently be made to inquiries in Etiology, 7. e. regarding the external
causes of diseases, than in any other department of medical science; the objects of
these inquiries being usually simpler, involving fewer sources of fallacy, and re-
quiring less exercise of judgment, in order that they may be prepared for decision
. in this way, especially when the observations may be made on organized bodies of
_ men, as on military and naval service, where all the conditions capable of affecting
the result are known to, and may often be varied by, the observers; and further, he
directed attention particularly to the fact, that the positive observation as to an
alleged effect following the application of the alleged external cause of disease, is
very often supported by a large body of negative observations, hardly appearing to
require expression in words, and therefore often overlooked, but truly essential to
the validity of the inference, and giving it a degree of authority resembling that of
156 | REPORT—1855.
calculations of chances, very often amounting to that of the instantia crucis, but
which is frequently misunderstood.
The principles thus acquired, by the mere force of numbers, as to the external
causes of diseases, involving the knowledge of the means of preventing them, in the
last half-century, he considers to be of such practical importance as to bear a com-
parison with the knowledge acquired during that time in any other department of
science; but unless this last peculiarity, of the amount of negative observation
which supports the positive observation, is duly considered, the strength of the
evidence is often most unfortunately underrated.
The most extraordinary example of such observations, strictly empirical, esta-
blishing a principle as to the external cause of a disease of extreme malignity, which
is adequate to its extirpation from the face of the earth, is in the case of Vaccina-
tion. - No information that we possess of the nature or mode of action of the virus
of small-pox, could have led us even to conjecture that it would undergo the change
that is now ascertained, simply by observations statistically arranged, result from
its passage through the body of the cow, i.e. that, if subsequently applied, in a
quantity almost infinitesimally small, to the human body, it would excite a local
specific inflammatory process, devoid of danger, and incapable of communication
through the medium of the air; and that this process once undergone should not
only protect the living animal matter in which it is excited against any action of the
virus in future, but should act prospectively on the matter, which may constitute
the body of the same person after 60, 70, or 80 years,— either totally preventing all
effect of the virus, or, if an effect is produced even at that distant period, so far
modifying it as to render it almost absolutely innocuous at a period when we know
that the living structure has been repeatedly worn down and built up again, and can
no more be said to be the same as went through the process of vaccination in infancy,
than, according to the ancient paradox, a man can be said to have used the same
water twice who has bathed twice at the same spot and in the same river.
It is, in like manner, by simply empirical observation, i.e. by Statistics, that we
have acquired within these few years information touching the extension of another
epidemic, sometimes attended with peculiar interest and fatality, the puerperal
fever, which enables us almost with absolute certainty to predict that its propaga-
tion after the manner of an epidemic may hereafter always be prevented; the
observations of Dr. Semmelweiss, at the great Lying-in Hospital at Vienna, where
6000 births take place in a year, and where the deaths in child-bed were reduced to
the extent of 400 in the first year, that the precautions founded on these observa-
tions were enforced (coinciding in their import with many others, both on a large
and small scale, made in this country), having been, as the author maintains, suffi-
cient to prove,—1. That this disease is essentially a case of the diffuse or erythe-
matic inflammation, originating in the uterus, and probably passing through the
Fallopian tubes, to affect the peritoneal surfaces, and, like other cases of diffuse
inflammation (when prevailing epidemically), varying remarkably in the nature of
the accompanying fever, and the practice most effectual in different epidemics. 2.
That the immediate exciting cause of this epidemic inflammation in puerperal cases,
is a virus identical with that which has been termed the Cadaveric poison, often
evolved during the decomposition of the human body, but chiefly in the early stage
of that process; and that it is transmitted from one patient to another by accou-
cheurs or nurses, themselves in good health, but to whose persons or clothes it has
become attached; and may be prevented from extending in this way simply by pre-
venting all persons who may have been thus brought in contact with it, from haying
any intercourse with patients in child-bed until effectually purified.
The facts ascertained as to epidemic yellow fever, and its origin in malaria in hot
climates, and limitation to districts nearly on the level of the sea—particularly by
Reports to the Governments in Germany and France, bearing the names of Hum-
boldt and Dupuytren—and those ascertained as to the different kinds of diet which
can produce scurvy, and as to the efficacy of acid fruits in preventing it; and like-
wise as to the power of cod-liver oil, if not of other animal oils, over the tendency
to scrofula, he stated also as principles in Etiology of extreme importance, founded
simply on Statistics.
On the subject of the propagation of Cholera, the author coincided with the:
= TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157
opinion stated by the Editor of the ‘ British and Foreign Medical Review,’ that “at
the present day, the question is not whether Cholera is contagious or not, but how
often it spreads by the agency of human bodies, and how often without that agency*.”
This he considers to be precisely the same doctrine as he has always held on this
subject, because, while contending that the disease “‘ has a contagious property,” at
least in this climate, he has always explained that he meant that it could be propa-
gated by intercourse of the sick with the healthy, without pledging himself to any
opinion as to the mode of communication ; and not only without denying the possi-
bility, but at the same time urging the evidence, of its having another mode of dif-
fusing itself at certain times and places, chiefly in the hot climates, so as to form
tainted districts, of very various dimensions ; within which the immediate proximity
of the sick seems to have little or no effect either of one kind or another on its pro-
pagation.
He alluded to the now generally admitted contagious property of the disease,
chiefly as affording a good illustration of the truth and importance of the statistical
principle above stated, that a single positive fact may afford conclusive evidence on
such a question, if supported, as it often may be when the first invasion of a com-
munity by an epidemic is observed, by a large body of negative evidence. As far
back as 1832, when the first cases of the true malignant cholera were seen in Edin-
burgh, it was asserted by him and by others of the Medical Board, then regulating
the means of prevention which were adopted, that the very first fatal case which
originated in Edinburgh in a person who had not quitted the city, was sufficient to
establish this point, because it was fully ascertained,—-that when the inspection
of the whole of Edinburgh and Leith, i.e. of not less than 140,000 persons, was
complete and minute, this first case occurred in an old woman whose son had had
full intercourse with persons sick of the disease at Musselburgh, had been seized
with the symptoms in rather a mild form on his return to Edinburgh, and had
been nursed by her in a small ill-aired closet, during the whole day next but one
preceding that on which she was herself seized. No other case existed in Edin-
burgh at the time, and no other originated in the town for at least ten days after.
If the disease was capable of propagation in this way, she was thus peculiarly and
undeniably exposed to the contagion; but if it had not this property, no reason
existed why she should be the first affected rather than any other of the 140,000
inhabitants of Edinburgh and Leith, many of whom in all parts of the town and
suburbs showed their liability to the disease by becoming affected during ten months
following that introduction.
A considerable number of cases have been put on record since that time, where
similar facts have been ascertained in regard to the first introduction of Cholera into
a large community+; and the author is anxious that it should be remarked, that in
all such cases it is not the mere fact of a succession of cases having occurred in
persons haying intercourse with patients already affected, but it is the fact of that
succession of cases having occurred among such persons only, out of a large com-
munity in other respects equally liable to the disease,—and for some length of time,—
that is relied on as decisive evidence of the efficacy of intercourse with the sick in
exciting the disease. If this principle had been admitted as established, when the
evidence was complete in 1832, it seems impossible to doubt that it must have so
far guided the legal regulations for the prevention of the disease, and that it would
have been effectual in saving many lives, especially if combined with the practice,
also adopted in Edinburgh in 1832, and since recommended by the Board of Health
in London, and adopted in different parts of the country, of establishing Houses of
Refuge in places threatened with Cholera, for the reception, not of the first persons
who might take the disease, but of the other inhabitants of the same houses or
rooms with those patients, whose services might not be necessary for taking care of
them. In these Houses of Refuge, the persons known by experience to be the most
likely to form the first series of cases in that town or district, may be lodged, kept
in pure air, regularly fed, preserved from cold, and other frequently concurrent
* British and Foreign Review, January 1854, p. 298.
t See e.g. the cases noticed by the present author, as to the introduction of the disease
in Belfast, Campbelltown, Banff, Dollar, and Arbroath, British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical
Review, January 1854, p. 12 et seg., and Appendix, p. 298.
158 REPORT—1855.
causes of the disease, and watched and treated immediately on the first symptoms>
showing themselves.
The author referred to the Reports of the London Board of Health, as furnishing
statistical evidence of the importance of this precaution. They had information as
to 1691 persons taken into such Houses of Refuge from rooms where there were
patients in cholera, of whom only 33 became affected with cholera, and 10 died.
He had himself been informed, in Edinburgh, in Glasgow, and in Oxford, of 1010
persons, during different epidemics, admitted from rooms where the disease existed,
into such Houses of Refuge, of whom 40 took the disease, and 15 died; and
comparing these statements with the accounts furnished at various places where the
disease had shown itself, and such precautions had not been taken, or were not
availed of by the people concerned, he considered the statistical evidence of the
usefulness of this precaution against the formation of “ tainted districts,” as quite
conclusive.
He stated further, that he had great hopes of the successful application of statis-
tical evidence to establish the proposition lately made the subject of experiment in
Germany, in consequence of a conjecture first hazarded by Liebig, and which, if
established, would go far to explain all the strange anomalies as to the extension of
this disease; viz. that this virus, like the Cadaveric poison, exciting erythematic inflam-
mation already noticed, or the Sausage poison, from which a great mortality has
been witnessed on different occasions in Germany, is developed during the decom-
position probably of the rice-water stools in cases of cholera, but only during a
certain stage, or during a certain mode of this decomposition, perhaps especially in
dry air, and disappears when the putrefaction has reached a certain stage, or when
it is taking place in some other mode. He referred to the curious experiments of
M. Thiersch at Munich (Medical Times and Gazette, Nov. 25, 1854), made on
mice, with whose food very minute portions of this matter from the intestines of
cholera patients, dried and afterwards dissolved in water, were mixed, with the
effect of producing the usual symptoms of cholera—poisoning in 30 of 34, and death
in 12 of these, provided that the matter used was taken during days from the second
to the ninth after its separation from the body of the patient, but not if taken during
the first or after the ninth day. A repetition of this experiment he thought would
be adequate to establishing this proposition statistically; and he referred also to
observations by Dr. Budd, in letters published in the ‘ Association Medical Journal’
from October 1854 to March 1855, especially his third letter, as affording strong
ground for the belief that the usual mode of communication is simply by healthy
persons using the same privies or close stools as the sick; and that the diffusion of
the disease in certain places in England had been prevented by simple precautions
for isolating the first patients affected with cholera in this respect, and especially
where pains were taken, by the use of chlorides or otherwise, effectually to destroy
the matters passed from their bowels during the disease within a few hours after
their being passed.
Lastly, the author referred to numerous statistical proofs collected by himself and
others, of the influence of the great social disease, poverty, on the health of all
nations, and particularly on the extension of epidemic continued fever; and espe-
cially the Reports of the Irish Poor Law Commissioners, and of the Board of
Supervision in Scotland, the former published since 1848, the latter since 1845, in
proof, so far as the statistical experience of laws in force only since those years can
go in establishing principles, that the apprehensions so strongly stated by Dr.
Chalmers and others, as to the injurious effects on the character of a people, there-
fore on their numbers, and ultimately on their destitution itself, to be expected from
any attempts to render their legal provision against destitution effective, are quite
unnecessary; simply because statistical facts in this inquiry, as well as others, have
shown that the prudential motive rightly stated by Mr. Malthus and others as the
true check to population, is more truly effectual in ‘people who are protected from
the extremity of destitution, than in those whose characters are brutalized by priva-
tions.
The facts stated in official Reports by the Board of Supervision in Scotland, and -
in the Reports of the Poor Law Commissioners in Ireland, which he regards as the
most valuable in this view, are—
<—_ el
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159
1. That in Scotland, although the sums expended on the legal relief of the poor
have risen since the time when he first brought this subject before the public, from
£140,000 to £500,000 a-year, and the number of poor-houses from 4 to 62,
yet the whole number of persons requiring to be inmates of these asylums, in July
1853, i.e. eight years after the new poor law came into operation, was less than
6000 in a population of 2,800,000, one half of whom belong to parishes in which
poor-houses exist.
2. That although the whole number applying for legal relief increased greatly,
as was to be expected, after the new law took effect, yet that number came to its
maximum as early as 1849, when the whole number of registered poor was 106,400,
and had declined to 99,600 in 1853, the latest year of which he had the return.
3. That there is no indication of increase of profligacy or recklessness of conduct
during the operation of this improved law ; but on the contrary, in some large towns
of Scotland at least, of an improvement in the manners and habits of the people.
4. That in Ireland, where the redundancy of population, fostered, as he believed,
by neglect and total want of legal provision prior to 1847 (when the existing poor-
law was passed), was such that the famine of 1848 had really been fatal to a con-
siderable portion of the population, we have as satisfactory evidence as could be
desired, that the condition and habits of the existing population have been improved,
notwithstanding that nearly one-eighth of them owed their lives to the legal pro-
vision; and of these facts he offered the following proofs :—The First Annual Re-
port of the Commissioners, published in 1848, when the number relieved daily in
this way was not less than 1,000,000, after stating that ‘a very large proportion
of these were by these means, and by these only, daily preserved from death by
want of food,” adds, as a “‘hopeful and satisfactory fact beyond all doubt or question,”
that “the peasantry are showing that they are not disposed to rely either on chari-
table funds or poor-rates for their future subsistence.” And the Eighth Annual
Report, published this year, after stating that the demand for agricultural labour
had improved universally throughout Ireland, and the usual rate of wages per day
had risen from 4d., 6d., or 8d., to 1s. 6d., 2s., and 2s. 6d., no doubt in consequence
of the diminution of the population, adds, that ‘‘ they have ascertained that between
1849 and 1854, considerably more than 200,000 young persons of both sexes have
left the workhouses in Ireland, and not returned to those asylums,” notwithstanding
_ “that the workhouse dietaries are greatly in advance of the ordinary cabin diet ;”
_ that there are “visible signs of an improved condition of life in the appearance of
_ the peasantry in all parts of the country, more especially in their clothing ;” and
further, as more recent reports published in the newspapers attest, that in Sep-
tember 1855, the Irish workhouses were ‘‘completely emptied of paupers capable
_ of doing any kind of work in the fields ;” that in the Union of Athlone at that time
only 452 paupers were receiving relief, where some few years ago there were above
6000; and that where the rates in some of the electoral divisions had been as high
as 8s. and 9s. in the pound, the highest in that Union for the next twelvemonth will
be 2s. 9d., and some as low as 4d.
These facts, and along with them the total absence of any complaints of epidemic
fever, the author stated as evidence,—not that the former distress, and enormously
redundant population in Ireland, and in some parts of Scotland, where there had
| been no poor-rates, and where fever had been most prevalent, had been owing
ii merely to that circumstance,—but that the introduction of poor-rates into a country
where such indications of redundant population and destitution exist, while it
would afford much more security to the poor, and lay the burden much more equi-
- tably on the higher orders than any voluntary system of relief could do, would be
found no impediment to the operation of any such causes, whether dispensations of
Providence, or legislative regulations, as might improve their condition, moral and
physical, and foster independence of character among them.
spaertaké,
On an Improved Mode of Keeping Accounts in our National Establish-
ments. By Lady BenTHAM.
160 REPORT—1855.
On the Physiological Law of Mortality, and on certain Deviations from it,
observed about the Commencement of Adult Life. By Prof. A. BucHANAN,
M.D., University of Glasgow.
I, The object of the first part of this memoir was to determine the normal course
of mortality as affected by age alone, without reference to other circumstances.
What we name the law of mortality is not a simple law, but a compendious ex-
pression, by which we denote the operation of various laws, physiological, physical,
and moral. Of these, the physiological laws are so uniform in their operation, that
they impress certain characteristic features upon the law of mortality, according to
age, which are observed amidst all the diversities which it exhibits under varying
circumstances, physical and moral.
Of the physiological laws subordinate to the general law of mortality, the principal
by far is the law of natural decay, which regulates not the human organism alone,
but every organism, animal and vegetable, fixing the limits of its period of existence.
This law must not be supposed to operate only in cases of extreme old age. Every
child at birth contains within it the elements of its own decay; so, that although
placed in the most favourable external circumstances, and exempted from all noxious
influences, the series of organic actions in which life consists would come sponta-
neously to a termination ; and this takes place at all ages, as we infer from seeing
health decline, and a fata! disease declare itself, without the intervention of any ex-
ternal cause known to be hostile to human life.
The law of infantile mortality, again, depends upon causes of a different kind.
The principal of these is the transition from uterine to independent life, which occa-
sions a great change in all the actions of the bodily organs, and in the conditions
and circumstances in which they are carried on; whence many infants perish in the
transition, from the conditions necessary to the former mode of life being interrupted,
while those necessary to the latter are not established with sufficient promptitude,
or only imperfectly established. At a later period the mortality is kept up by the
delicacy and vascularity of the tissues, the great excitability of the nervous system,
now first exposed to irritation, the great size of the head, and the unequal develop-
ment of other organs.
The mortality of early infancy is exactly similar in kind to the mortality (if that
name can be applied to the destruction of embryonic life) attendant on the transition
from ovarian to intro-uterine life, when a still more complete revolution takes place
in all the actions of the system, and a new series of relations to the maternal organs
is established.. The destruction of life which ensues is greatest at first, and gradually
diminishes as the new adaptations are effected.
To these physiological laws the uniformity in the course of mortality correspond-
ing to age is to be ascribed; for whatever deviations occur in different communities
from a difference in external circumstances, the general direction is the same in all,
marked by a great excess of deaths, gradually decreasing, in early life; a similar
excess, gradually increasing, in advanced life; and a comparatively low rate of mor-
tality in the intermediate period. :
Of the external causes which occasion the diversities in the law of mortality in
different communities, there are some which may be named conspiring causes, as they
act in conjunction with the physiological causes above-mentioned, and magnify their
effects ;, while there are others of an interfering kind, that disturb the physiological
results. To the latter class belong those causes that operate solely, or with peculiar
intensity, at certain periods of life. Thus, a war occasions devastation among the
young and strong, and disturbs the normal course of mortality. Causes, again, which
operate more equably at ajl ages are of the conspiring class, for the physiological
state of the body, varying with age, assists or resists their action. Thus the ex-
tremes of temperature tell chiefly on the infirm bodies of the young and old, while
persons in the vigour of life resist their influence. ;
Of the law of mortality resulting from these causes, as it is observed in England,
the most prominent characters may be expressed in general terms by saying, that
human life is most secure at 13 years of age, and that as it recedes from that point
towards either term of existence, it becomes less secure in a ratio which is constantly
increasing.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 161
The best mode of exhibiting the law of mortality, according to age, in its details,
is by means of tables or diagrams indicating the ages at which the deaths in a large
community, where the number of the people is known, have been observed to take
place. The most useful tables of this kind for physiological purposes exhibit the
same number of individuals entering on each year of life, and in the earlier years
upon lesser periods, and determine the proportion of them which disappear by death
in each year or lesser period.
The following Table, computed from a table of a different form, published in the
Fifth Report of the Registrar-General for 1843, exhibits the law of mortality which
prevails in England for a sufficient number of ages to show its general course,—
diminishing gradually till 13 years of age, and gradually increasing after that age:
Years. Deaths in 100, Years. Deaths in 100.
BE vaserecss shee is 14°631 Od eres Weve. 1:087
Bre Ri th SIS 6:169 ABIES, S38 deatases 1°508
EDS Oe abide atte 37300 GOOFS REAR 2°733
Ge. aqendeces eee eeeaee FOiae te oe 5°892
8 934 73. peedeasseuce ° 8°605
10 659 BO iri as ash heated 12°487
11 555 SO Ee mete anercs 17°936
12 519 SO bs | scabsgets danince 25°441
13 500 Sabena nare esencese OD'DOD
14 597 TOD redauasacces ac 36°000
20 793 TOD ei vesvecee eves 50°000
24 a 871 OG teceercrsscscees 100°000
DOGS FP evescessts 977
The numbers in this Table denote the average mortality for a whole year; but
during the greater part of life no great error arises from employing the same num-
bers to denote the relative rates of mortality for any lesser periods in the same year,
although, strictly speaking, each number in the Table belongs only to one such period,
and all the rest have numbers either above or below that in the Table. This differ-
ence is so great in the first years of life, that separate observations require to be
made to determine the rate of mortality at different parts of them. The following
table of this kind stops short where it becomes identical with the former table,
from its being unnecessary to distinguish the different rates of mortality at different
_ parts of the same year. The numbers, properly speaking, denote the deaths at each
age out of 10,000 children in 3°65 days, or the hundredth part of a year :—
First week .........eseee 240°1 Second half-year ......... 12:1
Second to fourth week 80 (bial: sdatto’ | ees see 10-7
Second month ..... Bea HBSS Fourth ditto ...0.... 77
Fourth ditto .........+ aig! Third year ...........0085 33
Sixth ditto ......... .- §=16°2 SIKU GILLO ls wessicccescnes 1:4
For indicating these minute differences a diagram is much superior to any Table;
for every term in the Table merely denotes the length of a single ordinate to the
*“curve of mortality,’’ and when a sufficient number of terms have been obtained to
admit of the accurate delineation of the curve, every other ordinate to the period to
which it corresponds can be readily found.
Il. The second part of the memoir, to which the first was intended as an intro-
duction, was devoted to the consideration of certain anomalies in the course of mor-
tality that present themselves at the commencement of adult life. D
The anomalies in question were first pointed out in Mr. Finlayson’s Report on the
Mortality among the Government Annuitants, published in the year 1829, a Report
of great interest, as exhibiting the law of mortality that prevails among “‘ the highest
and most affluent orders of society” in this country. Among them the mortality in
the male sex exhibits this peculiarity :—starting from 13 years of age, the point of
greatest security of life, the mortality increases till the age of 23, after which,
instead of continuing to increase, it decreases till the age of 34, and then it increases
at so slow arate that at the age of 48 itis still somewhat less than at 23. The rates
of mortality at these remarkable epochs are as follows, contrasting them with the
corresponding rates in the table given above :—
1855. 11
162 REPORT—]855.
Rates of Mortality.
Age. Annuitants. Average.
Ta a wcsettreeesrese S004) sccusssacgeeet@etre | “OU
UE EOE Seeasaene BOM % auacsccsstresars 871
DEE coccdtss LAO irviaceiecceets 1087
OMe mndcesdenser ots Me toy Beer et ocr unb. neon 1508
These results have been confirmed and generalized by M. Quetelet, from the sta-
tistical returns for the kingdom of Belgium, the only difference being, that it is from
24 to 30 that the mortality is observed to diminish. Quetelet ascribes the great
mortality at 23 or 24 to the violence of the passions at that age; and he holds that
the same results occur among females, although obscured by the increased mortality
among them at a later age, from dangers peculiar to the sex.
If these views of M. Quetelet be correct, the course of mortality just described
ought not to be considered as anomalous, but, on the contrary, as the regular course
of mortality resulting from the constitution of human nature, of which the passions
form an essential part. The preponderance of statistical evidence, however, is on
the opposite side of the question. The strongest by far is that of the Registrar-
General, as given in the table already quoted, which shows a progressively increasing
mortality from 13 years upwards, both on the average and among males alone. The
same progression is exhibited in Mr. Milne’s table of mortality for Sweden and
Finland, and in Mr. Ansell’s tables of the mortality among the members of the
Friendly Societies throughout England.
If, again, the course of mortality exhibited in Mr. Finlayson’s tables be regarded,
not as normal, but as exceptional, it is clear that some other cause for it must be
sought than one of universal operation,—the influence of passions inherent in human
nature. A more probable cause the author held to be one which has no existence
in childhood, and scarcely in boyhood, but which comes into operation at the com-
mencement of active or independent life, from about 14 to 25 years of age, arising
somewhat earlier among the poorer classes, and later among the wealthy; and
among the latter existing exclusively among males, and attaining a much more for-
midable height than among the poor. It is at this period that children, who had
been previously provided for by their parents, are called upon to provide for them~
selves. They had previously been nourished like branches on the parent stem; they
are now severed from that stem, and if they fail to take root or to derive nourish-
ment from the soil in which they are placed, they speedily decay. It is exactly so
with young men on first establishing themselves in the world, We then see the
effects of neglected education, vicious habits, bad dispositions, and ungovernable
passions, which render them unable to avail themselves of resources within their
reach; but we see also what is more to be deplored, the effects of over-population
and of other political causes which tend to straiten subsistence, and thus prevent
the rising generation from obtaining a footing in society. It is this struggle, or
rather the anxiety, fatigues, dangers and privations attendant upon it, that are the
true causes of the increased mortality which marks the commencement of adult life.
This was illustrated by the increased mortality that takes place among young medi-
cal men between 22 and 30 years of age. Now, the government annuitants were
placed in early life in circumstances not dissimilar; and the effect of these circum-
stances in producing the irregular course of mortality among them is well seen by
contrasting it with the mortality regularly increasing with years observed among the
members of friendly societies, according to Mr. Ansell’s tables ; for the circumstances
of the latter were less conducive to health and comfort than those of the former,
with the exception of the important circumstance, that the latter, as members of a
friendly society, were not only able to maintain themselves, but to make a provision
for a time of sickness, or a posthumous provision for those related to them in the
event of death.
To illustrate the course of life and rates of mortality among the lower orders of
society, reference was made to Mr. Neison’s ‘Contributions to Vital Statistics,’
derived, like the work of Mr. Ansell, from the records of the friendly societies of
England. The conclusion was, that while there is among those following certain
employments an increase in the rate of mortality, there is not among them, gene-
rally, any such increase in the rate of mortality at the commencement of adult life,
2
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163
~
as to indicate such a difficulty as that which exists higher in the social scale, of
obtaining a position in society; but that, to counterbalance this, there are sudden
and repeated augmentations of the rates of mortality occurring at irregular periods,
and produced most probably by the pressure of numbers and the varying demands
for labour, as well perhaps as by circumstances not well understood in the nature of
particular employments. Thus, among agricultural labourers the mortality comes to
a maximum at 23, and declines to a minimum at 30, just as among the Government
annuitants. Among country workmen (not labourers) there is a maximum at 19 and
a minimum at 25, and another maximum at 30 and a minimum at 32. Among miners
there is a first maximum at 22 and a minimum at 29, and a second maximum at 34
and a minimum at 37. Among clerks, the first maximum is at 28 and the minimum
at 35; the second maximum is at 44 and the minimum at 47. Among plumbers and
painters the-first maximum is at 18 and the minimum at 25, the second maximum at
33 and the minimum at 33. Among bakers, there are three maxima, at 18, 31, and
49, and three minima, at 22, 38, and 54, Among the female workers the course of
mortality is very anomalous, decreasing from the earliest period till 24 years of age,
and then increasing till 28 and decreasing till 33.
Ona Mechanical Process, by which a Life Table commencing at Birth may be
converted into a Table, in every respect similar, commencing at any other
period of Life, By Professor A. Bucuanan, M.D., University of Glasgow.
The process consists in the use of a calculating diagram, which performs, mecha-
nically, all the calculations required; and can be made to answer the four following
sets of questions by mere inspection of the diagram and the life table annexed to it.
Ist. Of 10,000 persons entering upon any year or month of life, it tells the
number which will survive at any subsequent period, or conversely.
2nd. Of 10,000 persons entering on any year or month of life, it tells at what sub-
sequent period any per-centage or less given number will survive.
3rd & 4th. It will answer the same two sets of questions, giving the results not in
the number of survivals, but in the number of deaths.
It is thus not only true that the diagram converts the life table, on which it is
based, into a life table having the same radix but commencing at any given sub-
sequent period of life, but it bestows on all of these tables properties which the
original table does not possess; for it gives its indications either in terms of the
deaths, or of the survivals, out of the original number of persons entering on any
given period of life.
The diagram by which these calculations are performed is a right-angled triangle,
so drawn that one of the sides forming the right angle is perpendicular, and the
other horizontal. The perpendicular side or base is divided into 10,000, or any
other number of equal parts corresponding to the radix of the table; and from the
points of division a series of horizontal lines are drawn to the opposite, or long side
of the triangle, each tenth line being more prominent, so as more readily to catch
the eye. The radical number of the table is inscribed on the margin opposite to the
top of the base, and the successive terms of the table are placed below it, at unequal
intervals, so that each indicates the number of divisions of the base opposite to it,
counting from the bottom; and on the same line is marked also the year of life to
which the term corresponds. The horizontal side of the triangle is also divided into
100 equal parts, and from the points of division a series of perpendicular lines are
drawn intersecting the horizontal ones, each tenth line being made more conspicuous.
The diagram being thus constructed, the mechanism by which the calculations are
effected is exceedingly simple. A thread or fine cord is attached to the vertex of
the triangle, and the cord being stretched to any point of the base, whatever be the
age marked at that point, it converts the table on the margin into a life table com-
mencing at that age.
The principle upon which the results depend, is that the cord, being a line drawn
from the vertex of the triangle to the base, divides the base and all the lines parallel
to it into proportional parts, and we have therefore the lower segment of the base to
the lower segment of any parallel, as the whole base is to the whole parallel. Now
these are exactly the four proportionals involved in the questions proposed above
1 Y
164 REPORT—1855.
for solution; and the lengths both of the entire lines, and of the segments of them
cut off by the cord, are given by the tabular numbers on the margin. To obtain
the answers, in terms of the number of deaths, instead of the number of survivals,
it is only necessary to count the divisions of the base from the top, instead of from
the bottom, for which purpose twenty prominent decimal figures, of a different colour
from those of the table, will suffice; and instead of reading the last proportional
from the table, it is read at the same point from the other series of numbers.
On Prevailing Diseases of Sierra Leone. By R. CLARKE.
On some of the results deducible from the Report on the Statics of Disease in
Ireland, published with the Census of 1851.
By Joun Cotpstream, M.D., Edinburgh.
The report in question was presented to both Houses of Parliament, by command
of Her Majesty, during the session of 1854. It contains special reports on the
numbers and condition of the deaf and dumb, of the blind, of lunatics and idiots, of
lame and decrepit, of the sick in workhouses, hospitals, prisons, and asylums, and a
general report on the total sick in Ireland on the day of the census of 1851. These
reports are illustrated by thirty-nine elaborate statistical tables. Additional details
are given in an appendix of seven tables ; five of which show the number and diseases
of the sick at their own homes, and in public institutions, in Ireland generally, and
in each of the four provinces; the sixth shows the same arranged in counties, cities,
and towns; and the seventh shows the same arranged according to the ages of the
sick. These reports and tables are founded on the facts ascertained in reply to
queries issued along with those for the census. Their examination and reduction
appear to have been executed with the greatest care. ‘The whole form a rich mine
of valuable information.
The diseases specified in the tables amount to 109 in number; they are system-
atically arranged. In each table showing the disease of a province, there are head-
ings to distinguish the patients in towns from those in the country ; and headings
for the sick in infirmaries and asylums, and in workhouses. By an examination of
one of the tables in the Appendix, one can ascertain at a glance the numbers affected
with each of the 109 specified diseases in any of the counties or chief towns of the
kingdom.
104,495 cases of diseases and injuries of all kinds are reported as having existed
throughout all Ireland on the day of the census. Of these 7284 were of blindness,
5074 of insanity, 4848 of idiocy, and 4337 of deaf dumbness, forming together
more than one-fifth of all the diseases reported upon. Of zymotic or epidemic,
endemic and contagious diseases, there were 34,998 cases, of which 13,777 were of
fever, and 6716 of dysentery. Of 69,497 cases of sporadic diseases, 24,522 were
of the nervous system, 534 of the circulating organs, 10,509 of the respiratory
organs, 4511 of the digestive organs, 289 of the urinary organs, 693 of the genera-
tive organs, 8822 of the locomotive organs, 7167 of the tegumentary organs, 10,394
were diseases of uncertain seat, 1224 were cases of injury by accident; and of 832
cases, the nature was not specified. The 24,522 cases of diseases of the nervous
system included 21,543 cases of blindness, insanity, idiocy and deaf dumbness. Of
the proportions borne by these to the general population, the following summary is
iven :—
Deaf and dumb... 1 person in 1265 of the community.
SS tia cE Sena mirc 864 a
Insane ,...++.. Pree! a 1291 3
PIO Cs cepsnnsinne’ sel " 1336 =
Of persons returned as idiots, 2666 were males, and 2240 were females. Gene-
rally the proportion of idiots is smaller in the civic than amongst the rural popula-
tion; while it is quite otherwise with lunatics, the proportionate numbers of whom
are nearly twice as great in the towns as they are in the country. It is noted that
3562 idiots are at large, 202 in asylums, 13 in prisons, and 1129 in workhouses,
So that only about one-fourth of the idiot population is in any way cared for,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 165
.. The results of the inquiries made regarding the occupations of lunatics and the
apparent causes of their malady are tabulated in the report. Of 404 persons of the
professional! class, affected with lunacy, only 40 are reported as having apparently
been injured by moral causes, and 54 by physical causes. In the same class, grief
amongst females, and excessive study amongst males, are the most injurious causes
of lunacy ; whilst amongst shopkezpers, tradespeople, and agriculturists, reverse of
fortune and grief are most commonly productive of disease.
The cases of fever were more than double the number of those of any other disease,
They were very unequally distributed throughout the provinces.
In Leinster ...there were 3056 cases in a population of 1,672,174
In Munster ... Fh 6107 HA 1,857,244
In Ulster...... e 1917 ay 2,011,786
In Connaught. = 1541 n 1,012,006
It thus appears that in Ulster there were nearly one-third of the proportional
number of persons affected as compared with those of Munster, and little more than
one-half of the Connaught numbers.
The report enables us also to compare the prevalence of fever in the cities and
fowns with its prevalence in rural districts; and such a comparison shows that, in
certain parts of the island, there is but little difference in this respect between the
town and country; in others, that the numbers are considerably greater in the towns.
For instance, in the town of. Waterford, with a population of 33,900, there were
176 cases of fever reported; while in the country (exclusive of the town), with a
population of 164,051, there were 282 cases of fever reported, instead of 880, as
there would have been, had the same proportions between the population and fever
existed in the country that did in the town.
It seems very desirable, that what was in this matter done for Ireland in connexion
with the last census, should be done for England and Scotland in connexion with the
next census,
An Analysis of some of the Principles which regulate the Effects of a Con-
vertible Paper Currency. By Count D. Frovicn.
On Decimal Arrangement of Land Measures.
By Peter Garr, A.M., Dublin.
The plan proposed is of the simplest character, and in accordance with the
existing system. In fact, there are involved only two changes, both beneficial in
themselves, productive of important effects, and yet of easy modification with the
existing system. The first of these changes is to get rid of the fractional part of
the perch, by reducing it from 53 to 5 yards. As the easy conversion, however, of
the local measures of the United Kingdom is of great practical importance, a matter
heretofore altogether overlooked, no change is proposed in our acreable divisions.
The acre then which will result from this proposed diminution of the perch, and
which for distinction’s sake may be called the Imperial acre, will stand thus :—
Square Yds. Square Yds.
1 Square Perch.................. 25 instead of 304
40 Square Perches, 1 Rood, or 1000 __—, 1210
4 Roods, 1 Acre, or............ 4000 ,, 4840
The first fact to be noticed is the simplicity of this acre above all existing ones.
Both the rood and acre consist of whole numbers, admitting of easy decimal cal-
culation. Secondly, the proportion between the existing local measures will be
rendered easy ; a matter of more importance than is generally supposed, and which
would be effectually prevented by the decimal arrangement recommended by the
Commissioners of 1842. In the conversion of the: several local measures into
statute measure, the fractional nature of the statute or English perch acts most
injuriously ; for as each of these acres contains the same number of perches, their
Tespective proportion must be as the square of the perch; and as the statute perch
of 53 vards squared makes 303 square yards, in every case where the statute acre is
_ the object of comparison, to get rid of the fraction we must multiply it by 4, and
166 REPORT—1855.
consequently increase the proportion to the same extent. The proportion, there-
fore, between the Irish and the statute acre is as 121 to 196, whilst that between
the Irish and the proposed imperial acre is only as 25 to 49; and in the same
manner the Cunningham bears to the statute acre the ratio of 121 to 144, and to
the imperial that of 25 to 36, and the Chester acre to the statute acre the ratio
of 121 to 256, and to the imperial acre that of 25 to 64. The Scotch acre admits
of a still greater reduction, for it may be taken at the ratio of 484 to 615 to the
statute acre, and to the imperial acre only that of 80 to 123. The proposed
imperial acre is capable of scientific division, as well as of general application.
The second change proposed is the substitution of a mile of 2000 yards for 1760,
an improvement borne out by the recommendation in their report of the Commis-
sioners in 1842. The term mile is derived from mille, thousand; or one thousand
military paces constituted the ancient Roman mile, each pace therein consisting of
two steps. If, therefore, we put fathoms for paces, and yards for steps, we come
at the same constituent members as the original mile. A fathom is defined as that
portion of the sounding-line which a man can extend between his outstretched arms.
This mile might then be popularly described as measured by 1000 men standing
in a straight line, with hands joined, and arms extended in a horizontal position.
This mile also will admit of a decimal division into furlongs. A fact of very great
importance is, that by this arrangement we acquire all the advantages of a strict
decimal scale, without its recognized defects, namely, not permitting of subdivision
into quarters or eighths without fractional parts. For though it is true that 22
furlongs is not a convenient division for a quarter of a mile, yet this defect is com-
pensated by the fact that 100 perches, or 500 yards, represent the same quantity.
The effect of this second change upon the proposed acreable arrangement may now
be stated. A square mile, either English or geographical, is the basis on which all
our statistical calculations are founded. The English square mile makes 640 English
acres. The proposed imperial square mile will make precisely 1000 acres, and every
1000 square miles one million of acres. The adoption of such a system would place
our land measures at least on a scale commensurate with our civilization and the
scientific requirements of the age.
The author gives examples of the advantage to statistics of these arrangements,
and finally discusses the question of the increased scale upon which it is proposed
to conduct the Ordnance Survey of Scotland, under the Treasury Minute of the 18th
of May 1855, as presenting a favourable opportunity for such a change. The scale
proposed, 25,344 inches, does not admit of subdivision in our existing measures.
By enlarging this scale 1-25th, and adopting the proposed imperial measure, this
practical inconvenience would be obviated, and a decimal proportion maintained.
On the Laws of the Currency in Scotland. By J. W. Gireart, F.R.S.
The author commenced by observing, that by the “‘currency of Scotland,’”’ he
means the notes issued by the banks in Scotland, and by the “‘ laws of the currency,”
he means the uniform operations of those circumstances which regulate the amount
of notes kept in circulation.
In this paper he proposed to consider, —first, the constitution of the banks by whom
the notes are issued ; secondly, the banking operations by which the notes are put
into circulation; thirdly, the laws which regulate the fluctuations in the amount;
and fourthly, the effects of the Act of Parliament passed in the year 1845, for regulating
the currency in Scotland.
Under the first head he observed, that all the banks of issue in Scotland are Joint
Stock Banks; that they have numerous partners; that they have large paid-up
capitals ; that they are few in number; and that they have many branches.
Under the second head, he noticed the operations on current accounts, on deposit
receipts, on cash credits, and the system of exchanges between the banks.
Under the third head, he stated it to be one law of the currency in Scotland that
the amount is not the same every year, but varies in amount from year to year, from
causes which are specified ; another law is that the amount is not the same in every
month during any year, but varies in each month; and a further law, which is uni-
formly exhibited every year, is that the amount is the lowest in the months or
March and the highest in November: another law is that the amount of notes in
Ras
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167
circulation under £5 is much greater than the amount of notes of £5 and upwards.
It is also a law, that the amount of small notes circulated in the agricultural and
highland districts is higher in proportion than in districts more wealthy and more
densely populated ; and finally, it is a law, that the fluctuations in the amount of
small notes do not correspond from month to month with the fluctuations in the
amount of large notes.
After discussing the causes of these respective changes, the author proceeded to
the fourth head.
He considered that the law of 1845, for regulating the circulation of Scotland, was
more favourable than the law of 1844 for regulating the circulation of England, inas-
much as not only were the small notes continued, but the banks were allowed to issue
beyond their certified amount on holding an amount of gold equal to the amount of the
excess ; and also, if two banks of issue should unite, the new bank is allowed to issue
to the amount previously issued by both the united banks. From these and other
causes the circulation of Scotland has continued to increase since the year 1845,
while that of the Private and Joint Stock Banks of England has considerably
declined. The banks are indeed put to the expense of bringing gold from London,
but they endeavour to reimburse themselves in some degree by increased charges on
London payments and cash credits, thus proving that restrictions upon banks are
taxes on the public. The measure, however, has not inoculated the people of
Scotland with the love of a gold currency, a feeling which would be disastrous for
Scotland. The gold when required is quietly brought down from London, is quietly
locked up in the bank vaults, and when no longer wanted is quietly sent back again.
Upon the whole, the author thinks that the Scotch bankers are pretty well satisfied
with the Act of 1845; and were an English statesman to ask them the question once
addressed by a minister of commerce to a body of French merchants, ‘‘ What can
Ido to serve you?” they would probably make the same reply, “‘The greatest
service you can render us is to let us alone.”
On the Localities of Crime in Suffolk*. By J. Giype, Jun.
In Suffolk, the greatest amount of crime is committed in the villages, not in the
large towns.
On the Fluctuations in the number of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, and
in the Number of Deaths from Special Causes, in the Metropolis, during
the last Fifteen Years, from 1840 to 1854 inclusive. By Wituiam A.
Guy, W.B., Cantab., F.R.C.P., Prof. For. Med. King’s College,
Physician to King’s College Hospital.
The objects of this communication were,—Ist, to reduce the facts contained in the
“Summary of births, deaths, and causes of deaths in London, for the fifteen years,
1840 to 1854, compiled from the weekly returns, and published by authority of the
Registrar-General,” to a form admitting of comparison of one year with another,
and useful for purposes of reference; and 2nd, to invite attention to the most re-
markable results of such a comparison cf year with year, and especially to the fluc-
tuations occurring in the mortality from special causes.
For the accomplishment of the first of these objects, the author made use of the
*«Summary ” just referred to, which also states the estimated number of the population
of the metropolis for each of those years. All therefore that remained to be done,
to reduce these facts to a form admitting of comparison, was to equalize the length
of the several years by reducing them to the common standard of 365 days, and the
number of living persons to one million. The tables inthe Appendix are the results
of this twofold work of equalization. They display, for the fifteen years 1840
to 1854 inclusive, the number of births and deaths in a million persons living during a
year of 365 days.
After some explanatory statements, in reference to the return of births, deaths,
and marriages, and some observations on the statistical education which the registrars,
coroners, and medical profession were receiving at the hands of the Registrar-Gene-
* Since published in the Journal of the Statistical Society.
168 REPORT—1855.
ral during the fifteen years embraced in the returns, and the consequent alterations
‘and improvements in the returns themselves, the author showed that the year 1845,
in which blank forms of certificates of the causes of death were first issued, formed
the commencement of an era of greatly improved registration ; so that before the
year 1848 it is reasonable to suppose that the returns of the causes of death would
have attained to all the accuracy of which they are susceptible in the hands of the
present race of medical men; and that neither fashion, nor new theories, nor
increasing knowledge, would have materially affected them in so short a period of
time. In the longer period of fifteen years, even in the absence of statistical instruc-
tion, some changes would doubtless have taken place in medical opinions as to the
causes of death; but as these changes would not affect the diseases most easy of
diagnosis, such as typhus fever, the eruptive fevers, diarrhoea, &c., the tables would
still be found in many parts, throughout the whole period embraced in them, to
furnish the materials of a just comparison.
In carrying out the comparison of year with year, the author proceeded to com-
ment upon the several tables forming the Appendix to his paper, in their order,
beginning with the births, deaths, and marriages, and ending with the more consi-
derable of the special causes of disease ; his chief object being to direct attention to the
fluctuations in the mortality from special causes, employing as a measure of mean fluc-
tuation the quotient obtained by dividing the sum of all the successive differences
between year and year, whether in excess or defect, by the number of those differences,
and then reducing that quotient to a per-centage proportion of the average of all the
years, and also the greatest and least numbers in each series of facts, reducing the
difference between them, or in other words, the Extreme Fluctuation, to a per-centage
proportion of the maximum numbers.
Having thus explained the meaning of the terms ‘‘ Mean Fluctuation,’’ and
“ Extreme Fluctuation,” the paper proceeds to a review of the several tables, making
appropriate-comments upon each, beginning with the births, deaths, and marriages.
The births, which, on an average of the fifteen years, amount to 32,028 in the
million, have fluctuated between a minimum of 30,348 and a maximum of 33,736,
the mean fluctuation in the intervening period having been nearly 2 per cent. The
deaths were subject to much greater fluctuation. They ranged from a minimum of
20,925 to a maximum of 30,078, the average being 24,864; and the mean fluctuation
was 9°51, or little short of 10 per cent. The highest and lowest numbers occurred
in the two consecutive years 1849 and 1850. The marriages, for the shorter period
of thirteen years, presented an amount of fluctuation intermediate between that of
the births and of the deaths. The average number of marriages was 10,136; the
extremes were 9408 and 10,966; the mean fluctuation 3°75, and the extreme fluc-
tuation 14°20.
The extreme fluctuations in the numbers of births, deaths, and marriages, follow
the same order as the mean fluctuations. Thus the mean and extreme fluctuations
in the births were, respectively, 1°95 and 10°04; in the marriages 3°75 and 14:20;
in the deaths 9°51 and 30°38.
The births were uniformly in excess of the deaths, and even the fatal year of 1849
was no exception to this rule. The excess varied from 1838 in that year to 11,086
in the year following.
From the Table showing the deaths at the three ages 0 to 15, 15 to 60, and 60 and
upwards, it appeared that the greatest mean and extreme fluctuation occurred from
15 to 60; the least mean fluctuation from 0 to 15, and the least extreme fluctuation
from 69 years of age upwards. The occurrence of the least mean fluctuation in
persons under 15 years of age was, perhaps, scarcely to be expected.
The Table showing the deaths in five districts of the metropolis presented some
results worthy of notice. In the east districts alone the maxima and minima coin-
cided with the maxima and minima of the total deaths. In the south districts, the
maximum number occurred in the same year, 1849, but the minimum number in the
year previous, instead of in the year following. In the west and central districts,
again, the minima coincided with the minimum of total deaths ; while the west and
north districts were distinguished by the occurrence of the greatest number of deaths
in the last year of the series, 1854.
But the most interesting fact shown by this table was the excessive mortality and
high rate of fluctuation prevailing in the southern districts of the metropolis.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169
The mean number of deaths per million inhabitants were as follows :—
WesteDistrictioute temas tdaesee see f2 3676 deaths.
Centrale phar Basen eet Ae hae 4402 ,,
IN orth si grants PS Bo Peseec er 46700 953
East Fhe as nor Ce once pare eee ee 5435 ,,
South nah Sahihes san, tami Mantes J 6535 ,,
It will be seen that when the southern districts are contrasted with the most
healthy group of districts (the west), their mortality is as 6535 to 3676; and when
compared with the districts subject to least fluctuation (the north), their mean
fluctuation is as 21°50 to 5°67, and their extreme fluctuation as 48°20 to 18°58. In
this character of fluctuation, therefore, the north and the south occupy the two
extremes. The only cause which seems capable of explaining a difference so re-
markable and so considerable is the prevalence of epidemics on the south side of the
Thames, and the comparative immunity from them of the inhabitants of the higher
districts on the north side. If sanitary improvements should be found, after a term
of years, to have had little effect on the rate of mortality, or the prevalence of epi-
demics, in these districts south of the Thames, every discouragement ought to be
thrown in the way of the extension of buildings in so low and unhealthy a locality.
The author of the paper then went on to examine the deaths from special causes,
beginning with the deaths from seventeen principal groups of causes. These seventeen
groups admitted of being divided into two classes, the one-characterized by a high,
the other by a low, or moderate, mean fluctuation. At the head of the first class
stands the group of zymotic diseases, followed in order by several groups of diseases
having a mean fluctuation varying from 31°24, in the case of zymotic diseases, down
to 11°26, in the case of diseases of the respiratory organs. ‘The second class, com-
prising a larger number of groups, and ending with diseases of the brain, nerves, &c.,
has a mean fluctuation from 10°71, in the case of death from old age, down to 3°50
in the case of diseases of the brain, nerves, &c. Of the whole seventeen groups, the
zymotic diseases are those which present the highest mean rate of fluctuation, and
the diseases of the brain, nerves, &c. the lowest.
The group of zymotic diseases, which in the reports of the Registrar-General
comprises eighteen separate maladies, the author extends so as to embrace Quinsey
and Carbuncle.
As the principal diseases belonging to this zymotic class are remarkable for the
readiness with which they may be distinguished, even by non-professional persons,
they are not likely to have been affected by improvements in registration or in medical
science ; and as they are also of great importance in their relation to the public
health, the more considerable of them, placed, for the most part, in the order of
their fluctuation, are brought together into one table :—
Maximum, | Minimum. Mean. nee ea ee
PERG HOICLAD, oo 05.0ecoscacvacenscaesdages 6209 15 780 153°97 99°76
PTIIEN ZA... ccovaevescceneacanan 562° | - 35 110 95:45 93°77
RPSTHAL POX «2 ...seresqccccecsscees 890 87 399 69:92 90:22
SEPESCATIALING ....0seccestsvccsesstare 2132 354 899 59°51 83-40
De Measles .........eccccessscnsees 1122 249 575 41:74 69:92
G. Dysentery .........ccccccseeceeeee 163 38 85- 34:12 76:68
J. Carbuncle ...........:s.cenesenees 36 1 9 33°33 97:22
8. Hooping Cough ...............) 1217 582 857 31:04 52°17
9. Diarrhoea ...........0cccceeeeeees 1522 246 747 29°45 83°83
AD aD yPhus sesccceecesessbecedsaccedes 1600 615 951 23:55 61:56
11. Purpura (Scurvy) 36 6 7 23°53 83°33
12. Erysipelas. .......... 260 113 164 17°68 56°54
ete QUITISCY, 2265.00ceenscennecncnses 53 22 34 17°65 58°49
PPEAITUSH, \s<cnassecccsadsecvevesedans 170 63 105 10°68 62°94
“a PEO arc sescnaps ne. caucstasenss 229 130 167 8:98 43:23
BOE cts oacsscucnoseecsgeteeeeee 15 5 10 26:40 66°66
17. Remittent Fever .......c0cc.00s 52 9 30 22:13 82:70
18. Infantile Fever ...........s0080s. 26 9 17 20:00 65:38
MB Syphilis se... ecicdesceeseseee 76 11 43 15-11 85°52
20. Hydrophobia............,..00006 3 1 0:73) 38:35 66-66
170 REPORT—1855.
There are three diseases in this list which scarcely admit of being considered
separately, inasmuch as the mortality set down to two out of three of them is evi-
dently swollen by cases really due to the remaining one. These diseases are diar-
rheea, dysentery, and cholera—diseases to which the events of the last few years
have lent an unusual interest. The subjoined table shows the number of cases
entered each year under these three heads, together with the aggregate numbers,
and the fluctuations to which they are subject singularly and collectively. The table
is divided into two parts, consisting each of seven years (with an intermediate year,
1847). In the first septennial period we had no visitation of epidemic cholera,
while in the second period we suffered from two such visitations; so that by com-
paring the two periods we shall know what excess of mortality is due, in the second
period of seven years, to two visitations of Asiatic cholera.
Average] Mean |Extreme
1840, | 1841.| 1842.| 1843.] 1844.) 1845.] 1846. | of the |Fluctua-|Fluctua-] 1847.
7 Years.| tion. tion.
(Cholera: seater 33} 15] 62) 44) 32] 21) 108} 45 |71-11|86-11 | 52
Diarrhoed.........cceeee 246 | 248 | 369 | 428 | 348 | 407 | 1022] 488 | 35°62 | 75°93 | 886
Dysentery ......-.-... 38| 42] 791139] 62) 48 74 69 |52:17 | 72°66 | 138
Total” Ve: 317 (305 | 510 | 611 | 442 | 476 | 1204] 552 | 37-68 | 74°66 | 1076
Average} Mean |Extreme
1848. | 1849. |1850.| 1851. | 1852. | 1853. | 1854. | of the |Fluctua-|Fluctua-
7 Years.| tion. tion.
Gholert jaeutasesee-ds 292} 6209/ 55) 90) 67) 351) 4269) 1619 |168-12| 99-11
Diarrhoea.......02.s.00 857 | 1522 |812 | 960) 897] 921)|1290| 1037 | 31°82] 46°65
Dysentery .........+0 150} 163] 78) 72) 63] 65] 70| 94 | 21:28) 61:35
4 HT te Ag ince 1299| 7894/1945 | 1122} 1027 | 1337 | 5629} 2750 |111-09| 88-02
It will be seen that the total mortality in a million of persons living in the metro-
polis from English cholera, diarrhoea, and dysentery, in the first seven years (1840
to 1846 inclusive,) in which there was no visitation of Asiatic cholera, was 3865,
or an average of 552 per annum; while in the last seven years (1848 to 1854 inclu-
sive) the total mortality was 19,253, or an average of 2750. The excess of mor-
tality, which may be presumed to have been due to Asiatic cholera in the last seven
years, was therefore 19,253 —3865, or 15,388; and the annual excess 2750 —552,
or 2198. This excess must be understood to consist of the additional deaths from
the three diseases, cholera, diarrhoea, and dysentery, and not of the addition made
by the visitations of Asiatic cholera to the mortality from all causes.
The deaths from cholera, diarrhoea, and dysentery combined, in the first seven
years, will be found to have reached their maximum in the year 1846, the hottest
year of the fourteen, and with one exception (1841) the year of the greatest rain-
fall. This was also the second year of the potato failure, and food was dear.
The paper then goes on to show that an intimate relation exists between a high
mortality from these diseases and a high temperature, and that no other atmospheric
condition which can be expressed in figures bears any similar relation to the mortality
from these causes.
If we assume the yearly average of 552 deaths from cholera, diarrhoea, and dysen-
tery, during the seven years from 1840 to 1846 inclusive, to be the true average from
these three analogous diseases, and consider them as one disease, we shall be in a
condition to point out the order of importance of the several maladies comprised in
this group of zymotic diseases. The disease which commits the greatest ravages
among the population of the metropolis is typhus fever. The deaths set down to
this cause amount to 951 in the million of inhabitants. Scarlatina comes next in
order, as the cause of 899 deaths. Hooping-cough occupies the third place, and
gives rise to 857 deaths. Measles proves fatal to 575 persons; cholera, diarrhea,
and dysentery collectively, to 552 persons; small-pox, to 399; croup, to 167; —
erysipelas, to 164; influenza, to 110; thrush, to 103; syphilis, to 43; quinsey, to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171
84; remittent fever, to 30; infantile fever and purpura, each to 17; ague, to 10;
earbuncle to 9; and hydrophobia, to less than 1 in the year.
A very interesting group of diseases (tubercular diseases) is remarkable for the
moderate mean fluctuation to which it is subject. It comprises one very important
disease, namely pulmonary consumption, which shows a remarkable degree of
steadiness, whether we test it by the mean or by the extreme fluctuation. This
fatal malady of the young adult proved fatal, in the fifteen years comprised in the
table, to a maximum of 3941, a minimum of 2645, and an average of 3230 inthe
million, being little less than a seventh part of the total deaths at all ages, and more
than a third part of the deaths from 15 to 60. The average number of deaths from
this fatal disease is, as nearly as possible, 13 per cent. of all the specified causes of
death at all ages, and 39 per cent. of the deaths from 15 to 60 years of age.
Dr. Guy finished his communication by stating that the object with which it had
been taken in hand was sufficiently answered by the publication of the five tables in
the Appendix, which would, he thought, be found very useful for purposes of refer-
ence; and he promised to take an opportunity of turning to another account the
figures contained in his tables.
On the Agricultural Labourers of England and Wales, their Inferiority in
the Social Scale, and the means of effecting their Improvement. By Joun
Locke. :
Mr. Locke, after a few preliminary remarks, referred to the education of the
labourers, which, he remarked, should be adapted to the peculiar circumstances of
each class. Such instruction as was suitable to the labourer’s subsequent position
in life was generally omitted in rural schools ; and while the chemist had developed
the principles of agriculture, and the mechanist facilitated its operations, they lost
sight of the fact, that the human instrument of production was left uncultured in
the acquisition of ideas relating to the nature of his future employment. The defi-
ciency, too, was aggravated by children leaving school too soon, before their intelli-
gence was thoroughly awakened as to their duties in life. Hence resulted pecuniary
losses to employers ; for they could neither expect earnestness in intention nor system
in performance, when a man understood not the reason of what he did, while his very
ignorance extinguished all rational ambition of improving his lot in life. Let them
now see how far the efforts of Lord Brougham and others had been productive of
practical results. According to the Parliamentary returns of 1818, there was then
in day schools 674,883 scholars, and 477,225 in Sunday schools; now, extending
their inquiry to 1854, during which interval the population had increased 54 per cent.,
the number of day scholars then amounted to 2,144,378, and of Sunday scholars to
_ 2,407,642. Out of twelve agricultural counties in England, the most favourable
_ attendance of childrén at day schools was above the standard proportion of one in
~ eight of the population, and the most unfavourable, one in ten. In North and South
Wales and Monmouthshire, the proportion was still lower. Mr. Locke, after ex-
pressing his opinion in opposition to charity schools, except in cases of absolute
hecessity, and also on the dwellings of the labouring community, which he
thought might be greatly improved, referred to the opinion which, he said, of
late years had been gaining ground, that the anomalies of the poor law require an
extension of the area of taxation. Mr. Locke concluded his paper by remarking
that, until ceconomy was made available for profit, it would not be thought of by
‘that section of the community, whose wages being barely adequate to support
existence, afford neither motive nor result to prospective industry and ingenuity.
When the principle of hope is extinguished, all improvement—moral, intellectual,
and physical—is interrupted at the very outset.
On the Influence of Factory Life on the Health of the Operative, as founded
; upon the Medical Statistics of this Class at Belfast.
zt By A.G. Matcorm, M.D.
_ After some preliminary observations relating to the importance of the linen manu-
facture to Ireland, the origin of flax-spinning machinery, and the agitation respect-
172 REPORT—1855.
ing factory labour, Dr. Malcolm proceeded to draw attention to the influence of
factory life as founded upon the medical statistics of the largest factory town in
Ireland, with the view of showing that there are still injurious results due to factory
employment. He premised a brief description of the processes through which the
flax passes from the rough state to the yarn, in order that the exact amount and
nature of the employments in flax-spinning factories may be fully comprehended.
He also alluded to a few interesting points in connexion with the intimate structure
of the flax fibre, whereby it was shown that silica enters largely into its composition,
and also that in other respects its elementary fibre was essentially firm and unyield-
ing; these and the foregoing subjects were illustrated by several diagrams and speci-
mens of the flax itself, as it appears after undergoing the different processes. The
@ priori conclusions as to the capability of the different branches of factory employ-
ment to induce disease were then severally detailed thus :—1. The influence of the
flax and tow dust on the organs of respiration. It was shown that these particles
are necessarily a source of irritation, and that their continued inhalation must sooner
or later induce organic disease. 2. The position of the worker: this influence is
manifested primarily in articular affections, and secondarily in inducing thoracic and
gastric maladies. 3. The high temperature of the spinning-rooms: this cause, com-
bined with the moist atmosphere, and in addition the sudden transitions of tempe-
rature to which the worker is exposed, conspire to disorder the respiratory func-
tions, and afterwards predispose to a more general contamination of the system.
The author next submitted the results ascertained by statistical laws based on actual
experience.
Belfast contains about 112,000 inhabitants, of whom about 36,000 belong to the
operative class. Of this latter number, about 11,000 are factory workers, a suffi-
cient and extensive basis upon which to rear conclusions respecting the objects of
this paper. The tabular returns brought forward were made out from three sources ;
viz. lst, the examination of 2078 female workers, by means of certain queries indi-
cating the particular employment, the age, the time at mill-work, the condition of
health, and, as far as could be ascertained, the medical history, including the num-
ber of times ‘off work on account of ill health, the duration of past serious illnesses,
and, as far as possible, the nature of the illnesses themselves. 2nd. Returns from
the Belfast General Hospital records, showing the relative number of factory workers,
and the nature of the diseases for which they were admitted into hospital. 3rd. Similar
returns from the registers of the six dispensary districts into which Belfast is divided,
showing the number of workers treated, and the diseases under which they suffered.
4th. The author’s experience as medical attendant for several years of public insti-
tutions, which afforded abundant opportunities and a personal inspection of the
workers at the factories. The results of the evidence thus furnished were compared
with the returns of disease amongst the entire population for whom medical relief
has been provided by hospitals and dispensaries, that is amongst that section of
society of which the factory operatives form a part. Ist. The examination of the
2078 female workers, omitting the tabular statements, gives the following general
result. Among the “‘spinners,’’ it was found, as expected, that headaches, gastric
ailments, and complaints of the limbs predominated. The ‘‘ preparers” complained of
these affections in a‘less degree. 2nd. The hospital cases showed a large proportion
of injuries, cutaneous diseases, affections of the chest, especially phthisis, and of the
limbs. In comparison with the returns of all cases admitted into hospital for a
period of several years, it was ascertained that an increase of the general average was
observed among the workers in the following affections, viz. diseases of the skin,
injuries, pulmonary consumption, uterine diseases, nervous maladies, and affections
of the limbs. 3rd. The dispensary returns give the following result upon a basis of
2053 mill-workers : affections of the chest, digestive organs, the skin and uterus, also
fevers, syphilis, and affections of the limbs greatly predominated. Compared with the
general average of 35,039 cases as they occurred in the districts, we find that
diseases of the chest, gastric ailments, uterine and syphilitic diseases, fever and
affections of the limbs are in higher proportion amongst the mill-workers.
The hospital returns in reference to the diseases of ‘ hacklers,”’ extending over a
number of years, elicited the fact that chest diseases were in the high ratio of 30 per
cent., and that diseases of the skin and affections of the limbs were also in consider-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173
able number. The paper concludes with a statement of the means which the author
considers are calculated to reduce disease to a minimum and improve the comfort
and condition of the operative :—Ist. Increased provision for ensuring full ventila-
tion of the different apartments, whereby an equal temperature and the freest change
of atmosphere would be obtained without being subject to the control or whim of
the operative. Horizontal shafts, communicating with a large air-expelling fan, were
recommended as absolutely necessary for the brackling and carding apartments ; the
opening of the sashes when required should be regulated en masse, and not, as at
present, here and there, whereby drafts and minor currents are produced. 2nd. To
prevent the entrance of the flax and tow particles into the respiratory passages, some
Means, acting like the ordinary respirator or the natural moustache, is imperatively
required. 3rd. In order to counteract the injury to the young spinners consequent
upon the present mode of conducting the employment, a suitable mill-dress, to be
put on on entering the factory, would be most desirable; during work, the outer
ordinary clothing might be hung up in a dry room, to be resumed at theclose. 4th.
It would be the interest as well as duty of the employer to encourage all proper means
of enabling the operatives to spend their evenings in a manner calculated to improve
their mental condition, and thus rendering them more disposed to view their position
in a true light, and to give freely and fully a fair day’s work for a fair day’s wage.
By refining the taste, the operative becomes armed with a counteracting power
against the degrading though seductive attractions of vicious habits, and the employer
receives the benefit with interest in the better fulfilment of the operatives’ duty, and
the greater degree of confidence which becomes established between them.
Juvenile Delinquency—its Principal Causes and Proposed Cure, as adopted
in the Glasgow Reformatory Schools. By the Rev. A. K. M‘Catium,
M.A., Governor of the House of Refuge, Glasgow.
In the outset, the writer showed that crime being one of the social problems of
the age, in order to diminish the number of our criminals, we must begin by the
reformation of our youthful offenders. He then enumerated in detail the causes of
juvenile delinquency in Glasgow. The principal cf these were—
I. Depraved Parental Inflwence.—He represented the disastrous effects of intem-
perance upon the family, and showed that the child is led by the profligate example,
and sometimes precept, of his parents, to the commission of crime, and is thus
brought under the lash of the law. He found, out of 286 boys now in the House
of Refuge, 72 who attribute their fall either directly or indirectly to the bad conduct
of their parents. He mentioned, as another prolific source of crime—
__ Il. Corrupting Associates.—He stated that there are hundreds of adepts in vice
throughout the city who make it their business to inveigle young persons, and com-
pel them by threats, or encourage them by rewards, to steal. That these young
victims, however, soon set up for themselves, and carry on their depredations on
their own account. That the number of youths corrupted in this way annually is
very great; and that all public works, and society in general, are heavy sufferers.
That these are chiefly young persons inured to crime by repeated recommittals to
our gaols; and that, among the boys of the House of Refuge, there were 152 who
_ trace their ruin principally to these bad companions.
__ IU. Wee Pawns and Marine Stores were another source of evil. They are the
fayourite haunts of the beggar, the thief, the drunkard, aud the juvenile delinquent,
from the universal nature of the articles they receive. That the young person was
confirmed in his nefarious traffic from the facilities afforded by these places for the
disposal of his booty. That the whole system of pawnbroking houses should
_be thoroughly revised, and a severe penalty inflicted on any one who received
articles from youne persons under any pretence whatsoever. He stated that—
IV. Shows and Minor Theatres were, beyond comparison, the most prolific
Sources of juvenile crime. That these places are whirlpools, into which, when our
y uth are once drawn, their destruction is almost inevitable. The writer himself
‘Yaitea some of these places in company with two officers, kindly furnished by the
uperintendent of Police. The scene he witnessed will not bear description. From
174 REPORT—1855.
300 to 400 young persons were huddled together in one of them, three-fourths of
whom, according to the testimony of an experienced officer, lived by thieving. The
scene for the night was a fair representation of what usually occurred; and yet the
licentious inuendos introduced, the low profligate character of the songs sung, and
the whole moral atmosphere, was charged with a pollution which could not but
exert the most deadly effect on all that we hold sacred and virtuous. There were
173 boys in the House of Refuge who stated these pests as the principal cause of
their being led astray.
As a substitute for these places, he suggested the throwing open of botanic
gardens, museums, and works of art and industry, at the lowest charge to the
working classes. The opening of public parks, to furnish abundance of pure air
and recreation. The encouragement of cricket, bowling, and other athletic games,
by offering premiums. The furnishing of lectures on scientific, industrial, and
other popular subjects. The opening of schools of design, and free public libraries ;
and the supplying of abundance of sound, substantial, and cheap education to the
very poorest of the people. To encourage education, he suggested that our ca-
pitalists, mill-owners, and other extensive employers, should take no youth into their
works except he be furnished with a certificate of education, which ought to be a
condition of leaving school. That this would be a sufficient motive for the most
neglectful parents to see their children educated. That the law affecting pawns
should be remodeled. That such minor theatres and shows as are found conducive
to immorality should be suppressed. That the sale of ardent spirits should be
restricted. That the houses of the working classes should be made more comfort-
able, by extending the benefits of Dunlop’s admirable Act ; and that by the home
enjoyments thus secured, the increased intelligence, the taste for elevating and en-
nobling pursuits, most, if not all, of the debasing habits now prevalent, at once our
social bane and disgrace, would speedily disappear.
The writer then proceeded to mention certain
Remedies.—That short imprisonments had totally failed in reforming juvenile
delinquents, was self-evident. Some, while in confinement, purpose an amendment
of life; and, were they then taken by a friendly hand, might be rescued; but
when, on the day of liberation, they meet with bands of their former associates in
crime, can we feel astonishment that these resolutions will be overcome? This is
the uniform testimony of those who have the amplest means of knowing, and expe-
rience confirms the fact. In Glasgow prison, during last year, according to the
Report for the Prisons of Scotland, the re-committals were—665 once; 363 twice;
247 three times; 190 four times; 135 five times; 19] from six to ten times; 71
from ten to twenty times; and 26 from twenty to fifty times. Edinburgh is no
better. In that gaol there were—re-committed, 1001 once; 544 twice; 234 three
times; 226 four times; 142 five times; 375 from six to ten times; 337 from ten to
twenty times; 218 from twenty to fifty times; and 23 upwards of fifty times.
Thus we see that short imprisonments only aggravate the evil they are designed
to cure. The reformatory element, then, must predominate in our treatment of the
young. But the remedy must be commensurate with the disease. We would have
every juvenile delinquent brought before the police court for the first time, to be
handed over to his parents, or guardian, if he has any, who should be charged to
keep him from infringing the law. Upon being convicted a second time, he should
be sent to the Reformatory School, at the expense of his parents, and kept there
till his majority, or till such time as the Directors of the House were satisfied that
he would conduct himself, if discharged, as a proper member of society. The objec-
tion will be raised against this treatment, that it interferes with the liberty of the
subject, and that the punishment is out of proportion to the crime committed. To
this it is answered, first, that there is no punishment at all inflicted, the object
being solely the child’s welfare; and, secondly, that society has rights and privi-
leges which should ever be held sacred; thirdly, that there is no injury done to the
person who has transgressed the rights of society, should that society declare that a
certain period must elapse before his full privileges be restored to him; and, lastly,
to the objection that parents will become indifferent to their children, when they
know they will be cared for, and that children will be found to commit crime to
qualify them for admission ;—the time proposed to keep them in the Reformatory,
reais ae
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175
and compelling parents to support them, is a sufficient answer. None will seek to
qualify themselves under such conditions. Ample experience in the Glasgow Re-
formatory confirms this.
In a Reformatory Institution there should exist a correspondence, as near as
practicable, between the condition of the boys in the house, and what will be his
actual condition in life. This will prevent a reaction. There should be no finery,
either in their dress or food. All should be plain, substantial, and conducive to
health. They should be made to learn their trade thoroughly, as this will give
them a great superiority over those whom they will meet with when they go out
into the world. The principal remedies he would suggest, are adopted in the Glas-
gow Reformatory Schools, a brief history of which was given. The subject of juvenile
delinquency was impressed, at an early period, upon many of the public-minded and
benevolent citizens of Glasgow. In the year 1836, a subscription was set on foot
to erect, by voluntary contribution, an institution for the reformation of the dan-
gerous classes, The appeal was met with the usual liberality which distinguishes
the merchants of Glasgow. Upwards of £20,000 were collected. A piece of
ground, about five acres, to the east of the city, occupying an elevated position, was
purchased, and a handsome erection raised thereon. The house was opened for the
reception of inmates on the 17th day of February, 1838, by the Very Reverend Prin-
cipal M‘Farlane. In its early stage it met with many difficulties. Its present
prosperity is greatly owing to the enlightened and comprehensive measures of the
Honourable Board of Commissioners, and the indefatigable exertions of the Con-
vener, James Playfair, Esq. The Houses of Refuge were licensed last year, under
the Youthful Offenders Act, 17th and 18th Vict., cap. 86, as Reformatory Schools.
In the boys’ house, three objects are sought to be accomplished for every inmate
admitted ;—to send him out with a good education, a good trade, and a good cha-
racter. The institution aims at educating the whole boy, physically, morally, intel-
lectually, and socially.
I. Education.—In the school, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography,
music, scientific and scriptural knowledge, are taught. The time is divided into
two divisions, fore and afternoon, with four classes ineach. While the one division
' is taught at school, the other attends their trade. Thus weariness and listlessness
are unknown in either, and as much progress made in both, as if only one were
carried on at a time. The boys are found very ignorant when admitted. Out of
286 boys, 79 upon admission could read tolerably well, 110 could read little words,
and 97 did not know the alphabet.
II. Industry obtains a prominent place in the house. Idleness is the bane of
our juvenile population, and almost invariably leads to crime. It is therefore
found a vitally important element to train the boys as much as possible to the usual
trades carried on in society—in short, to make the house a little world of its own.
At present, farming, tailoring, shoemaking, smith-work, coopering, bookbinding,
printing, joining, and wood-splitting, are the principal occupations conducted in the
house. More are in contemplation. The gross return from work executed during
the past year was £3300 1s. 1d., and the net proceeds, after paying from this sum
the material for the work, the salaries of the superintendents of the trades, and
journeymen employed to instruct the boys, was £614 2s. 3d.
II. Moral Training.—The house, with its present number 286 (which from addi-
tions and alterations now in progress will soon accommodate 450), is one large
Christian family, with the Governor and his wife acting in the room of parents.
‘The law of love pervades the youthful community. A moral tone, through Bible
and kindly training, influences the whole. Force and restraint are unknown. A
newly admitted boy, after preliminary training separately under the immediate care
_ of the Governor, is by degrees permitted to associate with the rest, and obtain his
full privileges. Those thus admitted are absorbed into the habits and feelings of the
rest, and soon moulded by them. The sympathy of numbers is found most bene-
ficial. At the close of each day, three marks--one for obedience, one for truth-
fulness, and one for industry—are given to each boy by his master, according as he
has behaved. Thus he daily writes out the certificate which is to determine the
‘ength of time he is to be detained in the house. Confidence is placed in the boys.
Th the summer they enjoy excursions down the Clyde to the Botanic Gardens, &c.,
176 REPORT—1855.
and in no instance has this privilege been abused. Of 229 boys dismissed during
the last five years, after the most rigid examination, we can discover but nine cases
who have fallen into the hands of justice. From 80 to 90 per cent. are doing well.
The following are some of their occupations, viz. 30 sailors, 6 soldiers, 19 tailors,
16 shoemakers, 14 farmers, 2 mechanics, 3 iron-founders and moulders, 4 wrights,
5 message-boys, 3 shop-boys, 3 brassfounders, 1 baker, 1 carver and gilder, 4 office-
boys, 3 carters, 1 shopkeeper, 1 clerk.
Conclusions.
1, That our great cities are the centres of crime; and that many incitements to
juvenile delinquency there existing, might, through judicious interferences, be
greatly modified.
2. That gaol punishments, instead of reforming, invariably demoralize juvenile
delinquents.
3. That to benefit youthful delinquents, and successfully induce parents to con-
tribute to their support, they should be sent to Reformatories till their majority,
giving power to the directors of such places to send them out, on being satisfied
that they would do well.
4. That the law of love and kindness, combined with intellectual and moral
training, never fails in reclaiming youthful offenders, and making them useful mem-
bers of society.
5. That the experience of many years in the Glasgow Reformatory Schools, proves
the reformability of from 80 to 90 per cent. of juvenile delinquents.
6. That, in an economical point of view, prevention is better than cure; the
gross cost of a boy in the Glasgow Reformatory being £13 per annum, and, de-
ducting his earnings, about £10.
Tas_e I, Showing the Number of Boys admitted and disposed of from 1st July
1854 till 1st July 1855.
Boysun Houseist duly 1854 wash arte. «jet aol « berielsiinleaie Awe 232
Boys admitted from 1st July 1854 till Ist July 1855............04-. 87
Boys disposed of from Ist July 1854 till Ist July 1855.............. 69
Of these there were sent to Canada and the United States ........ ra + LO
Sentite theyNawy fie tito Sei ieiae tees slslachen Alois uiervinieds Gierae 7
Boys for whom situations have been procured ..........00.eeeeeee 41
Boys who left the House irregularly ........ cc cece eee cece eens 9
Boys who died inythesonsediiec vets) aa terrae «1 eelacwle Gio herc@ o yest ailetajals 2
Boys who returned of their own accord ........ cee eee sn eee eeee 5
Average number of Boys in House during the year ..... Poo deo bl 237
Boysiintiousexlstiluly ol S505 wa fe eieiere statetalaheyaieset=te%ele ta levee a guateeattinle 250
Tas eE II. Showing the average age of Boys when they began to steal, age when
admitted into the House, and age at present (lst July 1855).
AgeloftBoys 22 )./.00 <0. years|6|7)8|9 ho 11/12)13)14|15 ae 18|19/20) Total.
o> ity ood iliac. 21 3 286
40/20] 9] 3) 2
No. when admitted into Honse} 3| 5 | 6
No. with present age in House}...|...) 1 | 2) 8/16/28/30 64/63
Average age when they began to steal, from 9 to 12 years,
TaBLeE III. Showing the time the inmates have been in the Institution.
One year Two Three Four Five Six Seven Total,
and less. years, years. years, years, years, years,
No. of Boys 143 41 44 23 18 15 2 286
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
177
_ Taste IV. Showing the character of Parents, and whether dead or alive, of 286
Boys now in the Institution.
Number of boys one or both of whose parents are (or were when alive)
drunkards 124
Number of boys whose father or mother deserted or were unknown to them 48
Ce
Number of boys whose parents are both dead............seeeeeees | ano
Number of boys whose father is dead ......csee cece eee ee ce eneeence 79
Number of boys whose mother is dead ........ cee eeee seer ter enece 42
Number of boys whose parents are both alive..........0.eeeseeeeeees 56
TaBLE V. Showing the principal incitements to Crime, and the nature of
offences for which they were convicted.
Number of boys who stated the shows and minor theatres as the ppuicipal
cause of their being led astray ........ cc cece ce te ce ne ee eenes
Number of boys who were encouraged to dispose of stolen articles in little
pawns, rag and marine stores
Number of boys who trace their ruin to bad companions, especially young
persons who have been in prison ........ cece ee ce eee eet ees
Number of boys who assigned their parents’ misconduct and hunger as ‘the
cause, &c.
Ce
Tasie VI. Showing the state of Education when admitted into the House,
their present state, of 286 Boys now in the Institution.
On Admission. Boys who did not know the alphabet..............+. 97
AS + Boys who could only read little words -............. 110
» os Boys who could read tolerably well..........+.-..00. 79
atalyen tre ae ===
rs Boys who could read, write, and count a little.. 48 ;
Present State. —Boys who can read but little words................+. 59
56 29 Boys who can read tolerably......... esse eereee rene 86
Pr a Boys who can read well..... cesses ce ee eeenssccuaes 141
Total; satis —
< oP Boys who are writing. ........seeeeeee ees » 227
Fy oo Boys at grammar and geography ............ 134
5 ~ Boys at arithmetic ..........c0ceeesceecees 185
286
the
173
147
152
72
and
286
Taste VII. Showing the character of 229 Boys discharged from the House during
the last four years, viz. from 1st July 1851, till Ist July 1855.
Number of boys whose history could not be traced ........+...++005- 13
Number of boys who died since leaving the house..........- Matoone ce 10
Number of boys who relapsed into crime and were convicted .......... 9
Number of boys who have not been convicted, but are not very steady .. 14
Number of boys who are doing well..........:. cece serene tence c cess 183
Total......+5
229
Giving 80 per’ cent. of those who are known to be doing well, irrespective of
those whose addresses are unknown.
Tasiz VIII. Showing the Number of Boys admitted and discharged from Ist
July 1850, till ist July 1855.
Admitted. Discharged.
1850-51...... 71 boys 1850-51...... 34 boys
1851-52...... 64 =, 1851-52...... A ebey
1852-53...... 46 ,, 1852-53...... Abn <5
1853-54,..... 49 ,, 1853-54...... 34. «C«Wy
1854-55...... So 1854-55...... 69
— 315 boys.
Average of admissions 63 boys.
1
— “299 boys.
Average of discharges 454 boys.
12
178 REPORT—1855.
Tasize IX. Showing the countries to which the boys at present in the Institution
belong.
BSrncin Scotland Mra af ee ee false a SATs ali 222
Of these there were born in Glasgow,.......+++4. 160
Boni in, Peplaaayh ON, Sie iele eho aio ele eebotelivleves sie late 7
Born single Wear eysie to ic 5 vfs ie nnieirs srcdelielefere ese Shetotatomete mee 56 :
Born in other countries (America) ......-.0e2ee eee 1
Total,....... 286
Taste X. Showing the Trades conducted in the House, and the average Number
of Boys employed at them.
Pt ORME P MEMS Me acRsieiasYare fore est ouals <fal mr sip hele elcieyalote 62
Shoemaking .........+0.. ndinOrenonocke oie.
S NVGon-sp) intima ots\s ales) rityspelelele/= eisin © sNctone ote 105
Wegrmny Hl eaters ercteteicia eivist= siete Me ate rc feie ofeterels¢ 24
Do uine tee meeeeeg cnt arteries oie she, ec sta ove 14
Su(GiE) | oc o serena bteace memento onoee 10
Gonperir paw, sieki wie eels csciMeiete ete a 9
Baok bimini vem siniele tele leieteale she leis sie ee ee 12
LESS Stn Gate cog Oks TRO ec co OT 4
Various OCCUPAtONS) 0%. craic lo\- als slavs svielsla soles 36
357
TasLe XI. Showing return from Boys’ Labour, and Expenditure for one Year,
from Ist July 1854, till Ist July 1855.
Gross. Net
£8. a. € « d
Gross amount of work done ..........e0scceeeeees 3300 1 1
Net Proceeds, after paying for the material and wages
OisitHUCSIR CI eee oki soe cies « nieie.ie ce etpenieit shekuatols 614 2 3
Grosslexpentditunere sete enc’ satis ia) sreteiae ev ieiaie f= 2905 13 1
Net expenditure, after deducting profit on work, which
sum is paid from share of assessment for Boys’ House
and board for Sunday. ...........0.e-sesseecees 2291 10 10
Gross cost of each boy per annum ........ peteteneiater? 13 20°10
Net cost, after deducting his share of earnings ...... 10 0 O
The above includes all expense but house-rent. Pre-
vious to the rise of provisions the net cost was .... (ie Cee)
Taste XII, Showing the Number of Officers and Tradesmen employed in the
House of Refuge for Males.
RSGNENDGL) cp ce iis vue 8% ows copate orale elalokl olate 1
Teacher of School and Assistants .......... 4
Clerk and) Storekeeperis ¢ oi. 6 sie vise oe ele 1
FT GUSCHOMICETSy ceca ele ois axe of¥'S eishaletsls OMe 2
Superintendent of Tailoring and Tradesmen.. 7
33 Shoemaking and Tradesmen 6
“ Farming and tradesmen .. 2
ae UGS 6 - Soin. cOIaBODD o- 1
2 Smiths @66AdCs s.o.0 0 sscieiaus 1
PA COOPEMIME are a « a+ 10% « sieisis 1
2 Bookbinding siac...0's sie. s0 1
ESUMEUEALSE etieis ais oie xeiehe eh slehdre 1
Gate and GOGEREEHETS severe o's +s 0/0106 e1siie cian ois 2
BEY ALC BCKYATIES: faicisiayclsiole le's\s 10's '0.c/elaeyafojoveta 5
Total. ctidt soe
est.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS.
Tasie XIII. Showing the Number of Boys and Girls admitted and disposed of,
from 1st December 1853, till Ist December 1854.
Boys. Girls. Total.
In School on 31st December 1853.......... PC ROHR 155 85 240
Admitted during 1854............. WA Fide alt eerste! de 101 56 157
Deserted but re-admitted..... kesttiexe eeiolehals sere sieteyars 18 oa 18
Left during the year............. Bpebhs toetetotclo’ ety LOW 75 = =—-236
Remaining on 3lst December 1854 ...........26. 113 66 179
Employment was found for...........eeeeeeeeees 49 27 76
Removed by parishes and sent home to relations, &c. 23 46 69
10 Geis ee eee CMeteeiete aie cetera rat ate sya eesiete 85 1 86
PCT raee ccefjas tl. etols aioe a) store Sryompeess ete wer MS ayer 4 1 5
On Measures relating to the adoption of the Family and Agricultural System
of Training in the Reformation of Criminal and Destitute Children. By
James M‘CLetianp, Fsq., F.E.S., President of the Institute of Account-
ants, and Actuary of Glasgow.
_ The author gave a sketch of the origin and progress of Institutions for the recla-
mation of the fallen, which from time to time have been established throughout
various countries in Europe, under the enlightened guidance of some of the best and
most philanthropic men of the day. One of the first pioneers in this great work
was M. de Fellenberg of Hofwyl*, near Berne, a name known throughout the civilized
world for his unwearied interest taken in the cause of education. About the year
1810 this gentleman instituted, on his own estate at Hofwyl, a labour school, which
began with teaching and training beggar boys and criminals. The high principle
with which he set out was, by the training the children received at his hands, to
attempt to create an improved race of men, according to his means, and thus to
infuse new blood into the veins of society. To do this he resolved to isolate his
pupils, to guard them from contamination with any outward form of vice, and, on
their attaining the requisite education and training, to send them into the world as
models for their associates to follow. He then hoped that, like so many loadstones,
they would attract others around them, and thus be the means of doing good to
others as he had attempted to do good to them. In this way this little leaven might,
he thought, in process of time leaven the whole social lump. The peasantry were at
first offered the benefit of his institution, but they had a feeling of distrust in his
plans, and, unwilling to lose the labour of their children, they either refused or
omitted to come forward to adopt the views he had placed before them. Being a
man of firm and undaunted resolution, he was not to be baffled by such an obstacle.
His next movement was to try the beggar boys of his neighbourhood. He took this
class even in-their most neglected state of body and mind. Young criminals he did
not refuse as his pupils, and this class of the ‘‘ fallen” he fed, clothed, instructed,
and trained, and instilled in them habits of industry, truthfulness, and order. The
means he had at command for the promotion of his views were excellent. On his
estate at Hofwyl M. de Fellenberg carried on extensive farming operations, and in
this way advantage was taken for the development of his scheme, and the labour of
the children made an accessory in promoting it. The author notices the valuable
_ aid given by M. Vehrli in carrying out these noble ideas.
According to the report of M. M. Ruggett, the establishment was partially kept
up by the labour of the children. This is estimated at half a kreutzer an hour,
which is equal to the sixth of a penny, for the youngest child ; a kreutzer and a half
for the eldest, or one halfpenny ; and one kreutzer for the middle class, or one third
* IT have been reminded by a correspondent, Isaac Weld, Esq., Vice-President of the Royal
Dublin Society, that the labours of Pestallozzi took the precedence of those of De Fellenberg.
I am glad to have an opportunity of making this correction. No man of his time ever exer-
cised so great and philanthropic an influence on his countrymen as was done by Pestallozzi.
By his powerful mind, by his devotion, his example, and his labour, he gave an impulse to
the elevation of all classes of society in Switzerland, while he helped to alleviate and improve
the condition of the poor of the district in which he resided. ip
180 REPORT—1855.
ofa penny. The average of the yearly produce of each scholar is about £3 16s.,
and the average of yearly cost of a child, including labour and learning, and after
deducting the value of the work, is about £5 4s. It thus appears that the cost of a
child, including his own labour, is about £9 a year. This, however, does not include
interest on the cost of the buildings, schools, dormitories, &c. These were of a very
frugal and ordinary description, but not the less fitted for the work of reclaiming the
child. This system of training under De Fellenberg, and the enlightened family he
reared around him, continued for nearly forty years, and was the means of setting
an example and instructing kindred spirits throughout all Switzerland. The fruits
of his benevolent exertions are now seen, not only in the reclamation from ignorance
and vice of many thousands of his fellow men, but in the impetus it ultimately gave
to the foundation and promotion of other similar institutions in various parts of
Switzerland.
The next example in point of date is that of Count von der Recke, member of a
noble Prussian family. He renounced, like De Fellenberg, his station in life, and
its accompanying pleasures and comforts, to devote himself to the education of poor,
destitute, and fatherless children. At Dusselthal Alley, near Dusseldorf, about the
year 1816, he commenced an institution and refuge for the destitute, following up
the same views and principles as have been alluded to. The number of destitute
children and others, together with servants and teachers, seems to have amounted
at one time to 220 persons, among whom Von der Recke seems to have lived as a
father, improving their minds, training their various talents, and, by the undeviating
law of love, reclaiming the most vicious and the most destitute among the inmates.
The Dusselthal school exhausted the strength and injured the health of its benevolent
founder, and, after suffering from pecuniary difficulties, it is now partially supported
by the inhabitants of Dusseldorf.
The next institution to which attention was directed is that of J. H. Wichern—
a man originally in a humble position—of the village of Horn, near Hamburg.
In the year 1833, Wichern and his mother resolved to devote their minds and
labours to an attempt at the solution of the difficulty which besets all civilized life
—the permanent reclamation of the lowest grades of society. With this end in view
he acquired a small house in, the village of Horn, near Hamburg, to which was
attached about an acre of land. In this domicile he began his work, first with those
unfortunates taken from the streets of Hamburg. These soon increased in number
to fourteen, ranging in age from 5 to 18 years, and all versed in the practices and
haunts of ignorance and vice ; nearly all had been trained to beggary, theft, and un-
truthfulness ; one of them had been convicted of 93 thefts, and yet had only reached
his twelfth year. Their calling by day was beggary and theft, their domicile at night
was under carts, in door-ways, or herding with the lower animals. These children
found themselves of an evening sitting in the cottage, around a blazing fire, with the
inmates of Wichen’s family. According to the report of 1851, there had been created
quite a village of children families ; and besides the dwellings for them, there are work-
shops, wash and dyeing-house, printing office, bakehouses, schools, and chapel, &c.
The institution has about 70 boys and 25 girls. They constitute four boy families.
and two girl families, ranging in age from eight to sixteen years.
During the period of almost thirteen years since the foundation of this establish-
nient in 1833, a total number of 207 children, viz. 157 boys and 50 girls, have been
received into it at the period of this report; 90 of these are still in the establishment
up to the present time; therefore 117 have quitted the narrow circle of our pupils.
Six of these have died at various periods ; 111 remain, who have adopted some social —
calling, or at least quitted the establishment. To these 111 may be added six, who
are, indeed, still living in our institution, but occupy there the position of apprentices,
inasmuch as they are learning a trade for their future subsistence. _These 117 stand
thus in detail :—Restored to their parents, in order that the latter might complete
the education of the children, or provide for their future maintenance, after confirma-
tion.—In these cases, therefore, the institution has only taken a partial position :
including the six received for one year during the year of the fire, 21; emigrated, 6;
agriculturists, labourers, and gardeners, 5 ; seamen, 9; shipbuilder, 1; sailmaker, 1 ;
carpenters, 2; joiners, 7; smiths and locksmiths, 6; coppersmith, 1; wheelwrights, 2;
strapcutters, 2; tailors, 5; shoemakers, 6; weaver, 1; tinman, 1; plasterer, 1;
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 181
butcher, 1 ; coopers, 3; bakers, 3; lithographic printer, 1 ; grocer, 1 ; bookbinder, 1 ;
printers, 5; student, 1; workmen without definite occupation, 8; female servants,
13; homeless (female), 1; in prison (1 woman and 1 man), 2; total, 117, Well
may Wichern ask in his simple language, “‘ What would have become of these 117
outcasts from society but for the hand extended to them by the Rauhe Haus?”
M. Wichern goes into the detail of the labour performed by the children in carpentry
and joiner work, in the tailors’ shop in making and mending clothes, mattresses,
pillows, &c., in the shoemaker’s and at the wooden shoe manufactory, in wool
spinning, in the bakehouse, and in a great number of minor branches of industry,
including the work of bricklayers, painters, &c. The produce realized out of the
labour and work performed by the children and their family fathers is thus given :—
“The produce of the farm cannot be separately stated without entering largely into
- detail ; suffice it to say that even the smallest harvest from garden or field is accurately
entered in our books. We have carried home cabbages and vegetables of various
kinds to the amount of 362 marks 13 schillings, fruit to the amount of 16 marks
(our 4000 to 5000 fruit trees, many of which have been planted for ten years, have
as yet produced little), 578 sacks of potatoes, 213 of oats, 10,000 Ibs. of hay and
grass, and 80 loads of dung. 6 pigs have been fattened, 4 calves slaughtered, and
about 4000 quarts of milk delivered into the kitchen, The produce of the field and
garden may be reckoned, according to the market prices, at 300 marks 5 schillings ;
the costs at 1685 marks 1 schilling; thus leaving a profit of 1324 marks 4 schillings,
or about £88 .12s. sterling.” __
The next institution to which special attention and consideration are called is that
of M. Demetz, at Mettrai, in France, conducted under the title of the “‘ Agricultural
Colony.” The principles adopted by Wichern in the care and management of his
reformatory are here systematically and faithfully carried out.
From a report recently published, it appears the Mettrai School contains about
400 boys, arranged on the principle of being a collection of families.
The principle of the school instruction is, that the boy shall only be taught as
much as the average of agricultural and other labourers require, viz. to read, to
write, and to cypher. The more advanced boys are taught the elements of drawing
and geography. The instruction is in all points made as individual and personal as
possible. All the boys are taught music. Industrial training occupies a large
portion of the day. It is a principle that the boys shall be continually occupied and
thoroughly fatigued. There are about four hours allowed for meals, recreation,
morning and evening prayers, dressing, &c. The rest of the day, with exception of
one hour appropriated to instruction in the school, is devoted to labour. Theaccom-
modation, dress, and food of all the inmates, officers as well as boys, are of the
plainest description. The whole establishment thus feels the effects of the benevolent
mind of Demetz. “Since the first establishment of the institution in 1839 there
have been received 521. The number of present inmates is 348, leaving a remainder
of 173. Of these, 17 have died; 12 have been sent back to their prisons for mis-
conduct; 144 have been placed out in various situations in the world. Of the 144
thus placed out, 7 have relapsed into crime; 9 are of doubtful characters; and 128
are conducting themselves to the satisfaction of the directors.”
It appears that in the Mettrai school, if you shut out the first cost of the building,
or the interest or rent, with the teachers’ salaries, taxes, servants, &c., the gross
annual cost of each boy is £20. Then his labour, in and out of doors, produces
upon an average £8 a year, thus reducing the annual expense of the reformatory
training of a child to £12; and as each child stays, on an average, three years and
a half at the institution, the total cost will be £42. If we contrast the palace
_ prisons of England or Scotland, with the modest requirements of the farm or agri-
cultural system at Mettrai, the advantages of the ceconomical system of bringing up
the boys, and in working out their own human improvement, will be at once seen.
t York Castle the cost of each cell is stated to be £1200. Other prisons vary from
£120 up to £500. Pentonville has cost £161 per cell.
The author describes the further progress of the principles and methods of Dr.
Fellenberg and his followers in Switzerland, and concludes by drawing attention to
One inaugurated in Holland, about five years ago. It owes its origin and present
‘efficiency to Prof. Suringer, of Amsterdam. This gentleman brought under notice
182 REPORT—1855.
of his countrymen the neglected state of the criminal poor in Holland, and it was _
not long ere he obtained the countenance and support of many eminent and distin-
guished persons to his proposal for the erection of a reformatory for the fallen.
M. Schuler, of Amsterdam, contributed 16,000 florins, which, with gifts of other
friends, was sufficient to purchase an estate called Rysselt, near the town of Zutphen,
and in the district of Gorssel, containing about 100 acres, and buildings on the
land of sufficient capacity to cultivate it. Two of the royal family of Holland
patronized the institution by each building a cottage to eee a family house for the
children.
Rysselt began with a dwelling-house, a farm of 100 acres, and separate cottages
for the families of children. There were at the outset eleven children under a family
father, M. G. J. Van Dyck; and a director, or head-master, M. J. W. Schlimmer,
for twenty-five years a prison teacher at Rotterdam. At the end of the year 1851,
there were 45 children, and the work was then conducted by four family fathers,
and a master for the agricultural department. The great aim of the establishment is in
the reclamation of the children, te develope their moral and religious feelings, to teach
them the system of tilling the ground and gardening, to initiate them to a trade, by
which in after life—independent of the then agricultural training—they may be able
to gain an honest livelihood; to endeavour to eradicate or deaden the sinful disposi-
tions, strengthening weakness of character, repressing and controlling angry feelings,
and thereby helping to develope the good qualities inherent more or less in every child.
To attain this end, systematic instruction is given in the simple elementary and
practical principles of religion, and (independent of the farm-training in the open air
and fields) by the common rudiments of knowledge taught in all schools, great
attention being paid to the child’s musical faculties as an important instrument of —
reform. They go four hours on an average each day to school, and when the time ~
of year permits, are employed six or seven hours at field labour. The school hours
are regulated by the seasons. In winter the education is given in the evening, in ©
summer early in the morning and in the afternoon. Horn music or the bugle is
found an efficient aid in promoting order and cheerfulness, giving life and animation —
to all around. It is employed as a signal for rising, for going to bed, and for school
and labour hours. Military exercises form another branch of training, and half an
hour is daily devoted to this object, sticks being used in place of guns. Field and
garden labour, and work in the woods, are found to be of the utmost consequence :
hence the chief business is the culture of land, gardens, and trees. Thesmall number
of teachers and family fathers does not admit of a variety of trades, as that would
imply large outlay for the wages of experienced workmen. It is at present confined
to carpentry and architecture. The boys helped to build the porter’s lodge; also,
a carpenter’s shop, and a hut in which 60 boys can work wood. Two boys assist
the baker, who is also a family father; a couple of boys are taught to shave; all
are accustomed to darn stockings and to mend rents in clothes. They fill alternately
the post of porter, and by turns serve at the family table, and keep the family house
clean. Every morning the head-master, the farm-master, and the book-keeper (who
is also afamily father), and all the family fathers, assemble to direct the labours and
work of the day; this is noted down and made known to the whole at the morning
hour of muster. In spring and harvest, when speed is needed, the boys are all set to
work, and make up, during wet and frosty weather, for lost hours at education.
During the hours of winter, they are employed in mending tools, weaving and
spinning, &c.
The results which seem fairly to flow from the facts contained in the foregoing
narrative are :—1. That the union of labour, and especially agricultural labour, with:
learning, and constant occupation and work in the open air and field, are the best
calculated to promote, in an efficient and ceconomical manner, the steady and
successful reclamation and reform of the majority of the criminal and destitute
among the young. 2. That under the operation of the recent legislation upon re-
formatory schools, the course which should be recommended to be followed is to”
plant and encourage reformatories upon small farms, and, by following out the
family system, to apportion the children in such small sections, or groups, as will
be effectually managed (under a head teacher or director) by house or family fathers,
apportioned in cottages upon the farm, fitted to contain each family, and living
OO
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183
continually under their care and control. 3. That to carry the work efficiently into
operation, the director and house or family fathers should be thoroughly and
practically trained to the calling, and should only be employed on their evincing,
under a probationary test, their love for the work, and on giving proof of their in-
tellectual, moral, and religious capacity for the calling. 4. That, from the foregoing
views, it seems to follow that the erection and foundation of reformatory institutions
within the precincts of cities or towns will not serve the end in view of the promoters
with so much efficiency or economy as the adoption of the family system upon
small farms; and that such institutions now situated in cities or towns should be
gradually removed and located in districts of the country favourable in soil, situation
‘and proximity to railways.
Remarks on two Lectures delivered at Oxford in Trinity Term, by the
Professor of Political Economy, on the subject of a recent Paper by
Mr. Newmarch, “ On the Loans raised by Mr. Pitt from 1793 to 1801.”
By Witt1am Newmarcn, Hon. See. S.S.
On the Emigration of the last Ten Years from the United Kingdom, and
Srom France and Germany. By W.Newmarcu, Hon Sec. S.S.
Five hundred thousand persons had emigrated annually during the last five years
from Europe to America, of which 300,000 went from England, and 200,000 from
central Europe. The population of Great Britain had increased 300,000 during this
period ; so that the entire increase of our population from natural causes had emi-
grated. This could not go on without materially interfering with the population
and position of this country, although Dr. Farr thought it could do so. There was
a Board of Emigration in France, somewhat similar to ours, and a decree of the
Emperor made regulations corresponding to our Passenger Act. The French emi-
grants came chiefly from the Rhine districts. Our emigration was chiefly (60 or 70
per cent.) from Ireland. It was nearly self-supporting. It had raised the rate of
Wages greatly in Ireland. The reaction of this emigration was most beneficial ; not
only had the surplus population been removed, but a stream of money was flowing
back in the shape of remittances. The emigration into the United States in 1854
Was 460,000, of whor: one-half came from Great Britain and the other half from
central Europe. France has been but little affected by this vast emigration. In ten
years (1844 to 1854) the emigration to the United States had been 33 millions, and
the population of that country had increased 37 per cent., which was three times
the rate at which our population increased. Mr. Newmarch then referred to the
great prosperity of our North American colonies, and the rapid rate at which they
had progressed during the past ten years. In that period they had undergone
changes, and assumed a position fraught with importance to this country. He next
alluded to our Australian dependencies. The colony of New South Wales remitted
£1,600,000 to this country in 1853, to promote emigration thither, and the other
colonies had also remitted large sums for the same purpose.
Mr. Newmarch stated that the emigration of this country employed a fleet of 1000
ships, with a tonnage of 800,000. These vessels sought return cargoes, often at
Calcutta, which had a good effect on the commerce of this country. They were the
finest and largest vessels we had.
“
On “ Equitable Villages” in America. By W1ti1aM Pars, F.S.S., Dublin.
There was founded, some years since, at Long Island, in the state of New York,
what is called an ‘“‘ Equitable Village,” under the distinctive title of “ Modern
Times.’’ Its origin is due to Josiah Warren, formerly of Cincinnati, Ohio, who
claims to be the discoverer of a new theory of society now sought to be reduced to
practice at ‘‘ Modern Times” and other ‘ Equitable Villages” in various parts of
_ the United States of North America.
According to Mr. Warren, the following is the social problem, in all its branches,
4 which has to be solved :—
«
a
I. The proper, legitimate, and just reward of labour. II. Security of person and
184 - REPORT—1855.
property. III. The greatest practical amount of freedom to each individual. IV.
Economy in the production and uses of wealth. V. To open the way for each in-
dividual to the possession of land and all other natural wealth. WI, To make the
interests of all to co-operate with and assist each other, instead of clashing with and
counteracting each other. VII. To withdraw the elements of discord, of war, of
distrust, and repulsion; and to establish a prevailing spirit of peace, order, and
social sympathy.
And, according to him also, the following principles are the means of the solution
of this social problem :—
1. Individuality. 2. The sovereignty of every individual. 3. Cost as the limit of
price. 4. A circulating medium founded on the cost of labour. 5. Adaptation of
the supply to the demand.
The author explained the views of Mr. Warren and his expositor, Mr. Andrews,
on the theory and application of these principles; and especially referred his
audience to a work by the latter, entitled ‘‘ The Science of Society,’ published by
Fowler and Wells, New York.
On a Plan for Simplifying and Improving the Measures, Weights and
Monies of this Country, without materially altering the present Standards.
By Lieut.-Gen. Sir C. Pastey.
On Decimal Accounts and Coinage. By Turopore W. Ratusone, Esq.
The author proposes a plan for the introduction of decimal accounts and coinage
into this country, which claims the merit of involving the minimum of change, of
disturbance of existing arrangements and habits, in accomplishing the object in view ;
and with the maximum of ultimate result, as regards the introduction of a perfect
and comprehensive decimal system, and on principles equally applicable to weights
and measures.
He proposes to change, compulsorily, nothing but one single money of account—
simply to adopt tenpence instead of twelvepence as our future coin, by rendering pence
and tenpence hereafter our legal moneys of account—leaving it entirely to the future
experience, and to the decision of the public, to determine to what extent the pound
shall be confined to the expression of large amounts, and its use discontinued in our
ordinary everyday accounts ; and further, whether any and what new coins of cir-
culation shall be issued, as the present are worn out. Without interference with the
present circulation, or any kind of alteration in the present value, of a single existing
coin (the point as to which the poorer classes are most sensitively tenacious and
subject to injury), and without the introduction of any one new—any incommen-
surable, not accurately exchangeable—coin (which is the fatal defect of almost every
other mode of proceeding), and without any abrupt compulsory alteration of the
present forms of account in the columns # s. and d. (which is also an inevitable
consequence of every other proposition that has been made)—the proposed exchange
of ten for twelve in one column throws all our accounts up to the pound, all the
accounts of the poorest and least instructed classes, into the most perfect and
strictest possible, as well as the simplest and most intelligible, of decimal forms ;—
leaving it optional to continue the ruled columns, or adopt to any extent the decimal
point—on zhis scheme unmistakeably indicating the units and tens*. Accounts
beyond the pound in amount are likewise thus, in any case, at once relieved from
the great inconvenience of the present complicated system—the addition of the pence
column duodecimally instead of decimally—in twelves instead of tens; nor can any
one who has had experience of the comparative convenience and advantages of the
beautiful, confessedly perfect, decimal system of france, doubt that not only when
legally required, but in all ordinary transactions, pence and tenpence would soon
become universally our usual moneys of account—easily rendered as they ever would
be into pounds by a number affording so many useful factors for mental and every
* One penny, decimally indicated on coins and in accounts, would be ‘1; sixpence ‘6;
tenpence would be 1°0; twelvepence 1°2; thirtypence (the half-crown or three-franc coin), 3°0;
a pound twenty shillings, or twelve pences, that is, 240 pence would be 24°0; the decimal and
existing figures being identical.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185
other species of calculation, and corresponding so well with our present binary and
duodecimal coins, as twenty-four *.
The correspondence of this form of decimal account with those of other countries,
is also a consideration of the greatest importance, were it necessary to look beyond
the immense benefits we should thus so easily, and with so little perceptible change
or inconvenience of any kind, secure at home. Our ordinary accounts would be
identical in form with those of France and a very large portion of Europe, but with
the further important advantage, that, being based oman existing coin and established
money of account (our old English penny), we should at once secure, and bring into
operation, the two moneys of account united by the strictly decimal tie, and ascer-
tained by extensive experience of this and other countries, to be those in amount
most convenient and practically useful; whereas France, after a struggle of more
_ than half a century, and with the aid of penal enactments such as this country
would scarcely tolerate, has to this day been unable entirely to banish from her
current accounts, her old original non-decimal sou. ‘Moreover, so very slight a
change as about two grains in seventy (3 per cent. only) in the amount of silver at
present employed in the coin representing the 24th of the pound sterling, or ¢enpence;
and our other silver coinage, or in the present French franc, in the double franc or
florin, and in the quintuple france or dollar, both which wide-spread decimal sy-
stems are corresponding modifications of the French, would render the silver coinages
of all these leading decimal systems of the civilized world identical, and there-
fore international and interchangeable; and all these principal forms of account
at once strictly and mutually so far corresponding, whatever the standard of value
and legal tender each might for a time choose to retaint.
Having in ‘An Examination of the Report and Evidence of the Committee of the
House of Commons, with reference to a simpler, sounder, and more comprehensive
mode of proceeding’ (published in 1853, 2nd and 3rd editions, with preface and
postscript, 1854), in ‘A Comparative Statement of the Different Plans proposed of
Decimal Accounts and Coinage’ (published last year), and ina short ‘ Appeal to the
House,’ in the present, already brought under consideration as fully as in his
power, the various advantages and important results of this simple operation, and the
insurmountable difficulties and objections in the way of every other possible course
of proceeding, the author now only observes generally of all these other schemes,
that, without one single exception, they each and all necessarily involve such exten-
sive and serious changes in our moneys, both of account and circulation, as must of
themselves render simply and absolutely impracticable, proposals for reforms,—in
the accomplishment of which, all experience has demonstrated that it is especially
and essentially necessary, ‘‘ stare super antiquas vias{.”’
The author is fully convinced that the practical business habits, and steady
common sense of the people, render it unwise and unreasonable to attempt, and
altogether impracticable even if attempted, to compel them to submit, thus without
_ any good and sufficient reason, to such extensive and wanton interference with their
_ * Non-decimal coins, it is searcely necessary to observe, ciiculate without any inconvenience,
and ever must, with every decimal system of accounts that exists.
7 The grains of pure silver at present employed in these four great coinages, where chiefly
in use, only differ in amount to the following extent :—
Grains of fine Silver.
The English tenpence contains ............+6 os et Sb ameset ass 55 jaevacec) Gse27i
The French franc contains.....,...+. Se Oe Da Eee Loess tx eG 69°43
The United States, &c. dollar, or five-franc piece, five times ...... 69°11
The Dutch, &c. florin, or double-franc piece, tWiCe ..,s0eeeeeereess.s 72°88
As our existing coin was worn out, accurately coincident silver coins of 10d. (the franc),
_ 20d. (the florin), 30d. (the half-crown), and 50d. (the dollar), with a silver 5d. and copper
cent (or 10th of apenny) coins—in addition to the 1d.,—would in all probability be per-
manently adopted.~ The vast advantages of decimals of the 1d., as contrasted with the mil, to
commerce, and their necessity to the poor, have been ably and unanswerably demonstrated by
_ the late Mr. Laurie, far the best informed witness, practically and scientifically acquainted
with figures and with business, examined in support of the pound and mil scheme; which
plan, however, he publicly and at once renounced on receipt of the author’s pamphlet and
careful examination of the scheme proposed therein.
J Motto of the author’s first pamphlet.
186 REPORT—1855.
well-known long-established moneys, both of account and circulation. That they
never will consent and never can be made to consent, to having either their pence or
their pounds interfered with, and superseded as has been proposed—in order to in-
troduce, at vast expense and inconvenience, a troublesome, complicated, imperfectly
decimal, and utterly isolating system, both of accounts and coinage—when the most
useful, comprehensive, and perfect of all possible decimal systems can, at any moment,
be introduced and rendered general, without losing any one of the useful desirable ob-
jects and applications of either the pound, the penny, or any other existing coin, with-
out expense, and without the transition being embarrassed by more than a scarcely
perceptible amount of change.
On the Progressive Rates of Mortality, as occurring in all ages; and on
certain Deviations. By Joun Reiv, Surgeon, Glasgow.
An individual living to the age of 100 years, would live over the whole breath-
ing-time represented in the accompanying Table ; which shows columns numbering
100 years from left to right, and a scale marking the same from top to bottom.
According to both ancient and modern computation, there are three generations in
every 100 years, i.e. the whole population is renewed every 333 years; but
the length of a generation varies in different kinds of population. It ought to be
longer amongst the better living classes than amongst the poor and improvident,
also in some families than in others, the individuals of some families being longer
lived than those of others. In England and Wales the mean duration of life, which
measures the length of a generation, is about 35} years, but it is generally reckoned
at about 33 only, which is the probability, expectancy or value of lifeat birth. From
this point we start in estimating the value of life either at the particular ages, or
throughout the different periods; such estimation being generally made on a given
number of lives, the ages of the different individuals having been ascertained as cor-
rectly as possible at their deaths. Such having been ascertained, say of 10,000, the
number dying at the different ages, or betwixt every five years, will represent the
proportional mortality or the per-centage of deaths; so upon finding that of 10,000,
we infer it to be-a fair criterion in estimating the per-centage over a whole popula-
tion. In the Table the value of life at birth is shown to be 33 years on the scale,
i.e. taking off 67 years from the 100; now, during the first five years, of 10,000
born, 3900 die, or 363 per cent.; during the next, or second five years, only 460 die,
or 42 per cent. A child having lived five years has passed through the most dan-
gerous period; its probability of life is therefore greater than it was at birth, and is
represented in the Table at 48 years, which was long considered the maximum value
of life according to the average of life tables. But the average of the Registrar-
General’s Reports shows the greatest probability to be at the age of nine, so in
adopting this still greater decline, the value of life at that age is 54 years, which is
perhaps rather too high; but we have a still higher probability on the Table, viz.
58 years, which is shown at the age of 13.
Starting from either of these epochs, we find certain rates of mortality occurring
in the different periods of life, deduced from the deaths at the different ages. As
the average of the Registrar-General’s Reports must be nearest the truth, we will
take the age of nine as representing the greatest probability of life, that almost gra-
dually decreasing with advancing age. ‘The figures above the diagonal line on the
Table, show the probability of life at the different ages; e.g. at the age of twenty~-
five, it is 42 years; at fifty, 25; at sixty-five, 15; at eighty, 5; and at a hundred,
11 year. And it may be observed that at the age of thirty-seven it is 33 years, being
the same as at birth.
It is somewhat surprising how little deviation there is in the different periods of
life, excepting infancy and early childhood, and extreme old age. The ascent, from
the age of nine to death, is but a slightly deviating rise to the extreme age of eighty,
showing the natural inherent powers in man to pass the threescore years and ten;
and if his bodily functions were not deranged in the course of life from many different
exciting causes, death in the intervening periods would be an exception only to that
in old age, occurring from the gradual tear and wear of structural parts.
Dr, Buchanan’s table shows the number of deaths in the living at the different
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187
“ages; e.g. out of 100 born 14°631 die the first year, and of 100 living at the age of
a hundred and six, the whole die in one year. But any “ physiological”’ law of
_ mortality based upon the fact of these specified numbers dying in 100 at those ages,
only shows the actual mortality of these particular hundreds at the given ages; at
the age of one year we may have 14°631 deaths out of the small number of 100 born,
but it requires 10,000 to be born to give 100 deaths at the age of 106 years. Con-
sequently such a mode of estimating the law of mortality is entirely fallacious,
because the small chance of surviving to the extreme age of 106 years is as 100 is to
10,000.
There is no general law of mortality affecting the different periods of life which
can be applied to the whole population of any country, for we find that the rate at
the different ages varies according to the circumstances affecting individuals in all
ages. In towns the rate of mortality in infancy and childhood is much greater than
in the country ; and such is the case also amongst the poorer classes, compared with
those in comfortable conditions of life. From this fact alone we must trace the
causes of the excess of death in infancy and childhood to those physical and moral
agencies which derange the functions of the body, and thus affect its physiological
or organic actions. But there is no “ physiological law” per se, which operates in
cutting off one individual in infancy and another in old age; if such were the case
it would imply inherent organic imperfection. Now unless in organic disease super-
induced in organic structure, from excited functional derangement, we have no proof
that any organ of the body becomes suddenly deranged in its functions without some
exciting cause.
Table showing the proportion of deaths in 10,000, at the different periods of life,
according to the average of the Mortality Tables, and the Reports of the Registrar-
General for England and Wales.
510 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Years.
559 die 785 die 683 die 643 die 638 die 856 die 758 die 514 die 104 die
or 53 or 73 or 7 or 63 or 63 or 84 or 74 or 5 orl
per cent. | per cent, | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent.| per cent.) per cent, | per cent.
3900 die or
460 die or
43 per cent.
36 per cent.
ae eS Se eer eer
96 97 97% 982
75 89 92 95
a, Probability of life at birth, and at the age of 37 the same, viz. 33 years,
&. According to the average of life tables at 5 years.
e. According to the Registrar-General’s Reports at 9 years.
d. According to other calculations at 13 years.
_ €. The numbers of years to be deducted from 100 in estimating the value of life at the different periods,
188 REPORT—1855.
Statistics of Newspapers of Various Countries. By P. L. Summonps.
In June 1841 Mr. Simmonds read a paper before the Statistical Society, in which
he entered into some elaborate details on the statistics of the newspaper press, home
and foreign, brought down to the year 1840, which was published in that Society’s
Quarterly Journal, vol. iv. p.111. This paper was a continuation of the statistics
and details brought down to the present time.
As an illustration of the expansion of the newspaper trade, Mr. Simmonds men-
tioned that in 1841 there were 505 newspapers in Great Britain, and in 1851 there
were 1091. In 1801, 16,000,000 newspaper stamps were issued; in 1811,
24,500,000; in 1821, 25,000,000; in 1831, 33,500,000; in 1841, 60,750,000; in
1851, nearly 90,000,000. In the present year (1855), so far as the returns go, they
show at the rate of above 100,000,000, more than 50,000,000 being issued for the
first half of the year. The Zimes had made still greater progress in proportion,
having a circulation of 3,500,000 in 1837; and, in 1855, at the rate, for the first
six months, of 9,000,000 in the year. The number of newspapers in Scotland in
1841, was 70; and the number of stamps taken by them was 4,500,000. In 1851,
the number had increased to 117, using 7,000,000 of stamps. In the year 1855,
there were 151 newspapers, using 4,500,000 stamps, or at the rate of more than
9,000,000 in the year.
On the Growth and Commercial Progress of the two Pacific States of Cali-
fornia and Australia, By P. L. Simmonps.
The startling discovery of the vast metallic and mineral wealth of California
attracted to her shores in the space of twelve months, in 1849, more than 100,000
people, 80,000 of whom were Americans; and an extensive commerce has since
sprung up at San Francisco with China, the ports of Mexice on the Pacific, Chile,
the islands in the Pacific, and Australia. California became, asif by magic, a State
of great wealth and commercial importance. It was at first thought that the tide
of emigration would keep up at the large ratio of 100,000 per annum; but this has
not proved to be the case, for the State progresses much slower now in population
—the departures almost equalling the arrivals—and the annual increase by immi-
gration scarcely exceeding 30,000. The population might indeed have been very
largely swelled by the Chinese immigrants, who arrived in considerable numbers;
but their reception was strongly opposed, and they have been much ill-treated ;
there seems also no probability of the prejudice against them being removed. In
June 1847, the ‘California Star,’ the first newspaper published in the district,
returned the population of the village of San Francisco at 459 souls, 321 males
and 138 females; of these 375 were white, and the rest Indians and negroes. Now
the city has covered the sandbank, mounted the hills, overflowed into the valleys
beyond, encroached upon the waters, and promises ere long, at its ratio of increase,
to cover the peninsula between the ocean and the bay.
The population of the State of California on the 3lst of December 1853 was
estimated at 328,000 souls, composed as follows :—American, 215,000; German,
25,000; cf Spanish blood, 20,000; Chinese, 15,000; miscellaneous foreign, 5000;
Indians, 20,000; and negroes 2500. Of these, about 65,000 were women, and
perhaps 30,000 children. The population of the city of San Francisco is now about.
60,000. The number of vessels which entered the port in 1853, coasters and
foreign, was 1028, measuring 558,755 tons; and the clearances were 1653 ships, of
640,075 tons. The value of the goods imported is given at £7,000,000, or
£20 per head of the population. The exports of gold, however, amounted to
£12,000,000, or £34 per head, exclusive of quicksilver and other produce. The
tonnage (steam and sail) owned in San Francisco amounted to 63,423 tons, and in
other ports of the State steamers amount to 23,566 tons. The freights paid at the
port of San Francisco for the year 1853 amounted to £351,000, and the custom
duties to £516,200. The arrivals of passengers by sea in the past three years have
been as follows :—in 1852, 35,185; in 1853, 15,359; and in 1854, 47,730. In
1852, 990 ships of 444,515 tons entered the port; in 1853, 926 ships of 260,956
tons; and in 1854, 617 ships of 407,485 tons. 571 ships of 353,698 tons cleared
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189
out from San Francisco in the year 1854. A large portion of the passenger traffic
is carried on by steamers from the Isthmus. The total number of passengers who
crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1853 was 32,111, and 30,108 in 1854; while
this year, owing to the railroad being completed, 40,000 are expected. According
to the returns for the present year (1855), each steanter to California takes about
506 passengers, and each steamer returning brings on an average 372. The total
increase to the population of California by land and by sea in 1854 was estimated
at 50,000. While the average passage by sailing-vessels round Cape Horn from New
York to San Francisco is 108 days, by way of Panama the passage is made in less
than half that time. Previous to the immigration of the last few years, the popula-
tion of Oregon did not exceed 1000 inhabitants, exclusive of the Hudson’s Bay
Company’s employees; at present it may be estimated at least at 20,000. Some
twenty or more saw-mills and several flour-mills are now actively employed in pre-
paring timber and meal for home use and exportation. The trade with San
Francisco keeps twenty vessels of about 4000 tons fully occupied, and there is a
semi-monthly line of mail steamers running. There are now twenty-nine river
steamers plying to and from San Francisco and the upper towns of the State. At
the period of the discovery of gold in California, there were in the United States
coin and specie to the value of £20,000,000; in 1854, the amount of specie in the
banks and in circulation amounted to nearly £50,000,000, notwithstanding a heavy
drain of specie to Europe, amounting in the last four years to upwards of £27,500,000.
Messrs. Hussey, Bond, and Hale, a leading mercantile firm at San Francisco, made
some elaborate calculations of the gold produce of California up to 1853, which
resulted in a total of 57,700,000 dollars.
The result of the various estimates gives fully £70,000,000 sterling as the total
yield of gold from California to June 1855.
Crossing the Pacific, let us next observe what gold has done for Australia. The
population of Port Phillip in 1846 was but 32,879 souls, of whom 20,184 were
males and 12,695 females. - There were about 5300 houses in the district. The
value of the imports in 1847 was £437,696, of the exports £668,511, of which
£565,805 was for wool, and the remainder for horses, horned cattle, tallow, and beef
and pork. The revenue then was but £138,219, and the expenditure limited to
£63,882. The years 1851 and 1853 may be taken as fair averages of the effect of
the gold discoveries on the pastoral interests of these colonies, and the imports of
wool into the United Kingdom in those years from Australia were respectively as
follows :—41,810,117 lbs. in 1851, and 47,075,363 in 1853.
The imports and exports of Melbourne are only exceeded in value by the two
great ports of England—Liverpool and London; and, excepting these ports and
Bristol, its custom duties are superior to any other British port. The whole
tonnage inwards and outwards in the Thames, in 1850, was 3,289,000 tons, in the
Mersey, 3,536,337; into Port Phillip, in 1853, it amounted to 1,204,971 tons.
These facts strikingly demonstrate the commercial importance and natural capa-
bilities of the Bay of Port Phillip, as well as that of the colony of Victoria. To
_ summarize the progress of the colony, we may state that the value of the imports into
Port Phillip has risen from £744,925 in 1850, to £17,720,307 in 1854; that of
‘the exports from £110,000 in 1850 to 11,775,204 in 1854; the population from
75,000 to about 280,000; and the revenue from £261,321 to £3,015,683 in the
same period. The estimated population at the various gold fields of Victoria on the
_ 19th August, 1854, was given at 111,735, of whom 77,500 were men, 16,555 women,
_ and 17,630 children. About one-third of the population are therefore employed in
the search for gold. The gold produce of Victoria in 1855 being, in round numbers,
_ two millions and three quarters of ounces, would give to each of these 77,500 men
at the diggings about £113 per annum as their average earning, an amount which
could never serve for ordinary living, exclusive of the women and children to be sup-
ported. Of course many obtained large sums, but the average was of consequence
less. Let us now examine what has been the result of the gold mining operations
_ inthecolony. In calculating the value of Australian gold I have estimated all as
_ worth £4 per ounce for simplicity of calculation, but the New South Wales gold
_ dust will not fetch this price. The following gives the value of the produce of the gold
fields of Victoria, up to June 1855, showing the ascertained quantity, and estimating
190 REPORT—1855.
the unrecorded produce: ascertained, £33,120,224; unrecorded, £16,223,116—
total, £44,143,384. The population of New South Wales in 1846, exclusive of the
Port Phillip district (now the colony of Victoria, which then had but 50,475 souls),
was 154,534 souls, of whom 92,389 were males and 62,145 females. There were
then 26,563 houses in the colony. The revenue was £396,259, the imports to the
value of £1,544,327, and the exports #£1,187,423. The tonnage entered inwards
was 154,904. On the 3lst of December, 1853, the population was found to be
231,088; the number of females was 99,720. The number of horses then was
139,765, of horned cattle 1,552,285, pigs 71,395, and sheep 7,929,708—making a
general total of live stock of 9,693,153 head, or in the proportion of one horse to
every two persons, and seven head of cattle and nearly thirty-four sheep, besides
pigs, to each person. The value of the exports of New South Wales reached, in
1853, to £4,523,346; while that of the imports amounted to £6,342,397, or in
the proportion of £18 of exports and £26 of imports to each soul of the population.
In 1850, the year before the gold discoveries, the value of the exports was but
£1,300,000, and in 1853 it was £4,500,000. In 1852 and 1853 the value of the
export of gold from New South Wales was respectively £2,600,000 and £3,600,000.
The census of New South Wales, taken March 1, 1851, just before the gold discovery
at Ophir by Mr. Hargreaves, gave the population at 197,168. It has since increased
to about 232,000. We find, then, that while the value of the imports into New
South Wales in 1851 was but £1,568,913, it had risen in 1853 to £6,342,757.
Taking the transactions of the last four years, the balance of trade has, however,
been against the colony by nearly two millions,—the total imports having been
£16,578,570, and the total exports £14,633,922. In 1854 the banks doing
business in the colony held a stock of coin and bullion exceeding £2,500,000,
deposits of about £5,000,000, and a paid-up capital of £3,000,000, and had
divided profits ranging from 8 up to 40 per cent. per annum. The exports of
colonial produce from Sydney in 1853 were valued at £2,342,362, exclusive of gold.
The export of wool was 15,701,465 Ibs., against 13,086,974 lbs. in 1852. The
pastoral interest seems, therefore, to have recovered from its prostration, for the
shipments last year approximate to the exports of 1851, which were 15,268,473 lbs.
The value of the imports to Sydney were about £3,000,000. The exports of
Sydney and Melbourne together are over 20 millions sterling, and their imports
nearly as much. The gold diggings of New South Wales, although less prolific
than those of Victoria, according to a careful comparison which I have made,
returned nearly £170 as the year’s earnings for each digger in 1853. The entire
colonial trade of Australia is now very considerable, and a fine fleet of steamers is
employed in communicating between the ports of Adelaide, Melbourne, and Geelong,
Launceston and Hobart Town, Port Jackson, and the New Zealand settlements.
In 1853 the vessels which entered at Sydney from colonial ports numbered 582,
measuring in the aggregate 127,074 tons. The entries of other vessels, exclusive of
coasters in the same year, were 980, of 316,879 tons—being an increase over 1852
of 259 ships and 118,133 tons. Mr. Simmonds then went at some length into the
statistical progress of the other Australian Colonies, Southern and Western
Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, and the New Zealand settlements, to show the
beneficial influence exercised on their interests, commercial and agricultural, by the
gold discoveries, which we pass over.
If we look at the effects of the gold discoveries in directing the tide of emigration,
we find how much the current has altered, and how strongly it has set southwards
within the last three years. In 1851, but 21,532 souls left the United Kingdom for
the Australian colonies and New Zealand. Observe, however, the change since the
gold discoveries. In 1852, 87,881 emigrants left; in 1853, 61,401; and in 1854,
83,237. From the port of Liverpool alone, 91 ships of 88,418 tons have left already for
Australia this year (1855), taking 16,297 passengers. In four years a population has
been added to the Australian colonies equal to the whole number of settlers in Au-
stralia ten years ago, the emigration of one year being larger than the existing popu-
lation of Victoria in 1850. According to the census of 1854, the entire population
of Victoria is 250,000; so that, in the period of thirteen years since 1841, Melbourne
has increased in population elevenfold, and Geelong forty-fourfold. In the three
years ending with 1853, we shipped to the Australian colonies produce and manu-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191
factures from the United Kingdom of the declared value of £21,536,093, which, with
the emigration, gave employment to 2041 ships outward, measuring in the aggregate
1,034,459 tons. But the Australian colonists have also been excellent customers
to several of the colonial possessions—to Ceylon for coffee, to India for rice, &c., to
_ Mauritius for sugar, to the Straits settlements for spices and Eastern produce. Last
_ year the declared value of our exports to Australia was just upon £12,000,000, or
nearly one-eighth of the total exports of the kingdom.
Within the last seven years a population of about 330,000 has settled in Cali-
: fornia. The result of their labours has been a gold produce of about £71,200,000.
_ Inthe last four years an addition has been made to the population of Victoria and
_ New South Wales of about 250,000, and the gold they have obtained has amounted
to about £51,662,794.
Return of the Number of Civil Actions and Civil and Criminal Prosecutions
and Informations in the Circuit for the Northern District of the Island of
Newfoundland, from January 1826 to January 1855, being a period of
29 years. By Joun Stark, Registrar of the Northern Circuit Court of
Newfoundland.
Duration of term, 2543 days (seven years nearly). Number of days on which
_ the Court sat, 1345 (three years and eight months nearly). Number of writs sued
out, 6049. Amount sued for, £193,301. Number of actions tried, 3814.
Amount of judgments, £85,972. Number of appeals, 8. Number of executions,
2081. Amount of executions, £35,761. Number of persons criminally indicted,
55%. Number of criminal trials, 249. Number of deeds registered in the circuit
for the Northern District of Newfoundland, 3307. Value of the property passing
under the said deeds, £415,239.
On Moral Training for large Towns. By Davin Stow, Honorary
Secretary to the Glasgow Normal Training Seminary, Author of the
Training System, &c.
The system of moral training for towns (in conjunction with the ordinary branchés
of education) was established in this city in the years 1826-27, expressly as an anti-
dote to the exposed condition of youth in such large cities as Glasgow. It is equally
suited, however, for rural districts.
_ During some of the earlier years of its existence, the Model and Normal School for
training teachers and children was fixed in the Saltmarket to try its effects upon the
children of the sunken masses of that neighbourhood, and in Bridgegate, Wynds,
Goosedubs, &c.; and it is highly gratifying to know that during seven years
between 1830 to 1838, out of the many hundreds of children, both boys and girls, and
who have since grown up to be men and women, only two are known to have been
accused of crime or brought before a magistrate. The subsequent conduct of the
_ pupils generally in after life has been of a high moral and intellectual character, and
each successive set of pupils since that period present the same results.
About twelve or fifteen years ago the system was introduced into one of the two
“convict prisons at Parkhurst, Isle of Wight, by persons trained in our normal semi-
wary, and who were ordered by government. After five years’ training, so great
was the reformation, that out of 206 prisoners, no fewer than 60 received Her
remainder being permitted to go free to Australia.
' Regarding the children attending the model schools of the Normal Training Semi-
“Bary, parents uniformly and spontaneously testify tothe improved moral conduct of
their children at home and among their companions, as well as to the intellectual
_ culture which they receive, and to the benefit which accrues to their health from the
exercises both of the playground and schoolroom.
_ So much are these schools appreciated, that they never have been able to accome
modate one-half of the children who apply for admission. At present, and for
{ years past, about 900 children regularly attend the five model or practising
‘Schools of the Normal Seminary, both sexes being in the same classes in the gallery
/
192 REPORT—1855.
and in the playground, as a part of moral as well as intellectual training, and with
decidedly favourable results.
-One of the objects of this training institution was to afford means of professional
training to those who were devoting themselves to teaching. Since the commence-
ment of its operations in this respect, twenty-seven years ago, about 2600 teachers,
male and female, have been trained to conduct the system. Of these, about 200
have gone to Poor Law Unions in England, and the remainder are scattered over
the United Kingdom and the Colonies. At present the number of male and female
normal students is 98. The great demand for school trainers from England, may
be dated from the year 1837, during which year we were honoured by a visit from
Sir J.P. K. Shuttleworth and C. J. Tuffnell, Esq.
The following institutions have been established on the same principle and for the
same objects, viz. the Wesleyan Normal College, Westminster (all the masters of which
were trained in Glasgow) ; Church of England Normal College, Cheltenham ; White-
land’s Training Institution, Chelsea; Congregational Normal College, Homerton ; and
in the Colonies, one has been established in Antigua, Jamaica, Calcutta, Ceylon, and
Prince Edward Island. In the Danish islands, by order of the Government, the
Training System is being universally established under trained teachers from Antigua.
During the seven or eight years previous to the establishment of their own
Normal Training College in Westminster, the Wesleyan Education Committee of
London sent 442 teachers to be trained at Glasgow for their own schools in En-
gland and the Colonies.
Statistics of a Glasgow Grammar School Class of 115 Boys.
By Anvrew Tennent, Banker, Glasgow.
About sixty years ago a class was formed in the Grammar School of Glasgow,
consisting of 115 boys, whose average age would be eight to nine years, chiefly sons
of the Glasgow merchants, manufacturers, and shopkeepers. ‘There were also
among them some of the sons of the professors of the college, and of the clergy of
the city, both established and dissenting. A son of the then Lord Provost was also
of the number, as well as several of the sons of the then magistrates, besides a few
sons of operative weavers, masons, and others. Of these 115 boys who entered
school together sixty years ago, 76 are known to be dead ; the fate of 13 is uncer-
tain; and 26 are still alive; 24 appear to have died before attaining 30 years of
age; 21 between the ages of 30 and 40; 13 between 40 and 50; 5 between 50 and
60; 6 between 60 and 63; 7 between 63 and 68 ; in all 76 ascertained to be dead ;
and as the presumption is that the 13 uncertain are also dead, the total deaths up
to this date will be 89.
The after professions of the 115 boys appear to have been as follows :—
53 Merchants and manufacturers. 2 Weavers.
7 Lawyers. 1 Exciseman.
1 Editor. 1 Private soldier.
4 Clerks. 1 Warper.
3 Military officers. 1 Surgeon.
3 Clergymen. 1 Carter.
3 Sailors. 1 Bank porter.
2 Private gentlemen. 27 Uncertain, most of whom died
2 Bankers. young.
1 Professor. —
1 Artist. 115
The author traced the progress in life of these boys, comparing their occupations
with the tendencies manifested at school, and notices the political and social changes
during the period.
The scene, however, so far as regards them, is now drawing to aclose. Of the
115 who began the world together and fought the battles of life, 26 alone remain,
now no longer boys, but aged men approaching the ordinary limits of human life—
threescore years and ten ; and, in conclusion, it may be remarked, that the history
of these 115 boys is, probably, the average history of every other 115 boys similarly
circumstanced, and may be useful in moderating all mere worldly aspirations,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193
‘On the Progress, Extent and Value of the Coal and Iron Trade of the West
of Scotland. By Joun Strane, LL.D.
The rapid progress which has of late years characterized some of the now largest
cities of Great Britain is mainly due to the mineral wealth which surrounds them,
to the existence, in fact, of those vast repositories of fuel or of metals which nature
_has laid up for the use of man in the bowels of the earth. If one only casts his eye
over a geological map of this island, he will find in England, a Birmingham, a New-
castle, a Preston and a Manchester, placed in the midst of extensive coal-fields ; and
on Jooking at Scotland, he will at once discover, amid the general thinness of habi-
tation and population, at least one fully-peopled district, in the centre of which
stands the no less important manufacturing and commercial city of Glasgow, sur- °
rounded on every side by the richest strata of coal, iron, and lime. To the mineral
wealth which exists in this portion of Scotland may be mainly attributed the promi-
nent position which this western metropolis has lately taken in the commerce and
manufactures of the world, and which the §s#lowing statistical facts connected with
the progress, extent, and value of the coal and iron trades of the west of Scotland,
of which that city is the central mart, may perhaps in some degree better illustrate.
Although coals have, from a pretty remote period, been wrought around Glasgow
chiefly for domestic use, yet it has only been since the introduction of the steam-
engine, and still more since the discovery of the economical mode of smelting iron
by the hot-blast, that the vast and closely-packed mineral wealth of its neighbouring
districts has been at all fully developed and turned to great profit. Even so late as
in the year 1831, the quantity of coals brought to Glasgow was only about 560,000
tons, and of that quantity 120,000 were exported, thereby leaving 440,000 tons for
domestic uses, steam-boats, public works and factories in the city and suburbs;
while the quantity consumed, as well as the ironstone smelted in the comparatively
few furnaces then in blast, were small and unimportant. The contrast, indeed, of
the state of the coal and iron trades only five and twenty years ago with that of the
_ present moment, is most striking. From the returns obtained through Mr. Williams,
_ the Inspector of Mines for Scotland, it appears that while in 1854 there were 367
collieries in Scotland, 237 of these belong to the west country, 141 being in Lanark-
shire, 78 in Ayrshire, 11 in Dunbarton, and 7 in Renfrew. It also appears that
during the same year there were 7,448,000 tons of coals raised in Scotland, and of
_ these about 6,448,000 were drawn from pits situated in the four western counties
- above aliuded to. Taking into account all kinds of coals raised, such as splint, soft,
and gas, the average price may be fairly estimated at 7s. 6d. per ton, which shows
the produce derived from the coal-mines of the west of Scotland in 1854, to have
_ been about £2,418,000 sterling.
Of the coals so produced,—
2,152,800 tons were consumed in the manufacture of pig iron.
367,200 i a conversion of pig into malleable.
_ Making in all 2,520,000 tons used in connexion with the manufacture of iron ;
while 926,221 tons were shipped, and 148,312 tons were sent beyond the boundaries
northward and southward, per railways, leaving for the manufacturing consumption,
_ steam-boats, and domestic uses of Glasgow, 2,853,427 tons. During the same
period the number of persons employed in the collieries, producing this quantity of
fuel, were as follows :—
In Lanarkshire.......... Heat eee 15,580
“Ayrshire ............ Soceticcurrenc 6,061
Renfrewshire .,......+..- veneteass 790
a Dunbartonshire ..... caadavesbeseeil) 4G
a
¥ Pn-all. voce 22,980
‘ If the great development of the coal trade, as we have seen, has been of recent
} "origin, the manufacture of iron in Scotland is still more modern, having obtained its
_ present almost marvellous position during the course of the last few years. So late
as in 1830, there were only 16 blast furnaces in the West of Scotland, and the whole
_ produce scarcely reached 40,000 tons. It appears, however, that during the year
«1855, 13
z
a
194 REPORT—1855.
1854, of the 118 furnaces for the smelting of iron ore, then in full blast in Scotland,
and producing 796,640 tons of pig iron, 102 were situated in the two western coun-
ties of Lanark and Ayr, 72 being in the former and 30 in the latter, and the produce
of these amounted to 717,600 tons. Taking the average price, during that twelve-
month, as 79s. 8d. per ton, the gross value of this industry is shown to have been
£2,858,440. Of this very large quantity of pig iron produced in the West of Scot-
land, 122,684 tons were shipped direct to foreign countries, and 294,194 tons were
sent coastwise from the Clyde, Port Dundas, and the western ports of the Clyde
estuary, while 22,865 were sent away by railways; and 171,360 were converted
into malleable iron; leaving the remaining 106,497 tons for foundry and other pur-
poses of the district. The number of men employed in iron mining in the district,
during 1854, were 3645 in Lanarkshire, and 1943 in Ayrshire, making in all 5588,
whose wages, at 22s. per week, show an annual expenditure on wages of £319,633 12s.,
while the number of men employed in managing and working the furnaces amounted
to 1344, who were paid on an average 4s. 6d. per day, or an annual aggregate sum
of £110,376.
But if the manufacture of pig iron be a modern industry in the West of Scotland,
assuredly that of malleable iron is still more recent; for, with the exception of a
small work at Wilsontown, which was unsuccessfully attempted there at a some-
what remote period, almost nothing was done in this manufacture till 1839; and
even so late-as in 1842, the production did not exceed 35,000 tons. During the
year 1854, however, the manufacture of malleable iron reached 122,400 tons; and,
taking the average price of all sorts, including plates for shipbuilding, to have then
been £10 per ton, the gross amount of this industry was £1,224,000. The number
of men employed in this branch were about 4000, and the rate of wages paid was
28s. per week, showing an annual aggregate amount paid in wages to have been
£291,200.
Assuming, then, all these statements to be as correct as perhaps they can possibly
be made, let us now see what was the real value, to the West of Scotland, of the
whole of these industries in 1854.
Value of COAL... a+ ap xniald pate cce Seae cna Cec haute sda usbhon ge denieese «+. £2,418,000
Value of pig iron ............ hee 8 eee et £2,858,440
Deduct value of coal used in | smelting, say
3 tons of coal for each ton of pig, art 807,300
2,152,000 tons at 78. Gd. ....ccceeceeees oa
—_—_—— 2,051,140
Value of malleable iron.............seeeeeeeeees eee £1,224,000
Deduct value of pig iron used, 0
say 171,360 tons at 79s. act £682,584
Deduct value of coals used in
conversion from pig into
malleable, say 367,200 tons 137,700
at 7s. 6d.
——_—_—- 820,284
ee 403,716
Net vaiue of coal and iron.........sseeeeeeeeee £4,872,856
We find also from the foregoing statements that the number of persons employed
in these industries, and the wages paid, were as follows :—
Employed in collieries SOR Ee eee: 22,980 at 21s. per week = £1,254,708
f ITON WARING... .0neceses HOSS w BAR 91133 = 319,633
s attending furnaces..... 1,344 4s.6d. per day = = 110,376
ts malleable iron works.. 4,000 28s. ‘per week = 291,200
33,912 £1,975,917
In short, the foregoing tables show that the coal and iron works of the West of
Scotland, of which Glasgow is the great central mart, produced no less a sum to
those connected with these ea than £4,872,856, and gaye employ-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195
ment rs, 33,912 persons, who received for their labour wages to the amount of
1,975,917.
ere: the magnitude of these figures, and the value which they bear on the social,
and economical condition of this great mining and manufacturing district, are calmly
considered, it will not be difficult to arrive at one of the main sources of the lately
greatly increased wealth of Glasgow and its vicinity, or to account for one of the
chief causes of attraction to the industrious mechanics and labourers from all parts
of the country, which have already rendered the united counties of Lanark, Ayr,
Renfrew, and Dunbarton, one of the most thickly peopled and well-conditioned
portions of Great Britain.
i The Effect of the War, in Russia and England, upon the principal articles
+ of Russian produce. By Richard VALPY.
This paper is limited to the consideration of the articles commonly known as
- Baltic produce, in which the two countries have traded principally with each other.
_ These articles are few in number, and comprise tallow, flax, hemp, linseed, and
bristles. In ordinary times the chief proportion of the total‘exports are sent to
_ England. It also happens that the principal articles which we are in the habit of
importing from the Baltic ports of Russia, constitute our chief supply of such
articles,
The following Table shows the relative importance of England and Russia to each
other, in the demand and supply of these articles :—
Annual average 3 years, 1850-52.
{ Proportion of total Proportion of total
Articles. exports from Russia imports into England,
sent to England, received from Russia.
Tallow ... 77 per cent. 64 per cent.
Flax ...... 64 4 67 a
Hemp...... 56 . 53 7
Linseed ... BOE 68 fr
Bristles ... 63 * 81 ae
_ On the average, therefore, of the three years 1850-52, the large proportion of
_ from one-half to three-fourths of the total of such exports from Russia went to
_ England, and of the total of such imports into England the like proportion came
from Russia.
In 1853, under the influence of political events, there was a large increase of our
imports of Russian produce, especially from Russia itself; but in 1854, whilst our
_ total imports of such articles, with the exception of tallow and bristles, were well
Maintained, our supplies from Russia materially diminished.
| __ In 1853, the increase of our total imports of the articles above alluded to over the
| average of 1850-52 ranged from 01 to 49 per cent., and of our imports from
Russia from 12 to 65 per cent. In 1854 our total imports of tallow, bristles, and
| flax decreased 36, 16 and 12 per cent. respectively, whilst hemp and linseed were in-
creased by 6 and 22 per cent. But upon all these articles imported from Russia in
1854 there was a decrease of from 13 to 54 percent. As far, therefore, as the
Russian trade with England is concerned, the blockade of the Baltic ports in 1854
_ may be said to have stopped one-half of the usual Russian exports ; although in
_ 1853 Russia sent to England considerably more produce, the total exports of
i produce to all countries were not correspondingly increased.
| ___ The next Table shows the total imports into the United Kingdom, and the imports
| from Russia, on the triennial average, and in each of the years 1853 and 1854.
13%
i
196 REPORT—1855.
Total Imports into United Kingdom.
; Increase or Decrease.
Articles. Average of 1884
1850-52. 1853, :
1853 1854
over average. | over average.
— [-—
Tallow cwts.| 1,170,471 1,175,754 749,721 |+ 03 p.cent.) — 36 p. cent.
Flax cs 1,473,228 1,883,374 1,303,235 |+ 28 =: — 12. 4)
Hemp ,, 1,138,778 1,237,872 1,211,297 |+ 9 % =~ GO! igs
Linseed qrs, 679,619 1,038,335 828,513 |+ 34 a +22 5
Bristles cwts. 19,339 28,902 16,141 |+ 49 : ee cy
Imports from Russia.
Increase or Decrease.
Average of 1853 1854 * (through
1850-52. Prussia). 1859 1954
over average. over average.
Tallow cwts. 753,785 845,962 342,934 |+ 12 p. cent.) — 54 p. cent.
| rr 1,002,655 1,287,993 651,994 |4+28 , |—35 ,,
Hemp ,, 601,362 813,231 386,894 | --/35rc0 ¥o0 «lee
Linseed qrs.| 463,620 765,019 402,694.) 4-65 jo feeds 0g
Bristles ewts. 15,181 22,123 7,300.) AG oh nail oe
It is more difficult to arrive at any comparative results for the year 1855. Our
imports of Russian produce from the Baltic have usually been received almost
entirely in the last six months of the year, and the imports in the first six months of
past years are too inconsiderable to afford the means of judging of the relative im-
portance in each year. It is probable that the shipment of the articles from the
Prussian instead of the Russian ports in 1855, may so alter the time of arrival in
this country, as to change considerably the proportions of our imports in the first
and second six months of the year. The commercial accounts from Russia report a
continued diminution of exports in the present year. There is no doubt that the
prices of Russian produce advanced considerably in expectation and upon the out-
break of war. Speculative apprehensions in this country appear to have created a
pressing demand for Russian produce, and induced a prevalence of high prices, and
a comparatively large import from all countries did not save the consumer from the
disadvantages of high prices.
The high prices in 1854, consequent upon the interruption of commercial opera-
tions, have not been maintained in 1855; and in July 1855, the prices of tallow, flax,
and hemp in Russia are reported as lower than in December 1852.
With reference to the fluctuations in the prices in England of the principal articles
of Russian produce for each year, it may be remarked that—
In 1852, the range closely corresponded with the previous 1850 and 1851.
In 1853, tallow and hemp alone experienced any considerable rise. Tallow varied
from 44s. 3d. to 58s. 6d. against 35s. 6d. to 47s. 3d. per cwt. in 1852, and hemp from
£35 to £39 10s. against £29 10s. to £38 10s. per tonin 1852. Tallow continued to
advance throughout the year, but hemp declined after the first four months.
In 1854, all the articles rose in price, particularly upon the declaration of war in”
March; and hemp was then very much advanced. In comparison'with 1853, the
highest price for tallow was 67s. 6d. against 58s. 6d.; for flax, £56 against £41;
for hemp, £70 against £39 10s.; and for linseed, 65s. against 48s. Tallow and
linseed remained high throughout the year, but flax and hemp soon fell, and con-
siderably towards the end of the year.
In 1855 only linseed shows as high a price as in 1854, and it has advanced from
65s. to 72s. per quarter. Tallow has declined, and having been at 49s. 3d. or 10s.
below the lowest of 1854, was 55s, in August, or about 10s. below the highest in”
1854. Hemp is also much lower, having been £56 in January as compared with
£70 in April 1854, and in August it was £44 10s. Flax is quoted at £40 to £46
in August, against £56 in May 1854. ,
* After deducting the average imports from Prussia before the war.
3
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197
In the important articles tallow, hemp, and flax there has been a considerable
reduction of price in 1855, in England, in favour of the consumer; and the Russian
producer does not appear to have his diminished exports supported by high prices.
_ Prices in Russia did not rise in 1854 in anything like the same proportion as in
England. The prices for 1855 are unfavourable to the Russian producer. With
_ low prices, working expenses increased by the pressure of the war, and an enhanced
cost of transport, the producers must be placed in a most unfavourable position.
The cost of transport by land in Russia is still increasing, and as it must continue
very high, that alone will prevent the existence of any considerable trade. With a
price of £32 10s. per ton for tallow at St. Petersburgh, no less than £14 10s. in
addition is stated to be the cost of carriage to Memel, with £5 more for delivery in
_ London; and the price of tallow in Russia must therefore remain very low to allow
it to come to England in competition with supplies from other countries, and also
_ with the important article of palm oil, the import of which has greatly increased,
_ and which can be much used as a substitute for tallow.
That Russia can export by land what she has hitherto sent by sea, is next to im-
‘possible. The distances to be traversed, the comparative absence of practicable
_ routes, and the bulk of the articles to be forwarded, would be great impediments
_ even in time of peace, when all the resources of the country were in free operation.
. The results of the inquiry attempted in the present paper may be thus stated :—
f
K
That, previous to the war, Russia exported her principal productions chiefly to
England, and England imported such productions chiefly from Russia.
That, since the outbreak of war, the exports of produce from Russia have
diminished to a greater proportionate extent than the general imports of such
articles into England.
That there is not an increase in the value of produce in Russia to compensate
the producer for the decrease of exports, whilst supplies from other countries than
Russia will prevent the consumer in England suffering from very high prices.
__ That the difficulties and consequent expense of transport by land in Russia render
the injuries of the blockade necessarily very severe.
On the Condition of the Labouring Population of Jamaica, as connected with
' the present state of Landed Property in that District. By RicHarp Hussey
_ Watsu, LL.B., Professor of Political Gconomy in the Dublin University.
_ Some years ago there were great complaints from Jamaica that the wages de-
‘manded by the enfranchised negro were so exorbitant it was impossible to continue
the production of sugar or other articles, without the employers being ruined. Be-
_ fore the blacks were emancipated, it was said much gain could be derived from their
labour, stimulated into efficiency by coercion; and even after emancipation, the
_ employer, though cursed with an indolent workman, was allowed some compensa-
_— for that disadvantage by the artificially enhanced price of his produce, arising
from duties in favour of sugar and other articles raised in the colonies; but these
“resources being gone, nothing but ruin, it was alleged, remained for Jamaica. But
the very interesting work of Mr. Bigelow of New York, entitled ‘‘ Jamaica in 1850,”
brought forward some statements showing that insolvent proprietors, not indolent
labourers, were at the bottom of the evil,—much in the same way as in Ireland at
the time of the great famine. The Council of the Dublin Statistical Society were
induced, by the similarity presented by Mr. Bigelow’s account of distress in Jamaica,
and the contents of their own publications relating to Ireland, to institute an inquiry
‘Telating to the former, the result of which furnishes the subject of the present com-
‘Munication. They forwarded a set of queries to some intelligent people in Jamaica
foncerning the condition of the labourers and the state of landed property. The
Teplies were forwarded in 1853, and since that there has been an opportunity of
verifying them by comparison with certain half-yearly returns of the Jamaica sti-
Pendiary magistrates, relating to the social state of that country, and made last
year by order of the Governor, Sir Henry Barkley. From both it appeared that
Wages, instead of being excessively high, were wretchedly low, varying from 6d. to
‘Is. 3d. a day ; and the difficulty occasionally experienced of getting labourers was
explained by the fact, that their wages, low as they were, were sometimes promised,
sz
. a
198 REPORT—1855.
only, and not paid. This shows the folly of deeming high wages the cause of the
existing distress, as well as the worse than folly of attempting to remedy it, as is
done to a pretty great extent, by immigration, at the cost of the very labourers whose
‘wages are to be beaten down by the competition of the new-comers, the funds for
the purpose being raised by import duties on the articles principally consumed by
the lower classes. The true cause of the distress is shown to be the insolvency
of the proprietors, which prevents them from turning the land they own to a pro-
fitable account; and this state of insolvency was prior to the Emancipation Act,
or withdrawal of duties in favour of colonial produce, as appeared by some memorials
of the House of Assembly which were cited in the above-mentioned returns, referring
to periods intervening between 1772 and 1811, as well as from various other sources.
The evil had been growing up steadily for many years under a vicious system, and
there must have been a break-up sooner or later. The disturbances resulting from
emancipation, and the removal of duties in favour of colonial produce, contributed,
it is true, to hasten the crisis ; the alarm occasioned by the measures leading creditors
to force their debtors to a settlement; but had not this revealed a pre-existing state
of insolvency, the inconvenience would have been but temporary. As itis, it cannot
be removed until much of the landed property of the island has been sold, and trans-
ferred to solvent persons. But it is impossible the Court of Chancery in Jamaica,
with all the faults of its original in the parent state, can fulfil this requirement. Its
procedure is so slow and expensive, that creditors often fear to set it in motion ; and
should they muster courage enough, they may find no solvent person willing to pur-
chase, owing to an apprehension of the title given by the Court proving afterwards
bad. In the meanwhile the lands get under the management, or rather mismanage-
ment, of Chancery receivers, and so matters proceed from bad to worse. And
these defects multiply with tenfold powers according as there is more work to be
done. Business gets into interminable arrears—is only begun and continued, but
never finished. The remedy for this is plainly the introduction of Encumbered
Estates jurisdiction into Jamaica. By a cheap and expeditious process, creditors
are encouraged to come forward to realize their demands, and the land is quickly
disentangled from the fetters of nominal ownership, should purchasers also come for-
ward. And this they will do, because the title given to what they buy is indefeasible,
being parliamentary. Such a measure has already been prepared, and will, it is
to be hoped, soon become the law of Jamaica.
The price of Silver of late years does not afford an accurate measure of the
value of Gold. By Ricuarp Hussey Watsu, LL.B., Professor of
Political Gconomy in the Dublin University. :
The supplies of gold of late have risen from about £3,000,000 per annum, their
atnount in the beginning of the present century, to from £30,000,000 to £40,000,000.
Notwithstanding the magnitude of the previous aggregate supply of that metal,
gradually accumulated as it had been for many ages, recent increased production
has by this time been proceeding long enough to have imparted a very appreciable
effect to the entire stock throughout the world, and we are thus led to imagine that some
analogous change in value should have manifested itself, and abundance produced its
natural result—cheapness. Such is not the general opinion, however. The price of
silver, it has been observed, which was 4s. 11d. per oz. a few years ago, then rose
little, and has remained since on an average at 5s. 1d. Its supply, unlike that o
gold, has been pretty steady for a long time, and has not varied much from £7,000,000
to £8,000,000 per annum within the present century. This steadiness in supply
has induced the belief of a corresponding steadiness in value; and as the price of
the metal, measured in our currency, of which gold is the standard, has varied s0
little, as before stated, it is argued that gold also must have remained steady in value,
as otherwise it could not have preserved a relation so nearly constant to the worth
of the other precious metal. But the mistake here is as regards silver. It is true
its sapply has remained steady ; but the demand has fallen off considerably, and
therefore the metal must have declined in value. In countries using a double
standard, that is where payments to any amount may be made indifferently in sums
of money containing fixed relative quantities of either of the precious metals, the
0 aE SL GT SRE BEET.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199
growing abundance of gold has led to its employment instead of silver. The most
remarkable instances of countries where such a system prevails are France and the
United States. To give an idea of the extent to which the demand for silver has
there fallen off, and that for gold advanced, in 1849, before the late discoveries, the
coinage of the former metal for both countries reached the amount of £8,000,000,
and that of the latter about £2,000,000; while in 1853 the silver coined was little
more than £2,000,000, but the gold above £23,000,000. This new demand for
gold, it is true, has contributed to check its decline in value ; but, on the other hand,
the falling off in the demand for silver must have brought down its value; and so
much, therefore, must gold have declined over and above the change manifested by
the slight alteration in the price of silver of from 4s. 11d. per oz. (on an average)
to 5s. 1d. This shows what has become of the recent supplies of gold, a question
often asked, besides conveying an important lesson as to its change in value.
In confirmation of the preceding, it is to be remarked that prices generally have
been rising of late ; and as there seems no way of accounting for the observed fluctua-
tions by reference to causes peculiar to each, they must be partly attributable to a
depreciation in the value of our currency ; that is, to a depreciation of gold, it being
our present standard of value or measure of prices.
Before long, gold will have ended its effect in displacing silver; and its extra
market being thus filled up, we may expect a rapid decline in its value. Should
such take place, all pecuniary contracts must be deranged by the resulting rise in
prices, and impediments to the formation of new ones created. To obviate the
mischievous consequences which would thence follow, the standard should be changed
from gold to silver ; bank notes and other instruments of credit thenceforward en-
titling the holder to receive a certain specified amount of the latter metal instead of
the former, as at present. The only inconvenience this could lead to would be, that
in England, where no notes for less than £5 are permitted, it would prove trouble-
some to carry about one’s person so much silver for making payments to any amount
under £5 as the change of standard would require. In Scotland and Ireland no
such effect is to be apprehended, as there £1 notes can be, and usually are, employed
in adjusting all domestic exchanges in which the sovereign exclusively must be used
in England. But is there any good reason why #1 notes should not be permitted ?
There are several arguments to that effect certainly, but not one that appears valid,
at least under existing circumstances. The plain and obvious remedy, therefore, for
averting impending monetary disturbances is to adopt a silver standard, and allow
the use of £1 notes in England as in Scotland and Ireland. And from this might
be derived an auxiliary advantage. The issue of £1 notes not having been permitted
of late in England, is not the subject of a vested interest in bankers, as is the case with
notes of larger amount. Hence on the same principle that under Peel’s Act of 1844,
#£22,000,000 of notes unrepresented by bullion are allowed to enrich the banking
community, whatever amount of £1 notes might safely be left unrepresented could
_justly be appropriated for the benefit of the public and relief of the tax-payer.
On our National Strength, as tested by the Numébers, the Ages, and the In-
dustrial Qualifications of the People. By Joun Yeats, F.R.G.S.
Great Britain has a relative as well as an absolute existence. It may be regarded
as one of the industrial communities of the world—as the heart of the British em-
pire, or as the home of the Anglo-Saxon people; but in each of these points of view
it is becoming, territorially, of less and less importance.
The soil and natural resources of surrounding states are improving, while the
Superiority we once enjoyed, in the possession of raw material, has been sensibly
impaired, by the increased facilities afforded, by steam navigation, for intercourse
between the most distant parts. Unless the waves of the Atlantic subside, our
littoral frontiers cannot be enlarged, but the colonists who have left our shores are
Spreading in every direction, and Anglicising so much of the globe, that we may
“safely assert the English language is spoken, and English habits and feelings are
_ predominant, over a tract of the earth’s surface fifty times as great as this our
- island home. To maintain our position, we shall have to put forth all the national
200 REPORT—1855.
strength. It lies chiefly in the numbers, in the youthfulness, and the industrial
qualities of the people.
The population of Great Britain in 1651 was computed to be 6,378,000.
In 1751, 7,392,000; equal to 1,014,000 increase in a century.
In 1851, 21,185,000; equal to 13,793,000 increase in a century.
Between 1801 and 1851, the population of Great Britain increased 93°5 per cent. ;
that of Ireland, however, only 36 per cent.
The increase in the United Kingdom from 1841 to 1851 has been 3 per cent. only,
making it less than that of some of the old states of Europe.
There is a view to be taken even less satisfactory than this. Between 1831 and
1841, there was no county in England which exhibited a decrease in numbers.
Between 1841 and 1851, twenty-seven counties in England and Wales, and sixty-six
districts of those counties, showed sensible diminutions, which extended more or
less over the greater part of Ireland, the north of Scotland, the north of Wales, and
the west of England.
In England and Wales there are said to be 55,110 square yards to each house,
and 10,077 square yards to each individual; in Scotland, 262,024 square yards to
each house, and 33,589 square yards to each individual.
The absolute density varies very considerably in different localities, from 18 to the
square mile in the district of Bellingham, Northumberland, to 185,751 in the dis-
trict of East London. From the map of Scotland, we see how thickly the hives of
industry are clustered around the Firths of the Clyde and the Forth, and the plains
and coal-fields between the Cheviot Hills and the Grampians. In England, the
banks of the Mersey, the Severn, the Thames, the Humber, the Tyne, are thronged,
and along the centre of the country population passes like a tide.
The tendency of the people to increase in towns, and to remain stationary in point
of numbers in the rural districts, is very remarkable, and deserving of especial atten-
tion. In the towns, taking them as a whole, there are 5*2 persons to an acre—in
the country, 5°3 acres to a person. In the former, there are 3337 persons to a
square mile; in the latter, 120 only. The growth of the population throughout the
United Kingdom is principally in the manufacturing and maritime, not in the agri-
cultural districts.
There is a close but not inseparable connexion between numbers and strength.
The people of Great Britain are neither infirm nor impoverished, yet the effective
portion of the population seems at first sight small. Of 21,185,000, the males, at
the soldier’s age, in 1851, amounted to 3,193,496. Infancy and age, with all the
ills that flesh is heir to, affect the national strength.
Great Britain contained, in 1851,—
Under lyearofage...... Seasioadscic theta oc cave, sey Onan
15 phate o as core taamatise heoskood ... 7,458,080
20 Cras (aah eo Doom era mest oeay OO 0.4 9,558,114
Between 20 and 40.....:....e0eeece Serax Oh 6,555,954
AO AO GO CHER ate sic cle we enn: seccee 3,526,342
GOAN SOAs soace. as sree wglsiceialels “tee aoe
80 and 100.......... A Sea ceanocdou 129,483
Above 100 SUieeteleeh telah ols Glo%s Aoioiam ale 319
The Commissioners state in their Report, that there can be now no doubt that
some of the twenty-one millions of people in Great Britain have lived a century,
‘‘which may therefore be considered the circuit of time in which human life goes
through all the phases of its evolution.”” ‘The probable lifetime of a male at birth
is nearly 45 years. The mean lifetime, or the average number of years that males
live after birth in England, is rather more than 40 years (40°36 years), so that the
majority of us live only about two-fifths of the years others attain to—or, may we
not rightly say, two-fifths of our appointed time? Could the full period of existence
be survived by all, that prolongation would be tantamount to more than doubling
the present population. But while the average duration of life is 45 years in Surrey,
it is only 25 in Manchester and Liverpool. It appears, too, that the population is
now younger than it would be by the natural standard, younger probably in England
and Scotland than in any country in Europe.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201
» Jn our country, of 4,694,583 children of the ages 5 to 15, only 2,405,442, or little
more than half the number, are returned by the parents and heads of families as
scholars at home or at schools.
The industrial qualifications of the people may be estimated from the list of occu-
pations, and the number of persons severally engaged in them. Without entering
into details, Mr. Yeats states his conviction, after careful study, to be, that by far
the largest proportion must be regarded as unskilled, and consequently least pro-
ductive labour ; and deplores the immense amount of energy and capacity for culture
left wholly unemployed, and thus lost to the community.
We may yearly anticipate more rivalry in the arts, more competition in manufac-
tures. The very vear of the census was that of the Exhibition. A second display
of the world’s industry has just been held in Paris. It was remarked by the juries
on the first, that although we bore away the palm in many points, in almost all
our supremacy was challenged, in some utterly denied. Superiority which seemed
our own by hereditary right was slipping from us. Our long experience had given
us unrivalled excellence in a few departments, but wherever the highest require-
ments of art or science were concerned, those countries took the foremost place in
which industrial instruction was the most widely diffused. This point seems to be
the weakest in our consideration of the national strength. We want more and better
training for the young, which will bring about intelligence, abundance, economy,
prolongation of life, and an increase of productive power in the great body of the
people.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Opening Remarks on the Objects of the Section. By W. J. Macquorn
Rankine, CL, F.RSS. L. & E., President of the Section.
Ty opening the proceedings of this Section to the British Association, I will address
to you some remarks on its nature and objects.
Although this Section bears the title of ‘‘ Mechanical Science,” it is well under-
stood that questions of pure or abstract mechanics form no part of its subjects.
The object of this Section is to promote the advancement of science as applied to
practice in the Mechanical Arts.
The special utility of this Section arises from the fact, that the application of scien-
tific principles to practice is a study of itself, distinct alike from pure science and
from pure practice.
On the one hand, the cultivation of mechanics and other branches of natural know-
ledge, in a manner purely scientific, has for its object, first, to improve the mind of the
cultivator intellectually and morally; and secondly, to qualify him, if possible, for
assisting in the advancement and diffusion of knowledge; and with this view each
subject requires to be treated so as to investigate how the laws of particular phe-
nomena art connected with the general economy of nature and the structure of the
universe,
On the other hand, the cultivation of purely practical knowledge, such as is acquired
by experience in business connected with the mechanical arts, has for its object to
enable the cultivator to judge of materials and workmanship, and of questions of con-
venience and commercial profit, to manage and direct the execution of work, to
imitate existing structures and machines which have proved successful, and to follow
rules, the utility of which has been established by practice.
The gap between those two kinds of knowledge is so wide, their methods and
objects are so different, that rare as it is to find individuals who have cultivated both,
and profited by each independently, it is still more rare to find those who are able to
combine their advantages; and hence seems to have arisen the prejudice, once deeply
rooted and widely spread, but now happily fast disappearing—that theoretical and
ractical knowledge are mutually inconsistent and exclusive.
__ In fact, the study of scientific principles with a view to their practical application is
a distinct art, requiring methods of its own.
202 REPORT— 1855.
This third and intermediate kind of knowledge, is that for the advancement of
which this Section of the British Association was established.
It enables its possessor to plan a structure or machine for a given purpose without
the necessity of copying some existing example—to compute the theoretical limit of
the strength and stability of a structure, or the efficiency of a machine of a particular
kind—to ascertain how far an actual structure or machine fails to attain that limit,
and to discover the cause and the remedy of such shortcoming—to determine to what
extent, in laying down principles for practical use, it is advantageous, for the sake of
simplicity, to deviate from the exactness required by pure science; and to judge how
far an existing practical rule is founded on reason, how far on mere custom, and how
far on error. ;
Of those advantages, the more eminent of the designers and constructors of great
works of mechanical art are well aware, and have extensively availed themselves ;
but much still remains to be done towards impressing the general public with a due
sense of the mutual dependence and harmony between sound theory and good prac-
tice; and towards the attainment of this object, it cannot be doubted that the pro-
ceedings of this Section of the British Association have been and will be of important
service.
Another benefit, towards which the proceedings of this Section are conducive,
arises from the fact, that in many cases the best, and in some cases the only means
of impressing on the public mind the truth and the importance of scientific principles,
consists in their practical application, which thus re-acts beneficially on the diffusion
and the appreciation of theoretic knowledge.
There is also a beneficial reaction of practice upon theory of a different, but a not
less important kind; and that is, when the progress of the mechanical arts either
suggests problems for scientific investigation, or affords data for their solution, or
leads to the improvement of the instruments of scientific experiment.
Fifteen years since, there was established by the Crown, in the University of Glas-
gow, a Chair of Mechanics, whose history well illustrates the prejudices which for-
merly prevailed on the subject of the connexion between theory and practice, and the
extent to which those prejudices are disappearing. That chair was not established for
the teaching of purely theoretical knowledge, which had been already well provided
for by the older chairs of the University. It was not for the teaching of purely prac-
tical knowledge, which can be acquired by experience in business alone. An impres-
sion seems to have at first prevailed, that the chair was of no use; and in consequence,
the attendance (notwithstanding the great ability and energy of the Professor, Mr.
Lewis Gordon) was at the outset so small that he was induced for some sessions to
discontinue his lectures. But, taking into consideration the progress which a due
appreciation of the advantages of practically applied science had made of late years,
Mr. Gordon resumed his lectures last winter, and obtained at once a numerous at-
tendance of students, who showed, without exception, an earnest zeal to profit by his
instructions. That chair bears the same relation to the Chair of Natural Philosophy,
which Section G of the British Association bears to Section A.
These general statements of the advantages of that kind of knowledge which it is
the business of this Section to advance, will, I trust, be amply illustratedeby the pro-
ceedings of the present meeting; for I am happy to be able to state, that the papers
which wil] be laid before us are numerous and interesting, and in short, such as
might be expected at a place of meeting whose neighbourhood is well known to abound
in striking instances of the successful application of mechanical science to practice.
For the discussion of that subject a more appropriate scene could not be found than
this University, whose walls afforded shelter, and whose inmates, invaluable friend-
ship, to the early days of obscurity and toil of him who afterwards showed to the
world the brightest example of that combination of practice and science which it is
our aim to promote—James Watt.
On Railways and their Varieties. Dy W. Bripees ADAMS.
The object of this paper was to point out the importance, and in some cases the
necessity, of adapting a classification and construction of railways, with reference to
their peculiar traffic.. It was shown, that on railways with frequent trains, it was
unsafe to travel at different rates of speed; and that the high speed deemed essential
i
i
2
iM
‘
i
4
¥
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203
for express trains was impracticable with goods trains, without rapid destruction to
the rails, road, and machinery. That slow trains with many passengers, and goods
trains also, were much more important to revenue than express passengers, who were
in many cases a positive loss, by interfering with other arrangements. That dupli-
cating the lines of rails, to divide them into goods and passenger lines, would not
remedy the evil, as the stations and goods warehouses would require many inter-
secting crossings, and tlie expense of alterations, in purchase of land, which has
already taken an additional value, widening bridges and tunnels, without producing
the desired effect, would cost far more than an altogether new line, which would
permit the most rapid traffic possible to circulate over it. It was stated, that the
actual loss of direct long passenger traffic in money receipts would be far more than
compensated by the increase of goods traffic, and the multiplication of local traffic of
various kinds; traffic that could never be competed for by rival lines unless the fares
were kept too high. That if such a course were pursued, the existing lines would
become commercial streets, thickly peopled by population flocking to theit borders.
He proposed the formation of express lines, which could be managed by a very
small staff, without the expense of stations, and could run at the rate of fifty or sixty
milés an hour. He proposed improved springs, better modes of communication, and
larger carriages, with all conveniences of refreshments, &c, He also proposed that
an arrangement should be made with the French Government for the extension of
the principle, and that a large steamer should be made, to overcome the turbulence
of the Channel, and projecting piers at Folkestone. He suggested that lines of rails
should be laid on the level part of turnpikes, to be used either with horse or by means
of locomotives. The latter might, when not in use, be employed in farm operations.
On Artillery and Projectiles. By W. Bripcres ApAms.
This paper gave a description of various kinds of projectiles, and the reasons why
gun-cotton is better for blasting rocks than for gunnery. The first guns in use in all
countries were long; but the inconvenience of very long guns was the cause why the
length was curtailed, and why also carronades and mortars wereinvented. ‘The paper
then went on to describe the material of which artillery should be made, and the
proper mode of manufacture. An improved trunnion was noticed, with some original
suggestions regarding the form of wadding and shot best suited to give sure aim and
increased velocity and penetration. In giving his idea of the best form of a ball,
Mr. Adams thought that the conical form, with feathers, was the best, which is exactly
that which Mr. Kennedy, of Kilmarnock, has lately patented, and which has been
experimented upon lately at Ardrossan and Troon. ‘The idea of an elongated ball,
which should also be charged like a bomb, has also been anticipated by Mr. Kennedy.
Welded guns, united by hydrostatic pressure,—the coating inside with another metal
to prevent abrasion,—and several other improvements, which have in part been
adopted by inventors, were also recommended.
On Mechanical Notation, as exemplified in the Swedish Calculating Machine
of Messrs. Scheiitz. By Henry P. BABBAGE.
Mr. Babbage said;—The system of describing machinery, of which I am about to
give a brief outline, is not new. It was published by Mr. Babbage in the ‘ Philo-
sophical Transactions,’ in the year 1826, where apparently it did not attract the
notice of those most likely to find it practically useful. It had been used for some
years before this in the construction, for the Government, of the Difference Engine,
which is now in the Museum at King’s College, London; and it was also used in
the contrivance of the Analytical Engine, on which my father was engaged
for rnany years. Indeed, without the aid of the mechanical notation, it would be
beyond the power of the human mind to master and retain the details of the compli-
cated machinery which such an engine necessarily requires. Its importance as a
tool for the invention of machinery for any purpose is very great; since we can de-
monstrate the practicability of any contrivance, and the certainty of all its parts
working in unison, before a single part of it is actually made. It is also important
both as a means of understanding and of explaining to others existing machinery ;
,
204 REPORT—1855.
for it is utterly impossible to make the notation of a machine without comprehending
its action in every single part. There are also many other uses, which I shall not
now stop to mention. The general principles of the notation are the same now as
in 1826; but the practical experience of many years has, of course, suggested
several alterations of detail, and led to the adoption of some important principles.
To understand the construction of a machine, we must know the size and form of
all its parts,—the time of action of each part,—and the action of one part on another
throughout the machine. The drawings give the size and form, but they give the
action of the parts on each other very imperfectly, and scarcely anything of the time
of action. ‘The notation supplies these deficiencies, and gives at a glance the re-
quired information. When the drawings of a machine are made, it becomes neces-
sary to assign letters to the different parts. Hitherto, I believe, this has been left
much to chance; and each draughtsman has taken the letters of the alphabet, and
used them with little or no system. With respect to lettering, the first rules are, that
all framework shall be represented by upright letters. Moveable pieces shall be re-
presented by slanting letters. Each piece has one or more working points ; each of
the working points must have its own small letter, the working points of framework
having small printed letters, and the working points of the moveable pieces having
small written letters. ;
Thus we have the machinery divided into Framing, indicated by large upright
letters, as A,B,C, &c.; Moveable Pieces, indicated by large slanting letters, as 4, B, C,
&c. ; Working points of Framing, indicated by small printed letters, as a,c,e,m,n, &c.;
Working points of Moveable Pieces indicated by small written letters, as a,c, e, m,n, &c.
In lettering drawings the axes are to be lettered first. Three alphabets may be
used—the Roman, Etruscan, and written, as—
A, B, C, &e.
A; B, Cc, &e.
4%, &, G, &e.
These should be selected as much as vossible, so that no two axes which have arms or
parts crossing each other should have letters of the same alphabet. Having lettered
the axes, all the parts on them, whether loose or absolutely fixed to them, must. be
lettered with the same alphabet, care being taken that on each axis the parts most
remote from the eye shall have letters earlier in the alphabet than those parts which
are nearer. It is not necessary that the letters should follow each other continuously,
asin the alphabet; for instance, D, L, 7’, may represent three wheels on the same axis:
D must be the most remote, Z the next, and Z7'the nearest. The rule is, that on any
axis, a part which is more remote from the eye than another, must invariably have a
letter which occurs earlier in the alphabet. By these rules very considerable in-
formation is conveyed by the lettering on a drawing; but still more to distinguish
parts and pieces, an index on the left-hand upper corner is given to each Jarge
letter; this is called the ‘index of identity,’ and all parts which are absolutely
fixed to each other must have the same index of identity; no two parts which touch
or interfere with or cross each other, on the drawings, must have the same index of
identity. This may generally be done without taking higher numbers than 9. All
pieces which are loose round an axis must have a letter of the same character, Roman,
Etruscan, or writing; but a different index of identity will at once inform us that it
is a separate piece, and not fixed on the axis. For example, ®D, ®Z, °7’, would indi-
cate that the three wheels mentioned above were all fixed to the same axis; but
6D, 8L,67 would at once show that D and J were fixed to the axis, and L loose upon it.
I shall now endeavour to explain how the transmission of motion and action of one
piece on another is shown. Beginning from the source of motion, each part is
written down with its working points; those of its points which are acted on are
placed on the left-hand side; those points where it acts on other pieces are placed
on the right hand: if there are several small letters, a bracket connects them with
their own large letter— u
n
} Pa
o
e
pie,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 205
! The pieces being arranged, arrow-headed lines join each acting or driving point
of one piece with the point of another piece, which it drives or acts on. Whena
machine is complicated, it is usually necessary to make two or three editions before
all the parts can be arranged with simplicity; but, when done, the Trains, as they
are called, indicate with the utmost precision the transmission of force or motion
through the whole machine, from the first motive power to the final result. It is,
however, one of the principles of the notation to give at one view the greatest possible
amount of information, provided that no confusion is made; it has been found that,
without in any way interfering with the simplicity of the Trains, a variety of infor-
mation on other points may be conveyed. For instance, whilst looking at the Trains,
it is often convenient or necessary to know something of the direction of motion of
the piece under consideration, and, by the use of a few signs placed under the large
letters, we can convey nearly all that is wanted in this respect. Again, though the
drawings of a machine are specially intended to give the size and shape of each piece,
yet by the use of some signs of form which are placed above the letters, the form of
each piece may be indicated. It is found that these signs do not confuse the Trains;
but, on the contrary, extend their use, by making the information they convey more
condensed, and more easily accessible.
I now pass on to the Cycles, as they are termed, or to that part of the notation which
relates to the time of action of the different parts of a machine. The cycles give
the action of every part during the performance of one complete operation of the
machine, whatever that may be. Each piece has a column of its own, and the points
by which it is acted on are placed on its left hand, and the points by which it acts
on other parts are placed on its right; and each working point also has its own
column. The whole length of the column indicates the time occupied in performing
one operation, and we divide that time into divisions most suited to the particular
machine. During each division of time that a piece is in motion, an arrow up or down
its column indicates the fact; and during the time of action of each working point,
an arrow in its own column shows the duration of its action. The times thus shown
are, of course, only relative, and not absolute time; but it would be easy to show both,
by making the divisions of the columns correspond with the number of seconds or
minutes during which the machine performs one operation. The arrows which point
upwards indicate circular motion in the direction, screw in, and the arrows which
point downwards, screw out; where the motion is linear, the downward arrow indi-
cates motion from right to left.
Mr. Babbage then illustrated this system of notation by directing attention
to the notation of the Difference Engine of Messrs. Scheiitz. This machine contains
several hundred different pieces, yet the trains showed at one view how each piece
was acted on, and how it acted on other pieces ; the Cycles gave with equal clearness
the time of action of each piece. In fact, the two pieces of paper before the Section
gave a complete description of the machine, and, with the drawings, rendered further
explanation unnecessary.
On an Instrument for Sounding. By RosEert BARKLAY.
The principle is based upon the compressibility and elasticity of vulcanized india-
rubber discs subjected to the pressure of the fluid on all their sides, the reduction of
their bulk laterally by the pressure being indicated upon a scale, while their tempera-
ture may be kept equable by the instrument being submerged for a time.
On Continuous Work in Dockyards. By Lady BentHam.
On the Mechanical Principles of Ancient Tracery.
By Rosert W. BIxxines.
On the Importance of Periodical Engineering Surveys of Tidal Harbours,
illustrated by a comparison of the Surveys of the River Mersey, by the late
Francis Giles, C_E., and by the Marine Surveyor of the Port of Liverpool.
By Joseru Boutt, Liverpool.
ee ee
206 REPORT—1855.
On the Machinery of the Universal Exhibition of Paris.
By W. Fairzairn, F.R.S.
On the mutual Influence of Capillary Attraction and Motion on Projectiles,
and its application to the construction of a new kind of Rifle-shells, and
Balls to be thrown from common guns*. By James GAut, Jun., Edin-
burgh.
The author pronounced the principle of rifling the shot instead of rifling the gun,
although inapplicable to small projectiles, to be absolutely necessary for large ones.
1. The great difficulty arose from the envelope of condensed air which accompa-
nies every projectile. This is produced by three causes:—1. The sudden pressure
and displacement of the air by the ball; 2. Friction; and 3. The attraction caused
by motion. The first may be diminished by having the projectile pointed like a ship’s
bow. The second depends on the surface of the projectile. If it be rough and wet,
the friction is great ; if it be smooth and oily, the friction is small, This was illustrated
by the action of wind on water—oil on the water forms a vacuum between, and pre-
vents friction. The third depends on velocity. This was illustrated by inserting the
end of a quill into the centre of a card. When we blow through the quill against a
sheet of paper, the paper is attracted towards the card, instead of being blown away.
The stronger the blast the nearer it comes.
2. He next showed how the projectile may receive a spiral motion after leaving the
gun, first by the action of the air on projecting blades in front, or lateral fins thrown
out by springs. But he gave the preference to the plan of rotating by means of a
simple but peculiar sort of fire-wheel behind, producing a tangential force which
increases the rotation when most needed.
By using smooth cylindrical shot pointed in front and having this fire-wheel behind,
every large gun may be used as a rifle cannon without loss of power.
8. He next showed that the envelope of condensed air being proportioned to the
extent of surface and velocity, the larger the ball, the further it may be made to go.
But the difficulty is that at a very great distance one projectile is likely to miss. This is
remedied by building the projectile of as many or as few pieces as may be required,
and dispersing them by centrifugal force, by exploding the zine case at a certain part
of its flight.
The principle was then applied to cannons which should be large but not rifled.
In that case, they may be built, the chamber cast in brass or bronze; the barrel, a
tube girded by broad concentric hoops, manufactured spirally like gun-barrels.
It was also suggested that the projectiles be oiled and wrapt in calico before being
fired; that moveable cylinders be used in guns, so that when one is worn out another
may be put in; that touch-holes be drilled in moveable rods screwed into the gun,
and that the screw be run on different diameters, so that the enemy cannot renew them
if they be spiked; and that experiments by actual gunnery be preceded by experi-
ments in water, which represent nearly the same phaznomena at a small velocity that
occur in air at a high velocity.
On a Momentum Engine. By WiLt1AM GoRMAN.
This engine consists of a wheel, having radial scoop-shaped vanes or blades, driven
round by jets or streams of fluid projected tangentially against their extremities, which
streams describe spiral paths by contact with the revolving blades, and are discharged
near the centre of the wheel where the velocity is small, after having imparted to the
wheel as much of their motive power as possible.
A steam-engine on this principle was substituted for a high-pressure cylinder steam-
engine, was supplied with steam from the same boiler, and was set to drive the same
machinery, which it did in a satisfactory manner, although working under great dis-
advantages.
The momentum steam-engine has been in regular use for nearly two years, and has
* See Architect’s and Civil Engineer’s Journal for October 1855,
ws cata leer
pa eet se nate
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207
given every satisfaction. It has not required any repairs, gives no trouble, and is in
as good working condition as when it was set to work in 1853, For details see the
Civil Engineer and Architect’s Journal,’ October 1855.
On a Pressure Water-Meter. By WitL1AM GorMAN.
This water-meter contains a vane-wheel, driven round by the water to be measured,
which is supplied at the periphery of the wheel and withdrawn at the centre; the
principle of action being the same as in the engine above described. The openings
for the supply of the water are regulated by self-acting loaded valves, which con-
tract these orifices when the flow is small, and prevent the stream from becoming too
feeble to move the vane-wheel. The revolutions of the vane-wheel are registered by
a train of wheel-works*.
This meter has been in use in various works in Glasgow since 1852, and has given
ample satisfaction, It is not subject to derangement; and should it require adjust-
ment or repair, it can be taken away without interfering with the water supply. For
details see ‘ Civil Engineer and Architect’s Journal,’ October 1855.
On the Measurement of Ships. By Anprew Henpverson, C.F.
On Working a Steam-engine with Rarefied Air. By M. Hoven.
Mr. Holden described an experiment made under his observation in 1809, which
showed the applicability of rarefied air to an engine instead of steam.
On a Compass independent of Local Attraction.
By Rogert Jamisson, C.E.
On a new Air-Pump exhibited by James Larne.
The principal peculiarity was dispensing with the valve, two pistons being placed
in one cylinder, so as to act as valves to each other.
On the Structure of Shell Mortars without Touch-hole, to be discharged by
Galvanic Circuit. By Professor Macpona.p.
On the Metra. By Hersert Macxwortu, Government Inspector of
Mines, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S.
The instrument called “‘ Metra,” from its including a variety of measures, is in-
tended for the common use of mining and other engineers, for geologists, scientific
travellers, &c. The portability of the instrument will induce the taking of more
scientific observations by such persons. A brass box, 23 inches square and 1} inch
thick, throws open at top and bottom, fastening out by a screw so as to form a
measuring side 53 inches long.
By placing the clinonometer level at zero, and laying the side of the instrument
on the rock, the strike or level course of a bed of rock may be at once found and
read otf on the compass, which is made as large as possible. The bottom of the
compass being made of glass, the strike of the roof of a mine can be, in like manner,
found, and then read off from the under side of the card. The amount of inclination
in degrees or in inches of fall per yard, is found by the level. In the above cases
the accuracy of reading is to 3°. The level course or inclination of long lines can be
found by the two sights. For taking the direction of highly inclined lines, one of
these sights turns down, and the plummet is suspended to a screw at the other end of
the instrument. A brass surveying leg, with adjusting joints, fits into a socket on
* This engine is still in good order, working regularly, and has not required any repairs,
12th May, 1856.—Ww. Gorman.
208 REPORT—1855.
either side of the instrument. The leg can either go into a joint of stone or brick-
work, or screw into a tree, timber, walking-stick, &c., according to the purpose for
which it is to be applied. It will answer well for the detail surveying in mines,
however contracted the working places may be. The surveys may be laid down on
paper without the aid of anything but a pencil, by first adjusting the north and south
line of the plan by the compass, and fastening the paper down by weights. The
compass then serves as the protractor, and by the scales the distances are measured
off. This method saves all calculation, ruling parallel lines, &c., and obviates some
instrumental errors. The thermometer needs no remark, but that it is useful in
examining ventilation. The Goniometer consists of an arm which can be raised up
against the lid of the box, and enables the eye to measure angles, crystals, cleavage,
&c. A magnifying glass is placed in one angle of the box, in the other is a tour-
maline for examining rocks at the bottom of pools, or along coast lines, &c. In the
bottom lid is a table of constants, suited for the objects of the different classes of
observers named. By turning back the elastic band, and lifting out the small arm
and sheet of mica, and adjusting the box by the spirit-level, a delicate anemometer
without friction is obtained, particularly useful in ascertaining the velocity of the ven-
tilation in the ends of mines. There are several other uses, too long to enumerate,
which will suggest themselves in practice.
On an Application of Galvanic Power to Machinery. By Rovertr Marr.
On a Screw-vent for turning Spiked Guns into use. By Dr. Marcu.
On Maneuvring Steamers. By Gtorct Mitts.
Description of the Launch of the Steamer ‘Persia. By J. R. Napier, CE.
On a simple Boat Plug. By J. R. Napier, CLE.
On a new Method of Drying Timber. By J. R. Navier, CE.
On Practical Tables of the Latent Heat of Vapours.
By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.F. F.RSS. L. & EB,
These tables give directly the latent heat of evaporation of one cubic foot of steam,
and of zether-vapour respectively, at various temperatures and pressures of ebullition ;
such latent heat being given in foot-pounds by the formula
a
dr’
where P is the pressure and 7 the absolute temperature.
On the Operation of the Patent Laws.
By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.H., F.RSS. LL. E.
While acknowledging the benefits derived from the amended patent law, the author
pointed out the following defects in its operation as subjects for discussion in the
Section:—1. The granting of patents for useless inventions. 2. The granting of
more than one patent for the same invention during the currency of the provisional
protection of the first. 3. The granting of patents for foreign inventions to persons
other than the inventor or his assignee. How far these evils were to be removed by
improvements in the administration of the law, and how far by amendments in the
law itself, were subjects for further consideration,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209
On the Effects of Screw Propellers when moved at different Velocities and
Depths. By G. Renniz, F.R.S.
From experiments which had been made under his observation, it was desirable
that the screws of vessels should be of small dimensions, light, and of rapid motion,
and that their effect should be increased by their being as deeply immersed as pos-
ere. He also recommended the disc-engine for driving small screws aé high rates of
velocity.
On the Blasting and Quarrying of Rocks.
By Witu1am Sim, of Furnace Granite Quarries, near Inverary.
This paper gives the results of the author’s experience in the blasting of a very hard
description of granite by means of a system of mines, charged with gunpowder, con-
fined in boxes, the charges varying from 1500 to 6720 lbs.
Mr. Sim considered the subject under the following heads :—
1. As to the best position in a quarry for a large blast.
2. The mode of placing and forming the mines.
3. The formula adopted for calculating the quantity of gunpowder required.
4. The placing of the gunpowder, electric wires, and safety fuse, and the stemming
of the mines.
5. General results, with estimate of cost, and the applicability of the system to
various descriptions of rocks.
oy The paper has been published in full in the ‘Civil Engineer and Architect’s
Journal,’ and in the Glasgow ‘ Practical Mechanics’ Journal’ for October 1855.
7
On the Transmission of Time Signals. By Professor C. Prazzi SmytTu,
Astronomer Royal of Scotland. (See Section A.)
An Account of Experiments on Combustion in Furnaces, with a view to the
; Prevention of Smoke. By Dr. Taytor.
On the Friction Break Dynamometer.
By James Tuomson, A.M, C.H., Belfast.
In this paper Mr. Thomson explained the nature and principles of the Friction
Break Dynamometer, characterizing it as a highly valuable apparatus for the measure-
ment of mechanical power. He turned special attention to matters having important
bearings on its successful employment in practice, and to the consideration of which
he had been led by experience in its use on the large scale.
+. The chief difficulties to be contended with, he stated as foliows : —
@ 1. The heat generated in the consumption of the mechanical power.
2. Vibration or even entire instability of the arm of the break due to ovalness or
other imperfections of the friction drum.
3. Tremor of the driving shaft occasioned by alternate sticking and slipping of the
drum in its friction blocks, instead of steady slipping.
In regard to these matters he made statements and explanations to the following
effect :—Unless the drum be very large with reference to the power to be consumed
by it, the heat generated by the friction usually requires to be carried off by streams
of water carefully distributed over the drum. On the proper distribution of the water,
__ and its regularity of supply, much of the success of the apparatus depends, since great
irregularities in the friction ave liable to result from imperfect arrangements for the
__-water supply.
In the practical employment of the friction break dynamometer it is often necessary
to form the drum in two halves, in order that it may be got into its place on the
_ driving shaft. This arrangement, however, is often a source of great detriment to
_ the working of the apparatus, on account of the difficulty or impossibility of bringing
the two halves of the divided drum so correctly together as to form a sufficiently
perfect cylindrical surface for producing a uniform friction, In cases therefore in
4
1855. 14
an eget
210 REPORT—1855.
which the dividing of the drum cannot be avoided, the greatest possible care ought to
be taken in effecting a correct and secure union of the two parts. He had on some
occasions diminished very materially the inconvenience arising from vibrations of the
arm, by connecting a spring balance with the scale for bearing the weights, in such a
way as to make the arm tend to stable equilibrium in the position intended for it
when working.
It very frequently happens that, from no clearly apparent or controllable cause, a
violent torsional tremor occurs in the friction drum and driving shaft; while through
some very slight change of circumstances, such as a change in the heat of the drum,
or in the mode of application of the water, or in the speed of revolution of the shaft,
steadiness of motion may be instantly restored, and perhaps soon again destroyed.
The origin of the tremor he attributes to one of the known laws of the friction and
cohesion of bodies; namely, that the force necessary to overcome the cohesion before *
sliding has commenced, is usually more than the force necessary to overcome the
friction of the sliding motion. The evil liable to arise from the tremor he had found
to be very great, the danger to life of the by-standers in such experiments being
sometimes considerable. He had himself witnessed a case in which a violent tremor
occurred in the testing of a powerful water-wheel ; and, on the conclusion of the ex-
periments, the working shaft of the wheel was found to be split and twisted.
Notwithstanding the difficulties occasionally arising in the use of the friction
dynamometer, however, its remarkable efficiency, when not marred by such occurrences,
and the certainty of its indications when working properly, render it a most valuable
apparatus for practical use in many important and delicate cases often arising for
decision. It is therefore a mechanism in which improvements are much to be desired ;
and also in which, he is of opinion, they are likely to be found.
On a Centrifugal Pump and Windmill erected for Drainage and Irrigation
in Jamaica. By James Tuomson, A.M, C.E., Belfast.
In this paper Mr. Thomson gave explanations, with the aid of large drawings, of a
centrifugal pump recently constructed, embodying the improvement of an exterior
whirlpool which he had first made public in the Mechanical Section at the Belfast
Meeting in 1852. He also described a windmill with its framing of very simple con-
struction, which had been specially designed for working the pump. The apparatus
was prepared for purposes of drainage and irrigation in Jamaica, the costliness of
fuel and the habitual use of windmills in that island having led to the selection of the
windmill in this case as the source of power. The whole apparatus was constructed
in Glasgow and afterwards erected and brought into action at its destination.
On an India-rubber Valve for Drainage of Low Lands into Tidal Out-
falls. By James Tuomson, A.M, C.E., Belfast.
In this paper Mr. Thomson described a valve, composed of a flap of vulcanized
india-rubber closing against a perforated plate, which he had introduced on a water-
course of the Belfast Water-works. This valve on trial had proved to accomplish very
efficiently the purpose for which it was intended, and which required that it should
open and close with the most perfect freedom, should keep water-tight when close, and
should not be liable to be hindered from closing properly by the accidental interposi-
tion of a small piece of stick or other floating object.
It was with a view to the introduction of valves of similar construction or of like
principle for the discharge of water into tidal outfalls in the drainage of fens, that’
Mr. Thomson thought the subject worthy of the attention of the Mechanical Section. .
Vulcanized india-rubber valves had in late years, as was well known, been used for
many purposes, and in many different forms with great advantage; but he was not
aware of any cases of their employment in the manner or for the purpose he now
proposed.
On Practical Details of the Measurement of Running Water by Weir
Boards. By James Tuomson, CLE.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211
On the Navigation of the Clyde. By J. F: Ure.
Concluding Address. ByW.J.Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.RSS.L.3 E.,
President of the Section.
The papers read to this Section, though numerous and interesting, have been of
‘moderate length, as is desirable.
The discussions have been protracted, and have elicited many important facts and
suggestions.
This is characteristic of discussions. on questions of practical science.
With respect to a question of physical theory, a philosophic inquirer suspends his
judgment until experimental data sufficient for its solution have been obtained—and
then there remains little room for dispute.
On the contrary, a question of practical science usually involves the necessity for
the immediate adoption of some rule of working; and if existing data are insufficient
to give an exact solution, that solution must be acted upon which the best data attain-
able show to be the most probable. A prompt and sound judgment on this point is
one of-the essential characteristics of a practical man—using that term in its best
sense,
On such questions there is ample room, even amongst the best-informed, for differ-
ence of opinion and for discussion.
Persons acquainted only with the sectional debates might, perhaps, conclude them
to be deficient in useful results; but that conclusion would be most erroneous,
We have had in this Section ample illustration of the benefit of such debates, in
eliciting the results of the experience of various engineers and mechanicians, and in
suggesting questions for further investigation. It is the duty of the Committee of the
Section to take such questions into consideration and to recommend to the General
Committee such measures as may appear necessary for their solution, Thus the
single week occupied by each Annual Mecting of the Association is a period of
receiving reports of work done by its members, and of planning fresh work for them ;
while the period of working extends over the remainder of the year,
The proceedings of this Section, during the meeting which is now about to close,
have involved an unparalleled amount of business, and have been fruitful in suggest-
ing important subjects for investigation. I think we are entitled to say, that much
has been done, during this meeting, to advance mechanical science, and to promote
the harmony between sound theory and good practice,
__ The work to be done during the ensuing year, in consequence of the recommenda-
_ tions from the Committee of this Section, will be finally arranged to-day by the
_ General Committee; and I trust that we shall receive a good account of the per-
_ formance and effects of that work at our next meeting at Cheltenham.
APPENDIX.
On some Additions to the Geology of the Arctic Regions.
By J. W. Satter, F.G.S., ALS.
[In an accompanying map were exhibited the discoveries lately made in Arctic
_ geology, and an attempt made to show at one view all that is now known on the
subject. ] .
_ Inacommunication to the Geological Society, in 1853, I had the honour to de-
_ monstrate the existence of a wide-spread Upper Silurian formation in the lands
_ which border the Polar basin in North America.
___ The fact, mentioned both by Conybeare and Jameson, of the chain coral being
_ found in the limestones of Barrow’s Strait, would be, in the present state of our
knowledge, a sufficient proof of the existence of Silurian strata there. But it re-
* quired the extensive collections made by the expedition under Capt. Austen along
_ that strait, and those made by Penny and his comrades up Wellington Channel, to
enable us to decipher the meaning of the old lists of fossils, and to oe that an
. 14
fe
912 REPORT—1855.
uniform horizon of Upper Silurian limestone stretched from near the entrance of
Barrow’s Straits to Melville Island northwards as far as those expeditions reached,
and evidently very far to the south along Prince Regent’s Inlet. These collections,
brought home by the officers and medical gentlemen from various points, showed so
many fossils referable to the same types as our own Dudley limestone, and so entire
an absence of characteristic Lower Silurian ones, that there need be no hesitation in
referring the whole of the limestones, in a general way, to the Wenlock group.
The common fossils are Rhynchonella Phoca, Orthoceras and Murchisonia; and
there are several species identical with European ones; e. g. Pentamerus conchidium ;
a trilobite (Encrinurus levis) ; the chain-coral; Favosites, polymorpha, &c. The type
of the numerous corals is, however, rather American than European, Favistella and
Columnaria being present,—the former abundant.
The limitation of these strata to the Upper Silurian period is an independent
confirmation of the inference drawn by our able friend Mr. Logan as to the age of
the lowest rocks he was able to find north of the great Lawrentine chain. These
strata, which were certainly shore accumulations, contained in plenty the fossils of
the Clinton group (Pentamerus oblongus, Atrypa hemispherica, &c., with large spe-
cies of Orthoceras, known in North America as Upper Silurian forms). Similar spe-
cies of Orthoceras were found far to the west in lat. 62° by Sir John Richardson,
and Upper Silurian fossils have been brought by Mr. Isbister from localities
nearer to Hudson’s Bay. So that the evidence, as far as yet collected, all points
the same way, viz. that a wide extent of Polar or circumpolar land existed, during
Lower Silurian times, north of this great ridge, which land, at the commencement
of the Upper Silurian period, was depressed, covered by sea, and peopled by Mol-
lusca and Radiata like those of our own latitudes, many species being identical.
That this depression continued during the Devonian zra, we have less proof,
though it may be inferred from the character of some of the shells collected on the
Slave Lake by Richardson, and, as will be presently mentioned, from some of those
brought from the furthest point examined by Sir E. Belcher. 4
One of the great points, however, established for us by the researches of the
last-named officer and his associates, is the existence of a considerable marine Car-
boniferous formation in the highest latitudes explored.
The age of the coal plants of Melville Island was not doubtful after the statements
of Drs. Lindley and Buckland ; but it is satisfactory that Capt. M‘Clintock should
have found in that island, a degree further north than the coal, shells distinctly
comparable with those of our own mountain limestone. The Rev. Prof. Haughton
has recognized two British species among them; they are from lat. 76°. Winter
Harbour is 75°.
In skirting the newly discovered coast-line of Albert Land, in lat. 78°, Capt.
Belcher found the shore, especially at a place called Depét Point, strewn with blocks
of a whitish-gray limestone, mixed with some redder fragments, all full of beauti-
fully preserved fossils. These he has placed in the Museum of Practical Geology.
They prove to be all truly carboniferous types : corals of the genera Clistophyllum,
Zaphrentis, Lithostrotion, Stylastrea and Michelinia; Brachiopod shells, Producti
and Spirifers, with Fenestella, and a new foraminiferous shell of a peculiarly carbo-
niferous character, viz. a large species of Fusulina.
This Fusulina, F. hyperborea, is five times as large as the common Russian species,
and is constricted in the middle. It isa most interesting example of the concurrence
of similar organic forms with like geological periods. The little Fusulina of Moscow
is no bigger than a grain of wheat, but occurs in myriads. A still smaller, rounder
species is characteristic of the mountain limestone in Asia Minor; and here, in the
Polar circle, another species, gigantic in comparison, occupies the same place, and
keeps up the facies of the carboniferous fauna.
The corals, with one or two exceptions, are not known European species,—a fact
in harmony with the previous investigations of Edwards and Haime. Stylastrea
inconferta of Lonsdale is not, however, rare, and was first described from Russia.
The Brachiopods, as usual, are the cosmopolite forms. We cannot distinguish
the two species of Producti, P. semireticulatus and P. Cora, from English fossils.
And when it is remembered that these are found, wherever the Carboniferous rocks
have been examined, from India to the Icy Sea, in South America, and one of them
ee ee sop ae eee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 213
in Australia, they would appear the most likely of all to have reached these high
latitudes.
With them is a fossil which as yet has only a polar or subpolar range. Von Buch
described in 1846 the few relics obtained by Keilhau in exploring a small island
(Bear Island, lat. 74° 30’) between Spitzbergen and the North Cape. The cliffs were
limestone, capping coal shales (with ferns), and contained the above-named Productus
Cora, with other European species. The principal fossil was a Spirifer of peculiar
form, which he named after its discoverer, S. Ketlhavii, and figured in the Berlin
Transactions. Curiously enough, this species, which appears to range to the Icy
Sea in Russia, is the most abundant of the Arctic fossils brought home by Capt.
Belcher. He found it both at Depot Point and on the island he has called Exmouth
Island, between the coast and North Cornwall. The Productus Cora was found in
situ on the summit of the island, which consists of a red ferruginous sand with balls
of pyrites, and capped by reddish limestone, which is thus proved to be carboniferous.
The age of the red sandstone is equivocal. On the main land it is interstratified
with a fissile greywacke grit, which forms considerable cliffs stretching away to the
eastward, to North Yorkshire and Cardigan Straits, on the shores of which a
blackish earthy limestone occurs, quite different to that of Albert Land, and with
different fossils. There are species of Rhynchonella, Orthis, and Spirifer, which all
have a Devonian aspect, and small Producti are associated in it with Atrypa reticu-
laris, which species is never found in carboniferous rocks.
If this indication be accepted (and I think it a good one), that the Devonian sy-
stem is here interposed between the Silurian plateau and the Carboniferous rocks, it
would be satisfactory ; and it is worth while to remember here, that in the easterly
trend of these rocks Dr, Sutherland discovered a considerable formation of stratified
_ sandstones along the north-eastern end of Baffin’s Bay. I have provisionally given
them the same colour. But nothing is known of the intervening ground.
The terminal member of the Paleozoic series, the Permian, is not yet traced in
Polar America. But in Spitzbergen it has long been known, and we are indebted
to Prof. De Koninck for a valuable list, chiefly European species, from thence. The
Productus horridus and P. cancrini, Spirifer alatus and S. cristatus, are too well
known to need any comment. They were collected at Bell Sound by M. Robert, in
a latitude as high as that of Albert Land.
And now we come to the most interesting part of the Geology of the Arctic Basin,
for I must be permitted, with the evidences before cited of an ascending section
northwards, to call it so.
The reddish limestone forming the cap of Exmouth Island before referred to, is
clearly, from its fossils, of carboniferous date. But in building the cairn on the
summit, the fragments of limestone were carefully examined, and some of them at
least contained bones of Vertebrata, which, under Prof. Owen’s examination, have
turned out to be Ichthyosaurus! Sir Edward Belcher assures me there was no per-
ceptible difference between the fragments with bones and those with the Carboni-
ferous shells above quoted. Yet this similarity of composition need not prevent our
inferring that on this summit we have an outlying patch of Oolitic or Liassic rocks
brought into close contact with the old limestone.
And as confirming the idea of the fossils being here in situ, and not drifted masses,
Capt. M‘Clintock had the good fortune to discover oolitic or lias fossils, Ammo-
nites, Spirifers, Pecten, &c., in Prince Patrick’s Land, lat. 7 6° 30’, long. 117°. These
are quoted in the Royal Dublin Society’s Journal for Nov. 1854. By referring to
the map, it will be seen that the trend from this point to Exmouth Island follows
nearly the direction E. by N. which the Carboniferous formation takes in its range
from Melville Island to Albert Land. Science is greatly indebted to both these
_ gallant officers for their exertions.
In the Dublin Journal above quoted are some excellent observations by Dr. Scouler
on the Tertiary (miocene probably) flora of W. Greenland; but these do not come
within the object of this communication. It is worth while, in conclusion, to ob-
serve, that elevation of the land has taken place since the period of the (drift ?), for
_ Arctic shells imbedded in it were found by the former expedition as far as 500 feet
above the sea-level, and Capt. Belcher has found bones of large Vertebrata (whales ?)
| at even greater elevations.
ny
¥
INDEX I.
TO
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Oss ECTS and Rules of the Association,
xvii.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xx.
Members of Council from commence-
ment, xxiii.
Treasurer’s account, xxv.
Officers and Council, xxvi.
Officers of Sectional Committees, xxvii.
Corresponding Members, xxviii.
Report of Council to General Committee
at Glasgow, xxviii.
Report of Kew Committee, xxx ; supple-
mentary report, xxxvii.
Accounts of the Kew Committee, xlvi.
Report of the Parliamentary Committee,
xvii, xlviii.
Recommendations adopted by the General
Committee, Glasgow:—involving grants
of money, lxili; applications to Govern-
ment or public institutions, lxiv; re-
port of Parliamentary Committee, Ixv ;
reports and researches, lxv.
Printing of Communications, lxvi.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific objects, Ixvii.
General statement of sumspaid onaccount
of grants for scientific purposes, Ixviii.
Extracts from resolutions of the General
Committee, Ixxi.
Arrangement of general meetings, Ixxii.
Address by the Duke of Argyll, Ixxiii.
Amphipoda, 16, 57.
Anemometer, on the self-registering, at
Liverpool observatory, 127.
Animal kingdom, on a scheme to exhibit
the equivalent classes and subclasses of
the, 126.
Ansell (Mr.) on a fire-ball seen at Lang-
ley, 92.
Anthozoa, list of, as typical objects for
local museums, 121.
Arachnida, list of, as typical objects for
local museums, 118.
Argyll (the Duke of), report on metals-
for ordnance, 100.
Aves, list of, supplied as typical objects
for local museums, 111.
Baird (Dr.), list of Entomostraca as ty-
pical objects for local museums, 120.
Bate (C. Spence) on the British Edrioph-
thalma, 16.
Bateman (John Frederic) on the present
state of our knowledge on the supply
of water to towns, 62.
Beeston observatory, on meteors seen
from the, 99.
Belcher (Capt. Sir E.), report on ‘metals
for ordnance, 100.
Belfast dredging committee, report of one
day’s dredging by the, 143.
Bell (T.), list of Podophthalma as typical
objects for local museums, 119.
Boiler explosions, on, 143.
Boiler plates, on the strength of, 143.
Bond (Prof. W. C.) on a meteor seen at
Cambridge, U.S., 96.
Busk (G.), list of Polyzoa as typical ob-
jects for local museums, 117; Antho-
zoa, 121.
_ Cambridge, U.S., on a meteor seen at, 95.
Cirripedia, list of, as objects for local
museums, 121.
Coal-mines, on the relation between ex-
plosions in, and revolving storms, 1.
216
Coblentz, on a meteor seen near, 94.
Compass needle, on the deviations of the,
in iron and other vessels occasioned by
inductive or polar magnetism, 143.
Couch (Jonathan), list of Pisces as typical
objects for local museums, 113.
Darwin (C.), list of Cirripedia as objects
for local museums, 121.
Daubeny (Dr.), fifteenth report on the
growth and vitality of seeds, 78.
Dobson (Thomas) on the relation between
explosions in coal-mines and revolving
storms, l.
Edriophthalma, on the British, 18.
Entomostraca, list of, as typical objects
for local museums, 120.
Fairbairn (William), report on metals for
ordnance, 100; on the strength of
boiler plates, 143; on boiler explo-
sions, 20.
Fire-ball seen at Langley, by Mr. Ansell,
on a, 92,
Gedling, near Nottingham, on two me-
teors seen at, 99.
Gladstone (J. H.) on the influence of the
solar radiations on the vital powers of
plants growirg under different atmo-
spheric conditions, Part III., 15.
Grantham (John) on the deviations of
the compass needle in iron and other
vessels occasioned by inductive or
polar magnetism, 143.
Henderson (A.) on life-boats, 143.
Henslow (Prof.), fifteenth report on the
growth and vitality of seeds, 78; first
report on a typical series of objects in
natural history adapted to local mu-
seums, 108 ; list of objects for a typical
herbarium for local museums, 124.
Herbarium, list of objects for a typical,
for local museums, 124.
Huxley (Prof.) on a scheme to exhibit
the equivalent classes and subclasses
of the animal kingdom, 126.
India, account of a meteor accompanying
a thunder-storm and earthquake in,
96. ,
Iron and other vessels, on the deviations
of the compass needle in, occasioned
by inductive or polar magnetism, 143.
Life-boats, on, 143.
Lindley (Prof.), fifteenth report on the
growth and vitality of seeds, 78.
INDEX I.
Liverpool observatory, an account of the
self-registering anemometer and rain-
gauge at, 127.
Lowe (K. J.), luminous meteors observed
by, in 1854—1£55, 80; on meteors seen
from the observatory at Beeston, 99.
Magnetism, on the deviations of the com-
pass needle in iron and other vessels,
occasioned by inductive or polar, 143.
Meade (R. H.), list of Arachnida as ty-
pical objects for local museums, 118.
Mersey, on the changes which have taken
place in the channels of the, during the
last fifty years, 143.
Metals for ordnance, report on, 100.
Meteors :—observations of luminous, 79;
observed by J. Watson, 93; seen near
Coblentz, 94; observed at Cambridge,
U.S., 95; accompanying a thunder-
storm and earthquake in India, 96;
on two seen at Gedling, 99; seen from
the observatory at Beeston, 2.
Mineral kingdom, list of typical objects
in the, for local museums, 125.
Mollusca, list of, as typical objects for
local museums, 114, 117.
Museums, local, on atypical series of ob-
jects in natural history, adapted to,
108.
Nasmyth (James), report on metals for
ordnance, 100.
Natural history, on a typical series of
objects in, adapted to local museums,
108.
Neilson (J. Beaumont), report on metals
for ordnance, 100.
Ordnance, report on metals for, 100.
Osler (A. Follett), an account of the self-
registering anemometer andrain-gauge,
erected at Liverpool observatory in the
autumn of 3851, with a summary of
the records for 1852-1855, 127.
Pisces, list of, as typical objects for local
museums, 113. ;
Plants, on the influence of the solar ra-
diations on the vital powers of, growing
under different atmospheric conditions,
a'5:
Podophthalma, list of, as typical objects
for local museums, 119.
Polypes, drawings of, taken by the Bel-
fast dredging committee, 143.
Powell (Rev. Baden), report on observa-
tions of luminous meteors, 1854, 1855,
79.
Pumps, on centrifugal, 143.
~
Rain-gauge, on the self-registering, at
Liverpool observatory, 127.
Rankine (W. J. Macquorn), report on
metals for ordnance, 100.
Reports, provisional, 143.
Robinson (Rev. Dr.), report on metals
for ordnance, 100.
Sclater (P. L.), list of Aves as typical ob-
jects for local museums, 111.
Scoresby (Rev. Dr.), report on metals for
ordnance, 100.
Seeds, fifteenth report on the growth and
vitality of, 78.
Skeleton, on the microscopic structure of
the integumentary, 16.
Solar radiations, on the influence of the,
on the vital powers of plants growing
under different atmospheric conditions,
15.
Storms, on the relation between explo-
sions in coal-mines and revolving, 1.
Swann (Rev. K.) on two meteors seen
at Gedling, 99.
Thomson (James) on the friction of disks
inwater, andon centrifugal pumps, 143.
INDEX II.
217
Thomson (Prof. Wyville), drawings of
polypes taken by the Belfast dredging
committee, 143.
Towns, on the present state of our
knowledge on the supply of water
to, 62.
Virgularia mirabilis, 143.
Water, on the present state of our know-
ledge on the supply of, to towns, 62;
on that obtained from springs, 65 ;
from artesian wells, 69; from rivers,
72; from ‘‘ gathering grounds,” 73;
from natural lakes, 77 ;_ on the friction
of disks in, 143.
Watson (J.) on a meteor observed by, 93.
Whitworth (Joseph), report on metals
for ordnance, 100.
Woodward (S. P.), list of Mollusca as
typical objects’ for local museums,
114.
Yates (J. B.), first reporton the deviations
of the compass needle in iron and other
vessels, occasioned by inductive or polar
magnetism, 143.
INDEX II.
TO
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
. SECTIONS.
ABERDEEN, on the effects of last win-
ter upon vegetation at, 105.
Acari, on the existence of, in mica, 9.
Achromatism, on the, of a double object-
glass, 14.
Acid, on an indirect method of ascertain-
ing the presence of phosphoric, in rocks,
55; on a new form of cyanic, 64; on
certain Jaws observed in the mutual
action of sulphuric, and water, 70; on
the action of carbo-azotic, on the human
body, 121.
Adams (W. Bridges) on railways and
their varieties, 202; on artillery and
projectiles, 203.
Adamson (Dr.) on the fixing of photo-
graphs, 7.
Africa, onthe recent additions to our know-
ledge of the zoology of Western, 114;
on some of the peculiar circumstances
connected with one of the coins used on
the west coast of, 140; on late explo-
rations in, 146; on the Portuguese pos-
sessions of south-west, 147; extracts
from letters describing Dr. Livingston’s
journey across tropical, 148.
Agricultural labourers of England and
Wales, on the, 171.
Agriculture, on the application of the prin-
ciple of “ vivaria”’ to, 111.
‘218
Air, rarefied, on working a steam-engine
with, 207.
Air-pump, on a new, 207.
Albatros, on the peculiar development of
the Vermis cerebelli in the, 133.
Algz and other plants, on the employ-
ment of, in the manufacture of soaps,
103; on the sexuality of the, 122.
Alison (Dr. W. P.) on the application of
statistics to questions of medical science,
particularly as to the external causes of
diseases, 155.
Alkaline earths, on the metals of the, 66.
Allan (Robert) on the condition of the
Haukedalr geysers of Iceland, 75.
Allman (Prof.) on the signification of the
so-called ova of the Hippocrepian poly-
zoa, and on the development of the pro-
per embryo in these animals, 118.
Alloys, on, 50.
Aluminium, on the thermo-electric posi-
tion of, 20; large bar of, exhibited, 64.
Alums, on a mode of conserving the alka-
line sulphates contained in, 62.
Amazon water-courses of South America,
on the, 155,
America, on “ equitable villages ” in, 183.
Anderson (C. J.) on iate explorations in
Africa, 146.
Anderson (George) on the superficial
deposits laid open by the cuttings on
the Inverness and Nairn railroad, 78.
Andrews (Dr. Thomas) on the polar de-
composition of water by common and
atmospheric electricity, 46; on the allo-
tropic modifications of chlorine and
bromine analogous to the ozone from
oxygen, 48.
Andrometer, on the form and dimensions
of the human body, as ascertained by
an, 127.
Anemometrical observations, on naval,45.
Animals, notes on, 117; on the vertebral
homologies in, 128; on the antrum py-
lori in, 132; on the history of fecun-
dation in different, 139.
Antrum pylori in man and animals, on
the, 132.
Appendix, 211.
Aquarium, marine, on the effects of an ex-
cess or wantof heat and light in the, 117.
Arbroath, on the fall of rain at, 30.
Archer (Rev. T. C.) on some peculiar
circumstances connected with one of
the coins used on the west coast of
Africa, 140.
Arctic circle, on the trunk of a tree dis-
covered erect as it grew within the, 101.
Arctic expedition, on the late, 147, 149.
Arctic regions, on the geology of the, 211.
INDEX II.
Arctic searching expedition, on the disco-
very of Ichthyosaurus and other fossils
in the late, 79.
Argonaut, on the male of the, 127.
Arran, on a lately discovered tract of
granite in, 80; on certain trap dykes
in, 94,
Arsenic, on the compounds of tin with, 64.
Artillery and projectiles, on, 203.
Arvicole, on the species of, found in
Nova Scotia, 110.
Ascaris mystax, on the fecundation of the
ova in, 131; on the structure and for~
mation of the spermatozoa in, 138.
Astronomy, 25.
Atlantic, on wind charts of the, 39.
Atlantic water-courses of South America,
on the, 155.
Atmosphere, on the condition of the, du-
ring cholera, 71.
Attraction, on a compass independent of
local, 207.
Aurora borealis, on the, 42.
Australia, on the auriferous quartz for-
mation of, 81; on the growth and com-
mercial progress of, 188.
Aztec crania, on, 145,
Babbage (Henry P.) on mechanical no-
tation as exemplified in the Swedish
calculating machine of Messrs. Scheiitz,
203.
Babylon, geographical and historical re-
sults*of the French scientific expedition
to, 148.
Baikie (Dr. W. B.) on the late expedition
up the Niger and Tchadda rivers, 146.
Baker (J. G.), an attempt to classify the
flowering plants and ferns of Great Bri-
tain according to their geognostic rela-
tions, 99; on Galium montanum, Thuill.,
and G.commutatum, Jord., 100.
Balfour (Dr.), specimens illustrating the
distribution of plants in Great Britain,
and remarks on the flora of Scotland,
100.
Balls to be thrown from common guns, on
a new kind of, 206.
Banks (Richard) on the recent discovery
of ichthyolites and crustacea inthe
tilestones of Kington, 78.
Barklay (Robert) on an instrument for
sounding, 205.
Barnett (Mr.) on photographic researches,
48
Barrett (Lucas) on the Brachiopoda ob-
served in a dredging tour with Mr,
M‘Andrew on the coast of Norway in
the summer of the present year 1855,
106,
Cees ™
Barth (Dr.), description of Timbuctoo, its
population and commerce, 140.
Belcher (Capt. Sir Edward) on the disco-
very of Ichthyosaurus and other fossils
in the late Arctic searching expedition,
1852-54, 79; on the trunk of a tree
discovered erect as it grew, within the
Arctic circle, to the northward of the
narrow strait which runs into the Wel-
lington Sound, 101; on the late Arctic
expedition, 147.
Bennett (Dr. J. Hughes) on the law of
molecular elaboration in organized bo-
dies, 119.
Bentham (Lady) on an improved mode
of keeping accounts in our national
establishments, 159; on continuous
work in dockyards, 205.
Berkleyan controversy, an attempt to scelve
some of the difficulties of the, by well-
ascertained physiological and psycholo-
gical facts, 123.
Billings (R. M.) on the mechanical prin-
ciples of ancient tracery, 205.
Binocular vision of surfaces of different
colours, on the, 9.
Birds, on the muscles of the extremities of,
137.
Births, deaths, and marriages, on the fluc-
tuations in the number of, in the metro-
polis during 1840 to 1854 inclusive,
167.
Blyth (Prof.) on the cleavage of the De-
vonians of the south of Ireland, 82.
Boat-plug, on a simple, 208.
Bonapartea for furnishing fibre for paper
pulp, on the, 104.
Bone, episcaphoid, in both hands of a
Guarani man, 134,
Botany, 99.
Boult (J.) on the importance of periodical
engineering surveys of tidal harbours,
illustrated by a comparison of the sur-
veys of the river Mersey by the late F.
Giles, and the marine surveys of the
Port, 147, 205.
Bowring (Sir John), an account of his
Mission to Siam, 149.
Brachiopoda, on the, obsexved in a dredg-
ing tour with Mr. M‘Andrew on the
coast of Norway, 106.
Braid (James) on the physiology of fas-
cination, 120.
Brain, on the explanation of the crossed
influence of the, 136; of the Troglo-
dytes niger, 139.
Brand (Mr. Consul) on the Portuguese
possessions of South-west Africa, 147.
‘ Brass,’ on the chemical composition of
some iron ores called, 66,
INDEX II.
219
Bread, on a new mode of making, 64; on
the composition of, 66.
Brewster (Sir David) on the triple spec-
trum, 7; on the remains of plants in
calcareous spar from King’s county,
Ireland, 9; on the existence of Acari
in mica, 2b.; on the binocular vision of
surfaces of different colours, ib.; on the
absorption of matter by the surfaces of
bodies, ib. ; on the phenomena of de-
composed glass, 10.
Bromine, on the allotropic modifications of,
analogous to the ozone from oxygen, 48.
Broun (Astronomer) on the establish-
ment of a magnetic meteorological and
astronomical observatory on the moun-
tain of Angusta Mullay, at 6200 feet,
in Travancore, 25.
Brown (Alexander) on the fall of rain at
Arbroath, 30.
Bryce (James) on the glacial phenomena
of the Lake district of England, 80; on
a lately discovered tract of granite in
Arran, 80.
Bryson (Alexander) on sections of fossils
from the coal-formation of Mid-Lo-
thian, 80.
Buchanan (Dr. A.) on the physiological
law of mortality, and on certain devia-
tions froin it, observed about the com-
mencement of adult life, 160; on a
mechanical process by which a life table
commencing at birth may be converted
into a table, in every respect similar,
commencing at any other period of
life, 163.
Buchanan (John) on ancient canoes found
at Glasgow, 80.
Buist (George) on remarkable hailstorms
in India, from March 1851 to May
1855, 31.
Bunsen (Prof.), photochemical researches
with reference to the laws of the che-
mical action of light, 48.
Burton (Lieut.-Col.), account of a visit to
Medina from Suez, by way of Jambo,
147.
Cadmacetite, on the optical properties of,
Li.
Caithness, fossil plants of the old red
sandstone of, 85.
Calculating machine of Messrs, Scheiitz,
on mechanical notation as exemplified
in the, 203.
California, on the growth and commercial
progress of the Pacific state of, 188.
Calvert (Prof. F. Crace) on the manu-
facture of iron by purified coke, 49 ; on
alloys, 50; on the action of sulphuretted
220
hydrogen on salts of zine and copper,
51; on the action of the carbo-azotic
acid and the carbo-azotates on the hu-
man body, 121.
Cambrian rocks of the Longmynd, on
some fossils from the, 95.
Cameron (Paul) on the making and mag-
netizing of steel magnets, 10; on the
deviations of the compass in iron ships
and the means of adjusting them, id.
Campbell (D.) on Dr. Clarke’s process
for softening water, 54.
Campbell (J. A.) on the auriferous quartz
formation of Australia, 81.
Camps (Dr. William) on an abnormal
condition of the nervous system, 121.
Canada, on the meteorology of, 42.
Canoes, on ancient, found at Glasgow, 80.
Capillary attraction and motion, on the
mutual influence of, in projectiles, 206.
Carbo-azotic acid and carbo-azotates, on
the action of the, on the human body,
121.
Carpenter (Dr.) on the occurrence of the
pentacrinoid larva of Comatula rosacea,
in Lamlash Bay, Isle of Arran, 107 ;
on the structure and development of
Orbitolites complanatus, ib.
Cartesian theory of analytic geometry, on
the, 5.
Caseine, on, 73.
Cayley (A.) on the porism of the in-and-
circumscribed triangle, 1.
Cells of the small intestines, on a peculiar
structure lately discovered in the epi-
thelial, 126.
Celtic crania, on, 145.
Chambers (Robert) on denudation and
other effects usually attributed to water,
81.
Chemistry, 46.
Chevallier (Rev. Prof.) on an analogy
between heat and electricity, 10; ona
rainbow seen after sunset, 38.
Children, on measures relating to the
adoption of the family and agricultural
system of training in the reformation
of criminal and destitute, 179.
Chlorine, on the allotropic modifications
of, analogous to the ozone from oxy-
gen, 48.
Cholera, on the condition of the atmo-
sphere during, 71.
Civilization, on the different centres of,
141.
Clark (Dr.), description of his process for
softening water, 54.
Clark (P.) on the flowering of Victoria
Regia in the Royal Botanic Garden,
Glasgow, 102.
INDEX II.
Clarke (R.) on prevailing diseases of
Sierra Leone, 164.
Claudet (Antoine) on the polystereopti-
con, 10.
Claussen (Chevalier de) on the preserva-
tion of the potato crops, 54; on the
Hancornia speciosa, artificial gutta-
percha and india-rubber, 103; on the
employment of Algze and other plants
in the manufacture of soaps, 7).; on
Papyrus, Bonapartea, and other plants
which can furnish fibre for paper pulp,
104.
Clyde, on the chemical composition of
the waters of the, 64; on the shelly
deposits of the basin of the, 96; on the
fauna of the, 114; on the navigation
of the, 211.
Coal, on a series of preparations obtained
from the decomposition of Cannel and
the Torbane Hill, 99 ; on a recent geo-
logical survey of the region between
Constantinople and Broussa, in Asia
Minor, in search of, 94.
Coal-formations, on sections of fossils
from the Mid-Lothian, 80; on the fossils
of the, of Nova Scotia, 81.
Coal-measures of South Wales, on the
chemical composition of some iron ores
called “ brass”’ in the, 66.
Coal-napktha, on some of the basic con-
stituents of, 74.
Coal trade of the west of Scotland, on
the progress, extent and value of the,
193.
Cobbold (T. Spencer) on a new species
of Trematode worm (Fasciola gigan-
tica), 108; on a malformed trout, 109;
on a curious pouched condition of the
glandule Peyeriane in the giraffe,
122.
Cochineal, on a simple volumetric process
for the valuation of, 68.
Cohn (Dr. Ferdinand) on the sexuality
of the Algz, 122.
Coinage, on, 184.
Coins, on peculiar circumstances con-
nected with one of the, used on the
west coast of Africa, 140.
Coke, on the manufacture of iron by
purified, 49.
Coldstream (Dr. John) on some of the
results deducible from the report on
the statics of disease in Ireland,
published with the census of 1851,
164.
Collins (Matthew) on the possible and
impossible cases of quadratic duplicate
equalities in the diophantine analysis,
a a «aes
INDEX Ii. 921
Colours, on the binocular vision of sur-
faces of different, 9.
Comatula rosacea, on the occurrence of
the pentacrinoid larva of, in Lamlash
Bay, Isle of Arran, 107.
Compass, on the deviations of the, in
iron ships, and the means of adjusting
them, 10; on the means of investi-
gating the laws which govern the de-
viation of the, 22; on a, independent
of local attraction, 207.
Connell (Prof.), improvements on a dew-
point hygrometer, 38.
Constantinople and Broussa, on a recent
geological survey of the region between,
in search of coal, 94.
Consumption, tubercular, on the origin
of, 131.
Copper, on the action of sulphuretted
hydrogen on salt of, 51.
Coregoni of Scotland, on the, 111.
Craig telescope at Wandsworth, photo-
graph of the, exhibited, 12.
Crania, on Celtic, Sclavic, and Aztec,
145; on the forms of the, of the an-
cient Romans, 142.
Crawfurd (John) on the different centres
of civilization, 141.
Crime, on the localities of, in Suffolk, 167.
Crimea, on the flowers and vegetation of
the, 106.
Crosse (Mrs.) on the apparent mechani-
eal action accompanying electrical
transfer, 55.
Crustacea, discovery of, in the tilestones
of Kington, 78; on new forms of, from
the district of Lesmahagow, 96.
Crustacean, on a phyllopod, in the upper
Ludlow rock of Ludlow, 98.
Cull (Richard), Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry and the Ethnology of Polynesia,
141 ; on some water-colour portraits of
natives of Van Diemen’s Land, 142;
on the complexion and hair of the an-
cient Egyptians, id.
Currency, an analysis of some of the prin-
ciples which regulate the effects of a
convertible paper, 165; on the laws of
the, in Scotland, 166.
Dalmatia, on the formations of, 83.
Darien, an account of the exploration of
the Isthmus of, 148.
Darling (W.) on the probable maximum
depth of the ocean, 81.
Daubeny (Dr.) on an indirect method of
ascertaining the presence of phosphoric
acid in rocks, where the quantity of
that ingredient was too minute to be
determinable by direct analysis, 55;
on the action of light on the germina-
tion of seeds, 56; on the influence of
light on the germination of plants,
103.
Davis (Joseph Barnard) on the forms of
the crania of the ancient Romans, 142.
Dawson (J. W.) on the fossils of the coal-
formation of Nova Scotia, 81; on the
species of Meriones and Arvicolz found
in Nova Scotia, 110.
Deaths, on the fluctuations in the number
of, in the metropolis, during 1840 to
1854 inclusive, 167.
Decimal arrangement of land measures,
on, 165.
Decimal accounts, on, 184.
Dempster (Mr.), model of a dredge by,
118.
Denudation and other effects usually at-
tributed to water, on, 81.
Deposits, on the superficial, laid open by
the cuttings on the Inverness and
Nairn railroad, 78.
Devonians of the south of Ireland, on the
cleavage of the, 82.
Diamagnetic bodies, experimental de-
monstration of the polarity of, 22.
Dickie (Dr.), remarks on the effects of last
winter upon vegetation at Aberdeen,
105; on the homologies of Lepismide,
110.
Dingle promontory, on the geology of
the, 83.
Diomedea exulans, on the peculiar de-
velopment of the Vermis cerebelli in
the, 133.
Diophantine analysis, on the possible and
impossible cases of quadratic duplicate
equalities in the, 2.
Disease in Ireland, results deducible from
the report on the statics of, 164.
Diseases, on the application of statistics
to questions as to the external causes
of, 155.
Dockyards, on continuous work in, 205.
Donné, demonstration of the Trichomonas
vaginalis of, 125.
Dredge, model of a, by Mr. Dempster,
118.
Duncan (Dr.) on impregnation in phane-
rogamous plants, 106.
Dynamometer, on the friction break, 209.
Earths, on the metals of the alkaline, 66.
Edmonds (G.) on a philosophic universal
language, 145.
Education, gymnastic, on the application
of physiological principles to, 134.
Edwards (J. B.) on the titaniferous iron
of the Mersey shore, 61.
222
Egyptians, on the complexion and hair
of the ancient, 142,
Electric cable, experimental observations
on an, 23.
Electric currents in submarine telegraph
wires, on peristaltic induction of, 21,
Electrical potentials and capacities, on
new instruments for measuring, 22.
Electrical transfer, on the apparent me-
chanical action accompanying, 55.
Electricity, 7; on an analogy between
heat and, 10; on the detection and
measurement of atmospheric, by the
photo-barograph and _ thermograph,
40; on the polar decomposition of
water by common and atmospheric, 46.
Electro-magnet, experiments with a large,
12.
Ellis (Alexander J.) on a more general
theory of analytical geometry, including
the Cartesian as a particular case, 5;
on a universal alphabet with ordinary
letters for the use of geographers, eth-
nologists, &e., 148.
Emigration, on the, of the last ten years
from the United Kingdom, and from
France and Germany, 188,
England, on the ethnology of, at the ex-
tinction of the Roman government in
the island, 146; on the agricultural
labourers of, 171.
Epithelial cells, on a peculiar structure
lately discovered in the, of the small
intestines, 126.
‘« Equitable villages” in America, on, 183.
Ethnolegy, 140; of Polynesia, 141.
Europe, new geological map of, exhibited,
Exhibition, Universal, of Paris, on the
machinery of the, 206.
Factory life, on the influence of, on the
health of the operatives, 171.
Fairbairn (Wm.) on the machinery of the
Universal Exhibition of Paris, 206.
Farrar (Rev. A. S.) on the late eruption
of Vesuvius, 55.
Fascination, on the physiology of, 120.
Fasciola gigantica, on a new species of,
108.
Fat, on the absorption of, into the system,
126,
Fauna, on the, of the Lower Silurians of
the south of Scotland, 99; of the Clyde,
114.
Faussett Collection, on a Roman sepul-
chral inscription on an Anglo-Saxon
urn in the, 145.
Feeundation in different animals, on the
history of, 139.
INDEX II.
Femur, on the use of the round ligament
of the head of the, 135.
Ferns, an attempt to classify the, of Great
Britain, aecording to their geognostic
relations, 99; on a collection of, from
Portugal, 106.
Fishes, on transparent, from Messina, 111;
on the structure of the ova of, 131.
FitzRoy’s (Captain) wind charts of the
Atlantic, compiled from Maury’s pilot
charts, 39.
Fleming (Rev. F.), journey across the
rivers of British Kaffraria, 147.
Flora of Scotland, remarks on the, 100;
on the fossil, 83.
Flowers of the Crimea, on the, 106.
Feetal life, on the chemistry of, 135.
Food of artisans, on the quality of, in an
artificially heated atmosphere, 63.
Forbes (David) on the action of sulphu-
rets on metallic silicates at high tem-
peratures, 62; on the relation of the
Silurian and metamorphic rocks of the
south of Norway, 82.
Fornix cerebri in man, mammals, and
other vertebrata, on the, 133.
Fossils, on sections of, frem the coal
formation of Mid-Lothian, 80; of the
coal formation of Nova Scotia, 81; on
the recent discoveries of, in the crystal-
line rocks of the North Highlands, 85;
from the Cambrian rocks of the Long-
mynd, on some, 95.
Foucault (Léon) on the heat produced by
the influence of the magnet upon bodies
in motion, 11. .
Fowler (Dr. Richard), an attempt to solve
some of the difficulties of the Berkleyan
controversy by well-ascertained physio-
logical and psychological facts, 128.
France, on the emigration of the last ten
years from, 183.
Frankland (Prof.) on some organic com-
pounds containing metals, 62; on a
mode of conserving the alkaline sul-
phate contained in alums, ib.
Frémy (Prof. E.) on the extraction of me-
tals from the ore of platinum, 63.
Frélich (Count D.), an analysis of some
of the principles which regulate the
effects of a convertible paper currency,
165. 4
Fulton (James) on the application (for
ceconomic and sanitary objects) of the
principle of “ vivaria” to agriculture
and other purposes of life, 111.
Furlong (C. H.) on a collection of ferns
from Portugal, 106.
Furnaces, experiments on combustion in,
209,
Gale (Peter) on decimal arrangement of
- land measures, 165.
_ Galium montanum and G. commutatum,
. on, 100.
Gall (James, jun.) on improved mono-
graphic projections of the world, 148;
on the mutual influence of capillary at-
traction and motion on projectiles, and
its application to the construction of a
new kind of rifle shells and balls to be
thrown from common guns; 206.
Galletley (J.) on a new glucocide con-
tained in the petals of a wallflower, 63.
_ Galloway (R.) on the quality of food of
artisans in an artificially heated atmo-
sphere, 63; on the use of phosphate of
potash in a salt-meat dietary, 7d.
Galvanic circuit, on the structure of shell
mortars without touch-holes to be dis-
charged by, 207.
Galvanic power to machinery, on an ap-
plication of, 208.
Galvanic stimuli, on the mode of action
of, directly applied to the muscles, 131.
Gas-battery, on a new form of the, 15.
Gemmel (Rey. J.) on the deciphering of
t inscriptions on two seals, found by Mr.
i Layard at Koyunjik, 145,
_ Geographers, on a universal alphabet with
ordinary letters for the use of, 143.
Geography, 146.
_ Geological Section, 75.
_ Geology, on the use of observations of
terrestrial temperature for the investi-
3 gation of absolute dates in, 18.
Geology of the Dingle promontory, Ire-
land, on the, 83.
Geometry, on a more general theory of, 5.
Germany, on the emigration of the last
ten years from, 183.
_ Geysers of Iceland, on the condition of
_ the Haukedalr, July 1855, 75.
Giantess, on the pelvis of a Lapland, 134.
_ Gilbart (J. W.) on the laws of the cur-
rency in Scotland, 166.
; Giraffe, on a curious pouched condition
of the Glandulz Peyerianz in the, 122.
_ Glacial phenomena of the Lake district of
__ England, on the, 80.
_ Gladstone (J. H.) on a crystalline deposit
___ of gypsum in the reservoir of the High-
___ gate waterworks, 63.
Glandule Peyeriane in the giraffe, on a
curious pouched condition of the, 122.
Glasgow, on ancient canoes found at, 80;
on the flowering of Victoria Regia in the
_ Royal Botanic Garden at, 102; on the
_ Vivaria now exhibited in the City Hall,
114; statistics of a grammar-school
class of 115 boys at, 192.
— So
re wher:
INDEX IT.
223
Glass, on the phenomena of decomposed,
10.
Globe, on the meridional and symmetrical
structure of the, 83; on the preadamitic
condition of the, 148.
Glucocide, on a new, contained in the
petals of a wallflower, 63,
Glycerine, on a process for obtaining and
purifying, 75.
Glyde (J., jun.) on the localities of crime
in Suffolk, 167.
Gold, the price of silver of late years does
not afford an accurate measure of the
value of, 198.
Gold-bearing districts of the world, on
the, 83.
Gorman (William) on a momentum en-
gine, 206; on a pressure water-meter,
207.
Granite, on a lately discovered tract of,
in Arran, 80. -
Great Britain, on the Pterygotus beds of,
89; an attempt to classify the flowering
plants and ferns of, 99; specimens
illustrating the distribution of plants in,
100.
Green (Dr.) on a machine for polishing
specula, 11.
Guarani man, on an episcaphoid bone in
both hands of a, 134,
Guns, on a screw-vent for turning spiked,
into use, 208.
Gutta percha, on the artificial, 103.
Guy (William A.) on the fluctuations in
the number of births, deaths, and mar-
viages, and in the number of deaths
from special causes in the metropolis,
during the last fifteen years, 1840 to
1854 inclusive, 167.
Gymnastic education, on the application
of physiological principles to, 134,
Gypsum, on a crystalline deposit of, in
the reservoir of the Highgate water- -
works, 63.
Haeffely (Ed.) on the compounds of tin
with arsenic, 64.
Haidinger (William) on the optical pro-
perties of cadmacetite, 1].
Hailstorms in India, on remarkable, 31.
Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on the conception
of the anharmonic quaternion, and on
its application to the theory of involu-
tion in space, 7,
Hancornia speciosa, on the, 103.
Harbours, on the importance of perio-
dical engineering surveys of tidal, 147,
205,
Harkness (Prof.) on the cleavage of the
Deyonians of the south of Ireland, 82;
224
on the lowest sedimentary rocks of
Scotland, 82; on the geology of the
Dingle promontory, Ireland, 83.
Hartlepool pier and port as a harbour of
refuge, on, 149.
Hartwell observatory, photograph of the,
exhibited, 12.
Haukedalr geysers of Iceland, on the
condition of the, 75.
Heat, on, 7; on an analogy between, and
electricity, 10; on the, produced by the
influence of the magnet upon bodies in
motion, 11.
Hectocotylus, on the, 127.
Henderson (Andrew) on the measurement
of ships, 207.
Hibbert (Dr.) on the freshwater lime- |
stone of, 91.
Highgate waterworks, on a crystalline
deposit of gypsum in the reservoir of
the, 63.
Highland border, on the structure and
mutual relationships of the older rocks
of the, 96.
Himalayas of Kemaon, notices of jour-
neys in the, 152.
Hindt-Chinese nations and Siamese rivers,
notes on the, 149.
Hip-joint, on the use of the round liga-
ment of the, 135.
Holden (M.) on working a steam-engine
with rarefied air, 207.
Homologies, on the, of Lepismide, 110;
on the vertebral, in animals, 128.
Hopkins (Evan) on the optical illusions of
the atmospheric lens, 12; on the gold-
bearing districts of the world, 83; on
the meridional and symmetrical struc-
ture of the globe, its superficial changes,
and the polarity of all terrestrial opera-
tions, 83.
Human body, on the form and dimensions
of the, 127; on the action of the carbo-
azotic acid and the carbo-azotates on
the, 121.
Hurricanes in the West Indies and the
North Atlantic from 1493 to 1855, on,
150.
Hydrogen, sulphuretted, on the action of,
on salts of zine and copper, 51.
Hygrometer, improvements on a dew-
point, 38.
Ice-action observed in the north of Scot-
land, on evidences of, 88.
Iceland, on the condition of the Hauke-
dalr geysers of, 75.
Ichthyolites, discovery of, in the tilestones
of Kington, 78.
Ichthyosaurus, on the discovery of, and
INDEX II.
other fossils in the late Arctic searching
expedition, 1852-54, 79.
India, on remarkable hailstorms in, 31.
India-rubber, on, 103.
Insects, on the development of sex in
social, 111.
Inskip (J. M.), account of the exploration
of the Isthmus of Darien, under Cap-
tain Prevost, 148.
Intestine, on the occurrence of leucine
and tyrosine in the contents of the, 124.
Intestines, on a peculiar structure lately
discovered in the epithelial cells of the
small, 126.
Iodine, on the manufacture of, from kelp,
69.
Ireland, on the cleavage of the Devonians
of the south of, 82; results deducible
from the report on the statics of dis-
ease in, 164.
Iron, on the electric qualities of magnet-
ized, 19; on the manufacture of, by
purified coke, 49; on the titaniferous,
of the Mersey shore, 61.
Iron ores called “brass,” on the chemi-
cal composition of some, 66.
Iron trade, on the progress, extent and
value of the, of the west of Scotland,193.
Jacob (W. S.) on certain anomalies pre-
sented by the binary star 70 Ophiuchi,
25.
Jamaica, on the condition of the labour-
ing population of, as connected with
the present state of landed property in
that district, 197.
Jamieson (Robert) on a compass inde-
pendent of local attraction, 207.
Jardine (Sir W., Bart.) on the Coregoni
of Scotland, 111.
Johnson (M. J.) on the detection and
measurement of atmospheric electricity
by the photo-barograph and thermo-
graph, 40. f
Johnson (Richard) on alloys, 50.
Joule (J. P.), experiments with a large
electro-magnet, 12,
Juvenile delinquency, on, 173.
Kaffraria, journey across the rivers of
British, 147. .
Kelp, on the manufacture of iodine from,
69.
Kemaon, notices of journeys in the Hima-
layas of, 152. -
Kolliker ( Prof.) on transparent fishes from
Messina, 111; on the occurrence of
leucine and tyrosine in the pancreatic
fluid and contents of the intestine, 124;
on the physiology of the spermatozoa,
»
4,
&
ait
INDEX II.
125; on the Trichomonas vaginalis of
Donné, i4.; on a peculiar structure
lately distovered in the epithelial cells
of the small intestines, together with
some observations on the absorption of
fat into the system, 126; on the Hec-
tocotylus, or male of the Argonaut, 127.
Koyunjik, on deciphering the inscriptions
on two seals found by Mr. Layard at,
145.
Laing (James) on a new air-pump exhi-
bited by, 207.
Lake district of England, on the glacial
phznomena of the, 80.
Lamlash Bay, Isle of Arran, on the oceur-
rence of the pentacrinoid larva of Co-
matula rosacea in, 107.
Land measures, on decimal arrangement
of, 165.
Language, on a philosophic universal, 145.
Lankester (Dr.), exhibition of the model
of a dredge by Mr. Dempster, 118;
exhibition of photographs on glass, of
histological and natural history objects
by Mr. Redfern, 7d.
Lanza (Signor) on the formations of Dal-
matia, 83.
Lapland giantess, on the pelvis of a, 134.
Layard (Mr.) on deciphering the inscrip-
tions on two seals found by, at Koyun-
jik, 145.
Leitch (Rev. William) on the develop-
ment of sex in social insects, 111.
Lens, on the optical illusions of the atmo-
spheric, 12,
Lepismidz, on the homologies of, 110.
Lesmahagow, on new forms of Crustacea
from the district of, 96.
. Leucine, on the occurrence of, in the pan-
creatic fluids and contents of the in-
testine, 124.
Lichens, on the commercial uses of, 64.
Liebig (Baron von), exhibition of a large
bar of aluminium, 64; on a new mode
of making bread introduced into Ger-
many, ib.; on a new form of cyanic
acid, 7b.
Life table, on a mechanical process by
which a, commencing at birth, may be
converted into a similar table, com-
mencing at any other period of life, 163.
Light, 7; photochemical researches, with
reference to the laws of the chemical
action of, 48; on the action of, on the
germination of seeds, 56; influence of,
on the germination of plants, 103.
Limestone, on the freshwater, of Dr. Hib-
bert, 91; on some of the mechanical
structures of, 97.
1855.
225
‘Lindsay (Dr. A. L.) on the commercial
uses of lichens, 64.
Liquors, on certain curious motions ob~
servable on the surfaces of, 16.
Lithographs, on a process for obtaining,
by the photographic process, 69.
Livingston (Dr.), extracts from letters
describing his journey across tropical
Africa, 148.
Locke (John) on the agricultural labourers
of England and Wales, their inferiority
in the social scale, and the means of
effecting their improvement, 171.
Longmynd, on some fossils from the Cam-
brian rocks of the, 95.
Lowe (E. J.) on the force of the wind in
July and August 1855, as taken by the
“ atmospheric recorder ” at the Beeston
observatory, 40; singular mortality
amongst the swallow tribe, 112.
Ludlow rock of Ludlow, on a phyllopod
crustacean in the upper, 98.
Macadam (Dr. Stevenson) on the chemi-
cal composition of the waters of the
Clyde, 64.
Macdonald (Dr. William) on the verte-
bral homologies in animals, 128.
Macdonald (James) on the form and di-
mensions of the human body, as ascer-
tained by a universal measurer or an-
drometer, 127.
MacDonald (Prof.) on the preadamitic
condition of the globe, 148.
Macdonald (Prof.) on the structure of shell
mortars without touch-hole, to be dis-
charged by galvanic circuit, 207.
Macgillivray, (Dr.) exhibition of a copy
of the “‘ Natural History of Deeside and
Braemar”’ by the late, 118.
Machinery, on an application of galvanic
power to, 208.
M‘Andrew (Robert) on the Brachiopoda
observed in a dredging tour on the
coast of Norway, 106; exhibition of
zoophytes, mollusca, &c. observed on
the coast of Norway, in the summer of
1855, 113.
M ‘Callum (Rev. A. K.) on juvenile delin-
quency—its principal causes and pro-
posed cure, as adopted in the reforma-
tory schools, 173.
M‘Clelland (James) on measures relating
to the adoption of the family and agri-
cultural system of training in the re-
formation of criminal and destitute
children, 179.
M‘Cormae (Dr.) on the origin of tuber-
cular consumption, 151.
Mackworth (Herbert) on the metra, 20%
15
226
Maclagan (Dr.) on the composition of |
bread, 66.
Maclaren (C.) on the excavation of cer-
tain river channels in Scotland, 83.
Macvicar (Rev. J. G.) on the possibility
of representing by diagrams the prin-
cipal functions of the molecules of
bodies, 66.
Magnet, on the heat produced by the in-
fluence of the, upon bodies in motion, 11.
Magnetism, 7; elucidations of the, of
iron ships, and its changes, 12.
Magnets, on the making and magnetizing
of steel, 10.
Mair (Robert) on an application of gal-
vanic power to machinery, 208.
Malcolm (Dr.) on the influence of factory
life on the health of the operative, as
founded upon the medical statistics of
this class at Belfast, 171.
Mammals, on the Fornix cerebri in, 133.
Man, on the Antrum pylori in, 132; on
the Fornix cerebri in, 133.
Manatus Senegalensis, skull of a, 116.
March (Dr.) on a screw-vent for turning
spiked guns into use, 208.
Marine aérated freshwater apparatus, on
the, 68.
Matter, on the absorption of, by the sur-
faces of bodies, 9.
Matthiessen (A.) on the metals of the
alkaline earths, 66.
Maury’s pilot-charts, on the wind-charts
of the Atlantic compiled from, 39,
Measures of this country, on a plan for
simplifying and improving the, 184.
Meat dietary, on the use of phosphate of
potash in a salt, 63,
Mechanical science, 201.
Medical science, on the application of
statistics to questions of, 155.
Medina, account of a visit to, from Suez,
by way of Jambo, 147.
Medusz, on sea, 117.
Meriones, on the species of, found in
Nova Scotia, 110.
Mersey shore, on the titaniferous iron of
the, 61.
Messina, on transparent fishes from, 111.
Metals, on the effects of mechanical strain
on the thermo-electric qualities of, 17;
on some organic compounds containing,
62; on the extraction of, from the ore
of platinum, 63; on the, of the alka-
line earths, 66.
Metamorphic rocks of Scotland, on the
subdivisions of the, 92.
Meteorology, 30; of the United States
and Canada, 42.
Meteors, 25.
INDEX II.
Metra, on the, 207.
Mica, on the existence of Acari in, 9.
Michelson (Dr.) on the flowers and vege-
tation of the Crimea, 106.
Microscope, on new forms of, 12.
Mid-Lothian, on sections of fossils from
the coal-formation of, 80.
Miles (Rev. C. P. M.) on the fauna of the
Clyde, and on the vivaria now ex-
hibited in the City Hall, Glasgow, 114.
Miller (Hugh) on the less-known fossil
floras of Scotland, 83.
Miller (John), fossil plants of the old red
sandstone of Caithness, 85.
Mills (George) on manceuvring steamers,
208.
Mineral substances, on the composition
of two, employed as pigments, 70.
Moffat (Dr. Thomas) on the action of
the carbo-azotic acid and the carbo-
azotates on the human body, 121.
Molecular elaboration in organized bodies,
on the law of, 119.
Molecules of bodies, on the possibility of
representing by diagrams the principal
functions of the, 66.
Mollusca observed on the coast of Nor-
way, 113.
Momentum engine, on a, 206.
Monies of this country, on a plan for
simplifying and improving the, 184.
Monographic projections of the world, on
improved, 148.
Mont Blanc, account of the ascent of, by
a new route from the side of Italy, 150,
Moon, on the chronology of the formation
of the, 28.
Mortality, on the physiological law of,
and on certain deviations from it, 160;
on the progressive rates of, as occurring
in all ages, 186.
Mortars without touch-hole, on the struc-
ture of shell, to be discharged by gal-
vanic circuit, 207.
Mossotti (Prof.) on the calculation of an
observed eclipse or occultation of a
star, 26.
Mounsey (J. C.) on a singular iridescent
phenomenon seen on Windermere
Lake, Oct. 24, 1851, 41.
Murchison (Sir R. I.) on the relations of
the crystalline rocks of the North High-
lands to the old red sandstone of that
region, and on the recent discoveries
of fossils in the former by Mr. C. Peach,
85; new geological map of Europe, 88.
Murray (Andrew) on the recent addi-
tions to our knowledge of the zoology
of Western Africa, 114.
Muscles, on the mode of action of gal-
INDEX II.
vanic stimuli directly applied to the,
1315; of the extremities of birds, 137.
Nachot (M.) on new forms of microscope,
adapted for physiological demonstra-
tion, 12.
Napier (J. R.) on a new method of drying
timber, 208; on a simple boat plug, ib.;
description of the launch of the steamer
“ Persia,” ib.
National establishments, on an improved
mode of keeping accounts in our, 159.
National strength, as tested by the num-.
bers, ages and industrial qualifications
of the people, on our, 199.
“Natural History of Deeside and Brae-
mar,’’ by the late Dr. Macgillivray, and
edited by Dr. Lankester, a copy ex-
hibited, 118.
Negretti and Zambra, on the new maxi-
mum thermometer of, 24. ¥
Nelson (Dr. H.) on the fecundation of
the ova in Ascaris mystax, 131.
Newfoundland, return of civil actions,
and civil and criminal prosecutions and
informations in the circuit for the north-
ern district of, during 29 years, 191.
Newmatch (William) on the emigration
of the last ten years from the United
Kingdom, and from France and Ger-
many, 183; remarks on two lectures
delivered at Oxford by the Professor of
Political Economy, in a paper “ On the
Loans raised by Mr. Pitt from 1793 to
1801,” id.
Nervous system, on an abnormal condi-
~ tion of the, 121.
Nichol (Prof.) on the chronology of the
formation of the moon, 28; on climato-
logical elements in the western district
of Scotland, 42.
Nicholson (E. Chambers) on the chemical
composition of some iron ores called
“brass”’ occurring in the. coal-mea-
sures of S. Wales, 66.
Nicol (Prof. James), new geological map
of Europe, 88; on striated rocks and
other evidences of ice-action observed
_ in the north of Scotland, id.
Niger, on the late expedition up the
river, 146.
Normandy (Dr.) on the marine aérated
freshwater apparatus, 68.
Norway, on the relations of the Silurian
and metamorphic rocks of the south of,
82; on the Brachiopoda observed in
a dredging tour with Mr. M‘Andrew on
the coast of, 106; exhibition of zoo-
phytes, mollusca, &c. observed on the
coast of, in the summer of 1855, 113.
227
Notation, on mechanical, 203.
Nova Scotia, on the fossils of the coal-
formation of, 81; on the species of
Meriones and Arvicolz found in, 110.
Object-glass, on the achromatism of a
double, 14.
Observatory, on the establishment of a
magnetic, meteorological and astrono-
mical, on the mountain of Angusta
Mullay, in Travancore, 25.
Ocean, on the probable maximum depth
of the, 81, 99.
Oliphant (W.) on the skull of a Manatus
Senegalensis, 116.
Oppert (Dr. Julius), geographical and
historical results of the French scien-
tific expedition to Babylon, 148.
Orbitolites complanatus, on the structure
and development of, 107.
Organic compounds containing metals,
‘on some, 62.
Organized bodies, on the law of molecular
elaboration in, 119.
Ormeshead, on the geology of the district
of Great and Little, 94.
Osborn (Capt. Sherard) on the late Arc-
tic expeditions, 149.
Outram (Sir B. F.) on Hartlepool pier
and port as a harbour of refuge,- 149.
Ova, on the signification of the so-called,
of the Hippocrepian Polyzoa, 118; on
the fecundation of the, in Ascaris my-
stax, 181; on the structure of the, of
fishes, ib.
Page (D.) on the Pterygotus and Ptery-
gotus beds of Great Britain, 89; on
the freshwater limestone of Dr. Hib-
bert, 91; on the subdivisions of the
palzozoic and metamorphic rocks of
Scotland, 92.
Paleozoic and metamorphic rocks of Scot--
land, on the subdivisions of the, 92.
Paper currency, an analysis of some of
the principles which regulate the effects
of a convertible, 165.
Paper pulp, on Papyrus, Bonapartea, and
other plants which can furnish fibre
for, 104.
Papyrus, for furnishing fibre for paper
pulp, on, 104.
Pare (William) on ‘ equitable villages ”
in America, 183.
Paris, on the machinery of the Universal
Exhibition of, 206.
Parkes (Harry) on the Hindt-Chinese
nations and Siamese rivers, with an
account of Sir John Bowring’s mission
to Siam, 149.
[5%
228
Pasley (Lieut.-Gen. Sir C.) on a plan for
simplifying and improving the mea-
sures, weights, and monies of this coun-
try, without materially altering the
present standards, 184,
Patent laws, on the operation of the, 208.
Paterson (Rev. Dr.) on the cultivation of
sea-sand or sand-hills, 118.
Patterson (Mr.), zoological diagrams pre-
pared by him for the Government de-
artment of science and art, 118.
Peach (Charles) on fossils in the crystal-
line rocks of the North Highlands, 85.
Pennsylvania, on some reptilian footprints
from the carboniferous strata of, 95.
Penny (Dr. F.) on a simple volumetric
process for the valuation of cochineal,
68; on the manufacture of iodine and
other products from kelp, 69; on the
composition and phosphorescence of
plate-sulphate of potash, id.
* Persia,” description of the launch of the
steamer, 208.
Phanerogamous plants, on impregnation
in, 106.
Phillips (Prof.) on certain trap dykes in
Arran, 94.
Phosphorescence of plate-sulphate of pot-
ash, on the composition and, 69.
Phosphorus in organic compounds, on a
method of determining sulphur and, in
one operation, 73.
Photo-barograph, on the detection and
measurement of atmospheric electri-
city by the, 40.
Photochemical researches with reference
to the laws of the chemical action of
light, 48.
Photographic process, on obtaining litho-
graphs by the, 69.
Photographic researches, on, 48.
Photographs, on the fixing of, 7; exhibi-
tion of histological and natural-history
objects on glass, by Dr. Redfern, 118.
Physiology, 118.
Pigments, on the composition of two mi-
neral substances employed as, 70.
Plants, on the remains of, in calcareous
spar, from King’s County, Ireland, 9;
fossil, from the old red sandstone of
Caithness, 85; an attempt to classify
the flowering, of Great Britain, accord-
ing to their geognostic relations, 99 ;
specimens illustrating the distribution
of, in Great Britain, 100; on the in-
fluence of light on the germination of,
103; on impregnation in phaneroga-
mous, 106.
Platinum, on the extraction of metals
from the ore of, 63.
INDEX II.
Poey (Sefior Andres) on hurricanes in the
West Indies and the North Atlantic
from 1493 to 1855, 150.
Polynesia, on the ethnology of, 141.
Polystereopticon, on the, 10.
Polyzoa, Hippocrepian, on the signification
of the so-called ova of the, and on the
development of the proper embryo in
these animals, 118.
Poole (H.) on a recent geological survey
of the region between Constantinople
and Broussa, in Asia Minor, in search
of coal, 94.
Portugal, collection of ferns from, 106.
Portuguese possessions of S.W. Africa, on
the, 147.
Potash, on the use of phosphate of, in a
salt-meat dietary, 63; on the%compo-
sition and phosphorescence of plate-
sulphate of, 69.
Potato crops, on the preservation of the, 54.
Pottery, on inscriptions in unknown cha-
racters on Roman, discovered in En-
gland, 146.
Prevost(Capt.), account of the exploration
of the Isthmus of Darien under, 148.
Price (David S.) on the chemical compo-
sition of some iron ores called “ brass”
occurring in the coal-measures of S.
Wales, 66.
Price (John) on the geology of the district
of Great and Little Ormeshead, 94.
Price (J.), notes on animals, 117.
Projectiles, on, 203; on the mutual in-
fluence of capillary attraction and
motion on, 206.
Pterygotus and Pterygotus beds of Great
Britain, on the, 89.
Pump, on a centrifugal, erected in Ja-
maica, 210.
Quartz formation, on the auriferous, of
Australia, 81.
Quaternion, on the conception of the, and
on its application to the theory of in-
volution in space, 7.
Railroad, on the superficial deposits laid
open by the cuttings on the Inverness
and Nairn, 78.
Railways and their varieties, on, 202.
Rain, on the fall of, at Arbroath, 30.
Rainbow seen after sunset, on a, 38.
Rain-falls, on, for a series of years at
home and in foreign countries, 45,
Ramsay (Prof. A. C.) on a process for
obtaining lithographs by the photogra-
phic process, 69; on the commence-
ment and progress of the geological
survey in Scotland, 95.
INDEX II. 229.
Ramsay (J. N.), account of the ascent of
Mont Blanc by a new route from the
side of Italy, 150.
Rankine (W. J. Macquorn), opening re-
marks on the objects of the Mechanical
_ Section, 201; concluding address to
the Mechanical Section, 211; on prac-
tical tables of the latent heat of vapours,
208; on the operation of the patent
laws, ib.
Ransom (Dr. W. H.) on the structure of
the ova of fishes, with especial refer-
ence to the micropyle, and the phzeno-
mena of their fecundation, 131.
Rathbone (Theodore W.) on decimal ac-
counts and coinage, 184.
_ Redfern (Dr.), exhibition of photographs
on glass by, of histological and natural-
history objects, 118.
Reid (John) on the progressive rates of
mortality, as occurring in all ages,
and on certain deviations, 186. :
Remak (Prof.) on the mode of action of
galvanic stimuli directly applied to the
muscles, 131.
Rennie (G.) on the effects of screw pro-
pellers when moved at different velo-
cities and depths, 209.
Retzius (Prof.) on the Antrum pylori in
man and animals, 132; on the peculiar
development of the Vermis cerebelli in
the albatros, 183; on tke Fornix ce-
rebri in man, mammals and other ver-
tebrata, ib.; on the pelvis of a Lapland
giantess, 134; on an episcaphoid bone
in both hands of a Guarani man, 2b. ; on
Celtic, Sclavic and Aztec crania, 145.
Rifle-shells and balls, new kind of, 206.
River channels in Scotland, on the exca-
vation of certain, 83.
Robertson (Capt.), ascent of the mountain
Sumeru Parbut, 150.
Rocks, on an indirect method of ascer-
taining the presence of phosphoric acid
in, 55; on the lowest sedimentary, of
Scotland, 82; on the relations of the
_ Silurian and metamorphic, of the south
of Norway, ib. ; on the relations of the
crystalline, of the North Highlands, to
the old red sandstone of that region,
85; striated, observed in the north of
Scotland, 88; on the subdivisions of
the palzozoic and metamorphic, of
Scotland, 92; on the structure and
mutual relationships of the older, of
the Highland border, 96 ; on the blast-
ing and quarrying of, 209.
Rogers (Prof. H. D.) on some reptilian
footprints from the carboniferous strata
of Pennsylvania, 95; on the geology
of the United States, ib.; on some of
the geological functions of the winds,
illustrating the origin of salt, &c., ib.
Romans, on the forms of the crania of
the ancient, 142.
Roscoe (Dr. Henry), photochemical. re-
searches with reference to the laws of
the chemical action of light, 48.
Ross (Rear-Admiral Sir John) on the
aurora borealis, 42.
Roth (Dr.) on the application of physio-
logical principles to gymnastic educa-
tion, 134.
Rowney (T. H.) on the composition of
two mineral substances employed as
pigments, 70; on the composition of
vandyke-brown, #0.
Russell (R.) on the meteorology of the
United States and Canada, 42.
Russian produce, the effect of the war in
Russia and England upon the principal
articles of, 195.
Salter (J. W.) on the geology of the arctic
regions, 211; on some fossils from
the Cambrian rocks of the Longmynd,
Shropshire, 95.
Sand-hills, on the cultivation of, 118.
Sandland (J. D.) on sea Medusz, 117.
Sandstone, red, of the North Highlands,
on the relations of the crystalline rocks
of that region to the, 85.
Schlegintweit (Adolphe and Robert), no-
tices of journeys in the Himalayas of
Kemaon, 152.
Schlossberger (Prof.) on the chemistry of
foetal life, 135. f
Sclavic crania, on, 145. “
Scoresby (Dr. William) on the magnetism
of iron ships and its changes, 12.
Scotland, on climatological elements in
the western district of, 42; on the lowest
sedimentary rocks of, 82; on the less
known fossil floras of, 83 ; on the exca-
vation of certain river channels in, zb.;
on striated rocks and other evidences
of ice-action observed in the north of,
88; on the subdivisions of the palzo-
zoic rocks of, 92; on the fauna of the
lower Silurians of the south of, 99; on
the commencement and progress of the
geological survey in, 95; remarks on the
flora of, 100; on the Coregoni of, 111;
on the laws of the currency in, 166;
on the progress, extent and value of the
coal and iron trade of the west of, 193.
Screw propellers, effects of, when moved
at different velocities and depths, 209.
Screw-vent for turning spiked guns into
use, on a, 208.
230
Sea, on altitude observations at, 29,
Sea-sand, on the cultivation of, 118.
Seals, on deciphering inscriptions on two,
found by Mr. Layard at Koyunjik, 145.
Seeds, on the action of light on the ger-
mination of, 56.
Ships, on the deviations of the compass in
iron, 10; on the magnetism of iron, and
its changes, 12; on the measurement of,
207.
Siam, Sir John Bowring’s mission to, 149.
Sierra Leone, prevailing diseases of, 164.
Signals, on the transmission of time, 29.
Silicates, metallic, on the action of sul-
phurets on, at high temperatures, 62.
Silurian and metamorphic rocks of the
south of Norway, on the relations of
the, 82.
Silurians of the south of Scotland, on the
fauna of the lower, 99.
Silver, its price of late years does not
afford an accurate measure of the value
of gold, 198.
Sim (William) on the blasting and quarry-
ing of rocks, 209.
Simmonds (P. L.) on rain-falls for a series
of years at home and in foreign coun-
tries, 45; on the growth and commer-
cial progress of the two Pacific states of
California and Australia, 188.
Skull of a Manatus Senegalensis, 116.
Slimon (R.) on new forms of crustacea
from the district of Lesmahagow, 96.
Smith (C. Roach) on a Roman sepuleral
inscription on an Anglo-Saxon urn in
the Faussett collection, 145.
Smith (James) on the shelly deposits of
the basin of the Clyde, with proofs of
change of climate, 96.
Smoke, experiments on combustion in
furnaces, with a view to the prevention
of, 209.
Smyth (Prof. C. P.) on solar refraction, 29;
on altitude observations at sea, ib. ; on
naval anemometrical observations, 45 ;
on the transmission of time signals, 29.
Soaps, on the employment of alge and
other plants in the manufacture of, 103.
Solar refraction, on, 29.
Sorby (H. C.) on the structure and mutual
relationships of the older rocks of the
Highland border, 96; on some of the
mechanical structures of limestones,
97 ; on the currents produced by the ac-
tion of the wind and tides, and the struc-
tures generated in the deposits formed
under their influence, by which the
physical geography of the seas at va~
rious geological epochs may be ascer- |
tained, ib.
INDEX Ii.
Sounding, on an instrument for, 205.
South Wales, on the chemical composi-
tion of some iron ores called “ brass”
in the coal-measures of, 66.
Spectrum, on the triple, 7.
Specula, on a machine for polishing, 11.
Spermatozoa, on the physiology of the,
125; on the structure and formation of
the, in Ascaris mystax,-138. —
Star, on the calculation of an observed
eclipse or occultation of a, 26.
| Star 70 Ophiuchi, on certain anomalies
presented by the binary, 25.
Stark (John), return of civil actions and
civil and criminal prosecutions and in-
formations in the circuit for the north-
ern district of Newfoundland during 29
years, 191.
Statics of disease in Ireland, on some of
the results deducible from the report
on the, 164.
Statistics, 155.
Steam-engine, on working with rarefied
air, 207.
Steamers, on manceuvring, 208.
Stewart (Balfour) on certain laws observed
in the mutual action of sulphuric acid
and water, 70.
Stickleback, on the habits of the, 117.
Stokes (Prof.) on the achromatism of a
double object-glass, 14.
Stow (David) on moral training for large
towns, 191.
Strang (John) on the progress, extent and
value of the coal and iron trade of the
west of Scotland, 193.
Strata of Pennsylvania, on some reptilian
footprints from the carboniferous, 95.
Struthers (Dr. John) on the use of the
round ligament of the head of the
femur, 185; on the use of the round
ligament of the hip-joint, 2b.; on the
explanation of the crossed influence of
the brain, 136.
Suffolk, on the localities of crime in, 167.
Sulphates, on a mode of conserving the
alkaline, contained in alums, 62.
Sulphur and phosphorus in organic com-
pounds, on a method of determining,
in one operation,.73.
Sulphurets, on the action of, in metallic
silicates at high temperatures, 62.
Sumeru Parbut, ascent of the mountain,
150.
Sundevald (Prof. C. J.) on the muscles of
the extremities of birds, 137.
Susini (Sefior) onthe Amazon and Atlantic
water-courses of South America, 155.
Swallow tribe, singular mortality among
the, 112.
INDEX II. 231
Swedish calculating machine of Messrs.
Scheiitz, on mechanical notation as ex-
emplified in the, 203.
Symonds (Rev. W. S.) on a phyllopod
crustacean in the upper Ludlow rock
of Ludlow, 98.
Symons (William) on a new form of the
gas battery, 15.
Taylor (Dr.) on waterspouts, 45; experi-
ments on combustion in furnaces, with
a view to the prevention of smoke, 209.
Techadda, on the late expedition up the
river, 146,
Telegraph wires, on peristaltic induction
of electric currents in submarine, 21.
Telescope, photographs of the Craig, at
Wandsworth, 12.
Temperature, on the use of observations
of, for the investigation of absolute
dates in geology, 18.
Tennent (Andrew), statistics of a Glasgow
grammar-school class of 115 boys, 192.
Thermo-electric qualities of metals, on the
effects of mechanical strain on the, 17.
_ Thermo-electric position of aluminium, on
_ the, 20.
Thermograph, on the detection and mea-
surement of atmospheric electricity by
the, 40.
Thermometer, on the new maximum, 24.
_ Thomson (Dr.-Allen) on the formation
and structure of the spermatozoa in
Ascaris mystax, 138; on the brain of
the Troglodytes niger, 139; on the
history of fecundation in different ani-
mals, 2b.
Thomson (James) on certain curious mo-
tions observable on the surfaces of wine
and other alcoholic liquors, 16; on the
friction break dynamometer, 209; ona
centrifugal pump and windmill erected
for drainage and irrigation in Jamaica,
210; on an india-rubber valve for
drainage of low lands into tidal outfalls,
#b.; on practical details of the mea-
surement of running water by weir-
boards, 211.
_ Thomson (Dr. R. D.) on the condition of
the atmosphere during cholera, 71.
_ Thomson (Prof. W.) on the effects of me-
chanical strain on the thermo-electric
qualities of metals, 17; on the use of
observations of terrestrial temperature
for the investigation of absolute dates
in geology, 18; on the electric qualities
of magnetized ‘ron, 19; onthe thermo-
electric position of aluminium, 20; on
peristaltic induction of electric currents
in submarine telegraph wires, 21; on
new instruments for measuring elec-
trical potentials and capacities, 22.
Thomson (Prof. Wyville) on the fauna
of the lower Silurians of the south of
Scotland, 99.
Tides, on the currents produced by the
action of the wind and, 97.
Timber, on a new method of drying, 208.
Timbuctoo, description of, its population
and commerce, 140,
Tin, on the compounds of, with arsenic, 64.
Towns, on moral training for large, 191.
Towson (John T.) on the means proposed
by the Liverpool compass committee
for carrying out investigations relative
to the laws which govern the deviation
of the compass, 22.
Tracery, on the mechanical principles of
ancient, 205.
Training, on moral, for large towns, 191.
Trap dykes in Arran, on certain, 94.
Travancore, on the establishment of a
magnetic, meteorological and astro-
nomical observatory on the mountain
of Angusta Mullay, at 6200 feet, in, 25.
Tree, on the trunk of a, discovered erect
as it grew, within the Arctic circle, 101.
Trematode worm, on a new species of, 108.
Triangle, on the porism of the in-and-cir-
cumscribed, 1.
Trichomonas vaginalis of Donné, demon-
stration of the, 125.
Troglodytes niger, on the brain of the, 139.
Trout, on a malformed, 109.
Tryfe (Dr.). on a series of preparations
obtained from the decomposition of Can-
nel coal and the Torbane Hill coal, 99,
Tyndall (Prof.) on the demonstration of
the polarity of diamagnetic bodies, 22.
Tyrosine, on the occurrence of, in the
pancreatic fluid and contents of the
intestine, 124.
United Kingdom, on the emigration of the
last ten years from the, 183.
United States, on the meteorology of the,
42; on the geology of the, 95.
Ure (J. F.) on the navigation of the
Clyde, 211.
Urn, on a Roman sepulcral incription on
an Anglo-Saxon, in the Faussett col-
lection, 145.
Valpy (Richard), effect of the war in
Russia and England upon the _prin-
cipal articles of Russian produce, 195.
Valve, india-rubber, for drainage of low
lands into tidal outfalls, 210.
Van Diemen’s Land, on some water-co-
lour portraits of natives of, 142,
232
Vandyke-brown, composition of, 70.
Vapours, on practical tables of the latent
heat of, 208.
Vegetation, effects of last winter upon,
at Aberdeen, 105; of the Crimea, 106.
Vermis cerebelli in the albatros, on the
peculiar development of the, 133.
Vertebrata, on the Fornix cerebri in, 133.
Vesuvius, on the late eruption of, 55.
Victoria Regia, on the flowering of, in the
Royal Botanic Garden, Glasgow, 102.
Vivaria, on, 117; on the application of
the principle of, to agriculture and other
purposes of life, 111; on the, now ex-
hibited in the City Hall, Glasgow, 114.
Voelcker (Dr. A.) on caseine, and a me-
thod of determining sulphur and phos-
phorus in organic compounds in one
operation, 73.
Wales, on the agricultural labourers of,
171.
Wallflower, on a new glucocide contained
in the petals of a, 63.
Walsh (Prof. R. H.) on the condition of
the labouring population of Jamaica,
as connected with the present state of
landed property in thatdistrict, 197 ; the
price of silver of late years does not
afford an accurate measure of the value
of gold, 198.
Ward (N. B.) on vivaria, 117.
Warington (Robert) on the habits of the
stickleback, and on the effects of an
excess or want of heat and light on the
marine aquarium, 117.
Water, on the polar decomposition of, by
common and atmospheric electricity,
46; on Dr. Clark’s process for soften-
ing, 54; on the chemical composition
of the, of the Clyde, 64; on certain laws
observed in the mutual action of sul-
phuric acid and, 70; on denudation and
other effects attributed to, 81.
Water-meter, on a pressure, 207.
Waterspouts, on, 45.
Waves, 25.
Weights of this country, on a plan for
simplifying and improving the, 184.
Weir-boards, on practical details of the
measurement of running water by,
211.
INDEX II.
Whitehouse (Wildman), experimental ob-
servations on an electric cable, 23.
Williams (C.G.) on the new maximum
thermometer of Negretti and Zambra,
24; on some of the basic constituents
of coal-naphtha, 74.
Wilson (G. F.) cn a process for obtaining
and purifying glycerine, and on some
of its applications, 75.
Wind, force of the, in July and August
1855, as taken by the “ atmospheric
recorder ” at the Beeston observatory,
40; on some of the geological functions
of the, illustrating the origin of salt, &c.,
95; on the currents produced by the
action of the, and tides, 97.
Wind-charts of the Atlantic, on, 39.
Windermere Lake, on a singular irides-
cent phznomenon seen on, 41.
Windmill and Centrifugal pump erected
in Jamaica, on a, 210. *
Wine, on certain curious motions obser-
vable on the surfaces of, and other alco-
holic liquors, 16.
Wires, on peristaltic induction of electric
currents in submarine telegraph, 21.
Wood (Searles V., jun.) on the probable
maximum depth of the ocean, 99.
World, on the gold-bearing districts of the,
83; on improved monographic projec-
tions of the, 148.
Wright (T.) on inscriptions in unknown
characters on Roman pottery discovered _
in England, 146; on the ethnology of
England at the extinction of the Roman
government in the island, 2b.
Yeats (John) on our national strength, as
tested by the number, the ages, and
the industria] qualifications of the peo-
ple, 199.
Zine, on the action of sulphuretted hy-
drogen on salts of, 51.
Zoological diagrams prepared for the Go-
vernment department of science and
art, 118.
Zoology, 106; on the recent additions to
our knowledge of the, of Western
Africa, 114.
Zoophytes observed on the coast of Nor-
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ConTENTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;—Report on the Ap-
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rey. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G.
Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or
_ Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun-
tain Limestone formation, constituting the Lead Measures of Alston Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster,
Reports respecting the two series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;—
Report on the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;—E.
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles ;—W. S.
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth
Dockyard.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
_ PROCEEDINGS or tue TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840,
Published at 15s.
ConTEnTs :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant
Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supple-
mentary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer,
now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on “‘ The Motions and Sounds of the Heart,” by the
London Committee of the British Association, for 1839-40 ;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of
Researches in Electro-Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and
Water, whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tem-*
perature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839
and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Bir-
mingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 1838 to Nov. 1st, 1839 ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Vertebrata ;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D.,
Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs and Air-Tubes ;—Kev. J. S. Henslow,
Report of the Committee on the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. Sabine’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.
ConTrEnTs :—Reyv. P. Kelland, on the Present state of our Theoretical and Experimental
Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Report on Poisons ;—
T.G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;
—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith Tide Observations, under the direction of the
Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth
during the past year ;—Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintend-
ing the scientific co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Obser..
vations in Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro-
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord;—Report of a
Committee to superintend the reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of a Com-
x mittee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a Committee for obtaining In-
__ struments and registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of
a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds ;-—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man;—Report of the Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata
in our knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experi-
ments, and to draw up Directions for Observers in such cireumstances;—R. Owen, Report
on British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants ;—D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants ;—E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants ;—Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.
Contents :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British
Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—
J. Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand ;—
W. S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Second
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances ;—Lyon Playfair, M.D., Abstract
of Prof. Liebig’s Report on “ Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;”—
R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Ap-
pendix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-
Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting Engine at
different periods of the Stroke;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the form of Ships;
—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of
Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ;—Report of a Committee on
the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress
in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHE THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.
ConTENTS:—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and of Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought Tron and
Steel;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As-
sociation in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Sir
J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Reduction of Meteoro-
logical Observations ;—Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds;—J. S. Russell, Report of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the East Coast of Scotland ;—J. S. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ships ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Report
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering
the Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear to
them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons ;
—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine
Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Agean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered as bearing on Geology;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British
Fossil Fishes, arranged in the order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II.;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the
junction of the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W.
Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Earl of Rosse’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
— —_--_- -_ ~.
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PROCEEDINGS or toe FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.
Contents :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells;—J. Alder and Ae
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants;—Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada;—J. Blackwall, Report
on some recent researches into the Structure, Functions and Ciconomy of the Araneidea
made in Great Britain ;—Earl of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;
—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on a Gas Furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory;—Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-Engines ;
—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race ;—Fourth Report
of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds; —W. Faire
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the prevention of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report con-
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew ;—Sixth Report of the Committee
appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulta-
neous Magnetical and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence
of Fucoidal Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, Report on
the recent Progress and present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, Report of Committee
appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen,
Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certain Fossils indicative
of the former existence in that Continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order
Pachydermata ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers
at Plymouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves;
—L. Agassiz, Report sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J.
S. Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dean of Ely’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tut FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.
CoNnTENTs :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the
British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schonbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-~
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.
ConTEnTs :—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck, on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical
Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829 ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Tron Manufacture in Great Britain;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D., Report on the Crystalline Slags ;—Addenda to
Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
: commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tose SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.
ConTEnTs :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells;—Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables; with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or THE EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.
ConTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Frof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines ar the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and }
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tot NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.
ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied tu the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and
Animals ;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W.R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.
Together with the ‘Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
SOR Dee eT Le ee Se ee
SNR A SIO EEE ELIOT, LIE A
Die gi
PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s.
ConTEnTs :—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida;—T.C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E, Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 1851. 2
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom=
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS oF tHe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.
ContTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an Giconomical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro=
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rey. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—
Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Harthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry, to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12 1850, to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or ruse TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Bel-
fast, 1852, Published at 15s.
ConTENTs :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—T welfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain, at 127 Sta-
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat ;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and CEconomy of the Flax Plant;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster ;—W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ;—W. Wills,
on the Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex- Water- Wheel ;—J. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals. °
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or THE TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.
ConTEnTs :—Reyv. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and CEconomy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth-
quake Phenomena (continued).
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tute TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.
ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G.
Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships; Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
1
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List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1855] are supplied
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted by the
General Committee. [See pp. xvii. & xviii. |
HONORARY MEMBER.
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS, PRINCE ALBERT OF SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA.
LIFE MEMBERS.
Adair, Lt.-Col. Robert A. Shafto, F.R.S.,
M.P., 7 Audley Square, London.
Adam, Walter, M.D.
Adams, John Couch, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pembroke College,
Cambridge.
Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Egremont,
Cumberland.
Aldam, William, Frickley Hall near Don-
caster.
Allecock, Samuel, Rushulme Place near
Manchester.
Allen, William J. C., Secretary to the
Royal Belfast Academical Institution ;
8 Wellington Place, Belfast.
Allis, Thomas, Osbaldwick Hall, York.
Ambler, Henry, Watkinson Hall, Oven-
den near Halifax.
Amery, John, F.S.A., Park House, Stour-
bridge.
Anderson, William (Yr.), Glentarkie by
Strathmiglo, Fife.
Andrews, Thos., M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A.,
Vice-President of, and Professor of
Chemistry in, Queen’sCollege, Belfast.
Ansted, David Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.,
17 Manchester Street, Manchester
Square, London.
Appold, John George, F.R.S., 23 Wilson
Street, Finsbury Square, London.
Archer, T. C., Tranmere, Cheshire.
Arthur, Rey. William, M.A., 26 Campden
Grove, Kensington, London.
Ashton, Thomas, M.D., 81 Mosley Street,
Manchester.
Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Turton
near Bolton.
Atkinson, Joseph B., Cotham, Bristol.
Auldjo, John, F.R.S., Noel House, Ken-
sington.
Ayrton, W. S., F.S.A., Harehills, Leeds.
Babbage, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., 1 Dorset
Street, Manchester Square, London.
Babington, Charles Cardale,M.A.,F.R.S.,
(Local Treasurer), St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
Backhouse, John Church, Blackwell, Dar-
lington.
Baddeley, Capt. Fred. H., R.E., Ceylon.
Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro.
Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton
House near Barnard Castle, Durham.
Baker, William, 63 Gloucester Place, Hyde
Park, London. ]
Baldwin, the Hon. Robert, H.M. Attor-
ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, Upper
Canada.
Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University of Edinburgh,
F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.8.; 2 Bellevue
Crescent, Edinburgh.
Ball, John, M.P., M.R.1.A.,85 Stephen’s
Green, Dublin.
Ball, William, Rydall, Ambleside, West-
moreland.
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chester.
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Essex.
Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle.
Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S., 11 Victoria
Square, Reading.
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lege, Cambridge.
Bateman, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Start-
forth Hall, Barnard Castle.
Bayldon, John, Lendal, York.
Bayley, George, 2 Cowper’s Court, Corn-
hill, London.
Beamish, Richard, F.R.S., 2 Suffolk
Square, Cheltenham,
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Beaufort, Wiliam Morris, 11 Gloucester
Place, Portman Square, London.
Belcher, Capt. Sir Edw., R.N., F.R.A.S.,
22Thurloe Square, Brompton, London.
Belcome, Henry Stephens, M.D., Minster
Yard, York.
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Bell, Matthew P., 245 St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow.
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Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.I.A., 49
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chester.
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toria Park, London.
Blackie, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 10 Kew
Terrace, Glasgow.
Blackwall, John, F.LS.,
Llanrwst, Denbighshire.
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Grove, Clifton, Bristol.
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shire Place, Portland Place, London.
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ton, Herefordshire.
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Pittville, Cheltenham.
Boileau, Sir John Peter, Bart., F.R.S., 20
Upper Brook Street, London.
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bury Grove, London.
Brady, Antonio, Maryland Point, Essex.
Brakenridge, John, Bretton Lodge, Wake-
field.
Brammall, Jonathan, Sheffield.
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London. "
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of the Royal Society of Edinb.,F.R.S.;
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Brooke, Charles, M.B., F.R.S.,29 Keppel
Street, Russell Square, London.
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chester.
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and Brooks,) Manchester.
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Buck, George Watson, Ramsay, Isle of
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of Westminster, F.R.S.; The Deanery,
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Buckman, James, F.G.S., Professor of
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Buckton, G. Bowdler, 38 Gloucester Place,
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Butlery, Alexander W., Monkland Iron
and Steel Company, Cardarroch near
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demy Place, Warrington.
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carage near Leeds.
Cathcart, Lieut.-General Charles Murray,
Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.E., United Ser-
vice Club, London.
Cayley, Sir George, Bart., Brompton,
Yorkshire.
Challis, Rev. James, M.A., F.R.S., Plu-
mian Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Cambridge; Observatory,
Cambridge.
Chambers, Robert, F.R.S.E.,F.G.S.,Edin-
burgh.
Champney, Henry Nelson, St. Paul’s
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Chevallier, Rev. Temple, B.D., F.R.A.S.,
Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
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Chichester, AshhurstTurnerGilbert, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of, 43 Queen Aun Street,
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Chiswell, Thomas, 19 Plymouth Grove,
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Christie, Samuel Hunter, M.A., F.R.S.
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Cuthbert, J. R., 73 Mount Pleasant,
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grave, Loughborough.
Danson, Joseph,-6 Shaw Street, Liver-
pool.
Darbishire, Samuel D., Pendyffryn near
Conway.
Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, M.D.,
F.R.S., Regius Professor of Botany im
the University of Oxford; Oxford.
Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C.B.,
F.R.S., Hollywood, Compton Green-
field near Bristol.
Dawbarn, William, Wisheach.
Dawes, Rev. William Rutter, F.R.A.S.,
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Dawson, Christopher H., Low Moor,
Bradford, Yorkshire.
Dawson, Henry, 14 St. James’s Road,
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Dent, Joseph, Ribston Hall, Wetherby,
York.
Dickinson, Joseph, M.D., F.R.S., Great
George Square, Liverpool.
Dikes, William Hey, F.G.S., Wakefield.
Dilke, C. Wentworth, F.G.S., 76 Sloane
Street, London.
Dobbin, Leonard, jun., M.R.I.A., 27 Gar-
diner’s Place, Dublin.
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Duncan, James, M.D., Farnham House,
Finglass, Co. Dublin.
Dunlop, William Henry, Annan Hill,
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Dunraven, Edwin, Ear] of, F.R.S., Adare
Manor, Co. Limerick.
Earnshaw, Rev. Samuel, M.A., Sheffield.
Edmondston, Rey. John, Selkirk.
Edwards, J.B., Ph.D., Royal Institution,
Liverpool.
Egerton, Sir Philip de Malpas Grey, Bart.,
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Tarporley, Cheshire.
Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M., Grimstone
House near Malton, Yorkshire.
Ellis, Thomas Flower, M.A., F.R.S., At-
torney-General of the Duchy of Lan-
easter ; 15 Bedford Place, London.
Enys, John Samuel, F'.G.S., Enys, Corn-
wall.
Erle, Rev. Christopher, M.A., F.G.S.,
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Evans, George Fabian, M.D., Waterloo
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Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., Warrens
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Fairbairn, William, C.E., F.R.S., Man-:
chester.
Faraday, Michael, D.C.L., F.R.S., Ful-
lerian Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Institution of Great Britain; 21
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Farren, Edwin James, Hanover Cham-
bers, Buckingham Street, Strand, Lon-
don.
Fellows, Sir Charles, F.R.G.S., 4 Mon-
tagu Place, Russell Square, London.
Fischer, William L.F.,M.A., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of
St. Andrew’s, Scotland.
Fitzwilliam, Charles William, Earl, F.R.S.,
President of the Yorkshire Philosophi-
cal Society ; Mortimer House, Halkin
Street, Grosvenor Place, London.
Fleming, Colonel James, Kinlochlaich,
Appin, Argyleshire.
Fleming, William, M.D., Manchester.
Fletcher, Samuel, Ardwick Place, Man-
chester.
Forbes, David, F.G.S., F.C.S., A.LC.E.,
7 Calthorpe Street, Birmingham.
Forbes, James David, LL.D., Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, Sec. R.5.E.,F.R.S.;
Edinburgh.
Forbes, Sir John, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
12 Old Burlington Street, London.
Forrest, William Hutton, Stirling.
Forster, Thomas Emerson, 7 EllisonPlace,
Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
pce William, Ballynure, Clones, Ire-
and.
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cashire.
Fortescue, Hugh, Earl, K.P., F.R.S., 17
Grosvenor Square, London.
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bridge.
Foster, H. S., Cambridge.
Foster, John, M.A., Clapham, London.
Fowler, Robert, 23 Rutland Sq., Dublin.
Fox, Charles, Perran Arworthal near
Truro.
Fox, Joseph Hayland, Wellington, So-
merset.
Fox, Robert Barclay, Falmouth.
Fox, Samuel Lindoe, Tottenham.
Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles,
Chowbent near Manchester.
Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S.,
The Athenzum Club, PallMall, London.
Fullarton, Allan, Greenock.
Fulton, Alexander, 7 Woodside Crescent,
Glasgow.
Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A.,
Leigh House, Lower Tooting, Surrey.
Gaskell, Samuel, 19 Whitehall Place,
London.
Gibson, George Stacey, Saffron Walden.
Gilbart, James William, F.R.S., London
and Westminster Bank, Lothbury, Lon-
don.
Gladstone, George, F.C.S., Stockwell
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Gladstone, John Hall, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
21 Tavistock Square, London.
Goodman, John, M.D., The Promenade,
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Goodsir, John, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor
of Anatomy in the University of Edin-
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Gordon, James, 46 Park Street, Bristol.
Gordon, Rev. James Crawford, M.A., De-
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Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, B.A., 1
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Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Master of the Royal Mint, London.
Grainger, John, Rose Villa, Belfast.
Grattan, Joseph, 94 Shoreditch, London.
Graves, Rey. Charles, D.D., Professor of
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Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D.,
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william Place, Dublin.
Griffiths, S. Y., Oxford.
Guinness, Rev. William Smyth, M.A.,
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Gutch, John James, 88 Micklegate, York.
Hall, T. B., Coggeshall, Essex.
Hallam, Henry, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
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Hamilton, Mathie, M.D., Warwick Street,
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Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, LL.D.,
Astronomer Royal of Ireland, and
Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Dublin, M.R.I.A.,
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Hamilton, William John, F.G.S., 23
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Hamlin, Captain Thomas, Greenock.
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Hawkins, Thomas, F.G.S8., Woodcote,
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Heywood, Sir Benjamin, Bart., F.R.S.,
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Bill, Rey. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., Sheermg
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Hill, Henry, Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall,
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Hill, Rowland, F.R.A.S., General Post
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Hulse, Edward, D.C.L., All-Souls’ Col-
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Jee, Alfred S., 6 John Street, Adelphi;
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Jeffray, John, 137 Sauchiehall Street,
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Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D., Professor of
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Jerram, Rev. S. John, M.A., Witney,
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Johnson, Thomas, 9 Lime Grove, Oxford
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Johnstone, James, Alva near Alloa, Stir-
lingshire.
Johnstone, Sir John Vanden Bempde,
. Bart., M.P., M.A.,-F.G.S., 27 Gros-
venor Square, London.
Jones, Christopher Hird, 2 Castle Street,
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Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, K.G.,
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Larcom, Colonel ThomasA., R.E., F.R.S.,
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Lee, John, LL.D., F.R.S., 5- College,
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Lee, John Edward, Caerleon, Monmouth-
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Evans, G. F, D., M.D., St. Mary’s, Bed- _
ford.
a2! dcimy
Everest, Lt.-Colonel George, Bengal Ar-
tillery, F.R.S., 10 Westbourne Street,
’ Hyde Park, London.
Fawcett, John, 4 Eaton Place, Brighton.
Ferguson, James, Gas Coal Works, Les-
mahagow, Glasgow.
Ferguson, Peter, Apsley Place, Glasgow.
Fielding, James, Sowerby Bridge near
Halifax.
Fischel, Rev. Arnold, D.D., 4 Great
George Square, Liverpool.
Fleming, John, 31 Whitevale, Glasgow.
Forbes, Rev. John, D.D., 100 West Re-
gent Street, Glasgow.
Forbes, Rev. John, Symington Manse,
Biggar, Scotland.
Fowler, Richard, M.D., F.R.S., Salis-
bury.
Fraser, James P., 58 Buccleuch Street,
Glasgow.
Frazer, Daniel, 9 Mansfield Place, Glas-
gow.
_ Frere, Capt., R.A., Gourock Castle near
Glasgow.
Gale, Peter, 69 Marlborough Street,
f Dublin.
- Gassiot, John P., F.R.S., Clapham Com-
mon, London.
Gemmell, Andrew, 38 Queen Street,
Glasgow.
Gemmell, Thomas, 19 Elmbank Cres-
cent, Glasgow.
Gerard, Henry, il0 Canning Street,
__ Liverpool.
Gibson, Thomas F., 124 Westbourne
Terrace, Hyde Park, London.
Gillis, F. L., Basnett Street, Liverpool.
_ Gourley, Daniel Dela C., M.D., Regent’s
Park, London.
_ Grant, Robert, Somerset House, Strand,
~_ London.
Grantham, John, C.E., Liverpool.
| Greenhalgh, Thomas, Bolton-le-Moors.
Greenwood, William, Stones, Todmor-
—_ den, Lancashire.
Griffin, Charles, Glasgow.
Hall, Hugh F., 16 Everton Terrace,
__ Liverpool.
- Hancock, John, Lurgan, Co. Armagh.
Harcourt, Rev. L. Vernon, West Dean
| _ House, Chichester.
Harkness, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., Pro-
| fessor of Geology in Queen’s College,
| _ Cork.
| Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S., Observatory,
| _ Liverpool.
assall, Arthur Hill, 8 Bennett Street,
| St. James’s Street, London.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS. 13
Hawkes, William, Eagle Foundry, Bir-
mingham,
Hector, James, 57 Inverleith Row,
Edinburgh.
Hepburn, Robert, 8 Davis
Berkeley Square, London.
Hervey,The Rev. Lord Arthur, Ickworth,
Suffolk.
Higgins, Rev. Henry H., M.A., Rainhill,
Liverpool.
Highley, Samuel, F.G.S., London.
Hill, Laurence, Port Glasgow.
Hill, William, F.R.A.S., Worcester.
Hodgkinson, Rey. G. C., M.A., The
Lodge, Louth, Yorkshire.
Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., Clapham Com-
mon, London.
Hunt, Robert, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining
Records, Museum of Practical Geology,
Jermyn Street, London.
Huntington, Frederick, F.R.C.S. Engl.,
19 George Street, Hull.
Street,
Jackson, Rev. William, M.A., St. John’s
Wokington.
Jacob, W. S., F.R.A.S., Madras.
Johnston, A. Keith, 4 St. Andrew Square,
Edinburgh.
Jones, Rev. Henry Halford, Cemetery,
Manchester.
Jones, John, 34 Chapel Street, Liver-
pool.
Kay, Alexander, Atherton Grange, Wim-
bledon Park, Surrey.
Kaye, Robert, Mill Brae, Moodresburn,
Glasgow.
Keddie, William, 15 North Street, Mungo
Street, Glasgow.
King, Alfred, 1 Netherfield Road South,
Liverpool.
King, Alfred, Jun., Everton, Liverpool.
King, James, Levernholme, Hurlet, Glas-
ow.
ReEeeea: Anderson, 246 Sauchichall
Street, Glasgow.
Lankester, Edwin, M.D.,F.R.S., 8 Savile
Row, London.
Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S., Greenford,
Middlesex.
Lawson, Jolin, Mount Blue, Camlachie.
Lees, Samuel, Park Bridge, Ashton-under-
Lyne.
Liddell, John, 8 Clelland St., Glasgow.
Lister, Dr. John, F.G.S., Shibden Hall
near Halifax.
Lister, Rev. William, Bushbury, Stafford-
shire.
Liveing, G. D., St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge,
14 ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS.
Lorimer, Rev. J. G., D.D., 6 Woodside
Place, Glasgow.
Low, David, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
MacArthur, Richard J. W., 129 St. Vin-
cent Street, Glasgow.
M°Callum, Archibald K., M.A., House
of Refuge, Duke Street, Glasgow.
McCann, James, F'.G.S., Liverpool.
MClelland, James, jun., 10 Claremont
Terrace, Glasgow.
M°Farlane, Very Rev. Principal, Univer-
sity, Glasgow.
M‘Farlane, Walter, Saracen Foundry,
Glasgow.
MacGeorge, Andrew, jun., 2] St. Vincent
Place, Glasgow.
MacGregor, James Watt, Wallace Grove,
Glasgow.
M°Gregor, A. Bennett, 19 Woodside
Terrace, Glasgow.
M'llwraith, H., Greenock.
M°Kenzie, Alexander, 89 Buchanan St.,
Glasgow.
Mackinlay, David, Pollockshields, Glas-
gow.
MacLaren, Charles, Moreland Cottage,
Grange Lone, Edinburgh.
M‘Laren, John, Seabank, Gourock.
M‘Lintock, William, Lochinch, Pollok-
shaws, Glasgow.
M‘Nab, John, Edinburgh.
M'Tyre, William, M.D., Maybole, Ayr-
shire.
Macvicar, Rev. J. Gibson, D.D., Moffat
near Glasgow.
Malahide, Talbot de, Lord, Malahide
Castle, Malahide, Ireland.
Malcolm, Andrew G., M.D., 49 York
Street, Belfast.
Martindale, Nicholas, 15 Hanover Street,
Liverpool.
Maule, Rey. Thomas, M.A., Partick,
Glasgow.
May, Charles, F.R.S., 3 Great George
Street, Westminster.
Melly, Charles Pierce, Liverpool.
Miles, Rev. C. P., M.D., 14 Buckingham
Terrace, Glasgow.
Mirlees, James B.,94 West Street, Trade-
ston, Glasgow.
Mitchell, George, Glasgow.
Moffatt, T., M.D., F.R.A.S., Hawarden.
Moir, James (City Councillor), 174 Gal-
lowgate, Glasgow.
Muir, William, Britannia Works, Man-
chester.
Murdoch, J. B., 195 Bath Street, Glas-
gow.
Murray, William, F.G.S., 160 West
George Street, Glasgow.
Napier, James R., 26 Newton Place,
Glasgow.
Napier, Robert, West Chandon, Gare-
loch, Glasgow.
Neale, Edward V., West Wickham, Kent.
Neild, William, Mayfield, Manchester.
Neilson, Walter, 28 Woodside Place,
Glasgow.
Newmarch, William, Secretary to the —
Globe Insurance, Cornhill, London.
Nicolay, Rev. C. G., King’s College,
Strand, London.
Oldham, James, C.E., Austrian Cham-
bers, Hull.
Outram, Thomas, Greetland near Halifax.
Pare, William, Seville Iron Works, Dublin.
Paterson, William, 100 Brunswick St.,
Glasgow.
Peach, Charles W., Custom House, Wick.
Penny, Frederick, Professor of Chemistry
in the Andersonian University, Glas-
‘ow.
Besy, John, M.D., F.R.S., Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn Street,
London.
Petrie, William, Ecclesbourne Cottage,
Woolwich.
Pochin, Henry Davis, Manchester.
Potchett, Rey. William, M.A., The Vi-
carage, Grantham.
Rainey, Harry, M.D., 10 Moore Place, —
Glasgow.
Ramsay, Andrew C., F.R.S., Director of
the Geological Survey of Great Britain, |
Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn
Street, London.
Randolph,Chas., Pollockshields,Glasgow. —
Rankin, Rev. Thomas, Huggate, Yorkshire. —
Rankine, W. J. Macquorn, C.E., F.R.S, —
L.&E., 59 St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Reid, James, Glasgow Academy, Glasgow.
Ritchie, Robert, C.E., 16 Hull Street,
Edinburgh.
Roberton, James, Gorbals Foundry,
Glasgow.
Roberts, John, 13 Parliament Terrace, —
Liverpool. ;
Robinson, C. B., The Shrubbery, Lei- |
cester.
Robinson, M. E., 116 St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow. -
Robson, Neil, C.E., 95 Wellington St.,_
Glasgow. ;
Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S. 4
Roscoe, Henry E., University College, —
London. :
Roth, Dr. Mathias, 16 a Old Cavendish .
Street, London. |
_ Round, Daniel George, The Hange, Tivi-
dale, Staffordshire.
Rowand, Alex., Linthouse near Glasgow.
Russell, James, jun., Falkirk.
Seligman, H. L., 135 Buchanan Street,
Glasgow.
Scott, Montague D., B.A., Hove, Sussex.
Sim, William, Furnace near Inverary.
Shaw, Norton, M.D., Secretary to the
Royal Geographical Society, 3 Water-
loo Place, London.
Shewell, John T., Rushmere, Ipswich.
Sleddon, Francis, 2 Kingston Terrace,
Hull.
Sloper, George Elgar, jun., Devizes.
Smith, Jas., St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Smith, George, Port Dundas, Glasgow.
Smith, G. Cruickshank, 19 St. Vincent
Street, Glasgow.
Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., 20 Gros-
venor Square, Manchester.
Smith, William, Eglinton Engine Works,
Glasgow.
Smyth, John, jun., M.A., C.E., Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.
Sorby, Henry Clifton, F.G.S., Broom-
field, Sheffield.
Sorby, John Clifton, Park, Birkenhead.
Spence, Peter, Pendleton, Manchester.
Spence, William, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., 18
Lower Seymour Street, Portman §q.,
London.
Spence, W. B., 18 Lower Seymour Street,
Portman Square, London.
Spens, William, 78 St. Vincent Street,
Glasgow.
_ Steele, William, 25 Blythswood Square,
_ Glasgow.
Stevelly, John, LL.D., Professor of Na-
tural Philosophy in Queen’s College,
; Belfast.
Stewart, Balfour, 13 Rutland Street,
__ Edinburgh.
_ Stuart, Wm., Rumford Place, Liverpool.
Sutton, Edwin, 44 Winchester Street,
Pimlico, London.
‘
*
_ Talbot, William Hawkshead, Wrighting-
| __ ton near Wigan.
- Taylor, William Edward, Blackburn.
‘Terry, John, 15 Albion Street, Hull.
Teschemacher, E. F., 1 College Road,
Highbury Park, London.
- Thomson, Allen, M.D., Professor of Ana-
_ tomy in the University of Glasgow;
__ The College, Glasgow.
_ Thomson, James, 82 West Nile Street,
__ Glasgow.
orburn, Rev. Willium Reid, M.A.,
_ Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS.
+
4
15
Tooke, Thomas, F.R.S., 31 Spring Gar-
dens, London.
Towson, John Thomas, 23 Great George
Square, Liverpool.
Turnbull, John, Bonhill House, Dum-
bartonshire.
Tuton, Edward S.,Lime Street, Liverpool.
Twining, Richard, F.R.S., 13 Bedford
Place, Russell Square, London.
Tyndall, John, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, London.
Ure, John, 114 Montrose St., Glasgow.
Varley, Cornelius, 1 Charles Street, Cla-
rendon Square, London.
Walker, Charles V., Electric Telegraph,
South Eastern Railway, Tunbridge.
Walker, John, 1 Exchange Court, Glas-
gow.
Walker, John Jas., Dollymount, Dublin.
Walsh, Richard Hussey, Professor of
Political Economy in the University of
Dublin ; Dublin.
Warington, Robert, F.C.S., Apothecaries’
Hall, London.
Watson, Ebenezer, 16 Abercromby Place,
Glasgow.
Watson, James, M.D., 152 St. Vincent
Street, Glasgow.
Watt, George, West Regent Street,
Glasgow.
Watt, William, Flax Works, Bedford
Street, Belfast.
Watts, John King, F.R.G.S., St. Ives,
Huntingdonshire.
Wight, Robert, M.D., F.L.S., Grazeley
Lodge, Reading.
Wilkie, John, 46 George Square, Glasgow.
Willis, William, Virginia Buildings, Glas-
gow.
Wilson, Hugh, 75 Glassford Street,
Glasgow.
Wingate, Major, H.E.I.C.S., Bendar-
roch, Gareloch, Glasgow.
Woodall, John Woodall, St. Nicholas
House, Scarborough.
Wornell, George, 2 Crescent, Park own,
Oxford.
Wright, Thomas, F.S.A., 14 Sydney St.,
Brompton, London.
Yeats, John, F.R.G.S., Leicester House,
Peckham, London.
Young, Dr. A. K., Thistle Street, Garnet
Hill, Glasgow.
Zwilchenbart, Emanuel, 3 Rumford St.,
Liverpool. ’
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATES I. to V.
Tilustrative of Mr. Thomas Dobson’s Report on the Relation between
Explosions in Coal-Mines and Revolving Storms.
PLATE VI.
Iustrative of Dr. Daubeny’s Paper on the Action of Light on the Germina-
tion of Seeds.
PLATES VII. to XI.
illustrative of Mr. Follett Osler’s Report on the Self-Registering Anemometer
and Rain-Gauge erected at the Liverpool Observatory in the Autumn of
1851, with a Summary of the Records for the years 1852, 1853, 1854,
and 1855.
PLATES XII. to XXII.
Illustrative of Mr. C. Spence Bate’s Report on the British Edriophthalma.
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CHART ofr THE WIND.
LIVERPOOL OBSERVATORY.
1852 .1853,1854, 1855.
Pagust
Saray
December
SEZ -
SS "es
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Comparalive amount of horizontal motion of the Ain — See Table UL Column 2
1554
1855 Mean
1852
Nx |
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Number of hours tn which the motion of the Atk. was rererred to each point ___ See Lable Hl. Column +
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1852 N
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—— | <
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Average hourly horizontal. motion of the ATR from each) potnt — See Table Il Column 6.
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